text stringlengths 1.83k 10k |
|---|
yl]] form microfibrils in the cell walls of a number of marine [[green algae]] including those from the genera, ''Codium'', ''Dasycladus'', and ''Acetabularia'' as well as in the walls of some [[red algae]], like ''Porphyra'' and ''Bangia''.
*Xylanes
*[[Alginic acid]] is a common polysaccharide in the cell walls of [[brown algae]]
*Sulfonated polysaccharides occur in the cell walls of most algae; those common in red algae include [[agarose]], [[carrageenan]], [[porphyran]], [[furcelleran]] and [[funoran]].
Other compounds that may accumulate in algal cell walls include [[sporopollenin]] and [[calcium]].
=== Diatom cell walls ===
The group of [[algae]] known as the [[diatom|diatoms]] synthesise their cell walls (also known as frustules or valves) from [[silicic acid]] (specifically orthosilicic acid, H<sub>4</sub>SiO<sub>4</sub>). The acid is [[polymer|polymerised]] intra-cellularly, then the wall is extruded to protect the cell. Significantly, relative to the organic cell walls produced by other groups, silica frustules require less energy to synthesize (approximately 8%), potentially a major saving on the overall cell energy budget (Raven, 1983).
== Prokaryotic cell walls ==
Cell walls of bacteria are primarily used for protection against hostile environments or, in the case of [[pathogen]]ic bacteria, against the [[immune system]] of the [[Host (biology)|host]]. They contain [[peptidoglycan]], which can be made visible in [[Gram-positive]] bacteria by [[Gram staining]]. The cell walls of bacteria are also vital for containing the high [[turgor|osmotic pressure]] inside bacterial cells caused by the high concentration of [[solute]]s in the [[cytoplasm]]. This pressure can often be as high as 15 atmospheres. Many [[antibiotic]]s, including [[penicillin]] and its derivatives, target the cell wall of bacteria.
The cell walls of [[archaea]] are not made of peptidoglycan, but some archaea may contain [[pseudopeptidoglycan]], which is composed of [[N-acetyltalosaminuronic acid]], instead of [[N-acetyl muramic acid]] in peptidoglycan.
== Fungal cell walls ==
Not all species of fungi have cell walls but in those that do, the cell walls are composed of cellulose, glucosamine, and [[chitin]], the same carbohydrate that gives strength to the [[exoskeleton]]s of [[insect]]s. They serve a similar purpose to those of plant cells, giving fungal cells rigidity and strength to hold their shape and preventing [[osmotic lysis]]. It also limits the entry of molecules that may be toxic to the fungus, like plant-produced and synthetic [[fungicide]]s.
The composition, properties, and form of the fungal cell wall change during the cell cycle and depend on growth conditions.
==Pictures==
[http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/plants/cellwall.html Cell wall ultrastructure]
==References==
* Raven, J. A. (1983). The transport and function of silicon in plants. ''Biol. Rev.'' '''58''', 179-207.
*Sendbusch, P. S. (2003). [http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/e26/26d.htm Cell Walls of Algae]. Botany Online.
[[Category:Cell biology]]
[[Category:Plant physiology]]
[[Category:Organelles]]
[[cs:Buněčná stěna]]
[[da:Cellevæg]]
[[de:Zellwand]]
[[is:Frumuveggur]]
[[he:דופן התא]]
[[nl:Celwand]]
[[ja:細胞壁]]
[[pl:Ściana komórkowa]]
[[pt:Parede celular]]
[[sk:Bunková stena]]
[[fi:Soluseinä]]
[[zh:細胞壁]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Classical element</title>
<id>6313</id>
<revision>
<id>40782518</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T23:59:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JCasto</username>
<id>976541</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* [[Tarot]] and the classical elements */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Primordial Elements}}
{{classic element}}
Many [[ancient]] [[philosophies]] use a set of [[archetypal]] '''classical elements''' to explain [[pattern]]s in [[nature]]. The [[Greece|Greek]] version of these ideas, which dates from pre-Socratic times, persisted throughout the [[Middle Ages]] and into the [[Renaissance]], deeply influencing [[European]] [[thought]] and [[culture]]; but the concept is far older in the Far East, and was widely disseminated in [[India]] and [[China]], where it forms the basis of both [[Buddhism]] and [[Hinduism]], particularly in an [[esoteric]] context.
The modern scientific [[periodic table]] of the [[chemical element|elements]] and the understanding of [[combustion]] (fire) can be considered successors to such early models.
==Classical elements in Greece==
The [[Hellenic civilization|Greek]] classical elements are [[Fire (classical element)|Fire]], [[Earth (classical element)|Earth]], [[Air (classical element)|Air]], and [[Water (classical element)|Water]] (Latin derivatives are ''pyro, terra, aero,'' and ''aqua''). They represent in [[Greek philosophy]], [[science]], and [[medicine]] the realms of the [[cosmos]] wherein all things exist and whereof all things consist.
[[Plato]] mentions them as of [[The Presocratics|Pre-Socratic]] origin, a list created by the ancient [[philosopher]] [[Empedocles]].
* [[Fire (classical element)|'''Fire''']] is both hot and dry.
* [[Earth (classical element)|'''Earth''']] is both cold and dry.
* [[Air (classical element)|'''Air''']] is both hot and wet.
* [[Water (classical element)|'''Water''']] is both cold and wet.
[[image:Four elements representation.png|right|Four Classical Elements]]
One classic diagram (right) has two squares on top of each other, with the corners of one being the classical elements, and the corners of the other being the properties.
According to [[Galen]], these elements were used by [[Hippocrates]] in describing the [[human body]] with an association with the [[four humours]]: yellow [[bile]] (Fire), [[Melancholia|black bile]] (Earth), [[blood]] (Air), and [[phlegm]] (Water).
Some [[Cosmology|cosmologies]] include a fifth element, the "[[quintessence]]." These five elements are sometimes associated with the five [[platonic solid]]s.
The [[Pythagoras|Pythagoreans]] added [[idea]] as the fifth element, and also used the initial letters of these five elements to name the outer angles of their [[pentagram]].
[[Aristotle]] added [[aether]] as the quintessence, rationalizing that whereas Fire, Earth, Air, and Water were earthly and corruptible, the [[star|stars]] were eternal ("aether" is based on [[Greek language|Greek]] for [[eternity]]) and were thus not made out of any of the four elements but rather a heavenly substance. The word ''aether'' was revived by late [[19th century]] [[physicists]] as a term for the proposed invisible medium which permeated the [[universe]], the ''[[luminiferous aether]]''.
Some [[occult|occultists]] have noted that in modern [[science]] the general rule is that most visible matter can be classified as either a [[solid]] (Earth), [[liquid]] (Water), [[gas]] (Air), or [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] (Fire). By extension, more exotic [[Phase (matter)|phases of matter]] (such as [[Bose-einstein condensate]]) are sometimes seen as representative forms of a fifth element (Aether).
In [[1987]] [[composer]] [[Robert Steadman]] wrote a chamber [[symphony]] each [[movement]] of which musically depicts the characteristics of the [[Ancient Greek]] [[classical element|elements]]: Fire, Water, Wind and Earth.
==Classical elements in China==
{{main|Five elements (Chinese philosophy)}}
In [[Taoism]] there is a similar system of elements, which includes [[Metal (classical element)|Metal]] and [[Wood (classical element)|Wood]], but excludes Air. The five major [[planet]]s are associated with and named after the elements: [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] is Metal, [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]] is Wood, [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] is Water, [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] is Fire, and [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]] is Earth. Additionally, the [[Moon]] represents [[Yin Yang|Yin]], and the [[Sun]] represents [[Yin Yang|Yang]]. Yin, Yang, and the five elements are recurring themes in the [[I Ching]], the oldest of Chinese classical texts which describes an ancient system of [[cosmology]] and [[philosophy]].
==Classical elements in Hinduism==
{{main|Tattva}}
The ''Panchamahabhuta,'' or "[[five]] great elements," of [[Hinduism]] are ''[[Prithvi]]'' or ''[[Bhumi]]'' ([[earth (classical element)|Earth]]), ''[[Aap|Ap]]'' or ''Jala'' ([[water (classical element)|Water]]), ''[[Agni]]'' or ''[[Tejas]]'' ([[fire (classical element)|Fire]]), ''[[Vayu]]'' or ''Pavan'' ([[air (classical element)|Air]] or [[Wind]]), and ''[[Akasha]]'' ([[Aether]], in both it's [[aether (classical element)|elemental]] and [[aether (mythology)|mythological]] senses)
==Classical elements in Japan==
{{main|Five elements (Japanese philosophy)}}
[[Japan]]ese traditions use a set of elements called the 五大 (''go dai'', literally "five great"). These five are [[earth (classical element)|earth]], [[water (classical element)|water]], [[fire (classical element)|fire]], [[wind (classical element)|wind]], and [[void (classical element)|void]]. These came from Buddhist beliefs; the classical Chinese elements (五行, ''go gyô'') are also prominent in Japanese culture.
==Classical elements during the [[Middle Ages]]==
During [[medieval]] times, the idea of the classical elements was known. Just as the [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] [[dogma]] was related to the Greek world view, the idea of classical elements in the Middle Ages composed a large part of the medieval [[world view]]. The [[Roman Catholic Church]] supported the Aristotelian concept of [[aether]] because it supported the [[Christianity|Christian]] view of earthly life as impermanent and [[heaven]] as eternal. References to the classical elements in [[medieval]] [[literature]] are numerous and can be seen in the work of many writers, including [[William Shakespeare|William Shakespeare]]:
:Thou hast as chiding a nativity
:As '''fire, air, water, earth, an |
hs of [[Brooklyn]], [[Queens, New York|Queens]], and [[Staten Island]]. By [[1920]], Hunter College had the largest enrollment of women of any municipally financed college in the United States.
The late 1930s saw the construction of Hunter College in the Bronx (later known as the Bronx Campus). During the [[Second World War]], Hunter leased the Bronx Campus buildings to the [[United States Navy]] who used the facilities to train 95,000 women volunteers for military service as [[WAVES]]. When the Navy vacated the campus, the site was briefly occupied by the nascent [[United Nations]], which held its first Security Council sessions at the Bronx Campus in [[1946]], giving the school an international profile.
Hunter became the women's college of the municipal system, and in the [[1950s]], when [[City College of New York|City College]] became [[coeducational]], Hunter started admitting men to its [[Bronx]] campus. In [[1964]], the [[Manhattan]] campus began admitting men also. The Bronx campus subsequently became [[Lehman College]] in 1968.
The "open admissions" policy initiated in [[1970]] by the City University of New York opened the school's doors to historically underrepresented groups. Many African Americans, Asian Americans, Latinos, Puerto Ricans, and students from the developing world made their presence felt at Hunter, and subsequently altered the composition of the school's student body. As a result of the addition of these "new" students, Hunter created programs in Black and Puerto Rican Studies, and opened new buildings on Lexington Avenue during the early 1980s.
Today, Hunter College is a comprehensive teaching and research institution. Of the more than 20,000 students enrolled at Hunter, nearly 5,000 are enrolled in a graduate program, the most popular of which are [[education]] and [[social work]]. More than 50% of students are the first in their families to attend college. Finally, the college maintains its tradition of concern for women's education, with nearly three out of four students being female.
The motto of Hunter College is "mihi cura futuri," meaning "the care of the future is mine." This was taken from book XIII of [[Ovid]]'s [[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]].
== Campus ==
Hunter College is anchored by its main campus at East 68th Street and Lexington Avenue, a modern complex of three towers -the East, West and North buildings and Thomas Hunter Hall, all of which are interconnected by skywalks. The health sciences schools, including the Hunter-Bellevue School of Nursing and the School of Health Sciences, are located at East 25th Street and First Avenue, on what is known as the Brookdale Campus. The Brookdale complex also houses the City University's only dormitory facility, which is home to over 600 undergraduate and graduate students. Brookdale contains a swimming-pool, a basketball court and an underused though well maintained bowling alley, where bowlers must retrieve their balls manually. It also provides limited housing to nurses employed at Bellevue Hospital.
The college bookstore is located in the west building. It supplies all the students of Hunter College with their textbooks. They have recently started a web order process to help make purchasing textbooks a lot easier. You can visit this at [http://www.hunter.bkstore.com/ the Hunter College Bookstore Website]
== Notable alumni ==
* [[Bella Abzug]] - Congresswoman and women's rights advocate
* [[Ellen Barkin]] - actor
* [[Keiko Bonk]] - activist, artist, politician, and highest-ranking elected [[Green Party (United States)|Green Party]] member in the United States
* [[Edward Burns]] - actor
* [[Bobby Darin]] - musician
* [[Ruby Dee]] - actor
* [[Vin Diesel]] - actor
* [[Hugh Downs]] - television host
* [[Gertrude Elion]] - Nobel Laureate in medicine
* [[Terrance Lindall]] - artist
* [[Julianne Nicholson]] - actor
* [[Rhea Perlman]] - actor
* [[Donna Shalala]] - United States Secretary of Health and Human Services under [[Bill Clinton]]
* [[Charles Barron]] - New York City Councilmember
* [[Robert Smigel]] - comedic writer/actor
* [[Jean Stapleton]] - actor
* [[Rosalyn Yalow]] - Nobel Laureate in medicine
==External links==
*[http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/ Hunter College]
*[http://www.hunter.bkstore.com/ Hunter College Bookstore]
{{CUNY}}
{{New York City}}
[[Category:City University of New York]]
[[Category:Nursing schools in New York]]
[[ja:ニューヨーク市立大学ハンター校]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Harry Shearer</title>
<id>14331</id>
<revision>
<id>41947881</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:43:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jablair51</username>
<id>644168</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Filmography */ Fix link to The Fisher King</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Harry_shearer.jpg|right|Harry Shearer]]
'''Harry Julius Shearer''' (born [[December 23]], [[1943]], [[Los Angeles, California]]) is an [[United States|American]] comedic [[actor]] and [[writer]] who began his career as a child actor in [[1950s]] [[film|movies]] (''[[The Robe]]'') and [[television]] (''[[Jack Benny|The Jack Benny Program]]''). Shearer also played Frankie in the pilot episode of the TV series ''[[Leave It to Beaver]]''.
Shearer was later a member of Los Angeles [[radio]] comedy group [[The Credibility Gap]], 1968&ndash;1974, and regular on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' in 1979&ndash;1980 but quit before the end of the season and 1984&ndash;1985, and also quit before season's end -- both times for creative differences. Shearer co-created, co-wrote and co-starred in [[Rob Reiner]]'s 1984 film ''[[This Is Spinal Tap]]'' with [[Michael McKean]] and [[Christopher Guest]]; the three of them also collaborated on the acclaimed 2003 spoof ''[[A Mighty Wind]]'', which was written by Guest and [[Eugene Levy]], and directed by Guest.
Shearer's television work also includes two specials for Cinemax, "It's Just TV", and "This Week Indoors" (co-created with Merrill Markoe) and "The Magic of Live". He directed the entire six-episode HBO series, "The History of White People in America", co-created by [[Martin Mull]] and Allen Rucker, as well as the two-hour feature finale of the series, "Portrait of a White Marriage". He also co-wrote and directed Paul Shaffer's fantasy special for HBO, "Viva Shaf Vegas" (with Shaffer and Tom Leopold). His first theatrical feature, which he wrote and directed, was "[[Teddy Bears' Picnic]]", a dark comedy loosely based on the workings of [[Bohemian Grove]], the secret retreat of the elite.
Shearer has two books published, "Man Bites Town" (a collection of his Los Angeles Times Magazine columns) and "It's the Stupidity, Stupid". As of 2005, he is finishing work on a comic novel about Native Americans and gambling called "Not Enough Indians". [http://www.audiobookstoday.com/FtrLst.cfm?FtrCatCod=1&Code=980]
Shearer is probably best known for his prolific work as a [[voice actor]] on ''[[The Simpsons]]'' (1989 to date), where he does the voices of [[Mr. Burns]], [[Waylon Smithers]], [[Ned Flanders]], [[Reverend Timothy Lovejoy]], [[Kent Brockman]], [[Dr. Julius Hibbert]], and Principal [[Seymour Skinner]], among others. He was one of three Simpsons [[vocalist]]s to guest star on the show ''[[Friends]]''; the other two were [[Dan Castellaneta]] and [[Hank Azaria]].
Since 1983 Shearer has been the host of the public radio comedy/music program ''[[Le Show]]'' on [[Santa Monica]] [[National Public Radio|NPR]] affiliated radio station [[KCRW]]. The show is podcast and airs on public radio stations throughout the country. He is the regular [[announcer]] for [[TV Land]] and, since mid-2004, for [[KIRO-AM]] radio in [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]]. Since May 2005 he's been a contributing blogger at [[The Huffington Post]]. Shearer has homes in both [[Santa Monica, California]] and the [[French Quarter]] of [[New Orleans, Louisiana]]. According to a telephone call on ''Ask [[Mr. KABC]]'', his house survived [[Hurricane Katrina]] and he is alive and well.
Since 1993, Shearer has been married to [[singer-songwriter]] [[Judith Owen]].
==Filmography==
[[Image:mighty wind.jpg|thumb|Shearer in ''[[A Mighty Wind]]''.]]
*''[[Chicken Little]]'' (2005)
*''[[A Mighty Wind]]'' (2003)
*''[[Teddy Bears' Picnic]]'' (2002)
*''[[Haunted Castle]]'' (2001)
*''[[Out There]]'' (2001)
*''[[Haiku Tunnel]]'' (2001)
*''[[Catching Up with Marty DiBergi]]'' (2000) (V)
*''[[Edwurd Fudwupper Fibbed Big]]'' (2000)
*''[[Dick]]'' (1999)
*''[[Ghost Dog: The Way of the Samurai]]'' (1999)
*''[[Encounter in the Thrid Dimension]]'' (1999)
*''[[Edtv]]'' (1999)
*''[[Small Soldiers]]'' (1998) (voice)
*''[[The Truman Show]]'' (1998)
*''[[Almost Heroes]]'' (1998)
*''[[Godzilla]]'' (1998)
*''[[My Best Friend's Wedding]]'' (1997)
*''[[State of the Union: Undressed]]'' (1996) (TV)
*''[[Blazing Dragons]]'' (1996) (VG)
*''[[The Show Formerly Known as the Martin Short Show]]'' (1995) (TV)
*''[[Sliders]]'' (1995) (TV) (uncredited)
*''[[The News Hole]]'' (1995) TV Series
*''[[Speechless]]'' (1994)
*''[[Little Giants]]'' (1994)
*''[[I'll Do Anything]]'' (1994)
*''[[Wayne's World 2]]'' (1993)
*''[[Comic Relief: Baseball Relief '93]]'' (1993) (TV)
*''[[A League of Their Own]]'' (1992)
*''[[Spinal Tap: Break Like the Wind - The Videos]]'' (1992) (V) (as Derek Smalls)
*''[[The Fisher King (movie)|The Fisher King]]'' (1991)
*''[[Blood and Concrete]]'' (1991)
*''[[Pure Luck]]'' (1991)
*''[[Oscar (1991 movie)|Oscar]]'' (1991/I)
*''[[Sunday Best]]'' (1991) TV Series
*''[[Hometown Boy Makes Good]]'' (1990) (TV)
*''[[The Simpsons]]'' (1989 - present)
*''[[My Stepmother Is an Alien]]'' (1988)
*''[[Plain Clothes]]'' (1988)
*''[[Portrait of a White Marriage]]'' (1988)
*''[[Spaceballs]]'' (1987) (uncredited) |
e artificial or even the hypocritical; on other minds, therefore, and these some of the most masculine and resolute, he produces little genuine impression. After allowing for this, Angelico should nevertheless be accepted beyond cavil as an exalted typical painter according to his own range of conceptions, consonant with his [[monastic]] calling, unsullied purity of life and exceeding devoutness. Exquisite as he is in his special mode of execution, he undoubtedly falls far short, not only of his great naturalist contemporaries such as [[Masaccio]] and [[Lippo Lippi]], but even of so distant a precursor as [[Giotto di Bondone|Giotto]], in all that pertains to bold or life-like invention of a subject or the realization of ordinary appearances, expressions and actions—the facts of nature, as distinguished from the aspirations or contemplations of the spirit. Technically speaking, he had much finish and harmony of [[composition (visual arts)|composition]] and color, without corresponding mastery of light and shade, and his knowledge of the human frame was restricted. The brilliancy and fair light scale of his [[tint (visual arts)|tints]] is constantly remarkable, combined with a free use of [[gilding]]; this conduces materially to that celestial character which so pre-eminently distinguishes his pictured visions of the divine persons, the hierarchy of heaven and the glory of the redeemed.
==See also==
* [[List of painters]]
* [[List of Italian painters]]
* [[List of famous Italians]]
* [[Early Renaissance painting]]
==References==
{{1911}}
* [[William Michael Rossetti|Rossetti, William Michael]]. Angelico, Fra. ''[[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]]''.
* Hood, William. ''Fra Angelico at San Marco''. Yale University Press, 1993.
* Morachiello, Paolo. "Fra Angelico: The San Marco Frescoes". Thames and Hudson, 1990. ISBN 0500237298
==External links==
{{Commons|Fra Angelico}}
* [http://www.beatoangelico.org/ Fondazione Beato Angelico]
* [http://www.abcgallery.com/A/angelico/angelico.html Fra Angelico at Olga's Gallery]
* [http://www.metmuseum.org/special/se_event.asp?OccurrenceId={9EA9FDD7-13DF-45D7-B7A0-313276A5996C}&HomePageLink=special_c2a Fra Angelico Exhibition] at the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], (October 26, 2005–January 29, 2006).
* [http://www.thenation.com/doc/20060206/danto "Soul Eyes"] Review of the Fra Angelico show at the Met, by [[Arthur C. Danto]] in [[The Nation (U.S. periodical)|The Nation]], (January 19, 2006).
==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Fra_Angelico_001.jpg|Madonna on a Throne (1428-1430)
Image:Fra_Angelico_002.jpg|The Naming of St. John the Baptist (1434-1435)
Image:Fra_Angelico_005.jpg|The Flight into Egypt (c.1450)
Image:Fra_Angelico_006.jpg|Annunciation (c. 1450)
Image:Fra_Angelico_024.jpg|Christ in Limbo (c.1437-1446)
Image:Fra_Angelico_025.jpg|Christ Being Nailed to the Cross (c.1437-1446)
Image:Fra_Angelico_026.jpg|Christ on the Cross between the Two Thieves (c.1437-1446)
Image:Fra_Angelico_027.jpg|Longinus Piercing Christ's Side with a Lance (c.1437-1446)
Image:Fra_Angelico_038.jpg|Coronation of the Virgin (c.1437-1446)
Image:Fra_Angelico_039.jpg|Noli me tangere (c.1437-1446)
Image:Fra_Angelico_040.jpg|Baptism of Christ (c.1437-1446)
Image:Fra_Angelico_049.jpg|Annunciation with Saint Dominic (c.1437-1446)
</gallery>
[[Category:1395 births|Angelico]]
[[Category:1455 deaths|Angelico]]
[[Category:Natives of Tuscany|Angelico]]
[[Category:Beatified people|Angelico]]
[[Category:Italian painters|Angelico]]
[[Category:Renaissance painters|Angelico]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic Church art]]
[[de:Fra Angelico]]
[[es:Fra Angelico]]
[[fr:Fra Angelico]]
[[it:Beato Angelico]]
[[la:Beatus Angelicus]]
[[nl:Fra Angelico]]
[[ja:フラ・アンジェリコ]]
[[pl:Fra Angelico]]
[[pt:Fra Angelico]]
[[ro:Fra Angelico]]
[[ru:Фра Анджелико]]
[[sv:Fra Angelico]]
[[uk:Ангеліко Фра]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fra Bartolommeo</title>
<id>11458</id>
<revision>
<id>40699486</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T11:30:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BartolomeoVirginBernard.JPG|thumb|right|250px|''The Vision of [[Bernard of Clairvaux|St Bernard]]'' ''ca'' 1504 ([[Uffizi]])]]
{{commonscat|Fra Bartolomeo}}
'''Fra Bartolommeo''' or '''Fra Bartolomeo''' ([[March 28]], [[1472]] in [[Florence, Italy]] &ndash; [[October 31]], [[1517]] in [[Florence, Italy]]) born '''Baccio della Porta''' was a [[Florence|Florentine]] [[Renaissance]] artist.
He likely apprenticed under [[Cosimo Rosselli]]. In the late [[1490s]] Baccio became aware of the teachings of [[Girolamo Savonarola|Fra Girolamo Savonarola]]. Savonarola denounced what he viewed at the corruption of contemporary art and instead argued that it should serve as a visual stand-in for the [[Bible]] for the education of the illiterate. In [[1498]] Baccio took holy orders as a [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] [[friar]] and took the name Fra Bartolommeo. He gave up painting for several years, not resuming until [[1504]] when he became the head of the monastery workshop in obedience to his superior.
He had not long resumed it when [[Raphael]] came to Florence and formed a close friendship with him. Bartolommeo learned from the younger artist the rules of perspective, in which he was so skilled, while Raphael owes to the improvement in his colouring and handling of drapery, which was noticeable in the works he produced after their meeting. In the early [[1500s]] his work was influenced by the return to Florence of [[Leonardo da Vinci]] and [[Michelangelo Buonarroti]]. Their influence on Bartolommeo's paintings is evident in the contrasts between his earlier works and works from this period in their composition, figure presentation and dress. With Raphael, he remained on the most friendly terms, and when he departed from Rome, left in his hands two unfinished pictures which Raphael completed.
Fra Bartolommeo's figures had generally been small and draped. These qualities were alleged against him as defects, and to prove that his style was not the result of want of power, he painted the magnificent figure of [[St Mark]] (his masterpiece, at Florence), and the undraped figure of [[St Sebastian]]. The latter was so well designed, so naturally and beautifully coloured, and so strongly expressive of suffering and agony, that it was found necessary to remove it from the place where it had been exhibited in the chapel of a convent. The majority of Bartolommeo's compositions are altar-pieces. They are remarkable for skill in the massing of light and shade, richness and delicacy of colouring, and for the admirable style in which the drapery of the figures is handled, Bartolommeo having been the first to introduce and use the lay-figure with joints.
==External links==
* [http://www.artist-biography.info/artist/fra_bartolommeo/ Biography from Artist-Biography.info]
==Sources==
* {{cite book
| last = Vaughn | first = William
| title = Encyclopedia of Artists
| publisher = Oxford University Press, Inc.
| year = 2000
| id = ISBN 0-19-521572-9
}}
[[Category:1472 births|Fra Bartolomeo]]
[[Category:1517 deaths|Fra Bartolomeo]]
[[Category:Dominicans|Fra Bartolomeo]]
[[Category:Italian painters|Fra Bartolomeo]]
[[Category:Renaissance painters|Fra Bartolomeo]]
[[Category:Tuscan painters|Fra Bartolomeo]]
[[Category:Natives of Tuscany|Fra Bartolomeo]]
[[de:Fra Bartolommeo]]
[[fr:Fra Bartolomeo]]
[[gl:Fra Bartolommeo]]
[[it:Fra Bartolomeo]]
[[nl:Fra Bartolommeo]]
[[pl:Fra Bartolomeo]]
[[sv:Fra Bartolommeo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Frédéric Bazille</title>
<id>11459</id>
<revision>
<id>40741652</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T18:42:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Etacar11</username>
<id>162093</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv linkspam</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bazzile selfPortrait.jpg|thumb|200px|''Self-Portrait.'' [[1865]]&ndash;[[1866]]. Frédéric Bazille. Oil on canvas. [[Art Institute of Chicago]].]]
('''Jean''') '''Frédéric Bazille''' ([[December 6]], [[1841]] &ndash; [[November 28]], [[1870]]) was an [[Impressionism|impressionist]] painter and soldier best known for his depiction of figures.
Born in [[Montpellier]], [[Hérault]], [[France]], into a middle-class [[Protestant]] family, Bazille began studying medicine in [[1862]] when he met [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]] and was drawn to impressionist painting.
[[image:BazilleFamilyReunion.jpeg|thumb|left|350px|Family Reunion.]]
His friends included [[Claude Monet]], [[Alfred Sisley]], and [[Édouard Manet]]. Born to a wealthy family, Bazille helped support some of these artists by giving them space in his studio and materials to use.
Bazille was just 23 years old when he painted several famous works, including ''The Pink Dress''. His best known painting is a ''Family Reunion'' ([[1867]]-[[1868]]).
Frédéric Bazille's career was cut short when he was killed in action in [[Beaune-la-Rolande]], [[Loiret]] during the [[Franco-Prussian War]].
{{France-painter-stub}}
{{Commonscat|Frédéric Bazille}}
[[Category:1841 births|Bazille, Frédéric]]
[[Category:1870 deaths|Bazille, Frédéric]]
[[Category:French painters|Bazille, Frédéric]]
[[Category:Impressionist painters|Bazille, Frédéric]]
[[de:Frédéric Bazille]]
[[es:Frédéric Bazille]]
[[fr:Frédéric Bazille]]
[[he:פרדריק באזיל]]
[[gl:Frédéric Bazille]]
[[sv:Frédéric Bazille]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ford Madox Brown</title>
<id>11460</id>
<revision>
<id>38335150</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T18:04:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eskimbot</username>
<id>477460</id>
</contri |
nts are full [[British nationality law|British citizens]], an endorsement restricting the right of establishment in other European Union states is placed in the passport of British citizens connected solely with the Channel Islands and Isle of Man. Those who have a parent or grandparent born in the United Kingdom itself (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland), or who have lived in the United Kingdom for 5 years, are not subject to this restriction.
== Culture ==
[[image:Little_chapel,_Guernsey_(1993).jpg|thumb|Little Chapel, Les Vauxbelets, Guernsey.]]
English is the only language spoken by a majority of the population, while [[Dgèrnésiais]], the [[Norman language]] of the island, is currently spoken fluently by 2% of the population (according to 2001 census). However, 14% of the population claim some understanding of the language and it is taught in a few Island schools. Until the early [[20th century]] French was the only official language. Family and place names reflect this linguistic heritage. Portuguese is taught in a few schools and is spoken by around 2% of the population.
[[Victor Hugo]] wrote some of his best-known works while in exile in Guernsey, including [[Les Misérables]]. His home in [[St Peter Port]], Hauteville House, is now a museum administered by the city of [[Paris]].
The national animals of the island of Guernsey are the [[donkey]] and the [[Guernsey cattle|Guernsey cow]]. The traditional explanation for the donkey (''âne'' in French and Dgèrnésiais) is the steepness of [[St Peter Port]] streets that necessitated beasts of burden for transport (in contrast to the flat terrain of the rival capital of [[St Helier]] in [[Jersey]]), although it is also used in reference to Guernsey inhabitants' stubbornness. The Guernsey cow is a more internationally famous icon of the island.
Guernsey people are traditionally nicknamed ''donkeys'' or ''ânes'', especially by Jersey people (who in turn are nicknamed ''crapauds'' - toads). Inhabitants of each of the parishes of Guernsey also have traditional nicknames, although these have generally dropped out of use among the English-speaking population.
The [[Guernsey Lily]] ''Nerine sarniensis'' (''Sarnia'' is the traditional name of the island of Guernsey in [[Latin]]) is also used as a symbol of the island.
A local delicacy is the [[ormer]] (''haliotis tuberculata'') - a variety of abalone harvested from the beach at low spring tides.
==Sport in Guernsey==
Guernsey participates in its own right in the [[Commonwealth Games]].
Guernsey participates in the [[Island Games]], which it has hosted. In sporting events in which Guernsey does not have international representation, when the British [[Home Nations]] are competing separately, islanders that do have high athletic skill may choose to compete for any of the Home Nations - there are, however, restrictions on subsequent transfers to represent another Home Nation. The football player [[Matt Le Tissier]] for example, tried out for the [[Scotland national football team]] but ended up playing for [[England national football team|England]].
The island's traditional colour (e.g. for sporting events) is [[green]].
Guernsey has recently been declared an affiliate member by the [[ICC]] (International [[Cricket]] Council).
== External links ==
{{Commons|Guernsey}}
*[http://www.gov.gg/ States of Guernsey] - Official site
*[http://www.guernseytouristboard.com/ Guernsey Tourism] - Official Site
*[http://www.thisisguernsey.com/ This Is Guernsey] - Local portal site
*[http://www.library.gg/ The Guille-Allès Library] - Guille-Allès Public Library site
*[http://www.mapquest.com/maps/map.adp?formtype=address&searchtype=address&country=GB&addtohistory=&address=&city=guernsey&zipcode= Map of Guernsey]
*[http://www.guernsey-airport.gov.gg Guernsey Airport (EGJB)] - Guernsey Airport (EGJB)
*[http://www.chernobyl-children.com/ Chernobyl Children Life Line Guernsey Link] - Local Charity
{{Channel Islands}}
{{Europe}}
{{British dependencies}}
[[Category:Channel Islands]]
[[Category:European dependencies]]
[[Category:Guernsey]]
[[Category:Special territories]]
[[ast:Guernsey]]
[[zh-min-nan:Guernsey]]
[[bs:Guernsey]]
[[ca:Guernsey]]
[[cs:Guernsey]]
[[da:Guernsey]]
[[de:Guernsey]]
[[el:Γκέρνσεϋ]]
[[es:Guernesey]]
[[eo:Guernsey]]
[[fr:Guernesey]]
[[ko:건지 섬]]
[[hr:Guernsey]]
[[id:Guernsey]]
[[is:Guernsey]]
[[it:Guernsey]]
[[he:גרנסי]]
[[li:Guernsey]]
[[hu:Guernsey]]
[[nl:Guernsey]]
[[ja:ガーンジー島]]
[[no:Guernsey]]
[[nn:Guernsey]]
[[oc:Guernesei]]
[[pl:Guernsey]]
[[pt:Guernsey]]
[[ru:Гернси]]
[[sh:Guernsey]]
[[simple:Guernsey]]
[[sk:Guernsey]]
[[sl:Guernsey]]
[[fi:Guernsey]]
[[sv:Guernsey]]
[[tr:Guernsey]]
[[zh:根西岛]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of Guernsey</title>
<id>12167</id>
<revision>
<id>15909871</id>
<timestamp>2004-07-15T06:07:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jiang</username>
<id>10049</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merge</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Guernsey]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Guernsey</title>
<id>12168</id>
<revision>
<id>15909872</id>
<timestamp>2004-07-15T06:12:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jiang</username>
<id>10049</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merge w/ main article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Guernsey]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Guernsey</title>
<id>12169</id>
<revision>
<id>15909873</id>
<timestamp>2004-07-15T06:20:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jiang</username>
<id>10049</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merging</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Guernsey]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Guernsey</title>
<id>12170</id>
<revision>
<id>34671275</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-10T22:37:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Palomar</username>
<id>707235</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>category</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Guernsey}}
'''Politics of Guernsey''' takes place in a framework of a[[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] British Crown Dependency, whereby the [[Chief Minister]] is the [[head of government]].
==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|Lieutenant Governor
|Sir [[Fabian Malbon]]
|
|[[18 October]] [[2005]]
|-
|[[List of Bailiffs of Guernsey|Bailiff]]
|[[Geoffrey Rowland]]
|
|[[2005]]
|-
|[[Chief Minister of Guernsey|Chief Minister]]
|[[Laurie Morgan]]
|
|[[2005]]
|}
The Lieutenant Governor is the representative of [[the Crown]]. The [[official residence]] of the Lieutenant Governor is Government House. Since [[18 October]] 2005, the incumbent is Vice-Admiral Sir Fabian Malbon, born in Southsea in 1946 and a serving naval officer 1965-2002. His last naval posting before retirement from the Royal Navy was deputy commander-in-chief of fleet.
The Bailiff is the first civil officer in the [[bailiwick]] of [[Guernsey]], serving as president of the legislature and the Royal Court. Since [[2004]], Guernsey's head of government is the [[Chief Minister]]. The Bailiff is appointed by [[the Crown]], and generally holds office until retirement age (65). He presides at the Royal Court, and takes the opinions of the ''[[Jurat]]s'', elected lay judges,; he also presides over the States, and represents the Crown in all civil matters.
==Legislative branch==
[[The States]] of Guernsey, officially called the [[States of Guernsey|States of Deliberation]], consists of 45 People's Deputies, elected from multi- or single-member districts every four years. There are also two representatives from [[Alderney]], a self-governing dependency of the Bailiwick, but [[Sark]] sends no representative. There are also two non-voting members - the Attorney General and the Solicitor General both appointed by the monarch. Laws passed by the States are known as 'Ordinances'.
==Elections==
{{Guernsey States election, 2004}}
==Judicial branch==
The legal system is derived from [[Normans|Norman]] French and English common law, justice being administered through a combination of Magistrates Court and the Royal Court. The Royal Court is presided over by the Bailiff and 12 [[Jurat|Jurats]] (a permanent elected jury), the ultimate court of appeal being the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council|Privy Council]].
==Administrative divisions==
Each parish is administered by a Douzaine. Douzeniers are elected for a six year mandate, two Douzeniers being elected by parishioners at a Parish Meeting in November each year. The senior Douzenier is known as the Doyen. Two elected [[Constable]]s carry out the decisions of the Douzaine, serving for between one and three years. The longest serving Constable is known as the Senior Constable and his or her colleague as the Junior Constable.
[[Category:Politics of Guernsey]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Guernsey</title>
<id>12171</id>
<revision>
<id>15909875</id>
<timestamp>2004-07-15T06:17:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jiang</username>
<id>10049</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merging</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Guernsey]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Guernsey</title>
<id>12172</id>
<revision>
<id>15909876</id>
<timestamp>2004-07-15T06:26:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jiang</username>
<id>10049</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect nonexistent article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Guernsey]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transportation in Guernsey</title> |
an openly [[gay]] man to be a bishop in the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]], Desmond Tutu said, “In our Church here in South Africa, that doesn’t make a difference. We just say that at the moment, we believe that they should remain celibate and we don’t see what the fuss is about.”{{ref|fuss}}
In January [[2005]], Tutu added his voice to the growing dissent over terrorist suspects held at [[Camp X-Ray]] in [[Guantanamo Bay]], [[Cuba]], referring to detentions without trial as "utterly unacceptable."
He also used the opportunity to decry [[homophobia]] and called for the acceptance of gay bishop Rt Rev [[Gene Robinson]].
<blockquote>
Declared Tutu: "I am deeply saddened at a time when we've got such huge problems ... that we should invest so much time and energy in this issue...I think God is weeping."
<br />
...
<br />
"Jesus did not say, 'I if I be lifted up I will draw some'," Tutu said, preaching in two morning festival services in Pasadena, California. "Jesus said, 'If I be lifted up I will draw all, all, all, all, all. Black, white, yellow, rich, poor, clever, not so clever, beautiful, not so beautiful. It's one of the most radical things. All, all, all, all, all, all, all, all. All belong. Gay, lesbian, so-called straight. All, all are meant to be held in this incredible embrace that will not let us go. All."
<br />
He continued: "Isn't it sad, that in a time when we face so many devastating problems – poverty, HIV/AIDS, war and conflict – that in our Communion we should be investing so much time and energy on disagreement about sexual orientation?"
<br />
Tutu said the Communion, which "used to be known for embodying the attribute of comprehensiveness, of inclusiveness, where we were meant to accommodate all and diverse views, saying we may differ in our theology but we belong together as sisters and brothers" now seems "hell-bent on excommunicating one another. God must look
on and God must weep."
<br />
Source: [http://www.speroforum.com/site/article.asp?idCategory=33&idsub=128&id=2141]
</blockquote>
On [[April 20]], [[2005]], following the election of [[Pope Benedict XVI|Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger]] as [[Pope Benedict XVI]], Tutu said he was sad that [[Roman Catholic Church|The Roman Catholic Church]] was unlikely to change its opposition to [[condom]]s amidst the fight against [[HIV|HIV/AIDS]] in [[Africa]]: "We would have hoped for someone more open to the more recent developments in the world, the whole question of the ministry of women and a more reasonable position with regards to condoms and HIV/AIDS."{{ref|conservative}}
On [[February]] [[2006]] Desmond Tutu took part in the 9th Assembly of the [[World Council of Churches]], held in [[Porto Alegre]], [[Brazil]]. There he manifested his commitment to ecumenism and praised the efforts of Christian churches to promote dialogue in order to diminish their differences. For Desmond, "a united church is no optional extra".
== Trivia ==
* The British lower second-class honors undergraduate degree, a '2:2', is colloquially known as a "Desmond" in his honor because it is pronounced the same as his last name – see [[British undergraduate degree classification]]
* Tutu has taught in the school of theology at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia.
* Tutu is the author of, "God Has A Dream: A Vision of Hope for Our Time" published in 2004.
* Famous Austrian-American director Billy Wilder once said: "My English is a mixture between Arnold Schwarzenegger and Archbishop Tutu".
== Notes ==
<!-- Instructions for adding a footnote:
NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnote3]] for details.
1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9.
2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately proceeds yours in the article body.
4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step3.
5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference will not work: you must insert two uniquely-named footnotes.
NOTE: It is important to add the Footnote in the right order in the list.
-->
#{{note|Nobel}} The Norwegian Nobel Committee [http://nobelprize.org/peace/laureates/1984/press.html The Nobel Peace Prize for 1984] Nobelprize.org (accessed July 17, 2005).
#{{note|Apartheid}} Desmond Tutu, "[http://www.palestineremembered.com/Acre/Articles/Story838.html Apartheid in the Holy Land]," ''The Guardian'' April 29, 2002 (accessed June 11, 2005).
#{{note|BBC_Apr02}} Desmond Tutu, "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1957644.stm Tutu condemns Israeli 'apartheid']," ''The BBC'' April 29, 2002 (accessed Feb. 13, 2006).
#{{note|terrorism}} Jacob Goodman and Libby Goodman, "[http://www.zoa.org/pressrel2000/20000512a.htm Tutu To Speak At Brandeis U. Despite Never Retracting Anti-Semitic Remarks]," Zionist Organization of America, May 12, 2000 (accessed June 11, 2005).
#{{note|Wiesenthal}} "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/2058371.stm Jewish group ticks off Tutu]," ''The BBC'' June 21, 2002 (accessed Feb. 13, 2006).
#{{note|fuss}} "[http://uk.gay.com/headlines/4846 Desmond Tutu: gay bishop row is just 'fuss']," Gay.com UK, August 11, 2005 (accessed June 11, 2005).
#{{note|conservative}} "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4463873.stm Africans hail conservative Pope]," ''BBC News'', April 20, 2005 (accessed June 11, 2005).
<!--READ ME!! PLEASE DO NOT JUST ADD NEW NOTES AT THE BOTTOM. See the instructions above on ordering. -->
== Bibliography ==
=== Primary ===
Tutu is the author of six collections of [[sermon]]s and other writings:
* ''Crying in the Wilderness'' ([[1982]])
* ''Hope and Suffering: Sermons and Speeches'' ([[1983]])
* ''The Words of Desmond Tutu'' ([[1989]])
* ''The Rainbow People of God'' ([[1994]])
* ''The Essential Desmond Tutu'' ([[1997]])
* ''No Future without Forgiveness'' ([[1999]])
* ''God Has a Dream: A Vision of Hope for Our Time'' ([[2004]])
=== Secondary ===
* Shirley du Boulay, ''Tutu: Voice of the Voiceless'' (Eerdmans, 1988).
* Michael Battle, ''Reconciliation: The Ubuntu Theology of Desmond Tutu'' (Pilgrim Press, 1997).
* Steven D. Gish, ''Desmond Tutu: A Biography'' (Greenwood, 2004).
* David Hein, "Bishop Tutu's Christology." ''Cross Currents'' 34 (1984): 492-99.
* David Hein, "Religion and Politics in South Africa." ''Modern Age'' 31 (1987): 21-30.
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.tutu.org/ The Desmond Tutu Peace Centre]
* [http://www.nobel.se/peace/laureates/1984/tutu-bio.html Nobel e-Museum] Nobel Peace Prize Desmond Tutu biography
* [http://nobelprize.org/peace/laureates/1984/tutu-lecture.html Nobel lecture], [[11 December]] [[1984]]
* [http://www.squidoo.com/desmond-tutu/ Rev. Desmond Tutu's Philosophy]
[[Category:1931 births|Tutu, Desmond]]
[[Category:Living people|Tutu, Desmond]]
[[Category:Nobel Peace Prize winners|Tutu, Desmond]]
[[Category:Humanitarians]]
[[Category:South African people|Tutu, Desmond]]
[[Category:Apartheid in South Africa|Tutu, Desmond]]
[[Category:South African prelates|Tutu, Desmond]]
[[Category:Anglican archbishops|Tutu, Desmond]]
[[Category:Social justice|Tutu, Desmond]]
[[Category:Alumni of King's College London|Tutu, Desmond]]
[[Category:Pro-life celebrities|Tutu, Desmond]]
[[Category:Chaplains|Tutu, Desmond]]
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Lech Wałęsa]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Peace|Nobel Peace Prize]] | years =1984 | after = [[International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War]]}}
{{end box}}
[[af:Desmond Tutu]]
[[zh-min-nan:Desmond Tutu]]
[[ca:Desmond Tutu]]
[[de:Desmond Tutu]]
[[es:Desmond Tutu]]
[[fr:Desmond Mpilo Tutu]]
[[ms:Desmond Tutu]]
[[nl:Desmond Tutu]]
[[ja:デズモンド・ムピロ・ツツ]]
[[no:Desmond Tutu]]
[[pl:Desmond Tutu]]
[[pt:Desmond Tutu]]
[[fi:Desmond Tutu]]
[[sv:Desmond Tutu]]
[[zh:杜圖]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Davenport, Iowa</title>
<id>8599</id>
<revision>
<id>42030295</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T09:03:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dillon_crop2.JPG|thumb|300px|Dillon Fountain and Main St. in Davenport, Iowa]]
[[Image:Davenport1.jpg|thumb|300px|Davenport's LeClaire Park during the 2003 Mississippi Valley Blues Festival]]
The city of '''Davenport''' was incorporated in [[1839]] and is located in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Iowa]]. As of the [[United States 2000 Census|2000 census]], the city had a total population of 98,359. The city is part of the [[Quad Cities]] of Iowa and [[Illinois]]. The city borders the [[Mississippi River]]. Davenport is the home of Palmer Chiropractic College, the birthplace of [[chiropractic]] medicine and wellness technique. [[Saint Ambrose University]] is also located in Davenport. Davenport is the [[county seat]] of [[Scott County, Iowa|Scott County]].
Davenport often makes national headlines when the Mississippi River floods. It is the only city over 20,000 people bordering the Mississippi that has no permanent floodwall or levee. Davenport prefers the open access to the river for parks and vistas over having access cut off by dikes and levees. Davenport has adopted ordinances that any new construction in the floodplain must be elevated above the 100 year flood level or protected with walls. As a result, feasibility studies done by the [[United States Army Corps of Engineers]] have determined that building |
y formed under the Mediterranean Sea, as a consequence of the upwelling of hot, mineral-laded water through a zone where plates that formed the ocean floor were pulling apart.
==Drainage==
Deforestation over the centuries has damaged the island's drainage system and made access to a year-round supply of water difficult. A network of winter rivers rises in the Troodos Mountains and flows out from them in all directions. The Yialias River and the [[Pedieos|Pedhieos River]] flow eastward across the Mesaoria into Famagusta Bay; the Serraghis River flows northwest through the [[Morphou]] plain. All of the island's rivers, however, are dry in the summer. An extensive system of dams and waterways has been constructed to bring water to farming areas.
The Mesaoria is the agricultural heartland of the island, but its productiveness for wheat and barley depends very much on winter rainfall; other crops are grown under irrigation. Little evidence remains that this broad, central plain, open to the sea at either end, was once covered with rich forests whose timber was coveted by ancient conquerors for their sailing vessels. The now-divided capital of the island, Nicosia, lies in the middle of this central plain.
== Natural Vegetation ==
Notwithstanding its small size, Cyprus has a variety of natural vegetation. This includes forests of hardwood, evergreen and broadleaved trees such as pinus latepensis, cedar, cypressus and oak. According to [[Eratosthenes]] ([[3rd Century BC]]), a Greek botanist, most of Cyprus, even Messaoria, was heavily forested in antiquity, and considerable remnants of these forests survive on the Troodos and Kyrenia ranges, and locally at lower altitudes. About 17% of the whole island is being classified as woodland. Where the forest has been destroyed, tall shrub communities of arbutus and rachne, pistacia terebinthus, olea europea, quercus coccifera and styrax officinalis may survive, but such maquis is uncommon. Over most of the island untilled ground bears a grazed covering of garigue, largely composed of low bushes of cistus, genista sphacelata calycotoime villosa, lithospermum hispidulum, phaganalon rupestre and, locally, pistacia lentiscus. Where grazing is excessive this covering is soon reduced, and an impoverished batha remains, consisting principally of thymus capitatus, sarcopoterium spinosum, and a few stunted herbs.
==Climate==
[[Image:Cyprus.A2002292.1045.500m.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Dust storms moving from Middle East countries over Cyprus, October 19, 2002]]
The [[Mediterranean climate]], warm and rather dry, with rainfall mainly between November and March, favors agriculture. In general, the island experiences mild wet winters and dry hot summers. Variations in temperature and rainfall are governed by altitude and, to a lesser extent, distance from the coast. Hot, dry summers from mid-May to mid-September and rainy, rather changeable winters from November to mid-March are separated by short [[autumn]] and [[spring]] seasons.
In summer the island is mainly under the influence of a shallow trough of low pressure extending from the great continental depression centred over [[southwest Asia]]. It is a season of high temperatures with almost cloudless skies.
In winter Cyprus is near the track of fairly frequent small depressions which cross the [[Mediterranean Sea]] from west to east between the continental anticyclone of [[Eurasia]] and the generally low pressure belt of [[North Africa]]. These depressions give periods of disturbed weather usually lasting for a day or so and produce most of the annual precipitation, the average rainfall from December to February being about 60% of the average annual total precipitation for the island as a whole, which is 500 mm.
The higher mountain areas are cooler and moister than the rest of the island. They receive the heaviest annual rainfall, which may be as much as 1,000 millimeters. Sharp frost also occurs in the higher districts, which are usually blanketed with snow during the first months of the year. Precipitation increases from 450 millimetres up the south-western windward slopes to nearly 1,100 millimetres at the top of the Troodos massif. The narrow ridge of the Kyrenia range, stretching 160 km from west to east along the extreme north of the island produces a relatively small increase in rainfall of around 550 millimetres along its ridge at an elevation of 1,000 metres. Plains along the northern coast and in the [[Karpass Peninsula]] area average 400 to 450 millimeters of annual rainfall. The least rainfall occurs in the Mesaoria, with 300 to 400 millimeters a year. Variability in annual rainfall is characteristic for the island, however, and droughts are frequent and sometimes severe. Statistical analysis of rainfall in Cyprus reveals a decreasing trend of rainfall amounts in the last 30 years.
Earthquakes, usually not destructive, occur from time to time.
Rainfall in the warmer months contributes little or nothing to water resources and agriculture. Autumn and winter rainfall, on which agriculture and water supply generally depend, is somewhat variable from year to year.
Summer temperatures are high in the lowlands, even near the sea, and reach particularly uncomfortable readings in the [[Mesaoria]]. The mean daily temperature in July and August ranges between 29 °C on the central plain to 22 °C on the Troodos mountains, while the average maximum temperature for these months ranges between 36 °C and 27 °C respectively Because of the scorching heat of the lowlands, some of the villages in the Troodos have developed as resort areas, with summer as well as winter seasons. The mean annual temperature for the island as a whole is about 20 °C. The amount of sunshine the island enjoys enhances the tourist industry. On the Mesaoria in the eastern lowland, for example, there is bright sunshine 75 percent of the time. During the four summer months, there is an average of eleven and one-half hours of sunshine each day, and in the cloudiest winter months there is an average of five and one-half hours per day.
Winters are mild with a mean January temperature of 10 °C on the central plain and 3 °C on the higher parts of the Troodos mountains and with an average minimum temperature of 5 °C and 0 °C respectively.
Relative humidity of the air is on average between 60% and 80% in winter and between 40% and 60% in summer with even lower values over inland areas around midday. Fog is infrequent and visibility is generally very good. [[Sunshine]] is abundant during the whole year and particularly from April to September when the average duration of bright sunshine exceeds 11 hours per day.
Winds are generally light to moderate and variable in direction. Strong winds may occur sometimes, but gales are infrequent over Cyprus and are mainly confined to exposed coastal areas as well as areas at high elevation
==Area and boundaries==
'''Area:'''
<br>''total:''
9,250 km² (of which 3,355 km² are under the administration of the [[non-recognized nations| de facto (unrecognized)]] [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]])
<br>''land:''
9,240 km²
<br>''water:''
10 km²
'''Area - comparative:'''
about 0.6 times the size of [[Connecticut]] or 0.7 times the size of [[Northern Ireland]]
'''Land boundaries:'''
0 km
'''Coastline:'''
648 km
'''Maritime claims:'''
<br>''continental shelf:''
200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
<br>''territorial sea:''
12 nm (22.4 km)
'''Elevation extremes:'''
<br>''lowest point:''
Mediterranean Sea 0 m
<br>''highest point:''
Olympus 1,953 m
==Resource and land use==
'''Natural resources:'''
[[copper]], [[pyrites]], [[asbestos]], [[gypsum]], [[timber]], [[salt]], [[marble]], [[clay earth pigment]]
'''Land use:'''
<br>''arable land:''
12%
<br>''permanent crops:''
5%
<br>''permanent pastures:''
0%
<br>''forests and woodland:''
13%
<br>''other:''
70% (1993 est.)
'''Irrigated land:'''
400 km² (1999 UN est.)
==Environmental concerns==
'''Natural hazards:'''
moderate [[earthquake]] activity
'''Environment - current issues:'''
[[water]] resource problems (no natural reservoir catchments, seasonal disparity in rainfall, [[saltwater intrusion|sea water intrusion]] to island's largest [[aquifer]], increased [[soil salination|salination]] in the north); water pollution from sewage and industrial wastes; coastal degradation; loss of wildlife habitats from urbanization
'''Environment - international agreements:'''
<br>''party to:''
Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-[[Kyoto Protocol]], Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution
<br>''signed, but not ratified:''
Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants
==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
{{CIAfb}}
*[http://www.cyprus.gov.cy/cyphome/govhome.nsf/LookupIDs/300D6935EC884FBCC2256A71003972F4?OpenDocument&languageNo=1 Official Cyprus Government Web Site]
{{Europe in topic|Geography of}}
{{Asia in topic|Geography of}}
[[Category:Geography of Cyprus| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Cyprus]]
[[el:Γεωγραφία της Κύπρου]]
[[fr:Géographie de Chypre]]
[[he:גאוגרפיה של קפריסין]]
[[ja:キプロス島]]
[[pt:Geografia do Chipre]]
[[sk:Cyprus_%28ostrov%29]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Cyprus</title>
<id>5596</id>
<revision>
<id>35872737</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-19T22:57:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Darwinek</username>
<id>107928</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* ''References'' */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Greek Cypriot|Greek]] and [[Turkish Cypriots]] share many customs but maintain distinct identities based on religion, language, and close ties with their respective motherlands |
chichtswissenschaft] (Austria)
*[[1990]] [http://www.univie.ac.at/Wirtschaftsgeschichte/OeZG/ Oesterreichische Zeitschrift fuer Geschichtswissenschaften - OeZG]
*[[1993]] [http://www.historische-anthropologie.uni-goettingen.de/ Historische Anthropologie]
== Styles of History-writing ==
*[[Annales School|''Annales'' School]]
*[[Big History]]
*[[Deconstruction]]
*[[Diplomatic history]]
*[[Feminist History]]
*[[Gender History]]
*[[Historical materialism]]
*[[Historiophoty]]
*[[Historiosophy]]
*[[History from below]]
*[[History of ideas]]
*[[Marxist historiography|Marxist analysis]]
*[[Metahistory]]
*[[Microhistory]]
*[[Numismatics]]
*[[Oral history]]
*[[Paleography]]
*[[Political history]]
*[[Postmodernism]]
*[[Prosopography]]
*[[Psychohistory]]
*[[Revisionism]]
*[[Social history]]
*[[Universal History]]
*[[World History]]
== Relevant Literature==
'''Philosophy of history''':
*Frank Ankersmit (ed), ''A New Philosophy of History'', 1995, ISBN 0226021009
*[[E. H. Carr]], ''[[What is History?]]'' 1961, ISBN 039470391X
*[[R.G. Collingwood]], ''The Idea of History'', 1936, ISBN 0192853066
*[[Geoffrey Elton]], ''The Practice of History'', 1969, ISBN 0631229809
*[[Richard J. Evans]] ''In Defence of History'', 1997, ISBN 3579108642
*[[Keith Jenkins]], ''Rethinking History'', 1991, ISBN 0415304431
*[[Arthur Marwick]], ''The Nature of History'', 1970, ISBN 0333109414
*[[John Tosh]], ''The Pursuit of History'', 2002, ISBN 0582772540
*W.H. Walsh, ''An Introduction to Philosophy of History'', 1951.
*[[Hayden White]], ''The Content of Form: Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation'', 1987, ISBN 0801841151
*[[Tessa Morris-Suzuki]], ''The Past Within Us: Media, Memory, History'', 2005, ISBN 1859845134
'''Broad histories of historical writing''':
*Michael Bentley (ed.), ''Companion to Historiography'', Routledge, 1997, ISBN 0415285577
*Michael Bentley, ''Modern Historiography: An Introduction'', 1999 ISBN 0415202671
*Ernst Breisach, ''Historiography: Ancient, Medieval and Modern'', 1994, ISBN 0226072789
*Peter Burke, ''History and Social Theory'', Polity Press, Oxford, 1992
*Mark T. Gilderhus, ''History and Historiographical Introduction'', 2002, ISBN 0130448249
*Susan Kinnell, ''Historiography: An Annotated Bibliography of Journal Article, Books and Dissertations'', 1987, ISBN 0874361680
*Arnaldo Momigliano, ''The Classical Foundation of Modern Historiography'', 1990, ISBN 0520078705
'''Feminist historiography'''
*[[Gerda Lerner]], ''The Majority Finds its Past: Placing Women in History'', New York: Oxford University Press 1979
*Bonnie G. Smith, The gender of history : men, women, and historical practice, Cambridge, Mass. [etc.] : Harvard Univ. Press, 1998
*Mary Spongberg, Writing women's history since the Renaissance , Basingstoke [etc.] : Palgrave Macmillan, 2002
'''Regional or thematic''':
*John Ernest. ''Liberation Historiography: African American Writers and the Challenge of History, 1794-1861''. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004
*[[Marc Ferro]], ''Cinema and History'', Wayne State University Press, 1988
*[[Ranajit Guha]], ''Dominance Without Hegemony: History and Power in Colonial India'', Harvard UP 1998
* [[M. Ismail Marcinkowski]], ''Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in [[Iran]], the [[Caucasus]], [[Central Asia]], [[India]] and Early [[Ottoman Turkey]], with a foreword by Professor Clifford Edmund Bosworth'', member of the [[British Academy]], Singapore: Pustaka Nasional, 2003, ISBN 9971774887.
*[[Peter Novick]], ''That Noble Dream: The "Objectivity Question" and the American Historical Profession'' 1988, ISBN 0521343283
*[[Roland Oliver]], ''In the Realms of Gold: Pioneering in African History'', University of Wisconsin Press 1997
*Christopher Saunders, ''The making of the South African past : major historians on race and class'', Totowa, N.J. : Barnes & Noble, 1988
* Bonnie G. Smith, ''The Gender of History: Men, Women, and Historical Practice'', Harvard UP 2000
'''Teaching History'''
*James W. Loewen, ''Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong'', Touchstone Books 1996
* David Hackett Fischer, ''Historians' Fallacies: Towards a Logic of Historical Thought'', Harper & Row, 1970.
'''Journals'''
*[http://www.cromohs.unifi.it/index.html Cromohs - cyber review of modern historiography]
*''History and Theory''
*[http://www.cisi.unito.it/stor/home.htm History of Historiography]
== See also ==
* [[Chinese historiography]]
* [[Historiography and nationalism]]
* [[Historiography of science]]
* [[Historical method]]
* [[List of historians]]
* [[List of historians by area of study]]
* [[Philosophy of history]]
* [[Plot]]
* [[Primary source]] - documents, correspondence, diaries
* [[Secondary source]] - interpretations, written history
* [[Tertiary source]] - [[encyclopedia]]s, [[almanac]]s
==External links==
*[http://www.mith2.umd.edu/WomensStudies/Bibliographies/feminist-historiography Feminist historiography 1968-1993 a bibliography]
*[http://www.galilean-library.org/int18.html Philosophy of History] introduced at The Galilean Library
*[http://www.galilean-library.org/tucker.html Scientific Historiography], explained in an interview with Aviezer Tucker at the Galilean Library
*[http://www.africawithin.com/schomburg/negro_digs.htm The Negro Digs Up His Past (1925)] by [[Arturo Alfonso Schomburg]]
*[http://concepts.essential-facts.com/Historiography_and_Historical_methods.html W Notes and Historiography Bibliography]
*[http://www.history-journals.de/journals/hjg-subject-his.html The History Journals Guide]
[[Category:Historiography|*]]
[[Category:Historiosophy]]
[[ca:Historiografia]]
[[de:Historiografie]]
[[es:Historiografía]]
[[fr:Histoire de l'histoire]]
[[it:Storiografia]]
[[he:היסטוריוגרפיה]]
[[ka:ისტორიოგრაფია]]
[[hu:Történettudomány]]
[[nl:Historiografie]]
[[pl:Historiografia]]
[[pt:Historiografia]]
[[ro:Istoriografie]]
[[sk:Historiografia (dejepisectvo)]]
[[sv:Historiografi]]
[[zh:史学史]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Holy Roman Empire</title>
<id>13277</id>
<revision>
<id>41840365</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T02:10:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Petri Krohn</username>
<id>382847</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv "College of Princes and Counts" spam</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Germany}}
{{History of Austria}}
:''This page is about the Germanic empire. For the ancient empire centred on Rome, see [[Roman Empire]].''
'''The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation''' ([[German language|German]]: ''Heiliges Römisches Reich Deutscher Nation'' {{Audio|De-Heiliges_Römisches_Reich-pronunciation.ogg|<small>listen</small>}}, [[Latin language|Latin]] ''Sacrum Romanum Imperium Nationis Germanicae,'' see ''[[#Names and designations of the empire|names and designations of the empire]]'') was a political conglomeration of [[country|land]]s in [[Central Europe]] in the [[Middle Ages]] and the early modern period. Emerging from the [[East Francia|eastern part]] of the [[Frankish Empire]] after its division in the [[Treaty of Verdun]] ([[843]]), it lasted almost a millennium until its dissolution in [[1806]]. By the [[18th century]], it still consisted of the larger part of modern [[Germany]], [[Bohemia]] (now [[Czech Republic]]), [[Austria]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Slovenia]], [[Belgium]], and [[Luxembourg]], as well as large parts of modern [[Poland]] and small parts of the [[Netherlands]]. Previously, it had included all of the Netherlands and [[Switzerland]], and parts of modern [[France]] and [[Italy]] (see: Maps below). In the 18th century, when the Empire was already in decline, [[Voltaire]] ridiculed its nomenclature by saying that the Holy Roman Empire was "neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an [[Empire]]".
== Character of the empire ==
[[Image:Balduineum Wahl Heinrich VII.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The [[prince-elector]]s of the Holy Roman Empire. Pen-and-ink miniature from the picture chronicle of Henry VII (Balduineum)]]
The Holy Roman Empire was an institution [[sui generis|unique]] in world history and therefore difficult to grasp. To understand what it was, it might be helpful to assess first what it was not.
* It was never a [[nation state]]. Despite the German ethnicity of most of its rulers and subjects, from the very beginning many ethnicities constituted the Holy Roman Empire. Many of its most important noble families and appointed officials came from outside the German-speaking communities. At the height of the empire it contained most of the territory of today's [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Switzerland]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Belgium]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Czech Republic]] and [[Slovenia]], as well as eastern [[France]], northern [[Italy]] and western [[Poland]]. Its languages thus comprised not only German and its many [[dialect]]s and derivatives, but many Slavic languages and the languages which became modern French, Dutch and Italian. Furthermore, its division into territories ruled by numerous secular and ecclesiastical princes, prelates, counts, imperial knights, and free cities made it, in the early modern period at least, far less cohesive than the emerging modern states around it.
* However, during most of its time it was more than a mere [[confederation]]. The concept of the ''[[Reich]]'' not only included the government of a specific territory, but had strong Christian religious connotations (hence the ''holy'' prefix). Until [[1508]], German Kings were not considered Emperors of the ''Reich'' until the [[Pope]] had formally crowned them as such.
The ''Reich'' contained a number of [[Prince-Bishop]]rics and can thus best be described as a cross between a state and a religious confederation.
==Names and designations of the empire==
{{Middle Ages Tall}}
The Holy Roman Empire was an attempt to resurrect the [[Western Ro |
ducing interactive fiction works of relatively limited scope using the [[Adventure Game Toolkit]] and similar tools. The breakthrough that allowed the interactive fiction community to truly prosper, however, was the creation and distribution of two sophisticated development systems. In [[1987]], [[Michael J. Roberts]] released [[TADS]], a programming language designed to produce works of interactive fiction. In [[1993]], [[Graham Nelson]] released [[Inform]], a [[programming language]] and set of libraries which [[compiler|compiled]] to a Z-Code story file. Each of these systems allowed anyone with sufficient time and dedication to create a game, and caused a growth boom in the online interactive fiction community.
Today, the games created by enthusiasts of the genre regularly surpass the quality of the original Infocom games, and a number of yearly competitions and awards are given out to the best games in the field, among them the annual [[Interactive Fiction Competition]] for short works, the newer [[Spring Thing]] for longer works, and the [[XYZZY Awards]]. Newer games, such as ''[[Photopia]]'' and ''[[So Far]]'', have further increased the vitality of the interactive fiction genre.
== Notable works of interactive fiction ==
* ''[[Colossal Cave Adventure]]'' by [[Will Crowther]] and [[Don Woods]] was the first text adventure ever made.
* The ''[[Zork]]'' series by [[Infocom]] ([[1979]]- ) was the first text adventure to see widespread release.
* ''[[The Hobbit (video game)|The Hobbit]]'' by [[Philip Mitchell]] and [[Veronika Megler]] of [[Beam Software]] ([[1982]])
* ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (computer game)|The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'', by [[Douglas Adams]] and [[Steve Meretzky]] of [[Infocom]] ([[1984]])
* ''[[A Mind Forever Voyaging]]'', by [[Steve Meretzky]] of [[Infocom]] ([[1985]]), first story-heavy, puzzle-light game.
* ''[[Amnesia (Computer Game)|Amnesia]]'', by [[Hugo Award]] and [[Nebula Award]] winning science fiction and fantasy author [[Thomas M. Disch]] ([[1987]]), the only text adventure ever published by [[Electronic Arts]].
* ''[[Curses (computer game)|Curses]]'', by [[Graham Nelson]] ([[1993]]), the first game ever written in the [[Inform]] programming language, and a classic in its own right. Considered one of the first "modern" games to meet the high standards set by Infocom's best titles.
* ''[[So Far]]'', by [[Andrew Plotkin]] ([[1996]]) is considered by many to be a modern benchmark for its integration of story and puzzle design.
* ''[[Photopia]]'', by [[Adam Cadre]] ([[1998]]), the first almost entirely puzzle-free game. Initially highly controversial.
* ''[[Galatea (computer game)|Galatea]]'', by [[Emily Short]] ([[2000]]). Galatea is focused entirely on interaction with the animated statue of the same name. Galatea has one of the most complex interaction systems for a [[non-player character]] in an interactive fiction game.
* ''[[Façade (Interactive Story)|Façade]]'', by [[Michael Mateas]] and [[Andrew Stern]] of auto-mata.org [http://www.auto-mata.org/] ([[2005]]), A game with noticably advanced AI. Characters understand typing and respond.
== Sample transcript ==
This is a brief transcript from one of many possible ways to not win the game ''[[Curses (computer game)|Curses]]'', by [[Graham Nelson]]. The player has entered instructions on the lines beginning with '>' (shown here in italic); the rest of the text is printed by the computer. The computer begins with a printed introduction giving a little context to the game (much more would become apparent as the game progressed):
It's become a matter of pride now not to give up. That tourist map of Paris
must be up here somewhere in all this clutter, even if it has been five years
since your last trip. And it's your own fault. It looks as if your
great-grandfather was the last person to tidy up these lofts...
'''CURSES'''
An Interactive Diversion
Copyright (c) 1993 by Graham Nelson. New players should type "help".
Release 8 / Serial number 930603 (Compiled by Inform v634)
'''Attic'''
The attics, full of low beams and awkward angles, begin here in a
relatively tidy area which extends north, south and east. The wooden
floorboards seem fairly sound, just as well considering how heavy all
these teachests are. But the old wiring went years ago, and there's no
electric light.
A hinged trapdoor in the floor stands open, and light streams in from below.
>''inventory''
You are carrying:
a chocolate biscuit
an electric torch (providing light and closed)
a crumpled piece of paper
>''read paper''
Things to do:
1. Find map
2. Phone airport to check parking
3. Health forms...
and so on. Let's face it, 1. is more enticing than the rest put together.
>''enter trapdoor''
Yes, probably just as well to give up looking, and heaven knows
there's enough packing to do, what with the rest of the family in
uproar. Oh well.
*** You have missed the point entirely ***
In that game you scored 0 out of a possible 550, in 3 turns, giving
you the rank of hapless Tourist.
Would you like to RESTART, RESTORE a saved game, give the FULL score
for that game or QUIT?
>
== Interactive fiction development systems ==
A number of systems are available today to write interactive fiction.
* [[ADRIFT]]
* [[Alan programming language|Alan]]
* [[Inform]]
* [[Hugo programming language|Hugo]]
* [[Olitext]]
* [[TADS]]
* [[T.A.G.]] (German)
* [[InformATE]] (Spanish)
* [[Superglús]] (Spanish)
The majority of recent IF development use Inform, TADS, or ADRIFT. In the 2005 IFComp, the entered games consisted of: [http://www.ifcomp.org/comp05/games.php]
* [[Z-Code]] (Inform [[Virtual machine|VM]]): 17
* TADS 2: 6
* ADRIFT: 5
* [[Glulx]] (A second Inform [[Virtual machine|VM]]): 2
* TADS 3: 1
* ALAN: 1
* HUGO: 1
* Windows executable: 3
While familiarity with a programming language leads many new authors to attempt to produce their own complete IF application, most established IF authors recommend use of a specialised IF language, arguing that such systems allow authors to avoid the technicalities of producing a full featured parser, while allowing broad community support. The choice of authoring system usually depends on the author's desired balance of ease of use vs power, and the portability of the final product. [http://brasslantern.org/writers/howto/chooselang.html]
== See also ==
*[[Choose Your Own Adventure]]
*[[Fighting Fantasy Game Books]]
*[[Roleplaying Game]]s, which are occasionally described as another form of interactive fiction.
*[[Visual novel]], interactive fiction with graphics.
*[[Adventure game#Graphical_adventure_games|Graphic adventures]], adventure games with roots in interactive fiction.
*[[Amateur adventure game]]
*[[Grue (monster)|Grue]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.ifarchive.org The Interactive Fiction Archive] ([[HTML]]), [ftp://ftp.ifarchive.org/if-archive ditto] ([[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]]) See also Baf's Guide, next
*[http://baf.wurb.com/if/ Baf's Guide to the Interactive Fiction Archive] Useful for finding games in the IF Archive
*[http://www.ifwiki.org The Interactive Fiction Wiki] A MediaWiki wiki specific to Interactive Fiction.
*[http://www.brasslantern.org Brass Lantern] A web site dedicated to discussion and reviews of Interactive Fiction.
*[http://www.carouselchain.com/if/statistics.php Interactive Fiction Ratings] Lists of the most popular games
*[http://www.sparkynet.com/spag/noframe.html SPAG], a free online newsletter
*[http://usuarios.lycos.es/SPAC/ SPAC], a free online newsletter in Spanish.
*[http://www.xyzzynews.com XYZZYnews], a free online newsletter
*[http://www.ifcomp.org/ Annual Interactive Fiction Competition]
*[http://www.springthing.net/ Spring Thing], an annual Interactive Fiction competition for longer works
*[http://brasslantern.org/community/history/timeline-c.html A timeline of events in the history of interactive fiction]
*[http://www.ministryofpeace.com/if-review/ IF-Review] A site dedicated to reviewing interactive fiction
*[[Usenet]] news groups (if you have a news client):
**[news://rec.arts.int-fiction <tt>rec.arts.int-fiction</tt>] Discussion of IF design
**[news://rec.games.int-fiction <tt>rec.games.int-fiction</tt>] Discussion of IF reading/playing
*[http://www.eblong.com/zarf/if.html Interactive Fiction of Andrew Plotkin], distribution site for several of the most renowned modern IFs, such as ''So Far'', ''Shade'', ''Spider and Web'', and ''A Change in the Weather''.
*[http://JimBbq.wikispaces.org A collaborative Interactive Fiction with Wiki]
*[http://www.andybrain.com/archive/interactive_fiction.htm Interactive Fiction: More Than Retro Fun] A beginners introduction and setup guide to Interactive Fiction games and interpreters
*[http://caad.mine.nu Club de Aventuras AD] (CAAD), the portal of the Spanish interactive fiction community.
== Alternative definitions ==
The term "interactive fiction" is also occasionally used to refer to [[hypertext fiction]] or [[collaborative fiction]].
It is also used to refer to literary works that are not read in a linear fashion, but rather the reader is given choices at different points in the text; the reader's choice determines the flow and outcome of the story. The most famous example of this form of interactive fiction is the [[Choose Your Own Adventure]] book series. Examples of interactive fiction are most often found in the genres of fantasy and science fiction and aimed at young readers, but examples can also be found in more adult-oriented genres such as romantic fiction and erotica.
[[Category:Interactive fiction]]
[[Category:Role-playing game terms]]
[[pt:Ficção Interactiva]]
[[es:Aventura conversacional]]
[[eo:Interreagema fikcio]]
[[fi:Tekstiseikkailu]]
[[fr:Fiction interactive]]
[[pl:Hiperfikcja]]
[[ru:Interactive Fiction]]
[[zh:&#25991;&#23383;&#2 |
e authorities for a large reward.
At some point between the present day and the events of ''Cowboy Bebop'', the [[Woolong]] was established as a universal currency.
== Characters ==
{{spoilers}}
=== Spike Spiegel ===
[[Image:Soikebebopsftd.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Spike Spiegel]]
A 27-year-old bounty hunter who was born on Mars. In appearance, Spike is tall and thin, but with muscular shoulders. He has fuzzy dark green hair and brown eyes, one of which is lighter than the other (his left eye is a cybernetic prosthetic replacement after he lost his real eye in an accident). He is usually dressed in a blue leisure suit, with a yellow shirt and ''[[Lupin III]]'' inspired boots. Spike often has a cigarette between his lips, sometimes despite rain or "no smoking" signs.
Spike has many talents and abilities, making him an excellent bounty hunter. He has very sharp eyesight, and abnormally acute perception. Spike makes use of sleight-of-hand techniques to win card games, pick pockets, and even to slip things onto other people unnoticed. Where Spike really excels, however, is in combat. He is well versed in weaponry (such as his personal [[Jericho 941]] as well as other guns and explosives) and hand-to-hand combat skills. He specializes in [[Bruce Lee]]'s personal style of [[Jeet Kune Do]]. Spike is also an excellent pilot, and flies a converted Asteroid racer called "Swordfish II."
When he's not working or practicing his martial arts skills, Spike is very laid-back and lackadaisical, often a source of consternation for his crew mates. Some members of the Bebop crew occasionally refer to him as a "lunkhead" due to his happy-go-lucky attitude, and generally Spike just takes life as it comes. However, behind the sleepy facade, Spike is heartbroken over the loss of Julia, who disappeared rather than follow him away from the syndicate.
Although some fans claim him to be of [[Jew|Jewish]] descent (due to his last name, which means "mirror" in [[German language|German]], his [[Afro|"fuzzy" hairstyle]], and his use of an Israeli-made pistol), director [[Shinichiro Watanabe]] stated at [[Otakon]] 1999 that he and the staffers initially chose the name Spiegel because they simply liked the sound of it. (It is also interesting to note that Director [[Spike Jonze]] was originally named Adam Spiegel, although whether this is a simple coincidence is debatable.)
Spike was a powerful member of the Red Dragon crime syndicate, where he was partnered with a man named Vicious. Spike was unhappy within the syndicate, and after a falling out with Vicious (Spike's affair and love for Julia, Vicious's girlfriend, was the cause for him to quit the syndicate), Spike faked his death to free himself from the organization.
At some time prior to Spike's faked death, he lost his left eye in what he calls an "accident", and has it replaced with a cybernetic implant (hence the two different eye colors). However, Spike must have lost the eye at an earlier time as Julia reminisced about Spike's eyes to Gren, a minor character in the series. This detail is mentioned to Spike by Gren in episode 13, "Jupiter Jazz Part II". If Spike had lost his eye when he left the syndicate, Julia would not have seen the cybernetic replacement until their reunion in episode 25, "The Real Folk Blues Part I".
Some time after his "death", Spike met up with bounty hunter Jet Black, and the two men became partners. Spike moved onto Jet's ship, the "Bebop", and the two men worked together for about three years before being joined by the rest of the crew.
Spike's philosophy seems to be based on the ancient [[samurai]] ideals of immediacy: considering oneself as dead and the idea of death being an awakening from a dream are both elements of [[Bushido]] illustrated in the [[Hagakure]].
Spike is voiced by [[Koichi Yamadera]] in the Japanese version and [[Steven Blum]] (as David Lucas) in the English version.
=== Jet Black ===
[[Image:JetBlack001.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Jet Black]]
Jet is a 36-year-old former cop from [[Ganymede (moon)|Ganymede]] (a [[Jupiter|Jovian]] satellite) and acts as Spike's foil during the series. Where Spike acts lazy and uninterested, Jet is hard-working and a jack-of-all-trades. Jet was an investigator in the Inter Solar System Police (ISSP) for many years until he lost his arm in an [[investigation]] that went awry. His arm was replaced with a [[cybernetic]] limb, yet his loss of limb coupled with the general [[corruption]] of the police force prompted Jet to quit the ISSP in disgust and become a freelance bounty hunter. Jet also considers himself something of a [[renaissance man]]: he cultivates [[bonsai]] trees, cooks, enjoys jazz/blues music, especially [[Charlie Parker]]'s flavor, and even has interest in [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]. As a character, Jet is the quintessential [[oyaji]] or "dad" even though he often wishes people would view him as a more brotherly figure (so as not to seem old).
Jet is skilled with handguns, as well as the use of the netgun. He is good with hand to hand combat as well. Unlike Spike, Jet tends to use more raw [[muscle]] than technique. He is also a great [[mechanic]] and [[pilot]]. Aside from the Bebop, Jet flies a smaller ship called "Hammerhead." The Hammerhead appears to be a modified salvage-craft that uses a mechanical arm equipped with a [[harpoon]] as its main weapon, a metaphor for his own mechanical arm. Both the Hammerhead and the Bebop are able to land on [[water]].
During the series, it is revealed that Jet once lived with a woman named Alisa, who left him because he was too controlling. Later they meet up again when Alisa's new [[boyfriend]] Rynt is wanted for murder. Jet then ends up in a situation somewhat similar to that of Vicious, where he must hunt down a woman who broke his heart, and her lover.
In a later episode, another Vicious/Jet parallel is set up when Jet finds out that it was his old partner Fad who betrayed him (though in Jet's case, there was no love affair involved). Fad arranged for Jet's death in a setup, but he survived with only a missing arm and a [[scar]] on his face.
Jet is voiced by [[Unsho Ishizuka]] in the Japanese version and [[Beau Billingslea]] (as John Billingslea) in the English version.
=== Faye Valentine ===
[[Image:FayeValentine001.jpg|right|thumb|Faye Valentine]]
By all appearances, Faye is a twenty-three year old woman in 2071. However, she was actually born in 1994 and was [[cryopreservation|cryogenically frozen]] after the gate accident. Faye is confident, audacious, independent, and somewhat self-centered. She is also quite lazy, but takes time to care for her appearance. She enjoys gambling, and often loses a great deal of money doing so. Faye is a very competent bounty hunter, being skilled in flying and both hand-to-hand and [[firearm]] combat.
In truth, Faye's indomitable exterior hides a fragile interior. Faye awoke from her cryogenic sleep with total amnesia in a mysterious world that she didn't understand, surrounded by people who were all-too-willing to take advantage of her naïveté, contributing to the hardening of her personality. The surname "Valentine" was merely a name given to her by the doctor that awoke her; the circumstances of her accident, her previous life, and even her real name all remain a mystery, and are only gradually revealed as the series progresses. It has been hinted that she came from [[Singapore]] on Earth, and was the daughter of a very wealthy family, as the city's famous [[Merlion]] Statue features prominently in scenes of her childhood, and that memories and a film from her childhood showed her living in a large mansion.
Faye is voiced by [[Megumi Hayashibara]] in the Japanese version and [[Wendee Lee]] in the English version.
=== Edward Wong Hau Pepelu Tivrusky IV ===
[[Image:Ed001.jpg|right|thumb|Edward Wong Hau Pepelu Tivrusky IV]]
The assumed (read "self-given") name of an elite netdiver from Earth, Ed is a very strange young girl assumed to be about 13 years old. Ed could be considered a "free spirit"; she is fond of silly exclamations and childish rhymes, easily distracted, and the show's primary source of physical humor. Over the course of the show she rarely walks anywhere, preferring to run, crawl, flip, roll, or even just saunter. She always refers to herself in the third person. Not much is known about her origins, only that she spent some of her earlier childhood in an orphanage. (A man named Appledelhi Siniz Hesap Lutfen eventually claims to be her father and calls her Françoise, suggesting she might be [[Turkic peoples|Turkish]], as this man's name means "check, please" in [[Turkish language|Turkish]].) Ed's primary use to the Bebop crew is as a [[hacker]]; she is widely known to be a genius behind a computer (and possibly unparalleled, save for Ein the dog). Ed has a strong rapport with Jet, who acts as a surrogate father, and Faye, who acts as something of a big sister (much to Faye's chagrin). Ed also seems to be the only person who can understand Ein. In the end of the series, at Faye's prompting, she leaves the Bebop to (presumably) look for her dad, taking Ein who chose to leave with Ed, rather than remain on the Bebop with the others.
Ed is voiced by [[Aoi Tada]] in the Japanese version and [[Melissa Fahn]] in the English version.
=== Ein ===
[[Image:Ein001.jpg|right|thumb|The dog Ein]]
Ein is a [[Pembroke Welsh Corgi]] brought aboard the ''Bebop'' by Spike after a failed attempt to capture a bounty. Ein is a "data dog": while the televised series never explains what this means, the manga shows Ed accessing data stored in Ein's brain via a [[virtual reality]]-type interface with which she has a conversation with a human proprietor. It is obvious that Ein is abnormally intelligent, as he is able to answer the telephone, |
nts, including Lev: 2021) that was presented before the papal legates, where the following may be observed: 18 June, 1529 'The Queen was summoned to the great hall of the Black Friar's convent in London. The King, on a raised platform, sat at the upper end. Some distance away Catherine was given her place. The Cardinals, sitting lower than the King, flanked the royal presence, and near them the Archbishop of Canterbury and the bishops were given position. Doctor Sampson, afterwards [[Bishop of Chichester]], and Doctor [[John Bell]], afterwards [[Bishop of Worcester]], led those who pleaded for the King. Representing the Queen was [[John Fisher]] [[Bishop of Rochester]], and Doctor Standish, a Gray Friar and Bishop of St. Asaph.' Following a series of deliberations, the matter was appealed to Rome, primarily after Catherine's nephew, Charles V, pressured the Pope into recalling Cardinal Campeggio and Catherine was then placed in the care of [[Sir Edmund Bedingfield]] at [[Kimbolton Castle]].
Angered with Cardinal Wolsey for the delay, Henry stripped him of his wealth and power. He was charged with ''[[præmunire]]'' &mdash; undermining the King's authority by agreeing to represent the Pope &mdash; but died on his way to trial. With Cardinal Wolsey fell other powerful ecclesiastics in England; laymen were appointed to offices such as those of [[Lord Chancellor]] and Lord Privy Seal, which were formerly confined to clergymen.
Power then passed to [[Thomas More|Sir Thomas More]] (the new Lord Chancellor), [[Thomas Cranmer]] (the Archbishop of Canterbury), and [[Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex]] (the [[Secretary of State (United Kingdom)|Secretary of State]]). On [[25 January]] [[1533]], Cranmer participated in the wedding of Henry and Anne Boleyn. In May, Cranmer pronounced Henry's marriage to Catherine void, and shortly thereafter declared the marriage to Anne valid. The Princess Mary was deemed illegitimate, and was replaced as heiress-presumptive by Queen Anne's new daughter, the [[Elizabeth I of England|Princess Elizabeth]]. Catherine lost the title "Queen", and became the [[Dowager]] Princess of Wales; Mary was no longer a "Princess", but a mere "Lady". The Dowager Princess of Wales would die of cancer in 1536.
Sir Thomas More, who had left office in 1532, accepted that Parliament could make Anne Queen, but refused to acknowledge its religious authority. Instead, he held that the Pope remained the head of the Church. As a result, he was charged with [[high treason]], and beheaded in 1535. Judging him to be a [[martyr]], the Catholic Church later made him a [[saint]].
==Religious upheaval==
{{anglicanism}}
{{main|English Reformation}}
The Pope responded to these events by [[excommunication|excommunicating]] Henry in July 1533. Considerable religious upheaval followed. Urged by [[Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex|Thomas Cromwell]], Parliament passed several Acts that sealed the breach with Rome in the spring of 1534. The [[Statute in Restraint of Appeals]] prohibited appeals from English ecclesiastical courts to the Pope. It also prevented the Church from making any regulations without the King's consent. The [[Ecclesiastical Appointments Act 1534]] required the clergy to elect Bishops nominated by the Sovereign. The [[Act of Supremacy|Act of Supremacy 1534]] declared that the King was "the only Supreme Head in Earth of the Church of England"; the [[Treasons Act 1534]] made it [[high treason]], punishable by death, to refuse to acknowledge the King as such. The Pope was denied sources of revenue such as [[Peter's Pence]].
Rejecting the decisions of the Pope, Parliament validated the marriage between Henry and Anne with the [[English Act of Succession|Act of Succession 1534]]. Catherine's daughter, the Lady Mary, was declared illegitimate, and Anne's issue were declared next in the line of succession. All adults were required to acknowledge the Act's provisions; those who refused to do so were liable to imprisonment for life. The publisher or printer of any literature alleging that Henry's marriage to Anne was invalid was automatically guilty of high treason, and could be punished by death.
Opposition to Henry's religious policies was quickly suppressed. Several dissenting monks were tortured and executed. Cromwell, for whom was created the post of "[[Vicegerent in Spirituals]]", was authorised to visit monasteries, ostensibly to ensure that they followed royal instructions, but in reality to assess their wealth. In 1536, an Act of Parliament allowed Henry to seize the possessions of the lesser monasteries (those with annual incomes of £200 or less).
In 1536, Queen Anne began to lose Henry's favour. After the Princess Elizabeth's birth, Queen Anne had two pregnancies that ended in either miscarriage or stillbirth. Henry VIII, meanwhile, had begun to turn his attentions to another lady of his court, [[Jane Seymour]]. Perhaps encouraged by Thomas Cromwell, Henry had Anne arrested on charges of using [[witchcraft]] to trap Henry into marrying her, of having adulterous relationships with five other men, of [[incest]] with her brother [[George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford]], of injuring the King and of conspiring to kill him, which amounted to treason; the charges were most likely fabricated. The court trying the case was presided over by Anne's own uncle, [[Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk]]. In May 1536, the Court condemned Anne and her brother to death, either by [[execution by burning|burning at the stake]] or by [[decapitation]], whichever the King pleased. The other four men Queen Anne had allegedly been involved with were to be [[Drawing and quartering|hanged, drawn and quartered]]. Lord Rochford was beheaded soon after the trial ended; the four others implicated had their sentences commuted from hanging, drawing and quartering to decapitation. Anne was also beheaded soon thereafter.
==Birth of a Prince==
Only days after Anne's execution in 1536, Henry married Jane Seymour. The [[English Act of Succession|Act of Succession 1536]] declared Henry's children by Queen Jane to be next in the line of succession, and declared both the Lady Mary and the Lady Elizabeth illegitimate, thus excluding them. The King was granted the power to further determine the line of succession in his [[will (law)|will]]. Jane gave birth to a son, the [[Edward VI of England|Prince Edward]], in 1537, and died two weeks thereafter. After Jane's death, the entire court mourned with Henry for some time. Henry also considered her to be his only "true" wife, being the only one who had given him the male heir he so desperately sought.
==Major Acts==
At about the same time as his marriage to Jane Seymour, Henry granted his assent to the [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542|Laws in Wales Act 1535]], which legally annexed Wales, uniting England and Wales into one nation. The Act provided for the sole use of English in official proceedings in Wales, inconveniencing the numerous speakers of the [[Welsh language]].
Henry continued with his persecution of his religious opponents. In 1536, an uprising known as the [[Pilgrimage of Grace]] broke out in [[Northern England]]. To appease the rebellious Roman Catholics, Henry agreed to allow Parliament to address their concerns. Furthermore, he agreed to grant a general pardon to all those involved. He kept neither promise, and a second uprising occurred in 1537. As a result, the leaders of the rebellion were convicted of treason and executed. In 1538, Henry sanctioned the destruction of shrines to Roman Catholic Saints. In 1539, England's remaining monasteries were all dissolved, and their property transferred to the Crown. As a reward for his role, Thomas Cromwell was created [[Earl of Essex]]. [[Abbot]]s and [[prior]]s lost their seats in the [[House of Lords]]; only archbishops and bishops came to comprise the ecclesiastical element of the body. The [[Lord Spiritual|Lords Spiritual]], as members of the clergy with seats in the House of Lords were known, were for the first time outnumbered by the [[Peerage|Lords Temporal]].
==Later years==
[[Image:Anne_of_Cleves_(Hans_Holbein).jpg|right|thumbnail|Henry was shown the above picture of [[Anne of Cleves]].]]
Henry's only surviving son, the Prince Edward, Duke of Cornwall, was not a healthy child. Therefore, Henry desired to marry once again to ensure that a male could succeed him. Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex suggested [[Anne of Cleves|Anne]], the sister of the Protestant [[Duchy of Cleves|Duke of Cleves]], who was seen as an important ally in case of a Roman Catholic attack on England. [[Hans Holbein the Younger]] was dispatched to Cleves to paint a portrait of Anne for the King. After regarding Holbein's flattering portrayal, and urged by the complimentary description of Anne given by his courtiers, Henry agreed to wed Anne. On Anne's arrival in England, Henry is said to have found her utterly unattractive, privately calling her a "Flanders Mare". She was painted totally without any signs of her pockmarked face. Nevertheless, he married her on [[6 January]] [[1540]].
Soon thereafter, however, Henry desired to end the marriage, not only because of his personal feelings but also because of political considerations. The Duke of Cleves had become engaged in a dispute with the Holy Roman Emperor, with whom Henry had no desire to quarrel. Queen Anne was intelligent enough not to impede Henry's quest for an annulment. She testified that her marriage was never consummated. Henry was said to have come into the room each night and merely kissed his new bride on the forehead before sleeping. The marriage was subsequently annulled on the grounds that Anne had previously been contracted to marry another European nobleman. She received the title of "The King's Sister", and was granted [[Hever Castle]], the former residence of Anne Boleyn's family. The Earl of Es |
i'' by various writers, the earliest was traced to imperial [[Aachen]] and [[Liège (city)|Liège]], although it was assumed for many years that the [[Rome|Roman]] monk [[John Canaparius]] had written the first ''Vita'' in 999. Another famous biographer of Adalbert was st. [[Bruno of Querfurt]] who wrote his hagiography in 1001-1004.
Notably, Bohemian rulers (i.e. Přemyslids) initially refused to ransom st. Adalbert's body from Prussians who murdered him, so it was purchased by Poles. This fact may be explained by st. Adalbert's belonging to Slavniks family; it highlights two clans' conflict strength. Thus Saint Adalbert's bones were stored in [[Gniezno]] and helped [[Boleslaus I of Poland|Boleslaus the Brave]] to improve Poland's position in Europe.
There is an opinion that in 1039 [[Bohemia]]n duke [[Bretislav I]] retrieved the bones of Saint Adalbert from Gniezno and moved them to [[Prague]]. By other version, he took only part of bones, while rest of St. Adalbert's relics were hidden by Poles. Today Saint Adalbert has two graves, and which bones are authentic is still not clear. For example, the saint has two skulls - one in Prague, other in Gniezno (stolen in 1923).
In June, 1997 was a thousandth anniversary of st. Adalbert's martyrdom. It was commemorated in Poland, Germany, Czechia, Russia and other countries. Representatives of Catholic, Greek Orthodox, and Evangelical churches pilgrimaged to Gniezno, to the saint's tomb. [[John Paul II]] visited Gniezno and held a ceremonial divine service which heads of seven European states and about a million of believers took part in. In [[Kaliningrad Oblast]], near Beregovoe village (former Tenkitten), where Adalbert's death hypothetically took place, a ten-meter cross was established.
==See also==
* [[Congress of Gniezno]]
* [[Gniezno Doors]]
==External links==
*[http://wwwtest.library.ucla.edu/libraries/mgi/maps/blaeu/prvssia.jpg Map of Prussia from c 1660 with locations]
[[Category:956 births]]
[[Category:997 deaths]]
[[Category:Christian martyrs]]
[[Category:History of Hungary]]
[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic bishops]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic missionaries]]
[[Category:History of Prussia]]
[[Category:religion in Prague]]
[[cs:Svatý Vojtěch]]
[[de:Adalbert von Prag]]
[[eo:Vojtěch]]
[[fr:Adalbert de Prague]]
[[gl:Adalberto de Praga]]
[[hu:Szent Adalbert]]
[[nl:Adalbert van Praag]]
[[pl:Wojciech Sławnikowic]]
[[ru:Адальберт Пражский]]
[[uk:Адальберт Празький]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alphege</title>
<id>2110</id>
<revision>
<id>38085296</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-04T01:53:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Staffelde</username>
<id>385596</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>edit cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Saint Alphege''' '''(Ælfheah)''' ([[954]] - [[April 19]] [[1012]]), [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], came of a noble family, but in early life gave up everything to devote himself to his faith.
Having assumed the monastic habit in the monastery of [[Deerhurst]], he passed thence to [[Bath]], where he became an anchorite and ultimately [[abbot]], distinguishing himself by his piety and the austerity of his life. In [[984]] he
was appointed through [[Dunstan]]'s influence to the [[Bishop of Winchester|bishopric of Winchester]], and in 1006 he succeeded [[Aelfric]] as Archbishop of Canterbury.
At the sack of Canterbury by the [[Denmark|Danes]] in [[1011]] Ælfheah was captured and kept in prison for seven months. Refusing to pay a ransom, he was murdered at [[Greenwich, London]] on April 19, [[1012]] ([[St Alfege's Church]] reputedly marks the place he died).
An account of his death appears in The [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]: <blockquote>. . . for there was wine brought them from the south. Then took they the bishop . . . on the eve of the Sunday after Easter . . . They overwhelmed him with bones and horns of oxen; and one of them smote him with an axe-iron on the head; so that he sunk downwards with the blow; and his holy blood fell on the earth, whilst his sacred soul was sent to the realm of God.</blockquote>
Some sources record the final blow, with the back of an axe, being dealt by one 'Thrum' as an act of kindness by a Christian convert.
He was buried in [[St Paul's Cathedral|St Paul's]], whence his body was removed by [[Canute the Great|Canute]] to Canterbury with all the ceremony of a great act of state in [[1023]]. Alphege was canonised in [[1078]]. An incised paving slab to the north of the present High Altar of [[Canterbury Cathedral]] marks the place where the mediaeval shrine is believed to have stood.
===Dedications===
Dedications include: St. Alphege the Martyr, Canterbury (now used as an urban studies centre), [[St Alfege's Church]], Greenwich, the twin churches of St. Alphege Whitstable and St. Alphege Seasalter (chancel only surviving) and St Alphege in [[Solihull]], the main town of the [[Metropolitan Borough of Solihull]].
===Feast day===
Feast Day: April 19th.
==Accounts==
''Lives of St. Alphege'' in prose - which survives - and in verse were written by command of [[Lanfranc]] by the Canterbury monk [[Osborn]] (d. c. [[1090]]), who says that his account of the solemn translation to Canterbury in 1023 was received
from the dean, Godric, one of Alphege's own scholars.
==External links==
*[http://www.engl.virginia.edu/OE/OEA/pdf/aelfheah.pdf The Martyrdom of Ælfheah, from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05394a.htm Article in the Catholic Encyclopedia]
==References==
*{{1911}}
<center>
{| border="2"
|-
| width="30%" align="center" | Preceded by:<br />
'''[[Aelfric]]'''
| width="40%" align="center" | '''[[Archbishop of Canterbury]]'''
| width="30%" align="center" | Followed by:<br />
'''[[Lyfing, Archbishop of Canterbury|Lyfing]]'''
|}
</center>
[[Category:1012 deaths|Alphege]]
[[Category:954 births|Alphege]]
[[Category:Archbishops of Canterbury]]
[[Category:Anglo-Saxon saints]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Axiom of Regularity</title>
<id>2111</id>
<revision>
<id>15900551</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Axiom_of_regularity]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Associative algebra</title>
<id>2112</id>
<revision>
<id>42072217</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:03:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mazi</username>
<id>84116</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Examples */ - added a fullstop</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about a particular kind of [[vector space]]. For other uses of the term "algebra" see [[algebra (disambiguation)]].''
In [[mathematics]], an '''associative algebra''' is a [[vector space]] (or more generally, a [[module (mathematics)|module]]) which also allows the multiplication of vectors in a [[distributivity|distributive]] and [[associativity|associative]] manner. They are thus special [[algebra over a field|algebras]].
== Definition ==
An associative algebra ''A'' over a [[field (mathematics)|field]] ''K'' is defined to be a vector space over ''K'' together with a ''K''-[[bilinear operator|bilinear multiplication]] ''A'' x ''A'' &rarr; ''A'' (where the image of (''x'',''y'') is written as ''xy'') such that the associative law holds:
* (''x y'') ''z'' = ''x'' (''y z'') for all ''x'', ''y'' and ''z'' in ''A''.
The bilinearity of the multiplication can be expressed as
* (''x'' + ''y'') ''z'' = ''x z'' + ''y z'' &nbsp;&nbsp; for all ''x'', ''y'', ''z'' in ''A'',
* ''x'' (''y'' + ''z'') = ''x y'' + ''x z'' &nbsp;&nbsp; for all ''x'', ''y'', ''z'' in ''A'',
* ''a'' (''x y'') = (''a'' ''x'') ''y'' = ''x'' (''a'' ''y'') &nbsp;&nbsp; for all ''x'', ''y'' in ''A'' and ''a'' in ''K''.
If ''A'' contains an identity element, i.e. an element 1 such that 1''x'' = ''x''1 = ''x'' for all ''x'' in ''A'', then we call ''A'' an ''associative algebra with one'' or a '''[[unital]]''' (or '''unitary''') '''associative algebra'''.
Such an algebra is a [[ring (algebra)|ring]], and contains all elements ''a'' of the field ''K'' by identification with ''a''1.
The preceding definition generalizes without any change to an algebra over a [[commutative ring]] ''K'' (except that a ''K''-linear space is then called a [[module (mathematics)|module]] and not a vector space). See [[algebra (ring theory)]] for more.
The ''dimension'' of the associative algebra ''A'' over the field ''K'' is its [[Hamel dimension|dimension]] as a ''K''-vector space.
== Examples ==
* The square ''n''-by-''n'' [[matrix_(mathematics)|matrices]] with entries from the field ''K'' form a unitary associative algebra over ''K''.
* The [[complex number|complex numbers]] form a 2-dimensional unitary associative algebra over the [[real number|real numbers]].
* The [[quaternions]] form a 4-dimensional unitary associative algebra over the reals (but not an algebra over the complex numbers, since complex numbers don't commute with quaternions).
* The [[polynomial|polynomials]] with real coefficients form a unitary associative algebra over the reals.
* Given any [[Banach space]] ''X'', the [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] [[linear operator|linear operators]] ''A'' : ''X'' &rarr; ''X'' form a unitary associative algebra (using composition of operators as multiplication); this is in fact a [[Banach algebra]].
* Given any [[topology|topological space]] ''X'', the continuous real- (or complex-) valued functions on ''X'' form a real (or complex) unitary associative algebra; here we add and multiply functions p |
ts of Charlemagne continued to be crowned in Rome through the 9th century. The increasing divisions within the Frankish lands, however, led to a suspension of the office.
=====Holy Roman Emperors=====
[[Image:Kronung Heinrich II.jpg|thumb|220px|Coronation of the Holy Roman Emperor (and later ''Saint'') [[Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry II]]. [[Christ]] is pictured as performing the actual coronation, the highly symbolical sword ("[[Reichsschwert]]") and [[Holy Lance]] are handed by the saints [[Ulrich of Augsburg|Ulrich]] († 973) and [[Emmeram]] († 652) - Henry had actually been crowned Emperor by [[Pope Benedict VIII]] in [[1014]].]]
In [[962]], [[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto I]], King of the Eastern Franks (or [[Germany]]) was again crowned Emperor by the Pope. His successors became known as [[Holy Roman Emperor]]s. The [[Holy Roman Empire]], such as it was, consisted of the Kingdoms of [[List of German monarchs|Germany]], [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]], and [[King of Burgundy|Burgundy]].
After the 13th century and the fall of the [[Hohenstaufen]] dynasty, the universalistic aspirations of the Emperors became increasingly theoretical, and their control over Italy, still seen as the locus of the proper empire, became increasingly tenuous. Rather than being hereditary, emperors were chosen by the [[prince-elector]]s, in a process codified by the [[Golden Bull of 1356]].
Coronations in Rome became rarer and rarer, until in [[1508]], King [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]], after receiving permission from the pope, declared himself Emperor-Elect without having been crowned in Rome. Although Maximilian's grandson and successor, [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], was crowned in [[Bologna]] in [[1529]] by the Pope, he was the last, and thereafter the position of Holy Roman Emperor was a wholly German post until the Empire's dissolution in [[August 6]], [[1806]].
Even in Germany itself, real control was increasingly tenuous, as various local princes increased their power, so that the [[Habsburg]] emperors who ruled almost continuously from [[1438]] until the end of the empire derived their power much more from their hereditary lands in the south-eastern part of the monarchy than from their position as emperor. As religious differences added to the tensions, compromise was needed ([[Peace of Augsburg]], [[1555]]). The [[Habsburg dynasty]] attempted to reassert authority over the Empire in the [[Thirty Years War]], which ended with the [[Peace of Westphalia]] ([[1648]]) that recognized princes sort of sovereign instead of dependents.
The impotence of the Emperors' position became most nakedly apparent during the brief reign of [[Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles VII]] from [[1742]] to [[1745]]. As [[Duke of Bavaria]], Charles was the only non-Habsburg emperor for the last three hundred fifty years of the empire's existence, and his utter inability even to protect his own hereditary lands from the forces of his enemy, [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]], the Habsburg heiress, showed how empty the position of Holy Roman Emperor had become.
The conquests of the French revolutionary armies in the 1790s made the Empire itself untenable, so that Emperor [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis II]] in [[1804]] took the title of [[Emperor of Austria]] (see below), and ultimately, allowed the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire a few years later.
=====Overview=====
{{Epochs of Roman Emperors}}
=====Heirs of the Holy Roman Empire=====
======Austria======
:''see: [[Emperor of Austria]]''
On [[11 August ]], [[1804]] anticipating the eventual collapse of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] at the behest of Napoleon I, [[Francis II of the Holy Roman Empire]] assumed the additional title of '''Emperor of Austria''' (as Francis I thereof). The precaution was a wise one, because two years later on [[August 6]] [[1806]] he was obliged to proclaim the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire.
Emperor [[Karl of Austria]], the last ruling hereditary monarch in that country, "relinquished every participation in the administration of the State" on [[November 11]] [[1918]].
======Germany======
Following victory after the [[Franco-Prussian war]] and the founding of the [[German Empire]], the [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussian]] king had himself crowned '''German Emperor''' as [[Wilhelm I of Germany|Wilhelm I]] on [[January 18]] [[1871]], as part of the competition with the Emperor of Austria (whose Habsburg dynasty had de facto been hereditary in the Holy Roman Empire for centuries) for dominance in the German-speaking lands. With defeats in [[World War I]] and [[German Revolution|revolution]] breaking out, [[Wilhelm II of Germany|Emperor Wilhelm II]] abdicated on [[9 November]] [[1918]] and a [[Weimar Republic|republic]] was established.
=====Other Catholic & Anglican Emperors=====
======France======
[[Image:Jacques-Louis David 006.jpg|thumb|250px|One of the most notorious Imperial coronation ceremonies was that of Napoleon, crowning himself Emperor in the presence of [[Pope Pius VII]] (who had blessed the [[regalia]]), at the [[Notre Dame de Paris|Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris]].<br>The painting by [[Jacques-Louis David|David]] commemorating the event is equally famous: the gothic cathedral restyled ''[[Empire (style)|style Empire]]'', supervised by the [[Letizia Ramolino|mother of the Emperor]] on the balcony (a fictional addition, while she had not been present at the ceremony), the pope positioned near the altar, Napoleon proceeds to crown his then wife, [[Joséphine de Beauharnais]] as Empress.]]
[[Napoléon Bonaparte]] who was already First Consul of the French Republic (''Premier Consul de la République française'') for life, declared himself '''[[Emperor of the French]]''' (''Empereur des Français'') on [[May 18]], [[1804]]. Despite being ruled by an emperor, it continued to be the [[French First Republic|French Republic]] (''République Française'') until [[1808]], when it was renamed the [[First French Empire|French Empire]] (''Empire Français'').
Napoleon relinquished the title of Emperor of the French on [[6 April]] and again on [[April 11]], [[1814]], but was allowed to style himself '''Emperor of [[Elba]],''' the island of his first exile; see bleow.
Napoleon's infant son, [[Napoleon II]], was recognized by the Council of Peers, as Emperor from the moment of his father's abdication, and theoretically reigned as "Emperor" for fifteen days, [[June 22]] to [[July 7]] of 1815.
*His nephew [[Napoleon III of France|Napoleon III]] resurrected the title on [[December 2]], [[1852]] after establishing the [[Second French Empire]] in a presidential [[coup]], be it as a constitutional Monarch, failed , and lost it when he was deposed on [[September 4]], [[1870]] by the [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]]. It has not been used in [[France]] since then.
======Elba======
Since [[3 May]] [[1814]], the Sovereign Principality of [[Elba]] (which he had created, as an empty title, on [[18 March]] [[1805]], naming [[Felice Baciocchi]], husband of his sister Elisa Bonaparte, nominal prince of Elba; all powers rested with French civil Commissioners and Military Commanders), in the Tyrhenean Sea, was created a miniature non-hereditary Monarchy under the exiled French Emperor Napoléon I, who was allowed, by the very treaty of Fontainebleau with the major Allied powers on [[27 April]], which accomplished his abdication for himself and his posterity, to further enjoy, for life, the imperial title and other formal trappings of a now nominal emperorship (the islands were ''not'' restyled an empire). It included Capraja, Gorgona, and Montecristo islands, and from June 1814, Pianosa Island.
But on [[26 February]] [[1815]], the ever ambitious Napoléon abandoned Elba for France, beginning the [[Hundred Days|'Cent jours']], reviving his French Empire for a mere 'Hundred Days'; as this broke the terms of his generous 'golden cage parol', the Allies declared an end to Napoleon's sovereignty over Elba on [[25 March]] [[1815]], and on [[31 March]] [[1815]] Elba was ceded to the restored [[grand-duchy of Tuscany]] by the Congress of Vienna. After this attempted restoration ending in his final defeat, Bonaparte was stripped of every imperial privilige during his second exile, to the much less forgiving Atlantic Isle of [[St. Helena]], to die miserably.
======Spain======
King [[Sancho III of Navarre]] declared himself emperor of Spain in [[1034]]. His son, [[Ferdinand I of Castile]] also took the title in [[1039]]. Ferdinand's son, [[Alfonso VI of Castile]] took the title in [[1077]]. Alfonso VI's grandson, [[Alfonso VII of Castile|Alfonso VII]] was the only one who actually had an imperial coronation in [[1135]]. The title was not exactly hereditary but self proclamations by those that had, wholly or partially, united Christian (northern) Spain often at the expense of killing rival siblings. The popes and Holy Roman emperors protested at the usage of the imperial title as a usurpation of leadership in western Christendom. After Alfonso VII's death in [[1157]], the title was abandoned.
======English/British Imperium, Emperors, and Empresses======
In the late [[3rd century]], by the end of the epoch of the ''barracks emperors'' in Rome, there were two [[List of Roman Emperors#Britannic Empire 286 to 297|Britannic Emperors]], reigning for about a decade.
*England
King [[William I of England]] thought it important enough to request and get a Papal blessing for his [[Norman Conquest of England|conquest]] of England. Throughout the high Middle Ages the English kings recognised the supremacy of the Pope in matters spiritual. For example, when [[Thomas à Becket]] was murdered, King [[Henry II of England]] was forced to recognise that, although he ruled temporal matters, spiritual matters came under the authority of the Church in Rome.
This changed with the dispute between [[Henry |
Aspirated {{IPA|/ d̪ /}}
|&#2344; (n)<br>{{IPA|/ nə /}}; English: '''n'''ame
|-align="center"
|[[Labial]]
|&#2346; (p)<br>{{IPA|/ pə /}}; English: s'''p'''in
|&#2347; (ph)<br>{{IPA|/ p<sup>h</sup>ə /}}; English: '''p'''it
|&#2348; (b)<br>{{IPA|/ bə /}}; English: '''b'''one
|&#2349; (bh)<br>{{IPA|/ b<sup>ɦ</sup>ə /}}; Aspirated / b /
|&#2350; (m)<br>{{IPA|/ mə /}}; English: '''m'''ine
|-
|}
{|class="wikitable"
|-bgcolor="#EFEFEF"
|align="center" colspan="5"|'''Non-Plosives/Sonorants'''
|-
!
![[Palatal]]
![[Retroflex]]
![[Dental]]/<br>[[Alveolar]]
![[Velar]]/<br>[[Glottal]]
|-align="center"
|[[Approximant]]
|&#2351; (y)<br>{{IPA|/ jə /}}; English: '''y'''ou
|&#2352; (r)<br>{{IPA|/ rə /}}; American Eng: tea'''r'''ing
|&#2354; (l)<br>{{IPA|/ lə /}}; English: '''l'''ove
|&#2357; (v)<br>{{IPA|/ ʋə /}}; English: '''v'''ase
|-align="center"
|[[Sibilant]]/<br>[[Fricative]]
|&#2358; (ś)<br>{{IPA|/ ʃə /}}; English: '''sh'''ip
|&#2359; (ṣ)<br>{{IPA|/ ʂə /}}; Retroflex form of {{IPA|/ ʃ /}}
|&#2360; (s)<br>{{IPA|/ sə /}}; English: '''s'''ame
|&#2361; (h)<br>{{IPA|/ ɦə /}}; ≈English '''h'''ome
|-
|}
At the end of the traditional table of alphabets, three cosonantal clusters are also added: &#2325;&#2381;&#2359; {{IPA|/kʃə/}} (in Hindi), &#2340;&#2381;&#2352; {{IPA|/t̪rə/}} and &#2332;&#2381;&#2334; {{IPA|/gjə/}} (in Hindi). Other than these, sounds borrowed from the other languages like Persian and Arabic are written with a dot (''bindu'' or ''nukta'') beneath the nearest approximate alphabet. They are not included in the traditional listing. Many native Hindi speakers, especially those who come from rural backgrounds and do not speak really good khariboli or Urdu, confused these sounds (except {{IPA|/ɽ/ and /ɽ<sup>ɦ</sup>/}}) and pronounce them as the nearest equivalents in Sanskritized Hindi (listed in column 4). These are:
{|border="2"
|align="center" colspan="4"|'''Extra sounds'''
|-
!Symbol
!IPA Pronunciation and name
!English (etc.) equiv.
!Confused with:
|-align="center"
|&#2392;
|{{IPA|/ qə /}} [[voiceless uvular plosive]]
|Arabic: '''Q'''ur'an
|/ k /
|-align="center"
|&#2398;
|{{IPA|/ fə /}} [[voiceless labiodental fricative]]
|English: '''f'''un
|{{IPA|/ p<sup>h</sup> /}}
|-align="center"
|&#2393;
|{{IPA|/ xə /}} [[voiceless velar fricative]]
|German: do'''ch'''
|{{IPA|/ k<sup>h</sup> /}}
|-align="center"
|&#2394;
|{{IPA|/ ʁə /}} [[voiced velar fricative]]
|Persian: Mu'''gh'''al
|/ g /
|-align="center"
|&#2395;
|{{IPA|/ zə /}} [[voiced alveolar fricative]]
|English: '''z'''oo
|{{IPA|/ ɟ / ''or'' / dʒ /}}
|-align="center"
|&#2396;
|{{IPA|/ ɽə /}} [[unaspirated]] [[retroflex flap]]
|<none>
|
|-align="center"
|&#2397;
|{{IPA|/ ɽ<sup>ɦ</sup>ə /}} [[aspirated]] [[retroflex flap]]
|<none>
|
|-
|}
Additional points:
*The "r" of Sanskrit is as in Standard American English. In modern Sanskrit pronunciation, the vowel "ṛ" is pronounced as / ri /. In Hindi, / r / is as pronounced in Spanish pe'''rr'''o.
*There is no retroflex flap in Sanskrit. In modern Hindi and other Indo-Aryan languages, they have sprung up as the allophonic flap variants of Sanskrit's simple voiced retroflex plosives. The / ɳ / (ṇ or ण) in Sanskrit is not a flap but a simple nasal stop, although it is pronounced by modern pundits while chanting as a nasal variant of the voiced retroflex flap. Hindi has two proper retroflex flaps.
*Aspiration is actually a puff of breath that may follow a plosive consonant. English speakers could try pronouncing the words "kite", "take", "chip" and "pat" with a greater-than-usual puff of breath after the first consonant. The corresponding unaspirated plosives must be pronounced with no significant puff of breath at all.
*For practicing the voiced aspirates, one could try: "drag him", "said him", "enrage him", "grab him". The voiced aspirated plosives (also called as murmur stops) are extremely important and frequent in Sanskrit. Sanskrit (and its daughters) is the only language that has faithfully preserved these original Proto-Indo-European stops.
*The dental consonants in Sanskrit are as in Spanish or French. They can be pronounced by pronouncing / t / and / d / (of English) by pressing the tip of the tongue against the back of the teeth rather than against the back of the alveolar ridge as done by English speakers. The normal "t" and "d" in IAST transliteration are the dental stops; and they occur much, much more frequently than the retroflex stops.
*The retroflex consonants are the most difficult to pronounce. They are pronounced by curling the tongue such that its tip touches the roof of the mouth, like how the Americans pronounce their "r". The retroflex flaps are pronounced in a similar way, by bringing the tongue's tip to the roof of the mouth and giving it a sharp flap downwards. However, bringing the tip of the tongue a bit above the normal alveolar ridge would also work fine. The normal alveolar plosives of English / t / and / d / do not exist as such in Sanskrit/Hindi.
*The palatal plosives of Sanskrit/Hindi do not have a sharp frictional sound following them, as what happend in English '''ch'''ips and '''j'''am. These are more of pure plosives than affricates.
*Sanskrit/Hindi has no / v /. Its nearest equivalent is / ʋ /, which is very close to / v /, but does not a friction or buzzing sound associated with it. But in consonant clusters, this may allophonically change to / w /.
*The palatal sibilant of Sanskrit (IAST: ś) is very close to like the English ''sh'' in '''sh'''ip (although the Sanskrit phoneme is the voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative / ɕ /) while the English phoneme is the voiceless postalveolar fricative / ʃ / with lip rounding). Today, speakers of Sanskrit vary the palatal fricative from / ɕ / to / ʃ /. In Hindi, it is always pronounced as in '''sh'''ip.
*The retroflex sibilant / ʂ / is pronounced like / ʃ /, but with the tongue curled upwards towards the roof of the mouth. In Mādhyandini branch of Yajurveda, this phoneme is allowed to be pronounced at certain places as / kh /. In Hindi, this is pronounced as the English ''sh'' in '''sh'''ip.
*The Sanskrit / ɦ / is a voiced allophone of the normal h. In Hindi, it is pronounced as in '''h'''ome.
Another consonant is <span style="font-size:14pt;">ळ</span> is not used in [[Hindi language|Hindi]]. It is retroflex, and used in [[Vedic Sanskrit]], and [[Marathi language|Marathi]].
==== [[Ligature (typography)|Ligatures]] ====
Consonant clusters of two or more phonemes are realized by combining the aksharas into ligatures. Typically, the preceding akshara loses its vertical stroke and is put in direct contact with the succeeding one. In cases of aksharas that do not have vertical strokes in their independent form, the following aksharas are usually placed underneath the preceding one. In some cases, the ligatures take forms not readily recognizable as composed of the individual aksharas (e.g. &lt;jñ&gt;). Consonant clusters involving &lt;r&gt; are treated as a special case: preceding &lt;r-&gt; is realized as a right-facing hook above the following akshara, and following &lt;-r&gt; appears as a slanted stroke attached to the vertical stroke of the preceding akshara. Similarly for a cluster /XYZa/, both X and Y would be "halved". There are many variants for this consonant cluster writing in devanagari script. The most common system is shown below for the traditional table. Here the second vowel is taken to be /n/, followed by the [[schwa]].
{|border="2"
|-bgcolor="#EFEFEF"
|-align="center"
|'''ka-group'''||&#2325;&#2381;&#2344; <br>{{IPA|/ knə /}} || &#2326;&#2381;&#2344; <br>{{IPA|/ k<sup>h</sup>nə /}} ||&#2327;&#2381;&#2344; <br>{{IPA|/ gnə /}} ||&#2328;&#2381;&#2344; <br>{{IPA|/ g<sup>ɦ</sup>nə /}} ||&#2329;&#2381;&#2344; <br>{{IPA|/ ŋnə /}}
|-align="center"
|'''cha-group'''||&#2330;&#2381;&#2344; <br>{{IPA|/ cnə /}} ||&#2331;&#2381;&#2344; <br>{{IPA|/ c<sup>h</sup>nə /}} ||&#2332;&#2381;&#2344; <br>{{IPA|/ ɟnə/ }} ||&#2333;&#2381;&#2344; <br>{{IPA|/ ɟ<sup>ɦ</sup>nə /}} ||&#2334;&#2381;&#2344; <br>{{IPA|/ ɲnə /}}
|-align="center"
|'''Ta-group'''||&#2335;&#2381;&#2344; <br>{{IPA|/ ʈnə /}} ||&#2336;&#2381;&#2344; <br>{{IPA|/ ʈ<sup>h</sup>nə /}} ||&#2337;&#2381;&#2344; <br>{{IPA|/ ɖnə /}} ||&#2338;&#2381;&#2344; <br>{{IPA|/ ɖ<sup>ɦ</sup>nə /}} ||&#2339;&#2381;&#2344; <br>{{IPA|/ ɳnə /}}
|-align="center"
|'''ta-group'''||&#2340;&#2381;&#2344; <br>{{IPA|/ t̪nə /}} ||&#2341;&#2381;&#2344; <br>{{IPA|/ t̪<sup>h</sup>nə /}} ||&#2342;&#2381;&#2344; <br>{{IPA|/ d̪nə /}} ||&#2343;&#2381;&#2344; <br>{{IPA|/ d̪<sup>ɦ</sup>nə /}} ||&#2344;&#2381;&#2344; <br>{{IPA|/ nnə /}}
|-align="center"
|'''pa-group'''||&#2346;&#2381;&#2344; <br>{{IPA|/ pnə /}} ||&#2347;&#2381;&#2344; <br>{{IPA|/ p<sup>h</sup>nə /}} ||&#2348;&#2381;&a |
=United Nations| publishyear=1983| title=International Conference on the Question of Palestine—The Status of Jerusalem | format=html | work=United Nations Information System on the Question of Palestine | url=http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/9a798adbf322aff38525617b006d88d7/dd53e072b16b507485257003004fe1fa!OpenDocument | date=February 26 | year=2006}}
== See also ==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[List of Israelis]]
* [[List of cities in Israel|Cities in Israel]]
* [[Communications in Israel]]
* [[Transportation in Israel]]
* [[Military of Israel]]
* [[Foreign relations of Israel]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Israeli-occupied territories]]
* [[Israel and the United Nations]]
* [[Ha-Mossad le-Modiin ule-Tafkidim Meyuhadim]] (aka Mossad)
* [[Violence against Israelis]]
* [[List of universities in Israel]]
* [[Tel-Aviv Stock Exchange]]
{{col-end}}
== Annotated list of Israeli media sources ==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
'''General references to the Israeli media:'''
*[http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/facts%20about%20israel/culture/the%20printed%20media-%20israel-s%20newspapers The Printed Media: Israel's Newspapers] Summary from the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs
*[[List of Israeli newspapers]]
'''English-language periodicals:'''
*''[[Azure (journal)|Azure]]'' [http://www.azure.co.il/] English edition of the quarterly journal offering essays and criticism on Israeli and Jewish public policy, culture and philosophy
*''[[Globes]]'' [http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/nodeView.asp?fid=942] English-language website of Israel's business and technology daily
*''[[Haaretz|Ha'Aretz]]'' [http://www.haaretz.com/] Online English edition of the relatively highbrow Hebrew-language newspaper, Haaretz has a liberal editorial stance similar to that of ''[[The Guardian]]''.
*''[[IsraelInsider]]'' [http://www.israelinsider.com/] - Independent, right wing outlet. Target audience is American Jewry.
*''[[Jerusalem Newswire]]'' [http://www.jnewswire.com/ ] Independent, right-wing Christian-run news outlet
*''[[The Jerusalem Post]]'' [http://www.jpost.com/] Israel's oldest English-language newspaper, considered to have a right-of-center editorial slant
*''[[Jerusalem Report]]'' [http://www.jrep.com/] Left-of-center English [[weekly newspaper]]
*''[[YNetNews]]'' [http://www.ynetnews.com/] English-language website of Israel's largest newspaper ''[[Yedioth Ahronoth]]''
'''Hebrew-language periodicals:'''
*''[[Globes]]'' [http://www.globes.co.il/ ] business daily
*''[[Haaretz|Ha'Aretz]]'' [http://www.haaretz.co.il/] Relatively highbrow Israeli newspaper with a liberal editorial stance similar to that of ''[[The Guardian]]''
*''[[Hamodia]]'' Daily newspaper serving Israel's [[Haredi]] community. English editions are also published in the [[United States|U.S.]] and the [[United Kingdom|U.K.]] and serve local Jewish Orthodox communities in those countries. ''Hamodia'' is not available online.
*''[[Hazofe]]'' [http://www.hazofe.co.il/] daily newspaper with a [[religious Zionist movement|religious Zionist]] point of view
*''[[Maariv]]'' [http://www.NRG.co.il/] Second largest Israeli newspaper, centrist.
{{col-2}}
'''Hebrew-language periodicals (continued):'''
*''[[Makor Rishon]]'' [http://www.makorrishon.net/] Conservative or Rightwing [[weekly newspaper]]
*''[[Azure (journal)|Tchelet]]'' [http://www.tchelet.org.il/] Hebrew edition of ''Azure'', a quarterly journal covering Israeli public policy
*''[[Yated Ne'eman]]'' Daily newspaper serving the [[Haredi]] community
*''[[Yedioth Ahronoth]]'' [http://www.ynet.co.il/] Israel's largest newspaper, centrist
'''German-language periodicals:'''
* ''[[Israel Nachrichten]]'' [http://www.imh-deutschland.de/service/index.php?rubrik=0010&id=0038] The German-language daily from Tel Aviv for the 100,000 German-speaking jews in Israel
'''Arabic-language periodicals:'''
*''Al-Ittihad'' Arabic-language daily newspaper
<!-- '''Russian-language periodicals:''' -->
'''Israeli broadcast media:'''
*[http://www.iba.org.il/ Israel Broadcasting Authority], TV News in Hebrew, some English.
*[http://www.radioisrael.com/ Radio Israel]
*[http://www.israelnationalnews.com/ Arutz Sheva] news site representing the settler community, right-wing religious (English)
*[http://www.israelradio.org/ Kol Israel - Voice of Israel] Also produced by the IBA. In Hebrew, French, English, Spanish, Ladino, Russian, Persian, Yiddish, etc.
* [http://www.isracast.com/ IsraCast] - Independent, multimedia broadcast and distribution network that focuses on Israeli foreign affairs and defense issues (English)
'''Notable Internet sources:'''
*[[DailyAlert]] [http://www.dailyalert.org/] daily digest of Israeli and world media reports on Israel and the Middle East prepared by the [[Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs]] for the [[Conference of Presidents of Major Jewish Organizations]]
*[[IsraPundit]][http://israpundit.com]Pro-Israel news and views from right-wing perspective.
*[[Indymedia]] Israel [http://israel.indymedia.org/], primarily left-wing and anti-zionist, mostly in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]
'''Relevant non-Israeli media:'''
*[[Electronic Intifada]] [http://electronicintifada.net/], website offering news and commentary on the Israeli-Palestinian conflict from a Palestinian perspective
*[[Jewish Telegraphic Agency]] [http://www.jta.org/], New York-based [[news agency]] covering worldwide Jewish news, centrist (English)
{{col-end}}
== External links ==
{{portal}}
{{sisterlinks|Israel}}
* {{wikitravel}}
* [http://www.telavivguide.net Tel Aviv travel guide with information about sightseeing and activities in and around Tel Aviv]
<h3>General information<h3>
*[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761575008/Israel_(country).html#s1 Encarta Encyclopedia entry on Israel]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/803257.stm BBC News Country Profile - ''Israel and Palestinian Territories'']
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/israel.html Jewish Virtual Library Israel articles], including information on history, economics, and military issues. From the American-Israel Cooperative Enterprise, an Israel-advocacy group.
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/is.html CIA World Factbook - ''Israel'']
* [http://www.state.gov/p/nea/ci/israel/ US State Department - ''Israel''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
*[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/mideast/cuvlm/Israel.html Columbia University Libraries - ''Israel''] directory category of the WWW-VL
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Middle_East/Israel/ Open Directory Project - ''Israel''] directory category
*[http://www.sabranet.com SABRAnet - Where Israel comes alive on the Internet]
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Israel/ Yahoo! - ''Israel''] directory category
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
<h3>Government<h3>
*[http://www.gov.il/FirstGov/english Government Portal of Israel]
*[http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Israel]
*[http://www.president.gov.il/defaults/default_en.asp The President of the state of Israel]
*[http://www.pmo.gov.il/PMOEng Prime Minister's Office]
*[http://www.cbs.gov.il/engindex.htm Bureau of Statistics]
*[http://www.idf.il/ Israel Defence Force site]
*[http://www.seamzone.mod.gov.il/pages/eng/purpose.htm Israel Security Fence Project]
*[http://www.isayeret.com isayeret.com - The Israeli Special Forces Database]
{{col-2}}
<h3>The Knesset (Parliament)<h3>
*[http://www.knesset.gov.il/ The Knesset (Parliament)]
<h3>Legislation and the Legal System<h3>
*[http://62.90.71.124/eng/home/index.html The Courts]
*[http://www.knesset.gov.il/description/eng/eng_mimshal_yesod1.htm Basic Laws], legal code of Israel
*[http://www.israelinsurancelaw.com/ Israeli Commercial, Banking, Tort and Insurance Laws - in English]
{{col-end}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
<h3>History<h3>
''Please see main article [[History of Israel]]''
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/78601.stm The birth of Israel] from the BBC
*[http://www.imj.org.il/ Israel Museum, Jerusalem]
*[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2002/7/Israel-s%20Foreign%20Relations-%20Selected%20Documents Historical documents] from the Israeli Ministry of Public Affairs
*[http://www.isracast.com/territories.asp Authentic historical Recordings] - UN Partition Vote of 1947, Arab Rejection, "First" Hatikva, David Ben-Gurion - On Independence, Arab Countdown to Six Day War, Moshe Dayan - Six Day War, Gen. Ariel Sharon - "Move forward!", Nasser's Infamous Phonecall, Gen. Yitzhak Rabin - Six Day War, Abba Eban's "Stalingrad" Speech
{{col-2}}
<h3>Economy, science, and technology<h3>
*[http://www.standardpoor.co.il/index.html Standard and Poor's Israel Economic Information]
*[http://duns100.dundb.co.il/ DUNS 100], the hundred largest companies in Israel
*[http://www.science.co.il/ Israel Science and Technology Homepage]
*[http://www.israelinsurancelaw.com/ Translation of Israeli Laws to English]
*[http://www.isracast.com/tech.asp IsraCast: Science and Technology News From Israel] - Updated Weekly (English)
*[http://www.worldwide-tax.com/israel/indexisrael.asp Israel economy and business parameters] Israel key Data on Israeli Taxes, Income Tax, Tax Rates in Israel.
{{col-end}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
<h3>Foreign relations and the current conflicts<h3>
''For links on the Arab-Israeli conflict and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, see [[Arab-Israeli conflict#External links|Arab-Israeli Conflict: External Links]]''
*[http://www.mfa.gov.il Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
*[http://www.israel21c.com Israel21c: A focus beyond the conflict]
*[http://www.saag.org/papers2/paper131.html India-Israeli Relations: The Imperatives for Enhanced Strategic Cooperation]
*[http://mondediplo.com/focus/mideast/r1276 Le Monde diplomatique report on EU-Israeli relations]
*[http://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/israel/intro/ European Union's relations wi |
''First Light'' ([[1987]]). An eminent astrophysicist and her brother, a small-town Buick salesman, discover how they grew so far apart and the bonds of love that still keep them together.
*''Shadowplay'' ([[1993]]). As his wife does gymnastics and magic tricks, his crazy mother invents her own vocabulary, and his aunt writes her own version of the Bible, Five Oaks Assistant City Manager Wyatt Palmer tries to live a normal life and nearly succeeds, but...
*''The Feast of Love'' ([[2000]]), a sumptuously reimagined ''Midsummer Night's Dream'', comic, poignant, and sexy by turns. Nominated for the [[National Book Award]].
*''Saul and Patsy'' ([[2003]]). A teacher's marriage and identity are threatened by a dangerously obsessed teenage boy at his school.
==Short Story and Essay Collections==
*''Harmony of the World'' ([[1984]]). Winner of the [[Associated Writing Programs]] Award.
*''Through The Safety Net'' ([[1985]])
*''Gryphon'' ([[1985]])
*''A Relative Stranger'' ([[1990]])
*''Believers'' ([[1997]])
*''Burning Down The House: Essays on Fiction'' ([[1997]])
*''Gryphon''
==Poetry Collections==
*''Imaginary Paintings'' ([[1989]])
*''The South Dakota Guidebook'' ([[1974]])
*''Chameleon'' ([[1970]])
==Edited Works==
*''A William Maxwell Portrait: Memories and Appreciations'' ([[2004]])
*''Bringing the Devil to His Knees: The Craft of Fiction and the Writing Life'' ([[2001]])
*''Best New American Voices 2001'' ([[2001]])
*''The Business of Memory'' ([[1999]])
==Honors and Awards==
* National Book Award (Finalist) for ''The Feast of Love'', 2000
* The Award in Literature, American Academy of Arts and Letters, 1997
* Ohio University Spring Literary Festival (Honoree), 1995
* The Cohen Award for the best essay published in ''Ploughshares'', 1994
* The Daniel A. Pollack-Harvard Review award to Shadow Play, 1994
* The Gettysburg Review nonfiction prose award for "Fiction and the Inner Life of Objects," 1994
* Michigan Author of the Year Award, 1993
* Lila Wallace-Reader's Digest Foundation Fellowship, 1992-95
* Lawrence Foundation Award, 1991
* Arts Foundation of Michigan Award, 1991
* Guggenheim Fellowship, 1985-86
* Michigan Council for the Arts Grant, 1984
* National Endowment for the Arts Grant, 1983
* Lawrence Foundation Award, 1982
==External links==
*[http://www.charlesbaxter.com/ Charles Baxter official website]
*[http://www.powells.com/authors/baxter.html/ Interview with the author] at Powells.com.
[[Category:1947 births|Baxter, Charles]]
[[Category:Living people|Baxter, Charles]]
[[Category:American novelists|Baxter, Charles]]
[[Category:American short story writers|Baxter, Charles]]
[[Category:American poets|Baxter, Charles]]
[[Category:American essayists|Baxter, Charles]]
[[Category:American book editors|Baxter, Charles]]
[[Category:University at Buffalo alumni|Baxter, Charles]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ceres (disambiguation)</title>
<id>6262</id>
<revision>
<id>41609670</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T14:10:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gurch</username>
<id>241822</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>asteriod -> asteroid</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ceres''' may refer to:
__NOTOC__
== People ==
* [[Ceres (mythology)]], the Roman goddess of agriculture.
* '''Ceres''', a fictional character in [[Ceres, Celestial Legend]] (Ayashi no Ceres).
== Places ==
===[[Earth]]===
* [[Ceres, Victoria]], in Australia.
* [[Ceres, Goiás]], in Brazil.
* [[Ceres, Scotland]]
* [[Ceres, South Africa]]
====[[United States]]====
* [[Ceres, California]]
* [[Ceres, Georgia]]
* [[Ceres, Iowa]]
* [[Ceres, New York]]
* [[Ceres, Oklahoma]]
* [[Ceres, Virginia]]
* [[Ceres, Washington]]
* [[Ceres, West Virginia]]
===[[Asteroid belt]]===
* [[1 Ceres]], the first and largest asteroid in the asteroid belt to be discovered.
===Fictional places===
* [[Areas in the Metroid Series#Ceres Space Colony|Ceres Space Colony]], an area in the Super Metroid video game.
== Business ==
* [[Ceres Brewery]], a brewery in Aarhus, Denmark.
* [[Ceres Hellenic Shipping Enterprises]], a Greek shipping company.
== in fiction ==
* [[Ceres, Celestial Legend]] (Ayashi no Ceres) - an [[anime]]/[[manga]] work
== Other uses ==
* [[Ceres (workstation)]], a computer workstation.
* [[Ceres series]], a series of postage stamps representing the goddess Ceres.
== [[Acronym]]s ==
* [[Centre for Education and Research in Environmental Strategies]], a community environmental park in Melbourne, Australia.
* [[CERES|Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System]], an on-going NASA metereological experiment.
{{disambig}}
<!--Other languages-->
[[da:Ceres]]
[[de:Ceres]]
[[es:Ceres]]
[[fr:Cérès]]
[[ko:세레스]]
[[hr:Ceres]]
[[it:Ceres]]
[[he:קרס]]
[[la:Ceres]]
[[nl:Ceres]]
[[ja:セレス]]
[[no:Ceres (pekere)]]
[[pl:Ceres]]
[[pt:Ceres]]
[[ro:Ceres]]
[[ru:Церера]]
[[sl:Ceres (razločitev)]]
[[sv:Ceres]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Charles Robert Darwin</title>
<id>6263</id>
<revision>
<id>15904419</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Charles Darwin]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Climate Change</title>
<id>6266</id>
<revision>
<id>15904421</id>
<timestamp>2004-01-22T11:55:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mirv</username>
<id>29678</id>
</contributor>
<comment>change redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Climate change]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cultural imperialism</title>
<id>6267</id>
<revision>
<id>42127202</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:19:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>86.137.93.26</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Inappropriate adjective post-1707, especially given Scottish promience in British imperialism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cultural imperialism''' is the practice of promoting the [[culture]] or language of one nation in another. It is usually the case that the former is a large, economically or militarily powerful nation and the latter is a smaller, less affluent one. ''Cultural imperialism'' can take the form of an active, formal policy or a general attitude.
[[Empire]]s throughout history have been established using war and physical compulsion (military [[imperialism]]). In the long term, populations have tended to be absorbed into the dominant culture, or acquire its attributes indirectly.
== Early History ==
One of the first known examples of cultural imperialism was extinction of the [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] culture and [[Etruscan language|language]] caused by the influence of the [[Roman Empire]].
The [[ancient Greece|Greek]] culture built gyms, theatres and public baths in places that its adherents conquered (such as ancient Judea, where Greek cultural imperialism sparked a popular revolt), with the effect that the populations became immersed in that culture. The spread of the ''[[koine]]'' (common) [[Greek language]] was another large factor in this immersion.
As exploration of the Americas increased, European nations including [[England]], [[France]], [[Belgium]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]] all raced to claim territory in hopes of generating increased economic wealth for themselves. In these new colonies, the European conquerors imposed their language and culture.
=== English cultural imperialism ===
A revealing instance of cultural imperialism is the [[Prayer Book rebellion]] of [[1549]], where the English state sought to suppress non-English languages with the English language [[Book of Common Prayer]]. In replacing [[Latin]] with English, and under the guise of suppressing Catholicism, English was effectively imposed as the language of the Church, with the intent of it becoming the language of the people. At the time people in many areas of [[Cornwall]] did not speak or understand English. Many speakers of the [[Cornish language]] were massacred by the King's army while protesting against the imposition of an English Prayer book. Their leaders were executed and the people suffered numerous reprisals.
Throughout the [[18th century|18th]] and [[19th century]] the dominant [[United_Kingdom|British]] establishment promoted the English languages to the detriment of others within the British Isles (such as the [[Welsh language]], [[Irish language]] and [[Scottish Gaelic language]]) by outlawing them or otherwise marginalising their speakers. Many other languages had almost or totally been wiped out by this point including [[Cornish language|Cornish]] and [[Manx language|Manx]]. Scots Gaelic was confined to the [[Highlands]] and Islands of the north, and Irish speakers were only to be found on the western seaboard.
== 20th century cultural imperialism ==
Cultural imperialism in the [[20th century|twentieth]] century was primarily connected with the [[United States]] and with the [[Soviet Union]], and to a lesser extent with other countries that exert strong influence on neighboring nations. Most countries outside the US feel that the high degree of cultural export through business and popular culture--popular and academic books, films, music, and television--threatens their unique ways of life or moral values where such cultural exports are popular. Some countries, including [[France]], have policies that actively oppose [[Americanisation]]. Some American cultural producers such as [[Reader's Digest]] have responded to or altogether avoided such resistance by adapting their content (or the surface of it) to local audiences.
[[China]] has, in various periods over the 20th century, pursued repressive policies towards the indigenous cultures and religi |
urther toughened in 1176 with the [[Assize of Northampton]], a build on the earlier agreements at Clarendon. This reform proved one of Henry's major contributions to the social history of England.
===The struggle with the church and [[Thomas Becket]]===
As a consequence of the improvements in the legal system, the power of [[ecclesiastical court | church court]]s waned. The church, not unnaturally, opposed this and found its most vehement spokesman in [[Thomas Becket]], the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], formerly a close friend of Henry's and his [[Chancellor]]. Henry had appointed Becket to the archbishopric precisely because he wanted to avoid conflict.
The conflict with Becket effectively began with a dispute over whether the secular courts could try clergy who had committed a secular offence. Henry attempted to subdue Becket and his fellow churchmen by making them swear to obey the "customs of the realm", but controversy ensued over what constituted these customs, and the church proved reluctant to submit. Following a heated exchange at Henry's court, Becket left England in [[1164]] for France to solicit in person the support of [[Pope Alexander III]], who was in exile in France due to dissension in the college of Cardinals, and of King [[Louis VII of France]]. Due to his own precarious position, Alexander remained neutral in the debate, although Becket remained in exile loosely under the protection of Louis and Pope Alexander until 1170. After a reconciliation between Henry and Thomas in Normandy in [[1170]], Becket returned to England. Becket again confronted Henry, this time over the coronation of Prince Henry (see below). The much-quoted, although probably apocryphal, words of Henry II echo down the centuries: "Will no one rid me of this meddlesome priest?" Although Henry's violent rants against Becket over the years were well documented, this time four of his knights took their king literally (as he may have intended for them to do, although he later denied it) and travelled immediately to England, where they assassinated Becket in [[Canterbury Cathedral]] on [[December 29]], [[1170]].
As part of his penance for the death of Becket, Henry made [[Thomas Becket#Assassination|a pilgrimage in sackcloth to his tomb]] (see also [[St. Dunstan's, Canterbury]]), and agreed to send money to the [[Crusader states]] in [[Palestine]], which the [[Knights Hospitaller]] and the [[Knights Templar (military order)|Knights Templar]] would guard until Henry arrived to make use of it on pilgrimage or [[crusade]]. Henry delayed his crusade for many years and in the end never went at all, despite a visit to him by [[Patriarch Heraclius of Jerusalem]] in [[1184]] and being offered the crown of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]. In [[1188]] he levied the [[Saladin tithe]] to pay for a new crusade; the chronicler [[Giraldus Cambrensis]] suggested his death was a divine punishment for the tithe, imposed to raise money for an abortive crusade to recapture [[Jerusalem]], which had fallen to [[Saladin]] in [[1187]].)
==Issue==
===Legitimate===
Henry's first son, William, Count of Poitiers, had died in infancy. In 1170, Henry and Eleanor's fifteen-year-old son, Henry, was crowned king (another reason for rupture with [[Thomas Becket]], whose other bishops acquiesced to this during Becket's exile), but he never actually ruled and does not figure in the list of the monarchs of England; he became known as [[Henry the Young King]] to distinguish him from his nephew [[Henry III of England]].
[[Image:Henry II of England - Illustration from Cassell's History of England - Century Edition - published circa 1902.jpg|thumbnail|left|200px|'''Henry II''' depicted in ''Cassell's History of England'' (1902)]]
Henry and his wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine, had five sons and three daughters: [[William, Count of Poitiers|William]], [[Henry the Young King|Henry]], [[Richard I of England|Richard]], [[Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany|Geoffrey]], [[John I of England|John]], [[Matilda, Duchess of Saxony|Matilda]], [[Leonora of Aquitaine|Eleanor]], and [[Joan Plantagenet|Joan]]. Henry's attempts to wrest control of her lands from Eleanor (and from her heir Richard) led to confrontations between Henry on the one side and his wife and legitimate sons on the other.
===Illegitimate===
Henry's notorious liaison with [[Rosamund Clifford]], the "fair Rosamund" of legend, probably began in [[1165]] during one of his Welsh campaigns and continued until her death in [[1176]]. However, it was not until [[1174]], at around the time of his break with Eleanor, that Henry acknowledged Rosamund as his mistress. Almost simultaneously he began negotiating the annulment of his marriage in order to marry [[Alys, Countess of the Vexin|Alys]], daughter of King [[Louis VII of France]] and already betrothed to Henry's son Richard. Henry's affair with Alys continued for some years, and, unlike Rosamund Clifford, Alys allegedly gave birth to one of Henry's illegitimate children.
Henry also had a number of illegitimate children by various women, and Eleanor had several of those children reared in the royal nursery with her own children; some remained members of the household in adulthood. Among them were [[William de Longespee, 3rd Earl of Salisbury]], whose mother was Ida, Countess of Norfolk; [[Geoffrey, Archbishop of York]], son of a woman named Ykenai; [[Morgan, Bishop of Durham]]; and Matilda, [[Abbess of Barking]].
===Succession crisis===
Henry II's attempt to divide his titles amongst his sons but keep the power associated with them provoked them into trying to take control of the lands assigned to them (see [[Revolt of 1173-1174]]), which amounted to treason, at least in Henry's eyes. [[Gerald of Wales]] reports that when King Henry gave the kiss of peace to his son Richard, he said softly, "May the Lord never permit me to die until I have taken due vengeance upon you."
When Henry's legitimate sons rebelled against him, they often had the help of King [[Louis VII of France]]. [[Henry the Young King]] died in [[1183]]. After Henry the Young King died, there was a power struggle between the three sons that were left. Henry had wanted John to be the next king, but Eleanor favored Richard. Henry had always loved John more than any of the other sons. Geoffrey tried to overcome both John and Richard, but he was unsuccessful. A horse trampled to death another son, [[Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany]] (1158&ndash;1186). Henry's third son, [[Richard I of England|Richard the Lionheart]] (1157&ndash;1199), with the assistance of [[Philip II of France|Philip II Augustus]] of France, attacked and defeated Henry on [[July 4]], [[1189]]; Henry died at the [[Chinon|Chateau Chinon]] on [[July 6]], [[1189]], and lies entombed in [[Fontevraud Abbey]], near [[Chinon]] and [[Saumur]] in the Anjou Region of present-day France. Henry's illegitimate son [[Geoffrey, Archbishop of York]] also stood by him the whole time and alone among his sons attended on Henry's deathbed.
[[Richard I of England|Richard the Lionheart]] then became King of England. This was unfortunate to Henry because he had always wanted [[John I of England|John]] to succeed him. He was followed by [[John I of England|King John]], the youngest son of Henry II, laying aside the claims of [[Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany|Geoffrey]]'s children [[Arthur I, Duke of Brittany|Arthur of Brittany]] and [[Eleanor, Fair Maid of Brittany|Eleanor]].
==Appearance==
[[Peter of Blois]] left a description of Henry II in 1177: "''...the lord king has been red-haired so far, except that the coming of old age and gray hair has altered that color somewhat. His height is medium, so that neither does he appear great among the small, nor yet does he seem small among the great... curved legs, a horseman's shins, broad chest, and a boxer's arms all announce him as a man strong, agile and bold... he never sits, unless riding a horse or eating... In a single day, if necessary, he can run through four or five day-marches and, thus foiling the plots of his enemies, frequently mocks their plots with surprise sudden arrivals...Always are in his hands bow, sword, spear and arrow, unless he be in council or in books''."
Another contemporary, Gerald of Wales, described him thus: "''A man of reddish, freckled complexion, with a large, round head, grey eyes that glowed fiercely and grew bloodshot in anger, a fiery countenance and a harsh, cracked voice. His neck was poked forward slightly from his shoulders, his chest was broad and square, his arms strong and powerful. His body was stocky, with a pronounced tendency toward fatness, due to nature rather than self-indulgence -- which he tempered with exercise''."
[[Image:devils crown.JPG|frame|right|''The Devil's Crown'', a 1978 book from the BBC 2 television series]]
==Fiction==
The assassination of Archbishop [[Thomas Becket]] is the subject of the celebrated 1935 play "[[Murder in the Cathedral]]" by [[T. S. Eliot]]. A fuller account of the struggle between Henry II and Becket is portrayed in the film [[Becket]] (1964) made from the [[Jean Anouilh]] play and starring [[Peter O'Toole]] as Henry and [[Richard Burton]] as Becket.
The treasons associated with the royal and ducal successions formed the main theme of the play ''[[The Lion in Winter]]'', which also served as the basis of a 1968 film with O'Toole reprising the role of Henry and [[Katharine Hepburn]] as Eleanor of Aquitaine. In [[2003]], the film was remade as a [[mini-series]] with [[Patrick Stewart]] and [[Glenn Close]] in the leading roles.
Henry II and his sons King Richard and King John also provided the subjects of the BBC2 television series ''The Devil's Crown.'' The 1978 book of the same title was written by Richard Barber and published as a guide to the broadcast series, which starred [[Brian Cox]] as Henry and [[Jane Lapotaire]] as Eleanor.
"[[Bo |
n just biology is that we live in a fine-tuned universe, with many features that make life possible that cannot be attributed to chance. These features include the values of physical constants, the strength of nuclear forces, and many others. Intelligent design proponent and [[Center for Science and Culture]] fellow Guillermo Gonzalez argues that if any of these values were even slightly different, the universe would be dramatically different, with many [[chemical elements]] and features of the universe like [[galaxies]] being impossible to form.{{ref|Gonzalez}} Thus, they argue, an intelligent designer of life was needed to ensure that the requisite features were present to achieve that particular outcome. Other scientists respond that the argument cannot be tested, is not quantifiable, and is poorly supported by existing evidence.{{ref|PandaGonzo}}
Critics of both intelligent design and the weak form of [[anthropic principle]] argue that they are essentially a [[tautology]]; in their view, these arguments amount to the claim that life is able to exist because the universe is able to support life. The claim of the improbability of a life-supporting universe has also been criticized as an [[argument by lack of imagination]] for assuming no other forms of life are possible; life as we know it may not exist if things were different, but a different sort of life might exist in its place. They also suggest that many of the stated variables appear to be interconnected, and that calculations made by mathematicians and physicists suggest that the emergence of a universe similar to ours is quite probable.
===The designer or designers===
{{main article|[[Intelligent designer]]}}
Intelligent design arguments are formulated in secular terms and intentionally avoid identifying the intelligent agent they posit. They do not state that God is the designer, but the designer is often implicitly hypothesized to have intervened in a way that only a God could intervene. Intelligent design proponents, such as Dembski, have implied that an alien culture could fulfill these requirements, but since the authoritative description of intelligent design{{ref|discovery_id_def}} explicitly states that the ''universe'' displays features of having been designed, Dembski concludes that "no intelligent agent who is strictly physical could have presided over the origin of the universe or the origin of life."{{ref|dembski_ftu}} Furthermore, the leading proponents have made statements to their supporters that they believe the designer to be the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[God]], to the exclusion of all other religions, and thus there exists a well-established link to [[Genesis]] and Creationism.
Critics argue that existing evidence makes the design hypothesis appear unlikely. For example, Jerry Coyne, of the [[University of Chicago]], asks why a designer would "give us a pathway for making vitamin C, but then destroy it by disabling one of its enzymes" and why he or she wouldn't "stock oceanic islands with reptiles, mammals, amphibians, and freshwater fish, despite the suitability of such islands for these species." Critics of intelligent design point to the fact that "the flora and fauna on those islands resemble that of the nearest mainland, even when the environments are very different" as evidence that species were not placed there by a designer.{{ref|Coyne}} Behe argued in ''[[Darwin's Black Box]]'' that we are simply incapable of understanding the designer's motives, so such questions cannot be answered definitively. Odd designs could, for example, "have been placed there by the designer... for artistic reasons, to show off, for some as-yet undetectable practical purpose, or for some unguessable reason." Coyne responds that in light of the evidence, "either life resulted not from intelligent design, but from evolution; or the intelligent designer is a cosmic prankster who designed everything to make it look as though it had evolved."
Asserting the need for a designer of complexity also raises the question, "what designed the designer?" Intelligent design proponents say that the question is irrelevant to or outside the scope of intelligent design,{{ref|wdd3}} but Richard Wein counters that the unanswered questions a theory creates "must be balanced against the improvements in our understanding which the explanation provides. Invoking an unexplained being to explain the origin of other beings (ourselves) is little more than [[Begging the question|question-begging]]. The new question raised by the explanation is as problematic as the question which the explanation purports to answer."{{ref|wein_designer}} Critics see the claim that the designer need not be explained not as a contribution to knowledge but as a [[thought-terminating cliché]]. Answering "what designed the designer?" leads to an [[turtles all the way down|infinite regression]] from which intelligent design proponents can only escape by resorting to religious creationism or logical contradiction.
==Intelligent design as a movement==
{{main article|[[Intelligent design movement]]}}
[[Image:Time evolution wars.jpg|thumb|[[Time magazine]] cover, August 15, 2005]] The '''intelligent design movement''' arose out of an organized [[Neo-Creationism|neocreationist]] campaign directed by the [[Discovery Institute]] to promote a religious agenda calling for broad social, academic and political changes employing intelligent design arguments in the public sphere, primarily in the [[United States]]. Leaders of the movement say intelligent design exposes the limitations of scientific orthodoxy and of the [[secular]] philosophy of [[Naturalism (philosophy)|Naturalism]]. Intelligent design proponents allege that science shouldn't be limited to naturalism, and shouldn't demand the adoption of a naturalistic [[Philosophy of science|philosophy]] that dismisses any explanation that contains a supernatural cause out of hand.
[[Phillip E. Johnson]], considered the father of the intelligent design movement, stated that the goal of intelligent design is to cast [[creationism]] as a scientific concept.{{ref|johnson_id_neocreationism}} All leading intelligent design proponents are fellows or staff of the Discovery Institute and its [[Center for Science and Culture]].{{ref|discovery_fellows}} Nearly all intelligent design concepts and the associated movement are the products of the Discovery Institute which guides the movement and follows its [[wedge strategy]] while conducting its adjunct [[Teach the Controversy]] campaign.
Leading intelligent design proponents have made conflicting statements regarding intelligent design. In statements directed at the general public they state that intelligent design is not religious, while they state that intelligent design has its foundation in the [[Bible]]{{ref|johnson_john1_2}} when addressing conservative Christian supporters.
[[Barbara Forrest]], an expert who has written extensively on the movement, describes this as being due to the Discovery Institute obfuscating its agenda as a matter of policy. She has written that the movement's "activities betray an aggressive, systematic agenda for promoting not only intelligent design creationism, but the religious world-view that undergirds it."{{ref|forrest_wedge}}
===Religion and leading proponents===
Intelligent design arguments are carefully formulated in [[secular]] terms and intentionally avoid positing the identity of the designer. Phillip E. Johnson has stated that cultivating ambiguity by employing secular language in arguments which are carefully crafted to avoid overtones of [[theism|theistic]] [[creationism]] is a necessary first step for ultimately reintroducing the Christian concept of God as the designer. Johnson emphasizes "the first thing that has to be done is to get the [[Bible]] out of the discussion" and that "after we have separated [[scientific materialism|materialist]] [[prejudice]] from scientific fact ... only then can 'biblical issues' be discussed."{{ref|johnson_bible_out}} Johnson explicitly calls for intelligent design proponents to obfuscate their religious motivations so as to avoid having intelligent design identified "as just another way of packaging the [[evangelical Christian|Christian evangelical]] message."{{ref|johnson_evangelical_message}} The principal intelligent design advocates, including [[Michael Behe]], [[William Dembski]], [[Jonathan Wells]] (actually a member of the [[Unification Church]], headed by [[Reverend Moon]]), and [[Stephen C. Meyer]], are Christians and have stated that in their view the designer of life is [[God]]. The vast majority of leading intelligent design proponents are [[Evangelism|evangelical]] [[Protestantism|Protestants]].
The conflicting claims made by leading intelligent design advocates as to whether or not intelligent design is rooted in religious conviction are the result of their [[wedge strategy|strategy]]. For example, William Dembski in his book ''The Design Inference''{{ref|intro_dembski}} lists a [[god]] or an "[[extraterrestrial life|alien life force]]" as two possible options for the identity of the designer. However, in his book ''Intelligent Design: the Bridge Between Science and Theology'' Dembski states that "Christ is indispensable to any scientific theory, even if its practitioners don't have a clue about him. The pragmatics of a scientific theory can, to be sure, be pursued without recourse to Christ. But the conceptual soundness of the theory can in the end only be located in Christ."{{ref|dembski_id_christ}} Dembski also stated "ID is part of God's [[general revelation]]..." "Not only does intelligent design rid us of this ideology ([[materialism]]), which suffocates the human spirit, but, in my personal experience, I've found that it opens the path fo |
he works of [[Dolcett]]. Typically, people in such forums fantasize about eating or being eaten by members of their sexually preferred gender. As such, the cannibalism [[fetish]] or [[paraphilia]] is one of the most extreme sexual fetishes.
Rarely ever do such fetishes leave the realm of fantasies (aided by modern technology for photo modification or completely computer generated images). There have been extreme cases of real life sexualized cannibalism, such as those of the serial killers [[Albert Fish]], [[Ed Gein]], [[Jeffrey Dahmer]], [[Sascha Spesiwtsew]], [[Fritz Haarmann]] ("the Butcher of Hannover") and [[Andrei Chikatilo]] "The Soviet [[Hannibal Lecter]]".
Another well-known case involved a Japanese student of English literature, [[Issei Sagawa]], who grew fond of [[Renée Hartevelt]], a 25-year-old Dutch woman he met while studying at the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]] Academy in Paris in [[1981]]. He eventually murdered and ate her, writing a graphic yet poignant description of the act. Declared unfit to stand trial in France, his wealthy father had him extradited back to Japan where he eventually regained his freedom. The way he reveled in what he did made him a national celebrity, and he has written several bestselling novels and continues to write a nationally syndicated column. The story is the subject of a verse in the 1986 [[Rolling Stones]] song "Too Much Blood" and the 1981 Stranglers song "La Folie".
In December 2002, a highly unusual case was uncovered in the town of Rotenburg in [[Hesse]], [[Germany]]. In 2001 [[Armin Meiwes]], a 41-year-old computer administrator, had posted messages like his more recent ones (see [http://groups.google.de/group/alt.sex.snuff.cannibalism/msg/5f0dd5bf1f976093?hl=en& messages]) in Internet [[newsgroup]]s on the subject of cannibalism, repeatedly looking for "a young Boy, between 18 and 30 y/o" to butcher. At least one of his requests was successful: Jürgen B., another computer administrator, offered himself to be slaughtered. The two men agreed on a meeting. Jürgen B. was, with his consent, killed and partially eaten by Armin M. Meiwes, who, as a result, was sentenced to eight-and-a-half years in jail for [[manslaughter]] (''Totschlag'', less than murder but more than killing on demand). The band [[Rammstein]] took up this case in the song [[Mein Teil]]. In [[2005#April|April 2005]], the courts ordered a retrial upon appeal of the prosecution.
This was not the first consensual killing mediated through the Internet, but it is the first such known case of consensual cannibalism.
==Cannibal themes in myth, religion or arts==
On a primitive level, ritually eating part of the slaughtered enemy is a way of assuming the life-spirit of the departed. In a funeral ritual this may also be done with a respected member of one's own clan, ensuring [[immortality]]. Cannibal ogresses appear in folklore around the world, the witch in '[[Hansel and Gretel]]' being the most immediate example.
The opening of [[Hell]], the Zoroastrian contribution to Western mythology, is a mouth. According to [[Catholicism|Catholic]] dogma, bread and wine are [[transubstantiation|transubstantiated]] into the real flesh and blood of [[Jesus]], which are then distributed by the priest to the faithful. For this reason, Catholics in pagan times were sometimes accused of cannibalism by suspicious non-Christians.The Christians in turn accused their opponents, such as the [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] sect of the [[Borborites]], for cannibalism and ritual abuse.
In the [[Qur'an]] slanderers are stigmatized as those who eat the flesh of the dead body of the person they slander.
In the realms of arts and mind, there is an outstanding fantasy cannibalist: Spanish painter of twisted mustaches [[Salvador Dalí]]. During the 1950s, the Catalan artist developed a system called the "[[paranoiac-critical method]]." Besides many considerations about the [[unconscious]] as a source of artistic creation, he related love with food appetite, beauty with the edible possibilities of an object.
Dali didn't hide his cannibalism (in a figurative way, of course). Said he: "The greatest gastronomical refinement is to eat 'cooked and live' beings." About the Pope he affirmed: "Personally, I prefer much more a John XXIII pope type. He had an irresistible edible look." He asked: "What is spirituality? Is it edible?" He shared [[Freud]]'s view of Christianity as a form of cannibalism, because "the fundamental and sublime law of our Catholic religion... is to eat the Alive God Himself." And what about Gala, his lover and wife? Said Dalí: "One of my most cherished wishes: "To eat loved one Gala, to ingest her in me, in my organism, molecules that contain smiling Galas swimming in Cap de Creus."
== Cannibalism as "sympathetic magic" ==
This is a subset of the general idea of eating a totem to absorb its distinctive power, much like [[tiger]] penis is eaten to promote virility. By eating our enemy, we take his power into ourselves. Some also consider this idea to be at the root of the Catholic dogma of [[transubstantiation]]: to acquire divinity ([[immortality]], [[sin]]lessnes) by ''absorption'', by eating the flesh of [[God]]. (However, the more likely [[Biblical]] [[theology|theological]] and historical roots of this are pertaining to the [[sacrifice|sacrificial]] offering of [[Christ]] and its reference to the representations in the Jewish [[Passover]] and the [[Feast of Unleavened Bread]], which was being celebrated during the [[Last Supper]].)
Rugby followers will have been struck recently by the new "[[Haka]]" of the [[All Blacks]]/New Zealand team. In it the well-documented ritual cannibalism of the Maori is represented not only by the "opening of the chest" of the more usual "Kamate Kamate" Haka which has been consistently performed by the [[New Zealand]] [[Rugby union|Rugby]] Football team - immediately after the singing of National Anthems - since 1905, but by a dramatic throat-slitting gesture at the climax of the new ceremony which was memorably led by the All Blacks captain Tana Umaga in the Test match against [[England]] at [[Twickenham]] in 2005.
==Cannibalism as a funeral rite==
Several cultures have been known to eat their dead loved ones as a matter of course, such as the Fore tribe of New Guinea (see above).
== Cannibalism in popular culture ==
{{spoiler}}
Some examples of cannibalism in popular culture:
* [[Classical mythology]]:
** [[Thyestes]]
** [[Tereus]]
* [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Titus Andronicus]]'', in which a character is unknowingly served a pie made from the remains of her two sons
* [[Herman Melville]]'s ''[[Typee]]'', a semi-factual account of Melville's voyage to the Pacific Island of [[Nuku Hiva]], where he spent several weeks living among the island's cannibal inhabitants, after which he fled the island fearing to be eaten.
* [[H. G. Wells]]'s ''[[The Time Machine]]'', an [[1896]] science fiction novel features cannibalism by the more advanced species, the [[Morlock]]s, as a means of survival.
* [[Jack London]]'s ''[[White Fang]]'', in which White Fang attacks and devours Lip-Lip, a rival sled-dog.
* ''[[Stranger in a Strange Land]]'' by [[Robert A. Heinlein]]. Among (non-human) [[Martian]]s, eating one's dead friends is an act of great respect. Some humans adopt the practice.
* In ''[[Soylent Green]]'', a [[1973]] science fiction film starring [[Charlton Heston]], [[Edward G. Robinson]], and [[Joseph Cotten]], Soylent Green is the processed remains of corpses rendered into small green crackers.
* [["Nightmare Cafeteria"]], the third and final segment of [[The Simpsons]] [[Treehouse of Horror V]]. To respond to the overwhelming number of students in [[detention]], the teachers at [[Springfield Elementary School]] start to eat all the children. This was a parody of ''Soylent Green''.
* ''[[Secrets (play)|Secrets]]'', a 1973 TV comedy play by [[Michael Palin]] and [[Terry Jones]] in which some chocolate factory workers fall into a mixing vat and become part of the confectionery
*''[[The Texas Chain Saw Massacre]]'' ([[1974]]) and its sequels fictionalize the accounts of [[Ed Gein]], turning the cannibal-murderer into an entire family of psychopaths.
* [[Cannibal film]]s are a collection of [[horror film]]s depicting cannibalism, created from the late 1970s through the early 1990s by Italian moviemakers. The most popular movie in this category is without doubt [[Cannibal Holocaust]] (1979).
*Numerous [[zombie]] [[horror film]]s include cannibalism by the undead as a main plot element. Zombies, for reasons varying movie to movie, feed off of the flesh of the living. Often any damage done to living tissue, such as a zombie bite, will rapidly infect and kill the living, thus giving rise to a new zombie. In ''[[Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)|Dawn of the Dead]]'', there is a statement from a character that refutes zombies as cannibals based on technical definition since they only feed on the living or fresh corpses, but not each other.
* [[Hannibal Lecter]], a fictional character created by [[Thomas Harris]] in the [[1983]] novel ''[[Red Dragon]]'', as well as Harris's [[1992]] ''[[The Silence of the Lambs]]'', and ''[[Hannibal (novel)|Hannibal]]''. The character and his cannibalistic acts were made even more famous when adapted to film, though the original ''Red Dragon'' adaptation, ''[[Manhunter (film)|Manhunter]]'', never states or implies Lecter's cannibalism.
* ''[[Survivor Type]]'', a short story in [[Stephen King]]'s [[1985]] collection ''[[Skeleton Crew]]''. The story follows a [[shipwreck]] victim stranded on a remote [[island]], driven to eat his own body parts to survive.
* [[Fannie Flagg]]'s novel ''[[Fried Green Tomatoes at the Whistle Stop Cafe]]'', in which investigators are unknowingly fed the [[barbec |
t French colony to join the Allies under the administration of Félix Éboué, France's first black colonial governor.
*[[1944]] - [[World War II]]: [[Charles de Gaulle]] enters [[Paris]].
*[[1957]] - The [[USSR]] announces the successful test of an [[ICBM]] - a "super longdistance intercontinental multistage ballistic rocket ... a few days ago," according to Tass Soviet News Agency.
*[[1968]] - [[1968 Democratic National Convention|Democratic National Convention]] opens in [[Chicago, Illinois]]
*[[1968]] - [[The Beatles]]' "[[Hey Jude]]" is released as a [[single (music)|single]] in the United States under the [[Apple Records]] label.
*[[1972]] - [[1972 Summer Olympics|Games of the XX Olympiad]] open in [[Munich]], [[Germany]].
*[[1976]] - [[Raymond Barre]] becomes Prime Minister of [[France]].
*[[1978]] - [[Papal conclave, 1978 (August)]]: [[Pope John Paul I]] is elevated to the [[Papacy]].
*[[1978]] - [[Sigmund Jähn]] becomes first [[Germany|German]] [[astronaut|cosmonaut]] on board of the [[Soyuz 31]] spacecraft.
*[[1986]] - Toxic gas kills 1700 in [[Cameroon]].
*[[1987]] - [[President of the United States|President]] [[Ronald Reagan|Ronald Wilson Reagan]] proclaims [[September 11]], [[1987]] as 9-1-1 [[Emergency telephone number|Emergency Number]] Day.
*[[1988]] - [[Merhan Karimi Nasseri]] arrives at [[Charles de Gaulle International Airport]].
* [[1997]] - [[Beni-Ali massacre]] in [[Algeria]]; 60-100 people killed.
*[[2002]] - [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] pitcher [[Éric Gagné]] converts his first of a record 84 consecutive successful save opportunities.
*[[2002]] - [[Earth Summit 2002]] begins in [[Johannesburg, South Africa]].
*[[2003]] - [[Columbia Accident Investigation Board]] releases its final reports on [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster]].
*[[2005]] - [[Fiji]]'s High Court rules that the island's [[sodomy law]] is unconstitutional.
*[[2005]] - [[Jean Michel Jarre]]'s "[[Space of Freedom]]" concert in [[Gdańsk]], [[Poland]]
==Births==
*[[1469]] - [[Ferdinand II of Naples]] (d. [[1496]])
*[[1540]] - King [[Magnus of Livonia]] (d. [[1583]])
*[[1676]] - [[Robert Walpole]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1745]])
*[[1694]] - [[Elisha Williams]], American rector of Yale College (d. [[1755]])
*[[1736]] - [[Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Isle]], French chemist (d. [[1790]])
*[[1743]] - [[Antoine Lavoisier]], French chemist (d. [[1794]])
*[[1775]] - [[William Joseph Behr]], German writer (d. [[1851]])
*[[1792]] - [[Manuel Oribe]], Uruguayan political figure (d. [[1857]])
*[[1850]] - [[Charles Robert Richet]], French physiologist, [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1935]])
*[[1873]] - [[Lee DeForest]], American inventor (d. [[1961]])
*[[1874]] - [[Zona Gale]], American novelist (d. [[1938]])
*[[1875]] - [[John Buchan, 1st Baron Tweedsmuir]], Scottish novelist, [[Governor General of Canada]] (d. [[1940]])
*[[1880]] - [[Guillaume Apollinaire]], French poet and art critic (d. [[1918]])
*[[1882]] - [[James Franck]], German-born physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1964]])
*[[1896]] - [[Ivan Mihailov]], Bulgarian revolutionary (d. [[1990]])
*[[1897]] - [[Yoon Boseon]], [[President of South Korea]] (d. [[1990]])
*[[1898]] - [[Peggy Guggenheim]], American art collector (d. [[1979]])
*[[1900]] - [[Hellmuth Walter]], German engineer and inventor (d. [[1980]])
*[[1901]] - [[Maxwell Taylor]], American general (d. [[1987]])
* 1901 - [[Chen Yi (communist)|Chen Yi]], Chinese communist military commander and politician (d. [[1972]])
*[[1904]] - [[Christopher Isherwood]], English-born writer (d. [[1986]])
*[[1906]] - [[Albert Sabin]], American polio researcher (d. [[1993]])
*[[1909]] - [[Jim Davis (actor)|Jim Davis]], American actor (d. [[1981]])
*[[1914]] - [[Julio Cortázar]], Argentine writer (d. [[1984]])
*[[1921]] - [[Benjamin Bradlee]], American journalist
*[[1922]] - [[Irving R. Levine]], American journalist
*[[1923]] - [[Wolfgang Sawallisch]], German conductor and pianist
*[[1934]] - [[Tom Heinsohn]], American basketball player and commentator
*[[1935]] - [[Geraldine Ferraro]], U.S. Vice Presidential candidate
*[[1936]] - [[Yvette Vickers]], American actress
*[[1940]] - [[Don LaFontaine]], American voice actor
*[[1941]] - [[Barbet Schroeder]], Swiss film director
* 1941 - [[Akiko Wakabayashi]], Japanese actress
*[[1942]] - [[Vic Dana]], American singer
*1942 - [[Dennis Turner]], British politician
*[[1944]] - [[Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester]]
*[[1946]] - [[Valerie Simpson]], American singer
* 1946 - [[Tom Ridge]], first [[United States Secretary of Homeland Security]]
* 1946 - [[Zhou Ji]], education minister of the People's Republic of China
*[[1952]] - [[Michael Jeter]], American actor (d. [[2003]])
*[[1953]] - [[Pat Sharkey]], Northern Irish footballer
*[[1956]] - [[Brett Cullen]], American actor
*[[1957]] - [[Dr. Alban]], Nigerian singer
*[[1960]] - [[Branford Marsalis]], American saxophonist and bandleader
*[[1965]] - [[Chris Burke (baseball player)|Chris Burke]], American actor
*1965 - [[Jon Hensley]], American actor
*[[1966]] - [[Jacques Brinkman]], Dutch field hockey player
*1966 - [[Shirley Manson]], Scottish singer
*[[1971]] - [[Thalía (actress)|Thalía]], Mexican actress
*[[1979]] - [[Jamal Lewis]], American football player
*[[1980]] - [[Macaulay Culkin]], American actor
==Deaths==
*[[1278]] - King [[Otakar II of Bohemia]]
*[[1346]] - Killed in the [[Battle of Crécy]]:
**[[Charles II of Alençon]] (b. [[1297]])
**[[Louis I of Flanders]] (b. [[1304]])
**[[John I, Count of Luxemburg]] (b. [[1296]])
**[[Rudolph, Duke of Lorraine]] (b. [[1320]])
*[[1349]] - [[Thomas Bradwardine]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]
*[[1551]] - [[Margareta Leijonhufvud]], queen of [[Gustav I of Sweden]] (b. [[1516]])
*[[1595]] - [[Antonio, Prior of Crato]], claimant to the throne of Portugal (b. [[1531]])
*[[1666]] - [[Frans Hals]], Dutch painter
*[[1714]] - [[Edward Fowler]], English Bishop of Gloucester (b. [[1632]])
*[[1723]] - [[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]], Dutch scientist (b. [[1632]])
*[[1785]] - [[George Germain, 1st Viscount Sackville]], British soldier and politician (b. [[1716]])
*[[1850]] - [[Louis-Philippe of France]] (b. [[1773]])
*[[1915]] - [[John Bunny]] American comedian (b. [[1863]])
*[[1930]] - [[Lon Chaney, Sr.]], American actor (b. [[1883]])
*[[1944]] - [[Adam von Trott zu Solz]], German diplomat opposing the Nazi regime (executed)
*[[1945]] - [[Franz Werfel]], Austrian writer (b. [[1890]])
*[[1958]] - [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]], English composer (b. [[1872]])
*[[1968]] - [[Kay Francis]], American actress (b. [[1899]])
*[[1974]] - [[Charles Lindbergh]], American aviator (b. [[1902]])
*[[1976]] - [[Lotte Lehmann]], German soprano (b. [[1888]])
*[[1978]] - [[Charles Boyer]], French actor (b. [[1899]])
*1978 - [[José Manuel Moreno]], Argentine footballer (b. [[1916]])
*[[1979]] - [[Mika Waltari]], Finnish author (b. [[1908]])
*[[1980]] - [[Rosa Albach-Retty]], German actress (b. [[1874]])
*1980 - [[Tex Avery]], American cartoonist (b. [[1908]])
*[[1981]] - [[Roger Nash Baldwin]], founder of the American Civil Liberties Union (b. [[1884]])
*[[1986]] - [[Ted Knight]], American actor (b. [[1923]])
*[[1987]] - [[Georg Wittig]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1897]])
*[[1988]] - [[Carlos Paião]], Portuguese singer (b. [[1957]])
*[[1989]] - [[Irving Stone]], American author (b. [[1903]])
*[[1990]] - [[Minoru Honda]], Japanese astronomer (b. [[1913]])
*[[1998]] - [[Frederick Reines]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1918]])
*[[2003]] - [[Jim Wacker]], American football coach (b. [[1937]])
*[[2004]] - [[Laura Branigan]], American singer (b. [[1957]])
*[[2005]] - [[Denis D'Amour]], founding member and guitarist of Canadian metal band Voivod. (b. [[1960]])
*2005 - [[Robert Denning]], Interior designer (b. [[1927]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Calendar of Saints|RC saints]] - [[Pope Zephyrinus|St Zephyrinus]], [[Saint Ninian]], [[David Lewis]] (one of the [[Forty Martyrs of England and Wales]])
*[[Namibia]] - Namibia Day or Heroes' Day
*[[Zanzibar]] - [[Sultan's Birthday]]
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/26 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[August 25]] - [[August 27]] - [[July 26]] - [[September 26]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:26 Augustus]]
[[ang:26 Wēodmōnaþ]]
[[ar:26 أغسطس]]
[[an:26 d'agosto]]
[[ast:26 d'agostu]]
[[bg:26 август]]
[[be:26 жніўня]]
[[bs:26. august]]
[[ca:26 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 26]]
[[cv:Çурла, 26]]
[[co:26 d'aostu]]
[[cs:26. srpen]]
[[cy:26 Awst]]
[[da:26. august]]
[[de:26. August]]
[[et:26. august]]
[[el:26 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:26 de agosto]]
[[eo:26-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 26]]
[[fo:26. august]]
[[fr:26 août]]
[[fy:26 augustus]]
[[ga:26 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:26 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 26일]]
[[hr:26. kolovoza]]
[[io:26 di agosto]]
[[id:26 Agustus]]
[[ia:26 de augusto]]
[[ie:26 august]]
[[is:26. ágúst]]
[[it:26 agosto]]
[[he:26 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:26 Agustus]]
[[ka:26 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:26 zélnika]]
[[ku:26'ê gelawêjê]]
[[la:26 Augusti]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 26]]
[[lb:26. August]]
[[hu:Augusztus 26]]
[[mk:26 август]]
[[ms:26 Ogos]]
[[nap:26 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:26 augustus]]
[[ja:8月26日]]
[[no:26. august]]
[[nn:26. august]]
[[oc:26 d'agost]]
[[pl:26 sierpnia]]
[[pt:26 de Agosto]]
[[ro:26 august]]
[[ru:26 августа]]
[[se:Borgemánu 26.]]
[[sco:26 August]]
[[sq:26 Gusht]]
[[scn:26 di austu]]
[[simple:August 26]]
[[sk:26. august]]
[[sl:26. avgust]]
[[sr:26. август]]
[[fi:26. elokuuta]]
[[sv:26 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 26]]
[[tt:26. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 26]]
[[th:26 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:26 tháng 8]]
[[tr:26 Ağustos]]
[[uk:26 серпня]]
[[wa:26 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 26]]
[[zh:8月26日]]
[[pam:Agostu 26]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antipope</title>
<id>1633</id>
<revision>
<id>41282213</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T06:58:59Z</tim |
]], but few were killed and many were left wounded with hands and legs missing, so that the Germans had to finish them off with machine guns. In October 1941, in [[Mogilev]], they tried the ''Gaswagen'' or "gas car". First they used a light military car, and it took more than 30 minutes for people to die. Then they used a larger truck exhaust and it took only eight minutes to kill all the people inside.{{ref|overy}}
Alleged corporate involvement in the Holocaust has created significant controversy in recent years. [[Rudolf Hoess]], Auschwitz camp commandant, said that far from having to advertise their slave labour services, the concentration camps were actually approached by various large German businesses, some of which are still in existence. Technology developed by [[IBM]] also played a role in the categorization of prisoners, through the use of index machines
===Scale===
[[Image:Massdeportations.gif|thumb|200px|right|Major deportation routes to the [[extermination camps]] in Europe.]]
The Holocaust was geographically widespread and systematically conducted in virtually all areas of Nazi-occupied territory, where Jews and other victims were targeted in what are now 35 separate European nations, and sent to labor camps in some nations or [[extermination camps]] in others. The mass killing was at its worst in Central and Eastern Europe, which had more than 7 million Jews in 1939; about 5 million Jews were killed there, including 3 million in Poland and over 1 million in the Soviet Union. Hundreds of thousands also died in the Netherlands, France, Belgium, Yugoslavia, and Greece.
Documented evidence suggests that the Nazis planned to carry out their 'final solution' in other regions if they were conquered, such as [[Britain]] and [[Ireland]]. {{ref|gilbert1}}. The extermination continued in different parts of Nazi-controlled territory until the end of [[World War II]], only completely ending when the Allies entered Germany itself and forced the Nazis to surrender in May 1945.
===Cruelty===
The Holocaust was carried out without any mercy or reprieve for children or babies, and victims were often made to suffer before finally being killed. Nazis carried out cruel and deadly [[Nazi human experimentation|medical experiments]] on prisoners, including children. Dr. [[Josef Mengele]], medical officer at Auschwitz and chief medical officer at [[Birkenau]], was known as the "Angel of Death" for his cruel and bizarre medical and [[eugenics]] experiments, e.g., trying to change people's eye colour by injecting dye into their eyes. Many of these experiments were intended to produce 'racially pure' babies and as research into weapons and techniques of war. Another way the Nazis killed Jews were by putting them in tanks and dropping gas on them for short periods of time. Many of these prisoners did not survive. Day to day life in the [[concentration camp]]s was also brutal, with the Nazis regularly carrying out beatings and acts of torture.
== Victims ==
The victims of the Holocaust were [[Jew]]s, [[Poles]], [[Russians]], [[Communist]]s, [[homosexuality|homosexuals]], [[Roma (people)|Roma]] (also known as [[gypsies]]), the [[mentally ill]] and the physically [[disabled]], [[intelligentsia]] and political activists, [[Jehovah's Witnesses and the Holocaust|Jehovah's Witnesses]], some [[Catholic]] and [[Protestant]] clergy, [[trade union]]ists, [[psychiatric]] patients, some [[African]]s, common [[criminal]]s and people labeled as "enemies of the state". These victims all perished alongside one another in the camps, according to the extensive documentation left behind by the Nazis themselves (written and photographed), eyewitness testimony (by survivors, perpetrators, and bystanders), and the statistical records of the various countries under occupation.
=== Jews ===
[[Image:Vienna 1938 pavement scrub.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Nazis in uniform in Vienna, Austria 1938 mock Jews forced to scrub streets]]
[[Anti-Semitism]] was common in Europe in the 1920s and 1930s (though its roots go back much further). [[Adolf Hitler]]'s fanatical brand of racial anti-Semitism was laid out in his 1925 book ''[[Mein Kampf]]'', which, though largely ignored when it was first printed, became a bestseller in Germany once Hitler acquired political power. This Anti-Semitism was echoed by Nazi groups such as the [[Sturmabteilung]] by songs like "When Jewish blood drips off the blade" and the rallying cry "Juda verrecke" (Perish the Jew).
On [[April 1]], [[1933]], shortly after Hitler's [[Machtergreifung|accession to power]], the [[Nazism|Nazis]], led mainly by [[Julius Streicher]], and the [[Sturmabteilung]], organized a one-day boycott of all Jewish-owned businesses in [[Germany]]. A series of increasingly harsh racist laws were soon passed in quick succession. Under the “[[Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service]]”, passed by the [[Reichstag]] on [[April 7]] [[1933]], all Jewish civil servants at the ''Reich'', ''Länder'', and municipal levels of government were fired immediately. The "Law for the Restoration of a Professional Civil Service" marked the first time since Germany's unification in 1871 that an anti-Semitic law had been passed in Germany. This was followed by the [[Nuremberg Laws]] of 1935 that prevented marriage between any Jew and non-Jew, and stripped all Jews of German citizenships (their official title became "[[subject of the state]]") and of their basic civil rights, e.g., to vote.
In 1936, Jews were banned from all professional jobs, effectively preventing them exerting any influence in education, politics, higher education and industry. On [[15 November]] of 1938, Jewish children were banned from going to normal schools. By April 1939, nearly all Jewish companies had either collapsed under financial pressure and declining profits, or had been forced to sell out to the Nazi-German government as part of the "Aryanization " policy inaugurated in 1937.
[[Image:Himmler Hitler.jpg|frame|100px|right|[[Heinrich Himmler]] (left), leader of the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] (responsible for rounding up Jews), with [[Adolf Hitler]] (right).]]
As the war started, large massacres of Jews took place, and, by December 1941, Hitler decided to completely exterminate European Jews. In January 1942, during the [[Wannsee conference]], several Nazi leaders discussed the details of the "[[final solution|Final Solution of the Jewish question]]" (''Endlösung der Judenfrage''). [[Dr. Josef Bühler]] urged [[Reinhard Heydrich]] to proceed with the Final Solution in the [[General Government]]. They began to systematically deport Jewish populations from the ghettos and all occupied territories to the seven camps designated as ''Vernichtungslager,'' or [[extermination camp]]s: [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz]], [[Belzec extermination camp|Belzec]], [[Chelmno concentration camp|Chelmno]], [[Majdanek]], [[Maly Trostenets extermination camp|Maly Trostenets]], [[Sobibór extermination camp|Sobibór]] and [[Treblinka extermination camp|Treblinka II]]. [[Sebastian Haffner]] published the analysis in 1978 that Hitler from December 1941 accepted the failure of his goal to dominate Europe forever on his declaration of war against the [[United States]], but that his withdrawal and apparent calm thereafter was sustained by the achievement of his second goal—the extermination of the Jews.{{ref|Haffner}}
Even as the Nazi war machine faltered in the last years of the war, precious military resources such as fuel, transport, munitions, soldiers and industrial resources were still being heavily diverted away from the war and towards the death camps.
By the end of the war, much of the Jewish population of Europe had been killed in the Holocaust. Poland, home of the largest Jewish community in the world before the war, had had over 90% of its Jewish population, or about 3,000,000 Jews, killed. Greece, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Lithuania, Bohemia, the Netherlands, Slovakia, and Latvia each had over 70% of their Jewish population destroyed. [[Belgium]], [[Romania]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Norway]], and [[Estonia]] lost around half of their Jewish population, the Soviet Union over one third of its Jews, and even countries such as France and Italy had each seen around a quarter of their Jewish population killed. Some [[Jews outside Europe under Nazi occupation]] were also affected by the Holocaust and treatment from the Nazis.
=== Slavs ===
[[Poles]] were one of the first targets of extermination by Hitler, as outlined in the [[Armenian quote|speech]] he gave the Wehrmacht commanders before the [[Polish September Campaign|invasion of Poland]] in 1939. The [[intelligentsia]] and socially prominent or influential people were primarily targeted, although there were some [[mass murder]]s committed [[World War II atrocities in Poland|against the general population]], as well as against other groups of Slavs. The Nazi occupation of Poland ([[General Government]], [[Reichsgau Wartheland]]) was one of the most brutal episodes of World War Two, resulting in 1.8-1.9 million non-Jewish deaths in addition to three million Polish [[Jew]]s. Scholars disagree as to what proportion of these non-Jewish Polish civilian deaths during the Nazi conquest and occupation of Poland were part of the Holocaust, though there is no doubt of the eventual genocidal intentions of the Nazis towards the Poles. At least 140,000 Poles were sent to Auschwitz, and the [[Intelligentsia#Intelligentsia_in_Poland|Polish intelligentsia]] were the first targets of the [[Einsatzgruppen]] death squads.{{ref|polesauschwitz}}
During [[Operation Barbarossa]], the [[Axis Powers|Axis]] invasion of the Soviet Union, hundreds of thousands (if not millions) of [[Red Army]] [[prisoners of war]] were arbitrarily executed in the field by the invading German armies (in particular by the notorious [[Waffen SS]]), died u |
ever, [[World War I]] began with the [[assassination in Sarajevo]] of Archduke [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria|Franz Ferdinand]], heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne; the assassin was [[Gavrilo Princip]], a member of the "[[Young Bosnia|Mlada Bosna]]" organization.
===The first Yugoslavia===
{{Sectstub}}
Following the war, Bosnia was incorporated into the South Slav kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later renamed the [[kingdom of Yugoslavia]]). Political life in Bosnia at this time (from [[1918]] to [[1941]]) was marked by two major trends: social and economic unrest over property redistribution, and formation of several political parties that frequently changed coalitions and alliances with parties in other Yugoslav regions. The redrawing of administrative regions into [[banovina]] units only exacerbated this process, which also encouraged plans for the official partition of Bosnia between Croatia and Serbia in the late 1930s.
===World War II===
{{Sectstub}}
When the [[kingdom of Yugoslavia]] was invaded by Nazi forces in [[World War II]], all of Bosnia was ceded to the [[Independent State of Croatia|the Nazi-puppet state Croatia]]. The Nazi rule over Bosnia led to widespread persecution, murder, and near-total annihilation of the [[Jewish]] population across Bosnia, while the NDH Croatian state also specifically persecuted the Serbian population in the country. Bosnia thus became the central region in a war that included German, Italian and Croatian armies as well as troops by the royalist Serbian regime and the anti-fascist movement. On [[25 November]] [[1943]] the [[Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation of Yugoslavia]] with [[Marshal Tito]] at its helm held a founding conference in [[Jajce]] where Bosnia and Herzegovina was reestablished as a republic within the Yugoslavian federation in its Ottoman borders. The conference's conclusions were later confirmed by the Yugoslavian constitution. [[25 November]] is considered a day of national statehood in Bosnia today.
===Socialist Yugoslavia===
{{Sectstub}}
From [[1945]] to [[1948]], the [[Yugoslavia|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] was established under the leadership of [[Josip Broz Tito]]. Yugoslavia consisted of the present-day states of Bosnia, Croatia, Macedonia, Serbia and Montenegro, and Slovenia until it broke up in 1990 when the Communist party failed to win the election.
===The Bosnian War and Massacre===
{{Main|Bosnian War}}
The Bosnian-Herzegovinian declaration of sovereignty in October of [[1991]] was followed by a [[referendum]] for independence from Yugoslavia in February [[1992]] boycotted by the Bosnian Serbs.
Bosnian [[Serbs]] responded shortly thereafter with armed attacks on Bosnian-Herzegovinian Croats and Bosniaks aimed at partitioning the republic along ethnic lines and joining Serb-held areas. The [[UNPROFOR]] (UN Protection Force) was deployed in Bosnia and Herzegovina in mid-1992. 1992 and 1993 saw the greatest bloodshed in Europe after 1945. Following the peace agreement proposal by [[Lord Owen]] in 1993, which practically intended to divide the country into three ethnically pure parts, an armed conflict developed between Bosniak and Croat units in a virtual territorial grab. It was later established that Croat military actions were directly supported by the government of [[Croatia]] which made this also an international conflict [http://www.un.org/icty/rajic/plea.pdf]. At that time about 70% of the country was in Serb control, and the rest was controlled by Bosniaks and Croats.
In March [[1994]], Bosniaks and Croats reduced the number of warring factions from three to two by signing an agreement creating a joint Bosniak-Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Each nation reported many casualties in the three-sided conflict, in which the Bosniaks reported the highest number of deaths and casualties. However, the only case officially ruled by the U.N. Hague tribunal as genocide was the [[Srebrenica massacre]] of 1995. At the end of the war approximately 102,000 people had been killed according to the [[ICTY]] [http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/1291965/posts] and more than 2 million people fled their homes (including over 1 million to neighboring nations and the west).
On [[November 21]], [[1995]], in [[Dayton, Ohio]], presidents of Bosnia and Herzegovina ([[Alija Izetbegović]]), Croatia ([[Franjo Tuđman]]), and Serbia ([[Slobodan Milošević]]) signed a peace agreement that brought a halt to the three years of war in the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (the final agreement was signed in [[Paris]] on [[14 December]] [[1995]]). The [[Dayton Agreement]] succeeded in ending the bloodshed in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and it institutionalized the division between the Bosnian-Herzegovinian Muslim and Croat entity - [[Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] (51% of the territory), and the Bosnian-Herzegovinian Serb entity - [[Republika Srpska]] (49%). [[Inter-Entity Boundary Line]] delineates the administrative division of the two Entities.
The enforcement of the implementation of the Dayton Agreement was through a UN mandate using various multinational forces: NATO-led [[IFOR]] (Implementation Force), which transitioned to the [[SFOR]] (Stabilisation Force) the next year, which in turn transitioned to the EU-led [[EUFOR]] at end of 2004. The civil administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina is headed by the High Representative of the international community.
Today the [[Dayton agreement]] is considered by many as one of the most controversial pieces of diplomacy that resulted from the [[Bosnian War]]. According to most experts while on one hand Dayton agreement did successfully end the war on the other it legitimized territorial gains achieved through [[ethnic cleansing]] and [[genocide]], and it created enormous bureaucratic obstacles for Bosnian Herzegovinian tendencies for [[European integration]]. As a result many reforms are taking place in Bosnia and Herzegovina today as part of the revisions to the Dayton agreement such as unifying of army and police forces and the enforcing of state level institutions. However, the most controversial part and the main clause of the Dayton agreement that stipulated territorial and administrative division of the country still remains in force and unchanged.
== Politics ==
{{Main|Politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
The Chair of the [[Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] rotates among three members ([[Bosniak]], [[Serb]], [[Croat]]), each elected as the Chair for a 8-month term within their 4-year term as a member. The three members of the [[Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Presidency]] are elected directly by the people (Federation votes for the Bosniak/Croat, Republika Srpska for the Serb). The Chair of the Council of Ministers is nominated by the Presidency and approved by the House of Representatives. He or she is then responsible for appointing a Foreign Minister, Minister of Foreign Trade, and others as appropriate.
The Parliamentary Assembly is the lawmaking body in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It consists of two houses: the House of Peoples and the House of Representatives. The House of Peoples includes 15 delegates, two-thirds of which come from the Federation (5 Croat and 5 Bosniaks) and one-third from the Republika Srpska (5 Serbs). The House of Representatives is composed of 42 Members, two-thirds elected from the Federation and one-third elected from the Republika Srpska.
The Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina is the supreme, final arbiter of legal matters. It is composed of nine members: four members are selected by the House of Representatives of the Federation, two by the Assembly of the Republika Srpska, and three by the President of the [[European Court of Human Rights]] after consultation with the Presidency.
==Subdivisions==
{{Main|Subdivisions of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
[[Image:Bosniadivisions1.PNG|right|140px|Entities of Bosnia and Herzegovina.]]
[[Image:Bosniadivisions2.PNG|right|140px|Cantons of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina.]]
[[Image:Bosniadivisions3.PNG|right|140px|Municipalities of Bosnia and Herzegovina.]]
Bosnia and Herzegovina has several levels of political structuring under the federal government. Most important of these is the division of the country into entities (Republika Srpska and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina). The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina covers some 51% of Bosnia and Herzegovina's total area, while Republika Srpska covers around 49%. The entities were officially established by the Dayton peace agreement in 1995 due to tremendous changes in Bosnia and Herzegovina's ethnic structure. This was caused by the [[ethnic cleansing]] of non-Serb population, the influx of [[Serbs|Bosnian Serb]] [[refugees]] from the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina due to [[Bosnian war]] (1992-1995) and [[Serbs of Croatia|Croatian Serb]] refugees from Croatia due to the [[Croatian War#War of Independence| Croatian war]] (1991-1995). Bosnian Serb government resettlement policy also played a part, and some resettlement took place after the war following the [[Dayton Peace Agreement]], subsequent to setting political boundaries ([[IEBL]]).
Since 1996 the power of the entities relative to the federal government has decreased significantly. Nonetheless, entities still have numerous powers to themselves. The [[Brčko District|Brčko federal district]] in the north of the country was created in 2000 out of land from both entities. It officially belongs to both, but is governed by neither, and functions under a decentralized system of local government. With a level of prosperity far above national average and a multiethnic population, the Brčko district is widely considered a model for future restructuring of Bosnia and Herzegovina's political subdivisions.
The third level of Bosnia and Herzegovina's political subdivision, after the entities and federal government, is r |
vowel]]s. Hebrew and Arabic also indicate consonant doubling and change with diacritics; Hebrew and [[Devanagari]] use them for foreign sounds. Devanagari and related abugidas also use a diacritical mark called a ''virama'' to mark the absence of a vowel.
* The Japanese [[hiragana]] and [[katakana]] [[syllabary|syllabaries]] use the ''[[dakuten]]'' (゛) and ''[[handakuten]]'' (゜) symbols, also known as ''ten-ten'' and ''maru'', to indicate [[voiced consonant]]s.
== Alphabetization or collation ==
Different languages use different rules to put diacritic characters in [[alphabet]]ical order. French treats letters with diacritical marks the same as the underlying letter for purposes of ordering and dictionaries. The same is true in German, and in cases where two words differ only by an umlaut, the word without it is sorted first in German dictionaries (''eg'' "schon" and then "schön", or "fallen" and then "fällen"). However, when names are concerned (''eg'' in phone books or in author catalogues in libraries), umlauts are often treated as combinations of the vowel with a suffixed 'e'; Austrian phone books now treat umlauts as separate letters (immediately following the underlying letter).
The Scandinavian languages, by contrast, treat the diacritic characters ''ä'', ''ö'' and ''å'' as new and separate letters of the alphabet, and sort them after ''z''. Usually ''ä'' is sorted as equal to ''æ'' (ash) and ''ö'' is sorted as equal to ''ø'' (o-slash). Other diacritically marked letters are treated as variants of the underlying letter.
Other languages treat diacritically marked letters as variants of the underlying letter, but alphabetize them following the unmarked letter. In Spanish ''ñ'' is considered a new letter different from ''n'' and placed between ''n'' and ''o'', however, acute accents and diaeresis are ignored.
The technical term for alphabetization is [[collation]].
''See also:'' [[Alphabet]], [[Latin alphabet]]
==Generation with computers==
Modern computer technology was developed mostly in the English speaking countries, so data formats, keyboard layouts, etc. were developed with an English bias; a "simple" alphabet without diacritical marks. This has led to fears internationally that the marks and accents may become obsolete to facilitate the worldwide exchange of data. Efforts have been made to create [[domain names]] that extend further than the English alphabet: the [[Internationalized domain names]], example: "pokémon.com".
Depending on the [[keyboard layout]], which differs amongst countries, it is more or less easy to enter letters with diacritics on computers and typewriters. Some have their own keys, some are created by first pressing the key with the diacritic mark followed by the letter to place it on. Such a key is sometimes referred to as a [[dead key]], as it produces no output of its own, but modifies the output of the key pressed after it.
On computers with the [[Microsoft Windows]] operating system, one can also enter each character of the current [[codepage]], e.g. [[ISO 8859-1|windows-1252]], by holding the Alt key and entering the respective decimal position on the Num pad, e.g. Alt+0210 is Ò. Additionally, on Windows XP, it is possible to enter any [[Unicode]] character from the Basic Multilingual Plane (i.e. up to U+FFFF) by pressing Alt and then, with Alt still pressed, the plus sign and the digits of the Unicode number each after the other. Alt with plus, D and 2 yields U+00D2: Ò.
In modern Microsoft Windows operating systems, the keyboard layout ''US International'' allows one to type almost all diacritics directly: "+e gives ë, ~+o gives õ etc.. In addition to this, the layout provides many 'special characters' behind the AltGr modifier: AltGr+t is þ, AltGr+z is æ, etc..
Using the [http://www.microsoft.com/downloads/details.aspx?FamilyId=FB7B3DCD-D4C1-4943-9C74-D8DF57EF19D7&displaylang=en Microsoft Keyboard Layout Creator (MSKLC)] people using Windows 2000, Windows XP or Windows Server 2003 can edit or create any keyboard layout.
On [[Apple Macintosh]] computers, there are keyboard shortcuts for the most common diacritics:
* Option-e followed by a vowel: places an acute accent.
* Option-u followed by a vowel: places a diaeresis.
* Option-n followed by a vowel or n: places a tilde.
* Option-` followed by a vowel: places a grave accent.
* Option-i followed by a vowel: places a circumflex.
* Option-c: places a c cedilla
On computers it is also a matter of available [[codepage]]s, whether you can use certain diacritics. [[Unicode]] tries to solve this problem, among others.
In [[GNOME]] applications (found on many [[Linux]] and [[Unix|UNIX]] computers) arbitrary [[Unicode]] characters may be entered by holding down the ctrl and shift keys while typing the [[hexadecimal]] codepoint. After releasing ctrl-shift the digits will be converted into the symbol. For example ctrl-shift 1E3 produces {{unicode|&#x1E3;}}.
Diacritics can be [[Compose|composed]] in most [[X Window System|X Window Systems]].
With Unicode it is also possible to [[Combining diacritical mark|combine diacritical marks]] with most characters.
== See also ==
* [[Heavy metal umlaut]]
* [[List of English words with diacritics]]
* [[List of U.S. cities with diacritics]]
* [[ß]]
* [[ĸ]]
* [[ſ]]
* [[ǰ]]
* [[]]
* [[]]
* [[⁷]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.unicode.org Unicode]
* [http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/dia/diacritics-revised.htm Orthographic diacritics and multilingual computing, by J.C. Wells]
* [http://diacritics.typo.cz Diacritics Project - All you need to design a font with correct accents]
* [http://www.tuxmagazine.com/node/1000044 Entering International Characters (in Linux, KDE)]
* [http://www.adobe.com/type/pdfs/characcessmac.pdf Standard Character Set for Macintosh] PDF at Adobe.com
* [http://www.starr.net/is/type/kbh.html Keyboard Help - Learn how to create world language accent marks and other diacriticals on a computer]
[[Category:Diacritics]]
[[als:Diakritisches Zeichen]]
[[zh-min-nan:Phiat-im hû-hō]]
[[ca:Signe diacrític]]
[[cs:Diakritické znaménko]]
[[da:Accenttegn]]
[[de:Diakritisches Zeichen]]
[[es:Signo diacrítico]]
[[eo:Diakrita signo]]
[[fr:Diacritique]]
[[it:Segno diacritico]]
[[lt:Diakritiniai ženklai]]
[[nl:Diakritisch teken]]
[[ja:ダイアクリティカルマーク]]
[[no:Diakritisk tegn]]
[[nn:Aksentteikn]]
[[pl:Znaki diakrytyczne]]
[[pt:Diacrítico]]
[[ro:Semn diacritic]]
[[ru:Диакритический знак]]
[[sv:Diakritiskt tecken]]
[[wa:Diyacritike]]
[[zh:变音符号]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Diaresis</title>
<id>8440</id>
<revision>
<id>15906440</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Diaeresis]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Digraph</title>
<id>8442</id>
<revision>
<id>23864746</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-23T21:43:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KnightRider</username>
<id>430793</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>warnfile Adding: es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Digraph''' has several meanings:
*[[Directed graph]], or ''digraph''
*[[Digraph (orthography)]]
*[[Digraph (computing)]]
{{disambig}}
[[es:Dígrafo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Didgeridoo</title>
<id>8443</id>
<revision>
<id>41759470</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T15:18:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>86.138.208.113</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Didgeridoo Entier1.jpg|frame|A didgeridoo. This particular instrument is more ornate than most.]]The '''didgeridoo''' (or '''didjeridu''') is a unique wind [[musical instrument|instrument]] of the [[Indigenous Australians]] of northern [[Australia]]. It is sometimes described as a natural wooden [[trumpet]] or "drone pipe". Musicologists classify it as an [[aerophone]].
A didgeridoo is usually cylindrical or conical in shape and can measure anywhere from 1 to 2 [[metre]]s, with most instruments measuring around 1.5 meters. Instruments shorter or longer than this are less common. Generally, the longer the instrument, the lower the pitch or key of the instrument. Keys from D to F♯ are the preferred pitch of traditional Aboriginal players.
There are no reliable sources stating the didgeridoo's exact age, though it is commonly claimed to be the world's oldest wind instrument. Archaeological studies of rock art in northern Australia suggests that the Aboriginal people of the [[Kakadu]] region of the [[Northern Territory]] have been using the didgeridoo for about 1500 years, based on the dating of paintings on cave walls and shelters from this period.
== The name ==
"Didgeridoo" is usually considered to be an [[onomatopoeia|onomatopoetic]] word of Western invention, but it has been suggested that it may be derived from the [[Irish language|Irish]] words ''dúdaire'' or ''dúidire'', meaning variously 'trumpeter; constant smoker, puffer; long-necked person, eavesdropper; hummer, crooner' and ''dubh'', meaning 'black' (or ''duth'', meaning 'native').[http://www.flinders.edu.au/news/articles/?fj09v13s02] The earliest occurrences of the word in print include the ''Australian National Dictionary'' [[1919]], ''[[The Bulletin]]'' in [[1924]] and the writings of [[Herbert Basedow]] in [[1926]]. There are numerous names for this instrument among the Aboriginal people of northern Australia, with "yirdaki" one of the better known words in modern Western society. "Yirdaki", also sometimes spelt "yidaki", refers to the specific type of instrument made and used by the [[Yolngu]] people of north-east [[Arnhem Land]]. This name is not a substit |
nkings, photos, rules, translations, faqs strategies, and session reports. It contains over 20,000 individual boardgame entries.
*[http://www.di.fc.ul.pt/~jpn/gv/ The World of Abstract Games] - list of abstract board games with detailed rules
*[http://www.games-db.com/Traditional/ Games-db] - features a board game database
*[http://www.thelittlewoodshop.co.uk/board-games-history.php The Little Woodshop] - A brief history of board games, from past to present
*[http://scv.bu.edu/~aarondf/Top100/ Internet Top 100 Games List] - The [[Internet Top 100 Games List]] compiles overall rankings from player ratings of board games sent in by email.
*[news://rec.games.board rec.games.board] - [[Usenet]] [[newsgroup]]
*[http://boardgames.bellaonline.com/Site.asp BellaOnline Board Games Site] - News and reviews of board games. Frequently updated.
*[http://www.thedicetower.com/ The Dice Tower], a weekly podcast about board games
===Specialist information===
*[http://www.tradgames.org.uk/ Traditional Games] - includes information on classical games.
*[http://ricardobugsy.tripod.com/boardgames/boardgames.htm 1970s Vintage Boardgames] - UK 1970s rare vintage board games.
*[http://www.carromshop.com Carrom] - Traditional Asian board game played by 2 or 4 players.
===Game design===
*[http://www.bgdf.com/ The Board Game Designers Forum] - a forum for amateur and published board game designers with chats, workshops, competitions, news, game reviews and, of course, forums on design, prototyping, publishing and many other subjects.
===Magazines===
*[http://www.thegamesjournal.com/ The Games Journal] - a boardgaming monthly; good source for in-depth articles about boardgaming.
*[http://www.boardgamesstudies.org/ International Journal for the Study of Board Games]
===Gaming organizations===
*[http://www.boardgamers.org/ Boardgame Players Association] - World Boardgaming Championships
*[http://www.gencon.com/ GenCon]
*[http://www.originsgames.com/ Origins Game Fair]
*[http://www.gama.org/ Game Manufacturer's Association (GAMA)] - Non-profit formed in 1977 to promote hobby gaming.
===Online play===
*[http://www.brettspielwelt.de/ World of Board Games] - BrettspielWelt. About 50 board games to play online for free. A big community of active board gamers gather around this site.
*[http://GamesByEmail.com/ GamesByEmail.com] - correspondence gaming site.
*[http://www.kurnik.org/ Kurnik Online Games] - hassle-free online gaming site with lots of board and card games.
*[http://www.youplay.it/ You Play It] - play online many famous board games. Free site without advertising.
*[http://citadellesjavagame.free.fr/phpBB2 Citadels] - Play Bruno Faidutti's game online, alone versus bots or against human players
http://www.brettspielwelt.de/ - Play many eurogames online at BrettspielWelt (BSW)
http://www.spielbyweb.com/ - Play Amun-Re, Bus, Hoity Toity, Reef Encounter, and Wallenstein online at Spiel by Web
http://www.blokus.com/index.htm - Play Blokus online
[[Category:Board games| ]]
[[ca:Joc de taula]]
[[da:Brætspil]]
[[de:Brettspiel]]
[[es:Juegos de mesa]]
[[eo:Tabulludo]]
[[fr:Jeu de société]]
[[ko:보드 게임]]
[[io:Tablo-ludo]]
[[it:Gioco da tavolo]]
[[he:משחק לוח]]
[[la:Ludus tabularis]]
[[lt:Stalo žaidimai]]
[[nl:Bordspel]]
[[ja:ボードゲーム]]
[[no:Brettspill]]
[[nn:Brettspel]]
[[pl:Gra planszowa]]
[[pt:Jogo de tabuleiro]]
[[simple:Board game]]
[[sl:Igra na deski]]
[[fi:Lautapeli]]
[[sv:Brädspel]]
[[zh:棋盘游戏]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bead</title>
<id>3402</id>
<revision>
<id>41886148</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T10:31:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>143.90.220.187</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|bead}}
{{for|the bead of a tire|Tire bead}}
{{for|the visual effect during a Sun eclipse|Baily's beads}}
[[Image:Beads.jpg|thumb|right|Beads]]
[[Image:Cloisonnebeads.jpg|thumb|right|Cloisonné beads]]
[[Image:Dichroicclose.jpg|thumb|right|Dichroic beads (10 mm)]]
A '''bead''' is a small, decorative object that is pierced for [[yarn|thread]]ing or stringing. As an alternative to piercing, plastic beads may be ''M''oulded ''O''nto a ''T''hread during manufacturing; these ''MOT'' beads are often used for the throw necklaces worn at [[Mardi Gras]].
Beads range in size from under a [[millimeter]] to over a [[centimeter]] in diameter. [[Glass]], [[plastic]], and [[Rock (geology)|stone]] are probably the most common materials, but beads are also made from [[bone]], [[horn (anatomy)|horn]], [[ivory]], [[metal]], [[animal shell|shell]], [[pearl]], [[coral]], [[gemstone]]s, [[polymer clay]], [[metal clay]], [[resin]], synthetic [[minerals]], [[wood]], [[pottery|ceramic]], [[fiber]], [[paper]], and the [[seed]]s of the [[Bead tree]].
[[Beadwork]] is the [[craft]] of making things with beads. Beads can be woven together with specialized [[yarn|thread]], or adhered to a surface (e.g. [[Cloth|fabric]], [[clay]]).
Types of decorative beads include:
* [[Chevron bead]]s
* [[Cloisonné]] beads
* [[Dichroism|Dichroic]] beads
* Ethnic beads
* [[Faux]] natural beads
* Fire-polished beads
* Furnace glass beads
* [[Lampwork beads]]
* [[Lead crystal]] beads
* [[Millefiori]] beads
* Pressed glass beads
* Seed beads
* [[Slave beads|Trade beads or Slave beads]]
==Seed beads==
[[Image:Seedbeads.jpg|thumb|right|Seed beads]]
'''Seed Beads''' are uniformly shaped, spheroidal [[bead]]s ranging in size from under a [[millimetre]] to several millimetres. "Seed Bead" is a generic term for any small bead. Usually rounded in shape, seed beads are most commonly used for [[Bead weaving|loom]] and [[Bead weaving|off-loom]] bead weaving. They may be used for simple stringing, or as spacers between other beads in jewelry. Larger seed beads are used in various fiber crafts for embellishment, or [[crochet]] with fiber or wire.
===Units of measure===
The most popular seed bead size is 11/0 ("eleven-aught"), but sizes range from 22/0 (believed to be the smallest) to 6/0 or 5/0 (the largest). The term "aught" refers to how many beads can fit into a standard unit. The origin of the name is debatable.
Size numbers are also used. Unfortunately online vendors will typically not explain the correlation between size numbers and aughts and millimeters.
<table border=1 width=70% cellpadding=0>
<tr>
<td bgcolor=lightyellow align=center>
'''aught size'''
</td>
<td bgcolor=lightyellow align=center>
'''mm diameter'''
</td>
<td bgcolor=lightyellow align=center>
'''beads per inch'''
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor=pink align=center>
6/0
</td>
<td bgcolor=pink align=center>
3.3
</td>
<td bgcolor=pink align=center>
10
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor=lightyellow align=center>
8/0
</td>
<td bgcolor=lightyellow align=center>
2.5
</td>
<td bgcolor=lightyellow align=center>
13
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor=pink align=center>
9/0
</td>
<td bgcolor=pink align=center>
2.2
</td>
<td bgcolor=pink align=center>
15
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor=lightyellow align=center>
10/0
</td>
<td bgcolor=lightyellow align=center>
2.0
</td>
<td bgcolor=lightyellow align=center>
16
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor=pink align=center>
11/0
</td>
<td bgcolor=pink align=center>
1.8
</td>
<td bgcolor=pink align=center>
20
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor=lightyellow align=center>
13/0
</td>
<td bgcolor=lightyellow align=center>
1.5
</td>
<td bgcolor=lightyellow align=center>
27
</td>
</tr><tr>
<td bgcolor=pink align=center>
14/0
</td>
<td bgcolor=pink align=center>
1.4
</td>
<td bgcolor=pink align=center>
24
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor=lightyellow align=center>
15/0
</td>
<td bgcolor=lightyellow align=center>
1.3
</td>
<td bgcolor=lightyellow align=center>
25
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor=pink align=center>
delica
</td>
<td bgcolor=pink align=center>
1.8
</td>
<td bgcolor=pink align=center>
20</font>
</td>
</table>
===Methods of packaging===
Seed beads are sold either by "hank" or by gram weight.
; Hanks
A [[hank]] is [[unit]] bundle of strands of [[seed]] beads or bugle beads.
There are usually 12 strands of 20 inches of strung beads in each modern hank of 11/0 beads.
Different sizes and types of beads may be sold in hanks which have different numbers and lengths of strands.
Different hanks (age, type, size) have had from 8 to 14 strands, and lengths have varied from 8 to 20 inches per strand.
For example, Charlotte size 13/0 cut beads are generally on short hanks, containing 12 twelve-inch strands. Some [[vintage]] 18/0 hanks have had 10 strands of 8-10 inches (200 to 250 mm) each.
[[Czech republic|Czech]] seed beads are sold from the factories by the hank. They are very often repackaged into tubes, bags, or other containers for retail sale, in quantities varying from 5 grams to 40 or more grams. When Czech beads are repackaged, they are usually sold by the gram, which creates some confusion on how many beads come on a hank. Not every 20 inch strand of size 11 beads weighs the same.
A hank of size 2 bugles or size 11 seed beads generally weighs between 30 and 40 grams, depending on manufacturing variations, coatings or linings. Purchasing Czech beads by the hank is usually a better value than the repackaged beads by far.
A production run of a custom made seed bead is 8 kilograms. The beads are produced in the Czech Republic using a 10 kilogram rod of color glass. The excess glass is recycled to form new rods. The color glass rods are produced from a larger mass melt of so |
eously Cupid and Cecco, as Caravaggio’s Virgins were simultaneously the Mother of Christ and the Roman courtesans who modeled for them.
===Exile and death (1606-1610)===
[[Image:Caravaggio_denial.jpg|thumb|left|300px|''[[The Denial of Saint Peter (Caravaggio)|The Denial of Saint Peter]]'', c. 1610. Oil on canvas, 94 x 125 cm. [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], [[New York]]. In the [[chiaroscuro]] a woman points two fingers at Peter while a soldier points a third. Caravaggio tells the story of Peter denying Christ three times with this symbolism.]]
Caravaggio led a tumultuous life. He was notorious for brawling, even in a time and place when such behavior was commonplace, and the transcripts of his police records and trial proceedings fill several pages. On [[29 May]] [[1606]], he killed, possibly unintentionally, a young man named Ranuccio Tomassoni.{{ref|www.telegraph.co.uk.524}} Previously his high-placed patrons had protected him from the consequences of his escapades, but this time they could do nothing. Caravaggio, outlawed, fled to [[Naples]]. There, outside the jurisdiction of the Roman authorities and protected by the Colonna family, the most famous painter in Rome became the most famous in Naples. His connections with the Colonnas led to a stream of important church commissions, including the ''[[Madonna of the Rosary (Caravaggio)|Madonna of the Rosary]]'', and ''[[The Seven Works of Mercy (Caravaggio)|The Seven Works of Mercy]]''.
Despite his success in Naples, after only a few months in the city Caravaggio left for [[Malta]], the headquarters of the [[Knights of Malta]], presumably hoping that the patronage of [[Alof de Wignacourt]], Grand Master of the Knights, could help him secure a pardon for Tomassoni's death. De Wignacourt proved so impressed at having the famous artist as official painter to the Order that he inducted him as a knight, and the early biographer Bellori records that the artist was well pleased with his success. Major works from his Malta period include a huge ''[[The Beheading of Saint John the Baptist (Caravaggio)|Beheading of Saint John the Baptist]]'' (the only painting to which he put his signature) and a ''[[Portrait of Alof de Wignacourt and his Page (Caravaggio)|Portrait of Alof de Wignacourt and his Page]]'', as well as portraits of other leading knights. Yet by late August of 1608 he was arrested and imprisoned. The circumstances surrounding this abrupt change of fortune have long been a matter of speculation, but recent investigation has revealed it to have been the result of yet another brawl, during which the door of a house was battered down and a knight seriously wounded.{{ref|http://caravaggio.com/preview/attach/data01/D000199.htm}} By December he had been expelled from the Order "as a foul and rotten member."{{ref|foul_and_rotten}}
[[Image:Resurrection_of_lazarus.jpg|thumb|right|300px|''[[The Raising of Lazarus - Messina (Caravaggio)|The Raising of Lazarus]]''. 1609. [[Museo Regionale]].]]
Before the expulsion Caravaggio had escaped to [[Sicily]] and the company of his old friend Mario Minniti, who was now married and living in [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]]. Together they set off on what amounted to a triumphal tour from Syracuse to [[Messina]] and on to the island capital, [[Palermo]]{{note|Syracuse_to_Messina_to_Polermo}}. Everywhere he went, Caravaggio continued to win prestigious and well-paid commissions. Among other works from this period are a ''[[Burial of St. Lucy (Caravaggio)|Burial of St. Lucy]]'', a ''[[The Raising of Lazarus - Messina (Caravaggio)|The Raising of Lazarus]]'', and an ''[[Adoration of the Shepherds (Caravaggio)|Adoration of the Shepherds]]''. His style continued to evolve, showing now friezes of figures isolated against vast empty backgrounds, suggesting "...desperate fears...frailty...desolate tenderness...".{{ref|desolate_tenderness}} Contemporary reports depict a man whose behaviour was becoming increasingly bizarre, sleeping fully armed and in his clothes, ripping up a painting at a slight word of criticism, mocking the local painters.{{ref|bizarre_behavior}}
After only nine months in Sicily Caravaggio returned to Naples. According to his earliest biographer he was being pursued by enemies while in Sicily and felt it safest to place himself under the protection of the Colonnas until he could secure his pardon from the pope (now [[Paul V]]) and return to Rome.{{ref|Naples}} In Naples he painted ''[[The Denial of Saint Peter (Caravaggio)|The Denial of Saint Peter]]'', a final ''[[John the Baptist (Caravaggio)|John the Baptist (Borghese)]]'', and, his last picture, ''[[The Martyrdom of Saint Ursula (Caravaggio)|The Martyrdom of Saint Ursula]]''. His style continued to evolve - [[Saint Ursula]] is caught in a moment of highest action and drama, as the arrow fired by the king of the [[Huns]] strikes her in the breast, unlike earlier paintings which had all the immobility of the posed models. The brushwork was much freer and more impressionistic. Had Caravaggio lived, something new would have come.
In Naples an attempt was made on his life, by persons unknown. At first it was reported in Rome that the "famous artist" Caravaggio was dead, but then it was learned that he was alive, but seriously disfigured in the face. He painted a ''[[Salome with the Head of John the Baptist (Madrid) (Caravaggio)|Salome with the Head of John the Baptist (Madrid)]]'', showing his own head on a platter, and sent it to de Wignacourt as a plea for forgiveness. Perhaps at this time he painted also a ''[[David with the Head of Goliath (Caravaggio)|David with the Head of Goliath]]'', showing the young David with a strangely sorrowful expression gazing on the wounded head of the giant, which is again Caravaggio's. This painting he may have sent to the unscrupulous art-loving cardinal-nephew Scipione Borghese, who had the power to grant or withhold pardons.{{ref|David_to_Borghese}}
In the summer of 1610 he took a boat northwards to receive the pardon, which seemed imminent thanks to his powerful Roman friends. With him were three last paintings, gifts for Cardinal Scipione. What happened next is the subject of much confusion and conjecture. The bare facts are that on [[28 July]] an anonymous ''avviso'' (private newsletter) from Rome to the ducal court of Urbino reported that Caravaggio was dead. Three days later another ''avviso'' said that he had died of fever. These were the earliest, brief accounts of his death, which later underwent much elaboration. No body was found.#{{ref|death_uncertainties}} A poet friend of the artist later gave [[18 July]] as the date of death, and a recent researcher claims to have discovered a death notice showing that the artist died on that day of a fever in Porto Ercole{{ref|news.bbc.co.uk.525}}, near [[Grosseto]] in [[Tuscany]].
==Caravaggio the artist==
===The birth of Baroque===
[[Image:Takingofchrist.jpg|thumb|right|300px| ''[[The Taking of Christ]]'' 1602. [[National Gallery of Ireland]]. Caravaggio's application of the [[chiaroscuro]] technique shows through on the faces and armour notwithstanding the lack of a visible shaft of light.]]
Caravaggio “put the oscuro (shadows) into chiaroscuro.”{{ref|put_the_oscuro_into_chiaroscuro}} Chiaroscuro was practiced long before he came on the scene, but it was Caravaggio who made the technique definitive, darkening the shadows and transfixing the subject in a blinding shaft of light. With this went the acute observation of physical and psychological reality which formed the ground both for his immense popularity and for his frequent problems with his religious commissions.
He worked at great speed, from live models, scoring basic guides directly onto the canvas with the end of the brush handle. The approach was anathema to the skilled artists of his day, who decried his inability to work without a live model. Yet the models were basic to his realism. Some have been identified, including [[Mario Minniti]] and [[Francesco Boneri]], both fellow-artists. Minitti appeared as various figures in the early secular works, Boneri as a succession of angels in the later religious canvasses. The female models include Filide Melandroni and Maddalena Antognetti, both well-known prostitutes, who appear as female religious figures including the Virgin and various saints.{{ref|models}} Caravaggio himself appears in several paintings, his final self-portrait being as the witness on the far right to the ''[[The Martyrdom of Saint Ursula (Caravaggio)|Martyrdom of Saint Ursula]]''.{{ref|himself_as_model}}
[[image:caravaggio.emmaus.750pix.jpg|thumb|left|300px|''[[Supper at Emmaus (Caravaggio)|Supper at Emmaus]]'', 1601. Oil on canvas, 139 x 195 cm. [[National Gallery, London|National Gallery]], [[London]].]]
Carravagio had the uncanny ability to express in one scene of unsurpassed vividness the passing of a crucial moment. ''[[Supper at Emmaus (London) (Caravaggio)|The Supper at Emmaus]]'' depicts the recognition of Christ by his disciples: a moment before he is a fellow traveler, mourning the passing of the Messiah, as he never ceases to be to the inn-keeper’s eyes, the second after, he is the Saviour. In [[The Calling of St Matthew (Caravaggio)|The Calling of St Matthew]], the hand of the Saint points to himself as if he were saying “who, me?”, while his eyes, fixed upon the figure of Christ, have already said, “Yes, I will follow you”. With [[The Raising of Lazarus (Caravaggio)|The Resurrection of Lazarus]], he goes a step further, giving us a glimpse of the actual physical process of resurrection. The body of Lazarus is still in the throes of rigor mortis, but his hand, facing and recognizing that of Christ, is alive. Other major Baroque artist would travel the same path, for example [[Bernini]] fascinated with themes from Ovid’s [[Metamorphosis]].
===The ''Caravaggisti''===
[[Image:Judith Beheading Holofernes by Caravaggio.jpg|thumb|right|300px| ''[[Judith |
articipated in the strikes against Iraq.
The Air Force primarily operates Block 40/42 and 50/52 F-16C's on active duty, while most Block 25 and 30/32 airframes have been moved to the [[Air National Guard]] and the Air Force Reserve.
The [[F-35_Joint_Strike_Fighter|F-35]] "Joint Strike Fighter" is the F-16's intended replacement, possessing slightly improved performance and most importantly, stealth technology, which will enhance its survivability in the modern battlespace.
<br clear="all"/>
==Design characteristics==
The F-16 is a single engine, multi-mission tactical aircraft. It is equipped with an [[M61 Vulcan]] cannon in the left wing root, and can be equipped with air-to-air missiles. However, the F-16 can also perform ground-support tasks if necessary. For that task, it can be equipped with a large variety of missiles or bombs.
From the very beginning, the F-16 was intended to be a cost-effective "workhorse," that could perform various kinds of missions and maintain around-the-clock readiness. It is much simpler and lighter than its predecessors, but uses advanced [[aerodynamics]] and [[avionics]] (including the first use of [[Aircraft_flight_control_systems#Fly-by-wire|fly-by-wire]], earning it the nickname of "the electric jet") to maintain good performance.
[[Image:F16 Cockpit, Asian Aerospace 2006.JPG|thumb|right|300px|F-16 Cockpit]]
[[Image:F-16 CJ Fighting Falcon.jpg|thumb|right|300px|F-16C Fighting Falcon]]
===Ergonomics and visibility===
The pilot sits high in the [[fuselage]] with the canopy support-bow behind him, out of his line of view. This and the bubble canopy give the pilot an unobstructed field of view, a feature vital during air-to-air combat. The seat is reclined 30 degrees instead of the usual 13, the myth being to improve pilot G tolerance. In fact, the seat is reclined further back to fit the seat into such a low, narrow (originally radar-less) nose. If the seat was not reclined the front fuselage would have to be much higher. The control stick is mounted on the right armrest rather than between the legs as is traditional, to aid in maneuvering during high-g turns. In addition, a holographic [[Head-Up Display]] displays vital information in the pilot's field of view.
===Fly by wire===
The F-16 uses computerized [[Aircraft_flight_control_systems#Fly-by-wire|fly-by-wire]] and has no physical linkages between the control stick and the flight surfaces. Computer control is necessary for flight as a result of the inherent negative stability of the aircraft, a trait which trades stable flight for increased maneuverability.
This lack of physical linkages between the control stick and the flight surfaces led to an unusual characteristic in the design of the control stick: originally, it did not move. The control stick instead detected pressure applied by the pilot and translated that pressure into control of the aircraft. This arrangement proved uncomfortable and difficult for pilots to adjust to, so the control stick was given a small amount (less than a quarter of an inch in any direction) of play.
The onboard computer makes thousands of calculations and corrections each second to keep the plane flying, freeing pilots to concentrate on tasks necessary to fulfill their intended role. The enhanced computer oversight also provides automatic flight coordination, utilizing all control surfaces (including the rudder) to keep the aircraft from entering performance hurting or even potentially dangerous situations such as unintentional [[Slip (aerodynamic)|slip]]s or [[Skid (aerodynamic)|skid]]s.
Early critics of the F-16 felt that the completely electronic control system would dramatically decrease safety, but a predicted rash of fly-by-wire based accidents has not materialized.
===Negative static stability===
An aircraft with negative static stability will, in the absence of control input, depart from level and controlled flight. Most aircraft are designed with positive static stability, where a plane tends to return to its original attitude following a disturbance. However, positive static stability hampers maneuverability, as the tendency to remain in its current attitude opposes the pilot's effort to maneuver, and so a plane with negative static stability will be more maneuverable. With a fly-by-wire system, such a plane can be kept in stable flight, its instability kept in check by the flight computers.
The YF-16 was the world's first aircraft to be slightly aerodynamically unstable by design. This feature is officially called "relaxed static stability". Subsonic, the aeroplane is constantly on the verge of going out of control. This tendency is constantly caught and corrected by the DFLCC (Digital Flight Control Computer), allowing for stable flight. When supersonic, the airplane exhibits positive static stability due to aerodynamic forces acting on the strake section of the wing.
==Versions==
F-16 models are denoted by sequential block numbers to denote significant upgrades. The blocks cover both single and two-seater versions. An intricate [[Multinational Staged Improvement Program]] was instituted to gradually upgrade the F-16 and retroactively implement the upgrades in delivered aircraft.
===F-16 A/B===
The F-16 A/B was initially equipped with the [[Westinghouse Electric Corporation|Westinghouse]] [[AN/APG-66]] [[Pulse-doppler radar]], [[Pratt & Whitney F100|Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-200]] turbofan, rated at 14,670 lbf (64.9 kN), 23,830 lbf (106.0 kN) with afterburner. The USAF bought 674 F-16A's and 121 F-16B's, with delivery completed in March 1985.
*'''Blocks 1''' <br> Early blocks (Block 1/5/10) with relatively minor differences between each. Most were later upgraded to the Block 10 configuration in the early 80's. There were 94 Block 1, 197 Block 5, and 312 Block 10 aircraft produced. Block 1 is the early production model with the nose cone painted black.
*'''Block 5''' <br> It was discovered that the black nose cone became an obvious visual identification at long range for the Block 1 aircraft, so the color of the nose cone is consequently changed to the low visibility grey for Block 5 aircraft. During the operation of F-16 Block 1, it was discovered that the rain water had accumulated in certain spots within the fuselage, so drainage holes were drilled in the forward fuselage and tail fin area for Block 5 aircraft.
*'''Block 10''' <br> The Soviet Union significantly reduced the export of titanium during the late 1970's, so manufacturers of the F-16 used aluminium instead. New methods were also used: the corrugated aluminium is bolted to the epoxy surface for Block 10 aircraft, replacing the old method of aluminium honeycomb being glued to the epoxy surface used in earlier aircraft.
*'''Block 15''' <br> The first major change in the F-16, the Block 15 aircraft featured larger horizontal stabilizers, the addition of two hardpoints to the chin inlet, improved [[AN/APG-66]] radar, increased capacity of underwing hardpoints. The F-16 gained the [[Have Quick II]] secure [[Ultra high frequency|UHF]] radio. To counter the additional weight of the new hardpoints, the horizontal stabilizers were enlarged by 30%. Block 15 is the most numerous variant of the F-16, with 983 produced. The last one was delivered in 1996 to Thailand.
*'''Block 15 OCU''' <br> From 1987 Block 15 aircraft were delivered to the Operational Capability Upgrade (OCU) standard, which featured improved F100-PW-220 turbofans with digital control interface, the ability to fire the [[AGM-65]], [[AMRAAM]], and [[AGM-119 Penguin]] missiles, countermeasures and cockpit upgrades, improved computers and data bus. Its maximum takeoff weight increased to 37,500 lb (17,000 kg). 214 aircraft received this upgrade, as well as some Block 10 aircraft, retroactively.
* '''Block 20''' <br> 150 Block 15 OCU's for Taiwan with the addition of most of the F-16 C/D capability: carriage of [[AGM-45 Shrike]], [[AGM-84 Harpoon]], [[AGM-88 HARM]], and the[[LANTIRN]] pod. The computers onboard Block 20 is siginificantly improved in comparison to the earlier versions, with the overall processing speed increased 740 times and the overall memory storage increased 180 times in comparison to that of Block 15 OCU.
===F-16 C/D===
* '''Block 25'''<br>The Block 25 F-16C first flew in June 1984 and entered USAF service in September. The aircraft are fitted with the Westinghouse [[AN/APG-68]] radar, have a precision night attack capability and are fitted with the [[Pratt & Whitney F100|Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-220E]] turbofan, with digital control interface. The USAF is the sole user of this variant, with 209 models delivered.
* '''Block 30/32''' <br>The first aircraft subject to the Alternative Fighter Engine project under which aircraft could be fitted with the traditional Pratt & Whitney engines or for the first time the [[General Electric F110]]. Blocks ending in 0 are powered by GE, blocks ending in 2 are fitted with [[Pratt & Whitney]] engines. <br> The first Block 30 F-16 entered service in 1987. Major differences include the carriage of the [[AGM-45 Shrike]] and [[AGM-88 HARM]] missiles. From Block 30D aircraft were fitted with enlarged inlets for the increased thrust GE engine, Block 32s were not modified in this way. 733 were produced and delivered to six countries.
* '''Block 40/42 (F-16 CG/DG) ''' <br>Entering service in 1988, the Block 40/42 is the improved all-day/all-weather strike variant with [[LANTIRN]] pod, the night capability gives rise to the name "Night Falcons". The block features strengthened and lengthened undercarriage for [[LANTIRN]] pods, improved radar, and a GPS receiver. From 2002 the Block 40/42 increases the weapon range available to the aircraft including [[JDAM]], [[JSOW]], [[WCMD]] and the (Enhanced) EGBU-27. Also incorporated in this block was |
ng, bassists will slap in between plucked notes to add to the pulse of the song. In the hands of a virtuoso picker, slapping can involve exciting sequences of rapid double and even triple slaps interspersed with regular plucking. Like other bassists that use the slapping style (such as [[rockabilly]] or 1920's-era [[jazz]] revivalists), bluegrass musicians sometimes use gut strings.
Common rhythms in bluegrass bass playing involve (with some exceptions) plucking on beats 1 and 3 in 4/4 time; beats 1 and 2 in 2/4 time, and beats 1 and 3 and in 3/4 time (waltz time). Bluegrass bass lines are usually extremely simple, typically staying on the root and fifth of each chord throughout much of a song. There are two main exceptions to this "rule". Bluegrass bassists often do a scalar "walkup" or "walkdown" in which they play every beat of a bar for one or two bars, typically when there is a prominent chord change. In addition, if a bass player is given a solo, they may do a "[[walking bass]] line" and play scale notes on every beat of the bar that connect the chords of the song. Even though bluegrass bass lines may be relatively simple from a technical point of view, there is a great deal to learn about how to play bass tastefully and in a stylistically appropriate way for all of the different types of songs in the bluegrass style.
[[Cedric Rainwater]], bassist for [[Bill Monroe]] and later [[Flatt and Scruggs]], helped to define the bluegrass sound with his characteristic root and fifth approach where the 1 and 3 beats are emphasized, as well as his incorporation the [[walking bass]] style, where each beat in 4/4 time is plucked, going up and down the major and Mixolydian (flat VII) scales.
Notable bass players in contemporary bluegrass music:
* [[Roy Huskey, Jr.]]
* [[Jake Tulloch]]
* [[Missy Raines]]
* [[Mike Bub]]
* [[Barry Bales]]
* [[Tom Gray]]
==Double bass in popular music==
[[Image:Bill Haley and the Comets.jpg|thumb|300px|right|In 1952, the upright bass was a standard instrument in rock n' roll, here played by [[Marshall Lytle]] (left).]]
The double bass was an integral part of pop lineups in the 1950s ranging from Bill Haley and the Comets to Elvis Presley. This is due to the [[jazz]], R&B, [[country]] and [[bluegrass music|bluegrass]] roots of 1950's rock and roll.
[[Image:Beatlessullivantogether.jpg|thumb|left|By 1964, rock n'roll bassists such as [[Paul McCartney]] (left) used electric bass guitars almost exclusively.]]
However, it faced inherent problems. For one, it was forced to compete with louder horn instruments (and later amplified [[electric guitar]]s), making bass parts difficult to hear. The double bass is difficult to amplify in loud concert venue settings, because it can be prone to feedback "howls". As well, the double bass is large and awkward to transport, which created transportation problems for touring bands.
In 1951, [[Leo Fender]] independently released his [[Precision Bass]], the first commercially successful [[bass guitar|electric bass guitar]]. The electric bass was easily amplified with its built-in pickups, easily portable (less than a foot longer than an electric guitar), and easier to play in tune, thanks to the metal frets. In the 1960s and 1970s bands were playing at louder volumes and performing in larger venues. The electric bass was able to provide the huge, highly-amplified stadium-filling bass tone that the pop and rock music of this era demanded, and the double bass receded from the limelight of the popular music scene.
The upright bass began making a modest comeback in popular music in the mid-1980s, in part due to a renewed interest in earlier forms of rock and country music. The rockabilly revival led by the chart-topping [[Stray Cats]] made upright basses "hip" again. In the 1990s, improvements in pickups and amplifier designs for electro-acoustic horizontal and upright basses made it easier for bassists to get a good, clear amplified tone from an acoustic instrument. Popular bands such as the Canadian group [[Barenaked Ladies]] decided to anchor their sound with an upright bass instead of an electric bass. A trend for "unplugged" performances further helped to enhance the public's interest in the upright bass and acoustic bass guitars.
The double bass is also favored over the [[electric bass]] guitar in many [[rockabilly]] and [[psychobilly]] bands. Scott Owen of [[The Living End]] is an example of a double bassist playing in a [[punk rock]] band. Even in the early 2000's, the upright bass continued its comeback, with [[psychobilly]] groups such as [[Tiger Army]] and the [[Horrorpops]] using the upright bass.
==Double bassists==
===Notable classical double bass players of historical importance===
* [[Giovanni Bottesini]]
* [[Domenico Dragonetti]]
* [[Serge Koussevitzky]]
* [[Edouard Nanny]]
* [[Franz Simandl]] (1840-1912) author of "New Method for the Double Bass"
=== Contemporary classical double bass players ===
* [[Edwin Barker]]
* [[Mark Dresser]]
* [[Trevor Dunn]] (avant-garde)
*[[Diana Gannett]]
* [[Barry Green]] also author of ''The Inner Game of Music''
* [[Fernando Grillo]]
* [[Teppo Hauta-Aho]]
* [[Gary Karr]]
* [[Jorma Katrama]]
* [[Eugene Levinson]]
* [http://www.thomasmartin.co.uk/ Thomas Martin]
* [[Duncan McTier]]
* [[Homer Mensch]]
* [[Edgar Meyer]]
* [[Franco Petracchi]]
* [[Joel Quarrington]]
* [[François Rabbath]]
* [[Hal Robinson]]
* [http://www.bartoszsikorski.com Bartosz Sikorski]
* [[Rodney Slatford]]
* [[Bertram Turetzky]]
* [[Allan von Schenkel]]
* [[David Walter]]
* [http://www.daxunzhang.com DaXun Zhang]
===Jazz double bass players===
:''See [[List of jazz bassists]], which includes both double bass and electric bass players.''
=== Double bass players in other popular genres===
<!--Or: Double bass players in popular music==-->
* Eberhard Weber, ECM
* [[Ray Campi]], rockabilly
* [[Ron Carter]]
* [[Stanley Clarke]]
* [[Les Claypool]], rock
* [[John Clayton, Jr.]]
* [[Jim Creeggan]], bassist with [[Barenaked Ladies]]
* [[Mark Dresser]]
* [[Trevor Dunn]]
* [[Marshall Lytle]], rock and roll
* [[Bob Moore]], rock and roll, country
* [[Scott Owen]], rock
* [[Walter Page]]
* [[John Patitucci]]
* [[Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen]]
* [[Al Rex]]
* [[Lee Rocker]], rockabilly
* [[Jasper Somsen]]
* [[Sebastian Steinberg]], double bassist with [[Soul Coughing]]
* [[Sting (musician)|Sting]], rock
* [[Jonathan Sullivan]]
* [[Jim Tavare|Jim Tavaré]]
* [[Danny Thompson]], folk rock
* [[Jon Thorne]]
* [[Rob Wasserman]], rock
* [[Chris Wood (jazz musician)|Chris Wood]]
==See also==
*[[Electric upright bass]]
*[[List of jazz bassists]]
*[[Octobass]]
*[[Bass guitar]]
*[[International Society of Bassists]]
== References and external links ==
* [http://www.bassplaza.com/ BassPlaza.com].
* [http://www.earlybass.com/ Double Bass and Violone Internet Archive]
* [http://ebass.nl/ Site about Electric Upright Basses (EUB)]
* [http://www.gollihur.com/kkbass/basslink.html/ Bob Gollihur's Bass site].
* [http://www.DoubleBassGuide.com/ Double Bass Guide].
* [http://www.ojbr.com/ The Online Journal of Bass Research]
* [http://www.lemur-music.com/ An online store strictly for the double bass].
* [http://4stringchords.com/ Chord finder for bass and other four-string instruments]
* [http://www.silviodallatorre.com/ Website with much information on playing techniques, tuning systems, the "New Dutch School", the Bassetto and other topics]
* [http://basscast.org/ The BassCast - A podcast for musicians who play the double bass.]
* [http://www.liutaiomottola.com/instruments/canotto.htm The Canotto Upright Acoustic Bass] - A short article on a Savart style upright.
[[Category:Bowed instruments]]
[[Category:Continuous pitch instruments]]
[[Category:Musical instruments]]
[[Category:String instruments]]
[[bg:Контрабас]]
[[ca:Contrabaix]]
[[cs:Kontrabas]]
[[da:Kontrabas]]
[[de:Kontrabass]]
[[eo:Kontrabaso]]
[[es:Contrabajo]]
[[fi:Kontrabasso]]
[[fr:Contrebasse]]
[[he:קונטרבס]]
[[hu:Nagybőgő]]
[[it:Contrabbasso]]
[[ja:コントラバス]]
[[ko:콘트라베이스]]
[[nl:Contrabas]]
[[pl:Kontrabas]]
[[pt:Contrabaixo]]
[[simple:Double bass]]
[[sv:Kontrabas]]
[[vi:Đại Hồ cầm]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Deicide (band)</title>
<id>8817</id>
<revision>
<id>42084696</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:51:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>12.154.167.143</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Deicide - Deicide.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Self Titled CD, and first release under the name '''Deicide''']]
'''Deicide''' is an [[United States|American]] [[death metal]] band. The word ''[[deicide]]'' means "the killing of a [[deity|god]]", analogous to [[suicide]] meaning "the killing of the self" or [[homicide]] meaning "the killing of someone else".
The band was formed in [[Florida death metal|Florida]] in [[1987]], first playing under the name '''Carnage'''. After Glen Benton joined the name was changed to '''Amon'''. During this time they released two demos: ''Feasting the Beast'' ([[1987]]) and ''Sacrificial'' ([[1989]]). In [[1989]] the band's name was changed to Deicide by force of Roadrunner records, as Amon was the name of the house in the [[King Diamond (band)|King Diamond]] album ''Them''. Then, they released their debut, self-titled album.
The band has been plagued by controversy relating to their heavy anti-[[Christianity|Christian]] (and supposedly [[Satanism|Satanist]]) beliefs. This was only reinforced by such stunts as an upside down cross burned into Benton's forehead (which he may have done with a heated piece of cross-shaped metal).
The band's original line up, which was: [[Glen Benton]] on bass and vocals, brothers [[Eric Hoffman]] and [[Brian Hoffman]] on [[guitars]], and [[Steve Asheim]] on [[drums]]. Both Eric and Brian are considered some of the most talent |
ange attractants or repellants. Others are difusible ligands and thus can have long range effects.
Cells called [[guidepost cells]] assist in the guidance of neuronal axon growth. These cells are typically other, sometimes immature, neurons.
==History==
Some of the first intracellular recordings in a nervous system were made in the late 1930's by K. Cole and H. Curtis. [[Alan Hodgkin]] and [[Andrew Huxley]] also employed the [[squid giant axon]] (1939) and by 1952 they had obtained a full quantitative description of the ionic basis of the action potential.
Hodgkin and Huxley were awarded jointly the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] for this work in 1963.
==See also==
*[[Neuron]]
*[[Dendrite]]
*[[Synapse]]
*[[Axon guidance]]
*[[Electrophysiology]]
== External links ==
* http://www.sfn.org/wrensite/projects/patch_clamp/index.htm
[[Category:Neurons]]
[[Category:Neurophysiology]]
[[da:Akson]]
[[de:Axon]]
[[es:Axón]]
[[fr:Axone]]
[[he:אקסון (סיב עצבי)]]
[[lt:Aksonas]]
[[nl:Axon]]
[[pt:Axónio]]
[[ru:Аксон]]
[[fi:Aksoni]]
[[sv:Axon]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Agma</title>
<id>959</id>
<revision>
<id>15899470</id>
<timestamp>2005-01-26T00:33:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nohat</username>
<id>13661</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[velar nasal]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aramaic alphabet</title>
<id>960</id>
<revision>
<id>42121463</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:33:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>No Guru</username>
<id>44087</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.41.164.15|68.41.164.15]] to last version by PlatypeanArchcow</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{alphabet}}
The '''Aramaic alphabet''' is an [[abjad]] alphabet designed for writing the [[Aramaic language]]. As with other abjads, the letters all represent [[consonant]]s; a few [[matres lectionis]] are consonants that also represent long [[vowel]]s.
The earliest inscriptions in the [[Aramaic language]] use the [[Phoenician alphabet]]. In time, the alphabet developed into the form shown below. The use of Aramaic as a [[lingua franca]] throughout the [[Middle East]] from the [[8th century BCE]] led to the gradual adoption of the Aramaic alphabet for writing [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]. Formerly, Hebrew had been written using an alphabet closer in form to that of [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]] (the [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet]]).
The [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]] and [[Nabataean alphabet|Nabataean]] alphabets are little changed in style from the Aramaic alphabet. The development of [[cursive]] versions of Aramaic led to the creation of the [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac]], [[Palmyrenean alphabet|Palmyrenean]] and [[Mandaic alphabet|Mandaic]] alphabets. These scripts formed the basis of the [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]], [[Sogdian alphabet|Sogdian]], [[Orkhon script|Orkhon]] and [[Mongolian alphabet|Mongolian]] alphabets. Controversially, it is claimed that the Aramaic alphabet may be the forebear of the [[Indic alphabets]].
Today, [[Biblical Aramaic]], Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialects and the [[Aramaic language]] of the [[Talmud]] are written in the [[Hebrew alphabet]]. [[Syriac language|Syriac]] and Christian Neo-Aramaic dialects are written in the [[Syriac alphabet]]. [[Mandaic language|Mandaic]] is written in the [[Mandaic alphabet]].
== Imperial Aramaic alphabet ==
Redrawn from ''A Grammar of Biblical Aramaic'', Franz Rosenthal; forms are as used in Egypt, [[5th century BCE]]. Names are as in [[Biblical Aramaic]].
{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|-
!Letter name ta
!Letter form
!Equivalent [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]]
!Pronunciation
|-
|Aleph
|[[image:ialeph.png]]
|style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1488;
|[[glottal stop]]; &#257;, &#275;
|-
|Beth
|[[image:ibeth.png]]
|style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1489;
|b, v
|-
|Gimel
|[[image:igimel.png]]
|style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1490;
|g, gh
|-
|Daleth
|[[image:idaleth.png]]
|style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1491;
|d, dh
|-
|Heh
|[[image:ihe.png]]
|style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1492;
|h
|-
|Waw
|[[image:iwaw.png]]
|style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1493;
|w; &#333;, &#363;
|-
|Zayin
|[[image:izayin.png]]
|style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1494;
|z
|-
|Heth
|[[image:iheth.png]]
|style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1495;
|[ħ] ([[voiceless pharyngeal fricative]])
|-
|Teth
|[[image:iteth.png]]
|style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1496;
|[[emphatic consonant|emphatic]] [tˁ]
|-
|Yodh
|[[image:iyod.png]]
|style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1497;
|y; &#299;, &#275;
|-
|Kaph
|[[image:ikaph.png]]
|style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1498; / &#1499;
|k
|-
|Lamed
|[[image:ilamed.png]]
|style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1500;
|l
|-
|Mem
|[[image:imem.png]]
|style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1501; / &#1502;
|m
|-
|Nun
|[[image:inun.png]]
|style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1503; / &#1504;
|n
|-
|Samekh
|[[image:isamekh.png]]
|style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1505;
|s
|-
|Ayin
|[[image:iayin.png]]
|style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1506;
|[[voiced pharyngeal fricative]]</td></tr>
|-
|Pe
|[[image:ipe.png]]
|style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1507; / &#1508;
|p, f
|-
|Sade
|[[image:isade.png]], [[image:isade2.png]]
|style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1509; / &#1510;
|[[emphatic consonant|emphatic]] s
|-
|Qoph
|[[image:iqoph.png]]
|style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1511;
|q ([[voiceless uvular plosive]])
|-
|Resh
|[[image:iresh.png]]
|style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1512;
|r
|-
|Sin/Shin
|[[image:ishin.png]]
|style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1513;
|usually š; in some words s (probably originally from a [[Proto-Semitic]] [[lateral fricative]])
|-
|Taw
|[[image:itaw.png]]
|style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1514;
|t, th
|}
== See also ==
* [[Abjad]]
* [[Alphabet]]
* [[Aramaic language]]
* [[Syriac language]]
* [[Mandaic language]]
* [[List of writing systems]]
==External links==
* [http://www.sakkal.com/Arab_Calligraphy_Art3.html Comparison of Aramaic to related alphabets]
[[Category:Abjad writing systems]]
[[Category:Aramaic languages]]
[[ar:آرامية عتيقة (كتابة)]]
[[bg:Арамейска азбука]]
[[cs:Aramejské písmo]]
[[de:Aramäische Schrift]]
[[es:Alfabeto arameo]]
[[eo:Aramea skribo]]
[[fr:Alphabet araméen]]
[[gl:Alfabeto arameo]]
[[ja:アラム文字]]
[[pl:Alfabet aramejski]]
[[pt:Alfabeto aramaico]]
[[ru:Арамейская письменность]]
[[fi:Aramean kirjaimisto]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arguments for the existence of God</title>
<id>963</id>
<revision>
<id>42078550</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:57:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Freakofnurture</username>
<id>77511</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rm rfd</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Existence of God]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AWK</title>
<id>964</id>
<revision>
<id>24206475</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-28T02:12:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Antandrus</username>
<id>57658</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/65.95.19.75|65.95.19.75]] to last version by Cavrdg</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''AWK''' may refer to
*[[AWK programming language ]]
*The [[National Rail]] code for [[Adwick railway station]], [[United Kingdom]]. External links: {{Sildb prim|AWK|station information}}; {{Mmukpcloc|DN6|7AQ}}; {{Brldb prim|AWK|live departures and arrivals}}.
{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>As We May Think</title>
<id>965</id>
<revision>
<id>41838062</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T01:50:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>200.203.21.111</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergeto|Memex}}
[[Vannevar Bush]]'s essay '''''As We May Think''''', first published in ''[[The Atlantic Monthly]]'' in July [[1945]], argued that as humans turned from war, scientific efforts should shift from increasing physical abilities to making all previous collected [[human]] [[knowledge]] more accessible.
The article was a reworked and expanded version of his 1939 ''Mechanization and the Record''. The system, which he called [[memex]], was described as based on what was thought, at the time, to be the wave of the future: Ultra high resolution [[microfilm]] reels, coupled to multiple screen viewers and cameras, by electromechanical controls. The ''Atlantic Monthly'' article was followed, in November [[1945]], by a [[Life magazine]] article which showed illustrations of the proposed memex desk and automatic typewriter.
''As We May Think'' predicted many kinds of technology invented after its publication, including [[hypertext]], [[personal computers]], the [[Internet]], the [[World Wide Web]], [[speech recognition]], and [[online encyclopedia]]s such as Wikipedia: "Wholly new forms of encyclopedias will appear, ready-made with a mesh of associative trails running through them, ready to be dropped into the memex and there amplified."
==External links==
*[http://graphics.cs.brown.edu/html/info/vannevar_bush.html "As We May Think" - A Celebration of Vannevar Bush's 1945 Vision, at Brown University]
===Online versions===
*[http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/194507/bush ''As we may think'' from the ''Atlantic Monthly'' archives]
*[http://www.ps.uni-sb.de/~duchier/pub/vbush/vbush-all.shtml The text of ''As we may think''] (accessible without sub |
ent defence, the nomadic horsemen were soundly defeated, and the [[Danube]] frontier was secured. Likewise, Turkish expansion in Asia Minor was halted, and John took the fight to the enemy, leading a series of campaigns against the [[Danishmends]] in the north-east. However, despite extensive campaigning disappointingly little territory was gained and held in this region. Towards the end of his reign, John made a concerted effort to secure [[Antioch]]. On the way, he captured the southern coast of Asia Minor and [[Cilicia]] (these conquests proved more lasting). He advanced into Syria at the head of his veteran army, which had been seasoned by a lifetime of campaigning. Although John fought hard for the Christian cause in the campaign in Syria, there was a famous incident where his allies Prince [[Raymond of Antioch]] and Count [[Joscelin II of Edessa ]] sat around playing dice while John pressed the siege of an enemy town. These Crusader Princes were suspicious of each other and of John, and neither wanted the other to gain from participating in the campaign, while Raymond also wanted to hold on to his City, which he had agreed to hand over to John if the campaign was successful. Ultimately, Joscelin and Raymond conspired to keep John out of Antioch, and while he was preparing to lead a pilgrimage to Jerusalem and a further campaign, he accidentally grazed his hand on a poison arrow while out hunting. The poison set in, and shortly afterwards he died.
The Byzantine position had improved enormously under John. Substantial territories had been recovered, and his successes against the invading Petchenegs, Serbians and Seljuk Turks, whose progress in Asia Minor he reverted, along with his attempts to establish Byzantine suzerainty over the Crusader States in Antioch and Edessa, did much to restore the reputation of his empire. He left the empire in a much better state than he had found it, and by the time of his death he had earned near universal respect, even from the Crusaders, for his courage, dedication and piety. His early death meant his work went unfinished — his last campaign might well have resulted in real gains for Byzantium and the Christian cause.
[[Image:Manuel'sEmpire.png|thumb|300px|right|Map of the Byzantine Empire under Manuel Comnenus, c.1180]]
===Manuel I Comnenus===
John's chosen heir, his son [[Manuel I Comnenus]], was a worthy successor who had an optimistic outlook and saw possibilities everywhere. The Latin historian [[William of Tyre]] described Manuel as "beloved of God... a great-souled man of incomparable energy", whose "memory will ever be held in benediction". Manuel was further extolled by Robert of Clari as a "generous and worthy man". Famous for his charisma and enthusiasm for western customs, Manuel arranged [[jousting]] matches, even participating in them, an unusual and discomforting sight for the Byzantines. Indoctrinated with the idea of a universal Empire, and with a passion for theological debate, he was also perhaps the only chivalrous Emperor-Knight of Byzantium. He is a representative of a new kind of Byzantine ruler who was influenced by the contact with the western crusaders.
Eager to restore his empire to its past glories as the superpower of the Mediterranean world, Manuel pursued an energetic and ambitious foreign policy. In the process he made alliances with the [[Pope]] and the resurgent west, invaded [[Italy]], successfully handled the passage of the dangerous [[Second Crusade]] through his empire, and established a Byzantine protectorate over the Crusader kingdoms of [[Outremer]]. Facing the Islamic jihad in the [[Holy Land]], he made common cause with the Kingdom of Jerusalem and participated in a combined invasion of Fatimid Egypt. Manuel reshaped the political map of the [[Balkans]] and the east Mediterranean, placing the kingdoms of [[Hungary]] and Outremer under Byzantine hegemony and campaigning aggressively against his neighbours both in the west and in the east. Disputes between the [[Catholic]] and [[Orthodox Church]]es occasionally harmed efforts at cooperation with the latins, but in many other ways Byzantine civilisation was flourishing in this period.
==Twelfth century prosperity, art & culture==
[[image:Manuel_I_Comnenus.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Emperor '''Manuel I Comnenus''' who reigned from 1143 A.D. to 1180 A.D. He is shown wearing imperial regalia]]
===Urban revival and demographic growth===
Recent research has revealed that the twelfth century was a time of significant growth in the rural economy, with rising population levels and extensive tracts of new agricultural land being brought into production. The widespread construction of new rural churches is a strong indication that prosperity was being generated even in remote areas. A steady increase in population led to a higher population density in many areas of the empire, and there is good evidence that the demographic increase was accompanied by the revival of towns. According to Alan Harvey in his book ‘’Economic expansion in the Byzantine Empire 900-1200’’, towns expanded significantly in the twelfth century. Archaeological evidence from both Europe and Asia Minor shows an increase in the size of urban settlements, together with a ‘notable upsurge’ in new towns. An increase in trade, made possible by the growth of the Italian city-states, may have been a further factor in the growth of the cities. Certainly, the [[Venetians]] and others were active traders in the ports of the [[Holy Land]], and they made a living out of shipping goods between the Crusader Kingdoms of [[Outremer]] and the West while also trading extensively with Byzantium and [[Egypt]].
In Asia Minor, some areas had become depopulated due to [[Turkic peoples|Turkish]] raiding in the late eleventh century. Yet as the Comnenian emperors built up extensive fortifications in rural areas during the twelfth century, repopulation of the countryside took place. The restoration of order in western Asia Minor enabled the demographic trend to resume its upward course after the setbacks of the late eleventh century, and indeed it was in the [[thirteenth century]] that this process reached its peak.
Overall, given that we can be certain that the growth of population in this period was substantial, it is clear that the effect on the revenues of the state must have been very considerable. The continuing population increases throughout the twelfth century were helping to strengthen the economic basis of the state. This helps to explain how the Comneni emperors, [[Manuel Comnenus]] in particular, were able to project their power and influence so widely at this time. Yet this is by no means the only effect of economic expansion in the empire.
===Artistic revival===
The new wealth being generated during this period had a positive impact on Byzantine cultural life. In artistic terms, the [[twelfth century]] was a very productive period in Byzantine history. There was a revival in the [[mosaic]] art, for example, with artists showing great interest in depicting natural landscapes with wild animals and scenes from the hunt. Mosaics became more realistic and vivid, with an increased emphasis on depicting three-dimensional forms. With its love of luxury and passion for colour, the art of this age delighted in the production of masterpieces that spread the fame of Byzantium throughout the whole of the Christian world. [[Image:Nerezi.jpg|thumb|right|300px|'The Lamentation of Christ' (1164), a fresco from the church of Saint Panteleimon in Nerezi near Skopje. It is considered a superb example of twelfth century [[Comnenus|Comnenian]] art.]] Beautiful silks from the work-shops of Constantinople also portrayed in dazzling colour animals -lions, elephants, eagles, and griffins- confronting each other, or representing Emperors gorgeously arrayed on horseback or engaged in the chase. In the provinces, regional schools of [[Architecture]] began producing many distinctive styles that drew on a range of cultural influences. All this suggests that there was an increased demand for art, with more people having access to the necessary wealth to commission and pay for such work.
Yet the marvellous expansion of Byzantine art during this period, one of the most remarkable facts in the history of the empire, did not stop there. From the tenth to the twelfth century Byzantium was the main source of inspiration for the West. By their style, arrangement, and iconography the mosaics of St. Mark's at Venice and of the cathedral at [[Torcello]] clearly reveal their Byzantine origin. Similarly those of the Palatine Chapel, the Martorana at [[Palermo]], and the cathedral of Cefalu, together with the vast decoration of the cathedral at Monreale, demonstrate the influence of Byzantium οn the [[Norman]] Court of [[Sicily]] in the twelfth century. Hispano-[[Moorish]] art was unquestionably derived from the Byzantine. [[Romanesque]] art owes much to the East, from which it borrowed not only its decorative forms but the plan of some of its buildings, as is proved, for instance, by the domed churches of south-western France. Princes of [[Kiev]], Venetian doges, abbots of [[Monte Cassino]], merchants of [[Amalfi]], and the Norman kings of Sicily all looked to Byzantium for artists or works of art. Such was the influence of Byzantine art in the twelfth century, that Russia, Venice, southern Italy and Sicily all virtually became provincial centres dedicated to its production.
==Underlying weaknesses: the sudden collapse of Byzantine power==
Although the three competent Comnenan emperors, especially Manuel, had the power to expel the outnumbered Seljuks, there were a number of reasons they never did so. Whereas the Byzantines had ultimately prevailed over the [[Arabs]] in the [[eighth century]], driving them out of Asia Minor and holding a frontier against them, in the [[twelfth century]] the Turks were more successful in establi |
rrel/d (96 m³/d) 2001 est.
'''Oil - consumption:'''
94,000 barrel/d (15,000 m³/d) 2001 est.
'''Oil - exports:'''
NA
'''Oil - imports:'''
NA
'''Oil - proved reserves:'''
8.1 million barrels (1,300,000 m³) ([[1 January]] [[2002]])
'''Natural gas - production:'''
4 million m³ (2001 est.)
'''Natural gas - consumption:'''
5.804 km³ (2001 est.)
'''Natural gas - exports:'''
0 m³ (2001 est.)
'''Natural gas - imports:'''
5.8 km³ (2001 est.)
'''Natural gas - proved reserves:'''
3.724 km³ ([[1 January]] [[2002]])
'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[vegetables]], [[fruits]], [[tobacco]], [[livestock]], [[wine]], [[wheat]], [[barley]], [[sunflower]]s, [[sugar beet]]s
'''Exports:'''
$11.67 billion (f.o.b., 2005 est.)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
machinery and equipment; metals, minerals, and fuels; chemicals and plastics; food, tobacco, clothing
'''Exports - partners:'''
Italy 14.6%, Germany 11.7%, Turkey 9.2%, US 5.8%, Greece 5.7%, Belgium 5.4%, France 5.1% (2003)
'''Imports:'''
$15.9 billion (f.o.b., 2005 est.)
'''Imports - commodities:'''
fuels, minerals, and raw materials; machinery and equipment; metals and ores; chemicals and plastics; food, textiles (1998)
'''Imports - partners:'''
Germany 14.4%, Russia 12.6%, Italy 10.3%, Greece 6.7%, Turkey 6.2%, France 5.7% (2003)
'''Current account balance:'''
$682.9 million (2004 est.)
'''Reserves of foreign exchange & gold:'''
$9.707 billion (2005 est.)
'''Debt - external:'''
$15.46 billion (2005 est.)
'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$300 million (2002 est.)
'''Currency:'''
1 lev (Lv) = 100 stotinki
'''Exchange rates:'''
leva per US dollar - 1.66 (2004), 1.7327 (2003), 2.077 (2002), 2.1847 (2001), 2.1233 (2000)
on [[5 July]] [[1999]] the lev was re-denominated; the post-[[5 July]] [[1999]] lev is equal to 1,000 of the pre-[[5 July]] [[1999]] leva
'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year
==See also==
*[[Economy of Europe]]
*[[Bulgaria]]
{{WTO}}
[[Category:Economy of Bulgaria| ]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Bulgaria]]
[[Category:WTO members|Bulgaria]]
[[bg:Икономика на България]]
[[sv:Bulgariens ekonomi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Bulgaria</title>
<id>3672</id>
<revision>
<id>23083962</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-12T05:21:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CalJW</username>
<id>233571</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moved to head of own category</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
3.186 million ([[1999]])
'''Telephones - [[mobile telephone|mobile cellular]]:'''
6 million ([[2005]])
'''Telephone system:'''
more than two-thirds of the lines are residential
* ''Domestic:'' Extensive but antiquated transmission system of [[coaxial cable]] and [[microwave]] radio relay; telephone service is available in most [[village]]s; a more modern [[digital cable]] [[trunk line]] now connects switching centers in most of the regions, the others being connected by digital [[microwave]]
* ''International:'' Direct dialing to 58 countries; [[satellite]] earth stations - 1 [[Intersputnik]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]] region); 2 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] and [[Indian Ocean]] regions)
'''Radio broadcast stations:'''
[[Amplitude modulation|AM]] 24, [[FM]] 93, shortwave 2 ([[1998]])
'''Radio broadcast hours:'''
525,511 (2003)
'''[[Radio]]s:'''
4.51 million ([[1997]])
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
140 (2005)
'''[[Television]] broadcast hours:'''
498,091 (2003)
'''Televisions:'''
3.31 million (1997)
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
200+ only in the capital of Sofia (2005)<br>
300+ in the rest ot the country
'''[[Country code]]:''' BG
'''See also :''' [[Bulgaria]]
[[Category:Communications in Bulgaria| ]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Bulgaria]]
[[bg:Комуникация в България]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in Bulgaria</title>
<id>3673</id>
<revision>
<id>42038143</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:52:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>87.202.41.198</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Greece is also linked to Bulgaria by rail.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">== [[Railway]]s ==
<br>''total:''
4,294 km
<br>''standard gauge:''
4,049 km 1.435-m gauge (2,710 km electrified; 917 km double track)
<br>''narrow gauge:''
245 km 0.760-m gauge (1998)
=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===
* [[Transportation in Romania|Romania]] - yes
* [[Transportation in Hungary|Hungary]] - yes
* [[Transportation in Turkey|Turkey]] - yes
* [[Transportation in Macedonia|Macedonia]] - yes
* [[Transportation in Serbia and Montenegro|Serbia and Montenegro]] - yes
* [[Transportation in Greece|Greece]] - yes
== [[Highway]]s ==
<br>''total:''
36,759 km
<br>''paved:''
33,818 km (including 319 km of expressways)
<br>''unpaved:''
2,941 km (1998 est.)
== Waterways ==
470 km (1987)
== [[Pipeline]]s ==
[[petroleum]] products 525 km; [[natural gas]] 1,500 km (1999)
== Ports and harbors ==
[[Burgas]], [[Lom, Bulgaria|Lom]], [[Nessebur]], [[Ruse, Bulgaria|Ruse]], [[Varna]], [[Vidin]]
== [[Merchant marine]] ==
<br>''total:''
85 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 947,711 GRT/1,449,416 DWT
<br>''ships by type:''
bulk 43, cargo 18, chemical tanker 4, container 2, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 7, rail car carrier 2, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 5, short-sea passenger 1, specialized tanker 1 (1999 est.)
== [[Airport]]s ==
* [[List of airports in Bulgaria]]
216 (1999 est.)
=== Airports - with paved runways ===
<br>''total:''
129
<br>''over 3,047 m:''
1
<br>''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
19mm
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
15
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
1
<br>''under 914 m:''
93 (1999 est.)
=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
<br>''total:''
87
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
2
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
10
<br>''under 914 m:''
75 (1999 est.)
== See also ==
* [[Bulgaria]]
[[Category:Transportation in Bulgaria| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Bulgaria</title>
<id>3674</id>
<revision>
<id>41877412</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T08:22:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>80.13.192.78</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Land Forces */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
| bgcolor="#00AADD" align="center" colspan="2" | <big> '''Bulgarian Army'''</big>
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" |[[Image:BGgerb2.gif|280px|]]
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" | '''Military manpower'''
|-
| '''Military age'''
| '''18 years of age'''
|-
| '''Availability'''
| males age 15-49: '''1,913,857''' (2000 est.)
|-
| '''Fit for military service'''
| males age 15-49: '''1,599,379''' (2000 est.)
|-
| '''Reaching military age annually'''
| males: '''57,461''' (2000 est.)
|-
| '''Total active troops'''
| '''51,000''' ([[List of countries by number of active troops|ranked 68th]])
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" | '''Expenditure'''
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" | <small>(not including expenditure for military pensions)</small>
|-
| '''[[United States dollar|US dollar]]''' figure
| '''$503 million'''
|-
| '''Percent of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]''' <br>(2004)
| '''2.5%'''
|}
The '''Bulgarian Army''' (Bulgarian: ''Българска армия'') represents the Armed Forces of the [[Republic of Bulgaria]]. Commander-in-Chief is the [[President of Bulgaria]] [[Georgi Parvanov]]. The Ministry of Defense is in charge of political leadership while military command remains in the hands of the General Staff, headed by the Chief of Staff. Operational elements of the Bulgarian Army include: '''Bulgarian Land Forces''' ([[army]]), '''Bulgarian Navy''' ([[navy]]), and the '''Bulgarian Air Forces''' ([[air force]]).
The [[patron saint]] of the Bulgarian Army is [[St. George]], and [[Valor Day]] ([[May 6]], also known as St. George's Day) has long been celebrated as Valor and Army Day. It is an official holiday in Bulgaria.
After the country became a [[NATO]] member in April 2004, the [[Bulgarian Ministry of Defense]] has begun a new downsizing, modernization, and reform program (known as [[PLAN 2004]]) that will result in the adoption of a smaller force structure of around 50,000 personnel, based upon a [[rapid reaction force]] and two additional corps headquarters, all with subordinate brigades.
== History of the Bulgarian Army ==
== General Staff ==
Currently headed by Chief of Staff [[General Nikola Kolev]], the General Staff is responsible for the military and operational command of the Bulgarian Army and its 3 major branches.
== Land Forces ==
[[Image:Bulgarian_land_forces.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Bulgarian Land Forces exercise]]
[[Image:BMP-23 CM.jpg|thumb|BMP-3 Bulgarian in Iraq]]
The Land Forces are functionally divided into '''Active''' and '''Reserve Forces'''. Their main functions include deterrence, defense, [[peace]] support and [[crisis management]], humanitarian and rescue missions, as well as social functions within Bulgarian society.
The Active Forces mainly have peacekeeping and defensive duties, and are further divided into Deployment Forces, Immediate Reaction, and Main Defense Forces. The Reserve Forces comprise of Enhancement Forces, Territorial Defense Forces, and Training Grounds. They deal with planning and reservist preparation, armaments and equipment storage, training of formations for active forces rotation or increase in personnel.
[[Image:Bulgarian_land_forces_training.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Bulgarian Land Forces in training for winter combat]] D |
adrenaline]] (or norepinephrine)
* [[tryptophan]] derivatives
**[[melatonin]] (N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine)
**[[serotonin]] (5-HT)
* [[tyrosine]] derivatives
**[[thyroxine]] (T4)
**[[triiodothyronine]] (T3)
===Peptide hormones===
[[Peptide hormone]]s:
*[[antimullerian hormone]] (AMH, also mullerian inhibiting factor or hormone)
*[[adiponectin]] (also Acrp30)
*[[adrenocorticotropic hormone]] (ACTH, also corticotropin)
*[[angiotensinogen]] and [[angiotensin]]
*[[antidiuretic hormone]] (ADH, also vasopressin, arginine vasopressin, AVP)
*[[atrial-natriuretic peptide]] (ANP, also atriopeptin)
*[[calcitonin]]
*[[cholecystokinin]] (CCK)
*[[corticotropin-releasing hormone]] (CRH)
*[[erythropoietin]] (EPO)
*[[follicle-stimulating hormone]] (FSH)
*[[gastrin]]
*[[glucagon]]
*[[gonadotropin-releasing hormone]] (GnRH)
*[[growth hormone-releasing hormone]] (GHRH)
*[[human chorionic gonadotropin]] (hCG)
*[[growth hormone]] (GH or hGH)
*[[insulin]]
*[[insulin-like growth factor]] (IGF, also somatomedin)
*[[leptin]]
*[[luteinizing hormone]] (LH)
*[[melanocyte stimulating hormone]] (MSH or &#945;-MSH)
*[[neuropeptide Y]]
*[[oxytocin]]
*[[parathyroid hormone]] (PTH)
*[[prolactin]] (PRL)
*[[relaxin]]
*[[renin]]
*[[secretin]]
*[[somatostatin]]
*[[thrombopoietin]]
*[[thyroid-stimulating hormone]] (TSH)
*[[thyrotropin-releasing hormone]] (TRH)
===Steroid and sterol hormones===
[[Steroid hormone]]s:
*[[Glucocorticoid]]s
**[[cortisol]]
*[[Mineralocorticoid]]s
**[[aldosterone]]
*[[Sex steroid]]s
**[[Androgen]]s
***[[testosterone]]
***[[dehydroepiandrosterone]] (DHEA)
***dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS)
***[[androstenedione]]
***[[dihydrotestosterone]] (DHT)
**[[Estrogen]]s
***[[estradiol]]
**[[Progestagen]]s
***[[progesterone]]
***[[Progestins]]
[[Sterol hormone]]s:
*[[Vitamin D]] derivatives
**[[calcitriol]]
===Lipid hormones===
[[Lipid]] and [[phospholipid]] hormones ([[eicosanoid]]s):
* [[prostaglandin]]s
* [[leukotriene]]s
* [[prostacyclin]]
* [[thromboxane]]
==See also==
* [[endocrine system]]
* [[neuroendocrinology]]
* [[plant hormones]] or [[plant growth regulators]]
* [[autocrine signalling]]
* [[paracrine signalling]]
* [[cytokine]]
* [[growth factor]]
* [[hormone disruptor]]
==Reference==
* Henderson J. ''Ernest Starling and 'Hormones': an historical commentary.'' J Endocrinol 2005;184:5-10. PMID 15642778.
[[Category:Endocrinology]]
[[Category:Signal transduction]]
[[ar:هرمون]]
[[bg:Хормон]]
[[cs:Hormon]]
[[da:Hormon]]
[[de:Hormon]]
[[es:Hormona]]
[[eo:Hormono]]
[[fr:Hormone]]
[[ko:호르몬]]
[[io:Hormono]]
[[it:Ormone]]
[[he:הורמון]]
[[lt:Hormonas]]
[[hu:Hormon]]
[[mk:Хормони]]
[[nl:Hormoon]]
[[ja:ホルモン]]
[[no:Hormon]]
[[nn:Hormon]]
[[pl:Hormon]]
[[pt:Hormona]]
[[ru:Гормоны]]
[[simple:Hormone]]
[[fi:Hormoni]]
[[sv:Hormoner]]
[[th:ฮอร์โมน]]
[[tr:Hormon]]
[[uk:Гормон]]
[[zh:激素]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hammond organ</title>
<id>13312</id>
<revision>
<id>40844899</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T10:52:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Sampling]] to [[Digital sampling]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Hammond B3}}
The '''Hammond organ''' is an [[electric organ]] which was designed and built by [[Laurens Hammond]] in April [[1935]]. While the Hammond organ was originally sold to [[church]]es as a low-cost alternative to the [[pipe organ]], it came to be used for [[jazz]], [[blues]], and to a lesser extent [[Rock and roll|rock music]] (in the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]]) and [[gospel music]]. It was widely used in United States military chapels during and after the [[Second World War]].
[[Image:Hammond_organ.jpg|thumb|Hammond organ.]]
[[Image:Tonewheel-p.svg|thumb|Tonewheel rotates beneath electromagnetic pickup.]]
In imitation of a [[pipe organ]], with its banks of pipes in multiple registers, the Hammond Organ used [[additive synthesis]] of [[waveform]]s from [[harmonic series (music)|harmonic series]] to generate its sounds. As in [[Thaddeus Cahill]]'s earlier [[Telharmonium]], the individual waveforms were made by mechanical "[[tonewheel]]s" which rotated beneath electromagnetic pickups. Although they are generally included in the category of electronic organs, strictly speaking, because the waveforms are produced by mechanical tonewheels rather than electronic oscillators, original Hammond organs are ''electric'' rather than ''electronic'' organs.
A defining feature of the Hammond organ was the use of "drawbars" to mix the component waveforms in varying ratios. Other features added to Hammond organs included an electromechanical vibrato. The distinctive "key click" that was originally a design flaw rapidly became part of the "Hammond sound", which modern imitations of the Hammond organ faithfully reproduce. Accurate imitation of the Hammond sound with simple electronic circuitry was difficult, because the subtly-changing phase relationships between tonewheels could not be easily replicated.
Speakers originally designed by [[Donald_Leslie|Don Leslie]] were widely used with the Hammond organs, though at first, Leslie was a competing company that Hammond sought to drive out of business. The [[Leslie speaker|Leslie speakers]] had a rotating component that produced a vibrato effect. Soon, the Leslie became a ''de facto'' component of any Hammond setup wishing to produce that signature "growling" sound.
The model [[Hammond B3|B-3]] was, and still is, the most sought-after model, though the C-3 differs only in cosmetics. Hammonds can be divided into two main groups: the 'Console' models such as the B-3, C-3 or A-100 which have two 61 note manuals and the smaller 'Spinet' models that have two 44 note manuals such as the L-100 and the M-100. Most Hammond organs do not have a full [[AGO pedalboard]], something that was done originally for cost and size reasons.
[[Image:Hammond-drawbars-plain.svg|thumb|Drawbars]]It is worth noting that not all Hammonds were of the design described above, using tonewheels and drawbars, which are regarded as the 'real Hammonds'. The Hammond company produced a number of cheaper organs which used a simpler electronic way of producing sound, such as the model J100. These instruments do not have the distinctive characterful 'Hammond sound'.
By 1975, synthesizer technology had reached the point where the unique Hammond sound could be fairly closely simulated electronically. The last production lot of motorized organs was produced in 1975, although a few were assembled from spare parts in 1976.
Another unusual thing about Hammonds was their serial numbers. Founder Laurens Hammond did not want people to be able to date organs by their serial numbers, so numbers were not sequential from one production lot to the next.
Authentic performance practice involves more than playing the keys of this instrument. Performers vary the timbre of both manuals in real time, through a combination of changing drawbar settings, engaging or disengaging vibrato/chorus and percussion, changing the Leslie speed setting, and utilizing instrument-specific tricks, such as switching the run motor off for a brief moment, to get a wobbly pitch bend effect. Musical gestures specific to the instrument include palm glisses, rapid repetition of a single note, tremolo between two notes a third apart (typically the 5th and flat 7th scale degree of the current chord), percussive drumming of the keyboard, and playing a chord on the upper manual, then sliding your hand down to duplicate the chord on the lower manual. Artistic use of the foot-controlled volume pedal and bass pedals are also important facets of the art of the Hammond. Pianists and synthesists who begin playing the Hammond soon realize that effective and flexible use of the instrument requires more than simply playing notes on the keyboard.
The lightweight construction of the "waterfall"-style keybed allows for very rapid passages to be executed with more ease than on a weighted keyboard, such as a piano. This has allowed such masters of the instrument as [[Joey DeFrancesco]] and the late [[Jimmy Smith]] to fire off lightning fast flurries of notes during their solos.
Modern [[digital signal processing]] and [[Digital sampling|sampling]] technologies now allow for better imitation of the original Hammond sound, and a variety of electronic organs and synthesizers now provide accurate Hammond emulations. Nevertheless, original electromechanical Hammond organs are prized for their look, sound, and feel, and are still much in demand by performers. Though the last analog Hammond organ came off the assembly line in 1974, it is a testament to their over-engineered design and high caliber construction that thousands are still in daily use.
== References ==
A very informative book on the Hammond is ''The Hammond Organ: Beauty in the B'', Mark Vail, pub Miller Freeman 1997. (238 pages) ISBN 0879304596.
==See also==
* [[List of jazz organists]]
* [[List of notable hammond organ players]]
* [[Clonewheel organ]]
* [[Hammond B3]]
==External links==
* [http://www.obsolete.com/120_years/machines/hammond/ ''obsolete.com'' article on the Hammond Organ]
* http://www.roth-handle.nu/instruments/organ_HammondL100.htm
* [http://doodlinlounge.com/index.html Famous jazz organists]
* [http://theatreorgans.com/grounds/docs/history.html History of the Hammond B-3 Organ]
* The [http://www.dairiki.org/HammondWiki/HammondWiki HammondWiki] &mdash; ''Note: the HammondWiki material is licensed under the OPL, which is incompatible with the GFDL, and so cannot be copied here, except by the original contributors of that material.''
[[Category:electric and electronic keyboard instruments]]
[[Category:electronic organ builders]]
[[be:Арган Хаманда]]
[[da:Hammondorgel]]
[[de:Hammond-Orgel]]
[[es: |
ress the surviving letters between the two, concerned that they would be 'misunderstood'. [[Blanche Wiesen Cook]], author of one of Roosevelt's most extensive biographies, made a well-documented argument for a love relationship between the two in her work. [[Doris Kearns Goodwin]], who wrote a prize-winning biography of Franklin and Eleanor ("No Ordinary Time"), has publicly disputed Cook's assessment that Roosevelt had a lesbian side.
Along with allegations of the [[First Lady]] being [[bisexual]], she had at least two other affairs. The first, with [[Earl Miller]], she and [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|FDR]]'s [[bodyguard]], supposedly eclipsed her [[lesbian]] [[affair]]; the second was with [[Joseph Lash]]. The story is that love letters between Lash and Eleanor were intercepted by the [[President]], and that the first lady was taped during a [[hotel]] stay in [[Chicago]] while she and Lash had [[intercourse]], and the tapes were fowarded to the [[President]], who confronted her about the ordeal.
==First Lady of the United States==
During Franklin Roosevelt's terms as President, Eleanor was very vocal about her support of the [[American Civil Rights Movement (1896-1954)|American Civil Rights Movement]] and African-American rights. However, her husband needed the support of Southern Democrats (notoriously racist) to advance other parts of his agenda. FDR therefore did not take on the cause of civil rights. Eleanor became the connection to the African-American population instead, helping Franklin Roosevelt to win a lot of votes.
In 1939, the [[opera]] singer [[Marian Anderson]] was refused permission to perform at [[Constitution Hall]] (owned by the [[Daughters of the American Revolution]]) in Washington. Roosevelt arranged for Anderson to perform on the steps of the [[Lincoln Memorial]], to a live audience of 70,000, and a nationwide audience of millions on radio. She also resigned her membership in the D.A.R. over the incident.
Roosevelt opposed her husband's decision to sign [[Executive Order 9066]]
which resulted in the internment of 110,000 Japanese nationals and American citizens of Japanese descent in [[internment camp]]s in the west. In 1943 Roosevelt, along with [[Wendell Willkie]] and other Americans concerned about the mounting threats to peace and democracy during [[World War II]], established [[Freedom House]].
Roosevelt also accepted large amounts of money from her activities in advertising. The Pan-American Coffee Bureau, which was supported by tax revenues from eight foreign governments, paid Roosevelt $1000 a week for advertising. When the State Department found out that the First Lady was being paid so handsomely by foreign governments they unsuccessfully tried to cancel the deal.<!--John T. Flynn. The Roosevelt Myth. pp. 247 -->
[[Image:Eleanor_Roosevelt_with_Soong_Mei-ling.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Eleanor Roosevelt and [[Madame Chiang Kai-shek]]]]
==Life after the White House==
Following the death of her husband in 1945, Roosevelt continued to live on the Hyde Park Estate, in Val-Kill, the house that her husband had remodeled for her near the mainhouse. Originally built as a small furniture factory for [[Val-Kill Industries]], Val-Kill afforded Eleanor with a level of privacy that she had wanted for many years. Here she entertained her circle of friends in informal gatherings. The site is now the home of the [http://www.ervk.org/index.htm Eleanor Roosevelt Center at Val-Kill], dedicated to ''"Eleanor Roosevelt's belief that people can enhance the quality of their lives through purposeful action based on sensitive discourse among people of diverse perspectives focusing on the varied needs of society."''
After World War II, she was instrumental along with [[René Cassin]], [[John Peters Humphrey]] and others in formulating the [[UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]. On the night of [[December 10]], [[1948]], Roosevelt spoke on behalf of the Declaration calling it "the international [[Magna Carta]] of all mankind," and the Declaration was unanimously adopted by the [[UN General Assembly]] later that night.
From the 1920s to her death she opposed the [[Equal Rights Amendment]] because it would prevent Congress and the states from passing special protective legislation she thought women workers needed.
===The Catholic issue===
In July 1949 her ambivalent attitude toward American Catholics caused a high visibility fight with [[Francis Cardinal Spellman]], the Catholic Archbishop of New York. In her columns she had attacked proposals for federal aid for nonreligious activity (such as bus transportation) for students at Catholic schools. Spellman pointed out the Supreme Court had recently upheld such provisions, and accused her of anti-Catholicism. Most Democrats rallied behind Roosevelt so Spellman came to Eleanor's Hyde Park home to bury the hatchet. However she never could shake her belief that the Catholic schools were less than 100% democratic--like their Church--and did not deserve federal aid. She seems to have paid attention to the anti-Catholic polemics of people like [[Paul Blanshard]]. Privately she said that if Catholics got school aid, "Once that is done they control the schools, or at least a great part of them." For their part the Catholics distrusted her as much as they admired Franklin. She was well known for supporting the violently anti-Catholic leftists in the Spanish Civil War (in which Franklin remained neutral), and for opposing normal relations with Spain after the war. Indeed, she told Spellman bluntly that "I cannot, however, say that in European countries the control by the Roman Catholic Church of great areas of land has always led to happiness for the people of those countries." Catholics resented her quiet support of [[Margaret Sanger]] and the birth control movement, and her prewar sponsorship of the [[American Youth Congress]] in which the Communists had been heavily represented, but Catholic youth groups were not represented. (Lash, ''Eleanor: The Years Alone'' pp 156-65.)
===New York and National Politics===
In 1954 [[Tammany Hall]] boss [[Carmine DeSapio]] campaigned against her son, [[Franklin D. Roosevelt, Jr.]], in the [[New York]] Attorney General election and successfully defeated him. Roosevelt held DeSapio responsible for her son's defeat and grew increasingly disgusted with his political conduct through the rest of the 1950s.
Eventually, she would join with her old friends [[Herbert Lehman]] and Thomas Finletter to form the New York Committee for Democratic Voters, a group dedicated to enhancing the democratic process by opposing DeSapio's reincarnated Tammany. Eventually their efforts were successful, and in 1961 DeSapio was removed from power.
Roosevelt was a close friend of [[Adlai Stevenson]] and was a strong supporter of his candidacies in the 1952 and 1956 presidential elections. When President Truman backed New York [[Governor]] [[W. Averell Harriman]], who was a close associate of Carmine DeSapio, for the Democratic presidential nomination, Roosevelt was disappointed but continued to support Stevenson who ultimately won the nomination. She backed Stevenson once again in 1960 but [[John F. Kennedy]] received the presidential nomination instead.
She was responsible for the establishment of the 2,800 [[acre]] (11 km<sup>2</sup>) ([[http://www.nps.gov/roca/Campobello]]) Roosevelt Campobello International Park on [[Campobello Island]], [[New Brunswick]], in 1964, following a gift of the Roosevelt summer estate to the Canadian and American governments.
Eleanor Roosevelt was outspoken on numerous causes and continued to galvanize the [[world]] with her comments and opinions well into her 70s.
Roosevelt was an accomplished archer, and one of the first modern women to participate in the sport of bowhunting. Her exploits as a 20th-century [[Diana (goddess)|Diana]] are well documented in the writings of her male bowhunting contemporaries Fred Bear, Howard Hill and Saxton Pope. A close personal friendship with J.E. Davis, editor of ''Ye Sylvan Archer'', which was a popular bowhunting magazine of the time, led to an invitation to author several articles for that publication. Roosevelt's tales of her hunting excursions were well received, though they did not serve to further the cause of women's liberation: in keeping with the chauvinistic standards of the time, Roosevelt's stories were published under the masculine pseudonym "Chuck Painton" to avoid offending the magazine's overwhelmingly male readership.
One of Roosevelt's prized trophies, the taking of which was immortalized in her poignant 1937 account [[Outwitting the Rompala Buck]] ('''Ye Sylvan Archer''', v2), for many years graced the mantle above the fireplace in her husband Franklin's presidential library. It is now held as one of the organizing artifacts of the Community Forum Collection of the Smithsonian Institution.
Notably, the song "[[Mrs. Robinson]]" by [[Simon and Garfunkel]] was written about Roosevelt. The duo needed to give [[Mike Nichols]] a song for the film ''[[The Graduate]]'', so they changed the lyric from "Roosevelt" to "Robinson". The song was so unfinished that the now famous "dee-dee-dee" section was simply added to fill in unwritten lyrics.
==End of an Extraordinary life ==
Roosevelt survived her husband by nearly 20 years. Eleanor Roosevelt's life was cut short as she developed [[bone marrow]] [[tuberculosis]], recurring from a primary 1919 infection, and died at her [[Manhattan]] apartment on the evening of [[November 7]], [[1962]]. She was 78 years old.
Roosevelt was buried next to [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] in [[Hyde Park, New York]] on [[November 10]], [[1962]]. So revered was she among the public that a commemorative cartoon published at the time simply showed two angels looking down towards an opening in the clouds |
earliest known physical use of decimal [[fractions]] in ancient weight system: 1/20, 1/10, 1/5, 1/2. See [[Ancient Indus Valley weights and measures]].
* ''c.'' 1400 BC [[History of China|Chinese]] writers show familiarity with the concept: for example, 547 is written 'Five hundred plus four decades plus seven of days' in some manuscripts.
* ''c.'' 1200 BC In [[ancient India]], the [[Vedic]] text ''[[Yajur-Veda]]'' states the [[Exponentiation|powers]] of 10, upto 10<sup>55</sup>.
* ''c.'' 450 BC [[Pāṇini|Panini]] &ndash; uses the null operator in his grammar of [[Sanskrit]].
* ''c.'' 400 BC [[Pingala]] &ndash; develops the binary number system for Sanskrit prosody, with a clear mapping to the base-10 decimal system.
* ''c.'' 100&ndash;200 The ''[[Indian mathematics#Satkhandagama (100-200 CE)|Satkhandagama]]'' written in [[India]] &ndash; earliest use of decimal logarithms.
* ''c.'' 476&ndash;550 [[Aryabhata]] &ndash; uses an alphabetic cipher system for numbers that used zero.
* ''c.'' 598&ndash;670 [[Brahmagupta]] &ndash; explains the [[Hindu-Arabic numerals]] (modern number system) which uses decimal [[integer]]s, [[negative]] integers, and [[0 (number)|zero]].
* ''c.'' 790&ndash;840 [[al-Khwarizmi|Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Musa al-Khwarizmi]] &ndash; first to expound on [[algorism]] outside [[India]].
* ''c.'' 920&ndash;980 [[Al-Uqlidisi|Abu'l Hasan Ahmad ibn Ibrahim Al-Uqlidisi]] &ndash; earliest known direct mathematical treatment of decimal fractions.
* ''c.'' 1300&ndash;1500 The [[Kerala School]] in [[South India]] &ndash; decimal [[floating point]] numbers.
* [[1548]]/[[1549|49]]&ndash;[[1620]] [[Simon_Stevin#Decimal_fractions|Simon Stevin]] &ndash; author of ''De Thiende'' ('the tenth').
*[[1561]]&ndash;[[1613]] [[Bartholemaeus Pitiscus]]&ndash; (possibly) decimal point notation.
* [[1550]]&ndash;[[1617]] [[John Napier]]&ndash; use of decimal logarithms as a computational tool
==See also==
* [[Algorism]]
* [[Decimal point]]
* [[Decimal representation]]
* [[Decimal sequences for cryptography]]
* [[Numeral system]]
* [[Binary-coded decimal]]
* [[Dewey Decimal System]]
* [[10 (number)]]
== External links ==
* [http://www2.hursley.ibm.com/decimal/decifaq.html Decimal arithmetic FAQ]
* Tests: [http://www.kwiznet.com/p/takeQuiz.php?ChapterID=1352 Decimal Place Value] [http://www.kwiznet.com/p/takeQuiz.php?ChapterID=1353&CurriculumID=5 Sums] [http://www.kwiznet.com/p/takeQuiz.php?ChapterID=739&CurriculumID=5 Fractions]
* [http://www.mathsisfun.com/worksheets/decimals.php Practice Decimal Arithmetic with Printable Worksheets]
* [http://www.mathsisfun.com/converting-decimals-fractions.html Converting Decimals to Fractions]
[[Category:Elementary arithmetic]]
[[Category:Fractions]]
[[Category:Positional numeral systems| 10]]
[[be:Дзесятковая сыстэма зьлічэньня]]
[[de:Dezimalsystem]]
[[es:Sistema decimal]]
[[eo:Dekuma sistemo]]
[[fr:Nombre décimal]]
[[ko:십진법]]
[[it:Sistema numerico decimale]]
[[he:השיטה העשרונית]]
[[nl:Decimaal]]
[[ja:十進記数法]]
[[no:Titallsystemet]]
[[pl:Dziesiętny system liczbowy]]
[[pt:Sistema decimal]]
[[ru:Десятичная система счисления]]
[[sl:Desetiški številski sistem]]
[[fi:Kymmenjärjestelmä]]
[[sv:Decimala talsystemet]]
[[th:เลขฐานสิบ]]
[[uk:Десяткова система числення]]
[[zh:十进制]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dorian</title>
<id>8216</id>
<revision>
<id>42097505</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:35:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Meersan</username>
<id>323668</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Mythic origins */ removed offtopic sentence see talk page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the '''Dorian''' [[musical mode|mode]] in music, see [[Dorian mode]].''
The '''Dorians''' were one of the ancient [[Hellenic]] tribes acknowledged by Greek writers. Traditional accounts place their origins in the north, north-eastern regions of Greece, ancient [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] and [[Epirus]], whence obscure circumstances drove them south into [[Attica]] and the [[Peloponnesos]], to certain [[Aegean_Sea|Aegean]] islands, and to the coast of [[Asia Minor]]. Late mythology gave them an [[Eponym|eponymous]] founder, a certain "[[Dorus]]", son of "[[Hellen]]", the [[mythological]] [[patriarch]] of the [[Hellenes]].
Beginning about 1150 BC, the Dorians invaded the Greek mainland, the [[Peloponnessus]], [[Crete]] and other places throughout the Mediterranean, disrupting the [[Bronze Age]] Mycenaean civilization. Peloponnesian cities that the Dorians invaded include [[Corinth]], [[Olympia, Greece|Olympia]], [[Sparta]] and [[Mycenae]]. Many archaeologists attribute the destruction of Mycenae, a pivotal Mycenaean city, to these invading Dorians.
Though most of the Doric invaders settled in the Peloponesse, they also settled on [[Rhodes]] and in Asia Minor, where in later times the Dorian Hexapolis (the six Dorian cities) would arise: [[Halicarnassus]], [[Kos|Cos]], [[Cnidos]] (Asia Minor); [[Lindos]], [[Kameiros]] (Camiros), and [[Ialyssos]] (in Rhodes). These six cities would later become rivals with the [[Ionia]]n cities of Asia Minor. The Dorians also invaded [[Crete]]. These origin traditions remained strong into classical times: [[Thucydides]] saw the[[ Peloponnesian War]] in part as "Ionians fighting against Dorians" and reported the tradition that the [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracusans]] in Sicily were of Dorian descent ([http://classicpersuasion.org/pw/thucydides/thucydides-passages.php?pleaseget=7.56-6 Thucydides, 7.57]). Other such "Dorian" colonies, originally from Corinth, Megara, and the Dorian islands, dotted the southern coasts of Sicily from Syracuse to Selinus. Culturally, in addition to their Doric dialect of Greek, these colonies retained their characteristic [[Hellenic calendar|Doric calendar]] revolving round a cycle of festivals of which the ''Hyacinthia'' and the [[Carneia]] were especially important (''EB'' 1911).
The [[Dorian invasion]] was partly responsible for the subsequent [[Greek Dark Ages]]. The written record is nonexistent; the Dorian migration is documented in the mute archaeological record: widespread burning and destruction of Bronze Age sites both in Crete and the mainland of Greece, many of which were reduced to villages or abandoned, and the introduction of iron-working ended the Bronze Age in the Aegean.
==The Dorian invasion==
The '''[[Dorian]] invasion''', more often called the '''Dorian migration''' in modern texts, is co-related with ash layers at Mycenaean sites and changes in burial practices, from Mycenaean group burials in [[tholos tomb]]s to individual burials and the burning of the corpse, previously unknown. Considered as an invasion, the advent of the Dorians is generally advanced to explain the swift collapse of [[Mycenaean]] civilization in ancient mainland [[Greece]]. Concurrent effects are the disruption of long-distance trade and possibilities of civil war and natural disaster, as well as the colonisation of islands in the Aegean sea and the west coast of Asia Minor.
==Mythic origins==
According to a myth based on an [[etymology|etymological fantasy]], the Dorians were named for the minor district of Doris in northern Greece. Their leaders were mythologized as the [[Heracleidae]], the sons of the legendary hero [[Heracles]], and the Dorian incursion into Greece in the distant past was justified in the mythic theme of the "''Return'' of the Heracleidae". The most famous of Dorian groups were the [[Sparta|Spartans]], whose austere and martial lifestyle was much admired and feared.
==Doric dialect==
{{main|Doric Greek}}
The Doric dialect was spoken along the coast of the [[Peloponnese]], in [[Crete]] and southwest [[Asia Minor]]. A close relationship between Doric, [[North-Western Greek]] and [[Ancient Macedonian language|ancient Macedonian]] has been postulated. In later periods other dialects predominated, most notably the [[Attic Greek|Attic]], upon which the [[Koine Greek|Koine]] or common Greek language of the [[Hellenistic]] period was based. The main characteristic of Doric was the preservation of indoeuropean /a/(&#945;) where Attic had /e/(&#951;).
==See also==
The [[Doric order|Doric column]] in architecture and a [[Dorian mode]] in music (see also [[guitar]] [[chord (music)|chord]] roots). The column was noted for its simplicity and strength, the music for its martial qualities.
The Doric column is still widely used today, particularly in government buildings and other large edifices. See the [[Doric order]].
*[[Greek Dark Ages]]
*[[Sparta]]
== Bibliography ==
*''Die Dorier'' (''The Dorians''), [[Karl Otfried Müller]] (1824).
*''The History and Antiquities of the Doric Race'', Karl Otfried Müller, Eng. trans., Oxford, 1830. 2 vols.
*''The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe CA. 1200 B.C.'', Robert Drews, Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1993.
== External links ==
*[http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?book=Dictionary&va=dorians&x=19&y=18 Meriam-Webster Online Dictionary]
*http://emuseum.mnsu.edu/prehistory/aegean/theculturesofgreece/dorians.html
*[http://emuseum.mnsu.edu/prehistory/aegean/theculturesofgreece/dorians.html Dorian invasion, also showing Ionian and Aeolian]
*[http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/DIO_DRO/DORIANS.html ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' 1911:] "Dorians"
[[Category:History of Greece]]
[[Category:Ancient Greece]]
[[Category:Crete]]
[[de:Dorier]]
[[fr:Doriens]]
[[it:Dori]]
[[nl:Doriërs]]
[[ja:ドーリア人]]
[[pl:Dorowie]]
[[pt:Dóricos]]
[[ru:Дорийцы]]
[[fi:Doorilaiset]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen</title>
<id>8217</id>
<revision>
<id>41774761</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T17:35:13Z</timesta |
BI_BAKR.html Biography of Aisha]
Shi'a view of Aisha:
* [http://www.islamic-paths.org/Home/English/Sects/Shiite/Encyclopedia/Chapter_1a_Part09.htm Shi'a view of Aisha]
* [http://www.answering-ansar.org/answers/ayesha/en/chap1.php Answering some important issues regarding Aisha]
Questioning hadith re Aisha's age at marriage:
* [http://www.muslim.org/islam/aisha-age.htm#_ftn3 From muslim.org]
* [http://www.understanding-islam.com/ri/mi-005.htm From understanding-islam.com]
[[Category:678 deaths]]
[[Category:Women in war]]
[[Category:Muslim women]]
[[Category:Arab people]]
[[Category:Islam and controversy]]
[[Category:Islamic history]]
[[ar:عائشة بنت أبي بكر]]
[[de:ʿĀʾischa bint Abī Bakr]]
[[eo:Aiŝa]]
[[fa:عایشه]]
[[fr:Aïcha]]
[[gl:Aisha - عائشه]]
[[it:Aisha]]
[[nl:Aïsja]]
[[ja:アーイシャ]]
[[pl:Aisza]]
[[sv:Aisha]]
[[th:อาอิชะหฺ]]
[[zh:阿伊莎]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Athenian democracy</title>
<id>1784</id>
<revision>
<id>41961728</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T22:23:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TKE</username>
<id>531146</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 41098540 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ac.pnyx.jpg|thumb|400px|The speaker's platform in the [[Pnyx]], the meeting ground of the assembly where all the great political struggles of Athens were fought during the "Golden Age". Here Athenian statesmen stood to speak, such as [[Pericles]] and [[Aristides]] in the 5th century BC and [[Demosthenes]] and [[Aeschines]] in the 4th — along with countless humbler citizens as well. In the background high on the [[Acropolis, Athens|Acropolis]] is the [[Parthenon]], the temple of [[Athena]], the city's protective goddess, looking down upon their deliberations.]]
The '''Athenian democracy''' (sometimes called '''classical democracy''') was the [[democracy|democratic]] system developed in the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[city-state]] of [[Athens]] (comprising the central city-state of Athens and its surrounding territory [[Attica, Greece|Attica]]). Athens was one of the very first known democracies, and probably the most important in ancient times. Other Greek cities set up democracies, most but not all following an Athenian model, but none were as powerful or as stable (or, relatively speaking, as well-documented) as that of Athens. It remains a unique and intriguing experiment in direct democracy where the people do not elect representatives to vote on their behalf but vote on legislation and executive bills in their own right. Participation was by no means open to all inhabitants of Attica, but the in-group of participants was constituted with no reference to economic class and they participated on a scale that was truly phenomenal. Never before had so many people spent so much of their time in governing themselves.
The dates traditionally given for it are from around 508 BC with its foundation under [[Cleisthenes]] to its suppression under the [[Macedon|Macedonia]]ns in 322 BC. The Athenians themselves however were more likely to talk about it as going back to [[Solon]] almost a century before Cleisthenes, or even to retroject it into their remotest past ([[Theseus]]). There was also a short period of revival in the 4th century BC. Nor was the democratic period entirely continuous; there were two brief takeovers by [[oligarch]]ic [[revolution]]aries.
The word "democracy" combines the elements ''demos'' ("the people") and ''kratos'' ("force, power"). ''Kratos'' is an unexpectedly brutish word. In the words "monarchy" and "oligarchy", the second element ''arche'' means rule, leading, or being first. It is possible that the term "democracy" was coined by its detractors who rejected the possibility of, so to speak, a valid "demarchy". Whatever its original tone, the term was adopted wholeheartedly by Athenian democrats. (The word is attested in some of the earliest Greek prose to survive, but even this may not have been written before 440 or 430 BC. It is not at all certain that the word goes back to the beginning of the democracy, but from around 460 BC at any rate an individual is known whose parents had decided to name him 'Democrates', a name evidently manufactured as a gesture of democratic loyalty.)
==Overview==
===Assembly===
The central events of the Athenian democracy were the meetings of the assembly. Unlike a [[parliament]], the assembly's 'members' were not elected, but attended by right when and if they chose. Members of the Assembly were chosen by lot. It was open only to adult male citizens over the age of 30, but to all of them: unlike earlier schemes there was no property qualification. Although the entire citizen body never gathered in one place at one time, this body did not represent the people — it was them. That is to say, the version of Greek democracy created at Athens was a [[direct democracy]] and not [[representative democracy]]: there was no electorate selecting representatives to decide for them. Members were chosen annually by a form of lottery. It was an honor and a privilege to be part of the Assembly. It was the duty of the individual to attend.
The ''ekklesia'' had at least four functions: it made executive pronouncements (decrees, such as deciding to go to war or granting citizenship to a foreigner); it elected some officials; it legislated; and it tried political crimes. As the system evolved these last two functions were shifted to the law courts. The standard format was that of speakers making speeches for and against a position followed by a general vote (usually by show of hands) of yes or no. Unlike in modern parliaments, the speeches were actually attempts to persuade those present. Though there might be blocs of opinion, sometimes enduring, on crucial issues, there were no political parties and likewise no [[government]] or [[opposition]] (as in the [[Westminster system]]). In effect, the 'government' was whatever speaker(s) the assembly agreed with on a particular day. Voting was by simple [[majority rule|majority]]. In the 5th century at least there were scarcely any limits on the power exercised by the assembly. If the assembly broke the law, the only thing that might happen is that they would punish those who had made the proposal that they had agreed to. If a mistake had been made, from their viewpoint it could only be because they had been 'misled'.
===Officeholders===
Administration was in the hands of officeholders, over a thousand each year. They were mostly chosen by [[sortition|lot]], with a much smaller (and more prestigious) group [[elected]]. Neither was compulsory; individuals had to nominate themselves for both selection methods. By and large the power exercised by these officials was routine administration and quite limited. In particular, those chosen by lot were citizens acting without particular expertise. This was almost inevitable since, with the notable exception of the generals ([[strategoi]]), each office could be held by the same person only once. Part of the ethos of democracy, however, was the building of general competence by ongoing involvement. In the 5th century version of the democracy, the ten annually elected generals were often very prominent, but for those who had power, it lay primarily in their frequent speeches and in the respect accorded them in the assembly, rather than their vested powers. While citizens voting in the assembly ''were'' the people and so were free of review or punishment, those same citizens when holding an office ''served'' the people and could be punished very severely. All of them were subject to a review beforehand that might disqualify them for office and an examination after stepping down. Officeholders were the agents of the people, not their representatives.
===Council of 500===
The council (''boule'') of 500, the largest board of officeholders, formed a steering committee for the assembly, drafting legislation and setting its agenda. The 500 was selected by a lottery, held each year. A citizen could serve on the council twice in their lifetime. Any citizen could submit proposals to the council for drafting. Technically it was forbidden for the assembly to vote on measures without a pre-proposal (''probouleuma'') from the council. These might be concrete, worked-out proposals or 'open', that is little more than items on the agenda. The council, or rotating sections of it, also served as a kind of front desk for the state, on duty in the council chamber 24 hours a day. Every day of the year one of these councillors was head of state for the day (for instance, holding the keys to the treasury and the seal of the city and being responsible for greeting foreign envoys, and in the 5th century presiding over the assembly and council meetings). It has been calculated that one quarter of all citizens must at one time in their lives have held the post. This head of state position could be held once only in a lifetime.
===Courts===
Courts consisting of massive juries (smallest 200, largest 6000) heard cases argued by litigants (both citizen and non-citizen) without the involvement of lawyers or judges. In particular there was no state prosecutor: all cases, even the most public (e.g. for treason) had to be brought by citizens acting on their own initiative. These juries formed a second site for the expression of popular sovereignty: as in the assembly, citizens acting as jurors acted as the people and were immune from review or punishment. (Notably when the jurors are addressed by speakers as "you", they can be referred to as having committed any act ever committed by the 'Athenian people', such as battles fought before any of them were born or court decisions made by other juries whose membership may have had no overlap with those currently addressed.) Jur |
ingdom of Mysore===
{{main|Kingdom of Mysore}}
The Kingdom of Mysore was a kingdom of southern India, which was founded around 1400 CE by the [[Wodeyar]] dynasty. The rule of the Wodeyars was interrupted by [[Hyder Ali]] and his son [[Tippu Sultan]]. Under their rule Mysore fought a series of wars sometimes against the combined forces of the [[British Raj|British]] and [[Marathas]], but mostly against the British with some aid or promise of aid from the [[France|French]]. After the death of Tippu Sultan in the Fourth War of Mysore in 1799, the Wodeyar dynasty regained limited power as a [[Princely State]] under the British. The Kingdom of Mysore became part of the modern day, Indian state of [[Karnataka]].
===The Punjab===
{{main|Sikh Empire}}
The Punjabi kingdom, ruled by members of the [[Sikh]] religious movement was a political entity that ruled the region of modern day [[Punjab region|Punjab]]. Founded by the ten Gurus of the Sikh faith, it expanded its borders during the reign of Maharaja [[Ranjit Singh]] at the height of the [[Sikh Empire]] to include surrounding areas like [[Kashmir]] and [[Peshawar]], and was among the last areas of the subcontinent that was conquered by the British. The [[Anglo-Sikh wars]] marked the downfall of the Sikh Empire.
===Durrani Empire===
{{main|Durrani Empire}}
In 1748, the [[Afghan]] leader [[Ahmad Shah|Ahmed Shah Durrani]] crossed the [[Indus River]] on the pretext of waging a ''jihad'' against the "[[Hindus]]". He attacked [[Lahore]] (in present day Pakistan) in 1750, his first Indian target. Subsequentley, he raided the rest of the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] (including [[Amritsar]]), [[Kashmir]] and finally [[Delhi]]. He also fought against the [[Marathas]] frequently. He left [[India]] with numerous treasures, including the [[Kohinoor]] diamond.
==Colonial era==
During the colonial era, India, along with several ancient nations in Asia, Africa and South America, was targeted by expansionist European powers, and was eventually incorporated into the [[British Empire]]. The subsequent freedom struggle, beginning with the First War of Independence, and later led by figures such as [[Mohandas Gandhi]], would prove to be one of the biggest turning points in the development of modern world history.
===Company rule===
{{main articles|[[Colonial India]] and [[European colonies in India]]}}
[[Vasco da Gama]]'s discovery of a new sea route to India in [[1498]] paved the way for European colonization of India. The Portuguese set up bases in [[Goa]], [[Daman]], [[Diu]] and [[Bombay]]. They remained the longest colonial rulers for 500 years till 1962. The [[British Empire|British]] established their first outpost in South Asia in [[1619]] at [[Surat]] on the northwestern coast of India, arriving in the wake of [[Portugal|Portuguese]] and [[Netherland|Dutch]] visitors. Later in the century, the [[British East India Company]] opened permanent trading stations at [[Madras]], [[Bombay]], and [[Calcutta]], each under the protection of native rulers.
{{main|French India}}
The French set up base along with the British in the 17<sup>th</sup> century. They occupied large parts of southern India. However subsequent wars with the British, led to the loss of almost all their territory. They however retained the colonies of [[Pondicherry]] - (Pondicherry, Karaikal, Yanam, and Mahé.) and Chandernagore. Pondicherry was ceded to India in 1950.
The Dutch did not have a major presence in India. The towns of [[Travancore]] were ruled by the Dutch. However they were more interested in [[Ceylon]] (now [[Sri Lanka]]) and their prize of the Dutch East Indies (now [[Indonesia]]). They were responsible for training the military of the princely state of Kerala. In 1845, the Danish colony of [[Tranquebar]] was sold to the [[United Kingdom]].
===The British Raj===
{{main|British Raj}}
[[Image:British Empire 1921 IndianSubcontinent.png|thumb|280px|The extent of the [[British Raj]], with India and Burma shown in purple]]
The British established a foothold in [[Bengal]] when the British soldiers, funded by the [[British East India Company|East India Company]], and led by [[Robert Clive]], defeated [[Nawab]] [[Siraj Ud Daulah]] in the [[Battle of Plassey]] in [[1757]] and plundered the Bengali treasure. [[Bengal]] became a protectorate, and then directly went under the rule of [[British East India Company|East India Company]].
The British East India Company monopolized the trade of Bengal. The Bengali craftsmen were inevitably fixed at foreign posts of the Company, where they were obliged to render their labour at minimal compensation while their collective tax burden increased harshly. The result was the [[Bengal famine of 1770|famine of 1769 to 1773]] in which 10 million Bengalis died, followed almost a century later by the catastrophic Great Calamity period, resulting in part from an extension of similar policies, in which up to 40 million Indians perished from [[famine in India|famine]] amidst the collapse of India's native industries and skilled workforce.
By the [[1850s]] Britain controlled most of the Indian sub-continent, which included present-day [[Pakistan]] and [[Bangladesh]]. From 1830, the defeat of the [[Thugs]] played a part in securing establishing greater control of diverse Indian provinces for the British.
The [[First War of Indian Independence 1857]] in the north, led by mutinous Indian soldiers, was crushed by the British. It is also called the first war of Indian independence. In the aftermath all political power was transferred from the East India Company to the [[British Crown|Crown]], which began administering most of India directly. It controlled the rest through [[Princely states|local rulers]].
===The independence movement===
{{main|Indian independence movement}}
[[Image:Nehru Gandhi 1937.jpg|thumb|280px|[[Gandhi]] and [[Nehru]] in 1937]]
In the late [[19th century]] "British India" took its first steps toward self-government with the appointment of Indian councillors to advise the British [[viceroy]], and the establishment of provincial Councils with Indian members; the British subsequently widened participation in legislative councils. Beginning in [[1920]], Indian leaders such as [[Mohandas Gandhi|Mohandas K. Gandhi]] (also known as ''[[Mahatma]]'' (Great Soul) Gandhi) and [[Subhas Bose|Subhas Chandra Bose]] transformed the [[Indian National Congress]] into a mass movement to campaign against British colonial rule. The movement eventually succeeded in bringing independence to the people of the Indian subcontinent, by means of parliamentary action and [[civil disobedience|non-violent resistance and non-cooperation]]. Following the division of India into the secular [[Republic of India]] and the [[Islamic Republic of Pakistan]] in August [[1947]], rioting broke out between Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims in several parts of India, including Punjab, Bengal and Delhi, leaving some 200,000 dead. Also, this period saw the largest mass migration ever recorded in modern history, with a total of 12 million Hindus and Muslims moved between the newly created dominions of India and Pakistan.
== Republic of India ==
''Main Articles'': [[Political Integration of India]], [[History of the Republic of India]]
[[Image:IndiaLocation.png|thumb|280px|The republic of India]]
Since independence, India has fought a number of wars against its neighbours, most notably [[Indo-Pakistani War|four wars]] against Pakistan, and one [[Sino-Indian War|against China]]. It also detonated a nuclear device in [[1974]] and became a [[List of countries with nuclear weapons|Declared nuclear state]] in [[1998]] following a series of tests. From a socialist-inspired economy to the early [[1990]]s , India continued to make slow progress away from the state the British had left the country in, however, it was only after extensive economic reforms in the early 90s (initiated by Present Prime minister of India [[Manmohan Singh]]) that India's economy began to grow at a high rate. Today, in the [[21st century]], India is considered an emerging economic [[superpower]], and is currently the tenth largest economy in terms of gross [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]], and 4th largest when accounting for [[Purchasing Power Parity|purchasing power parity]].
[[Image:Mumbai Skyline.jpg|thumb|280px|Skyline of modern [[Mumbai]]]]
Since independence, India has fought three major wars and one minor war with [[Pakistan]] (see [[Indo-Pakistani Wars]]). The [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1947]] started over the control of [[Kashmir]]. The [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]] was also fought over [[Kashmir]]. In [[1971]], India hosted refugees from erstwhile [[East Pakistan]] and helped the Bangladeshi freedom fighters ([[Mukti Bahini]]) with resources and training during the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]]. During the final stages of that war, India became directly involved in the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]], which ultimately resulted in Pakistan's defeat and the independence of [[Bangladesh]]. India also fought a border war with [[China]] in [[1962]] (see [[Sino-Indian War]]).
As well as being a declared nuclear state, India has an advanced [[Indian space program|space program]] designed to benefit the country economically, rather than merely create prestige. In the 1990s, following economic reform from the socialist-inspired economy of post-independence India, the country began to experience rapid [[economy of India|economic growth]], as markets opened for international competition and investment. In the 21st century, India is an emerging economic power with vast human and natural resources, and a huge knowledge base. Economists predict that by 2050, India will be among the top three economies of the world.
==Textbooks and surveys==
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=88816404 Allan, J. T. Wolseley Haig, and H. H. Dodwell, ''The Cambridge Shorter History of India'' (1934)]
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/pro |
ct)
*''Jolson Sings Again'' (1949) (voice only)
*''Top o' the Morning'' (1949)
*''[[The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad]]'' (1949) (voice)
*''Alberta Vacation'' (1950) (short subject)
*''Riding High'' (1950)
*''Screen Actors'' (1950) (short subject)
*''Mr. Music'' (1950)
*''You Can Change the World'' (1951) (short subject)
*''Here Comes the Groom'' (1951)
*''[[Angels in the Outfield (1951 film)|Angels in the Outfield]]'' (1951) (Cameo)
*''[[The Greatest Show on Earth]]'' (1952) (Cameo)
*''[[Son of Paleface]]'' (1952) (Cameo)
*''Just for You'' (1952)
*''Crusade for Prayer'' (1952) (short subject)
*''[[Road to Bali]]'' (1952)
*''Off Limits'' (1953) (appears on a TV)
*''[[Scared Stiff]]'' (1953) (Cameo)
*''[[Little Boy Lost]]'' (1953)
*''[[White Christmas (film)|White Christmas]]'' (1954)
*''[[The Country Girl]]'' (1954)
*''Hollywood Mothers and Fathers'' (1955) (short subject)
*''Showdown at Ulcer Gulch'' (1956) (short subject)
*''Bing Presents Oreste'' (1956) (short subject)
*''[[Anything Goes]]'' (1956)
*''[[High Society]]'' (1956)
*''The Heart of Show Business'' (1957) (short subject)
*''Man on Fire'' (1957)
*''[[The Legend of Sleepy Hollow]]'' (1958) (short subject) (voice)
*''[[Alias Jesse James]]'' (1959) (Cameo)
*''Say One for Me'' (1959)
*''Let's Make Love'' (1960) (Cameo)
*''[[High Time (film)|High Time]]'' (1960)
*''[[Pepe (film)|Pepe]]'' (1960) (Cameo)
*''[[The Road to Hong Kong]]'' (1962)
*''[[Robin and the 7 Hoods]]'' (1964)
*''Cinerama's Russian Adventure'' (1966) (documentary) (narrator)
*''[[Stagecoach (film)|Stagecoach]]'' (1966)
*''Bing Crosby's Washington State'' (1968) (short subject)
*''The World of Sport Fishing'' (1972) (documentary)
*''Cancel My Reservation'' (1972) (Cameo)
*''Just One More Time'' (1974) (short subject)
*''[[That's Entertainment!]]'' (1974) (narrator)
==Television Work==
*''The Bing Crosby Show'' (1954)
*''The Edsel Show'' (1957)
*''Bing Crosby in London'' (1961)
*''The Bing Crosby Show'' (1964-1965)
*''Bing Crosby in Dublin'' (1965)
*''Goldilocks'' (1971) (voice)
*''Dr. Cook's Garden'' (1971)
*''Bing Crosby and Fred Astaire: A Couple of Song and Dance Men'' (1975)
*''The Bell Telephone Jubilee'' (1976)
==Discography==
These Are Crosby's [[Gramophone records]] or LPs [[Image:Music album record white christmas.jpg|right|thumb|Bing Crosby's album [[White Christmas]] has not been out of print since 1947 and has entered the [[Billboard]] Top 40 charts 5 times including multiple times in the top five.]]
*1953 ''[[Le Bing: Song Hits of Paris]]''
*1953 ''[[Some Fine Old Chestnuts]]''
*1953 ''[[White Christmas soundtrack]]'' (w/ [[Peggy Lee]] and [[Danny Kaye]])
*1954 ''[[Bing: A Musical Autobiography]]''
*1956 ''[[High Society]]''
*1956 ''[[Songs I Wish I Had Sung the First Time Around]]
*[[1956]] ''[[Bing Sings Whilst Bregman Swings]]''
*1957 ''[[Bing with a Beat]]''
*1957 ''[[New Tricks]]''
*1958 ''[[Fancy Meeting You Here]]'' ( w/ [[Rosemary Clooney]])
*1959 ''[[How the West was Won]]''
*1959 ''[[Join Bing and Sing Along]]''
*1960 ''[[El Senor Bing]]''
*1960 ''[[Bing and Satchmo]]''
*1960 ''[[101 Gang Songs]]''
*1961 ''[[Holiday in Europe]]''
*1962 ''[[On the Happy Side]]''
*1962 ''[[I Wish You a Merry Christmas]]''
*1963 ''[[Return to Paradise Islands]]''
*1963 ''[[Great Country Hits]]''
*1964 ''[[That Traveling Two-Beat]]'' (w/ [[Rosemary Clooney]])
*1965 ''[[The Songs I Love]]''
*1968 ''[[Thoroughly Modern Bing]]''
*1968 ''[[The Songs I Love]]''
*1968 ''[[Hey Jude Hey Bing]]''
*1971 ''[[A Time to Be Jolly]]''
*1972 ''[[Bing 'n' Basie]]''
*1975 ''[[A Southern Memoir]]
*[[1975]] ''[[That's What Life Is All About]]''
*1975 ''[[Bingo Viejo]]''
*1975 ''[[A Couple of Song and Dance Men]]''
*1976 ''[[Bing Crosby Live at the London Palladium]]''
*1976 ''[[At My Time of Life]]''
*1976 ''[[Feels Good Feels Right]]''
*1976 ''[[Beautiful Memories]]''
*1977 ''[[Seasons(Bing Crosby album)|Seasons]]
== Samples ==
*[[Media:WhiteChristmas.ogg|Download sample]] of "White Christmas
== References ==
* Giddins, Gary. ''A Pocketful of Dreams: The Early Years, 1903-1940''. Boston, New York, & London: Little, Brown and Company, 2001. ISBN 0316886459
# ''A Pocketful of Dreams'', p. 259
# ''A Pocketful of Dreams'', p. 3
*The Steven Lewis Internet Museum
*[http://www.waynesthisandthat.com/elvisbing.html Bing Crosby, Elvis Presley Comparison Page]
*[http://history.acusd.edu/gen/recording/derbingle.html Bing Crosby sales estimates]
*[http://www.waynesthisandthat.com/elvisbing.html Bing Crosby sales estimates]
*[http://history.acusd.edu/gen/recording/derbingle.html Technolgical Influence]
== External links ==
* [http://www.waynesthisandthat.com/mus.htm Most Popular Entertainer of the Twentieth Century] - a statistical analysis arguing why this title should go to Bing Crosby
* [http://www.kcmetro.cc.mo.us/pennvalley/biology/lewis/crosby/bing.htm Bing Crosby Internet Museum]
* {{imdb name|id=0001078|name=Bing Crosby}}
* [http://www.geocities.com/BourbonStreet/3754/bing.html Immortal Talent's of Bing Crosby] - (A definitive fan site)
* [http://www.waynesthisandthat.com/greatestsingers3.htm Most popular Singers of the 20th century]
* [http://www.philsilversshow.homestead.com/BingCrosby.html Bing on the Phil Silvers Show ]
<!-- Going My Way -->
<!-- The Bells of St. Mary's, The Country Girl -->
[[Category:1903 births|Crosby, Bing]]
[[Category:1977 deaths|Crosby, Bing]]
[[Category:American film actors|Crosby, Bing]]
[[Category:American jazz singers|Crosby, Bing]]
[[Category:Baseball executives|Crosby, Bing]]
[[Category:Best Actor Oscar Nominee|Crosby, Bing]]
[[Category:Best Actor Oscar|Crosby, Bing]]
[[Category:English Americans|Crosby, Bing]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 70s|Crosby, Bing]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Crosby, Bing]]
[[Category:Irish-Americans|Crosby, Bing]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic musicians|Crosby, Bing]]
[[Category:Spokanites|Crosby, Bing]]
[[Category:Tap dancers|Crosby, Bing]]
[[Category:Traditional pop music singers|Crosby, Bing]]
[[Category:Early videotape recordings]]
[[Category:Bing Crosby]]
[[Category:Crooners]]
[[cy:Bing Crosby]]
[[da:Bing Crosby]]
[[de:Bing Crosby]]
[[es:Bing Crosby]]
[[fr:Bing Crosby]]
[[hr:Bing Crosby]]
[[it:Bing Crosby]]
[[nl:Bing Crosby]]
[[ja:ビング・クロスビー]]
[[no:Bing Crosby]]
[[pl:Bing Crosby]]
[[sv:Bing Crosby]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Base</title>
<id>4011</id>
<revision>
<id>40840405</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T09:52:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koffieyahoo</username>
<id>282389</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>adapt link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''base''' is:
{{wiktionarypar|base}}
* In [[computing]]:
** [[database]] is an organized collection of data.
***it is the name of the database for [[OpenOffice.org]]
** [[Google Base]] is an [[internet]] [[database]] service from [[Google]].
*In [[mathematics]]:
**A number that is raised to a power; the [[Base (mathematics)|base]] of an [[exponential function]]. This finds common use, for example, in the depiction of numbers, for instance, 10 is the base used in the [[decimal]] system, whereas 2 is the base in the [[binary numeral system]]. See also [[numeral system]], [[radix]] and [[table of bases]].
**The base of a [[logarithm|logarithmic]] function.
**One of the [[Parallel (geometry)|parallel]] sides of a [[trapezoid]] or the unequal side of an isosceles [[triangle (geometry)|triangle]].
**In [[topology]], a [[base (topology)|base]] for a topology is a set of open sets such that every element of the topology is a union of the base sets. See also [[subbase]].
**In [[group theory]], if a group acts on a set ''X'', a [[base (group theory)|base]] is a special subset of ''X'' used in [[computational group theory]].
**You may also be interested in [[basis (linear algebra)|basis]] of a [[vector space]] in [[linear algebra]].
*In [[politics]]:
** [[base (politics)|base]] is a [[political party]]'s core group of [[vote]]rs.
**As modified by the word [[tax]], it refers to how much income and assets one has, earns, spends, inherits, and other financial information as used in the formula to decide owed tax (example: owed tax = (base * tax percent) - deductible).
*In [[warfare]], a [[military base]] is a [[logistics]] point such as a supply dump and a concentrated facility for storing and repairing military equipment such as an [[air force base]].
**In [[2001]], the catchphrase "[[All your base are belong to us]]" swept across the [[Internet]].
*In [[sport]]
**[[baseball]], a [[base (baseball)|base]] is one of 4 bags or plates placed at corners of the infield diamond that a player has to run to after hitting the ball.
**[[BASE jumping]] is an extreme variation on [[skydiving]].
*In a [[transistor]] the base is the controlling connection to the [[junction]].
*In [[Marxism]] describes the material equipment and material relations of human society, as distinct from the 'superstructural' forms of society..
*The name of the terrorist group [[Al-Qaida]] translates as "the base."
*In [[chemistry]], a [[base (chemistry)|base]] is the reactive complement to an [[acid]]. See [[Acid-base reaction theories]].
**With reference to [[medication|drugs]], '''base''' is a [[colloquialism]] for amphetamine or [[crack cocaine|freebase cocaine]].
*In [[genetics]], a [[base pair]] consists of two complimentary [[DNA]] or [[RNA]] [[nucleotides]] joined by [[hydrogen bond]]s.
*In [[linguistics]], a base is a synonym for [[root word]].
*In [[telecommunications]], [[BASE (mobile)|BASE]] is a mobile telephony company in Belgium, a subsidiary of the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] telecommunications company [[KPN]].
*An isolated settlement in inhospitable conditions that must rely on outside help in order to survive, such as Antarctica base or [[Moon base]].
* In architecture, a '''base''' is the part of a [[column]] between the bottom of t |
]]''
An important facet of evolution occurs through changes in population structure. The movement of populations and changes in their sizes can have profound impacts on evolution over and above those governed by selection and drift.
Migration can result in admixture leading to the introduction of new genetic variation, or it may result in geographic isolation which may in turn lead to reproductive isolation or speciation.
Populations may also shrink or grow over time, producing "bottlenecks" or "explosions" respectively. Since population size has a profound effect on the relative strengths of genetic drift and natural selection, changes in population size can alter the dynamics of these processes considerably. Such changes may also produce dramatic and dangerous crashes in the level of genetic variation in the population, or allow rapid increases in standing genetic variation.
The free movement of alleles through a population may also be impeded by population structure. For example, most real-world populations are not actually fully interbreeding; geographic proximity has a strong influence on the movement of alleles within the population. Many models of evolution rely on simplifying assumptions of constant population size and fully interbreeding populations for mathematical convenience.
An example of the effect of population structure is the so-called [[founder effect]], resulting from a migration and population bottleneck. In this case, a single, rare allele may suddenly increase very rapidly in frequency if it happened to be prevalent in a small number of "founder" individuals. The frequency of the allele in the resulting population can be much higher than otherwise expected, especially for deleterious, disease-causing alleles.
====Drift====
{{main|Genetic drift}}
Genetic drift describes changes in allele frequency from one generation to the next due to [[sampling variance]]. The frequency of an allele in the offspring generation will vary according to a probability distribution of the frequency of the allele in the parent generation. Thus, over time, allele frequencies will tend to "drift" upward or downward, eventually becoming "fixed" - that is, going to 0% or 100% frequency. Fluctuations in allele frequency between successive generations may result in some alleles disappearing from the population. Two separate populations that begin with the same allele frequencies therefore might drift by random fluctuation into two divergent populations with different allele sets (for example, alleles that are present in one have been lost in the other).
Many aspects of genetic drift depend on the size of the population (generally abbreviated as N). This is especially important in small mating populations, where chance fluctuations from generation to generation can be large. The relative importance of natural selection and genetic drift in determining the fate of new mutations also depends on the population size and the strength of selection: when N times s (population size times strength of selection) is small, genetic drift predominates. When N times s is large, selection predominates. Thus, natural selection is 'more efficient' in large populations, or equivalently, genetic drift is stronger in small populations. Finally, the time for an allele to become fixed in the population by genetic drift (that is, for all individuals in the population to carry that allele) depends on population size, with smaller populations requiring a shorter time to fixation.
====Selection and adaptation====
=====Natural selection=====
{{main|Natural selection}}
[[Image:Peacock.displaying.better.800pix.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A peacock's tail is the canonical example of [[sexual selection]]]]
Natural selection comes from differences in survival and reproduction as a result of the environment. Differential mortality is the survival rate of individuals to their reproductive age. Differential fertility is the total genetic contribution to the next generation. Note that, whereas mutations and genetic drift are random, natural selection is not, as it preferentially selects for different mutations based on differential fitnesses. For example, rolling dice is random, but always picking the higher number on two rolled dice is not random. The central role of natural selection in evolutionary theory has given rise to a strong connection between that field and the study of [[ecology]].
Natural selection can be subdivided into two categories:
* [[Ecological selection]] occurs when organisms that survive and reproduce increase the frequency of their genes in the gene pool over those that do not survive.
* [[Sexual selection]] occurs when organisms which are more attractive to the opposite sex because of their features reproduce more and thus increase the frequency of those features in the gene pool.
Natural selection also operates on mutations in several different ways:
* Positive or [[directional selection]] increases the frequency of a beneficial mutation, or pushes the mean in either direction.
* [[Stabilizing selection|Stabilizing]] or purifying selection favors average characteristics in a population, thus reducing gene variation but retaining the mean.
* [[Balancing selection]] maintains variation within a population through a number of mechanisms, including:
** [[Heterozygote advantage]] or overdominance, where the [[heterozygote]] is more fit than either of the homozygous forms (exemplified by human [[sickle cell anemia]] conferring resistance to [[malaria]])
** [[Frequency-dependent selection]], where rare variants either have increased fitness or decreased fitness, because of their rarity.
* [[Disruptive selection]] favors both extremes, and results in a bimodal distribution of gene frequency. The mean may or may not shift.
* [[Selective sweep]]s describe the affect of selection acting on [[genetic linkage|linked]] alleles. It comes in two forms:
** [[Background selection]] occurs when a deleterious mutation is selected against, and linked mutations are eliminated along with the deleterious variant, resulting in lower genetic polymorphism in the surrounding region.
** [[Genetic hitchhiking]] occurs when a positive mutation is selected for, and linked mutations are pushed towards fixation along with the positive variant.
=====Adaptation=====
Through the process of natural selection, species become better adapted to their environments. [[Adaptation (biology)|Adaptation]] is any evolutionary process that increases the [[fitness (biology)|fitness]] of the individual, or sometimes the trait that confers increased fitness, e.g. a stronger prehensile tail or greater visual acuity. Note that adaptation is context-sensitive; a trait that increases fitness in one environment may decrease it in another.
Evolution does not act in a linear direction towards a pre-defined "goal" &mdash; it only responds to various types of adaptionary changes. The belief in a [[teleology|telelogical]] evolution of this sort is known as [[orthogenesis]], and is not supported by the scientific understandings of evolution. One example of this misconception is the erroneous belief humans will evolve [[polydactyly|more fingers]] in the future on account of their increased use of machines such as [[computer]]s. In reality, this would only occur if more fingers offered a significantly higher rate of reproductive success than those not having them, which seems very unlikely at the current time.
Most biologists believe that adaptation occurs through the accumulation of many mutations of small effect. However, [[macromutation]] is an alternative process for adaptation that involves a single, very large scale mutation.
===Speciation and extinction===
[[Image:Allosaurus1.jpg|right|thumb|200px|An [[Allosaurus]] skeleton.]]
[[Speciation]] is the creation of two or more species from one. This may take place by various mechanisms. [[Allopatric speciation]] occurs in populations that become isolated geographically, such as by [[habitat fragmentation]] or migration. [[Sympatric speciation]] occurs when new species emerge in the same geographic area. [[Ernst Mayr]]'s [[peripatric speciation]] is a type of speciation that exists in between the extremes of allopatry and sympatry. Peripatric speciation is a critical underpinning of the theory of [[punctuated equilibrium]].
[[Extinction]] is the disappearance of species (i.e. [[gene pool]]s). The moment of extinction generally occurs at the death of the last individual of that species. Extinction is not an unusual event in [[geological time]] &mdash; species are created by speciation, and disappear through extinction. The [[Permian-Triassic extinction event]] was the Earth's most severe extinction event, rendering extinct 90% of all marine species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species. In the [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event]] many forms of life perished (including approximately 50% of all [[genus|genera]]), the most often mentioned among them being the extinction of the non-[[avian]] [[dinosaur]]s (See Image 5).
==Social and religious controversies==
{{main_articles|[[Social effect of evolutionary theory]] and [[Creation-evolution controversy]]}}
[[Image:Darwin ape.jpg|left|150px|thumb|A satirical 1871 image of [[Charles Darwin]] as an [[ape]] reflects part of the social controversy over whether humans and apes share a common lineage.]]
There has been constant controversy surrounding the ideas presented by ''[[The Origin of Species]]'' since it was first printed in 1859. Since the early twentieth century, however, the idea that biological evolution of some form occurred and is responsible for speciation has been almost completely uncontested within the scientific community.
Most controversy over the theory has come because of its philosophical, cosmological, and religious implications, and supporters as well as detractors have interpreted it as g |
MAS]] 5.56 is a cheap rifle exclusive to the Counter-Terrorists, similar in role to the Galil (and like the Galil, it was added in version 1.6). It costs $2250 and has 25-round magazine of 5.56x45mm ammo (as with the M4A1, but again, slightly weaker). Secondary fire toggles between fully automatic and a 3-round burst mode, which is more accurate over long distances than the Glock's 3-round burst. The former mode is most suited to close-range combat, while the unrealistically recoilless 3-round burst function makes the FAMAS very dangerous at mid to long-range. It's fake name is the nickname that was given to this weapon by French soldiers (it looked like a clairon, which means [[Bugle (instrument)|bugle]] in French).
===AK-47===
''Alternate name: CV-47''
Added in Beta 2.0, the [[AK-47]] 7.62 is a Terrorist-only rifle and the team's most popular gun. It costs $2500 and has 30 rounds of 7.62x51mm ammo (though in real life, it uses 7.62x39mm; also, the charging handle on the real AK is on the right, whereas in the game it is on the left, unless the game is set for left-handed shooting.). The AK-47 is slightly more powerful than the CTs' M4A1 and the first shot is more accurate; its reload time is also the quickest of any rifle. Headshots from this gun usually kill in 1 shot, unlike the M4 where it's quite possible to survive a headshot. The AK-47 is arguably the best rifle in the game; however, it can be a poor choice for inexperienced players due to its erratic recoil and low accuracy when fired full-auto — in ''Counter-Strike: Source'' it is sometimes the case that if "sprayed" at point blank range, all the AK-47 bullets will completely miss the enemy. However, in Counter-Strike 1.6, it's arguably a headshot machine. With practice, players learn to shoot in controlled bursts while dragging the crosshair down to negate the upwards recoil.
Like the CTs' M4A1, the AK-47's popularity and exclusivity to one team means that it is often sought after by opposing players. Often, by mid-game rounds many Counter-Terrorists will have swapped their primary firearm for this powerful alternative.
===Colt M4A1===
''Alternate name: Maverick M4A1''
The [[Colt's Manufacturing Company|Colt]] [[M4 Carbine]] (usually just called "Colt" or "M4") is exclusive to the Counter-Terrorists, and is greatly appreciated for its handling characteristics. It costs $3100 and has a 30-round magazine of 5.56x45mm ammo. Secondary fire adds or removes a suppressor. The Colt is very accurate, controllable, and powerful; indeed, it is perhaps the most-well rounded and forgiving rifle in the game. The damage is high (although not as high as the AK) and when using a suppressor, it can make you hard to find by the enemy. It previously had a scope, but this was removed from the game for balance reasons, since it was generally believed that it made the Colt a decent long-range gun, in addition to its dominance in close and medium ranges. It is to be noted that for some reason, the M4 doesn't have much side-to-side recoil, which makes it the one of the easiest to control rifles in the game. The Colt has been in CS since Beta 1.0.
Like the AK-47, M4A1 is highly sought after by players. Some Counter-Terrorists follow a teammate carrying the weapon and wait for them to die so they can pick it up.
===AUG===
[[Image:BullpupC-S.jpg|right|185px|thumb|The [[Steyr AUG]] (Bullpup) rifle.]]
''Alternate name: Bullpup''
The [[Steyr Mannlicher]] [[Steyr AUG]] 5.56 is a scoped rifle for the Counter-Terrorists. It costs $3500 and has a 30-round magazine of 5.56x45mm ammo. The secondary fire button activates its 2x scope and reduces its rate of fire. It is slightly more accurate than the M4A1 but is comparably more expensive. When unzoomed, the AUG seems to be slightly more accurate when firing one round at a time, but less accurate when attempting to fire many rounds semi-automatically than its Terrorist counter-part, the SG-552 Commando. This gun is most effective when aimed just below the neck and shot with 3-4 round bursts. The AUG was added in Beta 6.0.
===SIG-552===
''Alternate name: Krieg 552 Commando''
The [[SIGARMS]] [[Sig 552 Commando|SG552]] 5.56 Commando is the Terrorist-only counter-part of the Counter-Terrorists' AUG. It costs $3500 and has 30-round magazines of 5.56x45mm ammo. The secondary fire activates its 2x scope, improving its longer range effectiveness but reducing its rate of fire. Accuracy is very similar to the AUG, although some differences in recoil appear when firing quickly. The SIG-552 was added in Beta 2.0.
Oddly, the Counter-Terrorists' SIG 550 Sniper is actually closely related to the Terrorists' SIG 552, with the 550 Sniper and 552 being variants of the 550 assault rifle. In addition, the SG552 is an expensive weapon and has a very small chance of turning up in the hands of real-life terrorists. The CTs' comparable gun, the AUG, is widely used by Special Forces, but is also far more easily available to terrorists through the black market. With one of the units represented in the game, [[GSG 9]], having it's bigger brother the SG551 as part of its standard kit, it begs the question as to why the developers chose to give the SG552 to the terrorist side.
===Steyr Scout Tactical===
''Alternate name: Schmidt Scout''
The [[Steyr Mannlicher|Steyr]] [[Steyr Scout|Scout Tactical]] Sniper Rifle is the cheapest but least powerful sniper rifle. It costs $2750, and has 10-round magazines of 7.62x51mm ammo; it is bolt-action, and the secondary fire activates its 2-10x scope. The Scout is not a particularly powerful gun; the only way to kill in one shot is with a headshot. At one point, a bug in ''CS: Source'' allowed center-mass body shots to kill in one hit; however, this behavior has since been fixed.
Despite being considerably less powerful, the Scout has several advantages over the other bolt-action rifle, the Arctic Warfare Magnum. These include: Being the lightest weapon of the game, being much quieter - almost completely inaudible beyond medium range, a much lower price tag; larger ammunition reserves, less controversy involved, and a higher level of accuracy without a scope and when running. The Scout was added in Beta 4.0.
However, it also has several distinct disadvantages. Not being a "one hit kill" weapon given anything but a headshot means that it is much less forgiving; it also makes it difficult to successfully stay hidden when [[sniping]]. For these reasons, many players consider it a more elegant weapon; its quietness makes it closer to real-life sniping, and the time required to master its use means that to be consistently successful with the Scout is regarded by many as a sign of expertise.
=== Arctic Warfare Magnum ===
''Alternate name: Magnum Sniper Rifle''
The [[Accuracy International AWM]] is the most powerful sniper rifle in the game. The AWM is often mislabeled as "AWP", although the AWM and AWP are both variants of the original AW sniper rifle; the last letters denote "Magnum" and "Police", respectively. It costs $4750 and uses 10-round magazines of .338 Lapua ammunition. Secondary fire enables its 2-10x scope. It is highly accurate while standing still and will usually kill with one shot. The AWM is inaccurate when not zoomed in and dramatically slows the player's running speed. It has been in CS since Beta 1.0.
In the culture of ''Counter-Strike'', "AWP whore" is online vernacular for one who accumulates kills with the AWM sniper rifle. The AWM delivers one-shot kills to all parts of the body except the legs, which some players criticize as making it overpowered and easy to use (the AWM is one of the weapons most frequently banned from use on certain servers; the autosnipers are the others). It does, however, have a slow rate of fire, causing a drastic reduction in speed of the person carrying it, and that the player must use its zoom function to have good accuracy makes them vulnerable to surprise close-range attacks. In addition, the AWM is the loudest weapon in the game which tends to give away the operator's position.
The balance of the rifle is constantly debated, but the AWM is no longer as powerful as it once was. The AWM was the most powerful in version 1.1 of the game, when one shot to any part of the body was an instant kill. Later updates reduced its effectiveness: 1.3 made the leg shot non-lethal, and 1.6 removed a bug which meant players could switch between a AWM and a pistol quicker than normal (specifically the Desert Eagle/Night Hawk .50C pistol).
The weapon is unusable when running, walking, jumping or doing anything but standing still/crouching, and is extremely heavy. Thus it is not a very versatile weapon.
===G3SG/1===
''Alternate name: D3/AU-1 Semi-Auto Sniper Rifle''
The [[Heckler & Koch G3]] SG-1 Semi-Auto Sniper Rifle is the Terrorist-only auto sniper gun. It costs an impressive $5000 and has 20-round magazines of 7.62x51mm ammo. The secondary fire activates its 2-10x scope. It is similar in power to the Scout, able to kill within 2 shots, with the difference that the G3SG1 is semi-automatic (although it seems automatic in the game). In version 1.6 the recoil of the rifle was reduced, allowing players to make kills at almost any range with relative ease. Players who accumulate kills with this weapon are often disparaged as an 'auto sniper noob'. The G3 makes a seviceable assault weapon due to its high damage and semi-automatic fire as well as its fearsome sniping abilities. Due to this, it is rare to find a server in which this weapon has not been restricted. The G3 has been in ''Counter-Strike'' since BETA 1.
===SIG 550 Sniper===
''Alternate name: Krieg 550 Commando''
Added in ''Counter-Strike 1.0'', The [[SIGARMS]] [[SIG 550]] Sniper Rifle is the Counter-Terrorists' automatic sniper rifle. It costs $4200 and has 30-round magazines of 5.56x45mm ammo. Secondary fire activates its 2-10 |
15-64 years:''
68% (male 20,860; female 17,272)
<br>''65 years and over:''
5% (male 1,332; female 1,644) (2000 est.)
'''Population growth rate:'''
0.09% (2000 est.)
'''[[Birth rate]]:'''
16.85 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''[[Death]] rate:'''
7.55 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Net [[migration]] rate:'''
-8.38 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Sex ratio:'''
<br>''at birth:''
1 male(s)/female
<br>''under 15 years:''
1.03 male(s)/female
<br>''15-64 years:''
1.21 male(s)/female
<br>''65 years and over:''
0.81 male(s)/female
<br>''total population:''
1.13 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
'''Infant mortality rate:'''
18.26 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
<br>''total population:''
68.07 years
<br>''male:''
64.52 years
<br>''female:''
71.69 years (2000 est.)
'''Total fertility rate:'''
2.45 children born/woman (2000 est.)
'''Nationality:'''
<br>''noun:''
Greenlander(s)
<br>''adjective:''
Greenlandic
'''Ethnic groups:'''
Greenlander 87% ([[Inuit]] and Greenland-born Europeans), Danish and others 13%
'''Religions:'''
Evangelical [[Lutheran]]
'''Languages:'''
[[Inuktitut|Greenlandic]] (East [[Inuit]] language), [[Danish language|Danish]], [[English language|English]]
'''Literacy:'''
<br>''definition:''
NA
<br>''total population:''
NA%
<br>''male:''
NA%
<br>''female:''
NA%
<br>''note:''
similar to [[Denmark]] proper
:''See also :'' [[Greenland]]
[[Category:Greenland]]
[[Category:People of Greenland]]
{{Greenland-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Greenland</title>
<id>12122</id>
<revision>
<id>32397807</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-22T20:22:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Electionworld</username>
<id>201260</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Political parties and elections */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Greenland}}
'''Politics of Greenland''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[Denmark|Danish]] [[dependency]], whereby the [[Prime Minister of Greenland|Prime Minister]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. Greenland is a self-governing overseas administrative division of Denmark since [[1979]]. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the [[Parliament of Greenland]] (known as Landsting). The party system is dominated by the social democratic [[Forward (Greenland)|Forward]], the separatist and socialist [[Inuit Community]] and the conservative liberal [[Feeling of Community]].
The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature.
==Executive branch==
The monarch of [[Denmark]] is also head of state of Greenland. She is represented by a High Commissioner, appointed by her. The Prime Minister is elected by Parliament and leads the Landsstyre.
{{office-table}}
|Queen
|[[Margaret II of Denmark]]
|
|[[14 January]] [[1972]]
|-
|High Commissioner
|[[Gunnar Martens]]
|
|[[1995]]
|-
|[[Prime Minister of Greenland|Prime Minister]]
|[[Hans Enoksen]]
|[[Forward (Greenland)|Forward]]
|[[14 December]] [[2002]]
|-
|Other government party
|
|[[Inuit Community]]
|
|}
==Legislative branch==
Greenland has a [[unicameral]] [[Parliament]] or ''[[parliament of Greenland|Landsting]]'' (31 seats; members are elected by popular vote on the basis of proportional representation to serve four-year terms). Two representatives were elected to the Danish Parliament or [[Folketing]] at the last Danish elections, [[Siumut]] 1, [[Inuit Ataqatigiit]] 1.
==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Greenland|Elections in Greenland}}
{{Greenland parliamentary election, 2005}}
==Judicial branch==
High Court or Landsret.
==Administrative divisions:==
3 districts (landsdele); [[Avannaa]] (Danish: ''Nordgrønland''), [[Tunu]] (Danish: ''Østgrønland''), [[Kitaa]] (Danish: ''Vestgrønland'')
== Diplomatic representations ==
With Denmark having responsibility for Greenland's international affairs, other countries do not have direct diplomatic representation in Greenland -- their embassies or consulates in Denmark are responsible for their relations with Greenland and their citizens in Greenland. Greenland is represented internationally by the embassies and consulates of Denmark, although Greenland does directly participate in some Nordic organisations which provide for membership for dependent territories.
==International organization participation==
[[Nordic Council]], [[Nordic Investment Bank]]
[[Category:Politics of Greenland| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Greenland</title>
<id>12123</id>
<revision>
<id>26337698</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-24T05:58:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jimfbleak</username>
<id>7872</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[domestic sheep|sheep]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Economy - overview:'''
Greenland suffered negative economic growth in the early 1990s, but since [[1993]] the economy has improved. The Greenland Home Rule Government (GHRG) has pursued a tight fiscal policy since the late [[1980s]] which has helped create surpluses in the public budget and low inflation. Since [[1990]], Greenland has registered a foreign trade deficit following the closure of the last remaining [[lead]] and [[zinc]] mine in 1990. Greenland today is critically dependent on [[fishing]] and [[fish]] exports; the [[shrimp]] fishery is by far the largest income earner. Despite resumption of several interesting [[hydrocarbon]] and [[minerals]] exploration activities, it will take several years before production can materialize. [[Tourism]] is the only sector offering any near-term potential and even this is limited due to a short season and high costs. The public sector, including publicly owned enterprises and the municipalities, plays the dominant role in Greenland's economy. About half the government revenues come from grants from the Danish Government, an important supplement of GDP.
'''[[Gross domestic product|GDP]]:'''
purchasing power parity - $945 million (1997 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
0.6% (1997 est.)
'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $16,100 (1997 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
<br>''agriculture:''
NA%
<br>''industry:''
NA%
<br>''services:''
NA%
'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br>''lowest 10%:''
NA%
<br>''highest 10%:''
NA%
'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
1.2% (1998 est.)
'''Labour force:'''
24,500 (1995 est.)
'''Unemployment rate:'''
10.5% (1995 est.)
'''Budget:'''
<br>''revenues:''
$706 million
<br>''expenditures:''
$697 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1995)
'''Industries:'''
fish processing (mainly shrimp), handicrafts, furs, small shipyards
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
NA%
'''Electricity - production:'''
245 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
<br>''fossil fuel:''
100%
<br>''hydro:''
0%
<br>''nuclear:''
0%
<br>''other:''
0% (1998)
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
228 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Agriculture - products:'''
forage crops, garden [[vegetable]]s; [[domestic sheep|sheep]], [[reindeer]]; fish
'''Exports:'''
$363.4 million (f.o.b., 1995)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
fish and fish products 95%
'''Exports - partners:'''
[[Denmark]] 89%, [[Japan]] 5%, [[United Kingdom|UK]] 5%
'''Imports:'''
$421 million (c.i.f., 1995)
'''Imports - commodities:'''
machinery and transport equipment, manufactured goods, food and live animals, [[petroleum]] products
'''Imports - partners:'''
[[Denmark]] 7.5%, [[Iceland]] 3.8%, [[Japan]] 3.3%, [[Norway]] 3.1%, [[United States|US]] 2.4%, [[Germany]] 2.4%, [[Sweden]] 1.8%
'''Debt - external:'''
$243 million (1995)
'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$427 million (annual subsidy from Denmark) (1995)
'''Currency:'''
1 [[Danish krone]] (DKr) = 100 oere
'''Exchange rates:'''
Danish kroner (DKr) per US$1 - 7.336 (January 2000), 6.976 (1999), 6.701 (1998), 6.604 (1997), 5.799 (1996), 5.602 (1995)
'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year
:''See also :'' [[Greenland]]
[[Category:Greenland]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Greenland]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Greenland</title>
<id>12124</id>
<revision>
<id>32374830</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-22T16:53:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Redvers</username>
<id>147458</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+Kalaallit Nunaata Radioa</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">There is by law, only 1 (one) service provider for tele communications and Internet in Greenland. It is TELE Greenland http://www.tele.gl<br>
This is one example of monopoly that is common in Greenland.
<br>
'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
20,000 (1995)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
2,308 (1995)
'''Telephone system:'''
There is adequate domestic and international service provided by cables and microwave radio relay; the system was totally digitalized in [[1995]].
<br>''domestic:''
microwave radio relay
<br>''international:''
2 coaxial submarine cables; [[satellite]] earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]])
'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 5, FM 12, shortwave 0 (1998)
'''Radios:'''
27,000 (1997)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
1 publicly-owned station, some local low-power stations, and three [[American Forces Network]] ([[US Air Force]]) stations (1997)
'''Tel |
l 1 did not escape notice, but County Commissioner Conrad Lundy said that "this is not an [[April Fool's Day]] joke ... there is reason to believe such an animal exists" (Pyle, 278). Hunter and Dahinden record their own "speculation that Skamania County authorities had their ears tuned much more to the music of a publicity bandwagon than to any song of distress" for Bigfoot (Hunter and Dahinden, 135-136). Notwithstanding, the ordinance was amended in 1984 to preclude an [[insanity defense]] and to consider such a killing homocide if the creature was proven by the coroner to be humanoid (Pyle, 279).
==Alleged Bigfoot sightings==
*'''1811''': On January 7, 1811, [[David Thompson (explorer)|David Thompson]], a surveyor and trader for the [[North West Company]], spots large, well-defined footprints in the snow near [[Athabasca River]], [[Jasper, Alberta]], while attempting to cross the [[Rocky Mountains]]. The tracks measure 14 inches in length and 8 inches in width.
*'''1840''': Protestant missionary Reverend Elkanah Walker records myths of hairy giants persistent among [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] living in [[Spokane, Washington]]. The Indians report that said giants steal salmon and have strong smell.
*'''1893''': An account by [[Theodore Roosevelt]] is published this year in ''The Wilderness Hunter''. Roosevelt relates a story which was told to him by "a beaten old mountain hunter, named Bauman" living in Idaho. Some have suggested similarities to Bigfoot reports. (Note: Roosevelt's testimony is the only proof this encounter ever occurred.)
*'''1924''': Albert Ostman claims to have been kidnapped and held captive for several days by a family of sasquatch. The incidence occurred during the summer in [[Toba Inlet]], British Coumbia.
*'''1924''': Fred Beck and four other miners claim to have been attacked by several sasquatches in [[Ape Canyon]] in July, 1924. The creatures reportedly hurl large rocks at the miners’ cabin for several hours during the night.
*'''1941''': Jeannie Chapman and her children claim to have escaped their home when a large sasquatch, allegedly 7½ feet tall, approached their residence in Ruby Creek, British Columbia.
*'''1940s''' onward: People living in [[Fouke, Arkansas]] report that a Bigfoot-like creature, dubbed the “[[Fouke Monster]]”, inhabits the region. A high number of reports occur in the Boggy Creek area and are the basis for the 1973 film ''[[The Legend of Boggy Creek]]''. The last known report was in 2004.
*'''1955''': William Roe claims a close-up view from concealment of a female sasquatch near Mica Mountain, British Columbia.
*'''1958''': Two construction workers, Leslie Breazale and Ray Kerr, report seeing a sasquatch about 45 miles northeast of [[Eureka, California]]. 16 inch tracks had previously been spotted in the Northern California woods.
*'''1967''': On October 20, 1967, Roger Patterson and Robert Gimlin capture a purported sasquatch on film in Bluff Creek, California. See [[Patterson-Gimlin film]] for more information.
==Footnotes==
# The method of locomotion for ''Gigantopithecus'' is not entirely certain, as no pelvis or leg bone has ever been found; the only remains of ''Gigantopithecus'' being discovered is the teeth and mandible. A minority opinion, championed by Grover Krantz, holds that the mandible shape and structure suggests bipedal locomotion. The only fossil evidence of ''Gigantopithecus'' &mdash; the mandible and teeth&mdash; are U-shaped, like the bipedal humans, rather than V-shaped, like the great apes. A complete fossil specimen, with the pelvis and leg bones, would be necessary to conclusively resolve the debate one way or the other, but are absent to date.
# Gorillas are in the same class as chimpanzees; gorillas are more closely-related to humans and chimpanzees than any of them are to orangutans.
==See also==
*[[Almas (cryptozoology)|Almas]] - Mongolia's Bigfoot
*[[Barmanou]] - Afghanistan and Pakistan's Bigfoot
*[[Ebu Gogo]] - A similar creature from the Flores Islands of Indonesia; and
**[[Orang Pendak]] - A similar creature from Sumatra in Indonesia
*[[Fouke Monster]] - The Bigfoot sighted in [[Fouke, Arkansas]]
*[[Nguoi Rung]] - Vietnam's Bigfoot
*[[Orang Mawas]] - Malaysia's Bigfoot
*[[Sasquatch (comics)|Sasquatch]] - A super hero named after the creature
*[[Skunk Ape]] - Florida's Bigfoot
*[[Woodwose]] - Medieval Europe's Bigfoot
*[[Yeren]] - China's Bigfoot
*[[Yowie (cryptid)|Yowie]] - Australia's Bigfoot
==References==
*Bayanov, Dmitri, ''America's Bigfoot: Fact, Not Fiction'', Crypto-Logos, 1997, ISBN 590022922X
*Bourne, Geoffrey H. and Maury Cohen, ''The Gentle Giants: The Gorilla Story'', G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1975, ISBN 399115285
*Bryant, Vaughn M. and Burleigh Trevor-Deutch, "Analysis of Feces and Hair Suspected to be of Sasquatch Origin" (in Halpin and Ames)
*Byrne, Peter, ''The Search for Bigfoot: Monster, Man or Myth'', Acropolis Books, 1975, ISBN 0874911591
*Clark, Jerome, ''Unexplained! 347 Strange Sightings, Incredible Occurrences and Puzzling Physical Phenomena'', Visible Ink, 1993, ISBN 0810394367
*Coleman, Loren and Jerome Clark, ''Cryptozoology A to Z'', Fireside Books, 1999, ISBN 0684856026
*Coleman, Loren and Patrick Huyghe, ''The Field Guide to Bigfoot, Yeti and Other Mystery Primates Worldwide'', Avon Books, 1999, ISBN 0380802635
*Coon, Carelton, "Why Sasquatch Must Exist" (in Markotic and Krantz)
*Daegling, David J, ''Bigfoot Exposed: An Anthropologist Examines America's Enduring Legend'', Altamira Press, 2004, ISBN 0759105391
*Gill, George "Population Clines of the North American Sasquatch as Evidenced by Track Lengths and Average Status" (in Halpin and Ames)
*Green, John Willison, ''Sasquatch - The Apes Among Us'', Hancock House Publishing, 1978, ISBN 0888391234
*Guttilla, Peter, ''The Bigfoot Files'', Timeless Voyager Press, 2003, ISBN 1892264153
*Halprin, Marjorie, "The Tsimshan Monkey Mask and Sasquatch" (in Halpin and Ames)
*Halpin, Marjorie and Michael Ames, editors, ''Manlike Monsters on Trial: Early Records and Modern Evidence'', University of British Columbia Press, 1980, ISBN 0774801190
*Hunter, Don and Rene Dahinden, ''Sasquach/Bigfoot: The Search for North America's Incredible Creature'', Firefly Books, 1993, ISBN 1895565286
*Krantz, Grover S., ''Big Footprints: A Scientific Inquiry into the Reality of Sasquatch'', Johnson Books, 1992, ISBN 1555660991
*Markotic, Vladimir and Grover Krantz, editors, ''The Sasquatch and Other Unknown Primates'', Western Publishers, 1984, ISBN 0919119107
*Mozino, Jose Mariano, ''Noticas de Nutka: An Account of Nootka Sound'', Iris Higbe Wilson, editor and traslator, University of Washington Press, 1970, ISBN 0295950617
*Napier, John Russell ''Bigfoot: The Sasquatch and Yeti in Myth and Reality'', 1973, E.P. Dutton, ISBN 0525066586
*Powell, Thom, ''The Locals'', Hancock House, 2003, ISBN 0888395523
*Pyle, Robert Michael, ''Where Bigfoot Walks'', Houghton Mifflin, 1995, ISBN 0395441145
*Sanderson, Ivan T., "First Photos of 'Bigfoot', California's Legendary 'Abominable Snowman'", ''Argosy'', February 1968, pg 23-31, 127,128.
*Shakley, Myra, ''Wildman: Yeti, Sasquatch and the Neanderthal Enigma'', Thames and Hudson, 1973
*Sprague, Roderick, "Carved Stone Heads of the Columbia and Sasquatch" (in Halpin and Ames)
*Sprague, Roderick and Grover Krantz, editors, ''A Scientist Looks at the Sasquatch II'', University Press of Idaho, 1978, ISBN 0893010618
*Suttles, Wayne, "On the Cultural Track of Sasquatch" (in Sprage and Krantz)
*Wasson, Barbara, ''Sasquatch Apparitions: A Critique on the Pacific Northwest Hominoid'', self-published, 1979, ISBN 0961410507
*http://edition.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/asiapcf/east/06/30/china.bigfoot/
*http://www.parascope.com/en/articles/bigfootRussia.htm
*http://skepdic.com/bigfoot.html
*http://www.who2.com/bigfoot.html
==Further reading==
* Long, Greg, ''The Making of Bigfoot: The Inside Story'', 2004, [[Prometheus Books]], ISBN 1591021391.
==External links==
*[http://www.bfro.net Bigfoot Field Researchers Organization]
*[http://skepdic.com/bigfoot.html "Bigfoot"] - from the ''[[Skeptic's Dictionary]]'' (includes other such stories)
*[http://www.rfthomas.clara.net/news/bfisdead.html "Lovable trickster created a monster with Bigfoot hoax"] <!-- Note: This article was apparently taken without permission from the Seattle Times and posted to this website. We should not link to copyright violations... I did not remove it entirely yet because maybe someone can find the link to the original, otherwise it will be removed per External links guidelines -->
*[http://www.uiowa.edu/~bioanth/giganto.html Information] on ''[[Sivapithecus]]'' the common ancestor to both orangutans and ''Gigantopithecus''
*[http://www.texasbigfoot.com Texas Bigfoot Research Center] for information about Bigfoot in Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas & Louisiana
*[http://www.sasquatchonline.com Sasquatch Research Initiative] (SRI) - an association of independent researchers investigating Sasquatch in the US and Canada.
*[http://www.georgiabigfoot.com Georgia Bigfoot] Investigating the Bigfoot Phenomenon in Georgia
*[http://www.westcoast-sasquatch.com West Coast Sasquatch] For information on Sasquatch in British Columbia, Canada
*[http://www.pabigfootsociety.com Pennsylvania Bigfoot Society] for information about Bigfoot on the East Coast
*[http://www.rense.com/RenseInterviews.html#anchor2 Interview with Greg Long]
*[http://www.bigfootencounters.com/articles/korff04.htm Article by Kal K. Korff and Michaela Kocis, in Skeptical Inquirer, July 2004]
[[de:Bigfoot]]
[[es:Pie Grande]]
[[eo:Saskvaĉo]]
[[fa:پاگنده]]
[[fr:Sasquatch]]
[[he:ביג פוט]]
[[pt:Pé-grande]]
[[ja:ビッグフット]]
[[nl:Bigfoot]]
[[sv:Bigfoot]]
[[Category:Legendary creatures]]
[[Category:Bigfoot|*]]
[[Category:Hominid cryptids]]
[[Category:Cryptids]]
[[Categ |
;<td>A bed of clams</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[cockroach|cockroaches]]''' </td><td>An intrusion of cockroaches</td><td> Uncertain </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[cod]]''' </td><td>A lap of cod</td><td> Uncertain </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[eel]]s''' </td><td>A fry of eels</td><td> Uncertain </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[eel]]s''' </td><td>A swarm of eels</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[fig]]s''' </td><td>A newton of figs</td><td> Spurious </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[fish]]''' </td><td>A draught of fish</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[fish]]''' </td><td>A drift of fish</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[fish]]''' </td><td>A scale of fish</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[fish]]''' </td><td>A school of fish</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[fish]]''' </td><td>A shoal of fish</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[flower]]s''' </td><td>A bouquet of flowers</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[flower]]s''' </td><td>A patch of flowers</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[fly|flies]]''' </td><td>A business of flies</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[fly|flies]]''' </td><td>A swarm of flies</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[gnat]]s''' </td><td>A cloud of gnats</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[gnat]]s''' </td><td>A clout of gnats</td><td> Uncertain </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[gnat]]s''' </td><td>A horde of gnats</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[grape]]s''' </td><td>A bunch of grapes</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[grasshopper]]s''' </td><td>A cloud of grasshoppers</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[grasshopper]]s''' </td><td>A cluster of grasshoppers</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[herring]]s''' </td><td>A glean of herrings</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[jellyfish]]''' </td><td>A fluther of jellyfish</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[jellyfish]]''' </td><td>A smack of jellyfish</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[locust]]s''' </td><td>A plague of locusts</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[midge]]s''' </td><td>A bite of midges</td><td> Uncertain </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[mite]]s''' </td><td>A mite of mites</td><td> Uncertain </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[mosquito|mosquitoes]]''' </td><td>A scourge of mosquitoes</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[oyster]]s''' </td><td>A bed of oysters</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[salmon]]''' </td><td>A bind of salmon</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[salmon]]''' </td><td>A run of salmon</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[shark]]''' </td><td>A shiver of sharks</td><td> Uncertain </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[shrimp]]''' </td><td>A troup of shrimp</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[snail]]''' </td><td>A rout of snails</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[spider (animal)|spiders]]''' </td><td>A cluster of spiders</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[spider (animal)|spiders]]''' </td><td>A clutter of spiders</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[tree]]s''' </td><td>A grove of trees</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[tree]]s''' </td><td>A copse of trees</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[tree]]s''' </td><td>A stand of trees</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[tree]]s''' </td><td>A thicket of trees</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[trout]]''' </td><td>A hover of trout</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[worm]]s''' </td><td>A clew of worms</td><td> Uncertain </td></tr>
</table>
[[Category:Lists of collective nouns|Fish, invertebrates, and plants]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of collective nouns for objects and concepts</title>
<id>7156</id>
<revision>
<id>32213218</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-21T07:55:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.112.130.21</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">Also see [[Collective noun]]
<table border = 0>
<tr><td> '''SUBJECT''' </td><td>'''COLLECTIVE TERM'''</td><td> <center>'''STATUS'''</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[aircraft|aircraft]]''' </td><td>A wing of aircraft</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[angel|angels]]''' </td><td>A chorus of angels</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[angel|angels]]''' </td><td>A host of angels</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[arrow|arrows]]''' </td><td>A quiver of arrows</td><td> <center>complete set</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[asteroid|asteroids]]''' </td><td>A belt of asteroids</td><td> <center>specific arrangement</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[bird|birds]]''' </td><td>A flock of birds</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[book|books]]''' </td><td>A library of books</td><td> <center>specific arrangement</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[bread|bread]]''' </td><td>A batch of bread</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[brush|brush]]''' </td><td>A bavin of brush(wood)</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[card|cards]]''' </td><td>A deck of cards</td><td> <center>complete set</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[cash|cash]]''' </td><td>A grip of cash</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[coin|coins]]''' </td><td>A roll of coins</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[coin|coins]]''' </td><td>A rouleau of coins</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[computer|computers]]''' </td><td>A network of computers</td><td> <center>specific arrangement</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[data|data]]''' </td><td>A donut of data</td><td> Spurious </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[chicken|eggs]]''' </td><td>A clutch of eggs</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[fairy|fairies]]''' </td><td>A herd of fairies |
eople switched to HD from DD during those days and some of them "converted" some or all of their DD disks into HD ones, for gaining an extra "free" 720 KiB of disk space. The success ratio was very high, especially as late DD disks used the same materials as HD ones, so they had no problem supporting the higher density. In general, only very old (made before 1989) DD disks were likely to exhibit faults and read/write errors.
** Vice versa, taping the right hole on a HD 3½-inch disk enables it to be 'downgraded' to DD format. This may sound counterproductive at first, but there are practical scenarios, e.g. compatibility issues with older computers, drives or devices that use DD floppies, like some electronic [[keyboard instrument]]s and [[samplers]] [http://www.carolrpt.com/disks.htm] where a 'downgraded' disk can be useful, as factory-made DD disks have become hard to find after the mid-1990s. See the section ''"Compatibility"'' above. It is important to note that due to read/write voltage differences in the heads of DD vs. HD disks, writing to an HD floppy with a DD drive (or an HD drive in DD mode) is widely considered to be a highly unreliable method of storing data.
***Note: By default, many older HD drives will recognize ED disks as DD ones, since they lack the HD-specific holes and the drives lack the sensors to detect the ED-specific hole. Most DD drives will also handle ED (and some even HD) disks as DD ones.
** Similarly, drilling an HD-like hole (under the ED one) into an ED (2880 KiB) disk for 'downgrading' it to HD (1440 KiB) format. This can turn useful if there are many unusable ED disks due to the lack of a specific ED drive, which can now be used as normal HD disks. In general, they work pretty well.
** Finally, it is possible to "upgrade" a HD disk into an ED one by drilling an ED-positioned hole above the HD one, although the considerations made for DD vs HD disk material are probably not valid for HD vs ED, and such "upgraded" disks are probably not reliable.
** Double disk 'upgrades' or 'downgrades' are possible by drilling ED holes into DD disks or taping ED disks.
* [[New Order]]'s classic dance track "[[Blue Monday (New Order song)|Blue Monday]]" owes some of its popularity to the 12-inch version of the single initially being shipped in a sleeve designed to resemble a 5¼-inch floppy. Legend has it that it was so expensive to produce the sleeve that [[Factory Records]] lost money despite the single's runaway success. [[Fatboy Slim]]'s 1995 album ''[[Better Living Through Chemistry (album)|Better Living Through Chemistry]]'' features a 3½-inch floppy with the track names on its label as the main album art in homage to Blue Monday.
==See also==
* [[RaWrite2]] (a floppy disk image file writer/creator)
* [[Zip drive]] (a newer, larger and proprietary format for removable storage)
* On [[Unix]] or [[Unix-like]] systems the [[Dd (Unix)|dd]] program can be used to write an image to a floppy.
* [[Don't Copy That Floppy]]
==References==
* [[Donald Norman|Norman, Donald]] (1990). ''The Design of Everyday Things''. Currency, Reissue edition. ISBN 0385267746.
* Weyhrich, Steven (2005). [http://apple2history.org/history/ah05.html "The Disk II"] &ndash; A detailed essay describing one of the first commercial floppy disk drives (from the Apple II History website)
* Immers, Richard; Neufeld, Gerald G. (1984). ''Inside Commodore DOS. The Complete Guide to the 1541 Disk Operating System.'' DATAMOST, Inc & Reston Publishing Company, Inc. (Prentice-Hall). ISBN 0-8359-3091-2.
* Englisch, Lothar; Szczepanowski, Norbert (1984). ''The Anatomy of the 1541 Disk Drive.'' Grand Rapids, MI: Abacus Software (translated from the original 1983 German edition, Düsseldorf: Data Becker GmbH). ISBN 0-916439-01-1.
* Hewlett Packard: 9121D/S Disc Memory Operator's Manual; Printed [[1 September]] [[1982]]; Part No. 09121-90000
== External links ==
{{commons|Floppy disk}}
* [http://computer.howstuffworks.com/floppy-disk-drive.htm HowStuffWorks: How Floppy Disk Drives Work] &ndash; By Gary Brown.
* [http://www.computerhope.com/help/floppy.htm Computer Hope: Information about computer floppy drives] &ndash; Including abbreviated history, physical parameters and cable pin specifications.
* [http://homepages.tesco.net/~J.deBoynePollard/FGA/floppy-discs-are-90mm-not-3-and-a-half-inches.html "There is no such thing as a 3.5 inch floppy disc."] &ndash; By Jonathan de Boyne Pollard
* [http://homepages.tesco.net/~J.deBoynePollard/FGA/1mb44-is-not-a-standard-floppy-disc-size.html "There is no such thing as a 1.44MB standard format floppy disc."] &ndash; By Jonathan de Boyne Pollard
* [http://www.ncits.org/Archive/2000/n751_775.htm NCITS] (mention of ANSI X3.162 (5¼-inch) and X3.171 (90 mm) floppy standards)
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2905953.stm "R.I.P. Floppy Disk"] &ndash; From [[BBC News Online]]
* [http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=04/09/07/1416215 "The Death of the Floppy Disk"] &ndash; From [[Slashdot]]
* [http://iatservices.missouri.edu/techknowledge/03-2003/dell.html Dell Drops Floppy Drive on New Machine]
[[Category:Rotating disc computer storage media]]
[[Category:Computer storage media]]
[[ar:قرص مرن]]
[[bs:Flopi disk]]
[[cs:Disketa]]
[[da:Diskette]]
[[de:Diskette]]
[[es:Disco flexible]]
[[eu:Diskete]]
[[fr:Disquette]]
[[gl:Disquete]]
[[hr:Disketa]]
[[id:Disket]]
[[it:Floppy disk]]
[[he:תקליטון]]
[[ln:Diski ebómbelo iké]]
[[ms:Cakera liut]]
[[nl:Diskette]]
[[ja:フロッピーディスク]]
[[no:Diskett]]
[[nn:Diskett]]
[[pl:Dyskietka]]
[[pt:Disquete]]
[[ru:Дискета]]
[[simple:Floppy disk]]
[[sk:Disketa]]
[[sl:Disketa]]
[[sr:Дискета]]
[[fi:Levyke]]
[[sv:Diskett]]
[[th:ฟลอปปีดิสก์]]
[[tr:Disket]]
[[uk:Дискета]]
[[zh:软盘]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fullerenes</title>
<id>10892</id>
<revision>
<id>15908682</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fullerene]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fencing</title>
<id>10893</id>
<revision>
<id>42118978</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:13:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JoeBot</username>
<id>958590</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>typo fix: "lenght" to "length" using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the sport. For the structures for dividing property, and the process of erecting them, see [[fence]]. Also distinguished from [[stage fencing]], the practice of representing armed combat on stage or screen and [[academic fencing]] or [[mensur]], a form of ritualised combat practiced by some [[Germany|German]] [[Studentenverbindung|student fraternities]]. For other meanings, see [[fence (disambiguation)]]. For definitions of the fencing terminology used in this article, see the [[Glossary of Fencing Terms|glossary]].
[[Image:0408_USA_Olympic_fencing.jpg|thumb|250px|Russian Ivan Tourchine and American Weston Kelsey fence in the second round of the Olympic Men's Individual Épée event at the Helliniko Fencing Hall on Aug. 17, 2004.]]
In the broadest possible sense, '''fencing''' is the art and science of armed combat involving cutting, stabbing or bludgeoning weapons directly manipulated by hand, rather than shot or thrown (in other words, [[sword|swords]], [[knife|knives]], [[pike (weapon)|pikes]], [[bayonet|bayonets]], [[baton|batons]], [[club (weapon)|clubs]], and so on). In contemporary common usage, '''fencing''' tends to refer specifically to European schools of swordsmanship and to the modern [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] sport that has evolved out of them.
== Etymology ==
From the Middle English ''fense'', c. 1330, ultimately deriving from the Latin ''defendere'' "ward off, protect," from ''de-'' "from, away" + fendere "to strike, push". [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=fence]
First used in writing as a verb in reference to swordsmanship by [[Shakespeare]], in [[The Merry Wives of Windsor]] ([[1598]]): "Alas sir, I cannot fence." [http://dictionary.oed.com/]
== The history of fencing ==
:''See also [[Historical European Martial Arts]]''
Fencing can be traced at least as far back as [[Ancient Egypt]]. The earliest known depiction of a fencing bout, complete with practice weapons, safety equipment, and judges, is a [[relief]] in a temple near [[Luxor]] built by [[Rameses III]] around [[1190 BC]]. [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0812969669] The [[Greeks]] and [[ancient Rome|Romans]] had systems of martial arts and military training that included [[swordsmanship]], and fencing-schools and professional champions were known throughout medieval Europe. The earliest surviving record of Western techniques of fencing is the manuscript known as MS [[I.33]], which was created in southern Germany c. 1300 and today resides at the Royal Armouries in [[Leeds]]. Throughout the [[Middle Ages]], masters continued to teach systems for using the sword (together with other weapons and grappling) to noble and non-noble alike. The wearing of the sword with civilian dress (a custom that had begun in the late fifteenth century on the [[Iberian Peninsula]]) gradually gave rise to a new system of civilian swordsmanship based more on the thrust than on the cut, with the aim being to keep the adversary at a distance with the point, and slay him there. This gave rise to sixteenth- and seventeenth-century systems of using the [[rapier]] and the seventeenth and eighteenth century [[smallsword]]. Though swords ceased to be an article of everyday dress after the French Revolution, they continued to be used |
le permitted in all EU countries? -->
====France====
Products explicitly called "absinthe" cannot be sold in France, although they can be produced for export. Absinthe is now commonly labeled as ''spiritueux à base de plantes d'absinthe'' ("wormwood-based spirits"). France also regulates Fenchone, a chemical in the herb fennel, to 5 mg/l. [http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/texteconsolide/ADHJA.htm]
===Switzerland===
To be legally sold, absinthe must be distilled and either uncolored or naturally colored.
===Canada===
In [[Canada]], liquor laws are the domain of the provincial governments. [[British Columbia]] has no limits on thujone content, [[Alberta]], [[Ontario]], [[Nova Scotia]] and [[Quebec]] allow 10ppm thujone, and all other provinces do not allow the sale of absinthe containing thujone (although, in [[Saskatchewan]], you can purchase any liquor available in the world provided you buy a minimum of one case, usually 12 bottles x 750ml or 8 x 1L). The individual liquor boards must approve each product before it may be sold on shelves and currently only Hill's Absinth and, in limited release, La Fée Absinthe are approved. Other brands may appear in the future.
===United States===
[[Image:Affiche absinthe.jpg|thumb|Poster criticising the ban on absinthe in Switzerland.]]
According to [[US Customs]], "The importation of Absinthe and any other liquors or liqueurs that contain ''Artemisia absinthium'' is prohibited." [http://www.cbp.gov/xp/cgov/travel/vacation/kbyg/prohibited_restricted.xml#Absinthe%20Alcohol] This runs contrary to FDA regulations which allows Artemisia species in food and drink as long as the finished product is thujone free.
Foods or beverages that contain Artemisia species, white cedar, oak moss, tansy or Yarrow must be thujone free.[http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/FCF172.html] Other herbs that contain thujone have no restrictions. For example, sage and sage oil (which can be 50%+ thujone) are on the FDA's list of Substances generally recognized as safe. [http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/fcf182.html]
The prevailing consensus of interpretation of [[United States law]] among American absinthe connoisseurs is that:
* It is probably illegal to sell items meant for human consumption which contain thujone derived from ''Artemisia'' species. This derives from an [[FDA]] regulation (as opposed to a [[Drug Enforcement Administration|DEA]] regulation).
* It is probably illegal for someone outside the country to sell such a product to a citizen living in the US, given that customs regulations specifically forbid the importation of "absinthe."
* It is probably legal to purchase such a product for personal use in the US.
* Absinthe can be and occasionally is seized by United States [[Customs (tax)|Customs]], if it appears to be for human consumption.
A faux-absinthe liqueur called [[Absente]], made with ''[[southern wormwood]]'' (''[[Artemisia abrotanum]]'') instead of regular wormwood (''Artemisia absinthium''), is sold legally in the United States. However, the FDA prohibition extends to all ''Artemisia'' species, including even, in theory, ''Artemisia dracunculus'', [[tarragon]]. However, Absente is sold in US retail liquor stores because the export version made for the United States does not contain wormwood.
==Notes==
<div style="font-size:100%;">
<references/>
</div>
==References==
*Höld, K.M., et al. [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/97/8/3826 "a-Thujone (the active component of absinthe): y-Aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification"]. ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences'' 97([[April 11]] [[2000]]):3826-3831.
*{{1911}}
==External links==
*[http://www.oxygenee.com/absintheMUSEUM.html Oxygenee's Virtual Absinthe Museum]
*[http://www.feeverte.net La Fée Verte] -- Forums, reviews and articles about absinthe.
*[http://www.wormwoodsociety.org/ The Wormwood Society] - An independent organization founded to help promote accurate, current information about absinthe; to aid in reforming laws and regulations impacting absinthe in the US. It does not sell absinthe.
*[http://www.absinthe.se Absinthe.se] - A comprehensive collection of Absinthe reviews and information.
*[http://leda.lycaeum.org/?ID=12102 Absinthe: The Green Goddess] by [[Aleister Crowley]]
*[http://www.eabsinthe.com/drinking-french-absinthe.htm The French ritual] - How to serve French-style absinthe
===Articles of interest===
*Arnold, W.N. "Absinthe". ''[[Scientific American]]'' 260(June 1989):112-117.
*[http://www.winespectator.com/Cigar/CA_Archives/CA_Show_Article/0,2322,220,00.html Absinthe's second coming] - An April 2001 article in Cigar Aficionado about the first absinthe commercially produced in France since the 1915 ban.
*[http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/features/20050323-0500-life-absinthe.html Swiss face sobering future after legalizing absinthe] - A March 2005 Reuters article about the legalization of absinthe in switzerland.
*[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/13.11/absinthe.html The Mystery of the Green Menace] - A November 2005 WIRED Magazine article about a New Orleans man who has researched the chemical content of Absinthe and now distills it in France.
[[Category:Alcoholic beverages]]
[[Category:Distilled beverages]]
[[bg:Абсент]]
[[da:Absint]]
[[de:Absinth]]
[[fi:Absintti]]
[[fr:Spiritueux aux plantes d'absinthe]]
[[he:אבסינת]]
[[it:Assenzio]]
[[ja:アブサン]]
[[lb:Absinth]]
[[lt:Absentas]]
[[mk:Апсинт]]
[[nl:Absint]]
[[pl:Absynt]]
[[pt:Absinto]]
[[ru:Абсент]]
[[sv:Absint]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Androphagi</title>
<id>3074</id>
<revision>
<id>35829401</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-19T16:45:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>62.248.39.230</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Androphagi''' (Greek for "man-eaters") was an ancient nation of [[cannibalism|cannibal]]s north of [[Scythia]] (according to [[Herodotus]]), probably in the forests between the upper waters of the [[Dnepr]] and [[Don River, Russia|Don]].
A hypothesis popular in the West is that they were most likely Finns &mdash; the obsolete name of ''[[Nenets]]'' people, ''Samoyed'', has a similar meaning in Russian: "self-eater". This hypothesis is false, see [[Nenets]].
==References==
*{{1911}}
==See also==
*[[Issedones]]
*[[Anthropophagi]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Albert Brooks</title>
<id>3075</id>
<revision>
<id>41285865</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T07:45:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JackO'Lantern</username>
<id>716541</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Albert Brooks''' (born [[July 22]], [[1947]]) is a [[United States|American]] [[actor]], [[comedian]] and [[film director|director]].
==Early life==
Brooks was born '''Albert Lawrence Einstein''' in [[Beverly Hills]], [[Los Angeles, California]] to a [[Jewish American]] family. His father, [[Harry Parke|Harry Einstein]], was a comedian who performed on [[Eddie Cantor]]'s [[radio]] program and was known as [[Harry Parke|Parkyarkarkus]]. His mother was actress [[Thelma Leeds]] (born ''Thelma Goodman''). His brother is [[Super Dave Osborne]].
Brooks grew up among showbusiness royalty in southern [[California]], attending high school with [[Richard Dreyfuss]] and [[Rob Reiner]].
==Career==
Brooks attended [[Carnegie Tech]] in [[Pittsburgh]], but dropped out after one year to focus on his comedy career. He changed his surname from ''Einstein'' and began a stand-up comedy career that quickly made him a regular on [[variety show|variety]] and [[talk show]]s during the late [[1960s]] and early [[1970s]]. His onstage persona, that of an egotistical, nervous comic, influenced other comedians, including [[Steve Martin]], [[Martin Mull]] and [[Andy Kaufman]].
After two successful comedy albums, ''Comedy Minus One'' (1974) and the [[Grammy Award]]-nominated ''A Star is Bought'' (1975), Brooks left the standup circuit to try his hand as a filmmaker; his first film, ''The Famous Comedians School'', was a satiric short which appeared on [[PBS]] and was an early example of the [[mockumentary]] sub-genre. In [[1975 in television|1975]], he directed six short films for the first season of [[NBC]]'s ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'', and in [[1976 in film|1976]] appeared in his first mainstream film role, in [[Martin Scorsese|Scorsese]]'s landmark ''[[Taxi Driver]]'' (Scorsese allowed Brooks to improvise much of his dialogue). Many of these roles reflected Brooks's decision to move to [[Los Angeles]] to get into the film business.
Brooks directed his first feature film, ''[[Real Life (movie)|Real Life]]'', in [[1979 in film|1979]]. The film, in which Brooks obnoxiously films a typical [[suburb]]an family in an effort to win both an [[Academy_award|Oscar]] and a [[Nobel Prize]], was a sendup of [[PBS]]'s ''[[An American Family]]'' documentary. Brooks also made a brief cameo in the film ''[[Private Benjamin]]'' ([[1980 in film|1980]]), starring [[Goldie Hawn]].
Through the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]], Brooks co-wrote (with longtime collaborator Monica Johnson), directed and starred in a series of moderately-successful comedies, playing variants on his standard neurotic and self-obsessed character. These include [[1981 in film|1981]]'s ''[[Modern Romance]]'', where Brooks played a film editor desperate to win back his ex-girlfriend, as well as his best-received film, ''[[Lost in America]]'' ([[1985 in film|1985]]), which featured Brooks and [[Julie Hagerty]] as a couple who leave their [[yuppie]] lifestyle, drop out of society and live in a motor home, only to find the disadvantages of [[poverty]].
Brooks's ''[[Defending Your Life]]'' ([[1991 in film|1991]]) placed his lead character in the [[afterlife]], put on trial to justify his human fa |
827631</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T22:26:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Xerocs</username>
<id>757355</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>added AMMO duty base</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''Ammo is also a commonly used abbreviation for [[ammunition]].''
__NOTOC__
In the [[U.S. Air Force]], '''AMMO''' is the common [[nickname]] for the Munitions Systems Specialist career field, (AFSC 2W0X1, previously 461X0.)
AMMO is responsible for maintaining the Air Force's entire munitions [[stockpile]]. Various duties include shipping and receiving, building, testing, operating, protecting, inspecting, storing and performing maintenance on all types of munition systems, both conventional and [[nuclear weapon|nuclear]]. AMMO troops can also expect to learn to operate and maintain a wide variety of equipment and electronic gear, from 40 foot tractor-trailer combination vehicles and all terrain 10,000 pound forklifts, to small arms weapons, to [[AGM-65]] guidance testing units and computer databases. AMMO troops often work daily with many versions of [[F-4]], [[F-15]], [[F-16]], [[F-22]], [[F-117]], [[B-1 Lancer|B-1]], [[B-2 Spirit|B-2]], [[B-52 Stratofortress|B-52]], [[A-10]], and [[AC-130]] aircraft, along with rarer opportunities to support aircraft from sister services, such as the [[A-6]], [[F-14]], [[F-18]] and [[AV-8]], and even aircraft from other nations.
Once a new recruit graduates from Air Force Basic Military Training at [[Lackland Air Force Base]], [[San Antonio, Texas|San Antonio]], [[Texas]], he or she is initiated into the world of AMMO during a 9 week school at [[Sheppard Air Force Base]], also in Texas. Upon graduation from tech school, the new AMMO troop either ships to his or her first assignment, or, if their first assignment is overseas, they can opt to take around two weeks of leave before shipping overseas.
Being AMMO is like being in a world separated from the rest of the Air Force. Due to security and obvious safety concerns with the possibility of millions of pounds of explosives accidentally [[cooking off]] and damaging a large portion of a base's facilities, the bomb dump is usually well isolated from the rest of base. At some bases, such as Andersen AFB in [[Guam]], the ride to work can take as long as twenty minutes, compared to a 4 or 5 minute commute for people in most other career fields.
Such isolation, as well as the fact that many people don't realize the extreme danger an AMMO troop faces at work every day while working with tons of [[explosives]], has allowed AMMO to attain its dubious reputation of being the Air Force's hardest drinking, wildest, and most mischievous bunch. Working out of sight often means being out of mind, and this has lead to things often getting done "the AMMO way", versus "the Air Force way". The isolation and dangerous work environment have created a tight bond amongst AMMO troops, and led to the infamous "If You Ain't Ammo, You Ain't Shit!" ([[IYAAYAS]]) attitude. The "black sheep" label given AMMO is worn with pride.
While AMMO troops can expect to perform a wide range of daily duties, they can also look forward to being stationed at an equally broad range of bases.
The wide range of daily duties stems from the fact of AMMO having nine separate and distinct working areas within the career field.
These are:
Equipment Maintenance - "Trailer Shop" - the hub of all maintenance on the job-specific trailer equipment that is unique to AMMO, such as the MHU-141 and the MHU-110.
PGM - Precision Guided Munitions, or "Missile Shop" - fairly self-explanatory; maintenance of missiles and guided bomb packages.
Flightline Delivery - "Line-D", or "Line Swine" when referencing personnel (ex. "That jet needs AMMO - call the line swine.") Line-D drivers are dispatched by Munitions Control (see below) and are responsible for the safe and expedient handling and delivery of munitions to aircraft. Drivers are also held responsible for the accounting of their movements and their transactions via radio and paper logs.
Conventional Maintenance - Simply called "Conventional", this office works the unguided side of AMMO, dealing with everything that their base's aircraft can carry, from chaff and flares to cannon ammunition and regular unguided "dumb bombs".
Munitions Control - The nerve center. Nothing happens without the controllers knowing since they are the office that dispatches workorders to all other areas. Supervision relies heavily on good controllers to give them quick, efficient reports of what's happening. Controllers tend to be more senior AMMO troops and have diverse backgrounds in AMMO.
Storage and Handling - Works closely with Inspection and Conventional to deliver large quantities of raw materials for both inspections and bomb build excercises. Storage troops will often be found driving 18-wheel tractor trailers and forklifts, ranging in capacity from 2 to 25 tons, transporting various munitions items for the respective clientele.
Inspection - All munitions items at various times need to be inspected for safety and compliance with technical instructions. Specialized NCOs called Munitions Inspectors accomplish this. Inspectors attend an Inspector school, which lasts approximately 3 weeks and most times is conducted at the AMMO Schoolhouse, located at Sheppard AFB, Texas.
CAS/AFK - Sometimes labeled as separate areas, CAS stands for Combat Ammunition System. CAS troops perform inventories, keep storage plans, and update movements of munitions within the storage area. In layman's terms, they are accountants for explosives. Sometimes derisively referred to as "CAS-holes".
There are positions for AMMO troops at more bases worldwide than airman in most other career fields in the Air Force.
==Duty stations==
Duty stations include, but are not limited to:
===United States===
* [[Andersen AFB]], [[Guam]];
* [[Barksdale AFB]], [[Louisiana]];
* [[Beale AFB]], [[California]];
* [[Bolling AFB]], [[Washington, DC]];
* [[Dyess AFB]], [[Texas]]
* [[Edwards AFB]], California;
* [[Eglin AFB]], [[Florida]];
* [[Elmendorf AFB]], [[Alaska]];
* [[Ellsworth AFB]], South Dakota;
* [[Eielson AFB]], Alaska;
* [[Fairchild AFB]], [[Washington]];
* [[F.E. Warren AFB]], [[Wyoming]];
* [[Hickam AFB]], [[Hawaii]];
* [[Hill AFB]], [[Utah]];
* [[Keesler AFB]], [[Mississippi]];
* [[Lackland AFB]], Texas;
* [[Little Rock AFB]], [[Arkansas]];
* [[Malmstrom AFB]], [[Montana]];
* [[McChord AFB]], Washington;
* [[Mountain Home AFB]], [[Idaho]];
* [[Minot AFB]], [[North Dakota]];
* [[Moody AFB]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]];
* [[Nellis AFB]], [[Nevada]];
* [[Offutt AFB]], [[Nebraska]];
* [[Pope AFB]], [[North Carolina]];
* [[Seymour Johnson AFB]], North Carolina;
* [[Shaw AFB]], [[South Carolina]];
* [[Sheppard Air Force Base]], Texas;
* [[Travis AFB]], California;
* [[Tyndall AFB]], Florida;
* [[Whiteman AFB]], [[Missouri]];
* [[Wright-Patterson AFB]], [[Ohio]];
===Asia===
* Kunsan AB, South Korea;
* Kadena AB, Japan (18 MUNS Pirate Country);
* Misawa AB, Japan;
* Osan AB, South Korea;
* Yakota AB, Japan.
===Middle east===
* Al Karj, Saudi Arabia;
* Al Udeid, Qatar
===Europe===
* [[Araxos]], [[Greece]];
* [[Aviano| Aviano AB]], [[Italy]];
* [[Incirlik]], [[Turkey]];
* [[Naval Air Station Keflavik]], [[Iceland]];
* [[Ramstein AB]], [[Germany]];
* [[RAF Lakenheath]], [[England]];
* [[RAF Mildenhall]], England;
* [[Rhein-Main AB]], [[Germany]];
* [[Spangdahlem Air Base]], Germany;
==External links==
* http://groups.myspace.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=groups.groupProfile&groupID=100021174&Mytoken=CA7A498D-1124-5F68-96D15AC13B79E95310873611
* http://www.ammotroops.com
* http://www.usafammo.com
[[Category:United States Air Force]][[Category:Ammunition]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amnesty</title>
<id>3258</id>
<revision>
<id>42075948</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:35:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Haham hanuka</username>
<id>111674</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>interwiki</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the human rights organization, see [[Amnesty International]].''
'''Amnesty''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''amnestia'', oblivion) is an act of justice by which the supreme power in a state restores those who may have been guilty of any offence against it to the position of innocent persons. It includes more than [[pardon]], in as much as it obliterates all legal remembrance of the offence.
Amnesties, which, in the [[United Kingdom]], may be granted by the crown alone, or by act of [[British Parliament|Parliament]], were formerly usual on coronations and similar occasions, but are chiefly exercised towards associations of political criminals, and are sometimes granted absolutely, though more frequently there are certain specified exceptions. Thus, in the case of the earliest recorded amnesty, that of [[Thrasybulus]] at [[Athens]], the thirty tyrants and a few others were expressly excluded from its operation; and the amnesty proclaimed on the restoration of [[Charles II of England]] did not extend to those who had taken part in the execution of his father. Other celebrated amnesties are that proclaimed by [[Napoleon]] on [[March 13]], [[1815]], from which thirteen eminent persons, including [[Talleyrand]], were excepted; the [[Prussia|Prussian]] amnesty of [[August 10]], [[1840]]; the general amnesty proclaimed by the emperor [[Franz Josef I of Austria]] in [[1857]]; the general amnesty granted by [[President of the United States]] [[Andrew Johnson]] after the [[American Civil War]] in [[1868]]; and the French amnesty of [[1905]]. The last act of amnesty passed in [[Great Britain]] was that of [[1747]], which |
:* ([[Zeta Canis Majoris|1/&zeta; CMa]]) 3.02 '''Furud''' [''Phurud'']
:*: < &#1601;&#1585;&#1583; ''al-furud'' The solitary ones
:* ([[Eta Canis Majoris|31/&eta; CMa]]) 2.45 '''Aludra'''
:*: < &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1584;&#1585;&#1577; ''al-<sup>c<sup>uðrah'' Maidenhood
:Stars with Bayer designations:
:: [[Theta Canis Majoris|14/&theta; CMa]] 4.08; [[Iota Canis Majoris|20/&iota; CMa]] 4.36; [[Kappa Canis Majoris|13/&kappa; CMa]] 4.36; [[Lambda Canis Majoris|&lambda; CMa]] 4.47; [[Nu1 Canis Majoris|6/&nu;<sup>1</sup> CMa]] 5.71; [[Nu2 Canis Majoris|7/&nu;<sup>2</sup> CMa]] 3.95; [[Nu3 Canis Majoris|8/&nu;<sup>3</sup> CMa]] 4.42; [[Xi1 Canis Majoris|4/&xi;<sup>1</sup> CMa]] 4.34; [[Xi2 Canis Majoris|5/&xi;<sup>2</sup> CMa]] 4.54; [[Omicron1 Canis Majoris|16/&omicron;<sup>1</sup> CMa]] 3.89; [[Omicron2 Canis Majoris|24/&omicron;<sup>2</sup> CMa]] 3.02; [[Pi Canis Majoris|19/&pi; CMa]] 4.66; [[Sigma Canis Majoris|22/&sigma; CMa]] 3.49; [[Tau Canis Majoris|30/&tau; CMa]] 4.37; [[Omega Canis Majoris|28/&omega; CMa]] 4.01
:Stars with Flamsteed designations:
:: [[10 Canis Majoris|10 CMa]] 5.23; [[11 Canis Majoris|11 CMa]] 5.28; [[12 Canis Majoris|12 CMa]] 6.07; [[15 Canis Majoris|15 CMa]] 4.82; [[17 Canis Majoris|17 CMa]] 5.80; [[26 Canis Majoris|26 CMa]] 5.91; [[27 Canis Majoris|27 CMa]] 4.42; [[29 Canis Majoris|29/UW CMa]] 4.88
{{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}}
{{ConstellationList}}
{{ConstellationsRoyerAltered}}
== Other uses of the name ==
The [[astronomer]] [[Leslie Peltier]] had a [[dog]] named Canis Major.
== External links ==
{{Commons|Canis Major}}
* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/canismajor/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Canis Major]
[[Category:Canis Major constellation| ]]
[[ca:Ca Major]]
[[cs:Velký pes (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Store Hund]]
[[de:Großer Hund]]
[[es:Canis Major]]
[[fa:سگ بزرگ]]
[[fr:Grand Chien]]
[[ga:An Madra Mór]]
[[ko:큰개자리]]
[[id:Canis Major]]
[[it:Canis Major]]
[[he:כלב גדול]]
[[la:Canis Maior (sidus)]]
[[lt:Didysis Šuo]]
[[hu:Nagy Kutya (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Grote Hond]]
[[ja:おおいぬ座]]
[[nn:Store hund]]
[[pl:Wielki Pies]]
[[pt:Canis Major]]
[[ru:Большой Пёс (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Veľký pes]]
[[fi:Iso koira]]
[[sv:Stora hunden]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวหมาใหญ่]]
[[zh:大犬座]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Canis Minor</title>
<id>6367</id>
<revision>
<id>41857693</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T04:37:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kuru</username>
<id>764407</id>
</contributor>
<comment>revert: test</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Canis minor |
abbreviation = CMi |
genitive = Canis Minoris |
symbology = the Smaller Dog |
RA = 8 |
dec= +5 |
areatotal = 183 |
arearank = 71st |
numberstars = 2 |
starname = [[Procyon]] (&alpha; CMi) |
starmagnitude = 0.38 |
meteorshowers =
*[[Canis-Minorids]] |
bordering =
*[[Monoceros]]
*[[Gemini]]
*[[Cancer (constellation)|Cancer]]
*[[Hydra (constellation)|Hydra]] |
latmax = 85 |
latmin = 75 |
month = March |
notes=}}
'''Canis Minor''' ([[Latin]] for ''little [[dog]]'') is one of the 88 modern [[constellation]]s, and was also in [[Ptolemy]]'s list of 48 constellations. It is said to represent one of the dogs following [[Orion (mythology)|Orion]] the hunter.
==Notable features==
Canis Minor is a small constellation mainly consisting of the two stars, [[Procyon]] (&alpha; CMi / Alpha Canis Minoris, 0.38<sup>m</sup>) and [[Gomeisa]] (&beta; CMi / Beta Canis Minoris), 2.9<sup>m</sup>). Procyon is the eighth [[List of brightest stars|brightest star]] in the night sky. Procyon means "anterior dog" in [[Greek language|Greek]], as it rises before the Dog Star, [[Sirius]], of [[Canis Major]].
==Notable deep sky objects==
Being such a small constellation, Canis Minor has no deep sky object brighter than 10 Mag.
==Mythology==
Canis Minor was considered to be the smaller of the two hunting dogs of Orion. However, the ancient Greeks did not recognise it as a distinct constellation, and thus originally only considered Orion to have had one dog. See also the constellations of [[Orion (constellation)|Orion]] and [[Canis Major]].
==Stars==
:Stars with proper names:
:* (10/&alpha; CMi) 0.40 '''[[Procyon]]''' or '''''Antecanis''''' or '''''Al Shira''''' or '''''Elgomaisa''''' [''Algomeysa''] &ndash; double; nearby
:*: < &#960;&#961;&#959;&#954;&#973;&#959;&#957; The fore-dog [before the Dog Star]
:* ([[Beta Canis Minoris|3/&beta; CMi]]) 2.89 '''Gomeisa''' [''Algomeyla, Gomelza'']
:*: < &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1605;&#1610;&#1587;&#1575;&#1569; ''al-ghumaisa’'' The bleary-eyed (woman)
:Stars with Bayer designations:
:: [[Gamma Canis Minoris|4/&gamma; CMi]] 4.33; [[Delta1 Canis Minoris|7/&delta;<sup>1</sup> CMi]] 5.24; [[Delta2 Canis Minoris|8/&delta;<sup>2</sup> CMi]] 5.59; [[Delta3 Canis Minoris|9/&delta;<sup>3</sup> CMi]] 5.83; [[Epsilon Canis Minoris|2/&epsilon; CMi]] 4.99; [[Zeta Canis Minoris|13/&zeta; CMi]] 5.12; [[Eta Canis Minoris|5/&eta; CMi]] 5.22; [[G Canis Minoris|G CMi]] 4.39
:Stars with Flamsteed designations:
:: [[1 Canis Minoris|1 CMi]] 5.37; [[6 Canis Minoris|6 CMi]] 4.55; [[11 Canis Minoris|11 CMi]] 5.25; [[14 Canis Minoris|14 CMi]] 5.30
{{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}}
{{ConstellationList}}
== External links ==
{{Commons|Canis Minor}}
* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/monoceros/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Canis Minor]
[[Category:Canis Minor constellation| ]]
[[ca:Ca Menor]]
[[cs:Malý pes (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Lille Hund]]
[[de:Kleiner Hund]]
[[es:Canis Minor]]
[[fa:دب اصغر]]
[[fr:Petit Chien]]
[[ga:An Madra Beag]]
[[ko:작은개자리]]
[[id:Canis Minor]]
[[it:Canis Minor]]
[[la:Canis Minor (sidus)]]
[[lt:Mažasis Šuo]]
[[hu:Kis Kutya (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Kleine Hond]]
[[ja:こいぬ座]]
[[nn:Vesle hund]]
[[pl:Mały Pies]]
[[ro:Câinele Mic (constelaţie)]]
[[ru:Малый Пёс (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Malý pes]]
[[fi:Pieni koira]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวหมาเล็ก]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Choshu</title>
<id>6368</id>
<revision>
<id>15904517</id>
<timestamp>2004-02-03T12:57:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Takanoha</username>
<id>37611</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Nagato Province]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Centaurus</title>
<id>6371</id>
<revision>
<id>41590364</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T09:48:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Montrealais</username>
<id>3378</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Centaurus |
abbreviation = Cen |
genitive = Centauri |
symbology = the [[Centaur]]|
RA = 13 |
dec= &minus;50 |
areatotal = 1060 |
arearank = 9th |
numberstars = 10 |
starname = [[Alpha Centauri]] (&alpha; Cen) |
starmagnitude = &minus;0.01 |
meteorshowers =
*[[Alpha Centaurids]]
*[[Omicron Centaurids]]
*[[Theta Centaurids]] |
bordering =
*[[Antlia]]
*[[Carina (constellation)|Carina]]
*[[Circinus]]
*[[Crux]]
*[[Hydra (constellation)|Hydra]]
*[[Libra]] (corner)
*[[Lupus (constellation)|Lupus]]
*[[Musca]]
*[[Vela (constellation)|Vela]] |
latmax = 30 |
latmin = 90 |
month = May |
notes=}}
'''Centaurus''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[centaur]]'') was one of the 48 [[constellation]]s listed by [[Ptolemy]], and counts also among the 88 modern constellations. This [[celestial sphere|southern]] constellation is [[list of constellations by area|one of the largest]] in the sky.
== Notable features ==
Centaurus is a bright constellation of the southern hemisphere.
It contains [[Proxima Centauri]], a [[red dwarf]] that is the nearest known [[star]] (other than the [[Sun]]) to [[Earth]], as well as [[Alpha Centauri]], which is a [[binary star]] to which Proxima Centauri is apparently gravitationally bound to form a [[triple star system]].
It also contains [[BPM 37093]], which is estimated to be a degenerate [[star]], consisting of crystalline carbon.
== Notable deep sky objects ==
It also contains [[Omega Centauri]], the brightest [[globular cluster]] in the sky.
One of the deep-sky objects in Centaurus is the [[Boomerang nebula]], the coldest location (1&nbsp;[[kelvin]], &minus;272&deg;C) known to science.
== History ==
It was mentioned by [[Eudoxus of Cnidus|Eudoxus]] (4th&nbsp;century&nbsp;B.C.) and [[Aratus]] (3rd&nbsp;century&nbsp;B.C.), Ptolemy catalogued thirty-seven stars in it.
== Mythology ==
The constellation, when including fainter stars visible to the naked eye, resembles a stick man with the back end of a horse attached [http://borghetto.astrofili.org/costellazioni/centaurus.JPG]. According to [[Greek mythology]], the constellation is [[Chiron]] who was a wise [[centaur]] (half-man, half-horse) known as a tutor to [[Jason]] (the leader of the Argonauts), and tutor to [[Herakles]] (a demi-god).
Centaurus is sometimes associated with the constellation [[Sagitta]], an arrow which Centaurus appears to have fired towards the constellation [[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]]. As such, together with the constellation [[Lupus (constellation) | Lupus]], and the fact that Centaurus is below the ecliptic, this may have formed the basis of the myth of the [[Erymanthian Boar]], one of [[The Twelve Labours]] of [[Herakles]].
When the sun is in the sign of [[Virgo]], it sits directly above the constellation [[Centaurus]]. The Greeks considered that the [[centaur]] [[Chiron]], who was accidentally poisoned and died due to Herakles, while herakles |
; This dimension is seen as analogous to the Judeo-Christian [[Hell]]. On inspection, the ship's log shows the original crew engaging the gravity drive and moments later, committing an [[orgy]] of [[torture]], [[cannibalism]], [[rape]], and depravity. The captain of the original crew, who has by now torn out his own eyes, leaves an intially misinterpreted warning in [[Latin]] which, at first glance, appears to be ''Liberate me'' ("Save me"). A clearer translation later reveals it to be ''Liberate tutamen ex inferis'' ("Save yourself from Hell"), evidence that he (at least) believed the ship had gone to Hell, literally.
==Rescue Mission==
In [[2047]], faint signals from the lost ''Event Horizon'' were picked up on [[Earth]], the ship had ended up on a low orbit around the planet [[Neptune]]. The rescue crew is assembled for a 9 month (56 day journey in sleep [[stasis]]) trip into deep space.
[[Image:Eventstasis.jpg|thumb|left|215px|56 days to reach Neptune]]
When they reach Neptune’s high turbulent atmosphere, the ''Lewis & Clark'''s detectors find no trace of human life onboard the floating ''Event Horizon'', instead it mysteriously seemed abandoned with strange life readings everywhere at the same time. Assuming that the life scan is malfunctioning, they decide to try to find the crew by going onboard. At the time the crew boards into the ship, there is zero gravity and cool temperatures. After docking, Justin ([[Jack Noseworthy]]), the engineer, reaches the oval gravity drive (the heart of the ''Event Horizon''). The gravity drive begins to activate, as if sensing his presence, and curiously, he sees a black liquid mirror in the gravity drive and touches it. Suddenly, he is sucked into the mirror and a large [[shockwave]] flows throughout the ship, causing damage to the ''Lewis & Clark'' which needs repair before it can make the return trip. Cooper ([[Richard T. Jones]]) finally manages to pull Justin out of the liquid, but he was unconscious. With the ''Lewis & Clark'' heavily damaged, Captain Miller ([[Laurence Fishburne]]) has no choice but to lead the entire crew into the ''Event Horizon'' itself. Although they succesfully reactivate [[life support]], heat, [[artificial gravity]], etc., the crew is now in danger themselves as they only have 20 hours worth of usable oxygen onboard the ''Event Horizon''.
Once onboard the ''Event Horizon'', the rescuers almost immediately begin to experience macabre visions exposing their inner demons and personal guilt. Captain Miller (Fishburne) sees images of the comrade he was forced to leave behind in a fire; another person sees images of her son, whose legs are covered in sores. Dr. William Weir ([[Sam Neill]]), the man who designed the ship, sees images of his deceased wife Claire who committed suicide, something which makes him feel intensely guilty (there is some indication that Weir's constant absence in their home due to his work contributed to her decision to cut her wrists and kill herself). She urges him to "join us" so he can be reunited with her. Upon exploring more of the ship, they find the bloody remains of some of the previous crew. It eventually becomes clear that wherever the ship has been, it has brought back a presence with it which is methodically trying to drive these new arrivals [[insane]] by using their own personal torments against them. The aim of this appears to be to compel them to re-engage the gravity drive and "go back" to Hell.
[[Image:Eventdeadwife.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Dr. Weir's wife commits suicide]]
When Miller tells Weir that he plans to destroy the ship, the evil presence onboard delves into Weir's mind and manages to turn him completely and utterly demented. The ship cruelly forces Weir to re-live Claire's horrific suicide, which finally drives him over the edge. He, like the deceased captain before him, rips his eyes out and proudly announces "where we're going, you won't need eyes to see". Enlisting his aid, the ship uses Weir to destroy the ''Lewis & Clark'' and then brutally kill any of the rescue party who try to stop him from activating the gravity drive.
Weir eventually dies by being sucked out into space by a ruptured window as he is trying to convince Miller and his surviving comrades that it is pointless to resist. Following this, the ship appears to take direct command of things and reactivates the gravity drive by itself. Miller makes an attempt to set off the explosives which will seperate the front of the ship from the gravity drive section at the rear. He rushes to the gateway room only to discover his former comrade who burned to death standing in front of him. Miller manages to overcome his demons and the figure dissipates, revealing Weir, who has been brought back by the ship:
"''When she crossed over, she was just a ship, but when she came back, she was alive''"
"''The ship brought me back. I told you she won't let me leave. She won't let anyone leave''".
Completely possessed by the [[evil]] presence on board, Weir gleefully shows Miller what awaits him in Hell. Images of the former crew being brutally tortured and all manners of violence being inflicted on their helpless, writhing forms. "'''Do you see?!!'''" asks Weir thinking that he has won, "Yes... I see." says Miller, revealing in his hands the detonator for the explosives. Weir cries out too late as the ship explodes and separates in two, with the half carrying them plunging toward Neptune. Moments later, the gravity drive is activated and Weir and Miller go back to Hell. Starck and Cooper, together with comatose Justin, being in the remaining front half of the ship, survive their ordeal, but are haunted right up to the end. When the rescue team arrives to help them, one of the crew (Richardson) sees the face of Weir as the soldier lifts up his mask. As Starck snaps out of this delirium, it is revealed that they have been rescued. As the scene pans out, the doors of the ship slowly slide themselves closed, leaving the viewer wondering whether the evil onboard the ''Event Horizon'' was ever truly destroyed.
== Cast ==
* [[Laurence Fishburne]] &ndash; Capt. Miller
* [[Sam Neill]] &ndash; Dr. William Weir
* [[Kathleen Quinlan]] &ndash; Peters (Med Tech)
* [[Joely Richardson]] &ndash; Lt. Starck (Executive Officer)
* [[Richard T. Jones]] &ndash; Cooper (Rescue Tech)
* [[Jack Noseworthy]] &ndash; Justin (Engineering)
* [[Jason Isaacs]] &ndash; D.J. (Trauma)
* [[Sean Pertwee]] &ndash; Smith (pilot)
* [[Peter Marinker]] &ndash; Capt. John Kilpack
* [[Holley Chant]] &ndash; Claire (Weir's wife)
* [[Barclay Wright]] &ndash; Denny (Peters' son)
* [[Noah Huntley]] &ndash; Burning man/Edward Corrick
* [[Robert Jezek]] &ndash; Rescue 1 technician
== Soundtrack ==
The score of the film was written and performed by [[Orbital (band)|Orbital]] and [[Michael Kamen]]. The end credit theme was the song "Funky Shit" by [[The Prodigy]]. The movie was extensively sampled on [[Zao (band)|Zao]]'s [[1999]] album, ''[[Liberate Te Ex Inferis]]'', (a phrase which is similar to one that occurs in the dialog of ''Event Horizon''). Several samples also appear in the song "The Technogoat" from ''The Codex Necro'' album by [[Anaal Nathrakh]] as well as on ''The Ichneumon Method'' album by [[The Axis of Perdition]]. Popular [[Trance_music|trance]] producer [[John Graham]] under the alias [[Space Manoeuvres]] created the track "Stage One" which took samples from the theatrical trailer of the film.
== External links ==
* {{imdb title|id=0119081|title=Event Horizon}}
*http://thecia.com.au/reviews/e/event-horizon.shtml (pictures)
[[Category:1997 films]]
[[Category:Horror films]]
[[Category:Science fiction films]]
[[de:Event Horizon – Am Rande des Universums]]
==Reference==
*http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/event_horizon/</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electric charge</title>
<id>9804</id>
<revision>
<id>42126989</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:17:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The tooth</username>
<id>652482</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>RV</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{backlink|electricity}}
{{Flavour quantum numbers}}
'''Electric charge''' is a fundamental conserved property of some [[subatomic particle]]s, which determines their [[electromagnetic interaction]]s. Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and produces, [[electromagnetic field]]s. The interaction between charge and field is the source of the [[electromagnetic force]] which is one of the four [[fundamental force]]s.
== Overview ==
Electric charge is a characteristic of subatomic particles, and is quantized. When expressed as a multiple of the so-called [[elementary charge]] ''e'', [[electron]]s have a charge of &minus;1. [[Proton]]s have the opposite charge of +1. [[Quark]]s have a fractional charge of &minus;1/3 or +2/3. The [[antiparticle]] equivalents of these have the opposite charge. There are other [[charged particle]]s.
Electric charge of a [[macroscopic]] object is the sum of the electric charges of its constituent particles. Often, the net electric charge is zero, since naturally the number of electrons in every [[atom]] is equal to the number of the [[protons]], so their charges cancel out. Situations in which the net charge is non-zero are often referred to as [[static electricity]]. Furthermore, even when the net charge is zero, it can be distributed non-uniformly (e.g., due to an external [[electric field]]), and then the material is said to be [[polarization (electrostatics)|polarized]], and the charge related to the polarization is known as [[bound charge]] (while the excess charge brought from outside is called ''free charge''). An order |
ibutor>
<username>Mackensen</username>
<id>20329</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Early life */ mentioned further up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox PM
| name=[[The Right Honourable|The Rt. Hon.]] The Earl of Beaconsfield
| image=1st Earl of Beaconsfield.jpg
| country=the United Kingdom
| term=February &ndash; December, 1868<br />February, 1874 &ndash; April, 1880
| before=[[Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby|The Earl of Derby]]<br />[[William Ewart Gladstone]]
| after=[[William Ewart Gladstone]]
| date_birth=[[21 December]] [[1804]]
| date_death=[[19 April]] [[1881]]
| place_birth=[[London]]
| place_death=[[London]]
| party=[[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]
}}
'''Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield''', [[Order of the Garter|KG]], [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|PC]] ([[21 December]], [[1804]] &ndash; [[19 April]], [[1881]]) was an [[England|English]] statesman and literary figure. He served in government for three decades, twice as [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] &ndash; the first and thus far only person of [[Jew]]ish descent to do so, although Disraeli was [[baptism|baptised]] in the [[Anglican Church]] at an early age. Disraeli's most lasting achievement was the creation of the modern [[UK Conservative Party|Conservative Party]] after the [[Corn Laws]] schism of 1846.
Although a major figure in the [[protectionist]] wing of the Conservative Party after 1846, Disraeli's relations with the other leading figures in the party, particularly [[Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby|Lord Derby]], the overall leader, were often strained. Not until the [[1860s]] would Derby and Disraeli be on easy terms, and the latter's succession of the former assured. From 1852 onwards Disraeli's career would also be marked by his often intense rivalry with [[William Ewart Gladstone]], who eventually rose to become leader (if not founder) of the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]]. In this duel, Disraeli was aided by his warm friendship with [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], who came to detest Gladstone during the latter's first premiership in the 1870s. In 1876 Disraeli was raised to the [[peerage]] as the '''Earl of Beaconsfield''', capping nearly four decades in the [[House of Commons]]. He died in 1881.
Before and during his political career Disraeli was well-known as a literary and social figure, although his novels are not generally regarded as belonging to the first rank of Victorian literature. He mainly wrote romances, of which ''Sibyl'' and ''Vivian Grey'' are perhaps the
best-known today. He was and is unusual among British Prime Ministers for having gained equal social and political renown.
==Early life==
<!--Disraeli's biographers think he's Italian Sephardic. Please provide evidence before changing it-->
[[Image:Isaac disraeli.jpg|thumb|left|caption|'''Isaac D'Israeli'''<br><small>Father of Benjamin Disraeli</small>]]
Disraeli descended from Italian [[Sephardi|Sephardic Jews]] from both his maternal and paternal sides. His father was the literary critic and historian [[Isaac D'Israeli]] who, though [[Jew]]ish, in 1817 had Benjamin [[baptism|baptised]] in the [[Church of England]], following a dispute with their synagogue. The elder D'Israeli (Benjamin apparently changed the spelling in the 1820s) himself was content to remain outside organized religion. Benjamin at first attended a small school in Blackheath called Eliot Place (later to evolve into [[St Piran's School]]). Beginning in 1817 Benjamin attended [[Higham Hall]], in [[Walthamstow]]. His younger brothers, in contrast, attended the superior [[Winchester College]], a fact which apparently grated on Disraeli and may explain his dislike of his mother, [[Maria D'Israeli]].
His father destined him for the law, and he was articled to a solicitor in 1821. The law was, however, uncongenial, and by 1825 he gave it up. Disraeli was apparently determined to obtain independent means, and speculated on the stock exchange as early as 1824 on various South American mining companies. The recognition of the new South American republics on the recommendation of [[George Canning]] had led to a considerable boom, encouraged by various promoters and aggrandizers. In this connection Disraeli became involved with the financier J. D. Powles, one such booster. In the course of 1825 Disraeli wrote three pamphlets (anonymously) for Powles, promoting the companies.
That same year Disraeli's financial activities brought him into contact with the publisher [[John Murray (1778-1843)|John Murray]]. Murray, like Powles and Disraeli, was involved in the South American mines. Accordingly, they attempted to bring out a newspaper, ''[[The Representative]]'', to promote the cause of the mines and those politicians who supported the mines, specifically Canning. The paper was a failure, in part because the mining "bubble" burst in late 1825, ruining Powles and Disraeli. Also, according to Disraeli's biographer, [[Robert Blake, Baron Blake|Lord Blake]], the paper was "atrociously edited", and probably would have failed anyway. The debts which Disraeli incurred through this affair would dog him the rest of his life.
[[Image:Young disraeli.jpg|thumb|caption|'''a Young Disraeli''' <br><small>by Sir Francis Grant, 1852</small>]]
Disraeli now turned towards literature, and brought out his first novel, ''[[Vivian Grey]]'', in 1827. Disraeli's biographers agree that ''Vivian Grey'' was a thinly-veiled re-telling of the affair of the ''Representative'', and it proved very popular on its release, although it also caused much offence within the Tory literary world when Disraeli's authorship was discovered. The book, which was initially published anonymously, was purportedly written by a "man of fashion" &ndash; someone who moved in high society. Disraeli, then just twenty-three, did not move in high society, and the numerous solecisms present in ''Vivian Grey'' made this painfully obvious. Reviewers were sharply critical on these grounds of both the author and the book. Furthermore, Murray believed that Disraeli had caricatured him and abused his confidence&ndash;an accusation denied at the time, although subsequent biographers (notably Blake) have sided with Murray.
After producing a ''[[Vindication of the British Constitution]]'', and some political pamphlets, Disraeli followed up ''Vivian Grey'' by a series of novels, ''[[The Young Duke]]'' (1831), ''[[Contarini Fleming]]'' (1832), ''[[Alroy]]'' (1833), ''[[Venetia (novel)|Venetia]]'' and ''[[Henrietta Temple]]'' (1837). During the same period he had also written ''[[The Revolutionary Epick]]'' and three burlesques, ''[[Ixion (novel)|Ixion]]'', ''[[The Infernal Marriage]]'', and ''[[Popanilla]]''. Of these only ''Henrietta Temple'' (based on his affair with [[Henrietta Sykes]]) was a true success.
==Political career==
Disraeli had been considering a political career as early as 1830, before he departed England for the [[Mediterranean]]. His first real efforts, however, did not come until 1832, during the great crisis over the [[Reform Bill of 1832|Reform Bill]], when he contributed to an anti-[[British Whig Party|Whig]] pamphlet edited by Croker and published by Murray entitled ''England and France: or a cure for Ministerial Gallomania''. The choice of a Tory publication was regarded as odd if not offensive by Disraeli's friends and relatives, who thought him more of a [[Radicals (UK)|Radical]]. [[Image:Robert Peel.jpg|left|thumb|caption|'''Sir Robert Peel, Bt.'''<br><small>Prime Minister 1834-35, 1841-46</small>]]Indeed, Disraeli had objected to Murray about Croker inserting "high Tory" sentiment, writing that "it is quite impossible that anything adverse to the general measure of Reform can issue from my pen." Further, at the time ''Gallomania'' was published, Disraeli was in fact electioneering in [[High Wycombe]] in the Radical interest. {{ref|blake.disraeli.84-86}} Disraeli's politics at the time were influenced both by his rebellious streak and by his desire to make his mark. In the early 1830s the Tories and the interests they represented appeared to be a lost cause. The other great party, the Whigs, was apparently anathema to Disraeli: "Toryism is worn out & I cannot condescend to be a Whig." {{ref|blake.disraeli.87}}
Though he initially stood for election, unsuccessfully, as a Radical, Disraeli was a progressive [[Tory]] by the time he won a seat in the [[House of Commons]] in 1837 representing the constituency of [[Maidstone]]. The next year he settled his private life by marrying [[Mary Anne Disraeli, 1st Viscountess Beaconsfield|Mary Anne Lewis]], the widow of [[Wyndham Lewis]], Disraeli's erstwhile colleague at Maidstone.
[[Image:Lord John Manners.jpg|right|thumb|caption|'''Lord John Manners'''<br><small>Friend of Disraeli, and leading figure in the [[Young England]] movement</small>]]
Although nominally a Conservative, Disraeli was sympathetic to some of the demands of the [[Chartists]] and argued for an alliance between the landed aristocracy and the working class against the increasing power of the middle class, helping to found the [[Young England]] group in 1842 to promote the view that the rich should use their power to protect the poor from exploitation by the middle class. During the twenty years which separated the Corn Laws and the Second Reform Bill Disraeli would seek Tory-Radical alliances, to little avail.
[[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] [[Robert Peel|Sir Robert Peel]] passed over Disraeli when putting together his [[First Peel ministry|government]] in 1841 and Disraeli, hurt, gradually became a sharp critic of Peel's government, often deliberately adopting positions contrary to those of h |
r the [[UNSC]]'s defensive strike against the Covenant after the [[Covenant]] invaded New Mombasa on the East coast of Africa.
The unit that is stationed there in 2552, is the 405th Marine Infantry Division. In the Battle of New Mombasa, a group of soldiers from "A [Able] Company" fight the Covenant Army in the city.
==External links==
* [http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/06/12/60minutes/main558378.shtml Diego Garcia: Exiles Still Barred]
* [http://www.dg.navy.mil Official site of the United States Navy Support Facility, Diego Garcia.]
* [http://www.kuro5hin.org/story/2003/3/27/154441/816 Spreading democracy, by any means necessary. the US/UK and Diego Garcia]
* [http://www.mydiegogarcia.com Photo and written library of the islands and their environment]
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/diego-garcia.htm Diego Garcia "Camp Justice"], GlobalSecurity.org
* [http://homepage.ntlworld.com/jksonc/docs/bancoult-d16b1.html US/UK BIOT defence agreements, 1966-1982], US Court filing
* [http://www.infoplease.com/spot/dg.html Where in the World Is Diego Garcia?], Infoplease.com
* [http://www.antiwar.com/orig/pilger.php?articleid=3702 Diego Garcia: Paradise Cleansed] by [[John Pilger]]
* [http://www.granta.com/extracts/1225 Simon Winchester on Diego Garcia, in ''Granta'' Magazine]
{{Atolls of the Chagos Archipelago}}
[[Category:British Indian Ocean Territory]]
[[Category:United States Navy bases]]
[[Category:Indian Ocean atolls]]
[[de:Diego Garcia]]
[[es:Diego García]]
[[fr:Diego Garcia]]
[[it:Diego Garcia]]
[[he:דייגו גרסיה]]
[[nl:Diego Garcia]]
[[ja:ディエゴガルシア島]]
[[no:Diego Garcia]]
[[sv:Diego Garcia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dimmu Borgir</title>
<id>8631</id>
<revision>
<id>42126415</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:13:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.25.254.85</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_band |
band_name = Dimmu Borgir|
image = [[Image:Dimmu_borgir.jpg|240px]] |
years_active = [[1993]] - present |
origin = [[Norway]] |
music_genre = [[Symphonic_Metal#Symphonic_black_metal|Symphonic Black Metal]] |
record_label = [[Nuclear Blast]] |
current_members = [[Shagrath|Stian Thoresen]]<br />Thomas Rune Andersen<br />Sven Atle Kopperud<br />Simen Hestnæs<br />[[Mustis|Øyvind Mustaparta]]<br />[[Jan Axel Blomberg]]|
}}
'''Dimmu Borgir''' is a [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[Symphonic_Metal#Symphonic_black_metal|symphonic black metal]] band whose music has been very popular in several [[Scandinavia|Scandinavian]] countries and [[Germany]]. "Dimmu Borgir" means "Dark Castle" or "Dark Citadel" in [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]].
==Biography==
Dimmu Borgir was originally founded in [[1993]] by [[Shagrath]], [[Silenoz]], and [[Tjodalv]]. The band released an EP entitled ''Inn I Evighetens Mørke'' ([[1994]]) translated to English the title means "Into The Darkness of Eternity". This short EP sold out within weeks, and the band followed up with the full length album ''For All Tid'' (1994) the title translates to "For All Time". This album featured musical contributions by members of [[Dødheimsgard]] and [[Ved Buens Ende]]. Interestingly enough, Shagrath played drums with Tjodalv on guitar and Erkekjetter (translating "arch heretic") Silenoz covering vocals. This lineup changed before the release of ''Stormblåst'' (translates to "Storm Blown") in [[1996]]. ''Stormblåst'' received high praise from many melodic black metal fans, and is often regarded a highlight of the band's career. It is also the last album which features all lyrics written and sung in Norwegian.
After ''Stormblåst'', Dimmu Borgir's career took a sharp turn. [[Keyboard instrument|Keyboard]]ist Stian Aarstad left the band due to his obligation to serve in the Norwegian army, thus he was not able to participate in the recording of ''Devil's Path'' (1996). When he returned for the recording of ''Enthrone Darkness Triumphant'' ([[1997]]), he had trouble attending rehearsals and tour dates, and he was fired from the band. ''Enthrone Darkness Triumphant'' was a huge success for the band, and it was their first release signed to the famous German [[record label]] [[Nuclear Blast]]. It was recorded in the Abyss Studios, owned by Hypocrisy's mainman Peter Tagtgren.
[[image:dimmu_borgir_pem.jpg|thumb|right|170px|"Puritanical Euphoric Misanthropia"]]
Dimmu Borgir's following full-length albums ''Spiritual Black Dimensions'' ([[1999]]) and ''Puritanical Euphoric Misanthropia'' ([[2001]]) both met critical acclaim. Some fans accused the band of [[selling out]] due to the mass audiences which the albums reached.
The band has stated that they are not "commercially-oriented", and instead they simply wish to spread their message of [[misanthropy]] and evil to more people. In [[2003]], Dimmu Borgir used their major record label financial leverage to create a monumental album titled ''Death Cult Armageddon''. Sections of the album were recorded with the [[Czech Philharmonic Orchestra]] to enhance the [[European classical music|classical]] arrangements which have always augmented the band's style.
In [[2005]], the band did a complete re-recording of the ''[[Stormblåst]]'' album, featuring [[Jan Axel Blomberg|Hellhammer]] (of [[Mayhem]] fame) as the session drummer (replacing Nicholas Barker, who was fired from the band in early 2004).
==Discography==
[[image:dimmuborgir_deathcultarmageddon.jpg|thumb|right|170px|"Death Cult Armageddon"]]
===Studio Releases===
* ''[[Inn I Evighetens Mørke]]'' [EP] - ([[1994]])
* ''[[For All Tid]]'' - ([[1994]]) (Reis. [[1997]])
* ''[[Stormblåst]]'' - ([[1996]])
* ''[[Devil's Path]]'' [EP] - ([[1996]])
* ''[[Enthrone Darkness Triumphant]]'' - ([[1997]]) (Reis. [[2002]])
* ''[[Spiritual Black Dimensions]]'' - ([[1999]]) (Reis. [[2004]])
* ''[[Puritanical Euphoric Misanthropia]]'' - ([[2001]])
* ''[[Death Cult Armageddon]]'' - ([[2003]])
* ''[[Stormblast (re-recorded)]]'' - ([[2005]])
[[image:HHR044.jpg|thumb|right|170px|"Sons of Satan Gather for Attack" (1999 Issue)]]
===Live and other releases===
*''Godless Savage Garden'' [Compilation] - ([[1998]])
*''Alive in Torment'' [Live] - ([[2001]])
*''World Misanthropy'' [DVD/VHS] - ([[2002]])
*''World Misanthropy'' [Live] - ([[2002]])
*''Sons of Satan Gather for Attack'' [Compilation w/ [[Old Man's Child]]] - ([[1999]]) (Reis. [[2004]])
==Lineup==
===Current members===
*[[Shagrath]] (Stian Thoresen) – Vocals ([[1993]]–)
*[[Silenoz]] (Sven Atle Kopperud) – Guitar ([[1993]]–)
*[[Mustis]] (Øyvind Mustaparta) – Keyboard ([[1998]]–)
*[[ICS Vortex]] (Simen Hestnæs) – Bass, Clean Vocals ([[2000]]–)
*Galder (Thomas Rune Andersen) – Guitar ([[2001]]–)
*[[Jan Axel Blomberg|Hellhammer]] (Jan Axel Blomberg) – Session Drums ([[2005]]–)
===Former members===
*Stian Aarstad – Keyboard ([[1993]]–[[1997]])
*Tjodalv – Drums ([[1993]]–[[1999]])
*Brynjard Tristan – Bass ([[1994]]–[[1996]])
*[[Nagash]] – Bass ([[1996]]–[[1999]])
*[[Kimberly Goss]] - Keyboard ([[1997]]-[[1998]])
*Astennu (Jamie Stinson) – Guitar ([[1997]]–[[1999]])
*[[Nicholas Barker]] – Drums ([[1999]]–[[2004]])
*Reno Kiilerich – Drums (Live) ([[2004]]–[[2004]])
*Tony Laureano – Drums (Live) ([[2004]]–[[2005]])
==Controversy==
"Sorgens Kammer" is a cover of a song taken from an [[Amiga]] game called [[Agony (game)|Agony]]. Stian Aarstad used the melody, but didn't tell anyone about it. The band always thought it was their own song until the original composer contacted them. Because of this, they removed the song from the 2005 version of [[Stormblåst]]. It was replaced by a previously unreleased track called "Sorgens Kammer - del II"
In C.S. Lewis' famous book ''Narnia; The Lion, The Witch and The Wardrobe'', a demon named Silenoz is mentioned at the back of an autobiographical book in Mr. Tumnus' house.
==External links==
*[http://www.dimmu-borgir.com Dimmu Borgir Official Homepage]
*[http://www.dimmuborgir.wz.cz Wolrd's No.1 fansite]
*[http://www.darklyrics.com/d/dimmuborgir.html Dimmu Borgir Lyrics]
*{{musicbrainz artist|id=17167af8-c1da-45cc-bba2-9d23f068b7a3|name=Dimmu Borgir}}
==See also==
Pronounced "dim-moo bore-gear", '''the Dimmuborgir''' (Dimmu=foggy/dark, Borgir=castle/fortress) is a large area of unusually shaped lava fields east of [[Mývatn]] in [[Iceland]]. The Dimmuborgir area is composed of various caves and rock formations, remnants of [[volcanic]] activity that are perhaps reminiscent of an ancient collapsed citadel, with columns spewing plumes of [[sulfur|sulfuric]] smoke. In Icelandic folklore the Dimmuborgir is said to connect earth with the infernal regions, and is the purported dwelling-place of elves and trolls.
*[http://www.lamedon.de/urlaub/island/is-m35_en.html Dimmuborgir In Iceland]
[[Category:Norwegian musical groups|Dimmu Borgir]]
[[Category:Black metal musical groups|Dimmu Borgir]]
[[Category:Norwegian heavy metal musical groups]]
[[bg:Dimmu Borgir]]
[[de:Dimmu Borgir]]
[[es:Dimmu Borgir]]
[[fr:Dimmu Borgir]]
[[is:Dimmu Borgir]]
[[it:Dimmu Borgir]]
[[lt:Dimmu Borgir]]
[[he:דימו בורגיר]]
[[nl:Dimmu Borgir]]
[[no:Dimmu Borgir]]
[[pl:Dimmu Borgir]]
[[pt:Dimmu Borgir]]
[[ru:Dimmu Borgir]]
[[sk:Dimmu Borgir]]
[[fi:Dimmu Borgir]]
[[sv:Dimmu Borgir]]
[[th:ดิมมูบอเกีย]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Druze</title>
<id>8632</id>
<revision>
<id>42087461</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:15:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mikereichold</username>
<id>566926</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv blanking</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">__FORCETOC__The '''Druze''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: ''duruz&#299;'' &#1583;&#1585;&#1586;&#1610;, pl. ''dur |
d the church has made it clear that it is the perogative of the government to enforce marriage laws and the church does not involve itself in this endeavor.
== Finances ==
The financial status of the Church has been the focus of two investigative reports: a 1991 report by the [[Arizona Republic]] and a 1997 report by [[Time Magazine]]. Both claim the Church is the most prosperous American religion, with Time estimating $5.2 billion in tithes during 1996. The Church has holdings in real estate, as well as for-profit businesses managed through [[Deseret Management Corporation]]. Time estimated assets in 1996 at more than $30 billion.
It is difficult to determine the exact financial status of the Church because it is not required to disclose financial information. Some of the Church's known holdings include:
* AgReserves Inc, Salt Lake City, Utah - the largest producer of nuts in America.
* Beneficial Life Insurance Co. - assets of $1.6 billion.
* [[Bonneville International Corporation]] - the 14th largest radio chain in the U.S.
* Deseret Cattle and Citrus Ranch in Orlando, Florida - the world's largest beef ranch at 312,000 acres (1260 km&sup2;). The land alone is worth an estimated $858 million.
* Farmland Reserve, Inc - recently purchased 88,000 acres (356 km&sup2;) in Nebraska bringing its total in Nebraska to 228,000 acres (923 km&sup2;) second in Nebraska to Ted Turner's 290,000.
* Polynesian Cultural Center, Hawaii - the leading for-profit visitor attraction in Hawaii.
The Church uses its financial resources to provide social welfare and relief, build facilities, maintain the missionary program, and support Church sponsored programs.
:'''Provide for Social welfare and relief''' -
:The Church operates a welfare distribution system, as it encourages members to seek financial assistance from family and church first before seeking public or state-sponsored welfare. AgReserves Inc., Deseret Cattle and Citrus Ranch, and Farmland Reserve, Inc. are part of its welfare distribution system. Welfare resources are distributed by local [[Bishop (Mormonism)|bishops]] but maintained by the [[Presiding Bishop]]. (See "Preparedness" under the "Other Practices" section.)
:'''Build facilities''' -
:The Church builds additional chapels and temples as [[Ward (Mormonism)|wards and branches]] of the Church are organized. A recent temple building program concluded in 2001 where the church built about 40 smaller temples between 1998 and 2001. The church currently has 122 temples around the world with 11 additional temples either announced or under construction. See [http://www.lds.org/temples/chronological/0,11206,1900-1,00.html chronological list of temples].
:'''Maintain its missionary program''' -
:Although the families of missionaries generally pay $400 a month for missions, additional general funds of the Church support missionaries unable to pay for their own missions. Additionally, the Church provides a mission office and mission home for each of its 300 missions and pays for television advertising offering free copies of the [[Book of Mormon]], the [[Bible]], videos, etc.
:'''Support Church sponsored programs''' -
:The Church owns and subsidizes education at its three Universities (see [[#Education|Education]] above). It also supports [[Boy Scouts]] programs for young men and Seminary and Institute programs.
== LDS Customs ==
===Titles===
Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints address each other as "Brother" or "Sister" and then usually append the last name (such as Brother Smith, or Sister Young). Additionally, those that hold specific leadership positions may be addressed by their title and then their last name (such as President Kimball). Some frequently-used titles are as follows.
* '''Bishop''' - Local [[Bishop (Mormonism)|Bishop]]s of a ward are addressed by the title of "Bishop". Though he is assisted by two counselors, the counselors are addressed as "Brother So-and-So." Generally, the title is always used when referring to a bishop, even when the bishop has ceased serving as the active leader of the ward. There is a position in the LDS church referred to as the Presiding Bishop. He and his counselors are referred to as "Bishop So-and-So". The Presiding Bishop oversees the welfare services of the Church.
* '''Elder''' - While most adult male Church members hold the office of "[[Elder (Mormonism)|elder]]" in the [[Melchizedek Priesthood]], in general only full-time male missionaries (proselyting or service), members of any of the [[Quorums of the Seventy|Quorums of the Seventy]] (General & Area Authorities), and members of the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles|Quorum of the Twelve]] are addressed with this title.
* '''President''' - In a Ward, the Elder's [[Quorum (Mormonism)|Quorum]] President is referred to as "President So-and-So". Other presidents within the ward, such as the Teachers or Deacons Quorum President, may be referred to with this title. In addition to the above presidencies, in a branch, the branch president and his councilors are referred to as "President So-and-So". All members of a [[Stake]] (or [[District]]) Presidency, a [[Temple (Mormonism)|Temple]] Presidency, a Mission Presidency, the Presidency of the Seventy, and the First Presidency are referred to as president.
===Public Speaking===
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has a long and rich tradition of public speaking. Many of the early Church members -- and especially leaders -- were gifted orators and many were skilled in debate. Public speaking was common for both leaders and lay members. This speaking tradition continues even today. For example, during worship services on the first Sunday of each month, members of the [[congregation (worship)|congregation]] are invited to share their testimonies of the [[Gospel]], faith-building experiences, and other uplifting messages with the other members of the congregation.
On each of the other Sundays during the month, members of the congregation are selected in advance to give a "talk" (the LDS equivalent of a "sermon") on a particular Gospel principle or topic. Often the congregation will hear from one or two youth speakers and one or two adult speakers during these meetings.
Church leaders and missionaries are also encouraged to speak boldly and freely about the Gospel, and are often given opportunities for extemporaneous public speaking on various Gospel subjects.
Since the early days of the Church, talks given by leaders (especially those given in the Church's bi-annual [[General conference (Mormonism)|General Conference]] meetings) have been recorded and widely distributed in written format. A digitized collection of these talks dating back to 1971 is available on the [http://library.lds.org/nxt/gateway.dll?f=templates$fn=default.htm lds.org] website, and talks dating back to the 1800s are available in printed format through various University and community libraries. In recent years the LDS Church and Brigham Young University have also made audio and video versions of selected talks freely available on their websites. See [http://www.lds.org/mp3/newarchive/0,18615,5249-1,00.html lds.org], [http://byubroadcasting.org/devotionals/ byu.edu], and [http://www.ldsvoices.com ldsvoices.com] for a collection of audio and video resources.
=== Genealogy ===
[[Genealogy|Genealogical]] research is an important aspect of [[Latter-day Saint]] tradition, stemming from a doctrinal mandate for church members to research their family tree and perform vicarious ordinances for their ancestors. In addition to the more common events that genealogy records typically contain (such as births, deaths, and marriages), church records also contain details regarding the dates of [[Baptism for the dead|baptism]], [[Endowment (Mormonism)|endowment]], and [[sealing (Mormonism)|sealing]] to spouse, parent, and child, as well as the [[temple (Mormonism)|temple]] in which each vicarious [[ordinance (Mormonism)|ordinance]] occurred. The advent of [[personal computer]]s prompted the church to create a specialized [[file format]] known as [[GEDCOM]] for storing and exchanging these records. Since then, GEDCOM has become a [[de facto]] standard that almost all genealogy [[computer program|programs]] support. The church has also created and maintains a website for searching geneological records called [http://www.familysearch.org/ FamilySearch].
==Criticism and Controversy==
''Main article: [[Controversies regarding The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]''
Many doctrines and practices of the church, both past and present, are viewed by many as controversial:
*The church claims to be the exclusive restoration of the church founded by Jesus Christ and the sole source of priesthood authority necessary for ordinances of salvation (such as baptism). This has led to extensive criticism from Protestant, Catholic, and Orthodox Christians, some of which label it a "[[cult]]", "[[sect]]," or "[[heresy|heretical]]"; the church denies that any of these terms are applicable. This is consistent with different factions of Christianity labeling each other cults, sects, or heresies throughout Christian history.
*The idea that mankind has the potential to become as God and inherit all that He has. This teaching is complementary to the idea that all people are literal children of "Heavenly Parents," and is similar to early Christian concepts of [[theosis]].
*The historical legitimacy of the Book of Mormon; there has been much contention over the accuracy of some of its archaeological and historical elements. (See "[[Archaeology and the Book of Mormon]]" and "[[Linguistics and the Book of Mormon]]".)
*The idea that man is created in the physical image of God, as taugh |
onsidered almost mainstream, even if that was not the case in decades past.
== Trivia ==
*Every Sunday night at the [[Playboy Mansion]] Hefner hosts a movie night. He has an elaborate collection of films atop the spiraling staircase of his bedroom.
*"The stuff that dreams are made of", a favorite quotation which Hefner often uses to refer to the success of ''Playboy'', comes from a quotation by [[Humphrey Bogart]] in ''[[The Maltese Falcon]],'' although both are misquotations from Act IV, Scene I of [[Shakespeare]]'s ''[[The Tempest (play)|The Tempest]]'' ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Tempest#SCENE_I._Before_PROSPERO.27S_cell_2 "We are such stuff as dreams are made on"]).
*In a 2005 interview with ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine, Hefner said he is a direct descendant of [[William Bradford (1590-1657)|William Bradford]], a Puritan who came over on the ship ''[[Mayflower]]''.
*UNVERIFIED Apparently has a room or floor to himself in the [[Drake Hotel]] on [[Michigan Ave]] in Chicago, IL.
==Books==
* [[Russell Miller|Miller, Russell]] (1985). ''Bunny: The Real Story of Playboy''. London: Corgi. ISBN 0030637481.
==External links==
* [http://www.playboyenterprises.com/home/content.cfm?content=t_template&packet=00061D22-C172-1C7A-9B578304E50A011A&MmenuFlag=profile Profile of Hefner] from [[Playboy Enterprises]] corporate site (page does not contain nudity)
* {{imdb name|id=0005005|name=Hugh M. Hefner}}
* [http://www.shanatinglipton.com/bunny1.html Bunnyhood, article]
* [http://entrepreneurs.about.com/od/famousentrepreneurs/p/hughhefner.htm Hugh Hefner: The Ultimate Lifestyle Entrepreneur] ([[About.com]] Entrepreneurs)
* "[http://www.salon.com/people/bc/1999/12/28/hefner/index.html Brilliant Careers: Hugh Hefner]" ([[Salon.com]], [[December 28]], [[1999]]
*[http://www.askmen.com/men/feb00/12_hugh_hefner.html Hugh Hefner on AskMen.com]
*"[http://slate.msn.com/id/86703/ Hugh Hefner: He swings. He misses.]" (''[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]'', [[July 21]], [[2000]])
*[http://www.freeinfosociety.com/site.php?postnum=592 Bio and Pictures]
[[Category:1926 births|Hefner, Hugh]]
[[Category:American magazine editors|Hefner, Hugh]]
[[Category:American publishers (people)|Hefner, Hugh]]
[[Category:American socialites|Hefner, Hugh]]
[[Category:American World War II veterans|Hefner, Hugh]]
[[Category:Chicagoans|Hefner, Hugh]]
[[Category:Former copywriters|Hefner, Hugh]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Hefner, Hugh]]
[[Category:Living people|Hefner, Hugh]]
[[Category:Magazine founders|Hefner, Hugh]]
[[Category:Magazine publishers (people)|Hefner, Hugh]]
[[Category:Playboy|Hefner, Hugh]]
[[Category:Pornographers|Hefner, Hugh]]
[[Category:University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign alumni|Hefner, Hugh]]
[[de:Hugh Hefner]]
[[fi:Hugh Hefner]]
[[fr:Hugh Hefner]]
[[nl:Hugh Hefner]]
[[pl:Hugh Hefner]]
[[pt:Hugh Hefner]]
[[simple:Hugh Hefner]]
[[sv:Hugh Hefner]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hafizullah Amin</title>
<id>14280</id>
<revision>
<id>41460666</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T14:16:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Accusations of being a [[CIA]] Agent */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
{| align="right" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="border: 1px solid; margin-left: 1em"
|+ '''Hafizullah Amin'''
! bgcolor="#efefef" colspan="2" |[[Image:Amin.jpg|Hafizullah Amin]]
|-
! Date of Birth:
| [[August 1]], [[1929]]
|-
! Date of Death:
| [[December 27]], [[1979]]
|-
! bgcolor="#efefef" colspan="2" | [[President of Afghanistan]]
|-
! Tenure Order:
| 3th President
'''( 2nd President of the DRA )'''
|-
! Took Office:
| September [[1979]] &ndash; December [[1979]]
|-
! Predecessor:
| [[Nur Muhammad Taraki]]
|-
! Successor:
| [[Babrak Karmal]]
|-
! bgcolor="#efefef" colspan="2" | [[Prime Minister of Afghanistan]]
|-
! Tenure Order:
| 10th Prime Minister
'''( 2nd Premier of the DRA )'''
|-
! Took Office:
| March [[1979]] &ndash; December [[1979]]
|-
! Predecessor:
| [[Mohammed Daoud Khan]]
|-
! Successor:
| [[Babrak Karmal]]
|-
|}
'''Hafizullah Amin''' ([[August 1]], [[1929]] – [[December 27]], [[1979]]) was the second President of [[Afghanistan]] during the period of the communist [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]].
Amin tried to broaden his internal base of support and to bring the interest of [[Pakistan]] and the [[United States]] in Afghan security. During the 104 days of his own rule, except for one failed military rebellion, no major uprising took place.
On [[December 27]], [[1979]], Soviet Army troops killed him and instaled [[Babrak Karmal]] as President.
==Early years==
Amin was born in 1921 in Paghman, a town near [[Kabul]]. His father was a minor civil servant. Amin studied mathematics and physics at [[Kabul University]] and became a high school teacher and principal.
In 1957 he won a scholarship to study at teachers’ College at [[Columbia University]] in [[New York]], and on completion of his course he returned home to administer teacher-training courses. Returning to Columbia to complete his doctorate in 1962, Amin became involved in the politics of the Associated Students of Afghanistan, an overseas student group in the [[United States]].
It was apparently during his sojourn in the student world of [[Morningside Heights]] on Manhattan’s upper west side near Columbia’s campus that he became interested in [[Marxism]], although Columbia had not yet encountered
the radical tumult of the late 1960s.
In 1965 he returned to Afghanistan without his doctorate and accepted a teaching post at a girls’ high school.
He quickly joined the [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan]] (PDPA), becoming a prominent member of the marxist ''Khalq'' (People) faction.
President Daoud was still in the besieged palace when Amin took command of the coup after he and his comrades were released from the prison.
After the death of [[Mohammed Daoud Khan]] in [[1978]] the PDPA gained power with [[Nur Mohammad Taraki]] becoming President of the [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]] and secretary general of the PDPA while Amin and [[Babrak Karmal]] became deputy prime ministers. An attempt to institute Marxist-Leninist reforms provoked widespread resistance and a number of violent revolts.
In February 1979 the [[United States|U.S.]] Ambassador [[Adolph Dubs]] was killed. The Khalq faction was gaining political power over the Parcham faction, with Karmal exiled to Europe. Amin had gained considerable control by March 1979 and was named Prime Minister although Taraki retained his other posts.
The unrest continued however and the regime was forced to seek more [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] aid. It was in that meeting between Taraki and [[Leonid Breznev]] that the decision of removing Amin took place.
===Assassination of Taraki===
After Taraki returned to Kabul he requested that Amin meet with him. Amin agreed to the meeting only if his safety was guaranteed by the [[Soviet]] Ambassador, Alexander Puzanov. Such assurances were provided, but not in good faith.
Amin knew however what Taraki's intentions were and the demand for his safety being guaranteed by the Soviet Ambassador, probably a shrewd ploy on the part of Amin to mislead Taraki.
When Amin arrieved at the '''People's Palace''', a shootout occurred. Amin escaped unhurt, returned later to the palace with some of his supporters and used the '''Palace Guard''' to take Taraki prisoner.
On [[September 14]], [[1979]] Amin then took control of the government. A few days later Amin's government announced that Taraki died of an "undisclosed illness".
==President of the Republic ( September [[1979]] &ndash; December [[1979]] )==
[[Image:Khalq1978-80.gif|thumb|Flag of the Khalq (Masses) faction of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan and of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan during Hafizullah Amin's rule.]]
His rule was notable for its brutality. The Soviets admitted that perhaps 500 PDPA members had forfeited their lives. Amin now assumed leadership and carried out his own purges of the PDPA. Attempting to pacify the population, he released a list of some 18,000 people who had been executed and blamed the executions on Taraki. The official Afghan figures are much higher-15,000 to 45,000.
Aditional to that, Amin was not a popular person. He was rapidly accumulating as enemies a large group of very angry relatives of victims, and PDPA members must have lived in fear of their lives.
During this period, many Afghans fled to [[Pakistan]] and [[Iran]] and began organizing a resistance movement to the "atheistic" and "infidel" communist regime backed by the Soviets. Although the groups organizing in the Pakistani city of [[Peshawar]] would later, after the Soviet invasion, be described by the western press as "freedom fighters".
In mid-November 1979 Amin launched a large military operation against the resistance at [[Sayd Karam]] in [[Paktia]] Province. The offensive was successful, eliminating as many as 1,000 or more resistance fighters, relatives, and supporters, driving most of the remainder into Pakistan, and obliterating sympathetic villages.
Amin also began unfinished attempts to moderate what many Afghans viewed as an '''Anti-Islam''' regime. Promising more religious freedom, repairing [[mosques]], presenting copies of the [[Koran]] to religious groups, invoking the name of [[Allah]] in his speeches, and declaring that the '''Saur Revolution''' was "totally based on the principles of Islam." Yet many Afghans held Amin responsible for the regime's harshest measures and the [[Soviet]]s, worried about their huge investment in Afghanistan |
/center>
[[Category:University of Toronto buildings]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Benzodiazepine</title>
<id>4781</id>
<revision>
<id>42108726</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:58:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Header - references plural</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''benzodiazepines''' are a class of [[medication|drugs]] with [[hypnotic]], [[anxiolytic]], [[anticonvulsant]], [[amnesia|amnestic]] and [[muscle relaxant]] properties. Benzodiazepines are often used for short-term relief of severe, disabling [[anxiety]] or [[insomnia]]. Long-term use can be problematic due to the development of [[drug tolerance|tolerance]] and [[addiction|dependency]]. They are believed to act on the [[GABA receptor]] [[GABA A receptor|GABA<sub>A</sub>]], the activation of which dampens higher neuronal activity. They began to be widely prescribed for stress-related ailments in the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]].
==Members==
Benzodiazepines are commonly divided into three groups: Short-acting compounds act for less than six hours and have few residual effects if taken before bedtime, but rebound insomnia may occur and they might cause wake-time anxiety. Intermediate-acting compounds have an effect for 6-10 hours, may have mild residual effects but rebound insomnia is not common. Long-acting compounds have strong [[sedative]] effects that persist. Accumulation may occur.
The various benzodiazepines are listed in order of the shortest acting to the longest acting (by the approximate [[elimination half-life]] of the drug), however this time may greatly vary between persons.
* [[Triazolam]] (Halcion&reg;) - 2 hours
* [[Midazolam]] (Versed&reg;, Hypnovel&reg;) - 3 hours (1.8-6 hours)
* [[Oxazepam]] (Serax&reg;) - 4-15 hours
* [[Chlordiazepoxide]] (Librium&reg;) - 5-25 hours
* [[Alprazolam]] (Xanax&reg;) - 6-12 hours
* [[Temazepam]] (Restoril&reg;) 8-20 hours
* [[Lorazepam]] (Ativan&reg;) 10-20 hours
* [[Loprazolam]] (Dormonoct&reg;) 10-20 hours
* [[Bromazepam]] (Lexotan&reg;) 10-20 hours
* [[Estazolam]] (ProSom&reg;) 10-24 hours
* [[Clobazam]] (Frisium&reg;) 18 hours
* [[Flunitrazepam]] (Rohypnol&reg;) 18-26 hours. Withdrawn from the market in some countries; considered a "[[rape|date-rape]] drug"
* [[Clonazepam]] (Klonopin&reg;, Rivotril&reg;) 18-50 hours
* [[Nitrazepam]] (Mogadon&reg;) 20-40 hours
* [[Quazepam]] (Doral&reg;) 25-100 hours
* [[Clorazepate]] (Tranxene&reg;) 36-100 hours
* [[Medazepam]] (Nobrium&reg;) 36-150 hours
* [[Nordazepam]] (Madar&reg;, Stilny&reg;) 50-120 hours
* [[Prazepam]] (Centrax&reg;) 36-200 hours
* [[Diazepam]] (Valium&reg;) 36-200 hours
* [[Flurazepam]] (Dalmane&reg;) 40-250 hours
==Effects==
All benzodiazepines have the following, predictable effects, though some may be relatively stronger anxiolytics and others relatively stronger amnesics. Each effect is more likely to occur at higher doses. Selecting the right type of benzodiazepine for a particular patient and then prescribing it at the minimum effective dose will lessen the likelihood of adverse effects.
* Anxiolytic (reduce anxiety).
* Anticonvulsant (used against epileptic seizures).
* Antispasmodic (muscle relaxant).
* Sedative / hypnotic ("sleeping tablet" effect).
* Amnesic (producing [[anterograde amnesia]]).
==Uses==
Benzodiazepines are used in many situations, depending on the [[pharmacokinetics]] of each of the constituent drugs. The main use of the short-acting benzodiazepines is in insomnia, while anxiety responds better to medium- to long-acting substances that will be required all day.
Midazolam is mostly used as an [[intravenous]] injection for [[sedation]] before surgical procedures or for emergency [[intubation]].
==Side Effects==
The side effects are predictable as they are intrinsic effects of the drug class of benzodiazepines. Knowing the relative effects of benzodiazepine types will help clinicians prescribe the most appropriate type. For example, lorazepam may not be best choice for longer term treatment in the elderly due to its stronger amnesic effects potentially aggravating forgetfulness and confusion. But then lorazepam may be a better choice for short term treatment of a younger, non-drinking patient as it is relatively less sedating.
Benzodiazepines have replaced the [[barbiturate]]s because they have a lower abuse potential and relatively lower adverse reactions (chiefly, death is a relatively common result in barbiturate overdoses) and interactions. Still, drowsiness, [[ataxia]], confusion, [[vertigo (medical)|vertigo]], impaired judgement, and a number of other effects are common.
Benzodiazepines may impair the ability to drive vehicles and to operate machinery. The impairment is worsened by consumption of alcohol, because both act as [[central nervous system]] depressants. The effects of long-acting benzodiazepines can also linger over to the following day.
==Abuse and dependence==
Long-term benzodiazepine usage generally leads to some form of [[drug tolerance|tolerance]] and/or [[physical dependence|dependence]]. As a Schedule IV drug, benzodiazepines are considered moderately [[addiction|addictive]]. [[Withdrawal]] symptoms include:
* [[Insomnia]]
* [[Anxiety]], possible [[panic attacks]]
* [[Depression (mood)|Depression]], possible [[suicidal]] ideation
* [[Tremor]]
* [[Perspiration]]
* [[Anorexia | Loss of appetite]]
* [[Delusion]]s
An abrupt discontinuation of benzodiazepines may result in a severe and very unpleasant withdrawal syndrome that may additionally result in:
* [[Seizure|Convulsions]]
* Confusion
* [[Psychosis]]
* Effects similar to [[delirium tremens]]
Hence, every person on long-term or high dosage of any benzodiazepine should be carefully weaned off the drug, preferably under medical supervision.
Onset of the withdrawal syndrome might be delayed, and it might be delayed longer than the barbiturate withdrawal syndrome, although withdrawal from short-acting benzodiazepines often presents early.
Some of the withdrawal symptoms are identical to the symptoms for which the medication was originally prescribed. Benzodiazepines are valued by many patients for their ability to ameliorate existing conditions, while benzodiazepine dependency can cause them.
As it happens, benzodiazepines are the largest group of [[recreational drug use|recreationally]] used drugs as well (Gerada & Ashforth 1997). Users typically take large doses of benzodiazepines orally, [[intravenously]], or by snorting crushed tablets up the nose. This results in a "high" resembling alcoholic intoxication, and intravenous doses, especially of so called "high potency" benzodiazepines (eg. [[clonazepam]], [[lorazepam]], [[alprazolam]]), often results in a euphoric "rush".
==Intoxication==
Overdosage of benzodiazepines, particularly when combined with [[Ethanol|alcohol]], may lead to [[coma]], but does not cause severe biochemical disturbances and therefore carries a relatively good prognosis. The antidote for all benzodiazepines is [[flumazenil]] (Annexate&reg;), which is occasionally used empirically in patients presenting with unexplained loss of consciousness in an [[emergency room]] setting.
==Legal status==
All medically-used benzodiazepines are [[Schedule IV]] in the USA under the Federal [[Controlled Substances Act]].
Flunitrazepam is treated more severely under Federal law than other benzodiazepines. For example, despite being Schedule IV like any other benzodiazepine, it is not commercially available in the United States. It also carries tougher Federal penalties for trafficking and possession than other Schedule IV drugs. With the exception of cases involving 5 grams or more of crack, flunitrazepam is the only [[controlled substance]] in which first-offense simple possession is a Federal felony.
Various other countries limit the availability of benzodiazepines legally.
Even though it is a commonly prescribed class of drugs, the [[Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act]] specifically states that insurance companies that provide [[Medicare Part D]] plans are not required to cover benzodiazepines.
==History==
The first benzodiazepine, chlordiazepoxide (Librium&reg;) was discovered [[serendipity|serendipitously]] in [[1954]] by the Austrian scientist Dr [[Leo Sternbach]] (1908-2005), working for the [[pharmaceutical company]] [[Hoffmann-La Roche]]. Initially, he discontinued his work on the compound ''Ro-5-0690'', but he "rediscovered" it in 1957 when an assistant was cleaning up the laboratory. Although initially discouraged by his employer, Sternbach conducted further research that revealed the compound was a very effective [[sedative|tranquilizer]].
In 1963 approval for use was given to [[diazepam]] (Valium&reg;) - a simplified version of Librium - primarily to counteract anxiety symptoms. Sleep-related problems were treated [[nitrazepam]] (Mogadon&reg;), which was introduced in 1965 and [[flurazepam]] (Dalmane&reg;), which was introduced in 1973.
==Pharmacology==
Benzodiazepines produce their variety of effects by modulating the [[GABA_A_receptor|GABA<sub>A</sub>]] receptor, the most prolific inhibitory receptor within the brain. The [[GABA_A_receptor|GABA<sub>A</sub>]] receptor is made up from 5 subunits out of a possible 19, and [[GABA_A_receptor|GABA<sub>A</sub>]] receptors made up of different combinations of subunits have different properties, different locations within the brain and importantly, different activities in regards to benzodiazepines.
In order for [[GABA_A_receptor|GABA<sub>A</sub>]] receptors to be sensitive to the action of benzodiazepines |
ve complements (A\B)\C and A\(B\C)]]</div>
The green part in the left [[Venn diagram]] represents (''A''\''B'')\''C''. The green part in the right Venn diagram represents ''A''\(''B''\''C'')
<br style="clear:both;"/>
==See also==
*A [[semigroup]] is a set with an associative binary operation.
*[[Commutativity]] and [[distributivity]] are two other frequently discussed properties of binary operations.
*[[Power associativity]] and [[alternativity]] are weak forms of associativity.
[[Category:Abstract algebra]]
[[Category:Elementary algebra]]
[[Category:Binary operations|*Associativity]]
[[bg:Асоциативност]]
[[cs:Asociativita]]
[[da:Associativitet]]
[[de:Assoziativgesetz]]
[[es:Asociatividad]]
[[eo:Asocieco]]
[[fr:Associativité]]
[[ko:결합법칙]]
[[it:Associatività]]
[[he:אסוציאטיביות]]
[[nl:Associativiteit]]
[[ja:結合法則]]
[[pl:Łączność (matematyka)]]
[[ru:Ассоциативная операция]]
[[sk:Asociatívna operácia]]
[[sl:Asociativnost]]
[[sv:Associativitet]]
[[zh:结合律]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Apache Software Foundation</title>
<id>1336</id>
<revision>
<id>41407130</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T03:00:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Catapult</username>
<id>792235</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 20|CFD]]: removing deleted category[[user:freakofnurture|...]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Apache Software Foundation''' (ASF) is a non-profit corporation (classified as 501(c)3 in the United States) to support Apache software projects, including the [[Apache HTTP Server]]. The ASF was formed from the Apache Group and [[Delaware corporation|incorporated in Delaware]], USA, in June, 1999.
The Apache Software Foundation is a decentralized community of developers. The software they produce is distributed under the terms of the [[Apache License]] and are therefore [[free software]] / [[open source software]]. The Apache projects are characterized by a collaborative, consensus based development process and an open and pragmatic software license. Each project is managed by a self-selected team of technical experts who are active contributors to the project. The ASF is a [[meritocracy]], implying that membership to the foundation is granted only to volunteers who have actively contributed to Apache projects.
Among the ASF's objectives are to provide legal protection to volunteers working on Apache projects, and to prevent the ''Apache'' brand name from being used by other organizations without permission.
The ASF also holds several [http://www.apachecon.com/ ApacheCon] conferences each year, highlighting Apache projects, related technology, and allowing Apache developers to gather together.
==Projects==
Formally recognized Apache projects include:
*[[Apache HTTP Server]]: [[Web server]]
*[[Apache Ant|Ant]]: [[Java programming language|Java]]-based build tool
*[[Apache Portable Runtime|APR]]: Apache Portable Runtime, a portability library written in [[C programming language|C]]
*[[Apache Beehive|Beehive]]: A Java visual object model
*[[Apache Cocoon|Cocoon]]: [[XML]] publishing framework
*[[Apache DB|DB]]: [[database]] solutions
**[[Apache Derby]]: A pure [[Java programming language|Java]] [[Relational database management system]]
*[[Apache Directory Server|Directory]]: A directory server supporting [[Lightweight Directory Access Protocol|LDAP]] and other protocols
*[[Apache Excalibur]]: [[Inversion of Control]] container named [[Fortress]] and related components
*[[Apache Forrest]]: documentation framework based upon Cocoon
*[[Geronimo Application Server]]: a [[Java EE]] server
*[[Apache Gump]]: [[integration]], [[dependencies]], and [[versioning]] management
*[[Apache Incubator|Incubator]]: for aspiring ASF projects
*[[Jakarta Project|Jakarta]]: server side [[Java programming language|Java]] (including its own set of sub-projects)
*[[Apache James]]: [[Java programming language|Java]] [[electronic mail|email]] and [[usenet|news]] server
*[[Apache Lenya|Lenya]]: [[content management system]]
*[[Data logging|Logging]]: logging services for application debugging and auditing, including [[log4j]]
*[[Lucene]]: text search engine library written entirely in [[Java programming language|Java]]
*[[Apache_Maven|Maven]]: [[Java programming language|Java]] [[project management]] and comprehension tool
*[[MyFaces]]: [[JavaServer Faces]] implementation
*[[mod_perl]]: dynamic websites using [[Perl]]
*[[Apache Portals]]: [[web portal]] related software
*[[SpamAssassin]]: email filter used to identify [[e-mail spam|spam]].
*[[Apache Struts|Struts]]: [[Java programming language|Java]] web applications framework
*[[Apache TCL|TCL]]: dynamic websites using [[Tool Command Language]]
*[[Apache Tomcat|Tomcat]]: a [[web container]] for serving servlets and JSP
*[[Apache Web Services|Web services]]: [[Web service]] related systems
*[[Apache XML|XML]]: [[XML]] solutions for the web
*[[XMLBeans]]: [[XML]]-[[Java programming language|Java]] binding tool
*[[XML Graphics]]: conversion of [[XML]] formats to graphical output
==Board of Directors==
The current board of directors includes:
* [[Ken Coar]]
* [[Justin Erenkrantz]]
* [[Dirk-Willem van Gulik]]
* [[Jim Jagielski]]
* [[Ben Laurie]]
* [[Stefano Mazzocchi]]
* [[Sam Ruby]]
* [[Greg Stein]] (chairman)
* [[Sander Striker]]
==History==
The history of the Apache Software Foundation is linked to the Apache HTTP Server, the work on which started in [[1994]]. A group of eight developers started working on enhancing the [[National Center for Supercomputing Applications|NCSA]] [[HTTPd]] daemon. They were [[Brian Behlendorf]], [[Roy Fielding]], [[Rob Hartill]], [[David Robinson]], [[Cliff Skolnick]], [[Randy Terbush]], [[Robert S. Thau]] and [[Andrew Wilson]] with additional contributions from [[Eric Hagberg]], [[Frank Peters]] and [[Nicolas Pioch]].
The enhanced product called the Apache server was released in April [[1995]]. In [[1999]], members of the Apache Group formed the Foundation to provide support for the Apache HTTP Server. The ASF has a membership of 151 members and approximately 1000 committers as of 2005.
==External links==
*http://www.apache.org
*http://wiki.apache.org/general
*http://wiki.apache.org/ApacheCon/FrontPage
[[Category:Free and Open Source software Foundations]]
[[Category:Nonprofit Technology]]
[[da:Apache Software Foundation]]
[[de:Apache Software Foundation]]
[[es:Apache Software Foundation]]
[[fr:Apache Software Foundation]]
[[id:Apache Software Foundation]]
[[it:Apache Software Foundation]]
[[he:קרן התוכנה Apache]]
[[nl:Apache Software Foundation]]
[[ja:Apacheソフトウェア財団]]
[[pl:Apache Software Foundation]]
[[ru:Apache Software Foundation]]
[[sv:Apache Software Foundation]]
[[tr:Apache]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Americans with disabilities act</title>
<id>1337</id>
<revision>
<id>15899826</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-19T16:47:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AxelBoldt</username>
<id>2</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Americans_with_Disabilities_Act_of_1990]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990</title>
<id>1338</id>
<revision>
<id>39218933</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T16:23:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Famspear</username>
<id>600513</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Expand citation.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{POV}}
The '''Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990''' is the short title of [[United States]] Public Law 101-336, 104 Stat. 327 (July 26, 1990), codified at {{usc|42|12101}} et seq., [[List of United States federal legislation|signed into law]] on [[July 26]], [[1990]] by President [[George H. W. Bush|George H. W. Bush]]. It is a wide-ranging [[civil rights]] law that prohibits [[discrimination]] based on [[disability]]. It affords similar protections against discrimination to [[Americans with disabilities]] as the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964|Civil Rights Act]] of [[1964]], which made discrimination based on [[race]], [[religion]], [[gender|sex]], national origin, and other characteristics illegal. Certain specific conditions are excluded, including [[alcoholism]] and [[transsexual|transsexuality]].
==Structure==
The Americans with Disabilities Act, commonly referred to as the '''ADA''', consists of three introductory sections and five titles:
*Introductory Sections
**Table of Contents
**Findings and Purposes
**Definitions
*Main Section
**Title I - Employment
**Title II - Public Services (and public transportation)
**Title III - Public Accommodations (and Commercial Facilities)
**Title IV - Telecommunications
**Title V
==Groups who worked to pass the ADA==
The ADA is notable because many disparate groups, many of which had never worked before, came together for a common purpose. In addition, other [[civil rights]] groups outside the disability community helped.
*[[AIDS Action Council]]
*[[AIDS National InterFaith Network]]
*[[American Civil Liberties Union]]
*[[American Foundation for the Blind]]
*[[Americans Disabled for Accessible Public Transit]] (ADAPT)
*[[Association for Education and Rehabilitation of the Blind and Visually Handicapped]]
*[[Association for Retarded Citizens]]
*[[Consortium for Citizens with Disabilities]]
*[[Disability Rights Education and Defense Fund]]
*[[Dole Foundation]]
*[[Eastern Paralyzed Veterans of America]]
*[[Epilepsy Foundation of America]]
*[[Human Rights Campaign]] Fund
*[[Institution for Rehabilitation and Research]]
*[[Leadership Conference on Civil Rights]]
*[[Legal Action Center]]
*[[Mental Health Law Project]]
*[[National Association of Developmental Disabilities Councils]]
*[[National Association of Protection and Advocacy Systems]]
*[[National Center for Law and th |
ate opportunities for stable sustainable employment for the growing population, particularly those who comprise the country's vast informal economy. A post-intervention transitional program of short-term job creation principally in small towns and rural areas provided employment to as many as 50,000 workers per day throughout the country. More recently, programs that help to increase commercial bank lending to small- and medium-scale entrepreneurs, especially in the agricultural sector, have helped to create jobs and foster economic growth.
Additional U.S. efforts in economic revitalization include the establishment of the U.S.-Haiti Business Development Council, an Overseas Private Investment Corporation commercial loan program, and inclusion of Haiti within the Caribbean Basin Initiative. These efforts all provide greater market opportunities for American and Haitian businesses. Current Congressional prohibitions on providing assistance to or through the Haitian Government has accelerated the move to private voluntary agencies as contractors to oversee use of U.S. aid funds.
==Agriculture==
[[Agriculture]] occupies the dominate position in Haiti's economy. However, migration to the cities has changed much of this since the 1950s. As of the late 80s, agriculture occupied about 35% of the [[GDP]] ([http://countrystudies.us/haiti/48.htm 2]), though the continued migration to the cities, as well as poor technology and undernourished farmers probably has dropped agriculture's role in the economy since that time. In 2001 production of agricultural products contracted by 5% ([http://search.epnet.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=f5h&an=9049960 4]). The cash crops of Haiti include [[coffee]], [[mangoes]], [[sugarcane]], [[rice]], [[maize|corn]], [[sorghum]], [[wood]] ([http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ha.html 1]).
===Coffee===
Coffee occupies the spot of being the primary crop grown among peasants not intended for personal consumption. Though most of their farming is subsistence, coffee is grown for exporting, as is done in many other [[Latin America|Latin American]] nations. As with many other coffee growing countries, the fall of the price of coffee has led to down times for Haitian farmers, although some have continued to grow it even after it becomes a loss. In 2001 Coffee stopped being the main export ([http://usinfo.state.gov/wh/Archive/2005/Aug/09-77560.html 3]). As a result in the price drop, many Haitians have chosen to take advantage of the [[Fair Trade]] movement in selling their export. Other than the drop in price, other factors have contributed to the decline in coffee production, such as poor road conditions leading from the isolated areas in which coffee is grown in Haiti ([http://search.epnet.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&an=9302160607 5]). Political instability and national debt have allowed many, previously only rock roads, deteriorate until now the farmers are having trouble getting the crop to Port-au-Prince to sell. In addition in the early 90s a fungal disease known as [[coffee rust]] ravaged the crop throughout the country.
==Labor Force==
The labor force, as of 1995, was estimated at 3.6 million, but with a shortage of skilled labor.
[[Image:Haitiunemployment.GIF|frame|Sources: [[CIA World Factbook|CIA World Factbooks]], [[Agency for International Development]]]]
Finding unemployment statistics from Haiti is very difficult because of the lack of publication of such data from the Haitian agencies in charge of collecting it. Most sources that we do have available come from United States agencies such as the [[Agency for International Development]] (USAID).
These numbers are highly speculative; many sources give vague ideas of the unemployment rating being (for example, in 2003) around 50%, giving the impression that the actual rate could be several percentage points higher or lower. Still, given that the sources of this data has remained the same for the past 15 years, we can at least see a trend of unemployment staying high throughout this period, but rising sharply in the mid to late 90s peaking at 70% in 1999 (2000 CIA World Factbook is the source for that number), and then decreasing to the usual rates of around 50% in recent years. We do not currently have data for the years since the political turmoil that resulted from the [[2004_Haiti_Rebellion#Controversy_over_Aristide.27s_election_in_2000|controversy over the 2000 elections]] or the [[2004 Haiti rebellion|2004 rebellion]], though it is widely known that unemployment has risen since then.
<br style="clear:both" />
==See also==
* [[Haiti]]
* [[List of Haitian companies]]
==Reference==
Much of this article is based on [[public domain]] material from the U.S. government. See:
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1982.htm
1 - [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ha.html CIA World Factbook: Haiti]
2 - [http://countrystudies.us/haiti/48.htm Haiti Agriculture]
3 - [http://usinfo.state.gov/wh/Archive/2005/Aug/09-77560.html Inter-American Bank Grant To Benefit Haitian Coffee Growers]
4 - [http://search.epnet.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=f5h&an=9049960 Haitian Free Trade Zone]
5 - [http://search.epnet.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&an=9302160607 IICA plants for Haiti's environment]
{{WTO}}
[[Category:WTO members|Haiti]]
[[Category:Economy of Haiti|*]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Haiti]]
[[es: Economía de Haití]]
[[fr:Économie de Haïti]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Haiti</title>
<id>13379</id>
<revision>
<id>36141945</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-21T23:05:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lucia12</username>
<id>579106</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Telephones - main lines in use:'''
115,000 (2005)
Télécommunications d'Haiti S.A.M. (Teleco), a 98%-government owned company, has a monopoly on the provision of landline services throughout the country. Teleco has been constantly hobbled by political interference which has affected its performance. A net generator of revenues for the government in the 1970's and early 1980's, Teleco's demise started with the Prosper Avril government which spent Teleco's profits on politically-motivated campaigns and outright graft. The practice continued with the Aristide government.
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
250,000 (2005)
Commmunications Cellulaires d'Haiti S.A. (Comcel) and Haiti Telecommunications International S.A. (Haitel) are the country's two providers of cellular phone services.
Comcel, a subsidiary of [http://www.alltel.com Alltel Inc], is a TDMA company which launched its service in September 1999. Haitel, an independent company founded by Franck Ciné, a Haitian-American and former MCI/Worldcom executive, adopted CDMA technology. Neither company offers nationwide service although they cover several major cities.
Digicel Haiti, an affiliate of the pan-Caribbean [http://www.digicelgroup.com Digicel Group] won Haiti's first GSM license in June 2005 and is expected to launch service in early 2006.
'''Telephone system:'''
Domestic facilities are barely adequate. International facilities are slightly better
<br>''domestic:''
[[coaxial cable]] and microwave radio relay trunk service
<br>''international:''
satellite earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] (Atlantic Ocean)
'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 41, FM 26, shortwave 0 (1999)
'''Radios:'''
415,000 (1997)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
2 (plus a cable TV system) (1997)
'''Televisions:'''
38,000 (1997)
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
5 (2005)
'''[[Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' HT
:''See also :'' [[Haiti]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Haiti]]
[[Category:Communications in Haiti| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in Haiti</title>
<id>13380</id>
<revision>
<id>29276076</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-26T09:53:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CalJW</username>
<id>233571</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>moved [[Transportation in Haiti]] to [[Transport in Haiti]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Railway]]s:'''
<br>''total:''
40 km (single track; privately owned industrial line) - closed in early 1990s
<br>''narrow gauge:''
40 km 0.760-m gauge
'''[[Highway]]s:'''
<br>''total:''
4,161 km
<br>''paved:''
1,011 km
<br>''unpaved:''
3,149 km (1996 est.)
'''Waterways:'''
NEGL; less than 100 km navigable
'''Ports and harbors:'''
[[Cap-Haitien]], [[Gonaïves]], [[Jacmel]], [[Jérémie]], [[Les Cayes]], [[Miragoane]], [[Port-au-Prince]], [[Port-de-Paix]], [[Saint-Marc]]
'''[[Merchant marine]]:'''
none (1999 est.)
'''[[Airport]]s:'''
13 (1999 est.)
'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
3
<br>''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
1
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
1
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
1 (1999 est.)
'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
10
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
5
<br>''under 914 m:''
5 (1999 est.)
:''See also :'' [[Haiti]]
[[Category:Transport in Haiti| ]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Haiti]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Haiti</title>
<id>13381</id>
<revision>
<id>29276257</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-26T10:00:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CalJW</username>
<id>233571</id>
</contributor>
<comment>adjusted categorisation</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Since 1995, when the HNP was created to bring public security under [[civilian control of the military|civilian control]] as mandated in Haiti's constitution, more than 6,000 police officers have completed training in modern law enforcement. U.S. instructors from the [[International Cr |
results are integrated into what they call the "OneBox", meaning they appear in-line with other search results {{fn|13}}. The name is based on an ideal of all information being available from the one search box.
Many of Google's other services are based on applying search technology to other sources of data. Examples of this are Google Image Search, Google News, and Google Video, as well as Froogle, their catalog searching service. However, many of these services have become integrated as OneBox results and now appear in normal search results as well as having their own pages. {{fn|14}}
Google also provides other related services that are not directly related to searching. These include their [[AdSense]] and [[AdWords]] targeted text advertising services, [[Gmail]], [[Blogger.com|Blogger]] weblogging service and [[Google Web Portal]] a beta web service similar to My Yahoo.
Lastly, there are a number of tools written by Google to interact with their search and services. As of February [[2005]], these have been written exclusively for the [[Microsoft Windows]] operating system. Such tools include [[Google Desktop]], Google Deskbar, Google Toolbar (for IE and also as a [[Mozilla Firefox|Firefox]] extension), Gmail Notifier, [[Google Earth]] and [[Google Talk]].
==Jargon==
; [[Search engine optimization|SEO]] : Search Engine Optimization
; [[google (verb)|To google]] : to search something using google (also, to seek information on someone by entering their full name or other information)
; [[wikt:Googler|Googler]] : a person who uses Google's features very efficiently. Mostly uses the "I am feeling lucky" button when searching. Fan of a google. 'Googler' is sometimes also used for "Expert Online Searcher". Also, a company term for a full-time google employee.
; [[wikt:Noogler|Noogler]] : New Googler
; [[wikt:Googlosophy|Googlosophy]] : The science of Google
; [[wikt:Googlenym|Googlenym]], Googlonym, Memomark, Google URL : A mental bookmark expressed as Google search ("go to my site by entering 'John Doe Chicago' into Google"). A phrase or group of random key words for which a Google search returns a corresponding page.
; [[wikt:SERPs|SERPs]] : Search Engine Result Pages
; [[Nigritude ultramarine]], SERPs, Seraphim Proudleduck, Mangeur de cigogne : SEO competitions
; [[wikt:Blackhat SEO|Blackhat SEO]] : search engine optimization using dirty tricks such as linkfarms, wiki or guestbook spamming, and so on
; [[wikt:Googledork|Googledork]] : A person who accidentally exposes information to the web by placing it into a location spidered by Google.
; [[wikt:Whitehat SEO|Whitehat SEO]] : search engine optimization using enhanced content, improved accessibility and usability, unique page titles, non-JavaScript linking methods, and so on
; [[wikt:Google-proof|Google-proof]] : search-phrase delivering exactly the intended result while searching with google
; [[Sandbox Effect]] : The name given to the phenomenon in which Google filters (from its results) websites created after March 2004.
; [[Google bomb]] : An attempt to influence the ranking of a given site in results returned by the Google search engine. Also known as ''Google wash''.
; [[Blue Red Yellow Blue Green Red]] : synonym of Google (from the colors of their logo)
; [[Googlewhack]] : A search using two dictionary-valid (underlined by Google) words that only results in one hit.
==Games with Google==
* In [[Googlewhack]] you attempt to find two words that produce exactly one search result.
* In [[Google Talk (game)|Google Talk Game]], google searches are used to complete a beginning of a sentence with words, leading to amusing or interesting results.
* In [[Googlefight]], you pit two keywords against each other to find which one has more results.
* In [http://grant.robinson.name/projects/guess-the-google/ Guess The Google], you attempt to guess which search term resulted in the displayed images.
* In [http://www.c6.org/toogle Toogle], you can search images with the text of the search item making up the image. "The most comprehensive image buggery on the web"
==Books==
*''[[Google Hacks]]'' from [[O'Reilly Media|O'Reilly]] is a book containing tips about using Google effectively. Now in its second edition. ISBN 0596008570
*''Google: The Missing Manual'' by Sarah Milstein and Rael Dornfest (O'Reilly, 2004). ISBN 0596006136
*''How to Do Everything with Google'' by Fritz Schneider, Nancy Blachman, and Eric Fredricksen (McGraw-Hill Osborne Media, 2003). ISBN 0072231742
*''Google Power'' by Chris Sherman (McGraw-Hill Osborne Media, 2005). ISBN 0072257873
==See also==
*[[Dennis Hwang]]
*[[elgooG]]
*[[Gmail]]
*[[Google Watch]]
*[[Googlewhack]]
*[[Peter Norvig]]
*[[List of Google services and tools]]
*[[List of search engines]]
==References==
* {{fnb|1}}[http://www.onestat.com/html/aboutus_pressbox21.html Statistics]
* {{fnb|2}}[http://labs.google.com/personalized Personalized Google Search]
* {{fnb|3}}[http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/01/30/business/google31.html International Herald Tribune article]
* {{fnb|4}}[http://web.archive.org/web/%2a/google.com Internet Archive copy of google.com]
* {{fnb|5}}http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2005/02/get-picture.html
* {{fnb|6}}[http://groups.google.com/googlegroups/about.html About Google Groups Beta]
* {{fnb|7}}[http://catalogs.google.com/ Google Catalogs]
* {{fnb|8}}[http://www.google.com/help/faq_filetypes.html Filetypes FAQ]
* {{fnb|9}}[http://www.google.com/webmasters/2.html Exclusion of pages explanation]
* {{fnb|10}}[http://www.google.com/technology/pigeonrank.html Pigeonrank explanation]
* {{fnb|11}}[http://www.google.com/webmasters/guidelines.html guidelines]
* {{fnb|12}}[http://www.dma.co.nz/pdfs/Standards_for_Search_Engine_Marketing.pdf SEO ethics standards]
* {{fnb|13}}[http://www.google.com/help/interpret.html OneBox]
* {{fnb|14}}[http://blog.searchenginewatch.com/blog/050207-082648 searchenginewatch.com article]
==External links==
*[http://www.google.com/ Google website]
*[http://www.google.com/options/index.html Google Services]
*[http://www.google.com/language_tools Google Language Tools]
*[http://www.google.com/holidaylogos.html Google doodles]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/19981111184551/google.com Early Google.com] - Google as on [[November 11]], [[1998]] from [[Internet Archive]]
*[[Open Directory Project]]: [http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Internet/Searching/Search_Engines/Google/ Google]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/19980502040303/google.stanford.edu Original Stanford.edu Google] - Google on Stanford.edu
*[http://www.linksandlaw.com/adwords-pendinglawsuits.htm Overview of lawsuits against Google's AdWord program]
*[http://www.businessweek.com/technology/content/mar2004/tc2004039_1592_tc047.htm Google's Ads -- and Minuses]
*[http://alan.blog-city.com/read/1003011.htm An Evening with Google's Marissa Mayer] - with several facts about Google's history
*[http://www.jdhodges.com/tools/suggest/ Google Suggest for non-javascript browsers]
*[http://whois.webhosting.info/216.239.37.99 List of alternative Google domains]
*[http://googleblog.blogspot.com/ Official Google Weblog]
*[http://www.google.com/intl/en/addurl.html Google accepts submissions for websites that need indexing]
*[http://labs.google.com/papers/mapreduce.html MapReduce article from Google Labs]
*[http://www.rustybrick.com/rustysearch.php The Search Engine Relevancy Challenge] - gives you the top 10 results from Google, Yahoo, MSN and Ask Jeeves, but whites out the name of the Search Engine returning the result. Instead it is possible to vote on a site's relevancy. Site will soon post the results of the experiment.
*[http://www.isedb.com/news/article/765 Google Advanced Search Tips]
*[http://www.google.com/newsletter/librarian/librarian_2005_12/article1.html How does Google collect and rank results?]
===Search engine charts===
*[http://www.bruceclay.com/searchenginerelationshipchart.htm Bruce Clay, INC's Search Engine Relationship Chart ®]
*[http://www.ihelpyou.com/search-engine-chart.html ihelpyou, INC's Search Engine Partnership Chart]
*[http://www.langreiter.com/exec/yahoo-vs-google.html Yahoo! vs. Google Results diagram]
[[Category:Google|*]]
[[Category:Internet search engines]]
[[bg:Google]]
[[cs:Google (vyhledávač)]]
[[da:Google]]
[[de:Google]]
[[el:Google]]
[[es:Google]]
[[eo:Google]]
[[fa:&#1711;&#1608;&#1711;&#1604;]]
[[fr:Google]]
[[gl:Google]]
[[he:&#1490;&#1493;&#1490;&#1500;]]
[[hr:Google]]
[[hu:Google kereső]]
[[id:Google]]
[[it:Google]]
[[ko:&#44396;&#44544;]]
[[ku:Google]]
[[hu:Google]]
[[nl:Google (zoekmachine)]]
[[ja:Google]]
[[no:Google]]
[[pl:Google]]
[[pt:Google]]
[[ro:Google]]
[[ru:Google]]
[[simple:Google]]
[[sr:&#1043;&#1091;&#1075;&#1083;]]
[[fi:Google]]
[[sv:Google]]
[[th:&#3585;&#3641;&#3648;&#3585;&#3636;&#3621;]]
[[tt:Google]]
[[tr:Google]]
[[wa:Google]]
[[zh:Google]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Genius</title>
<id>12432</id>
<revision>
<id>41565095</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T04:35:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.112.3.194</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''genius''' is a person with distinguished mental prowess. This can manifest either as a foremost [[intellect]], or as an outstanding [[creativity|creative]] [[talent]]. The IQ of a genius is usually defined as 140 or more. The term also applies to one who is a [[polymath]], or someone skilled in many mental areas. The term specifically applies to mental rather than athletic skills, although it is also [[colloquial|colloquially]] used to denote the possession of a superior talent in any field; e.g., [[Pelé]] may be said to have a genius for [[soccer|football]] or [[Gandhi]] for [[diplomacy]].
==Etymology==
In [[Ancient Rome]], the ''genius'' was the guiding or "tutelary" spirit of a person or indeed of an entire [[gens]]. A related t |
tion on rechargeable batteries
*[http://www.mpoweruk.com/history.htm Battery Timeline] - History of batteries, energy and related technologies
*[http://www.infoworld.com/article/05/07/13/HNmobilefuelcells_1.html?source=NLC-WIR2005-07-14 ''Mobile phone fuel cells coming in 2007'' Infoworld July 13, 2005]
*[http://peswiki.com/energy/Directory:Batteries "Battery Resources"] of PESWiki, the community-built website dealing with alternative and renewable energy solutions
*[http://www.smartgauge.co.uk/calcs/peukert.xls A Peukert Calculator spreadsheet]
*[http://www.batteryuniversity.com/ Practical battery knowledge]
{{Link FA|is}}
[[Category:Electric batteries| ]]
[[Category:BEV components]]
[[ar:بطارية كهربائية]]
[[ca:Bateria elèctrica]]
[[da:Batteri (elektricitet)]]
[[de:Batterie]]
[[es:Pila eléctrica]]
[[fi:Akku]]
[[fr:Batterie d'accumulateurs]]
[[is:Rafhlaða]]
[[it:Batteria (chimica)]]
[[ja:電池]]
[[ko:전지]]
[[ku:Baterî]]
[[nl:Batterij (elektrisch)]]
[[pl:Bateria ogniw]]
[[pt:Pilha]]
[[sv:Elektrokemisk cell]]
[[th:แบตเตอรี่]]
[[zh:电池]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bayer designation</title>
<id>4199</id>
<revision>
<id>41367811</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T22:12:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Titoxd</username>
<id>227287</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/192.114.67.113|192.114.67.113]] ([[User talk:192.114.67.113|talk]]) to last version by CambridgeBayWeather</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Many of the brighter [[star]]s are given names which are known as '''Bayer designations'''. These designations, which were introduced by [[Johann Bayer]] in his star atlas ''[[Uranometria]]'' (named after [[Urania]]) in [[1603]], consist of a [[Greek alphabet|Greek letter]] followed by the [[genitive case|genitive]] (in [[Latin language|Latin]]) of the name of the [[constellation]] in which the star lies. See [[List of constellations]] for a list of constellations and the genitive forms of their names.
Because the brightest star in many constellations is designated as Alpha, many people wrongly assume that Bayer meant to put the stars in order of their brightness. But in his day there was no way to measure stellar brightness precisely. Traditionally, the stars were assigned to one of six magnitude classes, and Bayer's catalog lists all the first-magnitude stars, followed by all the second-magnitude stars, and so on. However within each magnitude class, there was no attempt to arrange stars by relative brightness. Instead, they're usually either roughly ordered from the head to the feet (or tail) of the figure (like the stars in the [[Big Dipper]]).
[[Image:Orion_constellation_map.png|225px|left]]
[[Orion (constellation)|Orion]] provides a good example of Bayer's method. (Remember that the ''lower'' the magnitude, the ''brighter'' the star. Additionally a "2nd-magnitude" star has a more precise magnitude between 1.51 and 2.50, inclusive.) Bayer first designated the two 1st-magnitude stars, Betelgeuse and Rigel, as Alpha and Beta, with Betelgeuse (the shoulder) coming ahead of Rigel (the knee), even though the latter is the brighter.
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="center" width="225" style="margin-left: 1em"
! | Bayer<BR>Designation || Apparent<BR>Magnitude || Proper<BR>Name
|-
| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&alpha; Ori || &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 0.45 || [[Betelgeuse]]
|-
| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&beta; Ori || &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 0.18 || [[Rigel]]
|-
| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&gamma; Ori || &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 1.64 || [[Bellatrix]]
|-
| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&delta; Ori || &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 2.23 || [[Mintaka]]
|-
| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&epsilon; Ori || &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 1.69 || [[Alnilam]]
|-
| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&zeta; Ori || &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 1.70 || [[Alnitak]]
|}
He then repeated the procedure for the stars of the 2nd-magnitude. As is evident from the map and chart, he again followed a "top-down" route.
Sometimes, indeed, there's no apparent order. (The letters of the Greek alphabet were used in antiquity to represent the successive integers; so Bayer's scheme might be regarded as equivalent to a numbering system.)
So Alpha isn't always the brightest star in a constellation. And there are even cases where a star has a designation for a constellation in which it does not lie (according to the modern constellation boundaries). Nonetheless, these designations have proved useful and are widely used today.
Two stars lie very close to constellation boundaries and have double designations: [[Beta Tauri|&beta; Tau]] (&gamma; Aur) and [[Alpha Andromedae|&alpha; And]] (&delta; Peg). Another star, [[Sigma Librae|&sigma; Lib]], was formerly known as &gamma; Sco; however it is not on the boundary of [[Libra]] and [[Scorpius]] but well inside Libra.
There are two common ways in which Bayer designations can be written. The designation can be written out in full, as in [[Alpha Canis Majoris]] or [[Beta Persei]], or a lowercase Greek letter can be used together with the standard 3-letter abbreviation of the constellation, as in &alpha; CMa or &beta; Per. Earlier 4-letter abbreviations (such as &alpha; UMaj) are rarely used today.
Although most common Bayer letters are Greek, it should also be mentioned that the system was extended, first by using [[Minuscule|lowercase]] [[Latin alphabet|Latin letters]], and then by using [[Majuscule|uppercase]] Latin letters. Most of these are little used, but there are some exceptions such as h Persei (which is actually a [[star cluster]]) and P Cygni. Note that uppercase Latin Bayer designations never went beyond Q, and names such as [[R Leporis]] and [[W Ursae Majoris]] are [[variable star designation]]s, not Bayer designations.
A further complication is the use of numeric superscripts to distinguish between stars with the same Bayer letter. Usually these are [[double star]]s (mostly optical doubles rather than true [[binary star]]s), but there are some exceptions such as the chain of stars &pi;<sup>1</sup>, &pi;<sup>2</sup>, &pi;<sup>3</sup>, &pi;<sup>4</sup>, &pi;<sup>5</sup> and &pi;<sup>6</sup> Orionis.
=== See also ===
* [[:Category:Bayer objects|Bayer objects]]
* [[Flamsteed designation]]
* [[List of constellations]]
* [[Star catalogue]]
* [[Star designation]]
* [[Variable star designation]]
<!-- [[Category:Astronomy]] too general -->
[[Category:Stars]]
[[Category:Astronomical catalogues]]
[[ca:Nomenclatura de Bayer]]
[[de:Bayer-Bezeichnung]]
[[fr:Désignation de Bayer]]
[[ko:바이어 명명법]]
[[it:Nomenclatura di Bayer]]
[[hu:Bayer-féle jelölés]]
[[ru:Обозначения Байера]]
[[sk:Bayerovo označenie]]
[[fi:Bayerin designaatio]]
[[zh:巴耶恆星命名法]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Boötes</title>
<id>4200</id>
<revision>
<id>40761327</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T21:21:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ESkog</username>
<id>88149</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rvv to Sango123</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Bootes |
abbreviation = Boo |
genitive = Bootis |
symbology = the [[Bear]] [[Grigori|Watcher]]|
RA = 15 |
dec= +30 |
areatotal = 907 |
arearank = 13th |
numberstars = 3 |
starname = [[Arcturus]] (&alpha; Boo) |
starmagnitude = &minus;0.04 |
meteorshowers =
*[[January Bootids]]
*[[June Bootids]]
*[[Quadrantids]] |
bordering =
*[[Canes Venatici]]
*[[Coma Berenices]]
*[[Corona Borealis]]
*[[Draco (constellation)|Draco]]
*[[Hercules (constellation)|Hercules]]
*[[Serpens|Serpens Caput]]
*[[Virgo]]
*[[Ursa Major]] |
latmax = 90 |
latmin = 50 |
month = June |
notes='''Other designations:''' Arctophylax}}
'''Boötes''', a name deriving from Egypt, is one of the 88 modern [[constellation]]s and was also one of the 48 constellations listed by [[Ptolemy]]. Boötes is generally referred to as the Bear Watcher, since it appears to be watching over the constellations [[Ursa Major]] and [[Ursa Minor]]. It contains the [[List of brightest stars|third brightest star]] in the night sky, [[Arcturus]]. Note that the "ö" in the name is a [[diaeresis]], not an [[umlaut]].
The constellation is located between 0° and +60° [[declination]], 13 and 16 hours of [[right ascension]] on the [[celestial sphere]].
== Notable deep sky objects ==
[[NGC 5466]] is a loose globular cluster that can be observed with most telescopes. It was discovered by [[William Herschel]] on [[May 17]], [[1784]].
Also in the vicinity of Boötes is the [[Bootes void]].
== Mythology ==
Including the fainter stars, Boötes appears to be a large human figure, looking toward [[Ursa Major]] [http://borghetto.astrofili.org/costellazioni/bootes.JPG]. Exactly whom Boötes is supposed to represent is not clear. According to one version, he was a ploughman who drove the oxen in the constellation [[Ursa Major]] using his two dogs ''Chara'' and ''Asterion'' (from the constellation [[Canes Venatici]]). The oxen were tied to the polar axis and so the action of Boötes kept the heavens in constant rotation.
Boötes was also supposed to have invented the [[plough]]. This is said to have greatly pleased [[Ceres (mythology)|Ceres]], the goddess of agriculture who asked [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]] to give Boötes a permanent fixture in the heavens as a reward for doing this.
Another version portrays Boötes as a grape grower called [[Icarius]], who one day allowed the Roman god [[Bacchus]], also ca |
''moving'' or ''fixed''. Moving ("old", or "unstable") lines have a polarity in the process of reversal; a full reading will consider the hexagram that would result from the lines changing polarity.
The traditional methods for casting the hexagrams use ''biased'' [[random number]] generation procedures, so the 64 hexagrams are not equiprobable.
There are a few formal arrangements of the trigrams and hexagrams with a traditional context. The ''b&#257; gùa'' is a circular arrangement of the trigrams, traditionally printed on a mirror, or disk. According to legend, Fu Hsi found the b&#257; gùa on the scales of a tortoise's back.
The [[King Wen sequence]] is considered the authoritative arrangement of the hexagrams.
=== Components of hexagrams ===
The solid line represents ''yang'', the creative principle. The open line represents ''yin'', the receptive principle. These principles are also represented in a common circular symbol (&#9775;), known as [[taijitu]] (&#22826;&#26997;&#22294;), but more commonly known in the west as the ''[[yin-yang]]'' (&#38512;&#38525;) diagram, expressing the idea of complementarity of changes: when Yang is at top, Yin is increasing, and the reverse.
In the following lists, the trigrams and hexagrams are represented using a common textual convention, horizontally from left to right, using '|' for yang and ':' for yin. Note, though, that the normal diagrammatic representation is to show the lines stacked vertically, from bottom to top (i.e. to visualize the actual trigrams or hexagrams, rotate the text counterclockwise 90°).
There are eight possible trigrams (&#20843;&#21350; ''[[Bagua|b&#257;guà]]''):
<table border="1">
<tr align="center"><th></th><th>Trigram</th><th>Name</th><th>Nature</th><th>Direction</th></tr>
<tr align="center"><td>1</td><td>||| (&#9776;)</td><td>Force (&#20094; ''qi&aacute;n'')</td><td>heaven (&#22825;)</td><td>northwest</td></tr>
<tr align="center"><td>2</td><td>||: (&#9777;)</td><td>Open (&#20812; ''du&igrave;'')</td><td>swamp (&#28580;)</td><td>west</td></tr>
<tr align="center"><td>3</td><td>|:| (&#9778;)</td><td>Radiance (&#38626; ''l&iacute;'')</td><td>fire (&#28779;)</td><td>south</td></tr>
<tr align="center"><td>4</td><td>|:: (&#9779;)</td><td>Shake (&#38663; ''zh&egrave;n'')</td><td>thunder (&#38647;)</td><td>east</td></tr>
<tr align="center"><td>5</td><td>:|| (&#9780;)</td><td>Ground (&#24061; ''x&ugrave;n'')</td><td>wind (&#39080;)</td><td>southeast</td></tr>
<tr align="center"><td>6</td><td>:|: (&#9781;)</td><td>Gorge (&#22350; ''k&#462;n'')</td><td>water (&#27700;)</td><td>north</td></tr>
<tr align="center"><td>7</td><td>::| (&#9782;)</td><td>Bound (&#33390; ''g&egrave;n'')</td><td>mountain (&#23665;)</td><td>northeast</td></tr>
<tr align="center"><td>8</td><td>::: (&#9783;)</td><td>Field (&#22372; ''k&#363;n'')</td><td>earth (&#22320;)</td><td>southwest</td></tr>
</table>
The first three lines of the hexagram, called the ''lower trigram'', are seen as the ''inner aspect'' of the change that is occurring. The ''upper trigram'' (the last three lines of the hexagram), is the ''outer aspect''. The change described is thus the dynamic of the inner (personal) aspect relating to the outer (external) situation. Thus, hexagram 04 :|:::| Enveloping, is composed of the inner trigram :|: Gorge, relating to the outer trigram ::| Bound.
=== Chart of trigrams ===
<table cellspacing="3" cellpadding="3" border="2">
<tr>
<td width="10%">
<p>'''Upper &rarr;'''</p>
<p>'''Lower &darr;'''</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" align="center" width="10%">|||<br>
'''Ch'ien<br>Heaven'''</td>
<td valign="top" align="center" width="10%">|::<br>
'''Ch&ecirc;n<br>Thunder'''</td>
<td valign="top" align="center" width="10%">:|:<br>
'''K'an<br>Water'''</td>
<td valign="top" align="center" width="10%">::|<br>
'''K&ecirc;n<br>Mountain'''</td>
<td valign="top" align="center" width="10%">:::<br>
'''K'un<br>Earth'''</td>
<td valign="top" align="center" width="10%">:||<br>
'''Sun<br>Wind'''</td>
<td valign="top" align="center" width="10%">|:|<br>
'''Li<br>Flame'''</td>
<td valign="top" align="center" width="10%">||:<br>
'''Tui<br>Swamp'''</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" width="10%">|||<br>
'''Ch'ien<br>Heaven'''</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_01|1]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_34|34]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_05|5]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_26|26]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_11|11]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_09|9]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_14|14]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_43|43]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" width="10%">|::<br>
'''Ch&ecirc;n<br>Thunder'''</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_25|25]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_51|51]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_03|3]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_27|27]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_24|24]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_42|42]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_21|21]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_17|17]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" width="10%">:|:<br>
'''K'an<br>Water'''</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_06|6]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_40|40]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_29|29]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_04|4]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_07|7]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_59|59]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_64|64]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_47|47]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" width="10%">::|<br>
'''K&ecirc;n<br>Mountain'''</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_33|33]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_62|62]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_39|39]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_52|52]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_15|15]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_53|53]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_56|56]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_31|31]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" width="10%">:::<br>
'''K'un<br>Earth'''</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_12|12]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_16|16]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_08|8]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_23|23]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_02|2]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_20|20]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_35|35] |
] "uncivilized", where the primary stress is now on the newly-added first syllable ['''ô'''].
=== Intonation ===
In a simple [[declarative sentence]], most words and/or phrases in Bangla carry a rising [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]], with the exception of the last word in the sentence, which only carries a low tone. This [[intonation|intonational]] pattern creates a musical tone to the typical Bangla sentence, with low and high tones alternating until the final drop in pitch to mark the end of the sentence.
In sentences involving [[Focus|focused]] words and/or phrases, the rising tones only last until the focused word; all following words carry a low tone. This intonation pattern extends to [[wh-questions]], as wh-words are normally considered to be focused. In [[yes-no questions]], the rising tones may be more exaggerated, and most importantly, the final syllable of the final word in the sentence takes a high falling tone instead of a flat low tone.
=== Vowel Length ===
[[Vowel length]] is not contrastive in Bangla; all else equal, there is no meaningful distinction between a "[[short vowel]]" and a "[[long vowel]]", unlike the situation in many other Indic languages. However, when [[morpheme]] boundaries come into play, vowel length can sometimes distinguish otherwise [[homophonous]] words. This is due to the fact that [[open syllable|open]] [[monosyllabic|monosyllables]] (i.e. words that are made up of only one syllable, with that syllable ending in the main vowel and not a consonant) have somewhat longer vowels than other syllable types. For example, the vowel in '''cha:''' "tea" is somewhat longer than the first vowel in '''chaţa''' "licking", as '''cha:''' is a word with only one syllable, and no final consonant. (The long vowel is marked with a colon : in these examples.) The [[suffix]] '''ţa''' "the" can be added to '''cha:''' to form '''cha:ţa''' "the tea". Even when another morpheme is attached to '''cha:''', the long vowel is preserved. Knowing this fact, some interesting cases of apparent vowel length distinction can be found.
Furthermore, using a form of [[reduplication]] called "echo reduplication", the long vowel in '''cha:''' can be copied into the reduplicant '''ţa:''', giving '''cha:ţa:''' "tea and all that comes with it". Thus, in addition to '''cha:ţa''' "the tea" (long first vowel) and '''chaţa''' "licking" (no long vowels), we have '''cha:ţa:''' "tea and all that comes with it" (both long vowels).
=== Consonant Clusters ===
Native Bangla (''tôdbhôb'') words do not allow initial [[consonant cluster|consonant clusters]]; the maximum syllabic structure is CVC (i.e. one vowel flanked by a consonant on each side). Many speakers of Bangla restrict their phonology to this pattern, even when using Sanskrit or English borrowings, such as ''geram'' (CV.CVC) for ''gram'' (CCVC) "village" or ''iskul'' (VC.CVC) for ''skul'' (CCVC) "school".
Sanskrit (''tôtshôm'') words borrowed into Bangla, however, possess a wide range of clusters, expanding the maximum syllable structure to CCCVC. Some of these clusters, such as the ''mr'' in ''mrittu'' "death" or the ''sp'' in ''spôshţo'' "clear", have become extremely common, and can be considered legal consonant clusters in Bangla. Other commonly-heard clusters from Sanskrit include ''pr'' (''proshno'' "question"), ''br'' (''brishţi'' "rain"), ''bhr'' (''bhromon'' "travel"), ''tr'' (''trish'' "thirty"), ''dr'' (''druto'' "rapid"), ''kr'' (''krimi'' "worm"), ''gr'' (''gram'' "village"), ''sr'' (''sromik'' "worker"), ''str'' (''stri'' "woman"), ''sth'' (''sthanio'' "local"), and ''sn'' (''snan'' "bath").
Less commonly-heard clusters from Sanskrit include ''dhr'' (''dhrubo'' "fixed, permanent"), ''ghr'' (''ghrina'' "disgust"), ''ml'' (''mlan'' "melancholy"), ''nr'' (''nritto'' "dance"), ''sph'' (''sphurti'' "delight"), ''st'' (''stômbho'' "tower"), and ''skh'' (''skhôlon'' "slip").
English and other foreign (''bideshi'') borrowings add even more cluster types into the Bangla inventory, further increasing the syllable capacity to CCCVCCCC, as commonly-used loanwords such as ''ţren'' "train" and ''glash'' "glass" are now even included in leading Bangla dictionaries. Clusters from English borrowings include ''bl'' (''blauz'' "blouse"), ''thr'' (''thru'' or ''thrute'' "through, via"), ''ţr'' (''ţrak'' "truck"), ''đr'' (''đraivar'' "driver"), ''fr'' (''frans'' "France"), ''fl'' (''flaiţ'' "flight"), ''spl'' (''splêsh'' "splash"), ''sţ'' (''sţeshon'' "station"), ''sţr'' (''sţreiţ'' "straight"), ''skr'' (''skru'' "screw"), and ''sm'' (''smarţ'' "smart"). Furthermore, some clusters occasionally found in Sanskrit borrowings are now more commonly heard in English borrowings. These clusters include ''pl'' (''plen'' "plane"), ''kl'' (''klash'' "class"), ''gl'' (''glash'' "glass"), ''sl'' (''sloli'' "slowly"), ''spr'' (''spring'' "spring"), and ''sk'' (''skarţ'' "skirt").
Most final consonant clusters were borrowed into Bangla from English, as in ''lifţ'' "lift, elevator" and ''bêņk'' "bank". However, final clusters do exist in some native Bangla words, although rarely in standard pronunciation. One example of a final cluster in a standard Bangla word would be ''gônj'', which is found in names of hundreds of cities and towns across Bengal, including ''Nôbabgônj'' and ''Manikgônj''. Some nonstandard varieties of Bangla make use of final clusters quite often. For example, in some Purbo (eastern) dialects, final consonant clusters consisting of a nasal and its corresponding oral stop are common, as in ''chand'' "moon". The Standard Bangla equivalent of ''chand'' would be ''chñad'', with a nasalized vowel instead of the final cluster.
==Grammar==
''Main article: [[Bengali grammar]]''
There is no [[gender (grammar)|grammatical gender]] in Bangla. Adjectival [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] is light, while nouns and verbs are highly [[inflection|inflected]].
===Nouns===
Nouns and pronouns are inflected for [[declension|case]], including [[Nominative case|nominative]], [[Accusative case|objective]], [[genitive case|genitive (possessive)]], and [[locative case|locative]]. The case marking pattern for each noun being inflected depends on the noun's degree of [[animacy]].
<TABLE border="1" align="center" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
<CAPTION>'''Singular Noun Inflection'''</CAPTION>
<TR>
<TD>&nbsp;</TD>
<TD><DIV align=center> ''Animate'' </DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align=center> ''Inanimate'' </DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>&nbsp;'''Nominative'''</TD>
<TD><DIV align=center>chhatro-ţa <br> the student</DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align=center>juta-ţa <br> the shoe</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>&nbsp;'''Objective'''</TD>
<TD><DIV align=center>chhatro-ţa-'''ke''' <br> the student</DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align=center>juta-ţa <br> the shoe</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>&nbsp;'''Genitive'''</TD>
<TD><DIV align=center>chhatro-ţa-'''r''' <br> the student's</DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align=center>juta-ţa-'''r''' <br> the shoe's</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>&nbsp;'''Locative'''</TD>
<TD><DIV align=center> - </DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align=center>juta-ţa-'''(t)e''' <br> on/in the shoe</DIV></TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>
When a [[article (grammar)|definite article]] such as ''-ţa'' (singular) or ''-gula'' (plural) is added, as in the table above, nouns are also inflected for [[Grammatical number|number]]. Plural versions of the previous table can be found below:
<TABLE border="1" align="center" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
<CAPTION>'''Plural Noun Inflection'''</CAPTION>
<TR>
<TD>&nbsp;</TD>
<TD><DIV align=center> ''Animate'' </DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align=center> ''Inanimate'' </DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>&nbsp;'''Nominative'''</TD>
<TD><DIV align=center>chhatro-'''ra''' <br> the students</DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align=center>juta-gula <br> the shoes</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>&nbsp;'''Objective'''</TD>
<TD><DIV align=center>chhatro-'''der(ke)''' <br> the students</DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align=center>juta-gula <br> the shoes</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>&nbsp;'''Genitive'''</TD>
<TD><DIV align=center>chhatro-'''der''' <br> the students'</DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align=center>juta-gula-'''r''' <br> the shoes'</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>&nbsp;'''Locative'''</TD>
<TD><DIV align=center> - </DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align=center>juta-gula-'''te''' <br> on/in the shoes</DIV></TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>
When counted, nouns must also be accompanied by the appropriate [[measure word]]. As in many Asian languages (e.g. [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Japanese langua |
iz al-Omari'''([[Arabic language|Arabic]]:&#1593;&#1576;&#1583;&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1586;&#1610;&#1586;&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1585;&#1610;, also [[transliteration|transliterated]] '''Abdul Aziz Alomari''') was named by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] as one of the [[Organizers of the September 11, 2001 attacks|hijackers]] of the [[American Airlines flight 11|first plane]] which was crashed into the [[World Trade Center]] in the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]].
==History==
Little is known about al-Omari's life, and it is unclear whether some information refers to al-Omari or another person by that name. He has used birth dates of [[December 24]], [[1972]] and [[May 28]], [[1979]]. He came from [['Asir|Asir Province]], a poor region in southwestern [[Saudi Arabia]] that borders [[Yemen]]. According to a 2003 [[CIA]] report, he had graduated with honours from high school, attained a degree from the [[http://www.imamu.edu.sa/ Imam Muhammad Ibn Saud University]], was married, and had a daughter.
He is said to have often served as an [[imam]] at his mosque in Saudi Arabia and is believed to have been a student of a radical Saudi cleric named [[Sulayman al Alwan]], whose mosque is located in [[Al Qasim]].[[Image:AlOmarisApplication.GIF|thumb|130px|Omari's Visa Application]]
According to [[Tawfiq bin Attash]], al-Omari was one of a group of future hijackers who provided security at Khandahar airport after their basic training at an al-Qaida camp. During the [[2000 Al Qaeda Summit]] in [[Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia]], immigration records show that a person named Abdulaziz al-Omari was visiting the country, although it is unknown whether this was the same person.
[[Image:AbdulazizonAlJazeera.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Omari in the farewell video]]In the spring of 2001, al-Omari made a farewell video that was later shown on [[al Jazeera]]. In it, he reads "I am writing this with my full conscience and I am writing this in expectation of the end, which is near. . . God praise everybody who trained and helped me, namely the leader Sheik [[Osama bin Laden]]."
According to [[FBI]] director [[Robert Mueller]] and the [[9/11 Commission]], al-Omari entered the United States through a [[London]] or [[Dubai]] flight on [[May 28]] with [[Hamza al-Ghamdi]] and [[Mohand al-Shehri]].
On [[June 29]], [[2001]], al-Omari travelled to the U.S. for the first time, landing in [[New York]]. He had used the controversial [[Visa Express]] program to gain entry. He apparently stayed with several other hijackers in [[Paterson, New Jersey]], before moving to his own place at 4032 57th Terrace, [[Vero Beach]] Florida. On his rental agreement form for that house, Omari gave two license-plates authorized to park in his space, one of which was registered to Atta.[http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/atta/resources/documents/fbiaffidavit11.htm]
al-Omari occasionally trained on simulators at the [[FlightSafety Aviation School]] in [[Vero Beach, Florida]] together with [[Mohand al-Shehri]] and [[Saeed Al-Ghamdi]]
==The Attack==
[[Image:Atta atm.jpg|right|thumb|Abdulaziz al-Omari (center) and [[Mohamed Atta al Sayed]] withdrawing money from an ATM]]On [[September 10]], [[Mohamed Atta al Sayed]] picked up Omari from the [[Milner Hotel]] in [[Boston, Massachusetts]], and the two drove [[1n4dl01d81c212547|their rented Nissan]] to a [[Comfort Inn]] in [[Portland, Maine|South Portland, Maine]], where they spent the night in room 232 for unknown reasons, although it was within sight of [[Portland International Jetport]]. It was initially reported that [[Adnan Bukhari|Adnan]] and [[Ameer Bukhari]] were the two hijackers who had rented and driven the car.[http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200109/13/eng20010913_80131.html][[Image:Atta in airport.jpg|left|thumb|Atta (blue shirt) and al-Omari in the [[Portland, Maine]] airport on the morning of 9/11]] The two spent their last night pursuing ordinary activities: making an ATM withdrawal, a shared meal at [[Pizza Hut]], and a 20-minute stop at [[Wal-Mart]].
In the early morning hours of [[September 11]], they boarded a commuter flight to Boston to connect to [[American Airlines Flight 11]], where al-Omari helped hijack the plane, and assisted [[Mohamed Atta al Sayed]] in crashing it into the World Trade Center part of an attack that killed thousands of people.
==Aftermath==
Controversy over al-Omari's identity erupted shortly after the attacks. At first, the FBI had named Abdul Rahman al-Omari, a pilot for Saudi Arabian Airlines, as the pilot of Flight 11. It was quickly shown that this person was still alive, and the FBI issued an apology. It was also quickly determined that Mohamed Atta was the pilot among the hijackers. The FBI then named Abdulaziz al-Omari as a hijacker.
[[Image:Abdulaziz al-omari alive.jpg|right|frame|The other Abdulaziz al-Omari, photographed after the 9/11 attacks.]]
A man with the same name as those given by the [[FBI]] turned up alive in [[Saudi Arabia]], saying that he had studied at the [[University of Denver]] and his [[passport]] was stolen there in [[1995]]. The name, origin, birth date, and occupation were released by the FBI, but the picture was not of him. "I couldn't believe it when the FBI put me on their list", he said. "They gave my name and my date of birth, but I am not a suicide bomber. I am here. I am alive. I have no idea how to fly a plane. I had nothing to do with this." [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F2071FF63D5F0C758DDDA00894D9404482][http://news.independent.co.uk/world/middle_east/story.jsp?story=94438][http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/1559151.stm] This individual was not the same person as the hijacker whose identity was later confirmed by Saudi government interviews with his family, according to the [[9/11 Commission]] Report.
==External links==
*[http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html The Final 9/11 Commission Report]
*[http://www.portal.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2001/09/23/widen23.xml portal.telegraph.co.uk] (Article which reports that an al-Omari was not involved with the terrorist attacks)
{{Template:911hijack}}
[[Category:2001 deaths|Omari, Abduraziz]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11, 2001 attacks|Omari, Abdulaziz]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian terrorists|Omari, Abduraziz]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anselm of Canterbury</title>
<id>2199</id>
<revision>
<id>42096279</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:25:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KarlBunker</username>
<id>474086</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Archbishop of Canterbury */ broke up long sentence</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Saint Anselm of Canterbury''' ([[1033]] or [[1034]] &ndash; [[April 21]] [[1109]]), a widely influential medieval [[philosopher]] and [[theology|theologian]], held the office of [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] from [[1093]] to [[1109]]. Called the founder of [[Scholasticism]], he is famous as the inventor of the [[ontological argument]] for the existence of [[God]].
==Biography==
===Early life===
Anselm was born in the city of [[Aosta]] in the Kingdom of [[Burgundy]]. Aosta is located in the Italian [[Alps]] region of [[Valle d'Aosta]] (Aosta Valley), near the borders with twentieth century [[France]] and [[Switzerland]]. His family was accounted noble, and owned considerable property. Gundulph, his father, was by birth a [[Lombard]], and seems to have been a man of harsh and violent temper. His mother, Ermenberga, was a prudent and virtuous woman, who gave the young Anselm careful religious training. At the age of fifteen he desired to enter a convent, but he could not obtain his father's consent. Disappointment brought on an apparent [[psychosomatic illness]], and after he recovered he seems to have given up his studies for a time and lived a more carefree life. During this period his mother died, and his father's harshness became unbearable. In [[1059]] he left home, crossed the Alps, and wandered through [[Burgundy]] and [[France]]. Attracted by the fame of his countryman [[Lanfranc]], then [[prior]] of the [[Benedictine]] [[Abbey of Bec]], Anselm entered [[Normandy]]. The following year, after spending some time at [[Avranches]], he entered the [[abbey]] as a [[novice]] at the age of twenty-seven.
===His years at Bec===
Three years later, in [[1063]], when Lanfranc was made the abbot of [[Caen]], Anselm was elected [[prior]]. This office he held for fifteen years, and then, in [[1078]], on the death of the warrior monk [[Herluin]], founder and first abbot of [[Abbey of Bec|Bec]], Anselm was elected abbot. Under his jurisdiction, Bec became the first seat of learning in Europe, although Anselm appears to have been less interested in attracting external students to it. It was during these quiet years at Bec that Anselm wrote his first philosophical works, the ''Monologion'' and ''Proslogion.'' These were followed by ''The Dialogues on Truth'', ''Free Will'', and the ''Fall of the Devil''.
Meanwhile the convent had been growing in wealth and reputation, and had acquired considerable property in [[England]]. It became the duty of Anselm to visit this property occasionally. By his mildness of temper and unswerving rectitude, he so endeared himself to the English that he was looked upon as the natural successor to [[Lanfranc]] as [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]. But on the death of that great man, [[William II of England|King William II]] seized the possessions and revenues of the see, and made no new appointment.
About four years later, in [[1092]], on the invitation of [[Hugh d'Avranches, 1st Earl of Chester|Hugh, Earl of Chester]], Anselm crossed to England. He was detained by business for nearly four months, and when about to return, was refused permission by the king. In the following year William |
ues Festival]
* [http://www.kingslanding.nb.ca/englishhome.htm Kings Landing Historical Settlement]
* [http://www.heritagefredericton.org/ Fredericton Heritage Trust]
*[http://bridges.nblighthouses.com/ New Brunswick Covered Bridges]
* [http://www.e-novations.ca/ e-Novations]
* [http://www.fred-ezone.ca/ Fred-eZone] ''City's free WiFi network''
* [http://www.teamfredericton.com/ Team Fredericton]
* [http://www.frederictonchamber.ca/ Fredericton Chamber of Commerce]
* [http://www.frederictonairport.ca/ Greater Fredericton Airport (YFC)]
* [http://www.enterprisefredericton.ca Enterprise Fredericton]
* [http://www.gfedc.nb.ca/ Greater Fredericton Economic Development Corporation]
* [http://www.downtownfredericton.ca Downtown Fredericton Inc.]
* [http://surf.to/deletedscene Deleted Scene] ''local indie music scene website''
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?&ll=45.956669,-66.651993&spn=0.118721,0.160632&t=k&hl=en Google Map]
{{NBtemplate}}
{{Canada capitals}}
[[Category:Fredericton, New Brunswick|*]]
[[zh-min-nan:Fredericton (New Brunswick)]]
[[de:Fredericton]]
[[fr:Fredericton]]
[[ko:프레더릭턴]]
[[it:Fredericton]]
[[la:Fredericopolis]]
[[nl:Fredericton]]
[[pt:Fredericton]]
[[fi:Fredericton]]
[[sv:Fredericton]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Free software</title>
<id>10635</id>
<revision>
<id>41608200</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T13:55:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.241.135.10</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */ copyedit and remove nonsense accusation about "corporate attitude"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about Free Software as defined by the sociopolitical Free Software movement; for information on software distributed without charge, see [[freeware]]. For other uses, see [[free software (disambiguation)]].''
'''Free software''', as defined by the [[Free Software Foundation]], is [[software]] which can be used, copied, studied, modified and redistributed without restriction. [[Freedom]] from such restrictions is central to the concept of "free software", such that the opposite of free software is [[proprietary software]], and not software which is sold for profit, such as [[commercial software]]. Free software may sometimes be known as [[libre software]]. The usual way for software to be distributed as free software is for the software to be accompanied by a [[free software license]], and the [[source code]] of the software to be made available.
==Usage==
To help distinguish ''[[Gratis versus Libre|libre]]'' (freedom) software from ''[[Gratis versus Libre|gratis]]'' (zero price) software, [[Richard Stallman]], founder of the [[Free Software Movement]], developed the following explanation: "Free software is a matter of liberty not price. To understand the concept, you should think of 'free' as in '[[free speech]]', not as in 'free beer'". More specifically, free software means that [[user (computing)|computer users]] have the freedom to cooperate with whom they choose, and to control the software they use.
Most free software is distributed gratis [[online]], or [[off-line]] for the [[marginal cost]] of distribution, but this is not required, and people may sell copies for any price. The capitalized term "Open Source" is attached to a definition originally created in 1998 from [[Debian]]'s rewrite of the [[GNU]] definition of "Free Software". As a result, nearly all Open Source programs are Free Software, but there are some exceptions.
Although the open source and free software movements share almost identical license criteria and development practices, according to Stallman the respective philosophical values of the two movements are fundamentally different. Stallman endorses the terms [[Free/Libre/Open-Source Software]] ("FLOSS") and [[Free and Open Source Software]] ("F/OSS") to refer to "open source" and "free software" respectively, without necessarily choosing between or dividing the two camps, but he asks people to consider supporting the "free software" camp (see [[Open source vs. free software]] for more information).
The free BSD-based operating systems, such as [[FreeBSD]], [[OpenBSD]], and [[NetBSD]], use a similar defintion of free software, but they differ in interpretation about [[copyleft]]. Users of these systems often see copyleft as being over-restrictive to the point of being an encroachment on their freedom.
"[[Freeware]]" is software made available ''free of charge'', but is generally [[proprietary]], as users do not have the freedom to use, copy, study, modify or redistribute. Source code for freeware may or may not be published, and permission to distribute modified versions may or may not be granted, so freeware is ''gratis'', and not ''libre'' software.
== History ==
A brief history of Free Software:
* [[1960s]] and [[1970s]] &mdash; software was seen as an add-on supplied by [[mainframe]] vendors to make computers useful. Thus, programmers and developers frequently shared their software freely. This was especially common in large users groups, such as [[DECUS]], the DEC ([[Digital Equipment Corporation]]) Users Group.
* Late 1970s and early [[1980s]] &mdash; companies began routinely imposing restrictions on programmers with end user license agreements. Sometimes this was because companies were now making money from [[proprietary software]] or they were trying to keep [[trade secrets]] in software or hardware. [[Bill Gates]] signalled the change of the times when he wrote a famous [[Open_Letter_to_Hobbyists|open letter]] where he urged hackers to stop ''stealing'' by breaking license agreements.
* [[1983]] &mdash; [[Richard Stallman]] launched the [[GNU project]] after becoming frustrated with the effects of the change in culture of the computer industry and users. One incident was when a printer wouldn't work but he couldn't hack the source code to fix the problem because it was withheld. Software development for the [[GNU operating system]] began in January 1984, and [[Free Software Foundation]] (FSF) was founded in October 1985. He introduced a "free software" definition and "[[copyleft]]", designed to ensure software freedom for all. [http://cisn.metu.edu.tr/2002-6/free.php] Some reacted strongly against Stallman's position as idealistic nonsense and he was strongly mocked and criticised.
* Present day &mdash; Free Software is a highly successful international effort, producing software used by individuals, large organisations, and even entire countries. Free Software is massive industry. The economic advantages of the Free Software model, and, to a lesser extent, the ethical principles that it was founded upon are beginning to be recognised broadly, even by mainstream media. Also, some other industries &mdash; that is, non-software industries &mdash; are beginning to recognise the value of Free Software's message too: scientists, for example, are looking towards more open development processes, and hardware such as microchips is beginning to be developed under [[Copyleft]] licenses (see the [[OpenCores]] project, for instance). The [[Creative Commons]] and [[Open Content]] movements have also been largely influenced by Free Software.
== Free software licenses ==
{{main|free software licenses}}
According to Stallman and the FSF, "free" software licenses grant:
* the freedom to run the program for any purpose (called "freedom 0")
* the freedom to study and modify the program ("freedom 1")
* the freedom to copy the program so you can help your neighbor ("freedom 2")
* the freedom to improve the program, and release your improvements to the public, so that the whole community benefits ("freedom 3")
Freedoms 1 and 3 require [[source code]] access, because studying and modifying software without source code is extremely difficult and highly inefficient compared to modifying annotated source code.
The FSF web site provides a list of many free software licenses. [http://www.gnu.org/licenses/license-list.html] The list is necessarily incomplete, because a license need not be known to the FSF in order to provide these freedoms.
"[[Proprietary software]]" is distributed under more restrictive [[software license]]s. [[Copyright]] law and/or [[contract]] law restrict modification, duplication and redistribution by users; software released under a free software license rescinds most of these reserved rights.
The FSF free software definition disregards price. [[Compact disc|CDs]] containing free software such as [[Linux distribution|GNU/Linux distributions]] are commonly for sale. However, since the CD buyer still has the free software freedoms, it is free software. ''Free beer'' software ([[freeware]]) which includes restrictions that confict with the FSF definition are considered proprietary. For example, source code may be unavailable, redistributors may be prohibited charging fees, etc.
Some people use "[[libre]]" to avoid the ambiguity of the word "free". However, these terms are mostly used within the [[free software movement]] and are slowly spreading.
Variations on free software as defined by the FSF:
* [[Copyleft]] licenses, the [[GNU General Public License]] being the most prominent. The author retains copyright and permits redistribution and modification under terms to ensure that all modified versions remain free.
* [[Public domain]] software - the author has abandoned the copyright. Since public-domain software lacks copyright protection, it may be freely incorporated into any work, whether proprietary or free.
* [[BSD License|BSD-style license]]s, so called because they are applied to much of the software distributed with the [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]] operating systems. The author reta |
igh-energy physics and astronomy. [[Neutron star]]s and accretion disks around [[black hole]]s emit X-rays, which enable us to study them.
=== Gamma rays ===
After hard X-rays come [[gamma rays]]. These are the most energetic [[photons]], having no lower limit to their wavelength. They are useful to [[astronomy|astronomers]] in the study of high-energy objects or regions and find a use with physicists thanks to their penetrative ability and their production from [[radioisotopes]]. The wavelength of gamma rays can be measured with high accuracy by means of [[Compton scattering]].
Note that there are no defined boundaries between the types of electromagnetic radiation. Some wavelengths have a mixture of the properties of two regions of the spectrum. For example, red light resembles infra-red radiation in that it can [[resonate]] some [[chemical bonds]].
==See also==
* [[Spectroscopy]]
* [[Electromagnetic spectroscopy]]
* [[Radiant energy]]
* [[Bandplan]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.ntia.doc.gov/osmhome/allochrt.html U.S. Frequency Allocation Chart] - Covering the range 3 kHz to 300 GHz (from [[United States Department of Commerce|Department of Commerce]])
* [http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/epic/internet/insmt-gst.nsf/vwapj/spectallocation.pdf/%24FILE/spectallocation.pdf Canadian Table of Frequency Allocations] (from [[Industry Canada]])
* [http://www.ofcom.org.uk/static/archive/ra/topics/spectrum-strat/future/strat02/strategy02app_b.pdf UK frequency allocation table] (from [[Ofcom]], which inherited the [[Radiocommunications Agency]]'s duties, pdf format)
*[http://www.scienceofspectroscopy.info The Science of Spectroscopy] - supported by NASA, includes OpenSpectrum, a Wiki-based learning tool for spectroscopy that anyone can edit
*[http://www.e-builds.com/EM%20spectrum/ An EM Spectrum Overview in Flash] by e-builds
{{EMSpectrum}}
<!--Categories-->
[[Category:Electromagnetic spectrum| ]]
<!--Interwiki-->
[[ar:طيف]]
[[ca:Espectre electromagnètic]]
[[cs:Elektromagnetické spektrum]]
[[da:Elektromagnetisk spektrum]]
[[de:Elektromagnetisches Spektrum]]
[[es:Espectro electromagnético]]
[[fi:Sähkömagneettinen spektri]]
[[fr:Spectre électromagnétique]]
[[gl:Espectro electromagnético]]
[[he:ספקטרום אלקטרומגנטי]]
[[id:Spektrum elektromagnetik]]
[[it:Spettro elettromagnetico]]
[[ja:&#38651;&#30913;&#12473;&#12506;&#12463;&#12488;&#12523;]]
[[nl:Elektromagnetisch spectrum]]
[[pt:Espectro eletromagnético]]
[[tr:Elektromanyetik tayf]]
[[zh:電磁波譜]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Expert system</title>
<id>10136</id>
<revision>
<id>41477806</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T16:57:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Abdull</username>
<id>73235</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Reverted to Dullfig's version</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''expert system''' is a class of [[computer program]]s developed by [[researcher]]s in [[artificial intelligence]] during the [[1970s]] and applied commercially throughout the [[1980s]]. In essence, they are [[Rule engine|programs]] made up of a set of [[Rule of inference|rule]]s that analyze [[information]] (usually supplied by the user of the system) about a specific class of [[problem]]s, as well as provide [[analysis]] of the problem(s), and, ''depending upon their design'', recommend a [[course]] of user action in order to implement corrections.
A related term is [[wizard (software)]]. Like an expert system, a wizard is also an [[interactive]] computer program that helps a user solve a problem. Usually, the term wizard is used for programs that search a [[database]] for criteria entered by the user. Unfortunately, the distinction between these two definitions is not universal, and some rule-based programs are called wizards. Other "Wizards" are simply online forms that display a series of menus for the user to facilitate choices, such as the ones which manage the installation of new software on computers, and these clearly are not Expert Systems.
== Types of problems solved by expert systems ==
Typically, the [[problem]]s to be solved are of the sort that would normally be tackled by a human "[[expert]]"&mdash;a medical or other [[professional]], in most cases. Real experts in the problem domain (which will typically be very narrow, for instance "diagnosing skin diseases in human teenagers") are asked to provide "[[rule of thumb|rules of thumb]]" on how they evaluate the problems, either explicitly with the aid of experienced [[system developer]]s, or sometimes implicitly, by getting such experts to evaluate [[test case]]s and using computer programs to examine the [[test data]] and (in a strictly limited manner) derive [[rule]]s from that. Generally expert systems are used for problems for which there is no single "correct" solution which can be encoded in a conventional algorithm &mdash; one would not write an expert system to find shortest paths through graphs, or sort data, as there are simply easier ways to do these tasks.
Simple systems use simple true/false [[logic]] to evaluate data, but more sophisticated systems are capable of performing at least some [[evaluation]] taking into account real-world uncertainties, using such methods as [[fuzzy logic]]. Such [[sophistication]] is difficult to develop and still highly imperfect.
== Application ==
While expert systems have distinguished themselves in [[Artificial intelligence|AI]] research in finding practical application, their application has been limited. Expert systems are notoriously narrow in their domain of [[knowledge]]&mdash;as an amusing example, a [[researcher]] used the "skin disease" expert system to diagnose his rustbucket car as likely to have developed measles&mdash;and the systems were thus prone to making [[error]]s that [[human]]s would easily spot. Additionally, once some of the mystique had worn off, most [[programmer]]s realized that simple expert systems were essentially just slightly more elaborate versions of the [[decision logic]] they had already been using. Therefore, some of the techniques of expert systems can now be found in most complex programs without any fuss about them.
Another [[1970s]] and [[1980s]] application of Expert Systems &mdash; which we today would simply call AI &mdash; was in [[computer games]]. For example, the computer [[baseball]] games [[Earl Weaver Baseball]] and [[Tony La Russa Baseball]] each had highly detailed simulations of the game strategies of those two baseball [[managers]]. When a human played the game against the computer, the computer queried the [[Earl Weaver]] or [[Tony La Russa]] Expert System for a decision on what strategy to follow. Even those choices where some randomness was part of the natural system (such as when to throw a surprise pitch-out to try to trick a runner trying to steal a base) were decided based on probabilities supplied by Weaver or La Russa. Today we would simply say that "the game's AI provided the opposing manager's strategy."
==Expert systems versus problem-solving systems==
The principal [[distinction]] between expert systems and traditional [[problem solving]] programs is the way in which the problem related [[expertise]] is coded. In traditional applications, problem expertise is encoded in both program and data structures.
In the expert system approach all of the problem related expertise is encoded in [[data structure]]s only; none is in programs. Several benefits immediately follow from this [[organization]].
An example may help contrast the traditional problem solving program with the expert system approach. The example is the problem of [[tax advice]]. In the traditional approach data structures describe the taxpayer and tax tables, and a program in which there are statements representing an expert tax consultant's knowledge, such as statements which relate information about the taxpayer to tax table choices. It is this representation of the tax expert's knowledge that is difficult for the tax expert to understand or modify.
In the expert system approach, the information about taxpayers and tax computations is again found in data structures, but now the knowledge describing the [[relationship]]s between them is encoded in data structures as well. The programs of an expert system are independent of the [[problem domain]] (taxes) and serve to process the data structures without regard to the nature of the problem area they describe. For example, there are programs to acquire the described data values through [[user interaction]], programs to represent and process special [[organization]]s of [[description]], and programs to process the [[declaration]]s that represent [[semantic relationship]]s within the problem domain and an [[algorithm]] to control the processing sequence and focus.
The general [[architecture]] of an expert system involves two principal components: a problem dependent set of [[data declaration]]s called the [[knowledge base]] or [[rule base]], and a problem independent (although highly data structure dependent) program which is called the [[inference engine]]. See more in '''How it Works''' chapter.
==Individuals involved with expert systems==
There are generally three individuals having an interaction with expert systems. Primary among these is the [[end-user]]; the individual who uses the system for its problem solving assistance. In the building and maintenance of the system there are two other roles: the [[problem domain expert]] who builds the [[knowledge base]], and a [[knowledge engineers|knowledge engineer]] who assists the experts in determining the [[representation]] of their [[knowledge]] and who defines the [[inference technique]] required to obtain useful problem solving activity.
===The end user===
The [[end-user]] usually sees an expert system through an |
(Lithograph) (1901)
* ''[[:Image:Klimpt01.JPG|Judith I]]'' (1901)
* ''[[:Image:Gustav Klimt 006.jpg|Buchenwald]]'' (Birkenwald) (1901)
* Gold Fish (To my critics) (1901 - 1902)
* Portrait of Gertha Felsovanyi (1902)
* Portrait of Emilie Floge (1902)
* Beach Forest (1902)
* Beach Forest I (1902)
* Beethoven Frieze (1902) [http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/klimt/klimt.beethoven-frieze1.jpg] [http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/klimt/klimt.beethoven-frieze2.jpg]
* Hope (1903)
* Pear Tree (1903)
* Jurisprudence (1903-1907)
* ''[[:Image:Gustav Klimt 067.jpg|Water Serpents I]]'' (1904 - 1907)
* Water Serpents II (1904 - 1907)
* The Three Ages of Woman (1905)
* Portrait of Margaret Stonborough-Wittgenstein (1905)
* Farm Garden (Flower Garden) (1905-1906)
* Farm Garden with Sunflowers (1905-1906)
* The Stoclet Frieze (1905-1909)
* ''[[:Image:Gustav Klimt 052.jpg| Portrait of Fritsa Reidler]]'' (1906)
* Sunflower (1906-1907)
* Hope II (1907-1908)
* ''[[:Image:Klimt, Danaë.jpg|Danaë]]'' (1907)
* ''[[:Image:Gustav Klimt 046.jpg| Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer I]]'' (1907)
* Poppy Field (1907)
* Schloss Kammer on the Attersee I (1908)
* ''[[:Image:Gustav Klimt 016.jpg|The Kiss]]'' (1907 - 1908)
* Lady with Hat and Feather Boa (1909)
* ''[[:Image:Gustav Klimt 038.jpg|Judith II]]'' ''(Salom&#xE9;)'' (1909)
* Black Feather Hat (Lady with Feather Hat) (1910)
* Schloss Kammer on the Attersee III (1910)
* Farm Garden with Crucifix (1911-1912)
* Apple Tree (1912)
* Forester's House, Weissenbach on Lake Attersee (1912)
* Portrait of Mada Primavesi (1912)
* ''[[:Image:Gustav Klimt 047.jpg|Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer II]]'' (1912)
* ''[[:Image:Gustav Klimt 024.jpg|The Virgins (Die Jungfrau)]]'' (1913)
* The Church in Cassone (1913)
* Semi-nude seated, reclining (1913)
* Semi-nude seated, with closed eyes (1913)
* Portrait of Eugenia Primavesi (1913-1914)
* Lovers, drawn from the right (1914)
* Portrait of Elisabeth Bachofen-Echt (1914)
* Semi-nude lying, drawn from the right (1914-1915)
* Portrait of Friederike Maria Beer (1916)
* Houses in Unterach on the Attersee (1916) [http://www.adele.at/Page10343/Page10364/page10364.html]
* Death and Life (1916)
* Garden Path with Chickens (1916)
* The Girl-Friends (1916-1917)
* Woman seated with thighs apart, drawing (1916-1917)
* The Dancer (1916 - 1918)
* Leda (was destroyed) (1917)
* Portrait of a Lady, en face (1917-1918)
* The Bride (was unfinished) (1917-1918)
* Adam and Eve (was unfinished) (1917-1918)
* Portrait of Johanna Staude (was unfinished) (1917-1918)
[[Image:Festsaal - University of Vienna.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Festsaal at the [[University of Vienna]], with one of three Klimt paintings just visible in black and white at top right.]]
==See also==
*[[List of Austrian artists and architects]]
*[[List of Austrians]]
==Notes==
*{{note|NPR01}} Burbank, Lunk [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5160093 Austia to return paintings to Jewish heir], [[National Public Radio]], [[17 January]] [[2006]].
==External links==
{{commonscat|Gustav Klimt}}
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/klimt/ Web Museum Klimt page]
* [http://www.reproarte.com/painter/Gustav_Klimt/ paintings of Gustav Klimt]
* [http://www.klimt.at/ Gustav Klimt Association, Vienna] &nbsp; Gustav Klimt last studio 1912-1918
* [http://www.adele.at/ The Bloch-Bauer court case]
* [http://www.boheme-magazine.net/php/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=667 An Eye on Art: ''Judith I'']
* [http://www.artofklimt.com/ '''Art of Klimt''': A complete online gallery and information resource]
* [http://www.festivaljewellery.com/art-site/artists-biographies/Biog%20Klimt.htm '''Gustav Klimt''': Online Gallery of Printable Images & Biography of the Artist]
[[Category:1862 births|Klimt, Gustav]]
[[Category:1918 deaths|Klimt, Gustav]]
[[Category:Austrian painters|Klimt, Gustav]]
[[Category:Symbolist painters|Klimt, Gustav]]
[[Category:Art Nouveau|Klimt, Gustav]]
[[bg:Густав Климт]]
[[cs:Gustav Klimt]]
[[de:Gustav Klimt]]
[[es:Gustav Klimt]]
[[fr:Gustav Klimt]]
[[hr:Gustav Klimt]]
[[it:Gustav Klimt]]
[[nl:Gustav Klimt]]
[[ja:グスタフ・クリムト]]
[[pl:Gustav Klimt]]
[[pt:Gustav Klimt]]
[[ro:Gustav Klimt]]
[[ru:Климт, Густав]]
[[sl:Gustav Klimt]]
[[fi:Gustav Klimt]]
[[sv:Gustav Klimt]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Groucho Marx</title>
<id>12426</id>
<revision>
<id>42117661</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:03:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mikadoo</username>
<id>925686</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''"Groucho" redirects here. For other uses, see [[Groucho (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Grouchomarxpromophoto.jpg|thumb|right|Groucho Marx poses for an NBC promotional photograph]]
'''Julius Henry Marx''', known as '''Groucho Marx''' ([[October 2]], [[1890]] &ndash; [[August 19]], [[1977]]), was an [[United States|American]] [[comedian]], working both with his siblings, the [[Marx Brothers]], and on his own.
== Childhood ==
The Marx family grew up on the [[Upper East Side]] of [[New York City]], in a small [[Jew]]ish neighborhood sandwiched between Irish-German and Italian neighborhoods.
== Accent ==
For a time in [[vaudeville]], all the brothers performed in ethnic accents; Leonard Marx, the oldest Marx brother, developed the "Italian" accent he used as "[[Chico Marx|Chico]]" to convince some roving bullies that he was Italian, not Jewish. Groucho did a [[German_language|German]] accent. However, after the sinking of the [[RMS Lusitania]] in [[1915]] public [[anti-German sentiment]] was widespread, and Groucho's "German" character was booed, so he quickly dropped the accent and developed the fast-talking wise guy character he would make famous.
==Career highlights==
[[Image:Early_marx_brothers_with_parents.jpg|thumb|200px|left|An early photo of the brothers with their parents. Groucho is the first on the left.]]
Groucho developed a routine as a wise-cracking hustler with a distinctive chicken-walking lope and an exaggerated greasepaint [[mustache]], improvising insults to stuffy [[dowager]]s (often played by [[Margaret Dumont]]) and anyone else who stood in his way. He and his brothers starred in a series of extraordinarily popular movies and stage shows, often [[ad lib|departing from the scripts]] they were using. (See: [[Marx Brothers]])
The use of greasepaint originated spontaneously before a [[vaudeville]] performance when he did not have time to apply the pasted-on mustache he had been using.
In the [[1930s]] and [[1940s]] Groucho also worked as a [[radio]] comedian and show host. In the late 1940s, he hosted the popular [[radio]] program ''[[You Bet Your Life]]'', which moved over to [[television]] in [[1950]]. The show consisted of Groucho interviewing the contestants and "ad libbing" jokes. Then they would play a brief quiz. The show was responsible for the phrases "Say the secret woid [word] and divide $100" (that is, each contestant would get $50); and "Who's buried in [[Grant's Tomb]]?" or "What color is the [[White House]]?" (asked when Groucho felt sorry for a contestant who hadn't won anything). It would run 11 years on [[television]].
Throughout his career he introduced a number of memorable songs in films, including "Hooray for [[Captain Spaulding]]", "I'm Against It", "Hello I Must be Going", "Everyone Says I Love You" and "[[Lydia the Tattooed Lady]]". [[Crooner]] [[Frank Sinatra]] once quipped that the only thing he could do better than Marx was sing.
==Personal life==
Groucho was married three times, and all of his marriages ended in divorce. His first wife was a chorus girl named Ruth Johnson, by whom he had two children, Arthur and Miriam. He had a daughter, Melinda, by his second wife, Kay Gorsey, former wife of [[Leo Gorcey]], one of the [[Bowery Boys]].
==Later years==
[[Image:Groucho-marx.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Groucho Marx appears on ''America Salutes Richard Rodgers'']]
Off-stage he was bookish and stated late in life that he lamented the fact he had never finished school or gone to college. Despite his lack of formal education he wrote several books, including the autobiographical ''Groucho and Me'' (1959) (Da Capo Press, 1995, ISBN 0306806665) and ''Memoirs of a Mangy Lover'' (1964) (Da Capo Press, 2002, ISBN 0306811049).
In later years he grew a real moustache, the lack of which had earlier been an effective means of hiding himself from fans.
His stage name was said to have been bestowed on him by another performer during a back-stage card game at the Orpehum Theatre in Galesburg, Illinois, because while in [[vaudeville]] he kept his money in a bag around his neck known as a "grouch" bag. An alternate story is that he was grouchy. The comedian himself wrote that he did not know the nickname's origin, but in his autobiography he wrote that it wasn't from the money-holding grouch-bags. In any case, he was a master at improvising clever insults and became well known for this. One of his frustrations in later years was that when he insulted people who annoyed him they tended to laugh, thinking it was just part of the famous comedian's act.
In the early [[1970s]], Groucho made a comeback of sorts doing a live one-man show, including one recorded at [[Carnegie Hall]] and released as a double album, ''An Evening with Groucho'', on [[A&M Records]]. His previous works once again became popular and were accompanied by new books of interviews and other transcribed conversations by Richard J. Anobile and [[Charlotte Chandler]]. He had become quite frail by this time and his last few years were accompanied by controversy over a companionship he had developed with [[Erin Fleming]] which consequently raised disputes over his estate.
Groucho Marx died on [[August 19]], [[1977] |
us could determine the mean distance; because it was computed for a minumum distance of the Sun, it is the maximum mean distance possible for the Moon. With his value for the eccentricity of the orbit, he could compute the least and greatest distances of the Moon too. According to Pappus, he found a least distance of 62, a mean of 67+1/3, and consequently a greatest distance of 72+2/3 Earth radii. With this method, as the parallax of the Sun decreases (i.e., its distance increases), the minimum limit for the mean distance is 59 Earth radii - exactly the mean distance that Ptolemy later derived.
Hipparchus thus had the problematic result that his minimum distance (from book 1) was greater than his maximum mean distance (from book 2). He was intellectually honest about this discrepancy, and probably realized that especially the first method is very sensitive to the accuracy of the observations and parameters (in fact, modern calculations show that the size of the solar eclipse at Alexandria must have been closer to 9/10 than to the reported 4/5).
Ptolemy later measured the lunar parallax directly (''Almagest'' V.13), and used the second method of Hipparchus' with lunar eclipses to compute the distance of the Sun (''Almagest'' V.15). He criticizes Hipparchus for making contradictory assumptions, and obtaining conflicting results (''Almagest'' V.11): but apparently he failed to understand Hipparchus' strategy to establish limits consistent with the observations, rather than a single value for the distance. His results were the best so far: the actual mean distance of the Moon is 60.3 Earth radii, within his limits from book 2.
[[Theon of Smyrna]] wrote that according to Hipparchus, the Sun is 1,880 times the size of the Earth, and the Earth twenty-seven times the size of the Moon; apparently this refers to [[volume]]s, not [[diameter]]s. From the geometry of book 2 it follows that the Sun is at 2,550 Earth radii, and the mean distance of the Moon is 60½ radii. Similarly, [[Cleomedes]] quotes Hipparchus for the sizes of the Sun and Earth as 1050:1; this leads to a mean lunar distance of 61 radii. Apparently Hipparchus later refined his computations, and derived accurate single values that he could use for predictions of solar eclipses.
See [Toomer 1974] for a more detailed discussion.
=== Eclipses ===
[[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] (''Naturalis Historia'' II.X) tells us that Hipparchus demonstrated that lunar eclipses can occur five months apart, and solar eclipses seven months (instead of the usual six months); and the Sun can be hidden twice in thirty days, but as seen by different nations. Ptolemy discussed this a century later at length in ''Almagest'' VI.6. The geometry, and the limits of the positions of Sun and Moon when a solar or lunar eclipse is possible, are explained in ''Almagest'' VI.5. Hipparchus apparently made similar calculations. The result that two solar eclipses can occur one month apart is important, because this can not be based on observations: one is visible on the northern and the other on the southern hemisphere - as Pliny indicates -, and the latter was inaccessible to the Greek.
Prediction of a solar eclipse, i.e., exactly when and where it will be visible, requires a solid lunar theory and proper treatment of the lunar parallax. Hipparchus must have been the first to be able to do this. A rigorous treatment requires [[spherical trigonometry]], but Hipparchus may have made do with planar approximations. He may have discussed these things in ''Peri tes kata platos meniaias tes selenes kineseoos'' ("On the monthly motion of the Moon in latitude"), a work mentioned in the ''[[Suda]]''.
Pliny also remarks that "he also discovered for what exact reason, although the shadow causing the eclipse must from sunrise onward be below the earth, it happened once in the past that the moon was eclipsed in the west while both luminaries were visible above the earth." (translation H. Rackham (1938), [[Loeb Classical Library]] 330 p.207). Toomer (1980) argued that this must refer to the large total lunar eclipse of [[26 November]] [[139 BC]], when over a clean sea horizon as seen from the citadel of Rhodes, the Moon was eclipsed in the northwest just after the Sun rose in the southeast. This would be the second eclipse of the 345-year interval that Hipparchus used to verify the traditional Babylonian periods: this puts a late date to the development of Hipparchus' lunar theory. We do not know what "exact reason" Hipparchus found for seeing the Moon eclipsed while apparently it was not in exact [[astronomical opposition|opposition]] to the Sun. Parallax lowers the altitude of the luminaries; refraction raises them, and from a high point of view the horizon is lowered.
== Astronomical instruments and astrometry ==
Hipparchus is credited with the invention or improvement of several astronomical instruments, which were used for a long time for [[naked-eye]] observations. According to [[Synesius]] of Ptolemais ([[4th century]]) he made the first ''astrolabion'': this may have been an [[armillary sphere]] (which Ptolemy however says he constructed, in ''Almagest'' V.1); or the predecessor of the planar instrument called [[astrolabe]] (also mentioned by [[Theon of Alexandria]]). With an astrolabe Hipparchus was the first to be able to measure the geographical [[latitude]] and [[time]] by observing stars. Previously this was done at daytime by measuring the shadow cast by a ''[[gnomon]]'', or with the portable instrument known as ''[[scaphion]]''.
[[Image:equatorial_ring.png|thumb|right|200px|Hipparchus' [[equatorial ring]].]]
Ptolemy mentions (''Almagest'' V.14) that he used a similar instrument as Hipparchus, called ''[[dioptra]]'', to measure the apparent diameter of the Sun and Moon. [[Pappus of Alexandria]] described it (in his commentary on the ''Almagest'' of that chapter), as did [[Proclus]] (''Hypotyposis'' IV). It was a 4-foot rod with a scale, a sighting hole at one end, and a wedge that could be moved along the rod to exactly obscure the disk of Sun or Moon.
Hipparchus also observed solar [[equinox]]es, which may be done with an [[equatorial ring]]: its shadow falls on itself when the Sun is on the [[equator]] (i.e., in one of the equinoctial points on the [[ecliptic]]), but the shadow falls above or below the opposite side of the ring when the Sun is south or north of the equator. Ptolemy quotes (in ''Almagest'' III.1 (H195)) a description by Hipparchus of an equatorial ring in Alexandria; a little further he describes two such instruments present in Alexandria in his own time.
== Geography ==
Hipparchus applied his knowledge of spherical angles to the problem of denoting locations on the Earth's surface. Before him a grid system had been used by [[Dicaearchus]] of [[Messina, Italy|Messana]], but Hipparchus was the first to apply mathematical rigor to the determination of the [[latitude]] and [[longitude]] of places on the Earth. Hipparchus wrote a critique in three books on the work of the geographer [[Eratosthenes]] of Cyrene ([[3rd century BC]]), called ''Pròs tèn 'Eratosthénous geografían'' ("Against the Geography of Eratosthenes"). It is known to us from [[Strabo]] of Amaseia, who in his turn criticised Hipparchus in his own ''Geografia''. Hipparchus apparently made many detailed corrections to the locations and distances mentioned by Eratosthenes. It seems he did not introduce many improvements in methods, but he did propose a means to determine the [[geographic coordinate system|geographical longitudes]] of different [[city|cities]] at [[lunar eclipse]]s (Strabo ''Geografia'' 7). A lunar eclipse is visible simultaneously on half of the Earth, and the difference in longitude between places can be computed from the difference in local time when the eclipse is observed. His approach would give accurate results if it were correctly carried out but the limitations of timekeeping accuracy in his era made this method impractical.
== Star catalogue ==
After that, in [[135 BC]], enthusiastic about a [[nova]] in the constellation of [[Scorpius]], he measured with an [[equatorial armillary sphere]] [[ecliptic coordinate system|ecliptical coordinates]] of about 1,000 stars (the exact number is not known) for his [[star catalogue]].
He also knew the work ''Phainomena'' (''Phenomena''). That poem, known as ''Phaenomena'' or ''Arateia'', describes the [[constellation]]s and the [[star]]s that form them. Hipparchus' commentary contains many measurements of [[stellar position]] and times for rising, culmination, and setting of the constellations treated in the ''Phaenomena'', and these are likely to have been based on measurements of [[stellar position]]s&mdash; and he knew the ''Enoptron'' (''Mirror of Nature'') of [[Eudoxus of Cnidus]], who had his school near [[Cyzicus]] on the southern coast of the [[Sea of Marmara]] and through the ''Phenomena'' Eudoxus' sphere, which was made from metal or stone and where there were marked constellations, brightest stars, the [[tropic of Cancer]] and the [[tropic of Capricorn]]. These comparisons embarrassed him because he could not put together Eudoxus' detailed statements with his own observations and observations of that time. From all this he found that coordinates of the stars and the Sun had systematically changed. Their ecliptic latitudes β remained unchanged, but their ecliptic longitudes λ had increased, at a rate which he estimated to be at least one degree per century.
This catalog served him to find any changes on the sky but unfortunately it is not preserved today. However, a [[2005]] analysis of an ancient statue of [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]] shows stars at positions that appear to have been determined using Hipparchus' data. [http://www.phys.lsu.edu/farnese/] His star map was thoroughly modified as late as 1,000 years later in [[964]] by [['Abd Al-Rahman Al Sufi|Al Sufi]] and 1,500 years later ([ |
i Kiadó, 1992-1997., ISBN 9630562278
* Collinder, Björn: Fenno-Ugric Vocabulary. Uppsala, 1955, ISBN 3871181870.
* Collinder, Björn: An introduction to the Uralic languages. Berkely, California
* Campbell, Lyle: ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction''. Edinburgh University Press 1998.
* Csepregi Márta (ed.): Finnugor kalauz (Finno-Ugric Guide). Budapest: Panoráma, 1998., ISBN 9632438620
* [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] 15th ed.: Languages of the World: Uralic languages. Chicago, 1990.
* Häkkinen, Kaisa: ''Suomalais-ugrilaisten kielten etymologisen tutkimuksen asemasta ja ongelmista'' (''About the situation and problems of the etymological research of the Finno-Ugric languages'') (1979), in Nykysuomen rakenne ja kehitys (Structure and development of modern Finnish) volume 2, (NRJK 2) Pieksämäki 1984, ISBN 951-717-360-1.
* Laakso, Johanna: Karhunkieli. Pyyhkäisyjä suomalais-ugrilaisten kielten tutkimukseen (A Bear Tongue. Views on the Research of the Finno-Ugric Languages). Helsinki: SKS, 1999.
* Laakso, Johanna (ed.): Uralilaiset kansat (Uralic Peoples). [[Porvoo]] - [[Helsinki]] - [[Juva]]: WSOY, 1992, ISBN 951-0-16485-2.
* Marcantonio, Angela: What Is the Linguistic Evidence to Support the Uralic Theory or Theories? - In ''Linguistica Uralica'' 40, 1, pp 40-45, 2004.
* Marcantonio, Angela: The Uralic Language Family: Facts, Myths and Statistics. 2003.
* Marcantonio, Angela, Pirjo Nummenaho, and Michela Salvagni: The "Ugric-Turkic Battle": A Critical Review. In ''Linguistica Uralica'' 37, 2, pp 81-102, 2001. [http://www.kirj.ee/esi-l-lu/l37-2-1.pdf Online version].
* Ruhlen, Merritt, A Guide to the World's languages, Stanford, California (1987), pp. 64&ndash;71.
* Sammallahti, Pekka: Historical phonology of the Uralic languages. - In: Denis Sinor (ed.), ''The Uralic languages. Description, history and foreign influences.'' Leiden - New York - København - Köln: Brill, 1998.
* Sammallahti, Pekka, Matti Morottaja: Säämi - suoma - säämi škovlasänikirje ([[Inari Sami]] - [[Finnish language|Finnish]] - [[Inari Sami]] School Dictionary). [[Helsset]]/[[Helsinki]]: Ruovttueatnan gielaid dutkanguovddaš/Kotimaisten kielten tutkimuskeskus, 1983, ISBN 951-9475-36-2.
* Sammallahti, Pekka: Sámi - suoma - sámi sátnegirji ([[Northern Sami]] - [[Finnish language|Finnish]] - [[Northern Sami]] Dictionary). [[Ohcejohka]]/[[Utsjoki]]: Girjegiisá, 1993, ISBN 951-8939-28-4.
* Sinor, Denis (ed.): ''Studies in Finno-Ugric Linguistics: In Honor of Alo Raun'' (Indiana University Uralic and Altaic Series : Volume 131). Indiana Univ Research, 1977, ISBN 0933070004.
* Vikør, Lars S. (ed.): Fenno-Ugric. In: ''The Nordic Languages. Their Status and Interrelations''. Novus Press, pp. 62-74, 1993.
* Wiik, Kalevi: ''Eurooppalaisten juuret'', Atena Kustannus Oy. Finland, 2002.
* Языки народов СССР III. Финно-угорские и самоитйские языки (Languages of the Peoples in the USSR III. Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic Languages). Москва (Moscow): Наука (Nauka), 1966.
* A magyar szókészlet finnugor elemei. Etimológiai szótár (The Hungarian Vocabulary of Finno-Ugric Origin. [[Etymological Dictionary]]). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1967-1978.
[[Category:Finno-Ugric languages]]
[[cv:Финн-угр чĕлхисем]]
[[de:Finno-ugrische Sprachen]]
[[et:Soome-ugri keeled]]
[[eo:Finn-ugra lingvaro]]
[[fr:Langues finno-ougriennes]]
[[is:Finnsk-úgrísk tungumál]]
[[hu:Finnugor nyelvek]]
[[mo:Лимбиле фино-угриче]]
[[nl:Finoegrische talen]]
[[nn:Finsk-ugriske språk]]
[[pl:Języki ugrofińskie]]
[[ro:Limbile fino-ugrice]]
[[ru:Финно-угорские языки]]
[[se:Suopmelaš-ugralaš gielat]]
[[sk:Ugrofínske jazyky]]
[[sl:Ugrofinski jeziki]]
[[fi:Suomalais-ugrilaiset kielet]]
[[sv:Finsk-ugriska språk]]
[[uk:Угрофінські мови]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Finnish</title>
<id>10804</id>
<revision>
<id>40604404</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T19:46:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zondor</username>
<id>73244</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[Finnic]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Finnish''' may refer to:
* [[Finland]], a European country.
* [[Finnish people]] indicating ethnicity.
* [[Finnish language]].
==See also==
* [[Finnic]], present-day English usage of peoples particularly in Finland and Estonia
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Finnish language/history</title>
<id>10805</id>
<revision>
<id>15908599</id>
<timestamp>2004-02-29T02:55:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Angela</username>
<id>8551</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Finnish_language#History]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fermanagh</title>
<id>10806</id>
<revision>
<id>27180039</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-02T18:44:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Whobot</username>
<id>393532</id>
</contributor>
<comment>null edit</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[County Fermanagh]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Freestyle music</title>
<id>10808</id>
<revision>
<id>42137996</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:51:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Iamthejabberwock</username>
<id>531901</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>removed hypen from "hip-hop" - see [[Talk:Hip_hop_music#why_it_should_be_moved|this page]] for details</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about a genre of [[dance music]]. For the freestyle form of [[rapping]] in music, see [[Freestyle rap]].}}
'''Freestyle''' or '''Latin freestyle''', also called '''Latin hip hop''' in its early years, is a form of [[electronic music]] that is heavily influenced by [[Hispanic]] and [[African-American]] culture. Freestyle emerged around 1982 and hit its peak in 1989. It continues to be produced today and enjoys some degree of popularity, especially in urban Latino population centers. Another popular modern genre [[Florida breaks]] evolved from this sound.
The music first developed primarily in northeastern U.S. states like [[New York]], [[Pennsylvania]], and [[New Jersey]]. Initially, it was a fusion of the vocal styles found in [[1970s]] [[disco]] music with the syncopated, synthetic instrumentation of [[1980s]] [[Electro (music)|electro]], as favored by fans of [[breakdancing]]. It was also influenced by [[sampling (music)|sampling]], as found in [[hip hop music]]. In the [[1990s]], the electro and hip hop influences were supplanted by [[house music]]. Freestyle music based on house rather than electro is sometimes referred to as '''freestyle house'''.
==Musical heritage==
Before [[1982]], hip hop was based on rather traditional genres, typically funk and disco tracks such as ''Good Times'' by [[Chic]]. It was only the rapping that clearly made the distinction as to what constituted a rap track.
The music of early rap records was performed live in the studio and then mixed with the rapping, whereas live hip hop was [[two turntables and a microphone]] with DJs such as [[Kool DJ Herc]], [[Afrika Bambaataa]] and [[Grandmaster Flash]]. Herc was a [[Jamaica]]n, and in the beginning he brought the Jamaican tradition of [[dee jaying]] (toasting) and mixing to the [[Bronx]], NY. In the end, Jamaican and African American traditions merged into the new music called hip hop.
===''Planet Rock''===
Herc first tried to make people listen to the [[reggae]] tracks from [[Jamaica]] but it didn't work. Then he started using [[funk]] and [[soul music|soul]] records, focusing on the instrumental breaks. The ''Ultimate Breaks and Beats'' series includes tracks from "''Mary Mary''" to "''Apache''" which have been sampled many times and are still used today by hip hop DJs. Of course, this music was organic rather than electronic. But hip hop DJs discovered weird sounds from [[Europe]] such as [[Kraftwerk]]'s ''Numbers'', [[Art of Noise]]'s "''Beatbox''" and ''[[Trans Europe Express]]'', which, although electronic, were funky and danceable. Back then, this music was called [[techno music|techno]].
With Baker and Robie, Afrika Bambaataa mixed famous samples from [[Kraftwerk]]'s ''Trans Europe Express'' and ''Numbers'' with funkier sounds inspired by [[Captain Sky]]'s ''Super Sperm'' and taking melodic elements from a rock version of [[Ennio Morricone]]'s ''The Mexican''. The result: ''[[Planet Rock]]'' ([[1982]]) by [[Afrika Bambaataa|Afrika Bambaataa]] and the Soul Sonic Force, a track that transformed hip hop music.
This new style of hip hop came to be called Electro Funk. A group of young singers named [[Planet Patrol]] recorded a sung version of Planet Rock, ''Play at your own risk'', also produced by Baker and Robie. Electro Funk was to rule hip hop for the next few years, both in NY and LA ([[Egyptian Lover]], [[World Class Wreckin Cru]]), and in Miami, a new kind of hip hop called [[Miami Bass]] would emerge. [[House music]] was also heavily influenced by [[Electro (music)|Electro Funk]]. [[John Robie]] and [[Arthur Baker]] realized the potential of the new genre and went on mixing the sound with [[R&B]] Vocals: ''I.O.U.'' by [[Freeez]] featuring [[John Rocca]] was an instant club hit, charting high and becoming an instant classic on numerous compilations.
===The music===
It is a genre with rather clear features: a dance tempo with stress on beats 2 & 4; syncopation on a [[bassline]], lead synth, or [[Percussion_instrument|percussion]], with optional [[stab (music)|stab]]s (provided as synthesized brass or orchestral [[sampling (music)|sample]]s); 16th beat high-hat; a [[chord progression]] which lasts 8, 16, or 32 beats and is usually in a minor key; relatively complex, upbeat melodies with singing, verses, and a chorus, with themes about [[love]] or [[dancing]] |
ng elders'). These ministers are regared simply as Presbyters ordained to a different function, but in practice provide the leadership for local Kirk Session.
Some presbyterians identify those appointed (by the laying on of hands) to serve in practical ways ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=acts+6.1-7 Acts 6.1-7]) as deacons (''diakonos'' in Greek, meaning "servant"). In many congregations, a group of men or women is thus set aside to deal with matters such as congregational fabric and finance, releasing elders for more 'spiritual' work. These persons may be known as 'deacons', 'board members' or 'managers', depending on the local tradition. Unlike elders and minister, they are not usually 'ordained', and are often elected by the congregation for a set period of time.
Other presbyterians have used an 'order of deacons' as full-time servants of the wider Church - but who, unlke ministers, do not administer sacraments or routinely preach. The [[Church of Scotland]] has recently begun ordaining deacons to this role.
Unlike the episcopalian schemes, but similar to the United Methodist scheme described above, the two presbyterian offices are different in ''kind'' rather than in ''degree'' since one need not be a deacon before becoming an elder. Since there is no hierarchy, the two offices do not make up an "order" in the technical sense, but the terminology of Holy Orders is sometimes still used.
=== Congregationalist churches ===
[[Congregationalist church governance|Congregationalist]] churches implement different schemes, but the officers usually have less authority than in the presbyterian or episcopalian forms. Some ordain only ministers and rotate members on an advisory board (sometimes called a board of elders or a board of deacons). Because the positions are by comparison less powerful, there is usually less rigor or fanfare in how officers are ordained.
=== The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ===
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has a relatively open priesthood, ordaining nearly all adult males and boys of the age of twelve and older. Latter-day Saint priesthood consists of two orders: the Melchizedek and Aaronic. The offices, or ranks, of the Melchizedek order (in roughly descending order) include apostle, seventy, patriarch, high priest, and elder. The offices of the Aaronic order are bishop, priest, teacher, and deacon. The manner of ordination consists of the laying on of hands by one or more men holding at least the office being conferred while one acts as voice in conferring the priesthood and/or office and usually pronounces a blessing upon the recipient. Teachers and deacons do not have the authority to ordain others to the priesthood. All church members are authorized to teach and preach regardless of priesthood ordination so long as they maintain good standing within the church. The church does not use the term "holy orders."
=== Non-traditional organizations ===
The non-authoritarian religious denominations, such as [[Spiritual Humanism]] and the [[Universal Life Church]], prefer to empower their clergy by minimizing the impediments to those that feel the calling to make a spiritual connection to the cosmos. Reducing the barriers to performing religious ceremonies these denominations encourage those who within the general population to realize spiritual experience. By enabling friends or relatives to perform ceremonies like marriages, organizations that offer online ordination demystify and integrate religious understanding into lives of the otherwise nonreligious public.
== Ordination of women ==
:''Main article: [[Ordination of women]]''
Many, but not all, denominations in Christendom allow the ordination of women. Notable denominations who ordain women in the USA include [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|Episcopalians]], [[Presbyterian Church USA|Presbyterians (PCUSA)]], [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America|Lutherans (ELCA)]], the [[United Church of Christ]], the [[Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)]], and the [[United Methodist Church]] although there are others. Many of the same denominations ordain women throughout the world. For example, the majority of the [[Anglican Communion]], in theory allows for the ordination of women.
In the listed denominations, ordination to [[priest]]/[[minister of religion|minister]], [[bishop]], [[elder (religious)|elder]], or [[deacon]] is allowed.
In other denominations, women can be ordained to be an [[elder]] or [[deacon]]. Some denominations allow for the ordination of women for certain religious orders.
Many denominations have divided or united around the issue of ordination of women.
== Ordination of homosexuals ==
=== Judaism ===
The ordination of [[homosexuality|homosexuals]] as [[Rabbi|Rabbis]] is an issue being dealt with in nearly all sects of [[Judaism]]. Often this issue is dealt with by [[Conservative Judaism]] and [[Reform Judaism]], although not exclusively. The most noted openly homosexual rabbi is Rabbi [[Steven Greenberg, Rabbi|Steven Greenberg]]. [http://www.tremblingbeforeg-d.com/ Trembling Before G-D] is a [[Documentary film|documentary]] dealing with homosexuality and [[Orthodox Judaism]].
=== Christianity ===
The [[Metropolitan Community Church|Universal Fellowship of Metropolitan Community Churches]] is the only [[United States of America|American]] denomination with an '''official''' stance allowing [[homosexuality|homosexuals]] to be ordained. The [[United Church of Christ]], because of its decentralized model, allows ordination out of default since there are no official denomination-wide stances on [[doctrine]]. Other denominations such as [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|The Episcopal Church]] have openly ordained homosexuals despite official policies to the contrary, and have since apologised to the Anglican Communion, and no longer ordain gays. Some denominations allow for these ordained to be in union with their partners. Other denominations require a vow of [[celibacy]]. Most of the mainline protestant denominations are openly discussing the issue such as the [[Presbyterian Church USA]], the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America|Evangelical Lutheran Church (ELCA)]] and the [[Uniting Church in Australia]].
Recently the ordination of [[Gene Robinson]] to the order of [[bishop]] in the [[Episcopal Diocese of New Hampshire]], and the near ordination of [[Jeffrey John]] (was to be ordained Bishop of Reading) in the [[Church of England]] have caused a stir in the [[Anglican Communion]], as the majority of world-wide Anglican provinces approve of such actions.
The ordination of homosexuals is not a new thing, but the open ordination has come to light. Often those who were homosexual did not admit their sexuality, and were ordained. Upon the ordination of Gene Robinson, Episcopal Bishop [[J. Neil Alexander]] of the [[Episcopal Diocese of Atlanta|Diocese of Atlanta]] said he voted for the ordination because Gene was open about his sexuality and honest, whereas in the past known gay clergy were ordained to the episcopate only because they lied about it.
In many churches this is a very volatile issue, as is the ordination of women in many churches. It is not likely that a resolution will be swift. Within mainline churches the [[Confessing Movement]] has been a vehicle for the opposition to the ordination of homosexuals.
=== Humanist ===
Humanist and other rationalist religious organizations recognize and affirm the right of celebrants who are consenting adults to enter into relationships with other consenting adults regardless of their sexual orientation or gender.
==Print resources==
*Campbell, Dennis. ''Yoke of Obedience'', 1988. ISBN 0687466601
*[[Thomas Oden|Oden, Thomas]]. ''Pastoral Theology: Essentials of Ministry'', 1983. ISBN 0060663537
*[[William Willimon|Willimon, William]]. ''Calling & Character: Virtues of the Ordained Life'', 2000. ISBN 0687090334
*[[William Willimon|Willimon, William]]. ''Pastor: The Theology and Practice of Ordained Ministry'', 2002. ISBN 0687045320
== See also ==
* [[Clergy]]
* [[Homosexuality in the Roman Catholic priesthood]]
* [[Ordination of women]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.americancatholic.org/Features/Sacraments/HolyOrders.asp Priesthood - Catholic Sacrament of Holy Orders - Ordination]
* [http://www.gbhem.org/ResourceLibrary/stepord.pdf The Steps to Orders in The United Methodist Church] (PDF)
[[Category:Roman Catholic Church offices]]
[[Category:Seven sacraments]]
[[Category:Christian leaders]]
[[Category:Christianity]]
[[Category:Sacraments]]
[[Category:Christian theology]]
[[de:Weihesakrament]]
[[fr:Ordination]]
[[it:Ordine sacro]]
[[nl:Wijding]]
[[no:Ordinasjon]]
[[pl:Święcenia kapłańskie]]
[[pt:Ordem sacerdotal]]
[[sk:Sviatosť posvätného stavu]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>H.M.S. Titanic</title>
<id>13632</id>
<revision>
<id>15911229</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-23T04:22:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ap</username>
<id>122</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[RMS Titanic]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Homer</title>
<id>13633</id>
<revision>
<id>42096370</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:25:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Akhilleus</username>
<id>615502</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>revert--"Other" is more accurate than "Most of these"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Homer_British_Museum.jpg|thumb|right|Bust of Homer in the [[British Museum]]]]
:''For other uses, see [[Homer (disambiguation)]].''
'''Homer''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|&#8013;}}&#x03bc;&#x03b7;&#x03c1;&#x03bf;&#x03c2; ''H& |
ethod that uses [[financial analysis]] - that is, an analysis of a company's financial data - to predict the movement of that company's stock price.
A potential (or current) investor uses fundamental analysis to examine a company's financial results, its operations and the market(s) in which the company is competing to understand the stability and growth potential of that company. Company factors to consider might include dividends paid, the way a company manages its cash, the amount of debt a company has, and the growth of a company's revenues, expenses and earnings.
The theory underpinning fundamental analysis is that, to truly make money in the long run, an investor must focus on the company itself rather than merely on the movement of its stock price. As [[Benjamin Graham]] and [[David Dodd]] say in their classic work ''[[Security Analysis]]'', in the short run, the market is a voting machine, not a weighing machine. An investor uses fundamental analysis to find the companies that are built to last.
Fundamental analysis adherents believe a company's "intrinsic value" will be eventually be reflected in the stock price through market forces, but that, while the market is ultimately [[Efficient market hypothesis|efficient]], some stocks (for any number of reasons) are either over- or under-valued in the short run. Therefore, the use of fundamental analysis can be viewed as a type of [[arbitrage]].
To this end, [[earnings multiples]], such as the [[PE ratio|P/E ratio]], may be used to determine value, where cash flows are relatively stable and predictable. An important caveat here is that the P/E ratio is ultimately not an objective measure because it must be interpreted; a high P/E ratio might show an overvalued stock, or it might reflect a company with high potential for growth. One method for combatting this interpretation problem is to use the valuation equations in the works of Aswath Damodaran or on web sites like ValueTool ([http://www.valuetool.com]) that interpret equations such as P/E, P/BV, or FCFE as dollar values, so that they may be easily compared to the stock price.
Other valuation techniques include [[discounted cash flow]], [[book value]], and [[dividend]] yield analysis.
==Criticisms==
* There is very little evidence that fundamental analysis is useful to investors in developed financial markets.
* Some experts suggest that a monkey throwing darts at the financial pages of a newspaper may do just as well (see [[efficient market hypothesis]] and [[random walk hypothesis]]).
== See also ==
* [[Stock valuation]]
* [[Efficient market hypothesis]]
* [[Net present value]]
* [[Discount|Discount rate]]
**[[Capital Asset Pricing Model]]
**[[Cost of capital]]
**[[Weighted average cost of capital]]
* [[CANSLIM]]
* [[Technical analysis]]
* [[Warren Edward Buffett]]
[[Category:Fundamental analysis| ]]
[[Category:Stock market]]
[[id:Analisis fundamental]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Frasier</title>
<id>11685</id>
<revision>
<id>42153897</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:21:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>129.59.52.65</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Minor characters */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox television |
| show_name = Frasier
| image = [[Image:Frasierlogo.gif|200px]]
| caption = ''Frasier'' title screen motif
| format = [[Situation comedy|Sitcom]]
| runtime = 22 Minutes
| creator = [[David Angell]], [[Peter Casey]] & [[David Lee]]
| starring = [[Kelsey Grammer]]<br>[[David Hyde Pierce]]<br>[[John Mahoney]] <br> [[Jane Leeves]]<br>[[Peri Gilpin]]
| country = [[United States|USA]]
| network = [[NBC]]
| first_aired = [[September 16]], [[1993]]
| last_aired = [[May 13]], [[2004]]
| num_episodes = 265
| imdb_id = 0106004
|}}
'''''Frasier''''' was a critically acclaimed [[television in the United States|American TV]] [[situation comedy]]. A [[spin-off]] of the highly successful situation comedy ''[[Cheers]]'', it starred [[Kelsey Grammer]], reprising his character of [[Frasier Crane|Dr. Frasier Crane]]. Its first episode aired on [[NBC]] on [[September 16]], [[1993]], and its last episode aired on [[May 13]], [[2004]].
==Creators==
The show was created by [[David Angell]], [[Peter Casey]], and [[David Lee]]. It was produced by Angell, Casey and Lee ([[Grub Street Productions]]) in association with [[Paramount Pictures|Paramount Television]]. Angell, Casey and Lee had also written and produced ''[[Cheers]]'' and created'' [[Wings (sitcom)|Wings]]''.
==Cast==
'''Regulars:'''
*[[Kelsey Grammer]]: [[Frasier Crane|Dr. Frasier Crane]]
*[[David Hyde Pierce]]: [[Niles Crane|Dr. Niles Crane]]
*[[John Mahoney]]: [[Martin Crane]]
*[[Jane Leeves]]: [[Daphne Moon|Daphne Moon/Crane]]
*[[Peri Gilpin]]: [[Roz Doyle]]
*[[Dan Butler]]: [[Bulldog Briscoe|Bob "Bulldog" Briscoe]]
*"[[Moose (dog actor)|Moose]]" and "[[Enzo (dog actor)|Enzo]]": [[Eddie (character from Frasier)|Eddie]]
'''Recurring Guest Stars'''
*[[Edward Hibbert]]: [[Gil Chesterton]]
*[[Bebe Neuwirth]]: [[Lilith Sternin]]
*[[Trevor Einhorn]]: Frederick Crane
*[[Tom McGowan]]: [[Kenny Daley]]
*[[Patrick Kerr]]: [[Noel Shempsky]]
*[[Harriet Sansom Harris]]: [[Bebe Glazer]]
*[[Marsha Mason]]: Sherry Dempsey
*[[Saul Rubinek]]: Donny Douglas
*[[Jane Adams (actress)|Jane Adams]]: Mel Karnofsky
*[[Millicent Martin]]: [[Gertrude Moon]]
*[[Anthony LaPaglia]]: Simon Moon
==Storyline==
Dr. [[Frasier Crane]] is a [[psychiatrist]] who hosts a radio [[talk show]] in [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]] on [[KACL (Frasier)|KACL]] 780AM. His friend and producer is single mother [[Roz Doyle]], and his colleague, the sports show host [[Bulldog Briscoe|Bob "Bulldog" Briscoe]] is always on hand to annoy Frasier and hit on Roz. Frasier lives with his father, retired cop [[Martin Crane]] who was shot in the hip when he walked in on a robbery in progress and, because of that, he now walks with a cane. Martin is looked after by his [[Mancunian]] health care worker, [[Daphne Moon]], who is the love interest of Frasier's brother [[Niles Crane]], a fellow psychiatrist who is even more stuffy and pompous than Frasier. Completing the lineup is Martin's dog [[Eddie (character from Frasier)|Eddie]] (Moose, a well-trained [[Jack Russell Terrier]]) who responds with alacrity to the other characters but stares uncomprehendingly at Frasier. When not hosting his radio program, Frasier drinks coffee at the [[Cafe Nervosa]].
[[Image:Frasiercast.jpg|193px|right|thumb|The cast &mdash; from left: John Mahoney, Jane Leeves, Kelsey Grammer, David Hyde Pierce, Peri Gilpin]]
Most of the humor is derived from Frasier's search for romance; [[social class]] conflict, particularly with his blue-collar ex-cop father; sibling rivalry; the pomposity of Frasier as a minor [[celebrity]] and patron of the local Seattle arts scene; and misunderstandings between the characters.
Oddly, John Mahoney is the only Mancunian in the show--Jane Leeves is not from Manchester, and her character's accent is actually more of Lancashire accent.
==Characters==
''see above links for full character profiles''
'''Frasier Crane''': Played by ''[[Kelsey Grammer]]''.
Holds degrees from [[Harvard University]] and the [[University of Oxford]] and lives in Apartment 1901 of the Elliot Bay Towers on the [[Counterbalance]] in Seattle, Washington. His hobbies are playing the piano, attending the opera, collecting eclectic art (such as African art) and participating in wine tasting events with his brother Niles. Although Frasier claims not to be interested in sports and is not known for his physical prowess, he occasionally plays squash with Niles.
Frasier has a son named Frederick with his wife, Dr. [[Lilith Sternin]], whom he divorced around 1993. In the past, he had been married to a free-spirited woman named Nanette, who later achieved fame performing for children as the character "Nanny Gee." Frasier also attempted to marry [[Diane Chambers]] in Italy, but she left him at the altar.
Frasier not only helps listeners who call his radio show, but also the people in his daily life, including Niles, Martin, Daphne and Roz. Ironically, while Frasier seems to have the answers for his listeners and friends, his personal life is plagued by problems and dilemmas that he is helpless to resolve. Throughout the show, Frasier dates a succession of women in the search for his soulmate.
'''Niles Crane''': Played by ''[[David Hyde Pierce]]''.
Frasier's brother and practicing psychiatrist. Niles shares similar interests and educational background to Frasier (he was educated at [[Yale University]] and [[University of Cambridge]]), and is even more fussy and pedantic than his brother. Niles has an aversion to bugs, has several food allergies, and prefers to dust his chair before sitting. Niles' lack of physical prowess - which includes the inability to catch or throw - is a source of jokes throughout the show.
Niles is initially married to Maris, a rich heiress and keen society social climber. Niles is also strongly attracted to Daphne Moon, which on the show is (often humorously) suppressed. A major part of the later seasons is dedicated to Niles and Daphne getting together at last and their developing relationship
'''Martin Crane''': Played by ''[[John Mahoney]]''.
Frasier and Niles' father, also known as "Marty" by his friends. Martin worked as a detective in the police force for 30 years until he was shot in the hip during an armed robbery. After finding it increasingly difficult to live on his own, Martin moves in with Frasier (bringing Eddie and his battered armchair). Martin's working-class attitude and simpler outlook on life sometimes lead to confrontations with Frasier.
Martin enjoys watching sports on the television and is a frequent visitor to McGinty's bar. His best friend's (nick)name is |
re expensive option.
=== Capacity and performance ===
* '''[[Computer storage capacity|Storage capacity]]''' is the total amount of stored information that a storage device or medium can hold. It is expressed as a quantity of [[bit]]s or [[byte]]s (e.g. 10.4 [[megabyte]]s).
* '''[[Computer storage density|Storage density]]''' refers to the compactness of stored information. It is the storage capacity of a medium divided with a unit of length, area or volume (e.g. 1.2 megabytes per square centimeter).
* '''[[Latency (engineering)|Latency]]''' is the time it takes to access a particular location in storage. The relevant [[unit of measurement]] is typically [[nanosecond]] for primary storage, [[millisecond]] for secondary storage, and [[second]] for tertiary storage. It may make sense to separate ''read latency'' and ''write latency'', and in case of sequential access storage, ''minimum'', ''maximum'' and ''average latency''.
* '''[[Throughput]]''' is the rate at which information can read from or written to the storage. In computer storage, throughput is usually expressed in terms of ''megabytes per second'' or ''MB/s'', though [[bit rate]] may also be used. As with latency, ''read rate'' and ''write rate'' may need to be differentiated.
== Technologies, devices and media ==
=== Magnetic storage ===
'''Magnetic storage''' uses different patterns of [[magnetization]] on a [[magnetically]] coated surface to store information. Magnetic storage is ''non-volatile''. The information is accessed using one or more [[disk read-and-write head|read/write head]]s. Since the read/write head only covers a part of the surface, magnetic storage is ''sequential access'' and must seek, cycle or both. In modern computers, the magnetic surface will take these forms:
* [[Disk storage|Magnetic disk]]
** [[Floppy disk]], used for off-line storage
** [[Hard disk]], used for secondary storage
* [[Magnetic tape]], used for tertiary and off-line storage
In early computers, magnetic storage was also used for primary storage in a form of [[magnetic drum]], or [[core memory]], [[core rope memory]], [[thin film memory]], [[twistor memory]] or [[bubble memory]]. Also unlike today, magnetic tape was often used for secondary storage.
=== Semiconductor storage ===
'''[[Semiconductor memory]]''' uses [[semiconductor]]-based [[integrated circuit]]s to store information. A semiconductor memory chip may contain millions of tiny [[transistor]]s or [[capacitor]]s. Both ''volatile'' and ''non-volatile'' forms of semiconductor memory exist. In modern computers, primary storage almost exclusively consists of dynamic volatile semiconductor memory or [[dynamic random access memory]]. Since the turn of the century, a type of non-volatile semiconductor memory known as [[flash memory]] has steadily gained share as off-line storage for home computers. Non-volatile semiconductor memory is also used for secondary storage in various advanced electronic devices and specialized computers.
=== Optical disc storage ===
'''[[Optical disc|Optical disc storage]]''' uses tiny pits etched on the surface of a circular disc to store information, and reads this information by illuminating the surface with a [[laser diode]] and observing the reflection. Optical disc storage is ''non-volatile'' and ''sequential access''. The following forms are currently in common use:
* [[CD]], [[CD-ROM]], [[DVD]]: Read only storage, used for mass distribution of digital information (music, video, computer programs)
* [[CD-R]], [[DVD-R]], [[DVD plus R|DVD+R]]: Write once storage, used for tertiary and off-line storage
* [[CD-RW]], [[DVD-RW]], [[DVD plus RW|DVD+RW]], [[DVD-RAM]]: Slow write, fast read storage, used for tertiary and off-line storage
The following form have also been proposed:
* [[Blu-ray]]
* [[HD DVD]]
* [[Holographic Versatile Disc|HVD]]
* [[Phase-change Dual]]
==== Magneto-optical disc storage ====
'''[[Magneto-optical drive|Magneto-optical disc storage]]''' is optical disc storage where the magnetic state on a [[ferromagnetic]] surface stored information. The information is read optically and written by combining magnetic and optical methods. Magneto-optical disc storage is ''non-volatile'', ''sequential access'', slow write, fast read storage used for tertiary and off-line storage.
=== Other early methods ===
'''[[Paper tape]]''' and '''[[punch card]]s''' have been used to store information for automatic processing since the [[1890s]], long before general-purpose computers existed. Information was recorded by punching holes into the paper or cardboard medium, and was read by electrically (or, later, optically) sensing whether a particular location on the medium was solid or contained a hole.
'''[[Williams tube]]''' used a [[cathode ray tube]], and '''[[Selectron tube]]''' used a large [[vacuum tube]] to store information. These primary storage devices were short-lived in the market, since Williams tube was unreliable and Selectron tube was expensive.
'''[[Delay line memory]]''' used [[sound wave]]s in a substance such as [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] to store information. Delay line memory was ''dynamic volatile'', ''cycle sequential'' read/write storage, and was used for primary storage.
=== Other proposed methods ===
'''[[Phase-change memory]]''' uses different mechanical phases of [[phase change material]] to store information, and reads the information by observing the varying [[electric resistance]] of the material. Phase-change memory would be ''non-volatile'', ''random access'' read/write storage, and might be used for primary, secondary and off-line storage.
'''[[Holographic memory|Holographic storage]]''' stores information optically inside [[crystal]]s or [[photopolymer]]s. Holographic storage can utilize the whole volume of the storage medium, unlike optical disc storage which is limited to a small number of surface layers. Holographic storage would be ''non-volatile'', ''sequential access'', and either write once or read/write storage. It might be used for secondary and off-line storage.
'''[[Molecular memory]]''' stores information in [[polymer]]s that can store electric charge. Molecular memory might be especially suited for primary storage.
== See also ==
* [[Fragmentation#In Computer Storage|Fragmentation]]
=== Primary storage topics ===
* [[Memory management]]
** [[Virtual memory]]
** [[Physical memory]]
** [[Memory allocation]]
*** [[Dynamic memory]]
*** [[Memory leak]]
* [[Memory protection]]
=== Secondary, tertiary and off-line storage topics ===
* [[List of file formats]]
* [[Wait state]]
* [[Write protection]]
=== Data storage conferences ===
* [[Storage Decisions]]
* [[Storage Networking World]]
* [[Storage World Conference]]
== Reference ==
* [http://www.uplink.freeuk.com/data.html Estimates of the quantities of data contained by the various media]
[[Category:Computer storage|*]]
[[Category:Digital electronics]]
[[Category:Information technology]]
[[ca:Memòria d'ordinador]]
[[de:Arbeitsspeicher]]
[[es:Memoria de ordenador]]
[[fr:Mémoire informatique]]
[[ko:기억장치]]
[[lt:Atmintis (kompiuterio)]]
[[hu:Memória (számítástechnika)]]
[[ms:Storan komputer]]
[[nl:Computergeheugen]]
[[ja:記憶装置]]
[[pl:Pamięć komputerowa]]
[[pt:Memória (computador)]]
[[ru:Компьютерная память]]
[[sk:Pamäť (počítač)]]
[[th:หน่วยความจำ]]
[[vi:Bộ nhớ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cecil B. Demille</title>
<id>5301</id>
<revision>
<id>15903514</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cecil B. DeMille]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Conditional</title>
<id>5302</id>
<revision>
<id>42031574</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T09:20:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fresheneesz</username>
<id>247097</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The term '''conditional''' is used in [[linguistics]] and [[logic]] to refer to related concepts about sentences of the form ''If X, then Y'' (ie. 'if-then'). Some uses of the term are found at:
*[[Causal conditional]] - If X then Y, where X is a cause of Y.
*[[Conditional mood]] - A verb form in many languages.
*[[Counterfactual conditional]] or ''subjunctive conditional'' - If it had been the case that X, then it would have been the case that Y.
*[[Indicative conditional]] - If-then statements in ordinary language.
*[[Material conditional | Material conditional or Implies operator]] - An operator introduced in critical thinking and logic.
*[[Relevance conditional]] - The conditional used in [[relevance logic]].
*[[Strict conditional]] - Captures necessary if-then statements.
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Conic sections</title>
<id>5303</id>
<revision>
<id>15903516</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Conic section]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cone</title>
<id>5304</id>
<revision>
<id>41291762</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T09:07:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jorge Stolfi</username>
<id>48742</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv (fine point, but... a single cone cell is not color-sensitive (no more than a rod cell); it takes at least 3 cells + processing to get a full color signal</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:PovCone.jpg|90px|right]]
A '''cone''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''&#954;&#974;&#957;&#959;&#962;'', [[Latin]] ''conu'') is a basic [[geometry|geometrical]] [[shape]]: see [[cone (solid)]]. Several things have also been called |
o create a life-like feature film using only CGI.]]
In [[2001]], [[Square Pictures]] created the CGI film ''[[Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within]]'', which featured highly detailed and photographic-quality graphics. The film was not a box-office success, however, and after creating one more film using a similar visual style (''[[Final Flight of the Osiris]]'', a short subject which served as a prologue to ''[[The Matrix Reloaded]]''), Square Pictures closed down.
Developments in CGI technologies are reported each year at [[SIGGRAPH]], an annual conference on computer graphics and interactive techniques, attended each year by tens of thousands of computer professionals.
Developers of computer games and 3D video cards strive to achieve the same visual quality on personal computers in real-time as is possible for CGI films and animation. With the rapid advancement of real-time rendering quality, artists began to use [[game engine]]s to render non-interactive movies. This art form is called ''[[machinima]]''.
==Creating characters and objects on a computer==
[[Image:Gollum.jpg|250px|thumb|[[Gollum]] from the [[Lord of the Rings]] film trilogy composed entirely of CGI along with the use of [[Motion capture]].]]
Computer animation combines [[Vector graphics]] with programmed movement. The starting point is often a [[stick figure]] in which the position of each feature (limb, mouth etc) is defined by an [[Avar (animation variable)|Avars]] (animation variable). CGI is another term for computer animation, but usually refers to 3D high resolution with the emphasis on movies.
The character "Woody" in [[Pixar|Pixar's]] movie [[Toy Story]], for example, uses 700 Avars. Successive sets of Avars control all movement of the character from frame to frame. Once the stick model is moving in the desired way, the avars are incorporated into a full [[Wire frame model]] or a model built of polygons. Finally surfaces are added, requiring a lengthy process of [[Rendering]] to produce the final [[scene]].
There are several ways of generating the Avar values to obtain realistic motion. [[Motion capture]] uses lights or markers on a real person acting out the part, tracked by a [[video camera]]. Or the Avars may be set manually using a joystick or other form input control. [[Toy Story]] uses no motion tracking, probably because manual control by a skilled animator can produce effects not easily acted out by a real person.
==Free CGI Tools Available Online for Download==
*[[ArtofIllusion]]
*[[Blender (software)|Blender]]
*[[Povray]]
==See also==
* {{backlink}}[[Animation]]
* [[Computer animation]]
* [[Motion capture]]
* [[Wire frame model]]
* [[Computer representation of surfaces]]
* [[Timeline of CGI in film and television]]
* [[Visual effects]]
* [[Model (CGI)]]
==References==
* ''[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/13.02/fxgods.html F/X Gods]'', by Anne Thompson, Wired, February 2005.
==External links==
* [http://accad.osu.edu/~waynec/history/ID797.html A Critical History of Computer Graphics and Animation] &ndash; a course page at [[Ohio State University]] that includes all course materials and extensive supplementary materials (videos, articles, links).
* [http://www.elsnerpictures.com Elsner Pictures] An example of CGI in an [[independent film]] studio.
* [http://www.idealitymovie.com Ideality] An example of CGI in an [[independent film]].
* [http://www.3eyeGroup.com/ CGI architectural Visualization Samples and high-end presentations]
* [http://silicon-valley.siggraph.org/MeetingNotes/ToyStory.html Pixar and Disney's Toy Story]
[[Category:Visual effects]]
[[Category:Animation]]
[[bs:CGI]]
[[de:Computer Generated Imagery]]
[[he:Computer-generated Imagery]]
[[ja:Computer Generated Imagery]]
[[nl:Digitale animatie]]
[[sv:Computer Generated Imagery]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Choctaw</title>
<id>7222</id>
<revision>
<id>41521783</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T22:44:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TriNotch</username>
<id>152193</id>
</contributor>
<comment>RV</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For information about the helicopter, see [[H-34 Choctaw]]''
{{ethnic group|
|group=Choctaw
|image=[[Image:Pushmataha.JPG|center|200px]][[Pushmataha]] was the most famous Choctaw leader
|poptime=120,000
|popplace=[[United States]] ([[Oklahoma]], [[Mississippi]], [[Louisiana]])
|rels=[[Protestantism]], other
|langs=[[English language|English]], [[Choctaw language|Choctaw]]
|related=[[Five Civilized Tribes]]
}}
The '''Choctaws''' are a [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people originally from the southeast [[United States]] ([[Mississippi]], [[Alabama]], and [[Louisiana]]). In the nineteenth century, they were known as one of the "[[Five Civilized Tribes]]," so-called because they had integrated a number of cultural and technological "practices" of Europeans. The Choctaws are famous for their extreme generosity in providing famine relief during the [[Irish Potato Famine]].
==Pre-history==
Du Pratz, in his Hist. de La Louisiane (Paris, 1758) recounted that "...when I asked them from whence the Chat-kas came, to express the suddenness of their appearance they replied that they had come out from under the earth." Despite the author's assumption that this story was intended to "express the suddenness of their appearance," and not a literal creation story, this is perhaps the first European writing to contain the seed of the story. Romans' 1771 account (Natural History of East and West Florida, New York, 1775) reiterated the story:
<blockquote>
"These people are the only nation from whom I could learn any idea of a traditional account of a first origin; and that is their coming out of a hole in the ground, which they shew between their nation and the Chickasaws; they tell us also that their neighbours were surprised at seeing a people rise at once out of the earth."
</blockquote>
As told by both early 19th century as well as contemporary Mississippi Choctaw storytellers, it was either [[Nanih Waiya]] or a cave nearby from which the Choctaw people emerged.
Another story (Catlin's Smithsonian Report, 1885) linking the Choctaw people to Nanih Waiya explains that the Choctaw were originally inhabitants of a place far to the west:
<blockquote>
"The Choctaws a great many winters ago commenced moving from the country where they then lived, which was a great distance to the west of the great river and the mountains of snow, and they were a great many years on their way. A great medicine man led them the whole way, by going before with a red pole, which he stuck in the ground every night where they encamped. This pole was every morning found leaning to the east, and he told them that they must continue to travel to the east until the pole would stand upright in their encampment, and that there the Great Spirit had directed that they should live."
</blockquote>
According to the story, it was at Nanih Waiya that the pole finally stood straight. (Nanih Waiya means "leaning hill" in Choctaw.)
[[Nanih Waiya]] is in [[Winston County, Mississippi]] about ten miles southeast of [[Noxapater, Mississippi|Noxapater]]. Previously a State Park, it has now been returned to the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians.
Galloway (Choctaw Genesis 1500-1700, Lincoln, Neb.: University of Nebraska Press, 1995) argues from fragmentary archaeological and cartographic evidence that the Choctaw did not exist as a unified people before the seventeenth century, and only at that time did various southeastern peoples (remnants of Moundville, Plaquemine, and other Mississippian cultures) coalesce to form a self-consciously Choctaw people. Regardless of the time frame, however, the homeland of the Choctaw or of the peoples from whom the Choctaw nation arose includes Nanih Waiya. The mound and the surrounding area are sacred ground to Choctaws, and are a central point of connection between the Choctaws and their homeland.
==Early history==
The Choctaw were no doubt a part of the [[Mississippian culture]] in the Mississippi river valley. At the time that the Spanish made their first forays into the gulf shores, the political centers of the Missisppians were already in decline or gone. The region is best described as a collection of moderately-sized Native chiefdoms (such as those on the Coosa and Alabama rivers) interspersed with completely autonomous villages and tribal groups. This is what the earliest Spanish explorers encountered, beginning in 1519.
In 1528, [[Pánfilo de Narváez]] travelled through what was likely the [[Mobile Bay]] area, encountering American Indians who fled and burned their towns in response to the Spaniard’s approach. This response was a prelude to [[Hernando de Soto (explorer)|Hernando de Soto]]’s extensive journeys in 1540 to 1543. De Soto travelled up through Florida, and then down into the Alabama-Mississippi area that later was inhabited by the Choctaw. Reading between the lines of his accounts of Native interactions provides a region full of tribes of various sizes and with various degrees of control over neighboring areas.
The impact of European diseases is unclear. Reports of De Soto’s journeys do not describe illness among his men, although pigs traveling with them often escaped and may have been excellent vectors for dangerous microbes. The two subsequent brief forays into the Southeast by Tristán de Luna y Aellano in 1559 and Juan Pardo in 1565-1567 do not provide any evidence for widespread epidemics. After Pardo, the historical picture ends. There would be no official European contact in the area at all for more than a century, and during that time the group identities of the region completely transformed.
The first direct contact recorded between the Choctaw and a European was with [[Pierre |
e nation's [[chicken]]s (1.25 million) to stop the spread of a potentially deadly [[influenza]] strain.
*[[1998]] - Leaders of the [[Khmer Rouge]] apologize for the [[1970s]] [[genocide]] in [[Cambodia]] that claimed over 1 million.
*[[2001]] - A massive fire in the historic district of downtown [[Lima]], [[Peru]] kills at least 274 people.
==Births==
*[[1709]] - Empress [[Elizabeth of Russia]] (d. [[1762]])
*[[1721]] - [[Madame de Pompadour]], mistress of King [[Louis XV of France]] (d. [[1764]])
*[[1796]] - [[Johann Christian Poggendorff]], German physicist (d. [[1877]])
*[[1800]] - [[Charles Goodyear]], American inventor and businessman (d. [[1860]])
*[[1808]] - [[Andrew Johnson]], 17th [[President of the United States]] (d. [[1875]])
*[[1809]] - [[William Ewart Gladstone]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1897]])
*[[1816]] - [[Carl Ludwig]], German physician (b. [[1895]])
*[[1876]] - [[Pablo Casals]], Catalan cellist and conductor (d. [[1973]])
*[[1881]] - [[Jess Willard]], American boxer (d. [[1968]])
*[[1899]] - [[Nie Rongzhen]], Chinese Communist military leader (d. [[1992]])
*[[1908]] - [[Helmut Gollwitzer]], German theologian (d. [[1993]])
*[[1910]] - [[Ronald Coase]], British economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner
*[[1914]] - [[Billy Tipton]], American musician (d. [[1989]])
*1914 - [[Albert Tucker (artist)|Albert Tucker]], Australian artist (d [[1999]])
*[[1917]] - [[Tom Bradley (politician)|Tom Bradley]], Mayor of Los Angeles, California (d. [[1998]])
*[[1927]] - [[Andy Stanfield]], American athlete (d. [[1985]])
*[[1928]] - [[Bernard Cribbins]], British actor
*[[1931]] - Prince [[Yi Ku|Gu of Korea]] (d. [[2005]])
*[[1934]] - [[Tom Jarriel]], American correspondent
*[[1936]] - [[Mary Tyler Moore]], American actress
*1936 - [[Ray Nitschke]], American football player (d. [[1998]])
*[[1937]] - [[Barbara Steele]], British actress
*[[1938]] - [[Jon Voight]], American actor
*[[1941]] - [[Ray Thomas]], British musician ([[The Moody Blues]])
*[[1942]] - [[Rick Danko]], Canadian musician ([[The Band]]) (d. [[1999]])
*[[1946]] - [[Marianne Faithfull]], British singer
*[[1947]] - [[Ted Danson]], American actor
*[[1951]] - [[Yvonne Elliman]], American disco singer
*[[1952]] - [[Gelsey Kirkland]], American dancer
*[[1953]] - [[Gali Atari]], Israeli singer
*[[1954]] - [[Roger Voudouris]], American singer and songwriter
*[[1959]] - [[Patricia Clarkson]], American actress
*[[1963]] - [[Francisco Bustamante]], Filipino billiard player
*1963 - [[Dave McKean]], British artist and filmmaker
*[[1965]] - [[Dexter Holland]], American singer and guitarist ([[The Offspring]])
*[[1967]] - [[Andy Wachowski]], American director
*1967 - [[Ashleigh Banfield]], Canadian journalist
*[[1970]] - [[Aled Jones]], Welsh singer and television presenter
*1970 - [[Kevin Weisman]], American actor
*1970 - [[Glen Phillips]], American singer/songwriter ([[Toad The Wet Sprocket]])
*[[1972]] - [[Jason Kreis]], American soccer player
*1972 - [[Jude Law]], British actor
*[[1973]] - [[Theo Epstein]], American baseball general manager
*[[1974]] - [[Richie Sexson]], American baseball player
*[[1978]] - [[Alexis Amore]], Peruvian actress, dancer, and model
*1978 - [[Kieron Dyer]], British footballer
*1978 - [[LaToya London]], American singer
*[[1981]] - [[Angela Via]], American singer
*1981 - [[Shizuka Arakawa]], Japanese figure skater
*[[1991]] - [[Andres Felipe Herrera]], Colombian Singer
==Deaths==
*[[1170]] - [[Thomas Becket]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] (assassinated)
*[[1563]] - [[Sebastian Castellio]], French theologian (b. [[1515]])
*[[1634]] - [[John Albert Vasa]], Polish bishop (b. [[1612]])
*[[1661]] - [[Antoine Gérard de Saint-Amant]], French poet (b. [[1594]])
*[[1689]] - [[Thomas Sydenham]], English physician (b. [[1624]])
*[[1731]] - [[Brook Taylor]], English mathematician (b. [[1685]])
*[[1785]] - [[Johan Herman Wessel]], Norwegian poet (b. [[1742]])
*[[1825]] - [[Jacques-Louis David]], French painter (b. [[1748]])
*[[1891]] - [[Leopold Kronecker]], mathematician (b. [[1823]])
*[[1894]] - [[Christina Rossetti]], English poet (b. [[1830]])
*[[1916]] - [[Grigori Rasputin]], Russian monk (b. [[1869]])
*[[1924]] - [[Carl Spitteler]], Swiss writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1845]])
*[[1926]] - [[Rainer Maria Rilke]], Austrian writer (b. [[1875]])
*[[1929]] - [[Wilhelm Maybach]], German automobile designer (b. [[1846]])
*[[1937]] - [[Don Marquis]], American author (b. [[1878]])
*[[1960]] - [[Eden Phillpotts]], British writer (b. [[1862]])
*[[1967]] - [[Paul Whiteman]], American musician and conductor (b. [[1890]])
*[[1980]] - [[Tim Hardin]], American musician (b. [[1941]])
*1980 - [[Nadezhda Mandelstam]], Russian writer (b. [[1899]])
*[[1986]] - [[Harold Macmillan]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] (b. [[1894]])
*[[2003]] - [[Earl Hindman]], American actor (lung cancer) (b. [[1942]])
*2003 - [[Dinsdale Landen]], English actor (cancer) (b. [[1932]])
*2003 - [[Bob Monkhouse]], English comedian and game show host (b. [[1928]])
*[[2004]] - [[Julius Axelrod]], American biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1912]])
*2004 - [[Liddy Holloway]], New Zealand actress (b. [[1947]])
==Holidays and observances==
*The fourth [[Twelvetide|day of Christmas]] in Western [[Christianity]].
*[[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - [[Thomas Becket]] (optional memorial)
*[[USA]] - Admission Day of Texas (28th state, [[1845]])
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/29 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/12/29 Today in History: December 29]
----
[[December 28]] - [[December 30]] - [[November 29]] - [[January 29]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:29 Desember]]
[[ar:29 ديسمبر]]
[[an:29 d'abiento]]
[[ast:29 d'avientu]]
[[bg:29 декември]]
[[be:29 сьнежня]]
[[bs:29. decembar]]
[[ca:29 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 29]]
[[cv:Раштав, 29]]
[[co:29 di decembre]]
[[cs:29. prosinec]]
[[cy:29 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:29. december]]
[[de:29. Dezember]]
[[et:29. detsember]]
[[el:29 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:29 de diciembre]]
[[eo:29-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 29]]
[[fo:29. desember]]
[[fr:29 décembre]]
[[fy:29 desimber]]
[[ga:29 Nollaig]]
[[gl:29 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 29일]]
[[hr:29. prosinca]]
[[io:29 di decembro]]
[[id:29 Desember]]
[[ia:29 de decembre]]
[[is:29. desember]]
[[it:29 dicembre]]
[[he:29 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:29 Desember]]
[[ka:29 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:29 gòdnika]]
[[ku:29'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:29 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 29]]
[[lb:29. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 29]]
[[mk:29 декември]]
[[ms:29 Disember]]
[[nap:29 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:29 december]]
[[ja:12月29日]]
[[no:29. desember]]
[[nn:29. desember]]
[[oc:29 de decembre]]
[[os:29 декабры]]
[[pl:29 grudnia]]
[[pt:29 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:29 decembrie]]
[[ru:29 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 29.]]
[[sco:29 December]]
[[sq:29 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:29 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 29]]
[[sk:29. december]]
[[sl:29. december]]
[[sr:29. децембар]]
[[fi:29. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:29 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 29]]
[[tt:29. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 29]]
[[th:29 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:29 tháng 12]]
[[tr:29 Aralık]]
[[uk:29 грудня]]
[[wa:29 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 29]]
[[zh:12月29日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 29]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>DNA chip</title>
<id>8894</id>
<revision>
<id>15906831</id>
<timestamp>2003-10-13T07:38:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>168...</username>
<id>7488</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>redirecting to DNA microarray. style's different, but most of the content is there and in more detail w/less mistakes</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT: [[DNA microarray]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Despina</title>
<id>8895</id>
<revision>
<id>34845958</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-12T03:13:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JLaTondre</username>
<id>394292</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.107.84.50|68.107.84.50]] to last version by YurikBot</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">*[[Despina (mythology)|Despina]] is a figure in [[Greek mythology]].
*[[Despina (moon)|Despina]] is a moon of [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]].
{{disambig}}
[[hr:Despina]]
[[he:דספינה (פירושונים)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Darwinian</title>
<id>8898</id>
<revision>
<id>15906834</id>
<timestamp>2004-07-13T19:59:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Harry R</username>
<id>63691</id>
</contributor>
<comment>change redirect; now redirects to [[darwinism]] rather than [[Charles Darwin]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Darwinism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>DXF</title>
<id>8899</id>
<revision>
<id>15906835</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-17T02:39:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mikkalai</username>
<id>28438</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[AutoCAD DXF]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Discrimination</title>
<id>8900</id>
<revision>
<id>41730532</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T09:52:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>62.219.164.46</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Religious Discrimination */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{neutrality}}
To '''discriminate''' is to make a distinction between people on the basis of class or category without regard to individual merit. Examples include [[social]], [[race|racial]], [[religion|religious]], [[sex]]ual, [[disability]], [[ethnicity|ethnic]] and [[ageism|age-related]] discrimination. Some distinctions between people which are based just on individual merit (such as personal appearance) may be inappropr |
e original ''e'' vowel that caused the consonant shift in Sanskrit:
{| class="wikitable"
| (1)
| ''*ke''
| Pre-Sanskrit "and"
|-
| (2)
| ''*ce''
| Velars replaced by palatals before ''*i'' and ''*e''
|-
| (3)
| ''ca''
| ''*e'' becomes ''a''
|}
''Ca'' is the attested Sanskrit form for "and." This finding was made independently by several scholars during the 1870's.
In the [[Dravidian languages]] of [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]], velar [[plosive]]s in [[Proto-Dravidian language|Proto-Dravidian]] have been replaced by the corresponding palatal if the velar plosive is followed by {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|/iː/}}, {{IPA|/e/}} or {{IPA|/eː/}}. However this change is absent in [[Kannada language|Kannada]] and few other languages in the family. For example, Proto-Dravidian ''*kedi'' becomes Tamil ''chedi'', but Kannada ''gida''.
[[Verner's Law]], discovered by [[Karl Verner]] in about 1875, is a similar case: the voicing of consonants in [[Germanic languages]] underwent a change that was determined by the position of the old Indo-European accent. Following the change, the accent shifted across the board to initial position. Verner solved the puzzle by comparing the Germanic voicing pattern with data from Greek and Sanskrit accent. For full discussion, see [[Verner's Law]].
This stage of the comparative method, therefore, involves examining the correspondence sets discovered in step 2 and seeing which of them apply only in certain contexts. If two (or more) sets involve identical or similar sounds, and apply in [[complementary distribution]], then the sets can be assumed to reflect a single original phoneme. This is because "some sound changes, particularly conditioned sound changes, can result in a proto-sound being associated with more than one correspondence set" (Campbell 2004:136).
To take another example, when we examine the [[Romance languages]], descended from Latin, we find two different correspondence sets which both involve ''k'':
{| class="wikitable"
!
! [[Italian language|Italian]]
! [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
! [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
! [[French language|French]]
|-
| (1)
| ''k''
| ''k''
| ''k''
| ''k''
|-
| (2)
| ''k''
| ''k''
| ''k''
| ''{{IPA|ʃ}}''
|}
What we do in this situation is try to see if the two sets occur in complementary distribution (in which case they reflect a single proto-phoneme) or if both occur in identical environments (in which case they must both reflect separate proto-phonemes). In this case, we discover that French ''{{IPA|ʃ}}'' only occurs before ''a'' in the other languages (which becomes ''{{IPA|ɛ}}'' in French), while French ''k'' occurs elsewhere. Both sets (1) and (2) can therefore be assumed to reflect a single proto-phoneme (in this case ''*k'', spelled <c>).
A more complex case involves consonant clusters in [[Proto-Algonquian language|Proto-Algonquian]], which have been notoriously difficult to reconstruct. The Algonquianist [[Leonard Bloomfield]], however, looked at the reflexes of the clusters in four of the daughter languages of Proto-Algonquian, and came up with the following correspondence sets (although the clusters are shown here ending in ''-k'', this also generally applies to clusters ending in any of the plosives; <š> and <č> are [[Americanist phonetic notation|Americanist]] symbols for {{IPA|/ʃ/}} and {{IPA|/ʧ/}}):
{| class="wikitable"
!
! [[Ojibwe language|Ojibwe]]
! [[Fox language|Meskwaki]]
! [[Cree language|Plains Cree]]
! [[Menominee language|Menomini]]
|-
| (1)
| ''kk''
| ''hk''
| ''hk''
| ''hk''
|-
| (2)
| ''kk''
| ''hk''
| ''sk''
| ''hk''
|-
| (3)
| ''sk''
| ''hk''
| ''sk''
| ''čk''
|-
| (4)
| ''šk''
| ''šk''
| ''sk''
| ''sk''
|-
| (5)
| ''sk''
| ''šk''
| ''hk''
| ''hk''
|}
Although all 5 correspondence sets overlap with one another in various places, they are not in complementary distribution, and so Bloomfield recognized that a different cluster must be reconstructed for each set (his reconstructions were, respectively, ''*hk'', ''*xk'', ''*čk'', ''*šk'', and ''çk'' (the modern reconstructions for these clusters are ''*hk'', ''*tk'', ''čk'', ''šk'', and ''rk'', respectively, and two more clusters, reconstructed as ''{{IPA|*ʔk}}'' and ''{{IPA|ɬk}}'', are recognized).
===4. Reconstruct proto-phonemes===
This step tends to be much more subjective than the previous ones. A linguist here has to rely mostly on their general intuitions about what types of sound changes are likely and which are unlikely. For example, the voicing of voiceless plosives between vowels is an extremely common sound change, occurring in languages all over the world, which the devoicing of voiced plosives between vowels is extremely uncommon. Therefore, if a linguist were comparing two languages with a correspondence of ''-t-'' : ''-d-'' between vowels, they would reconstruct the proto-phoneme as being ''*-t-'', and assume that it became voiced to ''-d-'' in the second language (unless they had a very good reason not to).
It is important to keep in mind, however, that there are sometimes changes that are extremely unexpected. The Proto-Indo-European word for "two," for example, is reconstructed as ''*duwō'', which is reflected in [[Armenian language|Classical Armenian]] as ''erku''. Several other cognates demonstrate that the change ''*d-'' → ''erk-'' in the history of Armenian was a regular one. Similarly, in Bearlake, a dialect of the [[Athabaskan languages|Athabaskan language]] of [[Slavey language|Slavey]], there has been a sound change of Proto-Athabaskan ''*ts'' → Bearlake ''{{IPA|kʷ}}''. Obviously, ''*d-'' did not change directly into ''erk-'' and ''*ts'' did not change directly into ''{{IPA|kʷ}}'', but they instead must have gone through several intermediate steps to arrive at the later forms. The lesson here is that with enough sound changes, a given sound can change into just about any other sound. This is why it is not '''phonetic similarity''' which matters when utilizing the comparative method, but '''regular sound correspondences'''.
Another assumption used in determining a proto-phoneme is that our reconstruction should ideally involve as few sound changes as possible to arrive at the modern reflexes in the daughter languages. In other words, unless there is persuasive evidence to the contrary, we should reconstruct for a proto-phoneme whatever value is the most common reflex in the daughter languages. For example, in the [[Algonquian languages]], we find the following correspondence set:
{| class="wikitable"
! [[Ojibwe language|Ojibwe]]
! [[Mi'kmaq language|Mi'kmaq]]
! [[Cree language|Cree]]
! [[Lenape language|Munsee]]
! [[Blackfoot language|Blackfoot]]
! [[Arapaho language|Arapaho]]
|-
| ''m''
| ''m''
| ''m''
| ''m''
| ''m''
| ''b''
|}
Obviously, we should reconstruct either ''*m'' or ''*b'' for this set. Both ''*m'' → ''b'' and ''*b'' → ''m'' (where "*A → B" means "*A becomes B") are concievable sound changes, so the principle of reconstructing "likely" changes over "unlikely" ones is not useful here. Instead, linguists note that the reflex of this proto-phoneme is ''m'' in five of the languages compared here, and ''b'' in one of them. If we reconstruct ''*b'', we need to assume five separate changes of ''*b'' → ''m'', whereas if we reconstruct ''*m'', we only need to assume a single change of ''*m'' → ''b'' in one language in the family. Since we are working on the assumption that our reconstructions should require the fewest number of changes possible to arrive at the modern reflexes, we would obviously reconstruct ''*m'' here.
===5. Examine the reconstructed system typologically===
In the final step, the linguist takes all the proto-phonemes they have reconstructed using steps 1-4, and checks to see how the system fits with what is currently known about [[linguistic typology|typological constraints]]. For example, if the reconstructed phonemes fit together in the following system, the linguist would be suspicious, because languages generally (though not always) tend to maintain symmetry in their phonemic inventories:
{| class="wikitable"
! &nbsp; p &nbsp;
! &nbsp; t &nbsp;
! &nbsp; k &nbsp;
|-
! &nbsp; b &nbsp;
!
!
|-
!
! &nbsp; n &nbsp;
! &nbsp; ŋ &nbsp;
|-
!
! &nbsp; l &nbsp;
!
|}
In this reconstructed system, there is only one voiced plosive, ''*b'', and although there is an [[apical]] and velar [[nasal]], ''*n'' and ''*ŋ'', there is no corresponding [[labial]] nasal. In this case, we would have to return to step 4 and reevaluate our earlier conclusions. In this case, we would try to figure out if there is any evidence to suggest that what we earlier reconstructed as ''*b'' is actually ''*m'', or evidence that what we earlier reconstructed as ''*n'' and ''*ŋ'' are actually ''*d'' and ''*g''.
Even a symmetrical system can be typologically suspicious. For example, the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] plosive inventory, as traditionally reconstructed, is as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
!
![[Labial]]s
![[Apical]]s
![[Velar]]s
![[Labiovelar]]s
|-
![[Voiceless consonant|Voiceless]]
| align=center|p
| align=center|t
| align=center|k
| align=center|{{IPA|kʷ}}
|-
![[Voiced consonant|Voiced]]
| align=center|(b)
| align=center|d
| align=center|g
| align=center|{{IPA|gʷ}}
|-
![[Voiced consonant|Voiced]] [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]
| align=center|{{IPA|bʱ}}
| align=center|{{IPA|dʱ}}
| align=center|{{IPA|gʱ}}
| align=center|{{IPA|gʷʱ}}
|}
Lately, however, a number of linguists have argued that this system is, at best, very suspicious typologically. It extremely unlikely, or maybe even impossible, they say, for a language to have a voiced aspirated ([[breathy voice]]) series without a corresponding voiceless aspirated series. These lingu |
IP processing, rather than processed as a normal sub-protocol of IP. In many cases, it is necessary to inspect the contents of the ICMP message, and deliver the appropriate error message to the application which generated the original IP packet, the one which prompted the sending of the ICMP message.
Many commonly used network utilities are based on ICMP messages. The [[traceroute]] command is implemented by transmitting UDP datagrams with specially set IP TTL header fields, and looking for ICMP [[ICMP_Time_Exceeded|Time to live exceeded in transit]] (above) and "Destination unreachable" messages generated in response. The related [[ping]] utility is implemented using the ICMP "Echo" and "Echo reply" messages.
List of permitted control messages (incomplete list):<br>
0 - [[ICMP Echo Reply|Echo Reply]]<br>
1 - Reserved<br>
2 - Reserved<br>
3 - [[ICMP Destination Unreachable|Destination Unreachable]]<br>
4 - [[ICMP Source Quench|Source Quench]]<br>
5 - [[ICMP Redirect Message|Redirect Message]]<br>
6 - Alternate Host Address<br>
7 - Reserved<br>
8 - [[ICMP Echo Request|Echo Request]]<br>
9 - Router Advertisement<br>
10 - Router Solicitation<br>
11 - [[ICMP_Time_Exceeded|Time Exceeded]]<br>
12 - Parameter Problem<br>
13 - [[ICMP_Timestamp|Timestamp]]<br>
14 - [[ICMP_Timestamp_Reply|Timestamp Reply]]<br>
15 - Information Request<br>
16 - Information Reply<br>
17 - [[Address Mask Request]]<br>
18 - [[Address Mask Reply]]<br>
19 - Reserved for security<br>
20-29 - Reserved for robustness experiment<br>
30 - Traceroute<br>
31 - Datagram Conversion Error<br>
32 - Mobile Host Redirect<br>
33 - [[IPv6]] [[Where-Are-You]]<br>
34 - [[IPv6]] [[Here-I-Am]]<br>
35 - Mobile Registration Request<br>
36 - Mobile Registration Reply<br>
37 - Domain Name Request<br>
38 - Domain Name Reply<br>
39 - [[SKIP]] Algorithm Discovery Protocol<br>
40 - [[Photuris (protocol)|Photuris]], Security failures<br>
41-255 - Reserved<br>
(Source: [http://www.iana.org/assignments/icmp-parameters IANA ICMP Parameters])<br>
==See also==
* [[ICMPv6]]
* [[IRDP]]
* [[Smurf attack]]
==External links==
* RFC 792, ''Internet Control Message Protocol''
* [http://www.eventhelix.com/RealtimeMantra/Networking/Icmp.pdf ICMP Sequence Diagram]
* RFC 1122, ''Requirements for Internet Hosts -- Communication Layers''
[[Category:Internet protocols]]
[[Category:Internet standards]]
[[cs:ICMP]]
[[da:Internet control message protocol]]
[[de:Internet Control Message Protocol]]
[[es:Internet Control Message Protocol]]
[[eo:ICMP]]
[[fr:Internet Control Message Protocol]]
[[gl:ICMP]]
[[id:ICMP]]
[[it:ICMP]]
[[he:ICMP]]
[[nl:Internet Control Message Protocol]]
[[ja:Internet Control Message Protocol]]
[[no:ICMP]]
[[pl:ICMP]]
[[pt:ICMP]]
[[ro:Internet Control Message Protocol]]
[[ru:ICMP]]
[[sl:ICMP]]
[[fi:ICMP]]
[[sv:ICMP]]
[[tr:Internet Control Message Protocol]]
[[zh:因特网控制消息协议]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ICMP</title>
<id>15108</id>
<revision>
<id>15912615</id>
<timestamp>2004-10-23T18:20:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jnc</username>
<id>18024</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Use correct name</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Internet Control Message Protocol]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Inverse limit</title>
<id>15109</id>
<revision>
<id>39006210</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T02:07:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zhw</username>
<id>432414</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Examples */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''inverse limit''' (also called the '''projective limit''') is a construction which allows one to "glue together" several related objects, the precise manner of the gluing process being specified by morphisms between the objects. Inverse limits can be defined in any [[category (mathematics)|category]], but we will initially only consider inverse limits of [[group (mathematics)|groups]].
== Formal definition ==
=== Algebraic objects ===
We start with the definition of an '''inverse system''' of [[group (mathematics)|groups]] and [[group homomorphism|homomorphisms]]. Let (''I'', &le;) be a [[directed set|directed]] [[poset]] (not all authors require ''I'' to be directed). Let (''A''<sub>''i''</sub>)<sub>''i''&isin;''I''</sub> be a [[family (mathematics)|family]] of groups and suppose we have a family of homomorphisms ''f''<sub>''ij''</sub> : ''A''<sub>''j''</sub> &rarr; ''A''<sub>''i''</sub> for all ''i'' &le; ''j'' (note the order) with the following properties:
# ''f''<sub>''ii''</sub> is the identity in ''A''<sub>''i''</sub>,
# ''f''<sub>''ik''</sub> = ''f''<sub>''ij''</sub> <small>O</small> ''f''<sub>''jk''</sub> for all ''i'' &le; ''j'' &le; ''k''.
Then the set of pairs (''A''<sub>''i''</sub>, ''f''<sub>''ij''</sub>) is called an inverse system of groups and morphisms over ''I''.
We define the '''inverse limit''' of the inverse system (''A''<sub>''i''</sub>, ''f''<sub>''ij''</sub>) as a particular [[subgroup]] of the [[direct product]] of the ''A''<sub>''i''</sub>'s:
:<math>\varprojlim A_i = \Big\{(a_i) \in \prod_{i\in I}A_i \;\Big|\; a_i = f_{ij}(a_j) \mbox{ for all } i \leq j\Big\}</math>
The inverse limit, ''A'', comes equipped with ''natural projections'' &pi;<sub>''i''</sub> : ''A'' &rarr; ''A''<sub>''i''</sub> which pick out the ''i''th component of the direct product. The inverse limit and the natural projections satisfy a [[universal property]] described in the next section.
This same construction may be carried out if the ''A''<sub>''i''</sub>'s are [[set]]s, [[ring (mathematics)|rings]], [[module (mathematics)|modules]] (over a fixed ring), [[algebra over a field|algebras]] (over a fixed field), etc., and the [[homomorphism]]s are homomorphisms in the corresponding [[category theory|category]]. The inverse limit will also belong to that category.
=== General definition ===
The inverse limit can be defined abstractly in an arbitrary [[category (mathematics)|category]] by means of a [[universal property]]. Let (''X''<sub>''i''</sub>, ''f''<sub>''ij''</sub>) be an inverse system of objects and [[morphism]]s in a category ''C'' (same definition as above). The '''inverse limit''' of this system is an object ''X'' in ''C'' together with morphisms &pi;<sub>''i''</sub> : ''X'' &rarr; ''X''<sub>''i''</sub> (called ''projections'') satisfying &pi;<sub>''i''</sub> = ''f''<sub>''ij''</sub> <small>O</small> &pi;<sub>''j''</sub> . The pair (''X'', &pi;<sub>''i''</sub>) must be universal in the sense that for any other such pair (''Y'', &psi;<sub>''i''</sub>) there exists a unique morphism ''u'' : ''Y'' &rarr; ''X'' making all the "obvious" identities true; i.e. the diagram.
<div style="text-align: center;">[[Image:InverseLimit-01.png]]</div>
must [[commutative diagram|commute]] for all ''i'', ''j''. The inverse limit is often denoted
:<math>X = \varprojlim X_i</math>
with the inverse system (''X''<sub>''i''</sub>, ''f''<sub>''ij''</sub>) being understood.
Unlike for algebraic objects, the inverse limit may not exist in an arbitrary category. If it does, however, it is unique in a strong sense: given any another inverse limit ''X''&prime; there exists is a ''unique'' [[isomorphism]] ''X''&prime; &rarr; ''X'' commuting with the projection maps.
We note that an inverse system in category ''C'' admits an alternative description in terms of [[functor]]s. Any partially ordered set ''I'' can be considered as a [[small category]] where the morphisms consist of arrows ''i'' &rarr; ''j'' [[iff]] ''i'' &le; ''j''. An inverse system is then just a [[contravariant functor]] ''I'' &rarr; ''C''.
== Examples ==
* The ring of [[p-adic numbers|''p''-adic integers]] is the inverse limit of the rings '''Z'''/''p''<sup>''n''</sup>'''Z''' (see [[modular arithmetic]]) with the index set being the [[natural number]]s with the usual order, and the morphisms being "take remainder". The natural [[topology]] on the ''p''-adic integers is the same as the one described here.
* [[Pro-finite group|Pro-finite groups]] are defined as inverse limits of finite discrete groups.
* Let the index set ''I'' of an inverse system (''X''<sub>''i''</sub>, ''f''<sub>''ij''</sub>) have a [[greatest element]] ''m''. Then the natural projection &pi;<sub>''m''</sub> : ''X'' &rarr; ''X''<sub>''m''</sub> is an isomorphism.
* Inverse limits in the [[category of topological spaces]] are given by placing the [[initial topology]] on the underlying set-theoretic inverse limit.
* Let (''I'', =) be the trivial order (not directed). The inverse limit of any corresponding inverse system is just the [[product (category theory)|product]].
* Let ''I'' consist of three elements ''i'', ''j'', and ''k'' with ''i'' &le; ''j'' and ''i'' &le; ''k'' (not directed). The inverse limit of any corresponding inverse system is the [[pullback (category theory)|pullback]].
== Related concepts and generalizations ==
The [[dual (category theory)|categorical dual]] of an inverse limit is a [[direct limit]] (or inductive limit). More general concepts ar |
lled Dionysus, to inspect his vineyards. Bacchus revealed the secret of [[wine making]] to Icarius, who was so impressed by this alcoholic beverage that he invited his friends round to sample it. Having never tasted wine before, they all drank too much and woke up the next morning with terrible [[hangover]]s; and they made the mistaken assumption that Icarius had tried to poison them. It was decided that Icarius should pay the price with his own life, and he was swiftly murdered in his sleep. Bacchus placed Icarius in the stars to honor him.
Following another reading the constellation is identified with [[Arcas]], son of [[Zeus]] and [[Callisto (mythology)|Callisto]]. Arcas was brought up by his maternal grandfather [[Lycaon]], to whom one day Zeus went and had a meal. To verify that the guest was really the king of the gods, Lycaon killed his grandson and prepared a meal made from his flesh. Zeus noticed and became very angry, transforming Lycaon into a wolf and gave back life to his son.
In the meantime Callisto had been transformed into a she-bear, by Zeus' wife, [[Hera]], who was angry at Zeus' infidelity. When he was grown up, Arcas met with the she-bear and, since obviously he didn't recognize her as his mother, he began to chase Callisto. Callisto, followed by Arcas, sheltered herself in a temple, a sacred place whose profaners were convicted to death. To avoid such fate, Zeus decided to set them in the sky, Arcas as Boötes and Callisto as Ursa Major.
This is a rare version of the myth surrounding Ursa Major, as the myth usually holds that Arcas is transformed into a bear as well (becoming Ursa Minor), and in such versions Boötes has no part. Ursa Minor, and Ursa Major, are constellations whose identification only originated in later classical Greece, and in Rome, and as such Boötes kept separate associations dating from much earlier.
Boötes was considered to be [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]] by some ancient greek legends, as well as those in other early mediterranean cultures, since it takes an appropriate position in the sky (its arms near the [[polaris|pole star]], but its body standing on/near the [[ecliptic]]). As such, together with earlier interpretations of other constellations in the [[zodiac]] sign of [[libra]] (i.e. of [[Draco (constellation)]], [[Ursa Major]] and [[Ursa Minor]] it may have formed the origin of the myth of the apples of the [[Hesperides]], which forms part of [[The Twelve Labours]] of [[Herakles]].
==Stars==
:Stars with proper names:
:* (16/&alpha; Boo) &minus;0.05 '''[[Arcturus]]''' or '''''Haris-el-sema'''''
:*: < &#945;&#961;&#954;&#964;&#959;&#973;&#961;&#959;&#962; Bear guard
:*: < ? ''al-haris as-sama'' The keeper of heaven
:* ([[Beta Boötis|42/&beta; Boo]]) 3.49 '''Nekkar''' [Nakkar] or '''''Meres''''' [''Merez'']
:*: < mistranscription of &#1576;&#1602;&#1617;&#1575;&#1585; ''baqq&#257;r'' Cattle driver
:* ([[Gamma Boötis|27/&gamma; Boo]]) 3.03 '''Seginus''' [''Segin, Ceginus''] or '''''Haris''''' in [[Antonín Bečvář|Bečvář]]
:* ([[Epsilon Boötis|36/&epsilon; Boo]]) &ndash; double 2.35, 2.70 '''Izar''' or '''''Mirak''''' [''Mirach, Mirac''] or '''''Pulcherrima''''' or '''''Mizar'''''
:*: < &#1573;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585; ''’iz&#257;r'' Girdle
:*: < ? ''al-maraqq'' ?
:*: < ''pulcherrima'' Most beautiful
:* ([[Eta Boötis|8/&eta; Boo]]) 2.68 '''Muphrid''' [''Mufride, Muphride, Mufrid'']
:*: < &#1605;&#1601;&#1585;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1575;&#1605;&#1581; ''mufrid ar-r&#257;mi&#295;'' The (single) one of the lancer
:* ([[Theta Boötis|23/&theta; Boo]]) 4.04 '''''Asellus primus''''' ["the first donkey"]
:* ([[Iota Boötis|21/&iota; Boo]]) 4.75 '''''Asellus secondus''''' ["the second donkey"]
:* ([[Kappa Boötis|17/&kappa; Boo]]) 4.54 (&kappa;<sup>2</sup>, 6.62 (&kappa;<sup>1</sup>) '''''Asellus tertius''''' ["the third donkey"]
:* ([[Mu Boötis|51/&mu; Boo]]) 4.31 (&mu;<sup>1</sup>), 6.51 (&mu;<sup>2</sup>) '''Alkalurops''' or '''''Inkalunis''''' [''Icalurus''] or '''''Clava''''' or '''''Venabulum'''''
:*: < Arabic < &#954;&#945;&#955;&#945;&#973;&#961;&#959;&#968; Shepherd's staff
:* ([[Phi Boötis|54/&phi; Boo]]) or '''''Ceginus''''' 5.25
:* ([[38 Boötis|38/h Boo]]) 5.79 '''Merga''' [''Marrha''], '''''El Mara el Musalsela''''' or '''''Falx Italica'''''
:*: < &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1571;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1604;&#1587;&#1604;&#1577; ''al-mar’a[tu] al-musalsalah'' The chained woman
:*: < ''falx &#299;talica'' Bill hook
:Stars with Bayer designations:
:: [[Delta Boötis|49/&delta; Boo]] 3.46; [[Zeta Boötis|30/&zeta; Boo]] &ndash; double 3.78, 4.43; [[Lambda Boötis|19/&lambda; Boo]] 4.18; [[Nu1 Boötis|52/&nu;<sup>1</sup> Boo]] 5.04; [[Nu2 Boötis|53/&nu;<sup>2</sup> Boo]] 4.98; [[Xi Boötis|37/&xi; Boo]] 4.54; [[Omicron Boötis|35/&omicron; Boo]] 4.60; [[Pi1 Boötis|29/&pi;<sup>1</sup> Boo]] 4.49; [[Pi2 Boötis|29/&pi;<sup>2</sup> Boo]] 5.58; [[Rho Boötis|25/&rho; Boo]] 3.57; [[Sigma Boötis|28/&sigma; Boo]] 4.47; [[Tau Boötis|4/&tau; Boo]] 4.50 &ndash; has a planet; [[Upsilon Boötis|5/&upsilon; Boo]] 4.05; [[Chi Boötis|48/&chi; Boo]] 5.28; [[Psi Boötis|43/&psi; Boo]] 4.52; [[Omega Boötis|41/&omega; Boo]] 4.80; [[b Boötis|46/b Boo]] 5.67; [[c Boötis|45/c Boo]] 4.93; [[d Boötis|12/d Boo]] 4.82; [[e Boötis| 6/e Boo]] 4.92; [[f Boötis|22/f Boo]] 5.40; [[g Boötis|24/g Boo]] 5.58; [[i Boötis|44/i Boo]] 4.83; [[k Boötis|47/k Boo]] 5.59; [[A Boötis|A Boo]] 4.80
:Stars with Flamsteed designations:
::[[1 Boötis|1 Boo]] 5.73; [[2 Boötis|2 Boo]] 5.63; [[3 Boötis|3 Boo]] 5.97; [[7 Boötis|7 Boo]] 5.71; [[9 Boötis|9 Boo]] 5.02; [[10 Boötis|10 Boo]] 5.76; [[11 Boötis|11 Boo]] 6.23; [[13 Boötis|13 Boo]] 5.26; [[14 Boötis|14 Boo]] 5.53; [[15 Boötis|15 Boo]] 5.29; [[18 Boötis|18 Boo]] 5.41; [[20 Boötis|20 Boo]] 4.84; [[26 Boötis|26 Boo]] 5.91; [[31 Boötis|31 Boo]] 4.86; [[32 Boötis|32 Boo]] 5.55; [[33 Boötis|33 Boo]] 5.39; [[34 Boötis|34 Boo]] 4.83; [[39 Boötis|39 Boo]] 5.68; [[40 Boötis|40 Boo]] 5.64; [[50 Boötis|50 Boo]] 5.38
{{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}}
{{ConstellationList}}
== External links ==
{{Commons|Boötes}}
[http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/bootes/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Bootes]
[[Category:Boötes constellation| ]]
[[ca:Bover (constel·lació)]]
[[cs:Pastýř (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Bjørnevogteren]]
[[de:Bärenhüter]]
[[es:Boötes]]
[[fr:Bouvier (constellation)]]
[[ko:목동자리]]
[[id:Boötes]]
[[it:Boötes]]
[[la:Bootes]]
[[lt:Jaučiaganis]]
[[hu:Ökörhajcsár (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Ossenhoeder]]
[[ja:うしかい座]]
[[nn:Bjørnepassaren]]
[[pl:Wolarz (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Boötes]]
[[ru:Волопас (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Pastier]]
[[fi:Karhunvartija]]
[[sv:Björnvaktaren]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวคนเลี้ยงสัตว์]]
[[zh:牧夫座]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Borromini, Francesco</title>
<id>4201</id>
<revision>
<id>15902490</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Francesco Borromini]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bernardino Ochino</title>
<id>4203</id>
<revision>
<id>35974336</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-20T17:13:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DA3N</username>
<id>756645</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bernardino Ochino''' ([[1487]]-[[1564]]), was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[Protestant_Reformation|Reform]]er, born at [[Siena]] in [[1487]]. At an early age he entered the [[order (religious)|order]] of [[Observantine]] [[Friar]]s, and rose to be its general, but, craving a stricter [[rule]], transferred himself in [[1534]] to the newly-founded order of [[Capuchin]]s.
He had already become famous for zeal and [[eloquence]], and was the intimate friend of the [[Spain|Spaniard]] [[Juan de Valdes]], of [[Bembo]], [[Vittoria Colonna]], [[Peter Martyr|Pietro Martire]], [[Pietro Carnesecchi|Carnesecchi]], and others destined to incur the suspicion of [[heresy]], either from the moderation of their characters or from the evangelical tincture of their [[theology]].
In [[1538]] he was elected vicar-general of his order; in [[1539]], urged by [[Pietro Bembo]], he visited [[Venice]] and delivered a remarkable course of [[sermon]]s, showing a decided tendency to the [[doctrine]] of [[justification by faith]], which appears still more evidently in his dialogues published the same year. He was suspected and denounced, but nothing ensued until the establishment of the [[Inquisition]] in [[Rome]] in June [[1542]], at the instigation of the austere zealot Carafa.
Ochino almost immediately received a citation to [[Rome]], and set out to obey it about the middle of August. According to his own statement, he was deterred from presenting himself at Rome by the warnings of [[Gasparo Contarini|Cardinal Contarini]], whom he found at [[Bologna]], dying of [[poison]] administered by the reactionary party. He turned aside to [[Florence, Italy|Florence]], and after some hesitation escaped across the [[Alps]] to [[Geneva]]. He was cordially received by [[John Calvin|Calvin]], and published within two years several volumes of ''Prediche'', controversial tracts rather than sermons, explaining and vindicating hi |
[[conquistador]] who conquered [[Mexico]] for [[Spain]]. He was known as '''Hernando''' or '''Fernando Cortés''' during his lifetime and signed all his letters '''Fernán Cortés'''.
== Early life ==
Cortés was born in [[Medellín (Spain)|Medellín]], in the province of [[Estremadura]], in the [[Castile|Kingdom of Castile]] in Spain in [[1485]], the only child of Martín Cortés and Catalina Pizarro Altamirano. Through his mother, he was second cousin to [[Francisco Pizarro]], who later conquered the [[Inca]] empire of modern-day [[Peru]] (not to be confused with another Francisco Pizarro who joined him to conquer the [[Aztec]]s).
Cortés took classes at [[Salamanca]] but bitterly disappointed his parents by returning home in [[1501]] at age 16, rather than studying law like his grandfather. He had a choice between seeking fame and glory in a war in Italy, or trying his luck in the Spanish colonies of the [[New World]].
== Arrival in the New World==
Due to setbacks, Cortés did not arrive in the New World until 1506. He took part in the conquest of [[Hispaniola]] and [[Cuba]] and was granted a large estate of land and [[Native American (Americas)|Indian]] slaves for his efforts. This was the ''[[encomienda]]'' that had worked so well in the conquest of the [[Canary Islands|Canaries]] (eliminating the indigenous [[Guanches]]) but would prove devastating in the New World.
Expeditions to [[Yucatán]] by [[Francisco Hernández de Córdoba (discoverer of Yucatán)|Francisco Hernández de Córdoba]] in [[1517]] and [[Juan de Grijalva]] in [[1518]] had returned to Cuba with small amounts of gold, and tales of a more distant land where gold was said to be abundant. Cortés eagerly sold or mortgaged all his lands to buy ships and supplies and arranged with the Governor of Cuba, [[Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar]], another distant relative and his father-in-law, to lead an expedition, officially to explore and trade with the rumored new lands to the west. Governor Velázquez forbade him to invade the mainland (a privilege he reserved for himself), but calling upon what law he had studied and his famous powers of persuasion, Cortés tricked Governor Velázquez into inserting a clause about emergency measures that might have to be taken without prior authorization, "in the true interests of the realm." At the last minute, the Governor, sensing that Cortés was too ambitious for his own good, changed his mind. He sent a messenger to Cortés with a letter saying that he was no longer the captain of the expedition, but Cortés' brother-in-law killed the messenger and told him what the letter said. Thus warned, Cortés organized his expedition and set sail on the morning of [[January 18]], [[1519]], just as Velázquez arrived at the dock in person to remove him.
== Cartas de Relacion==
It is important to note that Cortes' personal account of the conquest of Mexico is known by his letters to the King of Spain or ''cartas de relacion''. As one specialist describes them, "Cartas de relación have enjoyed an unequaled popularity among students of the Conquest of Mexico. Historians, sociologists, and political scientists use them to glean information about the Aztec empire and the clash between the European and Indian cultures. However, as early as the sixteenth century doubt has been cast on the historicity of these Conquest accounts. It is generally accepted that Cortés does not write a true “history,” but rather combines history with fiction. That is to say, in his narrative Cortés manipulates reality in order to achieve his overarching purpose of gaining the favor of the king. Cortés applies the classical rhetorical figure of evidentia as he crafts a powerful narrative full of “vividness” that moves the reader and creates a heightened sense of realism in his letters." [http://academics.georgiasouthern.edu/international/pages/SECOLAS/CAFryer.htm]
==Beginning his campaign==
After leaving Cuba with 11 ships, 500 men, and 15 horses, Cortés stopped briefly in the Yucatán, where there was little gold, but the priceless gift of two translators. One of these was the woman whom Cortes called Dona Marina, sometimes called "[[La Malinche]]," later made legendary in book and film (even if she was not, as conquistador Bernal Diaz del Castillo wrote in his account "The True History of the Conquest of New Spain," an Aztec princess sold into [[Maya]]n slavery). The other was a shipwrecked Spaniard who had learned a Mayan dialect during seven years of slavery, though he proved less and less useful as it became apparent that Marina was trilingual: she spoke Maya, Nahuatl (the language of the Mexica/Aztecs), and a dialect of Nahautl spoken only to and in front of the Mexica/Aztec emperor.
Cortés landed his party in a location he named La Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz, now known as [[Veracruz (city)|Veracruz]] ("True Cross") on Holy Thursday [[March 4]]. By establishing a municipality, he could "reluctantly" proceed to claim land for King [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] of [[Spain]] by popular mandate of the city magistrates he had appointed, all conveniently friends of his.
The local [[Totonac]] from [[Cempoala]] greeted him with gifts of food, feathers, gold &ndash; and women. He learned that the land was ruled by the great lord in the city of [[Tenochtitlán]]. Soon ambassadors from the Mexica/Aztec Emperor [[Moctezuma II]] arrived with additional gifts, apparently hoping to keep him at a distance by satisfying him with gold. It had the opposite effect, of course. In his letters to [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], Cortés claims to have learned at this point that he was suspected of being [[Quetzalcoatl]] or an emissary of Quetzalcoatl, a legendary god-king that controlled lightning who was predicted to one day return to reclaim his city in a One-Reed year on the Mexica calendar. (One-Reed was, in this particular 52-year "century," 1519, adding to the extraordinary luck of this conquistador.) However, there is much doubt as to the truth of this legend. While Quetzalcoatl was a mythic god whom the Mexica saw as a tie to the earlier [[Toltec]] peoples from whom they claimed descent, there is little evidence supporting a Pre-Hispanic myth alleging his "return." Current scholarship on this topic is complex, and no consensus has been reached. Some argue that this Cortés-Quetzalcoatl connection was a post-colonial retelling by the Mexica to account for the Conquest. Some argue that this was a natural evolution from the Mexica concept of cosmology, in which (it is asserted) time is cyclical; therefore, the Mexica must have believed that events in the past would be repeated in the future (such as Quetzalcoatl's return). (This concept of Mexica cosmology is convincingly argued against by historian [[Ross Hassig]] in his book ''Time, History, and Belief in Aztec and Colonial Mexico''.) Finally, some assert that the myth was a fabrication of the Spanish, used both to assert the inevitability of the outcome of the Conquest and to forge a link between the ancient gods and Christ (to whom Quetzalcoatl was often implicitly compared).
While some of the expedition wanted to get such gold as they could by trade or theft and then return to Cuba, Cortés had seen the results of this sort of plunder and had plans to build a working empire of his own. He ordered all his fleet [[scuttling|scuttled]] (not burned as legend has it), except for one small ship with which to communicate with Spain, effectively stranding the expedition in Mexico and ending all thoughts of loyalty to the Governor of Cuba. Cortés then led his band inland towards the fabled Tenochtitlán.
==Conquest==
Cortés arrived at [[Tlaxcala]], a small independent state within the empire's sphere of influence. The Tlaxcaltecas attacked his troops, but Spanish crossbows, broadswords, battle axes, horses, war dogs and firearms quickly won the battle. Cortés said that if the men of Tlaxcala would accept Christianity, become his allies and vassals to his lord, he would forgive their disrespect and overthrow their nemesis, Emperor [[Moctezuma]]. Cortés' "lord" was [[Holy Roman Emperor Charles V]], to whom he made his case by letters, over the head of Velázquez, who, in turn, was trying to make a case over the head of [[Diego Colón]], son of [[Christopher Columbus]] and thus [[Admiral of the Ocean Sea]]. Otherwise, Cortés threatened, he would kill everyone in their entire nation. The Tlaxcaltecas agreed; Cortés then continued his march with some 2,000 Tlaxcalteca warriors and perhaps as many more porters. He also purchased cotton armour, seeing how much more effective than chain mail it was against Indian arrows.
After Cortés arrived in [[Cholula]], the second largest city of the Empire, [[La Malinche]] relayed a rumor that the locals planned to murder the Spaniards in their sleep. Although he did not know if this was true or not, Cortés ordered a pre-emptive strike to serve as a lesson: the Spaniards seized and killed the local nobles, set fire to the city and killed an estimated 15,000 to 30,000 of the inhabitants. Cortés then sent a message ahead to Moctezuma that the lords of Cholula had treated him with disrespect and had to be punished, but if Moctezuma treated him with respect and gifts of gold, the Aztecs need not fear his wrath. Terror was one of his many powerful tools, though much of his military genius can be ascribed to La Malinche, who had her own motives for revenge.
[[Image:Mexico0063.jpg|right|thumbnail|Meeting place of Montezuma and Hernan Cortes]]
On November 8, 1519, Cortés arrived in [[Tenochtitlan]]. At this time it is believed that the city was one of the largest in the world; in Europe, only Constantinople was larger. The most common estimates put the population at around 60,000 to over 300,000 people.
Aztec ruler Moctezuma II, thinking Cortés to be the returning god Quetzalcoatl, welc |
Edward Palmer Thompson]]
[[fr:Edward Palmer Thompson]]
[[pt:Edward Palmer Thompson]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Elias Canetti</title>
<id>9505</id>
<revision>
<id>40363090</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:47:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CanettiElias.jpg|thumbnail|left|Elias Canetti, Nobel Laureate in Literature]]
'''Elias Canetti''' ([[Ruse, Bulgaria|Ruse]] in [[Bulgaria]] [[25 July]], [[1905]]- [[Zurich]], [[13 August]], [[1994]]), a [[Bulgaria]]n-born [[Great Britain|British]]-[[Austrian]] [[novelist]], wrote in [[German language | German]] and won the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] in 1981.
==Life==
Born in Rustschuk (now [[Ruse, Bulgaria]]) to a Jewish family who had long worked in trade, Canetti spent his child years from [[1905]] to [[1911]] in Rustschuk until the family moved to [[England]], because of his father's profession. In [[1912]] his father died, and his mother moved with her children to [[Vienna]] in the same year. By this time Canetti already spoke [[Ladino language|Ladino]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], [[English language|English]] and some [[French language|French]] (he studied the latter two in the one year in England). However, living in [[Vienna]] from the age of 7 onwards, he came to use German (taught by his mother) as his main language. Subsequently the family moved first (from [[1916]] to [[1921]]) to [[Zurich]] and then (until [[1924]]) to [[Germany]], where Canetti graduated from high school.
Canetti went back in [[Vienna]] in [[1924]] in order to study chemistry. However his primary interests during his years in Vienna became philosophy and literature. Introduced into the literary circles of [[First Austrian Republic|first-republic]]-[[Vienna]], he started writing. He gained a degree in [[chemistry]] from the [[University of Vienna]] in [[1929]], but never worked as a chemist. In [[1938]], after the [[Anschluss]] of Austria to greater Germany, Canetti moved to [[London]] where he settled and stayed until the [[1970s]], receiving British citizenship in [[1952]]. For his last 20 years, Canetti predominantly lived in [[Zurich]].
In 1981, Canetti won the Nobel Prize in Literature "for writings marked by a broad outlook, a wealth of ideas and artistic power".
==Works==
*''Die Hochzeit'' (''The Wedding'', play, 1932)
*''Komoedie der Eitelkeit'' 1934 (''The Comedy of Vanity'')
*''Die Blendung'' 1935 (''Auto-da-Fé'', novel, tr.1946)
*''Die Befristeten'' 1956 (? premiere of the play in Oxford) (''Their Days are Numbered'')
*''Masse und Macht'' 1960 (''Crowds and Power'', study, tr. 1962, published in Hamburg)
*''Aufzeichnungen 1942-48'' 1965 (''Sketches'')
*''Die Stimmen von Marrakesch'' 1968 published by Hanser in Munich (''The Voices of Marrakesh'', travelogue, tr. 1978)
*''Der andere Prozess'' 1969 Kafkas Briefe an Felice (''Kafka's Other Trial'', tr. 1974).
*''Hitler nach Speer'' (Essay)
*''Die Provinz des Menschen'' Aufzeichnungen 1942-1972 (''The Human Province'', tr. 1978)
*''Der Ohrenzeuge. Fuenfzig Charaktere'' 1974 (Ear Witness: Fifty Characters, tr. 1979).
*''Das Gewissen der Worte'' 1975. Essays (''The Conscience of Words'')
*''Die Gerettete Zunge'' 1977 (''The Tongue Set Free'', memoir, tr. 1979)
*''Die Fackel im Ohr'' 1980 Lebensgeschichte 1921-1931 (''The Torch in My Ear'', memoir, tr. 1982)
*''Das Augenspiel'' 1985 Lebensgeschichte 1931-1937 (''The Play of the Eyes'', memoir, tr. 1990)
*''Das Geheimherz der Uhr: Aufzeichnungen'' 1987 (''The Secret Heart of the Clock'', tr. 1989)
*''Die Fliegenpein'' (''The Agony of Flies'', 1992)
*''Nachträge aus Hampstead'' (''Notes from Hampstead'', 1994)
*''Party im Blitz; Die englischen Jahre ''2003 (''Party in the Blitz'', memoir, published posthumously, tr. 2005)
*''Aufzeichnungen für Marie-Louise (written 1942, compiled and published posthumously, 2005
==See also==
*[[List of Jews]]
*[[List of British Jews]]
*[[List of Sephardic Jews]]
*[[List of Austrian writers]]
*[[List of Austrian Jews]]
==External links==
*[http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1981/index.html Nobel Prize mini-site]
[[Category:1905 births|Canetti, Elias]]
[[Category:1994 deaths|Canetti, Elias]]
[[Category:Refugees|Canetti, Elias]]
[[Category:Bulgarian Jews|Canetti, Elias]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Canetti, Elias]]
{{euro-writer-stub}}
[[ar:إلياس كانيتي]]
[[bg:Елиас Канети]]
[[cs:Elias Canetti]]
[[da:Elias Canetti]]
[[de:Elias Canetti]]
[[es:Elias Canetti]]
[[fr:Elias Canetti]]
[[it:Elias Canetti]]
[[he:אליאס קנטי]]
[[hu:Elias Canetti]]
[[nl:Elias Canetti]]
[[ja:エリアス・カネッティ]]
[[no:Elias Canetti]]
[[nn:Elias Canetti]]
[[pl:Elias Canetti]]
[[pt:Elias Canetti]]
[[ru:Канетти, Элиас]]
[[sk:Elias Canetti]]
[[fi:Elias Canetti]]
[[sv:Elias Canetti]]
[[tr:Elias Canetti]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Edward Jenner</title>
<id>9506</id>
<revision>
<id>42038013</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:50:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Midgley</username>
<id>278218</id>
</contributor>
<comment>one of the pioneers is reasonable, and like gravity it was there for anyone to "discover" but I think this gets closer to his role. I hope.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Edward Jenner2.jpg|right|thumb|Portrait of Jenner]]
'''Edward Jenner''' [[Fellow of the Royal Society|FRS]] ([[May 17]], [[1749]] - [[January 26]], [[1823]]) was an English country doctor who studied nature and his natural surroundings from childhood and practiced medicine in [[Berkeley, Gloucestershire|Berkeley]], [[Gloucestershire]], [[England]]. He is famous as the first doctor to introduce and study the [[smallpox vaccine]].
Jenner trained in [[Sodbury]], Gloucestershire as an apprentice to Dr. Ludlow for 8 years from the age of 13<!--Brittanica and others-->, then went up to London in 1770 to study under the [[surgeon]] [[John Hunter (Surgeon)|John Hunter]] (a noted experimentalist, and later a Fellow of the [[Royal Society]][http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqPos=3&dsqSearch=(Surname='hunter')]) and others at [[Medical_school_%28United_Kingdom%29|St George's Hospital]]. [[William Osler]] records<!--lectures at Yale in 1913 - Bartlett free bookshelf on Web--> that Jenner was a student to whom Hunter repeated [[William Harvey]]'s advice, very famous in medical circles, "Don't think, try". Jenner therefore was early noticed by men famous for advancing the practice and institutions of medicine, and Hunter remained in correspondence with him over natural history and proposed him for the Royal Society. Returning to his native countryside, by 1773 he became a successful [[general practitioner]] and surgeon, practicing in purpose built premises at Berkeley.
Jenner and others formed a medical society in Rodborough, Gloucestershire, meeting to read papers on medical subjects and dine together. Jenner contributed papers on [[angina pectoris]], [[ophthalmia]] and valvular disease of the heart and commented on [[cowpox]]. He also belonged to a similar society which met in Alveston, near Bristol.<ref>Papers at the Royal College of Physicians summarised at http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?coll_id=7135&inst_id=8</ref>
He was elected Fellow of the [[Royal Society]] in 1788<!--or 9 the Roy Soc says 9, RCS say 8 and married afterward, that year-->, following a careful study combining observation, experiment and dissection into a description of the previously misunderstood life of the [[Common Cuckoo|cuckoo]] in the nest. His description of the newly-hatched cuckoo pushing its host's eggs and fledglings from the nest (contrary to the existing belief that the adult cuckoo did it) was only confirmed in the 20th century [http://www.jennermuseum.com/ej/cuckoo.shtml] when photography became feasible. Having observed the behaviour, he demonstrated an anatomical adaptation for it - the baby cuckoo has a depression in its back which is not present after 12 days of life, in which it cups eggs and other chicks to push them out of the nest. It had been assumed that the adult bird did this, but the adult does not remain in the area for sufficiently long. His findings were published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1787. Some discrepancies in the paper are ascribed to his nephew who is said to have made up some observations.
He married Catherine Kingscote (-1815(Tuberculosis)) in March 1788 having met her when [[balloons]] were hot science and he and other Fellows were experimenting with them. His trial balloon descended into [[Kingscote Park]], owned by Anthony Kingscote, Catherine being one of his three daughters.
In 1792 he obtained his MD from the [[University of St Andrews]].
== Smallpox ==
Around this time [[smallpox]] was greatly feared, as one in three of those who contracted the disease died, and those who survived were commonly badly disfigured. [[Voltaire]], a few years later, recorded that 60% of people caught smallpox, with 20% of the population dying of it. A [[Dorset]] farmer, [[Benjamin Jesty]], had successfully inoculated his wife and two children during a smallpox epidemic in 1774, but it was not until Jenner's work some twenty years later that the procedure became widely understood. Indeed it is generally believed that Jenner was unaware of Jesty's success and arrived at his conclusions independently.
<div style="float:right; margin: 5px 0px 5px 5px; padding: 3px; width:25em; background:#D3FFCD; border:1px solid #339933;">
<table style="background: transparent;">
<tr>
<td>'''Jenner's Initial The |
t in spirit we are divine. As the [[Bible]] later explains, we are made in the image of God.
Another myth, "Enki and Adapa", tells of how humanity loses the chance at immorality. Adapa, who is Abgallu (Ab = Water, Gal = Great, Lu = Man) (Akkadian Apkallu), Enki's advisor, to the first king of Eridu, Allulim, inadvertantly breaks the wings of the South Wind, [[Ninlil]] (See ''[[Lilith]]'') (Nin = Lady, Lil = Air), daughter of Anu (the Heavens) and wife to Enlil, [[King of the Gods]]. In terror at the thought of their retribution, Adapa seeks the advice of Enki. Enki advises that Adapa make a deep and sincere atonement, but advises Adapa to eat nothing given to him by the Gods, as he will probably be given the food of death, out of their anger at his deeds. Adapa takes Enki's advice, but the Gods, so impressed by the sincerity of Adapa's sorrow and grief as to what he did, offered instead the fruit of immortality. Adapa remembering Enki's words, refuses, and so misses out on the chance of eternal life.
==Enki, restorer of balance==
Enki had a penchant for [[beer]] and a string of [[incest]]uous affairs. In the epic ''Enki and Ninhursag'', he and his consort [[Ninhursag]] had a daughter [[Ninsar]]. When Ninhursag left him he came upon and then had intercourse with Ninsar (Lady Greenery)who gave birth to [[Ninkurra]] (Lady Fruitfulness or Lady Pasture). A second time, he had intercourse with Ninkurra, who gave birth to [[Uttu]], the spider, the one who maintains interconnectedness of all with all. A third time Enki succumbs to temptation. Upset about Enki's reputation, Uttu consults Ninhursag, who, upset at the promiscuous nature of her spouse, advises Uttu to avoid the riverbanks. Ninhursag takes Enki's semen and plants it in the earth where six or eight plants rapidly germinate. With his two-faced servant and steward Isimud, Enki finds the plants and immediately starts consuming their fruit. Unaccountably he falls ill in his jaw, his teeth, his mouth, his throat, his limbs and his rib. The Gods are at a loss to know what to do, until Ninhursag's sacred fox fetches the Goddess.
Ninhursag relents and takes Enki's Ab (water, or semen) into her body, and gives birth to Gods of healing of each part of the body. The last one - Ninti, Sumerian = Lady Rib, is also a pun on Lady Life, a title of Ninhursag herself. The story symbolically reflects the way in which life is brought forth through the addition of water to the land, and once it grows, water is required to bring plants to fruit. It also counsels balance and responsibility, nothing to excess. In this way Enki learns painfully what happens when things are out of balance - Enki is thus a God of [[ecology]]. Ninti,is given the title of the mother of all living. This is also the title given to Eve, the Aramaic Hawwah, who was made from the Rib of Adam, in a strange reflection of the Sumerian myth.
==Enki, Champion of Humankind==
According to Sumerian mythology, Enki also assisted humanity to survive the Deluge designed to kill them. In the Legend of [[Atrahasis]] Enlil, the jealous king of the Gods sets out to elimate humanity, whose noise is offensive to his ears. He successively sends drought, famine and plague to eliminate humanity, but Enki thwarts his half-brother's plans by teaching Atrahasis irrigation, granaries and medicine. Humans again proliferate a fourth time. Enraged [[Enlil]], convenes a Council of Deities and gets them to promise not to tell [[Humanity (abstraction)|humankind]] that he plans their total annihilation. Enki, doesn't tell Atrahasis, but tells of Enlil's plan to the walls of Atrahasis' reed hut, thus covertly rescuing the man Atrahasis, or [[Utnapishtim|Ziusudra]] by either instructing him to build some kind of an boat for his family, or by bringing him into the heavens in a magic boat. After the seven day Deluge, the flood hero, [[Utnapishtim]], [[Atrahasis]] or [[Ziusudra]] frees a swallow, a raven and a dove in an effort to find if the flood waters have receeded. On the boat landing, a sacrifice is organized to the Gods. Enlil is angry his will has been thwarted yet again, and Enki is named as the culprit. As God of what we would call ecology, Enki explains that Enlil is unfair to punish the guiltless Atrahasis for the sins of his fellows, and secures a promise that the Gods will not eliminate humankind if they practice birth control and live within the means of the natural world. The threat is made, however, that if humans do not honour their side of the [[covenant]] the Gods will be free to wreck havok once again. This is apparently the oldest surviving source of the [[Noah's Ark]] myth and other parallel [[Middle East]]ern [[Deluge (mythology)|Deluge myths]].
==His portrayal==
[[Image:Enki.jpg|thumb|right|Enki (seated) shown with waters flowing to his shoulders. The man-bird held captive is said to be the Anzu bird who stole the Me from Enlil.]] Enki was considered a god of life and replenishment, and was often depicted with two streams of water emanating from his shoulders, one the Tigris, the other the Euphrates. Alongside him were trees symbolising the male and female aspects of nature, each holding the male and female aspects of the 'Life Essence', which he, as apparent alchemist of the gods, would masterfully mix to create several beings that would live upon the face of the earth.
[[Eridu]], (Uru = City, Idug = Good) meaning "the good city", was the oldest settlement in the Euphrates valley, and is now represented by the mounds known as ''Abu Shahrein''. In the absence of inscriptions from excavations on that site, we are dependent for our knowledge of Ea on material found elsewhere. This is, however, sufficient to enable us to state definitely that Ea was a water-deity lord, especially of the water under the earth, the [[Apsu]]. Whether Ea (or ''A-e'' as some scholars prefer) represents the real pronunciation of his name we do not know.
Older accounts sometimes suppose that by reason of the constant accumulation of soil in the Euphrates valley, Eridu was formerly situated on the Persian Gulf itself (as indicated by mention in Sumerian texts of its being on the Apsu), but for a long time it was thought that the opposite is true, that the waters of the Persian Gulf have been eroding the land and that the Apsu must refer to the fresh water of the marshes surrounding the city. Today it is known that during the [[Ubaid]] period the waters of the world were between 1.5 and 5 metres higher than their current level, with the result that Eridu was a port city with a quai, and shipping from [[Dilmun]] ([[Bahrein]]), [[Makan]] ([[Oman]]), and [[Melluhha]] (the [[Indus]]).
==Enki's Influence==
'''Ea''' was apparently depicted, sometimes, like Adapa, as a man covered with the scales of a fish, and this representation, as likewise the name of his temple E-apsu, "house of the watery deep", points decidedly to his original character as a god of the waters (see [[Oannes]]). Of his [[cult]] at Eridu, which goes back to the oldest period of Mesopotamian history, nothing definite is known except that his temple was also called named ''Esaggila'' = "the lofty sacred house" (E = house, Sag = sacred, Ila = High), a name shared with Marduk's temple in Babylon, pointing to a staged tower or [[Ziggurat]] (as with the temple of [[Enlil]] at [[Nippur]], which was known as ''Ekur'' ("Kur" = mountain "E" = house), and that incantations, involving ceremonial rites in which water as a sacred element played a prominent part, formed a feature of his worship. The pool of the Abzu at the front of his temple, was adopted also at the temple to [[Nanna]] ([[Akkadian]] [[Sin]]) the Moon, at [[Ur]], and spread throughout the Middle East. It remains, as the sacred pool at [[Mosques]], and as the [[Baptismal font]] in [[Christian]] [[Church]]es.
Whether Eridu at one time also played an important political role in Sumerian affairs is not certain, though not improbable. At all events the prominence of "Ea" led, as in the case of Nippur, to the survival of Eridu as a sacred city, long after it had ceased to have any significance as a political centre. Myths in which Ea figures prominently have been found in [[Assurbanipal]]'s library, indicating that Ea was regarded from the first as the protector and teacher of mankind, and as far back as the [[Hattusas]] [[archive]] in [[Hittite]] [[Anatolia]]. Enki/Ea is essentially a god of civilization, wisdom and culture. He was also the creator and protector of man, and of the world in general. Traces of this view appear in the Marduk epic celebrating the achievements of this god and the close connection between the Ea cult at Eridu and that of Marduk. The correlation between the two rise from two other important connections: (1) that the name of Marduk's sanctuary at Babylon bears the same name, ''Esaggila'', as that of Ea in Eridu, and (2) that Marduk is generally termed the son of Ea, who derives his powers from the voluntary abdication of the father in favour of his son. Accordingly, the incantations originally composed for the Ea cult were re-edited by the priests of Babylon and adapted to the worship of [[Marduk]], and, similarly, the hymns to Marduk betray traces of the transfer of attributes to Marduk which originally belonged to Ea.
It is, however, as the third figure in the triad (the two other members of which were [[Anu]] and [[Enlil]]) that Ea acquires his permanent place in the pantheon. To him was assigned the control of the watery element, and in this capacity he becomes the ''shar apsi'', i.e. king of the Apsu or "the deep." The Apsu was figured as the abyss of water beneath the earth, and since the gathering place of the dead, known as Aralu, was situated near the confines of the Apsu, he was also designated as [[En-Ki]], i.e. "lord of that which is below", in contrast to Anu, |
utive, legislative, and judicial branches of government. The [[1993]] constitutional reforms included an increase in the number of Supreme Court justices from 9 to 13. The terms of office for [[President of Guatemala|president]], vice president, and congressional representatives were reduced from 5 years to 4 years; for Supreme Court justices from 6 years to 5 years, and increased the terms of mayors and city councils from 2 1/2 to 4 years.
The president and vice president are directly elected through universal suffrage and limited to one term. A vice president can run for president after 4 years out of office. Supreme Court justices are elected by the [[Congress of Guatemala|Congress]] from a list submitted by the bar association, law school deans, a university rector, and appellate judges. The Supreme Court and local courts handle civil and criminal cases. There also is a Constitutional Court.
Guatemala has 22 administrative subdivisions ([[Departments of Guatemala|departments]]) administered by governors appointed by the president. [[Guatemala City]] and 332 other municipalities are governed by popularly elected mayors or councils.
== Political conditions ==
The [[1999]] presidential and legislative elections were considered by international observers to have been free and fair. Participation by women and indigenous voters was higher than in the recent past, although concerns remained regarding the accessibility of polling places in rural areas.
[[Alfonso Antonio Portillo Cabrera|Alfonso Portillo]]'s landslide victory combined with a [[Guatemalan Republican Front]] (FRG) majority in congress suggested possibilities for rapid legislative action. However, under the Guatemalan Constitution of 1985, passage of many kinds of legislation requires a two-thirds vote. Passage of such legislation is not possible, therefore, with FRG votes alone.
The political balance was disrupted in 2000 when allegations surfaced that the FRG had illegally altered legislation. Following an investigation, the Supreme Court stripped those involved, including President of Congress and FRG chief [[Efraín Ríos Montt|Ríos Montt]], of their legislative immunity to face charges in the case. At roughly the same time, the PAN opposition suffered an internal split and broke into factions; the same occurred in the ANN. As a result, reforms essential to peace implementation await legislative action.
New cases of human rights abuse continued to decline, although violent harassment of human rights workers presented a serious challenge to government authority. Common crime, aggravated by a legacy of violence and vigilante justice, presents another serious challenge. Impunity remains a major problem, primarily because democratic institutions, including those responsible for the administration of justice, have developed only a limited capacity to cope with this legacy. The government has stated it will require until 2002 to meet the target of increasing its tax burden (at about 10% of GDP, currently the lowest in the region) to 12% of GDP.
==Country name==
<br>''Conventional long form:''
Republic of Guatemala
<br>''Conventional short form:''
Guatemala
<br>''Local long form:''
República de Guatemala
<br>''Local short form:''
Guatemala
===Data code===
GT
===Government type===
constitutional democratic republic
===Capital===
[[Guatemala City]]
===Administrative divisions===
22 departments (departamentos, singular - departamento); [[Alta Verapaz]], [[Baja Verapaz]], [[Chimaltenango]], [[Chiquimula]], [[Escuintla Department|Escuintla]], [[Guatemala Department|Guatemala]], [[Huehuetenango Department|Huehuetenango]], [[Izabal]], [[Jalapa Department|Jalapa]], [[Jutiapa Department|Jutiapa]], [[Petén]], [[El Progreso Department|El Progreso]], [[Quetzaltenango Department|Quetzaltenango]], [[El Quiché]], [[Retalhuleu Department|Retalhuleu]], [[Sacatepéquez]], [[San Marcos Department|San Marcos]], [[Santa Rosa Department, Guatemala|Santa Rosa]], [[Sololá Department|Sololá]], [[Suchitepequez Department|Suchitepequez]], [[Totonicapán Department|Totonicapán]], [[Zacapa Department|Zacapa]].
=== Independence: ===
[[15 September]] [[1821]] (from [[Spain]])
=== National holiday: ===
Independence Day, [[15 September]] ([[1821]])
=== Constitution: ===
[[31 May]] [[1985]], effective [[14 January]] [[1986]]
Note: suspended [[25 May]] [[1993]] by former President [[Jorge Antonio Serrano Elías|Serrano Elías]]; reinstated [[5 June]] [[1993]] following ouster of president; amended November 1993
See a spanish transcript of the [[Guatemala Constitution]] with 1993 reforms.
===Legal system===
civil law system; judicial review of legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
===Suffrage===
18 years of age; universal (active duty members of the armed forces may not vote)
==Executive branch==
===Chief of State===
[[President of Guatemala|President]] [[Óscar José Rafael Berger Perdomo]] (since [[14 January]] [[2004]]); [[Vice President of Guatemala|Vice President]] [[Eduardo Stein Barillas]] (since [[14 January]] [[2004]]). Note &ndash; the president is both the chief of state and head of government
===cabinet===
Council of Ministers named by the president.
Actual Ministers (January 14 2004 - incumbent)
Foreign Affairs Ministry - Jorge Briz Abularach,
Education Ministry - Maria Del Carmen Aceña,
Interior Ministry - Carlos Vielmann,
Defense Ministry - Gral.Francisco Bermudez,
Finance Ministry - Maria Antonieta de Bonilla,
Energy Ministry - Luis Ortiz,
Economy Ministry - Marcio Cuevas,
Public Health Ministry - Marco Tulio Sosa,
Labor Ministry - Jorge Gallardo,
Agriculture Ministry - Alvaro Aguilar,
Communications And Infrastructure Ministry- Eduardo Castillo,
Executive Secretary Of The Presidency - Eduardo Gonzales,
Secretary Of Tourism - Dan Mooney,
Secretary Of Social Development - Luis Flores Asturias
===Elections===
President elected by popular vote for a four-year term; election last held [[9 November]] [[2003]]; runoff held [[28 December]] [[2003]]. See [[Guatemala election, 2003]]. Next to be held NA November 2007.
===election results===
Oscar BERGER Perdomo elected president; percent of vote - Oscar BERGER Perdomo (GANA) 54.1%, [[Álvaro Colom]] (UNE) 45.9%
==Legislative branch==
[[Unicameral]] [[Congress of the Republic of Guatemala|Congress of the Republic]] or ''Congreso de la República'' (158 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
===Elections===
last held [[9 November]] [[2003]] (next to be held November 2007)
===Election results===
percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - GANA 49, FRG 41, UNE 33, PAN 17, other 18
Note: for the [[9 November]] [[2003]] election, the number of congressional seats increased from 113 to 158
==Judicial branch==
Constitutional Court or Corte de Constitutcionalidad is Guatemala's highest court (five judges are elected for concurrent five-year terms by Congress, each serving one year as president of the Constitutional Court; one is elected by Congress, one elected by the Supreme Court of Justice, one appointed by the President, one elected by Superior Counsel of Universidad San Carlos de Guatemala, and one by Colegio de Abogados); Supreme Court of Justice or Corte Suprema de Justicia (thirteen members serve concurrent five-year terms and elect a president of the Court each year from among their number; the president of the Supreme Court of Justice also supervises trial judges around the country, who are named to five-year terms)
==Political parties==
''See [[List of political parties in Guatemala]].
==Political pressure groups and leaders==
Agrarian Owners Group or UNAGRO; Alliance Against Impunity or AAI; Committee for Campesino Unity or CUC; Coordinating Committee of Agricultural, Commercial, Industrial, and Financial Associations or CACIF; Mutual Support Group or GAM
==International organization participation==
BCIE, CACM, FAO, G-24, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO (correspondent), ITU, LAES, LAIA (observer), MIGA, MINUSTAH, NAM, OAS, ONUB, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNOCI, UPU, WCL, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTO
==Flag description==
Three equal vertical bands of light blue (hoist side), white, and light blue with the coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms includes a green and red [[Resplendent Quetzal|quetzal]] (the national bird) and a scroll bearing the inscription LIBERTAD 15 DE SEPTIEMBRE DE 1821 (the original date of independence from Spain) all superimposed on a pair of crossed rifles and a pair of crossed swords and framed by a wreath. See [[Flag of Guatemala]].
==See also==
*[[Guatemala]]
*[[Central American Parliament]]
[[Category:Politics of Guatemala| ]]
[[fr:Politique du Guatemala]]
[[pt:Política da Guatemala]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Guatemala</title>
<id>12161</id>
<revision>
<id>41351038</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T19:56:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gene.arboit</username>
<id>278325</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fr:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
[[Guatemala]]'s [[Gross domestic product]] for 2000 was estimated at $19.0 billion, with real growth slowing to approximately 3.3%. After the signing of the final peace accord in December [[1996]], Guatemala was well-positioned for rapid economic growth over the next several years.
Guatemala's economy is dominated by the private sector, which generates about 85% of GDP. Agriculture contributes 23% of GDP and accounts for 75% of exports. Most manufacturing is light assembly and food processing, geared to the domestic, [[United States|U.S.]], and [[Central America]]n markets. Over the past several years, tourism and exports of textiles, apparel, and nontraditional agricultural products such as winter vegetables, fruit, and |
ial commission. The Privy Council of the United Kingdom serves as the highest appellate court.
{{office-table}}
|Queen
|[[Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]]
|
|[[6 February]] [[1952]]
|-
|[[List of Governors-General of Grenada|Governor-General]]
|[[Daniel Williams]]
|
|[[9 August]] [[1996]]
|-
|[[List of Prime Ministers of Grenada|Prime Minister]]
|[[Keith Mitchell]]
|[[New National Party of Grenada|NNP]]
|[[22 June]] [[1995]]
|}
==Legislative branch==
The [[Parliament of Grenada|Parliament]] has two [[bicameralism|chambers]]. The [[House of Representatives of Grenada|House of Representatives]] has 15 members, elected for a five year term in single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]]. The [[Senate of Grenada|Senate]] has 13 appointed members, 10 appointed by the government and three by the leader of the opposition).
==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Grenada|Elections in Grenada|}}
{{Grenada legislative election, 2003}}
==Judicial branch==
West Indies Associate States Supreme Court (an associate judge resides in Grenada)
==Administrative divisions==
6 parishes and 1 dependency*; [[Carriacou]] and Petit Martinique*, Saint Andrew, Saint David, Saint George, Saint John, Saint Mark, Saint Patrick
==International organization participation==
ACP, C, [[Caricom]], [[Caribbean Development Bank|CDB]], ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, [[Interpol]], IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, LAES, NAM, OAS, OECS, OPANAL, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WToO, WTrO
[[Category:Politics of Grenada| ]]
[[es:Gobierno y política de Granada]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Grenada</title>
<id>12133</id>
<revision>
<id>26886546</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-30T15:45:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CaribDigita</username>
<id>60840</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Cat: Grenada --> Economy of Grenada</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The economy of [[Grenada]] is based upon agricultural production ([[nutmeg]], [[mace (spice)|mace]], [[cocoa]], and [[banana]]s) and tourism. Agriculture accounts for over half of merchandise exports, and a large portion of the population is employed directly or indirectly in agriculture. Recently the performance of the agricultural sector has not been good. Grenada's banana exports declined markedly in volume and quality in [[1996]], and it is a question to what extent the country will remain a banana exporter. Tourism remains the key earner of foreign exchange.
Grenada is a member of the [[Eastern Caribbean Currency Union]] (ECCU). The [[Eastern Caribbean Central Bank]] (ECCB) issues a common currency for all members of the ECCU. The ECCB also manages monetary policy, and regulates and supervises commercial banking activities in its member countries.
Grenada also is a member of the [[Caribbean_Community|Caribbean Community (CARICOM)]]. Most goods can be imported into Grenada under open general license but some goods require specific licenses. Goods that are produced in the Eastern Caribbean receive additional protection; in May [[1991]], the CARICOM common external tariff (CET) was implemented. The CET aims to facilitate economic growth through intra-regional trade by offering duty-free trade among CARICOM members and duties on goods imported from outside CARICOM.
'''[[GDP]]:'''
[[purchasing power parity]] - $360 million ([[1999]] est.)
'''GDP - [[real growth rate]]:'''
5% (1999 est.)
'''GDP - [[per capita]]:'''
purchasing power parity - $3,700 (1999 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
''agriculture:'' 9.7%
''industry:'' 15%
''services:'' 75.3% (1996 est.)
'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
''lowest 10%:'' NA%
''highest 10%:'' NA%
'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
1.3% (1998)
'''Labor force:'''
42,300 (1996)
'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
services 62%, agriculture 24%, industry 14% (1999 est.)
'''Unemployment rate:'''
15% (1997)
'''Budget:'''
''revenues:'' $85.8 million
''expenditures:'' $102.1 million, including capital expenditures of $28 million (1997)
'''Industries:'''
food and beverages, textiles, light assembly operations, tourism, construction
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
0.7% (1997 est.)
'''Electricity - production:'''
105 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
''fossil fuel:'' 100%
''hydro:'' 0%
''nuclear:'' 0%
''other:'' 0% (1998)
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
98 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[banana]]s, [[cocoa]], [[nutmeg]], [[mace]], [[citrus]], [[avocado]]s, root crops, [[sugarcane]], [[maize]], vegetables
'''Exports:'''
$26.8 million (1998)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
[[banana]]s, [[cocoa]], [[nutmeg]], fruit and vegetables, clothing, [[mace]]
'''Exports - partners:'''
[[Caricom]] 32.3%, [[United Kingdom]] 20%, [[United States]] 13%, [[Netherlands]] 8.8% (1991)
'''Imports:'''
$200 million (1998)
'''Imports - commodities:'''
food, manufactured goods, machinery, chemicals, fuel (1989)
'''Imports - partners:'''
[[United States]] 31.2%, [[Caricom]] 23.6%, [[United Kingdom]] 13.8%, [[Japan]] 7.1% (1991)
'''Debt - external:'''
$89.2 million (1998)
'''[[Economic aid]] - recipient:'''
$8.3 million (1995)
'''Currency:'''
1 [[East Caribbean dollar]] (EC$) = 100 cents
'''Exchange rates:'''
East Caribbean dollars (EC$) per US$1 - 2.7000 (fixed rate since 1976)
'''[[Fiscal year]]:'''
calendar year
==See also==
[[Grenada]]
{{WTO}}
[[Category:WTO members|Grenada]]
[[Category:Economy of Grenada|*]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Grenada]]
[[fr:Économie de Grenade]]
[[pt:Economia de Granada]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Grenada</title>
<id>12134</id>
<revision>
<id>24376284</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-30T05:01:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CaribDigita</username>
<id>60840</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Recat Cat:Grenada -> Cat:Communications in Grenada</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
33,500 (2002)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
7,600 (2002)
'''Telephone system:'''
automatic, island-wide telephone system
<br>''domestic:''
interisland VHF and UHF radiotelephone links
<br>''international:''
new SHF radiotelephone links to [[Trinidad and Tobago]] and [[Saint Vincent (island)|Saint Vincent]]; VHF and UHF radio links to [[Trinidad]]
'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
[[Amplitude modulation|AM]] 2, [[FM]] 13, [[shortwave]] 0 (1998)
'''Radios:'''
57,000 (1997)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
2 (1997)
'''Televisions:'''
33,000 (1997)
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
14 (2002)
'''[[Internet Users]]:'''
15,000 (2002)
'''[[Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' GD
:''See also :'' [[Grenada]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Grenada]]
[[Category:Communications in Grenada|*]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in Grenada</title>
<id>12135</id>
<revision>
<id>24208248</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-28T02:44:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CalJW</username>
<id>233571</id>
</contributor>
<comment>cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Grenada]] has no [[railway]]s or [[merchant marine]].
'''[[Highway]]s:'''
<br>''total:''
1,040 km
<br>''paved:''
638 km
<br>''unpaved:''
402 km (1996 est.)
'''[[Seaport]]s and [[harbour]]s:'''
[[Grenville]], [[Saint George's]]
'''[[Airport]]s:'''
3 (1999 est.)
'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
3
<br>''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
1
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
1
<br>''under 914 m:''
1 (1999 est.)
[[Category:Transport in Grenada| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Grenada</title>
<id>12136</id>
<revision>
<id>31719528</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-17T10:44:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CalJW</username>
<id>233571</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Military branches:'''
Royal Grenada Police Force (includes Special Service Unit), Coast Guard
'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$NA
'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
NA%
Six days after Marxists seized control of Grenada on [[19 October]], [[1983]], the country was invaded by the United States forces along with six other Caribbean nations. Following the capture of the Marxists and their Cuban advisors, free elections were held the next year.
==References and Links==
*[[Grenada]]
[[Category:Government of Grenada]]
[[Category:Militaries|Grenada]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Grenada</title>
<id>12137</id>
<revision>
<id>36616478</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-25T08:04:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.236.151.75</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The [[United States]], [[Venezuela]], [[Cuba]], and the [[People's Republic of China]] have embassies in Grenada. The [[United Kingdom]] is represented by a resident commissioner (as opposed to the governor general who represents the British monarch). Grenada has been recognized by most members of the United Nations and maintains diplomatic missions in the [[United Kingdom]], the [[United States]], [[Venezuela]], and [[Canada]].
Grenada announced the resumption of diplomatic ties with the People's Republic of China on January 20, 2005.
Grenada is a member of the Caribbean Development Bank, [[CARICOM]], the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS), and the Commonwealth of Nations. It joined the [[United Nations]] in 1974, and the World Bank, the Internat |
onized [[Saint Brendan|Brendan of Clonfort]], a 6th century Irish churchman and founder of abbeys. Round his authentic figure was woven a tissue that belongs more to [[legend]] than mythology, the ''Navigatio'' or "Journey of Brendan". In this narrative Brendan and his shipmates encounter sea monsters, a [[paradise|paradisal island]] and a floating ice island inhabited by a holy hermit: literal-minded devotés still seek to identify "Brendan's islands" in actual geography.
Many fictions written to personalize Christian themes are better regarded as [[allegory]]. Examples of these might include:
* ''[[Pilgrim's Progress]]'' by [[John Bunyan]].
* ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]'' by [[C. S. Lewis]]
Some Christians discover Christian themes in ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'' and other works by [[J.R.R. Tolkien]]. Though the author adamantly denied that his story was to be taken as an allegory, he admitted to influence from his own experience, which included devout Catholicism.
==Legacy==
From the time of [[St. Augustine]] in the fifth century to the [[Enlightenment]] in the eighteenth century, biblical stories provided the framework of European [[Mythology|mythology.]] Other myths found in different parts of Europe were Christianized and incorporated into this framework. Stories such as that of [[Beowulf]] and Icelandic, Norse, and Germanic sagas were reinterpreted and given Christian meanings. The legend of [[King Arthur]] and the quest for the [[Holy Grail]] is a striking example (Treharne 1971). The thrust of incorporation took on one of two directions. When Christianity was on the advance, pagan myths were Christianized; when it was in retreat, Bible stories were mythologized, sometimes into foreign myths.
Since the end of the eighteenth century, biblical stories have ceased to provide the central mythology of Western society. Owing to the scepticism of the Enlightenment and nineteenth-century freethinking, most Westerners no longer find in Christianity the basic imaginative and mythological framework by which they understand their place in the world.
Certain subgroups within modern society still retain a strong element of Christian mythology in their understanding of life. It is also true that Christian values often inform law and other official elements within different Western societies, but nowhere today do we find biblical mythology providing both the popular and official myths of modern industrial society.
==External citations==
*Louis A. Markos in [http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2001/006/1.32.html Myth Matters], from [http://www.christianitytoday.com Christianity Today magazine]. Quote: "just as Christ came not to abolish the Law but to fulfill it, so he came not to put an end to myth but to take all that is most essential in the myth up into himself and make it real."
*Mark Filiatreau in [http://www.breakpoint.org/Breakpoint/ChannelRoot/FeaturesGroup/OnlineFeatures/A+Master+of+Imaginative+Fiction.htm A Master of Imaginative Fiction], from [http://www.breakpoint.org BreakPoint Online]. Quote: "Classics of Christian Myth -- MacDonald&rsquo;s key mythic works include five full-length books, which we&rsquo;ll introduce here."
*Abstract of the [http://www.cgjungpage.org/abvol92.html Collected Works of C. G. Jung], from [http://www.cgjungpage.org/ The CG Jung page]. Quote: "The astrological characteristics of the fish are seen to contain the essential components of the Christian myth."
*James W. Marchand in [http://www.artsci.wustl.edu/~smcarey/parallelsinNorse.html Christian Parallels to Norse Myth], from the Center for Advanced Study, University of Illinois. Quote: "This reluctance to weigh fairly the possibility of the influence of Christian myth on Norse myth has had a number of unfortunate consequences. The most unfortunate is the resolute refusal on the part of most students of Norse myth to look at medieval Christian myth."
==See also==
* [[Religion and mythology]]
* [[Islamic mythology]]
* [[Jewish mythology]]
* [[Kabbalah]]
[[Category:Christian mythology|*]]
[[es:leyendas del cristianismo]]
[[fr:Mythologie biblique]]
[[it:mitologia cristiana]]
[[nl:Christelijke mythologie]]
[[sv:Kristen mytologi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Company</title>
<id>7484</id>
<revision>
<id>32455067</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-23T06:16:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rchamberlain</username>
<id>181580</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar|company}}
'''Company''' may refer to:
* [[Company (law)]]
* [[Corporation]], depending on the jurisdiction, may or may not have the same meaning as Company (law)
* [[Company (military unit)]]
;Creative works:
* ''[[Company (musical)]]'', by Stephen Sondheim
* ''[[Company (novella)]]'', by Samuel Beckett
* ''[[Company (film)]]'', by Ram Gopal Varma starring Ajay Devgan and Vivek Oberoi
* ''[[Company (novel)]]'', by Max Barry
{{disambig}}
[[de:Kompanie]]
[[simple:Company]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Corporation</title>
<id>7485</id>
<revision>
<id>40892107</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T18:32:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>167.202.196.71</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Additonal key economic argument for limited liability</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the 2003 documentary film see, [[The Corporation]].''
{{mergefrom|Incorporation (business)}}
{{BusinessLaw}}
A '''corporation''' is a [[legal entity]] (distinct from a [[natural person]]) that often has similar rights in [[law]] to those of a ''[[natural person]].''
[[Civil law (legal system)|Civil law]] systems may refer to corporations as "moral persons"; they may also go by the name "AS" (anonymous society) or something similar, depending on language (see below).
In colloquial usage, "corporation" usually refers to a [[business|commercial]] entity set up in accordance with a [[government]]al framework. Churches (mainly in US, but not so much in other countries, where Churches have a different status), interest groups (both can form as [[not-for-profit corporation]]s or can exist as [[voluntary association]]s), cities and townships (often chartered as [[public corporation]]s), among others, may also have historically lengthy corporate identities.
==Legal status==
The law typically views a corporation as a ''fictional person,'' a ''legal person'', or a ''moral person'' (as opposed to a [[natural person]]); United States law recognises this as [[corporate personhood]]. Under such a doctrine (obviously a [[legal fiction]]), a corporation enjoys many of the [[rights]] and [[obligation]]s of individual persons, such as the ability to own [[property]], sign binding [[contract]]s, pay [[tax|taxes]], have certain constitutional rights, and otherwise participate in [[society]]. (Note that corporations do not possess all the rights appertaining to individuals: in most jurisdictions, for example, a corporation cannot become a [[citizen]] and vote.)
In [[common law]] countries, the classic statement of this principle is found in ''[[Lennard's Carrying Co Ltd v Asiatic Petroleum Co Ltd]]'' [1915]
AC 705, where Lord Haldane said:
:''"My Lords, a corporation is an abstraction. It has no mind of its own any more than it has a body of its own; its active and directing will must consequently be sought in the person of somebody who is really the directing mind and will of the corporation, the very ego and centre of the personality of the corporation."''
The most salient features of [[incorporation (business)|incorporation]] include:
#''Limited Liability''. Unlike in a partnership or sole proprietorship, members of a corporation hold no liability for the corporation's debts and obligations: see leading case in common law, [[Salomon v. Salomon & Co.]] [1897] AC 22. As a result their "limited" potential losses cannot exceed the amount which they contributed to the corporation as dues or paid for shares. The economic rationale for this lies in the fact that it allows anonymous trading in the shares of the corporation by virtue of eliminating the corporation's creditors as a stakeholder in such a transaction: Without limited liability, a creditor would not likely allow any share to be sold to a buyer of at least equivalent creditworthiness as the seller. Limited liability further allows corporations to raise funds for [[risk]]ier enterprises by removing risks and costs from the owners and shifting them onto creditors and to other members of society, thereby creating an [[externality]]. Another rationale sometimes offered for limited liability is reducing the amount that an investor can lose reduces the time and effort required to determine whether a stock is risky, thus adding liquidity to the stock market - in contrast to the very illiquid market for partnership interests (however, given the [[due diligence]] already exercised by institutional and other large investors, and the availability of insurance, it is questionable whether added liability would increase the costs of determining risk sufficiently to impair the liquidity of the stock market). In any event, a lender or other creditor can require a personal guarantee on a loan to a corporation (normally a small corporation), thus introducing personal liability.
#''Perpetual Lifetime''. The assets and structure of the corporation exist beyond the lifetime of any of its members or agents. This allows for stability and accumulation of [[capital (economics)|capital]], which thus becomes available for [[investment]] in projects of a larger size and over a longer term than if the corporate assets remained subject to dissolution and distribution. This feature also had great importance in the [[medieval]] period, when [[Land (economics)|land]] donated to the Church ( |
erview with the ''New Statesman'' magazine[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2481371.stm], the [[UK Foreign Secretary]], [[Jack Straw (politician)|Jack Straw]], has blamed Britain's imperial past for many of the modern political problems, including the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]].
"The Balfour declaration and the contradictory assurances which were being given to Palestinians in private at the same time as they were being given to the Israelis&mdash;again, an interesting history for us, but not an honourable one," he said.
==Footnotes==
# {{note|dugdale_326}} B. Dugdale (1939): ''"Arthur James Balfour"'', Vol I, p. 326 & 327
# {{note|macmillan}} Margaret MacMillan ''"Paris 1919 : Six Months That Changed the World"''
==See also==
*[[1922 Text: League of Nations Palestine Mandate]]
*[[1947 UN Partition Plan]]
*[[Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel]], [[May 14]] [[1948]]
*[[Madagascar Plan]]
*[[British Uganda Program]]
==External links==
* [http://www.zionism-israel.com/Balfour_Declaration_1917.htm The Balfour Declaration - Background and history of the declaration]
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/mideast/brwh1922.htm text of the 1922 White Paper] from the Avalon Project
* Donald Macintyre, The Independent, [[26 May]] [[2005]], [http://news.independent.co.uk/world/middle_east/story.jsp?story=641434 "The birth of modern Israel: A scrap of paper that changed history"]
<!-- The text which was here is now a comment in the Churchill White Paper entry. -->
[[Category:1917]]
[[Category:Arab-Israeli conflict]]
[[Category:Israel and Zionism]]
[[Category:Jews in Ottoman and British Palestine]]
[[ca:Declaració Balfour]]
[[de:Balfour-Deklaration]]
[[fr:Déclaration Balfour]]
[[he:הצהרת בלפור]]
[[id:Deklarasi Balfour 1917]]
[[ja:バルフォア宣言]]
[[nl:Balfour-declaratie]]
[[no:Balfourerklæringen]]
[[pl:Deklaracja Balfoura]]
[[pt:Declaração de Balfour]]
[[sv:Balfourdeklarationen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Black Hand</title>
<id>4821</id>
<revision>
<id>41998609</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T03:13:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tom harrison</username>
<id>42168</id>
</contributor>
<comment>cat Category:Secret societies</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Crnaruka.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Members of the Black Hand]]
'''Black Hand''', or '''Crna ruka''' ('''Црна рука'''), officially '''Ujedinjenje ili Smrt''' ('''Уједињење или смрт''') ("'''Unification or Death'''") was a secret association founded in [[Serbia]] in May [[1911]] as part of the pan-[[Serbs|Serbian]] [[nationalism|nationalist]] movement, with the intention of uniting all of the territories containing Serb populations (notably [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], annexed by [[Austria-Hungary]] in October [[1908]]). The society's implication in the June [[1914]] [[assassination in Sarajevo]] of [[Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria]] helped ignite [[World War I]].
The group encompassed a range of ideological outlooks, from conspiratorially-minded army officers to idealistic youths, sometimes tending towards republicanism, despite the acquiescence of nationalistic royal circles in its activities (the movement's leader, Col. [[Dragutin Dimitrijević]] or "Apis", had been instrumental in the June [[1903]] coup which had brought King [[Peter I of Serbia|Petar Karađorđević]] to the [[List of Serbian monarchs|Serbian throne]] following 45 years of rule by the rival [[Obrenovic|Obrenović]] dynasty). The group was denounced as [[Nihilist]] by the Austro-hungarian press and compared to the Russian [[People's Will]] and the [[Chinese Assassination Corps]] which, like the Black Hand, used [[assassination]] to achieve anti-imperialist political goals.
Just prior to World War I, the Black Hand supplied weapons and assistance to fifteen people in a plot to assassinate the Austrian archduke [[Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria|Franz Ferdinand]] while he was visiting [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]]. Only three of the assassins actually made an attempt, and only one, a 19-year-old named [[Gavrilo Princip]] succeeded in killing him. The refusal of Serbia to turn over the Archduke's assassins resulted in Austria-Hungary's declaration of war, effectively starting WWI. Three assassins were later imprisoned and one was hanged for the deed.
In May [[1917]] Dimitrijević was tried on charges of plotting against the royal government, then exiled in [[Thessaloniki]], Greece following Serbia's occupation by Austro-Hungarian, German, and Bulgarian forces in late [[1915]]. His subsequent execution signaled the Black Hand's eclipse by the monarchist [[White Hand]], which was to dominate the political outlook of military leaders in the inter-war [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslav kingdom]].
[[Category:Serbian history]]
[[Category:Secret societies]]
[[cs:Černá ruka]]
[[de:Schwarze Hand]]
[[lv:Melnā Roka]]
[[nl:Zwarte Hand (Bosnië)]]
[[ja:黒手組]]
[[pl:Czarna Ręka]]
[[simple:Black Hand]]
[[sk:Čierna ruka]]
[[sr:Црна рука]]
[[sv:Svarta handen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Board of directors</title>
<id>4822</id>
<revision>
<id>42081323</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:22:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ewlyahoocom</username>
<id>241538</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{cleanup-date|March 2006}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Board of Trustees}}
{{cleanup-date|March 2006}}
<!-- {{dablink|"Chairman of the Board" redirects here. For other uses, see [[Chairman of the Board (disambiguation)]].}} -->
A '''board of directors''', also called '''board of trustees''', '''board of governors''', '''board of managers''', or '''board of curators''', is a group of people who oversee the affairs of a [[corporation]]. One member of the group may be designated or elected to serve as [[chairperson]] and is referred to as the '''chairman of the board'''.
==Duties and powers==
Board members in most legal jurisdictions have specific [[fiduciary]] duties whereby they must act for the benefit of the corporation. A board is either self-perpetuating or elected by the members of the corporation. In the case of an incorporated [[joint-stock company]], the board is almost always elected by the owners ([[shareholders]]) of the company. Individuals can be [[List of people on multiple governing boards|members of the board of directors of multiple corporations]] at one time. In case of non-profit organizations, the board of trustees is most commonly appointed by the members of the organization.
The main duties of the board are to choose the [[chief executive officer]] and other officers to run the day-to-day operations of the corporation and to exercise high-level oversight. Typically corporate boards are involved in issues of [[ownership]], [[strategy]], [[financing]], and [[mergers and acquisitions]].
The actual power held by the board of directors varies widely from corporation to corporation. In some, the board of directors form a powerful body to which senior management is subservient. Other times, the board is a formality which merely [[Rubberstamp (politics)|rubber stamps]] decisions of the [[CEO]] and senior management.
Often the CEO serves concurrently as the chairman of the board. Some contend that this is inappropriate in a publicly-traded joint-stock company because it gives management too much power over the board, diminishing its oversight powers.
Larger boards are partitioned into several [[committee]]s with specific tasks. For example, a [[Executive compensation|compensation]] committee is commonly formed to make decisions regarding salary and stock allocations for top management (and sometimes for the entire employee pool). Others might include an audit committee, a legal affairs committee, and a [[mergers and acquisitions]] committee.
A board will often consist of executive and non-executive directors. Executive directors play an active part in running the company, while non-executive directors are only there to offer advice.
It is widely considered good management practice to create a board of directors with persons with expertise from diverse backgrounds and to have [[outside director]]s or [[non-executive director]]s who can provide a perspective on a situation which is independent from management. For example it is extremely common for a good percentage of the boards of most large corporations to be from academia, especially business schools. Sometimes relatives of powerful politicians are selected to serve on boards, such as when [[Hillary Clinton]] served on the board at [[Arkansas]]-based [[Wal-Mart]] while her husband, [[Bill Clinton|Bill]], was [[Governor of Arkansas]].
==Failures==
While the primary responsibility of boards is to ensure that the corporation's management is performing its job correctly, actually achieving this in practice can be difficult. In a number of "corporate scandals" of the 1990s, one notable feature revealed in subsequent investigations is that boards were not aware of the activities of the managers that they hired, and the true financial state of the corporation. A number of factors may be involved in this tendency:
* Most boards largely rely on management to report information to them, thus allowing management to place the desired 'spin' on information, or even conceal or lie about the true state of a company.
* Boards of directors are part-time bodies, whose members meet only occasionally and may not know each other particularly well. This unfamiliarity can make it difficult for board members to question management.
* CEOs tend to be rather forceful personalities. In some cases, CEOs are accused of exercising too much influence over the company's board.
* Directors may not have the time or the skills required to underst |
r-old Chicxulub crater on the Earth's surface, despite it being one of the largest known on the planet.
Some volcanic features can resemble impact craters, and [[breccia]]ted [[clastic rocks|rocks]] are associated with other geological formations besides impact craters. Non-explosive volcanic craters can usually be distinguished from impact craters by their irregular shape and the association of volcanic flows and other volcanic materials. An exception is that impact craters on Venus often have associated flows of melted material.
The distinctive mark of an impact crater is the presence of rock that has undergone shock-metamorphic effects, such as [[shatter cones]], melted rocks, and crystal deformations. The problem is that these materials tend to be deeply buried, at least for simple craters. They tend to be revealed in the uplifted center of a complex crater, however.
Impacts produce distinctive "shock-metamorphic" effects that allow impact sites to be distinctively identified. Such shock-metamorphic effects can include:
* A layer of shattered or "[[breccia]]ted" rock under the floor of the crater. This layer is called a "breccia lens".
* Shatter cones, which are chevron-shaped impressions in rocks. Such cones are formed most easily in fine-grained rocks.
* High-temperature rock types, including laminated and welded blocks of sand, [[spherulite]]s and [[tektite]]s, or glassy spatters of molten rock. The impact origin of tektites has been questioned by some researchers; they have observed some volcanic features in tektites not found in impactites. Tektites are also drier (contain less water) than typical impactites. While rocks melted by the impact resemble volcanic rocks, they incorporate unmelted fragments of bedrock, form unusually large and unbroken fields, and have a much more mixed chemical composition than volcanic materials spewed up from within the Earth. They also may have relatively large amounts of trace elements that are associated with meteorites, such as nickel, platinum, iridium, and cobalt. Note: it is reported in the scientific literature that some "shock" features, such as small shatter cones, which are often reported as being associated only with impact events, have been found in terrestrial volcanic ejecta.
* Microscopic pressure deformations of minerals. These include fracture patterns in crystals of quartz and feldspar, and formation of high-pressure materials such as diamond, derived from graphite and other carbon compounds, or stishovite and [[coesite]], varieties of [[shocked quartz]].
Craters can also be created from underground [[nuclear weapon|nuclear explosions]]. One of the most crater-pocked sites on the planet is the [[Nevada Test Site]], where a number of craters were purposely made during its years as a center for [[nuclear testing]] (see, for example, [[Operation Plowshare]]).
== Crater categorization ==
In [[1978]], Chuck Wood and Leif Andersson of the Lunar & Planetary Lab devised a system of categorization of lunar impact craters. They used a sampling of craters that were relatively unmodified by subsequent impacts, then grouped the results into five broad categories. These successfully accounted for about 99% of all lunar impact craters.
The LPC Crater Types were as follows:
* ''ALC'' &mdash; small, cup-shaped craters with a diameter of about 10 km or less, and no central floor. The [[archetype]] for this category is '[[Albategnius (crater)|Albategnius C]]'.
* ''BIO'' &mdash; similar to an ALC, but with small, flat floors. Typical diameter is about 15 km. The lunar crater archetype is [[Biot (crater)|Biot]].
* ''SOS'' &mdash; the interior floor is wide and flat, with no central peak. The inner walls are not [[wiktionary:terrace|terrace]]d. The diameter is normally in the range of 15-25 km. The archetype is [[Sosigenes (crater)|Sosigenes crater]].
* ''TRI'' &mdash; these complex craters are large enough so that their inner walls have slumped to the floor. They can range in size from 15-50 km in diameter. The archetype crater is [[Triesnecker (crater)|Triesnecker]].
* ''TYC'' &mdash; these are larger than 50 km, with [[wiktionary:terrace|terrace]]d inner walls and relatively flat floors. They frequently have large central peak formations. [[Tycho (crater)|Tycho crater]] is the archetype for this class.
Beyond a couple of hundred kilometers diameter, the central peak of the TYC class disappear and they are classed as basins.
==Lists of craters==
* [[List of impact craters on Earth]]
* [[List of craters on Mercury]]
* [[List of craters on the Moon]]
* [[List of craters on Mars]]
* [[List of features on Phobos and Deimos]]
* [[List of geological features on Jupiter's smaller moons]]
* [[List of craters on Europa]]
* [[List of craters on Ganymede]]
* [[List of craters on Callisto]]
* [[List of geological features on Saturn's smaller moons]]
* [[List of geological features on Mimas]]
* [[List of geological features on Enceladus]]
* [[List of geological features on Tethys]]
* [[List of geological features on Dione]]
* [[List of geological features on Rhea]]
* [[List of geological features on Iapetus]]
* [[List of craters on Puck]]
* [[List of geological features on Miranda]]
* [[List of geological features on Ariel]]
* [[List of craters on Umbriel]]
* [[List of geological features on Titania]]
* [[List of geological features on Oberon]]
* [[List of craters on Triton]]
===Notable impact craters on Earth===
* [[Barringer Crater]] ([[United States|US]])
* [[Chesapeake Bay impact crater]] (Eastern US)
* [[Chicxulub Crater]] (Mexico)
* [[Haughton impact crater]] ([[Canada]])
* [[Lonar crater]] ([[India]])
* [[Mahuika crater]] ([[New Zealand]])
* [[Manicouagan Reservoir]] ([[Canada]])
* [[Manson crater]] ([[United States|US]])
* [[Mistastin crater]] ([[Canada]])
* [[Noerdlinger Ries|Nördlinger Ries]] ([[Germany]])
* [[Catskill Mountains|Panther Mountain]] [[New York]], ([[United States|US]])
* [[Rochechouart crater]] ([[France]])
* [[Sudbury Basin]] ([[Canada]])
* [[Silverpit crater]] ([[United Kingdom]], located in the [[North Sea]])
* [[Rio Cuarto craters]] ([[Argentina]])
* The [[Lake Siljan|Siljan Ring]] ([[Sweden]])
* [[Vredefort crater]] ([[Vredefort]], [[South Africa]])
* [[Weaubleau-Osceola structure|Weaubleau-Osceola impact structure]] (Central US)
* [[Kaali crater]] ([[Estonia]])
See the [http://www.unb.ca/passc/ImpactDatabase/essay.html Earth Impact Database,] a website concerned with over 160 identified impact craters on the Earth.
===Some extraterrestrial craters===
* [[Caloris Basin]] ([[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]])
* [[Hellas Basin]] ([[Mars (planet)|Mars]])
* [[Mare Orientale]] ([[Moon]])
* [[Petrarch crater]] (Mercury)
* [[South Pole-Aitken basin]] (Moon)
* [[Herschel (crater on Mimas)|Herschel crater]] ([[Mimas (moon)|Mimas]])
==References==
* Charles A. Wood and Leif Andersson, ''[http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/LPSC./0009//0003669.000.html New Morphometric Data for Fresh Lunar Craters]'', [[1978]], Proceedings 9th Lunar and Planet. Sci. Conf.
* Bond, J. W., "The development of central peaks in lunar craters", ''Moon and the Planets'', vol. 25, Dec. 1981.
* Melosh, H.J., 1989, Impact cratering: A geologic process: New York, Oxford University Press, 245 p.
==See also==
* [[Caldera]]
* [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event]]
* [[Impact event]]
* [[Nemesis (star)|Nemesis]]
* [[Ray system]]
* [[Depth]]
==External links==
{{Commons|Impact crater}}
*[http://planetscapes.com/solar/eng/tercrate.htm Photographs of terrestrial impact craters.]
*[http://scsn.seis.sc.edu/Publications/GRLFinalDraft(web).pdf a study of a South Carolina crater]
*[http://www.unb.ca/passc/ImpactDatabase/ The Geological Survey of Canada Crater database, 172 impact structures]
*[http://www.spacedaily.com/news/deepimpact-02k.html A recent news report about tektites]
*[http://www.ottawa.rasc.ca/astronomy/earth_craters/index.html Aerial Explorations of Terrestrial Meteorite Craters]
*[http://bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/download.php?Number=71111 Google Earth Placemarker based on the Geological Survey of Canada Crater database (KML)]
*[http://www.thinklemon.com/pages/ge/ All 172 confirmed meteor impact sites on earth, viewable in Google Earth (Largest, Most recent, Per continent, Including size indicator)]
*[http://www.somerikko.net/old/geo/imp/impacts.htm Impact sites, with individual bibliographies]
[[Category:Craters]]
[[Category:Impact events|*]]
[[Category:Planetary science]]
[[Category:Depressions]]
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[cs:Impaktní kráter]]
[[da:Krater]]
[[de:Einschlagkrater]]
[[es:Cráter (impacto)]]
[[fr:Cratère]]
[[ko:크레이터]]
[[id:Kawah Tabrakan Benda Luar Angkasa di Bumi]]
[[it:Cratere meteoritico]]
[[nl:Inslagkrater]]
[[ja:クレーター]]
[[pl:Krater uderzeniowy]]
[[pt:Cratera]]
[[ru:Астроблема]]
[[sk:Impaktný kráter]]
[[fi:Kraatteri]]
[[sv:Nedslagskrater]]
[[zh:撞击坑]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Corvus</title>
<id>6417</id>
<revision>
<id>41678809</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T00:34:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mennis</username>
<id>309115</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Corvus is no more.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">See:
* '''''[[Crow|Corvus]]''''' is the [[genus|generic]] name of large [[passerine]] [[bird]]s including the [[raven]] and [[crow]] species.
* '''[[Corvus (constellation)|Corvus]]''' ([[Latin]] - the ''[[crow]]'' or ''[[raven]]'') is a small southern [[constellation]].
* '''[[Corvus (weapon)|Corvus]]''' ([[Latin]] - the ''[[crow]]'' or ''[[raven]]'') was a weapon used on Roman ships during the ''[[First Punic War]]''.
* '''[[Corvus (band)|Corvus]]''' is an alternative music band based in [[Phoenix, Arizona]].
* '''[[Corvus (company)|Corvus]]''' was a computer hardware manufacturer.
{{disambig}}
[[de:Corvus]]
[[fi:Corvus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page |
s sport. After [[Slottsbron]] won the Swedish title in 1934 it became popular amongst workers in the smaller industrial towns and villages. Bandy remains the main winter sport in many of these places.
Bandy in Sweden is famous for its "culture" - both playing bandy and being a spectator requires great fortitude and dedication. A "bandy briefcase" is the classic accessory for spectating - it must be made of brown leather, well worn and contain a warm drink in a thermos and/or a flask of liquor.
The play-off match for the Swedish Championship is played every year on the third Sunday of March in [[Uppsala]].
==External links==
*[http://www.geocities.com/Colosseum/Track/2049/English/Bandyhistory.html What is Bandy?] - History and rules of Bandy.
*[http://www.dmoz.org/Sports/Hockey/Bandy/ Bandy] - Category about Bandy at the [[Open Directory Project]].
*[http://www.internationalbandy.com/ International Bandy Federation]
*[http://www.bandyref.com/index International Bandy Referees]
*[http://www.bandysidan.nu/?sida=lankar&sprak=eng Bandysidan links] - One of the most extensive link directories about bandy
*[http://www.stives-town.info/norris_museum.htm Norris Museum] - Link to the Norris Museum of Saint Ives
===National Bandy Federations===
*[[Canada]] - Canada Bandy [http://www.canadabandy.ca/]
*[[Belarus]] -
*[[Estonia]] -
*[[Finland]] - [http://www.finbandy.fi]
*[[Hungary]] -
*[[India]] - (not full member yet)
*[[Italy]] - (not full member yet)
*[[Kazakstan]] -
*[[Kyrgyzstan]] -
*[[Mongolia]] -
*[[Netherlands]] - [[Dutch Bandy Federation]] [http://www.bandynijmegen.nl]
*[[Poland]] -
*[[Norway]] - [[Norges Bandyforbund]] [http://www.bandyforbundet.no/bandy/]
*[[Russia]] - Russian bandy federation [http://www.rusbandy.ru/]
*[[Sweden]] - [[Svenska bandyförbundet]] [http://www.svenskbandy.se/]
*[[United States]] - [[American Bandy Association]] [http://www.usabandy.com/]
[[Category:Team sports]]
[[Category:Bandy]]
[[Category:Winter sports]]
[[Category:Hockey]][[Category:Skating]][[Category:Ball games]]
[[de:Bandy]]
[[et:Jääpall]]
[[fr:Bandy]]
[[it:Bandy]]
[[ja:バンディ]]
[[no:Bandy]]
[[nn:Bandy]]
[[fi:Jääpallo]]
[[sv:Bandy]]
[[ru:Хоккей с мячом]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bob Frankston</title>
<id>4445</id>
<revision>
<id>38167343</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-04T17:37:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RossPatterson</username>
<id>82308</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+cat: Living people</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Robert (Bob) M. Frankston''' (born in [[1949]]) is the co-creator with [[Dan Bricklin]] of the [[VisiCalc]] spreadsheet program and the co-founder of [[Software Arts]], the company that developed it.
Frankston graduated in [[1966]] from [[Stuyvesant High School]] in [[New York, New York|New York City]] and in [[1970]] from [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|M.I.T.]] He is a Fellow of the [[Association for Computing Machinery]].
{{compu-bio-stub}}
[[Category:Stuyvesant High School alumni|Frankston, Bob]]
[[Category:Living people|Frankston, Bob]]
Son, Seth Elkin-Frankston and Ethan Elkin-Frankston
==External links==
*[http://www.frankston.com Bob Frankston's site/blog]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Man Booker Prize</title>
<id>4446</id>
<revision>
<id>41154790</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T11:22:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mel Etitis</username>
<id>159495</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>wikilink</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Man Booker Prize for Fiction''', also often known as the '''Booker Prize''', is one of the world's most prestigious [[List of prizes, medals, and awards#Arts and letters|literary prizes]], and awarded each year for the best original full-length [[novel]] written by a citizen of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] or the [[Republic of Ireland]] in the [[English language]]. A separate prize for which any living [[author]] in the world may qualify, the [[Man Booker International Prize]], was inaugurated in 2005. A Russian version of the Booker Prize, the [[Russian Booker Prize]], was created in [[1992]].
The winner of the Man Booker will generally be assured of international fame and success. It is also a mark of distinction for an author's work to be selected for inclusion on the Booker longlist or [[Short list|shortlist]].
The prize was originally known as the '''Booker-McConnell Prize''', after the company Booker-McConnell plc began sponsoring the event in [[1968]], and became commonly known as the "Booker Prize" or simply "the Booker". When administration of the prize was transferred to the Booker Prize Foundation in [[2002]], the title sponsor became the investment company [[Man Group|Man Group plc]], which opted to retain "Booker" as part of the official title of the prize.
The prize money awarded with the Booker Prize was originally £21,000, and was subsequently raised to £50,000 in [[2002]] under the sponsorship of Man Group.
==Judging==
The selection process for the winner of the prize commences with the formation of an advisory committee which includes an author, two publishers, a literary agent, a bookseller, a librarian, and a chairperson appointed by the Booker Prize Foundation. The advisory committee then selects the judging panel, the membership of which changes each year, although on rare occasions a judge may be selected a second time.
To maintain the consistent excellence of the prize, judges are selected from amongst leading literary critics, writers, academics and notable public figures.
==Winners==
{{main|List of winners and shortlisted authors of the Booker Prize for Fiction}}
==Some statistics==
*Publishers may submit books for consideration and judges may call for books to be submitted. In [[2002]], 110 were submitted and another ten were called.
*The list of books making the longlist was first released in [[2001]]. In [[2003]] there were 23 books on the longlist, in 2002 there were 20 and in 2001 there were 24.
*For the first 35 years of the Booker there were only five years when fewer than six books were on the shortlist, and two years ([[1980]] and [[1981]]) when there were seven on the shortlist.
*As of [[2003]]:
**Over the first 35 years there were a total of 201 novels from 134 authors on the shortlists.
**Of the 97 novelists nominated once, there were 13 winners and three co-winners.
**Of the 19 novelists nominated twice, there were seven winners and one two-time winner ([[J. M. Coetzee]]).
**Of the ten novelists nominated three times, there were four winners, one co-winner and one two-time winner ([[Peter Carey]]).
**Of the five four-time nominees, all but [[William Trevor]] have won once. The other four-time nominees are [[Ian McEwan]], [[Salman Rushdie]], [[Thomas Keneally]] and [[Penelope Fitzgerald]].
**There have only been two five-time nominees, [[Margaret Atwood]] (first nominated in [[1986]] and won in [[2000]]) and [[Beryl Bainbridge]] (nominated twice in the [[1970s]] and three times in the [[1990s]], but never won).
**There has been only one six-time nominee, [[Iris Murdoch]], who won on her fourth nomination in [[1978]] and was nominated twice more in the [[1980s]].
==See also==
*The [[Commonwealth Writers Prize]]
*The [[National Book Award]]
*The [[Prix Goncourt]]
*The [[Whitbread literary award]]
==External links==
*[http://www.themanbookerprize.com/ The official website of the Man Booker Prize]
*[http://www.turbobooksnob.com/ TurboBookSnob.com &ndash; provides information about the Booker, predictions of the winner, book recommendations, and literary links.]
*[http://www.awardannals.com/award/booker/ The Book Award Annals &ndash; Booker winners and shortlists]
*[http://www.almaz.com/booker/ Another listing of Booker winners and shortlists]
[[Category:British literary awards]]
[[Category:Fiction awards]]
[[Category:1968 establishments]]
[[da:Bookerpris]]
[[de:Booker Prize]]
[[eo:Premio Booker]]
[[fr:Prix Booker]]
[[hr:Nagrada Booker]]
[[hu:Man Booker-díj]]
[[nl:Booker Prize]]
[[ja:ブッカー賞]]
[[no:Bookerprisen]]
[[pl:Booker Prize]]
[[fi:Booker-palkinto]]
[[zh:布克奖]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Book of Joel</title>
<id>4447</id>
<revision>
<id>37984429</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T10:59:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fred Bradstadt</username>
<id>222638</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Use in the New Testament */ wikitable</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
==Overview of Contents==
The book of '''Joel''' (MEW) is part of the Jewish [[Hebrew Bible]], the [[Tanakh]], and also the [[Old Testament]] of the [[Christian]] [[Bible]]. Joel is part of a group of twelve prophetic books known as the [[Minor Prophets]] or simply as [[The Twelve]]; the distinction 'minor' indicates the short length of the text in relation to the larger prophetic texts known as the [[Major prophet|Major Prophets]].
==The Prophet==
[[Joel]] was probably a resident in [[kingdom of Judah|Judah]], as his commission was to that people. He makes frequent mention of Judah and [[Jerusalem]] (1:14; 2:1, 15, 32; 3:1, 12, 17, 20, 21). The name Joel was common in Israel, and means, "the Lord is God."
==Historical Context==
Scholars debate the date of Joel with three main schools:
*835-796BC During the time when Joash was too young to govern and Jehoiada did so in his place (2 Kings 11; 2 Chron. 23-24).
*About 775-725BC Roughly contemporary with [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]] and [[Book of Amos|Amos]].
*About 500BC Roughly contemporary with [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]].
==Sections and Themes==
#A prophecy of a great public calamity then impending over the land, consisting of a want of water |
925</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:29:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DMAJohnson</username>
<id>246896</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Removed Vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cow.jpg|right|thumb|375px|An unsuspecting potential victim]]
'''Cow tipping''' is a pastime allegedly common in rural areas, in which participants sneak up on an upright sleeping cow and then push it over for amusement. Some variants of this urban legend state that the cow is then unable to get up. There is no evidence, aside from mostly unreliable eyewitness reports, that any cows have ever been tipped in this manner. In addition, there are a number of problems with typical accounts of cow tipping. Unlike [[horse]]s, cows do not 'lock their legs' when they sleep. Cows lie down while sleeping [http://images.google.com/images?svnum=10&hl=en&lr=lang_en&safe=off&q=sleeping+cow]. Most of their sleep is very light and easily disturbed &mdash; typical of herd prey animals; they take only short naps at regular intervals throughout a 24 hour period, which means that at any given time, some members of the herd are aware and alert. The vision field of a cow is larger than that of a human, and they have acute senses of hearing and smell. Thus, cows are not easy to sneak up on. If startled, they quickly communicate to the rest of the herd that something is amiss.
Cows are large, and would be very difficult to tip, even for several people working together. A grown cow can be over 1.5&nbsp;m (5 feet) high with a mass on the order of 540 [[kilogram|kg]] (1,200 [[pound (weight)|lb]]) all the way up to 900 [[kilogram|kg]] (2,000 [[pound (weight)|lb]]). By way of comparison, a typical [[sumo]] wrestler masses only 140 kg (310 lb). The four corners of a large "American-style" domestic [[refrigerator]] fairly closely approximate the spread of a cow's legs. If the refrigerator were cut down to 1.5&nbsp;m (5 feet), filled with 400 kg (880 lb) of weights, and placed in a muddy field, tipping it would offer a comparable challenge to tipping a cow.
Variants of the legend claim that successfully tipping a cow will result in its death. Although cows can die if prevented from sitting upright for an extended period of time, briefly forcing a cow onto its back will not kill it. Under typical circumstances, a cow knocked onto its back would be able to restore itself to an upright position.
Other versions of the cow tipping story attempt to evade these objections by claiming, for example, that although cows lie down to [[dream]], they can still doze while standing. Others appeal to a paper published by the [[University of British Columbia]] which calculates that, in certain circumstances, five people could topple a cow. Such a situation, however, would be highly unlikely, meaning they effectively debunked it as an [[urban legend]]. [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2-1858246,00.html]
Finally, attempting to tip a cow is a patently dangerous activity. Despite the animal's reputation for being placid and slow-moving, a cow is easily capable of hurting someone when provoked or nervous; a [[herd]] of cows or a bull (easily mistaken for a cow in the dark) would be even more dangerous.
== Possibility that cow tipping may be achievable ==
''[[The Times|The Times]]'' (London) of [[8 November]] [[2005]], contains two letters on the subject, including one that appears to describe a method by which the task might be achievable by three people. This follows some earlier discussions on the subject in ''The Times'' (see reference under External Links, below).
A reader in Hawaii wrote:
:"Cow tipping is possible, it is very simple and I've done it. It requires three people (note: be very quiet, but sobriety may be a hindrance), one person on one side of the cow, two on the other. The lone person pushes very hard on his side, and waiting for the balancing response from the startled animal, the other two then push very hard on their side to overbalance her. Works like a charm."
Another reader, a [[Postdoctoral researcher|post-doc]] at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]], suggested one person could slam a cow down with a running start: "I have calculated that an 80kg (175lb) person would only need to run at the cow at about 18km/h (12mph) in order to tip it."
== Cow tipping in popular culture ==
[[Image:MOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO.jpg|right|thumb|Cow-tipping video game]]
* In an episode of [[MTV]]'s ''[[Beavis and Butt-Head]]'', a cow is tipped by the two of them.
* In a ''[[Rugrats]] [[All Grown Up]]'' episode (or maybe movie) where they visit a farm and Susie tries to tip a cow (and ends up succeeding in the end)
* It is mentioned in ''[[That '70s Show]]'' as something the kids did.
* In 1991, [[National Public Radio|NPR]] broadcast a half-hour radio play called "Cow Tipping," a comedy about five hapless college-aged cow tippers in [[Illinois]]. Produced by the Midwest Radio Theatre Workshop.
* It is an often discussed topic on the popular breakfast radio show [[Foxy and Tom]].
* It was also featured in [[Chris Farley]]'s movie, [[Tommy Boy]], in which Farley and Rob Lowe attempted and failed to tip a slumbering cow.
* In the computer video game [[Fallout Tactics: Brotherhood of Steel]], there is a random encounter on the world map that puts the player characters into a field with cows that can be tipped.
* In the ''[[Drawn Together]]'' episode "Ghostesses in the Slot Machine", Wooldoor Sockbat and Ling-Ling pushed Toot Braunstein over while she was standing in a field eating grass, causing her to moo. The joke is that Toot is always being made fun of for being fat (like a cow) - this particular exaggeration follows another character's statement that Toot is "the same joke over and over".
* In the movie ''[[Heathers]]'', Veronica and Heather go on a [[double date]] on which their dates tip a cow into mud which splatters on both of them.
* In the beginning of the movie Larva [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0393421/] two teenagers agree to tip over a cow in exchange for a [[strip-tease]] performed by their girlfriends, they succeed in tipping the cow because it has already been eaten from the inside by something, they are instantly and unknowingly infected.
* In the Online Role Playing game [[Asheron's Call|Asheron's Call: Dark Majesty]] cow tipping is possible but can be deadly. http://members.cox.net/shizukana/gate-shot.htm
* In 2006 the New York rock group Little Willies, comprising Norah Jones, Richard Julian, Lee Alexander, Jim Campilongo and Dan Reiser recorded a song written by Jones, Alexander and Julian called “Lou Reed”. The song claimed that the singer Lou Reed had been sighted in Texas cow tipping.
==See also==
*[[Steer wrestling]] in which a running steer is "tipped".
== External links ==
; Articles discussing how cows could be tipped
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20050320145500/http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~biol438/Reports/CowTip.PDF University of British Columbia - The Mechanics of Cow Tipping (PDF)]
<!-- Cows should be tipped 15-20%, just like any other service worker -->
; Articles arguing that cow tipping is an urban legend
* [http://www.skeptic.com/jr5-09.html The Most Urban of All Urban Legends]
* [http://www.truthorfiction.com/rumors/c/cowtipping.htm Adventures in cow tipping - Fiction!]
* [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2-1858246,00.html The Times article on Cow Tipping by Jack Malvern]
* [http://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/11/09/cow_tipping/ The Register article debunking the myth of cow tipping while drunk by Lester Haines]
; Additional links about cow tipping
* [http://www.ubersite.com/m/14857 Humorous article about Cow Tipping] - ubersite.com
* [http://www.cowtippershandbook.com The Official Cow Tipper's Handbook] - Funny, illustrated book about Cow Tipping
* [http://voldarmusic.com/cow.htm Cow-tipping computer game] One picture shows the player character using martial arts in a stance to focus his chi as the means to push over a three thousand pound cow.
[[Category:Cattle]]
[[Category:Urban legends]]
[[Category:Practical jokes]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Convention on Psychotropic Substances</title>
<id>6521</id>
<revision>
<id>39517302</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T01:15:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.105.164.215</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Schedules of Controlled Substances */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-references}}
{{Treatybox|
treaty_name=Convention on Psychotropic Substances
|colour_scheme=background:skyblue
|image=[[Image:Ecstacy_monogram.jpg|200px|center]]
|caption=The Convention allows medical and scientific uses of Schedule I drugs. The [[World Health Organization]] Expert Committee that recommended in 1985 that [[MDMA]] be placed in Schedule I internationally included a statement urging signatory nations to the Convention on Psychotropic Substances "to facilitate research on this interesting substance."
|place_signed=[[Vienna]]
|date_signed=[[February 21]], [[1971]]
|date_entered_into_force=[[August 16]], [[1976]]
|conditions_for_entry_into_force=40 ratifications
|parties=175
|}}
The '''Convention on Psychotropic Substances''' is a [[United Nations]] [[treaty]] designed to control [[psychoactive drug]]s such as [[amphetamine]]s, [[barbiturate]]s, and [[LSD]]. During the 1960s, drug use and abuse increased greatly around the world, especially in Western nations. Inspired by psychedelic advocates such as [[Aldous Huxley]] and [[Timothy Leary]], millions of young people experimented with powerful [[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants | hallucinogen]]s, and [[narcotics|drug]]s of all kinds became freely available as manufacturers and traffickers took advantage of inconsistent national laws to circumvent restrictions |
ectively. A company can achieve minimum standards, then over time "dirty data" will reduce the reliability of some applications.
* Once a system is established, switching costs are very high for any one of the partners (reducing flexibility and strategic control at the corporate level).
* The blurring of company boundaries can cause problems in accountability, lines of responsibility, and employee morale.
* Resistance in sharing sensitive internal information between departments can reduce the effectiveness of the software.
* There are frequent compatibility problems with the various legacy systems of the partners.
* The system may be over-engineered relative to the actual needs of the customer.
==See also==
* [[List of ERP vendors]]
* [[List of ERP software packages]]
* [[Accounting software]]
* [[Advanced Planning & Scheduling]]
* [[APICS]]
* [[E-procurement]]
* [[ERP modeling]]
* [[Information technology management]]
* [[Management information system]]
* [[Supply chain management]]
* [[Material requirements planning]] (material resource planning)
* [[Human resource management system]]
* [[Software as a Service]]
* [[Vendor-independent solutions provider]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.cio.com/research/erp/edit/erpbasics.html ABC's of ERP] from CIO
*[http://www.training-management.info/Enterprise.htm PHS ERP Training Article]
*[http://akashmavle.fortunecity.com Baan Knowledge Repository]
[[Category:Information technology management]]
[[Category:Supply chain management]]
[[Category:Production and manufacturing]]
[[cs:Enterprise resource planning]]
[[da:Enterprise Resource Planning]]
[[de:Enterprise-Resource-Planning]]
[[es:Sistema de planificación de recursos]]
[[fr:Progiciel de gestion intégré]]
[[gl:Sistema de planificación de recursos da empresa]]
[[it:Enterprise Resource Planning]]
[[he:ERP]]
[[hu:Vállalatirányítási információs rendszer]]
[[nl:Enterprise Resource Planning]]
[[pl:Planowanie zasobów przedsiębiorstwa]]
[[pt:ERP]]
[[ru:ERP]]
[[fi:ERP]]
[[th:การบริหารทรัพยากรขององค์กร]]
[[vi:Hoạch định tài nguyên doanh nghiệp]]
[[tr:ERP]]
[[zh:企业资源计划]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Endocrinology</title>
<id>9311</id>
<revision>
<id>41589741</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T09:39:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gleng</username>
<id>797145</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Peptide/Protein */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Endocrinology''' is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of
the [[endocrine system]] and its specific secretions called [[hormone]]s.
Hormones are molecules that act as signals from one type of cells to another. Most hormones reach their targets via the blood, although as steroids are lipid soluble, they freely travel through all body compartments. Although every organ system secretes and responds to hormones (including the [[brain]], [[lungs]], [[heart]], [[intestine]], [[skin]], and the [[kidney]]), the clinical specialty of endocrinology focuses on the ''endocrine organs'', i.e. the organs whose primary function is hormone secretion.
An '''endocrinologist''' is a [[physician|doctor]] who specializes in treating such disorders, particularly disorders of the [[pituitary]], including growth disorders; diseases of the [[thyroid]] gland; of the [[adrenal]] glands; and of the [[ovary]] and [[testes]]; and [[diabetes]], a disorder of insulin secretion or sensitivity.
==Background==
All multicellular organisms need “coordinating systems to regulate and integrate the function of differentiating cells”. Two mechanisms perform this function in higher animals, the nervous system and the endocrine system. The endocrine system acts through the release (generally into the blood) of chemical agents, and is vital to the proper development and function of organisms. As Hadley (2000) notes, the integration of developmental events such as proliferation, growth, differentiation (including histogenesis and organogenesis) and the coordination of [[metabolism]], [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]], excretion, movement, [[reproduction]] and sensory perception depend on “chemical cues, substances synthesised and secreted by the specialised cells within the animal”.
Endocrinology is concerned with the study of the biosynthesis, storage, chemistry and physiological function of [[hormones]], and also with the cells of the endocrine glands and tissues that secrete them. The study of endocrinology effectively began when Berthold (1849) noted that castrated cockerels failed to develop combs and wattles or exhibit overtly male behaviour. He found that replacement of testes back into the abdominal cavity of either the same bird or another castrated bird resulted in normal behavioural and morphological development, and concluded (rather erroneously) that the testes secreted a substance that "conditioned" the blood that, in turn, acted upon the body of the cockerel. In fact, one of two other things could have been true: that the testes modified or activated a constituent of the blood, or that the testes removed an inhibitory factor from the blood. It was not proven that the testes released a substance that engenders male characteristics until it was shown that the extract of testes could replace their function in castrated animals. Pure, crystalline [[testosterone]] was isolated in 1935 by David et al.
Although most of the relevant tissues and endocrine glands had been identified by early anatomists, a more humoural approach to understanding biological function and disease was favoured by classical thinkers such as [[Aristotle]], [[Hippocrates]], [[Lucretius]], [[Celsus]] and [[Galen]] according to Freeman et al (2001), and these theories held sway until the advent of germ theory, physiology and organ basis of pathology in the 19th Century.
==Hormones==
===Overview===
The endocrine system consists of several glands, in different parts of the body, that secrete hormones directly into the blood rather than into a duct system. Hormones have many different functions and modes of actions; one hormone may have several effects on different target organs and, conversely, one target organ may be affected by more than one hormone.
[[Image:Amine hormones, norepinephrine and triiodothryonine.jpg|thumb|300px|Amine hormones, norepinephrine and triiodothryonine]]
In 1902 Bayliss and Starling performed an experiment in which they observed that acid instilled into the [[duodenum]] caused the [[pancreas]] to begin secretion, even after they had removed all nervous connections between the two. The same response could be produced by injecting [[jejunal mucosa]], showing that some factor in the mucosa was responsible. They named this substance "[[secretin]]", and coined the term "hormone" for chemicals that act in this way. They specified that, to be classified as a hormone, a chemical must be produced by an organ; be released (in small amounts) into the blood; and be transported by the blood to a distant organ to exert its specific function. This definition holds for most ‘classical’ hormones, but there are also [[paracrine]] mechanisms (chemical communication between cells within a tissue or organ), autocrine signals (a chemical that acts on the same cell) and intracrine signals (a chemical that acts within the same cell) (Nussey and Whitehead, 2001). A [[neuroendocrine]] signal is a ‘classical’ hormone that is released into the blood by a neurosecretory neuron (see article on [[Neuroendocrinology]]).
[[Image:Steroid hormones, cortisol and Vitamin D3.jpg|thumb|300px|Steroid hormones, cortisol and Vitamin D3]]
Hormones act by binding to specific receptors in the target organ. As Baulieu (1990) notes, a receptor has at least two basic constituents: a recognition site to which the hormone binds, and an effector site, which precipitates the modification of cellular function; between these is a "transduction mechanism" in which hormone binding induces allosteric modification that, in turn, produces the appropriate response.
Griffin and Ojeda (2000) identify three different classes of hormone based on their chemical composition:
===Amines===
Amines, such as [[norepinephrine]], [[epinephrine]] and [[dopamine]], are derived single amino acids, in this case tyrosine. [[Thyroid]] hormones like 3,5,3’-triiodothyronine (T3) and 3,5,3’,5’-tetraiodothyronine (thyroxine, T4) make up a subset of this class as they derive from the combination of two iodinated tyrosine amino acid residues.
===Peptide/Protein===
[[Peptide hormones]] and protein hormones are comprised of between three (in the case of [[thyrotropin-releasing hormone]] and over 200 (in the case of [[follicle-stimulating hormone]]) amino acid residues, and can have molecular weights as large as 30,000. All of the hormones secreted by the pituitary gland are peptide hormones, as are [[leptin]] from adipocytes, [[ghrelin]] from the stomach, and [[insulin]] from the [[pancreas]]..
===Steroid===
[[Steroid]] hormones are derivatives of [[cholesterol]] and are subdivided into those with an intact steroid nucleus (gonadal and adrenal steroids) and those with a broken steroid nucleus ([[Vitamin D]]). Steroid horomones include [[estrogen]] and [[progesterone]] from the [[ovary]], [[testosterone]] from the [[testes]], and [[cortisol]] and aldosterone from the adrenal gland.
==Work==
The medical specialty of endocrinology involves the diagnostic evaluation of a wide variety of symptoms and variations, as well as the long-term management of disorders of deficiency or excess of one or more hormones.
The diagnosis and treatment of endocrine diseases are guided by [[laboratory]] tests to a greater extent than for most specialties. Many diseases are investigated through ''excitation/stimulation'' or ''inhibition/suppression'' testing. This might involve injection with a stimulating agent to test the function of an endoc |
nveniently) during the absence of his older brother [[Robert Curthose]] on the Crusades.
His reign is noted for his opportunistic political skills, the aforementioned improvements in the machinery of government, the integration of the divided Anglo-Saxon and Normans within his kingdom, his reuniting of the dominions of his father, and his controversial (although well-founded) decision to name his daughter as his heir.
== Early life ==
Henry was born between May [[1068]] and May [[1069]], probably in [[Selby]], [[Yorkshire]] in [[England]]. His mother, Queen [[Matilda of Flanders]], named him after her uncle, King [[Henry I of France]]. As the youngest son of the family, he was most likely expected to become a bishop and was given extensive schooling for a young nobleman of that time period. [[William of Malmesbury]] asserts that Henry once remarked that an illiterate king was a crowned ass. He was probably the first [[Normans|Norman]] ruler to be fluent in the [[English language]].
His father [[William I of England|William]], upon his death in [[1087]], bequeathed his dominions to his three remaining sons (third son [[William I of England#Children of William the Conqueror and Matilda of Flanders|Richard]] having died previously) in the following manner:
*[[Robert Curthose|Robert]] received the [[Normandy|Duchy of Normandy]]
*[[William II of England|William]] received the [[England|Kingdom of England]]
* Henry received 5,000 pounds of silver
[[Orderic Vitalis]] reports that King William declared to Henry: "''You in your own time will have all the dominions I have acquired and be greater than both your brothers in wealth and power''."
Henry played his brothers off against each other. Eventually, wary of his devious manouevering, they acted together and signed an accession treaty which effectively barred Henry from both thrones, stipulating that if either died without an heir, the two dominions of their father would be reunited under the surviving brother.
== Seizing the throne of England ==
{{Normans}}
When William II was killed by an arrow whilst hunting on [[2 August]] [[1100]], Robert was returning from the [[First Crusade]]. His absence, along with his poor reputation among the Norman nobles, allowed Henry to seize the keys of the royal hoard at [[Winchester, Hampshire|Winchester]]. He was accepted as king by the leading [[baron|barons]] and was crowned three days later on [[5 August]] at [[Westminster Abbey|Westminster]]. He secured his position among the nobles by an act of political appeasement, issuing the [[Charter of Liberties]], which is considered a forerunner of the [[Magna Carta]].
== First marriage ==
On [[11 November]] [[1100]] Henry married [[Edith of Scotland|Edith]], daughter of [[Malcolm III of Scotland|King Malcolm III]] of [[Scotland]]. Since Edith was also the niece of [[Edgar Atheling]], the marriage united the Norman line with old English line of kings. The marriage greatly displeased the Norman barons, however, and as a concession to their sensibilities Edith changed her name to Matilda upon becoming queen. The other side of this coin, however, was that Henry, by dint of his marriage, became far more acceptable to the Anglo-Saxon populace.
[[William of Malmesbury]] describes Henry thus: "''He was of middle stature, greater than the small, but exceeded by the very tall; his hair was black and set back upon the forehead; his eyes mildly bright; his chest brawny; his body fleshy.''"
== Conquest of Normandy ==
In [[1101]], the following year, Robert Curthose attempted to seize the crown by invading England. In the [[Treaty of Alton]], Robert agreed to recognize Henry as King of England and return peacefully to [[Normandy]], upon receipt of an annual sum of 2000 marks, which Henry proceeded to pay.
In [[1105]], to eliminate the continuing threat from [[Robert Curthose|Robert]] and to obviate the drain on his fiscal resources, Henry led an expeditionary force across the [[English Channel]]. In [[1106]], he defeated his brother's Norman army decisively at [[Battle of Tinchebray|Tinchebray]] in [[Normandy]]. He imprisoned his brother, initially in the [[Tower of London]], subsequently at Devizes Castle and later at Cardiff. Henry appropriated the [[Normandy|Duchy of Normandy]] as a possession of [[England]], and reunited his father's dominions.
He attempted to reduce difficulties in Normandy by marrying his eldest son, [[William Adelin|William]], to the daughter of [[Fulk of Jerusalem|Fulk V, Count of Anjou]], then a serious enemy. Eight years later, after William's untimely death, a much more momentous union was made between Henry's daughter [[Empress Matilda|Matilda]] and Fulk's son [[Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou|Geoffrey Plantagenet]], which eventually resulted in the union of the two realms under the [[Plantagenet]] kings.
== Activities as a King ==
[[Image:Henry I of England - Illustration from Cassell's History of England - Century Edition - published circa 1902.jpg|thumb|right|180px|'''Henry I''' depicted in ''Cassell's History of England'' (1902)]]
Henry's need for finance to consolidate his position led to an increase in the activities of centralized government. As king, Henry carried out social and judicial reforms, including:
*issuing the [[Charter of Liberties]]
*restoring laws of King [[Edward the Confessor]].
Henry was also known for some brutal acts. He once threw a traitorous burgher named Conan Pilatus from the tower of Rouen; the tower was known from then on as "Conan's Leap". In another instance that took place in [[1119]], King Henry's son-in-law, Eustace de Pacy, and Ralph Harnec, the constable of [[Ivry-la-Bataille|Ivry]], exchanged their children as hostages. When Eustace blinded Harnec's son, Harnec demanded vengeance. King Henry allowed Harnec to blind and mutiliate Eustace's two daughters, who were also Henry's own grandchildren. Eustace and his wife, Juliane, were outraged and threatened to rebel. Henry arranged to meet his daughter at a parlay at Breteuil, only for Juliane to draw a crossbow and attempt to assassinate her father. She was captured and confined to the castle, but escaped by leaping from a window into the moat below. Some years later Henry was reconciled with his daughter and son-in-law.
== Legitimate children ==
He had two children by Edith-Matilda, who died in [[1118]]:
*[[Empress Matilda|Matilda]], born February [[1102]], and
*[[William Adelin]], born November [[1103]].
Disaster struck when William, his only legitimate son, perished in the wreck of the [[White Ship]] on [[25 November]] [[1120]] off the coast of [[Normandy]]. Also among the dead were two of Henry's [[illegitimate child]]ren, as well as a niece, Lucia-Mahaut de Blois. Henry's grieving was intense, and the succession was in crisis.
== Second marriage ==
On [[29 January]] [[1121]], he married [[Adeliza of Louvain|Adeliza]], daughter of [[Godfrey I of Leuven]], [[Duke]] of Lower Lotharingia and [[Landgrave]] of [[Brabant]], but there were no children from this marriage. Left without male heirs, Henry took the unprecedented step of making his barons swear to accept his daughter [[Empress Matilda]], widow of [[Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry V, the Holy Roman Emperor]], as his heir.
== Death and legacy ==
Henry visited Normandy in 1135 to see his young grandsons, the children of Matilda and Geoffrey. He took great delight in his grandchildren, but soon quarreled with his daughter and son-in-law and these disputes led him to tarry in Normandy far longer than he originally planned.
Henry died of food poisoning from eating "a surfeit of [[lamprey]]s," of which he was excessively fond, in December [[1135]] at [[St. Denis le Fermont]] in Normandy. He was buried at [[Reading Abbey]], which he had founded fourteen years before. (No trace of his tomb has survived and the probable site is now covered by a car park.)
Although Henry's barons had sworn allegiance to his daughter as their queen, her sex and her remarriage into the [[Angevin|House of Anjou]], an enemy of the Normans, allowed Henry's nephew [[Stephen I of England|Stephen of Blois]] to come to England and claim the throne with popular support.
The struggle between the Empress and [[Stephen I of England|Stephen]] resulted in a long civil war known as [[the Anarchy]]. The dispute was eventually settled by Stephen's naming of Matilda's son, [[Henry II of England|Henry]], as his heir in [[1153]].
==Illegitimate Children==
King Henry is famed for holding the record for the largest number of acknowledged illegitimate children born to any English king, with the number being around 20 or 25. He had many mistresses, and identifying which mistress is the mother of which child is difficult. His illegitimate offspring for whom there is documentation are:
# [[Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester]]. His mother was probably a member of the [[Gai family]].
# [[Maud FitzRoy]], married [[Conan III, Duke of Brittany]]
# [[Constance FitzRoy]], married [[Roscelin de Beaumont]]
# [[Mabel FitzRoy]], married [[William III Gouet]]
# [[Aline FitzRoy]], married [[Matthieu I of Montmorency]]
# [[Matilda FitzRoy]], [[abbess of Montvilliers]]. Her mother was [[Isabel de Beaumont]], sister of [[Robert de Beaumont, 2nd Earl of Leicester]].
# [[William de Tracy]], died shortly after [[Henry I of England|King Henry]].
# [[Gilbert FitzRoy]], died after 1142. His mother may have been a sister of [[Walter de Gand]].
# [[Emma]], born circa 1138; married [[Gui de Laval]], [[Lord Laval]].
# [[Eustacie]], born circa 1084. Married [[William Gouet II]], [[Lord Montmirial]].
===With Edith===
# Matilda du Perche, married Count [[Rotrou II of Perche]], perished in the wreck of the [[White Ship]].
===With Ansfride===
Ansfride was born circa 1070. She was married Sir Anskill of Abingdon Abbey.
# Juliane de Fontevrault, married [[Eustace de Pacy]]. She tried to shoot her father with a crossbow after King Henry |
erties relating to the occurrence frequencies of letter or word pairs, triplets etc. See [[Markov chain]].
Shannon's definition of entropy is closely related to [[thermodynamic entropy]] as defined by physicists and many chemists. [[Ludwig Boltzmann|Boltzmann]] and [[Willard Gibbs|Gibbs]] did considerable work on statistical thermodynamics, which became the inspiration for adopting the word ''entropy'' in information theory. There are relationships between thermodynamic and informational entropy. In fact, in the view of [[Edwin Thompson Jaynes|Jaynes]] ([[1957]]), thermodynamics should be seen as an ''application'' of Shannon's information theory: the thermodynamic entropy is interpreted as being an estimate of the amount of further Shannon information (needed to define the detailed microscopic state of the system) that remains uncommunicated by a description solely in terms of the macroscopic variables of classical thermodynamics. (See article: ''[[MaxEnt thermodynamics]]''). Similarly, [[Maxwell's demon]] reverses thermodynamic entropy with information; but if it is itself bound by the laws of thermodynamics, getting rid of that information exactly balances out the thermodynamic gain the demon would otherwise achieve.
It is important to remember that entropy is a quantity defined in the context of a probabilistic model for a data source. Independent fair coin flips have an entropy of 1 bit per flip. A source that always generates a long string of A's has an entropy of 0, since the next character will always be an 'A'.
The entropy rate of a data source means the average number of [[bit]]s per symbol needed to encode it. Empirically, it seems that entropy of English text is between 1.1 and 1.6 bits per character, though clearly that will vary from text source to text source. Experiments with human predictors show an information rate of 1.1 or 1.6 bits per character, depending on the experimental setup; the [[PPM compression algorithm]] can achieve a compression ratio of 1.5 bits per character.
From the preceding example, note the following points:
# The amount of entropy is not always an integer number of bits.
# Many data bits may not convey information. For example, data structures often store information redundantly, or have identical sections regardless of the information in the data structure.
Entropy effectively bounds the performance of the strongest lossless (or nearly lossless) compression possible, which can be realized in theory by using the [[typical set]] or in practice using [[Huffman coding| Huffman]], [[LZW|Lempel-Ziv]] or [[arithmetic coding]]. The performance of existing data compression algorithms is often used as a rough estimate of the entropy of a block of data.
A common way to define entropy for text is based on the [[Markov model]] of text. For an order-0 source (each character is selected independent of the last characters), the binary entropy is:
:<math>H(\mathcal{S}) = - \sum p_i \log_2 p_i, \,\!</math>
where ''p''<sub>''i''</sub> is the probability of ''i''. For a first-order [[Markov chain|Markov source]] (one in which the probability of selecting a character is dependent only on the immediately preceding character), the '''entropy rate''' is:
:<math>H(\mathcal{S}) = - \sum_i p_i \sum_j \ p_i (j) \log_2 p_i (j), \,\!</math>
where ''i'' is a state (certain preceding characters) and <math>p_i(j)</math> is the probability of <math>j</math> given <math>i</math> as the previous character (s).
For a second order Markov source, the entropy rate is
:<math> H(\mathcal{S}) = -\sum_i p_i \sum_j p_i(j) \sum_k p_{i,j}(k)\ \log \ p_{i,j}(k). \,\!</math>
In general the '''<i>b</i>-ary entropy''' of a source <math>\mathcal{S}</math> = (''S'',''P'') with [[source alphabet]] ''S'' = {''a''<sub>1</sub>, &hellip;, ''a<sub>n</sub>''} and [[discrete probability distribution]] ''P'' = {''p''<sub>1</sub>, &hellip;, ''p<sub>n</sub>''} where ''p<sub>i</sub>'' is the probability of ''a<sub>i</sub>'' (say ''p<sub>i</sub>'' = ''p''(''a<sub>i</sub>'')) is defined by:
:<math> H_b(\mathcal{S}) = - \sum_{i=1}^n p_i \log_b p_i \,\!</math>
Note: the ''b'' in "''b''-ary entropy" is the number of different symbols of the "ideal alphabet" which is being used as the standard yardstick to measure source alphabets. In information theory, two symbols are [[necessary and sufficient]] for an alphabet to be able to encode information, therefore the default is to let ''b'' = 2 ("binary entropy"). Thus, the entropy of the source alphabet, with its given empiric probability distribution, is a number equal to the number (possibly fractional) of symbols of the "ideal alphabet", with an optimal probability distribution, necessary to encode for each symbol of the source alphabet. Also note that "optimal probability distribution" here means a [[uniform distribution]]: a source alphabet with ''n'' symbols has the highest possible entropy (for an alphabet with ''n'' symbols) when the probability distribution of the alphabet is uniform. This optimal entropy turns out to be <math> log_b \, n </math>.
Another way to define the entropy function ''H'' (not using the [[Markov model]]) is by proving that ''H'' is uniquely defined (as earlier mentioned) [[iff]] ''H'' satisfies 1) - 3):
1) ''H''(''p''<sub>1</sub>, &hellip;, ''p<sub>n</sub>'') is [[defined]] and [[continuous function|continuous]] [[for all]] ''p''<sub>1</sub>, &hellip;, ''p<sub>n</sub>'' where ''p<sub>i</sub>'' <math>\in</math>[0,1] [[for all]] ''i'' = 1, &hellip;, ''n'' and ''p''<sub>1</sub> + &hellip; + ''p<sub>n</sub>'' = 1. (Remark that the function solely depends on the probability distribution, not the alphabet.)
2) [[For all]] [[positive integers]] ''n'', ''H'' satisfies
:<math>
H\underbrace{\left(\frac{1}{n}, \ldots, \frac{1}{n}\right)}_{n\ \mathrm{arguments}} < H\underbrace{\left(\frac{1}{n+1}, \ldots, \frac{1}{n+1}\right).}_{n+1\ \mathrm{arguments}}
</math>
3) For [[positive integers]] ''b<sub>i</sub>'' where ''b''<sub>1</sub> + &hellip; + ''b<sub>k</sub>'' = ''n'', ''H'' satisfies
:<math>
H\underbrace{\left(\frac{1}{n}, \ldots, \frac{1}{n}\right)}_n = H\underbrace{\left(\frac{b_1}{n}, \ldots, \frac{b_k}{n}\right)}_k + \sum_{i=1}^k \frac{b_i}{n} H\underbrace{\left(\frac{1}{b_i}, \ldots, \frac{1}{b_i}\right)}_{b_i}.
</math>
==Efficiency==
A source alphabet encountered in practice should be found to have a probability distribution which is less than optimal. If the source alphabet has ''n'' symbols, then it can be compared to an "optimized alphabet" with ''n'' symbols, whose probability distribution is uniform. The ratio of the entropy of the source alphabet with the entropy of its optimized version is the efficiency of the source alphabet, which can be expressed as a [[percentage]].
This implies that the efficiency of a source alphabet with ''n'' symbols can be defined simply as being equal to its ''n''-ary entropy.
==Derivation of Shannon's entropy==
Since the entropy was given as a definition, it does not need to be derived. On the other hand, a "derivation" can be given which gives a sense of the motivation for the definition as well as the link to thermodynamic entropy.
'''Q.''' Given a [[roulette]] with ''n'' pockets which are all equally likely to be landed on by the ball, what is the probability of obtaining a distribution (''A<sub>1</sub>'', ''A<sub>2</sub>'', &hellip;, ''A<sub>n</sub>'') where ''A<sub>i</sub>'' is the number of times pocket ''i'' was landed on and
:<math> P = \sum_{i=1}^n A_i \,\!</math>
is the total number of ball-landing events?
'''A.''' The probability is a [[multinomial distribution]], viz.
:<math> p = {\Omega \over \Tau} = {P! \over A_1! \ A_2! \ A_3! \ \dots \ A_n!} \left(\frac1n\right)^P \,\!</math>
where
:<math> \Omega = {P! \over A_1! \ A_2! \ A_3! \ \dots \ A_n!} \,\!</math>
is the number of possible combinations of outcomes (for the events) which fit the given distribution, and
:<math> \Tau = n^P \ </math>
is the number of all possible combinations of outcomes for the set of ''P'' events.
'''Q.''' And what is the entropy?
'''A.''' The entropy of the distribution is obtained from the [[logarithm]] of &Omega;:
:<math> H = \log \Omega = \log \frac{P!}{A_1! \ A_2! \ A_3! \dots \ A_n!} \,\!</math>
::<math> = \log P! - \log A_1! - \log A_2! - \log A_3! - \dots - \log A_n! \ </math>
::<math> = \sum_i^P \log i - \sum_i^{A_1} \log i - \sum_i^{A_2} \log i - \dots - \sum_i^{A_n} \log i \,\!</math>
The summations can be approximated closely by being replaced with integrals:
:<math> H = \int_1^P \log x \, dx - \int_1^{A_1} \log x \, dx - \int_1^{A_2} \log x \, dx - \dots - \int_1^{A_n} \log x \, dx. \,\!</math>
The integral of the logarithm is
:<math> \int \log x \, dx = x \log x - \int x \, {dx \over x} = x \log x - x. \,\!</math>
So the entropy is
:<math> H = (P \log P - P + 1) - (A_1 \log A_1 - A_1 + 1) - (A_2 \log A_2 - A_2 + 1) - \dots - (A_n \log A_n - A_n + 1) </math>
::<math> = (P \log P + 1) - (A_1 \log A_1 + 1) - (A_2 \log A_2 + 1) - \dots - (A_n \log A_n + 1) </math>
::<math> = P \log P - \sum_{x=1}^n A_x \log A_x + (1 - n) \,\!</math>
Change ''A<sub>x</sub>'' to ''p<sub>x</sub> = A<sub>x</sub>/P'' and change ''P'' to ''1'' (in order to measure the "bias" or & |
tion <math> E(X,U_D) </math> is <math>\epsilon</math>-close to <math>U_M</math>, where <math>U_T</math> denotes the uniform distribution on <math>[T]</math>.
Extractors are interesting when they can be constructed with small <math>K,D,\epsilon</math> relative to <math>N</math> and <math>M</math> is as close to <math>KD</math> (the total randomness in the input sources) as possible.
Extractor functions were originally researched as a way to ''extract'' [[randomness]] from weakly random sources.
Using the [[probabilistic method]] it is easy to show that extractor graphs with really good parameters exist. The challenge is to find explicit or [[polynomial time]] computable examples of such graphs with good parameters. Algorithms that compute extractor (and disperser) graphs have found many applications in [[computer science]].
==References==
* Ronen Shaltiel, [http://www.cs.haifa.ac.il/~ronen/online_papers/survey.ps Recent developments in extractors] - a survey
[[Category:Graphs]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Enterprise resource planning</title>
<id>9310</id>
<revision>
<id>42044086</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:13:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>59.95.40.109</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Enterprise resource planning''' systems (ERPs) are [[management information system]]s (MISs) that integrate and automate many of the business practices associated with the operations or production and distribution aspects of a company engaged in [[manufacturing]] products or services.
== Overview==
Enterprise resource planning is a term derived from [[manufacturing resource planning]] (MRP II) that followed [[material requirements planning]] (MRP). ERP systems typically handle the [[manufacturing]], [[logistics]], [[distribution (business)|distribution]], [[inventory]], [[shipping]], [[Invoice|invoicing]], and [[accounting]] for a company. Enterprise Resource Planning or ERP [[Computer software|software]] can aid in the control of many [[business]] activities, like [[sales]], [[Delivery (commerce)|delivery]], billing, production, inventory management, [[quality management]], and [[Human resource management system|human resources management]].
ERPs are often called ''[[back office]] systems'' indicating that [[customer]]s and the general public are not directly involved. This is contrasted with ''front office systems'' like [[customer relationship management]] (CRM) systems that deal directly with the customers, or the eBusiness systems such as eCommerce, eGovernment, eTelecom, and eFinance, or [[Supply chain management|supplier relationship management]] (SRM) systems that deal with the suppliers.
ERPs are cross-functional and enterprise wide. All functional departments that are involved in operations or production are integrated in one system. In addition to manufacturing, warehousing, logistics, and Information Technology, this would include [[Accountancy|accounting]], [[human resources]], [[marketing]], and [[strategic management]].
==Implementation==
Because of their wide scope of application within the firm, ERP software [[system]]s rely on some of the largest bodies of software ever written. Implementing such a large and complex software system in a [[company (law)|company]] used to involve an army of [[analyst]]s, [[programmer]]s, and users. This was, at least, until the development of the [[Internet]] allowed outside consultants to gain access to company computers in order to install standard updates. ERP implementation, without professional help, can be a very expensive [[project]] for bigger companies, especially [[Multinational corporation|transnationals]]. Companies specializing in ERP implementation, however, can expedite this process and can complete the task in under six months with solid pilot testing.
Enterprise resource planning systems are often closely tied to [[supply chain management]] and [[logistics automation]] systems. Supply chain management software can extend the ERP system to include links with suppliers.
To implement ERP systems, companies often seek the help of an ERP vendor or of third-party [[consultancy|consulting]] companies. Consulting in ERP involves two levels, namely business consulting and technical consulting. A business consultant studies an organization's current business processes and matches them to the corresponding processes in the ERP system, thus 'configuring' the ERP system to the organisation's needs. Technical consulting often involves programming. Most ERP vendors allow modification of their software to suit the business needs of their customer.
Customizing an ERP package can be very expensive and complicated, because many ERP packages are not designed to support customization, so most businesses implement the best practices embedded in the acquired ERP system. Some ERP packages are very generic in their reports and inquiries, such that customization is expected in every implementation. It is important to recognize that for these packages, it makes more sense to buy [[third party]] reporting packages that interface well to particular ERP, than to reinvent what tens of thousands of other clients of that same ERP have needed to develop.
Today there are also web-based ERP systems. Companies would deploy web-based ERP because it requires no client side installation, and is cross-platform and maintained centrally. As long as you have an Internet connection, you can access web-based ERPs through typical web browsers.
==Advantages==
In the absence of an ERP system, a manufacturer in need of what it has to offer, may find itself with many software applications that do not talk to each other, do not effectively interface: design [[engineering]] how best to make the product; keeping track of the status of customer orders from acceptance thru fulfillment; managing interdependencies of complex [[Bill of Material]]s [[product]] [[structure]]s in the real world of evolving [[Engineering]] and [[Revision]] changes and improvements, and the need to make material substitutions, during temporary inventory shortages; 3-way match between [[Purchase order]]s (what was ordered), [[Inventory]] receipts (what arrived), and [[Cost]]ing (what the vendor invoiced); [[Accounting]] for all of this, including tracking [[Costs]] and [[Profits]] on a granular level. But the advantage of having an ERP is that all this, and more, is integrated.
Change '''how''' a product is made, in the [[engineering]] details, and that is how it will now be made. '''Effectivity''' dates can be used to control when the switch over will occur from an old version to the next one, both the date that some ingredients go into effect, and date that some are discontinued. Part of the change can include labeling to identify version #s.
[[Computer security]] is included within an ERP, to protect against both outsider crime, such as [[industrial espionage]] and insider crime, such as [[embezzlement]]. A data tampering scenario might involve a [[terrorism|terrorist]] altering a [[Bill of Materials]] so as to put [[poison]] in food products, or other sabotage. ERP security helps to prevent abuse as well.
There are concepts of [[Front office]] (how the company interacts with customers), which includes [[CRM]] or [[Customer relationship management]]; [[Back end]] (internal workings of the company to fulfill customer needs), which includes [[quality control]], to make sure there are no problems not fixed, in the end products; [[Supply chain]] (interacting with suppliers and transportation infrastructure). All of these can be integrated through an ERP, although some systems have gaps in comprehensiveness and effectiveness. Without an ERP that integrates all these, it can be a nightmare for a manufacturer to manage...
==Disadvantages==
Many of the problems that companies have with ERPs are due to inadequate investment in continuing education for all relevant personnel, including those implementing and testing changes, and a lack of corporate policies that affect how the ERP data gets used and is kept accurate.
Limitations and pitfalls to ERP include:
* Success depends on the skill and experience of the work force, including education in how to make the system work correctly. Many companies cut costs by cutting user training. Privately owned small enterprises are often undercapitalized, meaning their ERP system is often operated by personnel with inadequate education in ERP in general, such as [[APICS]] foundations, and in the particular ERP vendor package being used.
* Personnel turnover; companies can employ new managers lacking education in the company's ERP system, proposing changes in business practices that are out of synchronization with the best utilization of the company's selected ERP.
* ERP systems can be very expensive to install.
* ERP vendors can charge sums of money for annual license renewal that is unrelated to the size of the company using the ERP or its profitability.
* [[Technical support]] personnel often give replies to callers that are inappropriate for the caller's corporate structure. Computer security concerns arise, for example when telling a non-programmer how to change a database on the fly, at a company that requires an audit trail of changes so as to meet some regulatory standards.
* ERPs are often seen as too rigid, and difficult to adapt to the specific [[workflow]] and business process of some companies - this is cited as one of the main causes of their failure.
* Systems can be difficult to use.
* The system can suffer from the "weakest link" problem - an inefficiency in one department or at one of the partners may affect other participants.
* Many of the integrated links need high accuracy in other applications to work eff |
ally when Instructors (in addition to the primary crew) are flying. There is a bunk on H models, but not on previous ones. B-52 crews joke that Boeing put the cockpit in as an afterthought.
* The aircraft has so much longitudinal stability that it has demonstrated controlled flight while missing much of its vertical stabilizer.
* The B-52 was built for men (not women) to fly; therefore, the only toilet facilities on board are a urinal on the lower deck (just ahead of the bomb bay) and a potty (lined with a plastic garbage bag) on the upper deck. There is no curtain or door on these.
* BUFF has a very small oven which can warm food for the crew. The only drinking water is carried in coolers. There is no sink or shower.
* The B-52's landing gear has to be turned at an angle ("crabbed" in aeronautical terms) when landing in a crosswind. The gear is made to point down the runway while the nose of the plane points into the wind. Pilots call this "crosswind crab." This is made possible by a complex, but highly reliable, hydraulic system. The ability to crab enables the BUFF to land in conditions which would force other aircraft to go somewhere else.
* A hairstyle known as the "[[B-52 (hairstyle)|B-52]]", because of its resemblance to the nose cone of this aircraft, was popular in the 1950s, [[1960s|60s]] and [[1970s|70s]]. The musical band [[The B-52's]] were named after the B-52 hairstyle members of the band wear.
* BUFF's radar is so powerful that it can kill small animals when the aircraft is on the ground. (It is hazardous to human beings, too.)
* There is a [[cocktail]] named for the B-52, the [[B-52 shooter]].
* The B-52 bomber gained notoriety after [[Stanley Kubrick]]'s ''[[Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb]]'' [[Cold War]] black comedy movie. The cockpit of the plane is one of only four movie settings. The Air Force refused to allow Stanley Kubrick permission to photograph the cockpit interior; he developed his B-52 cockpit by extrapolating from photos of a B-52 interior published in a British flying magazine. His guess was so accurate that his production company was later investigated by the Department of Defense.
* At the time of ''Dr. Strangelove'' and for some time in the 1960s the Strategic Air Command (SAC) did fly airborne alert (Chrome Dome) with weapons on board awaiting the "Go Code". B-52s were positioned in the air 24/7 to immediately respond to the [[National Command Authority]]. For example, missions from Homestead AFB, Miami, FL flew to orbit-on-station over the Adriatic Sea, refueled over Spain both going and coming (there was one notorious collision/crash on this route in [[1967]]), and landed in Miami 26 hours later. During 22 hours of this time the B-52H could turn and immediately strike all six targets in southern Russia (without additional [[air refueling]]).
* The NASA B-52B Mothership, NASA tail number 008, was retired from active service with NASA on [[17 December]], [[2004]], after almost 50 years flying service. This was the B-52 famous for dropping such aerospace research vehicles as the [[X-15]], [[X-24]], [[HiMAT]], Lifting Body vehicles, [[X-43]], and others. It was the oldest active B-52 at the time, having first flown on [[June 11]], [[1955]], and entering service with NASA in 1959. It was the last B-52B in service (for that matter, the last B-52 in service of any type other than the H model).
* The B-52's longevity is marked by the fact that in at least one family of airmen, the grandfather, father, and son have all served as B-52 crew.
* The [[ejection seat]]s for the lower-deck crewmembers, the [[Navigator]] and [[Radar]] Navigator (more commonly called [[Bombardier]]), eject downwards from the bottom of the plane. Because of this, these crewmembers cannot eject below 900 feet above the ground. The upper-deck crewmembers (Pilot, Copilot, and Electronic Warfare Officer) have seats which can eject them upwards. Therefore, their seats work at any any [[altitude]], as long as the [[airspeed]] is at least 90 [[knot (speed)|knots]], which is necessary to jettison the hatches above the ejection seats.
* In the early 1980s Boeing submitted an unsolicited proposal for a "Super B-52". It would have offered upgraded engines, improved electronics and avionics and vastly improved ergonomics for the crew. The plan was considered but dropped in favor of the B-1B that was then being considered to replace the then-20+ year old B-52G/H fleet.
* On the night of [[December 27]], [[1972]], [[North Vietnam]]ese pilot and future [[cosmonaut]] [[Pham Tuan]] became the first person ever to shoot down a US B-52 bomber, during the [[Vietnam War]]. The bomber had been circling the [[Hanoi]] sky during the US campaign called [[Operation Rolling Thunder]].
* As part of the 1991 [[Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty]] between the United States and Russia, 365 B-52Gs were flown to the [[Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Center]] at [[Davis-Monthan Air Force Base]] in Arizona. The bombers were stripped of all usable parts, then unceremoniously chopped into five pieces by a 13,000-pound steel blade dropped from a crane. The modern-day [[guillotine]] crashed down four times on each plane, severing the mammoth wings and leaving the fuselage in three pieces. The ruined B-52s remained in place for three months in order for orbiting Russian satellites to confirm the bombers had been destroyed, after which they were sold for scrap at 12 cents a pound.
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" style="margin:4px auto; clear:both; font-family:Arial,Helvetica; font-size:72%"; align="center"; bgcolor="#efefef"
|- align="center"
| bgcolor="ffffff" | ||bgcolor="#CFCFCF"| '''Modern USAF Series'''|| ''Miscellaneous ''
|-
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| || ''Attack''--[[OA-10 Thunderbolt II|OA]]/[[A-10 Thunderbolt II|A-10]],[[AC-130 gunship|AC-130H/U]]||[[RC-135 Rivet Joint|RC-135V/W]]
|-
|bgcolor="#DCDCDC" |[[B-1B Lancer]] ||bgcolor="#DCDCDC"| ''Bomber--''[[B-52 Stratofortress|B-52]],[[B-2 Spirit|-2]],[[B-1B Lancer|-1B]],[[F-117A Nighthawk|F-117A]]||[[OC-135 Open Skies|OC-135B]]
|-
|bgcolor="#DCDCDC" | [[B-2 Spirit]]|| ''Fighter--''[[F-15 Eagle|F-15]]/[[F-15E Strike Eagle|E ]],[[F-16 Fighting Falcon|F-16]], [[F-22 Raptor]]||[[KC-10 Extender|KC-10]],[[KC-135 Stratotanker|-135]]
|-
|bgcolor="DCDCDC"|B-52 Stratofortress || ''Electronic--''[[E-3 Sentry|E-3]],[[E-4B|-4B]],[[E-8 Joint STARS|-8C]] [[EC-130E]]/[[EC-130J|J]],[[EC-130H Compass Call|H]]||[[HC-130P]]/[[HC-130N|N]]
|-
|bgcolor="DCDCDC"|[[F-117A Nighthawk]] || ''Transport--''[[C-5 Galaxy|C-5]],[[C-17 Globemaster III|-17]],[[C-141B Starlifter|-141B]], [[C-20 Gulfstream III|-20]],[[C-21 Learjet|-21]]||[[MC-130E]]/[[MC-130H|H]]/[[MC-130P Combat Shadow|P]]
|-
|bgcolor="ffffff"| || [[Boeing C-22|C-22B]], [[Boeing C-32|-32]], [[C-130 Hercules|-130]], [[C-37 Gulfstream V|-37A]], [[C-40 Clipper|-40B/C]]||[[MH-53J Pave Low|MH-53J]]/[[MH-53M Pave Low|M]]
|-
|bgcolor="ffffff"| || ''Trainers--''[[T-1 Jayhawk|T-1]], [[T-37 Tweet|-37]], [[T-38 Talon|-38]], [[Boeing T-43|-43]], [[T-6 Texan II|-6]]||[[HH-60G Pave Hawk|HH-60G]]
|-
|bgcolor="ffffff"| || ''Weather--''[[WC-130 Hercules|WC-130]], [[WC-135|-135]]||[[UH-1 Iroquois|UH-1N]]
|-
|bgcolor="ffffff"| || ''UAV--''[[RQ-1 Predator|RQ-1/MQ-1 UAV]], [[Global Hawk]]||[[Lockheed U-2|U-2S/TU-2S]]
|-
|bgcolor="ffffff"| || ||[[VC-25 - Air Force One|VC-25]]
|-
|}
{| cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="margin:5px auto; clear:both; border:3px solid;width:60%; font-size:small;" align="center"
!bgcolor="#e0e0e0" colspan="2" align="center" style="border-bottom:3px solid"|
[[List of current USAF aircraft|Current USAF aircraft]] - Bombers
|-
|align="center"|
[[B-1B Lancer]] -
[[B-2 Spirit]] -
B-52 Stratofortress -
[[F-117A Nighthawk]]
|-
|}
==References==
* Michel L. Marshall III, "The Eleven Days of Christmas: America's Last Vietnam Battle", Encounter Books, San Francisco, 2002.
==External links==
{{Commons|B-52 Stratofortress}}
*http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/bomber/b-52_hist.htm -- detailed historical overview
*http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/systems/b-52.htm Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) B-52 Stratofortress
*http://www.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?fsID=83 -- B-52 Stratofortress Fact Sheet
*[http://fmc.dotnet-services.nl/operation_iraqi_freedom.htm USAF B-52 mission flights from Fairford to Iraq (2003) monitored by the Frequency Monitor Centre]
*[http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/news/FactSheets/FS-005-DFRC.html NASA Dryden B-52 fact sheet]
==Related content==
{{aircontent|
<!-- answer yes or no -->
|links=no
|has sequence=yes
|has relations=yes
|has lists=yes
|see also?=no
|sequence=
* Military: [[Northrop YB-49|YB-49]] - [[B-50 Superfortress|B-50]] - [[Martin XB-51|XB-51]] - '''B-52''' - [[Convair XB-53|XB-53]] - [[Boeing B-54|B-54]] - [[Boeing XB-55|XB-55]]
* Boeing: [[B-29 Superfortress|345]] - [[C-97 Stratofreighter|367]] - [[Boeing 377|377]] - '''464''' - [[Boeing XB-59|701]] - [[Boeing 707|707]] - [[Boeing 717|717]]
<!-- From which older designs was this plane developed, and what planes did it lead to? -->
|related=
* [[B-47 Stratojet]]
|similar aircraft=
<!-- aircraft with similar role, era, and capability -->
* [[Tupolev Tu-95]]
|lists=
<!-- lists of similar aircraft (aircraft from the same nation, with the same mission profile, etc.) -->
* [[List of bomber aircraft]]
* [[List of military aircraft of the United States]]
|see also=
<!-- related Wikipedia sites -->
* [[Convair YB-60]]
}}
[[Category:U.S. bomber aircraft 1950-1959]]
[[Category:Vietnam War aircraft]]
pg 552-553
[[als:B |
n epithet of various Vedic deities, like [[Varuna]], and has been attested in the Holy [[Rig Veda]], possibly the oldest compiled book among the [[Indo-European]]s. Typically, in the later Vedic age, only that king (''rajah'') were called ''Samrāṭ'' who had performed the Vedic ''Rājasūya'' sacrifice, enabling him by religious tradition to claim superiority over the other kings and princes. Another word for emperor is ''sārvabhaumā''. The title of Samrāṭ has been used by many rulers of the Indian subcontinent as claimed by the Hindu mythologies. In proper history, most historians like to call [[Chandragupta Maurya]] as the first ''samrāṭ'' (emperor) of the Indian subcontinent, because of the huge empire that he ruled on. Of course, the most liberal and righteous of all emperors was his grandson '''[[Ashoka]] the Great'''. The other dynasties that are considered imperial by the historians are the [[Kushana]]s, the [[Gupta]]s and the [[Vardhana]]s. The followers of Hindutva regard [[Prithviraj Chauhan]] (12th century CE) as the last Hindu emperor of India.
After India was invaded by the Mongol Khans and Turkish Muslims, the rulers of their major states on the subcontinent were titled [[Sultan]], which may not be translated as emperor (except for the Ottoman 'Great Sultan', but he is actually styled, amongst other titles, [[Sultan of Sultans]], proving there is a rank above Sultan, while an emperor has no superior). In this manner, the only empress ever to have actually sat on the throne of [[Delhi]] was [[Razia Sultan]]. Some other [[India]]n (Hindu) monarchs held the rare title ''Maharajadhiraja'' ('Great King of Kings') but because it was awarded to their political vassals by the [[Mughal]]s and the British, it is usually not considered imperial. The [[Mughal Emperors]] ([[1526]]&ndash;[[1857]]), originally another dynasty of Sultans of Delhi, adopted the Muslim title ''Badshah'' (of corruption of [[padishah]], an imperial style used by the Persian and Ottoman emperors; ) ?or ''Shahanshah''. Their throne became vacant after [[Bahadur Shah II|Bahadur Shah Zafar]] was unseated by the British, whence the title of the emperor could later be assumed by the British Monarch, then Queen Victoria, as successor to the (now colonial) position of [[Paramount ruler]].
For the episode from [[1877]] to [[1947]] when British Emperors and Empresses ruled in India, see [[#British Emperors and Empresses|above]]. Note that if Razia Sultan's short reign is excluded, [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] was the only reigning ''empress'' of India, though she never actually sat on the throne of Delhi.
In the valley of [[Swat (Pakistan)|Swat]] (in modern [[Pakistan]]), Miangul Golshahzada Abdul Wadud, in fact a petty ruler, pompously titled himself ''badshah'' in [[1918]]. In [[1926]], he was granted recognition of authority over Swat by the British in return for taking the lesser title of ''[[wali]]''.
====Afghanistan====
[[Ahmad Shah]] founded the [[Durrani Empire]] in [[1747]] with the title ''Padshah''. The [[Sadozai]] were overthrown in [[1823]] but there was a brief restoration by [[Shoja Shah]] in [[1839]]. The title went dormant after his assassination in [[1842]] until [[1926]] when [[Amanullah Khan]] resurrected it. The title was finally laid to rest with the abdication of [[Mohammed Zahir Shah]] in [[1973]] following a coup.
Afghan ''padshah'' is normally translated into English as king.
==Lists of emperors==
===Emperors of traditional empires===
==== Ancient empires ====
*[[Achaemenid dynasty|Persian Empire]] ([[559 BC]]&ndash;[[330 BC]]) - see [[List of kings of Persia]]
*[[Hellenistic Greece|Empire of Alexander the Great]] ([[334 BC]]&ndash;[[281 BC]])
*[[Mauryan Empire]] ([[321 BC]]&ndash;[[185 BC]]) - see [[Mauryan dynasty]]
*[[Emperor of China|Chinese Empire]] ([[221 BC]]&ndash;[[1911]]) - see [[Table of Chinese monarchs]]
*[[Roman Empire]] ([[27 BC]]&ndash;[[476]]) - see [[List of Roman Emperors]]
==== Medieval empires ====
*[[Holy Roman Empire]] ([[800]] and [[962]]&ndash;[[1806]]) - see [[List of Holy Roman Emperors]]
*[[Byzantine Empire]] ([[395]]&ndash;[[1453]]) - see [[List of Byzantine Emperors]]
**[[Latin Empire|Latin Empire of Constantinople]] (1204&ndash;1261, with the title of [[Latin Emperor of Constantinople|(Latin) "Emperor of Constantinople"]] continuing to 1383)
**[[Empire of Nicaea]] (1204&ndash;1261) - "Byzantine Empire" in exile during the rule of the "Latin Empire" over Constantinople.
**[[Empire of Trebizond]] (1204&ndash;1461) - Other split of the "Byzantine Empire"
**[[Despotate of Epirus]] (1204&ndash;1359) - Despot Theodore Ducas emperor from 1227&ndash;1230
*The first ruler of [[Vietnam]] to take the title of Emperor (Hoang De) was the founder of the Dinh Dynasty, Dinh Bo Linh, in the year AD [[966]] - see [[List of Vietnamese dynasties]]
*[[Emperor of Ethiopia|Empire of Ethiopia]] ([[1270]]&ndash;[[1975]]) - see [[List of Emperors of Ethiopia]]
*[[Aztec Empire]] ([[1375]]&ndash;[[1521]]) - see [[Hueyi Tlatoani]]
*[[Inca Empire]] ([[1438]]&ndash;[[1533]]) - see [[Sapa Inca]]
*[[Mongol Empire]] ([[1206]]&ndash;[[1634]]) - see [[List of Mongol Khans]]
*[[Persian Empire]] ([[Iran]]) ([[1501]]&ndash;[[1979]]) - see [[List of kings of Persia]]
*[[Mughal Empire]] ([[1526]]&ndash;[[1857]]) - see [[List of Mughal emperors]]
*[[Ottoman Empire]] ([[1299]]&ndash;[[1922]]) - see [[Ottoman dynasty|Osmanli]]
==== Newer empires ====
*[[Austrian Empire]], [[1804]]&ndash;[[1867]] and the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]], [[1867]]&ndash;[[1918]] (both under the [[Habsburg]]s)
*[[Empire of Brazil]] ([[Peter I of Brazil|Peter I]], [[1822]]&ndash;[[1831]] and [[Peter II of Brazil|Peter II]], [[1831]]&ndash;[[1889]])
*[[First French Empire|French Empire]] ([[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon I]], [[1804]]&ndash;[[1814]] and [[Napoleon III]], [[1852]]&ndash;[[1870]])
*[[German Empire]] (under the [[Hohenzollern]]s, [[1871]]&ndash;[[1918]])
*[[India]] (under the [[British Raj]] with British Monarch as [[Emperor of India]], [[1876]]&ndash;[[1947]])
*[[Imperial Russia|Russian Empire]] (under the [[Romanov]]s, [[1721]]&ndash;[[1917]])
*[[Korean Empire]] ([[Emperor Gojong of Korea|Gojong]], [[1897]]&ndash;[[1907]] and [[Emperor Sunjong of Korea|Sunjong]], [[1907]]&ndash;[[1910]])
=== Emperors of short-lived 'empires' ===
*[[Jean-Jacques Dessalines|Emperor Jacques I]] of the [[Haiti|Empire of Haiti]] ([[1804]]&ndash;[[1806]])
*[[Agustín de Iturbide|Emperor Augustin]] of the first [[Mexican Empire]] ([[1822]]&ndash;[[1823]])
*[[Faustin Soulouque|Emperor Faustin I]] of the [[Haiti|Empire of Haiti]] ([[1847]]&ndash;[[1859]])
*[[Maximilian of Habsburg|Emperor Maximilian]] of the second [[Mexican Empire]] ([[1864]]&ndash;[[1867]])
*[[Sylvain Salnave|Emperor Sylvain I]] of the [[Haiti|Empire of Haiti]] ([[1868]]&ndash;[[1870]], not confirmed [http://www.4dw.net/royalark/Haiti/haiti5.htm])
*[[Yuan Shikai|Emperor Hongxian]] of China ([[1915]]&ndash;[[1916]])
*[[Jean-Bédel Bokassa|Emperor Bokassa I]] of the [[Central African Republic|Central African Empire]] ([[1976]]&ndash;[[1979]])
=== Self-proclaimed and micronation 'emperors' ===
:''see [[Self-proclaimed monarchy]] and [[micronation]]''
These characters are historical fiction in terms of political and reality, but their claims concern real territory in their lifetime, not in fictional time and space
*[[Joshua A. Norton|Emperor Norton I]] of the [[United States]] ([[1859]]&ndash;[[1880]])
*defying any linguistic logic, Dale Parker Anderson (born 1965) is styled 'emperor' Dale I of the [[Gay and Lesbian Kingdom of the Coral Sea Islands]], a 'secession' from Australia as protest against the dominion's refusal to allow same-sex marriages
===Fictional emperors===
:''see [[List of fictional rulers#Emperors|list of fictional rulers]]''
==Notes==
#{{note|Act_in_restraint_of_Appeals}} [http://faculty.history.wisc.edu/sommerville/123/123week9.htm The opening words of the Act in restraint of Appeals, 1533]
#{{note|Act_of_Supremacy}} [http://faculty.history.wisc.edu/sommerville/123/123week9.htm Excerpt from The Act of Supremacy (1534)]
#{{note|Japan}} Although the [[Emperor of Japan]] is classified as constitutional Monarch among political scientists, the current constitution of Japan defines him only as a symbol of the nation and no law states his status as a political monarch ([[head of state]]) or otherwise.
==Trivia==
The last year when there was more than one emperor on the throne was [[1979]] with three: [[Japan]], [[Iran]], and the [[Central African Empire]]. The latter two were overthrown that same year.
==See also==
* [[Augustus (honorific)]]
* ''[[Auctoritas]]''
* ''[[Basileus]]''
* [[Royal and noble ranks]]
* [[Caesar (title)]], [[Tsar]]
* [[Great Khan]]
* [[Great King]]
* [[High king]]
* [[Imperator]]
* [[King of Kings]]
* [[Padishah]]
* [[Paramount ruler]]
* [[Shahanshah]]
* [[Translatio imperii]]
[[Category:Emperors| ]]
[[Category:Heads of state]]
[[Category:Political philosophy]]
[[br:Impalaer]]
[[ca:Emperador]]
[[cs:Císař]]
[[da:Kejser]]
[[de:Kaiser]]
[[eo:Imperiestro]]
[[es:Emperador]]
[[et:Keiser]]
[[fi:Keisari]]
[[fr:Empereur]]
[[ja:皇帝]]
[[ka:იმპერატორი]]
[[ko:황제]]
[[la:Imperator]]
[[nl:Keizer]]
[[no:Keiser]]
[[pl:Cesarz]]
[[pt:Imperador]]
[[ru:Император]]
[[sl:Imperator]]
[[sv:Kejsare]]
[[vi:Hoàng đế]]
[[zh:皇帝]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Egalitarianism</title>
<id>10113</id>
<revision>
<id>40112064</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T05:28:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Insmgg</username>
<id>946652</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Edited for mechanics.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Egalitarianism''' is any moral belief that emphasizes the equality of morally |
-fowl.
Tacitus named the [[Mattiaci]] as a similar tribe under homage, but on the other side of the Rhine. The areas inhabited by the Batavians were never occupied by the [[Roman Empire|Romans]], as the Batavians were allies.
The Batavians falsely became regarded as the eponymous ancestors of the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] people. The Netherlands were briefly known as the [[Batavian Republic]]. Moreover, in the time [[Indonesia]] was a Dutch colony, the capital (now [[Jakarta]]) was named Batavia.
==Military units==
[[Image:Funerary Stela Corporis Custodes.jpg|thumb|left|Funerary stela of one of [[Nero]]'s ''Corporis Custodes'' (imperial bodyguard). The bodyguard, Indus, was of the Batavian tribe. ]]
Later, Tacitus described the Batavians as the bravest of the tribes of the area, hardened in the German border wars, with cohorts under their own noble commanders transferred to [[Britannia]]. He said they retained the honour of the ancient association with the Romans, not required to pay tribute or taxes and used by the Romans only for war: "They furnished to the Empire nothing but men and arms", Tacitus remarked. Well-regarded for their skills in horsemanship and swimming&mdash;for men and horses could cross the Rhine without losing formation, according to Tacitus. [[Dio Cassius]] describes this surprise tactic employed by [[Aulus Plautius]] against the "barbarians"&mdash;the British Celts&mdash; at the [[Battle of the Medway|battle of the River Medway]], 43:
:''The barbarians thought that Romans would not be able to cross it without a bridge, and consequently bivouacked in rather careless fashion on the opposite bank; but he sent across a detachment of Germans, who were accustomed to swim easily in full armour across the most turbulent streams. [...] Thence the Britons retired to the river Thames at a point near where it empties into the ocean and at flood-tide forms a lake. This they easily crossed because they knew where the firm ground and the easy passages in this region were to be found; but the Romans in attempting to follow them were not so successful. However, the Germans swam across again and some others got over by a bridge a little way up-stream, after which they assailed the barbarians from several sides at once and cut down many of them.'' (Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 60:20)
The Batavians also provided a contingent for the Emperor's [[Imperial Horse Guard (Roman)|Imperial Horse Guard]].
===Batavian Rebellion===
:''Main article: [[Gaius Julius Civilis]]''.
Despite the alliance, one of the high-ranking Batavii, Julius Paullus, to give him his Roman name, was executed by Fonteius Capito on a false charge of rebellion. His kinsman [[Gaius Julius Civilis]] was paraded in chains in Rome before Nero; though he was acquitted by Galba, he was retained at Rome, and when he returned to his kin in the year of upheaval in the Roman Empire, AD [[69]], he headed a Batavian rebellion which was defeated by the Romans the following year, a narrative told in great detail in Tacitus' History, book iv. Following the uprising, four cohorts of Batavii were sent to Britain under the leadership of the new governor, Q. Petilius Cerialis [http://www.roman-britain.org/military/coh1bat.htm].
Numerous altars and tombstones of the Batavii, dating to the [[2nd century]] and [[3rd century]], have been found along [[Hadrian's Wall]], notably at [[Castlecary]] and [[Carrawburgh]], [[Germany]], [[Yugoslavia]], [[Hungary]], [[Romania]] and [[Austria]]. After the 3rd century, however, the Batavians are no longer mentioned, and they are assumed to have merged with the neighbouring [[Frisians|Frisian]] and [[Frankish]] people.
==External links==
*[http://classics.mit.edu/Tacitus/histories.4.iv.html Tacitus, ''Histories'', Book iv]
*[http://www.livius.org/a/1/germania/germinf_map.gif A map] of the Roman province [[Germania Inferior]] and neighbouring tribes.
*[http://www.roman-britain.org/military/coh1bat.htm Cohors Primae Batavorum]
[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]]
[[de:Bataver]]
[[nl:Bataven]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Believers baptism</title>
<id>4297</id>
<revision>
<id>41888618</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T11:08:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
<id>754619</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Disambig</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Believer's baptism''' (also called '''credobaptism''') is the [[Christianity|Christian]] ritual of [[baptism]] as given only to adults and children who have made a declaration of faith in [[Jesus]] as their personal [[salvation|savior]], because he died for their sins, and was [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrected]] by the power of [[God the Father]]. Whereas [[Catholicism|Roman Catholics]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]], [[Anglicanism|Anglicans]], and a number of [[Protestantism|Protestant]] churches baptize infant children of believers (see [[pedobaptism]]), believer's baptism is administered only to persons who have passed the age of accountability or [[reason]], which is usually age 8-12, though differences in denominational practice (and in psychological development among children) can cause the age to be set higher or lower. Sometimes the pastor or church leader will determine the believer's understanding and conviction through personal interviews. Applicants for baptism may undergo [[catechism|catechesis]] or attend faith exploration classes. Thus, [[intellect|intellectual]] understanding and agreement are prerequisites for baptism, according to this view. In the [[Mennonite]] church, those wishing to be baptized are usually in their mid-teens or older; in other denominations baptisands are sometimes younger.
Some suggest that believer's baptism combines two rituals from Roman Catholicism: [[Confirmation (sacrament)|Confirmation]] and (infant) baptism. In areas where those who practice believer's baptism are the physical or cultural majority, the ritual may function as a [[rite of passage]], by which the child is granted the status of an adult. Most denominations who practice beliver's baptism also specify the mode of baptism, generally preferring ''[[immersion]]'' (in which the baptisand is lowered [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2319323 completely beneath the surface] of a body of water) over ''affusion'' (in which water is sprinkled or poured over the baptisand). Yet all three modes have support from the Bible as well as the [[Didache]].
In some denominations, believer's baptism is a prerequisite to full church membership. This is generally the case with churches with a [[congregationalist church governance|congregational]] form of church government. Persons who wish to become part of the church must undergo believer's baptism in that local body, or another body whose baptism the local body honors. Typically, local churches will honor the baptism of another church if that tradition is of similar faith and practice, or if not, then if the person was baptized (usually by immersion) subsequent to conversion.
Believer's baptism is one of several distinctive doctrines associated closely with the [[Baptist]] and [[Anabaptist]] (literally, ''rebaptizer'') traditions, and their [[theology|theological]] relatives. Among these are the members of the American [[Restoration Movement]]. Many churches associated with [[Pentecostalism]] also practice believer's baptism, though some also offer infant baptism.
In Holiness denominations, a ritual known as Dedication or Infant Dedication supplements or replaces infant baptism. However, unlike baptism, the rite is centered upon the parents, who dedicate the child to God and vow to raise him/her in a God-fearing home. Although Dedication often occurs at the same age as infant baptism, it is not considered a replacement for baptism.
Believer's baptism is more prevalent in Christian traditions which maintain that there is a state of innocency from birth to the age of accountability (if the believer, due to mental or emotional disability, is not likely to gain the ability to judge the morality of his or her actions, this state of innocency persists for life). Credobaptism is less prevalent in traditions which maintain that the corruption of original sin is present at birth and is sufficient guilt in the eyes of God to cause the child to be damned, should it die before baptism.
== Theological objections ==
One standard theological argument leveled against believer's baptism is that it makes the efficacy of the sacrament dependent upon the understanding of the baptisand; that is, it depends upon what the baptisand knows. This runs counter to the theological belief that God saves whom he will, regardless of any worthiness or knowledge on the part of the saved.
Another is that it contradicts the belief that one person's faith and prayers may be extended to benefit another, particularly in cases when the prospective baptisand lacks the intellectual capacity to comprehend and give intellectual assent to a creed, as in the case of infants or adults who are mentally impaired.
A further objection is that it implies that families in a congregation with young unbaptised children are comprised of both Christians and non-Christians, which usually does not reflect the actual belief and experience of those families or of the congregation.
Even in theological circles where some response to God's call is considered necessary for the convert (such as belief, confession, repentance, and prayer), a believer's baptism is usually categorized as a work instead of a response of faith, though [[Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ#Baptism|not always]].
==See also==
* [[confirmation (sacrament)]]
* [[pedobaptism]]
==External links==
*[http: |
** G is a type of [[G protein|protein]].
* In the [[RGB]] [[color model]], G stands for the color [[green]].
* In [[programming languages]],
** G is the graphical programming language used in [[LabVIEW]].
* In [[computer game]]s,
** ''G'' is a character in [[Sega]]'s ''[[The House of the Dead (video game)|House of the Dead]]'' series of [[arcade game]]s,
** G is the name of a [[currency]] in some [[computer role-playing game]]s, meaning [[gold]].
** 'G' is the class of gnomes and 'g' is a gremlin in the [[Roguelike]] game [[NetHack]].
* In [[computing]], G is a [[binary prefix]] for ''giga'', meaning 2<sup>30</sup> = 1,073,741,824 (cf. G as an SI prefix in the Metric system, given below)
* In [[electrical engineering]], ''G'' is often used as the name of the [[variable]] for [[conductance]].
* In [[English language|English]] [[slang]], g is short for "gangsta" ([[gangster]]) or for a "grand", which is itself a slang term for a thousand currency units. Additionally, in the illegal drug trade it is common to refer to a gram of a substance as a "g"; although this is derived from the SI symbol, referring to other SI units by their symbol in speech is uncommon. ''G'' may also refer to the drug [[methamphetamine]].
* In [[film]],
**G is a [[MPAA film rating system|rating]] given by the [[Motion Picture Association of America]], meaning the film is suitable for all ("general") audiences.
**[[G (1974 film)|''G'']] is also the name of a [[British film]] from [[1974]]. An American film, [[G (2002 film)|also called ''G'']], was released as an [[independent film]] in [[2002]]; it was released to movie theaters in [[2005]].
* In [[finance]], G is the [[New York Stock Exchange]] [[ticker symbol]] for [[The Gillette Company]]
* In [[List of international license plate codes|international licence plate codes]], G stands for [[Gabon]].
* In [[literature]], ''[[G. (novel)|G.]]'' is the title of a book by [[John Berger]]. This book was awarded the [[Booker Prize]] in [[1972]].
* In the [[SI]] system,
**an upright capital G is the [[SI prefix]] for ''giga'', meaning 10<sup>9</sup> = 1,000,000,000.
**an upright lowercase g is the symbol for a unit of [[mass]], the [[gram (unit)|gram]].
* In the [[CGS]] system,
**capital G is also the symbol for the unit of [[magnetic induction]], the [[gauss]].
* In [[music]], G is a [[note]].
* In [[physics]],
** [[gravitational constant|''G'']] is the [[gravitational constant]].
** [[Gee|''g'']] (always in lowercase) is the unit of [[acceleration]] due to gravity.
* As the first letter of a [[postal code]],
** In [[Canada]], G stands for the eastern part of [[Quebec]].
** In the [[United Kingdom]], G stands for [[Glasgow]].
* In [[psychometrics]], g (always in lowercase) is the symbol for [[General intelligence factor|general intelligence]].
* In [[radio]]communication, G is one of the [[ITU prefix]]es allocated to the [[United Kingdom]].
* In [[sexology]], the [[G-spot]] is also a part of the vagina that allegedly causes an orgasm when stimulated.
* In [[television]], '''G''' is the [[Television rating system|TV Rating]] that stands for General, meaning the program is appropriate for everyone.
* In [[economics]], G is usually used to represent [[government spending]] or government expenditure.
* In [[Freemasonry]], the letter ''G'' is often found in The Masonic Square and Compasses symbol. The meaning is attributed to the word "God" or "geometry".
* G is an abbreviated nickname of [[Andrew G]].
==See also==
*[[Ĝ|''Ĝ'' and ''ĝ'']]
*[[Ğ|''Ğ'' and ''ğ'']]
*[[Carolingian G]]
*[[Insular G]]
{{AZsubnav}}
[[Category:Latin letters]]
[[als:G]]
[[bs:G]]
[[ca:G]]
[[sn:G]]
[[cs:G]]
[[da:G]]
[[de:G]]
[[el:G]]
[[es:G]]
[[eo:G]]
[[fr:G]]
[[gl:G]]
[[ko:G]]
[[hr:G]]
[[id:G]]
[[it:G]]
[[he:G]]
[[kw:G]]
[[la:G]]
[[hu:G]]
[[nl:G]]
[[ja:G]]
[[no:G]]
[[nn:G]]
[[pt:G]]
[[ro:G]]
[[simple:G]]
[[sk:G]]
[[sl:G]]
[[fi:G]]
[[sv:G]]
[[tl:G]]
[[vi:G]]
[[yo:G]]
[[zh:G]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Greek Alphabet</title>
<id>12256</id>
<revision>
<id>15909957</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Greek alphabet]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gamma</title>
<id>12257</id>
<revision>
<id>41737758</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T11:23:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fredrik</username>
<id>26675</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>lowercase</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the letter. For the electromagnetic ray, see [[Gamma ray]]''
{{Table_Greekletters|letter=gamma}}
'''Gamma''' (upper case &Gamma;, lower case &gamma;) is the third letter of the [[Greek alphabet]]. It derives from the [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]] [[Gimel (letter)|Gimel]] [[Image:phoenician_gimel.png|20px|Gimel]]. In [[Greek language|Modern Greek]], it is pronounced [[voiced velar fricative|{{IPA|[ɣ]}}]] or [[Voiced palatal fricative|{{IPA|[&#669;]}}]], and in [[Ancient Greek]], it was pronounced [[voiced velar plosive|{{IPA|[ɡ]}}]] or [[velar nasal|{{IPA|ŋ}}]] before plosives. In the system of [[Greek numerals]] it has a value of 3.
Letters that arose from Gamma are the Roman [[C]] and [[G]] and the Cyrillic letters [[Ge (Cyrillic)|Ge]] Г and [[Ghe (Cyrillic)|Ghe]] Ґ.
== Use in science ==
Gamma is often used to denote a variable in [[mathematics]] and [[physics]].
In certain areas it has specific meaning.
* '''[[Gamma correction]]''' in [[photography]], [[television]] and [[computer display]] systems. '''''Gamma''''' is the [[exponent]] in a power-law relationship between [[video]] or [[pixel]] values and the displayed brightness. In photography it is the slope of the curve of (density or log(opacity)) of the film image versus log(exposure) (the [[sensitometry|Hurter-Driffield curve]]), in the straight line region.
* 1 gamma is a unit of [[magnetic flux density]], 1 gamma = 10<sup>&minus;9</sup> [[Tesla (unit)|tesla]] or 1 [[nanotesla]].
* [[Gamma wave]]s are a type of [[electroencephalography|brain waves]] around 40 [[hertz]].
=== Upper-case ===
The upper-case letter &Gamma; is used as the symbol for:
* The [[gamma function]] (related to factorials) in mathematics.
* The [[Gamma distribution]] in probability theory and statistics.
* The [[Christoffel symbol]] in [[General Relativity]].
* The [[reflection coefficient]] in [[electrical engineering]].
* The [[linewidth]] relating to uncertainty of mass energy in short-lived particles.
* The symbol on the hat of Nintendo character [[Waluigi]].
=== Lower-case ===
The lower-case letter &gamma; is used as the symbol for:
* The [[Euler-Mascheroni constant]] in mathematics.
* A risk management measure in [[mathematical finance]].
* The [[photon]], seen as an elementary particle in physics.
* [[Gamma ray]]s in physics and astronomy.
* The [[Lorentz factor|gamma factor]] in relativity theory and astronomy.
* The [[adiabatic index]] of a gas in physics. Often the letter kappa &kappa; is used.
* The [[propagation constant]] of an electromagnetic wave (in [[electrical engineering]] and [[electromagnetic theory]]).
* The third brightest (usually) star in a [[constellation]]. ''See'' [[Bayer designation]].
== Fictional names ==
* In the game of [[Tetris]], '''''gamma''''' is another name for the J [[tetromino]].
* [[E-102 Gamma]] is a fictional robotic character in the Sonic the Hedgehog universe.
* Gamma is a giant peace-keeping robot stolen by [[Dr. Wily]] which is the final boss of [[Capcom]]'s [[Nintendo]] game [[Megaman]] 3.
*Gamma is the third caste in Aldous Huxley's dystopic satire [[Brave New World]].
== Trivia ==
* [[Tropical Storm Gamma]] is the third Atlantic tropical storm to be named using the Greek alphabet.
[[Category:Greek letters]]
[[als:Γ]]
[[ca:Gamma]]
[[da:Gamma (bogstav)]]
[[de:Gamma]]
[[el:Γάμμα]]
[[es:Γ]]
[[fr:Gamma]]
[[ga:Gáma]]
[[gl:Gamma]]
[[ko:Γ]]
[[he:גמא (אות)]]
[[la:Gamma]]
[[nl:Gamma (letter)]]
[[nds:Gamma]]
[[ja:Γ]]
[[no:Gamma]]
[[nn:Gamma]]
[[pl:Gamma]]
[[pt:Γ]]
[[ru:Гамма (буква)]]
[[sl:Gama]]
[[sr:Гама]]
[[fi:Gamma]]
[[sv:Gamma]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>George Orwell/Animal Farm</title>
<id>12258</id>
<revision>
<id>15909959</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Carey Evans</username>
<id>25</id>
</contributor>
<comment>un-subpage</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Animal Farm]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>George Orwell/1984</title>
<id>12259</id>
<revision>
<id>15909960</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-18T21:05:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Montrealais</username>
<id>3378</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>George Orwell/Keep the Aspidistra Flying</title>
<id>12261</id>
<revision>
<id>15909962</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Carey Evans</username>
<id>25</id>
</contributor>
<comment>un-subpage</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Keep the Aspidistra Flying]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Glaciation</title>
<id>12262</id>
<revision>
<id>30330295</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-06T10:58:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cactus.man</username>
<id>264914</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|Popups]]-assisted redirection bypass from [[Varang |
reg Moore]], race car driver
*[[Carrie-Anne Moss]], actress
*[[Steve Nash]], [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] [[Most Valuable Player|MVP]]
*[[Cam Neely]], hockey player
*[[Scott Niedermayer]], hockey player
*[[Rob Niedermayer]], Scott's brother
*[[Jimmy Pattison]], businessperson and [[Fortune 500]] member
*[[Tony Pep]], boxer/boxing coach-promoter
*[[Al Purdy]], poet
*[[Jason Priestley]], actor
*[[Ryan Reynolds]], actor
*[[Joe Sakic]], hockey player
*[[Jack Shadbolt]], painter/sculptor
*[[Michael Shanks]], actor
*[[Dorothy Stratten]], actress/model
*[[David Suzuki]], environmental advocate
*[[Margaret Trudeau]], ex-wife of Prime Minister [[Pierre Elliott Trudeau]]
*[[Larry Walker]], baseball player
*[[Steve Yzerman]], hockey player
==Maps==
[[Image:Bc new.jpg|thumbnail|right|300px|British Columbia map from the Atlas of Canada]]
[[Image:Bcmap.PNG]]
==Cities==
Half of all British Columbians live in the [[Greater Vancouver Regional District]], which includes [[Vancouver, British Columbia|Vancouver]], [[New Westminster, British Columbia|New Westminster]], [[Surrey, British Columbia|Surrey]], [[West Vancouver, British Columbia|West Vancouver]], [[North Vancouver, British Columbia|North Vancouver]], [[Burnaby, British Columbia|Burnaby]], [[Coquitlam, British Columbia|Coquitlam]], [[Port Coquitlam, British Columbia|Port Coquitlam]], [[Maple Ridge, British Columbia|Maple Ridge]], [[Langley, British Columbia|Langley]], [[Delta, British Columbia|Delta]], [[Pitt Meadows, British Columbia|Pitt Meadows]], [[White Rock, British Columbia|White Rock]], [[Richmond, British Columbia|Richmond]], [[Port Moody, British Columbia|Port Moody]], [[Anmore, British Columbia|Anmore]], [[Belcarra, British Columbia|Belcarra]], [[Lions Bay, British Columbia|Lions Bay]] and [[Bowen Island, British Columbia|Bowen Island]].
Other cities:
*[[Abbotsford, British Columbia|Abbotsford]]
*[[Colwood, British Columbia|Colwood]]
*[[Courtenay, British Columbia|Courtenay]]
*[[Dawson Creek, British Columbia|Dawson Creek]]
*[[Fort St. John, British Columbia|Fort St. John]]
*[[Kamloops, British Columbia|Kamloops]]
*[[Kelowna, British Columbia|Kelowna]]
*[[Nanaimo, British Columbia|Nanaimo]]
*[[Prince George, British Columbia|Prince George]]
*[[Quesnel, British Columbia|Quesnel]]
*[[Victoria, British Columbia|Victoria]] - provincial capital
*[[Williams Lake, British Columbia|Williams Lake]]
{{seealso|List of communities in British Columbia}}
== See also ==
*[[List of British Columbia-related topics]]
**[[List of British Columbians]]
***[[List of British Columbia premiers]]
***[[List of British Columbia lieutenant-governors]]
**[[List of communities in British Columbia]]
**[[List of British Columbia Regional Districts]]
**[[List of British Columbia provincial highways]]
**[[List of British Columbia Universities]]
**[[Same-sex marriage in British Columbia]]
**[[BC Ferries]]
**[[BC Hydro]]
**[[Geography of British Columbia]]
***[[British Columbia Coast]]
***[[Interior Plateau]]
***[[Lower Mainland]]
***[[Queen Charlotte Islands]]
***[[Vancouver Island]]
*[[Canada]]
**[[Provinces and territories of Canada]]
***[[List of Canadian provincial and territorial symbols]]
**[[List of cities in Canada]]
==External links==
* [http://www.travel.bc.ca Travel.bc.ca] British Columbia Travel & Tourism Information
* [http://www.vancouverinfocenter.com Vancouver Info Center] Information about Vancouver, BC's largest city
* [http://www.hickerphoto.com/british-columbia-pictures-cat.htm Pictures of British Columbia]
* [http://www.bcarchives.gov.bc.ca Provincial Archives (includes online photo database)]
* [http://maps.gov.bc.ca/ BC Govt online map archive (free)]
* [http://www.ubc.ca/ University of British Columbia]
* [http://www.bcferries.bc.ca/ BC Ferries]
* [http://www.royalbcmuseum.bc.ca/ The Royal BC Museum]
* [http://www.mon-photo.com/North_America/Canada/_1/index.htm Photos from BC and Vancouver]
* [http://www.stevestonivillage.com Steveston, BC Community Website]
{{Canada}}
{{BritishColumbia}}
[[Category:British Columbia| ]]
[[ca:Colúmbia Britànica]]
[[cs:Britská Kolumbie]]
[[da:Britisk Columbia]]
[[de:Britisch-Kolumbien]]
[[eo:Brita Kolumbio]]
[[es:Colombia Británica]]
[[et:Briti Columbia]]
[[fa:بریتیش کلمبیا]]
[[fi:Brittiläinen Kolumbia]]
[[fr:Colombie-Britannique]]
[[gl:Columbia Británica - British Columbia]]
[[he:קולומביה הבריטית]]
[[hr:Britanska Kolumbija]]
[[id:British Columbia]]
[[io:British Columbia]]
[[is:Breska Kolumbía]]
[[it:Columbia Britannica]]
[[ja:ブリティッシュコロンビア州]]
[[ka:ბრიტანეთის კოლუმბია]]
[[ko:브리티시컬럼비아 주]]
[[la:Columbia Britannica]]
[[nl:Brits-Columbia]]
[[no:Britisk Columbia]]
[[os:Бритайнаг Колумби]]
[[pl:Kolumbia Brytyjska]]
[[pt:Colúmbia Britânica]]
[[ru:Британская Колумбия]]
[[simple:British Columbia]]
[[sk:Britská Kolumbia]]
[[sr:Британска Колумбија]]
[[sv:British Columbia]]
[[tr:British Columbia]]
[[uk:Британська Колумбія]]
[[vi:British Columbia]]
[[zh:不列颠哥伦比亚]]
[[zh-min-nan:British Columbia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brazoria County</title>
<id>3393</id>
<revision>
<id>15901731</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-13T09:53:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.26.98.90</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>*redirect - let's keep to standard of including state names even if the county name is unique!</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Brazoria County, Texas]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gautama Buddha</title>
<id>3395</id>
<revision>
<id>42111909</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:20:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sunil vasisht</username>
<id>783033</id>
</contributor>
<comment>added category indian philosophers</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:StandingBuddha.JPG|thumb|Standing [[Buddha]], ancient region of [[Gandhara]], northern [[Pakistan]], 1st century CE, [[Musée Guimet]].]]
:''"Siddhartha" redirects here. For other uses, see [[Siddhartha (disambiguation)]].''
:''"Gautama" redirects here. For other uses, see [[Gautama (disambiguation)]].''
'''Gautama Buddha''' was a spiritual teacher who was born in [[Lumbini]], a place situated in modern [[Nepal]]. He spent most of his time in Northern [[India]], approximately [[563 BCE]] to [[483 BCE]], preaching his knowledge. Born as '''Siddhartha Gautama''' ([[Sanskrit]]: "descendant of Gautama whose aims are achieved / who achieves aims effectively") he became "the [[Buddha]]" after embarking on a quest for spiritual meaning. He is universally recognised by Buddhists as the Supreme Buddha (literally ''[[bodhi|Enlightened One]]'' or ''Awakened One'') of our age. He is also commonly known as '''Shakyamuni''' or '''Śakyamuni''' ("sage of the [[Shakya]] [[clan]]") and as the ''[[Tathagata]]'' ("thus-come-one").
Gautama is the key figure in [[Buddhism]], and accounts of his life, [[discourses]], and [[monastic]] rules were summarized after his [[death]] and [[memorized]] by the [[sangha]]. Passed down by [[oral tradition]], the ''[[Tripitaka]]'' was committed to [[writing]] about four hundred [[year]]s later. [[Hindus]] regard Gautama as an [[avatar]] of [[Lord Vishnu]].
==Buddha's life==
Few of the details of the Buddha's life can be independently verified, and it is difficult to determine what is [[history]] and what is [[Mythology|myth]]. Therefore this article will describe the life of Siddhartha Gautama as told in the earliest available [[Buddhist texts]].
===Conception and birth===
[[Image:MayaDream.JPG|thumb|200px|left|[[Queen Maya]]'s white elephant dream. [[Gandhara]], 2-3rd century CE.]]
Siddhartha Gautama was born in [[Lumbini]] that was a part of ancient [[India|Indian]] Sakya Kingdom and is now situated in modern [[Nepal]], under the [[full moon]] of the sixth [[lunar month]], in the [[spring (season)|spring]]. His father was [[Suddhodana]], a King among the [[Kshatriya]] caste. His mother was [[Maya Devi]], one of Suddhodana's wives. The day of the Buddha's birth is widely celebrated in Buddhist countries as [[Vesak]]. Gautama was born a [[prince]], destined to a life of luxury.
[[Image:SiddhartaBirth.JPG|thumb|200px|The birth of Siddharta, Gandhara, 2-3rd century CE.]]
According to legend, before his birth Gautama had visited his mother during a vision, taking the form of a white [[elephant]]. During the [[Childbirth|birth]] celebrations, a [[seer]] announced that this baby would either become a great king or a great holy man. His father, King Suddhodana, wishing for Gautama to be a great king, shielded his son from religious teachings or knowledge of human [[suffering]].
<br clear="left" />
===Marriage===
When the young Prince Siddhartha Gautama was still a baby, an [[ascetic]] named Kaladevala went into the heaven of the 33 Gods of the [[Vedas]], and predicted that the young prince would become the Buddha. As the boy reached the age of 16, his father [[arranged marriage|arranged his marriage]] to [[Yashodhara]], a cousin of the same age. In time, she gave birth to a son, [[Rahula]]. [[Gautama]] lived up to the age of 29 as a prince in [[Kapilavastu]], a place situated now in [[Nepal]]. Although his father ensured that Gautama was provided with everything he could want or need, Gautama was constantly troubled and internally dissatisfied.
===The Great Departure===
[[Image:LeavingPalace.JPG|thumb|left|200px|The Great Departure from the Palace, Gandhara, 2-3rd century.]]
Inspired by the [[four sights]], Gautama determined to leave his home, his possessions and his family at age 29. He chose to become a [[monk]].
Abandoning his inheritance, he dedicated his life to learning how to overcome suffering. He pursued the paths of [[Yoga]] and [[meditation|meditated]] with two [[Brahmin]] hermits, and although he achieved high levels of meditative consciousness, he was not satisfied with this path.
[[Image:EmaciatedBuddha.JP |
ism is an essential ordinance or prerequisite for entry into the kingdom of God. Baptism for the Dead allows this saving ordinance to be offered to those who have died without accepting the Gospel of Jesus Christ from authorised representatives of God during their mortal lives. If baptism is a required ordinance, as Mormons believe is evidenced by Jesus's own desire to receive it from [[John the Baptist]], then inviting others to receive this ordinance becomes a natural obligation for all who have received the Gospel in this life.
According to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, their practice of baptism for the dead is based on a revelation received by the prophet [[Joseph Smith]]. Smith first taught the doctrine at the [[funeral]] sermon of a deceased member of the Church, [[Seymour Brunson]]. In a letter written on [[October 19]], [[1840]], to the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]] of the Church (who were on a mission in the [[United Kingdom]] at the time), Smith refers to the passage in [http://scriptures.lds.org/1_cor/15 1 Corinthians 15:29] (KJV):
:I presume the doctrine of "baptism for the dead" has ere this reached your ears, and may have raised some inquiries in your minds respecting the same. I cannot in this letter give you all the information you may desire on the subject; but aside from knowledge independent of the [[Bible]], I would say that it was certainly practiced by the ancient churches; and [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]] endeavors to prove the doctrine of the resurrection from the same, and says, "Else what shall they do which are baptized for the dead, if the dead rise not at all? Why are they then baptized for the dead?" (History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints 4:231)
Other scriptures of the Latter-day Saints Church ([[Doctrine and Covenants]] [http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/124 124:29], [http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/127 127:5-10] and [http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/128 128]) expand upon this doctrine and command that such baptisms are to be performed in [[Temple (Mormonism)|temples]]. (As of 2003, there are more than 110 operating LDS temples worldwide and many more under construction.) Vicarious baptism is performed in connection with other vicarious ordinances in Latter-day Saints' temples.
The Church holds that deceased persons who have not accepted or had the opportunity to accept the gospel of Christ in this life will have the opportunity to accept the gospel in the afterlife. But in order to do so they must receive all the ordinances that a living person is expected to receive, including baptism. For this reason, [[genealogy]] forms an important basis of research in the Church's efforts to perform temple ordinances for as many deceased persons as possible. As a part of these efforts, a number of high profile people have had temple ordinances performed on their behalf. Of particular interest are: the [[Founding Fathers]] of the U.S., [[President of the United States|Presidents]] of the U.S., [[John Wesley]], [[Christopher Columbus]], [[Jewish]] [[the Holocaust|Holocaust]] victims, [[Genghis Khan]], [[Joan of Arc]], [[Adolf Hitler]], [[Josef Stalin]], and [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]]. Vicarious baptism does not mean that the decedent actually accepts the ordinance performed for him or her or that the deceased becomes a member of the LDS church; it merely means that the decedent ''may'' accept the ordinance and the benefits which the Latter-day Saints claim it provides. However, Church leaders have stated that the people in the afterlife for whom these ordinances have been performed will rarely reject it.
While members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints consider it a great service to perform vicarious ordinances for the deceased, some non-members have taken offense. To be sensitive to the issue of vicariously baptizing non-Mormons that are not related to Church members, the Church in recent years has publicized a policy of generally only performing temple ordinances for direct ancestors of Church members. For example, the Church is in the process of removing sensitive names (such as Jewish Holocaust victims) from its [[International Genealogical Index]]. [[D. Todd Christofferson]] of the Church's [[Presidency of the Seventy]] stated that removing the names is an "ongoing, labor intensive process requiring name-by-name research ... When the Church is made aware of documented concerns, action is taken ... Plans are underway to refine this process."
== History ==
Baptism for the dead was practiced by some Christian groups in the late fourth century and possibly earlier. [[John A. Tvedtnes]], a Hebrew and early Christian scholar at Brigham Young University, Utah writes:
:That baptism for the dead was indeed practiced in some orthodox Christian circles is indicated by the decisions of two late fourth century councils. The fourth canon of the Synod of Hippo, held in 393, declares, "The Eucharist shall not be given to dead bodies, nor baptism conferred upon them." The ruling was confirmed four years later in the sixth canon of the Third Council of Carthage.
Some argue that the fact that these two councils felt it necessary to explicity forbid baptism for the dead shows that there must have been a significant group of people practicing it, accompanied by opposition to it by the church's leadership. Others disagree with the classification of such groups as "orthodox", since the councils concluded that they were in fact unorthodox, at least with respect to that practice.
Some members of the LDS church see significant parallels between the Baptism for the Dead and the [[prayer]]s and [[requiem|requiem masses]] read for the dead in some churches (e.g. [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]), both historical and modern. Others see similarities to other doctrines associated with [[Purgatory]]. These parallels are disputed by many non-Mormons and Mormons.
According to the International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, "Tertullian believed that Paul referred to a custom of vicarious baptism (Res., 48c; Adv. Marc., 5.10). There is evidence that the early church knew such a practice. Epiphanius mentions a tradition that the custom obtained among the Cerinthians (Haer., 28 6). And Chrysostom states that it prevailed among the Marcionites." All of these supporters were considered heretics by the early Church: Tertullian died outside the church as a [[montanism|Montanist]]; the Cerinthians were a Gnostic group that also denied that Jesus Christ was crucified; and the Marcionites were yet another Gnostic group who followed [[Marcion]], who was also excommunicated from the Church before forming his own sect.
== Christian opposition ==
Other Christian denominations generally do not accept the Latter-day Saint interpretation of baptism for the dead contemplated in [http://scriptures.lds.org/1_cor/15/29#29 1 Corinthians 15:29], and no contemporary Christian church practices a similar ordinance. In this chapter Paul is arguing, to Christians in Corinth, against those who do not believe in the bodily resurrection. While there are different approaches taken to interpreting the meaning of this scripture, some mainstream Christians believe Paul was merely demonstrating the logical contradiction between the practices of these local Christians and their lack of belief in the resurrection. Others believe that "the dead," though plural in the original Greek, refers to Christ ("Why are you then baptized in to Christ, if he rise not at all"), or to the symbol of Baptism - the death, burial and resurrection of the individual as they begin their new life as a disciple of Jesus Christ. Other scholars are not exactly sure about what Paul meant by the comments (see links below).
Another counter-argument to baptism for the dead is that there is little or no record (or incomplete, or disputed) of any mainstream Christian denomination historically practicing it, and therefore it fails the test set forth by Saint [[Vincent of Lerins]], that Christians should believe that which "has been believed by all Christians in all places at all times."
Among the major reasons many Christians dismiss this practice is that they do not believe salvation is dependent on baptism at all. Further, that Christ's example of being baptized by John the Baptist is irrelevant to one's own personal salvation. The practice of Baptism for the Dead also appears to some Christians to abrogate the individual's personal responsibility. It is not, however, meant to change the standing of the dead in [[God]]'s eyes, only to provide them the opportunity to do so themselves.
== Holocaust victim controversy==
It is asserted that The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has made it a long term practice to vicariously baptize [[the Holocaust]]'s [[Jew]]ish victims and other prominent individuals. However, Church policy states that Church members submit their own names for these type of ordinances, and require that a surviving family member's permission be obtained for ''any'' Baptism that is to be performed of deceased individuals that have died within a certain time period (usually 50-75 years).
However, some baptisms were done for Holocaust Victims, without proper approval or permission. When this information became public, it generated vocal criticism of the LDS Church (though not rising to the level of [[anti-Mormonism]]) from Jewish groups, who found this ritual to be insulting and insensitive (though not rising to the level of [[anti-Semitism]]). Partly as a result of public pressure, Church leaders in [[1995]] promised to put into place new policies that would help stop the practice, unless specifically requested or approved by relatives of the victims.
In late [[2002]], information surfaced that members of the Church had not stopped this practice despite directives from the Church leadership t |
nly thrive in the face of oppression, but can be a source of blessing to its children and its neighbors. It obligates us to build a just and compassionate society throughout the world and especially in the [[land of Israel]] where we may teach by example what it means to be a "covenant people, a light unto the nations. (''Emet Ve-Emunah: Statement of Principles of Conservative Judaism'', JTSA, New York, 1988, p.33-34)
===Reform Judaism===
[[Reform Judaism]] views the concept of chosenness in this way: "Throughout the ages it has been Israel's mission to witness to the Divine in the face of every form of paganism and materialism. We regard it as our historic task to cooperate with all men in the establishment of the kingdom of God, of universal brotherhood, Justice, truth and peace on earth. This is our Messianic goal." (''The Guiding Principles of Reform Judaism'', Columbus, [[Ohio]], 1937)
In 1999 the Reform movement stated that "We affirm that the Jewish people are bound to God by an eternal covenant, as reflected in our varied understandings of Creation, Revelation and Redemption....We are Israel, a people aspiring to holiness, singled out through our ancient covenant and our unique history among the nations to be witnesses to God's presence. We are linked by that covenant and that history to all Jews in every age and place." (''Statement of Principles for Reform Judaism'', adopted at the 1999 [[Pittsburgh]] Convention, Central Conference of American Rabbis)
===Criticism of chosenness: Reconstructionist Judaism===
[[Reconstructionist Judaism]] rejects the concept of chosenness. Its founder, Rabbi [[Mordecai Kaplan]], said that the idea that God chose the Jewish people leads to racist beliefs among Jews, and thus must be excised from Jewish theology. This rejection of chosenness is made explicit in the movement's [[siddur|siddurim]] (prayer books).
For example, the original blessing recited before reading from the Torah from contains the phrase "asher bahar banu mikol ha&rsquo;amim"; "Praised are you Lord our God, ruler of the Universe, ''who has chosen us from among all peoples'' by giving us the Torah." The Reconstructionist version is rewritten as "asher kervanu la&rsquo;avodato", "Praised are you Lord our God, ruler of the Universe, ''who has drawn us to your service'' by giving us the Torah.
In the mid-1980s the Reconstructionist movement issued its ''Platform on Reconstructionism''. It states that the idea of chosenness is "morally untenable", because anyone who has such beliefs "implies the superiority of the elect community and the rejection of others." (Federation of Reconstructionist Congregations and Havurot, newsletter, Sept. 1986, pages D, E.)
Note, however, that not all Reconstructionist accept this view. The newest siddur of the movement, ''Kol Haneshamah'', includes the traditional blessings as an option, and some modern Reconstructionist writers have opined that the traditional formulation is not racist, and should be embraced. (e.g. Mitchell Max, ''The Chosen People: Reclaiming Our Sacred Myth'')
An original prayer book by Reconstructionist feminist poet [[Marcia Falk]], ''The Book of Blessings'' has been widely accepted by both Reform and Reconstructionist Jews. Falk rejects all concepts relating to hierarchy or distinction; she sees any distinction as leading to the acceptance of other kinds of distinctions, and thus leading to prejudice. She writes that as a politically liberal lesbian, she must reject distinctions made between men and women, homosexuals and heterosexuals, Jews and non-Jews, and to some extent even distinctions between the Sabbath and the other six days of the week. She thus rejects idea of chosenness as unethical. She also rejects Jewish theology in general, and instead holds to a form of religious humanism. Falk writes "The idea of Israel as God's chosen people...is a key concept in rabbinic Judaism. Yet it is particularly problematic for many Jews today, in that it seems to fly in the face of monotheistic belief that all humanity is created in the divine image - and hence, all humanity is equally loved and valued by God...I find it difficult to conceive of a feminist Judaism that would incorporate it in its teaching: the valuing of one people ''over and above'' others is all to analogous to the privileging of one sex over another." (Falk, 1996)
Reconstructionist author [[Judith Plaskow]] also criticises the idea of chosenness, for many of the same reasons as Falk. Also a politically liberal lesbian, Plaskow rejects most distinctions made between men and women, homosexuals and heterosexuals, and Jews and non-Jews. In contrast to Falk, Plaskow does not reject all concepts of differences as inherently leading to unethical beliefs, and holds to a more classical form of Jewish theism than Falk.
A number of responses to these views have been made by Reform and Conservative Jews; they hold that these criticisms are against teachings that do not exist within liberal forms of Judaism, and which are rare in Orthodox Judaism. A separate criticism stems from the very existence of feminist forms of Judaism in all denominations of Judaism, which do not have a problem with the concepts of chosenness.
== Charges of racism ==
Many books and websites promote the idea that Judaism is inherently racist. Hundreds of websites exist run by [[neo-Nazi]]s, [[White supremacy]] advocates, [[Christian Identity]] adherents, and radical [[Islamist]] groups offer what they claim are authoritative quotes from rabbinic literature, all attempting to prove that Jews hate non-Jews and perceive them as non-human.
These books and websites generally attempt to prove their thesis through two techniques, (a) outright fabrication of quotes, and (b) quote-mining. Quote-mining is the deliberate sifting of hundreds, or thousands, of years of a literature to find a small group of quotes, and then presenting these quotes out of their historical context in order to falsely present the beliefs of a few people as the beliefs of all members of a religious, ethnic or national group. Writings such as the Talmud, which contain arguments immediately followed by refuting counterarguments, are particularly subject to such abuses.
Many books on [[anti-Semitism]] have studied this phenomenon. The [[Anti-Defamation League]] issued a report on the proliferation of such books:
:By selectively citing various passages from the Talmud and Midrash, polemicists have sought to demonstrate that Judaism espouses hatred for non-Jews (and specifically for Christians), and promotes obscenity, sexual perversion, and other immoral behavior. To make these passages serve their purposes, these polemicists frequently mistranslate them or cite them out of context (wholesale fabrication of passages is not unknown)...
:In distorting the normative meanings of rabbinic texts, anti-Talmud writers frequently remove passages from their textual and historical contexts. Even when they present their citations accurately, they judge the passages based on contemporary moral standards, ignoring the fact that the majority of these passages were composed close to two thousand years ago by people living in cultures radically different from our own. They are thus able to ignore Judaism&rsquo;s long history of social progress and paint it instead as a primitive and parochial religion.
:Those who attack the Talmud frequently cite ancient rabbinic sources without noting subsequent developments in Jewish thought, and without making a good-faith effort to consult with contemporary Jewish authorities who can explain the role of these sources in normative Jewish thought and practice.
[[Gil Student]], an expert on exposing anti-Semitic Talmud usage, writes that "Anti-Talmud accusations have a long history dating back to the [[13th century]] when the associates of the Inquisition attempted to defame Jews and their religion [see [[Yitzchak Baer]], ''A History of Jews in Christian Spain'', vol. I pp. 150-185]. The early material compiled by hateful preachers like [[Raymond Martini]] and [[Nicholas Donin]] remain the basis of all subsequent accusations against the Talmud. Some are true, most are false and based on quotations taken out of context, and some are total fabrications [see Baer, ch. 4 f. 54, 82 that it has been proven that Raymond Martini forged quotations]. On the Internet today we can find many of these old accusations being rehashed..."
Books and websites that charge the Jewish people with collective racism generally rely on the above mentioned fabricated or out-of-context quotes, and ignore explicit statements on the topic from representatives of mainstream Jewish denominations. Each of the modern mainstream denominations of Judaism is on record as opposing any form of racism.
Rabbi [[Joseph Soloveitchik]] writes "Even as the Jew is moved by his private Sinaitic Covenant with God to embody and preserve the teachings of the Torah, he is committed to the belief that all mankind, of whatever color or creed, is &ldquo;in His image&rdquo; and is possessed of an inherent human dignity and worthiness. Man&rsquo;s singularity is derived from the breath &ldquo;He [God] breathed into his nostrils at the moment of creation&rdquo; (Genesis 2:7). Thus, we do share in the universal historical experience, and God&rsquo;s providential concern does embrace all of humanity." (''Man of Faith in the Modern World'', p. 74)
Rabbi Malkiel Kotler, dean of the [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] Lakewood Yeshiva, writes "Our philosophy asserts that every human being is created in the image of the Lord and the primacy of integrity and honesty in all dealings without exception. I strongly repudiate any assertions in the name of Judaism that do not represent and reflect this philosophy." (Source: ''The Real Truth About the |
ated near to the surface of bone and their functions are to make [[osteoid]] and manufacture [[hormone]]s such as [[prostaglandin]] which act on bone itself. Osteoblasts are mononucleate. Active osteoblasts are situated on the surface of osteoid seams and communicate with each other via gap-junctions. They contain alkaline phosphatase&mdash;a chemical which has a role in the mineralisation of bone.
Bone Lining Cells (BLCs) share a common lineage with [[osteogenesis]] (bone forming) cells. They function as a barrier for certain ions, induced osteogenetic cells. They are flattened, mononucleate cells which line bone.
However, osteocytes do originate from osteoblasts which have migrated into and become trapped and surrounded by bone matrix which they themselves produce. The space which they occupy is known as a lacuna. Osteocytes have many processes which reach out to meet osteoblasts probably for the purposes of communication. Their functions include to varying degrees: formation of bone, matrix maintenance and calcium homeostasis. They possibly act as mechano-sensory receptors&mdash;regulating the bones' response to stress.
If [[osteoblast]]s can be described as bone forming cells, the [[osteoclasts]] can be described as bone destroying cells. Osteoclasts are large, multinucleated cells located on bone surfaces in what are called [[Howship's lacunae]]. These lacunae, or resorption pits, are left behind after the breakdown of bone and often present as ''scalloped'' surfaces. Because the osteoclasts are derived from a [[monocyte stem-cell lineage]], they are equipped with engulfment strategies similar to circulating [[macrophages]]. Osteoclasts mature and/or migrate to discrete bone surfaces. Upon arrival active enzymes, such as [[acid phosphatase]], are secreted against the mineral substrate. This process, called [[bone resorption]], allows stored calcium to be released into systemic circulation and is an important process in regulating [[calcium balance]]. As bone formation actively ''fixes'' circulating calcium in its mineral form, resorption actively ''unfixes'' it thereby increasing [[circulating calcium levels]]. These processes occur in tandem at site-specific locations and are known as [[bone turnover]], or [[remodeling]]. Osteoblasts and osteoclasts, coupled together via [[paracrine cell signalling]], are referred to as [[bone remodeling units]]. The iteration of remodeling events at the cellular level is influential on shaping and sculpting the skeleton both during growth as well as after.
=== Matrix ===
The matrix comprises the other major constituent of bone. It has inorganic and organic parts. The inorganic is mainly crystalline mineral salts and calcium, which is present in the form of hydroxyapatite. The matrix is initially laid down as unmineralized osteoid (manufactured by osteoblasts). ''Mineralisation'' involves osteoblasts secreting [[vesicle (biology)|vesicle]]s containing alkaline phosphatase. This cleaves phosphate groups and acts as the foci for calcium and phosphate deposition. The vesicles then rupture and act as a centre for crystals to grow on.
The organic part of matrix is mainly Type I [[collagen]]. This is made intracellularly as tropocollagen and then exported. It then associates into [[fibril]]s. Also making up the organic part of matrix include various growth factors, the functions of which are not fully known. Other factors present include [[GAGs]], [[osteocalcin]], [[osteonectin]], [[bone sialo protein]] and Cell Attachment Factor.
== Formation ==
[[Image:Illu bone growth.jpg|450px|right]]
The formation of bone occurs by two methods: [[Intramembranous ossification|intramembranous]] and [[endochondral ossification]].
* Intramembranous ossification mainly occurs during formation of the flat bones of the [[skull]]; the bone is formed from [[mesenchyme]] tissue.
* Endochondral ossification occurs in long bones, such as limbs; the bone is formed from [[cartilage]].
Endochondral ossification begins with points in the cartilage called "primary ossification centers." They mostly appear during fetal development, though a few short bones begin their primary ossification after birth. They are responsible for the formation of the diaphyses of long bones, short bones and certain parts of irregular bones. Secondary ossification occurs after birth, and forms the epiphyses of long bones and the extremities of irregular and flat bones. The diaphyses and the epiphyses of long bones remain separated by a growing zone of cartilage (the [[metaphysis]]) until the child reaches skeletal maturity (18 to 25 years of age), whereupon the cartilage ossifies, fusing the two together (epiphyseal closure).
Marrow can be found in most any bone that holds cancellous tissue. In newborns, all such bones are filled exclusively with [[red marrow]] (or ''[[Pluripotential hemopoietic stem cell|hemopoietic]] marrow''), but as the child ages it is mostly replaced by [[yellow marrow]] (or ''[[fat]]ty marrow''). In adults, [[red marrow]] is mostly found in the flat bones of the skull, the ribs, the vertebrae and pelvic bones.
''Remodeling'' is the process of resorption followed by replacement of bone with little change in shape and occurs throughout a person's life. Its purpose is the release of calcium and the repair of micro-damaged bones (from everyday stress). Repeated stress results in the bone thickening at the points of maximum stress. It has been hypothesized that this is a result of bone's [[piezoelectricity|piezoelectric]] properties, which cause bone to generate small electrical potentials under stress.
==Bone pathologies==
One of the most common bone illnesses is a [[Fracture (bone)| bone fracture]]. [[Bone healing|Bones heal]] by natural processes, but untended and unsupported can lead to misgrown bone.
Other illnesses are for example [[osteoporosis]] and bone [[cancer]] ([[osteosarcoma]]). The joints can be affected by [[arthritis]].
== Terminology ==
:{|
|''process''
|A relatively large projection or prominent bump.
|-
|''articulation''
|The region where adjacent bones contact each other&mdash;a [[joint]].
|-
|''articular process''
|A projection that contacts an adjacent bone.
|-
|''eminence''
|A relatively small projection or bump.
|-
|''tuberosity''
|A projection or bump with a roughened surface.
|-
|''tubercle''
|A projection or bump with a roughened surface, generally smaller than a tuberosity.
|-
|''trochanter''
|One of two specific tuberosities located on the [[femur]].
|-
|''spine''
|A relatively long, thin projection or bump.
|-
|''suture''
|Articulation between cranial bones.
|-
|''malleolus''
|One of two specific protuberances of bones in the [[ankle]].
|-
|''condyle''
|A large, rounded articular process.
|-
|''epicondyle''
|A projection near to a condyle but not part of the joint.
|-
|''line'', ''ridge''
|A long, thin projection, often with a rough surface.
|-
|''crest''
|A prominent ridge.
|-
|''facet''
|A small, smooth articular surface.
|-
|''foramen''
|An opening through a bone.
|-
|''fossa''
|A broad, shallow depressed area.
|-
|''canal''
|A long, tunnel-like foramen, usually a passage for notable nerves or blood vessels.
|-
|''meatus''
|A short canal.
|-
|''sinus''
|A cavity within a cranial bone.
|}
There are also names for specific parts of long bones.
:{|
|''diaphysis'', ''shaft''
|The long, relatively straight main body of the bone; region of primary ossification.
|-
|''epiphyses''
|The end regions of the bone; regions of secondary ossification.
|-
|''epiphyseal plate''
|The thin sheet of bone marking the fusion of epiphyses to the diaphysis (adults only).
|-
|''head''
|The proximal articular end of the bone.
|-
|''neck''
|The region of bone between the head and the shaft.
|}
== See also ==
* [[List of bones of the human skeleton]]
* [[Terms for anatomical location]]
== External links ==
* [http://silver.neep.wisc.edu/~lakes/BoneElectr.html Review (including references) of piezoelectricity and bone remodelling]
[[Category:Anatomy]]
[[Category:Skeletal system]]
[[Category:Bone products]]
<!--[[en:Xương]]-->
[[ar:عظم]]
[[ca:Os]]
[[da:Knogle (anatomi)]]
[[de:Knochen]]
[[es:Hueso]]
[[eo:Osto]]
[[fr:Os]]
[[ko:뼈]]
[[is:Bein]]
[[it:Osso]]
[[he:עצם (אנטומיה)]]
[[lt:Kaulas]]
[[nl:Bot (anatomie)]]
[[ja:骨]]
[[pl:Kość (anatomia)]]
[[pt:Osso]]
[[ru:Кость]]
[[simple:Bone]]
[[sk:Kosť]]
[[fi:Luu]]
[[sv:Ben (skelett)]]
[[tl:Buto]]
[[vi:Xương]]
[[zh:骨骼]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bretwalda</title>
<id>4100</id>
<revision>
<id>41431363</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T07:07:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>72.224.49.93</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Use of the term */ disambig</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bretwalda''' is an [[Anglo-Saxon]] term, the first record of which comes from the late 9th-century ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]''. It is applied in that chronicle to various kings from the 5th century onwards who had achieved overlordship over some or all the other [[History of Anglo-Saxon England|Anglo-Saxon kingdoms]]. It is unclear if it was actually used at that time or is a 10th century invention.
==Use of the term==
The word Bretwalda is derived from the [[Anglo-Saxon language|Anglo-Saxon]] ''Bretanwealda'', "Lord of Britain". The first record of it comes from a [[Wessex|West Saxon]] Chronicle of the late 9th century applying the term to [[Egbert of Wessex|Ecgberht]], who was King of Wessex from 802-839. The chronicler also wrote down the names of seven kings [[Bede]] had listed in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People (''gentis anglorum'') in 731.
There is absolutely no evidence that the term Bretwalda was ever a title that had any practical use. [[Bede]], it should be noted, wrote in [[Latin]] and never used the term, and his list of kings holding ''imperium'' should be treated with great caution, not least in that he overlook |
rise of Apple and Microsoft.
*[[Antitrust (film)|Antitrust]] - This movie's main character appears to be based on Bill Gates.
== References ==
<references/>
== Sources and further reading==
* ''[[Business at the Speed of Thought|Business @ The Speed of Thought]]'' (1999) ISBN 0446675962
* ''[[The Road Ahead]]'' (1996) ISBN 0140260404
* [[James Wallace]] (1993) ''Hard Drive: Bill Gates and the Making of the Microsoft Empire'' Harper Business. ISBN 0887306292
* [[James Wallace]] (1997) ''Overdrive: Bill Gates and the Race to Control Cyberspace'' John Wiley &amp;amp;amp; Sons. ISBN 0471180416
* [[Janet Lowe]] (1998) ''Bill Gates Speaks: Insight from the World's Greatest Entrepreneur'' John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0471293539
* Jennifer Edstrom, Marlin Eller (1999) ''Barbarians Led by Bill Gates: Microsoft from the Inside'' Henry Holt & Company. ISBN 0805057552
* [[Jeanne M. Lesinski]] (2000) ''Bill Gates'' Lerner Publications Company. ISBN 082259689X
* [[David Bank]] (2001) ''Breaking Windows: How Bill Gates Fumbled the Future of Microsoft'' Free Press. ISBN 0743203151
* (Harold Evans with David Lefer and Gail Buckland) "They Made America: Two Centuries of Innovators from the Steam Engine to the Search Engine" ISBN 0-316-27766-5
==External links==
{{Sisterlinks|Bill Gates}}
* [http://www.microsoft.com/billgates/bio.asp Biography of Bill Gates at Microsoft.com]
* [http://www.williamhenrygatesiii.com/bio.htm Celebrity Biography]
* [http://www.time.com/time/gates/cover0.html Time Magazine Profile]
* [http://ei.cs.vt.edu/~history/Gates.Mirick.html Bill Gates before Microsoft]
* [http://www.voteview.com/gates.htm Entrepreneurs and American Economic Growth: William H. Gates]
* [http://patft.uspto.gov/netahtml/search-bool.html "Gates-III-William-H" at the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office]
* [http://www.gatesfoundation.org/ Bill &amp; Melinda Gates Foundation]
* [http://www.pbs.org/now/transcript/transcript_gates.html Interview with Bill Moyers]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/3428721.stm BBC: Bill Gates profile]
* [http://labnol.blogspot.com/2005/05/inside-bill-gates-home.html Virtual Tour of Bill Gates Residence]
* [http://abcnews.go.com/WNT/story?id=506354&amp;amp;amp;page=1 Bill Gates speaks with Peter Jennings of ABC]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/4382112.stm BBC Interview with Bill Gates]
* [http://philip.greenspun.com/WealthClock The Bill Gates wealth clock]
* [http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/biography/F-L/Gates-Bill-1955.html Biography of Bill Gates]
* [http://www.forbes.com/static/bill2005/LIRBH69.html?passListId=10&amp;amp;amp;passYear=2005&amp;amp;amp;passListType=Person&amp;amp;amp;uniqueId=BH69&amp;amp;amp;datatype=Person Forbes: World's Richest People]
<strong>Criticisms of Bill Gates</strong><br>
* [http://www.freedomware.us Freedomware]
* [http://channel9.msdn.com/ShowPost.aspx?PostID=114104 Employee Interviews Gates on Channel9]
{{Microsoft board}}
{{Persondata
|NAME=Gates, William Henry,III
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Gates, Bill
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Business entrepreneur
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[October 28]], [[1955]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Seattle, Washington]]
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}
[[Category:1955 births|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:American entrepreneurs|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:American philanthropists|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:American computer programmers|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:Bill Gates|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:Billionaires|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:College dropouts|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:Computer pioneers|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:Forbes 400|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:Humanitarians]]
[[Category:Forbes World's Richest People|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the British Empire|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:Living people|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:Microsoft employees|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:Scottish-Americans|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:Seattleites|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:Pro-choice celebrities|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:Software magnates|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:Technology writers|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:Time Magazine Person of the Year|Gates, Bill]]
[[ang:Bill Gates]]
[[ar:بيل غيتس]]
[[ast:Bill Gates]]
[[bg:Бил Гейтс]]
[[bs:Bill Gates]]
[[ca:Bill Gates]]
[[cs:Bill Gates]]
[[cy:Bill Gates]]
[[da:Bill Gates]]
[[de:Bill Gates]]
[[eo:Bill GATES]]
[[es:Bill Gates]]
[[et:Bill Gates]]
[[eu:Bill Gates]]
[[fi:Bill Gates]]
[[fr:Bill Gates]]
[[ga:Bill Gates]]
[[gl:Bill Gates]]
[[gn:Bill Gates]]
[[he:ביל גייטס]]
[[hu:Bill Gates]]
[[id:Bill Gates]]
[[io:Bill Gates]]
[[it:Bill Gates]]
[[ja:ビル・ゲイツ]]
[[jbo:Bill Gates]]
[[ko:빌 게이츠]]
[[ku:Bill Gates]]
[[li:Bill Gates]]
[[lt:Bilas Geitsas]]
[[lv:Bils Geitss]]
[[mk:Бил Гејтс]]
[[ms:Bill Gates]]
[[nl:Bill Gates]]
[[nn:Bill Gates]]
[[no:Bill Gates]]
[[pl:Bill Gates]]
[[pt:Bill Gates]]
[[ro:Bill Gates]]
[[ru:Гейтс, Уильям Генри III]]
[[simple:Bill Gates]]
[[sk:Bill Gates]]
[[sl:Bill Gates]]
[[sq:Bill Gates]]
[[sr:Бил Гејтс]]
[[sv:Bill Gates]]
[[th:บิลล์ เกตส์]]
[[tl:Bill Gates]]
[[tr:Bill Gates]]
[[uk:Ґейтс Білл]]
[[vi:Bill Gates]]
[[zh:比尔·盖茨]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bourbon</title>
<id>3748</id>
<revision>
<id>32696504</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-25T18:33:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>86.134.7.203</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bourbon''' may refer to:
*[[Bourbon whiskey]]
*[[House of Bourbon]]
**The last (family) name of French kings and queens from [[House of Bourbon|Henry IV until Louis XVI]]
*[[Bourbon biscuit]]s
*'''Île Bourbon''' was the name of [[Réunion]] from [[1642]] until the [[French Revolution]]
*A class of old garden [[Rose|roses]] first raised on Île Bourbon and called '''Bourbon roses'''.
*Places in the [[United States|United States of America]]:
**[[Bourbon, Indiana]]
**[[Bourbon, Missouri]]
**[[Bourbon County, Kentucky]]
**[[Bourbon Street]] in the [[French Quarter]] of [[New Orleans]], [[Louisiana]]
* [[Bourbon-l'Archambault]] is a [[commune in France|commune]] of the [[Allier]] ''[[département in France|département]]'' in [[France]].
{{disambig}}
[[de:Bourbon (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[fr:Bourbon]]
[[io:Bourbon]]
[[nl:Bourbon]]
[[sv:Bourbon]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Black Body</title>
<id>3749</id>
<revision>
<id>15902064</id>
<timestamp>2004-06-15T04:41:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stevenj</username>
<id>7918</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Black body]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Belgian Blue</title>
<id>3751</id>
<revision>
<id>39722090</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T11:11:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.148.243.253</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* References */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Belgian Blue''' [[cattle]] are also called "monster cows". They are a heavily-bred breed, producing extraordinary amounts of meat. The problem is that they are often unable to give birth without [[caesarean section]].
Some countries (including [[Sweden]]) do not allow Belgian Blues.
This breed has a natural mutation of the gene that codes for [[myostatin]], a protein that counteracts muscle growth. The truncated myostatin is unable to function in this capacity. This mutation also interferes with fat deposition, resulting in very lean meat.
Their sculpted, heavily muscled appearance is known as "doubled muscled", and is a trait shared by the [[Piedmont (Italy)|Piedmontese]] breed.
==References==
*''Discover'' magazine, January 2005, "Secret of Superboy's Strength Revealed"
{{agri-stub}}
[[Category:Cattle breeds]]
[[fr:Blanc bleu belge]]
[[fi:Belgian Blue]]
[[Image:http://fig.cox.miami.edu/~cmallery/150/neuro/belgian.blue.jpg]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bacteria</title>
<id>3752</id>
<revision>
<id>42135331</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:28:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tawker</username>
<id>212671</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.29.41.131|24.29.41.131]] ([[User talk:24.29.41.131|Talk]]) to last version by Latinus</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgrey
| name = Bacteria
| image = EscherichiaColi NIAID.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = ''[[Escherichia coli]]''
| domain = '''Bacteria'''
| subdivision_ranks = Subgroups
| subdivision =
[[Actinobacteria]]<br />
[[Aquificae]]<br />
[[Bacteroidetes]]/[[Chlorobi]]<br />
[[Chlamydiae]]/[[Verrucomicrobia]]<br />
[[Chloroflexi]]<br />
[[Chrysiogenetes]]<br />
[[Cyanobacteria]]<br />
[[Deferribacteraceae|Deferribacteres]]<br />
[[Deinococcus-Thermus]]<br />
[[Dictyoglomi]]<br />
[[Fibrobacteres]]/[[Acidobacteria]]<br />
[[Firmicutes]]<br />
[[Fusobacteria]]<br />
[[Gemmatimonadetes]]<br />
[[Nitrospirae]]<br />
[[Planctomycetes]]<br />
[[Proteobacteria]]<br />
[[Spirochaete]]s<br />
[[Thermodesulfobacteria]]<br />
[[Thermomicrobia]]<br />
[[Thermotogae]]
}}
'''Bacteria''' (singular: '''bacterium''') are a major group of living [[organism]]s. Most are microscopic and unicellular, with a relatively simple cell structure lacking a [[cell nucleus]], and organelles such as [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]] and [[chloroplast]]s. Their cell structure is further described in the article about [[prokaryote]]s, because bacteria are prokaryotes, in contrast to organisms with more complex cells, called [[eukaryote]]s. The term "bacteria" has variously applied to all prokaryotes or to a major group of them, otherwise called the '''eubacteria''', depending on ideas about their relationships. Here, bacteria is used specifically to refer to the eubacteria.
Bacteria are the m |
earce_Common_Goldfishhtml.htm The Common Goldfish by Les Pearce]
*[http://www.bristol-aquarists.org.uk/goldfish/info/info.htm Background information about goldfish]
*[http://www.wetpetz.com/goldfish.htm Carassius auratus]
[[Category:Animals kept as pets]]
[[Category:Carp]]
[[Category:Cold-water aquarium fish]]
[[Category:Cyprinidae]]
[[Category:Fishkeeping]]
[[Category:Goldfish| ]]
[[da:Guldfisk]]
[[de:Goldfisch]]
[[es:Carassius auratus auratus]]
[[fr:Poisson rouge]]
[[he:דג זהב]]
[[it:Carassius auratus]]
[[ja:キンギョ]]
[[nl:Goudvis]]
[[pt:Carassius auratus]]
[[ru:Carassius auratus]]
[[sv:Guldfisk]]
[[zh:金鱼]]
[[zh-min-nan:Chit-á]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geoff Ryman</title>
<id>13114</id>
<revision>
<id>38286130</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T09:11:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>D6</username>
<id>75561</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Geoffrey Charles Ryman''' (born [[1951]]) is a writer of [[science fiction]], [[fantasy]] and [[Slipstream (literature)|slipstream]] fiction. He was born in [[Canada]], and has lived most of his life in England.
His science fiction and fantasy works include ''The Warrior Who Carried Life'' (1985), the novella ''The Unconquered Country'' (1986) (winner of the [[BSFA award|British Science Fiction Award]] and the [[World Fantasy Award]]), and ''[[The Child Garden]]'' (1989) (winner of the [[Arthur C. Clarke Award]]). Subsequent fiction works include ''Was'' (1992) a re-imagining of ''[[The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)|The Wizard of Oz]]'' and the life of [[Judy Garland]], ''Lust'' (2001), and ''Air'' (2002).
His work ''[[253 (book)|253, or Tube Theatre]]'' was first published as [[hypertext]] fiction on a Web site [http://www.ryman-novel.com/]. The print version was published in 1998 and won the [[Philip K. Dick Memorial Award]].
==External links==
* {{isfdb name|id=Geoff_Ryman|name=Geoff Ryman}}
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/4132482.stm Comment on the victims of the 7 July 2005 London Bombings]
* [http://www.infinityplus.co.uk/nonfiction/intgr.htm Interview with Geoff Ryman] conducted by [[Kit Reed]] at [[Infinity Plus]], discussing his novel ''Air'' and the [[Mundane SF]] movement.
<!--Categories-->
[[Category:British science fiction writers|Ryman, Geoff]]
[[Category:Canadian science fiction writers|Ryman, Geoff]]
[[Category:Gay writers|Ryman, Geoff]]
[[Category:1951 births|Ryman, Geoff]]
[[Category:Living people|Ryman, Geoff]]
[[Category:LGBT people from Canada|Ryman, Geoff]]
[[nl:Geoff Ryman]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gametophyte</title>
<id>13115</id>
<revision>
<id>40862050</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T14:21:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nk</username>
<id>107440</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+bg</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''gametophyte''' is the [[haploid]] structure or phase of life of a sexually-reproducing [[plant]]. Each cell of a gametophyte contains one complete set of [[chromosome]]s.
The gametophyte can be the dominant part of the plant's life cycle as in [[moss]]es, or very reduced as in [[fern]]s and [[flowering plant]]s (angiosperms), where the female form ([[Carpel|ovule]]) is known as a '''megagametophyte''' and the male form ([[pollen]]) is called a '''microgametophyte''', the dominant phase of life for [[bryophytes]] (nonvascular plants).
An early developmental stage in the gametophyte of both mosses and [[fern]]s (immediately following the [[meiospore]]) is called the [[Protonema]].
''See also :'' [[Sporophyte]], [[Alternation of generations]], [[Archegonium]], [[Antheridium]]
[[Category:Plant morphology]]
[[Category:Plant anatomy]]
{{botany-stub}}
[[bg:Гаметофит]]
[[de:Gametophyt]]
[[fr:Gamétophyte]]
[[nl:Gametofyt]]
[[pl:Gametofit]]
[[sv:Gametofyt]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gavoi</title>
<id>13116</id>
<revision>
<id>33683540</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-03T03:45:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FlaBot</username>
<id>228773</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: pl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gavoi''' is a village in central [[Sardinia]], in the district of [[Nuoro]], in the region of [[Barbagia]]. Occupying a spectacular position among hills and woods, it overlooks the Lake of [[Gusana]]. [[Image:Italy Regions Sardinia Map.png|right|thumb|Location of Sardinia]]
==History==
Near the lake are the archaeological areas of Orrui and San Michele di [[Fonni]]. A [[Roman bridge]] is submerged beneath the lake. Gavoi was a very ancient [[Hebrews|Hebrew]] colony (4th century?) and in the 17th century was repopulated by [[Tuscany|Tuscan]] carbon-makers.
==The village and environs==
The [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman]] church of [[San Gavino]] is Gavoi's foremost sacred spot, through there are eight other ancient churches in the village. The village's center contains rock houses with balconies, and a village fountain is known as "Antana 'e [[Cartzonna]]".
The nearby Sanctuary of Madonna d'Itria hosts a [[palio]], in this case a peculiar horse competition very similar to that of [[Siena]].
Once a year, on the last Sunday in July, all Gavoiese emigrants return to the town from wherever they may live for the celebrations of Madonna d'Itria, an ancient [[Byzantium|Byzantine]] cult tradition.
==Economy==
Agriculture: potatoes and cheese (the town is famous for its "[[pecorino]]")
Financial trading
==Traditions==
The "[[tumbarinu]]" is a traditional drum made of dog or donkey skin. The "[[ballu tundu]]", is a traditional dance in the round, as in the [[Balkan]] area. Poetry is esteemed, including extemporaneous rhyme competitions on given topics.
[[Category:Regions of Italy]]
[[Category:Sardinia]]
{{Italy-stub}}
[[es:Gavoi]]
[[it:Gavoi]]
[[pl:Gavoi]]
[[pt:Gavoi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gusana</title>
<id>13117</id>
<revision>
<id>22809493</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-08T01:06:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CalJW</username>
<id>233571</id>
</contributor>
<comment>removed from superfluous parent category</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gusana''' is the name of an artificial [[lake]] and of the surrounding area, in the territory of [[Gavoi]], [[Sardinia]], [[Italy]].
The lake was built in the [[1930s]] to store water for an electricity generator (central of Coghinadordza), and it covered an ancient [[Roman bridge]] as well as an ancient archaeological site of [[Nuragici people]].
It is now a [[tourist destination]].
{{Italy-geo-stub}}
[[Category:Lakes of Italy]]
[[Category:Sardinia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Grazia Deledda</title>
<id>13118</id>
<revision>
<id>41750423</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T13:55:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>removing link [[Myth]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Grazia Deledda''' ([[September 27]], [[1871]] &ndash; [[August 15]], [[1936]]), born in [[Nuoro]], [[Sardinia]], was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[writer]] whose works won her a [[Nobel Prize for Literature]] in [[1926]].
==Biography==
She was born into a numerous burgeois family, attended elementary school and then she was educated by a private tutor (a guest of one of her relatives) and moved on to study [[literature]] on her own.
She first published some [[Novel|novels]] on the [[magazine]] "L'ultima moda" when it still published works in prose and poetry. <br> ''Nell'azzurro'', published by Trevisani in [[1890]] might be considered as her first work.
Still between prose and poetry are, among the first works, ''Paesaggi sardi'', published by Speirani in [[1896]].<br> In [[1900]], after having married Palmiro Madesani, functionary of the Ministry of War met in [[Cagliari]] in the October of [[1899]], the writer moved to [[Rome]] and after the publishing of ''Anime oneste'' in [[1895]] and of ''Il vecchio della montagna'' in 1900, plus the collaboration with magazines "La Sardegna", "Piccola rivista" and "Nuova Antologia", critics begin to get interested in her work.
In [[1903]] she published ''Elias Portulo'' that confirmed her as a writer and started her work as a successful writer of [[novel|novels]] and theatrical works:'' Cenere'' ([[1904]]), ''L'edera'' ([[1906]]), ''Sino al confine'' ([[1911]]), ''Colombo e sparvieri'' ([[1912]]), ''Canne al vento'' ([[1913]]), ''L'incendio nell'oliveto'' ([[1918]]), ''Il Dio dei venti'' ([[1922]]). <br> ''Cenere'' was the inspiration for a [[Film|movie]] with the famous italian actress [[Eleonora Duse]].
Her work has been highly regarded by [[Luigi Capuana|Capuana]] and [[Giovanni Verga|Verga]] plus some younger writers such as [[Enrico Thovez]], [[Pietro Pancrazi]] and [[Renato Serra]].
==Fundamentals of her work==
Deledda's whole work is based on strong facts of [[love]], [[pain]] and [[death]] upon which rests the feeling of sin and of an inevitable fatality.
In her works we can recognize the influence of the [[verism]] of [[Giovanni Verga]] but, sometimes, also that of the [[decadentism]] by [[Gabriele D'Annunzio]].
In Deledda's novels there is always a strong connection beetween places and people, feelings and [[environment]]. The [[environment]] depicted is that one harsh of native [[Sardinia]], but it is not depicted according to regional veristic schemes neither according to the otherworldly vision by [[D'Annunzio]], but relived through the myth.
==Main works==
*''[[Fior di Sa |
==References==
* Ben Shaul, Moshe, Ed. ''Generals of Israel''. Tel-Aviv: Hadar Publishing House, Ltd., 1968.
* Council for Arab-British Understanding (2001). ''[http://www.caabu.org/campaigns/complaint-against-sharon.html The Complaint Against Ariel Sharon]''. Retrieved [[4 December]] [[2004]].
* International Campaign for Justice for the Victims of Sabra & Shatila. ''[http://www.indictsharon.net/ IndictSharon.net]''
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/documentaries/storyville/ariel-sharon.shtml Israel's Generals: Ariel Sharon] ([[17 June]] [[2004]]). ''BBC-4'' television series.
* Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs (1983). ''[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Foreign%20Relations/Israels%20Foreign%20Relations%20since%201947/1982-1984/104%20Report%20of%20the%20Commission%20of%20Inquiry%20into%20the%20e Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the events at the refugee camps in Beirut - [[8 February]] [[1983]]]''. Retrieved [[4 December]] [[2004]].
* [http://www.droit.fundp.ac.be/cours/pen/JC032C1.pdf Ruling from the Belgian Court of Appeals] ([[12 February]] [[2003]]). Untranslated..
* Pity the Nation: Lebanon at War (3rd ed. 2001). London: Oxford University Press; 727 pages. ISBN 0192801309
* The Age. 'Sharon Assessment "Months Off".' ''The Age''. http://www.heraldsun.news.com.au/common/story_page/0,5478,17792586%255E1702,00.html ([[11 January]] [[2006]])
*The Great War for Civilisation - The Conquest of the Middle East; (October 2005) London. Fourth Estate, 1168 pages. ISBN 184115007X
==See also==
*[[List of national leaders]]
*[[Ouze Merham]]
==External links==
{{sisterlinks}}
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/sharon.html Ariel Sharon]
*[http://www.religionandspiritualityforum.com/view.php?StoryID=20060108-084104-8100r Ariel Sharon: Return to the Temple Mount]
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/Sabra_&_Shatila.html The Sabra and Shatila Massacres (16-[[18 September]] [[1982]])]
*[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Foreign%20Relations/Israels%20Foreign%20Relations%20since%201947/1982-1984/104%20Report%20of%20the%20Commission%20of%20Inquiry%20into%20the%20e Report of the Kahan Commission] - hosted by the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
*[http://camera.org/index.asp?x_context=2&x_outlet=118&x_article=1054 Timeline of key events in Sharon's life]
*[http://marriage.about.com/od/politics/p/arielsharon.htm The Marriages of Ariel Sharon]
*{{citenews|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/08/weekinreview/08bennet.html|title=History Interrupted|date=[[January 8]], [[2006]]|org=The New York Times}}
*[http://www.counterpunch.org/sharon.html "The Crimes of Ariel Sharon"]
*[http://www.prominentpeople.co.za/people/61.php Prominent People - Sharon, Ariel "Arik"]
*[http://www.isracast.com/yk/stage.swf Phonecall] - An authentic recording of Ariel Sharon talking to a soldier positioned at one of the Suez Channel bunkers at the beginning of the Yom Kippur War.
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Defense Minister of Israel]]|before=[[Menachem Begin]]|after=[[Moshe Arens]]|years=1981-1983}}
{{succession box|title=[[Likud|Chairman of Likud]]|before=[[Benjamin Netanyahu]]|after=[[Benjamin Netanyahu]]|years=1999-2005}}
{{succession box|title=[[Prime Minister of Israel]]|before=[[Ehud Barak]]|after=Incumbent (Incapacitated)<br><small>([[Ehud Olmert]] Acting Prime Minister from [[4 January]] [[2006]])</small>|years=2001-present}}<!--He is still in office until a new PM is appointed-->
{{succession box|title=[[Kadima|Chairman of Kadima]]|before=None (founder)|after=[[Ehud Olmert]]<br>(acting)|years=2005-2006}}
{{end box}}
{{Persondata
|NAME=Sharon, Ariel
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Ariel Scheinermann, אריאל שרון
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Israeli politician
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[1928-02-27]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=Kfar Malal, Palestine
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}
[[Category:1928 births|Sharon, Ariel]]
[[Category:Current national leaders|Sharon, Ariel]]
[[Category:Israeli generals|Sharon, Ariel]]
[[Category:Israeli party leaders|Sharon, Ariel]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Israel|Sharon, Ariel]]
[[Category:Living people|Sharon, Ariel]]
[[ar:أرئيل شارون]]
[[bg:Ариел Шарон]]
[[br:Ariel Sharon]]
[[bs:Ariel Sharon]]
[[ca:Ariel Sharon]]
[[cs:Ariel Šaron]]
[[cy:Ariel Sharon]]
[[da:Ariel Sharon]]
[[de:Ariel Scharon]]
[[et:Ariel Sharon]]
[[eo:Ariel ŜARON]]
[[es:Ariel Sharón]]
[[fa:آریل شارون]]
[[fi:Ariel Sharon]]
[[fr:Ariel Sharon]]
[[gl:Ariel Sharon]]
[[he:אריאל שרון]]
[[id:Ariel Sharon]]
[[io:Ariel Sharon]]
[[it:Ariel Sharon]]
[[ja:アリエル・シャロン]]
[[li:Ariel Sharon]]
[[nl:Ariel Sharon]]
[[nn:Ariel Sharon]]
[[no:Ariel Sharon]]
[[pl:Ariel Szaron]]
[[pt:Ariel Sharon]]
[[ro:Ariel Sharon]]
[[ru:Шарон, Ариэль]]
[[scn:Ariel Sharon]]
[[simple:Ariel Sharon]]
[[sk:Ariel Šaron]]
[[sl:Ariel Šaron]]
[[sr:Ариел Шарон]]
[[sv:Ariel Sharon]]
[[tl:Ari’el Sharon]]
[[vi:Ariel Sharon]]
[[yi:אריעל שאַראָן]]
[[zh:阿里埃勒·沙龙]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Affectional orientation</title>
<id>2945</id>
<revision>
<id>26502434</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-26T04:16:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.181.73.179</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Snipped a couple things</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Affectional orientation''' is an alternative term for [[sexual orientation]]. Those people who prefer it argue that one's orientation goes far beyond [[human sexuality|sexuality]]. To holders of this view, one's orientation is defined by whom one is predisposed to fall [[limerence|in love]] with, sexual attraction being only a part of a larger dynamic.
The term is also used by those who consider themselves [[asexuality|asexual]] to describe the [[gender]] or genders they are romantically attracted to. The terms used for different affectional orientations are typically the same as are used for [[sexual orientation]]s: [[homosexuality|homosexual]], [[bisexuality|bisexual]], and [[heterosexuality|heterosexual]].
There are also those who hold the view that their orientation is defined by who one has affection towards and that their sexual attraction is based on affection for another human being's personal qualities rather than their gender or appearance. This does not necessarily require either person to fall in love but is still based on a personal affection.
{{psych-stub}}
[[Category:Sexual orientation and identity]]
[[category:Non-sexuality]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anoa</title>
<id>2947</id>
<revision>
<id>38765899</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T14:33:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MTSbot</username>
<id>899034</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: lt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Anoa
| status = {{StatusEndangered}}
| image = Lowland_Anoa_Drawing_historic.jpg
| image_width = 220px
| image_caption = Lowland Anoa
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[mammal|Mammalia]]
| ordo = [[Artiodactyla]]
| familia = [[Bovidae]]
| subfamilia = [[Bovinae]]
| genus = ''[[Bubalus]]''
| species = '''''B. quarlesi'''''<br/>'''''B. depressicornis'''''
| binomial = ''Bubalus quarlesi''
| binomial_authority = (Ouwens, 1910)
| binomial2 = ''Bubalus depressicornis''
| binomial2_authority = (H. Smith, 1827)
}}
There are two species of '''anoa''': the '''Mountain Anoa''' (''Bubalus quarlesi'') and the '''Lowland Anoa''' (''Bubalus depressicornis''). Both live in undisturbed forest, and although they are essentially miniature [[Water Buffalo]], are similar in appearance to a deer, weighing 150&ndash;300&nbsp;kg (330&ndash;660&nbsp;lb).
Both are found on the island of [[Sulawesi]] in [[Indonesia]]; the Mountain Anoa is also found on the nearby island of [[Butung]]. They apparently live singly or in pairs, rather than herds, except when the cows are about to give birth. One young is born per year.
[[image:Lowland_Anoa.JPG|thumb|left|250px|A Lowland Anoa]]
Both species of anoa have been classified as endangered since the [[1960s]] and the population continues to decrease. It is believed unlikely that there are more than 5000 animals of each species remaining. Reasons for the decline of the anoa include hunting for hide, horns and meat by the indigenous peoples (though they were rarely hunted by indigenous peoples before the introduction of modern firearms); shooting by the military; and loss of habitat due to the advancement of settlement. Currently, hunting is the more serious factor in most areas. The anoa do not appear to be adaptable to humans.
Mountain Anoa are also known as Anoa de Montana, Anoa de Quarle, Anoa des Montagnes, Anoa Pegunungan, and Quarle's Anoa. Lowland Anoa are also known as Anoa de Ilanura or Anoa des Plaines.
Lowland Anoa stands but little over a yard at the shoulder, and is the most diminutive of all wild cattle. It is nearly allied to the larger Asiatic buffaloes, showing the same reversal of the direction of the hair on the back. The horns are peculiar for their upright direction and comparative straightness, although they have the same triangular section as in other buffaloes. White spots are sometimes present below the eyes, and there may be white markings on the legs and back; and the absence or presence of these white markings may be indicative of distinct races. The horns of the cows are very small. The nearest allies of the anoa appear to be certain extinct buffaloes, of which the remains are found in the Siwalik Hills of northern India. In habits the animal appears to resemble the Indian buffalo.
==References==
* {{1911}}
[[Category:Bovines]]
[[de:Anoa]]
[[fr:Anoa]]
[[id:Anoa]]
[[lt:Mažasis buivolas]]
[[nl:Anoa]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Agner Krarup Erlang</title>
<id>2948</id>
<revision>
<id>30172119</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-05T01:15:41Z</time |
s they are with parodies of their contemporary culture, are themselves frequently parodied or pastiched; a notable example of this is [[Tom Lehrer]]'s [[Elements song]], which consists of Lehrer's rhyming rendition of the names of all the chemical elements set to the music of ''[[Major General's Song]]'' from the operetta ''The Pirates of Penzance''. Lehrer also includes a verse parodying a Gilbert and Sullivan finale in his patchwork of stylistic creations ''Clementine'' ("full of words and music and signifying nothing", as Lehrer put it, thus parodying G & S and [[Shakespeare]] in the same sentence).
The [[Popeye]] theme song was apparently directly inspired by G & S. The first two phrases
:I'm Popeye the Sailor Man, I'm Popeye the Sailor Man
are nearly identical to the first two phrases of the "Pirate King" song from [[The Pirates of Penzance]]
:For I am a Pirate King! (Hoorah for the Pirate King!)
except for the high note on the first "King".
Another song from "Pirates", which starts "With cat-like tread..." leads up to a segment that starts "Come, friends who plough the sea..." which is more recognizable with its modern lyric, "Hail, hail, the gang's all here..."
[[Allan Sherman]] sang several parodies...
*I'm called Little Butterball (about Allan's admitted corpulence)
*When I was a lad I went to Yale (about a young advertising agent)
*You need an analyst, a psychoanalyst (a variant on "I've got a little list")
*Titwillow (about a Yiddish-talking bird that meets a sad fate)
[[Anna Russell]] performed a [[parody]] called "How to Write Your Own Gilbert and Sullivan Opera".
In [[Runaround]], a short story in [[Isaac Asimov]]'s [[I, Robot]], [[Powell and Donovan]] encounter a robot who is in a state similar to [[drunkenness]], singing "There Grew a Little Flower" (from [[Ruddigore]]), upon which Donovan remarks "Where did he pick up Gilbert and Sullivan"?
In the early 1980s, around the time of the straight version of "Pirates" starring [[Kevin Kline]] and [[Linda Ronstadt]], there was a parody (or "updated") film called [[The Pirate Movie]] starring [[Christopher Atkins]] and [[Kristy McNichol]]. The film [[Chariots of Fire]] also draws much from the G & S repertoire.
The popular TV series ''[[Family Guy]]'' drew from Gilbert and Sullivan with a parody of the ''Captain's Song'' from ''[[H.M.S. Pinafore]]''. [[Larry David]]'s show ''[[Curb Your Enthusiasm]]'' uses ''Three Little Maids'' from ''[[The Mikado]]'' as background music. In [[The Simpsons]] episode "Cape Fear" [[Bart_Simpson|Bart]] asks [[Sideshow Bob]] to sing ''"the entire score of H.M.S. Pinafore"'' as a last request, which is fulfilled. In another Simpsons episode, Bart identifies himself as "Ruddigore." In the ninth [[Star Trek]] feature film [[Star Trek: Insurrection]] the characters Captain Picard, Worf and Data sing "A British Tar" from ''[[H.M.S. Pinafore]]''. The character Sallah in ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'' sings ''Pinafore'' tunes when he is excited or overjoyed. In ''[[Angel (TV series)|Angel]]'' in the fifth season Charles Gunn has the ability to be a good lawyer input into his head, along with a lot of Gilbert and Sullivan, because it's "great for elocution". He then mentions that he could sing all of "The Pirates of Penzance", and later in the series broke into "Three Little Maids" from The Mikado. The episode "And It's Surely To Their Credit" (2x05) of ''[[The West Wing (television)|The West Wing]]'' has several references of Gilbert and Sullivan works, ''[[H.M.S. Pinafore]]'' in particular.
In the popular sci-fi series ''[[Babylon 5]]'' one of Marcus' many comic interludes involves his singing the 'Modern Major General' song from ''[[Pirates of Penzance]]'' over the closing credits of one episode, much to Doctor Franklin's distress.
==Collaborations==
*''[[Thespis (operetta)|Thespis]]'', or, ''The Gods Grown Old'' ([[1871]])
*''[[Trial by Jury]]'' ([[1875]])
*''[[The Sorcerer]]'' ([[1877]])
*''[[HMS Pinafore]]'', or, ''The Lass That Loved a Sailor'' ([[1878]])
*''[[The Pirates of Penzance]]'', or, ''The Slave of Duty'' ([[1879]])
*''The Martyr of Antioch'' (cantata) ([[1880]]) (Gilbert modified the poem by [[Dean Milman]])
*''[[Patience (operetta)|Patience]]'', or ''Bunthorne's Bride'' ([[1881]])
*''[[Iolanthe]]'', or, ''The Peer and the Peri'' ([[1882]])
*''[[Princess Ida]]'', or, ''Castle Adamant'' ([[1884]])
*''[[The Mikado]]'', or, ''The Town of Titipu'' ([[1885]])
*''[[Ruddigore]]'', or, ''The Witch's Curse'' ([[1887]])
*''[[The Yeomen of the Guard]]'', or, ''The Merryman and his Maid'' ([[1888]])
*''[[The Gondoliers]]'', or, ''The King of Barataria'' ([[1889]])
*''[[Utopia, Limited]]'', or, ''The Flowers of Progress'' ([[1893]])
*''[[The Grand Duke]]'', or, ''The Statutory Duel'' ([[1896]])
== Alternative versions ==
===== Non-English language versions =====
*''[[Die Piraten]]'' - German language version of "''The Pirates of Penzance''"
===== Gilbert & Sullivan inspired Ballets =====
* ''[[Pirates of Penzance - The Ballet!]]'' (formerly called '' '''Pirates! The Ballet''')
* ''[[Pineapple Poll]]'' - from a story by Gilbert - and music by Sullivan
==Well-known Gilbert & Sullivan actors==
* [[Donald Adams]]
* [[Rutland Barrington]]
* [[Jessie Bond]]
* [[Leonora Braham]]
* [[Rosina Brandram]]
* [[W.H. Denny]]
* [[Darrell Fancourt]]
* [[Martyn Green]]
* [[George Grossmith]]
* [[Marion Hood]]
* [[Durward Lely]]
* [[John Lithgow]]
* [[Henry Lytton]]
* [[Valerie Masterson]]
* [[Dennis Olsen]]
* [[Walter Passmore]]
* [[Courtice Pounds]]
* [[Peter Pratt]]
* [[John Reed (actor)|John Reed]]
* [[Thomas Round]]
* [[Frederick Sullivan]]
* [[Richard Temple]]
* [[C.H. Workman]]
==See also==
* [[George Baker (record singer)]]
* [[Edward German]]
* The [[International Gilbert and Sullivan Festival]] held annually
* [[Staveley, Cumbria]] - a village with a fifty year G&S tradition
==References==
* Leslie Bailey, ''The Gilbert and Sullivan Book'', 3rd ed, London. 1953.
* John Lane, ''The Life of Jessie Bond'', London, 1927.
* Arthur Lawrence, ''Sir Arthur Sullivan'', London, 1899.
* Deems Taylor (''preface), ''Plays and Poems of W. S. Gilbert'', New York, 1932.
==Further Reading==
* ''The Savoy Operas'' - Wordsworth Editions Ltd, Hertfordshire, England (1994)
* ''The Complete Plays of Gilbert and Sullivan'' - W. W. Norton and Company, inc - New York, USA (1976)
* Michael Ainger, ''Gilbert and Sullivan, a dual biography'' OUP (2002)
* Leslie Ayre, ''The Gilbert & Sullivan Companion'' - (Foreword by Martyn Green) - Pan Books Ltd, London, England (1972)
* Leslie Baily, ''Gilbert & Sullivan and their world'' - Thames and Hudson Ltd, London, England (1973)
* Ian Bradley, ''The Annotated Gilbert and Sullivan'' - Penguin Books Ltd, Middlesex, England (1982)
* Ian Bradley, ''The Annotated Gilbert and Sullivan 2'' - Penguin Books Ltd, Middlesex, England (1984)
* Michael Ffinch, ''Gilbert and Sullivan'' - Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, England (1993)
* Martyn Green, ''Treasury of Gilbert & Sullivan'' - Simon and Schuster, Inc., New York, USA (1961)
* Christopher Hibbert, ''Gilbert & Sulivan and Their Victorian World'' - American Heritage Publishing Co., Inc, New York, USA (1976)
* Alan James ''Gilbert & Sulivan'' - Omnibus Press, Wiltshire, England (1989)
* Geoffrey Smith, ''The Savoy Operas'' - Robert Hale Limited, London, England (1983)
* Audrey Williamson,''Gilbert and Sullivan Opera'' - Marion Boyars, London, England (1953)
* Robin Wilson & Frederic Lloyd, ''Gilbert & Sullivan - The Official D'Oyly Carte Picture History'' - Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., New York, USA (1984)
* John Wolfson, ''Final Curtain - The Last Gilbert and Sullivan Operas'' - Chappell & Company Limited, London, England (1976)
==External links==
*[http://diamond.boisestate.edu/gas/ The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive]
*[http://math.boisestate.edu/gas/mikado/html/mikado_by_mencken.html Article by H. L. Mencken on the impact of ''The Mikado'' (from 1910)]
*[http://negass.org/index.html The New England Gilbert and Sullivan Society (includes links to other North American societies)]
*[http://www.umgass.org UMGASS - The University of Michigan Gilbert & Sullivan Society, America's Oldest Surviving Student-Run Gilbert & Sullivan Company]
*[http://www.cris.com/~oakapple/savoynet Savoynet - an email-based G&S listserv]
*[http://www.mugss.org/ Manchester Universities' Gilbert & Sullivan Society (includes links to other G&S resources)]
*[http://www.gsyork.co.uk/ University of York Gilbert and Sullivan Society (includes links to other societies and G&S resources)]
*[http://www.mcgillsavoy.ca/ McGill University Savoy Society (includes links to other societies in the Montreal area and G&S resources)]
*[http://www.ggssonline.com/ Georgetown Gilbert & Sullivan Society, "America's Only Theater Group with its own Law School"]
*[http://www.pattersong.org/seattle_productions.htm Seattle Gilbert and Sullivan Society (includes photos of their G&S productions)]
*[http://hcs.harvard.edu/hrgsp/ The Harvard-Radcliffe Gilbert and Sullivan Players (includes an archive of their performances for the past fifty years, with photos, lyrics, and other information)]
*[http://www.cris.com/~oakapple/gasdisc/mc-adelaide.htm Gilbert and Sullivan Highlights] - recordings of songs from Gilbert and Sullivan Savoy Operas
*[http://www.fvgss.org/ The Fraser Valley Gilbert and Sullivan Society (includes photos of their G&S productions and other information)]
*[http://www.milborneportopera.co.uk/ Milborne Port Opera UK] - includes photos of G&S productions and midi and Noteworthy files of Sullivan's music
[[Category:English composers|Sullivan, Arthur]]
[[Category:Opera comp |
trument|Keyboard]] & other instruments
::787 [[String instrument]]s ([[Chordophone]]s)
::788 [[Wind instrument]]s ([[Aerophone]]s)
:790 Recreational & [[performing arts]]
::791 Public performances
:::791.43 [[Film]] & [[Movies]]
:::791.45 [[Television]]
:::791.53 [[Puppetry]]
::792 [[Theater|Stage presentations]]
::793 [[Games|Indoor games & amusements]]
::794 Indoor games of skill
::795 [[Games of Chance]]
::796 Athletic & outdoor [[sports]] & games
::797 [[List of water sports|Aquatic]] & [[Parachuting|air]] sports
::798 Equestrian sports & animal racing
::799 [[Fishing]], [[hunting]], [[shooting]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/Literature and rhetoric</title>
<id>8158</id>
<revision>
<id>15906177</id>
<timestamp>2003-01-04T02:10:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stephen Gilbert</username>
<id>86</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System|Main Categories List]]
:800 [[Literature]] & [[rhetoric]]
::801 Philosophy & theory
::802 Miscellany
::803 Dictionaries & encyclopedias
::804
::805 Serial publications
::806 Organizations
::807 Education, research, related topics
::808 Rhetoric & collections of literature
::809 [[Literary history]] & [[Literary criticism|criticism]]
:810 [[American literature]] in English
::811 [[Poetry]]
::812 [[Drama]]
::813 [[Fiction]]
::814 [[Essay]]s
::815 [[Speech]]es
::816 [[Letter]]s
::817 [[Satire]] & [[humor]]
::818 Miscellaneous writings
::819
:820 English & Old [[English literature]]s
::821 English poetry
::822 English drama
::823 English fiction
::824 English essays
::825 English speeches
::826 English letters
::827 English satire & humor
::828 English miscellaneous writings
::829 Old English (Anglo-Saxon)
:830 [[German literature|Literatures of Germanic languages]]
::831 German poetry
::832 German drama
::833 German fiction
::834 German essays
::835 German speeches
::836 German letters
::837 German satire & humor
::838 German miscellaneous writings
::839 Other Germanic literatures
:840 [[French literature|Literatures of Romance languages]]
::841 French poetry
::842 French drama
::843 French fiction
::844 French essays
::845 French speeches
::846 French letters
::847 French satire & humor
::848 French miscellaneous writings
::849 [[Provencal literature|Provencal]] & [[Catalan literature|Catalan]]
:850 [[Italian literature|Italian]], [[Romanian literature|Romanian]], [[Rhaeto-Romanic literature|Rhaeto-Romanic]]
::851 Italian poetry
::852 Italian drama
::853 Italian fiction
::854 Italian essays
::855 Italian speeches
::856 Italian letters
::857 Italian satire & humor
::858 Italian miscellaneous writings
::859 Romanian & Rhaeto-Romanic
:860 [[Spanish literature|Spanish]] & [[Portuguese literature|Portuguese]] literatures
::861 Spanish poetry
::862 Spanish drama
::863 Spanish fiction
::864 Spanish essays
::865 Spanish speeches
::866 Spanish letters
::867 Spanish satire & humor
::868 Spanish miscellaneous writings
::869 Portuguese
:870 Italic literatures [[Latin literature|Latin]]
::871 Latin poetry
::872 Latin dramatic poetry & drama
::873 Latin epic poetry & fiction
::874 Latin lyric poetry
::875 Latin speeches
::876 Latin letters
::877 Latin satire & humor
::878 Latin miscellaneous writings
::879 Literatures of other Italic languages
:880 Hellenic literatures Classical [[Greek literature|Greek]]
::881 Classical Greek poetry
::882 Classical Greek drama
::883 Classical Greek epic poetry & fiction
::884 Classical Greek lyric poetry
::885 Classical Greek speeches
::886 Classical Greek letters
::887 Classical Greek satire & humor
::888 Classical Greek miscellaneous writings
::889 Modern Greek
:890 Literatures of other languages
::891 East Indo-European & [[Celtic literature|Celtic]]
::892 Afro-Asiatic literatures [[Hebrew literature|Semitic]]
::893 Non-Semitic Afro-Asiatic literatures
::894 Ural-Altaic, Paleosiberian, Dravidian
::895 [[Literatures of East & Southeast Asia|Asian literature]]
::896 [[African literature]]s
::897 [[North American native literature]]s
::898 [[South American native literature]]s
::899 Other literatures</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/9</title>
<id>8159</id>
<revision>
<id>39864847</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T11:27:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Callumm</username>
<id>749115</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System|Main Categories List]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/9/90|90 History]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/9/91|91 Geography & Travel]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/9/92|92 Biography & Genealogy]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/9/93|93 History of ancient world]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/9/94|94 History of Europe]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/9/95|95 History of Asia]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/9/96|96 History of Africa]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/9/97|97 History of North America]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/9/98|98 History of South America]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/9/99|99 History of other areas]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dewey Decimal System</title>
<id>8161</id>
<revision>
<id>15906180</id>
<timestamp>2003-01-04T01:24:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stephen Gilbert</username>
<id>86</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moving content to Wikipedia:, redirect [[Dewey Decimal Classification]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dewey Decimal Classification]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Drinking game</title>
<id>8162</id>
<revision>
<id>42140963</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:18:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TigerShark</username>
<id>161478</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.149.157.177|24.149.157.177]] ([[User talk:24.149.157.177|Talk]]) to last version by Harvestdancer</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Drinking games}}
'''Drinking games''' are [[game]]s which involve drinking [[alcoholic beverage]]s. The point is either simply to drink, or to make your opponent drink more than you do, so that they become [[drunk]] and drink even more, and so forth. [[Kottabos]] is an ancient game involving skill in pouring a swig of wine into a large vessel. A modern variant of Cottabus, known as [[Arrogance (game)|Arrogance]], has players take turns to add as much beverage as they like to a central jug before correctly calling a flip of a coin. Failure to call the coin correctly (or dropping it, a real possibility during the later stages of the game), means the unlucky (or clumsily drunk) player must drink the entire contents of the central jug.
It is not immediately obvious whether the person with the highest intoxication level at the end of the game is the winner, the loser, or both. It largely depends on whether each player has to provide their own beverages or if they share beverages from a common pool. Unlike most games, where practice makes perfect, drinking games are often downward-motion games- The more one plays (in a sitting) the worse one typically gets.
==Common drinking games==
Perhaps the simplest drinking games are the ones in which players compete to out-drink each other. Players take turns taking shots, and the last person standing is the winner. Some games have rules involving the "cascade" or "waterfall", which encourages each player to drink constantly from their cup so long as the player before him doesn't stop drinking. Such games can also favor speed over quantity, in which case players might, for example, race to drink a beer the fastest. Games that involve creative thinking (such as naming a sports player whose name begins with a particular letter, for example) might be played under a "drink while you think" rule in which a player must consume his beverage until he can come up with an answer.
Numerous drinking games are based on popular [[film|movie]]s, [[television]] shows, and even [[book]]s. The rules for these usually instruct the players to drink when some event occurs, such as a character speaking a [[catch phrase]] in [[comedy|comedies]], or the use or mention of a particular technology in [[science fiction]]. Typically the size of the drink is [[inversely proportional]] to the frequency of the event &mdash; an event that happens rarely can call for finishing one's current can/bottle. These games might have simple, easily remembered rules, or they might have detailed rules, often available on the [[Internet]].
A generalization of the above can apply to other circumstances in which the participants are observing a situation in which certain predictable events occur, such as a movie, a [[football]] game, or other people at a party or in a bar. For example, each player may be assigned the name or number of a football player, and must drink when that name or number is mentioned by the commentators or shown on the screen. Events such as the [[State of the Union]] address, the [[Oscars]], and the [[Eurovision Song Contest]] (for example) have become targets of such drinking games, often as a means of relieving the monotony of a long event.
Some drinking games, such as [[Quarters]], involve performing certain skills, which become more difficult as the level of [[intoxication]] increases. Other drinking games rely on memory; each player must repeat a series of events, and then add to it. If a player repeats the series incorrectly, he or she m |
vate. Reluctance to disclose one's actual sexual orientation is often referred to as "being in the closet". Individuals capable of enjoyable sexual relations with both sexes may feel inclined to restrict themselves to heterosexual relations in societies that stigmatise same-sex relations.
Although the concept of three basic sexual orientations is widely recognised, a small minority maintain that there are other legitimate sexual orientations besides homosexuality, bisexuality and heterosexuality. These may include significant or exclusive orientation towards a particular type of transsexual or transgender individual (e.g. female-to-male transsexual men), intersexed individuals, or those who identify as non-gendered or other-gendered.
====Behaviour modification====
{{main|Ex-gay}}
Some groups attempt to "cure" homosexuality, claiming to be able to help homosexuals to overcome their homosexual tendencies. These groups are often Abrahamic congregations which interpret their sacred texts as holding homosexuality to be unnatural or sinful, and which consider homosexuality to be an undesired orientation. [[Reparative therapy]] is psychotherapy aimed at the elimination of homosexual attractions and is employed by people who claim that homosexuality is a disorder or a sin. A "transformational ministry" claims that homosexual behavior is essentially a sin that can be overcome through a religious approach employing repentance and faith.
There is no credible, scientific evidence supporting successful "treatment" of sexual orientation, and some persons have reported that great harm was inflicted on them by such "treatments." [http://www.outfront.org/library/fact.html]. "[[Ex-gay]]" supporters point to others [http://www.narth.com/menus/interviews.html] who they say have experienced what they consider success; however, mainstream medical and psychological organizations reject such claims and consider attempts to change sexual orientation to be potentially harmful.
===Nature versus nurture===
{{main|Biology and sexual orientation}}
Considerable debate exists over whether biological and/or psychological factors produce sexual orientation in humans. Candidates include [[Biology and sexual orientation#Empirical studies|genes]] and the exposure of fetuses to certain [[Biology and sexual orientation#Early fixation hypothesis|hormones]] (or levels thereof). Historically, Freud and many others psychologists, particularly in psychoanalytic or developmental traditions, speculated that formative childhood experiences help produced sexual orientation; as an example Freud believed that all human teenagers are predominantly homosexual and transistion to heterosexuality in adulthood; those who remain homosexual as adults he believed had experienced some traumatic event that arrested their sexual development; however, he did believe all adults, even those who had healthy sexual development still retained latent homosexuality to varying degrees. The modern scientific and medical consensus is that biological factors &mdash; whether genetic or acquired ''in utero'' &mdash; produce characteristically homosexual childhood experiences (such as atypical gender behaviour experiences), or at the least significantly contribute to them.
==Homosexuality and society==
{{main|Societal attitudes towards homosexuality}}
[[Societal attitudes towards homosexuality|Societal attitudes towards same-sex relationships]], reflected in the attitude of the general population, the state and the church, have varied over the centuries, and from place to place, from expecting and requiring all males to engage in relationships, to casual integration, through acceptance, to seeing the practice as a minor sin, repressing it through law enforcement and judicial mechanisms, to proscribing it under penalty of death.
Most nations do not impede consensual sex between unrelated individuals above the local [[age of consent]]. Some jurisdictions further recognise identical rights, protections, and privileges for the family structures of same-sex couples, including [[same-sex marriage|marriage]]. Some nations mandate that all individuals restrict themselves to heterosexual relationships. In some jurisdictions homosexuality is illegal. Offenders face up to the death penalty in some fundamentalist Muslim areas such as [[Iran]] and parts of [[Nigeria]]. There are often significant differences between official policy and real-world enforcement.
''See [[Violence against gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and the transgendered]]''.
===Coming out===
{{main|Coming out}}
Many people who feel attracted to members of their own sex have a so-called coming out at some point in their lives. Generally, coming out is described in two phases. The first phase is the phase of "knowing oneself," and the realization or decision emerges that one is open to same-sex love. This is often described as an internal coming out. The second phase involves one's decision to come out to others, e.g. family, friends, and/or colleagues. This occurs with many people as early as age 11, but others do not clarify their sexual orientation until age 40 or older. Most have their coming out during school age, so sometime during the time of puberty. At this age, they may not trust or ask for help from others, especially when their orientation is not accepted in society. Sometimes their own parents are not even informed. Coming out can sometimes lead to a life crisis, which can elevate to suicidal thoughts or even committing suicide. Crisis centers in larger cities and information sites on the Internet can help these people to accept their homosexuality. In fact, the suicide rate is notably higher with pubescent homosexuals than their heterosexual peers.
===Modern law===
{{main|Homosexuality laws of the world}}
In most developed countries, same-sex relationships are accepted, and are accorded legal protection. Many governments have established formal structures for confirming legal relationships (either as marriage or partnership) between people of the same sex.
In some cultures influenced by religious teachings against homosexuality, it is still considered unnatural, a [[perversion]] and has been outlawed (see [[sodomy law]], [[public order crime|victimless crime]]). In some [[Muslim]] nations (such as [[Iran]]) it remains a [[capital crime]].
For example, the Canadian government and media are pushing same-sex tolerance on the basis of human rights. The media's argument for social acceptance of same-sex relationships is that homosexuals were born homosexual. However, the fact that homosexuality has never been proven to be linked to genetics makes it difficult for some people to change their moral stance on homosexuality. The push for same-sex tolerance has created intolerance for religious and social groups who are opposed to same-sex. Religious groups also fear that same-sex tolerance is a step toward tolerance of other currently unaccepted sexual preferences such as polygamy and incest. Many people in religious groups recognize other people's rights to choose a same-sex relationship, but also believe a choice for an active homosexual life is a choice against their religion.
===Understudied phenomena===
Despite the emollience of attitudes towards homosexuality and acceptance of it in some societies, in [[psychology]] it is considered an 'understudied relationship'. In his book, ''Understudied Relationships'', [[social psychology|social psychologist]] S.W. Duck found that most mainstream research is predisposed towards studying only [[heterosexuality]], in terms of relationships in contemporary Western cultures, implicating that same-sex relationships are neglected and ignored by the majority of psychologists. More research since the [[1990]]s has focused on homosexual relationships, rather than just heterosexual relationships.
===Political aspects===
====Scapegoating====
[[Image:Burning of Sodomites.jpg|thumb|''Burning of Sodomites''<br>Accused of sodomy, the knight von Hohenberg and his squire being burned at the stake, [[Zurich]] 1482 ([[Spiezer Schilling]])]]<!--(?)-->
Homosexuality has at times been used as a [[scapegoat]] by governments facing problems. Some examples would be [[Nazi Germany]]'s treatment of homosexuality based on the understanding that it was a threat to masculinity as well as contaminating the "[[Aryan Race]]". Another is the burning of 6,000 books of homoerotic poetry of 8th c. Persian-Arab poet [[Abu Nuwas]] by the Egyptian Ministry of Culture in January 2001, to placate [[Islamic fundamentalism|Islamic fundamentalists]]. During the early 14th century, accusations of homosexual behaviour were instrumental in disbanding the [[Knights Templar (military order)|Knights Templar]] by the French court under [[Philip IV of France|King Philip the Fair]] (''see [[Knights Templar#Heresy and pardon|Heresy and Pardon of Knights Templar]]''). As recently as the 1950s, Democrats in the United States Senate tried to discredit Senator McCarthy and his attacks on Communist sympathizers by accusing one of his aides of being a homosexual.
====Business and attitudes towards homosexuality====
In countries where business structures have a significant degree of [[autonomy]] from a government, the companies have often been at the forefront in treating gay men and women equally. In the United States, the level of equal parity is much more common in business structures than governments. [[As of 2005]] approximately 45% of companies within the [[Fortune 500]] offered [[domestic partner]] benefits and nine of the top ten companies include [[sexual orientation]] in their non-discrimination policies.
===Military===
Homosexuality since ancient times has been documented to be more common in [[military|militaries]] with their generally strict [[sex segregation]]. Official attitudes towards this f |
r Whom the Bell Tolls]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[For Whom the Bell Tolls]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ErnestHemingway/FredericHenry</title>
<id>9196</id>
<revision>
<id>15907100</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T09:23:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Frederic_Henry]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frederic_Henry]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ErnestHemingway/RobertJordan</title>
<id>9197</id>
<revision>
<id>15907101</id>
<timestamp>2003-03-15T00:13:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Islandboy99</username>
<id>6710</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>redirect fix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Robert Jordan (character)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ErnestHemingway/YoungandInnocent</title>
<id>9198</id>
<revision>
<id>15907102</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-02T07:37:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Toby Bartels</username>
<id>1078</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Ernest Hemingway]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ernest Hemingway]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ErnestHemingway/ThingsTurnSour</title>
<id>9199</id>
<revision>
<id>15907103</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-25T19:15:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Camembert</username>
<id>3113</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ernest Hemingway]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ErnestHemingway/TheEndlessDarkNothingness</title>
<id>9200</id>
<revision>
<id>15907104</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-25T19:15:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Camembert</username>
<id>3113</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ernest Hemingway]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ErnestHemingway/SureShotsTheSecondWorldWar</title>
<id>9201</id>
<revision>
<id>15907105</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-25T19:12:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Camembert</username>
<id>3113</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ernest Hemingway]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ErnestHemingway/TheDownwardSpiral</title>
<id>9202</id>
<revision>
<id>15907106</id>
<timestamp>2003-01-20T17:12:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>217.158.203.58</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Ernest Hemingway]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ernest Hemingway]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ErnestHemingway/ViolenceandRedemption</title>
<id>9203</id>
<revision>
<id>15907107</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-25T19:12:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Camembert</username>
<id>3113</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ernest Hemingway]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ErnestHemingway/WhyItWentWrong</title>
<id>9204</id>
<revision>
<id>15907108</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-25T19:15:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Camembert</username>
<id>3113</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ernest Hemingway]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ErnestHemingway/BibliographY</title>
<id>9205</id>
<revision>
<id>15907109</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-25T19:16:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Camembert</username>
<id>3113</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ernest Hemingway]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ElementaryGroupTheory</title>
<id>9206</id>
<revision>
<id>15907110</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Elementary group theory]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>EpiphenomenalIsm</title>
<id>9207</id>
<revision>
<id>15907111</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Epiphenomenalism]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>EthicalNaturalism</title>
<id>9208</id>
<revision>
<id>15907112</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ethical naturalism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Edward Bellamy</title>
<id>9209</id>
<revision>
<id>41469212</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T15:38:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */ * {{gutenberg author| id=Bellamy+Edward | name=Edward Bellamy}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Edward Bellamy - photograph c.1889.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Edward Bellamy, circa 1889.]]
'''Edward Bellamy''' ([[March 26]], [[1850]]&ndash;[[May 22]], [[1898]]) was an [[United States|American]] author, most famous for his [[Utopia|utopian]] [[novel]] set in the year [[2000]], ''[[Looking Backward]]'', published in [[1888]].
Edward Bellamy was born in [[Chicopee Falls, Massachusetts|Chicopee Falls]], [[Massachusetts]]. He attended [[Union College]], but did not graduate. While there, he joined the Theta Chi Chapter of the [[Delta Kappa Epsilon]] Fraternity. He studied law, but left the practice and worked briefly in the [[newspaper]] industry in [[New York]] and in [[Springfield, Massachusetts]]. He left journalism and devoted himself to literature, short stories, and several novels. He married Emma Sanderson in [[1882]].
He was the cousin of [[Francis Bellamy]], most famous for creating the [[Pledge of Allegiance]] to promote the sale of [[American flag]]s.
His books include ''[[Dr. Heidenhoff's Process]]'' ([[1880]]), ''[[Miss Ludington's Sister]]'' ([[1884]]), and ''The Duke of Stockbridge''. His feeling of injustice in the economic system lead him to write ''Looking Backward: 2000&ndash;1887''.
According to [[Erich Fromm]], ''Looking Backward'' is "one of the most remarkable books ever published in America." It was the third largest bestseller of its time, after ''[[Uncle Tom's Cabin]]'' and ''[[Ben-Hur (book)|Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ]]''. It influenced a large number of intellectuals, and appears by title in many of the major [[Marxism|Marxist]] writings of the day. "It is one of the few books ever published that created almost immediately on its appearance a political mass movement." (Fromm, p vi). 165 "Bellamy Clubs" sprang up all over the United States for discussing and propagating the book's ideas.
A short story "[[wikisource:The_Parable_of_the_Water-Tank|The Parable of the Water-Tank]]" from the book ''Equality'', published in [[1897]], was popular with a number of early [[United States|American]] [[socialism|socialists]]. Less successful than its prequel, ''Looking Backward'', ''Equality'' continues the story of Julian West as he adjusts to life in the future.
46 additional utopian novels were published in the US from 1887 to [[1900]], due to the book's popularity, for example, [[William Morris]]', ''[[News from Nowhere]]''.
Bellamy died at his childhood home in Chicopee Falls at the age of 48 from [[tuberculosis]].
==Further reading==
*Edward Bellamy, '' Looking Backward: 2000&ndash;1887'' with a forward by Erich Fromm, Signet, 1960.
*Edward Bellamy, ''The Religion of Solidarity'', ed. Arthur E. Morgan, Antioch Bookplate Company, 1940. Published posthumously; concerns the idea of love of man and human solidarity.
*Edward Bellamy, ''Apparitions of Things to Come: Edward Bellamy's Tales of Mystery & Imagination'', collection of short stories, ISBN 0882861654.
*Arthur E. Morgan, ''The Philosophy of Edward Bellamy'', King's Crown Press, 1945.
*John Hope Franklin, "Edward Bellamy and the Nationalist Movement," ''The New England Quarterly'', Vol. 11, December 1938, 739&ndash;772.
*Elizabeth Sadler, "One Book's Influence: Edward Bellamy's ''Looking Backward''" ''The New England Quarterly'', Vol. 17, December 1944, 530&ndash;555.
==External links==
{{Wikisource author}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Bellamy+Edward | name=Edward Bellamy}}
*{{isfdb name|id=Edward_Bellamy|name=Edward Bellamy}}
[[Category:1850 births|Bellamy, Edward]]
[[Category:1898 deaths|Bellamy, Edward]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers|Bellamy, Edward]]
[[Category:People from Massachusetts|Bellamy, Edward]]
[[Category:Union College, New York alumni|Bellamy, Edward]]
[[de:Edward Bellamy]]
[[fi:Edward Bellamy]]
{{Persondata
|NAME=Bellamy, Edward
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[March 26]] [[1850]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Chicopee Falls, Massachusetts]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[May 22]] [[1898]]
|PLACE |
{{multi-listen item|filename=Barbara Allen.ogg|title=Barbara Allen|description=''[[Barbara Allen]]'' is a traditional [[folk ballad]]. |format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Home on the range.ogg|title=Home on the Range|description=A recording of the song from Raiford Penitentiary, Florida, 1939.|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=O Solo Mio.ogg|title=O Sole Mio|description=Sung by [[Enrico Caruso]]||format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=La Partida.ogg|title=La Partida|description=Sung by [[Enrico Caruso]]|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Dixie (1916).ogg|title="Dixie"|description=1916 Dixie rendition|description=1916 rendition of [[Dixie (song)|Dixie]] by the Metropolitan Mixed Chorus, with [[Frank Stanley]], [[Ada Jones]], [[Billy Murray (singer)|Billy Murray]]|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}
==See also==
*[[American folk music]]
*[[Music_of_Crete|Cretan folk music]]
*[[Child Ballads]]
*[[Christmas carol]]
*[[Folk clubs]]
*[[Folk instrument]] - a description and list of folk instruments
*[[Hymn]]
*[[Serbian folk music]] - list of Serbian folk songs
*[[List of folk music genres]]
*[http://www.dancingturtle.co.uk Dancing Turtle]
*[[Inn til vegge]] - a set of traditional music [[song games]] in [[Bergen, Norway|Bergen]], [[Norway]]
==External links==
===General===
* [http://www.folklib.net/folkfile/ The Folk File] A huge, rich, and well-written compendium of material about folk music, especially that of North America and the British Isles.
===Folksong material===
* [http://www.mudcat.org/ mudcat.org], the home of the [[Digital Traditions]] (DIGITRAD) folksong database. The latest (2002) edition of DIGITRAD contains lyrics, and in some cases tunes or chords, for around 9000 folk rock, folk revival, and authentic American, English, and Irish folk songs, as well as some parodies. The database may be searched online, or downloaded as a standalone application. Another portal to DIGITRAD with file formats converted to emerging standards (e.g. [[ABC (musical notation)|ABC]]) is available at http://sniff.numachi.com/~rickheit/dtrad/.
* [http://www.tinwhistler.com Wandering Whistler Music Archives] The Wandering Whistler Music Archives contain sheet music, MIDI files, some with recordings, chords, and lyrics, for around 1000 Irish folk tunes and songs, with a heavy emphasis on Irish and Scottish folk.
* [http://www.csufresno.edu/folklore/BalladSearch.html The Traditional Ballad Index] search page. Provides bibliographic information and some theoretical genealogical information for many ballads in English.
* http://www.canugwerin.org/ The website of the [[Welsh Folk-Song Society]], founded in 1906.
*[http://www.travel-impressions.de/music/dichosa.htm Photos of Regional and Cultural Genres of Music and Dance]
* [http://www.dunav.org.il Balkan folk music downloads]
* http://www.smsu.edu/folksong/maxhunter/. The Max Hunter Folk Song Collection is a set of about 1600 field recordings made by [[Max Hunter]] between 1956 and 1976 in the Ozark Mountain region of Missouri. The recordings are downloadable.
*[http://www.birchmore.clara.net/ Northumbrian Traditional Music] The folk music of Northumbria in North-East England.
* The [http://mtcn.free.fr folk music in the county of Nice] (France) : hundreds of MIDI files, lyrics, music sheets.
* http://www.turkudostlari.net (Turkey) :Turk, Middle East,Balkan MIDI files, Turkish folk music lyrics, music sheets. (In Turkish)
* http://ingeb.org. A list of folksongs from all over the world
* http://www.volksmusiknet.ch/. Swiss Folkmusic
* [[Musipedia]] contains several thousand folk music tunes. [http://www.musipedia.org musipedia.org]
* http://www.tritonus.ch/. Swiss Folkmusic and -instruments
* [http://www.geocities.com/krofnic/index1.htm Pticice] - a free MP3 album of native Serbian music
* http://folktunes.org/. The Folktunes Wiki, with streaming and downloadable songs, lyrics, and all things folk. In its infancy.
* [http://www.folkalley.com FolkAlley.com] - 24-hour streaming folk music
* [http://www.folkandroots.co.uk Folk and Roots]- A guide to the folk scene in the UK
*[http://www.floridamemory.com/Collections/folklife/folklife_cd.cfm Music from the Florida Folklife Collection] - From ''Shove It Over'', a WPA recording of a work song performed by Zora Neale Hurston, to ''Orange Blossom Special'', performed by Gamble Rogers and Will McLean, this CD spans fifty years of Florida folk music. The recordings are downloadable.
*[http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/WiscFolkSong Wisconsin Folksong Collection, 1937-1946]. Presented by the [http://uwdc.library.wisc.edu/ University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center] and [http://music.library.wisc.edu/ Mills Music Library Special Collections]. The Wisconsin Folksong Collection, 1937-1946 contains Wisconsin field recordings, notes, and photographs made by UW-Madison faculty member Helene Stratman-Thomas as part of the Wisconsin Folk Music Recording Project, co-sponsored by the University of Wisconsin and the Library of Congress during the summers of 1940, 1941, and 1946; and recordings collected by song catcher Sidney Robertson Cowell during the summer of 1937 for the Special Skills Division of the Resettlement Administration.
===Folk Festivals===
*[http://www.folkdranouter.be Folkfestival Dranouter:] An annual folk festival in Belgium, attracting over 70 000 visitors, which combines traditional with contemporary music.
===History===
*[http://libcom.org/history/articles/revolutionary-song-france People's history: Political folk song in France, 1789-1989]
*[http://libcom.org/history/articles/revolutionary-song-italy People's history: Political song in Italy, 1862-1999]
===Pastiche and parody===
*[http://arago4.tn.utwente.nl/stonedead/movies/holy-grail/scene-10.html A web page on "The Ballad of Sir Robin", with lyrics and sound file]
*Gilligan's Island theme:
**[http://www.gilligansisle.com/wave.html Sound files]
**[http://www.geocities.com/rickanddarvagossip/gilliganthemesong.html Lyrics: one of many sites ]
==References==
*''English Folk Songs from the Southern Appalachians''. Collected by Cecil J. Sharp. Ed. Maud Karpeles. 1932. London. Oxford University Press.
*Carson, Ciaran (1997). ''Last Night's Fun: In and Out of Time with Irish Music''. North Point Press.
*Harker, David (1985). ''Fakesong: The Manufacture of British 'Folksong', 1700 to the Present Day''. Cited in van der Merwe (1989).
*Karpeles, Maud. ''An Introduction to English Folk Song''. 1973. Oxford. Oxford University Press.
*Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). ''Studying Popular Music''. Philadelphia: Open University Press. ISBN 0335152759.
*Seeger, Charles (1980). Cited in Middleton (2002)
*Sharp, Cecil. ''Folk Song: Some Conclusions''. 1907. Charles River Books
*van der Merwe, Peter (1989). ''Origins of the Popular Style: The Antecedents of Twentieth-Century Popular Music''. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0193161214.
[[Category:Folk music]]
[[Category:Folklore]]
[[da:Folkemusik]]
[[de:Volksmusik]]
[[es:Música folclórica]]
[[fr:Musique Folk]]
[[hu:Népzene]]
[[nl:Volksmuziek]]
[[ja:&#12501;&#12457;&#12540;&#12463;&#12477;&#12531;&#12464;]]
[[pl:Muzyka ludowa]]
[[fi:Kansanmusiikki]]
[[sv:Folkmusik]]
[[uk:&#1053;&#1072;&#1088;&#1086;&#1076;&#1085;&#1072; &#1084;&#1091;&#1079;&#1080;&#1082;&#1072;]]
[[zh:民歌]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Frank</title>
<id>10624</id>
<revision>
<id>41558929</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T03:38:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mom2jandk</username>
<id>485669</id>
</contributor>
<comment>added currencies</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar2|Frank|frank}}
'''Frank''' may be:
* [[Franks]], a Germanic tribe
* [[Franc]], units of currency
* [[Franking]], the right to send mail for free
* [[Talk To Frank]], a Drugs advice website in the UK.
* [[Frankfurter]]
* [[Free]], an archaic meaning of the word in Dutch, German, and English
'''Frank''' is the name of:
* [[Andre Gunder Frank]], sociologist, known as a founder of dependency theory
* [[Anne Frank]], author of a famous diary during WW II.
*[[H. Eric Frank]] [[The Scout Association]] [[Scouting]] notable, awardee of the Bronze Wolf in 1982
* [[Hans Frank]], governor general of Nazi occupied Poland
* [[Hubert Frank]]
* [[Ilya Frank]], physicist (1958 Nobel laureate)
* [[Leo Frank]], convicted of murdering a 13 year old girl in Georgia
* [[Nino Frank]]
* [[Otto Frank]], father of Anne Frank
* [[Robert Frank]], photographer
* [[Jacob Frank]], founder of a Jewish dissident sect
* [[Cèsar Frank]], 19th century French composer, teacher and organist.
In '''geography''':
* [[Frank, Alberta]]
* [[Frank Township, North Carolina]]
* [[Frank, West Virginia]]
In '''popular culture''':
* [[Frank (album)]], by Squeeze
* [[Frank (Amy Winehouse album)]]
* [[Frank (magazine)]], a Canadian scandal sheet
* [[Frank (Donnie Darko)]], the giant rabbit from the movie
* [[Frank and Ernest]], the cartoon
* Frank the diesel engine, a locomotive in [[The Railway Series]].
* Frank the Goat, the [[LiveJournal]] mascot.
* Frank, the four piece girl band in [[Totally Frank]].
'''Currencies''':
*[[Liechtenstein frank]]
*[[Westphalian frank]]
== See also ==
* [[Franck]], [[Frankel]]
[[Category:Surnames]]
{{disambig}}
[[de:Frank]]
[[ko:프랑크]]
[[hu:Frank]]
[[nl:Frank]]
[[ja:フランク]]
[[ru:Франк]]
[[sl:Frank (razločitev)]]
[[sv:Frank]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Director (film)</title>
<id>10625</id>
<revision>
<id>17756874</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-28T12:49:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jeff Watts</username>
<id>243743</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Film director]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fermats Last Theorem</title> |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.