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te high-performance multimedia. Eisler wrote about the frenzy to build DirectX 1 through 5 [http://gadgetblog.theeislers.com/2006/02/directx_then_and_now_part_1.php in his blog].
Prior to DirectX's existence, Microsoft had already included [[OpenGL]] on their [[Windows NT]] platform. At the time, OpenGL required "high-end" hardware and was limited to [[engineering]] and [[CAD]] uses. Direct3D (introduced by Eisler, Engstrom, and St. John as an alternative to SGI's OpenGL) was intended to be a lightweight partner to the back then slower OpenGL for game use. As the power of [[graphics card]]s and the computers running them grew, OpenGL became the de-facto standard and a mainstream product. At that point a "battle" began between supporters of the cross-platform OpenGL and the Windows-only Direct3D, which many argued was another example of Microsoft's [[embrace, extend and extinguish]] business tactic (see [[Fahrenheit graphics API|Fahrenheit]] or [[Direct3D vs. OpenGL]]). Nevertheless, the other APIs of DirectX are often combined with OpenGL in many [[computer games]] because OpenGL does not yet in itself include all of DirectX's functionality (such as sound or joystick support). Previous attempts to address this have failed but a new draft of OpenGL aims to provide all of DirecX's functionality and device support.
DirectX was used as a basis for Microsoft's [[Xbox]] [[video game console|console]] API. The API was developed jointly between Microsoft and [[NVIDIA]], who developed the custom graphics hardware used by the console. The Xbox API is similar to DirectX version 8.1, but is non-updateable like other console technologies.
In [[2002]], Microsoft released DirectX 9 with support for the use of much longer shader programs than before with pixel and vertex shader version 2.0. Microsoft has continued to update the DirectX suite since then, introducing shader model 3.0 in DirectX 9.0c, released in August [[2004]].
As of April 2005, [[DirectShow]] was removed from DirectX and moved to the [[Microsoft Platform SDK]] instead. DirectX is, however, still required to build the DirectShow samples [http://msdn.microsoft.com/directx/sdk/readmepage/default.aspx].
===Release history===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! DirectX version
! Logo
! Version number
! Operating system
! Date released
|-
|DirectX 1.0||[[Image:directx1.gif|center|100px]]||4.02.0095|| ||September 30th, [[1995]]
|-
|DirectX 2.0 / 2.0a|| ||4.03.00.1096||Windows 95 OSR2 and NT 4.0||June 5th, [[1996]]
|-
|DirectX 3.0 / 3.0a||&nbsp;||4.04.0068 / 69||Windows NT 4.0 SP3 <br>''last supported version of DirectX for Windows NT 4.0''||September 15th, [[1996]]
|-
|DirectX 4.0||&nbsp;||Never launched||&nbsp;
|-
|DirectX 5.0||&nbsp;||4.05.00.0155 (RC55)||''Available as a beta for Windows NT 5.0 that would install on Windows NT 4.0''||July 16th, [[1997]]
|-
|DirectX 5.0||&nbsp;||4.05.01.1721 / 1998||[[Windows 98]]||???, [[1998]]
|-
|DirectX 6.0||&nbsp;||4.06.00.0318 (RC3)||Windows 98 SE<br>''last version of [[DirectX Media]] for Windows NT 4.0''||???, [[1998]]
|-
|DirectX 6.1||&nbsp;||4.06.02.0436 (RC0)||&nbsp;||???, [[1999]]
|-
|DirectX 7.0||[[Image:dx7logo.gif|center|100px]]||4.07.00.0700 (RC1)||[[Windows 2000]] and ME||???, [[1999]]
|-
|DirectX 7.0a||&nbsp;||4.07.00.0716 (RC1)||&nbsp;||???, [[1999]]
|-
|DirectX 8.0||[[Image:dx8logo.gif|center|100px]]||4.08.00.0400 (RC14)||[[Xbox]]||???, [[2000]]
|-
|DirectX 8.1||&nbsp;||4.08.01.0810<BR>4.08.01.0881 (RC7)||Windows XP<br>''Last supported version<br>for Windows 95''||[[November 12]], [[2001]]
|-
|DirectX 9.0||[[Image:Directx9.jpg|center|100px]]||4.09.0000.0900||Windows Server 2003||[[December 24]], [[2002]]
|-
|DirectX 9.0a||&nbsp;||4.09.0000.0901||&nbsp;||[[March 26]], [[2003]]
|-
|DirectX 9.0b||&nbsp;||4.09.0000.0902 (RC2)||&nbsp;||[[August 13]], [[2003]]
|-
|DirectX 9.0c||&nbsp;||4.09.0000.0904 (RC0)||''Windows XP SP2''||[[August 9]], [[2004]]
|-
|DirectX 9.0c||&nbsp;||4.09.0000.0904||[[Xbox 360]]<br>''Compatible with all Windows OS versions that 9.0c (RC0) was compatible with''<br>First version to include [[D3DX]] [[DLL]]'s||[[December 9]], [[2005]]
|-
|DirectX 9.0L (coming with [[Windows Vista]])||&nbsp;||4.09.0000.0905 (?)||Adds the extended IDirect3DDevice9Ex interface with additional functions only available with WVDDM drivers for Windows Vista.
|-
|D3D 10 (coming with Windows Vista)||&nbsp;||(?)||New version of Direct3D only for Windows Vista||&nbsp;
|}
==Compatibility==
[[Hardware]] manufacturers have to write [[Device driver|drivers]] for and test each individual piece of hardware to make them DirectX compatible. Many modern hardware devices only have DirectX compatible drivers (in other words, you must install DirectX before you will be able to use that hardware). Early versions of DirectX included an up-to-date library of all of the DirectX compatible drivers currently available. This practice was stopped however, in favor of the web-based [[Windows Update]] driver-update system, which allowed users to download only the drivers relevant to their hardware, rather than the entire library.
Some drivers only support one version of DirectX. But DirectX is ''backward compatible'', which means that newer versions support the older versions. For example, if one has DirectX 9 installed on one's system and runs a game that was written for DirectX 6, it should still work. The game will use what is called the DirectX 6 "interface." Every version of DirectX must support every previous version of DirectX. This is a positive consequence of the COM model used for this API.
==The future of DirectX==
Microsoft is currently working on a large update to DirectX API. Originally called [[Windows Graphics Foundation]] and DirectX 10 but currently referred to as Direct3D 10, it will appear as part of [[Windows Vista]]. Version 10 will represent a departure from the driver model of DirectX Graphics 9.0, with the addition of a scheduler and memory virtualization system. Direct3D 10 will forego the current DirectX practice of using "capability bits" to indicate which features are active on the current hardware. Instead, Direct3D 10 will define a minimum standard of hardware capabilities which must be supported for a display system to be "Direct3D 10 compatible". According to Microsoft, Direct3D 10 will be able to display graphics up to 8 times more quickly than DirectX Graphics 9.0c. However, Direct3D 10 will not be backward compatible with current versions of DirectX, so computer games made for Direct3D 10 will not function on any other model of DirectX. In addition, Direct3D 10 will incorporate Microsoft Shader Model 4.0.
Another tool [[Microsoft]] is working on is [[XNA (Microsoft)|XNA]] which is a framework designed to assist development of games by making it easier to integrate DirectX, [[HLSL]] and other tools in one package.
Although somewhat in its infancy, during 2002 [[Microsoft]] released a version of DirectX compatible with the
Microsoft [[.NET Framework]], thus allowing programmers to take advantage of .NET features (such as the use of the [[C Sharp]] or [[Visual Basic]] programming languages) simultaneously with DirectX development. This API is known as "[[Managed DirectX]]" and performance is claimed to be 98% of that of native DirectX software.
==See also==
*[[GDI]]
*[[Graphics pipeline]]
==External links==
*[http://www.microsoft.com/directx Microsoft's DirectX site]
*[http://msdn.microsoft.com/directx Microsoft's MSDN documentation & resource center for DirectX] (for programmers)
*[http://www.gamedev.net/community/forums/showfaq.asp?forum_id=10 GameDev's FAQ on DirectX]
*[http://www.microsoft.com/xna/faq.aspx FAQ on XNA]
*[http://www.oldversion.com/program.php?n=directx Old DirectX downloads at OldVersion.com]
===Programmer resources===
*[http://www.gamedev.net/reference/list.asp?categoryid=24 Gamedev.net's DirectX Articles section]
*[http://www.drunkenhyena.com/cgi-bin/directx.pl Drunken Hyena] - tutorials, code, utilities, and games
*[http://www.andypike.com/tutorials/directx8/ Andy Pike's DirectX8 Tutorials] - covering 2D, 3D, sound, music, and input
*[http://www.codesampler.com/dx9src.htm CodeSampler.com] - Code samples and tutorials for Direct3D game programming using C++ and C#
*[http://pluralsight.com/wiki/default.aspx/Craig.DirectX/Direct3DTutorialIndex.html Managed Direct3D] - Craig Andera's C# Direct3D Tutorial
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20040202203336/nexe.gamedev.net/News/News.asp NeXe] - Archive of NeXe tutorials (Direct3D 8), at archive.org
*[http://nexe.gamedev.net/directKnowledge/ NeXe] - NeXe's new site/wiki
*[http://www.pieterg.com/Tutorials/ Managed Direct3D] - Pieter Germishuys's C# Direct3D Tutorial
[[Category:Microsoft APIs]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Mogul (skiing)</title>
<id>8507</id>
<revision>
<id>41374641</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T22:47:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jasonoh</username>
<id>809408</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:SnowMogul.jpg|thumb|Moguls]]
'''Moguls''' are bumps in a ski slope formed when [[Skiing|skier]]s cut grooves in the snow as they execute turns. They can also be built purposely on a slope as part of a [[freestyle skiing]] event course.
Once formed, a naturally occurring mogul tends to grow, as skiers will follow similar paths around it, further deepening the surrounding grooves. Since skiing tends to be a series of linked turns, moguls form together.
In most ski res |
that the book was a real medieval romance he had discovered and republished. Thus was born the gothic novel's association with [[false document| fake documentation]] to increase its effect. Indeed, ''[[The Castle of Otranto]]'' was originally subtitled A [[Romance (genre)|Romance]] -- a literary form held by educated taste to be tawdry and unfit even for children, due to its superstitious elements -- but Walpole revived some of the elements of the medieval romance in a new form. The basic plot created many other gothic staples, including a threatening mystery and an ancestral curse, as well as countless trappings such as hidden passages and oft-fainting heroines.
It was however [[Ann Radcliffe]] who created the gothic novel in its now-standard form. Among other elements, Radcliffe introduced the brooding figure of the gothic [[villain]], which developed into the [[Byronic hero]]. Unlike Walpole's, her novels, beginning with ''[[The Mysteries of Udolpho]]'' (1794), were best-sellers, and virtually everyone in English society was reading them. [[Mary Shelley]]'s ''[[Frankenstein]]'' (1818) is undoubtedly one of the most important literary triumphs of this period.
== France and Germany ==
At about the same time, parallel Romantic literary movements developed in continental Europe: the ''roman noir'' ("black novel") in [[France]] and the ''Schauerroman'' ("shudder novel") in [[Germany]].
Writers of the ''roman noir'' include [[François Guillaume Ducray-Duminil]], [[Baculard d'Arnaud]], and [[Madame de Genlis]]. Some writings of the [[Marquis de Sade]] have also been called "gothic".
The German ''Schauerroman'' was often more horrific and violent than the English gothic novel, and may have influenced [[Matthew Gregory Lewis]]'s ''[[The Monk]]'' ([[1796]]) in this regard. One notable writer was [[E.T.A. Hoffman]].
== Later developments ==
In [[Britain]], the gothic novel as a genre largely played itself out by [[1840]]. This was helped by the over-saturation of the genre by cheap "pulp" works&mdash;which would later morph into cheap horror fiction in the form of "[[penny dreadful]]s"&mdash;as well as a decline in the genre's respectability since the turn of the century, caused by the publication of works such as [[Matthew Gregory Lewis]]' ''[[The Monk]]'' ([[1796]]), a shocking (particularly at the time) tale of sex, violence and debauchery that almost bordered on the pornographic.
However, the gothic novel had a lasting effect on the development of literary form in the Victorian period. It led to the Victorian craze for short [[ghost stories]], as well as the short, shocking, macabre tale as mastered by the American author [[Edgar Allan Poe]]. It also was a heavy influence on [[Charles Dickens]], who read gothic novels as a teenager and incorporated their gloomy atmosphere and melodrama into his own works, shifting them to a more modern period. The mood and themes of the gothic novel held a particular fascination for the Victorians, with their morbid obsession with [[mourning rituals|mourning rituals]], [[Memento mori|Memento]]s, and mortality in general.
==Post-Victorian legacy==
By the [[1880]]s, it was time for a revival of the gothic novel as a semi-respectable literary form. This was the period of the gothic works of [[Robert Louis Stevenson]], [[Arthur Machen]], and [[Oscar Wilde]], and the most famous gothic villain ever appeared in [[Bram Stoker]]'s ''[[Dracula]]'' (1897). Other notable writers included [[Algernon Blackwood]], [[William Hope Hodgson]], and [[H.P.Lovecraft]]. Lovecraft's protégé, [[Robert Bloch]], penned the gothic horror classic, ''[[Psycho]]'', which drew on the classic interests of the genre. From these, the gothic genre ''per se'' gave way to modern [[horror fiction]], although many literary critics use the term to cover the entire genre, and many modern writers of horror (or indeed other types of fiction) exhibit considerable gothic sensibilities -- examples include the works of [[Anne Rice]], as well as some of the less sensationalist works of [[Stephen King]].
The themes of the gothic novel have had innumerable children. It led to the modern horror film, one of the most popular of all genres seen in [[Gothic films|films]]. While few classical composers drew on gothic works, twentieth century popular music drew on it strongly, eventually resulting in [[gothic rock]] and the [[goth]] subculture surrounding it. Themes from gothic writers such as [[H.P. Lovecraft]] were also used amongst [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] bands, especially in [[black metal]], [[death metal]] and [[gothic metal]]. More recently, the gothic tradition has been expanded to new media forms on the [[internet]].
==Prominent examples==
* ''[[The Castle of Otranto]]'' ([[1764]]) by [[Horace Walpole]] '''([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/696 Full text] at [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg])'''
* ''[[Vathek]], an Arabian Tale'' ([[1786]]) by [[William Thomas Beckford]] '''([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2060 Full text] at [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg])'''
* ''[[The Mysteries of Udolpho]]'' ([[1794]]) by [[Ann Radcliffe]] '''([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/3268 Full text] at [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg])'''
* ''[[Caleb Williams]]'' ([[1794]]) by [[William Godwin]] '''([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11323 Full text] at [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg])'''
* ''[[The Monk]]'' ([[1796]]) by [[Matthew Gregory Lewis]] '''([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/601 Full text] at [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg])'''
* ''[[The Italian (novel)|The Italian]]'' ([[1797]]) by [[Ann Radcliffe]]
* ''[[Frankenstein]]'' ([[1818]]) by [[Mary Shelley]] '''([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Frankenstein,_or_the_Modern_Prometheus Full text] at [[Wikisource]])'''
* ''[[The Vampyre]]; a Tale'' ([[1819]]) by [[John William Polidori]] '''([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6087 Full text] at [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg])'''
* ''[[Melmoth the Wanderer]]'' ([[1820]]) by [[Charles Robert Maturin]] '''([http://www.horrormasters.com/Text/a0023.pdf Full text] at [http://www.horrormasters.com/ HorrorMasters.com])'''
* ''[[Confessions of an English Opium-Eater]]'' ([[1821]]) by [[Thomas de Quincey]] '''([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2040 Full text] at [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg])'''
* ''[[The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner]]'' ([[1824]]) by [[James Hogg]] '''([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2276 Full text] at [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg])'''
* ''[[Young Goodman Brown]]'' ([[1835]]) by [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]]
* ''[[The Fall of the House of Usher]]'' ([[1839]]) by [[Edgar Allan Poe]] '''([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Fall_of_the_House_of_Usher Full text] at [[Wikisource]])'''
* ''[[The Tell-Tale Heart]]'' ([[1843]]) by [[Edgar Allan Poe]] '''([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Tell-Tale_Heart Full text] at [[Wikisource]])'''
* ''[[The Mummy's Foot]]'' ([[1863]]) by [[Théophile Gautier]] '''([http://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Le_Pied_de_momie Full text] at [[Wikisource]])'''
* ''[[The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde]]'' ([[1886]]) by [[Robert Louis Stevenson]] '''([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/42 Full text] at [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg])'''
* ''[[The Picture of Dorian Gray]]'' ([[1891]]) by [[Oscar Wilde]] '''([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/174 Full text] at [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg])'''
* ''[[The Horla]]'' ([[1887]]) by [[Guy de Maupassant]] '''([http://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Le_Horla Full text] at [[Wikisource]])'''
* ''[[The Yellow Wallpaper]]'' ([[1892]]) by [[Charlotte Perkins Gilman]] '''([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1952 Full text] at [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg])'''
* ''[[Dracula]]'' ([[1897]]) by [[Bram Stoker]] '''([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dracula Full text] at [[Wikisource]])'''
* ''[[The Turn of the Screw]]'' ([[1898]]) by [[Henry James]] '''([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/209 Full text] at [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg])'''
* ''[[The Monkey's Paw]]'' ([[1902]] by [[W.W. Jacobs]] '''([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12122 Full text] at [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg])'''
* ''[[The Phantom of the Opera]]'' ([[1910]]) by [[Gaston Leroux]] '''([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/175 Full text] at [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg])'''
* ''[[The Lair of the White Worm]]'' ([[1911]]) by [[Bram Stoker]] '''([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Lair_of_the_White_Worm Full text] at [[Wikisource]])'''
* ''[[Gormenghast]]'' ([[1946]] - [[1959]]) by [[Mervyn Peake]]
* ''[[The Seven Churches (novel)|The Seven Churches]]'' - [[1999]] by [[Milos Urban]]
===Gothic satire===
* ''[[Northanger Abbey]]'' ([[1818]]) by [[Jane Austen]] '''([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Northanger_Abbey Full text] at [[Wikisource]])'''
* ''[[Nightmare Abbey]]'' ([[1818]]) by [[Thomas Love Peacock]] '''([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/9909 Full text] at [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg])'''
* ''[[The Ingoldsby Legends]]'' ([[1840]]) by [[Thomas Ingoldsby]] '''([http://www.exclassics.com/ingold/ingintro.htm Full text] at [http://www.exclassics.com The Ex-Classics Website])'''
== See also ==
*[[Southern Gothic]]
*[[Southern Ontario Gothic]]
==References==
[[David Stevens]] "The Gothic Tradition" [[ISBN]] 0 521 777321
==External links==
* [http://www.gothic.net Online Horror Lit Mag Gothic.net]
* [http://members.aol.com/iamudolpho/basic.html The Gothic Literature Page]
* [http://www.schools.bedfordshire.gov.uk/gothic/index.htm Gothic Novel section of the Bedfordshire Schools' homepage] (extensive material)
* ''[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Supernatural_Horror_in_Literature Supernatural Horror in Literature]'' by [[H. P. Lovecraft]] at [[Wikisource]]
[[Category:Gothic novels|*]]
[[Category:Literature]]
[[Category:Speculative fiction |
d Lotze had never been born. One cannot thus blow hot and cold. One must be impartially naif or impartially critical. If the latter, the reconstruction must be thorough-going or 'metaphysical,' and will probably preserve the common-sense view that ideas are forces, in some translated form. But Psychology is a mere natural science, accepting certain terms uncritically as her data, and stopping short of metaphysical reconstruction. Like physics, she must be naïve; and if she finds that in her very peculiar field of study ideas seem to be causes, she had better continue to talk of them as such. She gains absolutely nothing by a breach with common-sense in this matter, and she loses, to say the least, all naturalness of speech. [''The Principles of Psychology'', Chapter V, "The Automaton Theory"]
</blockquote>
II. One particularly potent problem is that the presence of the theory of epiphenomenalism seems to contradict the very idea. Most people feel that ''thinking'' is a mental process, so how could someone ever express the idea of epiphenomenalism? It would be impossible, as this "expressing" would require the banned connection between mind and behavior. If epiphenomenalism is true, then its truth is ineffable. So in the example above, Pierre cannot ''convey'' his pleasure.
==See also==
[[Frank Jackson]] - popular ex-epiphenomenalist
==External links==
*[http://www.consciousentities.com/deadends.htm#epiphenomenalism Strange Ideas]
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epiphenomenalism/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
*[http://www.emergentmind.org/rivas-vandongen.htm Exit Epiphenomenalism - Analysis by Rivas and Van Dongen]
[[Category:Philosophy of mind]]
[[Category:philosophy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Esperantio</title>
<id>9497</id>
<revision>
<id>15907385</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Esperantujo]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Esperantujo</title>
<id>9498</id>
<revision>
<id>32704813</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-25T20:41:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gabbe</username>
<id>5894</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rm flag; already in template</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Esperanto}}
'''Esperantujo''', also '''Esperantio''', is a term used by speakers of the [[International auxiliary language|constructed international auxiliary language]] [[Esperanto]] to refer to the [[Esperanto culture|Esperanto community]] and the activities going on in the language. When two people are speaking Esperanto, they are said to be "in" ''Esperantujo''.
The word is formed analogously to country names. In Esperanto, the names of both lands and nation states were traditionally formed from the ethnic name of their inhabitants plus the suffix ''-ujo'', so for example "France" was ''Francujo'', from ''franco'' (a Frenchman).
The term most analogous to ''Francujo'' would be ''Esperantistujo'' (Esperantist-land). However, that would convey the idea of the physical body of people, whereas using the name of the language as the basis of the word gives it the more abstract connotation of a cultural sphere.
Currently, names of nation states are most often formed with the suffix ''-io'' traditionally reserved for deriving country names from geographic features, so now ''Francio'', and recently the form ''Esperantio'' has been used ''i.a.'' in the [[Pasporta Servo]].
[[Category:Esperanto culture]]
[[de:Esperantoland]]
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[[fr:Espérantie]]
[[nl:Esperantio]]
[[ru:Эсперантида]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Ethernet</title>
<id>9499</id>
<revision>
<id>42116927</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:57:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alecv</username>
<id>183520</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|IEEE 802.3}}
{{IPstack}}
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'''Ethernet''' is a [[Data frame|frame]]-based [[computer network|computer networking]] technology for [[local area network]]s (LANs). The name comes from the physical concept of [[Luminiferous aether|ether]]. It defines wiring and signaling for the physical layer, and frame formats and [[Communications protocol|protocol]]s for the media access control (MAC)/[[data link layer]] of the [[OSI model]]. Ethernet is mostly standardized as [[IEEE]]s [[IEEE 802.3|802.3]]. It has become the most widespread LAN technology in use during the [[1990s]] to the [[As of 2005|present]], and has largely replaced all other LAN standards such as [[token ring]], [[Fiber distributed data interface|FDDI]], and [[ARCNET]].
== History ==
Ethernet was originally developed as one of the many pioneering projects at [[Xerox PARC]]. A common story states that Ethernet was invented in [[1973]], when [[Robert Metcalfe]] wrote a memo to his bosses at PARC about Ethernet's potential. But Metcalfe claims Ethernet was actually invented over a period of several years. In [[1976]], Metcalfe and his assistant [[David Boggs]] published a paper titled ''[http://www.acm.org/classics/apr96/ Ethernet: Distributed Packet-Switching For Local Computer Networks].''
The experimental Ethernet described in that paper ran at 3 [[Mbps]], and had 8-bit destination and source address fields, so Ethernet addresses weren't the global addresses they are today. By software convention, the 16 bits after the destination and source address fields were a packet type field, but, as the paper says, "different protocols use disjoint sets of packet types", so those were packet types within a given protocol, rather than the packet type in current Ethernet, which specifies the protocol being used.
Metcalfe left Xerox in [[1979]] to promote the use of personal computers and local area networks (LANs), forming [[3Com]]. He convinced [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]], [[Intel]], and [[Xerox]] to work together to promote Ethernet as a standard, the so-called "DIX" standard, for "Digital/Intel/Xerox"; it standardized the 10 megabits/second Ethernet, with 48-bit destination and source addresses and a global 16-bit type field. The standard was first published on [[September 30]] [[1980]]. It competed with two largely proprietary systems, [[token ring]] and [[ARCNET]], but those soon found themselves buried under a tidal wave of Ethernet products. In the process, [[3Com]] became a major company.
Metcalfe sometimes jokingly credits [[Jerome H. Saltzer|Jerry Saltzer]] for 3Com's success. Saltzer cowrote an influential paper suggesting that token-ring architectures were theoretically superior to Ethernet-style technologies. This result, the story goes, left enough doubt in the minds of computer manufacturers that they decided not to make Ethernet a standard feature, which allowed 3Com to build a business around selling add-in Ethernet [[network card]]s. This also led to the saying "Ethernet works better in practice than in theory," which, though a joke, actually makes a valid technical point: the characteristics
of typical traffic on actual networks differ from what had been expected before LANs became common in ways that favor the simple design of Ethernet.
Metcalfe and Saltzer worked on the same floor at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]'s [[Project MAC]] while Metcalfe was doing his [[Harvard University|Harvard]] [[dissertation]], in which he worked out the theoretical foundations of Ethernet.
== General description ==
[[Image:Network_card.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A [[1990s]] Ethernet [[network card|network interface card]]. This is a [[combo card]] that supports both [[Coaxial cable|coaxial-based]] [[10BASE2]] ([[BNC connector]], left) and [[Twisted-pair|Twisted-pair-based]] [[10BASE-T]] ([[RJ-45|RJ-45 connector]], right).]]
Ethernet is based on the idea of peers on the network sending messages in what was essentially a radio system, captive inside a common wire or channel, sometimes referred to as the ether. (This is an oblique reference to the [[luminiferous aether]] through which [[19th century]] physicists incorrectly theorized that [[electromagnetic radiation]] traveled.) Each peer has a unique 48-bit key known as the [[MAC address]] to ensure that all systems in an Ethernet network have distinct addresses. By default network cards come programmed with a globally unique address but this can generally be changed and there are a number of reasons for doing so.
Due to the ubiquity of Ethernet and the ever-decreasing cost of the hardware needed to support it, most manufacturers build the functionality of an Ethernet card directly into [[PC motherboard|PC motherboards]]. <!--anyone know when this started happening? i'm pretty sure it happened after the PC market switched to atx and after 10base2 had pretty much disappeared-->
Despite the huge changes in Ethernet from a [[10BASE5|thick coaxial cable bus]] running at 10 [[Mbps]] to point-to-point links running at 1 [[Gbps]] (''see [[gigabit ethernet]]'') and beyond, the different variants remain essentially the same from the programmer's point of view and are easily interconnected using readily available inexpensive hardware.
It has been observed that Ethernet traffic has [[self-similarity|self-similar]] properties, with important consequences for [[Telecommunications traffic engineering|traffic engineering]].<!--this really really needs sources or clarification-->
== CSMA/CD shared medium Ethernet ==
A scheme known as [[carrier sense multiple access with collision detection]] (CSMA/CD) governs the way the computers share the channel. Originally developed in the [[1960s]] for th |
or, and director (b. [[1912]])
*[[1997]] - [[Sanford Meisner]], American actor (b. [[1904]])
*1997 - [[Erich Eliskases]], Austrian chess player (b. [[1913]])
*[[2003]] - [[Lou Harrison]], American composer (b. [[1917]])
*[[2004]] - [[Bernard McEveety]], American film director (b. [[1924]])
*[[2005]] - [[Max Schmeling]], German boxer (b. [[1905]])
<!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Holidays and observances==
* Ancient [[Latvia]] - [[Veja Diena]] observed.
* [[Catholicism]] - [[Candlemas]], [[The Presentation of the Lord]], [[The Purification of the Blessed Virgin Mary]], [[World Day for Consecrated Life]] (also [[February 3]] in the [[United States]]).
* [[France]] - [[Crêpe Day]].
* [[Paganism]] - [[Imbolc]] (in [[northern hemisphere]]), [[Lughnasadh]] (in [[southern hemisphere]]).
* [[Scotland]] - A [[quarter day]] in the [[Christian calendar]] (due to [[Candlemas]]).
* [[United States]] and [[Canada]] - [[Groundhog Day]].
* [[Czech Republic]] - [[Hromnice]].
==External links==
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&day=02 On this day in Canada]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060202.html NY Times: On this day]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/2 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[February 1]] - [[February 3]] - [[January 2]] - [[March 2]] -- [[Historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[Category:Days|February 02]]
[[Category:Days]]
[[af:2 Februarie]]
[[ar:2 فبراير]]
[[an:2 de frebero]]
[[ast:2 de febreru]]
[[bg:2 февруари]]
[[be:2 лютага]]
[[bs:2. februar]]
[[ca:2 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 2]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 2]]
[[co:2 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:2. únor]]
[[cy:2 Chwefror]]
[[da:2. februar]]
[[de:2. Februar]]
[[et:2. veebruar]]
[[el:2 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:2 de febrero]]
[[eo:2-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 2]]
[[fo:2. februar]]
[[fr:2 février]]
[[fy:2 febrewaris]]
[[ga:2 Feabhra]]
[[gl:2 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 2일]]
[[hr:2. veljače]]
[[io:2 di februaro]]
[[id:2 Februari]]
[[ia:2 de februario]]
[[ie:2 februar]]
[[is:2. febrúar]]
[[it:2 febbraio]]
[[he:2 בפברואר]]
[[jv:2 Februari]]
[[ka:2 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:2 gromicznika]]
[[ku:2'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 2]]
[[lb:2. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 2]]
[[mk:2 февруари]]
[[mr:फेब्रुवारी २]]
[[ms:2 Februari]]
[[nap:2 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:2 februari]]
[[ja:2月2日]]
[[no:2. februar]]
[[nn:2. februar]]
[[oc:2 de febrièr]]
[[pl:2 lutego]]
[[pt:2 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:2 februarie]]
[[ru:2 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 2.]]
[[sco:2 Februar]]
[[sq:2 Shkurt]]
[[scn:2 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 2]]
[[sk:2. február]]
[[sl:2. februar]]
[[sr:2. фебруар]]
[[fi:2. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:2 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 2]]
[[tt:2. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 2]]
[[th:2 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:2 tháng 2]]
[[tr:2 Şubat]]
[[uk:2 лютого]]
[[wa:2 d' fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 2]]
[[zh:2月2日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 2]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>February 3</title>
<id>11323</id>
<revision>
<id>41619846</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T15:47:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Edinborgarstefan</username>
<id>302200</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Holidays and observances */ fix disambig</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=3}}
|}
'''February 3''' is the 34th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 331 days remaining, (332 in [[leap year]]s).
In the [[Northern hemisphere]], there are 88 days in [[Winter solstice|winter]] (in a non-leap year). We are considered halfway through winter on [[February 3]].
==Events==
*[[1451]] - [[Sultan]] [[Mehmed II]] inherits the throne of the [[Ottoman Empire]].
*[[1488]] - [[Bartolomeu Dias]] of [[Portugal]] lands in [[Mossel Bay]] after rounding the [[Cape of Good Hope]] at the tip of [[Africa]], becoming the first known [[Europe]]an to travel this far south.
*[[1690]] - The colony of [[Massachusetts]] issues the first [[paper money]] in [[Americas|America]].
*[[1783]] - [[American Revolutionary War]]: [[Spain]] recognizes [[United States]] independence.
*[[1787]] - [[Shays' Rebellion]] is crushed, ending an uprising that would prompt negotiations that would result in the drafting of the [[Constitution of the United States]].
*[[1809]] - [[Illinois Territory]] is created.
*[[1815]] - The first commercial [[cheese]] factory is founded ([[Switzerland]]).
*[[1867]] - [[Emperor Meiji of Japan|Prince Mutsuhito]] becomes [[Emperor Meiji of Japan]].
*[[1870]] - The [[Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|15th Amendment]] to the [[United States Constitution]] is passed.
*[[1900]] - Gubernatorial candidate [[William Goebel]] is assassinated in [[Frankfort, Kentucky]]. Former [[Secretary of State]] [[Caleb Powers]] was later found guilty in a conspiracy to kill Goebel.
*[[1913]] - The [[16th Amendment to the United States Constitution]] is ratified, authorizing the [[Federal government]] to impose and collect [[income tax]].
*[[1916]] - [[Parliament of Canada|Parliament]] buildings in [[Ottawa, Ontario|Ottawa]], [[Canada]] burn down.
*[[1917]] - [[World War I]]: The [[United States]] breaks off diplomatic relations with [[Germany]] a day after [[Germany]] announces a new policy of unrestricted [[submarine]] warfare.
*[[1918]] - The [[Twin Peaks Tunnel]] begins service as the longest [[streetcar]] tunnel in the world at 11,920 feet (3,633 meters) long).
*[[1931]] - The [[Napier earthquake]], [[New Zealand]]'s worst natural disaster, kills 258.
*[[1941]] - [[World War II]]: The [[Nazis]] forcibly restore [[Pierre Laval]] to office in occupied [[Vichy]], [[France]].
*[[1944]] - [[United States]] troops capture the [[Marshall Islands]].
*[[1945]] - [[World War II]]: [[Soviet Union]] agrees to enter the [[Pacific Theatre]] conflict against [[Japan]].
*[[1947]] - [[Percival Prattis]] becomes the first [[African American]] news correspondent allowed in the [[United States House of Representatives|United States House]] and [[United States Senate|Senate]] press gallery.
*[[1947]] - Coldest ever temperature recorded in North America at [[Snag, Yukon]], -63 degrees [[Celsius]]
*[[1951]] - [[Dick Button]] wins the [[United States|American]] [[figure skating]] championship for the fourth consecutive time.
*[[1952]] - The earliest known [[tropical storm]] makes landfall in [[South Florida]].
*[[1957]] - [[Senegal]]ese [[political party]] [[Democratic Rally (Senegal)|Democratic Rally]] merges into the [[Senegalese Party of Socialist Action]] (PSAS).
*[[1959]] - [[The Day The Music Died]]: A [[Accidents and incidents in aviation|plane crash]] kills rock-and-roll performers [[Buddy Holly]], [[Ritchie Valens]], and [[The Big Bopper]].
*[[1966]] - The unmanned [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Luna 9]] spacecraft makes the first controlled rocket-assisted landing on the [[Moon]].
*[[1967]] - [[Ronald Ryan]], the last person to be executed in [[Australia]], is hanged in [[Pentridge Prison]], [[Melbourne]].
*[[1969]] - In [[Cairo]], [[Yasser Arafat]] is appointed [[Palestinian Liberation Organization]] leader at the [[Palestinian National Congress]].
*[[1972]] - The first [[1972 Winter Olympics|Winter Olympics]] to be held in [[Asia]] open in [[Sapporo]], [[Japan]].
*[[1979]] - First episode of [[You Can't Do That On Television]] premieres.
*[[1984]] - Astronauts from [[Space Shuttle Challenger]] make first untethered spacewalk.
*[[1988]] - [[Iran-Contra Affair]]: The [[United States House of Representatives]] rejects [[President of the United States|President]] [[Ronald Reagan]]'s request for $36.25 million to aid [[Nicaragua]]n [[Contras]].
*[[1989]] - After a [[stroke]], [[Pieter Willem Botha|P.W. Botha]] resigns party leadership and the presidency of [[South Africa]].
*[[1997]] - Sixth [[General election|general elections]] held in [[Pakistan]] under [[Constitution of Pakistan#The Constitution of 1973|1973 constitution]].
*[[1998]] - [[Karla Faye Tucker]] is executed in [[Texas]] becoming the first woman executed in the [[United States]] since [[1984]].
*1998 - [[Cavalese cable-car disaster]]: a [[United States Military]] pilot causes the death of 20 people when his low-flying plane cuts the cable of a cable-car near [[Trento]], [[Italy]].
*[[1999]] - In [[Jammu & Kashmir]] the [[political party]] [[Democratic Janata Dal (Jammu and Kashmir)]] is revived.
*[[2002]] - [[Super Bowl XXXVI]]: The [[New England Patriots]] defeat the [[St. Louis Rams]], 20-17, to win their first [[Super Bowl]] championship.
*[[2006]] - Actor [[Robert Blake]] files for bankruptcy. This is a direct result of Blake being liable for $30 million in damages after a civil court found him liable for his wife's death.
==Births==
*[[1338]] - [[Jeanne de Bourbon]], queen of [[Charles V of France]] (d. [[1378]])
*[[1677]] - [[Jan Santini Aichel]], Czech architect (d. [[1723]])
*[[1690]] - [[Richard Rawlinson]], English minister and antiquarian (d. [[1755]])
*[[1721]] - [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Seydlitz]], Prussian general (d. [[1773]])
*[[1754]] - [[George Crabbe]], English poet and naturalist (d. [[1832]])
*[[1809]] - [[Felix Mendelssohn]], German composer (d. [[1847]])
*[[1811]] - [[Horace Greeley]], American journalist, editor, and publisher (d. [[1872]])
*[[1817]] - [[Achille Ernest Oscar Joseph Delesse]], French geologist (d. [[1881]])
*[[1821]] - [[Elizabeth Blackwell]], American physician (d. [[1910]])
*[[1830]] - [[Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1903]])
*[[1842]] - [[Sidney Lanier]], American writer (d. [[1881]])
*[[1859]] - [[Hugo Junkers]], German industrialist and aircraft designer (d. [[1935]])
*[[1862]] - [[James Clark McReynolds]], U.S. Supreme Court Justice (d. [[1946]])
*[[1874]] - [[Gertrude Stein]], American writer and patron of the arts (d. [[1946]])
*[[1887]] - [[Juan Negrín]], Spanish [[Popular Front (Spain)| |
harles Blount, 1st Earl of Devon|Charles Blount, 8th Baron Mountjoy]], a bookish man who liked to wrap himself up in scarves, was sent to Ireland to replace Essex. With ruthless intent, Mountjoy attempted to blockade O Neill's troops and starve his people into submission; the campaign effectively cast the English strategy of the earlier Desmond Rebellion (1580-83) into a larger theatre, with proportionatley greater casualties. In 1601, The Spanish sent over 3,000 troops to aid the Irish, with the justification that their intervention countered Elizabeth's previous aid to the Dutch rebels in the campaign against Spanish rule. After a devastating winter siege, Mountjoy defeated both the Spanish and the Irish forces at the [[Battle of Kinsale]]; O Neill surrendered a few days after Elizabeth's death in 1603, although the fact of her death was concealed from the supplicant rebel with great skill and irony on Mountjoy's part.
During her last ailment, the Queen is reported to have declared that she had sent "''wolves, not shepherds, to govern Ireland, for they have left me nothing to govern over but ashes and carcasses''" (''The Sayings of Queen Elizabeth'' (1925) p.?). Elizabeth's successor promoted Mountjoy to the office of Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, an office in which he showed skill and moderation, until his early death in 1605.
==Death==
Elizabeth I fell ill in February 1603, suffering from frailty and insomnia. After a period of distressing reflection, she died on [[March 24]] at [[Richmond Palace]], aged 69, the oldest English Sovereign ever to have reigned; the mark was not surpassed until [[George II of Great Britain|George II]] died in his seventy-seventh year in [[1760]]. Elizabeth was buried in [[Westminster Abbey]], immediately next to her sister Mary I. The Latin inscription on their tomb translates to "Partners both in Throne and grave, here rest we two sisters, Elizabeth and Mary, in the hope of one resurrection".
The will of Henry VIII declared that Elizabeth was to be succeeded by the descendants of his younger sister, Mary Tudor, Duchess of Suffolk, rather than by the Scottish descendants of his elder sister, Margaret Tudor. If the will were upheld, then Elizabeth would have been succeeded by [[Lady Anne Stanley]]. If, however, the rules of male primogeniture were upheld, the successor would be James VI, King of Scots. Still other claimants were possible. They included [[Edward Seymour]], [[Baron Beauchamp]] (the illegitimate son of the Lady Catherine Grey) and [[William Stanley, 6th Earl of Derby]] (Lady Anne Stanley's uncle).
It is sometimes claimed that Elizabeth named James her heir on her deathbed. According to one story, when asked whom she would name her heir, she replied, "Who could that be but my cousin Scotland?". According to another, she said, "Who but a King could succeed a Queen?". Finally, a third legend suggests that she remained silent until her death. There is no evidence to prove any of these tales. In any event, none of the alternative heirs pressed their claims to the Throne. James VI was proclaimed King of England as [[James_I_of_England|James I]] a few hours after Elizabeth's death. James I's proclamation broke precedent because it was issued not by the new Sovereign him or herself, but by a Council of Accession, as James was in Scotland at the time. [[Accession Council]]s, rather than new Sovereigns, continue to issue proclamations in modern practice.
==Legacy==
[[Image:Autograph of Elizabeth I of England (from Nordisk familjebok).png|thumb|300px|Autograph of Elizabeth I of England]]
Elizabeth proved to be one of the most popular monarchs in English or British history. She placed seventh in the ''[[100 Greatest Britons]]'' poll, which was conducted by the [[BBC|British Broadcasting Corporation]] in [[2002]], outranking all other British monarchs. In [[2005]], in the [[History Channel]] documentary ''[[Britain's Greatest Monarch]]'', a group of historians and commentators analysed twelve British monarchs[http://www.thehistorychannel.co.uk/site/tv_guide/full_details/British_history/programme_2652.php] and gave them overall marks out of 60 for greatness (they were marked out of 10 in six categories, such as military prowess and legacy). Elizabeth I was the winner, with 48 points.
Many historians, however, have taken a far more dispassionate view of Elizabeth's reign. Though England achieved military victories, Elizabeth was far less pivotal than other monarchs such as [[Henry V of England|Henry V]]. Elizabeth has also been criticised for supporting the English [[slave trade]]. Her problems in Ireland also serve to blemish her record.
Elizabeth was a successful monarch, helping steady the nation even after inheriting an enormous national debt from her sister Mary. Under her, England managed to avoid a crippling Spanish invasion. Elizabeth was also able to prevent the outbreak of a religious or civil war on English soil. Her achievements, however, were greatly magnified after her death. She was depicted in later years as a great defender of Protestantism in Europe. In reality, however, she often wavered before coming to the aid of her Protestant allies. As Sir Walter said in relation to her foreign policy, "Her Majesty did all by halves".
Many artists glorified Elizabeth I and masked her age in their portraits. Elizabeth was often painted in rich and stylised gowns. Elizabeth is often shown holding a [[sieve]], a symbol of virginity.
[[Benjamin Britten]] wrote an opera, ''[[Gloriana]]'', about the relationship between Elizabeth and Lord Essex, composed for the coronation of [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom]].
Notable portrayals of Queen Elizabeth in film and television have been plentiful; in fact, she is the most filmed British monarch. Those who have made an impression in the role of Elizabeth in the last 100 years, have included [[France|French]] actress [[Sarah Bernhardt]] in ''[[Les Amours de la reine Élisabeth]]'' (1912), [[Florence Eldridge]] in ''[[Mary of Scotland]]'' (1936), Flora Robson in ''[[Fire Over England]]'' ([[1937]]) and ''[[The Lion Has Wings]]'' ([[1939]]), [[Bette Davis]] in ''[[The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex]]'' ([[1939]]) and ''[[The Virgin Queen]]'' ([[1955]]) and [[Jean Simmons]] in ''[[Young Bess]]'' ([[1953]]). In recent years, the story of Elizabeth has been filmed more than ever. In [[1998]] [[Australian]] actress [[Cate Blanchett]] made her big break and received an [[Academy Award]] nomination for Best Actress for her critically acclaimed performance in ''[[Elizabeth (film)|Elizabeth]]''. The same year [[United Kingdom|British]] actress [[Judi Dench]] won an [[Academy Award]] for her supporting performance as the Virgin Queen in the popular ''[[Shakespeare in Love]]'', a performance of only eleven minutes (among the shortest ever to win an Oscar). In television, the actresses [[Glenda Jackson]] (in the BBC drama series ''[[Elizabeth R]]'' in [[1971]], and the [[1972]] historical film ''[[Mary, Queen of Scots (movie)|Mary Queen of Scots]]'') and [[Miranda Richardson]] (in the [[1986]] classic [[BBC]] sitcom ''[[Blackadder]]'' &mdash; a comic interpretation of Elizabeth known fondly as [[Queenie]]) both played the role with consummate talent, creating memorable (if wildly contrasting) portraits of Elizabeth I. In [[2005]], [[Helen Mirren]] portrayed the Queen (later going on to portray [[Elizabeth II]]), and in [[2006]] [[Anne Marie Duff]] created one of the most accurate portrayals of the Queen, featuring state-of-the-art makeup to show the Queen's journey through life.
There have been many novels written about Elizabeth. They include: ''I, Elizabeth'' by [[Rosalind Miles]], ''The Virgin's Lover'' and ''The Queen's Fool'' by [[Philippa Gregory]], ''Queen of This Realm'' by [[Jean Plaidy]], and ''Virgin: Prelude to the Throne'' by [[Robin Maxwell]]. Elizabeth's story is spliced with her mother's in Maxwell's book ''The Secret Diary of Anne Boleyn.'' Maxwell also writes of a fictional child Elizabeth and Dudley had in ''The Queen's Bastard.'' Decades ago, [[Margaret Irwin]] produced a trilogy based on Elizabeth's youth: ''Young Bess,'' ''Elizabeth, Captive Princess'' and ''Elizabeth and the Prince of Spain.''
In children's and young adults' fiction, Elizabeth's story is told in ''Elizabeth I, Red Rose of the House of Tudor,'' a book in the Royal Diaries series published by Scholastic, and also in ''Beware, Princess Elizabeth'' by Carolyn Meyer.
==Style and arms==
[[image:QEI_arms.jpg|thumb|Coat of Arms of Elizabeth I]]
Like her predecessors since Henry VIII, Elizabeth used the [[Style_%28manner_of_address%29|style]] "Majesty", as well as "Highness" and "Grace". "Majesty", which Henry VIII first used on a consistent basis, did not become exclusive until the reign of Elizabeth's successor, James I.
Elizabeth I used the official style "Elizabeth, by the Grace of God, [[List of monarchs of England |Queen of England]], [[English Kings of France | France]] and [[Kingdom of Ireland| Ireland]], [[Fidei defensor]], etc.". Whilst most of the style matched the styles of her predecessors, Elizabeth I was the first to use "etc.". It was inserted into the style with a view to restoring the phrase "of the [[Church of England]] and also of [[Church of Ireland | Ireland]] in [[Earth]] Supreme Head", which had been added by Henry VIII but later removed by Mary I. The supremacy phrase was never actually restored, and "etc." remained in the style, to be removed only in [[1801]].
She has been retroactively known as Queen Elizabeth I since the accession of [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] in [[1952]]. Prior to that time she was referred to as Queen Elizabeth.
Elizabeth's [[heraldry|arms]] were the same as those used by [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]]: ''Quarterly, Azure three fleurs-de |
'' encompasses writing, it is equally valid to view ''archi-écriture'' as encompassing the ''logos'', and therefore speech can be thought of as a form of writing: writing on air waves, or on the memory of the listener or recording device.
===''Supplement'', ''originary lack'', and ''invagination''===
The word ''supplement'' is taken from the philosopher [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]], who defined it as "an inessential extra added to something complete in itself." According to Derrida, Western thinking is characterized by the "logic of supplementation", which is actually two apparently contradictory ideas. From one perspective, a supplement serves to enhance the presence of something which is already complete and self-sufficient. Thus, writing is the supplement of speech, [[Adam and Eve|Eve]] was the supplement of [[Adam and Eve|Adam]], and [[masturbation]] is the supplement of "natural sex".
But simultaneously, according to Derrida, the Western idea of the ''supplement'' has within it the idea that a thing that has a supplement cannot be truly "complete in itself". If it were complete without the supplement, it shouldn't need, or long-for, the supplement. The fact that a thing can be added-to to make it even more "present" or "whole" means that there is a hole (which Derrida called an ''originary lack'') and the supplement can fill that hole. The metaphorical opening of this "hole" Derrida called ''invagination''. From this perspective, the supplement does not enhance something's presence, but rather underscores its absence.
Thus, what really happens during supplementation is that something appears from one perspective to be whole, complete, and self-sufficient, with the supplement acting as an ''external'' appendage. However, from another perspective, the supplement also fills a hole within the ''interior'' of the original "something". Thus, the supplement represents an indeterminacy between externality and interiority.
===''Hymen''===
The word ''hymen'' refers to the interplay between inside and outside. The hymen is the membrane of intersection where it becomes impossible to distinguish whether the membrane is on the inside or the outside. And in the absence of the hymen (as in, once the hymen is penetrated), the distinction between inside and outside disappears. Thus, in a way, the hymen is neither inside nor outside, and both inside and outside.
===''Pharmakon''===
The word ''pharmakon'' refers to the play between cure and poison. It derives from the ancient Greek word, used by Plato in ''Phaedrus'' and ''Phaedo'', which had an undecideable meaning which could be translated to mean anything ranging from a drug, recipe, spell, medicine, or poison.
== An illustration: Derrida's reading of Lévi-Strauss ==
A more concrete example, drawn from one of Derrida's most famous works, may help to clarify the typical manner in which deconstruction works.
[[structuralism|Structuralist]] analysis generally relies on the search for underlying binary oppositions as an explanatory device. The structuralist anthropology of [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]] argued that such oppositions are found in all cultures, not only in Western culture, and thus that the device of binary opposition was fundamental to meaning.
Deconstruction challenges the explanatory value of these oppositions. This method has three steps.
#The first step is to reveal an asymmetry in the binary opposition, suggesting an implied hierarchy.
#The second step is to reverse the hierarchy.
#The third step is to displace one of the terms of the opposition, often in the form of a new and expanded definition.
In his book ''Of Grammatology'', Derrida offers one example of deconstruction applied to a theory of Lévi-Strauss. Following many other Western thinkers, Lévi-Strauss distinguished between "savage" societies lacking writing and "civilized" societies that have writing. This distinction implies that human beings developed verbal communication (speech) before some human cultures developed writing, and that speech is thus conceptually as well as chronologically prior to writing (thus speech would be more authentic, closer to truth and meaning, and more immediate than writing).
Although the development of writing is generally considered to be an advance, after an encounter with the Nambikwara Indians of Brazil, Lévi-Strauss suggested that societies without writing were also lacking violence and domination (in other words, savages are truly noble savages). He further argued that the primary function of writing is to facilitate slavery (or social inequality, exploitation, and domination in general). (This claim has been rejected by most later historians and anthropologists as strictly incorrect. There is abundant historical evidence that many [[hunter-gatherer]] societies and later non-literate tribes had significant amounts of violence and warfare in their cultures.)
Derrida's interpretation begins with taking Lévi-Strauss's discussion of writing at its word: what is important in writing for Lévi-Strauss is not the use of markings on a piece of paper to communicate information, but rather their use in domination and violence. Derrida further observes that, based on Lévi-Strauss's own ethnography, the Nambikwara really do use language for domination and violence. Derrida thus concludes that writing, in fact, is prior to speech. That is, he reverses the opposition between speech and writing.
Derrida was not making fun of Lévi-Strauss, nor did he mean to supersede, replace, or proclaim himself superior to Lévi-Strauss. (A common theme of deconstruction is the desire to be critical without assuming a posture of superiority.) He was using his deconstruction of Lévi-Strauss to question a common belief in Western culture, dating back at least to Plato: that speech is prior to, more authentic than, and closer to "true meaning" than writing.
== Criticisms of deconstruction ==
Deconstruction is the subject of at least three main types of criticism. Critics take issue with what they believe is a lack of seriousness and transparency in deconstructive writings, and with what they interpret as a political stance against traditional [[modern philosophy|modernism]]. In addition, critics often equate deconstruction with [[nihilism]] or [[relativism]] and criticize deconstruction accordingly.
===Lack of usefulness===
Many critics question the usefulness of deconstruction. They see it as little more than an academic word-game, a clever way to discredit a text without having to refute any of the text's arguments. They argue that it is of no practical assistance to scientists or philosophers, and suggest that no one seems to benefit from deconstruction except its own practitioners.
Some literary practitioners, critics, and theorists are hostile to deconstruction, claiming that it is inconsistent with any meaningful discussion and analysis of literature, particularly of forms such as poetry and fiction that invite active discussion. The criticism is that deconstruction fails to provide any substantial grounds for engagement with literary texts because it abruptly truncates all ideas and subjects as equal and interchangeable. Because it essentially rules out nothing, it fails to provide any especially salient windows of thought to assist the understanding of texts, or to allow this to segue into any other topics of discussion. Deconstruction, according to this line of argument, cannot combine usefully with other schools of literary criticism and actually impedes progress in literary understanding.
As American Scholar Murray Rothbard would say "Deconstructionism reduces to the claim that no one, not even deconstructionists, can understand literary texts - not even their own literary texts." This means that all writers under the obeservation of such are only "subjective musings".
===Unintelligibility, Meaninglessness===
Deconstructive readings have been criticized both academically and popularly as largely [[Nonsense|nonsensical]] and unintelligible. Few would deny that any discourse may seem nonsensical to those who do not understand it, and that just because something is unintelligible to one doesn't mean it is unintelligible to another reader. On the other hand, the deconstructionist position demands that we take the meaningfulness and importance of what appears to be "nonsense" as an act of faith. There remains the question of whether deconstructive readings are at times so unintelligible that, after peeling away the often dense and complicated language, anything remains.
The question of whether deconstruction really "means anything" was explored through an experiment conducted by [[Alan Sokal]], a physicist who described it in an article in a leading (though not [[peer-review]]ed) journal using some of the language, vocabulary, and rhetorical devices of deconstruction, but which he deliberately designed to be what he considered "self-indulgent nonsense". See [[Sokal affair]]. Sokal's critics claim, however, that his parody was not truly nonsensical, and had its own internal logic. Regardless, the "Sokal affair" suggests that a work claimed by its own author to be arrant nonsense may be received by deconstructionists as more or less sensible.
Another parody was created later by some [[artificial intelligence]] researchers, who wrote a program they called [http://www.elsewhere.org/cgi-bin/postmodern The Postmodernism Generator], which produces a superficially genuine article on a postmodern theme, using much of the vocabulary of deconstruction. When the hoax was revealed, deconstructionists pointed out in their defense that the generated article is not an actual deconstructive reading and so cannot be used to discredit deconstruction. In other words, only a genuine deconstructive reading of deco |
children, Andromache and Agamemnon Schliemann; he reluctantly allowed them to be baptised, but only solemnized the ceremony by placing a copy of [[The Iliad]] on the children's heads and reciting a hundred hexameters.
By 1871 Schliemann was ready to go to work at Troy. Thinking that Homeric Troy must be in the lowest level, he dug hastily through the upper levels, reaching fortifications that he took to be his target. In 1872 he and Calvert fell out over this method. Schliemann flew into a fury when Calvert published an article stating that the Trojan War period was missing from the record, probably meaning that Schliemann had destroyed it.
As if to exonerate his views, a cache of gold suddenly appeared in 1873, which Heinrich dubbed "[[Priam's Treasure]]." According to him, he saw the gold glinting in the dirt and dismissed the workmen so that he and Sophie could personally excavate it and remove it in Sophie's shawl. Sophie wore one item, "the Jewels of Helen", for the public. He published his findings in ''Trojanische Altertümer'', 1874.
[[Image:MaskeAgamemnon.JPG|thumb|200px|right|The so-called '[[Mask of Agamemnon]]', discovered by Heinrich Schliemann in 1876 at Mycenae.]]
This publicity stunt backfired when the Turkish government revoked his permission to dig and sued him for a share of the gold. Collaborating with Calvert, he had smuggled the treasure out of Turkey, which did not endear him to the Turkish authorities. This was not the first time Calvert and Schliemann had [[smuggled antiquities]]. This sort of behavior contributed toward bad relations with other nations, which extended into the future.
Meanwhile Heinrich published ''Troja und seine Ruinen'' in 1875 and excavated the [[Treasury of Minyas]] at [[Orchomenos]]. In 1876 he began excavating at [[Mycenae]]. Discovering the [[Shaft Graves]] with their skeletons and more regal gold, such as the [[Mask of Agamemnon]], the irrepressible Heinrich cabled the king of Greece. The results were published in ''Mykena'', 1878.
Although he had received permission to excavate in 1876, Schliemann did not reopen the dig at Troy until 1878-1879, after another excavation in Ithaca designed to locate the actual sites of the [[Odysseus]] story. This was his second excavation at Troy. [[Emile Burnouf]] and [[Rudolph Virchow]] joined him in 1879. There was a third excavation, 1882-1883, an excavation of [[Tiryns]] in 1884 with [[Wilhelm Dörpfeld]], and a fourth at Troy, 1888-1890, with Dörpfeld, who taught him to stratigraphize. By then, much of the site had been lost to unscientific digging.
==Decline and death==
On [[August 1]], [[1890]], Schliemann returned to [[Athens]], and in [[November]] traveled to [[Halle]] for an operation on his chronically infected ears. The doctors dubbed the operation a success, but his inner ear became painfully inflamed. Ignoring his doctors' advice, he left the hospital and traveled to [[Leipzig]], [[Berlin]], and [[Paris]]. From [[Paris]], he planned to return to [[Athens]] in time for [[Christmas]], but his ears became even worse. Too sick to make the boat ride from [[Naples]] to [[Greece]], Schliemann remained in [[Naples]], but managed to make a journey to the ruins of [[Pompeii]]. On Christmas day he collapsed in [[Naples]] and died in a hotel room on [[December 26]], [[1890]]. His corpse was then transported by friends to Athens. It was then interred into a mausoleum, a temple erected in ancient Greek style.
==The dark side of Schliemann==
Schliemann's career began before [[archaeology]] developed as a professional field, and so, by present standards, the field technique of Schliemann's work leaves a lot to be desired. Indeed, further excavation of the [[Troy]] site by others has indicated that the level he named the [[Troy]] of the ''[[Iliad]]'' was not that; in fact, all of the materials given Homeric names by Schliemann are considered of a pseudo- nature, although they retain the names. His excavations were even condemned by the archaeologists of his time as having destroyed the main layers of the real [[Troy]]. They were forgetting that, before Schliemann, not many people even believed in a real Troy.
One of the main problems of his work is that King Priam's Treasure was putatively found in the Troy II level, of the primitive Early Bronze Age, long before Priam's city of Troy VI or Troy VIIa in the prosperous and elaborate Mycenaean Age. Moreover, the finds were unique. These unique and elaborate gold artifacts do not appear to belong to the Early Bronze Age.
In the 1960's, Dr. William Niederland, a psychoanalyst, conducted a psychobiography of Schliemann, to account for his unconscious motives. Niederland read thousands of Schliemann's letters and found that he hated his father and blamed him for his mother's death, as evidenced by vituperative letters to his sisters. This view seems to contradict the loving image Heinrich gave and calls the entire childhood dedication to Homer into question. Nothing in the early letters to indicate that he was even interested in Troy or classical archaeology.
Niederland concluded that Schliemann's preoccupation (as he saw it) with graves and the dead reflected grief over the loss of his mother, for which he blamed his father, and his efforts at resurrecting the Homeric dead represent a restoration of his mother. Whether this sort of evaluation is valid is debatable.
In 1972, Professor William Calder of the University of Colorado, speaking at a commemoration of Schliemann's birthday, revealed that he had uncovered several untruths. Other investigators followed, such as Professor David Traill of the University of California.
Schliemann claimed in his memoirs to have dined with President Millard Fillmore in the White House in 1850. However newspapers of the day make no mention of such a meeting, and it seems unlikely that the president of the United States would have a desire to hob-nob with a poor immigrant. Schliemann left California hastily in order to escape from his business partner, whom he had cheated. In the frontier society of the gold rush, cheating was punishable by [[lynching]].
Nor did Schliemann become a U.S. citizen in 1850 as he claimed. He was granted citizenship in New York city in 1868 on the basis of his false claim that he had been a long-time resident. He did divorce Ekaterina from Indiana, in 1868, an obvious hasty move to clear the way for Sophia.
He never received any degree from the University of Rostock, which rejected his application and thesis.
Schliemann's worst offense, by academic standards, is that he may have fabricated Priam's Treasure, or at least combined several disparate finds. His servant, Yannakis, testified that he found some of it in a tomb some distance away, and that it contained no gold. Later it developed that he hired a goldsmith to manufacture some artifacts in Mycenaean style, and planted them at the site. Others were collected from other places on the site. Though Sophia was in Athens visiting her family at the time, it is possible she colluded with him on the secret, as he claimed she helped him and she didn't deny it.
==Sources==
* Boorstin, Daniel. ''The Discoverers'', 1983
* Durant, Will. ''The Life of Greece'', 1939
* Silberman, Neil Asher, ''Between Past and Present: Archaeology, Ideology, and Nationalism in the Modern Middle East'', Doubleday, New York, 1990 (Copyright 1989), ISBN 0-385-41610-5
* Wood, Michael, ''In Search of the Trojan War'', New American Library, 1987 (Copyright 1985), ISBN 0-452-25960-6
==Works==
* ''La Chine et le Japon au temps présent''. Paris: Librairie centrale 1867.
* ''Ithaka, der Peloponnes und Troja'', 1868
* ''Trojanische Altertümer'', 1874
* ''Troja und seine Ruinen'', 1875
* ''Mykena'', 1878
== External links ==
* [http://www.utexas.edu/courses/wilson/ant304/biography/arybios97/kingbio.html Heinrich Schliemann: Heros & Mythos] by Wellington King
* [http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/information/biography/pqrst/schliemann_heinrich.html Heinrich Schliemann biography]
*[http://www.ascsa.edu.gr/archives/Gennadius/Schliemann/SchScope.htm Heinrich Schliemann and Family Papers]
[[Category:1822 births|Schliemann, Heinrich]]
[[Category:1890 deaths|Schliemann, Heinrich]]
[[Category:German archaeologists|Schliemann, Heinrich]]
[[Category:Polyglots|Schliemann, Heinrich]]
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[[de:Heinrich Schliemann]]
[[el:Ερρίκος Σλήμαν]]
[[es:Heinrich Schliemann]]
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[[ko:하인리히 슐리만]]
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[[he:היינריך שלימן]]
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[[zh:海因里希·施里曼]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hypnos</title>
<id>13629</id>
<revision>
<id>41279247</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T06:27:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Luxdormiens</username>
<id>86123</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[Greek mythology]], '''Hypnos''' was the personification of sleep; the [[Roman mythology|Roman]] equivalent was known as Somnus. His twin was [[Thanatos]] ("death"); their mother was the goddess [[Nyx]] ("night").
His palace was a dark cave where the sun never shines. At the entrance were a number of poppies and other [[Hypnagogia|hypnogogic]] plants.
His offspring consisted of the things that occur in dreams, the [[Oneiroi]]. The three principal of these appear in the dreams of kings: [[Morpheus (mythology)|Morpheus]], [[Phobetor]] and [[Phantasos]]. According to one story he lived in a cave underneath a [[Greece|Greek]] island; through this cave flowed [[Lethe]], the river of forgetfulness.
[[Endymion (mythology)|Endymion]] received |
Stoughton Hall. Today a plaque on the SE side of Matthews Hall in Harvard Yard, the approximate site of the Indian College, commemorates the first American Indian students who lived and studied at Harvard University.
[[Image:Rhinoceros Sculpture, Biological Sciences Building, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.JPG|thumb|left|300px|Rhinoceros sculpture, Biological Sciences Building.]]
The connection to the Puritans can be seen in the fact that, for its first few centuries of existence, the [[Harvard Board of Overseers]] included, along with certain commonwealth officials, the ministers of six local congregations (Boston, Cambridge, Charlestown, Dorchester, Roxbury and Watertown), who today, although no longer so empowered, are still by custom allowed seats on the dais at [[commencement]] exercises.
Despite the Puritan atmosphere, from the beginning the intent was to provide a full [[liberal arts|liberal education]] such as that offered at European universities, including the rudiments of mathematics and science ('natural philosophy') as well as [[the classics | classical]] literature and philosophy.
During the Revolutionary War, [[George Washington|General Washington]] and the Continental Army quartered in Harvard buildings and organized military exercises in Cambridge Common.
Between 1800 and 1870 a transformation of Harvard occurred which E. Digby Baltzell{{ref|baltzell}} calls "privatization." Harvard had prosperred while [[Federalist Party|Federalists]] controlled state government, but "in 1824 the federalist party was finally defeated forever in Massachusetts; the triumphant [[Democratic-Republican Party (United States)|Jeffersonian-Republicans]] cut off all state funds." By 1870, the "magistrates and ministers" on the Board of Overseers had been completely "replaced by Harvard alumni drawn primarily from the ranks of Boston's upper-class business and professional community" and funded by private endowment.
During this period, Harvard experienced unparalleled growth that put it into a different category from other colleges. Ronald Story{{ref|story2}} notes in 1850, Harvard's total assets were "five times that of Amherst and Williams combined, and three times that of Yale.... By 1850, it was a genuine university, 'unequalled in facilities,' as a budding scholar put it by any other institution in America&mdash;the 'greatest University,' said another, 'in all creation.'"
Story{{ref|story3}} also notes that "all the evidence... points to the four decades from 1815 to 1855 as the era when parents, in Henry Adams's words, began 'sending their children to Harvard College for the sake of its social advantages.'"
Steinberg{{ref|steinberg}} notes that "a climate of intolerance prevailed in many eastern colleges long before discriminatory quotas were contemplated" and noted that "Jews tended to avoid such campuses as Yale and Princeton, which had reputations for bigotry.... Under President Eliot's administration, Harvard earned a reputation as the most liberal and democratic of the Big Three, and therefore Jews did not feel that the avenue to a prestigious college was altogether closed." This was to change sharply under Eliot's successor, A. Lawrence Lowell.
Harvard became the bastion of a distinctly Protestant elite--the so-called [[Boston Brahmin]] class--well into the 20th century. Its discriminatory policies against immigrants, Catholics and Jews were partly responsible for the founding of [[Boston College]] in the 19th century and [[Brandeis University]] in 1948. The social milieu at Harvard is depicted in [[Owen Wister]]'s ''Philosophy 4,'' set in the 1870s, which contrasts the character and demeanor of two undergraduates who "had colonial names (Rogers, I think, and Schuyler)" with that of their tutor, one Oscar Maironi, whose "parents had come over in the steerage." [[Myron Kaufman]]'s 1957 novel ''Remember Me to God'' follows the life of a Jewish undergraduate in 1940s Harvard, navigating the shoals of casual antisemitism as he desperately seeks to become a gentleman, be accepted into The Pudding, and marry the Yankee protestant Wimsy Talbot.
In 2002, it was revealed by ''The Crimson'' that in 1920 "Harvard University maliciously persecuted and harassed" those it believed to be gay via a "Secret Court" led by Harvard President A. Lawrence Lowell. The inquistions and expulsions carried out by this tribunal, in conjunction with the "vindictive tenacity of the university in ensuring that the stigmatization of the expelled students would persist throughout their productive lives" led to several suicides. Wright placed the origins of the purge in an astounding ignorance of the day's most advanced thinking about sexual inversion, an excessive idealization of the idea of the "Harvard man", and an anxiety to dissociate the university from a reputation as a haven for homosexuals. Current President Lawrence Summers characterized the episode as "Part of a past that we have rightly left behind", and "abhorrent and an affront to the values of our university".{{ref|secretcourt}}
===Recent developments===
[[Image:Harvard college - annenberg hall.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Destroyed by fire in the 1950s, Memorial Hall's ornate tower was rebuilt in 1999]]
On February 21, 2006, president [[Lawrence Summers]] announced his intention to resign the presidency, effective June 30, 2006. His resignation came just one week before a second planned vote of no confidence by the Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences. Former president [[Derek Bok]] will serve as interim president starting July 1. Members of Harvard's Faculty of Arts and Sciences, which instructs graduate students in GSAS and undergraduates in Harvard College, had passed an earlier motion of "lack of confidence" in Summers' leadership on March 15, 2005 by a 218-185 vote, with 18 abstentions. The motion was prompted by his public comments in a talk about the place of women in academia. In response, Summers convened two committees to study this issue: the Task Force on Women Faculty and the Task Force on Women in Science and Engineering. Summers had also pledged $50 million to support their recommendations and other proposed reforms.
In the aftermath of [[Hurricane Katrina]], Harvard, along with numerous other institutions of higher education across the [[United States]] and [[Canada]], offered to take in students who were unable to attend universities and colleges that were closed for the fall semester. Twenty-five students were admitted to the College, and the [[Harvard Law School| Law School]] made similar arrangements. Tuition was not charged and housing was provided.
Controversy ensued, however, when the Administrative Board ruled that those students visiting from [[Tulane University]] would have to return to their home college for spring semester, and would not be able to apply for inter-year transfer, a policy consistent with other comparable universities like [[Yale University|Yale]]'s. The Undergraduate Council advocated for the students to stay or be allowed inter-year transfer rights, whereas the Crimson posted occasional op-ed pieces about the necessity of the students leaving to maintain integrity of contracts.
==Notable student organizations==
<!-- all but the most notable and historically significant student organizations should be placed in their respective school articles (College, KSG, HLS, etc...-->
* The [[Harvard Crimson]] is United States' second oldest daily college newspaper and is doordropped to student rooms.
* The [[Harvard Lampoon]], an undergraduate humor organization and publication founded in 1876 and rival to the Harvard Crimson. The erratically-produced magazine was originally modelled on the former British satirical periodical Punch, and has outlived it to become the world's second-oldest humor magazine (after the Yale Record). [[Conan O'Brien]] was president of the Lampoon. The [[National Lampoon]] was founded as an offshoot in 1970 from the [[Harvard Lampoon]].
* Radio station [[WHRB]] (95.3FM Cambridge), is run exclusively by Harvard students, and is given space on the Harvard campus in the basement of Pennypacker Hall, a freshman dorm. Known throughout the [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] metropolitan area for its classical, jazz, underground rock and blues programming, WHRB uses the radio "Orgy" format, where the entire catalog of a certain band, record, or artist is played in sequence.
[[Image:Lampoon.jpg|right|250px|thumb|The Harvard Lampoon "castle" with its characteristic rooftop ibis and its purple and yellow door]]
* The [http://www.iop.harvard.edu Institute of Politics], housed in Harvard's Kennedy School of Government and features keynotes daily, student study groups with political activists and leaders, and a center of nonpartisan political community at Harvard.
* [http://www.uchoir.harvard.edu/ Harvard University Choir], the oldest university choir in the nation, formally established in 1834 but in existence since the eighteenth century, performs the oldest Christmas Carol Services in continuous existence in North America.
* [[Harvard Glee Club]], the oldest college chorus in America, founded in 1858.
* [[Harvard Radcliffe Orchestra]], founded in 1808.
==People associated with Harvard University==
Seventy-five [[Nobel Prize]] winners are affiliated with the university, and since 1974, nineteen [[Nobel Prize]] winners and fifteen [[Pulitzer Prize]] winners have served on the Harvard faculty. For details, see [[Nobel Prize laureates by university affiliation]].
*[[List of Harvard University people|People associated with Harvard University]]
*[[President of Harvard University#Presidents of Harvard|Presidents of Harvard]]
==Views of Harvard==
In 1893, Baedeker's guidebook called Harvard "the |
ropean languages that have retained declensional systems have similar rules.
=== [[Niger-Congo languages]] ===
==== [[Bantu languages]] ====
According to [[Carl Meinhof]], the [[Bantu languages]] have a total of 22 [[noun class|noun classes]]. While no single language is known to express all of them, all of them have at least 10 noun classes. For example, by Meinhof's numbering, [[Swahili language#Noun classes|Swahili]] has 15 classes, and [[Sesotho language#Noun prefix system|Sesotho]] has 18. However, Meinhof's numbering system counts singular and plural numbers of the same noun as belonging to separate classes (see [[Sesotho language]] for examples). This is inconsistent with the way other languages are traditionally considered, where number is orthogonal to gender (a Meinhof-style analysis would give [[Ancient Greek]] 9 genders!). If one follows broader linguistic tradition and counts singular and plural as belonging to the same class, then Swahili has 8 or 9 noun classes and Sesotho has 11.
Often, certain noun classes are reserved for humans. The [[Fula language]] has a noun class reserved for liquids. According to [[Steven Pinker]], the [[Kivunjo language]] has 16 genders including classes for precise locations and for general locales, classes for clusters or pairs of objects and classes for the objects that come in pairs or clusters, and classes for abstract qualities.
==== [[Zande language|Zande]] ====
The Zande language distinguishes four noun classes:
<table border="1">
<tr><th>Criterion</th><th>Example</th><th>Translation</th></tr>
<tr><td>human male</td><td>kumba</td><td>man</td></tr>
<tr><td>human female</td><td>dia</td><td>wife</td></tr>
<tr><td>animate</td><td>nya</td><td>beast</td></tr>
<tr><td>other</td><td>bambu</td><td>house</td></tr>
</table>
There are about 80 inanimate nouns which are in the animate class, including nouns denoting heavenly objects (moon, rainbow), metal objects (hammer, ring), edible plants (sweet potato, pea), and non-metallic objects (whistle, ball). Many of the exceptions have a round shape, and some can be explained by the role they play in Zande mythology.
==== Other ====
The [[Alamblak language]], a [[Sepik Hill]] language spoken in [[Papua New Guinea]], has a "masculine" noun class, which includes males, as well as things which are tall or long and slender, or narrow such as fish, crocodile, long snakes, arrows, spears and tall slender trees, and a "feminine" noun class, which includes females, as well as things which are short, squat or wide, such as turtles, frogs, houses, fighting shields and trees that are typically more round and squat than others.
== Noun classes in specific languages ==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
=== List of languages without grammatical genders/noun classes ===
{{dynamic list}}
*[[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]]
*[[Armenian language|Armenian]]
*[[Basque language|Basque]]
*[[Bengali language|Bengali]]
*[[Bislama]]
*[[Bugis language|Bugis]]
*[[Burmese language|Burmese]]
*[[Cebuano language|Cebuano]]
*[[Central Yup'ik language|Central Yup'ik]]
*[[Chinese language|Chinese]]
*[[Chol language|Chol]]
*[[English language|English]] English has a vestigial natural gender system (on pronouns) but no grammatical gender.
*[[Estonian language|Estonian]]
*[[Esperanto language|Esperanto]] Esperanto has, however, gender-marked third-person pronouns and a feminine marker suffix.
*[[Finnish language|Finnish]]
*[[Georgian language|Georgian]]
*[[Guaraní language|Guaraní]]
*[[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]]
*[[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]
*[[Ido language|Ido]] Ido has the masculine infix '''-ul''' and the feminine infix '''-in''' for animate beings. Both are optional and must be used only if it is necessary to avoid the ambiguity. Thus, '''kato''': ''a cat'', '''katulo''': ''a tom-cat'', '''katino''': ''a she-cat''. Besides, there are third person singular and plural pronouns for all three genders: '''masculine''', '''feminine''', and '''neuter''', in addition to ''gender-free'' pronouns.
*[[Ilocano language|Ilocano]]
*[[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]
*[[Interlingua language|Interlingua]]
*[[Japanese language|Japanese]]
*[[Kannada language|Kannada]]
*[[Khmer language|Khmer]]
*[[Korean language|Korean]]
*[[Lao language|Lao]]
*[[Lojban language|Lojban]]
*[[Malagasy language|Malagasy]]
*[[Malay language|Malay]]
*[[Malayalam language|Malayalam]]
*[[Makasar language|Makasar]]
*[[Mandar language|Mandar]]
*[[Persian language|Persian]]
*[[Nahuatl language|Nahuatl]]
*[[Pirahã language|Pirahã]]
*[[Quechua language|Quechua]]
*[[Quenya]]
*[[Sindarin]]
*[[Sinhala language|Sinhala]]
*[[Sami languages]]
*[[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]
<!--*[[Tamil language|Tamil]] Explain in talk page discussion if you want to uncomment-->
*[[Telugu language|Telugu]]
*[[Tlingit language|Tlingit]]
*[[Thai language|Thai]]
*[[Tok Pisin]]
*[[Toki Pona language|Toki Pona]]
*[[Tulu language|Tulu]]
*[[Turkish language|Turkish]]
*[[Tzotzil language|Tzotzil]]
*[[Tzeltal language|Tzeltal]]
*[[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]
*[[Yoruba language|Yoruba]]
{{col-2}}
=== List of languages with grammatical genders/noun classes ===
{{dynamic list}}
*[[Albanian language|Albanian]]
*[[Egyptian language|Ancient Egyptian]]
*[[Ancient Greek language|Ancient Greek]]
*[[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]
*[[Arabic language|Arabic]]
*[[Aramaic language|Aramaic]]
*[[Bosnian language|Bosnian]]
*[[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]
*[[Catalan language|Catalan]]
*[[Coptic language|Coptic]]
*[[Cornish language|Cornish]]
*[[Croatian language|Croatian]]
*[[Czech language|Czech]]
*[[Danish language|Danish]]
*[[Dari language|Dari-Persian]]
*[[Dutch language|Dutch]]
*[[Faroese language|Faroese]]
*[[French language|French]]
*[[German language|German]]
*[[Greek language|Greek]]
*[[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
*[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]
*[[Hindi language|Hindi]]
*[[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]
*[[Irish language|Irish]]
*[[Italian language|Italian]]
*[[Klingon language|Klingon]]
*[[Latin]]
*[[Latvian language|Latvian]]
*[[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]
*[[Marathi language|Marathi]]
*[[Manx Gaelic language|Manx Gaelic]]
*[[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]
*[[Occitan language|Occitan]]
*[[Old English language|Old English]]
*[[Old Prussian language|Old Prussian]]
*[[Pashto language|Pashto]]
*[[Polish language|Polish]]
*[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
*[[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
*[[Romanian language|Romanian]]
*[[Russian language|Russian]]
*[[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]]
*[[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]]
*[[Serbian language|Serbian]]
*[[Slovak language|Slovak]]
*[[Slovenian language|Slovenian]]
*[[Sorbian language|Sorbian]]
*[[Spanish language|Spanish]]
*[[Sumerian language|Sumerian]]
*[[Swahili language|Swahili]]
*[[Swedish language|Swedish]]
*[[Berber languages|Tamazight (Berber)]]
*[[Tajik language|Tajiki Persian]]
*[[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
*[[Urdu language|Urdu]]
*[[Welsh language|Welsh]]
*[[Yiddish language|Yiddish]]
{{col-end}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
===Two genders/noun classes===
====Masculine and feminine====
*[[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]
*[[Egyptian language|Ancient Egyptian]]
*[[Arabic language|Arabic]]
*[[Aramaic language|Aramaic]]
*[[Bengali language|Bengali]]
*[[Catalan language|Catalan]]
*[[Coptic language|Coptic]]
*[[French language|French]]
*[[English language|English]] (one common gender: '''the''')
*[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]
*[[Hindi language|Hindi]]
*[[Irish language|Irish]]
*[[Italian language|Italian]]
*[[Latvian language|Latvian]]
*[[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]
*[[Occitan language|Occitan]]
*[[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
*[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
*[[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]]
*[[Spanish language|Spanish]]
*[[Berber languages|Tamazight (Berber)]]
*[[Urdu language|Urdu]]
*[[Welsh language|Welsh]]
====Common and neuter====
*[[Danish language|Danish]]
*[[Hittite language|Hittite]]
*[[Low German]]
*[[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] (''Riksmål'')
*[[Swedish language|Swedish]]
====Animate and inanimate====
*[[Sumerian language|Sumerian]]
*Many Native American languages, such as [[Navajo language|Navajo]]
*Polish and Russian
{{col-2}}
===Three grammatical genders/noun classes===
====Masculine, feminine, and neuter====
*[[Albanian language|Albanian]] (''neuter'' has almost disappeared)
*[[Ancient Greek language|Ancient Greek]]
*[[Belarusian]]
*[[Bosnian language|Bosnian]]
*[[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]
*[[Croatian language|Croatian]]
*[[Czech language|Czech]]
*[[Dutch language|Dutch]] (''masculine'' and ''feminine'' have merged, however, difference is still made; see the [[Dutch grammar#Nouns|section on nouns]] in the article on [[Dutch grammar]])
*[[Faroese language|Faroese]]
*[[German language|German]]
*[[Greek language|Greek]]
*[[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
*[[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]
*[[Latin]]
*[[Marathi language|Marathi]]
*[[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]
*[[Old English language|Old English]]
*[[Old Prussian language|Old Prussian]]
*[[Polish language|Polish]]
*[[Romanian language|Romanian]]
*[[Russian language|Russian]]
*[[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]]
*[[Serbian language|Serbian]]
*[[Slovak language|Slovak]]
*[[Slovenian language|Slovenian]]
*[[Sorbian language|Sorbian]]
*[[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
*[[Yiddish language|Yiddish]]
====Three genders, other classifications====
*[[Klingon language|Klingon]] (being capable of speaking, body part and other)
{{col-end}}
===More than three grammatical genders/noun classes===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
*[[Swahili language|Swahili]]
*[[Zulu language|Zulu]]
*[[Dyirbal language|Dyirbal]]
*[[Bats language|Bats]]
*all [[Bantu language]]s
*some [[Slavic language]]s, including Russian and Czech, make certain grammatical dis |
nisms Involved in Joint Manipulation] &ndash; from a Chiropractic website
* [http://elfstrom.com/arthritis/knuckle-cracking.html Does Knuckle Cracking Cause Arthiritis?] &ndash; A study on Knuckle Cracking
* [http://www.jointcrackers.com Joint Crackers Community] &ndash; Community of Joint Crackers
* [http://www.howstuffworks.com/question437.htm Howstuffworks "What makes your knuckles pop?"] &ndash; Another explanation on why knuckles crack
[[Category:Hand]]
[[Category:Contortion]]
[[de:Fingerknacken]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chemical formula</title>
<id>7043</id>
<revision>
<id>41927602</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T18:00:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vsmith</username>
<id>84417</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/199.43.172.254|199.43.172.254]] ([[User talk:199.43.172.254|talk]]) to last version by Itub</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''chemical formula''' (also called '''molecular formula''') is a concise way of expressing information about the [[atom]]s that constitute a particular [[chemical compound]]. It identifies each type of [[chemical element]] by its [[element symbol]] and identifies the number of atoms of such element to be found in each discrete [[molecule]] of that compound. The number of atoms (if greater than one) is indicated as a [[subscript]] (although 19th-century books often used superscripts). For non-molecular substances the subscripts indicate the ratio of elements in the empirical formula. Chemical formula used for a series of compounds that differ from each other by a constant unit is called '''general formula'''. Such a series is called the [[homologous series]], while its members are called homologs. The [[Hill system]] is a common convention for writing and sorting formulas.
== Molecular and [[structural formula]]s ==
For example [[methane]], a simple molecule consisting of one [[carbon]] atom bonded to four [[hydrogen]] atoms has the chemical formula:
: CH<sub>4</sub>
and glucose with six [[carbon]] atoms, twelve [[hydrogen]] atoms and six [[oxygen]] atoms has the chemical formula:
: C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub>.
A chemical formula may also supply information about the types and spatial arrangement of bonds in the chemical, though it does not necessarily specify the exact [[isomer]]. For example [[ethane]] consists of two carbon atoms single-bonded to each other, each having three hydrogen atoms bonded to it. Its chemical formula can be rendered as CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>3</sub>. If there were a double bond between the carbon atoms (and thus each carbon only had two hydrogens), the chemical formula may be written: CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>, and the fact that there is a double bond between the carbons is assumed. However, a more explicit and correct method is to write H<sub>2</sub>C:CH<sub>2</sub> or H<sub>2</sub>C=CH<sub>2</sub>. The two dots or lines indicate that a double bond connects the atoms on either side of them.
A triple bond may be expressed with three dots or lines, and if there may be ambiguity, a single dot or line may be used to indicate a single bond.
Molecules with multiple functional groups that are the same may be expressed in the following way: (CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>CH. However, this implies a different structure from other molecules that can be formed using the same atoms ([[isomer]]s). The formula (CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>CH implies a chain of three carbon atoms, with the middle carbon atom bonded to another carbon:
[[Image:chemformula.gif|Carbon chain]]
and the remaining bonds on the carbons all leading to hydrogen atoms. However, the same number of atoms (10 hydrogens and 4 carbons, or C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub>) may be used to make a straight chain: CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>3</sub>.
The alkene but-2-ene has two isomers which the chemical formula CH<sub>3</sub>CH=CHCH<sub>3</sub> does not identify. The relative position of the two methyl groups must be indicated by additional notation denoting whether the methyl groups are on the same side of the double bond (''cis'' or ''Z'') or on the opposite sides from each other.(''trans'' or ''E'')
== Polymers ==
For [[polymer]]s, parentheses are placed around the repeating unit. For example, a [[hydrocarbon]] molecule that is described as: CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>50</sub>CH<sub>3</sub>, is a molecule with 50 repeating units. If the number of repeating units is unknown or variable, the letter ''n'' may be used to indicate this: CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>''n''</sub>CH<sub>3</sub>.<br>
== Ions ==
For [[ion]]s, the charge on a particular atom may be denoted with a right-hand superscript. For example Na<sup>+</sup>, or Cu<sup>2+</sup>. The total charge on a charged molecule or a [[polyatomic ion]] may also be shown in this way. For example: hydronium, H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup> or sulfate, SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2-</sup>.
== Isotopes ==
Although [[isotope]]s are more relevant to [[nuclear chemistry]] or [[stable isotope]] chemistry than to conventional chemistry, different isotopes may be indicated with a left-hand [[superscript]] in a chemical formula. For example, the phosphate ion containing radioactive phosphorus-32 is <sup>32</sup>PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3-</sup>. Also a study involving stable isotope ratios might include <sup>18</sup>O:<sup>16</sup>O.
A left-hand subscript is sometimes used to indicate redundantly, for convenience, the [[atomic number]].
== Empirical formula ==
In [[chemistry]], the [[empirical formula]] of a chemical is a simple expression of the relative number of each type of atom or ratio of the elements in it. Empirical formulas are the standard for ionic compounds, such as CaCl<sub>2</sub>, and for macromolecules, such as SiO<sub>2</sub>. An empirical formula makes no reference to [[isomer]]ism, structure, or absolute number of atoms. The term '''empirical''' refers to the process of [[elemental analysis]], a technique of [[analytical chemistry]] used to determine the relative percent composition of a pure chemical substance by element.
For example, [[hexane]] could have a [[chemical formula]] of CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>3</sub>, implying that it has a straight chain structure, 6 [[carbon]] atoms, and 14 [[hydrogen]] atoms. However the empirical formula for the same molecule would be C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>7</sub>.
==Non-stoichiometric formulas==
''Main article: [[Non-stoichiometric compound]]''
Chemical formulas most often use [[natural number]]s for each of the elements. However, there is a whole class of compounds, called [[non-stoichiometric compound]]s, that cannot be represented by well-defined natural numbers. Such a formula might be written using [[real number]]s, as in Fe<sub>0.95</sub>O, or it might include a variable part represented by a letter, as in Fe<sub>1–x</sub>O.
== See also ==
* [[Periodic table]]
* [[Element symbol]]
[[Category:Chemical nomenclature]]
[[Category:Notation]]
[[ar:صيغة كيميائية]]
[[als:Summenformel]]
[[cs:Chemický vzorec]]
[[de:Summenformel]]
[[es:Fórmula química]]
[[eo:Kemia formulo]]
[[fr:Formule brute]]
[[io:Kruda formulo]]
[[it:Formula chimica]]
[[nl:Molecuulformule]]
[[nds:Chembloueisch Formel]]
[[ja:&#21270;&#23398;&#24335;]]
[[nn:Kjemisk formel]]
[[pt:Fórmula química]]
[[fi:Kemiallinen kaava]]
[[sv:Summaformel]]
[[th:สูตรเคมี]]
[[tl:Pormulang kimikal]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Beetle</title>
<id>7044</id>
<revision>
<id>41341920</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T18:44:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cotinis</username>
<id>985249</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses|an insect}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Beetles
| image = Colorado potato beetle.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[Colorado potato beetle]], ''Leptinotarsa decemlineata''
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Arthropod]]a
| classis = [[Insect]]a
| subclassis = [[Pterygota]]
| infraclassis = [[Neoptera]]
| superordo = [[Endopterygota]]
| ordo = '''Coleoptera'''
| ordo_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
| subdivision_ranks = [[Suborder (biology)|Suborders]]
| subdivision =
[[Adephaga]]<br/>
[[Archostemata]]<br/>
[[Myxophaga]]<br/>
[[Polyphaga]]<br/>
''See [[subgroups of the order Coleoptera]]''
}}
'''Beetles''' are one of the most diverse groups of [[insect]]s. Their [[order (biology)|order]], '''Coleoptera''' (meaning "sheathed wing"), has more [[species]] in it than any other order in the entire [[animal kingdom]]. Forty percent of all described insect species are beetles (about 350,000 species), and new species are regularly discovered. Estimates put the total number of species — described and undescribed — at between 5 and 8 million. This is why, when [[J. B. S. Haldane]], a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[geneticist]], was asked what his studies of nature revealed about [[God]], he replied, "An inordinate fondness for beetles".
Beetles can be found in almost all habitats, but are not |
the [[Gospel of John]].
There are very few references to the Gothic language in secondary sources after about [[800]] AD, so perhaps it was rarely used by that date. In evaluating medieval texts that mention the [[Goths]], it must be noted that many writers used the word ''Goths'' to mean any Germanic people in eastern Europe, many of whom certainly did not use the Gothic language as known from the Gothic Bible. Some writers even referred to [[Slavic languages|Slavic]]-speaking people as Goths.
The relationship between the language of the [[Crimean Gothic|Crimean Goths]] and Ulfilas' Gothic is less clear. The few fragments of their language from the [[16th century]] show significant differences from the language of the Gothic Bible, although some of the glosses, such as ''ada'' for "egg", imply a common heritage.
Generally, the Gothic language refers to the language of [[Ulfilas]], but the attestations themselves are largely from the [[6th century]] - long after Ulfilas had died. The above list is not exhaustive, and a more extensive list is available on the website of the [http://www.wulfila.be/gothic/manuscripts/ Wulfilas Project].
==Alphabet==
''See [[Gothic alphabet]].''
Ulfilas' Gothic, as well as that of the ''Skeireins'' and various other manuscripts, was written using an alphabet that was most likely invented by Ulfilas himself for his translation. Some scholars (e.g. Braune) claim that it was derived from the [[Greek alphabet]] only, while others maintain that there are some Gothic letters of [[Runic]] or [[Latin]] origin.
This [[Gothic alphabet]] has nothing to do with [[Blackletter]] (also called ''Gothic script''), which was used to write the [[Roman alphabet]] from the [[12th century|12th]] to [[14th century|14th centuries]] and evolved into the [[Fraktur]] writing later used to write [[German language|German]].
==Phonetic and phonological system==
It is possible to determine more or less exactly how the Gothic of [[Ulfilas]] was pronounced, primarily through comparative phonetic reconstruction. Furthermore, because Ulfilas tried to follow the original Greek text as much as possible in his translation, we know that he used the same writing conventions as those of contemporary Greek. Since the Greek of that period is well documented, it is possible to reconstruct much of Gothic pronunciation from translated texts. In addition, the way in which non-Greek names are transcribed in the Greek Bible and in Ulfilas' Bible is very informative.
===Vowels===
{| border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="10"
|-----
| Monophthongs<br />[[Image:Phon_gotique2.png]]
| Diphthongs<br />[[Image:Phon_gotique3.png]]
|}
* {{IPA|[/a/]}}, {{IPA|[i]}} and {{IPA|[u]}} can be either long or short. Gothic writing distinguishes between long and short vowels only for {{IPA|[i]}} - writing ''i'' for the short form and ''ei'' for the long (a [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]] or ''false diphthong''), in imitation of Greek usage (ει = [i:]). Single vowels are sometimes long where a historically present [[nasal consonant]] has been dropped in front of an {{IPA|[h]}} (a case of [[compensatory lengthening]]). Thus, the preterite of the verb ''briggan'' {{IPA|[briŋgan]}} "to bring" (English ''bring'', German ''bringen'') becomes ''brahta'' {{IPA|[bra:xta]}} (English ''brought'', German ''brachte''), from the [[proto-Germanic]] *''braŋk-dē''. In detailed [[transliteration]], where the intent is more [[phonetic transcription]], length is noted by a [[macron]] (or failing that, often a [[circumflex]]): ''brāhta'', ''brâhta''. {{IPA|[aː]}} is found often enough in other contexts: ''brūks'' "useful" (German ''Gebrauch'', Swedish ''bruk'' "usage").
* {{IPA|[eː]}} and {{IPA|[oː]}} are long [[close-mid vowel]]s. They are written as ''e'' and ''o'': ''ne{{Unicode|ƕ}}'' {{IPA|[neːʍ]}} "near" (English ''nigh'', German ''nah''); ''fodjan'' {{IPA|[foːdjan]}} "to feed".
* {{IPA|[ɛ]}} and {{IPA|[ɔ]}} are short [[open-mid vowel]]s. They are noted using the digraphs ''ai'' and ''au'': ''taihun'' {{IPA|[tɛhun]}} "ten" (German ''zehn''), ''dauhtar'' {{IPA|[dɔxtar]}} "daughter" (German ''Tochter''). In transliterating Gothic, accents are placed on the second vowel of these digraphs ''aí'' and ''aú'' to distinguish them from the original diphthongs ''ái'' and ''áu'': ''taíhun'', ''daúhtar''. In most cases short {{IPA|[ɛ]}} and {{IPA|[ɔ]}} are allophones of {{IPA|/i, u/}} before {{IPA|[r, h, ʍ]}}. Furthermore, the reduplication syllable of the reduplicating preterites has ''ai'' as well, which is probably pronounced as a short {{IPA|[ɛ]}}. Finally, short {{IPA|[ɛ]}} and {{IPA|[ɔ]}} occur in loan words from Greek and Latin (''aípiskaúpus'' {{IPA|[ɛpiskɔpus]}} = {{Polytonic|ἐπίσκοπος}} "bishop", ''laíktjo'' {{IPA|[lɛktjoː]}} = ''lectio'' "lection", ''Paúntius'' {{IPA|[pɔntius]}} = ''Pontius'').
* The Germanic [[diphthong]]s ''ai'' and ''au'' appear as ''ai'' and ''au'' in Gothic (normally written with an accent on the first vowel to distinguish them from ''ai, au'' < Germanic ''i/e, u''). Some researchers suppose that they were still pronounced as diphthongs in Gothic, i.e. {{IPA|[ai]}} and {{IPA|[au]}}, whereas others think that they have become long [[open-mid vowel]]s, i.e. {{IPA|[ɛː]}} and {{IPA|[ɔː]}}: ''ains'' {{IPA|[ains] / [ɛːns]}} "one" (German ''eins''), ''augo'' {{IPA|[auγoː] / [ɔːγoː]}} "eye" (German ''Auge''). In Latin sources Gothic names with Germanic ''au'' are rendered with ''au'' until the 4th century and ''o'' later on (''Austrogoti'' > ''Ostrogoti''). Long {IPA|[ɛː]}} and {{IPA|[ɔː]}} occur as allophons of {IPA|/eː}} and {IPA|/u:, oː/}} respectively before a following vowel: ''waian'' {{IPA|[wɛːan]}} "to blow" (German ''wehen''), ''bauan'' {{IPA|[bɔːan]}} "to build" (German "bauen", Swedish ''bo'' "live"), also in Greek words ''Trauada'' "Troad" (Gk. {{Polytonic|Τρῳάς}}).
* {{IPA|[y]}} (pronounced like German ''ü'' and French ''u'' and similar to the ''ew'' in ''n'''ew''''') is a Greek sound used only in borrowed words. It is transliterated as ''w'' in vowel positions: ''azwmus'' {{IPA|[azymus]}} "unleavened bread" (< Gk. {{polytonic|ἄζυμος}}). It represents an υ (y) or the diphthong οι (oi) in Greek, both of which were pronounced {{IPA|[y]}} in period Greek. Since the sound was foreign to Gothic, it was most perhaps pronounced {{IPA|[i]}}.
* {{IPA|[iu]}} is a descending [[diphthong]], i.e. {{IPA|[iu̯]}} and not {{IPA|[i̯u]}}: ''diups'' {{IPA|[diu̯ps]}} "deep" (German ''tief'', Swedish ''djup'').
* Greek diphthongs: In [[Ulfilas]]' era, all the diphthongs of classical Greek had become simple vowels in speech (''[[monophthong]]ization''), except for αυ (au) and ευ (eu), which were probably still pronounced as {{IPA|[aβ]}} and {{IPA|[ɛβ]}}. (They evolved into {{IPA|[av/af]}} and {{IPA|[ev/ef]}} in modern Greek.) Ulfilas notes them, in words borrowed from Greek, as ''aw'' and ''aiw'', probably pronounced {{IPA|[au, ɛu]}}: ''Pawlus'' {{IPA|[paulus]}} "Paul" (Gk. {{Polytonic|Παῦλος}}), ''aíwaggelista'' {{IPA|[ɛwaŋgeːlista]}} "evangelist" (Gk. {{Polytonic|εὐαγγελιστής}}, via the Latin ''evangelista'').
* Simple vowels and diphthongs (original and spurious ones) can be followed by a {{IPA|[w]}}, which was likely pronounced as the second element of a diphthong with roughly the sound of {{IPA|[u]}}. It seems likely that this is more of an instance of [[phonetic coalescence]] than of phonological diphthongs (such as, for example, the sound {{IPA|[aj]}} in the French word ''paille'' ("straw"), which is not the diphthong {{IPA|[ai]}} but rather a vowel followed by an [[approximant]]): ''alew'' {{IPA|[aleːw]}} "olive oil" (< Latin ''oleum''), ''snáiws'' {{IPA|[snɛːws] }} ("snow"), ''lasiws'' {{IPA|[lasiws]}} "tired" (English ''lazy'').
===Consonants===
{| border="2" cellpadding="5" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; text-align: center; font-size: 95%;"
!&nbsp;
!colspan=2|[[Labial]]s
!colspan=2|[[Dental]]s
!colspan=2|[[Alveolar]]s
!colspan=2|[[Palatal]]s
!colspan=2|[[Velar]]s
!colspan=2|[[Labiovelar]]s
![[Laryngeal]]s
|-
![[Plosive]]s
| ''p'' {{IPA|[p]}}
| ''b'' {{IPA|[b]}}
|colspan=2| &nbsp;
| ''t'' {{IPA|[t]}}
| ''d'' {{IPA|[d]}}
|&nbsp;
| ''?ddj'' {{IPA|[ɟ:]}}
| ''k'' {{IPA|[k]}}
| ''g'' {{IPA|[g]}}
| ''q'' {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| ''gw'' {{IPA|[gʷ]}}
|&nbsp;
|-
![[Fricative]]s
| ''f'' {{IPA|[ɸ, f]}}
| ''b'' {{IPA|[β]}}
| ''þ'' {{IPA|[s]}}
| ''d'' {{IPA|[z]}}
| ''þ'' {{IPA|[θ]}}
| ''d'' {{IPA|[ð]}}
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
| ''g, h'' {{IPA|[x]}}
| ''g'' {{IPA|[ɣ]}}
| ''{{Unicode|ƕ}}'' {{IPA|[ʍ]}}
|&nbsp;
| ''h'' {{IPA|[h]}}
|-
![[Approximant]]s
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|colspan=2| &nbsp;
|colspan=2| &nbsp;
|&nbsp;
| ''j'' {{IPA|[j]}}
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|&nbsp;
| ''w'' {{IPA|[w]}}
|&nbsp;
|-
![[Nasal]]s
|&nbsp;
| ''n'' {{IPA|[m]}}
|colspan=2| &nbsp;
|&nbsp;
| ''n'' {{IPA|[n]}}
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|&nbsp;
| ''g, n'' {{IPA|[ŋ]}}
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|&nbsp;
|-
![[Lateral approximant|Laterals]]
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|colspan=2| &nbsp;
|&nbsp;
| ''l'' {{IPA|[l]}}
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|&nbsp;
|-
![[Trill]]s
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|colspan=2| &nbsp;
|&nbsp;
| ''r'' {{IPA|[r]}}
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|&nbsp;
|}
In general, Gothic consonants are [[Final devoicing|devoiced]] at the ends of words. Gothic is rich in fricative consonants (although many of them may have been [[approximant]]s, it's hard to separate the two) derived by the processes described in [[Grimm's law]] and [[Verner's law]] |
d of music in the late 18th century, see [[Classical music era]]''.
{{History of European art music}}
'''Classical music''' is a broad, somewhat imprecise term, referring to [[music]] produced in, or rooted in the traditions of, [[Western art history|European art]], ecclesiastical and concert music, encompassing a broad period from roughly 1000 to the present day. The central norms of this tradition, according to one school of thought, developed between 1550 and 1825, focusing on what is known as the [[common practice period]].
The term '''classical music''' did not appear until the early 19th century, in an attempt to 'canonize' the period from Bach to Beethoven as an era in music parallel to the golden age of [[sculpture]], [[architecture]] and art of [[classical antiquity]], (from which of course no music has directly survived). The earliest reference to 'classical music' recorded by the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] is from about 1836. Since that time the term has developed in common parlance as a simple opposite to [[popular music]].
== Timeline ==
According to one school of thought, musical works are best understood in the context of their place in musical history; for adherents to this approach, this is essential to full enjoyment of these works. There is a widely accepted system of dividing the history of classical music composition into stylistic periods. According to this system, the major time divisions are:
* [[Ancient music]] - the music generally before the year 476, the approxiamate time of the fall of the [[Roman Empire]]. Most of the extant music from this period is from ancient [[Greece]].
* [[Medieval European music|Medieval]], generally before 1450. Monophonic chant, also called plainsong or [[Gregorian Chant]], was the dominant form until about 1100. Polyphonic (multivoiced) music developed from monophonic chant throughout the late Middle Ages and into the Renaissance.
* [[Renaissance music|Renaissance]], about 1450&ndash;1600, characterized by greater use of [[instrumentation (music)|instrumentation]], multiple melodic lines and by the use of the first bass instruments.
* [[Baroque music|Baroque]], about 1600&ndash;1750, characterized by the use of complex tonal, rather than modal, [[counterpoint]], and growing popularity of keyboard music ([[harpsichord]] and [[pipe organ]]).
* [[Classical music era|Classical]], about 1730&ndash;1820, an important era which established many of the norms of composition, presentation and style. Also, the classical era is marked by the disappearance of the harpsichord and the clavichord in favour of the piano, which from then on would become the predominant instrument for keyboard performance and composition.
* [[Romantic music|Romantic]], 1815&ndash;1910 a period which codified practice, expanded the role of music in cultural life and created institutions for the teaching, performance and preservation of works of music.
* [[Modernism (music) | Modern]], 1905-1985 a period which represented a crisis in the values of classical music and its role within intellectual life, and the extension of theory and technique. Some theorists, such as [[Arnold Schoenberg]] in his essay "Brahms the Progressive," insist that Modernism represents a logical progression from 19th century trends in composition; others hold the opposing point of view, that Modernism represents the rejection or negation of the method of Classical composition.
* [[20th century classical music|20th century]], usually used to describe the wide variety of post-Romantic styles composed through the year [[2000]], which includes late Romantic, Modern and Post-Modern styles of composition.
* The term [[contemporary music]] is sometimes used to describe music composed in the late 20th century through present day.
* The prefix ''[[neo-|neo]]'' is usually used to describe a 20th Century or Contemporary composition written in the style of an earlier period, such as classical, romantic, or modern. So for example, [[Sergei Prokofiev|Prokofiev]]'s ''Classical Symphony'' is considered a Neo-Classical composition.
The dates are [[Dates of classical music eras|generalizations]], since the periods overlapped. Some authorities subdivide the periods further by date or style. However, it should be noted that these categories are to an extent arbitrary; the use of [[counterpoint]] and [[fugue]], which is considered characteristic of the Baroque era, was continued by [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], who is generally classified as typical of the Classical period, by [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] who is often described as straddling the Classical and Romantic periods, and [[Johannes Brahms|Brahms]], who is often classified as Romantic.
This chart shows a selection of the most famous classical composers. For a more complete overview see [[Graphical timeline for classical composers]]
{{Timeline Classical Composers Famous}}
== Classical music as "music of the classical era" ==
''Main article:'' [[Classical music era]]
In [[music history]], a different meaning of the term ''classical music'' is occasionally used: it designates music from a period in musical history covering approximately [[Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach]] to [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] &ndash; roughly, 1730&ndash;1820. When used in this sense, the initial C of ''Classical music'' is sometimes capitalized to avoid confusion.
== The nature of classical music ==
Classical music is primarily a ''written'' musical tradition, preserved in [[music notation]], as opposed to being transmitted orally, by rote, or in recordings. While differences between particular performances of a classical work are recognized, a work of classical music is generally held to transcend any particular performance of it. Works that are centuries old often are performed far more often than works recently composed. The use of notation is an effective vehicle for transmitting classical music because all active participants in the classical music tradition are able to read music and are schooled in both historical and contemporary performance practices. Normally, this ability comes from formal training, which usually begins with learning to play an instrument, and sometimes continues with instruction in music theory and composition. However, there are many passive participants in classical music who enjoy it without being able to read it or perform it.
Classical music is meant to be experienced for its own sake. It is unlike those other forms of music that serve merely as an adjunct to other forms of entertainment. Performances of classical music often take place in a relatively solemn atmosphere, with the audience expected to maintain silence and remain immobile during the performance, so that everyone can hear each note and nuance. The performers usually dress formally, a practice which is often taken as a gesture of respect for the music, and performers normally do not engage in casual banter or other direct involvement with the audience. Amateur private readings of [[chamber music]] are more informal home occasions.
Written transmission, along with the veneration bestowed on classical works, has important implications for the performance of classical music. To a fair degree, performers are expected to perform a work in a way that realizes the original intentions of the composer, which during the 19th century became stated ever more explicitly (down to the level of small, note-by-note details) in the score. Indeed, deviations from the composer's intentions are sometimes condemned as outright ethical lapses. Yet the opposite trend--admiration of performers for new "interpretations" of the composer's work, can be seen, and it is not unknown for a composer to praise a performer for achieving a better realization of the composer's original intent than the composer was able to imagine. Thus, classical music performers often achieve very high reputations for their musicianship, even if they do not compose themselves.
Classical composition often aspires to a very complex relationship between the affective ([[emotion|emotional]]) content of the music, and the [[idea]] content. There is, in the most esteemed works of Classical music, an intensive use of [[Musical development]], the process by which a musical germ idea or ''motif'' is repeated in different contexts, or in altered form, so that the mind of the listener consciously or unconsciously compares the different versions. The classical genres of [[sonata form]] and [[fugue]] employ particularly rigorous forms of musical development. (See also [[History of sonata form]])
Another consequence of the primacy of the composer's written score is that ''[[improvisation]]'' plays a relatively minor role in classical music--in sharp contrast to traditions like [[jazz]], where improvisation is central. Improvisation in classical music performance was far more common during the [[Baroque]] era, and recently the performance of such music by modern classical musicians has been enriched by a revival of the old improvisational practices. During the Classical period, [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]] and [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] sometimes improvised the [[cadenza]]s to their [[piano concerto]]s--but tended to write out the cadenzas when other soloists were to perform them.
''Art music,'' ''concert music,'' and ''orchestral music'' are terms sometimes used as synonyms of classical music.
===Complexity===
Classical works are generally considered to display great musical complexity through heavy use of [[Musical development|development]], [[Modulation_(music)|modulation]] (changing of keys), little outright repetition, a wide use of musical phrases that are not default length--that is, four or eight bars long- counterpoint, polyphony and sophisticated harmony.
Also, in classical music very long works (30 minutes to three hours) may be built u |
the legal system means that the civil defendant is often forced to either pay whatever it takes to defend himself, or enter into a settlement with the opposing party. This is typified in [[Danny Devito]]'s famous quote in ''[[Other People's Money]]'' that "lawyers are like nuclear weapons, you have yours, I have mine, and when we use them they %^%$ everything up" applies here. Contrary to popular belief, however, trial lawyers are not the wealthiest members of the profession - the lawyers who make the most money are often never involved in litigation at all, but rather in the structuring of mergers and similar relationships between corporations.
[[Category:Legal systems]]
[[Category:Court systems]]
[[he:השיטה האדברסרית]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Aa</title>
<id>2599</id>
<revision>
<id>28905531</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-21T13:28:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ceyockey</username>
<id>150564</id>
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<minor />
<comment>added R-template</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[AA]] {{R from other capitalisation}}</text>
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<page>
<title>Aarons rod</title>
<id>2600</id>
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<id>15900997</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-26T02:58:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
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<comment>#REDIRECT [[Aaron's rod]]; same content</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aaron's rod]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Abandonment in marine insurance</title>
<id>2601</id>
<revision>
<id>15900998</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-01T17:08:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ap</username>
<id>122</id>
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<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abandonment]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Abano Terme</title>
<id>2602</id>
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<id>41058623</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T20:11:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Unyoyega</username>
<id>460372</id>
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<comment>fixing interwikis +: fr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Abano Terme''' (town changed its name from ''Abano Bagni'' in [[1930]]) is a town in the province of [[Padua]], in the [[Veneto]] region, [[Italy]], on the eastern slope of the [[Colli Euganei]]; it is 6 miles (10 kilometers) southwest by rail from Padua. Abano Terme's population is 18,232 ([[2001]]) (in [[1901]] it was only 4,556).
The town's hot springs and mud baths are much resorted to, and were known to the Romans as Aponi fons or Aquae Patavinae. A description of them is given in a letter of [[Theodoric_the_Great|Theodoric]], the king of the [[Ostrogoths]]. Some remains of the ancient baths have been discovered (S. Mandruzzato, ''Trattato dei Bagni d'Abano,'' Padua, 1789). An oracle of [[Geryon]] lay near, and the so-called ''sortes Praenestinae'' (C.I.L. i., Berlin, 1863; 1438-1454), small bronze cylinders inscribed, and used as oracles, were perhaps found here in the 16th century.
The waters were hot, sometimes as high as 180 to 187 degrees Fahrenheit. When applied to the surface of the body, either by bathing or by means of the ''mud'' application or process, they were said to be efficacious in the cure of rheumatism, gout, and diseases of the skin.tructures
The spa resorts of Abano Terme have modern hotels and facilities and is one of Europe's most important spas.
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abano Bagni}}
{{1911}}
''This article incorporates text from the 1851 [[Encyclopedia Americana]], a work in [[public domain]].
[[Category:Towns in the Veneto]]
[[de:Abano Terme]]
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[[fr:Abano Terme]]
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[[ja:アーバノ・テルメ]]
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[[ru:Абано-Терме]]
[[sv:Abano]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Abaris</title>
<id>2603</id>
<revision>
<id>15901000</id>
<timestamp>2004-04-16T18:46:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Davout</username>
<id>60540</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abaris the Hyperborean]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Abated</title>
<id>2604</id>
<revision>
<id>23093343</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-12T09:36:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jacobw</username>
<id>60298</id>
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<comment>removed vandalism by reverting back to edit of 13:06, 12 July 2005</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Abated''', an ancient technical term applied in [[masonry]] and [[metal]] work to those portions which are sunk beneath the surface, as in inscriptions where the ground is sunk round the letters so as to leave the letters or ornament in relief.
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abated}}
''From [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]]''
[[Category:Construction]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Abati</title>
<id>2605</id>
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<id>40333672</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T21:59:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Freakofnurture</username>
<id>77511</id>
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<comment>{{hndis}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Abati''' can refer to:
*[[Joël Abati]] (born 1970), a French handball player
*[[Niccolò dell'Abbate]] (1509?-1571?), an Italian painter
{{hndis}}</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Abatis</title>
<id>2606</id>
<revision>
<id>32805747</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-26T22:24:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SeventyThree</username>
<id>183256</id>
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<comment>moved pictures from the top to the right</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Abattis.JPG|thumb|300px|right|Abatisses are used in war to keep the approaching enemy under fire for as long as possible.]]
[[Image:Abatis.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Abatis improvised by Japanese troops during [[World War II|World War 2]].]]
[[Image:Giant abatis.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Giant abatis, made from entire trees, is an effective anti-vehicle obstacle.]]
'''Abatis''', '''Abattis''' or '''Abbattis''' (a [[French language|French]] word meaning a heap of material thrown), a term in field [[fortification]] for an obstacle formed of the branches of trees laid in a row, with the tops directed towards the enemy and interlaced or tied with [[wire]]. The abatis is used alone or in combination with [[wire entanglement]]s and other obstacles.
Although used since at least [[Roman Empire|Roman Imperial]] times, abatis is rarely seen nowadays, having been largely replaced by [[wire obstacle]]s. However it may be used as a supplement when [[barbed wire]] is in short supply. Also, a form of giant abatis, using whole trees instead of branches, can be used as an anti-[[tank]] obstacle.
An important weakness of abatis - in comparison to [[barbed wire]] - is that if time allows, it can be destroyed by [[fire]]. Also if it is laced together with [[rope]] instead of [[wire]], the rope can be very quickly destroyed by fire, after which the abatis can be quickly pulled apart by [[grappling hook]]s thrown from a safe distance.
== See also ==
* [[medieval fortification]]
* [[caltrop]]
* [[cheval de frise]]
* [[trou de loup]]
{{fort-stub}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abatis}}
{{1911}}
[[Category:Fortification]]
[[eo:Abatiso]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Antoine Thomson d'Abbadie</title>
<id>2607</id>
<revision>
<id>42025298</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T07:58:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>216.240.48.29</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Antoine Thomson d'Abbadie''' ([[January 3]], [[1810]] &ndash; [[March 19]], [[1897]]), was a [[France|French]] [[geographer]], notable for his travels in [[Ethiopia]] during the first half of the [[19th century]]. He was the older brother of [[Arnaud Michel d'Abbadie]].
They were both born in [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]] of a [[France|French]] father and an Irish mother. The family moved to [[France]] in 1818, and there the brothers received a careful scientific education.
In 1835 the [[French Academy]] sent Antoine on a scientific mission to [[Brazil]], the results being published at a later date (1873) under the title of ''Observations relatives à la physique du globe faites au Bresil et en Ethiopie''. The younger Abbadie spent some time in [[Algeria]] before, in 1837, the two brothers started for Ethiopia, landing at [[Massawa]] in February 1838. They visited various parts of Ethiopia, including the then little-known districts of [[Ennarea]] and [[Kingdom of Kaffa|Kaffa]], sometimes together and sometimes separately. They met with many difficulties and many adventures, and became involved in political intrigues, Antoine especially exercising such influence as he possessed in favour of France and the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] missionaries. After collecting much valuable information concerning the geography, geology, archaeology and natural history of Ethiopia, the brothers returned to France in 1848 and began to prepare their materials for publication.
The more distinguished brother, Antoine, became involved in various controversies relating both to his geographical results and his political intrigues. He was especially attacked by [[Charles Tilstone Beke]], who impugned his veracity, especially with reference to the journey to [[Kana, Ethiopia|Kana]]. But time and the investigations of subsequent explorers have shown that Abbadie was quite trustworthy as to his facts, though wrong in his contention -- hotly contested by Beke -- that the [[Blue Nile]] was the main stream. The topographical |
or remediating this condition so far no great progress has been achieved. The Ganga remains an economically important waterway and polluting it remains economically advantageous[[Image:Ganges_ceremony.jpg|thumb|230px|right|People performing Hindu ceremony in [[Varanasi]].]]
The major [[pollution|polluting]] [[industries]] on the [[Ganges River]] are the [[leather]] industries, especially near [[Kanpur]], which use large amounts of [[chromium]] and other [[chemical]]s, and much of it finds its way into the meager flow of the Ganga. Unfortunately, this is a boom time for leather processing in [[India]], which many view as a form of eco-environmental dumping on the third world, and with the lax and lubricable implementation systems of the [[Uttar Pradesh]] government, it does not seem likely that this will go down. The world bank report 1992, which focussed on the environmental issues, mentions the dissolved-oxygen and riverborne decomposing material at two points on the Ganga.
However, industry is not the only source of pollution. Sheer volume of waste &mdash; estimated at nearly 1 billion litres per day - of mostly untreated raw [[sewage]] &mdash; is a significant factor. Also, inadequate cremation procedures contributes to a large number of partially burnt or unburnt corpses floating down the Ganga, in addition to [[livestock]] corpses.
The Ganga Action Plan has been set up under the Indian Government bureaucracy, and is attempting to build a number of waste treatment facilities, under [[Netherlands|Dutch]] and [[United Kingdom|British]] support, and to collaborate with a number of voluntary organizations. Surprisingly, the [[Hindu]] political parties in India are not very active in the efforts to clean up the Ganga, and it is not very high in the general religious agenda. India's government has already spent over $33 million to address the overwhelming sewage problem. However, things are looking better at the beginning of 2006, as satellite images show increased water clarity in the river.
==Ganges Canal==
Ganges Canal was dug from [[Haridwar]] to [[Kanpur]] in later half of 19th century and a very wide network of small tributary canals were constructed from the main canal to act as source of irrigation in the fertile plains of Western [[Uttar Pradesh]]. [[University_of_Roorkee|University of Roorkee]] was established at [[Roorkee]] to train Civil Engineers who could oversee the construction of this canal. This canal is still supplying water to thousands of villages in western uttar pradesh and water of Ganga, flowing in this canal, is in true sense the life line of western [[Uttar Pradesh]] an area which played a central role in the [[Green revolution]] of India and water of Ganga played a vital role in this endeavor.
==References==
*Alley, Kelly D. On the Banks of the Ganga: When Wastewater Meets a Sacred River, University of Michigan press (2002) [ISBN 0-472-06808-3]
* Darian, Steven G.,''The Ganges in Myth and History'', The University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu (1978) [ISBN 0824805097]
* Newby, Eric, ''Slowly down the Ganges'', Lonely Planet Publications (1998) [ISBN 0864426313]
* [http://www.exoticindiaart.com/article/ganga Ganga The River Goddess - Tales in Art and Mythology], by Sri Nitin Kumar.
* Stephen Alter, ''Sacred Waters: A Pilgrimage up the Ganges River to the Source of Hindu Culture. Harcourt; 1 Us ed edition (October 17, 2001). ISBN 0151005850 ''
==External links==
* [http://www.atmajyoti.org/vi_india_videos.asp Ganga Arati Video] Quicktime streaming video of worship of the Ganges in Hardwar (15 minutes)
==See also==
{{Commons|Category:Ganges River}}
* [[Ganges Delta]]
* [[Ganges Fan]]
* [[Ganga Basin]]
[[Category:Geography of India]]
[[Category:Rivers of India]]
[[Category:Hindu pilgrimage sites]]
[[ang:Gandis]]
[[ar:نهر الغانج]]
[[bg:Ганг]]
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[[cs:Ganga]]
[[da:Ganges]]
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[[et:Ganges]]
[[es:Ganges]]
[[eo:Gango]]
[[fr:Gange]]
[[gu:ગંગા]]
[[ko:갠지스 강]]
[[hi:गंगा]]
[[it:Gange]]
[[he:גנגס]]
[[mr:गंगा]]
[[nl:Ganges (rivier)]]
[[ja:ガンジス川]]
[[no:Ganges]]
[[pl:Ganges]]
[[pt:Rio Ganges]]
[[ru:Ганг (река)]]
[[sa:गङ्गा]]
[[fi:Ganges]]
[[sv:Ganges]]
[[ta:கங்கை ஆறு]]
[[uk:Ганг]]
[[zh:恒河]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Mobile Suit Gundam Wing</title>
<id>12449</id>
<revision>
<id>42012882</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:26:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>130.215.234.118</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Characters */ Removed useless nonsense</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox animanga/Header|
|title_name=Mobile Suit Gundam Wing
|image=Gundamw.jpg
|caption=Gundam Wing title screen
|ja_name=新機動戦記ガンダムＷ
|ja_name_trans=New Mobile Report Gundam W
|genre=[[Mecha]], [[Action movie|Action]], [[Science Fiction]]
}}
{{Infobox animanga/Anime|
|title=
|director=[[Masashi Ikeda]]
|studio=[[Sunrise (company)|Sunrise]]
|network=[[TV Asahi]]
|first_aired=[[April 7]], [[1995]]
|last_aired=[[March 29]], [[1996]]
|num_episodes=49
}}
{{Infobox animanga/OVA|
|title=Gundam Wing: Operation Meteor
|director=[[Masashi Ikeda]]
|studio=[[Sunrise (company)|Sunrise]]
|num_episodes=2
|release_dates=[[April 25]], [[1996]] & [[October 10]], [[1996]]
}}
{{Infobox animanga/Other|
title=OVA/Movie
|content=<nowiki></nowiki>
*[[Gundam Wing - Endless Waltz]] (1997)
}}
{{Infobox animanga/Footer}}
'''''Mobile Suit Gundam Wing''''', known in [[Japan]] as '''''New Mobile Report Gundam W'''''<sup>1</sup> (also known as 新機動戦記ガンダムW ''shin kidō senki gandamu wing'' in [[Japanese language|Japanese]]), is a televised [[Anime]] series, which ran for forty-nine episodes beginning in 1995. Initially directed by Masashi Ikeda and written by Katsuyuki Sumizawa (''[[Ronin Warriors]]''), the series was loosely based on the original [[1979]] [[Gundam]] series, ''[[Mobile Suit Gundam]]'', created by [[Yoshiyuki Tomino]] and [[Hajime Yatate]].
''Gundam Wing'' is one of the alternate universe ''Gundam'' series, taking place in the [[After Colony]] timeline. Man has colonized space (with major colonies at each of the five [[Sun]]-[[Earth]] [[Lagrangian point|Lagrange points]]), and, down on the earth, the nations have united as the Unified Earth Sphere Alliance. Unfortunately, the Alliance rules the colonies with an iron fist. The colonies wanted peaceful resolution to the situation, and this movement was headed by [[Heero Yuy]], but when he is assassinated in the year After Colony 175, the colonies turned to other means.
The year is After Colony 195, and Operation Meteor has been put into affect. Five young boys have been chosen and trained by the scientists, sent to Earth in extremely advanced [[Mobile Suits]] known as "Gundams" because they are constructed from astonishingly durable Gundanium alloy. Gundam Wing centers around these five.
The naming scheme for the series is based on a numerical system. Each character's name is typically derived from the word for a number in various languages ("Heero" means "one", "Duo" means "two", etc). It is based largely on the French counting system. (Quatre, Treize, Une, etc.) Also, naming of OZ mobile suits were based on the Zodiac (with the exception of the ''Tragos'' mobile suit, who's name is derived from ''Capricorn'' rather than simply stated as such) as exemplified by ''Leo, Aries, Cancer'', etc.
Due to the popularity of the series, two OVAs, compiling various scenes from the series along with a few minutes of new footage, were released in 1996 as ''Gundam Wing: Operation Meteor'' I and II. A brand new, three-volume OVA series, ''[[Gundam Wing: Endless Waltz]]'' was made in 1997 as a sequel to the TV series and closes out the After Colony saga. A year later, 1998, a movie version of the OVA series was made, with new footage and a different ending (Last Impression).
[[Manga]] [[Side story|sidestories]] have also been produced. A prequel detailing the events leading up to the launch of the Gundams to Earth, is ''[[Gundam Wing: Episode Zero|Episode Zero]]''. Several sequel manga, occurring between ''Gundam Wing'' and ''Endless Waltz'' have been written, titled, ''[[Gundam Wing: Blind Target]]'', ''[[Gundam Wing: Ground Zero]]'',and ''[[Gundam Wing: Battlefield of Pacifists|Battlefield of Pacifists]]''. A coincident storyline is presented in ''[[Gundam W G-Unit: Last Outpost|Last Outpost (G-Unit)]]''. The ''Gundam Wing, Battlefield of Pacifists'', and ''Endless Waltz'' manga series are published in [[English language|English]] by [[TOKYOPOP]], while ''Blind Target'', ''Ground Zero'', and ''Episode Zero'' are published by [[Viz Communications]].
''Gundam Wing'' had a run on [[Cartoon Network]]'s [[Toonami]] where it was broadcasted as an edited version in the daytime and an uncut version at night. (ex: blood is edited and the word 'kill' is replaced by the word destroy). Also Duo's nickname the ''God of Death'' was edited to the ''Great Destroyer'' (which also included altering two episode titles).
Some traditional fans of Gundam, largely military sci-fi fans, were less pleased with the show, citing poorly perceived battle sequences and shoddy philosophy.
In 1996, a fighting game called [[Gundam Wing: Endless Duel]] was released for the Super Famicom in Japan. The game was never released in the United States or Europe, but enjoys widespread popularity thanks to the [[emulation]] of older video games.
<sup>1</sup> The translation '''''New Mobile Report Gundam W''''' is used by the R2 DVD releases in Japan, and thus is used extensively by the English-language fanbase in order to differentiate it from the [[Universal Century]] ''Gundam'' series. While the use of the term "report" in the title is not necessarily incorrect, it does not convey the full meaning of the original-language terminology. The Japanese word senki (戦記) has a specific meaning of "mili |
ack Bear]]s are much less likely to attack.
The Scandinavian Bear Research project lists the following situations as potentially dangerous:
#Meeting an injured bear
#A human suddenly appearing between a mother and her cubs
#Meeting a bear in its cave
#Meeting a bear who has been provoked by a dog
A careful person should always try to avoid these situations. Anybody who walks in a forest where there are bears could carry around a bell since a Brown Bear's natural instinct is to run away from humans; in groups trail songs are also effective. If camping, do not bring food into the tent and be sure to clean up all garbage; a bear thinks with its stomach. If one still meets a bear it is important to remain calm and to slowly walk in the opposite direction. A running human may trigger the bear's chasing instinct and typically a running bear can outrun a human adult. It is important not to make threatening moves, not to make eye contact nor to shout.
If a Brown Bear attacks and it is not possible to get away, the person should lie down in a [[fetal position]] and put his/her hands around the head to protect from bites. Do not panic.
===Other bear encounters===
[[American Black Bear]]s, which attack to kill and to eat, require a different technique. For these, the person should huddle together if in a group, raise hands or backpack in the air to appear bigger, as well as make lots of noise. There is a good chance of scaring away a Black Bear. If it attacks anyway, fight back. Black Bears will often disengage if injured. The best defense, however, is to make plenty of noise in areas with bears to scare them away before an encounter.
==References==
<references/>
== External links ==
{{commons|Ursus arctos}}
*[http://www.sinapu.org/Pages/Bears/Grizzly_Bears.htm Grizzly Bears in the Southern Rockies]
*[http://www.nationalgeographic.com/kids/creature_feature/0010/ ''National Geographic'' Creature Feature: Brown Bears]
*[http://www.grizzlybear.org/gbstatus/griznum.htm GrizzlyBear.org]
*[http://www.lairweb.org.nz/tiger/conflict10.html Bears]
*[http://www.boone-crockett.org/bgRecords/WorldRecordsDetail.asp?area=bgRecords&type=SKULLS Largest Skulls - Black Bear]
* Spanish bear news (http://www.iberianature.com/material/spainbearnews.htm) regularly-updated news archive on Brown Bears in Spain
*[http://www.wildanimalsonline.com/mammals/brownbear-grizzly.php Brown Bear (Ursus arctos) facts and photos] - Wild Animals Online encyclopedia
[[Category:Bears]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Alps]]
{{Link FA|no}}
[[ast:Osu Pardu]]
[[bg:Кафява мечка]]
[[cs:Medvěd hnědý]]
[[da:Brun bjørn]]
[[de:Braunbär]]
[[es:Ursus arctos]]
[[eo:Bruna urso]]
[[fr:Ours brun]]
[[it:Ursus arctos]]
[[he:דוב חום]]
[[la:Ursus arctos]]
[[lt:Rudasis lokys]]
[[nl:Bruine beer]]
[[ja:ヒグマ]]
[[no:Brunbjørn]]
[[pl:Niedźwiedź brunatny]]
[[pt:Urso pardo]]
[[ru:Бурый медведь]]
[[sl:Rjavi medved]]
[[fi:Karhu]]
[[simple:Brown Bear]]
[[sv:Brunbjörn]]
[[vi:Gấu nâu]]
[[zh:棕熊]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BCS theory</title>
<id>4403</id>
<revision>
<id>41578755</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T07:02:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mdmanser</username>
<id>270941</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>punctuation fixed</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''BCS theory''' (named for its creators, Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer) successfully explains [[conventional superconductor|conventional superconductivity]], the ability of certain [[metal]]s at low [[temperature]]s to conduct [[electricity]] without [[electrical resistance|resistance]]. BCS theory views [[superconductivity]] as a macroscopic [[quantum mechanics|quantum mechanical]] effect. It proposes that [[electron]]s with opposite [[spin (physics)|spin]] can become paired, forming Cooper pairs. Independently and at the same time, superconductivity phenomenon was explained by [[Nikolay Bogoliubov]] by means of the so-called [[Bogoliubov transformations]].
In many superconductors, the attractive interaction between electrons (necessary for pairing) is brought about indirectly by the interaction between the electrons and the vibrating crystal lattice (the [[phonon]]s). Roughly speaking the picture is the following:
An electron moving through a conductor will cause a slight increase in concentration of positive charges in the lattice around it; this increase in turn can attract another electron. In effect, the two electrons are then held together with a certain binding energy. If this binding energy is higher than the energy provided by kicks from oscillating atoms in the conductor (which is true at low temperatures), then the electron pair will stick together and resist all kicks, thus not experiencing resistance.
BCS theory was developed in 1957 by [[John Bardeen]], [[Leon Neil Cooper|Leon Cooper]], and [[John Robert Schrieffer|Robert Schrieffer]], who received the [[Nobel Prize]] for Physics in 1972 as a result.
In 1986, "[[high-temperature superconductivity]]" was discovered (i.e. superconductivity at temperatures
considerably above the previous limit of about 30 K; up to about 130 K). It is believed that at these temperatures other effects are at play; these effects are not yet fully understood. (It is possible that these unknown effects also control superconductivity even at low temperatures for some
materials).
An excellent introduction to BCS theory and related areas of [[condensed matter physics]] at the graduate level is [[John Robert Schrieffer|Schrieffer]]'s book, ''Theory of Superconductivity'', ISBN 0-7382-0120-0.
== More details ==
BCS theory starts from the assumption that there is some attraction between electrons, which can overcome the [[Coulomb repulsion]]. In most materials (in low temperature superconductors), this attraction is brought about indirectly by the coupling of electrons to the [[crystal lattice]] (as explained above). However, the results of BCS theory do ''not'' depend on the origin of the attractive interaction. The original results of BCS (discussed below) described an "s-wave" superconducting state, which is the rule among low-temperature superconductors but is not realized in many "unconventional superconductors", such as the "d-wave" high-temperature superconductors.
Extensions of BCS theory exist to describe these other cases, although they are insufficient to completely describe the observed features of high-temperature superconductivity.
BCS were able to give an approximation for the quantum-mechanical state of the
system of (attractively interacting) electrons inside the metal. This state is
now known as the "BCS state". Whereas in the normal metal electrons move independently, in the BCS state they are bound into "Cooper pairs" by the attractive interaction.
BCS have derived several important theoretical predictions that are independent
of the details of the interaction (the quantitative predictions mentioned below hold only for sufficiently weak attraction between the electrons, which is however fulfilled for many low temperature superconductors
- the so-called "weak-coupling case"). These have been confirmed in numerous experiments:
* Since the electrons are bound into Cooper pairs, a finite amount of energy is needed to break these apart into two independent electrons. This means there is an "energy gap" for "single-particle excitation", unlike in the normal metal (where the state of an electron can be changed by adding an arbitrarily small amount of energy). This energy gap is highest at low temperatures but vanishes at the transition temperature when superconductivity ceases to exist. BCS theory correctly predicts the variation of this gap with temperature. It also gives an expression that shows how the gap grows with the strength of the attractive interaction and the (normal phase) single particle [[density of states]] at the [[Fermi energy]]. Furthermore, it describes how the density of states is changed on entering the superconducting state, where there are no electronic states any more at the Fermi energy. The energy gap is most directly observed in tunneling experiments and in reflection of microwaves from the superconductor.
* The ratio between the value of the energy gap at zero temperature and the value of the superconducting transition temperature (expressed in energy units) takes the universal value of 3.5, independent of material.
* Due to the energy gap, the specific heat of the superconductor is suppressed strongly ([[exponential decay |exponentially]]) at low temperatures, there being no thermal excitations left. However, before reaching the transition temperature, the specific heat of the superconductor becomes even higher than that of the normal conductor (measured immediately above the transition) and the ratio of these two values is found to be universally given by 2.5.
* BCS theory correctly predicts the [[Meissner effect]], i.e. the expulsion of a [[magnetic field]] from the superconductor and the variation of the penetration depth (the extent of the screening currents flowing below the metal's surface) with temperature.
* It also describes the variation of the critical magnetic field (above which the superconductor can no longer expel the field but becomes normalconducting) with temperature. BCS theory relates the value of the critical field at zero temperature to the value of the transition temperature and the density of states at the Fermi energy.
''Original reference'':
J. Bardeen, L. N. Cooper, and J. R. Schrieffer, "Theory of Superconductivity",
''Phys. Rev.'' '''108''' (5), 1175 (1957).
{{four-fermion interactions}}
[[Category:Superconductivity]]
[[ca:Teoria BCS]]
[[de:BCS-Theorie]]
[[es:Teoría BCS]]
[[ko:BCS 이론]]
[[id:Teori BCS]]
[[it:Coppia di Cooper]]
[[ja:BCS理論]]
[[pl:Teoria BCS]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
|
]s typically process vector images.
[[PostScript]] and [[Printer Control Language|PCL]] printers can combine all three types of data.
Today it is common to print everything (even plain text) by sending ready bitmapped images to the printer, because it allows better control over formatting.&nbsp; Many [[printer driver]]s do not use the text mode at all, even if the printer is capable of it.
==Monochrome, color and photo printers==
A [[monochrome]] printer can only produce an [[image]] consisting of one [[color]], usually [[black]]. A monochrome printer may also be able to produce graduations of [[tone]] of that color, such as a [[grayscale|grey-scale]].
A color printer can produce images of multiple colors.
A photo printer is a color printer that can produce images that mimic the [[Gamut|color range]] ([[gamut]]) and [[resolution]] of [[photograph]]ic methods of printing.
{{sect-stub}}
==Methods of image creation==
The [[medium]] for most printers is [[paper]], so they are usually classified according to the method of image creation:
===Toner-based printers===
[[Laser printer]]s refer to the method used to adhere [[toner]] to the media. The advent of cost-effective, [[precision]] [[laser]]s has made them the dominant [[toner]]-based monochrome printer type for home and office applications. Another toner based printer is the [[LED printer]] which uses an array of [[LED]]s instead of a laser to cause toner adhesion.
===Inkjet printers===
{{main|Inkjet printer}}
[[Inkjet printer]]s [[atomization|spray]] very small, precise amounts (usually a few [[picolitre]]s) of [[ink]] onto the media. For color applications including photo printing, ink jet methods are dominant. Inkjet printers or bubble-jet printers are one of the most commonly used printers. They consist of nozzles that produce very small ink bubbles that turn into tiny droplets of ink. The dots formed are the size of tiny pixels. Ink-jet printers can print high quality text and graphics. They are also almost silent in operation. They are cheaper than laser printers, but are expensive to run as their cartridges need to be frequently replaced.
===Impact printers===
Impact printers rely on a [[force|forcible]] impact to [[transfer]] ink to the media, similar to [[typewriter]]s, that are typically limited to reproducing [[text]]. A [[daisy wheel printer]] is a specific type of impact printer where the [[Typesetting|type]] is moulded around the edge of a wheel. A golf ball typewriter is similar to the daisy wheel type but has the characters distributed over the face of the globe shape.
===Dot-matrix printers===
{{main|Dot matrix printer}}
In the general sense many printers rely on a [[matrix (math)|matrix]] of [[pixel]]s, or [[dot]]s, that together form the larger image. However, the term [[dot matrix printer]] is specifically used for impact printers that use a matrix of small [[pin]]s to create precise dots. The advantage of dot-matrix over other impact printers is that they can produce [[graphical]] images in addition to text; however the text is generally of poorer quality than impact printers that use letterforms (''type'').
[[Image:Tandy1000HX.jpg|thumbnail|left|275px|A [[Tandy 1000]] HX with a Tandy DMP-133 Dot-matrix printer.]]
Dot-matrix printers can be broadly divided into two major classes:
* Ballistic wire printers (discussed in the [[dot matrix printer]]s article)
* [[Stored energy printer]]s
Dot matrix printers can either be [[character (computing)|character]]-based or line-based (that is, a single horizontal series of pixels across the page), referring to the configuration of the [[print head]].
At one time Dot matrix printers were one of the more common types of printers used for general use - such as for home and small office use. Such printers would have either 9 or 24 pins on the print head. 24 pin print heads were able to print at a higher quality. Once the price of Inkjet printers dropped to the point where they were competitive with Dot matrix printers, Dot matrix printers began to fall out of favor for general use.
Some dot matrix printers, in example the NEC P6300, can be upgraded to print in color. This is achieved through the use of a four-color ribbon mounted on a mechanism (provided in an upgrade kit that replaces the standard black ribbon mechanism after installation) that rises and lowers the ribbons as needed. Color graphics are generally printed in 4 passes at standard resolution, thus slowing down printing considerably. As a result, color graphics can take up to 4 times longer to print than standard monochrome graphics, or up to 8-16 times as long at high resolution mode.
Dot matrix printers are still commonly used in low-cost, low-quality applications like [[cash register]]s, or in demanding, very high volume applications like [[invoice]] printing. The fact that they use an impact printing method allows them to be used to print multi-part documents using [[carbonless copy paper]] (like sales invoices and credit card receipts), whereas other printing methods are unusable with paper of this type. Dot-matrix printers are now (as of 2005) rapidly being superseded even as receipt printers.
=== Line printers ===
[[Line printer]]s, as the name implies, print an entire line of text at a time. Two principle designs existed. In ''drum printers'', a drum carries the entire character set of the printer repeated in each column that is to be printed. In ''chain printers'' (also known as ''train printers''), the character set is arranged multiple times around a chain that travels horizontally past the print line. In either case, to print a line, precisely timed hammers strike against the back of the paper at the exact moment that the correct character to be printed is passing in front of the paper. The paper presses forward against a ribbon which then presses against the character form and the impression of the character form is printed onto the paper.
These printers were the fastest of all impact printers and were used for bulk printing in large computer centres. They were virtually never used with [[personal computer]]s and have now been partly replaced by high-speed laser printers.
=== Other printers ===
A number of other sorts of printers are important for historical reasons, or for special purpose uses:
* [[Digital minilab]] ([[photographic paper]])
* [[Dye-sublimation printer]]s are sometimes used to produce high-quality color, or photographic, prints
* [[VT52|Electrolytic printer]]s
* [[Friden Flexowriter]]
* [[IBM Selectric typewriter]]
* [[Microsphere]] (special paper)
* [[Spark printer]] (supplied for [[Sinclair ZX81]])
* [[Teletype]]
* [[Thermal printer]] (heat sensitive paper)
** [[barcode printer]] uses heat to print [[barcode]]s
* [[Thermal wax printer]] (Xerox/Tektronix)
== The printer manufacturing business ==
Often the [[razor and blades business model]] is applied. That is, a company may sell a printer at cost, and make profits on the [[ink cartridge]], [[paper]], or some other [[replacement part]]. This has caused [[legal dispute]]s regarding the [[right]] of companies other than the printer [[manufacturer]] to sell [[compatible]] ink cartridges.
== Printing speed ==
The speed of early printers was measured in units of '''characters per second'''. More modern printers are measured in '''pages per minute'''. These measures are used primarily as a marketing tool, and are not well standardised. Usually pages per minute refers to sparse monochrome office documents, rather than dense pictures which usually print much more slowly.
== Printer job classes ==
They are collections of printers. [[Print job]]s sent to a class are forwarded to the first available printer in the class.
== Forensic identification ==
{{section-stub}} <!-- Identical with copiers. Changes here should be done there too. -->
Similar to [[forensic identification]] of [[typewriter]]s, computer printers and [[copier]]s can be traced down by imperfections in their output. The mechanical tolerances of the toner and paper feed mechanisms cause [[banding]], which contain information about the individual device's mechanical properties. It is sometimes possible to identify the manufacturer and brand, but in some cases the individual printer can be identified from a set of known ones by comparing their outputs. [http://news.uns.purdue.edu/UNS/html4ever/2004/041011.Delp.forensics.html] [http://dsc.discovery.com/news/briefs/20041011/printer.html]
Some high-quality color printers and copiers [[steganography|steganographically]] embed their identification code into the printed pages, as fine and almost invisible patterns of yellow dots. The sources identify [[Xerox]] and [[Canon Inc.|Canon]] as companies doing this [http://www.pcworld.com/news/article/0,aid,118664,00.asp] [http://www.pcworld.idg.com.au/index.php/id;1002274598]. The [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] has investigated[http://www.eff.org/Privacy/printers/] this issue and documented how the Xerox DocuColor printer's serial number, as well as the date and time of the printout, are encoded in a repeating 8×15 dot pattern in the yellow channel. [[Electronic Frontier Foundation|EFF]] is working to reverse engineer [http://www.eff.org/Privacy/printers/list.php additional printers].
==See also==
*[[Plotter]]
*[[Spooling]]
*[[PostScript]] and [[PostScript Printer Description]]
*[[Printer Command Language]]
*[[Internet Printing Protocol]] ([[CUPS]]).
*[[Printer driver]]
*[[Multifunction printer]]
*[[graphical output device]]
*[[PictBridge]]: a standard to print camera pictures without using a computer.
*[[Winprinter]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.mobileprinting.org/home Mobile Imaging and Printing Consortium], [[MIPC]].
* [http://www.barcodeprintersonline.com Learn More About Barcode Printers]
* [http://www.printer-reviews.org/ Printer Reviews ] Reviews on hundreds of printers submitted by consumers
* [http://www.subcoded.com/printer/ Printer Review Blog ] S |
d<br/>properties]]
| [[Refractive index|''n'']], [[Dielectric constant|''&epsilon;<sub>r</sub>'']], etc.
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} chemdata supplement#Thermodynamic properties|Thermodynamic<br/>data]]
| Phase behaviour<br>Solid, liquid, gas
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} chemdata supplement#Spectral data|Spectral data]]
| [[UV/VIS spectroscopy|UV]], [[Infrared spectroscopy|IR]], [[NMR spectroscopy|NMR]], [[Mass spectrometry|MS]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Related compounds
|-
| Related [[alcohol]]s
| [[1-Propanol|1-propanol]],<br/>[[ethanol]], [[2-Butanol|2-butanol]]
|-
| Other compounds
| [[acetone]], [[propylene]],<br/>
[[diisopropyl ether]],<br/>
[[2-bromopropane]]
|-
| {{chembox header}} | <small>Except where noted otherwise, data are given for<br> materials in their [[standard state|standard state (at 25&deg;C, 100 kPa)]]<br/>[[wikipedia:Chemical infobox|Infobox disclaimer and references]]</small>
|-
|}
'''Isopropyl alcohol''' or isopropanol is a common name for '''2-propanol''', a colorless, flammable [[chemical compound]] with a strong odor. It has the [[chemical formula]] CH<sub>3</sub>CHOHCH<sub>3</sub>, and is the simplest example of a [[Alcohol#Primary.2C_secondary.2C_and_tertiary_alcohols|''secondary alcohol'']], where the alcohol carbon is attached to two other carbons. It is an [[isomer]] of [[propan-1-ol]].
==Uses==
[[Sterilization (microbiology)|Sterilizing]] pads typically contain a 60-70% [[solution]] of isopropanol in [[water (molecule)|water]]. Isopropyl alcohol is also commonly used as a [[cleaner]] and [[solvent]] in industry. It is also used as a [[gasoline]] additive for dissolving water or ice in fuel lines. Isopropanol is the main ingredient in [[rubbing alcohol]]. It is used as a [[disinfectant]], and is a common solvent.
Isopropanol is a major ingredient in "dry-gas" [[fuel additive]]. In significant quantities, [[water]] is a problem in fuel tanks as it separates from the gasoline. If the engine tried to combust the water instead of gasoline serious engine problems could result. The isopropanol does not remove the water from the gasoline. Rather, the isopropanol solubilizes the water in the gasoline. Once [[soluble]], the water does not pose the same risk as insoluble water.
It is also a very good cleaning agent and often used for cleaning [[electronics|electronic]] devices such as contact pins (like those on [[Read-only memory|ROM]] [[Cartridge (electronics)|cartridges]]), [[magnetic tape]] deck and [[floppy disk]] drive heads, the lenses of [[lasers]] in [[optical disc]] drives (e.g. [[CD]], [[DVD]]) and removing [[thermal paste]] from [[central processing unit|CPU]]s. It is also used to clean [[computer monitor]]s, and used by many music shops to give second-hand or worn [[records]] a newer looking sheen.
==Chemistry==
Isopropyl alcohol forms an [[azeotrope]] with water at 87.4% alcohol. It is impossible to dehydrate isopropanol further using non-[[azeotropic distillation]]. For this reason, more expensive means, such as using a [[drying agent]], are necessary for production of 100% isopropyl alcohol.
Being a secondary alcohol, isopropanol can be [[Redox|oxidised]] to [[acetone]]. This can be achieved using oxidising agents such as [[chromic acid]], or by [[dehydrogenation]] of isopropanol over a heated copper [[catalyst]]:
(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CH-OH &rarr; [[Acetone|(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>C=O]] + [[Hydrogen|H<sub>2</sub>]]
Isopropanol may be converted to [[2-bromopropane]] using [[phosphorus tribromide]], or dehydrated to [[propylene]] by heating with [[sulfuric acid]]. With [[sodium hydroxide]] and a [[halogen]], or with [[sodium hypochlorite]], it undergoes the [[haloform reaction]]. This means it would give a positive result for an [[iodoform test]].
Isopropanol is often used as a [[hydride]] source in the [[Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley reduction]].
Like most alcohols, isopropyl alcohol reacts with active [[metal]]s such as [[potassium]] to form [[alkoxide]]s which can be called ''isopropoxides''. The reaction with [[aluminium]] (initiated by a trace of [[Mercury_(element)|mercury]]) is used to prepare the catalyst [[aluminium isopropoxide]].
Isopropanol has a maximal [[absorbance]] at 204 nm in an [[Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy|ultraviolet-visible]] spectrum.
==Safety==
Isopropyl alcohol is [[flammable]]. It should be kept away from heat and open flame.
Isopropyl alcohol is oxidized by the liver into [[acetone]]. [[Symptom]]s of isopropyl alcohol poisoning include [[flushing (physiology)|flushing]], [[headache]], [[dizziness]], [[Clinical depression|CNS depression]], [[nausea]], [[vomiting]], [[anesthesia]], and [[coma]]. Use in well-ventilated areas and use protective gloves while using. Poisoning can occur from ingestion, inhalation, or absorption.
==Medicine/Toxicology==
Isopropyl alcohol does NOT cause an [[anion gap]] [[acidosis]] (like [[ethanol]] or [[methanol]]). It produces an elevated [[osmolal gap]], but generally no abnormal anion gap (though this may be seen as a result of [[hypotension]] and [[lactic acidosis]]). Overdoses may cause a fruity, [[acetone]] like odor on the breath.
==External links==
* [http://www.embbs.com/cr/alc/alc5.html Isopropyl Alcohol information page]
[[Category:Alcohols]]
[[Category:Solvents]]
[[de:2-Propanol]]
[[es:Propan-2-ol]]
[[ja:イソプロパノール]]
[[lv:Izopropanols]]
[[ru:Изопропиловый спирт]]
[[fr:isopropanol]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ignatius of Antioch</title>
<id>15435</id>
<revision>
<id>41703739</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T04:13:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>209.78.16.88</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>add template Christian theology</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ignatius.jpg|thumb|Icon of Ignatius being eaten by lions]]
{{Christian theology}}
'''St. Ignatius of Antioch''' (died somewhere between AD [[98]] - AD [[117]] as a martyr in Rome) was the third Bishop or [[Patriarch of Antioch]], after [[Saint Peter]] and [[Evodius]], who died around AD [[68]]. [[Eusebius]], (''Historia Eccl.'', II.iii.22) records that Ignatius succeeded Euodius. Making his apostolic succession even more immediate, [[Theodoret]] (''Dial. Immutab.'', I, iv, 33a) reported that Peter himself appointed Ignatius to the see of Antioch.
Ignatius, who also called himself '''Theophorus''' ("bearer of God"), was most likely a disciple of both [[Apostle|Apostles]] Peter and [[John the Apostle|John]].
Ignatius is generally considered to be one of the [[Apostolic Fathers]] (the earliest authoritative group of the [[Church Fathers]]) and a [[saint]] by both the [[Catholicism|Catholic]], who celebrate his feast day on [[February 1]] (pre-1970 Calendar) and [[October 17]] (post-1970 Calendar), and the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]] and [[Eastern Catholic]] churches, who celebrate his feast day on [[December 20]]. Ignatius based his authority on living his life in imitation of Christ.
Ignatius was arrested by the Roman authorities and transported to [[Rome]] under trying conditions:
:''"From Syria even to Rome I fight with wild beasts, by land and sea, by night and by day, being bound amidst ten leopards, even a company of soldiers, who only grow worse when they are kindly treated."'' &mdash; Ignatius to the Romans,5.
His fate: to die a martyr in the arena. The Roman authorities hoped to make an example of him and thus discourage [[Christianity]] from spreading.
Instead, he met with and encouraged Christians who flocked to meet him all along his route, and he wrote seven letters to the churches in the region (and one to a fellow bishop).
The seven authentic letters are:
*1)To the [[Ephesus|Ephesians]]
*2)To the [[Magnesia on the Maeander|Magnesians]]
*3)To the [[Tralles|Trallians]]
*4)To the [[Rome|Romans]]
*5)To the [[Amman|Philadephians]]
*6)To the [[Smyrna|Smyrnaeans]]
*7)To [[Polycarp|Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna]]
By the 5th century, this authentic collection had been enlarged by spurious letters, and the original letters had been improved with interpolations, created to posthumously enlist Ignatius as an unwitting witness in theological disputes of that age, while the purported eye-witness account of his martyrdom is also thought to be a forgery from around the same time.
A detailed but spurious account of Ignatius' arrest and his travails and martyrdom is the material of the ''Martyrium Ignatii'' which is presented as being an eyewitness account for the church of Antioch, and as if written by Ignatius' companions, Philo of Cilicia, deacon at Tarsus, and Rheus Agathopus, a Syrian. Though [[Bishop Ussher]] regarded it as genuine, if there is any genuine nucleus of the ''Martyrium'', it has been so greatly expanded with interpolations that no part of it is without questions. Its most reliable manuscript is the 10th century Codex Colbertinus (Paris), in which the ''Martyrium'' closes the collection. The ''Martyrium'' presents the confrontation of the bishop Ignatius with [[Trajan]] at Antioch, a familiar [[trope]] of ''Acta'' of the martyrs, and many details of the long, partly overland voyage to Rome.
After Ignatius' martyrdom in the [[Colosseum|Flavian Amphitheatre]], his remains were honorably carried back to Antioch by his companions, and were first interred outside the city gates, then removed by the Emperor [[Theodosius II]] to the Tychaeum, or Temple of [[Tyche]] which was converted into a Christian church dedicated to Ignatius. In 637 the relics were translated to St Clement's, Rome.
The letters of Ignatius have proved to be important testimony to the development of Christian [[theology]], since the number of extant writings from this period of church history is very small. They bear signs of being written in great hast |
egan to build up his huge network of correspondents. His lengthy and frequent missives would make him one of the great letter writers of the century. Among his correspondents were the young [[Forrest J. Ackerman]], [[Robert Bloch]] (''[[Psycho]]'') and [[Robert E. Howard]] (''[[Conan the Barbarian]]'' series).
Lovecraft's mother also was committed to the Butler Hospital, where she died from surgical complications on [[May 21]], [[1921]].
Shortly after, he attended an amateur journalist convention where he met [[Sonia Greene]]. She was of [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]] [[Jew]]ish ancestry, and, having been born in 1883, seven years older than Lovecraft. They married in 1924, and the couple moved to the [[Political subdivisions of New York State#Borough|Borough]] of [[Brooklyn, New York|Brooklyn]] in [[New York City]]. Lovecraft's aunts may have been unhappy with this arrangement. Lovecraft himself rather disliked New York life. A few years later he and Greene agreed to an amicable divorce, and he returned to Providence to live with his aunts during their remaining years. Due to the unhappiness of their marriage, some biographers have speculated that Lovecraft could have been [[asexual]].
Back in Providence Lovecraft lived in a "spacious brown Victorian wooden house" at 10 Barnes Street until 1933 (this is the address given as the home of Dr. Willett in ''[[The Case of Charles Dexter Ward]]''). The period after his return to Providence &mdash; the last decade of his life &mdash; was Lovecraft's most prolific. During this time period he produced almost all of his best known short stories for the leading [[pulp magazine|pulp publications]] of the day (primarily ''[[Weird Tales]]'') as well as longer efforts like ''The Case of Charles Dexter Ward'' and ''[[At the Mountains of Madness]]''. He frequently revised work for other authors and did a large amount of ghost-writing.
Despite his best writing efforts, however, he grew ever poorer. He was forced to move to smaller and meaner lodgings with his surviving aunt. He was also deeply affected by [[Robert E. Howard]]'s [[suicide]]. In 1936 he was diagnosed with [[cancer (medicine)|cancer]] of the intestine and he also suffered from [[malnutrition]]. He lived in constant pain until his death the following year (1937) in Providence, [[Rhode Island]].
Lovecraft's grave in Swan Point Cemetery in Providence is occasionally marked with [[graffiti]] quoting his famous phrase from ''[[The Call of Cthulhu]]'' (originally from ''The Nameless City''):
:''"That is not dead which can eternal lie,''
:''And with strange aeons even death may die."''
Lovecraft was listed along with his parents on the Phillips family monument. That was not enough for his fans, so in 1977 a group of individuals pitched in to buy him a headstone of his own. They chose a plain block of granite, on which they had inscribed Lovecraft's name, the dates of his birth and death and the phrase, "I AM PROVIDENCE," a line from one of his personal letters.
==Background of Lovecraft's work==
Much of Lovecraft's work was directly inspired by his [[nightmare]]s, and it is perhaps this direct insight into the [[subconscious]] and its [[symbolism]] that helps to account for their continuing resonance and popularity. All these interests naturally led to his deep affection for the works of [[Edgar Allan Poe]], who heavily influenced his earliest macabre stories and writing style. Lovecraft's discovery of the stories of [[Edward Plunkett, 18th Baron Dunsany|Lord Dunsany]] moved his writing in a new direction, resulting in a series of imitative fantasies in a "Dreamlands" setting. It was probably the influence of [[Arthur Machen]], with his carefully constructed tales concerning the survival of ancient evil, and his mystic beliefs in hidden mysteries which lay behind reality, that finally helped inspire Lovecraft to find his own voice from 1923 onwards. This took on a dark tone with the creation of what is today often called the [[Cthulhu Mythos]], a pantheon of alien extra-dimensional deities and horrors which predate mankind, and which are hinted at in aeon-old myths and legends. The strangeness of the mythos' style may have been influenced, and was certainly foreshadowed, by the paintings of [[Hieronymus Bosch]]. The term 'Cthulhu Mythos' was coined by Lovecraft's correspondent and fellow author, [[August Derleth]], after Lovecraft's death; Lovecraft referred to his artificial mythology as "Yog-Sothothery"[http://www.sff.net/people/timpratt/611.html]. His stories created one of the most influential plot devices in all of horror: the ''[[Necronomicon]]'', the secret [[grimoire]] written by the mad [[Arab]] [[Abdul Alhazred]]. The resonance and strength of the Mythos concept have led some to believe that Lovecraft had based it on actual myth, and [[faux]] editions of the ''Necronomicon'' have also been published over the years.
His prose is somewhat [[antiquarian]]. He was fond of heavy use of unfamiliar adjectives such as "[[wikt:eldritch|eldritch]]", "[[wikt:rugose|rugose]]", "[[wikt:noisome|noisome]]", "[[wikt:squamous|squamous]]", and "[[wikt:cyclopean|cyclopean]]", and of attempts to transcribe dialect speech which have been criticized as inaccurate. His works also featured [[British English]] (he was an admitted [[Anglophile]]), and he sometimes made use of anachronistic spellings, such as "compleat/complete" and "lanthorn/lantern".
Lovecraft was a prolific letter writer, inscribing multiple pages to his group of correspondents in small longhand. He sometimes dated his letters 200 years before the current date, which would have put the writing back in U.S. colonial times, before the [[American Revolution]] that offended his [[Anglophile|Anglophilia]]. He explained that he thought that the [[18th century|18th]] and [[20th century|20th]] centuries were the best; the former being a period of noble grace, and the latter a [[century]] of [[science]]. In his view, the 19th century, particularly the [[Victorian era]], was a "mistake".
==Survey of the work==
The definitive editions (specifically ''At the Mountains of Madness and Other Novels'', ''Dagon and Other Macabre Tales'', ''The Dunwich Horror and Others'', and ''The Horror in the Museum and Other Revisions'') of his prose fiction are published by [[Arkham House]], a publisher originally started with the intent of publishing the work of Lovecraft, but which has since published a considerable amount of other literature as well. In 2005 the prestigious Library of America canonized Lovecraft with a volume of his stories edited by [[Peter Straub]].
Lovecraft's poetry is collected in ''The Ancient Track: The Complete Poetical Works of H. P. Lovecraft'', while much of his juvenilia, various essays on philosophical, political and literary topics, antiquarian travelogues, and other things, can be found in ''Miscellaneous Writings''. Also, Lovecraft's essay ''Supernatural Horror in Literature'', first published in 1927, is a historical survey of horror literature available with endnotes as ''The Annotated Supernatural Horror in Literature''.
===Writing phases===
Lovecraft had three very distinct categories of fiction in which he wrote during his life. Although the groups' stories were often written in overlapping time periods with the other groups, there were still periods where almost all of Lovecraft's writings could be categorized in one of the below mentioned groups. It should be noted that these distinctions have been drawn by others and not by Lovecraft himself.
*[[Macabre]] stories (approximately 1905&ndash;1920)
*[[H.P. Lovecraft's Dream-Cycle|Dream-Cycle]] stories (approximately 1920&ndash;1927)
*[[Cthulhu Mythos]] stories (approximately 1925&ndash;1935)
It might also be noted that some critics see little difference between the Dream-Cycle and the Mythos, often pointing to the recurring Necronomicon and subsequent 'gods'. A frequently given explanation is that the Dream-Cycle belongs more to the genre of fantasy, while the Mythos is science fiction.
===Letters===
Despite the fact that Lovecraft is mostly known for his works of weird fiction, the bulk of Lovecraft's writing mainly consists of voluminous letters about a variety of topics, from weird fiction and art criticism to politics and history. [[S. T. Joshi]] estimates that Lovecraft wrote about 87,500 letters from 1912 until his death in 1937 &mdash; one famous letter from [[November 9]], [[1929]] to Woodburn Harris being 70 pages in length.
Lovecraft was not a very active letter-writer in youth. In 1931 he admitted: "In youth I scarcely did any letter-writing - thanking anybody for a present was so much of an ordeal that I would rather have written a two hundred fifty-line pastoral or a twenty-page treatise on the rings of Saturn." (SL 3.369&ndash;70). The initial interest in letters stemmed from his correspondence with his cousin Phillips Gamwell but even more important was his involvement in the amateur journalism movement, which was responsible for the enormous number of letters Lovecraft produced.
Lovecraft clearly states that his contact to numerous different people through letter-writing was one of the main factors in broadening his view of the world: "I found myself opened up to dozens of points of view which would otherwise never have occurred to me. My understanding and sympathies were enlarged, and many of my social, political, and economic views were modified as a consequence of increased knowledge." (SL 4.389).
Today there are four publishing houses that have released letters from Lovecraft &mdash; Arkham House with its five-volume edition ''Selected Letters'' being the most prominent. Other publishers are Hippocampus Press (''Letters to Alfred Galpin'' et al.), Night Shade Books (''Mysteries of Time and Spiri |
00]] - [[Marie Windsor]], American film actress (b. [[1919]])
*[[2001]] - [[Ashok Kumar (actor)|Ashok Kumar]], Indian actor (b. [[1911]])
*[[2005]] - [[Eugene J. McCarthy]], [[United States Senator]] (b. [[1916]])
*2005 - [[Richard Pryor]], American comedian and actor (b. [[1940]])
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/10 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[December 9]] - [[December 11]] - [[November 10]] - [[January 10]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:10 Desember]]
[[ar:10 ديسمبر]]
[[an:10 d'abiento]]
[[ast:10 d'avientu]]
[[bg:10 декември]]
[[be:10 сьнежня]]
[[bs:10. decembar]]
[[ca:10 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 10]]
[[cv:Раштав, 10]]
[[co:10 di decembre]]
[[cs:10. prosinec]]
[[cy:10 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:10. december]]
[[de:10. Dezember]]
[[et:10. detsember]]
[[el:10 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:10 de diciembre]]
[[eo:10-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 10]]
[[fo:10. desember]]
[[fr:10 décembre]]
[[fy:10 desimber]]
[[ga:10 Nollaig]]
[[gl:10 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 10일]]
[[hr:10. prosinca]]
[[io:10 di decembro]]
[[id:10 Desember]]
[[ia:10 de decembre]]
[[is:10. desember]]
[[it:10 dicembre]]
[[he:10 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:10 Desember]]
[[ka:10 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:10 gòdnika]]
[[ku:10'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:10 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 10]]
[[lb:10. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 10]]
[[mk:10 декември]]
[[ms:10 Disember]]
[[nap:10 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:10 december]]
[[ja:12月10日]]
[[no:10. desember]]
[[nn:10. desember]]
[[oc:10 de decembre]]
[[pl:10 grudnia]]
[[pt:10 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:10 decembrie]]
[[ru:10 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 10.]]
[[sco:10 December]]
[[sq:10 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:10 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 10]]
[[sk:10. december]]
[[sl:10. december]]
[[sr:10. децембар]]
[[fi:10. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:10 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 10]]
[[tt:10. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 10]]
[[th:10 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:10 tháng 12]]
[[tr:10 Aralık]]
[[uk:10 грудня]]
[[wa:10 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 10]]
[[zh:12月10日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 10]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Taiko</title>
<id>8715</id>
<revision>
<id>41795035</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:24:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Iustinus</username>
<id>148537</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moved "other uses" section to top</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''The unrelated word '''Taik&#333;''' (&#22826;&#38308;) is a title given to a retired ''[[Sessho and Kampaku]]'' regent in Japan. In a narrow sense, taik&#333; would refer to [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]], a more common usage.''
[[Image:TaikoDrummersAichiJapan.jpg|thumb|Taiko drummers in Aichi, Japan]]
The word '''taiko''' (&#22826;&#40723;) means simply "great [[drum]]" in [[Japanese language|Japanese]]. Outside Japan, the word is often used to refer to any of the various Japanese drums (&#21644;&#22826;&#40723;, 'wa-daiko', "Japanese drum", in Japanese) and to the relatively recent art-form of ensemble taiko drumming (sometimes called more specifically, "kumi-daiko" (&#32068;&#22826;&#40723;).
==Types of taiko==
[[Image:Taiko drum manufacturing.jpg|thumb|200px|Display of the manufacturing of a Taiko drum]]
The nagado-daiko (&#38263;&#33012;&#22826;&#40723;, long-body taiko) consists of two pieces of cow hide stretched over a wooden body (traditionally carved from a single piece, now often made from the stays of a barrel) and tacked to high tension. The heads of the tsukeshime-daiko (&#20184;&#32224;&#12417;&#22826;&#40723;, often shortened to simply, "shime-daiko" or "shime") are stretched over iron rings and sandwiched around a smaller body. The tsukeshime-daiko's rope is pulled tight before each use. The okedo-daiko (&#26742;&#33012;&#22826;&#40723;, barrel-body taiko, often shortened to "okedo" or "oke") can be set on a stand and played like other taiko, but is usally strapped over the shoulder so the drummer can walk and play at the same time. Other Japanese taiko include the uchiwa-daiko (&#20869;&#36650;&#22826;&#40723;&#12289;fan taiko), hira-daiko (&#24179;&#22826;&#40723;, flat taiko), o-daiko (&#22823;&#22826;&#40723;, big taiko), and a host of percussion instruments used in Japan's traditional [[noh]], [[gagaku]], and [[kabuki]] ensembles.
[[Image:Giant Taiko Drum Nagoya.jpg|thumb|250px|Giant Taiko drum, with a length of 240cm, a maximum diameter of 240cm, and a weight of 3 tons. Made out of a single piece of wood of a 1200 year old tree]]
The okedo-daiko drums range from small and easy to carry, up to the largest drum of all Japanese drums. Unlike the nagado, this drum can be made in many sizes but NOT in any size due to its stave wooden construction.
The Aomori region is famous for the Nebuta festival where huge okedo are played by many people while carted through the streets.
The Okedo has its own betta stand which was invented by Hayashi Eitetsu.
Again, like the nagado-daiko, the okedo has a rim sound, called "ka." When playing the rim of an okedo, however, it is important to only hit the outermost metal ring and not the actual rim of the drum body. The thin, light wood of the okedo is particularly susceptible to denting and will quickly deteriorate if hit.
==Uses of the Taiko in Warfare==
In feudal Japan, ''taiko'' were often used to motivate troops, to help set a marching pace, and to call out orders or announcements. Approaching or entering a battle, the ''taiko yaku'' (drummer) was responsible for setting the marching pace, usually with six paces per beat of the drum (beat-2-3-4-5-6, beat-2-3-4-5-6).
According to one of the historical chronicles (the ''Gunji Yoshu''), nine sets of five beats would summon an ally to battle, while nine sets of three beats, sped up three or four times is the call to advance and pursue an enemy.
== Related Terms ==
; [[Bachi]] : the wooden sticks used to play taiko drums. (See separate entry for additional details.)
; [[Jiuchi|Ji]] : also called ''Jiuchi'', it is a basic rhythm used to support the main rhythm, or the ''O-uchi''. It can also be described as the meter or feel of a piece (being in a straight duple meter or having a swing feel). Some of the more common rhythms for ji are ''don doko'', ''don ko'', or ''don'' ''go'' (swing pattern). A ''Jikata'' is a performer who plays the ji rhythm.
; Ma : a Japanese term for "space", it is used in music to describe a period of silence. In taiko drumming, ma is the period between hits on the drum. It is important to appreciate this silence when playing taiko, just as you would appreciate the sound of a hit on the drum. Since ensemble taiko is focused on rhythm, the ma of a piece is critical to adding drama, excitement, and tension. Ma can be a rhythmic rest, or an extended silence, to be broken at the player's discretion. If the player concentrates on hearing the ma between each hit, in addition to the hits themselves, he or she will create a much more effective and satisfying sound. A good example of how ma is used is in ''oroshi.''
; Oroshi : is characterized by a series of hits on the taiko. The player starts out slowly with lots of ma. Gradually the ma (time) between each hit becomes shorter and shorter, until the drummer is playing a rapid roll of hits. <!--This could be expanded upon and made a separate entry-->
==See also==
* [[Music of Japan#Taiko|Music of Japan]] for some history of taikos.
* [[Kuchi shoga]], a system used to 'pronounce' taiko sounds.
* ''[[Taiko: Drum Master]]'' (aka ''Taiko no tatsujin'') is a drumming game for the [[PlayStation 2]]
==External links==
===General resources===
* [http://www.kumidaiko.com Kumidaiko.com - Taiko News]
* [http://www.kuni-net.com/index.html Kuni's Taiko Resource]
* [http://www.taiko.com Rolling Thunder]
===Groups in Japan===
* [http://www.wadaikoworld.net/ArtLee/index.html Art Lee]
* [http://www.kodo.or.jp Kodo]
* [http://www.oedosukerokutaiko.com/english-1.html Oedo Sukeroku Daiko]
* [http://www.shidara.co.jp Shidara]
* [http://www.drum-tao.com TAO]
* [http://www.tokara.net Tokara]
* [http://www.yamato.jp Wadaiko Yamato]
===Groups in the U.S.===
* [http://www.asayaketaiko.com Asayake Taiko] ([[University of California, San Diego]])
* [http://www.fushudaiko.com Fushu Daiko] (southern [[Florida]])
* [http://www.jodaiko.com Jodaiko] ([[University of California, Irvine]])
* [http://www.kazedaiko.com Kaze Daiko] ([[Seattle, Washington]])
* [http://www.kennyendo.com Kenny Endo] ([[Hawaii]])
* [http://www.studentgroups.ucla.edu/kyodo/ Kyodo Taiko] ([[University of California, Los Angeles]])
* [http://www.taikoaz.com/ Fushicho Daiko] ([[Phoenix, Arizona]])
* [http://www.tucsontaiko.org/ Odaiko Sonora] ([[Tucson, Arizona]])
* [http://www.onensemble.org On Ensemble] ([[Los Angeles, California]])
* [http://www.portlandtaiko.org Portland Taiko] ([[Portland, Oregon]])
* [http://stlouis.osuwa.taiko.cc St. Louis Osuwa Taiko] ([[St. Louis, Missouri]])
* [http://www.taikodojo.org San Francisco Taiko Dojo] ([[San Francisco, California]])
* [http://www.taiko.org San Jose Taiko] ([[San Jose, California]])
* [http://www.senryutaiko.com Senryu Taiko] ([[University of California, Riverside]])
* [http://taiko.stanford.edu Stanford Taiko] ([[Stanford University]])
* [http://www.sohdaiko.org Soh Daiko] ([[New York, New York]])
* [http://www.taikoproject.com TAIKOPROJECT] ([[Los Angeles, California]])
* [http://www.zendeko.org Zendeko] ([[Los Angeles, California]])
* [http://www.sandiegotaiko.org San Diego Taiko] ([[San Diego, California]])
* [http://www.smokinbachi.com Smokin' Bachi Taiko] ([[Santa Fe, New Mexico]])
* [http://www.concentric.net/~masaf/Taiko.htm Eden Aoba Taiko] ([[San Lorenzo, California]])
===Groups in Canada===
* [http://www.kataritaiko.bc.ca/ Katari] ([[Vancouver, British Columbi |
radiolabel, fluorescent label, or color-forming enzyme and are used as a "probe" to detect it.
Well known applications of this include [[immunoblot]]ting, [[ELISA]] and immunohistochemical staining of microscope slides. The speed, accuracy and simplicity of such tests has led to the development of rapid techniques for the diagnosis of disease, microbes and even illegal drugs ''[[in vivo]]'' (of course tests conducted in a closed environment have a higher degree of accuracy). Such testing is also used to distinguish compatible [[blood type]]s.
==Evolutionary immunology==
Study of the immune system in extant and [[extinction|extinct]] species is capable of giving us a key understanding of the [[evolution]] of species and the immune system.
A development of complexity of the immune system can be seen from simple phagocytotic protection of single celled organisms, to circulating antimicrobial peptides in insects to lymphoid organs in vertebrates. Of course, like much of evolutionary observation, these physical properties are often seen from the [[anthropocentric]] aspect. It should be recognised, that every organism living today has an immune system absolutely capable of protecting it from most forms of harm; those organisms that did not adapt their immune systems to external threats are no longer around to be observed.
[[Insect]]s and other [[arthropod]]s, while not possessing true adaptive immunity, show highly evolved systems of innate immunity, and are additionally protected from external injury (and exposure to pathogens) by their [[chitin]]ous shells.
==See also==
*[[Immune system]]
*[[autoimmunity]]
*[[List of immunologists]]
==References==
* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Immunology Wikibooks Immunology Textbook]
* Goldsby RA, Kindt TK, Osborne BA and Kuby J (2003) '''Immunology''', 5th Edition, W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, New York, ISBN 0-7167-4947-5
[[Category:Immunology| ]]
[[cs:Imunologie]]
[[da:Immunologi]]
[[de:Immunologie]]
[[es:Inmunología]]
[[fr:Immunologie]]
[[ko:면역학]]
[[he:אימונולוגיה]]
[[lb:Immunologie]]
[[hu:Immunológia]]
[[nl:Immunologie]]
[[ja:免疫学]]
[[pl:Immunologia]]
[[pt:Alergia e imunologia]]
[[ro:Imunologie]]
[[ru:Иммунология]]
[[simple:Immunology]]
[[fi:Immunologia]]
[[sv:Immunologi]]
[[th:ภูมิคุ้มกันวิทยา]]
[[vi:Miễn dịch học]]
[[tr:İmmünoloji]]
[[zh:免疫学]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IPA (disambiguation)</title>
<id>14960</id>
<revision>
<id>37424263</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T22:58:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mzajac</username>
<id>61482</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv: please keep the format according to [[MOS:DP]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''IPA''' can stand for:
* [[International Phonetic Alphabet]], a system of phonetic notation
* [[India Pale Ale]], a style of beer
* [[Isopropyl alcohol]], or rubbing alcohol
* [[Independent Pilots Association]]
* [[Independent practice association]], a group of medical doctors
* [[Insolvency Practitioners Association]] of the UK and Ireland
* [[Institute for Propaganda Analysis]]
* [[Institute of Public Affairs]]
* [[International Police Association]]
* [[International Psychoanalytical Association]]
* [[Invasion, Planeshift, Apocalypse]], expansion for the card game Magic the Gathering
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:IPA]]
[[eo:IPA]]
[[ko:IPA]]
[[it:IPA]]
[[nl:IPA]]
[[ja:IPA]]
[[pl:IPA]]
[[ro:IPA (dezambiguizare)]]
[[sl:IPA]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ice beer</title>
<id>14961</id>
<revision>
<id>33351625</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-31T06:45:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Daniel11</username>
<id>63985</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ice beer''' involves lowering the temperature of [[beer]] until [[ice|ice crystals]] form. Since alcohol has a lower freezing point than water and doesn't form crystals, when the ice is filtered off, the alcohol concentration increases. The resulting beer tends to have less character than other beers because the [[yeast]] cells/[[protein]] particles get filtered off with the ice.
<!--
Ice beer became an essential part of a brewer's portfolio, as each company sought to expand its market by imitating the hugely successful introduction of '[[lite]]' beers. In their rush to add an ice beer to their portfolio many companies simplified the brewing process, freezing the beer until ice crystals formed, but then allowing the crystals to melt before continuing with their normal brewing process. This undermined the image of the beer for many consumers, and limited its retail success. (Is there a time for when this happened? A source? Till then, it stays out)
-->
Ice beer is rumoured to have developed by accident in [[Germany]] during [[Oktoberfest]] celebrations with [[bock|bock beers]] which are traditionally brewed in the spring. A particularly cold year froze the beers and a new taste was noticed by the drinkers. These were called ''Eisbocks''. However, in its current form, ice beer was developed from the fruit-juice industry which used to freeze [[orange juice]] [[concentrate]] in order to reduce shipping costs.
[[Category:Beer styles]]
[[th:&#3652;&#3629;&#3595;&#3660;&#3648;&#3610;&#3637;&#3618;&#3619;&#3660;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Identity element</title>
<id>14962</id>
<revision>
<id>42031318</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T09:16:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Varuna</username>
<id>115098</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>added a link to "unital"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:<span class="dablink">''For other uses, see [[identity (disambiguation)]].''</span>
In [[mathematics]], an '''identity element''' (or '''neutral element''') is a special type of element of a [[set]] with respect to a [[binary operation]] on that set. It leaves other elements unchanged when combined with them. This is used for [[group (mathematics)|group]]s and [[magma (algebra)|related concepts]].
The term ''identity element'' is often shortened to ''identity'' when there is no possibility of confusion; we do so in this article.
Let (''S'',*) be a set ''S'' with a binary operation * on it (known as a [[magma (algebra)|magma]]). Then an element ''e'' of ''S'' is called a '''left identity''' if ''e''&nbsp;*&nbsp;''a''&nbsp;=&nbsp;''a'' for all ''a'' in ''S'', and a '''right identity''' if ''a''&nbsp;*&nbsp;''e''&nbsp;=&nbsp;''a'' for all ''a'' in ''S''. If ''e'' is both a left identity and a right identity, then it is called a '''two-sided identity''', or simply an '''identity'''.
An identity with respect to addition is called an '''additive identity''' and an identity with respect to multiplication is called a '''multiplicative identity'''. The distinction is used most often for sets that support both binary operations (such as with [[ring (mathematics)|ring]]s).
==Examples==
{| border=1, align=top
!set!!operation!!identity
|-
|[[real number]]s||+ (addition)||[[0 (number)|0]]
|-
|[[real number]]s||• (multiplication)||[[1 (number)|1]]
|-
<!-- ||'''R'''<sup>''n''</sup> ||• (multiplication)|[[1 (number)|1]] -->
|''n''-by-''n'' square [[matrix (mathematics)|matrices]]|| + (addition)||[[zero matrix]]
|-
|''n''-by-''n'' square [[matrix (mathematics)|matrices]]|| • (multiplication)||[[identity matrix]]
|-
|all [[function (mathematics)|functions]] from a set ''M'' to itself|| function composition||[[identity map]]
|-
|character strings|| concatenation || empty string
|-
|only two elements {''e'', ''f''}||* defined by<br> ''e''&nbsp;*&nbsp;''e''&nbsp;= ''f''&nbsp;*&nbsp;''e''&nbsp;=&nbsp;''e'' and <br> ''f''&nbsp;*&nbsp;''f''&nbsp;= ''e''&nbsp;*&nbsp;''f''&nbsp;=&nbsp;''f''||both ''e'' and ''f'' are left identities, but there is no right or two-sided identity
|}
As the last example shows, it is possible for (''S'',*) to have several left identities. In fact, every element can be a left identity. Similarly, there can be several right identities. But if there is both a right identity and a left identity, then they are equal and there is just a single two-sided identity. To see this, note that if ''l'' is a left identity and ''r'' is a right identity then ''l''&nbsp;=&nbsp;''l''&nbsp;*&nbsp;''r''&nbsp;=&nbsp;''r''. In particular, there can never be more than one two-sided identity.
==See also==
*[[Inverse element]]
*[[Additive inverse]]
*[[Group (mathematics)|Group]]
*[[Monoid]]
*[[Unital]]
*[[Quasigroup]]
[[Category:Abstract algebra]]
[[Category:Algebra]]
[[Category:Binary operations|*Identity element]]
[[ar:عنصر حيادي]]
[[cs:Neutrální prvek]]
[[de:Neutrales Element]]
[[et:Ühikelement]]
[[es:Elemento neutro]]
[[fr:Élément neutre]]
[[he:איבר יחידה]]
[[hu:Neutrális elem]]
[[nl:Neutraal element]]
[[ja:単位元]]
[[pl:Element neutralny]]
[[pt:Elemento neutro]]
[[sk:Neutrálny prvok]]
[[sl:Enak element]]
[[sv:Neutralt element]]
[[vi:Phần tử đơn vị]]
[[zh:單位元]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1983</title>
<id>14963</id>
<revision>
<id>32690415</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-25T16:50:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<comment>making an intro paragraph out of the objectives paragraph, adding category</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''International Tropical Timber Agreement''' (often abbreviated as '''Tropical Timber 83''') is an agreement to provide an effective framework for cooperation between tropical timber producers and consumers and to encourage the development of national policies |
rters as a means of forcing companies to do so. Investors, however, noted that it led to unhealthy amounts of political payoffs and graft. Most states now charter unlimited-term corporations for a small fee, and possibly for a yearly tax.
Legally, corporations are accorded some [[corporate personhood]], i.e. [[Constitutional]] [[rights]] similar to those held by persons. The [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] ruled on this question in the [[1886]] case ''[[Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad]]''.
Many countries around the world now have corporate laws based upon state laws from the [[United States]]. For example, corporations in [[Japan]] are organized under a variant of the corporate law of [[Illinois]], and corporations in [[Saudi Arabia]] follow corporate laws copied from [[New York]].
The oldest corporation in the [[United States]], and the oldest in North America, is the [[President and Fellows of Harvard College]] (also known as the Harvard Corporation), chartered in [[1650]].
===Canada===
In [[Canada]] both the federal government and the [[Provinces of Canada|province]]s have corporate statutes, and thus a corporation may have a provincial or a federal charter. Many older corporations in Canada stem from [[Act of Parliament|Acts of Parliament]] passed before the introduction of general corporation law. The oldest corporation in Canada, and second oldest in North America, is the [[Hudson's Bay Company]], chartered in [[1670]]. Federally recognized corporations are regulated by the [[Canada Business Corporations Act]].
===German-speaking countries===
[[Germany]], [[Austria]] and [[Switzerland]] recognize two forms of corporation: the [[Aktiengesellschaft]] (AG), analogous to public corporations in the English-speaking world, and the [[Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung]] (GmbH), similar to (and an inspiration for) the modern [[limited liability company]].
===See also===
*[[Bylaw]]
*[[Commercial law]]
*[[Corporate governance]]
*[[Delaware corporation]]
*[[Preferred stock]]
*[[Stock certificate]]s
==Corporate taxation==
In many countries, including the United States and United Kingdom, corporate profits are taxed at a [[corporate tax]] rate, and dividends paid to shareholders are taxed at a separate rate. Such a system is sometimes referred to as "double taxation," because any profits distributed to shareholders will eventually be taxed twice. One solution to this (as in the case of UK tax system) is for the recipient of the dividend to be entitled to a tax credit which addresses the fact that the profits represented by the dividend have already been taxed. The company profit being passed on is therefore effectively only taxed at the rate of tax paid by the eventual recipient of the dividend.
Where a double taxation system exists, the additional tax burden is often an incentive for smaller businesses to organize in the form of a partnership, limited liability company, or other type of entity that is not separately taxed. Such entities are often called "pass-through entities."
In the [[United States]], business corporations owe taxes according to two basic categories. A "[[C corporation]]" must pay [[corporate tax]]es, while "[[S corporation]]s" pay no corporate taxes but instead pass profits and losses directly to their owners (the stockholders) who declare such profits and losses as part of their personal [[income tax|taxable income]]. An S corporation must generally have no more than 100 stockholders, who must be [[natural person]]s (not other corporations or entities), must reside in the United States, and must consent to the classification; moreover, the S corporation can only issue a single class of stock. As a result of these restrictions, all publicly traded corporations and many larger close corporations have C corporation status. Certain kinds of [[investment company|investment companies]] are also exempt from corporate income taxes, provided they distribute almost all of their income to shareholders in the form of [[dividend]]s or [[capital gain]]s distributions.
==Other commercial entities==
Several other forms of business entity exist under the laws of various countries. These include:
* [[Partnership]]
* [[Limited partnership]] (LP)
* [[Limited liability partnership]] (LLP)
* [[Limited liability company]] (LLC)
* [[Limited company]] (Ltd.)
* [[Sole proprietorship]]
==References==
*Klein and Coffee. ''Business Organization and Finance: Legal and Economic Principles'' (Foundation, 2002), ISBN 158778713X
*Hessen, Robert. ''In Defense of the Corporation''. (Hoover Institute 1979), ISBN 081797072X
*Kirzner, Israel M. ''Competition and Entrepreneurship'' (University of Chicago Press, 1973), ISBN 0226437760
*Bromberg, Alan R. ''Crane and Bromberg on Partnership''. 1968.
*Conard, Alfred F. ''Corporations in Perspective''. 1976.
*John Micklethwait and Adrian Wooldridge, The Company: a Short History of a Revolutionary Idea (New York: Modern Library, 2003).
*Joel Bakan, [[The Corporation]]. The pathological pursuit of profit and power (Toronto: Viking Canada, 2004).
*[[Alfred Sohn-Rethel]] ''Economy and Class Structure of German Fascism'',London, CSE Bks, 1978 ISBN 0906336007
==See also==
*[[Conglomerate (company)]]
*[[Corporate governance]]
*[[Corporate haven]]
*[[Corporate personhood]]
*[[Corporatism]]
*[[Guild]]
*[[Incorporation (business)]]
*[[Limited liability company]] (LLC)
*[[Megacorp]]
*[[Public Limited Company]] (PLC)
*[[Shelf Corporation]]
*[[Community interest company]]
==External links==
*''[[wikibooks:US Corporate Law|US Corporate Law]]'' at Wikibooks
<!-- Categorization -->
[[Category:Corporations| ]]
[[Category:Business law]]
[[Category:Corporations law]]
[[Category:Legal entities]]
[[Category:Types of companies]]
[[de:Unternehmen]]
[[et:Ettevõte]]
[[es:Corporación]]
[[eo:Entrepreno]]
[[fr:Entreprise]]
[[ko:주식회사]]
[[id:Perusahaan]]
[[he:חברה (תאגיד)]]
[[lb:Entreprise]]
[[hu:Vállalat]]
[[nl:Bedrijf]]
[[ja:株式会社]]
[[no:Aksjeselskap]]
[[nn:Aksjeselskap]]
[[pl:Korporacja]]
[[simple:Company]]
[[sl:Podjetje]]
[[sr:Корпорација]]
[[sv:Aktiebolag]]
[[tr:Şirket]]
[[zh:公司]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Fairchild Channel F</title>
<id>7487</id>
<revision>
<id>41799547</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:58:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rossumcapek</username>
<id>23334</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* The Channel F System II */ + caption</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fairchild_channel-f.gif|thumb|right|The Fairchild Channel F]]
The '''Fairchild Channel F''' is the world's first cartridge-based [[video game console]]. It was released by [[Fairchild Semiconductor]] (ostensibly by their parent company though) in August 1976 at a cost of $169.95. At this point it was known as the '''Video Entertainment System''', or '''VES''', but when [[Atari]] released their [[Atari 2600|VCS]] the next year, Fairchild quickly re-named it.
==The Channel F console==
The Channel F was based on the [[Fairchild F8]] [[Central processing unit|CPU]], invented by [[Robert Noyce]] before he left Fairchild to start his own company, [[Intel]]. The F8 was so early that the [[process technology]] of the era couldn't fit all the needed circuitry onto a single chip, and the F8 was in fact a "family" of chips that had to be wired together to form a complete CPU. The video was quite basic, although it was in color which was a large step forward from the contemporary [[PONG]] machines. Sound was played through an internal speaker, rather than in the TV.
The controllers were a kind of joystick without a base; the main body was a large hand grip with a triangular "cap" on top, the top being the portion that actually moved. It could be used as both a joystick and paddle (twist), and pushed down to operate as a fire button. The unit contained a small compartment for storing the controllers when moving it: useful because the wiring was notoriously flimsy and even normal movement could break it.
Only 20 cartridges were released for the system (typically at $19.95), despite its initial popularity. However, the games are generally detested. One reviewer described the racing game (every system seemed to have one at the time) as something like "losing a toe in an industrial accident."
The biggest effect of the Channel F in the market was to spur [[Atari]] into releasing their next-generation console that was then in design. Currently named "Stella" the machine was also going to use cartridges, and after seeing the Channel F they realized they needed to get it out as soon as possible before the market was flooded with cartridge based machines. With cash flow dwindling as sales of their existing Pong-based systems dried up, they were forced to sell to [[Warner Communications]] in order to gain the capital they needed. Naming their system as a takeoff of the VES, when the [[Atari 2600|Atari VCS]] was released a year later it had considerably better graphics.
==The Channel F System II==
[[Image:Fairchild_channel-f_system_2.jpg|250px|thumb|right| The Channel F System II]]
Fairchild decided to compete with the VCS, and started a re-design as the '''Channel F System II'''. The major changes were in design, the controllers were removable from the base unit instead of being wired directly into it, the storage compartment was moved to the rear of the unit, and the sound was now mixed into the TV signal so the unit no longer needed a speaker. This version featured a simpler and more modern-looking case design. However by this time the market was in the midst of the first video game crash, and Fairchild eventually threw in the towel and exited the market.
Some time in 1979 Zircon International bought the rights to the Channel F and released the '''Channel F System II'''. Only six new games were released |
e . Today, descendants of those Poles who stayed are living in [[Casale]] and [[Fond Des Blancs]].
Upon assuming power, General Dessalines authorized the Constitution of 1805. This constitution, in terms of social freedoms, called for:
:1. Freedom of Religion (Under Toussaint [[Catholicism]] had been declared the official state religion);
:2. All citizens of Haiti, regardless of skin color, to be known as "Black." (This was an attempt to eliminate the multi-tiered racial hierarchy which had developed in Haiti, with full-blooded Europeans at the top, various levels of light to brown skin in the middle, and dark skinned "Kongo" from Africa at the bottom). Despite guarantees of their safety, however, those French settlers who stayed in Haiti after independence were slaughtered on Dessalines' orders.
Haiti is the world's oldest Black republic and the second-oldest republic in the Western Hemisphere, after the [[United States]]. Although Haiti actively assisted the independence movements of many Latin American countries, the independent nation of former slaves was excluded from the hemisphere's first regional meeting of independent nations, in [[Panama]] in [[1826]], and did not receive U.S. diplomatic recognition until [[1862]].
In January 1804 Dessalines, emulating Napoleon, proclaimed himself Emperor Jacques I, but his increasingly oppressive rule provoked his assassination in 1806, and the country was divided between the rival regimes of Christophe in the north and [[Alexandre Pétion]] in the south. In 1811 Christophe proclaimed himself King Henri I, but after his suicide in 1820 Haiti was reunited under Pétion's successor, [[Jean Pierre Boyer]], who ruled as president until his overthrow in 1843. He was forced to pay a huge indemnity to France for the loss of French property during the revolution. To pay this he had to float loans in France, putting Haiti into a state of debt from which it has seldom escaped.
Meanwhile, in 1808, Spain had reoccupied the eastern two-thirds of the island, which eventually became the [[Dominican Republic]]. When the Spanish settlers declared independence in 1821, Haiti invaded the country and annexed it, and it remained part of Haiti until 1844
==Political struggles==
In 1843 revolt led by [[Charles Riviere-Herard|Charles Rivière-Hérard]] overthrew Boyer and established a brief parliamentary rule under the Constitution of 1843. Revolts soon broke out and the country descended into near anarchy, with a series of transient presidents until March 1847, when General [[Faustin I of Haiti|Faustin Soulouque]], a former slave who had fought in the rebellion of 1791, became President. In 1849, taking advantage of his popularity, he proclaimed himself Emperor Faustin I. His iron rule succeeded in uniting Haiti for a time, but rule came to an abrupt end in 1858 when he was deposed by General [[Fabre Geffrard]], styled the Duke of Tabara.
Geffrard's military government held office until 1867, and he encouraged a policy of national reconciliation that worked surprisingly well. In 1860 he reached an agreement with the [[Roman Catholic Church|Vatican]], reintroducing official Roman Catholic institutions, including schools, to the nation. In 1867 an attempt was made to establish constitutional government, but successive presidents [[Sylvain Salnave]] and [[Nissage Saget]] were overthrown in 1869 and 1874 respectively. A more workable constitution was introduced under [[Michel Domingue]] in 1874, leading to a long period of democratic peace and development for Haiti. The debt to France was finally repaid in 1879, and Michel Domingue's government peacefully transferred power to [[Lysius Salomon]], one of Haiti's abler leaders. Monetary reform and a cultural renaissance ensued with a flowering of Haitian art.
The last two decades of the 19th century were also marked by the development of a Haitian intellectual culture. Major works of history were published in 1847 and 1865. Haitian intellectuals, led by [[Louis-Joseph Janvier]] and [[Antenor Firmin]], engaged in a war of letters against a tide of racism and [[social Darwinism]] that emerged during this period.
The Constitution of 1867 saw peaceful and progressive transitions in government that did much to improve the economy and stability of the Haitian nation and the condition of its people. Constitutional government restored the faith of the Haitian people in legal institutions. The development of industrial sugar and rum industries near [[Port-au-Prince]] made Haiti, for a while, a model for economic growth in Latin American countries.
==Foreign intervention==
This period of relative stability and prosperity ended in 1911 when revolution broke out and the country slid once again into disorder and debt. In February 1915 [[Guillaume Sam]] established a dictatorship, but in July he was lynched by a mob in Port-au-Prince. Shortly afterwards, the United States, responding to complaints to President [[Woodrow Wilson]] from American banks to which Haiti was deeply in debt, occupied the country. The [[United States occupation of Haiti (1915-1934)|occupation of Haiti]] lasted until 1934. Although the U.S. occupation was oppressive and sometimes brutal, reforms were carried out. The currency was reformed and the debt stabilised. Corruption was reduced, although never eradicated. Public health, education and agricultural development were greatly improved.
Although the U.S. remained the effective ruler of Haiti until 1934, a facade of constitutional government was restored, after [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], Under-Secretary for the Navy in the Wilson Administration, personally wrote a new constitution. [[Philippe Dartiguenave]], [[Louis Borno]] and [[Sténio Vincent]] successively served as President. All these rulers came from the country's small [[mulatto]] minority, whom the Americans considered more "civilised," while the black majority was kept in subordination. The U.S. began to withdraw its forces in 1930, and the withdrawal was completed by Roosevelt, as President, in 1934, under his "[[Good Neighbor policy]]". The U.S. retained control of Haiti's external finances until 1947.
==Renewed dictatorship==
Sténio Vincent was succeeded as President in 1941 by [[Élie Lescot]], but in 1946 increasing economic difficulties led to a military ''coup''. The military junta handed over power to [[Dumarsais Estimé]], a black Haitian, who introduced major reforms in labor and social policy, and greatly expanded civil and political liberties for the black majority. In 1949 Lescot tried to change the constitution to allow for his own re-election, but in 1950 this triggered another ''coup''. General [[Paul Magloire]] then established a dictatorship which lasted until December 1956, when he was forced to resign by a general strike. After a period of disorder, elections were held in September 1957, which saw Dr [[François Duvalier]] elected President.
Duvalier (known as "Papa Doc") soon established another dictatorship. His regime is regarded as one of the most repressive and corrupt of modern times, combining violence against political opponents with exploitation of the traditional ''[[voodoo|voudon]]'' religion to instil fear in the majority of the population. Duvalier's paramilitary police, the [[Tonton Macoute]], so named after a Voudon monster, carried out political murders, beatings, and intimidation. Duvalier's policies led to massive emigration of educated people, deepening Haiti's economic and social problems. But Duvalier appealed to the black middle class of which he was a member by introducing public works into middle class neighborhoods which previously had been unable to have paved roads, running water, or modern sewage systems. In 1964 Duvalier proclaimed himself "President for Life."
On Duvalier's death in April 1971 power passed to his 19-year-old son [[Jean-Claude Duvalier]] (known as "Baby Doc"). Under Jean-Claude Duvalier Haiti's economic and political condition continued to decline, although some of the more fearsome elements of his father's regime were abolished. Attempts by successive U.S. administrations to prod Haiti towards democratic reforms failed, but the economic crisis brought on by the appearance of [[AIDS]] in Haiti in 1983 finally provoked a rebellion, and in February 1986, after months of disorder, the army forced Duvalier to resign and go into exile.
==The Aristide era==
From Haiti 1986 to 1990 Haiti was ruled by a series of provisional governments. In 1987 a new constitution was ratified, providing for an elected bicameral parliament, an elected president, and a prime minister, cabinet, ministers, and supreme court appointed by the president with parliament's consent. The Constitution also provided for political decentralization through the election of mayors and administrative bodies responsible for local government. At the first elections under the new constitution, in December 1990, [[Jean-Bertrand Aristide]], a charismatic Roman Catholic priest, won 67% of the vote in elections that international observers deemed largely free and fair.
Aristide's radical populist policies alarmed many of the country's elite, and in September 1991 he was overthrown in a violent coup that brought General [[Raoul Cédras]] to power. There was violent resistance to the coup, in which hundreds were killed, and Aristide was forced into exile. An estimated 3,000-5,000 Haitians were killed during the period of military rule. The coup created a large-scale exodus of refugees to the U.S. The [[U.S. Coast Guard]] rescued a total of 41,342 Haitians during 1991 and 1992.
The military regime governed Haiti until 1993. Various initiatives to end the political crisis through the peaceful restoration of the constitutionally elected government failed. In July 1994, as repression mounted in Haiti and a civilian human rights monitoring mission was expelled from the co |
riza]] (777 inh.) and [[Solomos,Corinthia|Solomos]] (686 inh.).
The [[Corinth Canal]], carrying ship traffic between the western Mediterranean and the [[Aegean Sea]], is about 4 km east of the city, cutting through the [[Isthmus of Corinth]].
A city square is located next to its [[Port of Corinth|port]]. The port operates north of the square, and serves the local needs of industry and agriculture. It is mainly a cargo exporting facility.
Corinth is a major industrial hub at a national level. Copper cables, petroleum products, medical equipment, marble, gypsum, ceramic tiles, salt, mineral water & beverages, meat products, and gums are produced nearby. Currently (2005) a period of de-industrialisation has commenced as a large pipework complex, a textile factory and a meat packing facility disrupted their operations.
A large oil-refinery complex is situated about 12 km northeast of the city, which some think is the line marking the Athens metro area. The complex is amongst the largest in the eastern Mediterranean. It is surrounded by [[Greece Interstate 8A]] and a 3+1 lanes per direction freeway. A modern rest area with restaurants and gas stations is located nearby on the freeway.
The city is the terminal point of a newly-built ultra-modern electric railway line to the Athens metropolitan area. Expectations for further economic and residential expansion are significant due to this new development.
The city is also a major road hub being the entry point to the Peloponnesian peninsula, the southernmost area of continental Greece.
==External links==
*[http://www.media.net.gr/korinthos.htm Media in Corinth]
*[http://www.xeniosmagazine.gr/prefectures/corinthia/index1.html Xenios Magazine articles on Corinthia]
*[http://corinth.sas.upenn.edu/hist.html History Timeline]
*[http://corinth.sas.upenn.edu/ Corinth Computer Project]
*[http://www.world66.com/lib/map/handle?loc=europe|greece|corinth Satelite Image; Corinth canal separates Corinth (on the left) from Loutraki (on the right)]
----
''Partial text from Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897''
{{Corinth}}
[[Category:Cities and towns in Greece]]
[[Category:Coastal cities]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek cities]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Greece]]
[[Category:Corinth|*]]
[[Category:Greek prefectural capitals]]
[[Category:Pauline churches]]
[[da:Korinth]]
[[de:Korinth]]
[[el:Κόρινθος]]
[[es:Corintia]]
[[fr:Corinthe]]
[[it:Corinto]]
[[he:קורינתוס (עיר)]]
[[la:Corinthus]]
[[nl:Korinthe]]
[[ja:コリントス]]
[[no:Korint]]
[[pl:Korynt]]
[[pt:Corinto (Grécia)]]
[[ro:Corint, Grecia]]
[[ru:Коринф]]
[[simple:Corinth]]
[[fi:Korintti]]
[[sv:Korinth]]
[[zh:科林斯]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Colossae</title>
<id>6846</id>
<revision>
<id>41371525</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T22:27:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mackensen</username>
<id>20329</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/202.125.40.91|202.125.40.91]] ([[User talk:202.125.40.91|talk]]) to last version by Gdrbot</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Colossae''' or '''Colosse''', a city of [[Phrygia]], on the [[Lycus]], which is a tributary of the [[Maeander]]. It was about 12 miles above [[Denizli|Laodicea]], and near the great road from [[Ephesus]] to the [[Euphrates]], and was at one time of some mercantile importance, although by the first century it had dwindled greatly in size and significance.
In 396 B.C., during the Persian Wars, the Persian satrap [[Tissaphernes]] was lured to Colossae and slain by an agent of the party of Cyrus.
It does not appear that [[Paul of Tarsus|St. Paul]] had visited this city when he wrote his [[Colossians|letter to the church]] there (Col. 1:2), since he tells [[Philemon of Colossae|Philemon]] of his hope to visit it upon being freed from prison (see Philemon 1:22). It seems that [[Epaphras]] was the founder of the [[Colossian church]] (see Col. 1:7; 4:12).
This town fell into decay (possibly due to an earthquake), and the modern town of [[Chonas]] or
[[Chonum]] occupies a site near its ruins.
-----
''Initial text from Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897 -- Please update as needed''
== See also ==
*[[Laodicean Church]]
== External links==
*[http://holylandphotos.org/browse.asp?s=1,3,7,23,62 HolyLandPhotos.org] - map and pictures of ruins
[[Category:Roman towns and cities]]
[[de:Colossae]]
[[id:Kolose]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Colossians</title>
<id>6847</id>
<revision>
<id>15904962</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Epistle_to_the_Colossians]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Charge of the Goddess</title>
<id>6848</id>
<revision>
<id>40506917</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T01:47:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AnnaKucsma</username>
<id>358984</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Charge of the Goddess''' is a traditional inspirational text sometimes used in [[Neopaganism]] and [[Wicca]]. [[Doreen Valiente]], a student of [[Gerald Gardner]], originally wrote a Charge in [[verse]], and later in [[prose]]: the prose version is the one known today. It has since been modified and adapted by many others.
The original text of the prose version is found in ''Eight Sabbats for Witches'' by [[Janet Farrar |Janet]] and [[Stewart Farrar]]. See ''The Rebirth of Witchcraft'' by [[Doreen Valiente]], chap. 4, which also includes her original verse version.
The opening paragraph gives a motley collection of classical goddesses, some derived from [[Greek mythology|Greek]] or [[Roman mythology]], others from [[Celtic mythology|Celtic]] or [[Matter of Britain|Arthurian]] [[legend]]s, affirming a belief that these various figures represent a single [[Great Mother]]:
:''Listen to the words of the Great Mother; she who of old was also called among men [[Artemis]], [[`Ashtart|Astarte]], [[Athene]], [[Dione (mythology)|Dione]], [[Melusine]], [[Aphrodite]], [[Cerridwen]], [[Danu (Irish goddess)|Dana]], [[Arianrhod]], [[Isis]], [[Brigid|Bride]], and by many other names.''
The second paragraph is largely derived and paraphrased from the [[Charge of Aradia]], taken from [[Charles Godfrey Leland]]'s book ''[[Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches]] (1899)''. The third paragraph is largely Valiente's original contribution, with some phrases taken from ideas from ''The [[Book of the Law]]'' by [[Aleister Crowley]].
{{Wikisourcepar|The Charge of the Goddess}}
{{paganism-stub}}
[[Category:Wicca]]
[[eo:Ordono de la Diino]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Cy Young</title>
<id>6849</id>
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<id>41689611</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T02:02:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Novastarj</username>
<id>284701</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[The_Walt_Disney_Company|Disney]] [[animator]], see [[Cy Young (animator)]]''.
'''Denton True Young''' ([[March 29]], [[1867]] – [[November 4]], [[1955]]) He was the pre-eminent [[baseball]] pitcher during the [[1890s]] and [[1900s]]. His nickname "Cy" is short for "[[Tornado|Cyclone]]" (as he himself stated, since barns and fences supposedly showed tornadic damage after encountering one of his pitches) and because his fastball was blindingly fast.
[[Image:cy_young_pitching.jpg|thumb|300px|''Cy Young warming up for Boston in [[1908]], the first year they were called the "Red Sox"'']]
He was born in Gilmore, Ohio, a tiny village near [[Newcomerstown, Ohio]] where Young was later raised. He also died in Newcomerstown, where the local park bears his name and a [[memorial]] to the pitcher.
{{MLB HoF}}
Young is generally considered one of the greatest pitchers of all time. Not only is he a member of the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]] (elected in [[Baseball Hall of Fame balloting, 1937|1937]]), but the [[Cy Young Award]], the annual award given to the best [[Major League Baseball|major league]] pitcher in each league, is named in his honor. From [[1956]], the first full season after Young's death, until [[1966]], it was given to the best pitcher in baseball. Starting in [[1967]], it was given to the best in each league.
Young set a career record for wins, 511, that will almost certainly never be matched under current conditions. Today, most seasons produce few pitchers with more than 20 wins, at which pace a pitcher would have to pitch for more than 25 years to surpass the record. Young's great longevity means he also holds the record for the most losses, despite winning 62% of his decisions. His unreachable total was echoed one day, when, as he told a reporter many years after his retirement, a man walked up to him, seemed to recognize him, and asked, "Did you used to play baseball?" Young told the reporter that he told the man, "Mister, I won more games than you'll ever see."
Young began his major league career in [[1890]] with the [[Cleveland Spiders]] and achieved stardom rapidly. He was one of the few star hurlers to maintain his level of success after the pitching mound was moved back to its present 60 feet 6 inches in [[1893 in sports|1893]]. He maintained that level for over two decades, playing for the [[St. Louis Cardinals|St. Louis Perfectos]] in [[1899]] and [[1900]] (by which time they had become the Cardinals) before jumping to the new [[American League]] in [[1901]] with the [[Boston Red Sox|Boston Americans]], for whom he played through 1908. The Cleveland and St. Louis ownership had essentially swapped teams by trading all the players and neither Cy nor his wife were comfortable in St Louis. He retired a |
desk accessories -- just like the Macintosh. The 16-bit operating system would automatically switch to the text display and downshift to 8-bit mode to run legacy software, while offering a consistent, Macintosh-like graphical interface for native 16-bit applications. Eventually the II<small>GS</small> gained the ability to read and write Macintosh disks and, through third-party software, even multitasking (both cooperative and preemptive, the latter in the form of a Unix-type shell), outline TrueType font support, and in one case, even real-time 3D gaming using texture mapping.
The first 50,000 Apple II<small>GS</small> computers came with Steve Wozniak's "Woz" signature silkscreened on the front and were referred to as the "Woz Limited Edition." These machines are not functionally different from machines from the same time period without the signature.
The Apple II<small>GS</small> with 1 Megabyte of built-in RAM (better known as the "ROM 3"), was introduced in late 1989. Along with the additional built-in memory, the ROM 3 contained improvements to the firmware and cleaner sound output. Connector locations that had enabled the previous II<small>GS</small> motherboard to be installed in an Apple IIe case were eliminated to save costs. Most users considered the ROM 3 a minor maintenance update rather than a new model.
===Apple IIc Plus===
[[Image:Apple_IIc_Plus.jpg|thumb|right|The Apple IIc Plus, an 8-bit redux of the original portable but with faster CPU, 3&frac12;" floppy and built-in power supply. It was the last of the Apple II line.]]
The final Apple II model was the '''[[Apple IIc Plus]]''' introduced in 1988. It was the same size and shape as the IIc that came before it, but the 5&frac14;" floppy drive had been replaced with a 3&frac12;" drive, the power supply was moved inside (gone was the IIc's "brick on a leash" power supply), and the processor was a fast 4MHz 65C02 processor that actually ran 8-bit Apple II software faster than the II<small>GS</small>. (Third-party accelerators for other models could, however, go as fast as 10MHz, and II<small>GS</small> accelerators would eventually reach 16MHz.) The IIc Plus's accelerator was derived from a design licensed from Zip Technologies, a third-party maker of accelerators for the Apple II, though Apple used separate chips instead of combining the processor, cache, and supporting logic on a multi-chip module as did Zip. Like later models of the original Apple IIc, the IIc Plus included a memory expansion slot that would accept a daughtercard carrying up to a megabyte of RAM. The IIc Plus also featured a new keyboard layout that matched the Platinum IIe and II<small>GS</small>.
Many perceived the IIc Plus as Apple's attempt to compete with the Laser 128EX/2, a popular third party Apple-compatible machine that also had an accelerated processor and a built-in 3&frac12;" drive. There were few other rational explanations for Apple expending resources on the continued development of a new 8-bit Apple II model rather than furthering the 16-bit Apple II<small>GS</small>. However, with its 3&frac12;" drive and speedy processor, it was an excellent, compact machine for running the AppleWorks integrated productivity package, especially with the 1 megabyte memory upgrade.
===Apple IIe Card===
Although not an extension of the Apple II line, in 1990 the '''[[Apple IIe Card]]''', an expansion card for the [[Macintosh LC|LC]] line of [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] computers, was released. Essentially a miniaturized Apple IIe computer on a card (utilizing the Mega II chip from the Apple II<small>GS</small>), it allowed the Macintosh to run 8-bit Apple IIe software through hardware emulation (although video was emulated in software and was slower at times than a IIe). Many of the LC's built-in Macintosh peripherals could be "borrowed" by the card when in Apple II mode (i.e. extra RAM, 3&frac12;" floppy, AppleTalk networking, hard disk). The IIe card could not, however, run software intended for the 16-bit Apple II<small>GS</small>. The Macintosh LC with IIe Card was intended to replace the Apple II<small>GS</small> in schools and homes and was presumably the reason a new model Apple II<small>GS</small> that was confirmed by insiders to be in development at one point was cancelled and never released.
===The Final Years===
Apple's Macintosh product line finally eclipsed the Apple II in the early '90s. Even after the introduction of the Macintosh, the Apple II had remained Apple's primary source of revenue for years: the Apple II and its associated community of third-party developers and retailers was once a billion-dollar-a-year industry. The computer was the first to attract a loyal user community, and many outspoken Apple II fans were bitter that the company had invested its Apple II profits into the Macintosh rather than using them to further the Apple II series.
Despite a lack of advertising and little corporate support, Apple continued to sell the II<small>GS</small> through the end of 1992. Apple brought an era to a close when the IIe was removed from the product line on [[October 15]], [[1993]].
==Clones==
[[Image:Taiwanese Apple II clone Cosmo.jpg|thumb|The Jiama (嘉馬) SPS-109, a [[Taiwan]]ese clone of the Apple II, looks almost identical to the Apple II and II+, including an identical [[computer case|case]], color and [[computer keyboard|keyboard]] layout. The only noticeable physical difference is the label above the keyboard.]]
Like the IBM PC, the Apple II was frequently cloned, both in the [[United States]] and abroad. According to some sources (see below), more than 190 different models of Apple II clones were manufactured. Many of these had "fruit" names (e.g. "Pineapple") to indicate to the initiated that they were Apple II clones. For many years the most widely-used microcomputer in the [[Soviet Bloc]] was the [[Agat_computer|Agat]], an over-sized Russian Apple II clone with a [[Cyrillic]] character set.
An [[Australia|Australian]]-produced clone of the Apple II was the [[Medfly_computer|Medfly]], named after the [[Mediterranean fruit fly]] that attacks apples. The Medfly computer featured a faster processor, more memory, detached keyboard, lower and upper case characters and a built-in disk controller.
The Ace clones from [[Franklin Computer Corporation]] are the best known and had the most lasting impact, as Franklin copied Apple's ROMs and software and freely admitted to doing so. Franklin's argument: a computer's ROM was simply a pattern of switches locked into a fixed position, and one cannot copyright a pattern of switches. Apple fought Franklin in court for about five years to get its clones off the market, and was ultimately successful when a court ruled that software stored in ROM was in fact copyrightable. Franklin later released non-infringing but less-compatible clones; these could run ProDOS and AppleWorks and had an Applesoft-like BASIC, but compatibility with other software was hit-or-miss.
Apple also challenged [[VTech]]'s [[Laser 128]], an enhanced clone of the Apple IIc first released in 1984, in court. This suit proved less fruitful for Apple, because VTech had [[reverse-engineer]]ed the Monitor ROM rather than copying it and had licensed Applesoft BASIC from its creator, [[Microsoft]]. Incredibly, Apple had neglected to obtain exclusive rights to the Applesoft dialect of BASIC from Microsoft; just as incredibly, VTech was the first cloner to bother licensing it. The Laser 128 proved popular and remained on the market for many years, both in its original form and in enhanced versions that ran faster than 1 MHz. Although it wasn't 100% compatible with the Apple II, it was close, and its popularity ensured that most major developers tested their software on a Laser as well on as genuine Apple machines. Because it was frequently sold via mail order and mass-market retailers such as [[Sears]], the Laser 128 may have cut into the sales of low-cost competitors such as [[Commodore Business Machines]] as much as it did Apple's.
While the first Apple II clones were generally exact copies of their Apple counterparts that competed mainly on price, many clones had extra capabilities too. A Franklin model, the Ace 1000, sported a numeric keypad and lower-case long before these features were added to the Apple II line. The Laser 128 series is sometimes credited with spurring Apple to release the Apple IIc Plus; the built-in 3&frac12;" drive and accelerated processor were features Laser had pioneered. The Laser 128 also had a IIe-style expansion slot on the side that could be used to add peripheral cards.
[[Böwe Bell & Howell|Bell & Howell]], an audiovisual equipment manufacturer whose products (particularly film projectors) were ubiquitous in American schools, offered what appeared at first glance to be an Apple II Plus clone in a distinctive black plastic case. However, these were in fact real Apple II Pluses manufactured by Apple for B&H for a brief period of time. Many schools had a few of these "black Apples" in their labs.
==General==
===Apple II media===
Originally the Apple II used audio cassette tapes for program and data storage. Apple and many third-party developers made software available on tape until the introduction of the Disk II.
The Disk II floppy drive used 5&frac14;-inch [[floppy disk]]s. The first [[disk operating system]]s for the Apple II were [[Apple DOS|DOS 3.1]] and DOS 3.2, which stored 113.75 [[Kibibyte|KiB]] on each disk, organized into thirty-five tracks of thirteen 256-byte sectors each. After about two years, DOS 3.3 was introduced, storing 140 KiB thanks to a minor hardware change on the disk |
r Anglo-Saxon neighbours and eventually absorbing their culture and language over time.
==Culture==
[[Image:Shakespeare.jpg|thumb|right|[[William Shakespeare]].]]
''Main article: [[Culture of England]]''
*[[English literature]]
**[[Sir Thomas Browne]]
**[[Geoffrey Chaucer]]
**[[John Milton]]
**[[William Shakespeare]]
**[[Jane Austen]]
**[[Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley|Mary Shelley]]
**[[Charles Dickens]]
**[[Thomas Hardy]]
**[[George Orwell]]
**[[Evelyn Waugh]]
**[[J. R. R. Tolkien]]
**[[C. S. Lewis]]
**[[Douglas Adams]]
**[[J.K. Rowling]]
*[[List of national parks of England and Wales]]
*[[England/Food and Drink|Food and Drink]]
*[[English folklore]]
*[[English art]]
**[[English school of painting]]
*[[Music of England]]
==Languages==
[[Image:Beowulf.firstpage.jpeg|thumb|right|[[Beowulf]] is one of the oldest surviving epic poems in what is identifiable as a form of the [[English language]].]]
As its name suggests, the [[English language]], today spoken by hundreds of millions of people around the world, originated as the language of England, where it remains the principal tongue today (although not officially designated as such). (However, the Enlish language does vary slightly in different places.) An [[Indo-European]] language in [[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo-Frisian]] branch of the [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] family, it is closely related to [[Scots language|Scots]] and [[Frisian language|Frisian]]. As the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms merged into England, "[[Old English language|Old English]]" emerged; some of its literature and poetry has survived.
Used by aristocracy and commoners alike before the [[Norman Conquest of England|Norman Conquest]] (1066), English was displaced in cultured contexts under the new regime by the [[Norman language|Norman French]] language of the new Anglo-French aristocracy. Its use was confined primarily to the lower social classes while official business was conducted in a mixture of [[Latin]] and French. Over the following centuries, however, English gradually came back into fashion among all classes and for all official business except certain traditional ceremonies. (Some survive to this day.) But [[Middle English]], as it had by now become, showed many signs of French influence, both in vocabulary and spelling. During the [[Renaissance]], many words were coined from [[Latin (language)|Latin]] and [[Greek (language)|Greek]] origins; and more recent years, [[Modern English]] has extended this custom, being always remarkable for its far-flung willingness to incorporate foreign-influenced words.
The law does not recognise any language as being official, but [[English language|English]] is the only language used in England for general official business. The other national languages of the UK ([[Welsh language|Welsh]], [[Irish language|Irish Gaelic]] and [[Scots Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]]) are confined to their respective nations, and only Welsh is treated by law as an equal to English (and then only for organisations which do business in Wales).
The only non-[[Anglic]] native spoken language in England is the [[Cornish language]], a [[Celtic languages|Celtic language]] spoken in [[Cornwall]], which became extinct in the 19th century but has been revived and is spoken in various degrees of fluency by around 3,500 people. This has no official status (unlike Welsh) and is not required for official use, but is nonetheless supported by national and local government under the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]]. Cornwall County Council has produced [http://www.cornwall.gov.uk/cornish/strategy/english/engl01.htm a draft strategy] to develop these plans. There is, however, no programme as yet for public bodies to actively promote the language. [[Scots language|Scots]] is spoken by some adjacent to the Anglo-Scottish Border.
Most [[deaf]] people within England speak [[British sign language]] (BSL), a [[sign language]] native to Britain. The [[British Deaf Association]] estimates that 70,000 people throughout the UK speak BSL as their first or preferred language, but does not give statistics specific to England. Like Cornish, BSL has no official status, but has been granted a degree of recognition by the government. The [[BBC]] broadcasts several of its programmes with BSL interpreters.
Different languages from around the world, especially from the former [[British Empire]] and the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], have been brought to England by immigrants. Many of these are widely spoken within ethnic minority communities, including [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Hindi language|Hindi]], [[Urdu language|Urdu]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]. These are often used by official bodies to communicate with the relevant sections of the community, particularly in big cities, but this occurs on an "as needed" basis rather than as the result of specific legislative ordinances.
Other languages have also traditionally been spoken by minority populations in England, including [[Romany language|Romany]].
Despite the relatively small size of the nation, there are a large number of distinct [[Regional accents of English speakers#England|English regional accents]]. Those with particularly strong accents may not be easily understood elsewhere in the country. Use of foreign non-standard varieties of English (such as [[Caribbean English]]) is also widespread.
==Nomenclature==
The country is named after the [[Angles]], one of several [[Germanic tribe]]s who settled the country in the [[5th century|5th]] and [[6th century|6th]] centuries.
There are two distinct linguistic patterns for the name of the country.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
The majority of European languages use names akin to "England":
*"England" ([[Danish language|Danish]], [[German language|German]], [[Icelandic Language|Icelandic]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]])
*"Engeland" ([[Dutch language|Dutch]])
*"Inglismaa" ([[Estonian language|Estonian]])
*"Angleterre" ([[French language|French]])
*"Англия" (Angliya) ([[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]])
*"Anglaterra" ([[Catalan language|Catalan]])
*"İngiltere" ([[Turkish language|Turkish]])
*"Inghilterra" ([[Italian language|Italian]])
*"Ingilterra" ([[Maltese language|Maltese]])
*"Inglaterra" ([[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Galician language|Galician]])
*"Anglia" ([[Latin (language)|Latin]], [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]], [[Albanian language|Albanian]])
*"Anglija" ([[Russian language|Russian]], [[Slovenian language|Slovene]], [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]], [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]])
*"Engleska" ([[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]])
*"Αγγλία" ("Anglía") ([[Greek language|Greek]])
*"Englanti" ([[Finnish language|Finnish]])
{{col-2}}
The [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] names are quite different:
*"Bro-Saoz" ([[Breton language|Breton]])
*"Pow Sows" ([[Cornish language|Cornish]])
*"Sasana" ([[Irish language|Irish]])
*"Sasainn" ([[Scottish Gaelic]])
*"Lloegr" ([[Welsh language|Welsh]]) &mdash; but "Saeson" for the inhabitants.
*"Sostyn" ([[Manx Gaelic]])
Except for ''Lloegr'', which is an ancient geographic term, these names are all derived from the [[Saxons]], another family of Germanic tribes which arrived at about the same time as the Angles.
{{col-end}}
See: [[wikt:England|Wiktionary:England]] for a further list of non-English names for England.
"England" is sometimes mistakenly used to refer to the entire [[United Kingdom]], the island of [[Great Britain]], or the [[British Isles]]. This will offend people from other parts of the UK. Frequently the English use the less-specific "Britain" or "the UK", even when "England" is technically correct and commonly also use "England" when "Britain" would be correct.
Alternative names include:
*the slang "Blighty", from the [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] "bila yati" meaning "foreign"
* "[[Albion]]", an ancient name popularised by [[Pliny the Elder]] and [[Ptolemy]] in the 1st century. Supposedly referring to the white ([[Latin]] ''alba'') cliffs of [[Dover, England|Dover]], this term has also been interpreted as a relative of [[Alba]], today the [[Scots Gaelic]] name for Scotland. Whatever its origins, "Albion" originally referred to the whole island of [[Great Britain]] and is still sometimes seen that way today &mdash; but is more often used for England.
*More poetically, England has been called "this sceptred isle...this other Eden" and "this green and pleasant land", quotations respectively from the poetry of [[William Shakespeare]] (in ''[[Richard II (play)|Richard II]]'') and [[William Blake]] (''[[And did those feet in ancient time]]'').
The inhabitants of England are the '''English'''. The slang terms sometimes used for them include "Sassenachs" (from the [[Scots Gaelic]]), "Limeys" (in reference to the [[citrus fruit]]s carried aboard English sailing vessels to prevent [[scurvy]]) and "Pom/Pommy" (used in [[Australian English#Vocabulary|Australian English]] and [[New Zealand English]]), but these may be perceived as offensive. Also see [[alternative words for British]].
==Symbols and insignia==
[[Image:England crest.png|thumb|right|The logo of the [[England national football team]] combines the ''Three Lions'' with the [[Tudor rose]].]]
The two traditional symbols of England are the [[St. George's cross]] (the [[English flag] |
hallucinogen as "''a chemical agent that induces alterations in perception, thinking, and feeling which resemble those of the functional psychoses without producing the gross impairment of memory and orientation characteristic of the organic syndromes.''" It considers the term to be synonymous with "psychedelic" and "psychoactive drug." [http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/terminology/who_lexicon/en/]
== History of use ==
Hallucinogenic drugs are among the oldest drugs used by humankind, as hallucinogens naturally occur in [[mushroom]]s, [[cactus|cacti]], and various other [[plants]]. Whether the use of hallucinogens is encouraged, unregulated, regulated, or prohibited, and whether hallucinogens are used for recreational, medicinal, or spiritual purposes, varies from culture to culture and nation to nation. In most nations of the world, the possession of many hallucinogens, even those that are common in nature, is a [[crime]] punished by fines, imprisonment or in many countries, [[capital punishment|death]]. For some [[religion|religious]] purposes, however, there are exceptions. For instance, though possession of [[peyote]] cactus is illegal for most purposes in the [[United States]], American Courts have upheld the Constitutional right of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] to grow and consume peyote.
=== Traditional religious and shamanic use (entheogens) ===
In human culture hallucinogens have historically most commonly been used in the setting of religious or [[shamanism|shamanic]] [[ritual]]s. In this context they are more precisely referred to as [[entheogen]]s, and are used to facilitate healing, divination, communication with the spirits, and coming of age ceremonies. Evidence exists for the use of entheogens in [[prehistory|prehistoric]] times, as well as in numerous [[ancient]] cultures, including the [[Ancient Egypt|Ancient Egyptian]], [[History of Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]], [[History of Ancient Greece|Ancient Greek]], [[Vedic civilization|Vedic]], [[Maya]], [[Inca]] and [[Aztec]] cultures. The rise of the Abrahamic religions ([[Judaism]], [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]]) caused a decline of entheogen use in their area. Witness the destruction of the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]], or the Great [[Witch Hunt]] of the [[Early Modern Age]], in which practitioners of entheogenic rites in Western Europe were accused of associating with the [[Devil]]. Nevertheless, some (mainly [[tribe|tribal]]) cultures have survived this (ongoing) assault and still practise entheogen use. In others, non-religious hallucinogen use, while not exactly encouraged, is tolerated and not seen as uncommon. Present-day, historical and mythological aspects of entheogens are discussed in the entry '''[[entheogen]]'''.
=== Early scientific investigations ===
Although natural hallucinogenic drugs have been known to mankind for millennia, it was not until the early [[20th century]] that they received extensive attention from [[Western world|Western]] [[science]]. Earlier beginnings include scientific studies of [[nitrous oxide]] in the late [[18th century]], and initial studies of the constituents of the [[peyote]] cactus in the late [[19th century]]. Starting in [[1927]] with [[Kurt Beringer]]'s ''Der Meskalinrausch'' (The Mescaline Intoxication), more intensive effort began to be focused on studies of psychoactive plants. Around the same time, [[Louis Lewin]] published his extensive survey of psychoactive plants, ''Phantastica'' ([[1928]]). Important developments in the years that followed included the re-discovery of [[Mexico|Mexican]] [[Psychedelic mushroom|magic mushrooms]] (in [[1936]] by Robert J. Weitlaner) and [[ololiuhqui]] (in [[1939]] by [[Richard Evans Schultes]]). Arguably the most important pre-[[World War II]] development was by [[Albert Hofmann]]'s [[1938]] invention of the semi-[[synthetic]] drug [[LSD]], which was later discovered to produce hallucinogenic effects, in [[1943]].
=== Hallucinogens after World War II ===
After World War II there was an explosion of interest in hallucinogenic drugs in [[psychiatry]], owing mainly to the discovery of LSD. Interest in the drugs tended to focus on either the potential for [[psychotherapy|psychotherapeutic]] applications of the drugs (see ''[[psychedelic psychotherapy]]''), or on the use of hallucinogens to produce a "controlled [[psychosis]]", in order to understand psychotic disorders such as [[schizophrenia]]. Between the mid [[1950s]] and the mid [[1960]]s over 1000 scholarly articles were published on hallucinogen research. Hallucinogens were also researched in several countries for their potential as agents of [[chemical warfare]]. Most famously, several tragic incidents associated with the [[CIA]]'s [[MK-ULTRA]] [[mind control]] research project have been the topic of media attention and lawsuits.
At the beginning of the [[1950]]s, the existence of hallucinogenic drugs was virtually unknown among the general public of the West. However this soon changed as several influential figures were introduced to the hallucinogenic experience. [[Aldous Huxley]]'s [[1953]] essay ''[[The Doors of Perception]]'', describing his experiences with mescaline, and [[R. Gordon Wasson]]'s [[1957]] Life magazine article (''Seeking the Magic Mushroom'') brought the topic into the public limelight. In the early [[1960s]] countercultural icons such as [[Timothy Leary]], [[Allen Ginsberg]] and [[Ken Kesey]] advocated the drugs for their [[psychedelic]] effects, and a large [[subculture]] of psychedelic drug users was spawned. Many people argue that psychedelic drugs played a major role in catalyzing the vast social changes initiated in the [[The Sixties|1960]]s.
As a result of the growing popularity of LSD, and, some contend, establishment disdain for the [[hippie]]s with whom it was heavily associated, LSD was banned in the [[United States]] in [[1967]].
=== Social status of hallucinogens ===
After the fading from public sight of many elements of the 1960s counterculture, hallucinogen use took a less visible but nevertheless persistent role in Western society [[1970s]] and [[1980s]]. In the [[1990s]] and [[2000s]] something of a revival of interest in the drugs has occurred. There are probably several important contributing factors to the resurgence. One is the rise of [[dance]]-based [[rave]] and [[trance music|trance]] culture, in which participants frequently employ drugs such as the [[Empathogen/Entactogen|entactogen]] [[MDMA]], and to a lesser extent, other hallucinogenic drugs such as [[LSD]], [[Psychedelic mushroom|magic mushroom]]s and [[ketamine]], as an aid to inducing [[ecstasy (state)|ecstatic]] or [[trance]] states of [[consciousness]]. A second major contributing factor to the revival of interest in hallucinogenic drugs has been the advent of the [[Internet]] and [[World Wide Web]]. This has made information pertaining to drugs much more accessible to the general public, provided a platform for [[advocacy]] that was not previously available, and has enabled otherwise isolated interested parties to communicate and exchange information and experiences. Some well-known contemporary authors of topics relating to hallucinogens include [[Terence McKenna]], [[Timothy Leary]], [[Alexander Shulgin]], [[Jonathan Ott]] and [[Rick Strassman]].
=== Legal status ===
[[As of 2004]], most hallucinogens (aside from DXM) are illegal in most Western countries. One notable exception to the current criminalization trend is in parts of [[Western Europe]], especially in the [[Netherlands]], where hallucinogenic mushrooms are considered to be so-called "[[soft drug]]s", along with [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]]. While the possession of soft drugs is technically illegal, the Dutch government has decided that using law enforcement to combat their use is largely a waste of resources. As a result, public "coffeeshops" in the Netherlands openly sell cannabis, and "smart shops" sell drugs like psilocybin mushrooms and [[ayahuasca]] for personal use (''See [[Drug policy of the Netherlands]]'').
Since the latter part of the twentieth century, this attitude has spread throughout [[Europe]]; many European countries no longer actively pursue anti-drug policies, and rarely enforce extant legal penalties for personal-use quantities of hallucinogenic drugs. This is especially true with mild hallucinogens such as [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]], which is rapidly gaining acceptance in western Europe as a harmless and socially acceptable intoxicant, much as [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] is considered throughout the West. Despite being scheduled as a controlled substance in the mid 1980s, [[ecstasy (drug)|ecstasy]]'s popularity has been growing since that time in western [[Europe]] and in the [[United States]].
Attitudes towards hallucinogens other than cannabis have been slower to change. Several attempts to change the law on the grounds of [[freedom of religion]] have been made. Some of these have been successful, for example the [[Native American Church]] in the [[United States]], and [[Santo Daime]] in [[Brazil]]. Some people argue that a religious setting should not be necessary for the legitimacy of hallucinogenic drug use, and for this reason also criticize the euphemistic use of the term "[[entheogen]]". Non-religious reasons for the use of hallucinogens including [[spirituality|spiritual]], [[introspection|introspective]], [[psychotherapy|psychotherapeutic]], [[recreational drug|recreational]] and even [[hedonism|hedonistic]] motives, each subject to some degree of social disapproval, have all been defended as the legitimate exercising of [[civil liberties]], including [[freedom of thought]]. Many connect the idea of being "high" or going through a [[psychedelic]] state, as having [[brain damage]], or going crazy. This is due to the effect of the drug, which can be overwhelming. No connecti |
ty set''' is the unique [[set]] which contains no elements. In [[axiomatic set theory]] it is postulated to exist by the [[axiom of empty set]] and all finite sets are constructed from it. The empty set is also sometimes called the '''null set''', but because [[null set]] means something else in [[measure theory]], that term is generally avoided in current work.
Various possible properties of sets are [[Trivial (mathematics)|trivially]] true for the empty set.
== Notation ==
The standard notation for denoting the empty set is the symbol <math>\varnothing</math> or ∅, introduced by the [[Bourbaki group]] (specifically [[André Weil]]) in 1939. [http://members.aol.com/jeff570/set.html] This should not be confused with the Scandinavian vowel [[Ø|&Oslash;&oslash;]] and the [[Greek alphabet|Greek letter]] [[phi|&Phi;]]. Another common notation for the empty set is {}.
For comparison, see the three signs together: ∅ Øø Φ – the empty set sign is based on a geometric [[circle]], whereas the Scandinavian letter is like an oval letter '[[O]]'.
The empty set "∅" has the unicode code point U+2205. Common [[TeX]] packages offer <tt>\emptyset</tt> and <tt>\varnothing</tt>, which respectively appear as:
: <math>\emptyset, \varnothing</math>
== Properties ==
(Here we use [[table of mathematical symbols|mathematical symbol]]s.)
* [[For any]] set ''A'', the empty set is a [[subset]] of ''A'':
*: &forall;''A'': <math>\varnothing</math> &sube; ''A''
* For any set ''A'', the [[union (set theory)|union]] of ''A'' with the empty set is ''A'':
*: &forall;''A'': ''A'' &cup; <math>\varnothing</math> = ''A''
* For any set ''A'', the [[intersection (set theory)|intersection]] of ''A'' with the empty set is the empty set:
*: &forall;''A'': ''A'' &cap; <math>\varnothing</math> = <math>\varnothing</math>
* For any set ''A'', the [[Cartesian product]] of ''A'' and the empty set is empty:
*: &forall;''A'': ''A'' &times; <math>\varnothing</math> = <math>\varnothing</math>
* The only subset of the empty set is the empty set itself:
*: &forall;''A'': ''A'' &sube; <math>\varnothing</math> &rArr; ''A'' = <math>\varnothing</math>
* The number of elements of the empty set (that is its [[cardinality]]) is [[0 (number)|zero]]; in particular, the empty set is [[finite]]:
*: |<math>\varnothing</math>| = 0
*For any property:
** for every element of <math>\varnothing</math> the property holds ([[vacuous truth]])
** there is no element of <math>\varnothing</math> for which the property holds
*Conversely: if, for some property, the following two statements hold:
** for every element of V the property holds
** there is no element of V for which the property holds
:then V = <math>\varnothing</math>
Mathematicians speak of "the empty set" rather than "an empty set". In [[set theory]], two sets are equal if they have the same elements; therefore there can be only one set with no elements.
Considered as a subset of the [[real number line]] (or more generally any [[topological space]]), the empty set is both [[closed set|closed]] and [[open set|open]]. All its [[boundary (topology)|boundary points]] (of which there are none) are in the empty set, and the set is therefore closed; while all its [[interior (topology)|interior points]] (of which there are again none) are in the empty set, and the set is therefore open. Moreover, the empty set is a [[compact set]] by the fact that every [[finite set]] is compact.
The [[closure (mathematics)|closure]] of the empty set is empty. This is known as "preservation of [[nullary]] [[union (set theory)|unions]]."
== Common problems ==
The empty set is not the same thing as ''nothing''; it is a set with nothing ''inside'' it, and a set is ''something''. This often causes difficulty among those who first encounter it. It may be helpful to think of a set as a bag containing its elements; an empty bag may be empty, but the bag itself certainly exists.
Some people balk at the first property listed above, that the empty set is a subset of any set ''A''. By the definition of [[subset]], this claim means that for ''every'' element ''x'' of {}, ''x'' belongs to ''A''. If it is not true that every element of {} is in ''A'', there must be at least one element of {} that is not present in ''A''. Since there are ''no'' elements of {} at all, there is no element of {} that is not in ''A'', leading us to conclude that every element of {} is in A and that {} is a subset of ''A''. Any statement that begins "for every element of {}" is not making any substantive claim; it is a [[vacuous truth]]. This is often paraphrased as "everything is true of the elements of the empty set."
== Axiomatic set theory ==
In the [[axiomatic set theory|axiomatization of set theory]] known as [[Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory]], the existence of the empty set is assured by the [[axiom of empty set]]. The uniqueness of the empty set follows from the [[axiom of extensionality]].
Any axiom that states the existence of any set will imply the axiom of empty set, using the [[axiom schema of separation]]. For example, if ''A'' is a set then the axiom schema of separation allows the construction of the set ''B'' = {''x'' in ''A'' | ''x'' &ne; ''x''}, which can be defined to be the empty set.
== Does it exist or is it necessary? ==
While the empty set is a standard and universally accepted concept in mathematics, there are those who still entertain doubts.
[[Jonathan Lowe]] has argued that while the idea "was undoubtedly an important landmark in the history of mathematics, &hellip; we should not assume that its utility in calculation is dependent upon its actually denoting some object." It is not clear that such an idea makes sense. "All that we are ever informed about the empty set is that it
(1) is a set, (2) has no members, and (3) is unique amongst sets in having no members. However, there are very many things that 'have no members', in the set-theoretical sense&mdash;namely, all non-sets. It is perfectly clear why these things have no members, for they are not sets. What is unclear is how there can be, uniquely amongst sets, a ''set'' which has no members. We cannot conjure such an entity into existence by mere stipulation."
In "To be is to be the value of a variable&hellip;", [[Philosophy Journals|Journal of Philosophy]], 1984 (reprinted in his book ''Logic, Logic and Logic''), the late [[George Boolos]] has argued that we can go a long way just by [[plural quantification|quantifying plurally]] over individuals, without [[reification|reifying]] sets as singular entities having other entities as members.
In a recent book [http://philosophy.syr.edu Tom McKay] has disparaged the "singularist" assumption that natural expressions using plurals can be analysed using plural surrogates, such as signs for sets. He argues for an anti-singularist theory which differs from set theory in that there is no analogue of the empty set, and there is just one relation, ''among'', that is an analogue of both the membership and the subset relation.
== Operations on the empty set ==
Operations performed on the empty set (as a set of things to be operated upon) can also be confusing. (Such operations are ''[[nullary]] operations''.) For example, the [[sum]] of the elements of the empty set is [[0 (number)|zero]], but the [[multiplication|product]] of the elements of the empty set is [[1 (number)|one]] (see [[empty product]]). This may seem odd, since there are no elements of the empty set, so how could it matter whether they are added or multiplied (since &ldquo;they&rdquo; do not exist)? Ultimately, the results of these operations say more about the operation in question than about the empty set. For instance, notice that zero is the [[identity element]] for addition, and one is the identity element for multiplication.
== Bounds ==
Since the empty set has no members, when it is considered as a subset of any [[ordered set]], then any member of that set will be an upper bound and lower bound for the empty set. For example, when considered as a subset of the real numbers, with its usual ordering, represented by the [[real number line]], every real number is both an upper and lower bound for the empty set. When considered as a subset of the [[extended reals]] formed by adding two "numbers" or "points" to the real numbers, namely "negative infinity", denoted <math>-\infty\!\,,</math> which is defined to be less than every other extended real number, and "positive infinity", denoted <math>+\infty\!\,,</math> which is defined to be greater than every other extended real number, then:
:<math>\sup\varnothing=\min(\{-\infty, +\infty \} \cup \mathbb{R})=-\infty,</math>
and
:<math>\inf\varnothing=\max(\{-\infty, +\infty \} \cup \mathbb{R})=+\infty.</math>
That is, the least upper bound (sup or [[supremum]]) of the empty set is negative infinity, while the greatest lower bound (inf or [[infimum]]) is positive infinity.
== The empty set and zero ==
It was mentioned earlier that the empty set has [[0 (number)|zero]] elements, or that its cardinality is zero. The connection between the two concepts goes further however: in the standard [[set-theoretic definition of natural numbers]], zero is ''defined'' as the empty set.
== Category theory ==
If ''A'' is a set, then there exists precisely one [[function (mathematics)|function]] ''f'' from {} to ''A'', the [[empty function]].
As a result, the empty set is the unique [[initial object]] of the [[category theory|category]] of sets and functions.
The empty set can be turne |
right|280px|Design for a concert hall, dated 1864, expressing Gothic principles in modern materials; brick, stone and castiron. ''Entretiens sur l'architecture'']]
==Early years==
Viollet-le-Duc's father was a civil servant in Paris who collected books and his mother's Friday salons drew [[Stendal]] and [[Sainte-Beuve]]. Her brother, [[Eugène Délécluze]], "a painter in the mornings, a scholar in the evenings" (Summerson), was largely in charge of the young man's education. Viollet-le-Duc showed a lively intellect: republican, anti-clerical, rebellious, who built barricade in the July [[Revolution of 1830]] and refused to enter the ''[[Ecole des Beaux-Arts]]''.
==As an Architectural Restorer==
In the early [[1830s]], the beginnings of a movement for the restoration of medieval buildings appeared in [[France]]. Viollet-le-Duc, returning in 1835 from a study trip to [[Italy]], was ordered by [[Prosper Merimée]] to restore the Romanesque abbey of [[Vezelay]]. This work marked the beginning of a long series of restorations; Viollet-le-Duc's restorations at Notre Dame de Paris brought him into national attention.
Viollet-le-Duc applied the lessons he had derived from [[Gothic architecture]], seeing beneath the atmospheric allure that drew his British contemporaries to especially what he conceived of its rational structural systems, to modern building materials such as cast iron. He practiced as archaeologically precise (for his time) a style of restoration as he could manage, but his own designs were remarkably innovative. His approach to both medieval and modern architecture was severely rational, in keeping with his own unsentimental appreciation of the Gothic achievement.
At the same time, in the cultural atmosphere of the [[French Second Empire|Second Empire]] theory necessarily became diluted in practice, and messages were mixed: Viollet-le-Duc provided a Gothic reliquary for the relic of the [[Crown of Thorns]] at Notre-Dame in 1862, and yet [[Napoleon III]] also commisioned designs for a luxuriously appointed railway carriage from Viollet-le-Duc, in 14th-century Gothic style (Exhibition 1965)
[[Image:Dictionnaire Raisonné de Architecture pequeño.png|thumb|right|150px|Front cover of the ''Dictionnaire Raisonné de L'Architecture Française. Du XIe au XVIe siécle'', A. Morel editor, Paris, 1868.]]
Among his restorations were:
* Churches :
** Sainte-Marie-Madeleine, Vézelay
** [[Notre-Dame de Paris]]
** [[Saint Denis Basilica]], near Paris
** Saint-Louis, in [[Poissy]], France
** Semur
** Saint-Nazaire, in [[Carcassonne]], France
** Saint-Sernin, in [[Toulouse]], France
** Notre-Dame de [[Lausanne]], Switzerland
* Town Halls :
** Saint-Antonin
** [[Narbonne]]
* Castles :
** [[Pierrefonds]]
** Fortified city of Carcassonne
** [[Château de Coucy]]
Restoration of the Château of Pierrefonds, reinterpreted by Viollet-le-Duc for [[Napoleon III of France|Napoleon III]], was interrupted by the departure of the Emperor in [[1870]]. He died in [[Lausanne]] in [[1879]]
An exhibition, ''Eugène Viollet-le-Duc 1814-1879'' was presented in Paris, 1965.
==Legacy==
Some of his restorations, such as that of the castle of [[Pierrefonds]], were highly controversial because they did not aim so much at accurately recreating a historical situation as much as at creating a "perfect building" of medieval style. Modern conservation practice finds Viollet-le-Duc's restorations too free, too personal, too interpretive, but many of the monuments he restored would have otherwise been lost.
The famous [[Catalonia|Catalan]] architect [[Antoni Gaudi|Antoni Gaudí]] was strongly influenced by the Gothic architecture revival of Viollet-le-Duc.
==Publications==
Throughout his career Viollet-le-Duc made notes and drawings, not only for the buildings he was working on, but also on [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]], [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] and [[Renaissance]] buildings that were to be soon demolished. Hisnotes were helpful in his published works. His study of medieval and Renaissance periods was not limited to architecture, but extended to furniture, clothing, musical instruments, armament and so forth.
All this work was published, first in serial, and then as full-scale books, as:
* ''Dictionary of French Architecture from 11th to 16th Century'' (1854-1868) (''[http://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionnaire_raisonné_de_l'architecture_française_du_XIe_au_XVIe_siècle Dictionnaire raisonné de l'architecture française du XIe au XVe siècle''])
* ''Dictionary of French Furnishings'' (1858-1870) (''Dictionnaire raisonné du mobilier français de l'époque Carolingienne à la Renaissance.'')
* ''Entretiens sur l'architecture'' (in 2 volumes, 1858-72), in which Viollet-le-Duc systematized his approach to architecture and architectural education, in a system radically opposed to that of the ''[[Ecole des Beaux-Arts]]'', which he had avoided in his youth and despised. In Henry Van Brunt's translation, the "Discourses on Architecture" was published in 1875, making it available to an American audience little more than a decade after its initial publication in France.
==Reference==
*[[John Summerson|Summerson, Sir John]], 1948. "Viollet-le-Duc and the rational point of view" collected in ''Heavenly Mansions and Other essays on Architecture.''
[[Category:1814 births|Viollet-le-Duc, Eugène]]
[[Category:1879 deaths|Viollet-le-Duc, Eugène]]
[[Category:French architects|Viollet-le-Duc, Eugène]]
[[de:Eugène Viollet-le-Duc]]
[[es:Eugène Viollet-le-Duc]]
[[eo:Eugène VIOLLET-LE-DUC]]
[[fr:Eugène Viollet-le-Duc]]
[[hr:Eugène Viollet-le-Duc]]
[[it:Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc]]
[[ja:ウジェーヌ・エマニュエル・ヴィオレ・ル・デュク]]
[[nl:Eugène Viollet-le-Duc]]
[[pl:Eugène Viollet-le-Duc]]
[[pt:Eugène Viollet-le-Duc]]
[[sv:Eugène Viollet-le-Duc]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Endocarditis</title>
<id>9659</id>
<revision>
<id>41941160</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:52:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arcadian</username>
<id>104523</id>
</contributor>
<comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Endocarditis |
ICD10 = I33 |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|421}} |
}}
'''Endocarditis''' is an [[inflammation]] of the inner layer of the [[heart]], the [[endocardium]]. The most common structures involved are the [[heart valve]]s.
Endocarditis can be classified by etiology as either ''infective'' or ''non-infective'', depending on whether a foreign [[micro-organism]] is causing the problem.
== Infective endocarditis ==
As the valves of the heart do not actually receive any [[blood]] supply of their own, which may be surprising given their location, defense mechanisms (such as [[white blood cell]]s) cannot enter. So if an organism (such as [[bacterium|bacteria]]) establish hold on the valves, the body cannot get rid of them.
Normally, blood flows pretty smoothly through these valves. If they have been damaged (for instance in [[rheumatic fever]]) bacteria have a chance to take hold.
[[Image:Blood_culture_negative_endocarditis.jpg|frame|right|''Bartonella henselae'' bacilli in cardiac valve of a patient with blood culture-negative endocarditis. The bacilli appear as black granulations.]]
===Classification===
Traditionally, infective endocarditis has been clinically divided into ''acute'' and ''subacute'' (between acute and chronic) endocarditis. This classifies both the tempo of progressison and severity of disease. Thus subacute bacterial endocarditis (SBE) is often due to streptococci of low virulence and mild to moderate illness which progresses slowly over weeks and months, while acute bacterial endocarditis (ABE) is a fulminant illness over days to weeks, and is more likely due to ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'' which has much greater virulence, or disease-producing capacity.
This terminology is now discouraged. The terms ''short incubation'' (meaning less than about six weeks), and ''long incubation'' (greater than about six weeks) are preferred despite the lack of advantage in meaning.
Infective endocarditis may also be classified as ''culture-positive'' or ''culture-negative''. Culture-negative endocarditis is due to micro-organisms that require a longer period of time to be identified in the laboratory. Such organisms are said to be ''fastidious'' because they have demanding growth requirements. Some pathogens responsible for culture-negative endocarditis include ''Aspergillus species'', ''Brucella species'', ''Coxiella burnettii'', ''Chlamydia species'', and HACEK bacteria.
Finally, the distinction between ''native-valve endocarditis'' and ''prosthetic-valve endocarditis'' is clinically important.
===Aetiology and pathogenesis===
As previously mentioned, altered blood flow around the valves is a risk factor in obtaining endocarditis. The valves may be damaged congenitally, from [[surgery]], by [[auto-immune]] mechanisms, or simply as a consequence of old age. The damaged part of a heart valve becomes covered with a blood clot, a condition known as non-bacterial thrombotic endocarditis (NBTE).
In a healthy individual, a [[bacteraemia]] (where bacteria get into the blood stream through a minor cut or wound) would normally be cleared quickly with no adverse consequences. If a heart valve is damaged and covered with a piece of a blood clot, the valve provides a place for the bacteria to attach themselves and an infection can be established.
The bacteraemia is often caused by minor [[dentistry|dental]] procedures, such as a [[tooth]] removal. It is important that a [[dentist]] is told of any heart problems before commencing.
Another group of causes result from a high number of bacteria getting into the bloodstream. [[Colorectal cancer]], serious [[urinary tract infection]]s and [[IV drug]] use, can all introduce large numbers of bacteria. Wi |
of the [[church]] of ''[[San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane]]'' (also called San Carlino). The church is named after ''San Carlo Borromeo'', and may have prompted his name change. The small church is master conceit of Roman baroque. He avoids linear classicism and eschews a simple circular shape in favor of a corrugated oval. The church is small, complex convex-concave rhythms that disrupt the oval of the nave[http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc/projects/comm544/library/images/040.html]; he "designed the walls to weave in and out as if they were formed not of stone but of pliant substance set in motion by an energetic space, carrying with them the deep entablatures, the cornices, moldings and pediments." (Marvin Trachtenberg and Isabelle Hyman. Architecture: from Prehistory to Post-Modernism. p346-7 as quoted in [http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/S_Carlo_Alle_Quattro_Fonta.html]. It is far bolder in geometric intricacy and less encrusted with figurative decorations than [[Bernini]]'s [[Sant'Andrea al Quirinale]], which lies just down the street. That latter church has a sculptural drama embedded into the architecture, as a form of ''bel composto''. In ''San Carlino'', the drama is geometric. The undulating elements in the façade (completed late in his life), are also masterful [http://web.comhem.se/~u13117202/scarlino.htm].
For ''[[Sant'Agnese in Agone]]'', he reverted the original plan of [[Girolamo Rainaldi]] (and his son [[Carlo Rainaldi]]), which previously had its main entrance on Via di Santa Maria dell'Anima. The façade was expanded to include parts of the bordering Pamphilij palace, gaining space for the two bell towers (each of which has a clock, as in St. Peter's, one for Roman time, the other for ''tempo ultramontano'', European time).
Borromini lost this commission before completion due to the death of the [[Pope Innocent X]] in 1655. The new Pope, [[Pope Alexander VII|Alexander VII]], and Prince Camillo Pamphilj recalled Rainaldi, but this one didn't change very much and the church is mainly considered a notable expression of Borromini's concepts.
[[Image:Borromini SantIvo.jpg|thumb|''Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza'', courtyard and façade.]]
From 1640-1650, he worked on the design of the church of [[Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza]] and its courtyard, near [[University of Rome La Sapienza]] palace. The site, like many in cramped Rome, is challenged for external perspectives. The dome and cochlear steeple are peculiar, and reflect the idiosyncratic architectural motifs that distinguish Borromini from contemporaries. Inside, the nave has an unusual centralized plan circled by alternating concave and convex cornices, leading to a dome decorated with linear arrays of stars and putti. The fusion of feverish baroque excesses with a rationalistic geometry is an excellent match for a church in a papal institution of higher learning. He is purported to be a strong influence on the Turin architect, [[Camillo-Guarino Guarini]].
==Death and Epitaph==
In the summer of [[1667]], Borromini, suffering from nervous disorders and depression, committed suicide after the completion of the Falconieri chapel (the main chapel) in [[San Giovanni dei Fiorentini]], where he was buried [http://web.comhem.se/~u13117202/suicide.htm|(account)].
The primary inscription on Borromini's tomb, in San Giovanni dei Fiorentini, reads:
<small>
FRANCISCVS BORROMINI TICINENSIS<br/>
EQVES CHRISTI<br/>
QVI<br/>
IMPERITVRAE MEMORIAE ARCHITECTVS<br/>
DIVINAM ARTIS SVAE VIM<br/>
AD ROMAM MAGNIFICIS AEDIFICIIS EXORNANDAM VERTIT<br/>
IN QVIBUS<br/>
ORATORIVM PHILLIPINVM S. IVO S. AGNES IN AGONE<br/>
INSTAVRATA LATERANENSIS ARCHIBASILICA<br/>
S. ANDREAS DELLE FRATTE NVNCVPATUM<br/>
S. CAROLVS IN QVIRINALI<br/>
AEDES DE PROPADANDA FIDE<br/>
HOC AVTEM IPSVM TEMPLVM<br/>
ARA MAXIMA DECORAVIT<br/>
NON LONGE AB HOC LAPIDE<br/>
PROPE MORTALES CAROLI MADERNI EXUVVIAS<br/>
PROPINQVI MVNICIPIS ET AEMVLI SVI<br/>
IN PACE DOMINI QVIESCIT<br/>
</small>
Francesco Borromini was featured on the 100 Swiss Franc banknote current in the 1980s.
-----
==Anthology of Works==
Borromini's works include:
[[Image:Roman architecture.jpg|thumb|Façade of ''[[San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane]]''.]]
[[Image:Spada.jpg|thumb|Palazzo Spada, architectural [[trompe-l'oeil]]]]
* ''[[San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane]]'' (nave, dome, and convent)
* ''[[Sant'Agnese in Agone]]''
* ''[[Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza]]''
* ''[[Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano]]''
* ''Cappella Spada'', San Girolamo della Carità (uncertain attribution)
* ''[[Palazzo Spada]]'' (trick perspective)
* ''[[Palazzo Barberini]]'' (upper-level windows and oval staircase)
* ''Santi Apostoli'' in Naples - Filamarino Altar
* ''[[Sant'Andrea delle Fratte]]''
* ''Oratorio dei Filippini''
* ''[[Congregatio de Propaganda Fide|Collegio de Propaganda Fide]]'' [http://www.romeartlover.it/Vasi164a.htm]
* ''Santa Maria dei Sette Dolori''
* ''San Giovanni in Oleo'' (restoration)
* ''Palazzo Giustiniani'' (with [[Carlo Fontana]])
* ''Palazzo Falconieri''
* ''[[Santa Lucia in Selci]]'' (restoration)
* ''[[Saint Peter's Basilica]]'' (gates to Blessed Sacrament Chapel and possibly parts of the baldacchino)
==External links==
*[http://www.columbia.edu/~jc65/opus/opus.int.htm Columbia University: Joseph Connors, ''Francesco Borromini: Opus Architectonicum,'' Milan, 1998]: Introduction to Borromini's own description of the Casa dei Filippini
*[http://w1.131.comhem.se/~u13117202/suicide.htm Borromini's own (!) account of his suicide]
[[Category:Italian architects|Borromini, Francesco]]
[[Category:Swiss architects|Borromini, Francesco]]
[[Category:Baroque architects|Borromini, Francesco]]
[[Category:Natives of Ticino|Borromini, Francesco]]
[[Category:Suicides|Borromini, Francesco]]
[[Category:1599 births|Borromini, Francesco]]
[[Category:1667 deaths|Borromini, Francesco]]
[[cs:Francesco Borromini]]
[[de:Francesco Borromini]]
[[es:Francesco Borromini]]
[[fr:Francesco Borromini]]
[[hr:Francesco Borromini]]
[[it:Francesco Borromini]]
[[nl:Francesco Borromini]]
[[ja:フランチェスコ・ボッロミーニ]]
[[sv:Francesco Borromini]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Freedom fighter</title>
<id>11126</id>
<revision>
<id>41783235</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T18:47:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.240.35.170</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Freedom fighter''' is a [[linguistic relativism|relativistic]] [[locality|local]] term for those engaged in [[rebellion]] against an established [[government]] that is held to be oppressive and illegitimate. The terms ''"[[freedom]]"'' and "[[rebellion]]" are often controversial, as often both sides in armed conflict claim to represent the [[populist|popular]] cause of ''"freedom"''. While external intervening parties, even oppressors, almost always claim to be "liberators", ''''freedom fighters'''' also often become ''oppressors'' in the eyes of civilians.
Though the literal meaning of the words could include ''anyone who fights for the cause of freedom,'' common use is restricted to those who are actively involved in an [[armed forces|armed]] rebellion, rather than those who "fight" for freedom by peaceful [[nonviolence|nonviolent]] means (though they may use the title metaphorically).
Confusion between terrorists and freedom fighters has become a hot topic in today's society. There is no universal definition for "terrorist" and many militant organizations (such as Hamas) take offense to the term and say that they are freedom fighters.
==History==
Historically, people who are self-described "freedom fighters" tend to be called [[assassin]]s, [[rebel|rebels]], or [[terrorism|terrorists]] by their foes. During the [[Cold War]], the term ''''freedom fighter'''' was widely used by the [[United States]] and other [[NATO|Western Bloc]] countries to describe rebels in countries controlled by [[communist state]]s or otherwise under the influence of the [[Soviet Union]], including rebels in [[Hungary]], the [[anti-communist]] [[Contras]] in [[Nicaragua]], [[UNITA]] in [[Angola]] and the multi-factional [[mujahideen]] in [[Afghanistan]].
The term ''freedom fighter'', while indicating favor of some political group, often does not reflect any actual political position of those fighting--central to this is a dispute over the meaning of ''freedom'' itself and whether a group in question can be said to actually fight for the purpose of establishing ''freedom''. This was particularly true in [[Nicaragua]], where the [[United States|US]] government was inclined to a favorable view of the [[Sandinista]] movement until some time after it accumulated power, when it backed the [[Contra]] rebels. If the Sandinistas were fighting for ''freedom'' then why would an oppressive government be established? And were the subsequent [[Contras|Contra]] organizations then fighting against freedom? Of all political labels, ''freedom fighter'' is perhaps the most blunt term for "friend" -- some think that it signals an unwillingness to abandon moral support regardless of methods, an unbreakable alliance between players.
The ambiguity of the term ''freedom'' makes the use of the label ''freedom fighter'' particularly useful for [[propaganda]] purposes. It is relatively simple to show that the "enemy" has done something which violates one of the many possible meanings of the word freedom, which allows the propagandist to appear to take the moral high ground by fighting for the cause of freedom. In addition to this, propagandists commonly use [[virtue word]]s like "[[freedom]]", "[[social justice]]", "[[liberation]]", and "helping the poor", which tend to evoke positive images in the target audience in order to attach th |
[President]] of [[Venezuela]].
*1999 - Unarmed [[West African]] immigrant [[Amadou Diallo (shooting victim)|Amadou Diallo]] is shot dead by four plainclothes [[New York City]] police officers on an unrelated stake-out, inflaming race-relations in the city.
*[[2000]] - [[USS Iwo Jima (LHD-7)]] launched.
*2000 - [[Germany|German]] [[extortionist]] [[Klaus-Peter Sabotta]] is [[life imprisonment|jailed for life]] for attempted murder and extortion in connection with [[sabotage]] of [[Germany|German]] [[railway]] lines.
*[[2003]] - The ''[[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]'' is officially renamed to [[Serbia and Montenegro]] and adopts a new constitution.
*[[2005]] - [[Bill "El Wingador" Simmons]] wins a record fifth [[Wing Bowl]] Championship at the [[Wachovia Center]] in [[Philadelphia]].
*[[2006]] - [[Anders Fogh Rasmussen cartoons]] published in response to the affair of the [[Muhammad drawings]].
*2006 - Michaela Hutchison (sophomore) of Skyview High School in Soldotna, [[Alaska]], becomes the first female wrestler in [[U.S.]] history to win a High School state co-ed 4A [[wrestling]] title, when pitted against boys.
*2006 - A stampede occurs in the [[PhilSports Arena|ULTRA Stadium]] near Manila killing at least 74.
==Births==
*[[1575]] - [[Pierre de Bérulle]], French cardinal and statesman (d. [[1629]])
*[[1620]] - [[Gustaf Bonde]], Swedish statesman (d. [[1667]])
*[[1646]] - [[Hans Erasmus Aßmann, Freiherr von Abschatz]], German statesman and poet (d. [[1699]])
*[[1677]] - [[Johann Ludwig Bach]], German composer (d. [[1731]])
*[[1688]] - [[Pierre de Marivaux]], French writer (d. [[1763]])
*[[1725]] - [[Dru Drury]], English entomologist (d. [[1804]])
*[[1778]] - [[Augustin Pyrame de Candolle]], Swiss botanist (d. [[1841]])
*[[1840]] - [[Hiram Stevens Maxim]], American weapons inventor (d. [[1916]])
*[[1841]] - [[Clément Ader]], French aviation pioneer (d. [[1926]])
*[[1846]] - [[Nikolay Umov]], Russian physicist (d. [[1915]])
*[[1849]] - [[Jean Richepin]], French poet
*[[1871]] - [[Friedrich Ebert]], [[Chancellor of Germany|Chancellor]] and [[President of Germany]] (d. [[1925]])
*[[1873]] - [[Etienne Desmarteau|Étienne Desmarteau]], Canadian athlete (d. [[1905]])
*[[1875]] - [[Ludwig Prandtl]], German physicist (d. [[1953]])
*[[1881]] - [[Fernand Léger]], French painter (d. [[1955]])
*[[1882]] - [[E. J. Pratt]], Canadian poet born Newfoundland (d. [[1964]])
*[[1892]] - [[Prince George I, Duke of Westrogothia]] (d. [[1971]])
*1892 - [[Andreu Nin]], Catalan politician (d. [[1937]])
*[[1897]] - [[Ludwig Erhard]], [[Chancellor of Germany]] (d. [[1977]])
*[[1902]] - [[Charles Lindbergh]], American pilot (d. [[1974]])
*1902 - [[Hartley Shawcross]], British lawyer and politician (d. [[2003]])
*[[1904]] - [[MacKinlay Kantor]], American writer (d. [[1977]])
*[[1906]] - [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]], German theologian (d. [[1945]])
*1906 - [[Clyde Tombaugh]], American astronomer (d. [[1997]])
*[[1908]] - [[Julian Bell]], British poet (d. [[1937]])
*[[1912]] - [[Erich Leinsdorf]], Austrian conductor (d. [[1993]])
*1912 - [[Byron Nelson]], American golfer
*[[1913]] - [[Rosa Parks]], American civil rights activist (d. [[2005]])
*[[1914]] - [[Alfred Andersch]], German writer (d. [[1980]])
*[[1915]] - [[William Talman]], American actor ([[1968]])
*1915 - [[Norman Wisdom]], English actor and comedian
*[[1917]] - [[Yahya Khan]], [[President of Pakistan]] (d. [[1980]])
*[[1918]] - [[Janet Waldo]], American actress
*1918 - [[Ida Lupino]], English film actress and director (d. 1995)
*[[1921]] - [[Betty Friedan]], American feminist (d. [[2006]])
*1921 - [[K. R. Narayanan]], [[President of India]] (d. [[2005]])
*[[1923]] - [[Conrad Bain]], Canadian-born actor
*[[1925]] - [[Russell Hoban]], American writer
*[[1931]] - [[Isabel Martínez de Perón]], third wife of Argentine dictator [[Juan Perón]]
*[[1935]] - [[Martti Talvela]], Finnish bass (d. [[1989]])
*[[1936]] - [[David Brenner]], American comedian
*1936 - [[Gary Conway]], American actor
*[[1940]] - [[George Romero]], American screenwriter, producer, and director
*1940 - [[John Schuck]], American actor
*[[1941]] - [[John Steel]], British musician ([[The Animals]])
*[[1943]] - [[Ken Thompson]], American computer scientist
*1943 - [[Alberto João Jardim]], Portuguese president of the regional government of Madeira
*[[1947]] - [[Dan Quayle]], [[Vice President of the United States]]
*[[1948]] - [[Alice Cooper]], American musician
*[[1949]] - [[Michael Beck]], American actor
*[[1950]] - [[Pamela Franklin]], British actress
*[[1951]] - [[Patrick Bergin]], Irish actor
*1951 - [[Phil Ehart]], American musician ([[Kansas (band)]])
*[[1953]] - [[Kitaro]], Japanese composer
*[[1957]] - [[Don Davis (composer)|Don Davis]], American composer
*[[1958]] - [[Tomasz Pacynski|Tomasz Pacy&#324;ski]], Polish writer
*[[1959]] - [[Pamelyn Ferdin]], American actress
*1959 - [[Lawrence Taylor]], American football player
*[[1960]] - [[Jonathan Larson]], American composer (d. [[1996]])
*[[1961]] - [[Stewart O'Nan]], American author
*1961 - [[Denis Savard]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1962]] - [[Clint Black]], American musician
*[[1963]] - [[Pirmin Zurbriggen]], Swiss skier
*[[1964]] - [[Kevin 'Noodles' Wasserman|Noodles]], American guitarist ([[The Offspring]])
*[[1965]] - [[Jerome Brown]], American football player (d. [[1992]])
*[[1967]] - [[Sergei Grinkov]], Russian figure skater (d. [[1995]])
*[[1968]] - [[Marko Matvere]], Estonian actor
*[[1969]] - [[Duncan Coutts]], Canadian bassist ([[Our Lady Peace]])
*[[1970]] - [[Gabrielle Anwar]], English actress
*[[1971]] - [[Rob Corddry]], American actor and comedian
*1971 - [[Michael Goorjian]], American actor
*[[1972]] - [[Giovanni Silva De Oliveira]], Brazilian footballer
*[[1973]] - [[Oscar De La Hoya]], Mexican-born boxer
*[[1975]] - [[Natalie Imbruglia]], Australian musician and actress
*[[1976]] - [[Cam'ron]], American rapper
*[[1977]] - [[Gavin DeGraw]], American musician
*[[1982]] - [[Chris Sabin]], Professional Wrestler
*[[1987]] - [[Lucie Šafářová]], Czech tennis player
*[[1988]] - [[Carly Patterson]], American gymnast
<!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Deaths==
*[[211]] - [[Septimius Severus]], [[List of Roman Emperors|Emperor of Rome]] (b. [[146]])
*[[708]] - [[Pope Sisinnius]]
*[[856]] - [[Rabanus Maurus]], Bishop of Mainz
*[[869]] - [[Saint Cyril]], Greek missionary to the Slavs (b. [[827]])
*[[1590]] - [[Gioseffo Zarlino]], Italian composer (b. [[1517]])
*[[1615]] - [[Dom Justo Takayama]], Japanese warlord (b. [[1552]])
*1615 - [[Giovanni Battista della Porta]], Italian physicist (b. [[1535]])
*[[1694]] - [[Nataliya Kyrillovna Naryshkina]], Tsaritsa of Russia (b. [[1651]])
*[[1713]] - [[Anthony Ashley Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury]], English politican and philosopher (b. [[1671]])
*[[1774]] - [[Charles Marie de La Condamine]], French mathematician and geographer (b. [[1701]])
*[[1799]] - [[Étienne-Louis Boullée]], French architect (b. [[1728]])
*[[1781]] - [[Josef Mysliveček]], Czech composer (b. [[1737]])
*[[1894]] - [[Adolphe Sax]], Belgian instrument maker (b. [[1814]])
*[[1905]] - [[Louis-Ernest Barrias]], French sculptor (b. [[1841]])
*[[1928]] - [[Hendrik Lorentz]], Dutch physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1853]])
*[[1933]] - [[Archibald Sayce]], English educator (b. [[1846]])
*[[1936]] - [[Wilhelm Gustloff]], German leader of the Swiss Nazi party (b. [[1895]])
*[[1944]] - [[Yvette Guilbert]], French singer and actress (b. [[1867]])
*1944 - [[Arsen Kotsoyev]], Russian writer (b. [[1872]])
*[[1958]] - [[Henry Kuttner]], American author (b. [[1915]])
*[[1959]] - [[Una O'Connor]], Irish actress (b. [[1880]])
*[[1968]] - [[Neal Cassady]], American writer (b. [[1926]])
*1968 - [[Gilbert H. Grosvenor]], American president of the National Geographic Society (b. [[1875]])
*[[1969]] - [[Thelma Ritter]], American actress (b. [[1905]])
*[[1974]] - [[Satyendra Nath Bose]], Indian physicist (b. [[1894]])
*[[1975]] - [[Louis Jordan]], American musician (b. [[1908]])
*[[1977]] - [[Brett Halliday]], American writer (b. [[1904]])
*[[1983]] - [[Carpenters|Karen Carpenter]], American singer and musician ([[Carpenters]]) (anorexia) (b. [[1950]])
*[[1984]] - [[Anna Anderson]], claimant to the throne of Russia
*[[1987]] - [[Liberace]], American musician (b. [[1919]])
*1987 - [[Carl Rogers]], American psychologist (b. [[1902]])
*[[1992]] - [[Lisa Fonssagrives]], Swedish model (b. [[1911]])
*[[1995]] - [[Godfrey Brown]], British athlete and teacher (b. [[1915]])
*1995 - [[Patricia Highsmith]], American author (b. [[1921]])
*[[2000]] - [[Carl Albert]], [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives]] (b. [[1908]])
*2000 - [[Doris Coley]], American singer ([[Shirelles]]) (b. [[1941]])
*[[2001]] - [[J. J. Johnson]], American jazz trombonist and composer (b. [[1924]])
*2001 - [[Iannis Xenakis]], Greek-born composer (b. [[1922]])
*[[2005]] - [[Ossie Davis]], American actor (b. [[1917]])
*[[2006]] - [[Betty Friedan]], American feminist (b.[[1921]])
*2006 - [[Al Lewis]], American actor (b. [[1923]])
<!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Holidays and observances==
*Ancient [[Latvia]] - [[Biezputras Diena]] observed.
*Feast of [[Saint Veronica]] in the [[Roman Catholic]] church .
*[[Independence Day]] in [[Sri Lanka]] ([[1948]]).
*[[Angola]]n Anniversary of the Outbreak of Armed Struggle against [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[Colonialism]].
==External links==
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&day=04 On this day in Canada]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060204.html NY Times: On this day]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/4 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[February 3]] - [[February 5]] - [[January 4]] - [[March 4]] -- [[Historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[Category:D |
the earliest civilization of the world from 13000 BP (See India below). The earliest known civilizations (as defined in the traditional sense) arose in [[Mesopotamia]] between the [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]] rivers in modern-day [[Iraq]], the [[Nile|Nile valley]] of [[Egypt]], the [[Indus Valley Civilization|Indus Valley]] region of modern-day [[Pakistan]], and the [[Huang He]] ([[Yellow River]]) valley of [[China]], while smaller civilizations arose in [[Elam]] in modern-day [[Iran]], and on the island of [[Crete]] in the [[Aegean Sea]]. The inhabitants of these areas built cities, created writing systems, learned to make pottery and use metals, domesticated animals, and created complex social structures with class systems.
===[[Mesopotamia]]===
The earliest [[settlement]] in [[Jericho]] ([[9th millennium BC]]) in modern-day [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], was a [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic A|PPNA]] culture that eventually gave way to more developed settlements later, which included in one early settlement ([[8th millennium BC]]) mud-brick [[house]]s surrounded by a stone wall, having a stone tower built into the wall. In this time there is evidence of domesticated [[emmer wheat]], [[barley]] and [[pulses]] and hunting of wild animals. However, there are no indications of attempts to form [[community|communities]] (early civilizations) with surrounding peoples. Nevertheless, by the [[6th millennium BC]] we find what appears to be an ancient [[shrine]] and [[cult]], which would likely indicate intercommunal [[religious]] practices in this era. Findings include a collective [[burial]] (with not all the skeletons completely articulated, jaws removed, faces covered with plaster, [[cowry|cowries]] used for eyes). Other finds from this era include stone and bone tools, clay figurines and shell and malachite beads. Around [[1500 BC|1500]] to [[1200 BC]] Jericho and other cities of [[Canaan]] had become [[vassal]]s of the [[Egypt]]ian empire.
Several miles southwest of [[Ur]], [[Eridu]] was the southernmost of a conglomeration of early [[temple]]-cities, in [[Sumer]], southern [[Mesopotamia]], with the earliest of these [[settlement]]s carbon dating to around [[5000 BC]]. The [[Sialk]] [[ziggurat]] of [[Kashan]], [[Iran]], also dates to this era. By the [[4th millennium BC]], in [[Nippur]] we find, in connection with a sort of [[ziggurat]] and [[shrine]], a [[conduit]] built of [[brick]]s, in the form of an [[arch]]. [[Sumerian]] inscriptions written on [[clay]] also appear in Nippur. By [[4000 BC]] an ancient [[city]] of [[Susa]], in [[Mesopotamia]], seems to emerge from earlier [[village]]s. Sumerian [[Cuneiform (script)|cuneiform]] script dates to no later than about [[3500 BCE]]. Sumer, which was Mesopotamia's first civilization in what is now [[Iraq]], is recognized as the world's earliest civilization. Other villages begin to spring up around this time in the [[Ancient Near East]] ([[Middle East]]) as well.
===Egypt===
[[Anthropology|Anthropological]] and [[Archaeology|archaeological]] evidence both indicate a [[cereal|grain]]-[[grinding]] [[culture]] [[farming]] along the [[Nile]] in the [[10th millennium BC]] using [[sickle]] [[blade]]s. But another culture of [[hunting|hunters]], [[fishing|fishers]] and [[hunter-gatherer|gathering]] peoples using [[stone tool]]s replaced them. Evidence also indicates human habitation in the southwestern corner of Egypt, near the [[Sudan]] border, before [[8000 BC]]. Climate changes and/or overgrazing around [[8th millennium BC|8000 BC]] began to desiccate the pastoral lands of [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], eventually forming the [[Sahara]] (c.[[2500 BC]]), and early tribes naturally migrated to the [[Nile]] river where they developed a settled [[agriculture|agricultural]] [[economic system|economy]] and more centralized [[society]]. Domesticated animals had already been imported from [[Asia]] between [[7500 BC]] and [[4000 BC]] (see ''[[Sahara#History|Sahara: History, Cattle period]]''), and there is evidence of [[pastoralism]] and cultivation of [[cereal]]s in the East [[Sahara]] in the [[7th millennium BC]]. The earliest known artwork of [[ship]]s in [[Ancient Egypt|ancient Egypt]] dates to [[6000 BCE]].
By [[6000 BC]] [[Predynastic Egypt|predynastic Egyptians]] in the southwestern corner of [[Egypt]] were [[herding]] cattle and [[construction|constructing]] large buildings. Symbols on [[Gerzean]] pottery, ''c.''[[4000 BC]], resemble traditional [[Egyptian hieroglyph|hieroglyph]] writing [http://www.touregypt.net/ebph5.htm]. In [[Ancient Egypt|ancient Egypt]] [[mortar (masonry)]] was in use by [[4000 BC]], and ancient Egyptians were producing [[ceramic]] [[faience]] as early as [[3500 BC]]. There is evidence that [[Ancient Egypt|ancient Egyptian]] [[explorers]] may have originally cleared and protected some branches of the [[Silk Road]]. [[History of medicine#Egyptian medicine|Medical institutions]] are known to have been established in Egypt since as early as circa [[3000 BC]]. Ancient Egypt gains credit for the tallest ancient [[Pyramid#Structures|pyramids]] and early forms of [[surgery]], [[Timeline of mathematics|mathematics]], and [[barge]] transport (see [[Ancient Egypt#Ancient Achievements|Ancient Egypt: Ancient Achievements]]).
===India===
In December 2000, ruins were found in the [[Gulf of Cambay]], off the western coast of [[India]]. Materials from the site have been carbon-dated as from being around 9,500 years old (although this date has yet to be confirmed), making it one of the very earliest civilizations. The site of the city is 40 to 120 feet under sea level, and is two miles wide and five miles long. Sonar images have revealed structures similar to staircases, temples and bathrooms. The site was discovered accidentally while surveyors from India's [[National Institute of Ocean Technology]] were conducting a study of pollution. It is theorized that the city was submerged at the end of the last ice age. Recently there were identified two underwater riverine palaeochannels and two metropolis: Northern and Southern. The Southern city seems to be the earliest of the two with findings of well fired pottery even from 13000 BP that could be an earlier stage of the site. For more recent details see Badrinaryan 2006: http://www.grahamhancock.com/forum/BadrinaryanB1.php?p=1
Before this recent find, the earliest known [[farming]] cultures in [[South Asia]] emerged in the hills of [[Balochistan, Pakistan]], which included [[Mehrgarh]] in the [[7th millennium BC]]. These semi-nomadic peoples domesticated [[wheat]], [[barley]], [[sheep]], [[goat]] and [[cattle]]. [[Pottery]] was in use by the [[6th millennium BC]]. Their [[settlement]] consisted of mud buildings that housed four internal subdivisions. [[Burial]]s included elaborate goods such as [[basket]]s, [[stone tools|stone]] and bone [[tool]]s, [[bead]]s, [[bangle]]s, [[pendant]]s and occasionally [[animal sacrifice]]s. [[Figurine]]s and ornaments of [[sea shell]], [[limestone]], [[turquoise]], [[lapis lazuli]], [[sandstone]] and polished [[copper]] have been found. By the [[4th millennium BC]] we find much evidence of [[manufacturing]]. [[Technology|Technologies]] included stone and copper [[drill]]s, updraft [[kiln]]s, large pit kilns and copper melting [[crucible]]s. Button [[seal (device)|seals]] included geometric designs.
By [[4000 BC]] a pre-[[Harappa]]n culture emerged, with [[trade]] networks including [[lapis lazuli]] and other raw materials. [[Village]]rs domesticated numerous other crops, including [[pea]]s, [[sesame seed]], [[date (fruit)|dates]], and [[cotton]], plus a wide range of domestic animals, including the [[water buffalo]] which still remains essential to intensive [[agriculture|agricultural]] production throughout [[Asia]] today. There is also evidence of [[shipbuilding|sea-going]] craft. Archaeologists have discovered a massive, dredged canal and docking facility at the coastal city of [[Lothal]], [[India]], perhaps the world's oldest sea-faring harbor. Judging from the dispersal of artifacts the trade networks integrated portions of [[Afghanistan]], the [[Iran|Persia]]n coast, northern and central [[India]], [[Mesopotamia]] (see [[Meluhha]]) and [[Ancient Egypt]] (see [[Silk Road]]).
Archaeologists studying the remains of two men from [[Mehrgarh]], [[Pakistan]], discovered that these peoples in the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] had knowledge of [[medicine]] and [[dentistry]] as early as circa [[3300 BC]]. The [[Indus Valley Civilization]] gains credit for the earliest known use of [[decimal|decimal fractions]] in a uniform system of [[ancient weights and measures]], as well as [[negative number]]s (see [[Timeline of mathematics]]). Ancient [[Indus Valley]] artifacts include beautiful, glazed stone [[faïence]] beads.
The [[Indus Valley Civilization]] boasts the earliest known accounts of [[urban planning]]. As seen in [[Harappa]], [[Mohenjo-daro]] and (recently discovered) [[Rakhigarhi]], their urban planning included the world's first urban [[sanitation]] systems. Evidence suggests efficient municipal governments. Streets were laid out in perfect grid patterns comparable to modern [[New York]]. Houses were protected from noise, odors and thieves. The [[sewage]] and [[drainage]] systems developed and used in cities throughout the [[Indus Valley]] were far more advanced than that of contemporary urban sites in [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Egypt]] and also more advanced than that of any other [[Bronze Age]] or even [[Iron Age]] civilization.
===China===
Developed [[agriculture]] appears in the [[7th millennium BC]] in the [[Peiligang culture]] (discovered in 1977) of [[Henan]], [[China]], including storing and redistributing [[agriculture|crops]], [[millet]] [[farming]] and animal [[husbandry]] ([[pig]]s). Evidence also indicates specialized [[craftsmen]]ship and [[Administration|administrator]]s (see [[History of China#Prehistoric times|History of China: Prehistoric times]]). This culture is on |
rifles is midway in power between a pistol cartridge and a high-power rifle round, which gives the soldier the close-in spray ability of a submachine gun with the more precision long-range shooting of a high-power rifle round. Soviet engineer [[Mikhail Kalashnikov]] quickly adapted the concept to the [[AK-47]], which has become the world's most widely used assault rifle. In United States, John Garand, the inventor of the [[M1 Garand]] rifle used by the U.S. military during World War II, adapted the assault rifle design to produce the [[M14 (rifle)|M14]], which was used by the U.S. military until the 1960s. The significant recoil (hence inaccuracy) of the M14 when fired in full automatic mode was seen as a problem, however, and in the 1960s it was replaced by [[Eugene Stoner]]'s [[AR-15]], which also marked a switch from the high-powered but heavy .30-caliber rifle used by the U.S. military since before World War I to the much smaller but far lighter and light recoiling (and arguably more accurate) .223-caliber rifle. The military later designated the AR-15 to the "M16". The civilian version of the M16 continues to be known as the AR-15 and looks exactly like the military version, although it lacks the mechanism that permits fully automatic fire.
==See also==
{{Commons|category:Firearms}}
===See also===
*[[Artillery]]
*[[Militaria]]
*[[Military technology and equipment]]
===Gun technology and science===
*[[Ballistics]]
*[[Electrothermal-chemical technology]]
*[[Firearm action]]
*[[Optics]]
*[[Physics of firearms]]
*[[Rheological fluids based firearms mechanisms]]
*[[Suppressor|Silencer]]
*[[Terminal ballistics]]
*[[Cartridge (weaponry)]]
*[[Bullet]]
===Guns and society===
[[Gun law]] - [[Gun politics]] - [[Gun safety]] - [[Concealed carry]] - [[List of United States firearms topics]]
===Gun-related terminology===
*[[Saturday-night special]]
*[[Small arms]]
===Lists of weapons===
====Types====
*[[List of firearms]]
*[[List of pistols]]
*[[List of submachineguns]]
*[[List of assault rifles]]
*[[List of shotguns]]
*[[List of sniper rifles]]
*[[List of aircraft weapons]]
====[[World War II|WW II]] Era====
*[[List of weapons of military aircraft of Germany during World War Two|WW II Luftwaffe aircraft weapons]]
*[[List of World War II firearms]]
*[[List of common World War II infantry weapons]]
*[[List of secondary and special-issue World War II infantry weapons|List of prototype World War II infantry weapons]]
*[[List of secondary and special-issue World War II infantry weapons|List of secondary and special issue WWII weapons]]
====Other====
*[[List of individual weapons of the U.S. Armed Forces]]
*[[List of crew served weapons of the US Armed Forces]]
*[[List of weapons of the U.S. Marine Corps]]
*[[Lists of weapons in video games]]
===Manufacturers===
See [[List of modern armament manufacturers]].
==External resources==
*[http://dmoz.org/Shopping/Recreation/Guns DMOZ Open Directory Project - Guns]
*[http://dmoz.org/Shopping/Recreation/Guns/Antiques_and_Collectibles DMOZ Open Directory Project - Guns, Antique]
==External links==
*[http://www.nazarian.no/def.asp?lang=0&page_id=1 Nazarian`s Gun`s Recognition Guide]
*[http://world.guns.ru/main-e.htm Online encyclopedia of firearms and ammunition of the XX and XXI centuries.]
*[http://www.self-defender.net/weapons/rifles.htm Modern Civilian And Military Rifles]
[[Category:Ammunition]]
[[Category:Firearms]]
[[af:Vuurwapen]]
[[ca:Arma de foc]]
[[cs:Palné zbraně]]
[[de:Feuerwaffe]]
[[eo:Pafilo]]
[[fr:Arme à feu]]
[[he:&#1492;&#1514;&#1508;&#1514;&#1495;&#1493;&#1514; &#1499;&#1500;&#1497; &#1492;&#1497;&#1512;&#1497;]]
[[it:Armi da fuoco]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geek</title>
<id>11967</id>
<revision>
<id>42156278</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:46:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tai112</username>
<id>1026690</id>
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<comment>/* Various definitions */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
A '''geek''' (pronunciation /gi:k/ ) is a person who is fascinated, perhaps obsessively, by obscure or very specific areas of [[knowledge]] and [[imagination]]. ''Geek'' may not always have the same meaning as the term ''nerd'' (see [[nerd]] for a discussion of the disputed relation between the terms).
==Various definitions==
The definition of ''geek'' has changed considerably over time, but the use is colloquial and there is no definite official meaning. The social and rather derogatory connotations of the word makes it particularly difficult to define. Below are some definitions of the word; all are still in use to varying degrees.
*A person who is interested in [[technology]], especially [[computing]] and [[new media]]. Comparable with the classic definition of [[hacker]]. ''(Late 20th century and early 21st century.)''
*A person who has chosen concentration rather than conformity; one who pursues skill (especially technical skill) and imagination, not mainstream social acceptance. Geeks usually have a strong case of [[neophilia]]. Most geeks are adept with computers and treat [[hacker]] as a term of respect, but not all are hackers themselves - and some who are in fact hackers normally call themselves geeks anyway, because they (quite properly) regard 'hacker' as a label that should be bestowed by others rather than self-assumed.
*A person with a devotion to something in a way that places him or her outside the mainstream. This could be due to the intensity, depth, or subject of their interest. This definition is very broad, and allows for [[mathematics]] geeks, [[aviation]] geeks, [[band geeks]], [[computer]] geeks, [[politics]] geeks, [[modelmaking]] geeks, [[music]] geeks, [[theatre]] geeks, history]] geeks, [[linguistics]] geeks, [[sports]] geeks,[[Society_for_Creative_Anachronism|SCA]] geeks (SCAdians), [[gaming]] geeks, [[comic Book|Comics]] geeks, [[ham radio]] geeks, [[public transit]] geeks ([[metrophile]]s), [[anime]] and [[manga]] geeks ([[otaku]]), [[Star Wars]] geeks, [[Star Trek]] geeks ([[Trekkie]]s and [[Trekkers]], the latter noted for costuming), [[Tolkien]] or [[fantasy]] geeks, and even [[Wikipedia]] geeks. ''(Late 20th century and early 21st century.)''
*G.E.E.K., as an acronym, reputedly came from the [[Military of the United States|United States Military]]; it stands for General Electrical Engineering Knowledge. It is unclear if this was the origin of the current meaning for geek, or if the acronym was used as a humorous reference toward the pre-established meaning for geek (i.e., a [[backronym]]).
*A ''incorrect'' derogatory term for one with low [[social skills]], regardless of intelligence. The correct term would be a [[dork]]. ''(Late 20th century.)''
*A performer at a carnival who swallows various live animals and bugs. Sometimes this extends to biting off the heads of chickens. The Geek would usually perform in a "geek pit". This sense of the word dates back to the [[1920s]], and possibly comes from the 16th century word ''geck'', originally of [[Middle Low German|Low German]] origin. In English the precursor word "geck" or "gecke" was used by [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]: ''"Why have you suffer'd me to be imprison'd, kept in a dark house, visited by the priest, and made the most notorious geck and gull That e'er invention play'd on?"'' ([[Twelfth Night]], V.i). The word also thought to appear in [[Cymbeline]] ([http://www.wordorigins.org/wordorg.htm wordorigins.org]).
==Reclaiming and self-identification==
''Geek'' has always had negative connotations within society at large, where being described as a geek tends to be an insult. The term has recently become less condescending, or even a badge of honor, within particular fields and subcultures; this is particularly evident in the technical disciplines, where the term is now more of a compliment denoting extraordinary skill. There is an increasing number of people who self-identify with the term.
==Nontechnical geeks==
In the past, the image of geeks has almost always been associated with someone who was assumed to be more intelligent and educated than the general public due to the notion that many of them were intellectually talented. However, with the revolution caused by [[electronic entertainment]], the [[internet]], and [[television]], many, both male and female, have styled themselves as geeks in the interest of appearing more intelligent or generating a fashionably quirky image. Examples of both can especially be seen in many genre [[fandom]] circles where esoteric [[jargon]] is frequently employed as a sign of being "in the know" or the desire to be part of a [[subculture]]'s elite. An example of this is the widespread use of[[ japlish]] in many western [[otaku]] circles or the frequent use of [[L33t]] online. Many of these geeks prefer pop culture, entertainment and artsy or fannish subjects rather than the traditional domain of geeks; science or technical fields which are intellectually demanding and require serious committment. [[Jay and Silent Bob]] of [[Kevin Smith]]'s [[Jersey Trilogy]] (Clerks, Mallrats, and Chasing Amy) popularizes the image of self-styled geeks who may be proficient at absorbing pop culture/entertainment information (such as [[comics]], [[movies]], [[videogames]], and [[sci-fi]]) but are not particularly educated or intelligent otherwise.
==See also==
* [[anorak (slang)|Anorak]]
* [[Asperger's Syndrome]]
* [[Beat the Geeks]]
* [ |
tenuousness surrounding the entire decision including the timing and the location of the Normandy invasion might be summarized by a short speech that Eisenhower himself wrote, in advance, in case he might need it. In it, he took full responsibility for catastrophic failure, should that be the final result. Long after the successful landings on D-Day and the [[BBC]] broadcast of Eisenhower's brief speech concerning them, the never-used second speech was found in a shirt pocket by an aide. It read:
:"Our landings have failed and I have withdrawn the troops. My decision to attack at this time and place was based on the best information available. The troops, the air and the Navy did all that bravery could do. If any blame or fault attaches to the attempt it is mine alone."
Following the [[Nazi Germany|German]] [[unconditional surrender]] on [[May 8]], [[1945]], Eisenhower was appointed Military Governor of the [[U.S. Occupation Zone]], based in [[Frankfurt-am-Main]]. Germany was divided into four Occupation Zones, one each for the U.S., Britain, France, and the Soviet Union. In addition, upon full discovery of the [[death camp]]s that were part of the [[Final Solution]] of the [[Holocaust]], he ordered camera crews to comprehensively document evidence of the atrocity so as to prevent any doubt of its occurance. He made the controversial decision to reclassify German prisoners of war or [[POW]]s in U.S. custody as [[Disarmed Enemy Forces]] or DEFs. As DEFs, they could be compelled to serve as unpaid [[conscript labor]]. An unknown number may have died in custody as a consequence of malnutrition, exposure to the elements, and lack of medical care (see [[Eisenhower and German POWs]]).
Eisenhower was named Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army in November 1945, and in December 1950 was named Supreme Commander of the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]], and given operational command of NATO forces in Europe. Eisenhower retired from active service on [[May 31]], [[1952]], upon entering politics. During this period Eisenhower served as president of [[Columbia University]] from 1948 until 1953, though he was on leave from the University while he served as [[NATO]] commander.
==Presidency 1953-1961==
After his many wartime successes, General Eisenhower returned to the U.S. a great hero. It would not be long before many supporters were pressuring him to run for public office.
Eisenhower was generally considered a political moderate, and it was not immediately clear which party he would choose to join. Eventually he settled on the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]], and in 1952 he was nominated as the party's star candidate in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1952|1952 U.S. presidential election]]. Eisenhower easily defeated Illinois Governor [[Adlai Stevenson]] and became the first career soldier since [[Ulysses S. Grant]] to be elected President. Although many presidents have served in the military, Eisenhower would be the only general to serve as President in the 20th century.
===Foreign affairs===
[[Image:Eisenhower 68-91-3.jpg|thumb|right|Eisenhower nominated at the [[1952 Republican National Convention]].]]
Eisenhower's presidency was dominated by the [[Cold War]], the prolonged confrontation with the [[Soviet Union]] which had begun during [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]]'s term of office.
During his campaign, Eisenhower had promised to end the stalemate [[Korean War]], and indeed a cease-fire was signed in July 1953. He signed defense treaties with [[South Korea]] and the [[Republic of China]], and formed an anti-Communist alliance with Asian and Pacific countries, [[SEATO]], to halt the spread of [[Communism]] in Asia.
Eisenhower, while accepting the doctrine of [[containment]] originally developed by [[George F. Kennan|George Kennan]], sought to fight the [[USSR]] through more active means as detailed in the State Department memorandum [[NSC-68]]. His covert action policy was laid out in [[Nsc 162/2|NSC 162/2]]. He, along with Secretary of State [[John Foster Dulles]], developed the tactic of [[covert action]], taking advantage of the newly created [[CIA]] to interfere with suspected Communist governments abroad. An early use of covert action was against the anti-American [[Iran]]ian prime minister [[Mossadeq]] in 1953. The Iranian army ejected him from power with U.S. and British support and replaced him with the [[Shah]] [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]], whom they considered the legitimate ruler.
Covert action continued throughout Eisenhower's administration. In the newly independent but chaotic [[Congo Crisis|Republic of Congo]], the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[KGB]] had intervened in favor of popularly elected Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]]. Anti-Communism had become an issue and the U.S. and [[CIA]] gave weapons and covert support to pro-Western and Democratic CIA assets [[Joseph Kasavubu]] and his subordinate, Colonel [[Joseph Mobutu]]. The initial struggle came to a close in December 1960, after Kasavubu and Mobutu overthrew Lumumba and proceeded to turn the country (later known as [[Zaire]]) into an [[autocracy]] which was unstable long after the end of Eisenhower's term. Mobutu [[assassinated]] Lumumba shortly after his overthrow, and some allege that the CIA ([[Sidney Gottlieb]]), collaborated with Mobutu in the assassination.
Eisenhower also increased U.S. involvement in [[Southeast Asia]], a process which had begun under his predecessor Truman. In [[1954]], he sent Dulles to [[Geneva]] as a delegate to the [[Geneva Conference]], which ended the [[First Indochina War]] and temporarily partitioned [[Vietnam]] into a Communist northern half (under [[Ho Chi Minh]]) and a non-Communist southern half (under [[Ngo Dinh Diem]]). In February [[1955]], Eisenhower dispatched the first American soldiers to Vietnam as military advisors to Diem's army. After Diem announced the formation of the Republic of Vietnam (RVN, commonly known as [[South Vietnam]]) in October, Eisenhower immediately recognized the new state and offered military, economic, and technical assistance. On [[July 8]], [[1959]], Major Dale R. Buis and Sergeant Chester M. Ovnand, two U.S. military advisors in Vietnam, became the first American troops to die in what would become the [[Vietnam War]], a conflict which began during Eisenhower's term of office.
In 1956, Eisenhower strongly disapproved of the actions of [[United Kingdom|Britain]], [[France]] and [[Israel]] in sending troops to [[Egypt]] in the dispute over control of the [[Suez Canal]] (see [[Suez crisis]]). He used the economic power of the U.S. to force his European allies to back down and withdraw from Egypt.
During his second term he became increasingly involved in [[Middle East|Middle Eastern]] affairs, sending troops to [[Lebanon]] in 1958.
Under Eisenhower's presidency the U.S. developed as a global [[nuclear warfare|nuclear]] power. When Russia also developed their [[nuclear weapons]], fears of mutual annihilation in a [[World War III|Third World War]] intensified. On 30 October 1953, Eisenhower approved the security policy document [[Nsc 162/2|NSC 162/2]], which emphasized nuclear weapons above all other defense means. Nuclear weapons were seen as the most economically feasible means to deter the [[Soviet Union]] from military action against what then was called the "Free World." American chagrin at the Soviets' 1957 surprise launch of [[Sputnik]], the first artificial satellite, led to many [[Sputnik crisis|strategic initiatives]], including the creation of [[NASA]] in 1958. Eisenhower hoped that after the death of [[Stalin]] in 1953, it would be possible to come to an agreement with subsequent Russian leaders to halt the [[nuclear arms race]]. Several attempts at convening a summit conference were made. The last attempt failed in 1960 when [[Nikita Khrushchev]] withdrew following the shooting down of an American [[Lockheed U-2|U-2]] spy plane over the Soviet Union.
===Domestic affairs===
Like most Republican presidents, Eisenhower believed that a [[free enterprise]] economy should run itself, and he took little interest in domestic policy. Although his 1952 landslide gave the Republicans control of both houses of the Congress, Eisenhower believed that taxes could not be cut until the budget was balanced. "We cannot afford to reduce taxes, [and] reduce income," he said, "until we have in sight a program of expenditure that shows that the factors of income and outgo will be balanced." The Democrats regained control in the 1954 [[U.S. Senate election, 1954|Senate]] and [[U.S. House election, 1954|House elections]], limiting his freedom of action on domestic policy. He forged a good relationship with Congressional leaders, particularly House Speaker [[Sam Rayburn]].
[[Image:Eisenhower in the Oval Office.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Eisenhower in the Oval Office, [[February 29]], [[1956]].]] [[Image:Eisenhower.png|thumb|right|150px|The [[coat of arms]] of Dwight D Eisenhower]]
Eisenhower appointed a Cabinet full of businessmen and gave them wide latitude in handling domestic affairs. He allowed them to take credit for domestic policy and allow him to concentrate on foreign affairs. With respect to the emerging [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|American Civil Rights Movement]], he has been criticized by [[left-wing|liberal]]s for being reluctant to exercise leadership unless forced. In 1957, however, he sent federal troops to [[Little Rock, Arkansas]] after Governor [[Orval Faubus]] attempted to defy a [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] ruling that ordered the [[desegregation]] of all public schools.
Eisenhower was also criticized for not taking a public stand against Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]]'s anti-communist campaigns. Privately he held McCarthy in contempt for the senator's attacks on his friend and World War II colleague, General [[George Marshall]], Secretary of State under Truman. He |
ley]] ([http://www.robertkeeley.com homepage])
* [[Smart People Factory]] ([http://www.smartpeoplefactory.com homepage])
* [[ToadWorks USA]] ([http://www.toadworksusa.com homepage])
* [[ZVEX Effects]] ([http://www.zvex.com/effects homepage])
;Boutique Manufacturers : Homemade and designed pedals.
==External links==
*[http://www.big-muff.net Big Muff & Guitar Effects Museum].
== See also ==
* [[Effects pedals]]
[[Category:Effects units]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Enron Corporation</title>
<id>10166</id>
<revision>
<id>42086516</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:07:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TimPope</username>
<id>203786</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Aftermath */ dab District Judge</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Company |
company_name = Enron Corporation |
company_logo = [[Image:EnronLogo.png|100px|Enron logo, designed by [[Paul Rand]]]] |
company_type = [[Public company|Public]] |
company_slogan = Ask Why. |
foundation = [[Omaha, Nebraska]], [[1985]] |
location = [[Houston, Texas]], [[USA]] |
key_people = [[Kenneth Lay]], Founder<br />[[Stephen F. Cooper]], Interim CEO and CRO<br />[[Ray Bowen]], Executive VP and CFO<br />[[John J. Ray, III]], Chairman |
industry = [[Energy]] |
num_employees = 300 |
homepage = [http://www.enron.com/ www.enron.com]
}}
'''Enron Corporation''' is an energy company based in [[Houston, Texas|Houston]], [[Texas]]. Prior to its [[bankruptcy]] in late [[2001]], Enron employed around 21,000 people and was one of the world's leading electricity, natural gas, and [[telecommunications|communications]] companies, with claimed revenues of $101 billion in 2000. [[Fortune magazine]] named Enron "America's Most Innovative Company" for six consecutive years. It became most famous at the end of 2001 when it was revealed that it was sustained mostly by institutionalized, systematic, and well-planned [[accounting scandals|accounting fraud]]. Its [[Europe]]an operations filed for bankruptcy on [[November 30]], [[2001]], and it sought [[Chapter 11]] protection in the U.S. two days later, on [[December 2]]. It still exists, operating a handful of key assets, and making preparations for the sale or spin off of remaining businesses. Enron emerged from bankruptcy in November of 2004 after one of the biggest and most complex cases in US history. It has since entered the common consciousness as a symbol of willful corporate fraud and corruption.
==Growth==
Enron was founded in 1930 as [[Northern Natural Gas Company]], a consortium of Northern American Power and Light Company, Lone Star Gas Company, and United Lights and Railways Corporation. The consortium ownership was gradually dissolved between 1941 and 1947 through a public stock offering. In 1979, Northern Natural Gas was restructured under the ownership of a new holding company, InterNorth Inc., which replaced Northern Natural Gas on the New York Stock Exchange.
In 1985, [[InterNorth]] acquired competitor [[Houston Natural Gas]] Company in a transaction engineered by HNG CEO [[Kenneth Lay]]. Although InterNorth was the purchaser, Lay emerged as CEO and promptly renamed InterNorth as Enron Corporation, with headquarters in Houston rather than InterNorth/Northern Natural Gas's base in Omaha. Initially, the company was to be named Enteron, chosen for the positive connotations of "enter" and "on", but when it was pointed out that the term meant "[[intestine]]", it was quickly shortened.
Enron was originally involved in the transmission and distribution of electricity and gas throughout the United States and the development, construction, and operation of [[power plant]]s, [[pipeline]]s, and other infrastructure worldwide. In 1998 it moved into the [[water sector]], creating the [[Azurix]] Corporation, which it part-floated on the NYSE in June 1999. Azurix failed to break into the water utility market, with its only major concession, in [[Buenos Aires]] Province, a large-scale money loser. In [[April 2001]] Enron announced its intention to break up Azurix and sell its assets.
Enron grew wealthy, it claimed, through its pioneering [[marketing]] and [[promotion]] of power and [[communication|communications]] [[bandwidth]] [[commodities]] and related [[derivative (finance)|derivative]]s as tradable [[financial instruments]], including exotic items such as [[weather derivatives]]. As a result, Enron was named "America's Most Innovative Company" by ''[[Fortune magazine]]'' for six consecutive years, from 1996 to 2001. It was on the ''Fortune'''s "100 Best Companies to Work for in America" list in 2000, and was legendary even among the elite workers of the financial world for the opulence of its offices. However, as was later discovered, many of these recorded profits were inflated or even wholly fraudulent and totally nonexistant, by the use of sophisticated and arcane financial transactions between Enron and related companies formed to take unprofitable entities off the company's books.
==Products==
Enron traded more than 800 different products online at EnronOnline, including the following.
* Advertising Risk Management
* Bandwidth*
* Broadband Services
* Building Services
* Coal*
* Credit Risk Management*
* Crude Oil & Products*
* Electricity / Power
* Emission Allowances*
* Energy Outsourcing
* Energy Asset Management
* Enron Intelligent Network
* Facility Management
* Forest Product s*
* Freight
* Media Risk Management
* Metals* (also see Steel)
* Natural Powers of Gas*
* Lumber*
* Oil & LNG Transportation
* Petrochemicals*
* Plastics*
* Power*
* Principal Investments
* Pulp & Paper*
* Risk Management for Commodities
* Shipping / Freight
* Steel*
* Streaming Media
* Water & Wastewater
* Weather Risk Management*
* Wind Energy
(Items with a (*) were traded on [[EnronOnline]])
Its was also an extensive futures trader: sugar futures, coffee futures, hog futures, grains, and other meat futures.
==EnronOnline==
:{{main|EnronOnline}}
In November 1999, Enron launched EnronOnline. EnronOnline was the first web-based transaction system that allowed buyers and sellers to buy, sell, and trade commodity products globally. It allowed users to do business only with Enron, which was seen as a particular weakness. Due to the giant cash needs of Enron Online and the company wasting money in other areas such as broadband, Azurix, [[Enron Energy Services]], and shutting down the original pipeline service which generated cash flow, Enron virtually drained itself of cash. The Enron Global Finance department had to keep working up more and more creative financing moves to keep the company up and running.
==Decline==
Enron's global reputation was undermined, however, by persistent rumours of [[bribery]] and political pressure to secure contracts in [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]], in [[Africa]], and in the [[Philippines]]. Especially controversial was its $3 billion contract with the [[Maharashtra State Electricity Board]] in [[India]], where it is alleged that Enron officials used political connections within the [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] and [[George W. Bush|Bush]] administrations to exert pressure on the board. On [[January 9]], [[2002]], the [[United States Department of Justice]] announced it was going to pursue a criminal investigation of Enron and [[Congress of the United States|Congressional]] hearings began on [[January 24]].
After a series of [[Accounting scandals|scandals]] involving irregular accounting procedures bordering on fraud involving Enron and its accounting firm [[Arthur Andersen]], it stood at the verge of undergoing the largest bankruptcy in history by mid-November 2001. A [[white knight (business)|white knight]] rescue attempt by a similar, smaller energy company, [[Dynegy]], was not viable.
During 2001, Enron shares fell from over US $90.00 to US$0.30. As Enron was considered a [[blue chip]] stock, this was an unprecedented and disastrous event in the financial world. Enron's plunge occurred after it was revealed that much of its profits and revenue were the result of deals with [[Special Purpose Entity|special purpose entities]] ([[limited partnership]]s which it controlled). The result of this was that many of the losses that Enron suffered were not reported in its [[financial statements]].
==Insider Trading==
===Beginning===
[[Insider trading]], trading of a [[security (finance)]] based on material non-public information about a company, at Enron Corporation is not just a thing of the late 1990s or early 2000s. Enron has had trouble with insider trading dating back even to the 1980s. The first documented example of insider trading at Enron occurred in 1987. Two [[auditors]], David Woytek and John Beard, discovered [[bank]] records showing that millions of dollars had been moved from Enron into the personal accounts of Louis Borget and Thomas Mastroeni.
Both Louis Borget and Thomas Mastroeni were rumored to consort with rulers of [[Saudi Arabia]] and [[Kuwait]], gaining inside information on the workings of [[OPEC]]. This insider information had led to more profitable trading of oil [[commodities]], until the cash flows from Enron into personal accounts were discovered by Woytek and Beard. Both auditors were told by [[Chief Executive Officer]] [[Kenneth Lay ]] to continue their investigation and make sure every penny was returned to the rightful account; however, no immediate action was taken against the perpetrators.
Woytek and Beard would eventually gather enough information to prove that Borget and Mastroeni were participating in insider trading and stealing from the company. This information included bank statements that showed cash flows that were not recorded in the company's records along with copies of altered statements that Borg |
decompressor, then a [[Digital-to-analog converter|DAC]] for analog display. An [[audio codec|audio compressor]] converts analog audio signals into digital signals for transmission. A receiving device then converts the digital signals back to analog using an audio decompressor, for playback.
The raw encoded form of audio and video data is often called '''essence''', to distinguish it from the [[metadata ]]information that together make up the information content of the stream and any "wrapper" data that is then added to aid access to or improve the [[Robust|robustness]] of the stream.
Most codecs are [[lossy]], in order to get a reasonably small file size. There are [[lossless]] codecs as well, but for most purposes the almost imperceptible increase in quality is not worth the considerable increase in data size. The main exception is if the data will undergo more processing in the future, in which case the repeated lossy encoding would damage the eventual quality too much.
Many [[multimedia]] data streams need to contain both [[Sound|audio]] and [[video]] data, and often some form of metadata that permits synchronization of the audio and video. Each of these three streams may be handled by different programs, processes, or hardware; but for the multimedia data stream to be useful in stored or transmitted form, they must be [[Encapsulation|encapsulated]] together in a [[container format]].
An [[endec]] is a similar (but ''not'' identical) concept for [[hardware]].
It must be noted that while many people explain that [[AVI]] is a codec, they are in-correct - AVI (Nowadays) is a [[container format]], that many codecs might use (although not to [[ISO]]), such as [[divx]], [[xvid]], etc.
==See also==
*[[Audio codec]], [[Video codec]]
*[[Audio signal processing]]
*[[Digital signal processing]]
*[[List of codecs]]
*[[Lossless data compression]]
*[[Lossy data compression]]
*[[Multimedia compression]]
*[[Open source codecs and containers]]
'''[[Comparison]]'s'''
**[[Comparison of audio codecs]]
**[[Comparison of container formats]]
**[[Comparison of video codecs]]
==External links==
*[http://www.fourcc.org/codecs.php List of video codecs from FOURCC]
*[http://www.free-codecs.com/ Free-Codecs.com]
*[http://www.xpcodecpack.com/ XP Codec Pack]
*[http://www.omiod.com/codecs.asp Exhaustive list of audio & video codecs]
*[http://www.elecard.com/ MPEG-1/-2/-4 Codec Packs]
*[http://www.moviecodec.com/ Discussions of codecs]
*[http://www.en.voipforo.com/codec/codecs.php VoIP codecs]
*[http://awaken.typepad.com/getting_louder/2005/12/format_size_com.html Getting Louder] - Comparison of file sizes produced by popular Codecs
*[http://discussions.apple.com/thread.jspa?messageID=1558248] - Mac OS X QuickTime codecs and components http://discussions.apple.com/thread.jspa?messageID=1558248
[[Category:Digital signal processing]]
[[Category:Computing portmanteaus]]
<!-- interwiki -->
[[af:Codec]]
[[ca:Còdec]]
[[cs:Kodek]]
[[de:Codec]]
[[es:Códec]]
[[fr:Codec]]
[[hr:Codec]]
[[hu:Kodek]]
[[it:Codec]]
[[ja:&#12467;&#12540;&#12487;&#12483;&#12463;]]
[[nl:Codec]]
[[pl:Kodek]]
[[ru:&#1050;&#1086;&#1076;&#1077;&#1082;]]
[[fi:Koodekki]]
[[zh:&#32534;&#35299;&#30721;&#22120;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Childhood's End (disambiguation)</title>
<id>6661</id>
<revision>
<id>37372068</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T16:12:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RussBlau</username>
<id>111074</id>
</contributor>
<comment>remove excess wikilinks per [[MOSDAB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Childhood's End''' is either:
# [[Childhood's End]], a science fiction novel by [[Arthur C. Clarke]]
# [[Childhood's End (Stargate Atlantis)]], an episode of the science fiction television series ''[[Stargate Atlantis]]''
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Clyde Tombaugh</title>
<id>6663</id>
<revision>
<id>41942885</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:05:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
<id>293907</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Delete duplicate indefinite article using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Clyde William Tombaugh''' ([[February 4]], [[1906]] – [[January 17]], [[1997]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[astronomer]] who discovered the planet [[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]] in [[1930]].
Tombaugh was born in [[Streator, Illinois|Streator]], [[La Salle County, Illinois]]. After his family moved to [[Burdett, Kansas]], Tombaugh built his first [[telescope]] and sent drawings of his observations of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]] and [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] to the Lowell Observatory. These resulted in a job offer. Tombaugh was employed at the Lowell Observatory from [[1929]] to [[1945]]. Following his discovery of Pluto, Tombaugh earned astronomy degrees from the [[University of Kansas]] and [[Northern Arizona University]]. He taught astronomy at [[New Mexico State University]] from [[1955]] until his retirement.
Tombaugh was an active [[Unitarian-Universalism|Unitarian-Universalist]].
The [[asteroid]] [[1604 Tombaugh]] [http://hamilton.dm.unipi.it/cgi-bin/astdys/astibo?objects:Tombaugh;main 1], discovered in [[1931]], is named after him. He himself discovered 14 asteroids, beginning with [[2839 Annette]] in [[1929]], mostly as a by-product of his search for Pluto and his further searches for other planets. The [[Royal Astronomical Society]] awarded him the [[Jackson-Gwilt Medal]] in [[1931]].
Some of his ashes are carried on the [[New Horizons]] spacecraft which is travelling toward Pluto.
==Discovery of Pluto==
[[Image:Lowell astrograph.jpg|thumb|150px|Tombaugh created his photographic plates using this [[astrograph]].]]
While a young researcher working for [[Lowell Observatory]] in [[Flagstaff, Arizona]], Tombaugh found Pluto during a systematic search for a [[Trans-Neptunian object|trans-Neptunian]] planet (also called [[Planet X]]), which had been predicted by [[Percival Lowell]] and [[William Henry Pickering|William Pickering]].
Tombaugh's discovery involved painstaking use of a [[blink comparator]] to compare photographs of sections of sky taken several nights apart. Comparing the two images, a moving object such as a planet would appear to jump from one position to another, while the more distant objects such as stars would appear stationary. Tombaugh noticed such a moving object in his search, and subsequent observations showed it to be the planet we call Pluto. The discovery was made on [[February 18]], [[1930]], using images taken in January of the same year.
The name "Pluto" was suggested by [[Venetia Burney]], an 11-year-old English school girl who is still alive and living in [[England]]. It won out over numerous other suggestions partly because it was named after the [[Roman mythology|Roman]] [[Pluto (god)|god of the underworld]], who was able to render himself invisible, and partly because [[Percival Lowell]]'s initials PL formed the first 2 letters. The name Pluto was officially adopted on [[1 May]] [[1930]].
==Further search==
Tombaugh continued searching for some years after the discovery of Pluto, and the lack of further discoveries left him satisfied that no other object of a comparable [[stellar magnitude|magnitude]] existed near the [[ecliptic]]. No more Trans-Neptunian objects were discovered until {{mpl|(15760) 1992 QB|1}}, in [[1992]].
However, more recently the relatively bright object {{mpl|2005 FY|9}} has been discovered. It has a relatively high orbital [[inclination]], but at the time of Tombaugh's discovery of Pluto, {{mp|2005 FY|9}} was only a few degrees from the ecliptic near the border of [[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]] and [[Auriga (constellation)|Auriga]]. <!-- based on Minor Planet Center online Minor Planet Ephemeris Service: [[March 1]] [[1930]]: RA 05h51m, Dec: +29.0 --> Unfortunately, this position was also very near the [[galactic equator]], making it almost impossible to find such an object within the dense concentration of background stars of the Milky Way.
==Asteroids discovered==
[[Image:Lowell blink comparator.jpg|thumb|150px|Tombaugh compared his photographic plates using this blink comparator.]]
Tombaugh discovered a total of 14 [[asteroids]], during his search for Pluto and years of follow-up searches looking for another candidate for the postulated Planet X.
{| border="1" cellpadding="4" align="center" cellspacing="0" style="background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;"
|+ Asteroids discovered by Tombaugh
|-
! Designation !! Discovery
|-
| [[2839 Annette]] || [[October 5]], [[1929]]
|-
| [[2941 Alden]] || [[December 24]], [[1930]]
|-
| [[3310 Patsy]] || [[October 9]], [[1931]]
|-
| [[3583 Burdett]] || [[October 5]], [[1929]]
|-
| [[3754 Kathleen]] || [[March 16]], [[1931]]
|-
| [[3775 Ellenbeth]] || [[October 6]], [[1931]]
|-
| [[3824 Brendalee]] || [[October 5]], [[1929]]
|-
| [[4510 Shawna]] || [[December 13]], [[1930]]
|-
| [[4755 Nicky]] || [[October 6]], [[1931]]
|-
| [[(5701) 1929 VS]] || [[October 26]], [[1929]]
|-
| [[(6618) 1936 SO]] || [[September 16]], [[1936]]
|-
| [[(7101) 1930 UX]] || [[October 17]], [[1930]]
|-
| {{mpl|(7150) 1929 TD|1}} || [[October 11]], [[1929]]
|-
| {{mpl|(8778) 1931 TD|3}} || [[October 10]], [[1931]]
|}
==Interest in UFOs==
Tombaugh was probably the most eminent astronomer to have reported seeing [[Unidentified Flying Object]]s and to support the [[Extraterrestrial hypothesis]]. On [[August 20]], [[1949]], Tombaugh saw several [[UFO]]s near [[Las Cruces, New Mexico]]. He described them as six to eight rectangular lights, stating "I doubt that the phenomenon was any terrestrial reflection, because... nothing of the ki |
] <math>{\lambda}</math>
* the heat capacity of fuel and air
* air and fuel inlet temperatures
The adiabatic combustion temperature increases for higher heating values and inlet temperatures and stoiciometric ratios towards one.
Typically, the adiabatic combustion temperatures for coals are around 1500 °C (for inlet temperatures of room temperatures and <math>{\lambda = 1.0}</math>), around 2000 °C for oil and 2200 °C for natural gas.
== Combustion Analysis ==
Combustion analysis is a process used to determine the composition of organic compounds.
==External links==
*[http://www25.brinkster.com/denshade/hydro.html Hydrocarbon combustion] Simple applet that illustrates the Chemical equation.
*[http://www.normanchigier.com/Fuel_Injection_email.html Fuel efficiency (stoichiometric air fuel mixture) vs. decreased emissions in combustion engines]
== See also ==
* [[Carbon dioxide]]
* [[Deflagration]]
* [[Detonation]]
* [[Fire]]
* [[Flue gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion]]
* [[Heat of combustion]]
* [[Phlogiston theory]] (historical)
* [[Pyrolysis]]
* [[Pyrophoric]]
* [[Smouldering]]
* [[Spontaneous combustion]]
* [[Stoichiometry]]
* Machines
** [[Cyclone furnace]]
** [[External combustion engine]]
** [[Internal combustion engine]]
** [[Rotary combustion engine]]
** [[Staged combustion cycle (rocket)]]
* Measurement techniques
** [[Calorimeter]]
** [[Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy]] (CARS)
** [[Laser Doppler velocimetry]]
** [[Laser-induced fluorescence]]
** [[Particle image velocimetry]]
* Social applications and issues
** [[Cooking]]
** [[Global warming]]
** [[Immolation]]
[[Category:Combustion| ]]
[[Category:Chemical processes]]
[[ca:Combustió]]
[[cs:Hoření]]
[[de:Verbrennung (Chemie)]]
[[es:Combustión]]
[[fr:Combustion]]
[[ko:연소]]
[[he:בעירה]]
[[it:Combustione]]
[[nl:Verbranding]]
[[ja:燃焼]]
[[pl:Spalanie]]
[[pt:Combustão]]
[[ru:Горение]]
[[fi:Palaminen]]
[[zh:燃烧]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cyrillic alphabet</title>
<id>5639</id>
<revision>
<id>41493611</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T19:10:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Aeusoes1</username>
<id>306522</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Cyrillic alphabet''' (or ''azbuka'', from the old name of the first two letters) is an [[alphabet]] used to write six natural [[Slavic languages]] ([[Belarusian language|Belarusian]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]], and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]) and [[Languages using Cyrillic|many other languages]] of the former [[Soviet Union]], [[Asia]] and [[Eastern Europe]]. It has also been used for other languages in the past.
{{Cyrillic alphabet}}
{{alphabet}}
== Origins ==
The plan of the alphabet is derived from the [[early Cyrillic alphabet]], itself a derivative of the [[Glagolitic alphabet]], a [[ninth century]] [[uncial]] [[cursive]] usually credited to two brothers from [[Thessaloniki]], [[Saint Cyril]] and [[Saint Methodius]]. The glyphs in the Cyrillic alphabet are, however, mainly [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] [[Greek alphabet|Greek letters]]. Some of them, especially those representing sounds that did not exist in medieval Greek, retain their Glagolitic forms.
Whereas it is widely accepted that the Glagolitic alphabet was invented by Saints Cyril and Methodius, the origins of the early Cyrillic alphabet are still a source of much controversy. Though it is usually attributed to Saint [[Clement of Ohrid]], a disciple of Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius, the alphabet is more likely to have developed at the [[Preslav Literary School]] in northeastern [[Bulgaria]], where the oldest Cyrillic inscriptions have been found, dating back to the [[940]]s. The theory is supported by the fact that the Cyrillic alphabet almost completely replaced the Glagolitic in northeastern Bulgaria as early as the end of the [[tenth century]], whereas the [[Ohrid Literary School]]—where Saint Clement worked—continued to use the Glagolitic until the [[twelfth century]].
Among the reasons for the replacement of the Glagolithic with the Cyrillic alphabet is the greater simplicity and ease of use of the latter and its closeness with the Greek alphabet, which had been well known in the [[First Bulgarian Empire]].
There are also other theories regarding the origins of the Cyrillic alphabet, namely that the alphabet was created by Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius themselves, or that it preceded the Glagolitic alphabet, representing a "transitional" stage between Greek and Glagolitic cursive, but these have been widely disproved. Although Cyril is almost certainly not the author of the Cyrillic alphabet, his contributions to the Glagolitic and hence to the Cyrillic alphabet are still recognised, as the latter is named after him.
The alphabet was disseminated along with the [[Old Church Slavonic]] [[liturgical language]], and the alphabet used for modern [[Church Slavonic language]] in [[Eastern Orthodox]] rites still resembles early Cyrillic. However, over the following ten centuries, the Cyrillic alphabet adapted to changes in spoken language, developed regional variations to suit the features of national languages, and was subjected to academic reforms and political decrees. Today, [[Languages using Cyrillic|dozens of languages]] in Eastern Europe and Asia are written in the Cyrillic alphabet.
== Letter-forms and typography ==
The development of Cyrillic [[typography]] passed directly from the [[medieval]] stage to the late [[Baroque]], without a [[Renaissance]] phase as in [[Western Europe]]. Late Medieval Cyrillic letters (still found on many [[icon]] inscriptions even today) show a marked tendency to be very tall and narrow; strokes are often shared between adjacent letters.
[[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]], tsar of Russia, mandated the use of westernized letter forms in the early eighteenth century; over time, these were largely adopted in the other languages that use the alphabet. Thus, unlike modern Greek fonts that retained their own set of design principles (such as the placement of [[serif]]s, the shapes of stroke ends, and stroke-thickness rules), modern Cyrillic fonts are much the same as modern Latin fonts of the same font family. The development of some Cyrillic computer typefaces from Latin ones has also contributed to the visual Latinization of Cyrillic type.
Cyrillic [[Majuscule|uppercase]] and [[minuscule|lowercase]] letter-forms are not as differentiated as in Latin typography. Upright Cyrillic lowercase letters are essentially [[small capitals]] (with the exception of a few forms such as "а" and "е" which adopted Western lowercase shapes), although a good-quality Cyrillic typeface will still include separate small caps glyphs.
[[Image:Cyrillic upright-cursive.png|frame|right|Comparison of some upright and cursive letters (Ge, De, I, I kratko(ye), Em, Te and Tse. Top row is set in Georgia font, bottom in Kisty CY)]]
In the absence of [[Roman type|Roman]] and [[Italic type|Italic]] traditions, Cyrillic type fonts are properly classified as ''upright'' (Russian: ''pryamoi shrift'') and ''[[cursive]]'' (''kursivnyi''). Cursive or hand-written shapes of many letters, especially the lowercase letters, are entirely different from the upright shapes. As in Latin typography, a sans-serif face may have a mechanically-sloped oblique font (''naklonnyi'').
In Bulgarian, Macedonian, and Serbian, some cursive letters are different from those used in other languages. These cursive letter shapes are often used in upright fonts as well, especially for road signs, inscriptions, posters and the like, less so in newspapers or books. ''External link:'' [http://jankojs.tripod.com/SerbianCyr.htm Serbian Cyrillic Letters BE, GHE, DE, PE, TE].
The following table shows the differences between the upright and cursive Cyrillic letters as used in Russian. Cursive glyphs that are bound to confuse beginners (either because of an entirely different look, or because of being a [[false friend]] with an entirely different Latin character) are highlighted.
{| border=0 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=1 style="padding:0 .5em .2em; border:1px solid #999; margin:1em 0;"
|+ align=bottom style="text-align:left; font-size:smaller; " | In case your browser does not correctly support cursive Cyrillic forms, you can view [[commons:Image:Cyrillic-italics-nonitalics.png|an alternative graphical version]].
|- style="font-family:FreeSerif,Georgia,'Times New Roman','Nimbus Roman No9 L','Century Schoolbook L','Trebuchet MS','URW Bookman L','URW Chancery L','URW Palladio L',Arial,Teams,serif; font-size:large; text-align:center; "
| а || б || в || г || д || е || ё || ж || з || и || й || к || л || м || н || о || п || р || с || т || у || ф || х || ц || ч || ш || щ || ъ || ы || ь || э || ю || я
|- style="font-family:FreeSerif,Georgia,'Times New Roman','Nimbus Roman No9 L','Century Schoolbook L','Trebuchet MS','URW Bookman L','URW Chancery L','URW Palladio L',Arial,Teams,serif; font-size:large; text-align:center; "
| ''а'' || ''б'' || ''в'' ||{{highlight1}}| ''г'' ||{{highlight1}}| ''д'' || ''е'' || ''ё'' || ''ж'' || ''з'' ||{{highlight1}}| ''и'' ||{{highlight1}}| ''й'' || ''к'' || ''л'' || ''м'' || ''н'' || ''о'' ||{{highlight1}}| ''п'' || ''р'' || ''с'' ||{{highlight1}}| ''т'' || ''у'' || ''ф'' || ''х'' || ''ц'' || ''ч'' || ''ш'' || ''щ'' || ''ъ'' || ''ы'' || ''ь'' || ''э'' || ''ю'' || ''я''
|}
''Reference:'' [[Robert Bringhurst|Bringhurst, Robert]] (2002). ''[[The Elements of Typographic Style]]'' (version 2.5), pp. 262–264. Vancouver, Hartley & Marks. ISBN 0-88179-133-4.
== Romanization ==
There are various systems for [[Romanization]] of Cyrillic text, including [[transliteration]] to convey Cyrillic spell |
s spinning different bands of magnetically sorted elements into the line of sight between Alioth and the Earth. The intervening elements react differently at different frequencies of light as they whip in and out of view, causing Alioth to have very strange [[spectral line]]s that fluctuate over a period of 5.1 days. In the case of Alioth, the rotational and magnetic axes are at almost 90 degrees to one another; in the map of Alioth linked below, note how the darker (more dense) regions of [[chromium]] form a band at right angles to the equator.
For its type, Alioth has a relatively weak magnetic field (15 times weaker than &alpha; CVn's), but it is still 100 times stronger than that of the Earth.
==References==
#{{note label|1728|1|^}}{{1728}}
==External links==
* [http://zorba.as.utexas.edu/~artie/eumacr.gif Chromium distribution on Alioth]
[[Category:Bayer objects|Ursae Majoris, Epsilon]]
[[Category:Ursa Major constellation]]
[[Category:Alpha2 Canum Venaticorum variables]]
[[Category:White subgiants]]
[[Category:Eclipsing binaries]]
[[de:Alioth]]
[[gl:Alioth]]
[[it:Alioth]]
[[nl:Alioth]]
[[ja:アリオト]]
[[pl:Alioth]]
[[sk:Alioth]]
[[sv:Alioth]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antisemitism</title>
<id>3094</id>
<revision>
<id>15901462</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anti-Semitism]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>A500</title>
<id>3095</id>
<revision>
<id>37759885</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T00:18:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pixel8</username>
<id>84632</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>restored image</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the A-road in England, see [[A500 road]].''
The '''A500''', also known as the '''Amiga 500''', was the first "low-end" [[Commodore International|Commodore]] [[Amiga]] [[16-bit]] [[multimedia]] home/[[personal computer]] model. It was released in [[1987]], at the same time as the high-end [[A2000]], and competed directly against the [[Atari ST|Atari 520ST]].
[[Image:Amiga500 system.jpg|thumb|350px|An Amiga 500 computer system, with 1084S RGB monitor and A1010 floppy disk drive.]]
Technical specifications:
* [[Motorola 68000]] (32-bit [[CISC]] microprocessor with 16 registers lacking [[Memory management unit|MMU]] for memory protection and virtual memory) running at 7.16 MHz (NTSC version), 7.09 MHz (PAL version)
* Default operating system [[AmigaOS]] 1.2 or 1.3 (having 32-bit [[pre-emptive multitasking]] [[microkernel]]) depending on the revision
* 512 [[kilobyte|KB]] of [[Chip RAM]] by default (sound buffers, graphics buffers and software existed in the same memory space)
**upper limit of 16 [[megabyte|MB]] of memory due to MC68000 limitations (24-bit external [[address bus]])
* [[Original Amiga chipset|OCS]]/[[Extended chip set|ECS]] chipset
*50 [[hertz|Hz]] [[PAL]] and 60 Hz [[NTSC]] [[television|TV]] output by default versions available; 50/60Hz mode switchable by software in later revisions
*software-switchable low-pass audio filter (power [[LED]] shows filter status, darker when off)
*[[IRQ]] sharing (like the PCI bus)
*IRQ system had 7 priority levels of [[interrupt]]s
**No limit on number of interrupts available
**Resources handled by Autoconfig, very similar to [[Advanced Configuration and Power Interface|ACPI]], resources were not numbered or labelled, just given as amounts and addresses
*No specific [[input/output|I/O]] ports, instead using memory mapped I/O space separately for each hardware device (thanks to [[Jay Miner]])
Amiga 500 was used a lot for gaming, and there were a variety of [[Atari]]-style game controllers that could be used. One of the most popular ones was [[TAC-2]], The Totally Accurate Controller mk2 by [[Suncom]].
{{CBM_computers}}
----
The '''A500''' designation was also used on an internal [[Acorn Archimedes]] development machine [http://www.drobe.co.uk/riscos/artifact476.html].
The '''A500''' often featured the words "[[The B-52s]] Rock Lobster" written on the motherboard, in reference to the popular song of that time period.
[[Category:Commodore Amiga]]
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[de:Amiga 500]]
[[es:Commodore Amiga 500]]
[[fr:Amiga 500]]
[[hr:Amiga 500]]
[[it:Amiga 500]]
[[nn:Amiga 500]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Air force</title>
<id>3096</id>
<revision>
<id>41729689</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T09:42:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>218.215.193.132</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''air force''' is a [[Armed force|military]] organization that primarily operates in [[aerial warfare]]. They typically use a combination of [[Fighter aircraft|fighters]], [[bomber]]s, [[helicopter]]s, [[Cargo aircraft#Military Cargo Aircraft|transport planes]] and other aircraft. Many air forces are also responsible for operations of military space, [[intercontinental ballistic missile]]s (ICBM), and communications equipment.
==Organization==
Most, but not all, armed forces have air forces that are ''independent'' - that is, it is neither part of the [[army]] nor the [[navy]]. This does not stop armies and especially navies from possessing air arms to support their land or sea operations, although some, such as the [[Canadian Forces Air Command|Canadian Air Force]] operate all military aircraft, even when they are attached to [[Canadian Forces Land Force Command|Canadian Army]] units.
Air Forces typically operate numerous types of aircraft. These may include
* ''[[Fighter aircraft|Fighters]]'', used to destroy other aircraft;
* ''[[Bomber]]s'' and ''Attack Aircraft'', used to attack ground targets;
* ''[[Reconnaissance]] Aircraft'';
* ''[[Electronic Warfare]] Aircraft'';
* ''[[Airborne Early Warning]] Aircraft'';
* ''Transport Aircraft'';
* ''Tankers'' which provide in-flight re-fuelling for other aircraft;
* ''[[Helicopter]]s'', used for attack, reconnaissance or transport;
* and ''Training Aircraft''.
Air forces also operate numerous types of satellites. These satellites provide services such as:
* Secure and unsecure communications
* Position, navigation and timing
* Missile warning
* Weather data
* Intelligence, surveillance and reconnaisance (ISR)
Some air forces such as the British [[Royal Air Force]] have a unique [[Air_force_officer_ranks|rank structure]]; other air forces such as the [[United States Air Force]] (USAF) have a [[Ranks_and_insignia_of_NATO_Air_Forces_Enlisted|rank structure on the Enlisted side]] that is unique, but the Officer corps uses [[Ranks_and_insignia_of_NATO_Air_Forces_Officers|Army-style rank]]. And finally there are air forces such as [[Soviet Air Force]] that use Army-style ranks for both Enlisted and Officer corps. Most (but not all) wear blue-grey uniforms pioneered by the Royal Air Force. The organization structures of the air forces also vary: some air forces (such as the [[United States Air Force]] and the [[Royal Air Force]]) are divided into ''commands'', ''groups'' and ''squadrons''; others (such as the [[Soviet Air Force]]) have an Army-syle organizational structure.
Contrary to popular belief, pilots often make up only a small portion of an air force's personnel. For every pilot, there is a flight crew who supports the air craft, a maintenance group, communications crew, satellite operators, administrative personnel, medical personnel...in truth, although the majority of the senior leadership of most air forces are pilots, the majority of the personnel are not. Some air forces also operate [[anti-aircraft artillery]] (now with [[radar]]s and [[missile]]s), and a few air forces even have their own [[paratrooper]]s. Given the pilots' special status, they often wear special insignia in the form of a [[vol]] or "wings". Other air crews might wear variations of such insignia.
==See also==
*[[List of air forces]]
*[[United States Air Force]]
*[[Aerial warfare]]
*[[Life support (aviation)]]
[[Category:Military aviation organization]]
[[Category:Types of military]]
[[Category:Air forces| ]]
[[da:Flyvevåben]]
[[de:Luftstreitkräfte]]
[[eo:Aerarmeo]]
[[fr:Armée de l'Air]]
[[he:חיל האוויר]]
[[ka:სამხედრო-საჰაერო ძალები]]
[[nl:Luchtmacht]]
[[ja:空軍]]
[[no:Flyvåpen]]
[[nn:Flyvåpen]]
[[pt:Força Aérea]]
[[ro:Forţă aeriană]]
[[simple:Air force]]
[[sl:Vojno letalstvo]]
[[fi:Ilmavoimat]]
[[sv:Flygvapen]]
[[zh:空军]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AWACS</title>
<id>3097</id>
<revision>
<id>38920124</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T14:44:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>N328KF</username>
<id>77722</id>
</contributor>
<comment>It's an acronym, not a term...leave it!</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Airborne Warning And Control System]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abiword</title>
<id>3099</id>
<revision>
<id>15901466</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[AbiWord]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AGA</title>
<id>3100</id>
<revision>
<id>40723484</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T16:01:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>193.58.46.226</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''AGA''' is a [[three-letter abbreviation]] with multiple meanings, as described below:
* [[American Arbitration Association]]
* [[AGA cooker]]
* [[Birth weight|Adequate for gestational age]]
* [[American Gastroenterologi |
y:Number theorists|Diophantus of Alexandria]]
[[Category:200 births]]
[[Category:298 deaths]]
[[de:Diophant von Alexandrien]]
[[es:Diofanto de Alejandría]]
[[fr:Diophante d'Alexandrie]]
[[ko:디오판토스]]
[[io:Diofanto]]
[[it:Diofanto di Alessandria]]
[[he:דיופנטוס]]
[[nl:Diophantus]]
[[pl:Diofantos]]
[[ru:Диофант Александрийский]]
[[scn:Diofantu di Alessandria]]
[[sl:Diofant]]
[[sr:Диофант]]
[[fi:Diofantos]]
[[sv:Diofantos]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dong</title>
<id>9111</id>
<revision>
<id>41239540</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T00:18:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>216.110.203.241</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dong''' may refer to any of the following:
# [[Vietnamese dong]], the [[currency]] unit of [[Vietnam]] (&#273;&#7891;ng, &#8363;). 1 dong = 100 [[xu (currency)|xu]].
# (Colloq.) [[Penis]] or [[dildo]] - see: [[Long Dong Silver]], a [[pornographic actor]] world famous for the enormous [[penis size|size of his penis]].
# Creature in the nonsense poetry of [[Edward Lear]], ''The Dong with a Luminous Nose''
# [[Dong people]] (&#20375;&#26063;), an [[List of Chinese ethnic groups|ethnic minority group]] in the [[Guangxi]] and [[Guizhou]] provinces of south-west [[China]]
# [[Transliteration]] of [[Chinese family name]]s &#33891;,&#26481; (in [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]] [[pinyin]]) and &#40680; (in [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]]). The same names can be spelled as Tung in other systems of transliteration. See also [[Dong Biwu]], [[Dong Xi]], [[Dong Yuan]], [[Dong Zhuo]], [[Tung Chee-hwa]], [[Tung Chao Yung]] et al.
# [[Onomatopoeia|Onomatopoeic]] term to refer to the (especially low) sound of a bell.
# [[Sixteen Candles#Long Duk Dong|Long Duk Dong]] or "the Donger," a character in the 1984 American movie ''[[Sixteen Candles]]''.
# [[Dansk Olie og Naturgas]], Denmarks's state-owned oil and gas company.
# A section of a city in [[South Korea]] (written 동 or 洞), smaller than a ''gu'' (ward) and approximately the size of five city blocks. Used in place names quite often; [[Jegi-dong Station]] is an example.
# [[Long Dong Silver]], the alias of a black actor in several pornographic films in the early 1980s.
# A [[Language game]] where words are spelled out and consanants have the syllable -ong added on the end.
{{disambig}}
[[de:Dong]]
[[io:Dong]]
[[nl:Dong]]
[[vi:&#272;&#7891;ng]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dr. Doom</title>
<id>9112</id>
<revision>
<id>15907027</id>
<timestamp>2003-12-04T09:48:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lowellian</username>
<id>29210</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Doctor Doom]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Duke Kahanamoku</title>
<id>9118</id>
<revision>
<id>41716515</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T06:42:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tbonefin</username>
<id>222675</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+fi</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DukeKahanamoku.jpeg|right|thumb|290px|Duke Kahanamoku (1915 postcard)]]
:''The Big Kahuna redirects here. For the film, see [[The Big Kahuna (film)]].''
'''Duke Paoa Kahinu Mokoe Hulikohola Kahanamoku''' ([[August 24]], [[1890]] &ndash; [[January 22]], [[1968]]), "'''The Big Kahuna'''", is generally regarded as the inventor of the modern sport of [[surfing]]. He was also an [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] champion in [[swimming]].
The name "Duke" is not a title, but a [[given name]]. His father was named "Duke" in honor of [[Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh]], who was visiting [[Hawaii]] at the time of the elder man's birth in 1869. The younger "Duke", as eldest son, inherited the name.
In his youth, Kahanamoku preferred an old-school (traditional) surf board, which he called his "papa nui", constructed after the fashion of ancient Hawaiian "olo" boards. Made from the wood of a koa tree, it was sixteen feet (4.8 m) long and weighed 114 pounds (52 kg). The board was without a [[skeg]], which had yet to be invented. In his later career, he would often use smaller boards, but always preferred those made of wood.
On August 11, 1911, in an amateur swim meet, Kahanamoku was timed at 55.4 seconds in the 100 yard (91 m) [[freestyle swimming|freestyle]], beating the existing world record by 4.6 seconds, in the salt water of Honolulu Harbor. He also broke the record in the 220 yd (201 m) and equaled it in the 50 yd (46 m), but the [[Amateur Athletic Union]], in disbelief, would not recognize these feats until many years later.
Nevertheless, Kahanamoku easily qualified for the U.S. Olympic swimming team in 1912, breaking the record for the 200 meter freestyle in his trial heat for the 4&times;200 relay. He went on to win a gold medal in the 100 yard (91 m) freestyle in the [[1912 Summer Olympics|1912 Olympics]] in [[Stockholm]], and a silver with the relay team. During the [[1920 Summer Olympics|1920 Olympics]] in [[Antwerp]], he won gold medals both in the 100 yd (91 m), bettering fellow Hawaiian [[Pua Kealoha]], and in the relay. He finished the 100 yd (91 m) with a silver medal during the [[1924 Summer Olympics|1924 Olympics]] in [[Paris]], the gold going to [[Johnny Weissmuller]] and the bronze to Duke's brother, [[Samuel Kahanamoku]].
Between Olympic competitions, and after retiring from the Olympics, Kahanamoku traveled to different places in the world, particularly [[Australia]] and the [[United States]], to give swimming exhibitions. It was during this period that he popularized the sport of surfing, previously known only in Hawaii, by incorporating surfing exhibitions into these visits as well. His surfing exhibition at Sydney's Freshwater Beach on December 23, 1914 is widely regarded as the most significant day in the development of surfing in Australia. The board Kahanamoku used is retained by the Freshwater Surf Club and can be viewed if the caretaker is approached respectfully. There is a statue of Kahanamoku on the headland at Freshwater.
Duke was also known as the Father of Surfing.
During his time living in [[Southern California]], Kahanamoku also performed in [[Hollywood]] as an extra and a character actor in several films. In this way, he made connections with people who could further publicity for the sport of surfing. Kahanamoku was also involved with the [[Los Angeles Athletic Club]], acting as lifeguard and competing on both swimming and water polo teams.
While living in Newport Beach, California on June 14, 1925, Kahanamoku rescued eight men from a fishing vessel that capsized in heavy surf while attempting to enter the city's harbor. Twenty-nine fishermen went into the water and seventeen perished. Using his surfboard, he was able to make quick trips back and forth to shore to increase the number of sailors rescued. Two other surfers saved four more fishermen. Newport's police chief at the time called Duke's efforts "the most superhuman surfboard rescue act the world has ever seen." Thus was born the tradition of lifeguards having rescue surfboards at the ready.
Duke Kahanamoku was the first person to be inducted into both the [[Swimming Hall of Fame]] and the [[Surfing Hall of Fame]]. The [[Duke Kahanamoku Invitational Surfing Championships]] are named in his honor. He served as sheriff of [[Honolulu, Hawaii]] from 1932 to 1961.
There is also a chain of restaurants named after him in [[California]] and [[Hawaii]] called ''Duke's''.
==External links==
*[http://www.hawaiianswimboat.com/duke.html Kahanamoku Sons bio of Duke]
*[http://www.surfline.com/surfaz/kahanamoku_duke.cfm Surfline bio of Duke]
*{{imdb name|id=0434687|name=Duke Kahanamoku}}
*[http://www.dukesmalibu.com/ ''Duke's'' restaurant website]
[[Category:1890 births|Kahanamoku, Duke]]
[[Category:1968 deaths|Kahanamoku, Duke]]
[[Category:American surfers|Kahanamoku, Duke]]
[[Category:American freestyle swimmers|Kahanamoku, Duke]]
[[Category:Asian American sportspeople|Kahanamoku, Duke]]
[[Category:Sportspeople of Hawaii|Kahanamoku, Duke]]
[[Category:Olympic swimmers of the United States|Kahanamoku, Duke]]
[[de:Duke Kahanamoku]]
[[fr:Duke Kahanamoku]]
[[it:Duke Kahanamoku]]
[[nl:Duke Kahanamoku]]
[[fi:Duke Kahanamoku]]
[[sv:Duke Kahanamoku]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Distinguished Service Medal (Army)</title>
<id>9119</id>
<revision>
<id>39763480</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T18:39:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>PSRuckman</username>
<id>870348</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">''This article concerns the United States Army Distinguished Service Medal. Please see "[[Distinguished Service Medal (USA)|Distinguished Service Medal]]" for other U.S. versions of the Distinguished Service Medal.''
[[Image:Distservmedal.jpg|right]]
The '''Distinguished Service Medal''' is a [[Awards and decorations of the United States military|military award]] of the [[United States Army]] which is presented to any person who, while serving in any capacity with the [[United States military]], has distinguished himself or herself by exceptionally meritorious service to the Government in a duty of great responsibility. The performance must be such as to merit recognition for service which is clearly exceptional. Exceptional performance of normal duty will not alone justify an award of this decoration.
Separate Distinguished Service Medals exist for the different branches of the military as well as a fifth version of the medal which is a senior award of the United States Department of Defense. The Army version of the Distinguished Service Medal is typically referred to simply as the & |
her probation terms. The rocker-actress was ordered into a 28-day drug treatment program by a judge who initially said "my belief was that you need to go to the county jail." This program was also violated and on September 21 she was sentenced to 6 months in lock down rehab. [http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1507991/20050819/love_courtney.jhtml?headlines=true]
In August 2005, tabloid papers such as ''[[News of the World]]'' began reporting that Love became pregnant during an affair with British actor and comedian [[Steve Coogan]]. Coogan's spokeswoman, alongside Love's publicists, have discredited the story as "nonsense". [http://breakingnews.iol.ie/entertainment/story.asp?j=153365086&p=y5336579z]
Love was cast to star as legendary cowgirl [[Texas Guinan]] in the story of her life, called ''[[Hello Sucker!]].'' The film was never made.
She is set to release her sophomore solo album, ''[[Exile in Blonde]]'', under [[Virgin Records]] in 2006.
==Manga==
When Love lived in Japan, she became a fan of [[manga]]. She co-created a series called ''[[Princess Ai]]'' ('Ai' meaning 'Love'). ''Princess Ai'' features the character design of [[Ai Yazawa]]. Dialogue for ''Princess Ai'''s main character, Ai, is taken from Love's song lyrics.
'''Princess Ai: Volume I'' was released by [[TOKYOPOP]] in the United States on [[July 6]][[2004]].
==Discography==
[[Image:Clove.jpg|thumb|Cover of Love's solo album, [[America's Sweetheart]].|right]]
* See [[Hole (band)]]
* ''[[America's Sweetheart]]'' (2004)
* ''[[Exile In Blonde]]'' (2006)
==Filmography==
*''[[Sid and Nancy]]'' ([[1986]])
*''[[Straight to Hell]]'' ([[1987]])
*''[[Tapeheads]]'' ([[1988]])
*''[[1991: The Year Punk Broke]]'' ([[1992]]) (documentary)
*''[[Basquiat]]'' ([[1996]])
*''[[Feeling Minnesota]]'' ([[1996]])
*''[[The People vs. Larry Flynt]]'' ([[1996]])
*''[[Not Bad for a Girl]]'' ([[1996]]) (documentary) (also co-producer)
*''[[Off the Menu: The Last Days of Chasen's]]'' ([[1997]]) (documentary)
*''[[Kurt & Courtney]]'' ([[1998]]) (documentary)
*''[[200 Cigarettes]]'' ([[1999]])
*''[[Man on the Moon]]'' ([[1999]])
*''[[Beat]]'' ([[2000]])
*''[[Bounce: Behind the Velvet Rope]]'' ([[2000]]) (documentary)
*''[[Julie Johnson]]'' ([[2001]])
*''[[Last Party 2000]]'' ([[2001]]) (documentary)
*''[[Trapped (film)|Trapped]]'' ([[2002]])
*''[[Mayor of the Sunset Strip]]'' ([[2003]]) (documentary)
*''[[(This Is Known as) The Blues Scale]]'' ([[2004]]) (documentary)
*''[[Lovelace]]'' ([[2007]]) (currently in production)
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.courtneylove.com/ Courtney Love's Official homepage]
* [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&uid=UIDMISS70311071654390588&sql=B7vzyxdjb8ola/ Courtney Love All Music Guide Page]
* {{imdb name|id=0001482|name=Courtney Love}}
* Criticism of the music industry: "[http://www.salon.com/tech/feature/2000/06/14/love/ Courtney Love does the math]" "an unedited transcript of Courtney Love's speech to the Digital Hollywood online entertainment conference, given in New York on [[May 16]], [[2000]]."
* [http://www.justiceforkurt.com/ Kurt Cobain conspiracy]
{{Nirvana (band)}}
[[Category:1964 births|Love, Courtney]]
[[Category:Actor-singers|Love, Courtney]]
[[Category:American actors|Love, Courtney]]
[[Category:American female singers|Love, Courtney]]
[[Category:Bisexual musicians|Love, Courtney]]
[[Category:Female guitarists|Love, Courtney]]
[[Category:Film actors|Love, Courtney]]
[[Category:Grunge musicians|Love, Courtney]]
[[Category:Jewish-American singers|Love, Courtney]]
[[Category:Controversial people|Love, Courtney]]
[[Category:Living people|Love, Courtney]]
[[Category:Nelsonians|Love]]
[[Category:Portlanders|Love, Courtney]]
[[Category:Punk rock musicians|Love, Courtney]]
[[Category:San Franciscans|Love, Courtney]]
[[da:Courtney Love]]
[[de:Courtney Love]]
[[es:Courtney Love]]
[[fr:Courtney Love]]
[[nl:Courtney Love]]
[[ja:コートニー・ラブ]]
[[nb:Courtney Love]]
[[pl:Courtney Love]]
[[fi:Courtney Love]]
[[sv:Courtney Love]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cosmic background radiation</title>
<id>5656</id>
<revision>
<id>30554928</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-08T04:00:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joke137</username>
<id>184529</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cosmic microwave background radiation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cow (disambiguation)</title>
<id>5657</id>
<revision>
<id>38487167</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T17:51:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Interestingstuffadder</username>
<id>808664</id>
</contributor>
<comment>revert. this was not intended to be funny. this is a disambiguation. the idea that is that it contains various meanings. this use is at least as common as any of the others (eg the programming lang</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary|cow}}
'''Cow''' may refer to:
* [[Cattle]] regardless of sex (in vernacular usage).
* The [[COW programming language]], an esoteric programming language.
* Insulting euphemism for an [[obese]] [[human being]]
'''COW''' may refer to:
* [[Can of worms]]
* [[Casualty of War]]
* [[Cell On Wheels]]
* [[City of Westminster]]
* [[Cluster of Workstations]]
* [[Coalition of the Willing]]
* [[Computer Originated World]], referring to the globe ID the BBC1 TV network used from 1985 to 1991
* Code Optimization Ware, as used in the game ''[[Tron 2.0]]''
* [[Cold work]]
* [[College of Wooster]]
* [[Commanding Officer's Wife]]
* [[Copy-on-write]]
* [[Cost of war]]
* [[Crude oil washing]]
{{disambig}}
[[he:פרה]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cannibalism</title>
<id>5658</id>
<revision>
<id>42131634</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:55:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>205.188.116.65</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Cannibalism in popular culture */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cannibals.23232.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Cannibalism in [[Brazil]] in 1557 as described by [[Hans Staden]].]]
'''Cannibalism''' is the act or practice of eating members of one's own [[species]] and usually refers to [[humans]] eating other humans (sometimes called '''anthropophagy'''). Cannibalism has been attributed to many different tribes and ethnicities in the past, but the degree to which it has actually occurred and been socially sanctioned is an extremely controversial topic in [[anthropology]]. Some anthropologists argue that cannibalism has been almost non-existent and view claims of cannibalism with extreme [[skepticism]], while others argue that the practice was common in pre-state societies.
Several archaeologists have claimed that some ruins in the [[American Southwest]] contain evidence of cannibalism. Individual cases in other countries have been seen with mentally unstable persons, criminals, and, in unconfirmed rumors, by religious zealots. In the [[United States|US]], the [[Donner party]] was an example of cannibalism used to avoid starvation. However, there's no physical evidence that the family who gave the Donner Party its name had anything to do with the cannibalism the ill-fated pioneers have been associated with for a century and a half. There are disputed claims that cannibalism was widespread during the famine in [[Ukraine]] in the [[1930s]], during the [[Siege of Leningrad]] in [[World War II]], and during the [[Chinese Civil War]] and the [[Great Leap Forward]] in [[China]]. It has been claimed that cannibalism was practiced by Japanese troops as recently as WWII in the Pacific theater. {{ref|tanaka}}
== Non-human cannibalism ==
Cannibalism is common and a part of the life cycle for some species. The female [[red-back spider]], [[black widow spider]], [[praying mantis]], and [[scorpion]] sometimes eat the male after mating (though the frequency of this is often overstated). For other organisms, cannibalism has less to do with sex than relative sizes. Larger [[octopus]] preying upon smaller ones is commonly observed in the wild, and the same can be said for certain [[toad]]s, [[fish]], red-backed salamanders, [[crocodile]]s, and [[tarantula]]s. Cannibalism may develop in extremes such as captivity or a desperate [[famine|food shortage]]. For instance, a domestic [[pig|sow]] may eat her newborn young, though this behavior has not been observed in the wild. Another cause for cannibalism in captivity is territoriality; species with large territories in the wild may display cannibal behaviors in confinement with others. For example, while tarantulas infrequently cannibalize in the wild, they do so much more commonly in captivity. It is also known that [[rabbit]]s, [[mouse|mice]], [[rat]]s, or [[hamster]]s will eat their young if their nest is repeatedly threatened by predators. In some species adult males are known to kill and sometimes eat young of their species to whom they are not closely related &mdash; famously, the [[chimpanzee]]s observed by Dr. [[Jane Goodall]]. This is believed to be a mechanism of increasing the portion of a colony's energy and food expenditure that will then be available to the cannibal's own offspring. During the [[NATO]] bombing of [[Yugoslavia]] in 1999, a number of animals in [[Belgrade]] Zoo, including a [[tigress]] and two [[wolf|she-wolves]] were reported to be so traumatised that they ate their offspring. Prince, a Bengal tiger, was even reported by an [[India]]n war correspondent to have started eating himself &mdash; gnawing at his own foot in what the zookeeper was quoted as saying was [http://svaradarajan.blogspot.com/1999/06/war-ravages-belgrades-bengal-tiger.html his "protest" at the bombing].
Diego Rivera also practiced cannibalism.
== Cannibalism among humans ==
It is generally accepted that accusations of cannibalism have historically been much more commo |
[Plant]]s are especially dependent on environmental factors, and continued abiotic stress can have harmful effects on them or force [[natural selection]].
<!-- Isn't following sentence a biotic factor?
More factors could be a new species moving into an area that was not previously occupied by them.
-->
{{ecology-stub}}
[[Category:Physiology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Accusative case</title>
<id>2251</id>
<revision>
<id>39797122</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T22:56:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>203.217.28.153</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Table_Cases}}
The '''accusative case''' of a [[noun]] is the [[grammatical case]] used to mark the '''direct object''' of a [[verb]]. The same case is used in many languages for the objects of (some or all) [[preposition|prepositions]].
The accusative case exists (or existed once) in all the [[Indo-European languages]] (including [[Latin]], [[Sanskrit]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[German language|German]], [[Russian language|Russian]]), in the [[Finno-Ugric languages]], and in [[Semitic languages]] (such as [[Arabic language|Arabic]]). It should be noted that [[Balto-Fennic languages]] such as Finnish and Estonian have two cases to mark objects, the accusative and the [[partitive case]]. In morphosyntactic alignment terms, both perform the accusative function, but the accusative object is [[Telicity|telic]], while the partitive is not.
Modern [[English language|English]], which lacks [[declension]] in its nouns, still has an explicitly marked accusative case in a few pronouns as a remnant of [[Old English language|Old English]], an earlier declined form of the language. "Whom" is the accusative case of "who"; "him" is the accusative case of "he" (the final "m" of both of these words can be traced back to the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] accusative case suffix); and "her" is the accusative case of "she". These words ''also'' serve as the [[dative case]] pronouns in English and could arguably be classified in the [[oblique case]] instead. Most modern English grammarians feel that due to the lack of declension except in a few pronouns, where accusative and dative have been merged, that making case distinctions in English is no longer relevant, and frequently employ the term "[[Objective_(grammar)|objective case]]" instead ''(see [[Declension in English]]).''
==Example==
In the sentence ''I see '''the car''''', the [[noun phrase]] ''the car'' is the direct object of the verb "see". In English, which has mostly lost the case system, the definite article and noun &mdash; "the car" &mdash; remain in the same form regardless of the grammatical role played by the words. One can correctly use "the car" as the subject of a sentence also: "The car is parked here."
In a declined language, the [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] of the article and/or noun changes in some way according to the grammatical role played by the noun in a given sentence. For example, in [[German language|German]], one possible translation of "the car" is ''der Wagen''. This is the form in [[nominative case]], used for the subject of a sentence. If this article/noun pair is used as the object of a verb, it (usually) changes to the accusative case, which entails an article shift in German &mdash; ''Ich sehe '''den Wagen'''.'' In German, masculine nouns change their definite article from ''der'' to ''den'' in accusative case.
''See also [[Morphosyntactic alignment]].''
== The case in Latin ==
The Accusative case (''Accusativus'') can also mean direction (''domum'' - homewards, ''Romam'' - "to Rome" with no preposition needed), time duration (''multos annos'' - for many years, ''ducentos annos'' - for 200 years) and can be used with infinitive (''Accusativus cum infinitivo''), e.g. ''dico '''eum''' domi abesse'' - "I say he isn't at home", ''suspecto '''eam''' hoc legisse'' - "I suspect that she has read this" or ''Romani antiqui putabant '''Martem''' bella regere'' - "Ancient Romans thought that Mars directs the wars".
== See also ==
*[[Nota accusativi]]
*[[Accusative and infinitive]]
==External links==
* [http://www.russianlessons.net/grammar/nouns_accusative.php Accusative Case In Russian]
[[Category:Grammatical cases]]
[[als:Akkusativ]]
[[bg:Винителен падеж]]
[[ca:Cas acusatiu]]
[[cs:Akuzativ]]
[[da:Akkusativ]]
[[de:Akkusativ]]
[[es:Caso acusativo]]
[[eo:Akuzativo]]
[[fr:Accusatif]]
[[gl:Acusativo]]
[[hr:Akuzativ]]
[[is:Þolfall]]
[[it:Accusativo]]
[[nl:Accusatief]]
[[ja:対格]]
[[nn:Akkusativ]]
[[pl:Biernik]]
[[ro:Cazul acuzativ]]
[[sr:Акузатив]]
[[fi:Akkusatiivi]]
[[sv:Ackusativ]]
[[zh:宾格]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ariel</title>
<id>2254</id>
<revision>
<id>41948732</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:49:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shsilver</username>
<id>637</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Places */ avoid redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ariel''' etymologically derives from ('''אֲרִיאֵל''', [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Ari&#702;el''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&#702;Ărî&#702;ēl''') a unisex name meaning "lion of [[Elohim|God]]." See also [[Ariel (spirit)]] and [[Names of Jerusalem]].
==People==
Famous people named '''Ariel''' include:
*Prime Minister [[Ariel Sharon]] of [[Israel]].
*[[Ariel Ortega]], El Burrito - The Little Donkey, an Argentinian footballer, who has played for his country in the 1994, 1998, and 2002 World Cups.
*A stage name for Aron Atwood in [[The Cuban Heels]]
*[[Ariel Rot]], Argentinian musician
==Fictional characters==
'''Ariel''' is any of various characters in works of fiction:
*'''[[Ariel (Shakespeare)|Ariel]]''' is a [[spiritual being|spirit]] who was a servant of [[Prospero]] in [[William Shakespeare]]'s play ''[[The Tempest (play)|The Tempest]]''.
*'''Ariel''' is the chief of the [[sylph]]s serving [[Belinda]] in [[Alexander Pope]]'s poem ''[[The Rape of the Lock]]''.
*'''Ariel''' is the red-haired [[mermaid]] who is fascinated by life on dry land and falls in love with Prince Eric in the 1989 [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] movie ''[[The Little Mermaid (movie)|The Little Mermaid]]''.
*'''Ariel''' is a former alias of the [[Marvel Comics]] character [[shadowcat|Katherine "Kitty" Pryde]] who now goes under the name [[Shadowcat]].
*'''[[ariel (Legacy of Kain)|Ariel]]''' is a [[spiritual being|spirit]] who is bound to the Pillars of Nosgoth in the [[Legacy of Kain]] video game series.
*'''Ariel''' is a girl in [[New Jersey]] in the 1977 hit song "Ariel" by [[Dean Friedman]].
*'''Ariel''' is an [[Invid (Robotech)|Invid]] character in the science fiction animated character [[Robotech]]
==Publications==
'''Ariel''' can also refer to the following publications:
*'''''Ariel''''' is the in-house [[magazine]] of the [[BBC]], named after the [[statue]] of Shakespeare's Prospero and Ariel by [[Eric Gill]] on the front of the BBC's [[Broadcasting House]], [[London]].
*'''''Ariel: a Shelley Romance''''' is a novelized biography by [[André Maurois]] of the poet [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]], who was drowned in a sailboat, ''Ariel'', in the Bay of Lerici, 1822.
*''[[Ariel]]'' is an important essay on Latin-American culture and inter-American relations by Jose Enrique Rodo.
*''[[Ariel (novel)|Ariel]]'' is a [[science fiction]] novel by [[Russia|Russian]] [[author]] [[Alexander Beliaev]].
*''[[Ariel (Plath)|Ariel]]'' was the last book of poetry by [[Sylvia Plath]].
*''[[Ariel: The Book of Fantasy]]'' was a periodical published in the [[1970s]] in book form, distinguished by elaborate production and illustration.
*'''Ariel''' was a book by [[André Maurois]] published by [[Penguin Books]] on its Bodley Head imprint
==Places==
The following locations are named '''Ariel''':
*'''[[Ariel (City)|Ariel]]''' is one of the [[names of Jerusalem]]
*'''[[Ariel (moon)|Ariel]]''' is a [[natural satellite|moon]] of [[Uranus (planet)|Uranus]] discovered in [[1851]] by [[William Lassell]]. In particular, it was named for the character in Alexander Pope's ''The Rape of the Lock'' (see ''[[#Fictional_characters|Fictional characters]]'' above).
*'''[[Ariel (City)|Ariel]]''' is an [[Israeli settlement]] in the [[West Bank]], between [[Nablus]] and [[Ramallah]].
*'''Ariel''' is the name of a lake. Lake Ariel is in Pennsylvania,USA
*'''[[Ariel (Firefly planet)|Ariel]]''' is a [[fiction|fictional]] planet in the [[science fiction]] [[tv series|series]] [[Firefly (TV series)]]
==Commercial products==
*'''[[Ariel (washing powder)|Ariel]]''' is a [[washing]] powder brand of [[Procter & Gamble]].
*'''[[Ariel (vehicle)|Ariel]]''' a former manufacturer of [[motorcycle]]s, [[bicycle]]s and [[automobile|car]]s from 1871.
*'''[[Ariel Ltd|Ariel]]''' is a modern [[United Kingdom|British]] car company
*'''[[Ariel Gallery]]''' is an [[artist| artist's]] [[cooperative]] and [[Art gallery| gallery]] in [[Asheville, North Carolina]].
*'''Ariel''' was the name of an operating system by [[Microware]]
*'''Ariel Corp''' was a company (probably US) that developed the IRCAM Signal Processing Workstation ([[ISPW]]) in cooperation with [[IRCAM]] in France
*'''Ariel''' is a brand of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_compressor gas compressor] commonly used in industrial and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas natural gas] compression. [http://www.arielcorp.com Ariel Link]
==Other uses of the name==
*'''Ariel''' was the name of an UK space programme of the 1960s which launched an orbital telescope in 1962, long before the [[Hubble Space Telescope]]
*'''Ariel''' was the name of a group with which the electronic musician [[Kid 606]] |
harles Babbage]]
[[cs:Charles Babbage]]
[[da:Charles Babbage]]
[[de:Charles Babbage]]
[[es:Charles Babbage]]
[[fa:چارلز ببیج]]
[[fi:Charles Babbage]]
[[fr:Charles Babbage]]
[[gl:Charles Babbage]]
[[he:צ'ארלס בבג']]
[[hr:Charles Babbage]]
[[hu:Charles Babbage]]
[[is:Charles Babbage]]
[[it:Charles Babbage]]
[[ja:チャールズ・バベッジ]]
[[ko:찰스 배비지]]
[[nl:Charles Babbage]]
[[no:Charles Babbage]]
[[pl:Charles Babbage]]
[[pt:Charles Babbage]]
[[ru:Бэббидж, Чарльз]]
[[sk:Charles Babbage]]
[[sl:Charles Babbage]]
[[sr:Чарлс Бебиџ]]
[[sv:Charles Babbage]]
[[th:ชาร์ลส แบบเบจ]]
[[tr:Charles Babbage]]
[[zh:查尔斯·巴贝奇]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Closeted</title>
<id>5699</id>
<revision>
<id>15903898</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-12T22:38:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Falphin</username>
<id>227128</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The closet]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cross-dressing</title>
<id>5700</id>
<revision>
<id>42053999</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:06:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
<id>754619</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Famous historical examples of cross-dressing people */ dab. Catholic</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''This articles is about cross-dressing in general. For specific information about cross-dressing for sexual reasons, see [[Transvestic fetishism]].'' Compare also the [[List of transgender-related topics]] and [[Transvestism (disambiguation)]].
'''Cross-dressing''' is the act of wearing [[Clothes|clothing]] commonly associated with another [[gender role|gender]] within a particular [[society]]. The usage of the term, the types of cross-dressing both in modern times and throughout history, an analysis of the behaviour, and historical examples are discussed in the article below.
==Usage==
Nearly every society throughout history has had a set of [[Social aspects of clothing|norms, views, guidelines, or laws, regarding the wearing of clothing]] and what is appropriate for each sex. Cross-dressing is behavior which runs counter to those norms and therefore can be seen as a type of [[transgender]] [[behavior]]. It is not, however, necessarily transgender [[gender identity|identity]] since a person who cross-dresses does not always identify with the other sex.
The term '''cross-dress''ing''''' denotes an action or a behavior without attributing or proposing causes for that behavior. Some people automatically connect cross-dressing behavior to transgender identity or sexual, fetishist, and [[homosexuality|homosexual]] behavior, but the term ''cross-dressing'' itself does not imply any motives. (See "Equal clothing rights" below.) However, referring to a person as a '''cross-dress''er''''' suggests that their cross-dressing behavior is habitual and may be taken to mean that the person identifies as transgendered. The term cross-dresser should therefore be used with care to avoid causing misunderstanding or offense.
A new meaning for the term "cross-dressing" has appeared in the African-American community, where it is used to refer to wearing two different name brands of clothing simultaneously. For example, a [[Tommy Hilfiger]] hat and [[FUBU]] jacket might be referred to as "cross dressing." This use of the term is exclusively negative. While far removed from the original meaning, this usage is increasingly common and can lead to confusion among those used to more traditional meanings of the term.
==Varieties of cross-dressing==
There are many different kinds of cross-dressing, and many different reasons why an individual might engage in cross-dressing behavior. The following examples are by no means an exhaustive list.
Some people cross-dress as a matter of comfort or style. They have a preference towards clothing which is only marketed to or associated with the opposite sex. In this case, a person's cross-dressing may or may not be visible to other people.
Some people cross-dress in order to shock others or challenge [[Norm (sociology)|social norms]].
Both men and women may cross-dress in order to disguise their true identity. Historically, some women have cross-dressed in order to take up male-dominated or male-exclusive professions, such as military service. Conversely, some men have cross-dressed in order to escape from mandatory military service.
Single-sex theatrical troupes often have some performers cross-dress in order to play roles written for members of the opposite sex. Cross-dressing is often used for comic effect onstage and onscreen.
'''[[drag_(clothing)|Drag]]''' is special form of performance art based on cross-dressing. A '''[[drag queen]]''' is a male-bodied person who performs as an exaggeratedly feminine character, in an elaborate costume usually consisting of a gaudy dress and high-heeled shoes, heavy makeup, and a large [[wig]]. A drag queen may imitate famous female film or pop-music stars. (See also [[RuPaul]])
A '''[[drag king]]''' is the counterpart of the drag queen &mdash; a female-bodied person who adopts an exaggerated masculine persona in performance or who imitates a male film or pop-music star. Some female-bodied people undergoing [[gender reassignment therapy]] also self-identify as ''drag kings'', although this use of "drag king" is considered inaccurate by some.
Many transgendered people cross-dress relative to their birth sex, but transgendered people who have undergone gender reassignment therapy are usually not regarded as cross-dressing. See [[transvestism]].
A [[transvestic fetishism|transvestic fetishist]] is a person (typically a [[heterosexual]] male) who cross-dresses as part of a [[sexual fetish]].
The term ''underdressing'' is used by male cross-dressers to describe wearing female undergarments under their male clothes.
Some people who cross-dress may endeavor to project a complete impression of belonging to another gender, down to [[mannerism]]s, [[speech]] patterns, and emulation of [[Sex-determination system|sexual characteristics]]. This is referred to as "trying to [[passing|pass]]". Others may choose to take a mixed approach, adopting some feminine traits and some masculine traits in their appearance. For instance, a man might wear both a [[dress]] and a [[beard]]. This is sometimes known as ''[[genderfuck]]''. Finally, for some the motivation for cross-dressing is to undermine the idea that any article of clothing is "only for men" or "only for women." These people may broadly mix clothing from both genders, in a practice called [[freestyle dressing|freestyle]].
==Clothes==
The actual determination of cross-dressing is largely [[socially constructed]]. For example, in Western society, trousers have been adopted for wear by women. This is generally ''not'' regarded as cross-dressing. In cultures where men have traditionally worn skirt-like garments such as the [[kilt]] or [[sarong]] these are not seen as female clothing, and wearing them is not seen as cross-dressing for men.
As societies are becoming more global in nature, both men and women are adopting styles of dress associated with other cultures. Surfers in California have begun wearing sarongs and pareos as an after-surfing wrap, and men throughout the U.S., including those involved in construction and outdoor sports, such as kayaking or hiking, have begun wearing skirts and kilts, such as the [http://www.macabiskirt.com/mens_home.php/ Macabi Skirt], the [http://www.utilikilt.com/ Utilikilt], and other hiking kilts. The Macabi Skirt in particular has won rave reviews by various backpacking and outdoor magazines. [http://www.backpackgeartest.org/reviews/Clothing/Skirts%20and%20Kilts/ Reviews - Macabi Skirt for Men]
==="Equal Clothing Rights"===
It was once [[taboo]] in Western society for women to wear clothes traditionally associated with men. It is specifically cited as an "abomination" in the Bible in the book of [[Deuteronomy]] (22:5). This is no longer the case and Western women are often seen wearing trousers, ties, and men's hats. Nevertheless, many cultures around the world still prohibit women from wearing trousers or other traditionally male clothing.
In most parts of the world it is still generally considered taboo for a man to wear clothes traditionally associated with women. Many people perceive this as hypocrisy and an imbalance in the [[social equality|equality]] of men and women in society and believe that men should not have to suffer discrimination for wanting to wear dresses or skirts. This issue is often labeled as "equal clothing rights," which has gained a significant movement around the world.
In fact, some men who wear skirts or similar garments contend that they are simply wearing masculine clothes that currently aren't in fashion; they may call themselves "bravehearts" after the 1995 film ''[[Braveheart]]'', which depicted a leading man in a Saxon kilt.<sup>[http://www.kiltmen.com/]</sup>
Another element of equal clothing rights is resistance to one's own traditional gender-mandated clothing. For instance, men may resist wearing neckties or women resist wearing skirts as part of a workplace uniform.
==Analyses==
===Female-bodied cross-dressers===
The behaviour of women in general has historically often received less attention than that of men, and cross-dressing is no exception. However, there are some famous examples of cross-dressing female-bodied persons in history (see Famous historical examples of cross-dressing people below).
Cross-dressing among women in modern Western societies seems to be rare. Yet the question of how many people cross-dress is difficult to answer, as it depends on social norms that change over time. |
America, but the biggest human emigration there was about the time of the last Ice Age period, when the [[Paleo-Indian]]s showed up. These people brought with them the [[Clovis Point]] and advanced hunting techniques. If these people were responsible for wiping out the Ice Age herbivore megafauna, it can be argued that ''Ursus arctos'' benefited in numbers and range by the extinction of the competing predators.
In Europe, the Brown Bear outlasted the larger and closely related [[Cave Bear]] but the reasons why the Cave Bear became extinct are not clear. The Cave Bear was hunted by the [[Neanderthals]] who may have had a religion relating to this bear, the so-called [[Cave Bear Cult]], but Neanderthal populations were not numerous. The Cave Bear also outlasted the Neanderthals by about 18,000 years, going extinct about 10,000 years ago. It thus held its own in Europe against fully modern humans for 180 centuries. Its diet was similar to the Brown Bear, which probably lived in the same lands all this time, so why it died out is a mystery.
There are estimated to be about 200,000 Brown Bears in the world. The largest populations are in Russia, with 120,000, United States, with 32,500, and Canada with 21,750. Ninety-five percent of the population in the United States is in Alaska, though in the West the bears seem to be repopulating slowly but steadily along the [[Rockies]] and plains. In Europe, there are 14,000 brown bears in ten separate fragmented populations, from [[Spain]] to [[Russia]] and north into [[Scandinavia]]. They are extinct in the [[British Isles]], extremely threatened or extinct in [[France]] and in trouble over most of Central Europe. The Brown Bear is [[Finland]]'s national animal. The Carpathian Brown Bear population is the largest one in Europe outside Russia, estimated at 4,500 to 5,000 bears.
In one respect the potential habitat of the Brown Bear has been increasing. The warming of the [[Arctic]] region has allowed the species to move farther and farther north into what was once exclusively the domain of the [[Polar Bear]].
==Behaviour==
The Brown Bear is primarily [[nocturnal]] and, in the summer, puts on up to 180 kg (400 pounds) of [[fat]], on which it relies to make it through winter, when it becomes very lethargic. Although they are not true [[hibernation|hibernators]] and can be woken easily, they like to den in a protected spot such as a [[cave]], crevice, or hollow log during the winter months.
They are [[omnivore]]s and feed on a variety of plant parts, including berries, [[root]]s, and
[[shoot|sprout]]s; [[fungus|fungi]]; and [[fish]], [[insect]]s, and small [[mammal]]s. Contrary to popular mythology, Brown Bears are not particularly carnivorous; they derive up to three-quarters of their dietary [[food energy]] from vegetable matter. Interestingly, bears eat an enormous number of [[moth]]s during the summer (sometimes as many as 20,000 to 40,000 in a day) and may derive up to a third of their food energy from these insects. They also occasionally prey on [[deer]] (''Odocoeilus'' spp.; ''Dama'' spp., ''Capreolus'' spp.), [[Red Deer]] (''Cervus elaphus'' or American elk), [[Moose]] (''Alces'' spp.) and [[Wild Boar]] (''Sus scrofa''). However, even the largest Brown Bears think twice before trying to tackle a [[wild boar]], as their sharp tusks and fierce demeanor can discourage the hungriest predators.
Brown Bears have also been found stealing the kills of [[Tiger]]s, [[wolf|Wolves]], and [[Puma]]s. Two male Tigers were found killed by brown bears in the year 2000. In areas where Brown Bears and [[Siberian Tiger]]s coexist, the cubs are occasionally killed by the large [[feline]]s.
Normally a solitary animal, the Brown Bear congregates alongside streams and rivers during the [[salmon]] spawn in the fall. Every other year females produce one to four young, which weigh only about 1 to 2 kg (2 to 5 lb) at birth. Raised entirely by their mother, the cubs are taught to climb trees at the sign of danger.
===Habituation to human areas===
[[Image:Grizzly SierraMag July2005.jpg|thumb|300px|right|''A fed bear is a dead bear'' - bears are relocated when possible, but repeat offenders may be killed when they have associated humans with food sources.]]
With the encroachment of humans into bear habitat, bears may become attracted to human-related food sources such as garbage dumps, litter bins, dumpsters, and so on, and may even venture into human dwellings or barns in search of food. In the U.S., it is not unheard of for a bear to kill and eat farm animals. Once a bear comes to associate human activity with a "food reward", a bear is likely to continue to become emboldened in its quest for food and human/bear encounters become more likely. There is a saying, ''"a fed bear is a dead bear"'', which has come into use to popularize the idea that allowing bears to scavenge human garbage, pet food, or other food sources that draw the bear into contact with humans can result in disaster for the bear.
Relocation has been used as a public appeasement strategy, and does not address the problem bear's newly learned "humans as food source" behavior. Nor does it address the environmental situations which created the human habituated bear. ''"Placing a bear in habitat used by other bears may lead to competition and social conflict, and result in the injury or death of the less dominant bear. [http://www.bearsmart.com/managingBears/Relocation.html]"''
Though bears have been relocated to areas distant from human populations, some bears become "hooked" on a given food source and will return to the same location. Bears that have repeatedly returned to a given area, and thus have become perceived as dangerous, are sometimes killed to prevent human injuries or death.
[[Yellowstone National Park]], an enormous reserve located in the Western United States, contains prime habitat for the Grizzly Bear (''Ursus arctos horribilis''), but due to the enormous number of visitors, human-bear encounters are not rare. The scenic beauty of the area has led to an influx of people moving into the area. In addition, because there are so many bear relocations to the same remote areas of Yellowstone, and because male bears tend to dominate the center of the relocation zone, female bears tend to be pushed to the boundaries of the region and beyond. The result is that a large proportion of repeat offender bears, bears that are destroyed for the public safety, are females. This creates a further depressive effect on an already endangered species (the Grizzly Bear is officialy described as ''threatened'' in the U.S). Though the problem is most significant with regard to Grizzlies, these issues affect the other types of Brown Bear as well.
In Europe, part of the problem lies with [[shepherd]]s; over the past two centuries, many sheep and goat herders have gradually abandoned the more traditional practice of using [[dog]]s to guard flocks (which have concurrently grown larger). Typically they allow the herds to graze freely over sizeable tracts of land. As bears reclaim parts of their range, they may take livestock as a means of survival. The shepherd is forced to shoot the bear to protect his livelihood, the community goes up in arms, and often the bears pay the price.
==Subspecies==
The subspecies of brown bears have been listed as follows; however, there is little agreement on classification:-
* ''[[Ursus arctos arctos]]'' &ndash; European Brown Bear
* ''[[Ursus arctos californicus]]'' &ndash; Golden Bear (extinct)
* ''[[Ursus arctos crowtheri]]'' &ndash; Atlas Bear (extinct)
* ''[[Ursus arctos horribilis]]'' &ndash; Grizzly Bear; Canada & United States
* ''[[Ursus arctos isabellinus]]'' &ndash; Himalayan Brown Bear; Nepal and North India
* ''[[Ursus arctos middendorffi]]'' &ndash; Kodiak Bear; Kodiak, Afognak & Suyak Islands (Alaska)
* ''[[Ursus arctos nelsoni]]'' &ndash; Mexican Grizzly Bear; (extinct?)
* ''[[Blue Bear|Ursus arctos pruinosus]]'' &ndash; Tibetan Blue Bear; Western China
* ''[[Ursus arctos yesoensis]]'' &ndash; Hokkaido Bear; Japan
* ''[[Ursus arctos beringianus]]'' &ndash; Siberian Brown Bear; Siberia
* ''[[Ursus arctos syriacus]]'' &ndash; Syrian Brown Bear; Middle East
* ''[[Ursus arctos gobiensis]]'' &ndash; Gobi bear; Mongolia
==Legal status ==
The Grizzly Bear (sometimes called the '''silvertip bear''') is listed as threatened in the [[Continental United States|contiguous United States]]. It is currently slowly repopulating areas where it was previously extirpated, though it is still vulnerable.
* The Golden Bear disappeared from the state of [[California ]] in [[1922]] when the last one was shot in [[Tulare County, California]]. It can be seen on the state [[flag of California]] and as the mascot of the sports teams of the [[University of California, Berkeley]].
* The Mexican Grizzly Bear is listed as [[endangered species|endangered]] and may be extinct.
* The Grizzly Bear is listed as threatened in the [[lower 48]] states of the United States. In Canada, it is listed as vulnerable in Alberta, British Columbia, Northwest Territories, and Yukon Territory. Prairie populations of Grizzly Bear are listed as extirpated in Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan.
==Bear encounters==
It is extremely rare that brown bears kill or seriously injure humans but fatal encounters do happen. There are an average of two fatal attacks a year in North America<ref>''Bear Attacks: Their Causes and Avoidance'', Stephen Herrero, revised edition, 2002.</ref>. In [[Scandinavia]] there are only three known cases during the last 100 years where humans have been killed by bears. This has usually happened because the bear is injured or a human encounters a mother bear with cubs. Some types of bears such as [[Polar Bear]]s, are more likely to attack humans when searching for food while [[American Bl |
count precedes the rest of the number (to the ''right'', since Hebrew is read from right to left). There are no special marks to signify that the 'count' is starting over with thousands, which theoretically can lead to ambiguity. When specifying years of the Hebrew calendar in the present millennium, writers usually omit the 'thousands' (which is presently 5 [&#1492;]). The current Israeli coinage includes the thousands.
Modern Hebrew uses the standard [[decimal]] system for most purposes. The Hebrew numeral system is nowadays used mainly for specifying the days and years of the [[Hebrew calendar]], for bulleted or numbered lists (instead of A, B, C, D ...), and in numerology ([[gematria]]).
===Example===
"(The) 4th (day of the month of) Adar, (in the year) 5764" would be written: &#1491;' &#1488;&#1491;&#1512; &#1492;' &#1514;&#1513;&#1505;"&#1491; (where 5764 = 5*1000 + 400 + 300 + 60 + 4).
===Similar systems===
The [[Abjad numerals]] are equivalent to the Hebrew numerals up to 400. The [[Greek numerals]] differ from the Hebrew ones from 90 upwards because in the [[Greek alphabet]] there is no equivalent for ''Tsadik'' (&#1510;).
==External links==
* http://www.inner.org/gematria/gemchart.htm
[[Category:Hebrew language]]
[[Category:Hebrew alphabet]]
[[Category:Numeration]]
[[he:גימטריה]]
[[de:Hebräische Zahlen]]
[[fr:Numération hébraïque]]
[[nl:Hebreeuwse cijfers]]
[[fi:Heprealaiset numerot]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Hill system</title>
<id>13703</id>
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<id>33657732</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-02T23:52:06Z</timestamp>
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<username>Itub</username>
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<comment>added example, reference, and history</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Hill system''' is a system of writing [[chemical formula]]s such that the number of [[carbon]] [[atom]]s in a [[molecule]] is indicated first, the number of [[hydrogen]] atoms next, and then the number of all other [[chemical element]]s subsequently, in [[alphabetical order]]. When the formula contains no carbon, all the elements, including hydrogen, are listed alphabetically.
By sorting formulas according to the number of atoms of each element present in the formula according to these rules, with differences in earlier numbers being treated as more significant than differences in any later number &mdash; like sorting text strings into [[lexicographic order]] &mdash; it is possible to [[collate]] chemical formulas into what is known as '''Hill system order'''.
The Hill system was first published by [[Edwin A. Hill]] of the [[United States Patent Office]] in [[1900]].
==Example==
The following formulas are written using the Hill system, and listed in Hill order:
# BrH
# BrI
# CH<sub>3</sub>I
# C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>Br
# HI
==References==
* Edwin A. Hill, "On A System Of Indexing Chemical Literature; Adopted By The Classification Division Of The U. S. Patent Office". ''J. Am. Chem. Soc.'' '''1900''', ''22(8)'', 478-494; http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ja02046a005
[[Category:Chemical nomenclature]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Hydroxy</title>
<id>13704</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-12T03:28:59Z</timestamp>
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<username>Titoxd</username>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/64.118.65.3|64.118.65.3]] ([[User talk:64.118.65.3|talk]]) to last version by Melaen</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[chemical nomenclature]], the prefix '''''hydroxy''''' indicates the presence of a [[hydroxyl group|hydroxyl]] [[functional group]] (-[[oxygen|O]][[hydrogen|H]]). Such groups are found in [[Alcohol|alcohols]], [[Phenols|phenols]], [[Carboxylic acid|carboxylic acids]], and as [[Ligand|ligands]] in inorganic compounds.
{{chem-stub}}</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Hero</title>
<id>13706</id>
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<id>42110199</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:08:54Z</timestamp>
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<username>RexNL</username>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/84.9.16.93|84.9.16.93]] ([[User talk:84.9.16.93|talk]]) to last version by 88.201.128.130</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the type of person known as a "hero". For other meanings of this term, see [[hero (disambiguation)]].}}
: ''"Heroine", the feminine form of "hero", should not be confused with [[heroin]], the drug.''
[[Image:Watts-galahad.JPG|thumb|[[Sir Galahad]], a hero of [[Arthurian legend]]]]
From the Greek cognate ''{{polytonic|ἣρως}}'', in [[mythology]] and [[folklore]], a '''hero''' (male) or '''heroine''' (female) is an eminent character [[archetype]] that quintessentially embodies key traits valued by its originating culture. The hero commonly possesses superhuman capabilities or idealized character traits which enable him or her to perform extraordinary, beneficial deeds (i.e., a &quot;heroic deed&quot;) for which he or she is famous (compare ''[[villain]]'').
==Overview==
A person normally becomes courageous by performing an extraordinary and praiseworthy deed. A hero normally fulfills the definitions of what is considered [[Goodness and value theory|good]] and noble in the originating [[culture]]. However, in [[literature]], particularly in [[tragedy]], the hero may also have [[Fatal flaw|serious flaws]] which lead to a downfall, e.g. [[Hamlet]]. Such heroes are often referred to as [[tragic heroes]].
Sometimes a person might achieve enough status to become courageous in people's minds. This is usually complemented by a rapid growth of myths around the person in question, often attributing to him or her powers beyond those of ordinary people.
Some social commentators prescribe the need for heroes in times of social upheaval or national self-doubt, seeing a requirement for virtuous [[Moral example|role models]], especially for the young. Such [[Mythology|myth]]-making may have worked better in the past: current trends may confuse heroes and their hero-worship with the cult of mere [[celebrity]].
==The Greek "hero"==
[[Homer]] applies the Greek word ''ηρως'' to all free men who were fighting in the [[Trojan War]]. Another epic poet, [[Hesiod]], uses it in the context of the [[Fourth Age of Men]]. The most common mythological meaning comes from the Greek poet [[Pindar]], who presents them as the offspring of mortals and the gods or those who had done a great service to mankind.[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?layout.refembed=2&layout.refdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0062&layout.refcit=id%3Dheros&doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0058%3Aentry%3D%2314859&layout.reflookup=h%28%2Frws&layout.reflang=greek&layout.refwordcount=1]
===Nature of hero cult===
Hero cults were one of the most distinctive features of [[ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] [[religion]]. Greek hero-cults were distinct from [[ancestor worship]]: they were usually a civic rather than familial affair, and in many cases none of the worshipers traced their descent back to the hero.
They were distinct on the other hand from the [[Roman mythology|Roman]] cult of dead emperors, because the hero was not thought of as having ascended to Olympus or become a god: he was beneath the earth, and his power purely local. For this reason hero cults were [[chthonic]] in nature, and their rituals more closely resembled those for [[Hecate]] and [[Persephone]] than those for [[Zeus]] and [[Apollo]].
The two exceptions to the above were [[Heracles]] and [[Asclepius]], who might be honored as either gods or heroes.
Heroes in cult behaved very differently from heroes in myth. They might appear indifferently as men or as snakes, and they seldom appeared unless angered. A [[Pythagoras|Pythagorean]] saying advises not to eat food that has fallen on the floor, because "it belongs to the heroes". In a fragmentary play by [[Aristophanes]], a chorus of anonymous heroes describe themselves as senders of lice, fever and boils.
===Types of hero cult===
Hero cults were offered to predominantly to men, but also to women and even children. Cult status was given to many classes of people, a few of them being the following:
* Famous men of the mythical past ([[hero]]es in the modern English sense), like [[Oedipus]] at [[Athens]] or [[Pelops]] at [[Olympia, Greece|Olympia]].
* Founders of cities, like [[Battus]] of [[Cyrene]]
Most reasons involved violent or unusual deaths, as in the following cases:
* Those killed in war. This was usually collective rather than individual, so as not to upset the delicate balance of the Greek [[polis]], as in the case of the dead from the [[Battle of Marathon]].
* Those struck by lightning, as in several attested cases in [[Magna Graecia|Southern Italy]].
* Those who disappeared into the ground, as in the cases of [[Oedipus]] and [[Amphiaraus]].
===Heroes, politics, and gods===
Hero cults could be of the utmost political importance. When [[Cleisthenes]] divided the [[History of Athens|Athenians]] into new [[deme]]s for voting, he consulted [[Delphi]] on what heroes he should name each division after. According to [[Herodotus]], the [[Sparta]]ns attributed their conquest of [[Arcadia]] to their theft of the bones of [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]] from the Arcadian town of [[Tegea]].
Heroes in myth often had close but conflicted relationships with the gods. Thus [[Heracles]]'s name means "the glory of Hera", even though he was tormented all his life by the queen of the gods. This was even truer in their cult appearances. Perhaps the most striking example is the Ath |
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<ip>210.213.187.17</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
An '''alphabet''' is a complete standardized set of ''letters'' &mdash; basic written symbols &mdash; each of which roughly represents a [[phoneme]] of a spoken [[language]], either as it exists now or as it may have been in the past. There are other [[writing system|systems of writing]] such as [[logogram]]s, in which each symbol represents a [[morpheme]], or word, and [[syllabary|syllabaries]], in which each symbol represents a syllable.
The word "alphabet" itself comes from [[alpha (letter)|alpha]] and [[beta (letter)|beta]], the first two symbols of the [[Greek alphabet]]. There are dozens of alphabets in use today. Most of them are '[[linear writing|linear]]', which means that they are made up of lines. Notable [[non-linear writing|exceptions]] are the [[Braille|Braille alphabet]], [[Morse code]] and the [[cuneiform script|cuneiform]] alphabet of the ancient city of [[Ugarit]].
{{alphabet}}
==Types==
The term "alphabet" is currently used by linguists both in a wider and in a narrower sense. In the wider sense, the term refers to any script that is segmental on the [[phoneme]] level, i.e. that has separate glyphs for individual sounds and not for larger units such as syllables or words. In the narrower sense, some scholars distinguish true "alphabets" from two other subtypes, [[abjad]]s and [[abugida]]s. The three types differ from each other in the way vowels are treated in relation to consonants. Abjads record only consonants and leave vowels (or most vowels) unexpressed; in Abugidas the vowels are indicated by diacritical marks or systematic modification of the form of the consonants. In alphabets in the narrow sense, both consonants and vowels have separate symbols. The first alphabet in the wider sense was the [[Proto-Canaanite alphabet]], an [[abjad]], which through its successor [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]] became the ancestor of all later alphabets. The first alphabet in the narrow sense was the [[Greek alphabet]].
Examples of present-day abjads are the [[Arabic script|Arabic]] and [[Hebrew script]]s; true alphabets include [[Latin alphabet|Latin]], [[Cyrillic]], and Korean [[Hangul]]; and abugidas are used to write [[Amharic language|Amharic]], [[Hindi language|Hindi]], and [[Thai language|Thai]]. The [[Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics]] are also an abugida rather than a syllabary, as a glyph stands for a consonant and is rotated to represent the vowel, rather than each consonant-vowel combination being represented by a separate glyph, as in a true syllabary.
The boundaries between these three types are not always clear-cut. For example, Iraqi [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] is written in the [[Arabic script]], which is normally an abjad. However, in Kurdish, writing the vowels is mandatory, and full letters are used, so the script is a true alphabet. Other languages may use a Semitic abjad with mandatory vowel diacritics, effectively making them abugidas. On the other hand, the [[Phagspa]] script of the [[Mongol Empire]] was based closely on the [[Tibetan script|Tibetan abugida]], but all vowel marks were written after the preceding consonant rather than as diacritic marks. Although short ''a'' was not written, as in the abugidas, one could argue that the linear arrangement made this a true alphabet. Conversely, the vowel marks of the [[Amharic_language#Amharic_Abugida_Symbols_.28.22Fidel.22_.E1.8D.8A.E1.8B.B0.E1.88.8D.29|Amharic abugida]] have been so completely assimilated into their consonants that the system is learned as a [[syllabary]] rather than as a segmental script. Even more extreme, the Pahlavi abjad became [[logogram|logographic]]. (See below.)
Thus the primary classification of alphabets reflects how they treat vowels. For [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal languages]], further classification can be based on the treatment of tone, though there are as yet no names to distinguish the various types. Some alphabets disregard tone entirely, especially when it does not carry a heavy functional load, as in [[Somali language|Somali]] and many other languages of Africa and the Americas. Such scripts are to tone what abjads are to vowels. Most commonly, tones are indicated with diacritics, the way vowels are treated in abugidas. This is the case for [[Vietnamese alphabet|Vietnamese]] (a true alphabet) and [[Thai alphabet|Thai]] (an abugida). In Thai, tone is determined primarily by the choice of consonant, with diacritics for disambiguation. In the [[Pollard script]] (an abugida), vowels are indicated by diacritics, but the placement of the vowel relative to the consonant indicates the tone. More rarely, a script has separate letters for the tones, as is the case for [[Hmong pronunciation|Hmong]] and [[Zhuang language|Zhuang]]. For many of these languages, regardless of whether letters or diacritics are used, the most common tone is not marked, just as the most common vowel is not marked in Indic abugidas.
Alphabets can be quite small. The Book [[Pahlavi]] script, an abjad, had only twelve letters at one point, and may have had even fewer later on. Today the [[Rotokas alphabet]] has only twelve letters. (The [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] alphabet is sometimes claimed to be as small, but it actually consists of 18 letters, including the [[Okina|ʻokina]] and five long vowels.) While Rotokas has a small alphabet because it has few phonemes to represent (just eleven), Book Pahlavi was small because many letters had been ''conflated'', that is, the graphic distinctions had been lost over time, and diacritics were not developed to compensate for this as they were in [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]], another script that lost many of its distinct letter shapes. For example, a comma-shaped letter represented ''g, d, y, k,'' and ''j''. However, such simplifications can perversely make a script more complicated. In later Pahlavi [[papyrus|papyri]], up to half of the remaining graphic distinctions were lost, and the script could no longer be read as a sequence of letters at all, but had to be learned as word symbols &ndash; that is, as [[logogram]]s like Egyptian [[Demotic Egyptian|Demotic]].
The largest segmental script is probably an abugida, [[Devanagari]]. When written in Devanagari, Vedic [[Sanskrit]] has an alphabet of 53 letters, including the ''visarga'' mark for final aspiration and special letters for ''kš'' and ''jñ'', though one of the letters is theoretical and not actually used. The Hindi alphabet must represent both Sanskrit and modern vocabulary, and so has been expanded to 58 with the ''khutma'' letters (letters with a dot added to represent sounds from Persian and English).
The largest known abjad is [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], with 51 letters. The largest true alphabets include [[Kabardian language|Kabardian]] and [[Abkhaz language|Abxaz]] (for [[Cyrillic]]), with 58 and 56 letters, respectively, and [[Slovak language|Slovak]] (for the [[Latin alphabet]]), with 46. However, these scripts either include di- and tri-graphs, similar to Spanish ''ch'', or [[diacritic]]s, like Slovak ''č''. The largest true alphabet where each letter is graphically independent is probably [[Georgian alphabet|Georgian]], with 41 letters.
Syllabaries typically include 50 to 400 glyphs (though the [[Múra-Pirahã language]] of [[Brazil]] would require only 24 if tone were not indicated, and Rotokas 30), and the glyphs of logographic systems number from the hundreds to the thousands. Thus a simple count of the number of distinct symbols is an important clue to the nature of an unknown script.
It is not always clear what constitutes a distinct alphabet. [[French language|French]] uses the same basic alphabet as English, but many of the letters can carry [[diacritic]] and other marks (for example, é, à or ô). In French, these marks are not considered to create additional letters. However, in [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], the accented letters (such as á, í and ö) are considered distinct letters of the alphabet. Some adaptations of the Latin alphabet are augmented with [[ligature (typography)|ligatures]], such as [[æ]] in [[Old English language|Old English]] and [[Ou (letter)|&#546;]] in [[Algonquian language|Algonquian]]; by borrowings from other alphabets, such as the [[thorn (letter)|thorn]] þ in [[Old English language|Old English]] and [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], which came from the [[Futhark]] runes; and by modifying existing letters, such as the [[Eth (letter)|eth]] ð of Old English and Icelandic, which came from ''d''. Other alphabets only use a subset of the Latin alphabet, such as Hawaiian, or [[Italian language|Italian]], which only uses the letters ''j'', ''k'', ''x'', ''y'' and ''w'' for foreign words.
==Spelling==
{{details|Spelling}}
Each language may establish certain general rules that govern the association between letters and phonemes, but, depending on the language, these rules may or may not be consistently followed. In a perfectly [[phonology| phonological]] alphabet, the phonemes and letters would correspond perfectly in two directions: a writer could predict the spelling of a word given its pronunciation, and a speaker could predict the pronunciation of a word given its spelling. However, languages often evolve independently of their writing systems, and writing systems have been borrowed for languages they were not designed for, so the degree to which letters of an alphabet correspond to phonemes of a language varies greatly from one language to another and even within a single language.
Languages may fail to achieve a one-to-one correspondence between letters and sounds in any of several ways:
* A language may represent a given phoneme with a combination of letters rather than just a single letter. Two-letter combinations are called [[digrap |
ame>Shadow1</username>
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<comment>Fixed link to disambiguation page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In the [[theory of computation]], the '''Ackermann function''' or '''Ackermann-Péter function''' is a simple example of a [[recursive function]] that is not [[Primitive recursive function|primitively recursive]]. It takes two [[natural number]]s as arguments and yields another natural number. Its value grows extremely quickly; even for small inputs, for example (''4,3''), the values of the Ackermann function become so large that they cannot be feasibly computed, and in fact their decimal expansions require more digits than there are [[Elementary_particle|particle]]s in the entire physical universe.
==History==
In the late 1920s, the mathematicians [[Gabriel Sudan]] and [[Wilhelm Ackermann]], students of [[David Hilbert]], were studying the foundations of computation. Sudan is credited with inventing the lesser-known [[Sudan function]], the first published function that is recursive but not primitive-recursive. Shortly afterwards and independently, in 1928, Ackermann published his own recursive but non-primitive recursive function.[http://groups.google.com/group/soc.culture.romanian/tree/browse_frm/thread/7f684f8bd7f3edb1/]
Ackermann originally considered a function ''A''(''m'',&nbsp;''n'',&nbsp;''p'') of three variables, the ''p''-fold iterated exponentiation of ''m'' with ''n'', or ''m''&nbsp;→&nbsp;''n''&nbsp;→&nbsp;''p'' as expressed using the [[Conway chained arrow]]. When ''p''&nbsp;=&nbsp;1, this is ''m''<sup>''n''</sup>, which is ''m'' multiplied by itself ''n'' times. When ''p''&nbsp;=&nbsp;2, it is a tower of exponents <math>{{m^m}^{{\cdot}^{{\cdot}^{{\cdot}^m}}}}</math> with ''n'' levels, or ''m'' raised ''n'' times to the power ''m'' also written as <sup>''n''</sup>''m'', the [[tetration]] of ''m'' with ''n''. We can continue to generalize this indefinitely as ''p'' becomes larger.
Ackermann proved that ''A'' is a recursive function, a function a computer with unbounded memory can calculate, but it is not a [[primitive recursive function]], a class of functions including almost all familiar functions such as addition and [[factorial]].
In [[#vonHeijenoort|''On the Infinite'']], [[David Hilbert]] hypothesized that the Ackermann function was not primitively recursive, but it was Ackermann, a former student and Hilbert’s personal secretary, who actually proved the hypothesis in his paper [[#vonHeijenoort|''On Hilbert’s Construction of the Real Numbers'']]. ''On the Infinite'' was Hilbert’s most important paper on the foundations of mathematics, serving as the heart of [[#Hilbert|Hilbert's program]] to secure the foundation of transfinite numbers by basing them on finite methods. The paper also outlines a proof of the [[continuum hypothesis]] and is central in influencing [[Kurt Gödel]] to study the [[#vonHeijenoort|completeness and consistency of mathematics]] leading to [[Gödel's incompleteness theorem]].
A similar function of only two variables was later defined by [[Rozsa Peter]] and [[Raphael Robinson]]; its definition is given below. The numbers, except in the first few rows, are three less than powers of two. For the exact relation between the two functions, see below.
==Definition and properties==
The Ackermann function is defined [[recursion|recursively]] for non-negative integers ''m'' and ''n'' as follows:
: <math> A(m, n) =
\begin{cases}
n+1 & \mbox{if } m = 0 \\
A(m-1, 1) & \mbox{if } m > 0 \mbox{ and } n = 0 \\
A(m-1, A(m, n-1)) & \mbox{if } m > 0 \mbox{ and } n > 0.
\end{cases}
</math>
The Ackermann function can be calculated by a simple function based directly on the definition:
'''function''' ack(m, n)
'''if''' m = 0
'''return''' n+1
'''else if''' n = 0
'''return''' ack(m-1, 1)
'''else'''
'''return''' ack(m-1, ack(m, n-1))
[[Haskell programming language|Haskell]] yields a more concise definition:
ack 0 n = n + 1
ack m 0 = ack (m - 1) 1
ack m n = ack (m - 1) (ack m (n - 1))
It may be surprising that these functions always return a value. This is because at each step either ''n'' decreases, or ''n'' increases and ''m'' decreases. Each time that ''n'' reaches zero, ''m'' must decrease, so ''m'' must eventually reach zero as well. However, when ''m'' decreases there is no upper bound on how much ''n'' can increase — and it will often increase greatly.
The Ackermann function can also be expressed nonrecursively using [[Conway chained arrow]]:
:''A''(''m'', ''n'') = (2 → (''n''+3) → ''(m'' &minus; 2)) &minus; 3 for ''m''&nbsp;>&nbsp;2
hence
:2 → ''n'' → ''m'' = ''A''(''m''+2,''n''-3) + 3 for ''n''>2
(''n''=1 and ''n''=2 would correspond with ''A''(''m'',&minus;2)&nbsp;=&nbsp;&minus;1 and ''A''(''m'',&minus;1)&nbsp;=&nbsp;1, which could logically be added).
or the [[hyper operator]]s:
:''A''(''m'', ''n'') = hyper(2, m, n + 3) &minus; 3.
For small values of ''m'' like 1, 2, or 3, the Ackermann function grows relatively slowly with respect to ''n'' (at most [[exponential growth|exponentially]]). For ''m'' &ge; 4, however, it grows much more quickly; even ''A''(4,&nbsp;2) is about 2&times;10<sup>19728</sup>, and the decimal expansion of ''A''(4,&nbsp;3) cannot be recorded in the physical universe. If we define the function ''f''&nbsp;(''n'')&nbsp;=&nbsp;''A''(''n'',&nbsp;''n''), which increases both ''m'' and ''n'' at the same time, we have a function of one variable that dwarfs every [[primitive recursive function]], including very fast-growing functions such as the [[exponential function]], the [[factorial]] function, multi- and superfactorial functions, and even functions defined using [[Knuth's up-arrow notation]] (except when the indexed up-arrow is used).
This extreme growth can be exploited to show that ''f'', which is obviously computable on a machine with infinite memory such as a [[Turing machine]] and so is a [[recursive function]], grows faster than any [[primitive recursive function]] and is therefore not primitive recursive. In combination with the Ackermann function's applications in analysis of algorithms, discussed later, this debunks the theory that all useful or simple functions are primitive recursive functions. (But that is not the end of this line of thought: The [[Busy beaver]] functions grow faster than any recursive function, and indeed it can be shown that if they could be evaluated in general, we could solve the [[halting problem]] so such evaluation is impossible.)
One surprising aspect of the Ackermann function is that the only arithmetic operations it ever uses are addition and subtraction of 1. Its properties come solely from the power of unlimited [[recursion]]. This also implies that its running time is at least proportional to its output, and so is also extremely huge. In actuality, for most cases the running time is far larger than the output; see below.
==Table of values==
Computing the Ackermann function can be restated in terms of an infinite table. We place the natural numbers along the top row. To determine a number in the table, take the number immediately to the left, then look up the required number in the previous row, at the position given by the number just taken. If there is no number to its left, simply look at column 1 in the previous row. Here is a small upper-left portion of the table:
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"
|+ Values of ''A''(''m'',&nbsp;''n'')
|-
! ''m''\''n''
! 0
! 1
! 2
! 3
! 4
! n
|-
! 0
| 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || <math>n + 1</math>
|-
! 1
| 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || <math>2+(n+3)-3</math>
|-
! 2
| 3 || 5 || 7 || 9 || 11 || <math>2\cdot(n + 3)-3</math>
|-
! 3
| 5 || 13 || 29 || 61 || 125 || <math>2^{(n+3)} - 3</math>
|-
! 4
| 13 || 65533
| 2<sup>65536</sup>&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;3
| ''A''(3,&nbsp;2<sup>65536</sup>&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;3)
| ''A''(3,&nbsp;''A''(4,&nbsp;3))
| <math>\begin{matrix}\underbrace{{2^2}^{{\cdot}^{{\cdot}^{{\cdot}^2}}}} - 3 \\n\mbox{ + 3 twos}\end{matrix}</math>
|-
! 5
| 65533 || ''A''(4,&nbsp;65533) || ''A''(4,&nbsp;''A''(5,&nbsp;1))
| ''A''(4,&nbsp;''A''(5,&nbsp;2)) || ''A''(4,&nbsp;''A''(5,&nbsp;3))
|-
! 6
| ''A''(5,&nbsp;1) || ''A''(5,&nbsp;''A''(5,&nbsp;1))
| ''A''(5,&nbsp;A(6,&nbsp;1))
| ''A''(5,&nbsp;''A''(6,&nbsp;2)) || ''A''(5,&nbsp;''A''(6,&nbsp;3))
|}
''A''(4,&nbsp;2) is greater than the number of particles in the universe raised to the power 200. ''A''(5,&nbsp;2) is the item at column ''A''(5,&nbsp;1) in the ''m''&nbsp;=&nbsp;4 row, and cannot be written as a decimal expansion in the physical universe. Beyond row 4 and column 1, the values can no longer be feasibly written with any standard notation other than the Ackermann function itself — writing them as decimal expansions, or even as references to rows with lower ''m'', is not possible.
If you were able to expand every particle in the universe to a universe the size of ours by snapping your fingers, and likewise with all the particles in the created universes, and did this repeatedly, you would die of old age before the number of particles reached A(4,&nbsp;3). A(5,&nbsp;1) is larger than even this number.
Despite the inconceivably large values occurring in this early section of the table, some even larger numbers have been defined, such as [[Graham's number]], which cannot be written with any small (or, indeed, recordable) number of [[Knuth's up-arrow notation|Knuth arrow]]s. This number is constructed with a technique similar to applying the Ackerman |
The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] passes the [[Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act]].
*[[1913]] - The [[Brooklyn Dodgers]]' [[Ebbets Field]] opens.
*[[1916]] - [[World War I]]: [[Battle of Verdun]] - [[Germany|German]] forces launch their third offensive of the [[battle]].
*[[1917]] - World War I: [[Battle of Arras (1917)|Battle of Arras]] - The [[battle]] begins with [[Canada|Canadian]] forces executing a massive assault on the [[Vimy Ridge]].
*[[1939]] - [[Marian Anderson]] sings at the [[Lincoln Memorial]], after having been refused the right to sing at the [[Daughters of the American Revolution]]'s [[Constitution Hall]].
*[[1940]] - [[World War II]]: [[Germany]] invades [[Denmark]] and [[Norway]].
*[[1942]] - [[World War II|Second World War]]: [[Battle of Bataan]]/[[Bataan Death March]] - [[United States]] forces surrender on the [[Bataan Peninsula]]. [[Japanese Navy]] launches air raid on [[Trincomalee]] in [[Ceylon]] ([[Sri Lanka]]); [[Royal Navy]] [[aircraft carrier]] [[HMS Hermes]] and [[Royal Australian Navy]] [[Destroyer]] [[HMAS Vampire]] are sunk off the country's East Coast.
*[[1945]] - The [[German pocket battleship Admiral Scheer]] is sunk.
*[[1947]] - The [[Glazier-Higgins-Woodward Tornadoes]] kill 181 and injure 970 in [[Texas]], [[Oklahoma]], and [[Kansas]].
*1947 - The [[Journey of Reconciliation]], the first interracial [[Freedom Ride]] of 16 black and white men traveling through the upper [[Southern United States|South]] in violation of [[Jim Crow]] laws begins. The riders, sponsored by [[CORE]] and the [[Fellowship of Reconciliation]], are seeking to force southern states to enforce the [[United States Supreme Court]]'s [[1946]] [[Irene Morgan]] decision that banned [[racial segregation]] in interstate travel.
*[[1948]] - [[Jorge Eliécer Gaitán]]'s assassination provokes a violent riot in [[Bogotá]] (the ''Bogotazo''), and a further ten years of violence in all of [[Colombia]] (''La violencia'').
*1948 - Massacre at [[Deir Yassin]].
*[[1949]] - The [[Gurkha Contingent]] of the [[Singapore Police Force]] is formed.
*[[1953]] - [[Warner Brothers]] premieres the first [[3-D film]], entitled ''[[House of Wax (1953 movie)|House of Wax]]''
*[[1959]] - [[Mercury program]]: [[NASA]] announces the selection of the [[United States]]' first seven [[astronaut]]s which the news media quickly dub the "Mercury Seven".
*[[1967]] - The first [[Boeing 737]] (a 100 series) takes its maiden flight.
*[[1969]] - The "[[Chicago Eight]]" plead not guilty on federal charges of conspiracy to incite a riot at the [[1968 Democratic National Convention]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]].
*[[1986]] - The [[government of France]] rules against the privatization of [[France|French]] automaker [[Renault]].
*[[1987]] - [[Dikye Baggett]] becomes the first person to undergo corrective surgery for [[Parkinson's disease]].
*[[1991]] - [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] declares its independence from the [[Soviet Union]].
*[[1992]] - [[Manuel Noriega]] is convicted of eight crimes.
*1992 - [[John Major]]'s [[Conservative Party]] wins an unprecedented fourth general election victory in the [[United Kingdom]].
*[[1998]] - The [[National Prisoner of War Museum]] is dedicated in [[Andersonville, Georgia]], on the site of an [[American Civil War]] POW camp.
*[[1999]] - [[Ismail Omar Guelleh]] is elected president of [[Djibouti]].
*1999 - [[Niger | Nigerian]] President [[Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara]] is assassinated.
*[[2002]] - The funeral of [[Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon | HM Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother]] of the [[United Kingdom]] is held at [[Westminster Abbey]].
*[[2003]] - [[2003 invasion of Iraq]]: The Ba'ath regime headed by [[Saddam Hussein]] in [[Iraq]] is deposed.
*[[2005]] - [[HRH]] [[Charles, Prince of Wales]] [[Wedding of Charles, Prince of Wales and Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall | weds]] [[Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall | Camilla Parker Bowles]]
==Births==
*[[1336]] - [[Tamerlane]], Turkish conqueror (d. [[1405]])
*[[1498]] - [[John, Cardinal of Lorraine]], French churchman (d. [[1550]])
*[[1597]] - [[John Davenport (clergyman)|John Davenport]], Connecticut pioneer (d. [[1670]])
*[[1648]] - [[Henri de Massue, Marquis de Ruvigny, 1st Viscount Galway]], French soldier and diplomat (d. [[1720]])
*[[1649]] - [[James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth]], illegitimate son of [[Charles II of Great Britain] (d. [[1685]])
*[[1680]] - [[Philippe Néricault Destouches]], French dramatist (d. [[1754]])
*[[1686]] - [[James Craggs the Younger]], British politician (d. [[1721]])
*[[1691]] - [[Johann Matthias Gesner]], German classical scholar (d. [[1761]])
*[[1757]] - [[Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth]], British admiral (d. [[1833]])
*[[1770]] - [[Thomas Johann Seebeck]], German physicist (d. [[1831]])
*[[1773]] - [[Étienne Aignan]], French writer (d. [[1824]])
*[[1794]] - [[Theobald Boehm]], German inventor of the modern flute (d. [[1881]])
*[[1806]] - [[Isambard Kingdom Brunel]], British engineer (d. [[1859]])
*[[1821]] - [[Charles Baudelaire]], French poet (d. [[1867]])
*[[1830]] - [[Eadweard Muybridge]], English-born photographer and motion picture pioneer (d. [[1904]])
*[[1835]] - King [[Léopold II of Belgium]] (d. [[1909]])
*[[1865]] - [[Erich Ludendorff]], German general in World War I (d. [[1937]])
*[[1867]] - [[Chris Watson]], third [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (d. [[1941]])
*[[1872]] - [[Léon Blum]], French prime minister (d. [[1950]])
*[[1888]] - [[Sol Hurok]], Russian-born impresario (d. [[1974]])
*[[1889]] - [[Efrem Zimbalist]], Russian violinist (d. [[1985]])
*[[1897]] - [[John B. Gambling]], American radio talk-show host (d. [[1974]])
*[[1898]] - [[Curly Lambeau]], American football coach, executive (d. [[1965]])
*1898 - [[Paul Robeson]], American singer and activist (d. [[1976]])
*[[1903]] - [[Ward Bond]], American actor (d. [[1960]])
*[[1904]] - [[Sharkey Bonano]], American musician (d. [[1972]])
*[[1905]] - [[J. William Fulbright]], U.S. Senator from Arkansas (d. [[1995]])
*[[1906]] - [[Antal Dorati]], Hungarian conductor (d. [[1988]])
*[[1908]] - [[Victor Vasarely]], Hungarian-born painter (d. [[1997]])
*[[1910]] - [[Abraham Ribicoff]], American politician (d. [[1998]])
*[[1912]] - [[Lew Kopelew]], Russian author (d. [[1997]])
*[[1917]] - [[Johannes Bobrowski]], German lyricist, narrative writer, adaptor and essayist (d. [[1965]])
*1917 - [[Brad Dexter]], American actor (d. [[2002]])
*[[1918]] - [[Jørn Utzon]], Danish architect
*[[1919]] - [[J. Presper Eckert]], American computer pioneer
*[[1926]] - [[Hugh Hefner]], American editor and publisher
*[[1928]] - [[Tom Lehrer]], American musician and mathematician
*[[1932]] - [[Jim Fowler]], American zoologist
*1932 - [[Carl Perkins]], American musician (d. [[1998]])
*[[1933]] - [[Jean-Paul Belmondo]], French actor
*[[1934]] - [[Bill Birch]], New Zealand politician
*[[1935]] - [[Avery Schreiber]], American actor (d. [[2002]])
*[[1937]] - [[Marty Krofft]], children's television producer
*[[1938]] - [[Viktor Chernomyrdin]], Russian politician
*[[1939]] - [[Michael Learned]], American actress
*[[1942]] - [[Brandon De Wilde]], American actor (d. [[1972]])
*[[1945]] - [[Peter Gammons]], baseball journalist
*[[1954]] - [[Dennis Quaid]], American actor
*1954 - [[Iain Duncan Smith]], British politician
*[[1957]] - [[Severiano Ballesteros|Seve Ballesteros]], Spanish golfer
*[[1962]] - [[Imran Sherwani]], British field hockey player
*[[1964]] - [[Rick Tocchet]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1965]] - [[Jeff Zucker]], American television executive
*[[1966]] - [[Cynthia Nixon]], American actress
*[[1967]] - [[Rajendra Yadav]], Indian doctor
*[[1971]] - [[Jacques Villeneuve]], Canadian race car driver
*[[1974]] - [[Jenna Jameson]], American adult entertainer
*[[1975]] - [[Robbie Fowler]], English footballer
*[[1977]] - [[Gerard Way]], American singer ([[My Chemical Romance]])
*[[1978]] - [[Jorge Andrade]], Portuguese footballer
*1978 - [[Rachel Stevens]], English singer
*1978 - [[Vesna Pisarović]], Croatian singer
*[[1979]] - [[Keshia Knight Pulliam]], American actress
*[[1981]] - [[Milan Bartovic|Milan Bartovič]], Slovak ice hockey player
*[[1987]] - [[Jesse McCartney]], American singer/actor
*[[1990]] - [[Kristen Stewart]], American actress
*[[1998]] - [[Elle Fanning]], American child actress
==Deaths==
*[[491]] - [[Zeno of the Byzantine Empire|Zeno]], [[Byzantine Emperor]]
*[[715]] - [[ Pope Constantine]]
*[[1024]] - [[Pope Benedict VIII]]
*[[1137]] - [[William X of Aquitaine|William X, Duke of Aquitaine]] (b. [[1099]])
*[[1483]] - King [[Edward IV of England]] (b. [[1442]])
*[[1484]] - [[Edward of Middleham]], [[Prince of Wales]] (b. [[1473]])
*[[1553]] - [[François Rabelais]], French writer
*[[1557]] - [[Mikael Agricola]], Finnish scholar (b. [[1510]])
*[[1626]] - Sir [[Francis Bacon]], English philosopher, statesman, and essayist (b. [[1561]])
*[[1693]] - [[Roger de Rabutin, Comte de Bussy]], French writer (b. [[1618]])
*[[1739]] - [[Nicolas Saunderson]], English scientist and mathematician (b. [[1682]])
*[[1747]] - [[Simon Fraser, 11th Lord Lovat]], Scottish clan chief
*[[1754]] - [[Christian Wolff (philosopher)|Christian Wolff]], German philosopher (b. [[1679]])
*[[1761]] - [[William Law]], British minister (b. [[1686]])
*[[1804]] - [[Jacques Necker]], French statesman (b. [[1732]])
*[[1806]] - [[William V of Orange]], [[Stadtholder]] of the Dutch Republic
*[[1889]] - [[Michel Eugène Chevreul]], French chemist (b. [[1786]])
*[[1917]] - [[James Hope Moulton]], British scholar of Classical Greek (b. [[1863]])
*[[1936]] - [[Ferdinand Tönnies]], German sociologist (b. 1855)
*[[1940]] - [[Mrs. Patrick Campbell]], British actress (b. [[1865]])
*[[1944]] - [[Evgeniya Rudneva]], Russian World War II heroine (executed) (b. [[1920]])
*[[1945]] - [[Wilhelm Canaris]], German Nazi leader (b. [[1887]])
*1945 - [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]], German theologian (executed) (b. [[1906]])
*[[1948]] - [[Jorge Eliécer Gaitán]], Colombian politician (b. [[1903]]).
*[[1951]] - [[V |
sition state, reducing the energy of the transition state and thus the energy required to get over this barrier.]]
As with all catalysts, all reactions catalyzed by enzymes must be "spontaneous" (containing a net negative [[Gibbs free energy]]). With the enzyme, they run in the same direction as they would without the enzyme, just more quickly. However, the uncatalyzed, "spontaneous" reaction might lead to different products than the catalyzed reaction. Furthermore, enzymes can couple two or more reactions, so that a thermodynamically favorable reaction can be used to "drive" a thermodynamically unfavorable one. For example, the cleavage of the high-energy compound [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] is often used to drive other, energetically unfavorable chemical reactions.
Enzymes catalyze the forward and backward reactions equally. They do not alter the equilibrium itself, but only the speed at which it is reached. [[Carbonic anhydrase]] catalyzes its reaction in either direction depending on the conditions.
: <math>\mathrm{CO_2 + H_2O
{}^\mathrm{\quad Carbonic\ anhydrase}
\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!
\overrightarrow{\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad}
H_2CO_3}</math> (in [[Biological tissue|tissue]]s - high CO<sub>2</sub> concentration)
: <math>\mathrm{H_2CO_3
{}^\mathrm{\quad Carbonic\ anhydrase}
\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!
\overrightarrow{\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad}
CO_2 + H_2O}</math> (in [[lung]]s - low CO<sub>2</sub> concentration)
== Kinetics ==
In 1913, [[Leonor Michaelis]] and [[Maud Menten]] proposed a quantitative theory of [[enzyme kinetics]], which is referred to as [[Michaelis-Menten kinetics]]. Their work was further developed by G. E. Briggs and [[J. B. S. Haldane]], who derived numerous kinetic equations that are still widely used today.
Enzymes can perform up to several million catalytic reactions per second; to determine the maximum speed of an enzymatic reaction, the substrate concentration is increased until a constant rate of product formation is achieved. This is the maximum velocity (''V''<sub>max</sub>) of the enzyme. In this state, all enzyme active sites are saturated with substrate. However, ''V''<sub>max</sub> is only one kinetic parameter that biochemists are interested in. The amount of substrate needed to achieve a given rate of reaction is also of interest. This can be expressed by the [[Michaelis-Menten constant]] (''K''<sub>m</sub>), which is the substrate concentration required for an enzyme to reach one half its maximum velocity. Each enzyme has a characteristic ''K''<sub>m</sub> for a given substrate.
The efficiency of an enzyme can be expressed in terms of ''k''<sub>cat</sub>/''K''<sub>m</sub>. The quantity ''k''<sub>cat</sub>, also called the turnover number, incorporates the rate constants for all steps in the reaction, and is the quotient of ''V''<sub>max</sub> and the total enzyme concentration. ''k''<sub>cat</sub>/''K''<sub>m</sub> is a useful quantity for comparing different enzymes against each other, or the same enzyme with different substrates, because it takes both affinity and catalytic ability into consideration. The theoretical maximum for ''k''<sub>cat</sub>/''K''<sub>m</sub>, called diffusion limit, is about 10<sup>8</sup> to 10<sup>9</sup> (M<sup>-1</sup> s<sup>-1</sup>). At this point, every collision of the enzyme with its substrate will result in catalysis and the rate of product formation is not limited by the reaction rate but by the diffusion rate. Enzymes that reach this ''k''<sub>cat</sub>/''K''<sub>m</sub> value are called ''catalytically perfect'' or ''kinetically perfect''. Example of such enzymes are [[triosephosphateisomerase|triose-phosphate isomerase]], [[carbonic anhydrase]], [[acetylcholinesterase]], [[catalase]], fumarase, ß-lactamase, and [[superoxide dismutase]].
The [[Quantum mechanics|quantum-mechanical]] (physical) model of enzyme catalysis explains how certain enzymes work faster than previously thought possible. This is achieved by a process known as [[Quantum tunneling|tunneling]], which allows electron and proton transfers to "tunnel" through activation barriers rather go over them.
==Inhibition==
[[image:comp_inhib.png|thumb|400px|A competitive inhibitor binds reversibly to the enzyme, preventing the binding of substrate. On the other hand, binding of substrate prevents binding of the inhibitor, thus substrate and inhibitor compete for the enzyme.]]
[[image:comp_inhib3.png|thumb|400px|Diagram showing the mechanism of non-competitive inhibition.]]
Enzymes reaction rates can be decreased by competitive, non-competitive, partially competitive, uncompetitive inhibition, and mixed inhibition.
===Competitive inhibition===
In competitive inhibition, the inhibitor binds to the substrate binding site as shown (''right'' part b), thus preventing substrate binding. [[Malonate]] is a competitive inhibitor of the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase, which catalyzes the oxidation of [[succinate]] to [[fumarate]].
Competitive inhibition causes the ''K''<sub>m</sub> value to increase, but does not effect ''V''<sub>max</sub>.
===Non-competitive inhibition===
Non-competitive inhibitors never bind to the active center, but to other parts of the enzyme that can be far away from the substrate binding site, consequently, there is no competition between the substrate and inhibitor for the enzyme. The extent of inhibition depends entirely on the inhibitor concentration and will not be affected by the substrate concentration. For example, [[cyanide]] combines with the [[copper]] prosthetic groups of the enzyme [[cytochrome c oxidase]], thus inhibiting [[cellular respiration]]. This type of inhibition is typically irreversible, meaning that the enzyme will no longer function.
By changing the [[Chemical conformation|conformation]] (the three-dimensional structure) of the enzyme, the inhibitors either disable the ability of the enzyme to bind or turn over its substrate. The enzyme-inhibitor (EI) and enzyme-inhibitor-substrate (EIS) complex have no catalytic activity.
Non-Competitive inhibition causes a decrease in ''V''<sub>max</sub>, but does not change the ''K''<sub>m</sub> value.
===Partially competitive inhibition===
The mechanism of partially competitive inhibition is similar to that of non-competitive, except that the EIS-complex has catalytic activity, which may be lower or even higher (partially competitive activation) than that of the enzyme-substrate (ES) complex.
This inhibition typically displays a lower ''V''<sub>max</sub>, but an unaffected ''K''<sub>m</sub> value.
===Uncompetitive inhibition===
Uncompetitive inhibition occurs when the inhibitor binds only to the enzyme-substrate complex, not to the free enzyme, the EIS complex is catalytically inactive. This mode of inhibition is rare and causes a decrease in both ''V''<sub>max</sub> and the ''K''<sub>m</sub> value.
===Mixed inhibition===
Mixed inhibitors can bind to both the enzyme and the ES complex. It has the properties of both competitive and uncompetitive inhibition.
Both a decrease in ''V''<sub>max</sub> and an increase in the ''K''<sub>m</sub> value are seen in mixed inhibition.
== Metabolic pathways and allosteric enzymes ==
Several enzymes can work together in a specific order, creating [[metabolic pathway]]s. In a metabolic pathway, one enzyme takes the product of another enzyme as a substrate. After the catalytic reaction, the product is then passed on to another enzyme. The end product(s) of such a pathway are often [[inhibitors]] for one of the first enzymes of the pathway (usually the first irreversible step, called ''committed step''), thus regulating the amount of end product made by the pathways. Such a regulatory mechanism is called a [[negative feedback|negative feedback mechanism]], because the amount of the end product produced is regulated by its own concentration. Negative feedback mechanism can effectively adjust the rate of synthesis of intermediate metabolites according to the demands of the cells. This helps with effective allocations of materials and energy economy, and it prevents the excess manufacture of end products. Like other [[homeostasis|homeostatic devices]], the control of enzymatic action helps to maintain a stable internal environment in living organisms.
== Enzyme-naming conventions ==
By common convention, an enzyme's name consists of a description of what it does, with the word ending in ''-ase''. Examples are [[alcohol dehydrogenase]] and [[DNA polymerase]]. [[Kinase]]s are enzymes that transfer [[phosphate]] groups. This results in different enzymes with the same function having the same basic name; they are therefore distinguished by other characteristics, such as their optimal [[pH]] ([[alkaline phosphatase]]) or their location (membrane [[ATPase]]). Furthermore, the reversibility of chemical reactions means that the normal physiological direction of an enzyme's function may not be that observed under laboratory conditions. This can result in the same enzyme being identified with two different names: one stemming from the formal laboratory identification as described above, the other representing its behavior in the cell. For instance the enzyme formally known as ''xylitol:NAD+ 2-oxidoreductase (D-xylulose-forming)'' is more commonly referred to in the cellular physiological sense as ''D-xylulose reductase'', reflecting the fact that the function of the enzyme in the cell is actually th |
[http://www.csa.com/hottopics/gmfood/overview.php]. Some see the science itself as intolerable meddling with "natural" order, despite known examples of natural genetic crossings occurring throughout history. While some would like to see it banned, others push simply for required labeling of [[genetically modified food]]. Other controversies include the definition of patent and property pertaining to products of genetic engineering and the possibility of unforeseen global side effects as a result of modified organisms proliferating. The basic ethical issues involved in genetic research are discussed in the article on [[genetic engineering]].
In 2004, [[Mendocino County, California]] became the first county in the [[United States]] to ban the production of GMOs. The measure passed with a 57% majority. In 2005, a [[standing committee]] of the government of [[Prince Edward Island]] in [[Canada]] began work to assess a proposal to ban the production of GMOs in the province. This is a largely symbolic and empty gesture as PEI has already banned GMO potatoes, which account for most of its crop. The Californian counties of Trinity and Marin counties have also imposed bans on GM crops, while ordinances to do so were unsuccessful in Butte, San Luis Obispo, Humboldt and Sonoma counties. Supervisors in the ag-rich counties of Fresno, Kern, Kings, Solano, Sutter and Tulare have passed resolutions supporting the practice [http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2005/June/15/local/stories/07local.htm].
Currently, there is little international consensus regarding the acceptability and effective role of modified "complete" organisms such as plants or animals. A great deal of the modern research that is illuminating complex biochemical processes and disease mechanisms makes vast use of genetic engineering.
The practice of genetic modification as a scientific technique is not restricted in the United States. Individual genetically modified crops (such as soybeans) are subject to intense study before being brought to market and are common in the United States, but estimates of their market saturation vary widely. Some countries in [[Europe]] have taken the opposite position, stating that genetic modification has not been proven safe, and therefore that they will not accept [[genetically modified food]] from the United States or any other country. This issue has been brought before the [[World Trade Organization]], which determined that not allowing modified food into the country creates an unnecessary obstacle to international trade. Consequently, genetic modification within [[agriculture]] is an issue of some strong debate in the United States, the [[European Union]], and some other countries.
Some critics have raised the concern that conventionally bred crop plants can be cross-pollinated (bred) from the pollen of modified plants. Pollen can be dispersed over large areas by wind, animals, and insects. Recent research has lent support to the concern when modified genes were found in normal plants up to 21 km (13 miles) away from the source, and also within close relatives of the original plants. <!--source???--> GM proponents point out that outcrossing, as this process is known as, is not new. The same thing happens with any new crop variety - newly introduced traits can potentially cross out into neighbouring crop plants of the same species and to closely related wild relatives of crop plants. Defenders of GM technology point out that each GM crop is assessed on a case by case basis to determine if there is any risk associated with the out crossing of the GM trait into wild plant populations. The fact that a GM plant may outcross with a related wild relative is not, in itself, a risk unless such an occurrence has consequences. If, for example, a herbicide resistance trait was to cross into a wild relative of a crop plant it can be predicted that this would not have any concequences except in areas where herbicides are sprayed - eg a farm. In such a setting the farmer can manage this risk by rotating herbicides. If patented genes are outcrossed, even accidentally, to other commercial fields and a person deliberately selects the outcrossed plants for subsquent planting then the patent holder has the right to control the use of those crops. This was supported in [[Canadian law]] in the case of Monsanto vs. Percy Schmeiser [[Monsanto Canada Inc. v. Schmeiser#Aftermath]] .
There was much furvor generated when [[Monsanto]] submitted a patent for a hypothetical Technology Protection technology (dubbed [[Terminator Technology|terminator]] by NGOs) to produce first generation crops that would not generate seeds in the second generation because the plants yielded sterile [[seed]]s. The so-called "terminator" gene technology was developed by Delta and Pine Land and the USDA, who co-owned the patent. In addition to the commercial protection of proprietary technology (a generally contentious issue) another purpose of the terminator gene is to prevent the escape of genetically modified traits into wild-type species by sterilizing any resultant hybrids. The terminator gene technology created a backlash amongst those who felt the technology would prevent re-use of seed by farmers growing such terminator varieties in the developing world and was ostensibly a means to protect [[intellectual property]] rights. Use of the terminator technology would also prevent "volunteers", or crops that grow from unharvested seed, a major concern that arose during the [[Transgenic maize|Starlink]] debacle.
==Transgenics featured in fiction==
Genetically modified characters, whether as heroes, villains, or backdrop, feature prominently in many works of fiction, in particular [[science fiction]] and [[cyberpunk]], where it is used as a [[plot device]] to explain differences in a character or setting, such as explaining increased longevity or eradication of disease in a fictional civilization..
{{no references}}
[[Category:Genetically modified organisms| ]]
[[Category:Biotechnology]]
[[Category:Molecular biology]]
{{Link FA|fr}}
[[cs::Geneticky modifikovaný organismus]]
[[da:Genetisk modificeret organisme]]
[[de:Genetisch veränderter Organismus]]
[[es:Organismo modificado genéticamente]]
[[eo:Genetike modifita organismo]]
[[fa:تراریخته]]
[[fr:Organisme génétiquement modifié]]
[[it:Organismi geneticamente modificati]]
[[ja:遺伝子組み換え作物]]
[[pl:Organizm zmodyfikowany genetycznie]]
[[sv:GMO]]
[[vi:GMO]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Ghent</title>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/208.39.151.150|208.39.151.150]] ([[User talk:208.39.151.150|talk]]) to last version by Donarreiskoffer</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This page is about the Belgian city. For other places called Ghent, see [[Ghent (disambiguation)]].''
{| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1" bgcolor="#666666" align="right"
! colspan="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD" | Ghent
|----- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| [[Province]]:
| [[East Flanders]]
|----- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| District:
| Ghent
|----- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| [[Area]]:
| 156.18 km&sup2;
|----- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| [[Population]]:
| 230.951 ''<small>(2005)</small>''
|----- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| [[Population density]]:
| 1478.74 /km&sup2;
|-----
! colspan="2" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" | [[Image:GentLocatie.png]]
|}
'''Ghent''' (''Gent'' in [[Dutch language|Dutch]], ''Gand'' in [[French language|French]], formerly ''Gaunt'' in [[English language|English]]) is a [[city]] located in [[Flemish region|Flanders]], [[Belgium]]. It is the capital and biggest city of the [[East Flanders]] Province. The city started as a settlement at the confluence of the Rivers [[Scheldt]] and [[Lys River|Lys]] and became in the [[Middle Ages]] one of the largest and richest cities of northern Europe. Today it is a busy city with a large harbour and University. The city is connected to the sea by the [[Ghent-Terneuzen Canal]], it lies at the intersection of the [[European routes|European highways]] [[European route E17|E17]] and [[European route E40|E40]] and it has one of the busiest railway stations in Belgium.
The municipality comprises the city of Ghent proper and the towns of [[Afsnee]], [[Desteldonk]], [[Drongen]], [[Gentbrugge]], [[Ledeberg]], [[Mariakerke]], [[Mendonk]], [[Oostakker]], [[Sint-Amandsberg]], [[Sint-Denijs-Westrem]], [[Sint-Kruis-Winkel]], [[Wondelgem]] and [[Zwijnaarde]]. With around 230 000 inhabitants Ghent is Belgium's second largest municipality and the country's [[List of Belgian municipalities by population | third largest]] conurbation. The current major, [[Frank Beke]], leads a coalition of the [[SP.a]] and [[VLD]].
==History==
[[Image:04-08-15_Gent_01.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Graslei and Korenlei]]
[[Image:Ghent, Ferraris Map, 1775.jpg|thumb|right|Ghent in 1775]]
Archeologic evidence shows human presence in the region of the confluence of Scheldt and Lys going back as far as the Stone Age and the Iron Age<ref name="gent.be-history">[http://www.gent.be/gent/english/history/gesch01.htm History of Ghent on www.gent.be]</ref>. Most historians believe that the older name for Ghent, 'Ganda' is derived from the Celtic word 'ganda' which means [[Confluence (geography)|confluence]]<ref name="gent.be-history"/>. There are no written records of the Roman period but archeological research confirms that the region of Ghent was further inhabited.
When the [[Franks]] invaded the Roman territories (from the end of the 4th century and well into t |
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<text xml:space="preserve">A '''cordial''' is any invigorating and stimulating preparation; as, a peppermint cordial. The term derives from obsolete [[medicine|medical]] usage, as various beverages were concocted which were believed to be beneficial to one's [[health]], especially for the heart (''cordialis'', Latin).
[[alcoholic beverage|Alcohol]]ic cordials are also known as [[liqueur|liqueurs]].
In the [[United Kingdom]], [[Australia]], and [[New Zealand]] ''cordial'' is an extremely sweet (usually entirely artificial) non-alcoholic fruit flavoured drink concentrate that is mixed with [[water]] to taste. This cordial is said to have some medical properties for stomach problems. [[Squash (drink)|Squash]] is sometimes called a cordial.
A '''cordial''' is also a type of candy, in which a [[fruit]] filling is placed within a [[chocolate]] shell. A well known confectionery of this type is the cherry cordial.
[[Category:liqueurs]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Cronus</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''Cronus is not to be confused with [[Chronos]], the personification of time. Also see [[Cronus (disambugation)]] for other uses.''
In [[Greek mythology]], '''Cronus''' ([[Ancient Greek]] '''Κρόνος'''&mdash;of obscure etymology, perhaps related to "horned"), pronounced "kroh'-nuhs", also called '''Cronos''' or '''Kronos''', was the leader and the youngest of the first generation of [[Titan (mythology)|Titans]], divine descendants of [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]], the earth, and [[Uranus (mythology)|Uranus]], the sky. He overthrew his father, Uranus, and ruled during the mythological [[golden age|Golden Age]], until he was overthrown by his own son, [[Zeus]], and imprisoned in the depths of the underworld, [[Tartarus]].
As a result of his association with the bountiful and virtuous Golden Age, Cronus was worshiped as a [[harvest]] deity, overseeing crops such as corn and grains, and nature, agriculture, and the progression of time in relation to humans in general. He was usually depicted with a [[sickle]], which he used to harvest crops and which was also the weapon he used to castrate and depose Uranus. In [[Athens, Greece|Athens]], on the twelfth day of every month ([[Attic calendar|Hekatombaion]]), a festival called [[Kronia]] was held in honor of Cronus to celebrate the harvest. Cronus was also identified in [[classical antiquity]] with the [[Roman mythology|Roman deity]] [[Saturn (mythology)|Saturn]].
==In Greek mythology and early myths==
In ancient Greek myths, Cronus envied the power of his father and the ruler of the universe, [[ Uranus (mythology)|Uranus]]. Uranus drew the enmity of Cronus' mother, [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]], when he hid the gigantic youngest children of Gaia, the hundred-armed [[Hecatonchires]] and one-eyed [[Cyclops|Cyclopes]], in [[Tartarus]], so that they would not see the light. Gaia created a great [[sickle]] and gathered together Cronus and his brothers to ask them to kill Uranus. Only Cronus was willing to do the deed, so Gaia gave him the sickle and placed him in ambush. When Uranus met with Gaia Cronus attacked Uranus with the sickle, [[castration|castrating]] him and casting the severed member into the sea. From the blood (or, by a few accounts, [[semen]]) that spilled out from Uranus and fell upon the earth, the [[Gigantes]], [[Erinyes]], and [[Meliae]] were produced. From the member that was cast into the sea, [[Aphrodite]] later emerged. For this, Uranus threatened vengeance and called his sons ''titenes'' ("straining ones") for overstepping their boundaries and daring to commit such an act, and this is the source of the name ''Titan''.
In an alternate version of this myth, a more benevolent Cronus overthrew the wicked serpentine Titan [[Ophion]]. In doing so, he released the world from bondage and for a time ruled it justly.
After dispatching Uranus, Cronus re-imprisoned the [[Hecatonchires]], the [[Gigantes]], and the [[Cyclops|Cyclopes]] and set the dragon [[Campe]] to guard them. He and [[Rhea (mythology)|Rhea]] took the throne of the world as King and Queen. This period of Cronus' rule was called the [[golden age|Golden Age]], as the people of the time had no need for laws or rules; everyone did the right thing, and immorality was absent.
[[Image:Goya - Saturno devorando a su hijo.jpg|thumb|200px|''[[Saturn (mythology)|Saturn]] Devours His Children'', [[Francisco Goya]], c. 1815.]]
Cronus learned from Gaia and Uranus that he was destined to be overcome by his own son, just as he had overthrown his father. As a result, although he sired the gods [[Demeter]], [[Hera]], [[Hades]], [[Hestia]], and [[Poseidon]] by Rhea, he swallowed them all as soon as they were born to preempt the prophecy. Finally, when a sixth child, [[Zeus]], was about to be born, Rhea sought Gaia to devise a plan to save Zeus and to eventually get retribution on Cronus for his acts against his father and children. Rhea secretly gave birth to Zeus in [[Crete]], and handed Cronus a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes, also known as the [[Omphalos]] Stone, which he promptly swallowed, thinking that it is his son.
Rhea kept Zeus hidden in a cave on [[Mount Ida, Crete]]. According to some versions of the story, he was then raised by a goat named [[Amalthea (mythology)|Amalthea]], while a company of [[Korybantes|Kouretes]], armored male dancers, shouted and clapped their hands to make enough noise to mask the baby's cries from Cronus. Other versions of the myth have Zeus raised by the nymph [[Adamanthea]], who hid Zeus by dangling him by a rope from a tree so that he was suspended between the earth, the sea, and the sky, all of which were ruled by his father, Cronus. Still other versions of the tale say that Zeus was raised by his grandmother, Gaia.
Once he had grown up, Zeus used a potion given to him by Gaia to force Cronus to [[vomiting|vomit]] up the contents of his stomach in reverse order: first the stone, which was set down at Pytho under the glens of [[Mount Parnassus]] to be a sign to mortal men, then his two brothers and three sisters. In other versions of the tale, [[Metis (mythology)|Metis]] gave Cronus an [[vomit|emetic]] to force him to disgorge the children, or Zeus cut Cronus' stomach open. After freeing his siblings, Zeus released the Gigantes, the Hecatonchires, and the Cyclopes, who forged for him his thunderbolts. In a vast war called the [[Titanomachy]], Zeus and his brothers and sisters, with the help of the Gigantes, Hecatonchires, and Cyclopes, overthrew Cronus and the other Titans. Cronus and the Titans were confined in [[Tartarus]]. Ironically, Zeus also imprisoned the Hecatonchires and the Cyclopes there as well, just as his father and grandfather had; as a result, Gaia sired the monster [[Typhon]] to claim revenge, though Zeus was victorious.
Other children Cronus is reputed to have had include [[Chiron]], by [[Philyra]], and [[Eris]], by [[Nyx]].
An earlier version of Cronus, from before worship of Zeus became popular, is considered to be connected to the [[Semitic]] deity [[Baal|Ba`al Hammon]]. The baby-eating myth of Cronos is considered to derive from such early religions, as Ba`al Hammon was sometimes worshipped by [[Moloch]], child sacrifice by burning within a statue of Ba`al Hammon.
==In Roman mythology and later culture==
{{main|Saturn (mythology)}}
While the Greeks considered Cronus a force of chaos and disorder, believing that the Olympian gods had brought an era of peace and order by seizing power from the crude and malicious Titans, the Romans had a more positive view of the deity. Although the Roman deity [[Saturn]] was conflated heavily with Cronus, the Romans favored Saturn much more than the Greeks did Cronus. While Cronus was considered a cruel and tempestuous deity to the Greeks, his nature under Roman influence became more innocuous, with his association with the Golden Age eventually causing him to become the god of "human time", i.e., calendars, seasons, and harvests&mdash;not to be confused with [[Chronos]], the unrelated embodiment of time in general. While the Greeks largely neglected Cronus, considering him a mere intermediary stage between Uranus and Zeus, he was a larger aspect of Roman mythology and [[Roman religion|religion]]; [[Saturnalia]] was a festival dedicated in his honor, and at least one [[Temple of Saturn|temple to Saturn]] existed in the early [[Roman Kingdom]].
As a result of Cronus' importance to the Romans, his Roman variant, Saturn, has had a large influence on [[Western culture]]. In accordance with the Near Eastern tradition, the seventh day of the Judaeo-Christian week was also called in [[Latin]] ''Dies Saturni'' ("Day of Saturn"), which in turn degraded to the [[English language|English]] ''[[Saturday]]''. In [[astronomy]], the planet [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]] is called so because of Roman influence. It was considered the seventh and outermost of the [[seven heavenly objects]] that are visible with the naked eye.
==In Neopaganism==
{{Greek myth (Titan)}}
Modern [[Neopaganism|Neopagans]] have a rather [[New Age]] view of Cronus. In particular, [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] Neopagan [[sect]]s in the United States hold many metaphoric interpretations of the myths regarding Cronus. Sometimes called the "All Consumer", in many ways Cronus is similar to Christian myths regarding [[Satan]], though the similarity of the Roman name "Saturn" is a coincidence. In accordance with the Greek mythological tradi |
a between laws that are interpreted as revealed (Biblical) commandments and those designated as rabbinic origin. This division between revealed and rabbinic commandments may influence the importance of a rule, its enforcement and the nature of its ongoing interpretation.
Commandments (mitzvot) are divided into positive and negative commands, which are treated differently in terms of Divine and human punishment. Positive commands bring one closer to God, while violations of negative ones create a distance. In striving to "be holy" as God is holy, one attempts so far as possible to live in accordance with Gods wishes for humanity, striving to more completely live with each of these with every moment of ones life.
A further division is made between ''chukim'' ("decrees") -- laws without obvious explanation, such as ''[[kashrut]]'', the dietary laws), ''mishpatim'' ("judgments") -- laws with obvious social implications and ''eduyot'' -- "testimonies" or "commemorations", such as the [[Shabbat]] and holidays). Through the ages, various rabbinical athorities have classified the commandments in various other ways.
===Sin===
Judaism regards the violation of the commandments, the ''[[mitzvah|mitzvot]]'', to be a sin. The term "sin" is theologically loaded, as it means different things to Jews and Christians. In [[Christianity]] a "sin" is an offense against God, by which one is separated from God's love and grace, and for which one would suffer punishment, unless one repents (see [[Sin]] for a more complete comparison of sin from several viewpoints). Judaism has a wider definition of the term "sin", and also uses it to include violations of Jewish law that are not necessarily a lapse in morality. Further, Judaism holds it as given that all people sin at various points in their lives, and hold that God always tempers justice with mercy.
The generic Hebrew word for any kind of sin is ''aveira'' ("trangression"). Based on the [[Tanakh]] (Hebrew Bible) Judaism describes three levels of sin.
*''Pesha'' -- an "intentional sin"; an action committed in deliberate defiance of God;
*''Avon'' -- a "sin of lust or uncontrollable emotion". It is a sin done knowingly, but not done to defy God;
*''Cheth'' -- an "unintentional sin".
Judaism holds that no human being is perfect, and all people have sinned many times. However a state of sin does not condemn a person to damnation; there is always a road of ''[[teshuva]]'' (repentance, literally: "return"). But, warn the Rabbis, there are some classes of person for whom this is exceedingly difficult, such as the one who slanders another.
In earlier days, when Jews had a functioning court system (the [[beth din]] and the [[Sanhedrin]] high court), courts were empowered to administer physical punishments for various violations, upon conviction by far stricter standards of evidence than are acceptable in American courts: [[corporal punishment (Judaism)|corporal punishment]], [[incarceration]], [[excommunication]]. Since the fall of the Temple, executions have been forbidden. Since the fall of the autonomous Jewish communities of [[Europe]], the other punishments have also fallen by the wayside. Today, then, one's accounts are reckoned solely by [[God]].
===Gentiles and Jewish law===
All denominations of Jews hold that [[gentile|gentiles]] are not obliged to follow Halakha; only Jews are obliged do so. Judaism has always held that gentiles are obliged only to follow the seven [[Noahide Laws]]; these are laws that the oral law derives from the covenant God made with [[Noah]] after the flood, which apply to all descendants of Noah (all living people). The Noahide laws are derived in the [[Talmud]] (Tractate Sanhedrin 57a), and are listed here:
#[[Murder]] is forbidden.
#[[Theft]] is forbidden.
#[[Sexual morality|Sexual immorality]] is forbidden.
#Eating flesh cut from a still-living animal is forbidden.
#Belief in, and/or prayer to "[[idolatry|idols]]" ([[cult image]]s) is forbidden.
#[[Blasphemy|Blaspheming]] against God is forbidden.
#Society must establish a fair system of legal [[justice]] to administer these [[law]]s honestly.
Although not mentioning the [[Noahide Laws]] directly by name, the Christian convention of Apostles and elders in Jerusalem mentioned in [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 15 appears to validate the idea that all gentiles follow the constraints established by the covenant of Noah. This is what appears to be the case, as verse 15:20 lists a similar set of constraints to be applied to the gentiles that are converted to Christianity as what is contained in the Noahide laws.
==The sources and process of Halakha==
The boundaries of Jewish law are determined through the halakhic process, a religious-ethical system of legal reasoning. Rabbis generally base their opinions on the primary sources of Halakha as well as on precedent set by previous rabbinic opinions. The major sources and genre of Halakha consulted include:
* The foundational Talmudic literature (especially the [[Mishna]] and the [[Talmud|Babylonian Talmud]]) with commentaries;
* The post-Talmudic [[Halakha#Codes of Jewish law|codificatory literature]], such as Maimonides' [[Mishneh Torah]] and the [[Shulkhan Arukh]] with commentaries;
* Regulations and other "legislative" enactments promulgated by rabbis and communal bodies:
** ''Gezeirah'': "preventative legislation" of the Rabbis, intended to prevent violations of the [[mitzva|commandments]]
** ''Takkanah'': "positive legislation", practices instituted by the Rabbis not based (directly) on the [[mitzva|commandments]]
* ''[[Minhag]]'': Customs, community practices, and customary law, as well as the exemplary deeds of prominent (or local) rabbis;
* The ''[[responsa|she'eloth u-teshuvoth]]'' (responsa, literally "questions and answers") literature.
* ''Dina d'malchuta dina'' ("the law of the land is law"): an additional source of Halakha, being the principle recognizing non-Jewish laws and non-Jewish legal jurisdiction as binding on Jewish citizens, especially for many areas of commercial, civil and criminal law, provided that they are not contrary to any laws of Judaism.
Unlike Anglo-American common law, though, Halakhah does not rely on a strict theory of binding precedent nor provide for systematic review of precedents. Generally, Halakhic arguments are effectively, yet unofficially, peer-reviewed. When a rabbinic ''[[posek]]'' ("decisor") proposes a new interpretation of a law, that interpretation may be considered binding for the posek's questioner or immediate community. Depending on the stature of the posek and the quality of the decision, an interpretation may also be gradually accepted by rabbis and members of similar Jewish communities.
Under this system, there is a tension between the relevance of earlier and later authorities in constraining halakhic interpretation and innovation. On the one hand, there is a principle in Halakha to not overrule a specific law from an earlier era, unless based on an earlier authority. On the other hand, another principle recognizes the responsibility and authority of later authorities, and especially the ''posek'' handling a concurrent question. In addition, the Halakha embodies a wide range of principles that permit judicial discretion and deviation (Ben-Menahem). Generally speaking, a rabbi in any one period will not overrule specific laws from an earlier era, unless supported by a relevant earlier precedent; see list below. There are important exceptions to this principle, which empower the ''[[posek]]'' (decisor) or ''[[beth din]]'' (court) responsible for a given opinion.
Notwithstanding the potential for innovation, rabbis and Jewish communities differ greatly on how they make changes in Halakha. Notably, ''poskim'' frequently extend the application of a law to new situations, but do not consider such applications as constituting a "change" in Halakha. For example, many [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] rulings concerning electricity are derived from rulings concerning fire, due to its similarity with that other form of human-managed energy. [[Conservative Judaism]] and [[Reform Judaism]] tend to explicitly interpret Halakha to take into account sociological factors. For instance, the liberal Jewish movements extend the application of certain Jewish obligations and permissible activitites to women. See below: [[Halakha#How Halakha is viewed today|How Halakha is viewed today]].
There is no formal peer-review process for the entire Jewish community in general, since the Jewish community has no one central body that speaks for all of Judaism. However, within certain Jewish communities formal organized bodies exist: Each division or dynasty of Orthodox [[Hasidic Judaism]] has their own [[rebbe]], who is their ultimate decisor of Jewish law. Within [[Modern Orthodox Judaism]], there is no one committee or leader, but Modern Orthodox rabbis generally agree with the views set by consensus by the leaders of the [[Rabbinical Council of America]]. Within [[Conservative Judaism]], the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] has an official [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]].
In antiquity, the ''[[Sanhedrin]]'' functioned essentially as the Supreme Court and legislature for Judaism, and had the power to create and administer binding law on all Jews - rulings of the Sanhedrin became Halakha; see [[Oral law#Oral law in Judaism|Oral law]]. That court ceased to function in its full mode in [[40|CE 40]]. Today, application of Jewish law is left to the local rabbi, and the local rabbinical courts, with only local applicability.
===Eras of history important in Jewish law===
:''See also [[Rabbinic literature]]''.
* The ''[[Tannaim]]'' (literally the "repeaters") are the sages of the Mishna ([[70] |
) to contribute to the war effort. The astute and diplomatic [[eunuch]] [[Narses]] was chosen for the command. Totila was crushed and killed at the [[Battle of Busta Gallorum|Busta Gallorum]]. Totila's successor, [[Teias]], was likewise defeated at the [[Battle of Mons Lactarius]] (central Italy, October 552). Despite continuing resistance from a few Goth garrisons, and two subsequent invasions by the [[Franks]] and [[Alamanni]], the war for the reconquest of the Italian peninsula came to an end.
Justinian's program of conquest was further extended in 554 when a Byzantine army managed to seize a small part of [[Spain]] from the [[Visigoths]]. All the main [[Mediterranean]] islands were also now under Byzantine control. Aside from these conquests, Justinian updated the ancient [[Roman law|Roman legal code]] in the new [[Corpus Juris Civilis]]. Even though the laws were still written in [[Latin]], the language itself was becoming archaic and poorly understood even by those who wrote the new code. Under Justinian's reign, the Church of [[Hagia Sophia|Hagia Sofia]] (''"Holy Wisdom"'') was constructed in the 530s. This church would become the center of Byzantine religious life and the center of the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] form of [[Christianity]]. The 6th century was also a time of flourishing culture and even though Justinian closed the university at [[Athens]], the Eastern Roman Empire produced notable people such as the epic poet [[Nonnus]], the lyric poet [[Paul the Silentiary]], the historian [[Procopius]], the natural philosopher [[John Philoponos]] and others.
The conquests in the west meant that the other parts of the Eastern Roman Empire were left almost unguarded even though Justinian was a great builder of fortifications in Byzantine territories throughout his reign. [[Khosrau I of Persia]] had, as early as 540, broken the pact previously signed with Justinian and plundered [[Antioch|Antiochia]]. The only way Justinian could forestall him was to increase the sum he paid to Khosrau I every year. The [[Balkans]] were subjected to repeated incursions where [[Slavs]] had first crossed the imperial frontiers during the reign of [[Justin I]]. The Slavs took advantage of the sparsely-deployed Byzantine troops and pressed on as far as the [[Gulf of Corinth]]. The [[Kutrigur]] [[Bulgars]] had also attacked in 540. The Slavs invaded [[Thrace]] in 545 and in 548 assaulted [[Dyrrachium]], an important port on the [[Adriatic Sea]]. In 550, the [[Sclaveni]] pushed on as far to reach within 65 kilometers of [[Constantinople]] itself. In 559, the Eastern Roman Empire found itself unable to repel a great invasion of [[Kutrigurs]] and [[Sclaveni]]. Divided in three columns, the invaders reached [[Thermopylae]], the [[Gallipoli]] peninsula and the suburbs of [[Constantinople]]. The [[Slavs]] feared the intact power of the [[Danube]] Roman fleet and of the Utigurs (paid by the Romans themselves) more than the resistance of the ill-prepared Byzantine imperial army. This time the Eastern Roman Empire was safe, but in the following years the Roman suzerainty in the Balkans was to be almost totally overwhelmed.
Soon after the death of Justinian in 565, the Germanic [[Lombards]], a former imperial ''foederati'' tribe, invaded and conquered much of Italy. The Visigoths conquered [[Cordoba]], the main Byzantine city in Spain, first in 572 and then definitively in 584. The last Byzantine strongholds in Spain were swept away twenty years later. The [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] emerged in the [[Crimea]], and in 577, a horde of some 100,000 Slavs had invaded [[Thrace]] and [[Illyricum]]. [[Sirmium]], the most important Roman city on the [[Danube]], was lost in 582, but the Eastern Roman Empire managed to maintain control of the river for several more years even though it increasingly lost control of the inner provinces. [[Image:theodora ravenna.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Theodora (6th century)|Empress Theodora]] and her retinue (fresco from [[Basilica of San Vitale]], 6th century).]]
Justinian's successor, [[Justin II]], refused to pay the tribute to the [[Sassanid Empire]]. This resulted in a long and harsh war which lasted until the reign of his successors [[Tiberius II Constantine|Tiberius II]] and [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]], and focused on the control over [[Armenia]]. Fortunately for the Byzantines, a civil war broke out in the Persian Empire. Maurice was able to take advantage of his friendship with the new king [[Khosrau II of Persia|Khosrau II]] (whose disputed accession to the Persian throne had been assisted by Maurice) in order to sign a favorable peace treaty in 591. This treaty gave the Eastern Roman Empire control over much of western Armenia. Maurice reorganized the remaining Byzantine possessions in the west into two [[Exarch]]ates, the [[Exarchate of Ravenna|Ravenna]] and the [[Exarchate of Carthage|Carthage]]. Maurice increased the Exarchates' self-defense capabilities and delegated them to civil authorities.
The [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]] and later the [[Bulgars]] overwhelmed much of the [[Balkans]], and in the early 7th century the [[Sassanid]]s invaded and conquered Egypt, Palestine, [[Syria]] and [[Armenia]]. The Persians were eventually defeated and the territories were recovered by Emperor [[Heraclius]] in 627. However, the unexpected appearance of the newly-converted and united [[Islam|Muslim]] [[Arab]]s took the territories by surprise from an empire exhausted from fighting against Persia, and the southern provinces were overrun. The Eastern Roman Empire's most catastrophic defeat of this period was the [[Battle of Yarmuk]], fought in Syria. Heraclius and the military governors of Syria were slow to respond to the new threat, and Byzantine [[Mesopotamia]], Syria, Egypt, and the [[Exarchate of Africa]] were permanently incorporated into the Muslim Empire in the 7th century, a process which was completed with the fall of [[Carthage]] to the [[Caliphate]] in 698.
The [[Lombards]] continued to expand in northern Italy, taking [[Liguria]] in 640 and conquering most of the [[Exarchate of Ravenna]] in 751, leaving the Byzantines with control of only small areas around the toe and heel of Italy, plus some semi-independent coastal cities like [[Venice]], [[Naples]], [[Amalfi]] and [[Gaeta]].
==The fight for survival==
The Eastern Roman Empire's loss of territory was offset to a degree by consolidation and an increased uniformity of rule. Emperor [[Heraclius]] fully Hellenized the Eastern Roman Empire by making [[Greek language|Greek]] the official language, thus ending the last remnants of [[Latin language|Latin]] and ancient Roman tradition within the empire. The use of Latin in government records, (Latin titles such as ''Augustus'' and the concept of the Eastern Roman Empire being one with Rome) fell into abeyance, which allowed the empire to pursue its own identity. Many historians mark the sweeping reforms made during the reign of Heraclius as the breaking-point with Byzantium's ancient Roman past. It is common to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire as "Byzantine" instead of as "East Roman" from this point onwards. Religious rites and religious expression within the empire were now also noticeably different from the practices upheld in the former imperial lands of western Europe. Within the empire, the southern Byzantine provinces differed significantly in culture and practice from those in the north, observing [[Monophysite]] [[Christianity]] rather than [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Chalcedonian Orthodox]]. The loss of the southern territories to the Arabs further strengthened Orthodox practices in the remaining provinces.[[Image:ByzantineEmpire717AD.png|thumb|right|400px|The Byzantine Empire at the accession of Leo III, c.717AD]]
[[Constans II]] (reigned 641–668) subdivided the empire into a system of military provinces called ''[[thema|thémata]]'' (themes) in an attempt to improve local responses to the threat of constant assaults. Outside of the capital, urban life declined while Constantinople grew to become the largest city in the Christian world. Several attempts to conquer Constantinople by the Arabs failed in the face of the [[Byzantine navy|Byzantines' superior navy]], the Byzantines' monopoly over the still-mysterious incendiary weapon ([[Greek fire]]), their strong city walls, and the skill of Byzantine generals and warrior-emperors such as [[Leo III]] the [[Isauria]]n (reign 717–741). Once the assaults were repelled, the empire's recovery resumed.
In his landmark work ''[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'', the 18th century historian [[Edward Gibbon]] depicted the Byzantine Empire of this time as effete and decadent. However, an alternate examination of the Byzantine Empire shows instead that the empire was a military [[superpower]] during the early Middle Ages. Factors contributing to this view entail the empire's [[heavy cavalry]] (the ''[[cataphract]]s''), its subsidization (albeit inconsistent) of a free and well-to-do peasant class forming the basis for cavalry recruitment, its extraordinarily in-depth defense systems (the themes), and its use of subsidies in order to make Byzantium's enemies fight against one another. Other factors include the empire's prowess at intelligence-gathering, a communications and logistics system based on [[mule]] trains, a superior navy (although often under-funded), and rational military strategies and doctrines (not dissimilar to those of [[Sun Tzu]]) that emphasized stealth, surprise, swift maneuvering and the marshalling of overwhelming force at the time and place of the Byzantine commander's choosing.
After the siege of 717 in which the Arabs suffered horrific casualties, the [[Caliphate]] was no longer a serious threat to the Byzantine heartland. It would take a different civilization, that of the [[Seljuk Turks]], to finally drive the imperial forces out of eastern and central [[Anatolia]].
The 8t |
after the collapse of Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms.
When the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] came in early [[16th century]], they found a multitude of small states, vulnerable to the Portuguese, and later other [[Europe]]ans wanting to dominate the [[spice trade]]. In the 17th century, the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] became the most powerful of the Europeans, ousting the [[Spain|Spanish]] and Portuguese (except for their colony of [[Portuguese Timor]] on the island of [[Timor]]). Dutch influence started with trading by the [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC), a chartered private enterprise constituting a state in all but name, complete with its own fleet and army, which gradually expanded its influence and grip on political matters. Like the British, the Dutch mainly relied on indirect rule, using traditional native elites as [[vassal]]s, while imposing their will and extracting major income under supervision by their colonial officials. After VOC was dissolved in 1799 by the [[Batavian Republic]] ([[Napoleon_I_of_France|Napoleon's]] Dutch satellite state) and the political instability from the [[Napoleonic Wars]] including partial British occupation, the East Indies were awarded to the [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands]] in 1815. Since then, the East Indies were officially ruled as the major colonies of the Dutch crown.
Under the 19th-century [[Cultivation System]] (''Cultuurstelsel''), large plantations and forced cultivation were established on Java, finally creating the profit for the Netherlands that the VOC had been unable to produce. In a more liberal period of colonial rule after 1870, the Cultivation System was abolished, and after 1901 the Dutch introduced the Ethical Policy, which included limited political reform and increased investment in the colony.
During [[World War II]], with the Netherlands under [[Germany|German]] [[Military occupation|occupation]], [[Japan]] began a five-prong campaign in December 1941 towards Java and the vital fuel supplies of the [[Dutch East Indies]]. Though Japan captured Java by March 1942, it initially could not find any national leader willing to collaborate with the Japanese government against the Dutch. Eventually the Japanese commander ordered [[Sukarno]]'s release from his prison island, and in July 1942, Sukarno arrived in Jakarta. Sukarno and his colleagues collaborated with the Japanese occupiers. In 1945, with the war drawing to a close, Sukarno was made aware of an opportunity to declare independence. In response to lobbying, Japan agreed to allow [[Sukarno]] to establish a committee to plan for independence. Sukarno and [[Mohammad Hatta]] declared independence on [[17 August]].
Following the defeat of Japan in the World War, the [[Royal Netherlands Army|Netherlands' Army]], at first backed by the [[British]], attempted to reoccupy their former East Indies colonies. Indonesia's war for independence lasted from 1945 until [[27 December]], [[1949]] when, under heavy international pressure, especially from the [[United States]], which threatened to cut off [[Marshall Plan]] funds, the Netherlands acknowledged the independence of Indonesia as a Federation of autonomous states. This federation soon became a republic with Sukarno as president and Hatta as vice president. ''See [[Indonesian National Revolution]]''. It was not until [[16 august]] [[2005]] that the Dutch [[government]] recognised 1945 as the country's year of independence and expressed regrets over the Indonesian deaths caused by the Netherlands' Army.
The 1950s and 1960s saw Sukarno's government aligned first with the emerging [[non-aligned movement]] and later with the [[socialist]] bloc. The 1960s saw Indonesia in a military [[Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation|confrontation]] against neighboring [[Malaysia]], and increasing frustration over domestic economic difficulties. Army general [[Suharto]] became president in 1967 on the pretext of securing the country against an alleged [[Communism|communist]] coup attempt against a weakening Sukarno, whose tilt leftward had alarmed both the military and Western powers. In the aftermath of Suharto's rise, hundreds of thousands people were killed or imprisoned by the military and religious groups in a backlash against alleged communist supporters. Suharto's administration is commonly called the ''[[New Order (Indonesia)|New Order]]'' era. Suharto invited major foreign [[investment]], which produced substantial, if uneven, economic growth. However, Suharto enriched himself and his family through widespread [[political corruption|corruption]] and was forced to step down amid massive popular demonstrations and a faltering economy by the [[Indonesian Revolution of 1998]].
From 1998 to 2001, the country had three [[President of Indonesia|presidents]]: [[Jusuf Habibie|Bacharuddin Jusuf (BJ) Habibie]], [[Abdurrahman Wahid]] and [[Megawati Sukarnoputri]]. Indonesia's first direct presidential election was held in 2004, and won by [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]]. It was the largest one-day election in the world.
A massive [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|earthquake and tsunami]] on [[26 December]] [[2004]] devastated parts of northern [[Sumatra]], particularly [[Aceh]].
==Politics==
{{Main|Politics of Indonesia}}
The highest legislative body is the ''Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat'' (MPR, head: [[Hidayat Nur Wahid]]) or 'People's Consultative Assembly', consisting of the ''Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat'' (DPR, head: [[Agung Laksono]]) or [[People's Representative Council]], elected for a five-year term, and the ''Dewan Perwakilan Daerah'' (DPD, head: [[Ginandjar Kartasasmita]]) or [[Regional Representatives Council]]. Following elections in 2004, the MPR became a [[bicameral]] [[parliament]], with the creation of the DPD as its second chamber.
Indonesia is a founding member of the [[Association of South East Asian Nations]] (ASEAN), and thereby a member of both [[ASEAN+3]] and the [[East Asia Summit]] (EAS).
==Provinces==
{{Main|Provinces of Indonesia}}, [[Subdivisions of Indonesia]]
[[Image:Indonesia provinces english.png|right|thumb|400px|Map of the provinces of Indonesia]]
Currently, Indonesia has 33 [[Provinces_of_Indonesia|province]]s (of those, 2 are special territories and 1 special capital region). The provinces are subdivided into [[Regencies_of_Indonesia|regencies]] and [[Cities_of_Indonesia|cities]], which are in turn split up in [[sub-district]]s. The provinces are:
[[Bali]],
[[Bangka-Belitung]],
[[Banten]],
[[Bengkulu]],
[[Central Java]],
[[Central Kalimantan]],
[[Central Sulawesi]],
[[East Java]],
[[East Kalimantan]],
[[East Nusa Tenggara]],
[[South Sumatra]],
[[Gorontalo]],
[[Jambi]],
[[Lampung]],
[[Maluku (Indonesian province)|Maluku]],
[[North Maluku]],
[[North Sulawesi]],
[[North Sumatra]],
[[Papua (Indonesian province)|Papua]] (Irian Jaya),
[[Riau]],
[[Riau Kepulauan]],
[[South East Sulawesi]],
[[South Kalimantan]],
[[South Sulawesi]],
[[West Irian Jaya]],
[[West Java]],
[[West Kalimantan]],
[[West Nusa Tenggara]],
[[West Sulawesi]],
[[West Sumatra]]
The special territories (''daerah istimewa'') are [[Aceh]] (or ''Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam'') and [[Yogyakarta]]. Special territories have more autonomy from the central government than other provinces, and so have unique legislative privileges: the Acehnese government has the right to create an independent legal system, and instituted a form of ''[[sharia]]'' (Islamic Law) in 2003; Yogyakarta remains a sultanate whose sultan (currently the wildly popular Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono X) is the territory's ''de facto'' governor for life.
The special capital region is [[Jakarta]]. Though Jakarta is a single city, it is administered much as any other Indonesian province. For example, Jakarta has a governor (instead of a mayor), and is divided into several sub-regions with their own administrative systems.
[[East Timor]] was a province of Indonesia from [[1975]], when it was annexed by military invasion, until Indonesia relinquished sovereignty in [[1999]] after years of bitter fighting against East Timor [[guerrilla warfare|guerrillas]] and abuses by Indonesian military forces against the East Timorese civilians. Following a period of [[United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor|transitional administration by the UN]], it became an [[independent state]] in [[2002]].
==Geography==
[[Image:Id-map.png|thumb|300px|right|Map of Indonesia]]
{{Main|Geography of Indonesia}}
Indonesia's [[Islands of Indonesia|18,108 islands]], of which about 6,000 are inhabited, are scattered around the [[equator]], giving the country a [[tropical climate]]. The most populated islands are [[Java (island)|Java]] (one of the most densely populated regions on Earth, where about half of the population lives), [[Sumatra]], [[Borneo]] (shared with [[Malaysia]] and [[Brunei]]), [[New Guinea]] (shared with [[Papua New Guinea]]) and [[Sulawesi]].
Indonesia borders Malaysia on the island of Borneo ([[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]: [[Kalimantan]]), Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea and [[East Timor]] on the island of [[Timor]]. In addition to the capital city of Jakarta, principal cities of high population include [[Surabaya]], [[Bandung]], [[Medan]], [[Palembang]], and [[Semarang]].
[[Image:Mahameru-volcano.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Indonesia's seismic and volcanic activity is among the Earth's highest]]
Its location on the edges of [[tectonic plate]]s, specifically the Pacific, Eurasian, and Australian, means Indonesia is frequently hit by [[earthquake]]s and the resulting [[tsunami]]s. Indonesia is also rich in [[volcano]]es, the most famous being the now-vanished [[Krakatoa|Krakatau]] (''Krakatoa''), which was located between Sumatra and Java.
Flora and fauna differ markedly between [[Kalimantan]], [[Bali]], and western islands on the one hand and [[Sulawesi]], [[Lombok]], and islands further east on the other. This ecological boundary has been called the [[Wallace line]] after its discoverer. The line is often give |
he dispute among historians are the different assumptions made about the definition or concept of "[[history]]" and "[[historiography]]".
Different historians take a different view of what it is all about, and what the possibilities of historical and social scientific [[knowledge]] are.
Historians also differ greatly about questions such as(1) the kinds of generalisations which can be validly made about history, (2) about the kinds of [[causal]] connections which can validly be postulated in history, and (3) about the validity of different kinds of [[explanation]] of historical development.
Different theoretical frameworks for historical research also lead to different questions being asked about the historical [[facts]]. ''All'' historians operate with guiding assumptions in their research - assumptions which may be modified by their results - even although these assumptions (or biases) may not be made explicit.
Therefore, probably the best way to assess the merits of historical materialism is to look at the actual results of the historical research done by the Marxists, the semi-Marxists (such as the [[Annales]] school) and the non-Marxists who claim to have been inspired by historical materialism.
When this is done, it is clear that historical materialism has been a very fertile and productive research hypothesis. To be sure, it has often been dogmatically interpreted, but it has also stimulated pathbreaking research that put the understanding of history in a new light.
[[Göran Therborn]] has argued that the method of historical materialism should be applied to historical materialism as intellectual tradition, and to the history of Marxism itself.
In the early 21st century, the main attacks on the materialist interpretation of history come from theorists of [[sociobiology]], who theorize that human history can be reduced to biological factors.
==Marxist beliefs about history==
According to Marxist theorists, history develops in accordance with the following observations:
#Social progress is driven by progress in the material, productive forces a society has at its disposal ([[technology]], [[labour (economics)|labor]], [[capital goods]], etc.)
#Humans are inevitably involved in production relations (roughly speaking, economic relationships or [[institution]]s), which constitute our most decisive [[social relations]].
#Production relations progress, with a degree of inevitability, following and corresponding to the development of the [[productive forces]].
#[[Relations of production]] help determine the degree and types of the development of the forces of production. For example, capitalism tends to increase the rate at which the forces develop and stresses the [[capital accumulation|accumulation of capital]].
#Both [[productive forces]] and production relations progress independently of mankind's strategic intentions or will.
#The [[superstructure]] -- the cultural and institutional features of a society, its ideological materials -- is ultimately an expression of the [[mode of production]] (which combines both the forces and [[relations of production]]) on which the society is founded.
#Every type of [[state]] is a powerful [[institution]] of the ruling class; the state is an instrument which one class uses to secure its rule and enforce its preferred production relations (and its [[exploitation]]) onto society.
#State power is usually only transferred from one class to another by social and political upheaval.
#When a given style of production relations no longer supports further progress in the productive forces, either further progress is strangled, or 'revolution' must occur.
#The actual historical process is not predetermined but depends on the class struggle, especially the organization and consciousness of the [[working class]].
This sketch is abstract - real historical understanding needed for developing political strategy and tactics must involve "concrete analysis of concrete conditions" ([[V.I. Lenin]]).
==Alienation and freedom==
[[Hunter-gatherer]] societies were structured so that the economic forces and the political forces were one and the same. The elements of force and relation operated together, harmoniously. In the [[feudal society]], the political forces of the kings and nobility had their relations with the economic forces of the villages through [[serfdom]]. The serfs, although not free, were tied to both forces and, thus, not completely alienated. [[Capitalism]], Marx argued, completely separates the economic and political forces, leaving them to have relations through a limiting [[government]]. He takes the state to be a sign of this separation - it exists to manage the massive conflicts of interest which arise between classes in all those societies based on property relations.
==Marx and Wakefield==
In [[Das Kapital]], Marx took from [[Edward Gibbon Wakefield]]'s work the example of an emigré to Australia, to illustrate the concept of [[relations of production]]:
"...Wakefield discovered that in the Colonies, property in money, means of subsistence, machines, and other means of production, does not as yet stamp a man as a capitalist if there be wanting the correlative — the wage-worker, the other man who is compelled to sell himself of his own free-will. He discovered that capital is not a thing, but a social relation between persons, established by the instrumentality of things. Mr. Peel, he moans, took with him from England to Swan River, West Australia, means of subsistence and of production to the amount of £50,000. Mr. Peel had the foresight to bring with him, besides, 3,000 persons of the working-class, men, women, and children. Once arrived at his destination, 'Mr. Peel was left without a servant to make his bed or fetch him water from the river.' Unhappy Mr. Peel who provided for everything except the export of English modes of production to Swan River!"
The workers deserted Mr Peel, despite all his wealth, because land was available freely and there was no state, legislation or economic necessity compelling them to work for him - they were free to work on own account as they chose, because the English [[social relations]] binding them to the status of servants were absent.
Source: [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1867-c1/ch33.htm ''Capital'', vol. I, ch. 33, courtesy of www.marxists.org]
==A revision of historical materialism?==
Several scholars have argued that historical materialism ought to be revised in the light of modern scientific knowledge. [[Jürgen Habermas]] believes historical materialism "needs revision in many respects", especially because it has ignored the significance of `communicative action'. [[Leszek Nowak]] argues explicitly for a post-Marxist historical materialism.
==Commentaries on different aspects of historical and dialectical materialism==
*[[Franz Mehring]], On Historical Materialism (classic statement by a contemporary and friend of Marx & Engels)http://www.marxists.org/archive/mehring/1893/histmat/index.htm
*Z.A. Jordan, The evolution of Dialectical Materialism (good survey)
http://marxmyths.org/jordan/article.htm
*Gustav A. Wetter, Dialectical Materialism: a Historical and Systematic Survey of Philosophy in the Soviet Union. (alternative survey)
*Loren R. Graham, Science Philosophy and Human Behavior in the Soviet Union. (sympathetically-critical of dialectical materialism)
*[[George Novack]], Understanding History: Marxist Essays (Trotskyist interpretations of problems of history)
http://www.marxists.org/archive/novack/index.htm
*[[H. B. Acton]], The Illusion of the Epoch. (critical account which focusses on incoherencies in the thought of Marx, Engels and Lenin)
*[[Gerald Cohen]], Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence. (influential analytical Marxist interpretation)
*Helmut Fleischer, Marxism and History. (good reply to false interpretations of Marx's view of history)
*[[E.P. Thompson]], The Poverty of Theory. (polemic which ridicules theorists of history who do not actually study history)
*[http://www.amazon.co.uk/exec/obidos/ASIN/0415316987 Karl Marx (Arguments of the Philiosophers series)], Routledge 2004 by [[Allen W Wood]] - delves into misinterpretations of Marx including the substitution of "Historical materialism" by Lenin/Engels's concept of [[Dialectical Materialism]]
*William H. Shaw, Marx's theory of history (short survey)
*Johan Witt-Hansen, Historical Materialism: The Method, The Theories. (sees historical materialism as a methodology, and Das Kapital as an application of the method)
*Gordon V. Childe, Man Makes Himself (free interpretation of Marx's idea)
*Leszek Nowak, Property and Power. Towards a non-Marxian Historical Materialism. (attempt to develop a post-Stalinist interpretation of Marx's project)
*[[Joseph Stalin]], Historical and Dialectical Materialism. (classic statement of Marxist-Leninist doctrine)
http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1938/09.htm
*[[Mao Tse Tung]], Four Essays on Philosophy. (standard Maoist reading of Marx's materialism)
http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/selected-works/index.htm
*Goran Therborn, Science, Class and Society (critical survey of the relationship between sociology and historical materialism)
*[[Ernest Mandel]], Introduction to Marxism. (emphasizes understanding the roots of class society and the state)
*Ernest Mandel, The Place of Marxism in History (modelled on Lenin's "Three components of Marxism" but with an interesting section on the reception and diffusion of Marxism in the world)
*[[Hal Draper]], Karl Marx's Theory of Revolution (4 volumes). (captures the full subtlety of Marx's thought, but at length)
*[[Franz Jakubowski]], Ideology and superstructure. (attempts to provide an alternative to schematic interpretations of historical materialism)
*Wal Suchting, Marx: An Introduction. (good short introduction)
*[[Chris Harman]], |
ntury, the Frankish and Swabian ducal lines became extinct; their electoral claims passed to the [[Palatinate|Count Palatine of the Rhine]] and the [[Margrave of Brandenburg]]. The Palatinate and Bavaria were originally held by the same individual, but in [[1253]], they were divided between two members of the [[Wittelsbach]] dynasty. The other electors refused to allow two princes from the same dynasty to have electoral rights, so a heated rivalry between the Count Palatine and the Duke of Bavaria arose. Meanwhile, the King of Bohemia, who held the ancient imperial office of Arch-Cupbearer, asserted his right to participate in elections, but was challenged on the grounds that his kingdom was not German.
Already the [[declaration at Rhense]] in [[1338]] by six electors had the effect that election by all or the majority of the electors automatically conferred the royal title and rule over the empire, without papal confirmation. The [[Golden Bull of 1356]] finally resolved the disputes among the electors; under it, the Archbishops of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne, as well as the King of Bohemia, the Count Palatine, the Duke of Saxony, and the Margrave of Brandenburg held the right to elect the King.
[[Image:The Ratification of the Treaty of Münster (Gerard Terborch 1648).jpg|thumb|300px|right|''The Ratification of the Treaty of Münster'' by Gerard Terborch]]
The college's composition remained unchanged until the 17th century. In [[1621]], the Elector Palatine, [[Frederick V, Elector Palatine|Frederick V]], came under the imperial ban after participating in the Bohemian Revolt (a part of the [[Thirty Years' War]]). The Elector Palatine's seat was conferred on the Duke of Bavaria, the head of a junior branch of his family. Originally, the Duke held the electorate personally, but it was later made hereditary along with the duchy. When the Thirty Years' War concluded with the [[Peace of Westphalia|Treaty of Münster]] (also called the Peace of Westphalia) in [[1648]], a new electorate was created for the Count Palatine of the Rhine. Since the Elector of Bavaria retained his seat, the number of electors increased to eight.
In [[1692]], as a result of the inheritance of the Palatinate by a Catholic branch of the Wittelsbach family, which threatened to upset the religious balance of the College of Electors, the number of electors was increased to nine, with a seat being granted to the Dukes of Brunswick-Lüneburg, who became known as the Electors of Hanover (the Reichstag officially confirmed the creation in [[1708]]). In [[1706]], the Elector of Bavaria and Archbishop of Cologne were banned during the [[War of the Spanish Succession]], but both were restored in [[1714]] after the [[Peace of Baden]]. In [[1777]], the number of electors was reduced to eight when the Elector Palatine inherited Bavaria.
Many changes to the composition of the college were necessitated by [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]]'s aggression during the early 19th century. The [[Treaty of Lunéville]] ([[1801]]), which ceded territory on the [[Rhine]]'s left bank to [[France]], led to the abolition of the archbishoprics of Trier and Cologne, and the transfer of the remaining spiritual Elector from Mainz to [[Regensburg]]. In [[1803]], electorates were created for the Duke of [[Württemberg]], the [[Margrave of Baden]], the [[Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel]], and the [[Duke of Salzburg]], bringing the total number of electors to ten. When [[Austria]] annexed Salzburg under the [[Treaty of Pressburg]] ([[1805]]), the Duke of Salzburg moved to the [[Principality of Würzburg]] and retained his electorate. None of the new electors, however, had an opportunity to cast votes, as the Holy Roman Empire was abolished in [[1806]], and the new electorates were never confirmed by the Emperor.
==Rights and privileges==
Electors were among the rulers of the States of the Empire, but enjoyed precedence over the other princes. They were, until the [[18th century]], exclusively entitled to the style ''Durchlaucht'' (Serene Highness). In [[1742]], the electors became entitled to the superlative ''Durchläuchtigste'' (Most Serene Highness), while other princes were promoted to ''Durchlaucht''.
As rulers of States of the Empire, the electors enjoyed all the privileges of the other princes, including the right to enter into alliances, autonomy in relation to dynastic affairs and precedence over other subjects. The Golden Bull recognised certain additional rights belonging to the electors. For instance, electors were granted a [[monopoly]] over all mines of [[gold]], [[silver]], and other metals within their territories, to tax [[Judaism|Jews]], to collect [[toll]]s, and to mint money; these powers belonged to the Emperor in the other territories, and princes who wrongly assumed them could be deprived of their status. Thus, the electors were among the most powerful princes in the Empire. Electors also enjoyed several judicial powers within their territories. Their subjects could be not be tried in the imperial courts, and appeal from their courts lay only in cases where denial of justice was claimed.
After the abolition of the Holy Roman Empire in [[August]] of [[1806]], the electors continued to reign over their territories, many of them taking higher titles. The Dukes of Bavaria, Württemberg, and Saxony made themselves Kings, as did the Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, who was already [[George III of the United Kingdom|King of Great Britain]]; meanwhile, the Margrave of Baden elevated himself to the [[Grand Duke|Grand-Ducal]] dignity. The Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, however, retained the meaningless title "Elector of Hesse", thus distinguishing himself from other Hessian princes (the Grand Duke of Hesse-Darmstadt and the Landgrave of Hesse-Homburg). In [[1866]], however, the Elector of Hesse was dethroned under [[Otto von Bismarck]]'s plan for [[German Empire|German Unification]].
==Reichstag==
The electors, like the other princes ruling States of the Empire, were members of the Reichstag, which was divided into three ''collegia'': the Council of Electors, the Council of Princes, and the Council of Cities. In addition to being members of the Council of Electors, several lay electors were therefore members of the Council of Princes as well by virtue of other territories they possessed. In many cases, the lay electors ruled numerous States of the Empire, and therefore held several votes in the Council of Princes. In [[1792]], the King of Bohemia held three votes, the Elector of Bavaria six votes, the Elector of Brandenburg eight votes, and the Elector of Hanover six votes. Thus, of the hundred votes in the [[List of Reichstag participants (1792)|Council of Princes in 1792]], twenty-three belonged to electors. The lay electors therefore exercised considerable influence, being members of the small Council of Electors and holding a significant number of votes in the Council of Princes. The assent of both bodies was required for important decisions affecting the structure of the Empire, such as the creation of new electorates or States of the Empire.
In addition to voting by colleges or councils, the Reichstag also voted on religious lines, as provided for by the Peace of Westphalia. The Archbishop of Mainz presided over the [[Roman Catholicism|Catholic]] body, or ''corpus catholicorum'', while the Elector of Saxony presided over the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] body, or ''corpus evangelicorum''. The division into religious bodies was on the basis of the official religion of the state, and not of its rulers. Thus, even when the Electors of Saxony were Catholics during the eighteenth century, they continued to preside over the ''corpus evangelicorum'', since the state of Saxony was officially Protestant.
==Elections==
[[Image:Balduineum Wahl Heinrich VII.jpg|thumb|left|350px|Illustration of electors deliberating (left to right: Arcibishop of Cologne, Arcibishop of Mainz, Arcibishop of Trier, Count Palatine, Duke of Saxony, Margrave of Brandenburg and King of Bohemia)]]
The individual chosen by the electors assumed title "King of the Romans", though he actually reigned in Germany and Austria. The King of the Romans became Holy Roman Emperor only when crowned by the pope. On many occasions, a pope refused to crown a king with whom he was engaged in a dispute, but a lack of a papal coronation deprived a king of only the title Emperor and not of the power to govern. The [[Habsburg]] dynasty stopped the practice of papal coronations. Since [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], all individuals chosen by the electors were merely "Emperors-Elect".
The electors were originally summoned by the Archbishop of Mainz within one month of an Emperor's death, and met within three months of being summoned. During the ''interregnum'', imperial power was exercised by two imperial [[vicar]]s. Each vicar, in the words of the Golden Bull, was "the administrator of the empire itself, with the power of passing judgments, of presenting to ecclesiastical benefices, of collecting returns and revenues and investing with fiefs, of receiving oaths of fealty for and in the name of the holy empire". The Elector of Saxony was vicar in areas operating under Saxon law ([[Saxony]], [[Westphalia]], [[Hanover (state)|Hanover]], and northern Germany), while the Elector Palatine was vicar in the remainder of the Empire ([[Franconia]], [[Swabia]], the [[Rhine]], and southern Germany). The Elector of Bavaria replaced the Elector Palatine in [[1623]], but when the latter was granted a new electorate in [[1648]], there was a dispute between the two as to which was vicar. In [[1659]], both purported to act as vicar, but the other vicar recognised the Elector of Bavaria. Later, the two electors made a pact to act as joint vicars, but the Reichstag rejected the agreement. In [[1711]], while the Elector of Bavaria was under the ban of the Empire, the Elector Palatine again acted |
.2
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
| IQs of identical twins || 0.86
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
| IQs of husband and wife || 0.4
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
| ''Heights'' of parent and child || 0.47
|}
{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|- bgcolor=#ccccff
|+ '''Economic and social correlates of IQ'''
! IQ || <75 || 75&ndash;90 || 90&ndash;110 || 110&ndash;125 || >125
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
| US population distribution || 5 || 20 || 50 || 20 || 5
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
| Married by age 30 || 72 || 81 || 81 || 72 || 67
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
| Out of labor force more than 1 month out of year (men) || 22 || 19 || 15 || 14 || 10
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
| Unemployed more than 1 month out of year (men) || 12 || 10 || 7 || 7 || 2
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
| Divorced in 5 years || 21 || 22 || 23 || 15 || 9
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
| % of children w/ IQ in bottom decile (mothers) || 39 || 17 || 6 || 7 || -
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
| Had an [[Illegitimacy|illegitimate]] baby (mothers) || 32 || 17 || 8 || 4 || 2
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
| Lives in poverty || 30 || 16 || 6 || 3 || 2
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
| Ever incarcerated (men) || 7 || 7 || 3 || 1 || 0
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
| Chronic welfare recipient (mothers) || 31 || 17 || 8 || 2 || 0
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
| High school dropout || 55 || 35 || 6 || 0.4 || 0
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
| colspan="6" | Values are the percentage of each IQ sub-population fitting each descriptor. Compiled by Gottfredson (1997) from Herrnstein & Murray (1994) pp. 171, 158, 163, 174, 230, 180, 132, 194, 247&ndash;248, 194, 146 respectively.
|}
Research shows that intelligence plays an important role in many valued life outcomes. In addition to academic success, intelligence correlates with job performance (see below), socioeconomic advancement (e.g., level of education, occupation, and income), and "social pathology" (e.g., adult criminality, poverty, unemployment, dependence on welfare, children outside of marriage). Recent work has demonstrated links between intelligence and health, longevity, and functional literacy. Correlations between ''[[g (factor)|g]]'' and life outcomes are pervasive, though IQ and [[happiness]] do not correlate. IQ and ''g'' correlate highly with school performance and job performance, less so with occupational prestige, moderately with income, and to a small degree with law-abidingness.
General intelligence (in the literature typically called "cognitive ability") is the best predictor of job performance by the standard measure, validity. ''Validity'' is the correlation between score (in this case cognitive ability, as measured, typically, by a paper-and-pencil test) and outcome (in this case job performance, as measured by a range of factors including supervisor ratings, promotions, training success, and tenure), and ranges between &minus;1.0 (the score is perfectly wrong in predicting outcome) and 1.0 (the score perfectly predicts the outcome). See [[validity (psychometric)]]. The validity of cognitive ability for job performance tends to increase with job complexity and varies across different studies, ranging from 0.2 for unskilled jobs to 0.8 for the most complex jobs.
A large [[meta-analysis]] (Hunter and Hunter, 1984) which pooled validity results across many studies encompassing thousands of workers (32,124 for cognitive ability), reports that the validity of cognitive ability for entry-level jobs is 0.54, larger than any other measure including job tryout (0.44), experience (0.18), interview (0.14), age (&minus;0.01), education (0.10), and biographical inventory (0.37).
Because higher test validity allows more accurate prediction of job performance, companies have a strong incentive to use cognitive ability tests to select and promote employees. IQ thus has high practical validity in economic terms. The [[utility]] of using one measure over another is proportional to the difference in their validities, all else equal. This is one economic reason why companies use job interviews (validity 0.14) rather than randomly selecting employees (validity 0.0).
However, legal barriers, most prominently the 1971 United States Supreme Court decision ''[[Griggs v. Duke Power Co.]]'', have prevented American employers from directly using cognitive ability tests to select employees, despite the tests' high validity. This is largely based on that cognitive ability scores in selection adversely affects some minority groups, due to that different groups have different mean scores on tests of cognitive ability. However, cognitive ability tests are still used in some organizations. The U.S. military uses the [[Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery|Armed Forces Qualifying Test]] (AFQT), as higher scores correlate with significant increases in effectiveness of both individual soldiers and units,[http://www.rand.org/pubs/technical_reports/2005/RAND_TR193.pdf] [http://www.rand.org/pubs/monograph_reports/MR818/MR818.ch2.pdf] and [[Microsoft]] is known for using non-illegal tests that correlate with IQ tests as part of the interview process, weighing the results even more than experience in many cases.[http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1:18847742/Microsofts+big+advantage+-+hiring+only+the+supersmart%7eR%7e+(Company+Operations).html] [https://www.keepmedia.com/Auth.do?extId=10022&uri=/archive/forbes/2005/1031/045.html]
Some researchers have echoed the popular claim that "in economic terms it appears that the IQ score measures something with decreasing marginal value. It is important to have enough of it, but having lots and lots does not buy you that much." (Detterman and Daniel, 1989)[http://www.americanscientist.org/template/AssetDetail/assetid/24538/page/4]
However, some studies suggest IQ continues to confer large benefits even at very high levels. Ability and performance for jobs are linearly related, such that at all IQ levels, an increase in IQ translates into a concomitant increase in performance (Coward and Sackett, 1990). In an analysis of hundreds of siblings, it was found that IQ has a substantial effect on income independently of family background (Murray, 1998).
Other studies question the real-world importance of whatever is measured with IQ tests, especially for differences in accumulated [[wealth]] and general [[economic inequality]] in a nation. IQ correlates highly with school performance but the correlations decrease the closer one gets to real-world outcomes, like with job performance, and still lower with income. It explains less than one sixth of the income variance [http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/apa_01.html]. Even for school grades, other factors explain most the variance. Regarding economic inequality, one study found that if we could magically give everyone identical IQs, we would still see 90 to 95 percent of the inequality we see today. [http://home.att.net/~Resurgence/L-IQpredicts.htm]. Another recent study (2002) found that wealth, race, and schooling are important to the inheritance of economic status, but IQ is not a major contributor and the genetic transmission of IQ is even less important [http://www.umass.edu/preferen/gintis/intergen.pdf]. Some argue that IQ scores are used as an excuse for not trying to reduce poverty or otherwise improve living standards for all. Claimed low intelligence has historically been used to justify the [[feudal system]] and unequal treatment of women (but note that many studies find identical average IQs among men and women; see [[sex and intelligence]]). In contrast, others claim that the refusal of high-IQ elites to take IQ seriously as a cause of inequality is itself immoral.[http://www.isteve.com/How_to_Help_the_Left_Half_of_the_Bell_Curve.htm]
== Public policy ==
{{main|Intelligence and public policy}}
Because public policy is often intended to influence the same outcomes (for example to improve education, fight poverty and crime, promote fairness in employment, and counter racial discrimination), policy decisions frequently interact with intelligence measures. In some cases, modern public policy references intelligence measures or even aims to alter cognitive development directly.
While broad consensus exists that intelligence measures neither dictate nor preclude any particular social policy, controversy surrounds many other aspects of this interaction. Central issues concern whether intelligence measures should be considered in policy decisions, the role of policy in influencing or accounting for group differences in measured intelligence, and the success of policies in light of individual and group intelligence differences. The importance and sensitivity of the policies at issue have produced an often-emotional ongoing debate spanning scholarly inquiry and the popular media from the national to the local level.
===Use of IQ in the United States legal system===
The Supreme Court of the United States has also validated the use of IQ results during the sentencing phase of some criminal proceedings. The Supreme Court case of ''Atkins v. Virginia'', decided [[June 20]] [[2002]], [http://supct.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/00-8452.ZO.html] held that executions of mentally retarded criminals are "cruel and unusual punishments" prohibited by the Eighth Amendment. In ''Atkins'' the court stated that
:"&hellip;[I]t appears that even among those States that regularly execute offenders and that have no prohibition with regard to the mentally retarded, only five have executed offenders possessing a known IQ less than 70 since we decided ''Penry''. The practice, therefore, has become truly unusual, and it is fair to say that a national consensus has developed against it."
In overturning the Virginia Supreme Court's holding, the ''Atkins'' opinion stated that petitioner's IQ result of 59 was a factor making the imposition of capital punishme |
f a series of newspapers: "The North Star", "Frederick Douglass Weekly", "Frederick Douglass' Paper", "Douglass' Monthly" and "New National Era". The motto of "The North Star" was "Right is of no sex--Truth is of no color--God is the Father of us all, and we are all Brethren".
Douglass' work spanned the years prior to and during the [[United States Civil War|Civil War]]. He was acquainted with the radical abolitionist Captain [[John Brown (abolitionist)|John Brown]] but did not approve of Brown's plan to start an armed slave revolt. Douglass believed that the [[Harpers Ferry, West Virginia|Harpers Ferry]] attack on federal property would enrage the American public. Douglass would later share a stage in [[Harpers Ferry]] with [[Andrew Hunter]], the prosecutor who successfully convicted Brown.
Douglass conferred with President [[Abraham Lincoln]] in 1863 on the treatment of black soldiers, and with President [[Andrew Johnson]] on the subject of black suffrage. His early collaborators were the white abolitionists [[William Lloyd Garrison]] and [[Wendell Phillips]]. In the early 1850's, however, Douglass split with the Garrisonians over the issue of the [[United States Constitution]].
Douglass had five children; two of them, Charles and Rossetta, helped produce his newspapers.
Douglass was an ordained minister of the [[African Methodist Episcopal Church]].
===Autobiography===
Douglass' most well-known work is his autobiography, ''Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave,'' which was published in 1845. Critics frequently attacked the book as inauthentic, not believing that a black man could possibly have produced so eloquent a piece of literature. The book was an immediate bestseller and received overwhelmingly positive critical reviews. Within three years of its publication, it had been reprinted nine times with 11,000 copies circulating in the United States; it was also translated into the [[French language|French]] and [[Dutch language|Dutch]] languages.
The book's success had an unfortunate side effect: his friends and mentors feared that the publicity would draw the attention of his ex-owner, Hugh Auld, who could try to get his "property" back. They encouraged him to go on a tour in [[Ireland]], as many other ex-slaves had done in the past. He set sail on the ''Cambria'' for [[Liverpool]] on [[August 16]], [[1845]], and arrived in Ireland when the [[Irish Potato Famine (1845-1849)|Irish famine]] was just beginning.
===Travels to Europe===
Douglass spent two years in the [[British Isles]] and gave several lectures, mainly in [[Protestant]] churches. He remarked that there he was treated not "as a color, but as a man." He met and befriended the [[Ireland|Irish]] nationalist [[Daniel O'Connell]]. When Douglass visited [[Scotland]], the members of the [[Free Church of Scotland]], whom he had criticized for accepting money from U.S. slave-owners, demonstrated against him with placards that read "Send back the [[nigger]]".
===The North Star Press===
In 1847, Douglass founded a New York newspaper called ''[[North Star (newspaper): )|The North Star]]'', which focused on opposing race and sex discrimination, especially concerning slavery. One evening, a group of men burst into the office and menacingly approached one of the printing presses. Douglass reached it before they did, saying, "You can smash this place and I'll open my paper elsewhere. Stop me, and others will take my place. You came here to destroy my paper? Let me help you." Douglass then smashed the printing press himself. "You can smash machines, but you can't smash ideas." Ashamed, the men filtered out.
===Pre-Civil War===
In 1851, Douglass merged the ''North Star'' with [[Gerrit Smith|Gerrit Smith's]] ''Liberty Party Paper'' to form ''Frederick Douglass' Paper'', which was published until 1860. Douglass came to agree with [[Gerrit Smith|Smith]] and [[Lysander Spooner]] that the [[United States Constitution]] is an anti-slavery document, reversing his earlier belief that it was pro-slavery, a view he had shared with William Lloyd Garrison. Garrison had publicly demonstrated his opinion of the Constitution by burning copies of it. Douglass' change of position on the Constitution was one of the most notable incidents of a division that emerged in the abolitionist movement after the publication of Spooner's book ''The Unconstitutionality of Slavery'' in 1846. This shift in opinion, as well as some other political differences, created a rift between Douglass and Garrison. Douglass further angered Garrison by saying that the Constitution could and should be used as an instrument in the fight against slavery. With this, Douglass began to assert his independence in the Garrisonians. Garrison saw the ''North Star'' as being in competition with the ''National Anti-Slavery Standard'' and [[Marius Robinson]]'s ''Anti-slavery Bugle''.
In March 1860, Annie, Douglass' youngest daughter, died at [[Rochester, New York]], while he was still in [[England]]. Douglass returned from [[England]] the following month, taking the route through [[Canada]] to avoid detection.
By the time of the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], Douglass was one of the most famous black men in the country, known for his oratories on the condition of the black race, and other issues such as women's rights.
===The Reconstruction era===
After the Civil War, Douglass held a number of important political positions. He served as President of the [[Reconstruction]]-era [[Freedman's Savings Bank]]; as marshal of the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]]; as minister-resident and [[consul-general]] to the Republic of [[Haiti]]; and as chargé d'affaires for [[Santo Domingo]]. After two years, he resigned his ambassadorship due to disagreements with U.S. government policy. In 1872, he moved to [[Washington, D.C]] after his house on South Avenue in [[Rochester, New York]] burned down &mdash; arson was suspected. Also lost was a complete issue of ''The North Star''.
In 1868, Douglass supported the presidential campaign of [[Ulysses S. Grant]]. The Klan Act and the Enforcement Act were signed into law by President Grant. Grant used their provisions vigorously, suspending [[habeas corpus]] in [[South Carolina]] and sending troops there and into other states; under his leadership, over 5,000 arrests were made and the [[Ku Klux Klan]] was dealt a serious blow.
Grant's vigor in disrupting the Klan made him unpopular among many whites, but Frederick Douglass praised him. An associate of Douglass wrote of Grant that African Americans "will ever cherish a grateful remembrance of his name, fame and great services."
In [[1872]], he became the first African American to receive a nomination for [[Vice President of the United States]], having been nominated to be [[Victoria Woodhull]]'s running mate on the [[Equal Rights Party]] ticket without his knowledge. During the campaign, he neither campaigned for the ticket nor even acknowledged that he had been nominated.
Douglass spoke at many schools around the country in the Reconstruction era, including [[Bates College]] in [[Lewiston, Maine]] in 1873
==Later life==
In 1877, Frederick Douglass purchased his final home in [[Washington D.C.]], on the banks of the [[Anacostia River]]. He named it ''[[Frederick Douglass National Historic Site|Cedar Hill]]'' (also spelled ''CedarHill''). He expanded the house from 14 to 21 rooms and included a china closet. One year later, Douglass expanded his property to 15 acres (61,000 m²), with the purchase of adjoining lots. The home is now the location of the [[Frederick Douglass National Historic Site]].
After the disappointments of [[Reconstruction]], many African Americans called [[Exoduster]]s moved to [[Kansas]] to form all-black towns. Douglass spoke out against the movement, urging blacks to stick it out. He was condemned and booed by black audiences.
In 1877, Douglass was appointed a [[United States Marshal]]. In 1881, he was appointed [[Recorder of Deeds]] for the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]]. His wife ([[Anna Murray Douglas]]) died in 1882, leaving him in a state of depression. His association with the activist [[Ida B. Wells]] brought meaning back into his life. In 1884, Douglass married [[Helen Pitts]], a white feminist from [[Honeoye, New York]]. Pitts was the daughter of [[Gideon Pitts, Jr]]., an abolitionist colleague and friend of Douglass. A graduate of [[Mount Holyoke College]] (at that time ''Mount Holyoke Female Seminary''), Pitts had worked on a radical feminist publication named ''Alpha'' while living in [[Washington, D.C.]].
Frederick and Helen Pitts Douglass faced a storm of controversy as a result of their marriage. She was a white woman and nearly 20 years younger than he. Both families recoiled; hers stopped speaking to her; his was bruised, as they felt his marriage was a repudiation of their mother. But individualist feminist [[Elizabeth Cady Stanton]] congratulated the two [http://winningthevote.org/FDouglass.html].
The new couple traveled to [[England]], [[France]], [[Italy]], [[Egypt]] and [[Greece]] from 1886 to 1887.
In later life, Douglass determined to ascertain his birthday. He was born in February of 1816 by his own calculations, but historians have found a record indicating his birth in February of 1818.
In 1892 the Haitian government appointed Douglass as its commissioner to the [[Chicago]] [[World's Columbian Exposition]]. He spoke for [[Irish Home Rule]] and on the efforts of [[Charles Stewart Parnell]]. He briefly revisited [[Ireland]] in 1886.
===Death===
On [[February 20]], [[1895]], Douglass attended a meeting of the National Council of Women in [[Washington, D.C.]]. During that meeting, he was broug |
(1804&ndash;1867)
* [[Axis Powers]] (1936&ndash;1945)
**[[Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere]] (1940&ndash;1945)
**[[Third Reich|Third German Reich]] (1933&ndash;1945)
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* [[Sassanian Empire]] (224&ndash;651)
* [[Serbian Empire]] (1345&ndash;1371)
* [[Seleucid Empire]] (323 BC&ndash;60 BC)
* [[Songhai Empire]] (1464&ndash;1591)
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* [[Soviet Empire]] (1922&ndash;1991)
* [[Spanish Empire]] (1492&ndash;1975)
* [[Swedish Empire]] (1561&ndash;1878)
* [[Teotihuacan|Teotihuacano Empire]]
* [[History of Tibet|Tibetan Empire]] (c. 7th&ndash;11th century)
* [[Timurid Empire]] (1401&ndash;1505)
* [[Empire of Trebizond|Trapezuntine Empire]] (1204&ndash;1461)
* [[Tu'i Tonga Empire]] (950&ndash;1875?)
* [[3rd dynasty of Ur|Ur III Empire]] (c. 2100&ndash;2000 BC)
* [[Republic of Venice|Venetian Empire]] (c. 900&ndash;1797)
* [[History of Vietnam|Vietnamese Empire]] (1802&ndash;1883)
* [[Vijayanagara Empire]] (c. 1350&ndash;1700)
==Notes==
<!--see wikipedia:footnote3 -->
#{{note|BE}}The [[United Kingdom]] still has some [[overseas territories]]. The [[British monarch]], Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] can be described as [[head of state]] of the United Kingdom. She is also monarch of the other [[Commonwealth Realms]]; the constitutional role of the monarchy is identical to that of the United Kingdom, but the historical and cultural significance may differ. Queen Elizabeth is also [[head of the Commonwealth|head of]] [[Commonwealth of Nations|The Commonwealth]]; this title, however, does not imply any political power over member nations, and is a non-hereditary title.
#{{note|BE1960}} ''De facto'', The British Empire ended in the 1960s.
==External links==
*[http://www.hostkingdom.net/earthrul.html To Rule the Earth...]: List of Great Empires
*[http://www.angelfire.com/cantina/negri/ Empire] A link to Hardt and Negri's book.
==See also==
*[[List of largest empires]]
*[[List of extinct countries, empires, etc.]]
*[[Trade bloc]]
*[[Global empire]]
[[Category:Forms of government]]
[[Category:Empires]]
[[br:Impalaeriezh]]
[[ca:Imperi]]
[[da:Imperium]]
[[es:Imperio]]
[[eo:Imperio]]
[[fr:Empire]]
[[ja:帝国]]
[[it:Impero]]
[[he:אימפריה]]
[[lv:Impērija]]
[[nl:Rijk (staat)]]
[[nn:Imperium]]
[[pl:Imperium]]
[[pt:Império]]
[[ru:Империя]]
[[sl:Imperij]]
[[tr:İmparatorluk]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Endlösung</title>
<id>10159</id>
<revision>
<id>35314843</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-15T21:33:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sceptre</username>
<id>274040</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>dblredir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Final Solution]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Final Solution</title>
<id>10160</id>
<revision>
<id>40757531</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T20:51:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Thryduulf</username>
<id>157530</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>topline disambig novel</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{main|Holocaust}}. ''For the Michael Chabon novel see [[The Final Solution]]''
{{The Holocaust}}
[[Image:Heydrich-Endlosung.jpg|thumb|200px|lright|In a [[February 26]], [[1942]] letter to German diplomat [[Martin Luther (diplomat)|Martin Luther]], [[Reinhard Heydrich]] follows up on the [[Wannsee Conference]] by asking Luther for administrative assistance in the implementation of the "Endlösung der Judenfrage" (Final Solution of the Jewish Question). See the [http://www.ghwk.de/engl/february-26-1942.htm Transcription and translation of this letter] at the Memorial House of the Wannsee Conference.]]
The '''Final Solution of the Jewish Question''' ([[German language|German]] '''''Endlösung der Judenfrage''''') refers to the [[Germany|German]] [[Nazi]]s' plan to [[genocide|genocidally]] kill the entire European Jewish population during [[World War II]]. The term was coined by [[Adolf Eichmann]], a top Nazi official who supervised the genocidal campaign and was later judged in Jerusalem in 1961. The execution of the Final Solution resulted in the most deadly phase of the [[Holocaust]].
Mass killings of over one million Jews occurred before the plans of the Final Solution were fully implemented in 1942, but it was only with the decision to eradicate the entire Jewish population that the [[extermination camps]] were built and industrialized mass slaughter of Jews began in earnest. This decision to systematically kill the Jews of Europe was made by the time of, or at the [[Wannsee conference]], which took place in [[Berlin]], in the Wannsee Villa on [[January 20]], [[1942]]. During the conference there was a discussion held by a group of Nazi officials to decide on the "Final Solution of the [[Jewish Question]]". The records and minutes of this meeting were found intact by the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] at the end of the war and served as valuable evidence during the [[Nuremberg Trials]]. By spring of 1942, [[Operation Reinhard]] began the systematic extermination of the Jews, although hundreds of thousands had already been killed by death squads and in mass pogroms.
There is still considerable debate among historians about when, exactly, the decision to eradicate the Jewish population of Europe was made by the Nazi leadership. The consensus is that the outlines of the Final Solution arose gradually throughout the summer and fall of 1941. Prominent Holocaust historian [[Christopher Browning]] has stated that the decision to exterminate the Jews was actually two decisions, one in July of 1941 to kill the Jews of Russia (mass killings by the [[Einsatzgruppen]] had already begun by the summer of 1941), the second in October of 1941 to exterminate the remaining Jews of Europe. There is ample evidence for this view, for example in [[July 31]], [[1941]], under instructions from [[Adolf Hitler]], Nazi official [[Hermann Göring]] ordered [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] general [[Reinhard Heydrich]] to "submit to me as soon as possible a general plan of the administrative material and financial measures necessary for carrying out the desired final solution of the Jewish question."
Christian Gerlach has argued for a different timeframe suggesting that the decision was made by Hitler on the [[12 December]] [[1941]], when he addressed a meeting of the National Socialist Party (the Reichsleiter) and of regional party leaders (the Gauleiter). [[Joseph Goebbels]] recorded in his notes the following, "Regarding the Jewish question, the Führer is determined to clear the table. He warned the Jews that if they were to cause another world war, it would lead to their own destruction. Those were not empty words. Now the world war has come. The destruction of the Jews must be its necessary consequence. We cannot be sentimental about it. It is not for us to feel sympathy for the Jews. We should have sympathy rather with our own German people. If the German people have to sacrifice 160,000 victims in yet another campaign in the east, then those responsible for this bloody conflict will have to pay for it with their lives." In his diary entry of [[13 December]] [[1941]], the day after Hitler’s private speech, Joseph Goebbels wrote:"In respect of the Jewish question, th |
gomery County, Ohio|Montgomery County]]. The '''Greater Dayton area''' or '''Dayton metropolitan area''' encompasses a number of contiguous communities outside Dayton city proper, including [[Vandalia, Ohio|Vandalia]], [[Trotwood, Ohio|Trotwood]], [[Kettering, Ohio|Kettering]], [[Centerville, Montgomery County, Ohio|Centerville]] and [[Beavercreek, Ohio|Beavercreek]], with a population of 848,153 ([[2000]]). Dayton is situated within the [[Miami Valley (Ohio)|Miami Valley region]] of Ohio, just north of the [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati]] [[United States metropolitan area|metropolitan area]].
Dayton plays host to significant [[industry|industrial]], [[aerospace]], and [[research and development|research]] activity and is known for the many technical innovations and inventions developed there. The city was the home of the [[Wright Brothers]], poet [[Paul Laurence Dunbar]], and entrepreneur [[John Henry Patterson (NCR owner)|John H. Patterson]]. Dayton is nicknamed the '''Gem City''', and is also sometimes referred to as the "Birthplace of Aviation."
Dayton Sister Cities International supports efforts for business and cultural development in [[Augsburg, Germany]]; [[Oiso, Kanagawa|Oiso, Japan]]; [[Monrovia|Monrovia, Liberia]]; [[Holon|Holon, Israel]] and [[Sarajevo|Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina]].
{{Template:US City infobox|
city = Dayton |
state = Ohio |
motto = |
nickname = Gem City |
flag = DaytonFlag.gif |
seal = Dayton.jpg |
map = OHMap-doton-Dayton.png |
founded = [[April 1]], [[1796]] |
incorporated = [[1805]] |
county = [[Montgomery County, Ohio|Montgomery County]] |
mayor = [[Rhine McLin|Rhine L. McLin]] |
area = 146.7 [[square kilometer|km&sup2;]] (56.6 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]) |
area water = 2.2 km&sup2; (0.9 mi&sup2;) |
area percentage = 1.55%|
census yr = 2000|
city pop = 166,179|
metro pop = 848,153|
density = 1,150.3|
time zone = Eastern|
utc = 5|
north_coord = 39.7627 |
west_coord = 84.1967|
web = www.ci.dayton.oh.us|
|}}
==Name and history==
Dayton was founded on [[April 1]], [[1796]] by a small group of [[United States|US]] settlers seven years before the admission of Ohio to the [[USA|Union]] in [[1803]]. The town was incorporated in [[1805]] and given its name after [[Jonathan Dayton]], a captain in the [[American Revolutionary War]] and signer of the [[United States Constitution|U.S. Constitution]]. Dayton was the home of [[aviation]] pioneers [[Wilbur Wright|Wilbur]] and [[Orville Wright]] who funded their aviation endeavors with the proceeds of a successful bicycle shop in Dayton. It was also the home of the poet [[Paul Laurence Dunbar]] and of [[John Henry Patterson (NCR owner)|John H. Patterson]] [http://www.libraries.wright.edu/special/manuscripts/ms236.html 1], who founded a successful [[cash register]] business in Dayton, [[National Cash Register Corporation]], or NCR, which eventually diversified and was corporation of great importance in the United States during the mid- to late-20th century.
In [[1797]], [[Daniel C. Cooper]] laid out the [[Mad River Road]], the first overland connection between [[Cincinnati, Ohio]] and Dayton. This opened up the "Mad River Country" at Dayton and the upper Miami Valley to settlement.
[[image:Dayton 1870.JPG|thumbnail|200px|right|Dayton in 1870]]
The [[Miami and Erie Canal]] built in the 1830s connected the Dayton commerce from [[Lake Erie]] via the Great Miami River and served as the principal route of transportation for western Ohio until the 1850s.
The catastrophic ''Great Dayton Flood'' of March [[1913]] severely affected much of the city, and stimulated the growth of suburban communities outside central Dayton in areas lying further from the Miami River and on higher ground; the [[Miami Conservancy District]] was established in [[1914]] as a result. The flood remains an event of note in popular memory and local histories.
Dayton's primary nickname is the "Gem City". The origin of the name is no longer clear; it appears to stem either from a well-known [[racehorse]] named "Gem" that hailed from Dayton, or from descriptions of the city likening it to a ''gem''. The most likely origin appears to be an 1840s article in a [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati]] newspaper that reads
:In a small bend of the Great Miami River, with canals on the east and south, it can be fairly said, without infringing on the rights of others, that ''Dayton is the gem of all our interior towns''. It possesses wealth, refinement, enterprise, and a beautiful country, beautifully developed.
"...She shall ever claim our duty,
For she shines--the brightest gem
That has ever decked with beauty
Dear Ohio's diadem."
Paul Laurence Dunbar 1872-1906
(from his poem:"Toast to Dayton")
The nickname "Birthplace of Aviation" is also frequently seen due to Dayton being the hometown of the Wright Brothers. In their bicycle shop in Dayton, the Wrights developed the principles of aerodynamics, and designed and constructed a number of gliders and portions of their first airplanes. After their first manned flights in [[Kitty Hawk, North Carolina]], the Wrights continued testing at nearby [[Huffman Prairie]]. [http://www.nasm.si.edu/wrightbrothers/fly/1904/index.cfm]
===Notable facts===
The city has a rich heritage of inventions and innovations, with more patents per capita than any other city in the nation. Some of these inventions include the stepladder, microfiche, cellophane tape, pop top beverage cans, the movie projector, space food, parking meters, the airplane supercharger, the automobile self-starter, gas masks, and the parachute.
Dayton has received the [[All-America City Award]] three times.
The first All-American [[Soap Box Derby]] was held in Dayton on [[August 19]], [[1934]].
==Political structure==
[[Image:Dayton-ohio-city-hall.jpg|thumb|300px|Dayton City Hall.]]
In [[1913]], Dayton became the first large city in the United States to adopt the [[Council-Manager government|council-manager system of city government]]. In this system, the mayor is merely the chairperson of the city commission and has one vote on the commission just like the other commissioners. The commission chooses a city manager, who holds administrative authority over the city government.
As of January 2006:
'''Dayton City Commission:'''
*'''Mayor''' [[Rhine McLin|Rhine L. McLin]] (D)
*[[Dean Lovelace|Dean A. Lovelace]] (D)
*[[Joey Williams|Joey D. Williams]] (D)
*[[Matt Joseph]] (D)
*[[Nan Whaley]] (D)
*'''City Manager''': [[James T. Dinneen]]
[[Image:Dayton-ohio-courthouse-old.jpg|thumb|300px|Old county courthouse, an example of [[Greek revival architecture]]; completed 1850.]] [[Image:Dayton-ohio-war-memorial.jpg|thumb|250px|Civil War memorial in Dayton, Ohio. Electric trolley bus cables are visible in the photo.]]
'''Dayton Municipal Court'''
*'''Clerk of Courts''': [[Mark Owens]] (D)
*Presiding Judge [[John S. Pickrel]] (D)
*Administrative Judge [[James F. Cannon]] (D)
*Judges:
**[[Daniel G. Gehres]] (D)
**[[Bill C. Littlejohn]]
**[[Carl S. Henderson]] (D)
'''Dayton Public Schools Board of Education'''
*[[Gail A. Littlejohn]], president
*[[Yvonne V. Isaacs]], vice president
*[[Clayton R. Luckie III]], parliamentarian
*[[Joe Lacey]]
*[[Ann Marie Gallin]]
*[[Lelia Massoud]]
*[[Tracy L. Rusch]]
*[[List of mayors of Dayton, Ohio]]
*[[List of City Commissioners of Dayton, Ohio]]
*[[Election Results, Mayor of Dayton, Ohio]]
*[[Election Results, Mayor of Dayton, Ohio (Primary Election)]]
*[[Election Results, Dayton, Ohio, City Commission]]
*[[Election Results, Dayton, Ohio, City Commission (Primary Election)]]
*[[Election Results, Dayton, Ohio, Municipal Court Judge]]
*[[Election Results, Dayton, Ohio, Municipal Court Clerk]]
===Urban design and architecture===
Unlike many [[Midwest]]ern cities of its age, Dayton has very broad and straight downtown streets (generally two full lanes in each direction), facilitating access to the downtown even after the automobile became popular. The main reason for the broad streets was that Dayton was a marketing and shipping center from its beginning: streets were broad to enable wagons drawn by teams of three to four pairs of oxen to turn around. In addition, some of today's streets were once barge canals flanked by draw-paths.
A courthouse building was constructed in downtown Dayton in [[1888]] to supplement Dayton's original [[Neoclassical architecture|Neoclassical]] courthouse, which still stands. This second, "new" courthouse has since been replaced with new facilities as well as a park.
Dayton's nine historic neighborhoods &mdash; Oregon, Wright-Dunbar, Dayton View, Grafton Hill, McPherson Town, Webster Station, Huffman, Saint Anne's Hill, and South Park &mdash; feature mostly single-family houses and mansions in the Neoclassical, [[Jacobethan]], [[Tudorbethan architecture|Tudor Revival]], [[Gothic Revival architecture|English Gothic]], [[Chateauesque]], [[Arts and Crafts movement|Craftsman]], [[Queen Anne Style architecture|Queen Anne]], [[Georgian Revival architecture|Georgian Revival]], [[Colonial Revival architecture|Colonial Revival]], [[Renaissance Revival architecture|Renaissance Revival]], [[Shingle Style architecture|Shingle]], [[Prairie School|Prairie]], [[Mission Revival Style architecture|Mission Revival]], [[Italianate|Eastlake/Italianate]], [[American Foursquare]], and [[Federal architecture|Federal]] styles of architecture.[http://www.preservationdayton.com/Pages/neighbors2.asp]
== Dayton Peace Accords ==
The [[Dayton Agreement]], a peace accord between the parties to the hostilities of the [[Yugoslav wars|conflict in Bosnia and the former Yugoslavia]], was negotiated in the Dayton area. From [[November 1]], [[1995]] to [[November 21]], [[1995]], negotiations took place at [[Wright-Patterson Air Force Base]] near Dayton.
==Cultural and recreational activities==
Dayton is home to the [[Dayton A |
he form the world over. In the spring Gate House would host the "stirring of the chicken" where the house members would cook hundreds of chicken fajitas and feed them to guests.
Presidents of Gate House:
*[[2005]] Adam Thom
*[[2004]] Trevor Hill
*[[2003]] Jonathan Bedley
*[[2002]] Matt Stockburn
*[[2001]] Tafari Mbadiwe
*[[2000]] Burt James
*[[1999]] Jon Davies
*[[1998]] Mike Warner
*[[1997]] Lance Fukumoto
*[[1996]] Neil Cheddie
*[[1995]] None (closed for renovations)
*[[1994]] David Harkness/Aidan Cunniffe
*[[1993]] Nick Gieschen
*[[1992]] Greg Sarney
*[[1991]] Stephan Mostowy
*[[1990]] Darrel Cox
*[[1989]] Bruce "Bastard" Landon
*[[1988]] Terry Mark
*[[1987]] Eric "Yogi" Krause
*[[1986]] Scott Anderson
*[[1985]] Rob Sephton
*[[1984]] ???
See also [[Burwash bug]], [[Duel (film)|Duel]], [[R.C. Harris Filtration Plant]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Godels incompleteness theorem</title>
<id>12944</id>
<revision>
<id>41645410</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T19:36:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Trovatore</username>
<id>310173</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fx dbl redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gödel's incompleteness theorems]] {{R from misspelling}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>George Benson</title>
<id>12945</id>
<revision>
<id>39429328</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T02:03:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BigT2006</username>
<id>901115</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''George Benson''' (born [[March 22]], [[1943]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[jazz]] guitarist, singer and composer.
He was born and raised in the [[Hill District]] in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]] and was a professional musician from age 3.
George Benson started out playing straight-ahead instrumental jazz with organist [[Jack McDuff]]. Benson got his first experience playing with his several-year stint with McDuff's group. At the age of 21, Benson recorded his first album as leader, ''The New Boss Guitar'', with Brother Jack McDuff on organ.
Benson's next recording was ''It's Uptown with the George Benson Quartet'' with [[Lonnie Smith]] on organ and [[Ronnie Cuber]] on baritone sax. This album showcases Benson's talent in constructing swinging bebop lines at blistering tempos. Benson followed it up with "The George Benson Cookbook," also with [[Lonnie Smith]] and [[Ronnie Cuber]].
One of his major hits is the song "This Masquerade", which is included in the top-selling album ''Breezin' ''. This album represents a shift to more commercially oriented music which brought Benson a wider audience but alienated some jazz fans. Other singles that have made the [[Billboard Hot 100]] charts include "On Broadway" ([[1978]]), "Love Ballad" ([[1979]]), "Give Me The Night" ([[1980]]) and "Turn Your Love Around" ([[1982]]).
Benson continues to play outstanding jazz guitar, as evidenced on recordings such as Jimmy Smith's ''Off the Top,'' Benson's own live album ''Par Excellence'', and ''Tenderly'', on which Benson is accompanied by [[McCoy Tyner]] on piano.
For his contribution to the recording industry, George Benson has a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] at 7055 Hollywood Blvd.
==Discography==
*''It's Uptown'' ([[1966]])
*''George Benson Cookbook'' ([[1966]])
*''Benson Burner'' ([[1966]])
*''Willow Weep For Me'' ([[1967]])
*''Shape of Things to Come'' (October [[1968]])
*''Tell It Like It Is'' (August [[1969]])
*''The Other Side of Abbey Road'' (November [[1969]])
*''I Got A Woman And Some Blues'' ([[1970]])
*''Beyond the Blue Horizon'' (February [[1971]])
*''White Rabbit'' (November [[1971]])
*''Body Talk'' ([[1973]])
*''Bad Benson'' (June [[1974]])
*''Breezin' '' (August [[1976]])
*''In Flight'' (January [[1977]])
*''Livin' Inside Your Love'' (April [[1979]])
*''Give Me The Night'' (September [[1980]])
*''In Your Eyes'' (June [[1983]])
*''20-20'' (January [[1985]])
*''While The City Sleeps...'' (September [[1986]])
*''Collaboration'' (July [[1987]])
*''Twice the Love'' (August [[1988]])
*''Tenderly'' (July [[1989]])
*''Big Boss Band'' (October [[1990]])
*''Love Remembers'' (June [[1993]])
*''That's Right'' (June [[1996]])
*''Absolute Benson'' (May [[2000]])
*''Best Of Live'' (October [[2005]])
'''More complete discography from nl.wikipedia.org below:'''
===Albums===
{{Albumstabel}}
|- align=center
|align=left|'' George Benson/Jack McDuff ''|| 1964 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' The New Boss Guitar ''|| 1964 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Benson Burner ''|| 1965 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' This is Jazz, Vol. 9 ''|| 1965 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Its Uptown ''|| 1966 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' George Benson Cookbook ''|| 1966 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Benson Burner ''|| 1966 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Blue Benson ''|| 1967 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Willow Weep For Me ''|| 1967 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Giblet Gravy ''|| 1968 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Shape of Things to Come ''|| 1968 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Goodies ''|| 1968 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Tell It Like It Is ''|| 1969 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' The other side of Abbey Road ''|| 1969 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' I Got A Woman And Some Blues ''|| 1970 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Beyond the Blue Horizon ''|| 1971 || recorded at ''Van Gelder Studios (NL)'' ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' White Rabbit ''|| 1971 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Jazz on a Sunday Afternoon Vol. 1 & 2 ''|| 1973 || Live ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Wichcraft ''|| 1973 || Live ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Body Talk ''|| 1973 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Bad Benson ''|| 1974 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' In Concert-Carnegie Hall ''|| 1975 || Live ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Good King Bad ''|| 1975 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Breezin ''|| 1976 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Benson & Farrell ''|| 1976 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' In Flight ''|| 1977 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Livin Inside Your Love ''|| 1977 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Weekend in L.A ''|| 1977 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Space Album ''|| 1978 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' In Your Eyes ''|| 1978 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Take Five ''|| 1979 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Cast Your Fate to the Wind ''|| 1980 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Give Me The Night ''|| 1980 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' GB ''|| 1981 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' The George Benson Collection ''|| 1981 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Pacific Fire ''|| 1983 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' 20-20 ''|| 1984 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Live in Concert ''|| 1984 || Live ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' While The City Sleeps… ''|| 1986 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Collaboration ''|| 1987 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Twice the Love ''|| 1988 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Tenderly ''|| 1989 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Big Boss Band ''|| 1990 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' The Essence of George Benson ''|| 1992 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Love Remembers ''|| 1993 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' The Most Exciting New Guitarist on the Jazz Scene ''|| 1994 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' California Dreamin' ''|| 1996 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Lil Darlin' ''|| 1996 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Thats Right ''|| 1996 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Standing Together ''|| 1998 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Masquerade ''|| 1998 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' The Masquerade Is Over ''|| 1999 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Absolute Benson ''|| 2000 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' All Blues ''|| 2001 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Blue Bossa ''|| 2002 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' After Hours ''|| 2002 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Irreplaceable ''|| 2004 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Golden Legends Live ''|| 2004 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Jazz After Hours with George Benson ''|| 2005 || - ||
|- align=center
|align=left|'' Best of George Benson ''|| 2005 || Live ||
|}
==Samples==
*[[Media:The Masquerade Is Over.ogg|Download sample]] of "The Masquerade Is Over"
Back in the day George Benson occasionally introduced new and upcoming artists during performances. On one such occasion George Benson introduced a guitarist named John Bowden. John played a black Les Paul. John now goes under the name 2guitarjohn.com. The performance with George Benson was in 1976. It was just prior to George's release "This Masquerade". Drummer Kenwood Denard also sat in on the set.
==External links==
*[http://www.playjazzguitar.com/george_benson.html George Benson]
*[http://www.georgebenson.com/ George Benson official homepage]
*[http://www.onamrecords.com/gallery/George%20Benson George Benson's career on A&M Records with gallery, international discography]
*[http://www.jazzguitar.be/george_benson_licks.html George Benson Guitar Tabs]
*[http://www.guitar-poll.com/ Guitar-Poll]
[[Category:1943 births|Benson, George]]
[[Category:Living people|Benson, George]]
[[Categ |
elain]], French writer (d. [[1674]])
*[[1612]] - [[Samuel Butler (1612-1680)|Samuel Butler]], English poet (d. [[1680]])
*[[1660]] - [[André Campra]], French composer (d. [[1744]])
*[[1670]] - [[John Aislabie]], English politician (d. [[1742]])
*[[1713]] - [[Gasparo Gozzi]], Italian critic and dramatist (d. [[1786]])
*[[1777]] - [[Madame Recamier|Madame Récamier]], French writer (d. [[1849]])
*[[1795]] - [[Thomas Carlyle]], British writer and historian (d. [[1881]])
*[[1798]] - [[Jules Armand Dufaure]], French statesman (d. [[1881]])
*[[1835]] - [[Samuel Butler (1835-1902)|Samuel Butler]], British writer (d. [[1902]])
*[[1849]] - [[Crazy Horse (person)|Crazy Horse]], Oglala Sioux chief (d. [[1877]])
*[[1852]] - [[Orest Khvolson]], Russian physicist (d. [[1934]])
*[[1861]] - [[Lillian Russell]], American singer and actress (d. [[1922]])
*[[1866]] (O.S.) - [[Wassily Kandinsky]], Russian-born abstract painter (d. [[1944]])
*[[1875]] - [[Rainer Maria Rilke]], Austrian poet (d. [[1926]])
*[[1892]] - [[Francisco Franco]], dictator of Spain (d. [[1975]])
*[[1895]] - [[Fung Yu-lan]], Chinese philosopher (d. [[1990]])
*[[1903]] - [[Cornell Woolrich]], American writer (d. [[1968]])
*[[1908]] - [[Alfred Hershey]], American bacteriologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1997]])
*[[1912]] - [[Pappy Boyington]], American pilot (d. [[1988]])
*[[1914]] - [[Rudolf Hausner]], Austrian artist (d. [[1995]])
*[[1916]] - [[Ely Jacques Kahn, Jr.]], American writer (d. [[1994]])
*[[1921]] - [[Deanna Durbin]], Canadian actress and singer
*[[1922]] - [[Gerard Philipe|Gérard Philipe]], French actor (d. [[1959]])
*[[1931]] - [[Alex Delvecchio]], Canadian hockey player
*[[1934]] - [[Victor French]], American actor (d. [[1989]])
*1934 - [[Wink Martindale]], American game show host
*[[1937]] - [[Max Baer, Jr.]], American actor, screenwriter, director, and producer
*[[1938]] - [[Yvonne Minton]], Australian soprano
*[[1939]] - [[Freddy Cannon]], American musician
*[[1940]] - [[John Cale]], Welsh classical and rock musician and multi-instrumentalist for [[The Velvet Underground]]
*[[1942]] - [[Gemma Jones]], British actress
*1942 - [[Roh Tae-woo]], [[President of South Korea]]
*[[1944]] - [[Dennis Wilson]], American musician and singer ([[The Beach Boys]]) (d. [[1983]])
*[[1945]] - [[Roberta Bondar]], Canadian astronaut and scientist
*[[1949]] - [[Jeff Bridges]], American actor
*[[1953]] - [[Rick Middleton]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1955]] - [[Dave Taylor (hockey)|Dave Taylor]], Canadian ice hockey player
*[[1957]] - [[Eric S. Raymond]], American open source advocate
*[[1958]] - [[Steve Sailer]], American political commentator
*[[1960]] - [[Glynis Nunn]], Australian athlete
*[[1961]] - [[Frank Reich]], American football player
*[[1963]] - [[Sergei Bubka]], Ukrainian pole vaulter
*[[1964]] - [[Marisa Tomei]], American actress
*[[1966]] - [[Fred Armisen]], American actor and musician
*[[1969]] - [[Lucas Radebe]], South-african footballer
*1969 - [[Jay-Z]] (Shawn Carter), American rapper
*[[1972]] - [[Nikki Tyler]], American actress
*[[1973]] - [[Tyra Banks]], American model
*[[1979]] - [[Brennan M. Pettis]], Allstar
==Deaths==
*[[765]] - [[Jafar Sadiq]], Shia Imam (b. [[702]])
*[[771]] - [[Carloman, son of Pippin III|Carloman]], King of the Franks (b. [[751]])
*[[1075]] - [[Archbishop Anno II]] of Cologne
*[[1123]] - [[Omar Khayyám]], Persian poet, astronomer, mathematician, and philosopher (b. [[1048]])
*[[1214]] - [[William I of Scotland]]
*[[1270]] - [[Theobald V of Champagne]], King of Navarre
*[[1334]] - [[Pope John XXII]] (b. [[1249]])
*[[1340]] - [[Henry Burghersh]], English bishop and chancellor (b. [[1292]])
*[[1459]] - [[Adolf VIII]], Duke of Southern Jutland (b. [[1401]])
*[[1576]] - [[Rheticus]], Austrian mathematician (b. [[1514]])
*[[1585]] - [[John Willock]], Scottish reformer
*[[1609]] - [[Alexander Hume]], Scottish poet
*[[1642]] - [[Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal Richelieu]], French statesman (b. [[1585]])
*[[1649]] - [[William Drummond of Hawthornden]], Scottish poet (b. [[1585]])
*[[1679]] - [[Thomas Hobbes]], English philosopher (b. [[1588]])
*[[1680]] - [[Thomas Bartholin]], Danish physician, mathematician, and theologian (b. [[1616]])
*[[1696]] - [[Empress Meisho of Japan]] (b. [[1624]])
*[[1732]] - [[John Gay]], British playwright (b. [[1685]])
*[[1784]] - [[Wiseman Claget]], British classical scholar (b. [[1721]])
*[[1798]] - [[Luigi Galvani]], Italian physicist (b. [[1737]])
*[[1845]] - [[Gregor MacGregor]], British con-artist
*[[1926]] - [[Ivana Kobilca]], Slovenian-born painter (b. [[1861]])
*[[1933]] - [[Stefan George]], German poet (b. [[1868]])
*[[1935]] - [[Johan Halvorsen]], Norwegian composer (b. [[1864]])
*1935 - [[Charles Robert Richet]], French physiologist, [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1850]])
*[[1945]] - [[Thomas Hunt Morgan]], American geneticist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1866]])
*[[1956]] - [[Alexandr Rodchenko]], Russian painter and photographer (b. [[1891]])
*[[1967]] - [[Bert Lahr]], American actor (b. [[1895]])
*[[1976]] - [[Tommy Bolin]], American guitarist (b. [[1951]])
*1976 - [[Benjamin Britten]], British composer (b. [[1913]])
*[[1980]] - [[Francisco Sá Carneiro]], [[Prime Minister of Portugal]] (b. [[1934]])
*1980 - [[Stanislawa Walasiewicz]], Polish-born athlete (b. [[1911]])
*[[1993]] - [[Frank Zappa]], American musician and composer (b. [[1940]])
*[[1997]] - [[Richard Vernon]], British actor (b. [[1925]])
*[[2005]] - [[Gregg Hoffman]], American film producer (b. [[1963]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Roman festivals]] - secret ceremonies in honor of [[Bona Dea]]
*[[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - Saint [[John of Damascus]]: optional memorial; also [[Saint Barbara]]
* Also see [[December 4 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)]]
*[[Santería]], [[Lukumí]] - Day of [[Shango]]
*International Hug Day. See Also: [[January 21]]st, [[National Hugging Day]]
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/4 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[December 3]] - [[December 5]] - [[November 4]] - [[January 4]] — [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:4 Desember]]
[[ar:4 ديسمبر]]
[[an:4 d'abiento]]
[[ast:4 d'avientu]]
[[bg:4 декември]]
[[be:4 сьнежня]]
[[bs:4. decembar]]
[[ca:4 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 4]]
[[cv:Раштав, 4]]
[[co:4 di decembre]]
[[cs:4. prosinec]]
[[cy:4 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:4. december]]
[[de:4. Dezember]]
[[et:4. detsember]]
[[el:4 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:4 de diciembre]]
[[eo:4-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 4]]
[[fo:4. desember]]
[[fr:4 décembre]]
[[fy:4 desimber]]
[[ga:4 Nollaig]]
[[gl:4 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 4일]]
[[hr:4. prosinca]]
[[io:4 di decembro]]
[[id:4 Desember]]
[[ia:4 de decembre]]
[[is:4. desember]]
[[it:4 dicembre]]
[[he:4 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:4 Desember]]
[[ka:4 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:4 gòdnika]]
[[ku:4'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:4 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 4]]
[[lb:4. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 4]]
[[mk:4 декември]]
[[ms:4 Disember]]
[[nap:4 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:4 december]]
[[ja:12月4日]]
[[no:4. desember]]
[[nn:4. desember]]
[[oc:4 de decembre]]
[[pl:4 grudnia]]
[[pt:4 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:4 decembrie]]
[[ru:4 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 4.]]
[[sco:4 December]]
[[sq:4 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:4 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 4]]
[[sk:4. december]]
[[sl:4. december]]
[[sr:4. децембар]]
[[fi:4. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:4 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 4]]
[[tt:4. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 4]]
[[th:4 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:4 tháng 12]]
[[tr:4 Aralık]]
[[uk:4 грудня]]
[[wa:4 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 4]]
[[zh:12月4日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 4]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>December 3</title>
<id>8355</id>
<revision>
<id>42007402</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:35:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rklawton</username>
<id>754622</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Births */ removed non-noteable</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- language links at the bottom of this page -->
'''[[December 3]]''' is the 337th (in [[leap year]]s the 338th) day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 28 days remaining.
{{DecemberCalendar}}
==Events==
*[[1805]] - [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]] mark their explorations from the [[Missouri River]] overland to the [[Columbia River]] on a [[pine]] tree.
*[[1818]] - [[Illinois]] becomes the 21st [[U.S. state]].
*[[1828]] - In the [[U.S. presidential election, 1828|U.S. Presidential election]], challenger [[Andrew Jackson]] beats incumbent [[John Quincy Adams]] and is elected [[President of the United States]].
*[[1854]] - [[Eureka Stockade]]: In what is claimed by many to be the birth of Australian democracy, more than 20 goldminers at [[Ballarat, Victoria|Ballarat]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[Australia]] are killed by state troopers in an uprising over mining licences.
*[[1901]] - US President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] delivers a 20,000-word speech to the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] asking Congress curb the power of [[trust]]s "within reasonable limits".
*[[1904]] - The [[Jupiter's natural satellites|Jovian moon]] [[Himalia (moon)|Himalia]] is discovered by [[Charles Dillon Perrine]] at California's [[Lick Observatory]].
*[[1912]] - [[Bulgaria]], [[Greece]], [[Montenegro]], and [[Serbia]] (the [[Balkan League]]) sign an armistice with [[Turkey]], ending the two-month long First [[Balkan Wars|Balkan War]].
*[[1917]] - After nearly 20 years of planning and construction, the [[Quebec Bridge]] opens to traffic.
*[[1925]] - [[George Gershwin]]'s ''Piano Concerto in F'' is premiered at [[Carnegie Hall]].
*[[1929]] - [[Great Depression]]: US President [[Herbert Hoover]] announces to the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] that the worst effects of the recent [[stock market]] crash are behind the nation and the American people have regained faith in the [[economics| |
e city of [[Oxford]] (the city of dreaming spires), the west by [[Stroud, England|Stroud]], and the south by the middle reaches of the [[Thames Valley]] and towns such as [[Cirencester]], [[Lechlade]] and [[Fairford]]. However, key features of the area, including the characteristic uplift of the ''''Cotswold Edge'''' can be clearly seen as far south as [[Bath]].
[[Image:cotswolds.bibury.cottages.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A Cotswold scene at Bibury in Gloucestershire]]
The area is characterised by attractive small [[town]]s and [[village]]s built of the underlying rock, known as ''[[Cotswold stone]]'' (a yellow [[oolite|oolitic]] [[limestone]]). In the [[Middle Ages]], the Cotswolds were prosperous from the [[wool]] trade, some of this money was put into the building of [[church]]es, so the area has a number of large, handsome Cotswold stone "[[wool church]]es". The area remains affluent and has attracted wealthy Londoners and others who own [[second home]]s in the area or have chosen to retire to the Cotswolds.
Typical Cotswold towns are [[Broadway,_Worcestershire|Broadway]], [[Burford]], [[Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire|Chipping Norton]], [[Cirencester]], [[Moreton-in-Marsh]] and [[Stow-on-the-Wold]]. The Cotswold village of [[Chipping Campden]] is notable for being the home of the [[Arts and Crafts movement]], founded by [[William Morris]] at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. William Morris lived, occasionally, in [[Broadway Tower]] a folly now in country park. Chipping Campden is also well known for the annual [[Cotswold Games]], a celebration of sports and games dating back to the early [[17th century]].
==Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty==
The Cotswolds was designated as an [[Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty]] in [[1966]], with an expansion on [[21 December]] [[1990]] to 1,990 square kilometres. In 1991 all AONBs were measured again using modern methods. The official area of the Cotswolds AONB increased to 2,038 square kilometres. In 2000 the government confirmed that AONBs had the same landscape quality and status as National Parks. This year, 2006, is the 40th Anniversary of The AONB.
The designation was made to conserve and enhance the unique landscape. In the early days of discussions about Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty the Cotswolds was not given priority for AONB status and it was only down to pressure from local members of the Campaign to Protect Rural England that the Cotswolds was considered early on in the designation programme. Without that pressure the Cotswolds may have had to wait for another 10 years for protected status.
The largest of 40 AONBs in England and Wales, the Cotswolds stretches from the border regions of South Warwickshire and Worcestershire, through West Oxfordshire and Gloucestershire and takes in parts of West Wiltshire and Bath and North East Somerset in the South.
The [[Cotswold Way]] is a long-distance footpath (approx 103 miles) running the length of the AONB.
The Cotswold Voluntary Wardens Service was established in 1968 to help conserve and enhance the area. There are now over 300 Wardens. In 2005 they gave over 36,000 hours of their time.
==Transport==
The [[M5 motorway]] and [[Cross Country Route|Cross Country]] rail line run north - south close to the western boundary of the area. The [[M4 motorway]] and [[Great Western Main Line]] cross the area in the south as do the [[A40]] road and [[Cotswold Line]] in the north. [[Cheltenham]] is a hub for [[National Express]] coach services.
==Note on counties==
Between [[1974]] and [[1995]] parts of the AONB fell within the newly formed administrative and ceremonial [[County of Avon]]. After [[1995]] Avon was divided between four administrative unitary authorities with 'shadow county' status, the relevant ones for the AONB being [[South Gloucestershire]] and [[Bath and North-East Somerset]]. For ceremonial purposes these counties are returned to their pre-1974 [[Lord-lieutenant|lord-lieutenancies]].
==See also==
[[Image:Horse in a field of buttercups English Cotswold countryside in Spring.JPG|thumb|right|250px|A horse in a field of buttercups, taken in the Cotswolds in Spring 2005]]
*[[Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty in England]]
*[[Geology of the United Kingdom]]
*[[UK topics]]
==External links==
*[http://www.cotswoldswebsite.com/ Cotswolds web site - Cotswolds accommodation, events and information]
*[http://www.cotswoldsaonb.com/ Cotswolds Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty Website]
*[http://www.digital-brilliance.com/hyperg/towns/index.htm The ''Cotswold Hyperguide''] - A visitor's view of some Cotswold towns and villages
*[http://www.the-cotswolds.org/ The Cotswolds] - Tourist guide
*[http://www.thisisthecotswolds.co.uk/ This is the Cotswolds] - Local news and information
*[http://www.navito.co.uk/cotswolds/ Guide to the Cotswolds from Navito UK] - Introduction to the Cotswolds plus searchable database for locating Cotswolds pubs, hotels and other businesses and a book shop for maps and books about the Cotswolds.
[[Category:Hills of Gloucestershire]]
[[Category:Oxfordshire]]
[[Category:Warwickshire]]
[[Category:Mountains and hills of England]]
[[Category:Hills of Wiltshire]]
[[Category:Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty in England]]
[[de:Cotswold Hills]]
[[it:Cotswolds]]
[[no:Cotswolds]]
[[pl:Cotswold]]
[[fi:Cotswolds]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>A.C. ChievoVerona</title>
<id>6903</id>
<revision>
<id>41947476</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:39:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bota47</username>
<id>341052</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Modifying: es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Football club infobox |
clubname = Chievo |
image = [[Image:Chievo_logo.gif|75px|logo]] |
fullname = Associazione Calcio<br>ChievoVerona SrL |
nickname = ''Asini Volanti'' (Flying Donkey) |
founded = [[1929]] |
ground = [[Stadio Marcantonio Bentegodi]],<br/>[[Verona]], [[Italy]] |
capacity = 42,160 |
chairman = [[Luca Campedelli]] |
manager = [[Giuseppe Pillon]] |
league = [[Serie A]] |
season = 2004-05 |
position = [[Serie A]], 15th |
shirtsupplier= |
shirtsponsors= |
pattern_la1=|pattern_b1=|pattern_ra1=|
leftarm1=000099|body1=FFFF00|rightarm1=000099|shorts1=FFFF00|socks1=FFFF00|
pattern_la2=|pattern_b2=_bluequarters14|pattern_ra2=|
leftarm2=FFFFFF|body2=FFFFFF|rightarm2=000099|shorts2=000099|socks2=FFFFFF|
}}
'''Associazione Calcio ChievoVerona''' is an [[Italy|Italian]] [[football (soccer)|football]] club named after a minor suburb of [[Verona]], [[Veneto]], and owned by Paluani, a [[cakes]] company and the inspiration for their original name, '''Paluani Chievo'''. They were founded in [[1929]] but did not became professional until [[1986]] when they joined [[Serie C2]] and changed their name to Chievo Verona. They were promoted to [[Serie A]] in [[2001]].
The club's historic nickname is ''gialloblu'' (from the club colors of yellow and blue), but is more often referred to today as the ''Asini Volanti'' (Flying Donkeys). This nickname, derived from the mounted horseman on the club's crest, was originally a derogatory term applied by fans from crosstown rivals Hellas, who claimed Chievo had stolen Hellas' colors, name, and stadium. Hellas fans also said that donkeys would fly before Chievo made it to Serie A.
However, Chievo fans have now largely embraced the nickname as a badge of honor. Chievo's official Web site shows an image of a flying [[donkey]] next to the club's crest, and the club's online shop sells a stuffed flying donkey doll.
The club shares its stadium with Hellas which is the 42,160 seater [[Stadio Marcantonio Bentegodi|Marcantonio Bentegodi]] stadium.
==Current first team squad==
''As of January 31, 2006''
{{Football squad start}}
{{Football squad player|no=1|nat=Italy|name=[[Enrico Alfonso]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=3|nat=Italy|name=[[Lorenzo D'Anna]]|pos=DF|other=captain}}
{{Football squad player|no=4|nat=Italy|name=[[Marco Malagò]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=5|nat=Brazil|name=[[Luciano Siqueira de Oliveira|Luciano]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=7|nat=Italy|name=[[Franco Semioli]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=8|nat=Italy|name=[[Federico Giunti]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=9|nat=Italy|name=[[Simone Tiribocchi]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=10|nat=Italy|name=[[Andrea Zanchetta]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=11|nat=Brazil|name=[[Amauri Carvalho de Oliveira|Amauri]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=12|nat=Italy|name=[[Alberto Fontana]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=14|nat=Italy|name=[[Yuri Breviario]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=15|nat=Nigeria|name=[[Victor Nsofor Obinna]]|pos=FW|other=on loan from [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Inter Milan]]}}
{{Football squad player|no=16|nat=Italy|name=[[Emiliano Landolina]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad mid}}
{{Football squad player|no=17|nat=Germany|name=[[Giuseppe Gemiti]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=18|nat=Italy|name=[[Lorenzo Squizzi]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=19|nat=Italy|name=[[Daniele Franceschini]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=20|nat=Italy|name=[[Andrea Mantovani]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=21|nat=Italy|name=[[Paolo Sammarco]]|pos=MF|other=on loan from [[AC Milan]]}}
{{Football squad player|no=23|nat=Italy|name=[[Salvatore Lanna]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=24|nat=Italy|name=[[Federico Cossato]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=26|nat=Italy|name=[[Giuseppe Scurto]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=27|nat=Italy|name=[[Fabio Moro]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=29|nat=Italy|name=[[Davide Mandelli]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=31|nat=Italy|name=[[Sergio Pellissier]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=33|nat=Italy|name=[[Matteo Brighi]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad end}}
==Retired numbers==
* 30 {{flagicon |
dioxin, [[tetrachlorodibenzodioxin|2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-para-dioxin]] (TCDD), is produced as a side effect of the manufacture of 2,4,5-T, and was thus present in any of the herbicides that used it. The '''National Toxicology Program''' has classified TCDD to be a known human carcinogen, frequently associated with soft-tissue sarcoma, Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, Hodgkin's disease and chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). 2,4,5-T has since been banned for use in the US and many other countries.
The herbicide 2,4-D does not contain dioxin, and remains one of the most used herbicides in the world today.
Diseases associated with dioxin exposure are [[chloracne]], [[Soft tissue sarcoma|soft tissue sarcomas]], [[Hodgkin's lymphoma|Hodgkin's disease]], and [[non-Hodgkin's lymphoma|non-Hodgkin's disease]]. Diseases with limited evidence of an association with Agent Orange are respiratory cancers, [[prostate cancer]], [[multiple myeloma]], [[Porphyria cutanea tarda]] (a type of skin disease), acute and subacute transient [[Peripheral neuropathy|peripheral neuropathy]], [[spina bifida]], [[Diabetes mellitus type 2|Type 2 diabetes]], and [[Acute myelogenous leukemia|acute myelogenous leukemia]] found only in the second or third generation. Diseases with inadequate or insufficent evidence of an association are hepatobiliary cancers, nasal or [[nasophargyngeal cancer]]s, bone cancer, female reproductive cancers, [[renal cancer]], [[testicular cancer]], [[leukemia]], spontaneous abortion, [[birth defect]]s, neonatal or infant death and [[stillbirth]]s, low birth weight, childhood cancers, abnormal sperm parameters, cognitive neuropsychiatric disorders, [[ataxia]], peripheral nervous system disorders, circulatory disorders, respiratory disorders, skin cancers, urinary and bladder cancer. Diseases with limited or suggestive evidence of no association are gastrointestinal tumors such as stomach cancer, pancreatic cancer, [[colon cancer]], and rectal cancer, and [[brain tumor]]s.
== Use in Vietnam (1961-1971) ==
:''This section covers the use of all of the "rainbow" herbicides.''
During the [[Vietnam War]], the US instituted a massive herbicidal program that ran from 1961 through 1971. The aim of the program was two-fold, one to destroy the "cover" provided by the jungle-like forest, and another to deny food to the enemy. First named [[Operation Trail Dust]], then [[Operation Hades]], it was finally renamed [[Operation Ranch Hand]].
A variety of chemicals, fifteen in total, were tested or used operationally during this program. The primary broad-leaf herbicides sprayed during the "testing" phase of the program between 1962 and 1964 were Agent Orange, [[Agent Purple]] and [[Agent White]]. The chemicals themselves had no color, the names refer to colored stripes painted on the 55 gallon barrels to identify their contents. Much smaller amounts of other herbicides were also tested, including [[Agent Pink]], [[Agent Green]], Dinoxol, Trinoxol, Bromacil, Diquat, Tandex, Monuron, Diuron and Dalapon. [[Agent Blue]] was an unrelated herbicide based primarily on [[arsenic]] used to kill [[rice]] plants which were not susceptible to the phenoxy-based agents. A variety of [[Paraquat]]-related chemicals were apparently also tested in this role. For spraying, the various agents were mixed with [[kerosene]] or [[diesel]] fuel.
By 1964 the testing phase had ended, and Agent Orange was selected as the most effective agent for "territory denial". Operational use started in January 1965, increasing in breadth as [[logistics|logistical]] problems were solved. Most of Agent Orange sprayed during the program was delivered from modified [[US Air Force]] [[C-123 Provider|C-123K ''Provider'']] aircraft under a program known as [[Operation Ranch Hand]]. Other delivery methods included helicopters, truck and hand spraying, notably for the areas directly around US bases. From 1968 on, an improved version known as "Orange II" or "Super Orange" was used as well.
Spraying reached its maximum during the most intense period of the war, between 1967 and 1968. After that the program "drew down", and ended in 1971. By this point an estimated '''19 million gallons''' of herbicide had been sprayed on [[Vietnam]], [[Cambodia]] and [[Thailand]], somewhat more than half (55%) of that Agent Orange, between 1962 and 1971. Early estimates from 1974 had placed the amounts lower, between 12 and 14 million gallons. In total about six million acres were sprayed in Vietnam alone.
The military effectiveness of the program appears debatable. Many of the areas sprayed were not directly involved in later military actions. Of course, this could be considered as evidence ''for'' the effectiveness of the program. Nor does it appear there is any measurable effect on the warfighting abilities of the groups involved, the [[People's Army of Vietnam]] were able to mount full scale assaults in 1972 with little US intervention prior, which suggests that the program was, militarily, a failure.
== Effects of the program ==
=== The New Jersey Agent Orange Commission ===
In 1980, [[New Jersey]] created the New Jersey Agent Orange Commission, the first state commission created to study its effects. The Commission's research project in association with Rutgers University was called "The Pointman Project". It was disbanded by governor [[Christine Todd Whitman]] in 1996.
=== The National Academy of Science 2003 report ===
An April 2003 report paid for by the [[National Academy of Sciences]] concluded that during the [[Vietnam War]], '''3,181 villages''' were sprayed directly with herbicides. Between '''2.1 and 4.8 million people''' "would have been present during the spraying." Furthermore, many US military personnel were also sprayed or came in contact with herbicides in recently sprayed areas. The study was originally undertaken for the US military to get a better count of how many veterans served in sprayed areas and researchers were given access to military records and Air Force operational folders previously not studied. The re-estimate made by the report places the volume of herbicides sprayed between 1962 and 1971 to a level 7,131,907 liters more than an uncorrected estimate published in 1974 and 9.4 million more liters than a 1974 corrected inventory. It was produced under contract for the Army by [[Diamond Shamrock]], [[Dow Chemical Company|Dow]], Hercules, [[Monsanto]], [[T-H Agricultural & Nutrition]], [[Thompson Chemicals]], and [[United States Rubber Company|Uniroyal]].
The National Academy of Sciences has also noted the harmful effects of the herbicides on US soldiers.
== Lawsuits ==
In 1984, Agent Orange manufacturers paid Australian, Canadian and New Zealand veterans in an out-of-court settlement {{ref|MercuryNews}}.
=== US Vietnamese victims class action lawsuit ===
On January 31, 2004, a [[victim's rights group]], the Vietnam Association for Victims of Agent Orange/Dioxin (VAVA), filed a [[class action]] lawsuit in a US Federal [[District Court]] in [[Brooklyn, New York]], against several US companies, for liability in causing personal injury, by developing and producing the chemical. [[Dow Chemical]] and [[Monsanto]] were the two largest producers of Agent Orange for the [[US military]], and were named in the suit along with eight other companies (Diamond Shamrock, Uniroyal, Thompson Chemicals, Hercules, etc.). A number of lawsuits by American [[G.I.| GIs]] have been won in the years since the Vietnam War.
On March 10, 2005, the District Court [[judge]] Jack Weinstein - who had defended the US veterans victims of Agent Orange - dismissed the suit, ruling that there was no legal basis for the [[plaintiff | plaintiffs']] claims. The judge concluded that Agent Orange was not considered a poison under [[international law]] at the time of its use by the US; that the US was not prohibited from using it as an herbicide; and that the companies which produced the substance were not liable for the method of its use by the government. The US [[government]], which has [[sovereign immunity]], had not been a target of the lawsuit. However, in 1984, chemical companies that manufactured Agent Orange paid $180 million into a fund for United States veterans following a lawsuit.
In [[September 30]], [[2005]], the Vietnamese victims lodged an appeal; the Court of Appeal is due to examine it in [[March 2006]]. The funds gained should be used to finance the "Peace villages" in Vietnam, which each host between 50 to 100 victims, giving them medical and psychological help. As of 2006, they were 11 such Peace villages, thus granting some social protection to less than a thousand victims.
The VA <!-- what is the VA? the Vietnam ASsociation? than it's VAVA... ---> has listed prostate cancer, respiratory cancers, multiple myeloma, type II diabetes, Hodgkin’s disease, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, soft tissue sarcoma, chloracne, porphyria cutanea tarda, peripheral neuropathy, and spina bifida in children of veterans exposed to Agent Orange as side effects of the herbicide.
=== South Korean lawsuit ===
In 1999, about 20 000 [[South Korea]]ns filed two separated lawsuits against US companies, seeking more than $5 billion in damages. After losing a decision in 2002, they made [[appeal]].
In January 2006, the South Korean Appeal Court ordered Dow Chemical and Monsanto to pay '''$62 million''' in compensation to about '''6 800 people'''. The ruling acknowledged that "the [[defendant]]s failed to ensure safety as the defoliants manufactured by the defendents had higher levels of dioxins than standard", and, quoting the U.S. National Academy of Science report, declared that there was a "causal relationship" between Agent Orange and 11 diseases, including cancers of the lung, larynx and prostate. However, the judges failed to acknowledge "the relationship betw |
:* ([[Omega1 Cygni|45/&omega;<sup>1</sup> Cyg]]) 4.94 (or ''Ruchba'', see [[Omega2 Cygni|&omega;<sup>2</sup> Cyg]])
:* ([[Omega2 Cygni|46/&omega;<sup>2</sup> Cyg]]) 5.44 '''Ruchba''' [Rukbat al Dajajah, Al Rukbah al Dajajah]
:*: < &#1585;&#1603;&#1576;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1580;&#1575;&#1580;&#1577; ''rukbat[u] ad-daj&#257;ja[h]'' Knee of the hen
:Stars with Bayer designations:
:: [[Delta Cygni|18/&delta; Cyg]] 2.86; [[Zeta Cygni|64/&zeta; Cyg]] 3.21; [[Theta Cygni|13/&theta; Cyg]] 4.49; [[Eta Cygni|21/&eta; Cyg]] 3.89; [[Iota Cygni|10/&iota; Cyg]] 3.76; [[Kappa Cygni|1/&kappa; Cyg]] 3.80; [[Lambda Cygni|54/&lambda; Cyg]] 4.53; [[Mu1 Cygni|78/&mu;<sup>1</sup> Cyg]] 4.49; [[Mu2 Cygni|78/&mu;<sup>2</sup> Cyg]] 6.08; [[Nu Cygni|58/&nu; Cyg]] 3.94; [[Xi Cygni|62/&xi; Cyg]] 3.72; [[Omicron1 Cygni|31/&omicron;<sup>1</sup> Cyg]] 3.80; [[Omicron2 Cygni|32/&omicron;<sup>2</sup> Cyg]] 3.96; [[Pi2 Cygni|81/&pi;<sup>2</sup> Cyg]] 4.23; [[Rho Cygni|73/&rho; Cyg]] 3.98; [[Sigma Cygni|67/&sigma; Cyg]] 4.22; [[Tau Cygni|65/&tau; Cyg]] 3.74; [[Upsilon Cygni|66/&upsilon; Cyg]] 4.41; [[Chi Cygni|&chi; Cyg]] 10.5; [[Phi Cygni|12/&phi; Cyg]] 4.68; [[Psi Cygni|24/&psi; Cyg]] 4.91; [[27 Cygni|27/b<sup>1</sup> Cyg]] 5.38; [[28 Cygni|28/b<sup>2</sup> Cyg]] 4.93; [[29 Cygni|29/b<sup>3</sup> Cyg]] 4.93; [[16 Cygni|16/c Cyg]] &ndash; double 5.99, 6.25; comp. B has a planet; [[20 Cygni|20/d Cyg]] 5.03; [[26 Cygni|26/e Cyg]] 5.06; [[59 Cygni|59/f<sup>1</sup> Cyg]] 4.74; [[63 Cygni|63/f<sup>2</sup> Cyg]] 4.56; [[71 Cygni|71/g Cyg]] 5.22; [[68 Cygni|68/A Cyg]] 5.04; [[P Cygni|34/P Cyg]] 4.77 &ndash; hypergiant; [[P Cygni variable|P Cyg]] variable prototype
:Stars with Flamsteed designations:
:: [[2 Cygni|2 Cyg]] 4.99; [[4 Cygni|4 Cyg]] 5.17; [[7 Cygni|7 Cyg]] 5.73; [[8 Cygni|8 Cyg]] 4.74; [[9 Cygni|9 Cyg]] 5.39; [[11 Cygni|11 Cyg]] 6.03; [[14 Cygni|14 Cyg]] 5.41; [[15 Cygni|15 Cyg]] 4.89; [[17 Cygni|17 Cyg]] 5.00; [[19 Cygni|19 Cyg]] 5.18; [[22 Cygni|22 Cyg]] 4.95; [[23 Cygni|23 Cyg]] 5.14; [[25 Cygni|25 Cyg]] 5.15; [[30 Cygni|30 Cyg]] 4.80; [[33 Cygni|33 Cyg]] 4.28; [[35 Cygni|35 Cyg]] 5.14; [[36 Cygni|36 Cyg]] 5.58; [[39 Cygni|39 Cyg]] 4.43; [[40 Cygni|40 Cyg]] 5.63; [[41 Cygni|41 Cyg]] 4.01; [[42 Cygni|42 Cyg]] 5.90; [[43 Cygni|43 Cyg]] 5.73; [[44 Cygni|44 Cyg]] 6.21; [[47 Cygni|47 Cyg]] 4.61; [[48 Cygni|48 Cyg]] 6.32; [[49 Cygni|49 Cyg]] 5.53; [[51 Cygni|51 Cyg]] 5.41; [[52 Cygni|52 Cyg]] 4.22; [[55 Cygni|55 Cyg]] 4.81; [[56 Cygni|56 Cyg]] 5.06; [[57 Cygni|57 Cyg]] 4.80; [[60 Cygni|60 Cyg]] 5.38; [[61 Cygni|61 Cyg]] &ndash; double 5.20, 6.05; nearby; [[69 Cygni|69 Cyg]] 5.93; [[70 Cygni|70 Cyg]] 5.30; [[72 Cygni|72 Cyg]] 4.87; [[74 Cygni|74 Cyg]] 5.04; [[75 Cygni|75 Cyg]] 5.09; [[76 Cygni|76 Cyg]] 6.07; [[77 Cygni|77 Cyg]] 5.73; [[79 Cygni|79 Cyg]] 5.69
:Other notable stars:
:* [[Cygnus X-1]] &ndash; [[black hole]]
:* [[HD 187123]] 7.89 &ndash; has a planet
==In Art and Literature==
The constellation is mentioned in the song '''[[Cygnus X-1]]''' by rock band [[Rush (band)|Rush]], on their [[1977]] album "[[A Farewell to Kings]]." In [[Frances the Mute]], a rock album by the [[Mars Volta]], Vismund Cygnus is the [[protagonist]].
==See also==
* [[Asterism (astronomy)|Asterism]]
* [[Cygnus Loop]]
{{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}}
{{ConstellationList}}
== External links ==
{{Commons|Andromeda}}
* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/cygnus/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Cygnus]
* [http://160.114.99.91/astrojan/cygnus.htm The clickable Cygnus]
[[Category:Cygnus constellation|*]]
[[af:Cygnus]]
[[cs:Labuť (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Svanen]]
[[de:Schwan (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Cygnus]]
[[eo:Cigno (stelfiguro)]]
[[fr:Cygne (constellation)]]
[[ko:고니자리]]
[[id:Cygnus]]
[[it:Cygnus (astronomia)]]
[[he:ברבור (קבוצת כוכבים)]]
[[la:Cygnus (sidus)]]
[[lt:Gulbė (astronomija)]]
[[hu:Hattyú (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Zwaan (sterrenbeeld)]]
[[ja:はくちょう座]]
[[nn:Svana]]
[[pl:Łabędź (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[ro:Lebăda (constelaţie)]]
[[ru:Лебедь (созвездие)]]
[[fi:Joutsen (tähdistö)]]
[[sv:Svanen (stjärnbild)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communion</title>
<id>6422</id>
<revision>
<id>40506399</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T01:41:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Martial Law</username>
<id>514543</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Communion''' may mean:
*[[Communion (Christian)]], the relationship between Christians as individuals or Churches
*The [[Communion of Saints]]
'''Communion''' may also refer to:
*The [[Eucharist]]
*A [[Christian denomination]] or group of related denominations
*Book written by [[Whitley Strieber]]. It is about ''his'' abductions by aliens.
{{disambig}}
[[de:Kommunion]]
[[it:Comunione (disambigua)]]
[[li:Communie]]
[[nl:Communie]]
[[sv:Kommunion]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Calorie</title>
<id>6423</id>
<revision>
<id>41624443</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T16:31:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mormegil</username>
<id>75813</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* References */ +cs:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''calorie''' is an unit of measurement for energy. In most fields, it has been replaced by the [[joule]], the [[SI]] unit of energy. However, it remains in common use for the amount of energy obtained from food. Many different definitions for the calorie have emerged during the 19th and 20th century. They fall into two classes:
* The '''small calorie''' or '''gram calorie''' is the energy needed to increase the temperature of 1 [[gram|g]] of water by 1 °C. This unit of energy is equivalent to about 4.185 [[Joule|J]].
* The '''large calorie''' or '''kilogram calorie''' is the energy needed to increase the temperature of 1 [[kilogram|kg]] of water by 1 °C. This unit of energy is 1000-times larger than the gram calorie and equivalent to about 4.185 [[kilojoule|kJ]].
The kilogram calorie is today also called '''kilocalorie''' (symbol: '''kcal'''). The international standard definition of the term "calorie" (symbol: '''cal''') refers today to the gram calorie; this way, the term kilocalorie can also be interpreted to mean 1000 calories. However, where the term "calorie" is used in [[nutrition]] and food labeling, it commonly refers to the kilocalorie.
== Nutrition and food labels ==
[[image:Nutrition-label.jpg|right|220px]]
The "calorie" has become a common household term, because [[dietitian]]s recommend in cases of [[obesity]] to reduce body weight by increasing exercise (energy expenditure) and reducing energy intake. Many governments require food manufacturers to label the energy content of their products, to help consumers control their energy intake. In [[European Union|Europe]], manufacturers of prepackaged food must label the nutritional energy of their products in both kilocalories ("kcal") and kilojoules ("kJ"). In the [[United States]], the equivalent mandatory labels display only "calories" (meaning kilocalories); an additional kilojoules figure is optional. The energy content of food is usually given on labels for 100 g and for a typical service size.
The amount of [[food energy]] in a particular food could be measured by completely burning the dried food in a [[calorimeter|bomb calorimeter]], a method known as direct [[calorimetry]] [http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec12/ch152/ch152e.html]. However, the values given on food labels are not determined this way, because it overestimates the amount of energy that the human digestive system can extract, by also burning [[Dietary fiber|dietary fiber]]. Instead, standardized chemical tests and an analysis of the recipe are used to estimate the product's digestable constitutents ([[protein]], [[carbohydrate]], [[fat]], etc.). These results are then converted into an equivalent energy value based on a standardized table of energy densities:
{| class=wikitable
|-
! rowspan=2 | food component
! colspan=2 | energy density
|-
! kcal/g
! kJ/g
|-
| [[fat]]
| align=center|9
| align=center|37
|-
| [[ethanol]] (alcohol)
| align=center|7
| align=center|29
|-
| [[protein]]s
| align=center|4
| align=center|17
|-
| [[carbohydrate]]s
| align=center|4
| align=center|17
|-
| [[organic acid]]s
| align=center|3
| align=center|13
|-
| [[polyol]]s (sugar-free sweeteners)
| align=center|2.4
| align=center|10
|}
Other substances found in food (water, non-digestable fibre, minerals, vitamins) do not contribute to this calculated energy density.
Recommended daily energy intake values for young adults are: 2500 kcal/[[day|d]] (10 MJ/d, 120 W) for men and 2000 kcal/d (8 MJ/d, 100 W) for women. Children, sedentary and older people require less energy, physically active people more.
==Versions==
Three definitions of the calorie are today recognized internationally:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Name
!Symbol
!Conversion factor
! width="50%" | Remarks
|-
|15 °C calorie
|cal<sub>15</sub>
|1 cal<sub>15</sub> = 4.1855&nbsp;J
|1 cal<sub>15</sub> is the amount of heat (energy) required to warm 1&nbsp;g of air-free water from 14.5&nbsp;°C to 15.5&nbsp;°C at a constant pressure of 101.325&nbsp;kPa (1 [[atmospheric pressure|atm]]). The conversion factor was published by the [[CIPM]] in 1950 as the most accurate value that could be determined by experiment at the time. It has an uncertainty of 0.0005&nbsp;J.
|-
|I.T. calorie
|cal<sub>IT</sub>
|1 cal<sub>IT</sub> = 4.1868&nbsp;J
|The ''International Table c |
y way; the authority on Morse, flags, courtesies, fire-fighting at sea, jury-rigging, ship handling and basic sea law.
* Lawrence and Lin Pardey, "Storm Tactics"- A must-read book.
* Linda & Steve Dashew, "Offshore Cruisers' Encyclopedia"- expensive but so useful it has been compared to Bowditch and Dutton. Easy to read.
* Eric Hiscock, "Cruising Under Sail"- just the facts, a classic.
* Lawrence and Lin Pardey, "The Self-Sufficient Sailor"- The Pardey's message is wonderfully encouraging: Go simply, go cheaply and in a small boat, but go.
* Lawrence & Lin Pardey, "Cost Conscious Cruiser"- more hints and tricks
* Michael Carr, "Weather Prediction Simplified"
*Steve and Linda Dashew, "Mariner's Weather Handbook"
* Mary Blewitt, "Celestial Navigation for Yachtsmen"- just the facts.
* Merle Turner, "Celestial Navigation for the Cruising Navigator"- some theory.
* William F. Buckley Jr., "Atlantic High"- an amazingly well-written account of an Atlantic passage. Not a shred of politics.
* William F. Buckley Jr., "Racing Through Paradise"- etc. about a Pacific passage.
== See also ==
* [[Electric boat]]
* [[Maritime mobile amateur radio]]
== References ==
<div style="font-size:85%;">
<references/>
</div>
== External links ==
* [http://www.wikicruising.com WikiCruising] The Wiki guide to sailing and cruising destinations.
* [http://cruisenews.net/index.php CruiseNews.net] Guide to Sailing and Cruising Stories.
[[Category:Sailing]]
[[de:Segeltörn]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cavitation</title>
<id>7807</id>
<revision>
<id>41948080</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:44:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tor Stein</username>
<id>796442</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/*Cavitation in engines */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:cavitating-prop.jpg|300px|thumb|Cavitating propeller model in a [[water tunnel]] experiment]]
Cavitation is the phenomenon where small and largely empty cavities are generated in a [[fluid]], which expand to large size and then rapidly collapse, producing a sharp [[sound]]. Cavitation occurs in pumps, propellers, impellers, and in the vascular tissues of plants.
==Overview==
Following the definition of Christopher E. Brennen: A liquid when it is subjected to a low [[pressure]] (tensile stress) above a threshold it ruptures and forms vaporous cavities. This phenomenon is termed cavitation. When the local ambient [[pressure]] at a point in the liquid falls below the liquid's [[vapor pressure]], the liquid can undergo a phase change, creating largly empty voids termed cavitation bubbles. Other possiblities to generate cavitation bubbles involve the local deposition of energy. This can be achieved by focusing an intense laser pulse (optic cavitation) or with an electrical discharge through a spark.
The physical process of cavitation is almost exactly the same as that which occurs during [[boiling]]. The major difference between the two is how the phase change is affected. Boiling raises the vapor pressure of the liquid above its local ambient pressure to cause the phase change to a gas.
In order for cavitation to occur, the cavitation "bubbles" generally need a surface on which they [[nucleation|nucleate]]. This surface can be provided by the sides of a container and by [[impurity|impurities]] in the liquid. It is generally accepted that [[hydrophobe|hydrophobic]] surfaces stabilize small bubbles. These preexisting bubbles start to grow unbounded when they are exposed a pressure below the a threshold pressure termed [[Blake's threshold]].
==Problems==
Cavitation is, in many cases, an undesirable occurrence. In devices such as propellers and pumps, cavitation causes a great deal of noise, damage to components, vibrations, and a loss of efficiency.
When the cavitation bubble collapse, they focus liquid energy to very small volumes. Thereby, they create spots of high temperature and emit shock waves which are the source of noise. The noise created by cavitation is a particular problem in [[submarine|submarines]], as the noise destroys its [[stealth]].
The collapse of cavities involves very high energies, and can cause major damage. Cavitation can damage almost any substance. The pitting caused by the collapse of cavities produces great wear on components and can dramatically shorten a propeller or pump's lifetime.
==Beneficial Uses==
Although cavitation is undesirable in many circumstances, this is not always the case. For example, [[supercavitation|supercavitating]] torpedoes in use by the military envelope the torpedo in a large bubble of cavitation. By eliminating contact with water, and, therefore, eliminating the high drag of water, these torpedoes can move very fast underwater, perhaps even at [[supersonic]] speeds.
Cavitation can also be a boon in ultrasonic cleaning devices. These devices affect cavitation using sound waves and use the collapse of the cavitation bubbles to clean surfaces. Used in this manner, the need for sometimes environmentally harmful chemicals can be reduced in many industrial and commercial processes that require cleaning as a step. Still the details on how bubbles clean are not understood.
In industry, cavitation is often used to homogenize, or mix and break down suspended particles in a colloidal liquid compound, such as paint mixtures, or milk. Many industrial mixing machines are based upon this design principle. It is usually achieved through impeller design, or by forcing the mixture through an annular opening that has a narrow entrance orifice with a much larger exit orifice: the drastic decrease in pressure as the liquid accelerates into the larger volume causes cavitation to take place. This method can be controlled with hydraulic devices that control the size of the inlet orifice, and this allows for adjustment to the process "on the fly", or for different substances. The outer surface of this type of mixing valve, upon which the cavitation bubbles are driven against to cause their implosion, undergoes tremendous stress, and is often constructed of super-hard or tough materials such as stainless steel, Stellite, or even polycrystalline diamond (PCD).
Cavitating [[water purification]] devices have also been designed, in which the extreme conditions of cavitation can break down pollutants and organic molecules. Spectral analysis of light emitted in [[sonochemistry|sonochemical reactions]] reveal chemical and plasma based mechanisms of energy transfer. The light emitted from cavitation bubbles is termed [[sonoluminesence]].
==Biomedical application==
Cavitation plays an important role for the destruction of [[kidney stone]]s in shock wave lithotripsy ([[lithotriptor]]). Currently it is tested if cavitation can be used to transfer large molecules into biological [[cell (biology)|cell]]s ([[sonoporation]]).
==Pumps and propellers==
Major places where cavitation occurs are in [[pump]]s, on [[propeller]]s, or at restrictions in a flowing liquid.
As an impeller's (in a pump), or propeller's (as in the case of a ship or submarine) blades move through a fluid, low pressure areas are formed as the fluid accelerates around and moves past the blades. The faster the blades move, the lower the [[pressure]] around it can become. As it reaches vapor pressure, the fluid [[vaporization|vaporizes]] and forms small [[bubble]]s of gas. This is cavitation. When the bubbles collapse later, they typically cause very strong local shockwaves in the fluid, which may be audible and may even damage the blades.
Cavitation in pumps may occur in two different forms:
===Suction cavitation===
[[Suction]] cavitation occurs when the pump suction is under a low pressure/high vacuum condition where the liquid turns into a vapor at the eye of the pump impeller. This vapor is carried over to the discharge side of the pump where it no longer sees vacuum and is compressed back into a liquid by the discharge pressure. This imploding action occurs violently and attacks the face of the impeller. An impeller that has been operating under a suction cavitation condition has large chunks of material removed from its face causing premature failure of the pump.
===Discharge cavitation===
Discharge cavitation occurs when the pump discharge is extremely high. It normally occurs in a pump that is running at less than 10% of its best efficiency point. The high discharge pressure causes the majority of the fluid to circulate inside the pump instead of being allowed to flow out the discharge. As the liquid flows around the impeller it must pass through the small clearance between the impeller and the pump cutwater at extremely high [[velocity]]. This velocity causes a vacuum to develop at the cutwater (similar to what occurs in a [[venturi]]) which turns the liquid into a vapor. A pump that has been operating under these conditions shows premature wear of the impeller vane tips and the pump cutwater. In addition due to the high pressure condition premature failure of the pump mechanical seal and bearings can be expected. Under extreme conditions this can break the impeller shaft.
Discharge cavitation is believed to be the cause of [[cracking knuckles|the cracking of joints]].
==Cavitation in engines==
Some bigger [[diesel engine]]s suffer from cavitation due to high compression and undersized [[cylinder]] walls. The result is pit holes in the cylinder wall that let [[cooling fluid]] leak into the cylinder.
It is possible to prevent this from happening with chemical additatives in the cooling fluid that form a protecting layer on the cylinder wall. This layer will be exposed from the same cavitation, but rebuilds itself.
==Vascular plants==
Cavitation occurs in the [[xylem]] of [[vascular plants]] when the water potentia |
Governor of Indiana petitioned the United States Department of Transportation to have the entire state of Indiana placed on Central Time. Instead, the time line was fixed in a position where all but 10 counties in western Indiana were placed in the Eastern Time Zone, but dispensation was given to allow a state to exempt an entire time zone bloc within the state from observance of Daylight Saving Time. Technically, during the summer months, this meant most of Indiana was on Eastern Standard Time, but functionally most of the state was on Central Daylight Time. Eastern Standard Time and Central Daylight Time are the same - one could say New York is on Central Daylight Time.
Due to the confusion of anyone not from Indiana, the state passed a bill in 2005 whereby the entire state is to begin observing daylight saving time starting in April 2006. Counties would remain under their current time zones, but the bill also asks the federal [[United States Department of Transportation|Department of Transportation]], which has jurisdiction over time zones, to reconsider whether more counties should switch to the Central zone. The DOT has since announced that the counties of [[Starke County, Indiana|Starke]] and [[Pulaski County, Indiana|Pulaski]] in the northern part of the state; and [[Knox County, Indiana|Knox]], [[Daviess County, Indiana|Daviess]], [[Martin County, Indiana|Martin]], [[Pike County, Indiana|Pike]], [[Dubois County, Indiana|Dubois]], and [[Perry County, Indiana|Perry]] counties in the southern part of the state will join the Central time zone beginning [[April 2]], [[2006]]. (Source: U.S. Department of Transportation, docket OST-2005-22114)
== Miscellaneous information ==
*[[List of U.S. state birds|State bird]]: [[Northern Cardinal|Cardinal]]
*[[State flower]]: [[Peony]]
*[[List of U.S. state mottos|State motto]]: "Crossroads of America."
*State poem: [http://www.in.gov/sic/about/emblems/state_poem.html ''Indiana''], by [[Arthur Franklin Mapes]]
*[[List of U.S. state songs|State song]]: ''[[On the Banks of the Wabash, Far Away]]''
*State river: [[Wabash River|Wabash]]
*[[State stone]]: Salem [[limestone]]
*[[State tree]]: [[Liriodendron|Tulip tree]]
Indiana is the home state of a large number of [[astronaut]]s, including such notables as [[Virgil Grissom|"Gus" Grissom]] and [[Frank Borman]]. Many other astronauts, including [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[Eugene Cernan|Gene Cernan]], were graduates of [[Purdue University]] in [[West Lafayette, Indiana|West Lafayette]] ([http://www2.indystar.com/library/factfiles/history/space_program/hoosier_astronauts.html]). Neil Armstrong's Purdue [[class ring]] may be the only such object that has ever traveled to the moon and back.
Indiana has made several significant contributions to the fields of entertainment and sport:
*Singer/[[Farm Aid]] activist [[John Mellencamp]], born in [[Seymour, Indiana|Seymour]] and residing near [[Bloomington, Indiana|Bloomington]].
*[[Mötley Crüe]] guitarist [[Mick Mars]] (real name Bob Deal), native of [[Terre Haute]].
*Former [[Van Halen]] vocalist and current radio personality [[David Lee Roth]], born in [[Bloomington, Indiana|Bloomington]].
*[[Soap opera]] actor [[Peter Reckell]] (Days Of Our Lives), native of [[Elkhart, Indiana|Elkhart]].
*Actor [[Claude Akins]] ([["Movin' On"]]), native of [[Bedford, Indiana|Bedford]].
*[[Brady Bunch]] "mom" [[Florence Henderson]], also of [[Bedford, Indiana|Bedford]].
*Actor [[Ken Kercheval]] ([["Dallas"]]), of [[Wolcottville, Indiana|Wolcottville]].
*Former (?) [[Guns N' Roses]] members [[Axl Rose]] and [[Izzy Stradlin]], both of Lafayette.
*Country singer [[Janie Fricke]], of [[Fort Wayne, Indiana|Fort Wayne]].
*The [[Jackson 5]]/[[Michael Jackson]] entertainment family, of [[Gary, Indiana|Gary]].
*Chicago Bears quarterback Kyle Orton played for Purdue University.
*Chicago Bears quarterback Rex Grossman born in [[Bloomington, Indiana|Bloomington]].
*St. Louis Cardinals third baseman Scott Rolen born in [[Evansville]].
*Former NY Yankees first baseman Don Mattingly born in [[Evansville]].
*Former [[Notre Dame]] and current [[NFL]] quarterback [[Rick Mirer]] is a native of [[Goshen, Indiana|Goshen]].
*[[R&B]] singer [[Vivica A. Fox]] is a native of [[South Bend, Indiana|South Bend]].
*[[Calbert Cheaney]], NBA basketball player and native of [[Evansville]].
*[[Larry Bird]] Former NBA player for the Boston Celtics and current President of the Indiana Pacers, Born in [[French Lick]].
*[[Tony Stewart]] [[NASCAR]] driver and 2005 Nextel Cup Champion born in [[Columbus, Indiana|Columbus]].
*[[Jeff Gordon]] [[NASCAR]] driver and 4 time Nextel Cup Champion native of [[Pittsboro, Indiana|Pittsboro]].
*[[Abe Lincoln]] The 16th President of the United States grew up in Spencer County.
*[[Benjamin Harrison]] (1833 - 1901) 23rd President of the United States; lived in Indianapolis.
*[[James Dean]] Actor; born in Marion.
*[[David Letterman]] Host of The Late Show; born in Indianapolis.
*William F. Rasmussen Founder of ESPN graduated from [[DePauw University]].
*General [[Lew Wallace]] Civil War Hero and author of the novel [[Ben-Hur]] born in Brookville, IN.
*[[Orville Redenbacher]] Orville Redenbacher's Popcorn born on a small corn plantation in Indiana.
*[[Shannon Hoon]], late singer for [[Blind Melon]], born in Lafayette.
*[[Kurt Vonnegut]], author of Cat's Cradle, Slaughterhouse 5 and many others, born in Indianapolis.
==Natural resources==
There are 24 [[List of Indiana state parks|Indiana state parks]], nine man-made reservoirs, and hundreds of lakes in the state.
== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Indiana}}
*[http://www.in.gov Indiana government home page]
:*[http://www.statelib.lib.in.us/www/ihb/emblems/index.html Indiana state emblems]
*[http://www.ecanned.com/indsum/level1/IN/index.html Indiana Employment Data]
*[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/18000.html U.S. Census Bureau]
*[http://www.usnewspapers.org/state/indiana Indiana Newspapers]
*[http://www.farleyart.com/tech_news.html Indiana Computer Technology News]
{{Indiana}}
{{United_States}}
[[Category:Indiana|*]]
[[Category:States of the United States]]
[[Category:1816 establishments]]
[[ang:Indiana]]
[[bg:Индиана]]
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[[da:Indiana]]
[[de:Indiana]]
[[et:Indiana]]
[[el:Ιντιάνα]]
[[es:Indiana]]
[[eo:Indianao]]
[[fr:Indiana]]
[[ko:인디애나 주]]
[[hr:Indiana]]
[[id:Indiana]]
[[is:Indiana fylki]]
[[it:Indiana]]
[[he:אינדיאנה]]
[[ka:ინდიანა]]
[[la:Indiana]]
[[lv:Indiāna]]
[[lt:Indiana]]
[[hu:Indiana]]
[[mk:Индијана]]
[[nl:Indiana]]
[[ja:インディアナ州]]
[[no:Indiana]]
[[nn:Indiana]]
[[os:Индианæ]]
[[pl:Indiana]]
[[pt:Indiana]]
[[ru:Индиана]]
[[sq:Indiana]]
[[simple:Indiana]]
[[sk:Indiana]]
[[sl:Indiana]]
[[sr:Индијана]]
[[fi:Indiana]]
[[sv:Indiana]]
[[th:มลรัฐอินดีแอนา]]
[[tr:Indiana]]
[[uk:Індіана]]
[[zh:印第安纳州]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Io</title>
<id>14854</id>
<revision>
<id>40293028</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T16:11:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chobot</username>
<id>259798</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: eo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Io''' or '''io''' may stand for:
*In [[Greek mythology]], '''[[Io (mythology)|Io]]''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet for English|IPA]] {{IPA|[&#712;a&#618;o&#650;]}} or {{IPA|[&#712;i&#720;o&#650;]}}) was the daughter of [[Inachus]], a river god.
**'''[[Io (moon)|Io]]''', a [[natural satellite|moon]] of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]].
**The [[asteroid]] '''[[85 Io]]'''.
**'''[[Io programming language]]''', a prototype-oriented programming language made by [[Steve Dekorte]].
* An [[indie rock]] band from [[San Francisco]], CA
*The creator god '''Io''' in [[Polynesian mythology]] (including [[Māori]]), see '''[[Kiho (god)|Kiho]]'''.
*[[Iwo Jima|Io island]] (a.k.a. Iwo Jima), a volcanic island in Japan.
*[[Io (voievodal title particle)]] abbreviation of [[John]] (romanian: Ioan, latin:Ioannes), meaning "by the grace of God". "Io" is the particle preceding the name of [[Romanian]] ([[Wallachia|Wallachian]] and [[Moldavia|Moldavian]]) [[voievod|voievods]] (rulers) during the middle ages.
*[[Io (Dungeons & Dragons)|The Father God of Dragonkind]] in [[dungeons and dragons]]; he has within himself all alignments.
*[[Discworld_gods#Blind_Io |Blind Io]] is King of all Gods in [[Terry Pratchett]]'s [[Discworld]] series.
*A pummeling hardcore band from [[Pittsburgh]], PA
*A [[Loredana Bertè]] album
*An album by [[Germany|German]] industrial music artists, [[Project Pitchfork]].
*Abbreviations
**the [[ISO 3166-1|ISO]] 2-letter [[country code]] and DAFIF 0413 / DIA 65-18 / [[List of FIPS country codes|FIPS PUB 10-4 territory code]] for the '''[[British Indian Ocean Territory]]'''.
**the [[ISO 639]] alpha-2 code for the '''[[Ido language]]'''.
**the '''[[Improv Olympic]]''' comedy theater, also known as the ''IO Theater'' ([http://www.iochicago.net/ Chicago] and [http://www.iowest.com/ Los Angeles]).
**the field of '''[[industrial organization|Industrial Organization]]''' within economics and management.
**German abbreviation for in Ordnung = allright
The related '''I/O''' is a common abbreviation of [[Input/output]], and is also facetiously taken to mean "Ignorant Operator".
'''''See also: [[.io]]''' (the [[ccTLD]] for the British Indian Ocean Territory).''
{{disambig}}
[[als:Io]]
[[da:Io]]
[[de:Io]]
[[eo:Io]]
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[[ko:IO]]
[[hr:Io]]
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[[pl:Io]]
[[pt:IO]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Inner product space</title>
<id>14856</id>
<revision>
<id>40430552</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T14:18:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Salix alba</username>
<id>212526</id>
</contributor>
<comment>How about (also called '''scalar product''') dot product mentioned just be |
ard so the electronics can be cheaper, but requires Category 6 cabling.
*Networking standards that do not use the Ethernet frame format but can still be connected to Ethernet using MAC-based bridging.
**[[802.11]] &mdash; A standard for wireless networking, often known as wireless Ethernet and usually operated with an Ethernet backbone.
*[[Long Reach Ethernet]]
==See also==
*[[IEEE 802.3]]
*[[CHAOSnet]]
*[[Attachment Unit Interface]]
*[[Virtual LAN]]
*[[Spanning tree (networks)|Spanning Tree Protocol]]
*[[Telecommunication]]
*[[Internet]]
*[[Category 5 cable]]
*[[RJ45]] and [[extension cable]]
*[[Crossover cable]]
*[[Fragment free cut-through]]
*[[Power over Ethernet]]
*[[Media Independent Interface|MII]] and [[PHY]]
*[[Wake-on-LAN]]
*[[List of device bandwidths]]
*[[Power line communication]]
*[[Ethernet flow control]]
==Implementations==
*10_100_1000 [[Opencores]] [[Verilog]] [[LGPL]] tri-mode ethernet MAC
==References==
*{{cite journal
| author = Metcalfe, Robert M. and Boggs, David R.
| year = 1976
| month = July
| title = '''Ethernet: Distributed Packet Switching for Local Computer Networks'''
| journal = Communications of the ACM
| volume = 19
| issue = 5
| pages = 395-405
| url = http://www.acm.org/classics/apr96/
}} - the original Metcalfe and Boggs paper on Ethernet
*{{Citepaper
| Author = Digital Equipment Corporation, Intel Corporation, Xerox Corporation
| PublishYear = 1980
| Month = September
| Title = '''The Ethernet: A Local Area Network'''
| URL = http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1015591.1015594
}} - Version 1.0 of the DIX specification
*{{Conference reference
| Author=Boggs, David R. and Mogul, Jeffrey C. and Kent, Christopher A.
| Title = '''Measured capacity of an Ethernet: myths and reality'''
| Booktitle=SIGCOMM88 - Symposium proceedings on Communications architectures and protocols
| Year=1988
| Pages=222-234
| URL = http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=52347
}} - on the issue of Ethernet bandwidth collapse ([ftp://gatekeeper.dec.com/pub/DEC/WRL/research-reports/WRL-TR-88.4.pdf Full text from DEC research])
*[http://standards.ieee.org/getieee802/download/802.3-2002.pdf IEEE 802.3 2002 standard]
*{{newsgroup reference Google | Author=Don Provan | Title=Ethernet Framing | Date=[[1993-09-17]] | Newsgroup=comp.sys.novell | ID=1993Sep17.190654.13335@novell.com | URL=http://groups.google.com/group/bit.listserv.novell/browse_thread/thread/d00a24530625714c }} - a classic series of Usenet postings by Novell's Don Provan that have found their way into numerous FAQs and are widely considered the definitive answer to the Novell Frame Type jungle
==External links==
*[http://www.wildpackets.com/support/compendium/ethernet/frame_formats Ethernet frame formats]
*[http://www.10gea.org/ 10 Gigabit Ethernet Alliance website]
*[http://www.siemon.com/us/white_papers/ 10 Gigabit Ethernet over IP White Papers]
*[http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/0,,sid9_gci214198,00.html The speed of ...]
[[Category:Ethernet]]
[[af:Ethernet]]
[[ca:Ethernet]]
[[cs:Ethernet]]
[[da:Ethernet]]
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[[eo:Ethernet]]
[[fa:اترنت]]
[[fr:Ethernet]]
[[ko:이더넷]]
[[hr:Ethernet]]
[[it:Ethernet]]
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[[hu:Ethernet]]
[[mk:Етернет]]
[[nl:Ethernet]]
[[ja:イーサネット]]
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[[pl:Ethernet]]
[[pt:Ethernet]]
[[ru:Ethernet]]
[[simple:Ethernet]]
[[sk:Ethernet]]
[[sl:Ethernet]]
[[fi:Ethernet]]
[[sv:Ethernet]]
[[tr:Ethernet kartı]]
[[zh:以太网]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>E.P.Thompson on Luddites</title>
<id>9500</id>
<revision>
<id>15907388</id>
<timestamp>2002-11-09T04:13:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixing redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Luddite]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>E. P. Thompson on Luddites</title>
<id>9501</id>
<revision>
<id>15907389</id>
<timestamp>2002-11-09T04:12:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirecting to where the content is</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Luddite]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Explorations</title>
<id>9502</id>
<revision>
<id>39841251</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T05:28:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pavel Vozenilek</username>
<id>87110</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* See also */ completely removed some horrible chaos added by MAURY recently</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article lists the explorations in history. For the documentary 'Explorations, powered by Duracell', see [[Explorations (TV)]]''
Some of the most important explorations of Western civilization (in chronological order) :
<!-- table -->
{| border
|-
! Exploration
! When
! Who ([[explorers|explorer]])
|-
| Around western [[Europe]] to [[Thule (myth)|Thule]] Island
| about [[330 BC]]
| [[Pytheas]] of Marseilles
|-
| The [[Middle East]] and [[India]]
| [[325 BC]]-[[280 BC]]
| [[Alexander the Great]]
|-
| [[Greenland]]
| [[900]]
| [[Gunnbjoern]]
|-
| [[Silk Road]]
| [[1274]]-[[1295]]
| [[Marco Polo]]
|-
| [[Congo River]]
| [[1482]]
| [[Diogo Cão]]
|-
| [[Cape of Good Hope]]
| [[1488]]
| [[Bartolomeu Dias]]
|-
| [[Americas]]
| [[1492]]
| [[Christopher Columbus]]
|-
| Sea route to [[India]]
| [[1497]]-[[1498]]
| [[Vasco da Gama]]
|-
| [[Caribbean]]
| [[1493]]-[[1502]]
| [[Christopher Columbus]]
|-
| [[Jamaica]]
| [[1494]]
| [[Christopher Columbus]]
|-
| Inland [[Mexico]] and [[Central America]]
| [[1519]]-[[1524]]
| [[Hernán Cortés]]
|-
| [[Peru]] and [[Ecuador]]
| [[1531]]-[[1534]]
| [[Francisco Pizarro]]
|-
| [[Circumnavigate]] the Globe
| [[1519]]-[[1522]]
| [[Ferdinand Magellan]]
|-
| [[Timor]]
| [[1522]]
| [[Juan Sebastián Elcano]]
|-
| [[Inca]] Empire
| [[1531]]-[[1534]]
| [[Francisco Pizarro]]
|-
| The North
| [[1574]]-[[1631]]
| [[Henry Hudson]]
|-
| The North
| [[1594]]-[[1597]]
| [[Willem Barents]]
|-
| [[Oceania]]
| [[1642]]-[[1643]]
| [[Abel Tasman]]
|-
| [[Oceania]]
| [[1768]]-[[1779]]
| [[James Cook]]
|-
| North [[Pacific]], western [[Alaska]], east shores of Asia
| [[1771]]
| [[Moric Benovsky]]
|-
| [[Hawaiian Islands]]
| [[1778]]
| [[James Cook]]
|-
| [[Central America]] and [[Latin America]]
| [[1799]]-[[1803]]
| [[Alexander von Humboldt]]
|-
| [[North America]]
| [[1804]]-[[1806]]
| [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]]
|-
| The [[North Magnetic Pole]]
| [[1831]]-[[06-01]]
| [[James Clark Ross]]
|-
| [[Africa]]
| [[1849]]-[[1863]]
| [[David Livingstone]]
|-
| The [[Northern Sea Route]]
| [[1878]]
| [[Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld]]
|-
| The [[South Magnetic Pole]]
| [[1909]]-[[01-16]]
| [[Douglas Mawson]], [[Edgeworth David]], and [[Alistair Mackay]]
|-
| The [[North Pole]]
| [[1909]]-[[04-06]]
| [[Robert Peary]]
|-
| The [[South Pole]]
| [[1911]]-[[12-14]]
| [[Roald Amundsen]]
|-
| The [[South Pole]]
| [[1912]]-[[01-18]]
| [[Robert Falcon Scott]]
|-
| [[Mount Everest]] Summit
| [[1953]]-[[05-29]]
| Sir [[Edmund Hillary]] and Sherpa [[Tenzing Norgay]]
|-
| The [[Moon]]
| [[1969]]-[[07-20]]
| ''[[Apollo 11]]''
|-
|}
=== See also ===
* [[Age of Discovery]]
* [[Exploration of Australia]]
* [[Exploration of the High Alps]]
* [[Portugal in the period of discoveries]]
[[Category:Exploration]]
[[de:Entdeckungsreise]]
[[hr:Zemljopisna otkrića]]
[[nl:Ontdekkingsreizen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>E. P. Thompson</title>
<id>9503</id>
<revision>
<id>41463095</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T14:40:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Charles Matthews</username>
<id>12978</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Personal life */ link - she has a page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Edward Palmer Thompson''' ([[February 3]], [[1924]] - [[August 28]], [[1993]]), was a British historian, [[Socialism|socialist]] and peace campaigner. He is probably best known today for his historical work on the British radical movements in the late-18th and early-19th centuries, in particular his book ''[[The Making of the English Working Class]]'' (1963). But he also published influential biographies of [[William Morris]] (1955) and (posthumously) [[William Blake]] (1993) and was a prolific journalist and essayist as well as publishing [[The Sykaos Papers|one novel]] and a collection of poetry. He was one of the main intellectual members of the [[Communist Party of Great Britain|Communist Party]] who left the party in [[1956]] over the [[1956 Hungarian Revolution|Soviet invasion]] of [[Hungary]], and he played a key role in the first New Left in Britain in the late 1950s. He was a vociferous left-wing socialist critic of the Labour governments of 1964-70 and 1974-79 and, during the 1980s, the leading intellectual light of the movement against nuclear weapons in Europe.
== Early life ==
Thompson was born in [[Oxford]], to Methodist missionary parents. He was educated at [[Kingswood School]], Bath. During [[World War II]] he served in a tank corps. in [[Italy]], and then studied at [[Corpus Christi College, Cambridge]], where he joined the Communist Party. In [[1946]] he formed the Communist Historians Group along with [[Christopher Hill]], [[Eric Hobsbawm]], [[Rodney Hilton]], [[Dona Torr]] and others. This group launched the influential journal ''[[Past and Present]]'' in [[1952]].
== William Morris ==
Thompson's first major work was his biography of William Morris, written while he was a member of the CP. Subtitled ''From Romantic to Revolutionary'', it was part of an effort by the CP Historians' Group, inspired by Torr, to emphasise the domestic roots of Marxism in Britain at a time when the CP was under attack for always following the Moscow line – but it was also an attem |
ly shows that they must exist. One can determine basis polynomials using the method of [[Gröbner basis|Gröbner bases]].
A slightly more general statement of Hilbert's basis theorem is: if ''R'' is a left (respectively right) [[Noetherian ring]], then the [[polynomial ring]] ''R''[''X''] is also left (respectively right) Noetherian.
The [[Mizar system|Mizar project]] has completely formalized and automatically checked a proof of Hilbert's basis theorem in the [http://www.mizar.org/JFM/Vol12/hilbasis.html HILBASIS file].
==References==
* Cox, Little, and O'Shea, ''Ideals, Varieties, and Algorithms'', Springer-Verlag, 1997.
[[Category:Commutative algebra]]
[[Category:Invariant theory]]
[[Category:Mathematical theorems]]
[[de:Hilbertscher Basissatz]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heterocyclic compound</title>
<id>13734</id>
<revision>
<id>40496776</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T00:06:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>V8rik</username>
<id>195918</id>
</contributor>
<comment>update</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Pyridine simple structure.png|frame|right|Pyridine a simple heterocyclic compound]]
'''Heterocyclic compounds''' are organic [[compounds]] that contain a ring structure containing atoms in addition to [[carbon]], such as [[sulfur]], [[oxygen]] or [[nitrogen]], as part of the ring. They may be either [[simple aromatic ring]]s or non-aromatic rings. Some examples are [[pyridine]] (C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>5</sub>N), [[pyrimidine]] (C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>4</sub>N<sub>2</sub>) and [[dioxane]] (C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>8</sub>O<sub>2</sub>).
Note that compounds such as ''[[cyclopropane]]'', an anaesthetic with explosive properties, and ''[[cyclohexane]]'', a solvent, are not heterocyclic, they are merely [[cycloalkanes]]. The suffix '-cyclic' implies a ring structure, while 'hetero' refers to an atom other than carbon, as above.
'''Heterocyclic chemistry''' is the chemistry branch dealing exclusively with synthesis, properties and applications of heterocycles especially vital to [[drug]] design.
==3-membered rings==
Heterocycles with three atoms in the ring are more reactive because of [[ring strain]]. Those containing one heteroatom are generally stable. Those with two heteroatoms are more likely to occur as reactive intermediates. Common 3-membered heterocycles are:
* One N: [[Aziridine]]
* One O: [[Ethylene oxide]], generally known as [[epoxide]]s. The systematic name is oxirane. The unsaturated ring system is an [[oxirene]] (generally unstable).
* One S: [[Thiirane]]
==4-membered rings==
* One N: [[Azetidine]]
* One O: [[Oxetane]]
==5-membered rings==
With heterocycles containing five atoms, the unsaturated compounds are frequently more stable because of aromaticity.
* One N: [[Pyrrole]] and dihydro- and tetrahydro-analogues.
* One O: [[Furan]]
* One S: [[Thiophene]]
* One N and one or more of N,S,O: the [[azole]]s
==6-membered rings==
* One N: [[Pyridine]]
* One O: [[Pyran]]
* Two N: [[Pyridazine]] [[Pyrimidine]] and [[Pyrazine]] are the 1,2-, 1,3-, and 1,4-isomers, respectively.
[[Category:Heterocyclic compounds]]
[[ar:حلقة غير متجانسة]]
[[cs:Heterocyklická sloučenina]]
[[de:Heterocyclus]]
[[es:Compuesto heterocíclico]]
[[fr:Hétérocycle]]
[[he:תרכובת הטרוציקלית]]
[[ja:複素環式化合物]]
[[pl:Związek heterocykliczny]]
[[ru:Гетероциклические соединения]]
[[sk:Heterocyklická zlúčenina]]
[[zh:杂环化合物]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heat film</title>
<id>13735</id>
<revision>
<id>24821129</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-05T16:27:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Reedy Boy</username>
<id>449918</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>updated redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Heat (film)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Harvard University</title>
<id>13736</id>
<revision>
<id>42016035</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T06:00:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Harro5</username>
<id>211795</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rm self-promoting paragraph to avoid another long war about it.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''"Harvard" redirects here. For other uses of the name Harvard, see [[Harvard (disambiguation)]].''
{{Infobox_University
|name = Harvard University
|image = [[Image:Harvard shield.png|125px|Shield of Harvard University]]
|motto = Veritas (''Truth'')
|established = [[September 8]], [[1636]]
|type = [[Private school|Private]]
|president = [[Lawrence H. Summers]] (announced resignation effective June 30, 2006)
|city = [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]]
|state = [[Massachusetts|Mass.]]
|country = [[United States|USA]]
|undergrad = 6,655
|postgrad = 13,000
|staff= 2,300
|campus = [[urban area | Urban]], 380 [[acre]]s/154 [[hectare|ha]]
|mascot = [[John Harvard (clergyman)|John Harvard]] [[Image:Harvard university john mascot.jpg|30px|]]
|free_label = Athletics
|free = 41 varsity teams
|website= [http://www.harvard.edu/ www.harvard.edu]
|endowment= US$25.9 [[billion]]
}}
'''Harvard University''' is a [[private university]] in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]], [[Massachusetts]], [[United States|USA]] and a member of the [[Ivy League]].
Harvard was founded on [[September 8]], [[1636]], by a vote of the Great and General Court of the [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]], making it the [[Colonial colleges|oldest institution]] of [[higher education]] in the [[United States]]. Originally referred to simply as ''the New College'', it was named ''Harvard College'' on [[March 13]], [[1639]], after its first principal donor, a young clergyman named [[John Harvard (clergyman)|John Harvard]]. A graduate of [[Emmanuel College, Cambridge]], John Harvard bequeathed a few hundred books in his will to form the basis of the college library collection, along with several hundred [[pound sterling|pounds]]. The earliest known official reference to Harvard as a "[[university]]" rather than a "[[college]]" occurred in the new [[Massachusetts Constitution]] of 1780.
In his 1869-1909 tenure as Harvard president, [[Charles William Eliot]] radically transformed Harvard into the pattern of the modern research university. Eliot's reforms included elective courses, small classes, and entrance examinations. The Harvard model influenced American education nationally, at both college and secondary levels.
In 2000, [[Radcliffe College]], initially founded as the "Harvard Annex" for women, merged formally with Harvard University, becoming the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study.[http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~fdo/publications/0203/parents.html#history]
Harvard has the world's largest university [[library]] collection (third largest library overall after the [[British Library]] and the [[Library of Congress]]), and the [[ List_of_US_colleges_and_universities_by_endowment |largest]] [[financial endowment]] of any academic institution, standing at $25.9 billion as of 2005.
== Institution ==
[[Image:John Harvard, statue at Harvard University.JPG|right|200px|thumb|The [[John Harvard (clergyman)|John Harvard]] statue in [[Harvard Yard]] is a frequent target of pranks, hacks, and humorous decorations, such as the colorful [[Lei (Hawaii)|lei]] shown above.]]
A faculty of about 2,300 professors serves about 6,650 undergraduate and 13,000 graduate students. The school color is [[crimson]], which is also the name of the Harvard sports teams and the daily [[newspaper]], ''[[The Harvard Crimson]]''. The color was unofficially adopted (in preference to [[magenta]]) by an 1875 vote of the student body, although the association with some form of red can be traced back to 1858, when [[Charles William Eliot]], a young graduate student who would later become Harvard's president, bought red bandannas for his crew so they could more easily be distinguished by spectators at a regatta.
Prominent student organizations at Harvard include the aforementioned ''Crimson''; the ''[[the Harvard Advocate|Harvard Advocate]]'', one of the nation's oldest literary magazines and the oldest current publication at Harvard; the ''[[Harvard Lampoon]]'', a [[humor]] magazine; and the [[Hasty Pudding Theatricals]], which produces an annual burlesque and celebrates notable actors at its [[Hasty Pudding Man of the Year|Man of the Year]] and [[Hasty Pudding Woman of the Year|Woman of the Year]] ceremonies; and the [[Harvard Glee Club]], the oldest college chorus in America. The [[Harvard-Radcliffe Orchestra]], composed mainly of undergraduates, was founded in 1808 as the Pierian Sodality and has been performing as a symphony orchestra since the 1950s.
Harvard College has traditionally drawn many of its students from private schools, though today the majority of undergraduates come from public schools across the United States and around the globe.
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:SandersTheater.jpg|thumb|left|199px|[[Sanders Theater]], a concert and lecture hall, located in the apse of Harvard's Memorial Hall]] -->
Harvard has a friendly rivalry with the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] which dates back to 1900, when a merger of the two schools was frequently mooted and at one point officially agreed upon (ultimately canceled by Massachusetts courts). Today, the two schools cooperate as much as they compete, with many joint conferences and programs, including the Division of Health Sciences and Technology, the Harvard-MIT Data Center and the Dibner Institute for the History of Science and Technology. In addition, students at the two schools can [[cross-registration|cross-register]] in undergraduate c |
nces, which were encircled and captured one by one by forces coming behind the leading elements. After six days advance 15.D was only three kilometers from the Viipuri-Sortavala railroad and 15km from the western corner of Lake Ladoga and close to encircling Soviet forces on its left side. The 2.D (Col. Blick) decided to encircle two battalions of Soviet IR461 which were defending Tyrjä village by encircling the village from east and pushing the defenders to Lake Tyrjänjärvi by using IR7/2.D while IR28/2.D passed the village and advanced southwards. While supported by artillery the Soviets managed to hold on four days, before the encirclement was complete. Some of the men were able to escape through the forests, but most of them and all their heavy equipment were trapped to the village. Also Finns suffered heavy casualties in the fighting and the IR7 received the nickname ''Tyrjän rykmentti'' (Regiment of Tyrjä). The capture of Tyrjä opened road towards Elisenvaara railway crossing and at August 5 first Finnish units reached Viipuri-Sortavala railroad.
The commander of Soviet 23. Army, Lt.Gen. M. Gerasimov ordered August 4 198.D to cease its counterattack near Sortavala and move south to attack advancing 2.D together with 142.D. Meanwhile 115.D and 43.D should tie Finnish reserves. Unfortunately this wasn't sufficient and 115.D retreated to river Helisevänjoki, where hills and a river formed good defensive positions against attacking 18.D. The 18.D advanced to river Helisevänjoki and reached Viipuri Sortavala railroad at Inkilä roadcrossing at August 8. The 10.D (Col. Sihvo) was ordered to advance between 15.D and 18.D and at August 6 they reached Viipuri Sortavala railroad. 10.D continued attack towards Käkisalmi Hiitola railroad, but Soviet forces managed to keep railroad and road open until August 8, when 10.D captured Hiitola village and when the first troops of 10.D reached Lake Ladoga next day the last land connection to Soviet troops defending the northwest coast of Lake Ladoga was severed. Soviets tried to open the connection with strong counterattacks during August 10 and 11 but were unsuccessful.
Meanwhile IR28/2.D had captured Elisenvaara railway junction August 9 thus opening supply routes through railways from Finland. After the battle of Tyrjä IR7/2.D rested two days as division reserve before continuing attack along railroad towards Lahdenpohja town, which it captured August 8, thus dividing Soviet forces in the forming bridgehead. At the same day, 2.D was transferred to new I Corps with an order to clear northern Soviet bridgehead. It was left to 15.D and 10.D to clear southern bridgehead where Soviet 142.D and 198.D were ordered to withdraw to Kilpolansaari island for naval transport. This withdrawal was executed orderly and Finns couldn't encircle any bigger enemy formations. At August 11 15.D captured Hiitola railway junction, and at August 13 all Soviet forces have retreated to Huiskonniemi peninsula and Kilpolansaari island. With total superiority in air Soviets managed to withdraw almost all the men and material from the bridgehead and at August 23 15.D, which was left to press Soviets, had cleared all remaining rearguards from the island.
Soviet intention was to start large counteroffensive at August 10, and 23. Army had received 265.D reinforcements to Räisälä area. The offensive was to be directed against 18.D and 10.D with the target to open roads to encircled forces on northwest coast of lake Ladoga. By coindicent the 18.D had been resting and received order to continue advance on the same day, so when the Soviet attack started at Inkilä, Finns in turn started their own only 5km westwards. While the Soviet attack failed to gain ground, Finnish attack managed to cut Soviets' main supply route and subsequent Finnish counterattack forced Soviet forces to retreat southwards while fighting delaying action and first Finnish troops reached River Vuoksi at August 14 at [[Antrea]], where they continued clearing the left shore of the river. Soviets started to move forces from southwestern side of Viipuri to defend Enso and to counterattack to Antrea at August 16, but when the attack failed, the Soviets were forced to evacuate northern shore at August 21. At the eastern side Finns advanced southeastward and reached Vuosalmi at August 17 and northern outlet of river Vuoksi at August 18. Finns crossed immediately River Vuoksi unopposed few kilometers west of Vuosalmi at August 17, and by August 20 they had secured the beachhead.
The Soviet counterattack against 10.D started August 14 and it managed to push Finns 2km northwards before Finnish reinforcements managed to stop it. The 10.D left the coast of Lake Ladoga to IR36/15.D and concentrated all of its forces against Soviet 265.D at Räisälä. At August 15 the 10.D started its own attack in which it encircled Soviet defenders in Räisälä at August 17 and captured it next day. From there it continued cleaning the left bank of northern outlet of River Vuoksi. At August 19 IR43/10.D continued attack southward and reached Lake Suvanto at August 21. From there it continued eastward with IR1/10.D. This threatened all Soviet forces north of Vuoksi with encirclement and they started retreating from Käkisalmi which was captured at August 21. The attack continued southward and as only small border guard units were capable to delay attackers, River Taipaleenjoki and the shore of Lake Ladoga was reached at August 23, but Finnish troops were unable to cross river on the move.
STAVKA recognized the serious situation, and ordered at August 20 retreat to the new, unprepared defence line running from the southwest side of Viipuri northwards to river Vuoksi and along it to Lake Suvanto and through River Taipaleenjoki to Lake Ladoga. This decision shortened frontline considerably, but it also meant abandoning defensive installations they had prepared last months along the border. The Finns were preparing to start their own attack along the southernmost stretch of the border at, so when they notice Soviets leaving their positions at August 21, they were ordered for immediate pursuit. Althought Soviet 43.D (Mj.Gen. V. Kirpitsnikov) managed to man new positions north and west of Viipuri, they were unable to prevent Finnish 12.D (Col. Vihma) to advance along the right bank of River Vuoksi and contact 18.D, which was enlarging their beachhead at Vuosalmi, and at the evening of August 22 the whole right bank was in Finnish hands. Soviet 123.D (Mj.Gen. F. Aljabusev) was defending the southwest side of Viipuri. Much of the troops of 123.D and of the 115.D (Mj.Gen. Konjkov) which had retreated from upper Vuoksi were still unorganized due to fast retreat from their positions. The Finnish 4.D (Col. Viljanen) advanced along the [[Saimaa Canal]], pressing Soviet 43.D from north. By August 23 the southernmost Finnish division, 8.D (Col. Winell), had cleared the western shore of the [[Bay of Viipuri]] up to the River Ykspäänjoki, and started to prepare the crossing of the bay.
During August 23 Finns had manged to advance from the east to 8km from Viipuri, but at the morning of August 24 Soviet 123.D and 115.D stated counteroffensive against Finnish forces east of Viipuri, propably trying to capture initiative and force Finns back to the northern side of River Vuoksi. Using heavy artillery fire Soviets managed to push defending Finns at places over 5km backwards, but they didn't manage to create breaches to the front, and when the reserve of 12.D, IR26, which was already moving to the place for troop rotation, arrived, the Soviets were pushed back to their starting positions next day. The Soviet counterattack failed to affect already ordered 12.D attack, which severed main railroad connection between Viipuri and Leningrad at August 25.
At the morning of August 24 Finnish 8.D started crossing Bay of Viipuri with the forces of III/IR45 to Lihaniemi Peninsula which it secured during the same day. At the next day they continued their attack and managed to sever last railroad running from Viipuri during afternoon, and managed to enlage their beachhead few kilometers to every direction during next two days. The 12.D had continued their offensive southwest, and severed Viipuri-Leningrad main road at August 27. At August 28 STAVKA allowed 23.Army to withdraw from Viipuri and form new defensive line to approximately the same place where Mannerheim Line had been. The Soviet forces began immediate retreat and tried forcefully open the roads. At Ylä-Somme they managed to open one road at the evening of August 28, and during the night they managed to move several truck trains through, although under Finnish fire. The artillery fire caused several casualties, and little by little the road become more and more congested and finally only men at foot were able to pass. During the next two days Soviets tried repeatedly open the railroad line along the bay of Viipuri, but at the late evening of August 30 IR3/12.D reached the positions of the 8.D. The [[Battle of Porlampi|motti of Porlampi]] has closed. As the Soviet attempts to open the encirclement during the next day failed and as Finnish encirclement tightened, they made the final attempt to save men by abandoning all vehicles and trying to escape by feet through forests. The ring was already too tight and only small groups managed to escape at this last night. Next morning demoralized troops started to surrender. 9,000 men surrendered and 7,000 were buried there, but almost 12,000 men had managed to escape before the ring closed. Also the booty was abundant: 306 artillery pieces, 55 tanks, 673 trucks, almost 300 tracktors and around 4,500 horses.
Also at along the main road and railroad between Viipuri and Leningrad the Soviet order to retreat and form a new defensive line along the old Mannerheim Line came too late, as the 12.D at the same day captured Leipäsuo and continued advance southwest, towards Lake Kuolemanjärvi |
is the only '''Z'''<sub>''n''</sub>-[[algebra over a field|algebra]] [[endomorphism]] on '''Z'''<sub>''n''</sub> so we can restate the definition as asking that ''p''<sub>''n''</sub> be an algebra endomorphism of '''Z'''<sub>''n''</sub>.
As above, ''p''<sub>''n''</sub> satisfies the same property whenever ''n'' is prime.
The ''n''th-power-raising function ''p''<sub>''n''</sub> is also defined on any '''Z'''<sub>''n''</sub>-algebra '''A'''. A theorem states that ''n'' is prime if and only if all such functions ''p''<sub>''n''</sub> are algebra endomorphisms.
In-between these two conditions lies the definition of '''Carmichael number of order m''' for any positive integer ''m'' as any composite number ''n'' such that ''p''<sub>''n''</sub> is an endomorphism on every '''Z'''<sub>''n''</sub>-algebra that can be generated as '''Z'''<sub>''n''</sub>-[[module (mathematics)|module]] by ''m'' elements. Carmichael numbers of order 1 are just the ordinary Carmichael numbers.
===Properties===
Korselt's criterion can be generalized to higher-order Carmichael numbers, see Howe's paper listed below.
A heuristic argument, given in the same paper, appears to suggest that there are infinitely many Carmichael numbers of order ''m'', for any ''m''. However, not a single Carmichael number of order 3 or above is known.
==Layman's overview==
To see if a number ''n'' is a Carmichael number:
* ''n'' must not be prime (must have factors)
* For every number ''b'' less than ''n'' which has no factors in common with ''n''
** (''b''<sup>''n''&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;1</sup>) mod ''n'' = 1
The following algorithm (in BASIC) performs this test:
INPUT n
n1 = n - 1
fail = 0
somefactor = 0
FOR b = 2 TO n1
IF coprime(b, n) THEN
bi = 1
FOR i = 1 TO n1
bi = bi * b
bi = bi MOD n
NEXT i
IF bi <> 1 THEN
fail = b
EXIT FOR
END IF
ELSE
somefactor = 1
END IF
NEXT b
IF fail > 0 THEN
PRINT n; "fails for b="; fail
ELSEIF n <= 1 THEN
PRINT n; "is 0 or 1"
ELSEIF somefactor = 0 THEN
PRINT n; "is a prime"
ELSE
PRINT n; "is a Carmichael number"
END IF
This produces results such as:
560 fails for b= 3
561 is a Carmichael number
562 fails for b= 3
563 is a prime
564 fails for b= 5
==References==
* Chernick, J. (1935). On Fermat's simple theorem. ''Bull. Amer. Math. Soc.'' '''45''', 269&ndash;274.
* Ribenboim, Paolo (1996). ''The New Book of Prime Number Records''.
* Howe, Everett W. (2000). Higher-order Carmichael numbers. ''Mathematics of Computation'' '''69''', 1711&ndash;1719. [http://arxiv.org/abs/math.NT/9812089 (online version)]
* Löh, Günter and Niebuhr, Wolfgang (1996). [http://www.ams.org/mcom/1996-65-214/S0025-5718-96-00692-8/S0025-5718-96-00692-8.pdf ''A new algorithm for constructing large Carmichael numbers''](pdf)
* Korselt (1899). Probleme chinois. ''L'intermediaire des mathematiciens'', '''6''', 142&ndash;143.
* Carmichael, R. D. (1912) On composite numbers P which satisfy the Fermat congruence <math>a^{P-1}\equiv 1\bmod P</math>. ''Am. Math. Month.'' '''19''' 22&ndash;27.
* Erd&#337;s, Paul (1956). On pseudoprimes and Carmichael numbers, ''Publ. Math. Debrecen'' '''4''', 201 &ndash;206.
* Alford, Granville and Pomerance (1994). There are infinitely many Carmichael numbers, ''Ann. of Math.'' '''140'''(3), 703&ndash;722.
==External links==
* [http://de.wikibooks.org/wiki/Pseudoprimzahlen:_Tabelle_Carmichael-Zahlen Table of Carmichael numbers]
* [http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath028.htm Mathpages: The Dullness of 1729]
[[Category:Modular arithmetic]]
[[Category:Pseudoprimes]]
[[Category:Integer sequences]]
[[de:Carmichael-Zahl]]
[[es:Número de Carmichael]]
[[fr:Nombre de Carmichaël]]
[[ko:카마이클 수]]
[[sl:Carmichaelovo &#353;tevilo]]
[[zh:卡邁克爾數]]
[[fi:Carmichaelin luku]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Contrapositive</title>
<id>7724</id>
<revision>
<id>29760532</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-01T02:33:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Amerindianarts</username>
<id>114185</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Contraposition]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chinese Remainder Theorem</title>
<id>7725</id>
<revision>
<id>15905781</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chinese_remainder_theorem]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cow story</title>
<id>7726</id>
<revision>
<id>15905782</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T14:07:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[You_have_two_cows]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[You_have_two_cows]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Controlled Substances Act</title>
<id>7727</id>
<revision>
<id>41873421</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T07:25:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Adavidw</username>
<id>767795</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rewording for better readability; spelling</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Controlled Substances Act''' ('''CSA''') was enacted into law by the [[Congress of the United States]] as Title II of the [[Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970]] ([http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode21/usc_sup_01_21_10_13.html 21 U.S.C. Chapter 13]). The CSA is the legal basis by which the manufacture, importation, possession, and distribution of certain drugs are regulated by the federal government of the [[United States]]. The Act also served as the national implementing legislation for the [[Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs]].
The legislation created five Schedules (classifications), with varying qualifications for a drug to be included in each. Two federal departments, the [[United States Department of Justice|Department of Justice]] and the [[Department of Health and Human Services]] (which includes the [[Food and Drug Administration]]) determine which drugs are added or removed from the various schedules; though the statute passed by Congress created the initial listing. Classification decisions are required to be made on the criteria of potential for abuse, accepted medical use in the United States, and potential for addiction.
The Department of Justice is also the executive agency in charge of federal law enforcement (i.e. it is the federal police force). State governments also regulate certain drugs.
==Enforcement authority==
Proceedings to add, delete, or change the schedule of a drug or other substance may be initiated by the [[Drug Enforcement Administration]] (DEA), the [[Department of Health and Human Services]] (HHS), or by petition from any interested party, including the manufacturer of a drug, a medical society or association, a pharmacy association, a public interest group concerned with drug abuse, a state or local government agency, or an individual citizen. When a petition is received by the DEA, the agency begins its own investigation of the drug.
The DEA also may begin an investigation of a drug at any time based upon information received from law enforcement laboratories, state and local law enforcement and regulatory agencies, or other sources of information.
Once the DEA has collected the necessary data, the DEA Administrator, by authority of the Attorney General, requests from the HHS a scientific and medical evaluation and recommendation as to whether the drug or other substance should be controlled or removed from control. This request is sent to the Assistant Secretary of Health of the HHS. Then, the HHS solicits information from the Commissioner of the [[Food and Drug Administration]] and evaluations and recommendations from the [[National Institute on Drug Abuse]], and on occasion, from the scientific and medical community at large. The Assistant Secretary, by authority of the Secretary, compiles the information and transmits back to the DEA a medical and scientific evaluation regarding the drug or other substance, a recommendation as to whether the drug should be controlled, and in what schedule it should be placed.
The medical and scientific evaluations are binding to the DEA with respect to scientific and medical matters. The recommendation on scheduling is binding only to the extent that if HHS recommends that the substance not be controlled, the DEA may not control the substance.
Once the DEA has received the scientific and medical evaluation from HHS, the Administrator will evaluate all available data and make a final decision whether to propose that a drug or other substance be controlled and into which schedule it should be placed.
Under certain circumstances, the Government may temporarily schedule a drug without following the normal procedure. An example is when international treaties require control of a substance. In addition, ''21 U.S.C. § 811(h)'' allows the Attorney General to temporarily place a substance in Schedule I "to avoid an imminent hazard to the public safety". Thirty days' notice is required before the order can be issued, and the scheduling expires after a year; however, the period may be extended six months if rulemaking proceedings to permanently schedule the drug are in progress. In any case, once these proceedings are complete, the temporary order is automatically vacated.
The CSA also creates a closed system of distribution for those authorized to handle controlled su |
sound or [[magnetic resonance imaging]]. Clinicians also hope to use advanced imaging techniques to monitor heat treatments in real time&mdash;heat-induced changes in [[biological tissue|tissue]] are sometimes perceptible using these imaging instruments.
==Complementary and alternative cancer treatment ==
''See main article'': [[Complementary and alternative medicine]]
In the year [[2000]], the [[American Cancer Society]] published ''American Cancer Society's Guide to Complementary and Alternative Cancer Methods''. There are over 200 substances and therapies in this book, and while there is a varying degree of success with each of the methods, it appears that some of the techniques will work at times, however no technique will work in all situations, which, practitioners claim, is similar to the success rate of conventional techniques. Many of these treatements are similar to ancient ways of dealing with disease. According to practitioners of such techniques, various options are available to anyone who wants this information, however, they caution that discretion is advised no matter what methods a person chooses to pursue.
== Controversial therapies ==
=== Diet therapy ===
In late 1940-s, German-born physician [[Max Gerson|Dr. Max Gerson]] proposed a therapy that is claimed to be successful in the treatment of advanced cancer, normalizing metabolism and helping the body's [[immune system]] act on cancer cells. It is a high potassium, low sodium (saltless) [[Gerson diet|diet]], with no fats or oils, and high in fresh raw fruits and vegetables and their juices. (See for instance the lecture [http://gerson-research.org/docs/GersonM-1978-1/],
and the book ''A Cancer Therapy: Results of Fifty Cases'', by Max Gerson, M.D.). Other scientists doubt the ability of these treatments to cure cancer, and point to the lack of detailed publication of their results ([http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0961152621/]).
Johanna Budwig proposed another diet therapy she claims can treat cancer. As with Max Gerson, most oncologists do not believe that a diet can treat cancer. Reports of dramatic remissions as a result of the Budwig diet are anecdotal, and not supported by [[peer-review]]ed research. (On the other hand, her diet is good from a nutritional point of view and probably cannot do harm.)
=== Insulin potentiation therapy ===
In [[insulin potentiation therapy]] (IPT), [[insulin]] is given in conjunction with low-dose chemotherapy. Its proponents claim insulin therapy increases the uptake of chemotherapeutic drugs by malignant cells, permitting the use of lower total drug doses and reducing side effects.
Some ''In vitro'' studies have demonstrated the principle of IPT [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=7037424&dopt=Abstract][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=11082431&dopt=Citation] .
The first clinical trial of IPT for treating breast cancer was done in Uruguay and published in 2003/2004. Insulin combined with low-dose methotrexate (a chemotherapy drug) resulted in greatly increased stable disease, and much reduced progressive disease, compared with insulin or low-dose methotrexate alone. Although the study was very small (30 women, 10 per group), the results appear to be very promising. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=14655024&query_hl=2]
=== Fasting therapy ===
Long-term [[fasting]] has been reported to work against malignant tumours. A specific mechanism for this effect has not been identified, and studies to date are merely anecdotal.
== External links ==
* [http://www.cancer.org American Cancer Society]
* [http://www.nci.nih.gov National Cancer Institute]
* [http://www.nature.com/nrc/index.html Nature Reviews Cancer website]
* [http://www.robertsreview.com Audio-video Physician Interviews on Cancer Treatment Breakthroughs]
* [http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/cancer.html "Questionable Cancer Therapies"]
{{Tumors}}
[[Category:Oncology]]
[[Category:Cancer treatments]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ethene</title>
<id>10177</id>
<revision>
<id>15908009</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shimmin</username>
<id>7395</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moved to "Ethylene"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ethylene]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ethyne</title>
<id>10178</id>
<revision>
<id>15908010</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Acetylene]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Euskara</title>
<id>10179</id>
<revision>
<id>15908011</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-18T15:33:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>200.165.239.250</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Basque language]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emission</title>
<id>10181</id>
<revision>
<id>41831783</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T00:58:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Schzmo</username>
<id>175037</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The word '''emission''' generally means sending something out. It can be used in the following contexts:
*In [[chemistry]] emissions are the products of a [[reaction]], either [[chemical reaction|chemical]] or [[nuclear reaction|nuclear]].
*In [[physics]] and [[physical chemistry]] emissions are outputs of [[electromagnetic radiation]] or [[particle]]s.
*In common usage, ''emission'' is often the giving off of [[gas]]es from [[industrial process]]es of [[factory|factories]] and [[transport]]. As they occur on an industrial scale, even relatively harmless gases can have an undesired effect (such as [[carbon dioxide]] contributing to the [[greenhouse effect]]). See also [[emissions trading]], [[automobile emissions control]], [[greenhouse gas]], and [[pollution]].
*In physics, [[emission theory|emission theories]] assumed that light leaves the object that emits it at a particular speed. This idea is most commonly identified with [[Isaac Newton]] and [[Walter Ritz]].
*In the history of [[optics]], [[light]] was supposed by adherents of [[emission theory (vision)]] to be emitted by the [[eyes]]. [[Visual perception]] was accomplished by such rays of light acting like feeling hands
{{disambig}}
[[da:Emission]]
[[de:Emission]]
[[nl:emissie]]
[[pl:Emisja]]
[[pt:Emissão]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Environmental movement in the United States</title>
<id>10183</id>
<revision>
<id>40721360</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T15:42:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[EPA]] to [[Environmental Protection Agency]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Usstamp-save-our.jpg|thumb|right|200px|1970s US postage stamp block]]
==History==
In North America, early figures in the [[Conservation movement]] were [[Johnny Appleseed|Johnny "Appleseed" Chapman]], [[Chief Seattle]], and [[Henry David Thoreau]] in the U.S. and [[Grey Owl]] in Canada. By word and deed, they argued that man belonged in harmony with nature, as its [[keystone species]] - in the terms of modern [[ecology]]. They saw no contradiction in altering or inhabiting the natural environment, and living in harmony with it forever. They did not resist development or colonization of lands - indeed [[Seattle's Reply]], 1854, was an agreement not to resist it.
Early [[environmentalist]]s encouraged emulation of [[indigenous peoples]] and enriching the natural ecology with slow patient effort - Chapman alone planted millions of apple trees throughout the United States. The movement had little or no explicit political character. It was mostly aesthetic. It had no central doctrine. Most of its proponents did not know each other, but created a powerful discourse that influenced people strongly at the time.
Many historians point to the important philosophical and activist roles played by [[John Muir]] in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. In [[1892]], Muir was the leader in the founding of the [[Sierra Club]]. As well, [[forester]] and [[ecologist]] [[Aldo Leopold]] both founded the [[Wilderness Society]] in 1935, and wrote a classic of nature observation and ethical philosophy, ''[[A Sand County Almanac]]'', [[1949 in literature|published in 1949]].
Several books after the middle of the twentieth century contributed to the rise of American environmentalism (as distinct from the longer-established conservation movement), especially among college and university students and the more literate public. One was the publication of the first textbook on [[ecology]], ''[[Fundamentals of Ecology]],'' by [[Eugene Odum]] and [[Howard Odum]], in [[1953]]. Another was the appearance of the best-seller ''[[Silent Spring]]'' by [[Rachel Carson]], in [[1962]]. Her book brought about a whole new interpretation on pesticides by exposing their hamful effects in nature. From this book many began referring to Carson as the "mother of the environmental movement". Another influential development was a 1965 lawsuit, Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference v. Federal Power Commission, opposing the construction of a power plant on [[Storm King Mountain]], which is said to have given birth to modern [[Unit |
>i<sub> low as to allow continuous entry of Glc through its plasma membrane transporters; prevents Glc leakage out - the cell lacks such transporters for G6P; activates Glc preparing it for the next metabolic changes.
G6P is then rearranged into [[Fructose 6-phosphate|F6P]] by [[Glucose phosphate isomerase|GPI]]. [[Fructose|Fru]] can also enter the glycolytic pathway via phosphorylation at this point.
===Control of flux===
The flux through the glycolytic pathway must be adjusted in response to conditions both inside and outside the cell. The rate is regulated to meet two major cellular needs: (1) the production of ATP, and (2) the provision of building blocks for biosynthetic reactions. In glycolysis, the reactions catalyzed by hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase are effectively [[irreversible]]. In metabolic pathways, such enzymes are potential sites of control, and all these three enzymes serve this purpose in glycolysis.
There are several different ways to regulate the activity of an enzyme. An immediate form of control is [[feedback]] via [[allosteric]] effectors or by covalent modification. A slower form of control is [[transcriptional regulation]] that controls the amounts of these important enzymes.
====[[Hexokinase]]====
Hexokinase is inhibited by glucose-6-phosphate (G6P), the product it forms through the ATP driven phosphorylation. This is necessary to prevent an accumulation of G6P in the cell when flux through the glycolytic pathway is low. Glucose will enter the cell but since the hexokinase is not active it can readly diffuse back to the blood through the glucose transporter in the plasma membrane. If hexokinase remained active during low glycolytic flux the G6P would accumulate and the extra solute would cause the cells to enlarge due to osmosis.
In liver cells, the extra G6P is stored as [[glycogen]]. In these cells hexokinase is not expressed, instead [[glucokinase]] catalyses the phosphorylation of glucose to G6P. This enzyme is not inhibited by high levels of G6P and glucose can still be converted to G6P and then be stored as glycogen. This is important when blood glucose levels are high. During [[hypoglycemia]] the glycogen can be converted back to G6P and then converted to glucose by a liver specific enzyme [[glucose 6-phosphatase]]. This reverse reaction is an important role of liver cells to maintain blood sugars levels during fasting. This is critical for neuron fuction since they can only use glucose as an energy source.
====[[Phosphofructokinase]]-1====
Phosphofructokinase is an important control point in the glycolytic pathway since it is immediately downstream of the entry points for hexose sugars.
High levels of ATP inhibit the PFK enzyme by lowering its affinity for F6P. ATP causes this control by binding to a specific regulatory site that is distinct from the catalytic site. This is a good example of [[allosteric]] control. AMP can reverse the inhibitory effect of ATP. A consequence is that PFK is tightly controlled by the ratio of ATP/AMP in the cell. This makes sense since these molecules are direct indicators of the [[energy charge]] in the cell.
Since glycolysis is also a source of carbon skeletons for biosynthesis, a negative feedback control to glycolysis from the carbon skeleton pool is useful. [[Citrate]] is an example of a metabolite that regulates phosphofructokinase by enhancing the inhibitory effect of ATP. Citrate is an early intermediate in the citric acid cycle, and a high level means that biosynthetic precursors are abundant.
Low pH also inhibits phosphofructokinase activity and prevents the excessive rise of lactic acid during anaerobic conditions that could otherwise cause a drop in blood pH ([[acidosis]]).
[[Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate]] (F2,6BP) is a potent activator of phosphofructokinase (PFK-1) that is synthesised when F6P is phosphorylated by a second phosphofructokinase ([[PFK2]]). This second enzyme is inactive when cAMP is high, and links the regulation of glycolysis to hormone activity in the body. Both [[glucagon]] and [[adrenalin]] cause high levels of cAMP in the liver. The result is lower levels of liver fructose 2,6-bisphosphate such that gluconeogenesis (glycolysis in reverse) is favored. This is consistent with the role of the liver in such situations since the response of the liver to these hormones is to releases glucose to the blood.
====Pyruvate kinase====
===Energy pay-off===
Each molecule of GADP is then oxidized by a molecule of NAD<sup>+</sup> in the presence of [[Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase|GAP]], forming [[1,3-bisphosphoglycerate]]. In the next step, [[Phosphoglycerate kinase|PGK]] generates a molecule of ATP while forming [[3-phosphoglycerate]]. At this step, glycolysis has reached the break-even point: 2 molecules of ATP were consumed, and 2 new molecules have been synthesized. This step, one of the two substrate-level phosphorylation steps, requires ADP; thus, when the cell has plenty of ATP (and little ADP) this reaction does not occur. Because ATP decays relatively quickly when it is not metabolized, this is an important regulatory point in the glycolytic pathway.
[[Phosphoglycerate mutase|PGAM]] then forms [[2-phosphoglycerate]]; [[Enolase|ENO]] then forms [[phosphoenolpyruvate]]; and another substrate-level phosphorylation then forms a molecule of Pyr and a molecule of ATP by means of the enzyme [[Pyruvate kinase|PK]]. This serves as an additional regulatory step.
After the formation of F1,6bP, many of the reactions are energetically unfavorable. The only reactions that are favorable are the 2 substrate-level phosphorylation steps that result in the formation of ATP. These two reactions pull the glycolytic pathway to completion.
==Follow-up==
The ultimate fate of pyruvate and NADH produced in glycolysis depends upon the organism and the conditions, most notably the presence or absence of oxygen and other external electron acceptors.
In [[aerobic organism]]s, pyruvate typically enters the mitochondria where it is fully oxidized to carbon dioxide and water by pyruvate decarboxylase and the set of enzymes of the [[citric acid cycle]] (also known as the TCA or Krebs cycle). The products of pyruvate are sequentially dehydrogenated as they pass through the cycle conserving the hydrogen equivalents via the reduction of NAD<sup>+<sup> to NADH. NADH is ultimately oxidized by an [[electron transport chain]] using oxygen as final electron acceptor to produce a large amount of ATP via the action of the [[ATP synthase]] complex, a process known as [[oxidative phosphorylation]]. A small amount of ATP is also produced by substrate-level phosphorylation during the TCA cycle.
Although human metabolism is primarily aerobic, under hypoxic (or partially anaerobic) conditions, for example in overworked muscles that are starved of oxygen or in infarcted heart muscle cells, pyruvate is converted to the waste product [[lactate]]. This and similar reactions are known as [[fermentation]], and they are a solution to maintaining the metabolic flux through glycolysis in response to an anaerobic or severely hypoxic environment.
Although fermentation does not produce much energy, it is critical for an anaerobic or hypoxic cell, since it regenerates NAD<sup>+<sup> that is required for glycolysis to proceed. This is important for normal cellular function, as glycolysis is the only source of ATP in anaerobic or severely hypoxic conditions.
There are several types of fermentation wherein pyruvate and NADH are anaerobically metabolized to yield any of a variety of products with an organic molecule acting as the final hydrogen acceptor. For example, the [[bacterium|bacteria]] involved in making yogurt simply reduce pyruvate to [[lactic acid]], whereas [[yeast]] produces [[ethanol]] and [[carbon dioxide]]. Anaerobic bacteria are capable of using a wide variety of compounds, other than oxygen, as terminal electron acceptors in respiration: nitrogenous compounds (such as nitrates and nitrites), sulphur compounds (such as sulphates, sulphites, sulphur dioxide, and elemental sulphur), carbon dioxide, iron compounds, manganese compounds, cobalt compounds, and uranium compounds.
==Intermediates for other pathways==
This article concentrates on the [[catabolic]] role of glycolysis with regard to converting potential chemical energy to usable chemical energy during the oxidation of glucose to pyruvate. Many of the metabolites in the glycolytic pathway are also used by [[anabolic]] pathways, and, as a consequence, flux through the pathway is critical also to maintain a supply carbon skeletons for biosynthesis.
From an energy perspective, NADH is either recycled to NAD+ during anaerobic conditions, to maintain the flux through the glycolytic pathway, or used during aerobic conditions to produce more ATP by oxidative phosphorylation. From an anabolic metabolism perspective, the NADH has a role to drive synthetic reactions, doing so by directly or indirectly reducing the pool of NADP+ in the cell to NADPH, which is another important reducing agent for biosynthetic pathways in a cell.
==High aerobic glycolysis==
During anaerobic conditions, glycolysis is the cellular mechanism to obtain [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]], by [[fermentation]]. However, in [[mammalian]] cells, glycolysis is coupled with aerobic respiration. In the presence of oxygen, [[mitochondria]] take up [[pyruvate]], the end-product of glycolysis, and further oxidize it into CO<sub>2</sub> and water. As a result, the flux through the glycolytic pathway is lower during aerobic conditions since the full oxidation of one molecule of pyruvate (equivalent to one-half molecule of glucose) can lead to 18 times more ATP. Malignant rapidly-growing [[tumor]] cells, however, have glycolytic rates that are up to 200 times higher than that of their normal tissues of origin, despite the ample availability of oxygen. A cl |
ld Reagan|President Reagan]]]]
Although Hirohito was forced to reject any claims to his own divine status, his status was deliberately left vague, partly because General MacArthur thought him likely to be a useful tool to get the Japanese to accept the occupation, and partly due to behind-the-scenes maneuverings by [[Shigeru Yoshida]] to thwart MacArthur's attempts at casting Hirohito as a European-style monarch. While Hirohito was usually seen as a [[head of state]], there is still a broad dispute about whether he became a mere citizen or something else. Many scholars claim that today's ''tennō'' (usually translated [[Emperor of Japan]] in English) is not an [[emperor]]. See the "[[Emperor of Japan]]" article for discussion of the position of Emperor of Japan.
For the rest of his life, Hirohito was an active figure in Japanese life, and performed many of the duties commonly associated with a constitutional [[head of state]]. The emperor and his family maintained a strong public presence, often holding public walkabouts, and making public appearances on special events and holidays. He also played an important role in rebuilding Japan's diplomatic image, traveling abroad to meet with many foreign leaders, including numerous American presidents and Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]].
Hirohito was deeply interested in and well-informed about [[marine biology]], and the [[Kokyo|Imperial Palace]] contained a laboratory from which Hirohito published several papers in the field.
==Death==
On [[September 22]], [[1987]], Hirohito underwent surgery on his pancreas after having digestive problems for several months. This was the very first time a Japanese Emperor underwent surgery. The doctors discovered that he had [[duodenal cancer]], but in accordance with Japanese tradition, they did not tell him. Hirohito seemed to be recovering well for several months after his surgery. About a year later, however, on [[September 19]], [[1988]], he collapsed in his palace, and his health worsened over the next several months as he suffered from continuous internal bleeding. On [[January 7]], [[1989]], at 6:33 AM, Hirohito died. At 7:55 AM, the grand steward of Japan's Imperial Household Agency, Shoichi Fujimori, officially announced the Emperor's death, and revealed details about his cancer for the first time. Upon his death, he was renamed Emperor Showa (''Shōwa Tennō''), after the era during which he ruled. On [[February 24]], Emperor Showa's funeral was held, and unlike that of his predecessor, it was not done in a strictly [[Shinto]] manner, and a number of world leaders attended it. He is buried in the Imperial mausoleum in [[Hachioji,_Tokyo|Hachioji]], alongside other past emperors.
===Yasukuni Jinja===
Although largely refraining from becoming involved in the politics surrounding [[Yasukuni Jinja]], Hirohito maintained an official boycott of the controversial monument from 1978, when it was revealed to him that wartime Prime Minister [[Hideki Tojo]] was being honored there, until the time of his death.
This boycott has been maintained by his son [[Akihito]], who has also refused to worship at Yasukuni since 1978.
==See also==
* [[Fumimaro Konoe]]
* [[Gyokuon-hoso|Gyokuon-hōsō]]
* [[Hideki Tojo]]
* [[Japanese nationalism]]
* [[Showa period|Shōwa period]]
* [[Tanaka Memorial]]
* [[World War II]]
== References ==
* Mosley, Leonard ''Hirohito, Emperor of Japan'', Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1966. ISBN 1111755396 ISBN 1199997609 - The first full-length biography, it gives his basic story.
* Hoyt, Edwin P. ''Hirohito: The Emperor and the Man'', Praeger Publishers, 1992. ISBN 0275940691
* Behr, Edward ''Hirohito: Behind the Myth'', Villard, New York, 1989. - A controversial book that posited that Hirohito had a more active role in WWII than had publically been portrayed; it contributed to the re-appraisal of his role.
* Bix, Herbert P. ''Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan'', HarperCollins, 2000. ISBN 006019314X - A recent scholarly (and copiously sourced) look at the same issue.
* Wetzler, Peter ''Hirohito and War: Imperial Tradition and Military Decision Making in Prewar Japan'', University of Hawaii Press, 1998. ISBN 082481925X
* Kawahara, Toshiaki ''Hirohito and His Times: A Japanese Perspective'', Kodansha International, 1997. ISBN 0870119796 (Japanese standard image)
== External links ==
{{Commons|Hirohito}}
* [http://homepage3.nifty.com/kadzuwo/triviana/hirohito.htm Hirohito, Emperor @A Trivial Encyclopedia of Japan] (with links in multiple languages)
* [http://www.kunaicho.go.jp/esyouwa/esyouwa.html#koujyun Kunaicho | Emperor Showa]
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Taisho Emperor|Taishō]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | after=[[Akihito]] | years=[[1926]]-[[1989]]}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1901 births|Hirohito, emperor of Japan]]
[[Category:1989 deaths|Hirohito, emperor of Japan]]
[[category:Fellows of the Royal Society]]
[[Category:Regents]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]
[[Category:Showa period]]
[[Category:World War II political leaders]]
[[Category:Yamato line]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Bath]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emission trading</title>
<id>10288</id>
<revision>
<id>15908109</id>
<timestamp>2003-09-23T21:09:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>63.136.99.41</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Redirect to "emissions trading" moving text</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[emissions trading]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emsworth</title>
<id>10289</id>
<revision>
<id>38668704</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T21:39:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Whitepaw</username>
<id>138351</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>refmt pub list</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{GBmap|Emsworth - Hampshire|SU748060}}
'''Emsworth''' is a small [[town]] in the [[United Kingdom]], situated on the south coast on the Hampshire side of the border between [[Hampshire]] and [[West Sussex]]. The town lies at the north end of Chichester Harbour, a large but shallow inlet from the [[Solent]]. This is now used almost exclusively for recreational [[sailing]], but in the past was the setting for Emsworth's [[oyster]] farming industry. In some places the old oyster-beds can still be seen at low tide. The town has a basin for small yachts and a few fishing boats opposite the millpond, an artificial lake which fills at high tide can be emptied through a sluice at low tide. The [[River Ems]], which is named after the town (not, as often believed, the town named after the river) also flows into the millpond, and although the mill is no longer in use it now houses one of the town's two sailing clubs.
Emsworth has a population of approximately 10,000 people, and benefits from 16 public houses, mainly due to the adjacent army base at [[Thorney Island (West Sussex)|Thorney Island]]. Although some would argue that the number of public houses has more to do with the fact that Emsworth was a fishing village. There used to be 21 pubs in Emsworth and this number may have decreased due to the Emsworth fishing and oyster trade dying down.
Many residents find it a splendid place to live. Mainly elderly people live there and some argue that it has few youth-friendly activities.
====Public Houses (Pubs) In Emsworth====
* [http://www.britishpubguide.com/cgi-bin/pubsearch.cgi?results:Hampshire:488 The Bluebell]
* [http://www.britishpubguide.com/cgi-bin/pubsearch.cgi?results:Hampshire:489 The Coal Exchange]
* [http://www.britishpubguide.com/cgi-bin/pubsearch.cgi?results:Hampshire:490 The Crown]
* [http://www.britishpubguide.com/cgi-bin/pubsearch.cgi?results:Hampshire:491 The King's Arms]
* [http://www.britishpubguide.com/cgi-bin/pubsearch.cgi?results:Hampshire:492 The Lord Raglan]
* [http://www.britishpubguide.com/cgi-bin/pubsearch.cgi?results:Hampshire:494 The Railway Inn]
* [http://www.britishpubguide.com/cgi-bin/pubsearch.cgi?results:Hampshire:495 The Ship Inn]
* [http://www.britishpubguide.com/cgi-bin/pubsearch.cgi?results:Sussex_West:1285 The Sussex Brewery]
* [http://www.britishpubguide.com/cgi-bin/pubsearch.cgi?results:Hampshire:496 The Town Brewery]
[[Category:Towns in Hampshire]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Emulsion</title>
<id>10290</id>
<revision>
<id>41421309</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T05:13:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gene Nygaard</username>
<id>146986</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Emulsifier */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Emulsions.png|frame|right|A. Two immisicble liquids, not emulsified; B. An emulsion of Phase B dispersed in Phase A; C. The unstable emulsion progressively separates; D. The (purple) surfactant positions itself on the interfaces between Phase A and Phase B, stabilizing the emulsion]]
An '''emulsion''' is a mixture of two [[immiscible]] (unblendable) substances. One substance (the dispersed phase) is [[dispersion|dispersed]] in the other (the continuous phase). Examples of emulsions include [[butter]] and [[margarine]], [[mayonnaise]], the photo-sensitive side of [[film stock]], and [[cutting f |
ald Rumsfeld and [[Eritrea]]n President [[Isaias Afewerki]] shake hands in Eritrea]]
He gives more press conferences than his predecessors. The [[BBC Radio 4]] current affairs program [[Broadcasting House (radio programme)|''Broadcasting House'']] had been so taken by Rumsfeld's various remarks that it once held a regular slot called "The Donald Rumsfeld Soundbite of the Week" in which they played his most amusing comment from that week. Rumsfeld himself is said to have found the slot "hilarious." Rumsfeld's penchant for talking with his hands also made him the butt of jokes, including [http://www.poe-news.com/features.php?feat=31845 a series] portraying him as a [[martial arts]] master.
Bush retained Rumsfeld after his re-election, which raised eyebrows among Democrats and some Republicans. In December of that year, Rumsfeld came under fire after a town-hall meeting with U.S. troops where he responded to a soldier's comments about inferior military equipment by saying "you go to war with the army you have." The question was later discovered to be planted by Lee Pitts, a military reporter from the ''[[Chattanooga Times Free Press]]''. That same month there was also criticism about his use of an [[Autopen]] signature machine to sign the condolence letters to the families of the soldiers killed in Iraq and Afghanistan (rather than signing the letters personally, as President Bush does).
==Controversies==
[[Image:RumsfeldEconomist.jpg|thumb|left|150px|The May 2004 ''[[The Economist|Economist]]'' calling for Rumsfeld's resignation.]]
As Secretary of Defense, Donald Rumsfeld has come under fire from critics who argue that his decision to detain alleged-enemy combatants at [[Guantanamo Bay]] is a violation of the [[Geneva Convention]] and runs counter to American legal traditions.
Some critics have also argued that Rumsfeld should be held responsible for [[Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse|alleged war crimes]] committed by the U.S. military in both Afghanistan and Iraq. Several publications, including ''[http://economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=2647493| The Economist]'' called for his resignation following the [[Abu Ghraib scandal]].
Some Republicans have called for Rumsfeld's replacement after Bush's re-election due to what many perceive as inadequate troop strength ([[Rumsfeld doctrine]]) used during the invasion of Iraq.
He is also a co-founder of [[Project for the New American Century]] which some believe developed plans for attacking Iraq prior to the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]].
After the overthrow of Saddam Hussein in April 2003, Rumsfeld attempted to explain the [[looting]] that followed as an exercise of freedom: "It’s untidy. Freedom’s untidy and free people are free to commit crimes and make mistakes and do bad things."[http://www.defenselink.mil/transcripts/2003/tr20030411-secdef0090.html] This explanation drew many critics, including Indian novelist [[Arundhati Roy]], who asked famously, "Did anybody know that Donald Rumsfeld was an anarchist? I wonder - did he hold the same view during the riots in Los Angeles following the beating of Rodney King?"[http://cesr.org/arundhatiroytranscript]
Donald Rumsfeld was Chairman of the Board of [[Gilead Sciences]] who is the developer of Tamiflu which is used in the treatment of [[bird flu]]. Several articles including [http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2005-11-16-tamiflu-usat_x.htm USA Today], and [http://money.cnn.com/2005/10/31/news/newsmakers/fortune_rumsfeld/ CNN] have published stories implying that Donald Rumsfeld profits from sales of Tamiflu.
Rumsfeld also stirred controversy by quarreling for months with the CIA over who had the authority to fire [[Hellfire missiles]] from [[RQ-1 Predator|Predator drones]]. According to the 9/11 Commission Report, the argument delayed the program for months (pp. 189-90, 211-214). [[Daniel Benjamin]] and [[Steven Simon]] note:
:''These quarrels kept the Predator from being used against al Qaeda.... The delay infuriated the terrorist hunters at the CIA. One individual who was at the center of the action called this episode "typical" and complained that "Rumsfeld never missed an opportunity to fail to cooperate. The fact is, the Secretary of Defense is an obstacle. He has helped the terrorists.'' [Daniel Benjamin and Steven Simon, ''The Next Attack'' (New York: Times Books, 2005) [ISBN 0805079416] p. 161.
One of the most recent controversies involves Rumsfeld’s preemptive action in invading Iraq. A [[Freedom of Information Act]] revealed that on September 11th, 2001. Rumsfeld instructed the military to, in the notes of one of Rumsfeld’s aides, “Judge whether good enough hit S.H. ([[Saddam Hussein]]) @ same time – not only UBL ([[Osama bin Ladin]])… Hard to get a good case… Sweep it all up. Things related and not.”
==Quotes==
Throughout the war on terror as of [[2006]], Rumsfeld has often been accused of giving rhetorical answers to serious questions.
* "We take the world like you find it; and Israel is a small state with a small population. It’s a democracy and it exists in a neighborhood that in many -- over a period of time has opined from time to time that they’d prefer it not be there and they’d like it to be put in the sea. And Israel has opined that it would prefer not to get put in the sea, and as a result, over a period of decades, it has arranged itself so it hasn’t been put in the sea."
* "Our task, your task... is to try to connect the dots before something happens. People say, 'Well, where's the smoking gun?' Well, we don't want to see a smoking gun from a weapon of mass destruction."
* "Learn to say 'I don't know.' If used when appropriate, it will be often."
* "If you are not criticized, you may not be doing much."
* "Beware when any idea is promoted primarily because it is "bold, exciting, innovative, and new." There are many ideas that are "bold, exciting, innovative and new," but also foolish."
* "(Cluster bombs are) being used on frontline al Qaeda and Taliban troops to try to kill them is why we're using them, to be perfectly blunt."
* "I'm hopeful that some will surrender. I suspect some won't, and I suspect the result from that will be that the opposition forces will kill them."
* "I think we ought to have a new rule: You can ask two questions, and then we can pick the one we want to answer."[[Image:Rumsfeld and Koizumi.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Rumsfeld and Japanese prime minister [[Junichiro Koizumi]] meet in [[Tokyo]] in 2004]]
* "Charlie, the answer to the question "Is he alive or dead" -- the answer is yes, he is alive or dead (laughter)." (referring to bin Laden)
* "I mean, let's face it. They weren't exactly baking cookies in those caves." (in a response to why U.S. bombers killed people hiding in caves)
* "You go to war with the army you have. They’re not the Army you might want or wish to have at a later time."
* "Well, Dick, calibrate me, but the first thing I'd say is I don't believe you have the war plan -- (laughter) -- a fact which does not make me unhappy (laughter)."
* "Sometimes the truth is so precious, it must be accompanied by a bodyguard of lies." from [[Winston Churchill]]
* "I think what you'll find, I think what you'll find is, whatever it is we do substantively, there will be near-perfect clarity as to what it is. And it will be known, and it will be known to the Congress, and it will be known to you, probably before we decide it, but it will be known." (February 28, 2003)
* "Reports that say that something hasn't happened are always interesting to me, because as we know, there are known knowns; there are things we know we know. We also know there are known unknowns; that is to say we know there are some things we do not know. But there are also unknown unknowns - the ones we don't know we don't know." (February 12, 2002)
* "Things will not be necessarily continuous. The fact that they are something other than perfectly continuous ought not to be characterized as a pause. There will be some things that people will see. There will be some things that people won't see. And life goes on." (October 12, 2001)
* "Go massive. Sweep it all up. Things related and not." (September 11, 2001)
* "Oh my goodness gracious, what you can buy off the Internet in terms of overhead photography! A trained ape can know an awful lot of what is going on in this world, just by punching on his mouse for a relatively modest cost!" (June 9, 2001)
* "Once in a while, I'm standing here, doing something. And I think, 'What in the world am I doing here?' It's a big surprise." (May 16, 2001)
* "If you waited until you could do everything before you did anything, you probably would end up doing nothing."
* "Before long, I suspect that those responsible for these acts will encounter British steel. Their kind of steel has an uncommon strength. It does not bend or break." (a response to the [[7 July 2005 London bombings]])
* "Stuff happens." (April 2003, commenting on the looting, rioting and general mayhem that followed the fall of Baghdad)
* "...or the people who attacked the United States in New York, shot down the plane over Pennsylvania and attacked the Pentagon" (a possible slip up referring to the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]][http://edition.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0412/24/nfcnn.01.html])
* (speaking about disorder in Iraq, April 2003) "It's untidy, and freedom's untidy. Free people are free to make mistakes and commit crimes and do bad things. They're also free to live their lives and do wonderful things." ''Guardian Unlimited'', April 12, 2003
==="You go to war with the army you have…"===
[[Image:Abdel |
t;/sup> Gru]] 4.79; [[Mu2 Gruis|&mu;<sup>2</sup> Gru]] 5.11; [[Nu Gruis|&nu; Gru]] 5.47; [[Xi Gruis|&xi; Gru]] 5.29; [[Omicron Gruis|&omicron; Gru]] 5.53; [[Pi1 Gruis|&pi;<sup>1</sup> Gru]] 6.42; [[Pi2 Gruis|&pi;<sup>2</sup> Gru]] 5.62; [[Rho Gruis|&rho; Gru]] 4.84; [[Sigma1 Gruis|&sigma;<sup>1</sup> Gru]] 6.28; [[Sigma2 Gruis|&sigma;<sup>2</sup> Gru]] 5.85; [[Tau1 Gruis|&tau;<sup>1</sup> Gru]] 6.03 &ndash; has a planet; [[Tau2 Gruis|&tau;<sup>2</sup> Gru]] &ndash; double 6.67, 7.22; [[Tau3 Gruis|&tau;<sup>3</sup> Gru]] 5.72; [[Upsilon Gruis|&upsilon; Gru]] 5.62; [[Phi Gruis|&phi; Gru]] 5.54
{{astro-stub}}
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{{ConstellationsByBayer}}
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== External links ==
* [http://160.114.99.91/astrojan/grus.htm The clickable Grus]
[[Category:Grus constellation|*]]
[[ca:Grua (constel·lació)]]
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[[de:Kranich (Sternbild)]]
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[[fr:Grue (constellation)]]
[[ko:두루미자리]]
[[it:Grus (astronomia)]]
[[la:Grus (sidus)]]
[[lt:Gervė (astronomija)]]
[[hu:Daru (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Kraanvogel (sterrenbeeld)]]
[[ja:つる座]]
[[nn:Tranen]]
[[pl:Żuraw (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Grus]]
[[ru:Журавль (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Žeriav]]
[[sv:Tranan]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวนกกระเรียน]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GIA</title>
<id>12573</id>
<revision>
<id>37875573</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T18:39:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dpakoha</username>
<id>303033</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Government Information Awareness</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''GIA''' or '''Gia''' may refer to:
*[[Armed Islamic Group]] (GIA, from French ''Groupe Islamique Armé''), a militant [[Islamism|Islamist]] group in Algeria.
*[[Gemological Institute of America]].
*''[[Gia]]'', a 1998 film about a supermodel Gia Marie Carangi.
*[[Gia people]], an [[List of Indigenous Australian group names|Indigenous Australian]] people
*[[Ghana International Airlines]]
*[[Government Information Awareness]], a website which collects information about government programs, plans and politicians from the general public and numerous online sources
{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Green Party</title>
<id>12574</id>
<revision>
<id>15910251</id>
<timestamp>2003-12-15T23:27:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tillwe</username>
<id>4623</id>
</contributor>
<comment>make this a redirect to merged article about world-wide green parties</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Worldwide green parties]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Galba</title>
<id>12576</id>
<revision>
<id>40467018</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T19:46:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>212.200.83.56</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Head of the Roman Emperor Galba.jpg|thumb|Head of Galba at the [[Louvre]].]]
'''Servius Sulpicius Galba''' ([[December 24]], [[3 BC]] - [[January 15]], [[69]]) was [[Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]] from [[June]] [[68]] until his death. He was the first emperor of the [[Year of the four emperors]].
== Origins and rise to power ==
He was born near [[Terracina]]. He came of a noble family and was a man of great wealth, but unconnected either by birth or by adoption with the first six Caesars. In his early years he was regarded as a youth of remarkable abilities, and it is said that both [[Augustus Caesar|Augustus]] and [[Tiberius]] prophesied his future eminence ([[Tacitus]], ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]'', [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Tac.+Ann.+6.20 vi. 20]; [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Galba*.html#4 Suet. Galba,&nbsp;4]).
[[Praetor]] in [[20]], and [[consul]] in [[33]], he acquired a well-merited reputation in the provinces of [[Gaul]], [[Germania]], [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]] and [[Hispania|Spain]] by his military capability, strictness and impartiality. On the death of [[Caligula]], he refused the invitation of his friends to make a bid for empire, and loyally served [[Claudius]]. For the first half of [[Nero]]'s reign he lived in retirement, till, in [[61]], the emperor bestowed on him the province of [[Hispania Tarraconensis]].
In the spring of 68, Galba was informed of Nero's intention to put him to death, and of the insurrection of [[Vindex|Julius Vindex]] in Gaul. He was at first inclined to follow the example of Vindex, but the defeat and death of the latter renewed his hesitation. The news that [[Nymphidius Sabinus]], the [[prefect | praefect]] of the [[Praetorian Guard |praetorians]], had declared in his favour revived Galba's spirits. Hitherto, he had only dared to call himself the [[Legatus|legate]] of the [[Roman Senate|senate]] and Roman people; after the suicide of Nero, he assumed the title of ''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]'', and marched straight for [[Rome]].
Following the death of Nero, Nymphidius Sabinus sought to seize power prior to the arrival of Galba, but he could not win the loyalty of the Praetorian guard and was killed. Upon Galba's approach to the city in October, he was met by soldiers presenting demands; Galba replied with violence, killing many of them.
== Rule and fall ==
The primary concern of Galba during his brief reign was in restoring state finances, and to this end he undertook a number of unpopular measures, the most dangerous of which was his refusal to pay the praetorians the reward promised in his name. Galba scorned the notion that soldiers should be bribed for their loyalty. He further disgusted the mob by his meanness and dislike of pomp and display. His advanced age had destroyed his energy, and he was entirely in the hands of favourites. Three of these, [[Titus Vinius]], who became Galba's colleague as [[Consul|consul]], [[Cornelius Laco]] the commander of the [[Praetorian Guard]] and Galba's [[freedman]] Icellus, were said to virtually control the emperor. The three were called "the three pedagogues" because of their influence on Galba. All this made the new emperor gravely unpopular.
On [[January 1]], 69, two legions in [[Germania Superior]] refused to swear loyalty to Galba and toppled his statues, demanding that a new emperor be chosen; on the next day, the soldiers of [[Germania Inferior]] also rebelled and took the decision of who should be the next emperor into their own hands, proclaiming the governor of the province, [[Vitellius]], as emperor. This outbreak of revolt made Galba aware of his own unpopularity and of the general discontent. In order to check the rising storm, he adopted as his [[coadjutor]] and successor [[Lucius Calpurnius Piso Licinianus|L. Calpurnius Piso]]. The populace regarded the choice of successor as a sign of fear, and the Praetorians were indignant, because the usual donative was not forthcoming.
[[Otho|M. Salvius Otho]], formerly governor of [[Lusitania]], and one of Galba's earliest supporters, disappointed at not being chosen instead of Piso, entered into communication with the discontented Praetorians, and was adopted by them as their emperor. Galba, who at once set out to meet the rebels &#8212; he was so feeble that he had to be carried in a litter &#8212; was met by a troop of cavalry and was butchered near the [[Lacus Curtius]].
During the later period of his provincial administration he was indolent and apathetic, but this was due either to a desire not to attract the notice of Nero or to the growing infirmities of age. [[Tacitus]] rightly says that all would have pronounced him worthy of empire if he had never been emperor ("''omnium consensu capax imperii nisi imperasset''").
{{1911}}
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Galba}}
===Primary sources===
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Galba*.html Life of Galba] (Suetonius; English translation and Latin original)
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Galba*.html Life of Galba] (Plutarch; English translation)
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/63*.html Cassius Dio, Book&nbsp;63]
===Secondary material===
*[http://www.romansonline.com/Persns.asp?IntID=6&Ename=Galba Galba at RomansOnline]
*[http://www.jerryfielden.com/essays/galba.htm An Emperor in trouble – Galba’s relationship with the Roman Army]
*[http://www.galba.net Galba homepage - the history - acients coins]
* Biography at [http://www.roman-emperors.org/galba.htm De Imperatoribus Romanis]
----
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]]|before=[[Nero]]|after=[[Otho]]|years=68&ndash;69}}
{{end box}}
{{Plutarch's lives}}
[[Category:3 BC births]]
[[Category:69 deaths]]
[[Category:Murder victims|Galba]]
[[Category:Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Year of Four Emperors]]
[[Category:Roman emperors murdered by the Praetorian Guard]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Giga</title>
<id>12577</id>
<revision>
<id>41045721</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T18:26:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Omegatron</username>
<id>18931</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Pronunciation */ «"racial slur" → "[[racial slur]]"» never heard of that one</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''giga-''' ( |
d>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T04:24:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Results */ dab</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| id=toc style="float:right; margin-left:1em"
|[[United Kingdom general election, 1997|1997 election]]
|-
|'''2001 election'''
|-
|[[United Kingdom general election, 2005|2005 election]]
|}
{{Politics of the United Kingdom}}
The '''UK general election, 2001''' was held on [[7 June]] [[2001]] and was dubbed "the quiet landslide" by the media. After a landslide victory of the [[The Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] Party in the previous [[United Kingdom general election, 1997|1997 elections]], they now had another major victory by managing to maintain their position. In fact, [[Tony Blair]] was the first Labour prime minister to win a full second consecutive term in office. Outside [[Northern Ireland]] (which mostly has different parties and a different electoral landscape from the rest of the [[United Kingdom|UK]] although a few UK-wide parties stand with minimal success), 620 out of 641 seats remained with the same party as they had been in 1997. The [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservatives]] netted a gain of only 1 seat after their crushing defeat of 1997 (gaining a few seats from Labour, but losing to the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]]), but the Liberal Democrats made a gain of 6 more seats from their already historical high of 1997. With 52 seats, the Liberal Democrats were well established as the third party of Britain and had their best result since the [[1920s]].
The elections were also marked by apathy from the voting public, turnout being only 59%, the lowest since [[1918]]. Throughout the election the Labour party had maintained a significant lead in the opinion polls and the result was deemed to be so certain that some [[bookmaker]]s paid out for a Labour majority before the election day.
Labour won an majority of 167 overall (previously 179) and 247 over the Conservatives (previously 254).
In [[Northern Ireland]], the election was far more dramatic and marked a move by [[Unionists (Ireland)|unionists]] away from the [[Good Friday Agreement]], with the moderate unionist and nationalist parties ([[Ulster Unionist Party|UUP]] and [[Social Democratic and Labour Party|SDLP]]) losing to the more extreme parties ([[Democratic Unionist Party|DUP]] and [[Sinn Féin]]). It also saw a tightening of the parties as the small [[UK Unionist Party]] lost its only seat.
The election had been expected in May, to coincide with local elections, but both were postponed because of rural movement restrictions imposed in response to a [[2001 UK foot and mouth crisis|foot and mouth outbreak]]. One of the more noted events of a quiet campaign was when a countryside protester Craig Evans threw an egg at [[Deputy Prime Minister]] [[John Prescott]] in [[Rhyl]]; Prescott then grabbed Evans and punched him, in front of television cameras.
==Results==
{{Template:Election Summary Begin|title = UK General Election 2001}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
|party = Labour Party (UK)
|seats = 412
|gain = 2
|loss = 8
|net = &minus;6
|votes = 10,724,953
|votes % = 40.7
|seats % = 62.5
|plus/minus = &minus;2.5%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
|party = Conservative Party (UK)
|seats = 166
|gain = 9
|loss = 8
|net = +1
|votes = 8,357,615
|votes % = 31.7
|seats % = 25.2
|plus/minus = +1.0%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
|party = Liberal Democrats (UK)
|seats = 52
|gain = 8
|loss = 2
|net = +6
|votes = 4,814,321
|votes % = 18.3
|seats % = 7.9
|plus/minus = +1.5%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
|party = Scottish National Party
|seats = 5
|gain = 0
|loss = 1
|net = &minus;1
|votes = 464,314
|votes % = 1.8
|seats % = 0.8
|plus/minus = &minus;0.2%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
|party = United Kingdom Independence Party
|seats = 0
|gain = 0
|loss = 0
|net = 0
|votes = 390,563
|votes % = 1.5
|seats % = 0.0
|plus/minus = 1.2%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
|party = Ulster Unionist Party
|seats = 6
|gain = 1
|loss = 5
|net = &minus;4
|votes = 216,839
|votes % = 0.8
|seats % = 0.9
|plus/minus = 0.0%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
|party = Plaid Cymru
|seats = 4
|gain = 1
|loss = 1
|net = 0
|votes = 195,893
|votes % = 0.7
|seats % = 0.6
|plus/minus = +0.2%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
|party = Democratic Unionist Party
|seats = 5
|gain = 3
|loss = 0
|net = +3
|votes = 181,999
|votes % = 0.7
|seats % = 0.8
|plus/minus = +0.4%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
|party = Sinn Féin
|seats = 4
|gain = 2
|loss = 0
|net = +2
|votes = 175,933
|votes % = 0.7
|seats % = 0.6
|plus/minus = +0.3%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
|party = Social Democratic and Labour Party
|seats = 3
|gain = 0
|loss = 0
|net = 0
|votes = 169,865
|votes % = 0.6
|seats % = 0.5
|plus/minus = 0.0%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
|party = Green Party of England and Wales
|seats = 0
|gain = 0
|loss = 0
|net = 0
|votes = 166,477
|votes % = 0.6
|seats % = 0.0
|plus/minus = +0.3%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
|party = Independent (politician)
|seats = 0
|gain = 0
|loss = 1
|net = &minus;1
|votes = 97,070
|votes % = 0.4
|seats % = 0.0
|plus/minus = +0.3%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
|party = Scottish Socialist Party
|seats = 0
|gain = 0
|loss = 0
|net = 0
|votes = 72,516
|votes % = 0.3
|seats % = 0.0
|plus/minus = ''N/A''
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
|party = Socialist Alliance (England)
|seats = 0
|gain = 0
|loss = 0
|net = 0
|votes = 57,553
|votes % = 0.2
|seats % = 0.0
|plus/minus = ''N/A''
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
|party = Socialist Labour Party (UK)
|seats = 0
|gain = 0
|loss = 0
|net = 0
|votes = 57,288
|votes % = 0.2
|seats % = 0.0
|plus/minus = 0.0%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
|party = British National Party
|seats = 0
|gain = 0
|loss = 0
|net = 0
|votes = 47,129
|votes % = 0.2
|seats % = 0.0
|plus/minus = +0.1%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
|party = Alliance Party of Northern Ireland
|seats = 0
|gain = 0
|loss = 0
|net = 0
|votes = 28,999
|votes % = 0.1
|seats % = 0.0
|plus/minus = &minus;0.1%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
|party = Independent Kidderminster Hospital and Health Concern
|seats = 1
|gain = 1
|loss = 0
|net = +1
|votes = 28,487
|votes % = 0.1
|seats % = 0.2
|plus/minus = ''N/A''
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
|party = Liberal Party (UK, 1989)
|seats = 0
|gain = 0
|loss = 0
|net = 0
|votes = 13,685
|votes % = 0.1
|seats % = 0.0
|plus/minus = 0.0%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
|party = UK Unionist Party
|seats = 0
|gain = 0
|loss = 1
|net = &minus;1
|votes = 13,509
|votes % = 0.1
|seats % = 0.0
|plus/minus = +0.1%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
|party = Prolife Alliance
|seats = 0
|gain = 0
|loss = 0
|net = 0
|votes = 9,453
|votes % = 0.0
|seats % = 0.0
|plus/minus = &minus;0.1%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
|party = Legalise Cannabis Alliance
|seats = 0
|gain = 0
|loss = 0
|net = 0
|votes = 8,677
|votes % = 0.0
|seats % = 0.0
|plus/minus = ''N/A''
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
|party = People's Justice Party (UK)
|seats = 0
|gain = 0
|loss = 0
|net = 0
|votes = 7,443
|votes % = 0.0
|seats % = 0.0
|plus/minus = ''N/A''
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
|party = Official Monster Raving Loony Party
|seats = 0
|gain = 0
|loss = 0
|net = 0
|votes = 6,655
|votes % = 0.0
|seats % = 0.0
|plus/minus = 0.0%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
|party = Progressive Unionist Party
|seats = 0
|gain = 0
|loss = 0
|net = 0
|votes = 4,781
|votes % = 0.0
|seats % = 0.0
|plus/minus = 0.0%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
|party = Mebyon Kernow
|seats = 0
|gain = 0
|loss = 0
|net = 0
|votes = 3,199
|votes % = 0.0
|seats % = 0.0
|plus/minus = 0.0%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
|party = Northern Ireland Women's Coalition
|seats = 0
|gain = 0
|loss = 0
|net = 0
|votes = 2,968
|votes % = 0.0
|seats % = 0.0
|plus/minus = 0.0%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
|party = Scottish Unionist Party
|seats = 0
|gain = 0
|loss = 0
|net = 0
|votes = 2,728
|votes % = 0.0
|seats % = 0.0
|plus/minus = ''N/A''
}}
{{Template:Election |
al Sciences]] (New York City)
* [[New York State College of Veterinary Medicine]]
====Other====
* School of Continuing Education and Summer Sessions
===Non-academic units===
====Cornell University Library====
[[Image:Cornell Law School Library.JPG|300px|right|thumb|The [[Cornell Law School|Cornell Law]] Library]]
The [[Cornell University Library]] (CUL) consists of twenty units. One of the twelve largest academic research libraries in the United States by volume, it holds 7 million volumes in open stacks, 8 million microforms, and some 76,000 sound recordings in its collections, in addition to extensive digital resources and the University Archives{{ref|cornell_university_library.collections}}. It was the first among all U.S. colleges and universities to allow undergraduates to borrow books from its libraries.
CUL plays an active role in furthering online archiving of scientific and historical documents. The [[arXiv.org e-print archive]], created at [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]] by [[Paul Ginsparg]], is operated and primarily funded by Cornell as part of CUL's services. The archive has changed the way many physicists and mathematicians communicate, making the [[eprint]] a viable and popular form for announcing new research.
The [[Project Euclid]] initiative creates one resource joining commercial journals with low-cost independent journals in mathematics and statistics. The project is aimed at enabling affordable scholarly communication through the Internet. Besides archival purposes, primary goals of the project is to facilitate journal searches and interoperatibility between different publishers.
The Cornell Library Digital Collections are online collections of historical documents. Featured collections include the Database of African-American Poetry, the Historic Math Book Collection, the Samuel May Anti-Slavery Collection, the Witchcraft Collection, and the Donovan Nuremberg Trials Collection.
====Cornell University Press====
[[Cornell University Press]], established in [[1869]], but inactive from about [[1890]] to [[1930]], was the first university publishing enterprise in the United States and is one of the country's largest university presses{{ref|cornell_university_press.history}}. It produces approximately 150 titles each year in various disciplines including anthropology, classics, cultural studies, history, literary criticism and theory, medieval studies, philosophy, politics and international relations, psychology and psychiatry, and women's studies.
Established in the College of the Mechanic Arts (as mechanical engineering was called in the 1800s), probably because engineers knew more than literature professors did about running steam-powered printing presses, the Cornell University Press offered work-study financial aid when tuition to Cornell cost $75 a year. Students with previous training in the printing trades were paid to set the type and run the presses that printed textbooks, a weekly student journal, pamphlets and official university publications, such as the annual “Register” book. An advertisement in the 1870 “Register” said that America’s first university press “solicits the patronage of the public for two reasons: First, it attempts to do its work well. Second, its employees are all young men who are endeavoring, by means of their own labor, to defer the expenses of a University education”.
==The campuses==
===Main campus===
[[Image:Sibley Cornell Snow.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Sibley Hall houses the [[College of Architecture, Art and Planning]].]] Cornell's main campus is located on the eastern hill of [[Ithaca, New York]], overlooking the city. Day Hall, the administration building, is located on East Avenue. The campus itself is situated on a rolling site of 745 acres (3 km&sup2;) on East Hill, overlooking [[Cayuga Lake]] and downtown Ithaca two miles (3 km) to the west. Over time, the campus has had numerous layouts proposed. The original one was created by [[Frederick Law Olmsted]], designer of [[Central Park]] and numerous other college campuses. The changing plans have evolved into the 260 or so major buildings mostly divided into quads for the Arts, Engineering, and Agriculture, a science lab complex, and the athletic complex.
Central Campus is bounded to its north and south by limestone gorges and waterfalls. Dormitories, fraternity and sorority houses, and student centers are located on North Campus, north of Fall Creek Gorge, and on West Campus, at the bottom of the Library Slope ("Libe Slope"). After snowfalls, students are known to sled down the Slope on trays from the dining halls. East of the main campus lie the [[Cornell Plantations]], approximately 3,600 acres (15 km&sup2;) encompassing botanical gardens and the [[F.R. Newman Arboretum]], as well as natural woodlands, trails, streams, and gorges. South of Cascadilla Gorge lies the student-oriented Collegetown business and residential district.
[[Image:Mcgraw.jpg|thumb|220px||left|McGraw Tower, the iconic image of Cornell]] The first building, Morrill Hall, was erected in [[1868]], although Cascadilla Hall, a dormitory in Collegetown, predates the university (it was originally used as a water-cure sanitarium and school for the education of women physicians and nurses when it was built in 1864{{ref|main_campus.cascadilla}}). Cornell's signature landmark is McGraw Tower, which rises 173 feet and 161 steps from the ground. Constructed in [[1891]] adjoining Uris Library, it features the [[Cornell Chimes]], 21 bells on which the Cornell chimesmasters play three daily concerts. The clock tower has been the target of a number of pranks. In 1997, a large pumpkin{{ref|main_campus.clocktower_pumpkin}} was placed on spire of the clock tower and a disco ball{{ref|main_campus.clocktower_discoball}} in 2005. How either prank was engineered has not been discovered.
Contrasting with the [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]], [[Victorian era|Victorian]], and [[Neoclassicism|Neoclassical]] buildings on the Arts Quad is the [[Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art]], designed by [[I. M. Pei]]. Other notable buildings: Willard Straight Hall, one of the earliest student unions{{ref|main_campus.willard_straight_hall}}; Martha Van Rensselaer Hall, the largest academic building in the eastern United States; Duffield Hall, one of the world's most advanced nanotechnology facilities; and the Statler Hotel, adjacent to and associated with the School of Hotel Administration.
===New York City campus===
The New York Weill Cornell Medical Center is located on the [[Upper East Side]] of [[Manhattan]], [[New York City]]. It is home both to the [[Weill Cornell Medical College]] and [[Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences]], and has a long affiliation with the [[New York-Presbyterian Hospital]]. Although their faculty and academic divisions remain separate, the Medical Center shares its administrative functions with the [[Columbia University Medical Center]]. Weill Cornell Medical College is also affiliated with the neighboring [[Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center]], [[Rockefeller University]], and the [[Hospital for Special Surgery]]. Many faculty have joint appointments at these institutions, and Weill Cornell, Rockefeller, and MSKCC offer a Tri-Institutional MD-PhD program to selected entering Cornell medical students.
New York City is also home to local offices of the Cornell [[Cooperative extension service|Cooperative Extension]], to an office of the ILR (Industrial and Labor Relations) Extension, to an office of the College of Architecture, Art & Planning, and to Cornell's Operations Research Manhattan Center. These facilities are all separate from and operated independently of the medical center.
===Other campuses===
[[Image:Arecibo.arp.750pix.jpg|right|thumb|230px|Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico]]
The [[New York State Agricultural Experiment Station]], operated by the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, is located in [[Geneva, New York]], 50 miles (80 km) northwest of the main campus. The facility now comprises 20 major buildings on 130 acres (0.5 km&sup2;) of land, as well as over 700 acres (2.8 km&sup2;) of test plots and other lands devoted to horticultural research. It also operates three substations, Vineyard Research Laboratory in [[Fredonia, New York|Fredonia]], Hudson Valley Laboratory in [[Highland, New York|Highland]] and the Long Island Horticultural Research Laboratory in [[Riverhead, New York|Riverhead]].
The [[Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar]], located in [[Education City, Qatar|Education City]], near [[Doha]], is housed in a large two-story structure designed by [[Arata Isozaki]].
The Shoals Marine Laboratory, a seasonal marine field station dedicated to undergraduate education and research operated in conjunction with the [[University of New Hampshire]], is located on the 95 acre (0.4 km&sup2;) Appledore Island off the [[Maine]]–[[New Hampshire]] coast.
The [[Arecibo Observatory]] in [[Puerto Rico]], site of the world's largest single-dish [[radio telescope]], is operated by Cornell.
Cornell University maintains facilities in [[Washington, D.C.]] and [[New York City]] for its Cornell in Washington, Urban Semester, and Urban Scholars Programs.
Other facilities include
* [[Cornell Lab of Ornithology]] in Sapsucker Woods in [[Ithaca, New York]]
* Cornell Biological Field Station at Shackelton Point in [[Bridgeport, New York]]
* Punta Cana and EsBaran biodiversity field stations in the [[Dominican Republic]] and [[Peru]]
* Arnot Teaching and Research Forest natural resources center in [[Tompkins County, New York|Tompkins]] and [[Schuyler County, New York|Schuyler]] Counties.
* Animal Science Teaching and Research Center in [[Harford, New York]], and Duck Research Laboratory in [[Eastport, New York]]
* Offices of the New York Sea Grant, Cornell Cooperative Extension, and School of Industrial and Labor Relations Extension Service throughout New York State
* |
t decades, and its unique prestige is now dissipated. Today ICI is simply a medium sized player in the global chemical industry, which is an unfashionable industry with low margins and weak growth prospects. It is now one of the smaller constituents of the [[FTSE 100 Index]], much smaller than its own offspring [[AstraZeneca]].
==History==
ICI was founded in December 1926 from the merger of four companies - [[Brunner Mond]], [[Nobel Industries|Nobel Explosives]], the United Alkali Company and British Dyestuffs Corporation. Competing with [[DuPont]] and [[IG Farben]] (later [[BASF]]), the new company produced [[explosive]]s, [[fertiliser]]s, [[insecticide]]s, [[dye]]stuffs, industrial chemicals, printing materials, and paints. In its first year turnover was £27m.
ICI played a key role in the development of new products, including the pigment [[phthalocyanine]] (1929), the acrylic plastic ''[[Polymethyl_methacrylate|Perspex]]'' (1932), Dulux paints (1932, co-developed with DuPont), [[Polythene]] (1937), sulfamethazine (the first [[sulfonamide]] [[antibiotic]]), paludrine (1940s, an anti-[[malaria]]l drug), [[halothane]] (1951, an anaesthetic agent), Inderal (1965, a [[beta-blocker]]), [[tamoxifen]] (1978, a frequently used drug for [[breast cancer]]), and [[PEEK]] (1979, a high performance [[thermoplastic]]) . Because of their success in the pharmaceutical industry, ICI formed ICI Pharmaceuticals in 1957.
One of the main plants was at [[Billingham]], [[County Durham]].
From 1971 to 1988 ICI operated a small [[General Atomics]] [[TRIGA]] Mark I [[nuclear reactor]] at its Billingham factory.
In 1993 the company decided to demerge its chemical business from the pharmaceutical bioscience divisions. Pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, specialities, seeds and biological products were placed into a new and independent company called Zeneca Group (which merged with Astra AB in 1999 to form [[AstraZeneca]] PLC, one of the largest pharmaceutical companies in the world). The company also moved away from bulk and industrial chemicals towards specialty chemicals during the 1990s in the hope of making its income less dependent on the business cycle, earning higher profit margins, and developing businesses with long term growth potential. However its financial performance so far in the 21st century has been erratic.
ICI sold its Australian subsidiary, ICI Australia, in 1997 and the following year it changed its name to [[Orica]].
==External links==
* [http://www.ici.com Official site]
* [http://www.nationalstarch.com National Starch and Chemical Company] ICI subsidsiary.
* [http://uk.finance.yahoo.com/q/pr?s=ICI.L Yahoo! profile]
* [http://www.orica.com.au Orica]
[[Category:Chemical companies of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Companies listed on the London Stock Exchange]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Imperial Airways</title>
<id>15357</id>
<revision>
<id>40364477</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:58:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| align=right
| [[image:Speedbird logo.gif|220px|right|thumb|Imperial Airways Speedbird logo]]
|-
| {{British Airways}}
|}
'''Imperial Airways''' was an early British commercial air transport company, operating from [[1924]] to [[1939]].
Created following the advice of the government [[Hambling Committee]] in 1923 &mdash; that the main existing aircraft companies should be merged to create a company which would be strong enough to develop Britain's external air services &mdash; and offered a £1m subsidy over ten years if they merged. Imperial Airways Limited was formed in March 1924 from the British Marine Air Navigation Company Ltd (three aircraft), the Daimler Airway (five aircraft), Handley-Page Transport Ltd (three aircraft) and the Instone Air Line Ltd (two aircraft). The land operations were based at [[Croydon Airport]].
The first commercial flight was in April [[1924]], when a daily [[London]]-[[Paris]] service was opened. Additional services to other European destinations were started throughout the summer. The first new airliner was commissioned by Imperial Airways in November 1924. In the first year of operation the company carried 11,395 passengers and 212,380 letters.
The extension of service to the [[British Empire]] (Empire Services) was not begun until [[1927]] when, with the addition of six new aircraft, a service was instituted from [[Cairo]] to [[Basra]]. but the first service from London for [[Karachi]] did not start until [[1929]] using newly purchased [[Short S.8 Calcutta]] flying boats, even then the passengers were transported by train from [[Paris]] to the [[Mediterranean]] where the Short flying boats were. In February [[1931]] a weekly service between London and [[Tanganyika]] was started as part of the proposed route to [[Cape Town]] and in April an experimental London-[[Australia]] air mail flight took place; the mail was transferred at the [[Netherlands East Indies]], and took 26 days in total to reach [[Sydney]]. The purchase of eight [[Handley Page 42]] four-engined airliners boosted the range of services, in 1932 the service to Africa was extended to Cape Town.
In Australia in [[1934]] Imperial and [[Qantas]] (Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services Ltd) formed Qantas Empire Airways Limited to extended services in [[Southeast Asia]]. But it was not until [[1937]] with the [[Short Empire]] flying boats that Imperial could offer an 'all air' service from [[Southampton]] to the Empire. The journey to the Cape consisted of flights to [[Marseille]], [[Rome]], [[Brindisi]], [[Athens]], [[Alexandria]], [[Khartoum]], [[Port Bell]], [[Kisumu]] and onwards by land-based craft to [[Nairobi]], [[Mbeya]] and eventually [[Cape Town]]. Survey flights were also made across the Atlantic and to [[New Zealand]]. By mid-1937 Imperial had completed its thousandth service to the Empire.
[[Image:Speed Wingows Over the World - Eric Broadbent - London.jpg|thumb|303px|left|''Speed Wings Over the World'', statue on a portal above the Empire Terminal's main entrance; by Eric Broadbent]]
The Empire Air Mail Programme began in July 1937, delivering anywhere for 1½ d./oz. By mid-1938 a hundred tons of mail had been delivered to India and a similar amount to Africa. In the same year, construction was started on the Empire Terminal in [[Victoria Station (London)|Victoria, London]], designed by A. Lakeman and with a statue by Eric Broadbent, ''Speed Wings Over the World'' gracing the portal above the main entrance. The terminal provided train connections to flying boats at [[Southampton]] and to the since closed Croydon Airport. The terminal operated as recently as [[1980]].
Compared to other operators ([[Air France]], [[KLM]], [[Lufthansa|Deutsche Luft Hansa]]) it was lagging behind in Europe and it was suggested that all European operations be handed over to [[British Airways Ltd]] (founded in 1935) which had more modern aircraft and better organization. However in November 1939 both Imperial and British Airways Ltd were merged into a new state-owned national carrier: [[British Overseas Airways Corporation]] ([[BOAC]]). The new carrier adopted the Imperial [[Speedbird]] logo, which has evolved into the present [[British Airways]] ''Speedmarque'', and the term continues to be used as BA's [[call sign]].
==External links==
* [http://www.imperial-airways.com Imperial Airways enthusiasts' website]
{{airlistbox}}
[[Category:Defunct airlines of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Airlines of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:1924 establishments]]
[[de:Imperial Airways]]
[[fr:Imperial Airways]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Insanity defense</title>
<id>15358</id>
<revision>
<id>41364133</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T21:46:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>150.199.103.245</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Psychosis and schizophrenia */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CrimDef}}
In a [[criminal trial]], the '''insanity''' defenses are possible [[defense (legal)|defense]]s by [[excuse]], via which [[defendant|defendants]] may argue that they should not be held [[crime|criminally]] [[liability|liable]] for breaking the [[law]], as they were mentally ill or mentally incompetent at the time of their allegedly "criminal" actions. The insanity defense is still in use in the United States, while most [[Commonwealth]] countries have moved to a [[mental disorder defence]].
The insanity defense is available in most jurisdictions that respect [[human rights]] and have a [[rule of law]], though the extent to which it can or should be applied may differ widely between jurisdictions, e.g. as in cases involving the [[battered woman syndrome]] where [[Self-defense (theory)|self-defense]] is not available, a defendant may be forced to choose between an insanity defense and [[provocation (legal)|provocation]].
This defense is based on a principle that [[punishment]] is only reasonable if the defendant is capable of distinguishing right and [[evil|wrong]]. A defendant making this argument might be said to be pleading "'''not guilty by reason of insanity'''" ('''NGRI''').
==Psychiatric treatment==
Those found to have been not guilty by reason of insanity are generally then required to undergo [[psychiatry|psychiatric]] treatment; except in the case of '''temporary insanity''' (see below). Defendants found not guilty by reason of insanity are generally placed in a mental institution. Unlike defendants who are found guilty of a crime, they are not institutionalized for a fixed period, but rather they are held within the institution until authorities determine that they are no longer a threat. Authorities making this decision tend to be cautious; as a result, defendants |
By area, it is the second largest country of South America after Brazil and the 8th largest country in the [[world]].
The country is formally named ''República Argentina'' {{audio|1=es-Argentina.ogg|2=(pronunciation)}} (Argentine Republic), while for purposes of [[Law of Argentina|legislation]] the form ''Nación Argentina'' (Argentine Nation) is used.
==Origin and history of the name==
{{main|Origin and history of the name of Argentina}}
The name '''Argentina''' derives from the [[Latin]] ''argentum'' ([[silver]]). The first [[Spain|Spanish]] [[conquistador]]s called the River Plate the [[Río de la Plata]] ("River of Silver"). Indigenous people gave silver gifts to the survivors of the shipwrecked expedition, who were led by [[Juan Díaz de Solís]]. The legend of [[Sierra del Plata]] &mdash; a mountain rich in silver &mdash; reached Spain around [[1524]]. The name Argentina was first used in Ruy Díaz de Guzmán's 1612 book ''Historia del descubrimiento, población, y conquista del Río de la Plata'' (History of the discovery, population, and conquest of the Río de la Plata), naming the territory ''Tierra Argentina'' (Land of Silver).
==History==
{{main|History of Argentina}}
The area of present Argentina was sparsely populated until it was colonised by [[european|Europeans]]. The native people known as [[Diaguita]] lived in northwestern Argentina on the edge of the expanding [[Inca Empire]]; the [[Guaraní]] lived farther east.
Europeans arrived in [[1502]]. [[Spain]] established a permanent colony on the site of [[Buenos Aires]] in [[1580]], and the [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata]] in [[1776]]. Independence from Spain was declared on [[July 9]] [[1816]]. Centralist and federationist groups were in conflict, until national unity was established and the [[Argentine constitution|constitution]] promulgated in [[1853]].
Foreign [[investment]] and [[Immigration in Argentina|immigration]] from Europe aided the introduction of modern agricultural techniques and integration of Argentina into the world economy in the late 19th century. In the 1880s the "[[Conquest of the Desert]]" subdued or exterminated the remaining native tribes throughout [[Patagonia]].
From [[1880]] to [[1930]] Argentina became one of the ten wealthiest nations. Conservative forces dominated Argentine politics until [[1916]], when their traditional rivals, the [[Radical Civic Union|Radicals]], won control of the government. The military forced [[Hipólito Yrigoyen]] from power in 1930 leading to another decade of Conservative rule.
Political change led to the presidency of [[Juan Perón]] in [[1946]], who aimed at empowering the working class and greatly expanded the number of unionised workers. The [[Revolución Libertadora]] of [[1955]] deposed him.
In the 1950s and 1960s, military and civilian administrations traded power. When military governments failed to revive the economy and suppress escalating [[terrorism]] in the late 1960s and early 1970s, the way was open for Perón's return to the presidency in 1973, with his third wife, [[Isabel Perón|María Estela Isabel Martínez de Perón]], as Vice President. During this period, extremists on the [[political left|left]] and [[political right|right]] carried out [[terrorism|terrorist]] acts with a frequency that threatened public order.
[[Image:Buenos Aires-2672f-Banco de la Nación Argentina.jpg|thumb|250px|Bank of the Argentine Nation, Buenos Aires]]
Perón died in [[1974]]. His wife succeeded him in office, but a military coup removed her from office in [[1976]], and the armed forces formally exercised power through a [[junta]] in charge of the self-appointed [[Proceso de Reorganización Nacional|National Reorganisation Process]], until [[1983]]. The armed forces repressed opposition using harsh illegal measures (the "[[Dirty War]]"); thousands of dissidents were "[[desaparecidos|disappeared]]", while the [[SIDE]] cooperated with the [[CIA]], [[DINA]] and other South American intelligence agencies in [[Operation Condor]]. Many of the military leaders that took part in the Dirty War were trained in the U.S. financed [[School of the Americas]]. Among them Argentine dictators [[Leopoldo Galtieri]] and [[Roberto Viola]].
Economic problems, charges of corruption, public revulsion in the face of [[human rights]] abuses and, finally, the country's [[1982]] defeat in the [[Falklands War]] discredited the Argentine military regime.
Democracy was restored in [[1983]]. [[Raúl Alfonsín]]'s Radical government took steps intending to account for the "disappeared", establishing civilian control of the armed forces and consolidating democratic institutions. Failure to resolve endemic economic problems and an inability to maintain public confidence caused his early departure.
President [[Carlos Menem]] imposed [[Argentine peso|peso]]-[[US dollar|dollar]] [[fixed exchange rate]] in [[1991]] to stop [[hyperinflation]], and adopted far-reaching market-based policies, dismantling [[protectionism|protectionist]] barriers and business [[deregulation|regulations]], and implementing a privatisation program. These reforms contributed to significant increases in investment and growth with stable prices through most of the 1990s.
The Menem and [[Fernando de la Rúa|de la Rúa]] administrations faced diminished competitiveness of exports, massive imports which damaged national industry and reduced employment, chronic fiscal and trade deficits, and the contagion of several economic crises. The [[Asian financial crisis]] in [[1998]] precipitated an outflow of capital that mushroomed into a [[recession]], which led to a total freezing of the [[bank account]]s (the ''[[corralito]]''), and culminated in a financial panic in November 2001. The next month, amidst [[December 2001 riots (Argentina)|bloody riots]], President de la Rúa resigned.
Several new presidents followed in quick succession. Argentina [[default (finance)|default]]ed on its international debt obligations. The peso's almost 12-year-old link with the dollar was abandoned, resulting in massive [[devaluation|currency depreciation]] and [[inflation]], in turn triggering a spike in unemployment and poverty. In [[2003]], [[Néstor Kirchner]] became the president, and started implementing new policies based on re-industrialisation, [[import substitution]], increased exports, consistent fiscal surplus, and high exchange rate.
==Politics==
[[Image:Buenos Aires Congreso stock xchng 214239.jpg|thumb|250px|Congress building in Buenos Aires]]
{{main|Politics of Argentina}}
{{seealso|Law of Argentina}}
The [[Constitution of Argentina|Argentine constitution]] of 1853, as [[1994 reform of the Argentine Constitution|revised in 1994]], mandates a [[Separation of powers|separation of powers]] into [[Executive (government)|executive]], [[legislative]], and [[judiciary|judicial branch]]es at the national and provincial level. The [[president of Argentina|president]] and vice-president are directly elected to 4-year terms. Both are limited to two consecutive terms; they are allowed to stand for a third term or more after an interval of at least one term. The president appoints [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]] ministers, and the constitution grants him considerable power as both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]], including authority to enact laws by presidential decree under conditions of "urgency and necessity" and the [[line-item veto]].
Argentina's [[parliament]] is the bicameral [[National Congress]] or ''[[Argentine National Congress|Congreso de la Nación]]'', consisting of a [[Senate]] (''[[Argentine Senate|Senado]]'') of 72 seats and a [[Chamber of Deputies]] (''[[Argentine Chamber of Deputies|Cámara de Diputados]]'') of 257 members. Since 2001, senators have been directly elected, with each province, including the [[Federal Capital]], represented by three senators. Senators serve 6-year terms. One-third of the Senate stands for reelection every 2 years via a partial majority system in each district. Members of the Chamber of Deputies are directly elected to 4-year term via a system of [[proportional representation]]. Voters elect half the members of the [[lower house]] every 2 years.
==Foreign relations==
{{main|Foreign relations of Argentina}}
{{seealso|Military of Argentina}}
Argentina is currently prompting the [[Mercosur]] as its first external priority, contrasting with the 1990s' emphasis in the relationship with the [[United States]].
==Administrative divisions==
[[Image:Argentina provinces.png|framed|Provinces of Argentina. Argentine Antarctica and Southern Atlantic Islands (23) not shown.]]
{{main|Provinces of Argentina}}
{{seealso|Governors in Argentina}}
Argentina is divided into 23 [[province]]s (''provincias''; singular: ''provincia''), and 1 [[autonomous city]] (commonly known as ''capital federal''), marked with an asterisk:
{|
|
# [[Buenos Aires|Buenos Aires (City)]]<sup>*</sup>
# [[Buenos Aires Province|Buenos Aires (Province)]]
# [[Catamarca Province|Catamarca]]
# [[Chaco Province|Chaco]]
# [[Chubut Province|Chubut]]
# [[Córdoba Province (Argentina)|Córdoba]]
# [[Corrientes Province|Corrientes]]
# [[Entre Ríos Province|Entre Ríos]]
# [[Formosa Province|Formosa]]
# [[Jujuy Province|Jujuy]]
# [[La Pampa Province|La Pampa]]
# [[La Rioja Province (Argentina)|La Rioja]]
|
<ol start=13>
<li> [[Mendoza Province|Mendoza]]
<li> [[Misiones Province|Misiones]]
<li> [[Neuquén Province|Neuquén]]
<li> [[Río Negro Province|Río Negro]]
<li> [[Salta Province|Salta]]
<li> [[San Juan Province (Argentina)|San Juan]]
<li> [[San Luis Province|San Luis]]
<li> [[Santa Cruz Province (Argentina)|Santa Cruz]]
<li> [[Santa Fe Province|Santa Fe]]
<li> [[Santiago del Estero Province|Santiago del Estero]]
<li> [[Tierra del Fuego Province (Argentina)|Tierra del Fuego, Antártida e Islas del Atlántico Sur]]
<li> |
*[[2003]] - [[David Hemmings]], British actor (b. [[1941]])
*[[2004]] - [[Shiing-Shen Chern]], Chinese mathematician (b. [[1911]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - memorial of [[Saint Francis Xavier]]; also Saint [[Birinus]]
*[[USA]] - admission day for [[Illinois]] (21st state, [[1818]])
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/3 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20051203.html The New York Times: On this Day]
----
[[December 2]] - [[December 4]] - [[November 3]] - [[January 3]] — [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:3 Desember]]
[[ar:3 ديسمبر]]
[[an:3 d'abiento]]
[[ast:3 d'avientu]]
[[bg:3 декември]]
[[be:3 сьнежня]]
[[bs:3. decembar]]
[[ca:3 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 3]]
[[cv:Раштав, 3]]
[[co:3 di decembre]]
[[cs:3. prosinec]]
[[cy:3 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:3. december]]
[[de:3. Dezember]]
[[et:3. detsember]]
[[el:3 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:3 de diciembre]]
[[eo:3-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 3]]
[[fo:3. desember]]
[[fr:3 décembre]]
[[fy:3 desimber]]
[[ga:3 Nollaig]]
[[gl:3 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 3일]]
[[hr:3. prosinca]]
[[io:3 di decembro]]
[[id:3 Desember]]
[[ia:3 de decembre]]
[[is:3. desember]]
[[it:3 dicembre]]
[[he:3 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:3 Desember]]
[[ka:3 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:3 gòdnika]]
[[ku:3'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:3 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 3]]
[[lb:3. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 3]]
[[mk:3 декември]]
[[ms:3 Disember]]
[[nap:3 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:3 december]]
[[ja:12月3日]]
[[no:3. desember]]
[[nn:3. desember]]
[[oc:3 de decembre]]
[[pl:3 grudnia]]
[[pt:3 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:3 decembrie]]
[[ru:3 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 3.]]
[[sco:3 December]]
[[sq:3 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:3 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 3]]
[[sk:3. december]]
[[sl:3. december]]
[[sr:3. децембар]]
[[fi:3. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:3 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 3]]
[[tt:3. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 3]]
[[th:3 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:3 tháng 12]]
[[tr:3 Aralık]]
[[uk:3 грудня]]
[[wa:3 d' decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 3]]
[[zh:12月3日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 3]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>December 2</title>
<id>8356</id>
<revision>
<id>41654403</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T20:52:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Engineer Bob</username>
<id>347689</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Births */ remove [[Michael McDonald (musician)]] -- birthdate is [[February 12]] according to his official website</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 2]]''' is the 336th day (337th in leap years) of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 29 days remaining.
{{DecemberCalendar}}
==Events==
*[[1409]] - The [[University of Leipzig]] opens.
*[[1755]] - The second [[Eddystone Lighthouse]] is destroyed by fire.
*[[1804]] - At [[Notre Dame Cathedral]] in [[Paris]], [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] is crowned as the first Emperor of [[France]] in a thousand years.
*[[1805]] - [[Napoleonic Wars]]: [[Battle of Austerlitz]] - [[France| French]] troops under [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] defeat a joint [[Imperial Russia|Russo]]-[[Austrian Empire|Austria]]n force.
*[[1823]] - [[Monroe Doctrine]]: US President [[James Monroe]] delivers a speech establishing [[United States|American]] neutrality in future European conflicts.
*[[1845]] - [[Manifest Destiny]]: US President [[James K. Polk]] announces to Congress that the [[United States]] should aggressively expand into the West.
*[[1848]] - [[Franz Josef I of Austria|Franz Josef I]] becomes [[Emperor of Austria]].
*[[1851]] - Newly-elected [[France|French]] President [[Charles Louis Bonaparte]] overthrows the [[French Second Republic|Second Republic]].
*[[1852]] - [[Napoleon III of France|Napoleon III]] becomes Emperor of France.
*[[1859]] - Militant [[abolitionist]] leader [[John Brown (abolitionist)|John Brown]] is hanged for his [[October 16]]th raid on [[Harpers Ferry, West Virginia|Harper's Ferry]].
*[[1867]] - In a [[New York City]] theater, British author [[Charles Dickens]] gives his first public reading in the [[United States]].
*[[1899]] - [[Philippine-American War]]: The [[Battle of Tirad Pass]], termed "The Filipino Thermopylae", is fought.
*[[1927]] - Following 19 years of [[Ford Model T]] production, the [[Ford Motor Company]] unveils the [[Ford Model A]] as its new automobile.
*[[1930]] - [[Great Depression]]: US President [[Herbert Hoover]] goes before [[Congress]] and asks for a US$150 million public works program to help generate jobs and stimulate the [[economics|economy]].
*[[1939]] - [[New York City]]'s [[La Guardia Airport]] opens.
*[[1942]] - [[Manhattan Project]]: A team led by [[Enrico Fermi]] initiate the first self-sustaining [[nuclear chain reaction]].
*[[1946]] - British Government invited four Indian leaders, [[Nehru]], [[Baldev Singh]], [[Jinnah]] and [[Liaquat Ali Khan]] to obtain the participation of all parties in the Constituent Assembly.
*[[1947]] - [[Jerusalem Riots of 1947]]: Riots break out in Jerusalem in response to the approval of the [[1947 UN Partition Plan]].
*[[1954]] - [[Red Scare]]: The [[United States Senate]] votes 65 to 22 to condemn [[Joseph McCarthy]] for "conduct that tends to bring the Senate into dishonor and disrepute."
*[[1961]] - In a nationally-broadcast speech, [[Cuba]]n leader [[Fidel Castro]] declares that he is a [[Marxist]]-[[Leninist]] and that Cuba is going to adopt [[Communism]].
*[[1962]] - [[Vietnam War]]: After a trip to [[Vietnam]] at the request of US President [[John F. Kennedy]], US Senate Majority Leader [[Mike Mansfield]] becomes the first American official to not make an optimistic public comment on the war's progress.
*[[1970]] - The [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] begins operations.
*[[1971]] - [[Abu Dhabi]], [[Ajman]], [[Fujairah]], [[Sharjah]], [[Dubai]], and [[Umm Al Quwain]] form the [[United Arab Emirates]].
*[[1972]] - [[Edward Gough Whitlam|Gough Whitlam]] becomes the first [[Australian Labor Party]] [[Prime Minister]] of [[Australia]] for 23 years.
*[[1975]] - [[Pathet Lao]] seizes power in [[Kingdom of Laos|Laos]], and establishes the [[Lao People's Democratic Republic]].
*[[1980]] - Four U.S. nuns and churchwomen, [[Ita Ford]], [[Maura Clarke]], [[Jean Donovan]], and [[Dorothy Kazel]], are murdered by a [[death squad]] in [[El Salvador]].
*[[1982]] - At the [[University of Utah]], [[Barney Clark]] becomes the first person to receive a permanent [[artificial heart]].
*[[1984]] - Bhopal Gas Tragedy in India
*[[1988]] - [[Benazir Bhutto]] is sworn in as [[Prime Minister of Pakistan]], becoming the first woman to head the government of an [[Islam]]-dominated state.
*[[1990]] - A coalition led by Chancellor [[Helmut Kohl]] wins the first free all-[[Germany|German]] elections since [[1932]].
*[[1991]] - [[Apple computer|Apple]] release the first version of [[QuickTime]].
*[[1993]] - [[Colombia]]n [[drug lord]] [[Pablo Escobar]] is shot and killed in [[Medellín]].
*1993 - [[Space Shuttle program]]: [[STS-61]] - [[NASA]] launches the [[Space Shuttle Endeavour]] on a mission to repair the [[Hubble Space Telescope]].
*[[1999]] - The [[United Kingdom]] devolves political power in [[Northern Ireland]] to the [[Northern Ireland Executive]].
*[[2000]] - [[The Smashing Pumpkins]] perform for the last time at The Metro in Chicago.
*[[2001]] - [[Enron]] files for [[Chapter 11 bankruptcy]].
*[[2004]] - [[Brian Williams (news anchor)|Brian Williams]] succeeds [[Tom Brokaw]] as host of ''[[NBC Nightly News]]''.
*[[2005]] - Microsoft's [[Xbox 360]] is launched in Europe.
*2005 - [[Van Tuong Nguyen]] is executed in [[Singapore]] for [[drug trafficking]].
*2005 - [[Kenneth Boyd]] becomes the 1,000th person to be executed in the United States since [[Capital punishment in the United States|capital punishment]] was reinstated in [[1976]].
==Births==
*[[1578]] - [[Agostino Agazzari]], Italian composer and music theorist (d. [[1640]])
*[[1694]] - [[William Shirley]], Colonial Governor of Massachusetts (d. [[1771]])
*[[1703]] - [[Ferdinand Konscak]], Croatian explorer (d. [[1759]])
*[[1710]] - [[Bertinazzi]], Italian actor and writer (d. [[1783]])
*[[1738]] - [[Richard Montgomery]], Irish-born soldier (d. [[1775]])
*[[1760]] - [[John Breckinridge]], American politician (d. [[1806]])
*[[1817]] - [[Heinrich von Sybel]], German historian (d. [[1895]])
*[[1825]] - Emperor [[Pedro II of Brazil]] (d. [[1891]])
*[[1846]] - [[Pierre Marie René Ernest Waldeck-Rousseau]], French statesman (d. [[1904]])
*[[1859]] - [[Georges Seurat]], French painter (d. [[1891]])
*[[1863]] - [[Charles Ringling]], American circus owner (d. [[1926]])
*[[1885]] - [[George Richards Minot]], American physician, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] (d. [[1950]])
*[[1886]] - [[Harry Burleigh]], American composer (d. [[1949]])
*[[1891]] - [[Otto Dix]], German painter and graphic artist (d. [[1969]])
*[[1892]] - [[Leo Ornstein]], Russian-born composer and pianist (d. [[2002]])
*[[1895]] - [[Harriet Cohen]], British pianist (d. [[1967]])
*[[1898]] - [[Indra Lal Roy]], Indian pilot (d. [[1918]])
*[[1899]] - [[John Barbirolli]], British conductor (d. [[1970]])
*[[1901]] - [[Raimundo Orsi]], Argentine-born footballer (d. [[1986]])
*[[1906]] - [[Peter Carl Goldmark]], Hungarian-born recording engineer (d. [[1977]])
*[[1914]] - [[Adolph Green]], American composer (d. [[2002]])
*1914 - [[Ray Walston]], American actor (d. [[2001]])
*[[1923]] - [[Maria Callas]], American soprano (d. [[1977]])
*[[1924]] - [[Alexander M. Haig, Jr.]], American soldier and politician
*[[1925]] - [[Julie Harris]], American actress
*[[1930]] - [[Gary Becker]], American economist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Bank of Sweden Prize]]
*[[1931]] - [[Edwin Meese]], American politician
*[[1933]] - [[Michael Larrabee]], American athlete (d. [[2003]])
*1933 - [[K.Veeramani]], Indian anti-caste activist
*[[1934]] |
]
*[http://www.tama.com/ Tama (drum manufacturer)]
*[http://www.dwdrums.com/ Drum Workshop (drum manufacturer)]
*[http://www.firchie.com Firchie snare drums - Roto tunable]
*[http://www.zildjian.com/ Zildjian (cymbal manufacturer)]
*[http://www.meinlcymbals.com/ Meinl (cymbal manufacturer)]
*[http://www.paiste.com/ Paiste (cymbal manufacturer)]
*[http://www.sabian.com/ Sabian (cymbal manufacturer)]
*[http://www.saludacymbals.com/c/ Saluda (cymbal manufacturer)]
*[http://www.pearldrummersforum.com Pearl Drummer's Forum] - Includes tips, lessons, and an open chat. Run by Pearl but free to use for anybody using any brand.
*[http://p2.forumforfree.com/nesdude.html NES_Dude's Drumming Forum] - Drumming forum for all types of drumming
*[http://www.thedrumforum.com The Drum Forum] - Friendly forum dedicated to drums, with a lounge-type atmosphere.
*[http://www.drumtechniques.com Drum Lesson Videos] - Downloadable instructional drum video lessons.
*[http://www.drumforum.org Indianapolis Drum Forum] - A drum forum based in Indianapolis, IN, but with members all over the world. Members have yearly regional get-togethers and a mature forum environment.
*[http://www.tigerbill.com TigerBill's DrumBeat] - Vast free resource on drums and percussion includes famous drummer videos and interviews, lessons, and educational Forums.
*[http://www.chrisbsmusic.com/drumsfaq.html Drum FAQ] - Common questions about drums, hardware and cymbals
[[Category:Percussion instruments]]
[[de:Schlagzeug]]
[[eo:Drumo]]
[[es:Batería (música)]]
[[fi:Rumpusetti]]
[[fr:Batterie (musique)]]
[[he:מערכת תופים]]
[[it:Batteria (musica)]]
[[ja:ドラムセット]]
[[nl:Drumstel]]
[[no:Trommesett]]
[[pl:Perkusja]]
[[pt:Bateria (instrumento musical)]]
[[sv:Trumset]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dying Earth series</title>
<id>9080</id>
<revision>
<id>40813572</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T04:31:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lefty</username>
<id>44031</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fixup; missing "by"; omit needless words</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:The_dying_earth_by_jack_vance.jpg|thumb]]
:''This article is about a [[fantasy fiction|fantasy]] series. For a discussion of similar works, see [[Dying Earth subgenre]]''.
'''The Dying Earth''' is a series of [[fantasy]] [[fixup]]s by [[United States|American]] author [[Jack Vance]] which has inspired much [[pastiche]], imitation and admiration.
The series consists of the following works:
*''[[The Dying Earth]]'' (collection of linked stories, 1950)
*''[[The Eyes of the Overworld]]'' (collection of linked stories, 1966)
*''[[Cugel's Saga]]'' (novel, 1983)
*''[[Rhialto the Marvellous]]'' (collection of linked stories, 1984)
''Tales of the Dying Earth'' collects the entire series.
Author [[Michael Shea]] has also written a book set in the same fictional world: ''A Quest of Simbilis'' (novel, 1974). [[Gene Wolfe]]'s ''[[The Book of the New Sun]]'' is set in a somewhat similar world and has been written under Vance's influence. (Wolfe suggested in ''[[The Castle of the Otter]]'', a collection of essays, that he inserted "The Dying Earth" into his fictional world under the title [[The Book of Gold]].)
Three of the Dying Earth books had their titles changed by editors or publishers. In the [[Jack Vance#The Vance Integral Edition|Vance Integral Edition]] of Vance's complete oeuvre, these books have had Vance's original titles restored. They are as follows:
*''The Dying Earth'' is retitled as ''Mazirian the Magician''.
*''The Eyes of the Overworld'' is retitled as ''Cugel the Clever''.
*''Cugel's Saga'' is retitled as ''Cugel: the Skybreak Spatterlight''.
== Influence on role playing games ==
The [[Magic (gaming)|magic]] system of [[Dungeons & Dragons]] (in which a spellcaster memorizes spells out of a spellbook, their number limited by their power, and forgets them upon casting them) was based on the magic of Dying Earth. Some of the spells from D&D are based on spells mentioned in the Dying Earth series, notably [[The Excellent Prismatic Spray]]. The D&D magic item "Ioun stones" appear in ''Rhialto the Marvelous'', though with slightly different properties.
There is also an official Dying Earth [[role-playing game]], published by [[Pelgrane Press]] which throws players into Vance's ancient world populated by desperately extravagant people.
The Eyes of the Overworld is a quest artifact in [[NetHack]]. Their role is different from that in the Dying Earth series, so this may be coincidence.
== External links ==
{{wikiquote|Jack Vance}}
*[http://www.dyingearth.com Pelgrane Press]
*[http://www.vanceintegral.com Vance Integral Edition]
[[Category:Jack Vance novels]]
[[Category:Series of books]]
[[Category:Fantasy novels]]
[[Category:Fantasy series]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dispute resolution</title>
<id>9082</id>
<revision>
<id>42056953</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:33:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Monkeyman</username>
<id>79245</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */ Removed pdf link.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For Wikipedia's dispute resolution guidelines, see [[Wikipedia:Resolving disputes]].''
{{mergefrom|Adjudication}}
'''Dispute resolution''' is the process of resolving disputes between [[party (law) | parties]].
==Methods==
Methods of dispute resolution include:
* [[lawsuit]]s (litigation)
* [[arbitration]]
* [[mediation]]
* [[conciliation]]
* many types of [[negotiation]]
One could theoretically include [[violence]] or even [[war]] as part of this spectrum, but dispute resolution practitioners do not usually do so; violence rarely ends disputes effectively, and indeed, often only escalates them. Some individuals, notably [[Joseph Stalin]], have stated that all problems emanate from man, and absent man, no problems ensue. Hence, violence could theoretically end disputes, but alongside it, life.
Dispute resolution processes fall into two major types:
# [[adjudication|Adjudicative]] processes, such as litigation or arbitration, in which a judge, jury or arbitrator determines the outcome.
# Consensual processes, such as mediation, conciliation, or negotiation, in which the parties attempt to reach agreement.
Not all disputes, even those in which skilled intervention occurs, end in resolution. Such intractable disputes form a special area in dispute resolution studies.
==Judicial dispute resolution==
A competent and effective judge, arbitrator or mediator can greatly aid the proper functioning of the dispute resolution process. In [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] systems [[judge]]s are [[jurist]]s who are trained in investigation techniques, the process of determining the veracity of evidence and the [[inquisitorial system]] of adjudication. In the [[United States]] and other [[common law]] countries, judges are often experienced trial lawyers who have litigated many cases over many years before their appointment or election to the judiciary. Retired judges or experienced private lawyers often become arbitrators or mediators, but trained and qualified non-legal dispute resolution specialists form a growing body. In the [[United States of America]], many states now have mediation or other ADR programs annexed to the courts, to facilitate settlement of lawsuits.
==Extrajudicial dispute resolution==
Some use the term ''dispute resolution'' to refer only to [[alternative dispute resolution]] (ADR), that is, extrajudicial processes such as arbitration and mediation used to resolve conflict and potential conflict between and among individuals, [[business]] entities, governmental agencies, and (in the [[public international law]] context) [[state]]s. ADR generally depends on agreement by the parties to use ADR processes, either before or after a dispute has arisen. ADR has experienced steadily increasing acceptance and utilization because of a perception of greater flexibility, costs below those of traditional litigation, and speedy resolution of disputes, among other perceived advantages. However, some have criticized these methods as taking away the right to seek redress of grievances in the [[court]]s, suggesting that extrajudicial dispute resolution may not offer the fairest way for parties not in an equal bargaining relationship, for example in a dispute between a [[consumer]] and a large [[corporation]]. In addition, in some circumstances, arbitration and other ADR processes may become as expensive as litigation or more so.
==Online Dispute Resolution==
Dispute resolution can also take place on-line or by using technology in certain cases. [[Online Dispute Resolution]], a growing field of dispute resolution, uses new technologies to solve disputes. It also involves the application of traditional dispute resolution methods to disputes which arise online.
==Further reading==
* Ury, William, 2000. <u>The Third Side: Why We Fight and How We Can Stop </u>. Penguin Putnam. New York. ISBN 0140296344
==See also==
* [[Conflict resolution]]
* [[Diplomacy]]
* [[Peacekeeping]]
== Additional Resources ==
* [http://johnjay.jjay.cuny.edu/dispute/ CUNY Dispute Resolution Consortium]- ' The Dispute Resolution Headquarters in New York City.'
The City University of New York Dispute Resolution Consortium (CUNY DRC) serves as an intellectual home to dispute resolution faculty, staff and students at the City University of New York and to the diverse dispute resolution community in New York City. At the nation’s largest urban university system, the CUNY DRC has become a focal point for furthering academic and applied conflict resolution work in one of the world’s most diverse cities. The CUNY DRC conducts research and innovative program development, has co-organized countless conferences, sponsored training programs, |
bear Brunel's name, such as [[Brunel University]] in London, and a collection of streets in [[Exeter]]: Isambard Terrace, Kingdom Mews, and Brunel Close. A road and school in his home town of Portsmouth are also named in his honour, along with the town's largest ''Wetherspoons'' pub. Although not of any real architectural merit, the Brunel shopping centre in [[Bletchley, Milton Keynes]], is also named after Brunel.
Most of Brunel's bridges are still in use, either as rail routes or converted to motor traffic. The Thames Tunnel is now part of the [[London Underground]], and the [[Brunel Engine House]] at Rotherhithe that once housed the steam engines that powered the tunnel pumps still stands – as a museum dedicated to the work and lives of Marc and Isambard Kingdom Brunel.
Many of Brunel's original papers and designs are now held in the [http://www.bris.ac.uk/is/services/specialcollections/brunel.html Brunel collection] at the [[University of Bristol]].
In 1975, noted British animator [[Bob Godfrey]] was awarded an [[Oscar]] for his short ''Great'', an irreverent look at Brunel and his times.
Brunel was included in the top 10 of the heavily publicised ''[[100 Greatest Britons]]'' TV poll conducted by the [[BBC]] and voted for by the public. In the second round of voting, which concluded on [[November 24]] [[2002]], Brunel placed second behind [[Winston Churchill]]. The building of the ''Great Eastern'' was also dramatised in an episode of the recent [[BBC]] TV series ''[[Seven Wonders of the Industrial World]]'' (2003).
{{Isambard Kingdom Brunel timeline}}
==See also==
*[[Bristol Temple Meads railway station]]
*[[Chepstow Bridge]]
*[[Hungerford Bridge]]
*[[Maidenhead Railway Bridge]]
*[[Taff Vale Railway]]
==Notes and References==
<div style="font-size: 85%">
<references/>
</div>
==External links==
*[http://en.structurae.de/persons/data/index.cfm?id=d000002 Structurae: Isambard Kingdom Brunel]
*[http://www.designmuseum.org/design/index.php?id=99 Design Museum - British Council]]
*[http://www.whoosh.care4free.net/brunel%27s.htm The Atmospheric Railway]
==Further reading==
*[[L. T. C. Rolt]] <cite>Isambard Kingdom Brunel</cite> ISBN 058210744X, ISBN 0140079866, ISBN 0140117520 ([http://books.fantasticfiction.co.uk/x0/x1445.htm?authorid=2462 Fantasticfiction])
*R. Angus Buchanan ''Brunel:The Life and Times of Isambard Kingdom Brunel'', Hambledon and London, 2002, 294pp, 22pl and 11 text illus, ISBN 1-85285-331-X
*Adrian Vaughan ''Isambard Kingdom Brunel: Engineering Knight-Errant'', John Murray, 1991, ISBN 0-7195-4636-2
*Nick Walters ''Reckless Engineering'', BBC Books, ISBN 0-563-48603-1
*Steven Brindle <cite>Paddington Station: Its history and architecture</cite> , English Heritage, 2004, ISBN 1-873592-70-1
*Andrew Mathewson and Derek Laval <cite>Brunel's Tunnel... and where it led</cite>, Brunel Exhibition Rotherhithe, 1992, ISBN 0-9504361-1-9
[[Category:1806 births|Brunel, Isambard Kingdom]]
[[Category:1859 deaths|Brunel, Isambard Kingdom]]
[[Category:Bridge engineers|Brunel, Isambard Kingdom]]
[[Category:British civil engineers|Brunel, Isambard Kingdom]]
[[Category:English architects|Brunel, Isambard Kingdom]]
[[Category:English inventors|Brunel, Isambard Kingdom]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Brunel, Isambard Kingdom]]
[[Category:Marine engineers and naval architects|Brunel, Isambard Kingdom]]
[[Category:People buried in Kensal Green Cemetery|Brunel, Isambard Kingdom]]
[[Category:Pioneers of rail transport|Brunel, Isambard Kingdom]]
[[bg:Айзъмбард Кингдъм Брънел]]
[[de:Isambard Kingdom Brunel]]
[[fr:Isambard Kingdom Brunel]]
[[ja:アイサムバード・キングダム・ブルネル]]
[[nl:Isambard Kingdom Brunel]]
[[nn:Isambard Kingdom Brunel]]
[[pl:Isambard Kingdom Brunel]]
[[uk:Брунель Ісамбард Кіндом]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Incremental reading</title>
<id>14891</id>
<revision>
<id>30868468</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-10T23:08:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>169.229.85.131</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Incremental reading''' subdivides a load of material into articles and its extracts. All articles and extracts are processed according to the rules of [[spaced repetition]]. This means that all processed pieces of information are presented at increasing intervals. Individual articles are read in portions proportional to the attention span, which depends on the user, his mood, the article, etc. The name "incremental" comes from "reading in portions". Without the use of spaced repetition, the reader would quickly get lost in the glut of information when studying dozens of subjects at the same time. However, spaced repetition makes it possible to retain traces of the processed material in memory. Incremental reading makes it possible to read hundreds of articles at the same time with a substantial gain to [[attention]]. For incremental reading to leave a permanent mark in [[long-term memory]], the processed material must be gradually converted into material based on [[active recall]]. This means that extracts such as "George Washington was the first U.S. President" must be changed to questions such as "Who was the first U.S. President?", "Who was George Washington?", etc.
{{psych-stub}}
[[Category:Learning]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Intelligence quotient</title>
<id>14892</id>
<revision>
<id>42086759</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:09:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>123spamfighter123</username>
<id>1018981</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|IQ}}
[[Image:6sigmaIQrange.png|thumb|350px|IQ tests are designed to give approximately [[normal distribution|normally distributed]] results, which causes a [[normal distribution|"bell curve"]] graph of IQ score frequency. Colors delineate one [[standard deviation]].]]
An '''intelligence quotient''' or '''IQ''' is a score derived from a set of [[standardized test]]s developed to measure a person's [[cognition|cognitive abilities]] ("[[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]]") in relation to their age group. An IQ test does not measure intelligence the way a ruler measures height (absolutely), but rather the way a [[racing|race]] measures speed (relatively).
For people living in the prevailing conditions of the developed world, IQ is highly [[heritability|heritable]], and by adulthood the influence of family environment on IQ is undetectable. IQ test scores are correlated with measures of brain structure and function, as well as performance on simple tasks that anyone can complete within a few seconds.
IQ is correlated with academic success; it can also predict important life outcomes such as job performance, socioeconomic advancement, and "social pathologies". Recent work has demonstrated links between IQ and health, longevity, and functional literacy.
==History==
Early attempts of mental tests were those of Sir Galton (1863) and James Cattell (1888). These tests were more physical tests than mental ones. Their importance was in developing the idea that one's IQ can be measured and is different from person to person. They also proposed normal distributions of mental tests results within a large population.
[[Alfred Binet]] and his colleague [[Theodore Simon]] created the '''Binet-Simon scale''' in [[1905]], which used testing to identify students who could benefit from extra help in school. Their assumption was that lower scores indicated the need for more teaching, not an inability to learn. This interpretation is still held by some modern experts.
Notably, Binet himself made ''no claim'' that his test properly measured intelligence. He stated in his paper ''New Methods for the Diagnosis of the Intellectual Level of Subnormals'' that
:"This scale properly speaking does not permit the measure of the intelligence, because intellectual qualities are not superposable, and therefore cannot be measured as linear surfaces are measured, but are on the contrary, a classification, a hierarchy among diverse intelligences; and for the necessities of practice this classification is equivalent to a measure." [http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Binet/binet1.htm]
In [[1910]], [[Henry H. Goddard]] proposed three categories for the "feeble-minded" based on IQ scores: [[Moron (psychology)|moron]] (IQ of 51&ndash;70), [[imbecile]] (IQ of 26&ndash;50), and [[idiot]] (IQ of 0&ndash;25). This taxonomy was the standard of intelligence research for decades.
In [[1916]], [[Stanford University]] psychologist [[Lewis Terman]] released the "Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Scale", generally known as the '''[[Stanford-Binet test]]'''. This became the most commonly administered test for many decades. The term "intelligence quotient," in which each student's score was the quotient of his or her tested mental age with his or her actual age, was adopted by Terman from a [[1912]] proposal by German psychologist [[William Stern]]. This led to refined testing developed by [[Robert Yerkes]] for [[United States Army]] recruits.
Today, the most commonly administered IQ test is the '''[[Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children|WISC-III]]''' test, originally developed by [[David Wechsler]] in 1974. The WISC-III test comprises ten types of problems, categorized by difficulty and by skill type (verbal and performance scales). A revised version, the WISC-IV, was released in 2003 and is used regularly in assessments. However, the interpretation of various combinations of subscales is still being researched. Another notable type of IQ test is the Bailey Scale of Infant Development, regarded as the 'best' means of testing cognitive development in infants.
Today, informal online |
f the type ''thing'' within the ''Wiki'' node. If the node contains more than one writeup of the specified type, the pipe link returns a "Duplicates Found" page linking to every writeup of the specified type within the node.
Pipe links are comparable in function but not usage to Wikipedia's [[Wikipedia:Piped link|piped link]]s. Unlike piped links, pipe links on E2 often add "[[Easter egg (virtual)|easter egg]]" content, such as commentary, humor and hidden information.{{ref|pipe}}
At the bottom of every node, the system displays up to 64 ''soft links'', though each node can store an unlimited number thereof. ("Guest User" -- any viewer not logged in -- can see 24, a logged-in user can see up to 48, and the senior administrators ("gods") can see up to 64). These are two-way links intended to approximate "thought processes". Whenever a logged-in user moves from one node to another, be it through a hard link, another soft link, or through the title search box, the system creates (or strengthens) the bidirectional soft link between the two; however, some nodes -- namely the special pages and the user profiles -- will not display the soft links so created. By repeatedly moving from one node to another, users can and do deliberately create such soft links; some users will use these soft links to make anonymous comments on others' writing. The site's administrators have the ability to remove soft links at their discretion.
''Firm links'' are special, editor-created links that serve to redirect between nodes. Firm links are typically used to link multiple forms of a single name or title to aid searching and ensure that readers find the content that they are seeking. A typical use of firm links would be to permanently link the empty node titled 'U.S.A' to a node titled 'United States of America' that contained writeups about the topic.
===Copyright policy===
The [[copyright]] in a writeup rests with the author, and no agreement to any kind of license is entered into by writing on E2 (except for giving the site permission to publish). Authors retain the right to place their work in the public domain, to release it under a [[copyleft]] license such as one of those offered by the [[GNU]] project or [[Creative Commons]], or to request the removal of their work from the site at some later date.
For a long time, the posting of copyrighted song lyrics and poetry to the site without approval from the copyright holders, while certainly frowned upon, was not actually prohibited. E2 chose to only passively enforce copyright law, in a manner similar to an ISP (for which see [[OCILLA#512(c) Information Residing on Systems or Networks At Direction of Users|OCILLA section 512(c)]]). This policy changed in August 2003 to a more active one where writeups containing copyrighted material had to either conform to [[fair use]] guidelines (length limits, proportion of quoted material to new text) or be posted with permission. The policy change provoked some users to leave the community.
===Rewards===
The administrators loosely based E2's reward system on [[role-playing game]]s. Every time a user creates a writeup, he or she earns one experience point (XP). Users with at least 20 contributed writeups and 50 experience points can vote (up or down) on a writeup, which has a 1/3 chance of giving or taking an experience point from the author depending on the direction of the vote and a 1/5 chance of giving a point to the voter. After voting on a writeup, a noder can see the writeup's "reputation," or number of positive and negative votes (administrators do not need to vote to see a writeup's reputation). The site's editors delete writeups that do not meet editorial standards or those whose removal has been author-requested. The only effect writeup deletion has on the author's XPs is that the 1 XP the author got for creating the writeup is removed. A user can view his or her own writeups that have been deleted through the Node Heaven feature.
New levels are attained by reaching a predefined, but arbitrary total of XPs and writeups, which are given in the FAQ.{{ref|faq}} An 'honor roll' further rewards users whose writeups have a 'reputation' that has achieved a high interquartile mean by lowering the writeups required to achieve any given level by up to a half.
The system grants special powers at other levels of writeups and experience, such as "cool" (reward author with three XPs and send the writeup to the front page), the ability to create basic [[chat room]]s on the site, space for uploading a picture to a user's "homenode", and the ability to hide one's self in the list of logged-in users.
==Messaging==
Everything2 provides two communication tools: the Chatterbox and the message system.
The Chatterbox is similar to a [[chat room]].
It appears as a panel on the right side of the page that logged-in users can use to read conversations and participate in them.
The site's administrators used to have the ability to "borg" -- prevent from using the Chatterbox or message system -- those users whose behavior violated the unwritten standards of politeness and decorum.
This was done through a [[Internet bot|bot]] called EDB (short for "Everything Death Borg"), which announced when it has "swallowed" a user.
These silencings lasted for five minutes, though persistent [[internet troll|trolls]] were silenced for a longer period -- sometimes permanently. As of 2003, the EDB was no longer much used, only making mostly token appearances for humorous effect.
The message system lets users send private messages to other users. The messages are stored in the user's mailbox to be read when he or she next logs in.
The main use for the message system is giving constructive criticism to the author of a writeup; however, it can be and is used like any medium of private communication.
==History and society==
The predecessor of E2 was a similar database called Everything (later labeled "Everything1" or "E1") which was started around March [[1998]] by [[Nate Oostendorp]] and was initially closely aligned with and promoted by [[Slashdot]]. The E2 software offered vastly more features, and the Everything1 data was twice incorporated into E2: once on [[November 13]], [[1999]] and again in January of [[2000]].
The Everything2 server used to be physically located with the Slashdot servers. However, some time after [[Open Source Technology Group|OSDN]] acquired Slashdot, and moved the Slashdot servers, this hosting was terminated on short notice. This resulted in Everything2 being offline from roughly [[November 6]] to [[December 9]], [[2003]]. Everything2 has since been hosted by the [[University of Michigan]].
E2 is privately owned by the [[Blockstackers Intergalactic]] company, but does not make a profit and is viewed by its long-term users as a collaborative work-in-progress. Some of its administrators are affiliated with Blockstackers, some are not. Administrators are often criticized for making policy decisions without consulting Everything2's user base, and the site is not a democracy, but the degree to which users influence decisions depends on the nature of the decisions and the administrators making them.
Writeups in E1 were limited to 512 bytes in size. This, plus the predominantly "geek" membership back then and the lack of chat facilities, meant the early work was often of poor quality and was overburdened with [[self referential humor]]. As E2 has expanded, higher quality standards have developed, much of the old material has been removed, and the membership has become broader. Many noders prefer to write encyclopedic articles similar to those on [[Wikipedia]]. Some write fiction or poetry, some discuss issues, and some write daily journals, called "daylogs". Unlike Wikipedia, E2 does not have an enforced [[neutral point of view]]. An informal survey of noder political beliefs{{ref|survey}} indicates that the userbase tends to lean [[Left-wing politics|left]] politically. There are conservative voices as well, however, and while debate nodes (of any kind, political or not) are rarely tolerated, well-formed points of view from any part of the political or cultural spectrum are welcome.
Like other online communities, E2 has a social hierarchy and code of behavior, to which it is sometimes difficult for a newcomer to adjust. Moreover, some people complain that new users are held to a different standard from established contributors, and that their writeups are singled out for deletion regardless of content. Another complaint is that all too often, site administrators remove articles that they do not agree with or which they do not see explicit value in, thus biasing the content of the database. Others dismiss such complaints as unjustified; they observe that few communities treat newcomers exactly like long-time members, and they claim that those who learn and obey the rules are usually—though not always—treated fairly.
There is no consistent, written site policy on acceptable behavior. Bannings have occurred for antisocial behaviour, albeit very rarely and only after a more personal approach to change the individual's behavior. Though these decisions are broadly accepted, some current and ex-members of the site believe that this amounts to mismanagement, and point to accumulation of disgruntled ex-users as evidence of a problem.
Everything2 solicits donations and states that the accumulated funds are earmarked for bandwidth and colocation costs, but does not disclose the specific details of how these donations are spent. This policy has met criticism due to concerns that the donations may be mishandled.
The management regard Everything2 as a publication, to which authors submit content. Although Everything2 does not seek to become an [[encyclopedia]] (even though the contents of [[Webste |
results from a construction of radar-absorbing composites and radar-absorbing ferrite based paints. .
The F-117A is equipped with sophisticated navigation and attack systems integrated into a digital avionics suite. It carries no radar, which lowers emissions and cross-section. It navigates primarily by [[GPS]] and high-accuracy [[inertial navigation]]. Missions are coordinated by an automated planning system that can automatically perform all aspects of a strike mission, including weapons release. Targets are acquired by a [[thermal imaging]] [[infrared]] system, slaved to a [[laser]] that finds the range and designates targets for [[laser-guided bomb]]s.
The F-117A's split internal bay can carry 5,000 lb (2,300 kg) of ordnance. Typical weapons are a pair of [[GBU-10]], [[GBU-12]], or [[GBU-27]] laser-guided bombs, two [[BLU-109]] penetration bombs, two Wind-Corrected Munition Dispensers (WCMD), or two Joint Direct Attack Munitions ([[JDAM]]s), a GPS/INS-guided stand-off bomb. It can theoretically carry two examples of any weapon in the USAF inventory, including the [[B61]] nuclear bomb.
==History==
The F-117A production decision was made in 1973 with a contract awarded to ''Lockheed Advanced Development Projects'', the "[[Skunk works|Skunk Works]]," in [[Burbank, California|Burbank]], [[California]] led by [[Ben Rich]]. The first flight was in 1977, only 31 months after the full-scale development decision. The first F-117A was delivered in 1982, operational capability was achieved in October 1983, and the last delivery was in the summer of 1990. The Air Force denied the existence of the aircraft until 1988, then in April 1990 an example was put on public display at [[Nellis Air Force Base]], Nevada, attracting tens of thousands of spectators.
Current inventory is 55 airplanes.
During the program's early years, the F-117A fleet was based at [[Tonopah Test Range]], [[Nevada]] from 1984 to mid-1992, where it served under the 4450th Tactical Group, absorbed by the [[37th Tactical Fighter Wing]] in 1989. In 1992, the entire fleet was transferred to [[Holloman Air Force Base]], [[New Mexico]], where it was placed under the command of the [[49th Fighter Wing]].
[[Image:F-117 lands.jpg|thumb|300px|F-117 landing]]
As the Air Force has stated [http://www.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?fsID=104], "Streamlined management by Aeronautical Systems Center, [[Wright-Patterson AFB]], [[Ohio]], combined breakthrough stealth technology with concurrent development and production to rapidly field the aircraft.... The F-117A program demonstrates that a stealth aircraft can be designed for reliability and maintainability." The aircraft maintenance statistics are comparable to other tactical fighters of similar complexity. Logistically supported by Sacramento Air Logistics Center, [[McClellan AFB]], California, the F-117A is kept at the forefront of technology through a planned weapon system improvement program located at USAF Plant 42 at [[Palmdale, California]].
== Combat ==
The F-117 has been used several times in modern wars. Its first mission was during [[Operation Just Cause]] in [[Panama]] in 1989. During that invasion an F-117 dropped two bombs on [[Rio Hato]] airfield. Later, during the [[Gulf War]], it performed well by dropping [[smart bomb]]s on [[Iraqi]] military targets. It has since been used in the [[Kosovo War]] in 1999, [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] and [[2003 invasion of Iraq|Operation Iraqi Freedom]].
== Combat losses ==
One F-117 has been lost in combat, to Serbian/Yugoslav forces. On [[March 27]], [[1999]], during the [[Kosovo War]], the 3rd Battalion of the 250th Missile Brigade, equipped with the [[SA-3 Goa|Isayev S-125 'Neva-M']] (NATO designation [[SA-3 Goa|SA-3 'Goa']]), downed F-117A serial number 82-806 with a liquid-fuelled Neva missile. According to [[Wesley Clark]] and other NATO generals, Yugoslav air defences tracked F-117s with old Russian radars operating on long wavelengths. This, combined with the loss of stealth when the jets got wet or opened their bomb bays, made them highly visible on radar screens. The pilot survived and was later rescued by [[NATO]] forces.
Reports indicate [[Russia]] is using the wreckage to test new anti-stealth technology [http://www.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2001/12/12/140853.shtml].
A second F-117A was also damaged during a raid in the Kosovo War, and although it made it back to its base, it never flew again. [http://www.pogo.org/m/dp/dp-fa22-Riccioni-03082005.pdf]
== Future ==
With its successes in the [[Kosovo War]] and [[Operation Iraqi Freedom]] and its extraordinarily high mission capable rate, the F-117 has secured its place as the aerospace "tip of the spear" during the first few nights of military operations when the goal is to blind the enemy by destroying command, control and radar. Yet despite this, the F-117 is still very much an aircraft designed with technologies that were state of the art in the late 1970s and early 1980s, and as such, there has been a preliminary decision to retire the fleet in 2008. Most notably its stealth technology and faceting, while still more advanced than that of any other aircraft but the B-2 and F-22A, is maintenance heavy. Furthermore, the faceting technology (which limits its aerodynamics) represents an old counter-radar technique that has since been greatly refined.
The increase of production of the F-22A by four planes and its entry as an operational aircraft into the US Air Force has created debate about retiring the fleet. A draft version of the 2006 Quadrennial Defense Review and the 2007 Defense Budget that were leaked proposed retiring the entire fleet to make room for buying more [[F-22A]]s.[http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/2006/01/us-plans-to-retire-b52s-c21s-f117-u2-for-more-f22s/index.php] This plan was removed from both the final 2007 Budget and the final QDR.[http://www.airforcetimes.com/story.php?f=1-292925-1509462.php]
Critics say that removing the F-117, an attack plane by nature, from service is another sign of the machinations of the largely former-fighter pilots that populate the highest ranks of the Air Force, who, by reputation, have been willing to sacrifice nearly any program in order to preserve the F-22A, the "ultimate fighter". Furthermore, they contend that the F-117 can carry 2 2000 lb bombs in its internal bays (and thus remain stealthy) whereas the F-22A can only carry such bombs on external pylons, breaking its vaunted stealth and manuverability.
Supporters of the proposal argue however that the high maintenance cost and older stealth technology that is vulnerable to long-wavelength radar, combined with a subsonic limit, makes the F-117 more dangerous to fly. They contend that the F-22A is the logical successor considering that:
* Its stealth is nearly as advanced as the B-2, reportedly vastly more efficient than the F-117.
* It can fly at supersonic speeds without using afterburners and thus should have better range.
* Its radar absorbing material requires far less maintenance than that of the F-117.
* The new 250lb small-diameter bombs entering service and designed specifically to fit in the F-22A's internal munitions bays have a variable yield, from 250lbs up to 2000lbs, meaning that there is no loss in explosive capability despite the smaller physical size of the munition.
With the removal of the proposal of the retirement of the F-117 fleet, it is likely that the aircraft will remain in service for some years to come until their previously scheduled retirement between 2017 and 2025. In fact, 2004 and 2005 saw several mid-life improvement programs being implemented on the F-117, including an [[avionics]] upgrade.
Most interestingly, several of the F-117s were [http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ac/f-117-camo.jpg painted in a desert tarmac camouflage pattern] in an experiment to determine the effectiveness of the F-117's stealth during daylight conditions. If the experiment is successful, it might lead to part or all of the fleet changing from their trademark black to this new color scheme, enabling, for the first time, daylight operations in warzones. As of early 2006 the outcome of this experiment is unknown.
==Specifications (F-117 Nighthawk)==
===General characteristics===
* '''Crew:''' 1
* '''Length:''' 63 ft 9 in (20.08 m)
* '''Wingspan:''' 43 ft 4 in (13.20 m)
* '''Height:''' 12 ft 9.5 in (3.78 m)
* '''Wing area:''' 780 ft&sup2; (73 m&sup2;)
* '''Top Speed:''' 700 mph (Sub mach 1)
* '''Empty:''' 29,500 lb (13,380 kg)
* '''Loaded:''' 52,500 lb (23,814 kg)
* '''[[Maximum take-off weight|Maximum takeoff]]:''' lb ( kg)
* '''Powerplant:''' 2 &times; [[General Electric Aircraft Engines|General Electric]] [[General Electric F404|F404-F1D2]] turbofans, 10,600 [[pound-force|lb<sub>f</sub>]] (48.0 kN) thrust each
===Armament===
*2 &times; internal weapons bays with one hardpoint each (total of 2 weapons) including:
**Bombs: [[BLU-109 bomb|BLU-109]] hardened penetrator, [[GBU-10 Paveway II]] laser-guided, [[GBU-27]] laser-guided
**Missiles: [[AGM-65 Maverick]] air-to-surface, [[AGM-88 HARM]] air-to-surface
{| cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="margin:5px auto; clear:both; border:3px solid;width:60%; font-size:small;" align="center"
!bgcolor="#e0e0e0" colspan="2" align="center" style="border-bottom:3px solid"|
[[List of current USAF aircraft|Current USAF aircraft]] - Bombers
|-
|align="center"|
[[B-1B Lancer]] -
[[B-2 Spirit]] -
[[B-52 Stratofortress]] -
'''F-117A Nighthawk'''
|-
|}
==Fiction==
The F-117 has appeared in every game of Namco's [[Ace Combat]] series. A fictional variant, the A/F-117X Navhawk, was featured in [[Ace Combat 3: Electrosphere]].
==Trivia==
*A [[Sprint Nextel Corporation|Sprint]] commercial in the 1990s featured a large schematic drawing of the F-117, which was the |
t;). It was not a country-rock album (a la [[The Byrds]] or [[Eagles]]), which might have been more palatable to his established audience and to reviewers, but rather an undiluted country album. It received mixed reviews, some of which accused Costello of growing soft. Perhaps in anticipation of the inevitable accusations of apostasy, the first pressings of the record in the UK bore a sticker with the message:
:"WARNING: This album contains country & western music and may cause offence to narrow minded listeners".
''Almost Blue'' did spawn a surprise UK hit single in a version of [[Jerry Chesnut]]'s "Good Year For The Roses."
''[[Imperial Bedroom]]'' (1982) marked a much darker, almost [[baroque]] sound for Costello, due in large part to the production of [[Geoff Emerick]], famed for engineering several [[The Beatles|Beatles]] records. Featuring a superior set of songs - both musically and lyrically - it remains one of his most critically acclaimed records but again failed to produce any hit singles. Costello has said he disliked the marketing pitch for the album, weak ads consisting only of the phrase "Masterpiece?". ''Imperial Bedroom'' also featured Costello's song "Almost Blue"; jazz singer and trumpeter [[Chet Baker]] would later perform and record a beautifully morose version of this song.
1983 saw another sidetrack with the pop-soul of ''[[Punch the Clock]]'', featuring female backing vocals ([[Afrodiziak]]) and a four piece [[horn section]] ([[The TKO Horns]]), alongside The Attractions. Clive Langer (who co-produced with Alan Winstanley), provided Costello with a melody which eventually became "Shipbuilding," an oblique and articulate look at the political contradictions of the [[Falklands War]]: The controversial military build-up provided jobs for Britain's struggling shipyards. The song featured a striking solo by [[Chet Baker]]. (Prior to the release of Costello's own version, an affecting, emotive version of the song was a minor UK hit for former [[Soft Machine]] drummer and political activist [[Robert Wyatt]]). Equally political was "Pills And Soap" -- a UK hit for Costello himself under the pseudonym of "The Imposter" -- an attack on the changes in British society brought on by [[Margaret Thatcher|Thatcherism]], released to coincide with the run-up to the [[United Kingdom general election, 1983|1983 UK general election]]. The electorate were seemingly not swayed.) ''Punch the Clock'' also generated an international hit in the single "Everyday I Write the Book," aided by a prophetic music video featuring lookalikes of the [[Charles, Prince of Wales|Prince]] and [[Diana, Princess of Wales|Princess of Wales]] undergoing domestic strife in a suburban home.
Tensions within the band were beginning to tell, and with Costello starting to feel burnt out he announced his retirement and the disbandment of the group shortly before they were to record ''Goodbye Cruel World'' (1984). Costello would later say of this record that they had "got it as wrong as you can in terms of the execution". With a number of poor songs (and even the better songs harmed by murky production), the record was poorly received upon its initial release, and even many ardent Costello fans see ''Goodbye'' as his weakest album. Despite the record's poor reputation, a few songs were well-regarded, such as "The Comedians" (later recorded, with rewritten lyrics, by [[Roy Orbison]], and also quoted, in its original version, in [[Alan Moore|Alan Moore's]] seminal comic series [[Watchmen]]). On the album's second single, ''The Only Flame in Town'', [[Daryl Hall]] of [[Hall and Oates]] shared lead vocals.
Costello's retirement, although short-lived, was accompanied by two compilations, ''Elvis Costello: The Man'' in the UK, Europe and Australia and ''The Best of Elvis Costello and the Attractions'' in the USA.
In 1985, Costello teamed up with good friend [[T-Bone Burnett]] for a single called "The People's Limousine" under the moniker of ''The Coward Brothers''. That year, Costello also produced ''Rum, Sodomy and the Lash'' for the punk/folk band [[the Pogues]]. It was then that he met his second wife, Pogues bassist [[Cait O'Riordan]].
By 1986, Costello was preparing to make a comeback. Working in the US with Burnett, a band containing a number of [[Elvis Presley]]'s sidemen (including [[James Burton]] and [[Jerry Scheff]]), and minor input from the Attractions, he produced ''King Of America,'' an acoustic-guitar-driven album with a country sound, augmented by some of his best songs for some time. Around this time he legally changed his name back to Declan MacManus, adding Aloysius as an extra middle name.
The Attractions felt understandably insecure about their dispensability upon perceiving that their boss had cut a new album largely without them, and was planning to undertake a major tour showcasing the ''King Of America'' material with his new musical partners. To allay their fears, Costello retooled his upcoming tour to allow for multiple nights in each city; playing one night with The Confederates (James Burton et al.), one night with The Attractions, and one night solo acoustic. In New York City he played five nights in a row! This arrangement put a strain on fans' stamina and wallets, as many wanted to see as many of the permutations available in their area as possible, not just one.
<!--No Source Information: [[Image:Costello with McCartney.jpg|thumb|180px|left|Elvis Costello with [[Paul McCartney]]]]-->
Later that year, he returned to the studio with the Attractions and recorded ''[[Blood and Chocolate]]'', which was lauded for a post-punk fervor not heard since 1978's ''[[This Year's Model]]''. It also marked the return of producer [[Nick Lowe]], who had produced Costello's first five albums. While ''[[Blood and Chocolate]]'' failed to chart a hit single of any significance, it did produce what has since become one of Costello's signature concert songs — "I Want You". It is on this album that Costello adopted the alias "[[Napoleon Dynamite]]", the name he later attributed to the character of the obnoxious [[emcee]] that he played during the [[vaudeville]]-style tour to support ''Blood and Chocolate''. (The pseudonym had previously been used in 1982, when the B-side single "Imperial Bedroom" was credited to "Napoleon Dynamite & The Royal Guard".)
In 1987, Costello, with a new contract with [[Warner Bros.]], began a long-running songwriting collaboration with [[Paul McCartney]]. They wrote a number of songs together, including Costello's "Veronica" and "Pads, Paws and Claws" from ''[[Spike]]'' (1989) and "So Like Candy" and "Playboy to a Man" from ''Mighty Like A Rose'' (1991) and McCartney's "My Brave Face", "Don't Be Careless Love", "That Day Is Done" and "You Want Her Too" from ''Flowers in the Dirt'' and "The Lovers That Never Were" and "Mistress and Maid" from ''Off The Ground''. In 1989, he appeared on the [[Home Box Office|HBO]] special ''[[Roy Orbison and Friends, A Black and White Night]]'', which featured his long-time idol [[Roy Orbison]], and was invited back to ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' for the first time since 1977.
===1990s===
[[Image:ecostello10.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Elvis Costello in the mid-1990s.]]
In 1991 Costello released the aforementioned ''Mighty Like A Rose'', during which time he infamously grew a long beard.
In 1993, Costello tested the waters of classical music with a critically acclaimed collaboration with the [[Brodsky Quartet]] on ''[[The Juliet Letters]]''. Costello would return to rock and roll the following year with a project that reunited him with The Attractions, ''Brutal Youth''. An album of cover songs recorded 5 years previously was released in 1995, ''Kojak Variety'', followed in 1996 by an album of songs he had originally written for other artists, ''All This Useless Beauty''. This was the final album of original material that he would create under his Warner Bros. contract.
During the Spring of [[1996]], Costello played a series of intimate club dates, backed only by Nieve on the piano, in support of "All This Useless Beauty". An ensuing summer and fall tour with the Attractions would prove to be the final death knell for the band. With relations between Elvis and bassist Bruce Thomas at a breaking point, Costello announced that the current tour would be the Attractions' last. The quartet performed their final U.S. show in [[Seattle, WA]] on [[September 1, 1996]] before wrapping up their tour in Japan.
To fulfill his contractual obligations to Warner Bros., Costello released a greatest hits album titled "Extreme Honey" in [[1997]]. It would yield one orginal track titled "The Bridge I Burned", featuring Elvis's son Matt on bass.
In the intervening period, Costello also served as artistic chair for the 1995 [[Meltdown Festival]], which gave him the opportunity to leverage his increasingly eclectic musical interests. His involvement in the festival yielded a one-off live EP with jazz guitarist [[Bill Frisell]], which featured both cover material and a few of his own songs.
He collaborated with [[Burt Bacharach]] in 1996 on a song called "God Give Me Strength" for the movie ''Grace of My Heart''. That collaboration led the pair to write and record an album together, ''Painted From Memory'', released in 1998 under his new contract with [[Mercury Records]].
In 1999, Costello contributed a cover version of the [[1974 in music|1974]] song "[[She (Charles Aznavour)|She]]", originally by [[Charles Aznavour]] and [[Herbert Kretzmer]], for the soundtrack of the film [[Notting Hill (film)|Notting Hill]], with [[Trevor Jones (composer)|Trevor Jones]] producing. Costel |
aughter,
and like a sheep that before its shearers is silent,
so he did not open his mouth.
::''Acts 8:32 Now the passage of the scripture that he was reading was this: “Like a sheep he was led to the slaughter, and like a lamb silent before its shearer, so he does not open his mouth.''
'''Is. 53:9''' They made his grave with the wicked
and his tomb with the rich,
although he had done no violence,
and there was no deceit in his mouth.
::''1 Pet. 2:22 “He committed no sin, and no deceit was found in his mouth.”''
'''Is. 53:12''' Therefore I will allot him a portion with the great,
and he shall divide the spoil with the strong;
because he poured out himself to death,
and was numbered with the transgressors;
yet he bore the sin of many,
and made intercession for the transgressors.
::''Luke 22:37 For I tell you, this scripture must be fulfilled in me, ‘And he was counted among the lawless’; and indeed what is written about me is being fulfilled.”''
'''Is. 54:1''' Sing, O barren one who did not bear;
burst into song and shout,
you who have not been in labor!
For the children of the desolate woman will be more
than the children of her that is married, says the LORD.
::''Gal. 4:27 For it is written, “Rejoice, you childless one, you who bear no children, burst into song and shout, you who endure no birthpangs; for the children of the desolate woman are more numerous than the children of the one who is married.”''
'''Is. 54:13''' All your children shall be taught by the LORD,
and great shall be the prosperity of your children.
::''John 6:45 It is written in the prophets, ‘And they shall all be taught by God.’ Everyone who has heard and learned from the Father comes to me.''
'''Is. 55:3''' Incline your ear, and come to me;
listen, so that you may live.
I will make with you an everlasting covenant,
my steadfast, sure love for David.
::''Acts 13:34 As to his raising him from the dead, no more to return to corruption, he has spoken in this way, ‘I will give you the holy promises made to David.’''
'''Is. 55:10''' For as the rain and the snow come down from heaven,
and do not return there until they have watered the earth,
making it bring forth and sprout,
giving seed to the sower and bread to the eater,
::''2 Cor. 9:10 He who supplies seed to the sower and bread for food will supply and multiply your seed for sowing and increase the harvest of your righteousness.''
==Online translations and commentaries on the Book of Isaiah==
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt1001.htm Isaiah] ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]) side-by-side with [[English language|English]]
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15756] Yirmiyahu - Isaiah - Yeshayahu [Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org
**[http://www.breslov.com/bible/Isaiah.htm Breslov Yisheyah] Audio and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]
*[[Christian]] translations:
**[http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/23_isaiah.htm at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
**{{biblegateway||Isaiah}}
**[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Isaiah Isaiah at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)
*[[Arabic language|Arabic]] translations:
** [http://st-takla.org/pub_oldtest/23_jesa.html Arabic translation of the Book of Isaiah at St-Takla.org]
== Bibliography ==
*[http://jeru.huji.ac.il/eb33s.htm The Prophet Isaiah and Jerusalem]
Allis, Oswald. "The Unity of Isaiah." The Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Co., Philadelphia, 1950.
[[Brueggemann, Walter]]. "Isaiah 1-39." Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998.
[[Brueggemann, Walter]]. "Isaiah 40-66." Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998.
Grogan, G. W. "Isaiah." Published in "The Expositor's Bible Commentary, Vol. 6," Frank E. Gaebelein, ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1986.
[[Abraham Joshua Heschel|Heschel, Abraham]]. "The Prophets, Vol. 1." Toronto: Harper Torchbooks, 1975.
Koole, Jan. "Isaiah III." Belgium: Leuven, 2001.
McDonald, Lee, & Sanders, James (Eds). "The Canon Debate." Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers, 2002.
Thomas, Derek. "God delivers - Isaiah simply explained." Darlington: Evangelical Press, 1991.
Whybray, R. "The Second Isaiah." Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1983.
Widyapranawa, S. H. "Isaiah 1-29: The Lord is Savior - Faith in National Crisis." Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1990.
Williamson, H.G.M., ''The Book Called Isaiah'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.
Young, Edward J. "The Book of Isaiah - Chapters 1 to 18." Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1965.
Young, Edward J. "The Book of Isaiah - Chapters 19 to 39." Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1969.
Young, Edward J. "The Book of Isaiah - Chapters 40 to 66." Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1972.
Bibliography based on one prepared in 2005 for the course BIBL5023 at [[Acadia Divinity College]].
{{Eastons}}
{{JewishEncyclopedia}}
== Popular culture references ==
* [[All Along the Watchtower]], a [[1967]] song composed by [[Bob Dylan]] with lyrics generally regarded as partly inspired by Isaiah 21:8-9.
[[Category:Nevi'im|Isaiah, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Isaiah]]
[[Category:Tanakh prophets|Isaiah]]
[[cs:Kniha Izajáš]]
[[de:Buch Jesaja]]
[[fi:Jesajan kirja]]
[[fr:Livre d'Ésaïe]]
[[he:ספר ישעיהו]]
[[id:Yesaya]]
[[ja:イザヤ書]]
[[jv:Yesaya]]
[[ko:이사야 (구약성서)]]
[[nl:Jesaja]]
[[pl:Księga Izajasza]]
[[pt:Livro de Isaías]]
[[sv:Jesaja]]
[[zh:以賽亞書]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bilinear operator</title>
<id>4365</id>
<revision>
<id>41630591</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T17:26:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MFH</username>
<id>177840</id>
</contributor>
<comment>reverted last change: writing the vector not like the scalar makes the explanation understandable; notation is also used below on the page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a '''bilinear operator''' is a generalized "multiplication" which satisfies the [[distributive law]].
==Definition==
For a formal definition, given three [[vector space]]s ''V'', ''W'' and ''X'' over the same base [[field (mathematics)|field]] ''F'', a bilinear operator is a [[function (mathematics)|function]]
:''B'' : ''V'' &times; ''W'' &rarr; ''X''
such that for any ''w'' in ''W'' the map
:<math>v \mapsto B(v, w)</math>
is a [[linear operator]] from ''V'' to ''X'', and for any ''v'' in ''V'' the map
:<math>w \mapsto B(v, w)</math>
is a linear operator from ''W'' to ''X''. In other words, if we hold the first entry of the bilinear operator fixed, while letting the second entry vary, the result is a linear operator, and similarly if we hold the second entry fixed.
If ''V'' = ''W'' and we have ''B''(''v'',''w'')=''B''(''w'',''v'') for all ''v'',''w'' in ''V'', then we say that ''B'' is ''[[symmetric function|symmetric]]''.
The case where ''X'' is ''F'', and we have a '''[[bilinear form]]''', is particularly useful (see for example [[scalar product]], [[inner product]] and [[quadratic form]]).
The definition works without any changes if instead of vector spaces we use [[module (mathematics)|modules]] over a [[commutative ring]] ''R''. It also can be easily generalized to ''n''-ary functions, where the proper term is ''multilinear''.
For the case of a non-commutative base ring ''R'' and a right module ''M<sub>R</sub>'' and a left module ''<sub>R</sub>N'', we can define a bilinear operator ''B'' : ''M'' &times; ''N'' &rarr; ''T'', where ''T'' is a commutative [[group (mathematics)|group]], such that for any ''n'' in ''N'', ''m'' <tt>|-></tt> ''B''(''m'', ''n'') is a group homomorphism, and for any ''m'' in ''M'', ''n'' <tt>|-></tt> ''B''(''m'', ''n'') is a group homomorphism, and which also satisfies
:''B''(''mr'', ''n'') = ''B''(''m'', ''rn'')
for all ''m'' in ''M'', ''n'' in ''N'' and ''r'' in ''R''.
==Properties==
A first immediate consequence of the definition is that <math>B(x,y)=o</math>
whenever ''x''=o or ''y''=o. (This is seen by writing the [[null vector]] ''o'' as 0·''o'' and moving the scalar 0 "outside", in front of ''B'', by linearity.)
The set ''L(V,W;X)''of all bilinear maps is a [[linear subspace]] of the space ([[viz]] [[vector space]], [[module (mathematics)|module]]) of all maps from ''V''×''W'' into ''X''.
If ''V'',''W'',''X'' are [[finite-dimensional]], then so is ''L(V,W;X)''. For ''X=F'', i.e. bilinear forms, the dimension of this space is dim''V''×dim''W'' (while the space ''L(V×W;K)'' of ''linear'' forms is of dimension dim''V''+dim''W''). To see this, choose a [[Basis (linear algebra)|basis]] for ''V'' and ''W''; then each bilinear map can be uniquely represented by the matrix <math>B(e_i,f_j)</math>, and vice versa.
Now, if ''X'' is a space of higher dimension, we obviously have dim''L(V,W;X)''=dim''V''×dim''W''×dim''X''.
== Examples ==
* [[matrix_(mathematics)|Matrix multiplication]] is a bilinear map M(''m'',''n'') &times; M(''n'',''p'') &rarr; M(''m'',''p'').
* If a [[vector space]] ''V'' over the [[real number]]s '''R''' carries an [[inner product space|inner product]], then the inner product is a bilinear operator ''V'' &times; ''V'' &rarr; '''R'''.
* In general, for a vector space ''V'' over a field ''F'', a [[bilinear form]] on ''V'' is the same as a bilinear operator ''V'' &times; ''V'' &rarr; ''F''.
* If ''V'' is a vector space with [[dual space]] ''V*'', then the application operator, ''b''(''f'', ''v'') = ''f''(''v'') is a bilinear operator from ''V''* &times; ''V'' to the base field.
* Let ''V |
ies, for the best kids" are "the best studies" for all kids. While humanism as an educational current was largely discredited by the innovations of the early 20th century, it still holds out, in some elite preparatory schools and some high school disciplines (especially, in [[literature]]).
== See also ==
* [[List of humanists]]
===Manifestos and statements setting out humanist viewpoints ===
* [[Humanist Manifesto]]
* [[Amsterdam Declaration 2002]]
* [[A Secular Humanist Declaration]]
=== Forms of humanism ===
* [[Marxist humanism]]
* [[New Humanism]]
* [[Posthumanism]]
* [[Religious Humanism|Religious humanism]]
** [[Christian existential humanism]]
** [[Humanistic Judaism]]
* [[Renaissance humanism]]
* [[Secular humanism]]
* [[Transhumanism]]
=== Related philosophies ===
* [[Extropianism]]
* [[Pragmatism]]
* [[Rationalism]]
=== Organizations ===
* [[American Humanist Association]]
* [[British Humanist Association]]
* [[Humanist International]]
* [[Humanist Movement]]
* [[Humanist Party]]
* [[Institute for Humanist Studies]]
* [[International Humanist and Ethical Union]] (IHEU)
* [[Rationalist International]]
* [[Speciesism]]
=== Other ===
* [[Antihumanism]]
* [[Humanistic psychology]]
* [[Social psychology]]
* [[Religious freedom]] — freedom of religion ''and'' belief
== References ==
*{{fnb|1}}[[Nicolas Walter|Walter, Nicolas]], 1997 ''Humanism — What's in the Word'' [[Rationalist Press Association]], London, ISBN 0-301-97001-7.
*Petrosyan, M. 1972 ''Humanism: Its Philosophical, Ethical, and Sociological Aspects''. Moscow: Progress Publishers.
== Web resources ==
=== Manifestos and statements setting out humanist viewpoints===
* [http://www.americanhumanist.org/3/HumandItsAspirations.php Humanist Manifesto]
* [http://www.iheu.org/amsterdamdeclaration Amsterdam Declaration 2002]
* [http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=main&page=declaration A Secular Humanist Declaration].
=== Introductions to humanism ===
* www.sterlingharwood.com and Sterling Harwood, "Why Be Moral: A Definition and Defense of Humanism," in Sterling Harwood, ed., Business as Ethical and Business as Usual (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 2000), pp. 84-85.
* [http://www.jcn.com/humanism.html ''What Is Humanism?''] from the [[American Humanist Association]]
* [http://MHEC.humanists.net/HUMNISM.HTM Humanism: Why, What, and What For, In 882 Words]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/humanism-civic/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Civic Humanism]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07538b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article on Renaissance Humanism]
=== Organizations ===
* [http://www.americanhumanist.org/ American Humanist Association]
* [http://www.humanism.org.uk British Humanist Association]
* [http://www.centerforinquiry.net Center for Inquiry International]
* [http://www.humanistcenterofcultures.org/wiki/wiki.cgi Chicago humanist wiki pages]
* [http://www.secularhumanism.org Council for Secular Humanism]
* [http://www.spiritualhumanism.org/ The Church of Spiritual Humanism]
* [http://www.humaniststudies.org/ Institute for Humanist Studies]
* [http://mb.humanists.ca Humanist Association of Manitoba]
* [http://canada.humanists.net Humanist Association of Canada]
* [http://www.neuer-humanismus.de/ Humanist Movement — German]
* [http://www.humanist-net.org Humanist n.e.t. — German/ English]
* [http://nireland.humanists.net/ Humanist Association of N. Ireland]
* [http://www.irish-humanists.org/ Humanist Association of Ireland]
* [http://www.americanhumanist.org/hsfamily/huumanist.html HUUmanists, Unitarian Universalist publishers of the journal ''Religious Humanism'']
* [http://www.iheu.org International Humanist and Ethical Union]
* [http://www.iheyo.org/ International Humanist and Ethical Youth Organisation]
* [http://www.human.no/ Norwegian Humanist Association]
* [http://www.rationalistinternational.net Rationalist International]
* [http://www.humanism.ro Romanian association Solidarity for Freedom of Conscience — Romanian/ English]
=== Web articles ===
* [http://www.sterlingharwood.com Sterling Harwood, "Why Be Moral? A Definition and Defense of Humanism."]
* [http://www.newhumanist.org.uk/ ''New Humanist''] British magazine from the Rationalist Press Association (RPA)
* [http://www.TheSystemHasYou.com/ Nanovirus — A humanist perspective on politics, technology and culture]
=== Web books ===
* [http://www.humanisteurope.org/ European Region of the Humanist International]
and [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Thinking_And_Moral_Problems Thinking And Moral Problems], [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Religions_And_Their_Source Religions And Their Source], [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Purpose Purpose], and [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Developing_A_Universal_Religion Developing A Universal Religion], four Parts of a Wikibook.
=== Web directories ===
* [http://dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Humanism/ Open Directory Project — Humanism] directory category
* [http://dir.yahoo.com/Arts/Humanities/Philosophy/Humanism/ Yahoo — Humanism] directory category
{{Philosophy navigation}}
[[Category:Art movements]]
[[Category:Epistemology]]
[[Category:Renaissance]]
[[Category:Humanism|*]]
[[ar:إنسانية]]
[[bg:Хуманизъм]]
[[da:Humanisme]]
[[de:Humanismus]]
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[[nl:Humanisme]]
[[ja:ヒューマニズム]]
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[[zh:人文主义]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hydrogen atom</title>
<id>14225</id>
<revision>
<id>39232429</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T18:51:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.186.18.94</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Mathematical summary of eigenstates of hydrogen atom */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Here is the template for this nuclide; skip past it to edit the text. -->{{Stable_Isotope|
isotope_name = Hydrogen-1|
isotope_filename = hydrogen-1.png|
alternate_names = protium|
mass_number = 1|
symbol = H|
num_neutrons = 0|
num_protons = 1|
abundance = 99.985%|
mass = 1.00794|
spin = &#xBD;+|
excess_energy = 7288.969|
error1 = 0.001|
binding_energy = 0.000|
error2 = 0.000|
}}A '''[[hydrogen atom]]''' is an [[atom]] of the element [[hydrogen]]. It is composed of a single negatively-charged [[electron]], attending a positively-charged [[proton]] which is the [[Atomic nucleus|nucleus]] of the hydrogen atom. The electron is bound to the proton by the [[Coulomb force]].
The hydrogen atom has special significance in [[quantum mechanics]] as a simple physical system for which an exact solution to the [[Schrödinger equation]] exists, from which the experimentally observed frequencies and intensities of the hydrogen [[spectral line]]s can be calculated.
In 1913, [[Niels Bohr]] had deduced the spectral frequencies of the hydrogen atom making several assumptions (see [[The Bohr Model]]). The results of Bohr for the frequencies and underlying energy values are confirmed by the full quantum-mechanical analysis which uses the Schrödinger equation, as was shown in 1925/26. The full analysis goes further, because it also yields the shape of the electron's wave function ("orbital") for the different possible quantum-mechanical states. This allows determination of the intensity of spectral lines (which correspond to transitions between these states), among other things. In addition, the full analysis is applicable also to more complicated atoms with more than one electron, as well as [[molecule]]s etc. However, in all of these cases approximations have to be made and computer calculations are usually necessary.
== Solution of Schrödinger equation: Overview of results ==
The solution of the Schrödinger equation for the hydrogen atom uses the fact that the [[Coulomb potential]] produced by the nucleus is [[isotropic]] (it only depends on the distance to the nucleus). Although the resulting [[energy eigenfunctions]] (the "orbitals") are not necessarily isotropic themselves, their dependence on the [[angular coordinates]] follows completely generally from this isotropy of the underlying potential: The states are not only [[eigenstates]] of the [[Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)|Hamiltonian]], but also eigenstates of the [[angular momentum operator]]. This corresponds to the fact that angular momentum is conserved in the [[orbital motion (quantum)|orbital motion]] of the electron around the nucleus. Therefore, the energy eigenstates may be classified by two angular momentum [[quantum number]]s, ''l'' and ''m'' (integer numbers). The "angular momentum" quantum number ''l'' = 0, 1, 2, ... determines the magnitude of the angular momentum. The "magnetic" quantum number ''m'' = &minus;''l'', .., +''l''
determines the projection of the angular momentum on the (arbitrarily chosen) ''z''-axis.
In addition, the radial dependence of the wave functions has to be found. It is only here that the details of the 1/''r'' Coulomb potential enter (leading to [[Laguerre polynomials]] in ''r''). This leads to a third quantum number, the principal quantum number ''n'' = 1, 2, 3, ...
Note that the angular momentum quantum number can run only up to ''n'' &minus; 1, i.e. ''l'' = 0, 1, ..., ''n'' &minus; 1.
Due to angular momentum conservation, states of the same l but different m have the same energy (this holds for all problems with [[rotational symmetry]]). In addition, for the hydrogen atom, the states of the same n are also [[degenerate]] (i.e. they have the same energy); but this is a specialty and it is no longer true for more complicated atoms which have an (eff |
he proportions of [[gin]] and [[tonic water]] vary. The typical recipe is for equal amounts (a 1:1 ratio), however it is often made far weaker as a casual drink; typically 1 part gin to 3 parts tonic.
This cocktail was introduced by the [[British Empire|British]] in [[India]]. Tonic water contains [[quinine]], which was used to prevent [[malaria]]. Because the tonic water consumed to prevent malaria in the [[19th century]] was extremely bitter, gin was added to make it more palatable. Although there is less medical use today for the consumption of tonic water, the gin and tonic remains a popular drink. Note that tonic water available today contains less quinine and is consequently less bitter (and usually sweetened). Because of this connection to warmer [[climate]]s and its refreshing nature, this cocktail is more popular during the warmer months.
The gin and tonic has gained a central place in cultural and literary life, appearing as a bit part in numerous novels. One such example is in the ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy|Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' series, where it is stated that each race in the galaxy has developed a drink that is pronounced the same, but spelled differently (such as ''jynantonnyx''). The reason for this is one of the great mysteries of the universe (granted, the versions from two different planets taste nothing like each other at all). It was also the preferred drink of Mrs. Slocombe (played by [[Mollie Sugden]]) of [[Are You Being Served?]] as she couldn't bear neat gin.
==See also==
* [[List of cocktails]]
==External links==
* [http://www.libraryinstruction.com/alcohol.html Ohio University's use of gin and tonic as a teaching aid]
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[[ko:진토닉]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gimlet</title>
<id>13045</id>
<revision>
<id>29952697</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-02T21:51:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.197.176.251</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:gimlet - tool.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A gimlet]]
:''for the cocktail made with gin, see [[Gimlet (cocktail)]].''
A '''gimlet''' is a [[hand tool]] for [[drilling]] small holes, mainly in wood. It was defined in Gwilt's ''Architecture'' (1859) as "a piece of steel of a semi-cylindrical form, hollow on one side, having a cross handle at one end and a worm or screw at the other".
The term is also used figuratively to describe something as sharp or piercing, and also to describe the twisting, boring motion of using a gimlet. The term ''gimlet-eyed'' can mean sharp-eyed or squint-eyed.
[[Category:Woodworking hand tools]]
[[ja:&#12462;&#12512;&#12524;&#12483;&#12488;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geometric mean</title>
<id>13046</id>
<revision>
<id>38462420</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T14:07:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.195.186.104</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Relationship with arithmetic mean of logarithms */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''geometric mean''' of a [[set]] of [[positive data]] is defined as the [[Radical (mathematics)|nth root]] of the [[product (mathematics)|product]] of all the members of the set, where n is the number of members.
==Calculation==
In a formula: the geometric mean of
''a<sub>1</sub>'', ''a<sub>2</sub>'', ..., ''a<sub>n</sub>'' is <math>(a_1 \cdot a_2 \dotsb a_n)^{1/n}</math>, which is <math>\sqrt[n]{a_1 \cdot a_2 \dotsb a_n}</math>.
The geometric mean of a data set [[inequality of arithmetic and geometric means|is always smaller than or equal to]] the set's [[arithmetic mean]] (the two means are equal if and only if all members of the data set are equal). This allows the definition of the [[arithmetic-geometric mean]], a mixture of the two which always lies in between.
The geometric mean is also the ''arithmetic-harmonic mean'' in the sense that if two [[sequence|sequences]] (''a''<sub>''n''</sub>) and (''h''<sub>''n''</sub>) are defined:
:<math>a_{n+1} = \frac{a_n + h_n}{2}, \quad a_1=\frac{x + y}{2}</math>
and
:<math>h_{n+1} = \frac{2}{\frac{1}{a_n} + \frac{1}{h_n}}, \quad h_1=\frac{2}{\frac{1}{x} + \frac{1}{y}}</math>
then ''a''<sub>''n''</sub> and ''h''<sub>''n''</sub> will converge to the geometric mean of ''x'' and ''y''.
==Relationship with arithmetic mean of logarithms==
The [[product]] form of the geometric mean computation is expressed as:
:<math>\left(\prod_{i=1}^nx_i\right)^{1/n}</math>
By using [[logarithmic identities]] to transform the formula, we can express the multiplications as a sum and the power as a multiplication.
:<math>\exp\left[\frac1n\sum_{i=1}^n\ln x_i\right]</math>.
This is simply computing the [[arithmetic mean]] of the logarithm transformed values of <math>x_i</math> (i.e. the arithmetic mean on the log scale) and then using the exponentiation to return the computation to the original scale. I.e., it is the [[generalised f-mean]] with f(x) = ln x.
Therefore the geometric mean is related to the [[log-normal distribution]].
The log-normal distribution is a distribution which is normal for the logarithm
transformed values. We see that the
geometric mean is the exponentiated value of the mean of the log transformed
values, e.g. e<sup>mean(ln(X))</sup>.
==When to use the Geometric Mean==
The geometric mean is useful to determine "average factors". For example, if a stock rose 10% in the first year, 20% in the second year and fell 15% in the third year, then we compute the geometric mean of the factors 1.10, 1.20 and 0.85 as (1.10 &times; 1.20 &times; 0.85)<sup>1/3</sup> = 1.0391... and we conclude that the stock rose 3.91 percent per year, on average.
'''Put another way...'''
The arithmetic mean is relevant any time several quantities add together to produce a total. The arithmetic mean answers the question, "if all the quantities had the same value, what would that value have to be in order to achieve the same total?"
In the same way, the geometric mean is relevant any time several quantities multiply together to produce a product. The geometric mean answers the question, "if all the quantities had the same value, what would that value have to be in order to achieve the same product?"
For example, suppose you have an investment which earns 10% the first year, 50% the second year, and 30% the third year. What is its average rate of return? It is not the arithmetic mean, because what these numbers mean is that on the first year your investment was multiplied (not added to) by 1.10, on the second year it was multiplied by 1.50, and the third year it was multiplied by 1.30. The relevant quantity is the geometric mean of these three numbers. [http://www.math.toronto.edu/mathnet/questionCorner/geomean.html Source].
== See also ==
* [[Arithmetic mean]]
* [[Arithmetic-geometric mean]]
* [[Average]]
* [[Generalized mean]]
* [[Geometric standard deviation]]
* [[Harmonic mean]]
* [[Hyperbolic coordinates]]
* [[Inequality of arithmetic and geometric means]]
* [[Log-normal distribution]]
* [[Muirhead's inequality]]
* [[Product (mathematics) | Product]]
* [[Weighted geometric mean]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-geommean.htm Calculation of the geometric mean of two numbers in comparison to the arithmetic solution]
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Generalization/means.shtml Arithmetic and geometric means] at [[cut-the-knot]]
* [http://www.math.toronto.edu/mathnet/questionCorner/geomean.html When to use the geometric mean]
* [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GeometricMean.html Geometric Mean on MathWorld]
[[Category:Means]]
[[cs:Geometrický průměr]]
[[de:Mittelwert#Geometrisches Mittel]]
[[es:Media geométrica]]
[[fr:Moyenne géométrique]]
[[hr:Geometrijska sredina]]
[[lt:Geometrinis vidurkis]]
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[[pt:Média geométrica]]
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[[su:Geometric mean]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Good Friday Agreement</title>
<id>13047</id>
<revision>
<id>15910689</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Belfast Agreement]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gent</title>
<id>13048</id>
<revision>
<id>27801423</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-09T07:59:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Edcolins</username>
<id>51336</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>lk, reworded</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gent''' is
* a [[morpheme]], see [[contingent]], [[agent]],
* short for [[gentleman]]
* [[Dutch language|Dutch]] spelling for the [[Belgium|Belgian]] city of [[Ghent]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>George Eliot</title>
<id>13049</id>
<revision>
<id>40138461</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T12:09:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eskimbot</username>
<id>477460</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: fr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:George Eliot 3.jpg|thumb|George Eliot]]
'''Mary Ann Evans''', better known by the [[pen name]] '''George Eliot''' ([[22 November]] [[1819]] - [[22 December]] [[1880]]), was an [[England|English]] [[novelist]]. She was one of the leading writers of the [[Victorian era]], whose novels |
y published ever since. The paper is currently owned and operated by Rupert Murdoch's News Limited.
Television broadcasts in the city were restricted to two channels until 1986 - [[TVT-6]] and the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]]. In 1986, multicultural broadcaster [[Special Broadcasting Service|SBS]] began transmission to the city.
In 1994 market aggregation allowed [[Launceston, Tasmania|Launceston]] based station [[TNT-9]] (now [[Southern Cross Tasmania]]) to broadcast to Hobart as well. TVT-6 (since known as [[TasTV]], now [[WIN Television]]) took on a [[Nine Network]] affiliation, with Southern Cross carrying both [[Seven Network|Seven]] and [[Network Ten|Ten]] programming.
All stations commenced digital broadcasting during 2003, and in December 2003, a fifth station, [[Tasmanian Digital Television]] (TDT) began broadcasting. TDT is a joint venture between Southern Cross and WIN. In March 2005 [[ABC2]] the second ABC channel came on-line as well.
Commercial radio stations licensed to cover the Hobart market include [[HO FM]], [[Sea FM]] (formerly [[Triple T]]) and [[Magic 107]]. Local community radio stations include [[Christianity|christian]] radio station [[Ultra106five]],national award winning youth station [[Edge Radio]] and radio station [[92FM]] (which targets the wider community with specialist programs) which also transmits it's signal through a translator on 96.1FM in the northern suburbs of Hobart. There is also one shortwave broadcaster based in the area, [[Hobart Radio International]]. The [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]] has all five of its radio networks broadcasting to Hobart, via [[936 ABC]], [[Radio National]], [[Triple J]], [[Newsradio]] and [[ABC Classic FM]].
==Sport==
Due to Tasmania's heavily distributed population, most Hobart sporting teams in national competitions are statewide teams. These include the [[Tasmanian Tigers]] [[cricket]] team, which plays home games at [[Bellerive Oval]] on the eastern shore. Despite [[Australian rules football]]'s huge popularity in the state, Tasmania does not have a team in the [[Australian Football League]]. They do have a team (the [[Tasmanian Devils Football Club|Tasmanian Devils]]) in the [[Victorian Football League|VFL]] (Victorian league), and a team in the national league is a popular topic among supporters as well as the state government (one of the potential sponsors of such a team). Some AFL teams play scheduled games at [[Aurora Stadium]] (at [[York Park]] in [[Launceston, Tasmania|Launceston]]).
Unfortunately Tasmania's small population and low sponsorship potential results in the state not being represented in national [[basketball]], [[soccer]] and [[netball]] leagues.
==Colleges and universities==
Hobart is home to the main campus of the [[University of Tasmania]], situated in [[Sandy Bay, Tasmania|Sandy Bay]]. On site accommodation colleges include [[Christ College]], [[Jane Franklin Hall]] and [[St John Fisher College]]. Other campuses are in Lauceston and Burnie.
Senior secondary colleges in the Hobart area include [[Hobart College]], at the top of [[Mt Nelson, Tasmania|Mt Nelson]] just south of the city; inner-city [[Elizabeth College]]; [[The Friends' School, Hobart|The Friends' School]] in New Town; [[St Mary's College, Hobart|St Mary's College]] and [[Guilford Young College]] in [[North Hobart, Tasmania|North Hobart]]; [[The Hutchins School]] in [[Sandy Bay, Tasmania|Sandy Bay]]; [[Rosny College]] at Rosny on the eastern shore; and [[Claremont College]] at Claremont in the northern suburbs. Some of these colleges also function as community colleges, open to students outside the formal secondary school system. Many of these colleges are not exclusively colleges as they also provide primary and high school education.
''See [[Education in Tasmania]]''
==Transportation==
Hobart's urban passenger tram services closed in the early 1960s and rail in 1980. A [[Trolleybus]] network consisting of six routes operated until 1968. Most public transport within the city is via an extensive network of public and private bus services. The main arterial routes within the urban area are the [[Brooker Highway]] to Glenorchy and the northern suburbs, the [[Tasman Bridge]] and [[Bowen Bridge]] across the river to Rosny and the Eastern Shore, and the Southern Outlet Road south to Kingston and the Channel.
Leaving the city, motorists can travel the [[Lyell Highway]] to the [[West Coast, Tasmania|west coast]]; [[Midlands Highway]] to [[Launceston, Tasmania|Launceston]] and the north; [[Tasman Highway]] to the east coast, or the [[Huon Highway]] to the far south.
Hobart is serviced by [[Hobart International Airport]], and the smaller [[Cambridge Aerodrome]] (which mainly serves small charter airlines offering local tourist flights).
==Other==
*[[Mary, Crown Princess of Denmark|Crown Princess Mary of Denmark]] was born and raised in Taroona, a southern suburb of Hobart.
*[[Errol Flynn]] was born in Hobart on [[20 June]] [[1909]].
==External links==
*[http://www.hobartcity.com.au Hobart City Council]
* Satellite image from [http://maps.google.com/maps?q=canberra&ll=-42.835696,147.317047&spn=0.049270,0.098173&t=k&hl=en Google Maps]
* Street map from [http://www.whereis.com/whereis/mapping/renderMapAddress.do?name=&streetNumber=&street=City%20Center&streetType=&suburb=Hobart&state=Tasmania&latitude=-42.881&longitude=147.3265&navId=$01006046X0OL9$&brandId=1&advertiserId=&requiredZoomLevel=3 Whereis.com]
{{AustralianCapitalCities}}
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<!--interwiki-->
[[Category:Australian capital cities]]
[[Category:Coastal cities in Australia]]
[[Category:Hobart|*]]
[[Category:Port cities]]
[[bg:Хобърт]]
[[da:Hobart]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Hesiod</title>
<id>13700</id>
<revision>
<id>41169136</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T14:20:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Charles Matthews</username>
<id>12978</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">''This article discusses the ancient Greek poet Hesiod. For the computer application, see [[Hesiod (name service)]].''
----
'''Hesiod''' (''Hesiodos'', {{polytonic|Ἡσίοδος}}), the early [[Greek language|Greek]] [[poet]] and [[rhapsode]], presumably lived around [[700 BC]]. Historians have debated the priority of Hesiod or of [[Homer]], and some authors have even brought them together in an imagined poetic contest. Modern scholars disagree as to which was earlier; their lives very likely overlapped.
Hesiod serves as a major source for knowledge of [[Greek mythology]], [[farming]] techniques, archaic Greek [[astronomy]] and ancient [[time | time]]-keeping.
[[John Addington Symonds|J. A. Symonds]] writes that "Hesiod is also the immediate parent of gnomic verse, and the ancestor of those deep thinkers who speculated in the Attic Age upon the mysteries of human life".{{rf|1|Symonds1}}
Some scholars doubt whether Hesiod alone conceived and wrote ''Works and Days''. J. A. Symonds writes that "the first ten verses of the Works and Days are spurious - borrowed probably from some Orphic hymn to Zeus and recognised as not the work of Hesiod by critics as ancient as [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]]".{{rf|2|Symonds2}}
As with Homer, legendary traditions have accumulated around Hesiod. Unlike the case of Homer, however, some biographical details have survived: a few details of Hesiod's life come from three references in ''Works and Days''; some further inferences derive from his ''Theogony''. Hesiod lived in [[Boeotia]]. His father came from Kyme in [[Aeolis]], which lay between [[Ionia]] and the [[Troad]] in Northwestern [[Anatolia]], but crossed the sea to settle at Boeotian Ascra, "a cursed place, cruel in winter, hard in summer, never pleasant" (''Works'', 640). Hesiod's patrimony there, a small piece of ground at the foot of Mount [[Helicon]], occasioned a pair of [[lawsuits]] with his brother Perses, who won both under the same judges (some scholars have seen Perses as a literary creation, a foil for the moralizing that Hesiod directed to him in ''Works and Days'').
The [[Muses]] traditionally lived on Helicon, and they gave Hesiod the gift of poetic inspiration one day while he tended sheep (compare the legend of [[Cædmon]]). In another biographical detail, Hesiod mentions a poetry contest at [[Chalcis]] in [[Euboea]] where the sons of one Amiphidamas awarded him a tripod (ll.654-662). [[Plutarch]] first cited this passage as an interpolation into Hesiod's original work, based on his identification of Amiphidamas with the hero of the [[Lelantine War]] between [[Chalcis]] and [[Eretria]], which occurred around 705 BC. Plutarch assumed this date much too late for a contemparary of Homer, but most Homeric scholars would now accept it. The account of this contest inspired the later tale of a competition between Hesiod and Homer.
Two different -- yet early -- traditions record the site of Hesiod's grave. One, as early as [[Thucydides]], reported in Plutarch, the [[Suda]] and [[John Tzetzes]], states that the [[Delphi|Delphic oracle]] warned Hesiod that he would die in Nemea, and so he fled to [[Locris]], where he was killed at the local temple to Nemean Zeus, and buried there. This tradition follows a familiar [[Irony|ironic]] convention: the oracle that predicts accurately after all.
The other tradition, first mentioned in an [[epigram]] of [[Chersios of Orchomenus]] written in the [[7th century BC]] (within a century or so of Hesiod's death) claims that Hesiod lies buried at [[Orchomenus (town)|Orchomenus]], a town in Boeotia. According to [[Aristotle]]'s ''Constitution of O |
(d. [[1994]])
*1918 - [[B.K.S. Iyengar]], Indian yoga advocate
*[[1919]] - [[Shirley Jackson]], American writer (d. [[1965]])
*[[1920]] - [[Clark Terry]], American trumpeter
*[[1922]] - [[Nikolay Basov]], Soviet-born Russian physicist and [[Noble Prize]] laureate (d. [[2001]])
*[[1923]] - [[Gerard Reve]], Dutch writer
*[[1924]] - [[Raj Kapoor]], Indian actor (d. [[1988]])
*[[1932]] - [[Charlie Rich]], American musician (d. [[1995]])
*[[1935]] - [[Lee Remick]], American actress (d. [[1991]])
*[[1938]] - [[Leonardo Boff]], Brazilian theologian
*[[1946]] - [[Jane Birkin]], British-born actress
*1946 - [[Patty Duke]], American actress
*1946 - [[Michael Ovitz]], American film producer
*1946 - [[Stan Smith]], American tennis player
*[[1947]] - [[Christopher Parkening]], American guitarist
*[[1949]] - [[Bill Buckner]], American baseball player
*1949 - [[Cliff Williams]], British-born bassist ([[AC/DC]])
*1949 - [[Dee Wallace-Stone]], American actress
*[[1951]] - [[Jan Timman]], Dutch chess grandmaster
*[[1953]] - [[René Eespere]], Soviet-born Estonian composer
*[[1954]] - [[Alan Kulwicki]], American race car driver (d. [[1993]])
*1954 - [[James Horan (Actor)|James Horan]], American actor
*[[1956]] - [[Hanni Wenzel]], Liechtenstein skier
*[[1958]] - [[Mike Scott]], British singer and songwriter ([[The Waterboys]])
*1958 - [[Spider Stacy]] (Peter Richard Stacy), British-born [[tin whistle]] player, ([[The Pogues]])
*[[1962]] - [[Ginger Lynn]] (Ginger Lynn Allen), American adult film actress
*[[1963]] - [[Cynthia Gibb]], American actress
*[[1965]] - [[Craig Biggio]], American baseball player
*[[1966]] - [[Bill Ranford]], Canadian ice hockey player
*[[1967]] - [[Ewa Białołęcka]], Polish writer
*[[1969]] - [[Scott Hatteberg]], American baseball player
*[[1970]] - [[Anna Maria Jopek]], Polish singer
*[[1973]] - [[Tomasz Radzinski]], Polish-born [[Canada national football team|Canadian]] international footballer
*[[1974]] - [[Billy Koch]], American baseball player
*[[1977]] - [[KaDee Strickland]], American actress
*[[1979]] - [[Michael Owen]], [[England national football team|English]] international footballer
*1979 - [[Jean-Alain Boumsong]], French footballer
*[[1982]] - [[Anthony Way]], British singer and actor
*[[1984]] - [[Chris Brunt]], Northern Irish footballer
<!-- Do not add yourself or your friends to this list, only people with Wikipedia articles -->
==Deaths==
*[[1460]] - [[Guarino da Verona]], Italian humanist and translator (b. [[1370]])
*[[1510]] - [[Friedrich of Saxony (1473-1510)|Friedrich of Saxony]] (b. [[1473]])
*[[1542]] - King [[James V of Scotland]] (b. [[1512]])
*[[1591]] - [[Saint John of the Cross]], Spanish friar and poet (b. [[1542]])
*[[1624]] - [[Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham]], English statesman (b. [[1536]])
*[[1651]] - [[Pierre Dupuy]], French scholar (b. [[1582]])
*[[1713]] - [[Thomas Rymer]], English historian (b. [[1641]])
*[[1715]] - [[Thomas Tenison]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] (b. [[1636]])
*[[1735]] - [[Thomas Tanner (bishop)|Thomas Tanner]], English bishop and antiquarian (b. [[1674]])
*[[1741]] - [[Charles Rollin]], French historian (b. [[1661]])
*[[1788]] - [[Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach]], German composer (b. [[1714]])
*1788 - King [[Charles III of Spain]] (b. [[1716]])
*[[1799]] - [[George Washington]], first [[President of the United States]] (b. [[1732]])
*[[1861]] - [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]], consort of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] (b. [[1819]])
*[[1865]] - [[Johan Georg Forchhammer]], Danish geologist (b. [[1794]])
*[[1873]] - [[Louis Agassiz]], Swiss-born American zoologist and geologist (b. [[1807]])
*[[1947]] - [[Edward Higgins]], British Salvation Army General (b. [[1864]])
*[[1963]] - [[Dinah Washington]], American singer (b. [[1924]])
*[[1964]] - [[William Bendix]], American actor (b. [[1906]])
*[[1984]] - [[Vicente Aleixandre]], Spanish writer and [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1898]])
*[[1985]] - [[Roger Maris]], American baseball player (b. [[1934]])
*[[1989]] - [[Andrei D. Sakharov]], Russian physicist, activist and [[Nobel Peace Prize|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1921]])
*[[1990]] - [[Friedrich Dürrenmatt]], Swiss writer (b. [[1921]])
*[[1993]] - [[Myrna Loy]], American actress (b. [[1905]])
*[[1998]] - [[Norman Fell]], American actor (b. [[1924]])
*1998 - [[Annette Strauss]], philanthropist and Mayor of Dallas, Texas (b. [[1924]])
*1998 - [[Aloyisus Leon Higginbotham, Jr.]], civil rights activist and author (b. [[1928]])
*[[2003]] - [[Jeanne Crain]], American actress (b. [[1925]])
*2003 - [[Blas Ople]], foreign minister of the Philippines (b. [[1927]])
*[[2004]] - [[Rod Kanehl]], American baseball player (b. [[1934]])
*2004 - [[Fernando Poe, Jr.]], Filipino actor and presidential candidate (b. [[1939]])
*[[2005]] - Dr. Rodney William Whitaker, of [[pen name]] [[Trevanian]], American author (b. [[1931]])
==Holidays and observances==
* [[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - Memorial of Saint [[John of the Cross]]
* [[USA]] - admission of [[Alabama]] as 22nd state ([[1819]])
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/14 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.thehistorychannel.co.uk/site/this_day_in_history/this_day_December_14.php The History Channel: This day in History]
----
[[December 13]] - [[December 15]] - [[November 14]] - [[January 14]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:14 Desember]]
[[ar:14 ديسمبر]]
[[an:14 d'abiento]]
[[ast:14 d'avientu]]
[[bg:14 декември]]
[[be:14 сьнежня]]
[[bs:14. decembar]]
[[br:14 Kerzu]]
[[ca:14 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 14]]
[[cv:Раштав, 14]]
[[co:14 di decembre]]
[[cs:14. prosinec]]
[[cy:14 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:14. december]]
[[de:14. Dezember]]
[[et:14. detsember]]
[[el:14 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:14 de diciembre]]
[[eo:14-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 14]]
[[fo:14. desember]]
[[fr:14 décembre]]
[[fy:14 desimber]]
[[ga:14 Nollaig]]
[[gl:14 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 14일]]
[[hr:14. prosinca]]
[[io:14 di decembro]]
[[id:14 Desember]]
[[ia:14 de decembre]]
[[is:14. desember]]
[[it:14 dicembre]]
[[he:14 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:14 Desember]]
[[ka:14 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:14 gòdnika]]
[[ku:14'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:14 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 14]]
[[lb:14. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 14]]
[[mk:14 декември]]
[[ms:14 Disember]]
[[nap:14 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:14 december]]
[[ja:12月14日]]
[[no:14. desember]]
[[nn:14. desember]]
[[oc:14 de decembre]]
[[pl:14 grudnia]]
[[pt:14 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:14 decembrie]]
[[ru:14 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 14.]]
[[sco:14 December]]
[[sq:14 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:14 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 14]]
[[sk:14. december]]
[[sl:14. december]]
[[sr:14. децембар]]
[[fi:14. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:14 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 14]]
[[tt:14. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 14]]
[[th:14 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:14 tháng 12]]
[[tr:14 Aralık]]
[[uk:14 грудня]]
[[wa:14 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 14]]
[[zh:12月14日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 14]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>December 13</title>
<id>8852</id>
<revision>
<id>42011158</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:08:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rklawton</username>
<id>754622</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Events */ removed redundant entry</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 13]]''' is the 347th day of the year (348th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 18 days remaining.
{{DecemberCalendar}}
==Events==
*[[1294]] - [[Pope Celestine V|Saint Celestine V]] [[papal abdication|abdicates]] the [[Pope|papacy]] after only five months; Celestine hoped to return to his previous life as an [[ascetic]] [[hermit]].
*[[1545]] - [[Council of Trent]] begins.
*[[1577]] - Sir [[Francis Drake]] sets out from [[Plymouth]], [[England]], on his round-the-world voyage.
*[[1642]] - [[Abel Janszoon Tasman]] reaches [[New Zealand]].
*[[1643]] - [[English Civil War]]: The [[Battle of Alton]] takes place in [[Hampshire]].
*[[1769]] - [[Dartmouth College]] founded by the [[Eleazar Wheelock|Rev. Eleazar Wheelock]], with a Royal Charter from King [[George III]], on land donated by Royal Governor [[John Wentworth (governor)|John Wentworth]].
*[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: At the [[Battle of Fredericksburg]], [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] General [[Robert E. Lee]] defeats the [[Union Army|Union]] Major General [[Ambrose E. Burnside]].
*[[1937]] - [[Second Sino-Japanese War]]: [[Battle of Nanjing]] - [[Nanjing]], defended by the [[National Revolutionary Army]] under the command of General [[Tang Shengzhi]], falls to the [[Imperial Japan|Japanese]].
*[[1938]] - [[The Holocaust]]: 100 deportees from [[Sachsenhausen]] build the [[Neuengamme]] [[concentration camp]] near [[Hamburg]].
*[[1939]] - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of the River Plate]] - Captain [[Hans Langsdorff]] of the [[Nazi Germany|German]] [[pocket battleship]] ''[[Admiral Graf Spee]]'' engages with [[Royal Navy]] cruisers ''[[HMS Exeter (68)|HMS Exeter]]'', ''[[HMS Ajax (22)|HMS Ajax]]'' and ''[[HMNZS Achilles]]''.
*[[1941]] - [[Timeline of World War II|World War II]]: [[Hungary]] and [[Romania]] declare war on the [[United States]].
*[[1949]] - The [[Knesset]] votes to move the capital of [[Israel]] to [[Jerusalem]].
*[[1959]] - [[Archbishop Makarios]] becomes the first President of [[Cyprus]].
*[[1973]] - [[Rael]], leader of the [[Raelian Movement]] claims to meet an ET he says is named [[Yahweh]], during an alleged [[UFO]] encounter in Puy de Lassolas, France.
*[[1974]] - [[Malta]] becomes a republic.
*[[1977]] - A United States government aircraft DC-3 crashes near [[Evansville Regional Airport]], killing 29, including the [[University of Evansville]] basketball team.
*[[1978]] - The first [[Susan B. Anthony dollar]] enters circulation.
*[[1979]] - The [[Canadian Government]] of Prime Minister [[Joe Clark]] is defeated in the [[Canadian House of Commons|House of Commons]], prompting the [[Canadian federal ele |
ther division to close from the deeper side, and so to fire upon the French from both sides. One British ship, [[HMS Culloden |Culloden]], ran aground; but the remainder were able to stay afloat, and began taking the French fleet apart, one by one. The wind from the north meant that the unengaged French ships could not come up to help their fellows, enabling Nelson to put several ships onto a target at a time, working his way down the line.
[[Image:Aboukir2.jpg|thumb|200px|The British attack the anchored French line of battle, by [[Thomas Whitcombe]].]]
The French flagship, [[French ship L'Orient|''L'Orient'']] came under fire first, from [[HMS Bellerophon (1786)|''Bellerophon'']], which received a battering and drifted away dismasted, and then from [[HMS Alexander|''Alexander'']] and [[HMS Swiftsure|''Swiftsure'']]. By 21:00, ''L'Orient'' was ablaze, and the battle paused; as ships tried to distance themselves from the anticipated explosion. At about 22:00, the fire reached the magazine and the flagship exploded, hurling blazing parts of ship and crew hundreds of metres into the air. Only a hundred or so of L'Orient's crew of a thousand survived, by swimming from the burning ship.
[[Image:Aboukir.jpg|thumb|200px|The French flagship Orient explodes, by [[Arnald George]].]]
Only two French ships towards the end of the line, [[French ship Généreux|''Généreux'']] and [[French ship Guillaume Tell|''Guillaume Tell'']], together with the two frigates ''Diane'' and ''Justice'', were able to escape. The rest were burned, or captured by morning on [[2 August]].
Returning home with Nelson's dispatches, ''Leander'', captained by [[Edward Berry]], was later captured by the surviving 74-gun ''Généreux'' after a fierce battle, somewhat delaying the arrival of the triumphant news in Britain.
The battle established British naval superiority during the remainder of the [[French Revolutionary Wars]], and was an important contribution to the growing fame of Admiral Nelson. It is also well-known for literary reasons: [[Felicia D. Hemans]]' poem [[Casabianca (poem)|"Casabianca"]], often known better by its first line, "The boy stood on the burning deck", is about the son of [[Luc-Julien-Joseph Casabianca]], who died in the explosion of the French flagship, ''L'Orient'' during this battle.
==Recent archaeology==
In [[2000]], Dr. Paolo Gallo, an [[Italy|Italian]] [[Archaeology|archaeologist]] discovered a burial site on [[Nelson's Island]] in Abū Qīr Bay. The graves contained the remains of sailors, officers, marines, women (some of whom may have disguised their sex to serve as sailors), and surprisingly, three infants. Subsequent work with British historian and archaeologist Nick Slope determined that some of the graves dated to shortly after the battle, while others dated from another battle in [[1801]].
On [[18 April]] [[2005]], thirty of the British sailors and officers were given a military funeral in [[Alexandria]], attended by the crew of the visiting [[HMS Chatham (F87)|HMS ''Chatham'']]. Only one of the bodies, that of Commodore James Russell, who died during the [[1801]] battle, was positively identified. One of his descendants attended the ceremony, and was presented with a flag.
==Memorials==
One of the most unusual memorials to any naval battle lies just a few miles from [[Stonehenge]] on [[Salisbury Plain]], in [[Wiltshire]]. The memorial is composed of numerous clumps of [[beech]] trees, which had been planted on otherwise arable farmland. These clumps are known as the Nile Clumps, because it is believed they were shaped from a larger piece of woodland (forest) after the Battle of the Nile, to represent the positions of French and British ships. Many of the "ships" have "sunk" over the years, but several still survive, and work is underway to replant some of them.
The story behind their construction is that [[Emma Hamilton]], mistress of [[Nelson]] in her declining years, became friends with the Marquess of Queensbury, landowner of much of the land around the town of [[Amesbury]], including [[Stonehenge]]; and, together with Captain [[Thomas Hardy (naval officer)|Thomas Hardy]], Nelson's flag captain at the [[Battle of Trafalgar]], persuaded the Marquess to create the unique memorial.
Most of the surviving clumps now stand on land owned by the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]]'s [[Stonehenge Historic Landscape]] estate.
'''Ships involved:'''
===Britain (Horatio Nelson)===
*[[HMS Vanguard (1787)|Vanguard]] 74 (flag)
*[[HMS Alexander|Alexander]] 74
*[[HMS Audacious (1785)|Audacious]] 74
*[[HMS Bellerophon (1786)|Bellerophon]] 74
*[[HMS Culloden|Culloden]] 74, ran aground, took no part
*[[HMS Defence (1763)|Defence]] 74
*[[HMS Goliath|Goliath]] 74
*[[HMS Leander (1780)|Leander]] 50
*[[HMS Majestic|Majestic]] 74
*[[HMS Minotaur (1793)|Minotaur]] 74
*[[HMS Orion (1787)|Orion]] 74
*[[French ship Swiftsure|Swiftsure]] 74
*[[HMS Theseus (1786)|Theseus]] 74
*[[HMS Zealous|Zealous]] 74
*Mutine - Assisted Culloden; took no part
===France (François-Paul Brueys D'Aigalliers)===
'''Battle line'''
*Orient 120 (flagship, captain Casa-Bianca), blown up [[2 August]]
*Franklin 80, captured [[2 August]]
*Tonnant 80, captured [[4 August]]
*Aquilon 74, captured
*Guerrier 74, captured [[2 August]], scuttled (burnt) [[18 August]]
*Heureux 74, captured, [[3 August]], scuttled (burnt) [[16 August]]
*Spartiate 74, captured
*Peuple Souverain 74, captured
*Mercure 74, captured [[3 August]], scuttled (burnt) [[18 August]]
*Conquérant 74, captured
*Généreux 74
*Guillaume Tell 80
*Timoléon 74, run aground and scuttled (blown up), [[3 August]]
'''Frigates''' (inshore)
*Artemise 36, surrendered but scuttled (blown up), [[3 August]]
*Justice 40
*Serieuse 36
'''Brigs'''
*Alerte
*Railleur
*Hercule, scuttled
*Salamine
several gunboats
==First-hand account==
John Nicol, a sailor aboard HMS ''Goliath'', writes this account:
The Goliath led the van. There was a French frigate right in our way. Captain Foley cried, "Sink that brute, what does he there?" In a moment she went to the bottom and her crew were seen running into her rigging. The sun was just setting as we went into the bay, and a red and fiery sun it was. I would, if had I had my choice, been on the deck. There I would have seen what was passing and the time would not have hung so heavy, but every man does his duty with spirit, whether his station be in the slaughterhouse or the magazine.
I saw as little of this action as I did of the one on [[14 February]] off Cape St Vincent. My station was in the powder magazine with the gunner. As we entered the bay we stripped to our trousers, opened our ports, cleared, and every ship we passed gave them a broadside and three cheers. Any information we got was from the boys and women who carried the powder. The women behaved as well as the men, and got a present for their bravery from the grand signior.
When the French Admiral's ship blew up, the Goliath got such a shake we thought the after-part of her had blown up until the boys told us what it was. They brought us every now and then the cheering news of another French ship having struck [surrendered], and we answered the cheers on deck with heartfelt joy. In the heat of the action a shot came right into the magazine but did no harm as the carpenters plugged it up and stopped the water that was rushing in.
I was much indebted to the gunner's wife who gave her husband and me a drink of wine every now and then, which lessened our fatigue much. There were some of the women wounded, and one woman belonging to Leith died of her wounds and was buried on a small island in the bay. One woman bore a son in the heat of the action. She belonged to Edinburgh.
When we ceased firing I went on deck to view the state of the fleets, and an awful sight it was. The whole bay was covered with dead bodies, mangled, wounded, and scorched, not a bit of clothes on them except their trousers. There were a number of French, belonging to the French Admiral's ship, the L'Orient, who had swam to the Goliath, and were cowering under her forecastle. Poor fellows! they were brought on board, and Captain Foley ordered them down to the steward's room, to get provisions and clothing. One thing I observed in these Frenchmen quite different from anything I had before observed. In the American War, when we took a French ship, the Duke de Chartres, the prisoners were as merry as if they had taken us, only saying, `Fortune de guerre - you take me today, I take you tomorrow.' Those we now had on board were thankful for our kindness, but were sullen and as downcast as if each had lost a ship of his own.
The only incidents I heard of are two. One lad who was stationed by a salt-box, on which he sat to give out cartridges, and keep the lids closed - it is a trying berth - when asked for a cartridge, he gave none, yet he sat upright; his eyes were open. One of the men gave him a push; he fell all his length on the deck. There was not a blemish on his body, yet he was quite dead, and was thrown overboard. The other, a lad who had the match in his hand to fire his gun. In the act of applying it, a shot took off his arm; it hung by a small piece of skin. The match fell to the deck. He looked to his arm, and seeing what had happened, seized the match in his left hand, and fired off the gun before he went to the cockpit to have it dressed. They were in our mess, or I might never have heard of it. Two of the mess were killed, and I knew not of it until the day after. Thus terminated the glorious first of August, the busiest night in my life.
Soon after the action the whole fleet set sail with the prizes, and left the Goliath as guard ship. We remained here until we were relieved by the Tigre, seventy-four, when we sailed for Naples to refit. After refitting we sailed for Malta to join the blockade, where we remained eight months without |
Experiments] videos and photos of the techniques and results
* [http://physchem.ox.ac.uk/MSDS/ Material safety data sheets for a variety of chemicals]
* [http://www.flinnsci.com/search_MSDS.asp Material Safety Data Sheets]
==Further reading==
* Chang, Raymond. ''Chemistry'' 6th ed. Boston: James M. Smith, 1998. ISBN 0071152210.
{{BranchesofChemistry}}
{{Natural sciences-footer}}
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Continents</title>
<id>5181</id>
<revision>
<id>15903409</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Continent]]
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<page>
<title>ConstitutioN</title>
<id>5182</id>
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<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Constitution]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CPU (disambiguation)</title>
<id>5183</id>
<revision>
<id>41415814</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T04:18:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Uberpenguin</username>
<id>103347</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''CPU''' is a [[TLA]], a type of [[initialism]]. It can stand for:
* in [[computing]]: '''[[central processing unit]]'''
* in [[journalism]]: [[Commonwealth Press Union]]
* in [[law enforcement]]: [[crime | Crime prevention unit]]
* in [[Computer software|software]]: Critical patch update, a type of [[Patch (computing) | software patch]] distributed by [[Oracle Corporation]]
* in the [[mail|postal system]]: a [[United_States_Postal_Service|Contract Postal Unit]], esp. used as "CPU Box" (as opposed to "PO Box")
{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cytoplasm</title>
<id>5184</id>
<revision>
<id>42009432</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:50:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joshbuddy</username>
<id>431094</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 41672242 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cytoplasm''' is a homogeneous, generally clear jelly-like material that fills [[Cell (biology)|cell]]s. The cytoplasm consists of [[cytosol]] and the cellular [[organelles]], except the [[cell nucleus]]. The cytosol is made up of water, salts, organic molecules and many [[enzymes]] that catalyze reactions. The cytoplasm plays an important role in a cell, serving as a "molecular soup" in which the organelles are suspended and held together by a fatty membrane. It is found within the plasma membrane of a cell and surrounds the nuclear envelope and the cytoplasmic organelles.
==Components of the cytoplasm==
The [[aqueous]] component of the cytoplasm (making up 80 percent of it) is composed of [[ion]]s and soluble [[macromolecule]]s like [[enzyme]]s, [[carbohydrate]]s, different [[salt]]s and [[protein]]s, as well as a great proportion of [[RNA]]. The cytoplasm's watery component is also known as [[hyaloplasm]].
The watery component can be more or less [[gel]]-like or liquid depending on the milieu's conditions and the activity phases of the cell. In the first case, it is named [[cytogel]] and is a viscid solid mass. In the second case, called [[cytosol]], is a liquid in movement. In general, margin regions of the cell are gel-like, and the cell's interior is liquid.
The insoluble constituents of the cytoplasm are [[organelle]]s (such as the [[mitochondria]], the [[chloroplast]], [[lysosome]]s, [[peroxysome]]s, [[ribosome]]s), several [[vacuole]]s, [[cytoskeleton]]s, as well as complex [[membrane]] structures (e.g., [[endoplasmic reticulum]]s and the [[Golgi apparatus]]).
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Cytoplasm.jpg]] -->
==Differences between animal and plant cytoplasm==
While all cells possess a cytoplasm, cells from different [[Domain (biology)|biological domains]] can differ widely in the characteristics of their cytoplasms. In the animal [[kingdom (biology)|kingdom]], cytoplasm occupies nearly half the cell's volume, while in plant cells, the cytoplasm occupies much less space because of the presences of [[vacuoles]].
==Function==
The cytoplasm plays a mechanical role, that is, to maintain the shape and consistency of the cell, and to provide suspension to the organelles.
It is also a storage place for chemical substances indispensable to life, which are involved in vital [[metabolism|metabolic]] reactions, such as [[anaerobic glycolysis]] and [[protein]] [[synthesis]].
[[Category: Cell biology]]
[[cs:Cytoplazma]]
[[da:Cytoplasma]]
[[de:Cytoplasma]]
[[et:Tsütoplasma]]
[[es:Citoplasma]]
[[eo:Citoplasmo]]
[[fr:Cytoplasme]]
[[ko:세포질]]
[[id:Sitoplasma]]
[[it:Citoplasma]]
[[he:ציטופלסמה]]
[[lt:Citoplazma]]
[[lb:Zytoplasma]]
[[mk:Цитоплазма]]
[[ms:Sitoplasma]]
[[nl:Cytoplasma]]
[[ja:細胞質]]
[[no:Cytoplasma]]
[[pl:Cytoplazma]]
[[pt:Citoplasma]]
[[ru:Цитоплазма]]
[[sk:Cytoplazma]]
[[sl:Citoplazma]]
[[sr:Цитоплазма]]
[[fi:Solulima]]
[[sv:Cytoplasma]]
[[vi:Tế bào chất]]
[[tr:Sitoplazma]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Christ</title>
<id>5185</id>
<revision>
<id>41891278</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T11:56:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Orioane</username>
<id>362844</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Southkarre|Southkarre]] ([[User talk:Southkarre|talk]]) to last version by Dbiv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Christianity}}
''<blockquote>This page is about the title. For the Christian figure, see [[Jesus]]</blockquote>''
'''Christ''' is the [[English language|English]] representation of the [[Greek (language)|Greek]] word ''Χριστός'' The [[Christianity|Christian]] [[religion]] takes its name from Christ, as a title given to [[Jesus|Jesus of Nazareth]], always capitalized as a singularly descriptive title meaning literally ''The Anointed One''. In English translations of the [[New Testament]], the Greek ''Ιησούς Χριστός'', and related phrases, are almost invariably translated ''Jesus Christ'' or ''Christ Jesus'', leading to the common, though inaccurate, perception that 'Christ' was the last name of Jesus of Nazareth. The part of Christian [[theology]] focusing on the identity, life, teachings and works of Jesus, is known as '''[[Christology]]'''. Also known as the order that walks in the light side of the force.
== Full etymology ==
The spelling ''Christ'' in English dates from the 17th century, when, in the spirit of [[the enlightenment]], spellings of certain words were changed to fit their [[Greek language|Greek]] or [[Latin]] origins. Prior to this, in [[Old English language|Old]] and [[Middle English]], the word was spelt ''Crist'', the ''i'' being pronounced either as a [[long vowel|long]] [[e]], preserved in the names of [[church]]es such as [[St Katherine Cree]], or as a short i, preserved in the modern pronunciation of [[Christmas]].
The term appears in English and most European languages owing to the Greek usage of it in the [[New Testament]] as a description for [[Jesus]]. In the [[Septuagint]] version of the [[Old Testament]], it was used to translate into Greek the [[Hebrew (language)|Hebrew]] ''Mashiach'' ([[Messiah]]), meaning "anointed". While many Christian writers claim that this term implied a match to the criteria of being anointed that Jewish tradition had given to their predicted future saviour, in fact, there is no "saviour" concept, as suggested in Christianity, in the Jewish tradition. The "anointed" one more closely means 'leader', or even 'ruler'.
The Greek term is [[cognate]] with [[Chrism]], meaning ''perfumed oil''; in fact ''Christ'' in classical Greek usage could mean ''covered in oil'', and is thus a literal and accurate translation of Messiah (''anointed'').
=== Anointing in the [[Old Testament]] ===
In the Hebrew [[faith]] tradition, [[anointment|anointing]] (with [[holy anointing oil|oil]]) was a key element of religious ceremony by which specific people were explicitly marked or set aside for a specific role: [[priest]]s, [[monarch|kings]], and [[prophet]]s. In some cases other materials were anointed with oil as well, to prepare them for religious ceremony. The importance |
ations/display.aspx?Item=9 download]
* Cain, S. (2001). Accessing Technology - Using technology to support the learning and employment opportunities for visually impaired users. Royal National Institute for the Blind. ISBN 1858785170.
* Cook, A., & Hussey, S. (2002). Assistive Technologies - Principles and Practice, 2nd Edition. Mosby. ISBN 0323006434
* Franklin, K.S. (1991). Supported employment and assistive technology-A powerful partnership. In S.L. Griffin & W.G. Revell (Eds.), Rehabilitation counselor desktop guide to supported employment. Richmond, VA : Virginia Commonwealth University Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Supported Employment.
* Lahm, E., & Morrissette, S. (1994, April). Zap 'em with assistive technology. Paper presented at the annual meeting of The Council for Exceptional Children, Denver, CO.
* Lee, C. (1999). Learning disabilities and assistive technologies; an emerging way to touch the future. Amherst, MA: McGowan Publications.
* McKeown, S. (2000). Unlocking Potential - How ICT can support children with special needs. The Questions Publishing Company Ltd. ISBN 1841900419
* Nisbet, P. & Poon, P. (1998). Special Access Technology. The CALL Centre, University of Edinburgh. Available as a free [http://callcentre.education.ed.ac.uk/About_CALL/Publications_CAA/Books_CAB/SAT_CAC/sat_cac.html download] The CALL Centre. ISBN 189804211X
* Nisbet, P., Spooner, R., Arthur, E. & Whittaker P. (1999). Supportive Writing Technology. The CALL Centre, University of Edinburgh. Available as a free [http://callcentre.education.ed.ac.uk/About_CALL/Publications_CAA/Books_CAB/Supp_Writing_CAC/supp_writing_cac.html download] The CALL Centre. ISBN 1898042136
* Rose, D. & Meyer, A. (2000). Universal design for individual differences. Educational Leadership, 58(3), 39-43.
* Orpwood, R. Design methodology for aids for the disabled. J Med Eng Technol. 1990 Jan-Feb;14(1):2-10. | [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=2342081&itool=iconabstr&query_hl=2 PubMed ID: 2342081]
* Adlam, T. et al. The installation and support of internationally distributed equipment for people with dementia." IEEE transactions on information technology in biomedicine (1089-7771) yr:2004 vol:8 iss:3 pg:253-257 | [http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel5/4233/29401/01331402.pdf download from IEEE (694k PDF)]
==External links==
* [http://www.afb.org/prodMain.asp Assistive Technology Product Database - American Foundation for the Blind]
* [http://www.afb.org/accessworld AccessWorld®: Technology and People with Visual Impairments]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1999-3/assistive.htm Integrating Assistive Technology into the Standard Curriculum]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-1/assistive.htm Assistive Technology for Students with Mild Disabilities]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1995-2/mild.htm Assistive Technology for Students with Mild Disabilities]
* [http://www.inclusive.co.uk/infosite/snhome.shtml Inclusive Technology (Special Needs Articles and Information pages)]
=== European organisations for assistive technology ===
* [http://www.aaate.net/index.asp?auto-redirect=true&accept-initial-profile=standard The Association for the Advancement of Assistive Technology in Europe (AAATE)]
=== UK-based organisations for assistive technology ===
* [http://www.aidis.org/ The Aidis Trust]
* [http://www.dlf.org.uk/ The Disabled Living Foundation]
* [http://www.abilitynet.org.uk/ AbilityNet]
* [http://callcentre.education.ed.ac.uk/ The CALL Centre]
* [http://www.communicationmatters.org.uk/ Communication Matters]
* [http://www.fastuk.org/ FAST (Research and Development, Organisations, Events and Jobs)] including [http://www.fastuk.org/atforum.php Assistive Technology (AT) Forum]
* [http://atp.nlb-online.org/Lessons/p_00.php National Library for the Blind (Access Technology Primer)]
* [http://www.rnib.org.uk/technology RNIB (Technology Information Service)]
* [http://www.rnid.org.uk/html/information/technology/home.htm RNID (Technology)]
* [http://www.icesdoh.org/article.asp?page=156 UK Dept of Health page on telecare]
* [http://www.ace-centre.org.uk/ The ACE Centres]
* [http://www.bime.org.uk/ Bath Institute of Medical Engineering (BIME).] A medical engineering design and development charity.
=== North American organizations for assistive technology ===
* [http://www.resna.org/ Rehabilitation Engineering & Assistive Technology Society of North America]
* [http://www.abledata.com/ ABLEDATA Global database of AT and Rehab products]
* [http://www.ataccess.org/ The Alliance for Technology Access]
* [http://www.atia.org/ Assistive Technology Industry Association]
* [http://www.fctd.info/ The Family Center on Technology and Disability]
[[Category:Accessibility]]
[[Category:Assistive technology]]
[[Category:disability]]
[[Category:Educational technology]]
[[de:Hilfsmittel (Rehabilitation)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Accessible computing</title>
<id>654</id>
<revision>
<id>30764945</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-09T23:02:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CLW</username>
<id>346386</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|Popups]]-assisted redirection bypass from [[Assistive Technology]] to [[Assistive_technology]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Accessible computing''' covers
* [[Assistive_technology|Assistive Technology]]
* [[Accessible Software]]
* [[Accessible Web]]
* [[Legal Issues In Accessible Computing]]
** United States
*** [[Private Lawsuits]]
*** [[Section 508 Amendment to the Rehabilitation Act of 1973]]
{{compu-stub}}
[[Category:Accessibility]]
[[Category:Assistive technology]]
[[Category:Human-computer interaction]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abacus</title>
<id>655</id>
<revision>
<id>42021696</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T07:12:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>203.113.67.71</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>th</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{about|the calculator|the flat slab at the top of a column|[[abacus (architecture)]]}}
An '''abacus''' is a calculation tool, often constructed as a wooden frame with beads sliding on wires. It was in use centuries before the adoption of the written [[Hindu-Arabic numeral system]] and is still widely used by merchants and clerks in [[China]] and elsewhere.
The origins of the abacus are disputed, suggestions including invention in [[Babylonia]] and in [[China]], to have taken place between 2400 BC and 300 BC. The first abacus was almost certainly based on a flat stone covered with sand or dust. Lines were drawn in the sand and pebbles used to aid calculations. From this, a variety of abaci were developed; the most popular were based on the bi-quinary system, using a combination of two bases (base-2 and base-5) to represent decimal numbers
The use of the word ''abacus'' dates back to before 1387 when a [[Middle English]] work borrowed the word from [[Latin]] to describe a sandboard abacus. The Latin word came from ''abakos'', the [[Greek language|Greek]] [[Genitive case|genitive form]] of ''abax'' ("calculating-table"). Because ''abax'' also had the sense of "table sprinkled with sand or dust, used for drawing geometric figures," it is speculated by some linguists that the Greek word may be derived from a [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] [[Root (philology)|root]], ''ābāq'', the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word for "dust." Though details of the transmission are obscure, it may also be derived from the [[Phoenician]] word ''abak'', meaning "sand". The plural of abacus is abaci.
== Babylonian abacus ==
{{Main|Babylonian abacus}}
A tablet found on the island of Salamis (near Greece) in 1846 dates back to the Babylonians of 300 BC making it the oldest counting board discovered so far. It was originally thought to be a gaming board.
Its construction is a slab of white marble measuring 149cm in length, 75cm in width and 4.5cm thick, on which are 5 groups of markings. In the center of the tablet are a set of 5 parallel lines equally divided by a vertical line, capped with a semi-circle at the intersection of the bottom-most horizontal line and the single vertical line. Below these lines is a wide space with a horizontal crack dividing it. Below this crack is another group of eleven parallel lines, again divided into two sections by a line perpendicular to them but with the semi-circle at the top of the intersection; the third, sixth and ninth of these lines are marked with a cross where they intersect with the vertical line.
== Roman abacus ==
{{Main|Roman abacus}}
[[image:RomanAbacusRecon.jpg|right|Reconstruction of Roman Abacus]]
<!-- This image is a 2004 photograph of the Mainz reconstruction of the
original in the Paris Library. It gives a much clearer picture that the
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If we are only allowed one image then this is the better to use.
[[User:Mfc|mfc]] -->
The [[Roman Empire|Late Empire]] [[Roman abacus]] shown here in reconstruction contains eight long and eight shorter grooves, the former having up to five beads in each and the latter one.
The groove marked I indicates units, X tens, and so on up to millions. The beads in the shorter grooves denote fives&mdash;five units, five tens, ''etc.'', essentially in a [[bi-quinary coded decimal]] system, obviously related to the [[Roman numerals]]. The short grooves on the right may have been used for marking Roman ounces.
Computations are made by means of beads which would probably have been slid up and down the grooves to indicate the value of each column.
==Chinese abacus==
{{Main|Chinese abacus}}
The '''suanpan''' ({{zh-stp|s=&#31639;&#30424;|t=&#31639;& |
irector [[Busby Berkeley]] (''42nd Street'', 1933, ''Dames'', 1934). In France, avant-garde director [[René Clair]] made [[surrealism|surreal]] use of song and dance in comedies like ''Under the Roofs of Paris'' (1930) and ''Le Million'' (1931). The trend thrived best in [[Cinema of India|India]], where the influence of the country's traditional song-and-dance drama made the musical the basic form of most sound movies (Cook, 1990); virtually unnoticed by the Western world for decades, this Indian popular cinema would nevertheless become the world's most prolific. (''See also [[Bollywood]].'')
The rhythms of street-smart slang energized American [[gangster film|gangster films]] like ''[[Little Caesar]]'' and Wellman's ''[[The Public Enemy]]'' (both 1931). Dialogue now took precedence over slapstick in Hollywood comedies: the fast-paced, witty banter of ''[[The Front Page]]'' (1931) or ''[[It Happened One Night]]'' (1935), the sexual double entrendres of [[Mae West]] (''[[She Done Him Wrong]]'', 1933) or the often subversively anarchic nonsense talk of the [[Marx Brothers]] (''[[Duck Soup]]'', 1933).
===The 1940s: the war and post-war years===
The onset of US involvement in [[World War II|WWII]] brought a proliferation of movies as both [[patriotism]] and [[propaganda]]. American propaganda movies included ''Desperate Journey'', ''[[Mrs Miniver]]'', ''Forever and a Day'' and ''Objective Burma''. Notable American films from the war years include the anti-Nazi ''[[Watch on the Rhine]]'' ([[1943]]), scripted by [[Dashiell Hammett]]; ''[[Shadow of a Doubt]]'' ([[1943]]), Hitchcock's direction of a script by [[Thornton Wilder]]; the [[George M. Cohan]] [[biopic]], ''[[Yankee Doodle Dandy]]'' ([[1942]]), starring [[James Cagney]], and the immensely popular ''[[Casablanca (film)|Casablanca]]'', with [[Humphrey Bogart]]. Bogart would star in 36 films between [[1934]] and [[1942]] including [[John Huston]]'s ''[[The Maltese Falcon]]'', ([[1941]]).
The need for wartime propaganda also saw a renaissance in the film industry in [[Britain]], with realistic war dramas like ''[[Forty-Ninth Parallel]]'' ([[1941]]), ''[[Went the Day Well?]]'' ([[1942]]), ''[[The Way Ahead]]'' ([[1944]]) and [[Noel Coward]] and [[David Lean]]'s celebrated naval film ''[[In Which We Serve]]'' in [[1942]], which won a special [[Academy Award]]. These existed alongside more flamboyant films like [[Michael Powell]] and [[Emeric Pressburger]]'s ''[[The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp]]'' ([[1943]]), ''[[A Canterbury Tale]]'' ([[1944]]) and ''[[A Matter of Life and Death]]'' ([[1946]]), as well as [[Laurence Olivier]]'s [[1944 in film|1944 film]] ''[[Henry V (1944 film)|Henry V]]'', based on the [[Shakespearean histories|Shakespearean history]] ''[[Henry V (play)|Henry V]]''.
The strictures of wartime also brought an interest in more fantastical subjects. These included Britain's [[Gainsborough Pictures|Gainsborough]] melodramas (including ''[[The Man in Grey]]'' and ''[[The Wicked Lady]]''), and films like ''Here Comes Mr Jordan'', ''[[Heaven Can Wait]]'', ''I Married a Witch'' and ''[[Blithe Spirit]]''. [[Val Lewton]] also produced a series of atmospheric and influential low budget [[horror film|horror]] films, some of the more famous examples being ''[[Cat People]]'', ''[[Isle of the Dead]]'' and ''[[The Body Snatcher]]''. The decade probably also saw the so-called "women's pictures," such as ''[[Now, Voyager]]'', ''[[Random Harvest]]'' and ''[[Mildred Pierce]]'' at the peak of their popularity.
[[1946]] saw RKO Radio releasing ''[[It's a Wonderful Life]]'' directed by [[Frank Capra]]. Soldiers returning from the war would provide the inspiration for films like ''[[The Best Years of Our Lives]]'', and many of those in the film industry had served in some capacity during the war. [[Samuel Fuller]]'s experiences in WWII would influence his largely autobiographical films of later decades such as ''[[The Big Red One]]''. [[The Actor's Studio]] was founded in October [[1947]] by [[Elia Kazan]], Robert Lewis, and [[Cheryl Crawford]], and the same year [[Oskar Fischinger]] filmed ''[[Motion Painting No. 1]]''.
In [[1943]], ''Ossessione'' was screened in Italy, marking the beginning of the [[Italian neorealism|Italian neorealist]] movement. Major films to come out of the movement in the forties included ''[[Bicycle Thieves]]'', ''[[Rome: Open City]]'', and ''[[La Terra Trema]]''. In [[1952]] ''[[Umberto D]]'' was released, usually considered the last film of the movement.
In the late forties, in Britain, [[Ealing Studios]] embarked on their series of celebrated comedies, including ''[[Whisky Galore]]'', ''[[Passport to Pimlico]]'', ''[[Kind Hearts and Coronets]]'' and ''[[The Man in the White Suit]]'', and [[Carol Reed]] directed his influential thrillers ''[[Odd Man Out]]'', ''[[The Fallen Idol]]'' and ''[[The Third Man]]''. [[David Lean]] was also rapidly becoming a force in world cinema with ''[[Brief Encounter]]'' and his [[Charles Dickens|Dickens]] adaptations ''[[Great Expectations]]'' and ''[[Oliver Twist]]'', and [[Michael Latham Powell|Michael Powell]] and [[Emeric Pressburger]] would reach the peak of their creative partnership with films like ''[[Black Narcissus]]'' and ''[[The Red Shoes (film)|The Red Shoes]]''.
===The 1950s===
The [[House Un-American Activities Committee]] investigated Hollywood in the early [[1950s]]. [[Protest]]ed by the [[Hollywood blacklist|Hollywood Ten]] before the committee, the hearings resulted in the [[blacklist]]ing of many actors, writers and directors, including Chayefsky, [[Charlie Chaplin]], and [[Dalton Trumbo]], and many of these fled to [[Europe]], especially [[Britain]].
The [[Cold War|Cold War era]] [[zeitgeist]] translated into a [[paranoia]] manifested in [[theme (literature)|theme]]s such as [[alien invasion|invading armies of evil aliens]], (''[[Invasion of the Body Snatchers]]'', ''[[The War of the Worlds (1953 film)|The War of the Worlds]]''); and [[communism|communist]] [[fifth column]]ists, (''[[The Manchurian Candidate]]'').
In the post-war years Hollywood also faced another threat. [[Living room]]s were beginning to be invaded by [[television]], and the increasing popularity of the medium meant that some movie theatres would go bankrupt and close. The demise of the "studio system" spurred the [[commentary|self-commentary]] of films like ''[[Sunset Boulevard (film)|Sunset Boulevard]]'' ([[1950]]) and ''[[The Bad and the Beautiful]]'' ([[1952]]).
Distressed by the increasing number of closed theatres, studios and companies would find new and innovative ways to bring audiences back. These included attempts to literally widen their appeal with new screen formats. [[Cinemascope]], which would remain a [[20th Century Fox]] distinction until [[1967]], was announced with [[1953]]'s ''[[The Robe]]''. [[VistaVision]], [[Cinerama]], boasted a [[Attack of the 50 Foot Woman|"bigger is better"]] approach to [[marketing]] movies to a [[The Incredible Shrinking Man|shrinking US audience]]. This lead to the re-emergence of the epic film to take advantage of the new big screen formats. Some of the most successful examples of these [[Bible|Biblical]] and [[history|historical]] spectaculars include ''[[The Ten Commandments (1956 film)|The Ten Commandments]]'' ([[1956]]), ''[[The Vikings]]'' ([[1958]]), ''[[Ben-Hur (1959 film)|Ben-Hur]]'' ([[1959]]), ''[[Spartacus (film)|Spartacus]]'' ([[1960]]) and ''[[El Cid (film)|El Cid]]'' ([[1961]]).
[[Gimmick]]s also proliferated to lure in audiences. The magic of [[3-D film]] would last for only two years, [[1952]]-[[1954]], and helped sell ''The Creature From The Black Lagoon''. Producer [[William Castle]] would tout films featuring "Emergo" "Percepto", the first of a long line of gimmicks that would remain popular marketing tools for Castle and others throughout the 1960s.
[[Brown v. Board of Education]] ([[1954]]) set the stage for ''[[The Blackboard Jungle]]'' ([[1955]]), and some notable early TV productions like [[Paddy Chayefsky]]'s ''[[Marty]]'' and [[Reginald Rose]]'s ''[[Twelve Angry Men]]'' would be turned into critically acclaimed films.
Disney's ''[[Sleeping Beauty (1959 film)|Sleeping Beauty]]'' was released on [[January 29]], [[1959]] by [[The Walt Disney Company|Buena Vista Distribution]] after nearly a decade in production.
Across the globe, the 1950s marked the golden era of [[Indian Cinema]] with more than 200 films being made. Indian films also gained world recognition through films like [[Pather Panchali]] ([[1955]]), from critically acclaimed [[Academy Award]] winning director [[Satyajit Ray|Satyajit Ray]].
In 1950s the [[Ultra-Lettrist]]s and [[Situationist]] cinema movemaent caused riots at the [[Cannes Film Fstival]] when they announced the death of cinema and showed their new [[hypergraphics|hypergraphical]] techniques. The most notorious film is [[Guy Debord]]'s Bombs in Favor of DeSade.
==The 'New Hollywood' or Post-classical cinema==
'[[New Hollywood|The New Hollywood]]' and 'post-classical cinema' are terms used to describe the period following the decline of the [[studio system]] in the 50s and 60s and the end of the [[production code]]. It is defined by a greater tendency to dramatize such things as sexuality and violence, and by the rising importance of [[blockbuster (entertainment)|blockbuster]] movies.
'Post-classical cinema' is a term used to describe the changing methods of storytelling in the New Hollywood. It has been argued that new approaches to [[drama]] and characterization played upon audience expectations acquired in the classical/Golden Age period: chronology may be scrambled, storylines may feature "twist endings", and lines between the [[antagonist]] and [[protagonist]] may be blurred. The roots of post-classical storytelling may be seen in ''film noir'', in ''[[Rebel Without a Cause]]'' (1955), and in Hitchcock's storyline-shatterin |
cktower_pumpkin}} {{cite web | url = http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/presidents/view_image.php?img=101 | title = The Great Cornell Pumpkin | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|main_campus.clocktower_discoball}} {{cite web | url = http://www.cornellsun.com/media/paper866/news/2005/04/30/BreakingNews/disco.Ball.Affixed.To.Top.Of.Mcgraw.Tower-1338428.shtml | title = "The Cornell Daily Sun - 'Disco Ball' Affixed to Top of McGraw Tower" | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|main_campus.willard_straight_hall}} {{cite web | url = http://www.cornell.edu/search/index.cfm?tab=facts&q=&id=801 | title = Willard Straight Hall | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|academics.admission}} {{cite web | url = http://dpb.cornell.edu/irp/pdf/FactBook/Admissions/Undergraduate/profile.pdf | title = Admissions Information | accessdate=2005-11-23}}
#{{note|international_programs.study_abroad}} {{cite web | url = http://www.cuabroad.cornell.edu/programchoices/regions.asp | title = Cornell Abroad - University & Program Choices | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|international_programs.china}} {{cite web | url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/Nov05/Rawlings_China_signing.html | title = "Cornell China major sealed in Beijing as Rawlings signs agreement with Peking University" | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|international_programs.japan}} {{cite web | url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/Oct05/Ishige.kr.html | title = "Cornell signs research agreement with Japan's genome research institute" | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|international_programs.india}} {{cite web | url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/Dec05/India.MOU.ssl.html | title = "Cornell and India sign new agreement for agricultural development" | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|international_programs.bridging_the_rift}} {{cite web | url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/features/BTR/ | title = Cornell in the Desert: Bridging the Rift | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}; {{cite web | url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/Feb04/BTR.CUresearch.deb.html | title = "Cornell and Stanford to work with Israel and Jordan on Bridging the Rift research center to include world's first databank for all living systems" | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|reputation.usnews}} {{cite web | url = http://www.usnews.com/usnews/edu/college/rankings/brief/natudoc/tier1/t1natudoc_brief.php | title = USNews.com: America's Best Colleges 2006: National Universities: Top Schools | accessdate = 2005-11-23 }}
#{{note|reputation.worldrank}} {{cite web | url = http://ed.sjtu.edu.cn/rank/2005/ARWU2005_Top100.htm | title = Top 500 World Universities (1-100) | accessdate = 2005-11-23}}
#{{note|housing.north_campus}} {{cite web | url = http://ri.campuslife.cornell.edu/Ri_article_page_view.asp?action=article&ID=2318 | title = The Residential Initiative: North Campus | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|housing.west_campus}} {{cite web | url = http://ri.campuslife.cornell.edu/Ri_article_page_view.asp?action=article&ID=2345 | title = The Residential Initiative: West Campus | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|housing.food}} {{cite web | url = http://www.princetonreview.com/college/research/rankings/rankingDetails.asp?CategoryID=6&TopicID=45 | title = The Best 361 College Rankings on The Princeton Review: Quality of Life: Best Campus Food | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|faculty.distinction}} {{cite web | url = http://www.cornell.edu/about/facts/distinction.cfm | title = Facts about Cornell - Marks of Distinction | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|alumni.living_graduates}} {{cite web | url = http://www.cornell.edu/about/facts/stats.cfm | title = Facts about Cornell - Statistics | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|alumni.gifts}} {{cite web | url = http://www.cornell.edu/about/facts/distinction.cfm | title = Facts about Cornell - Marks of Distinction | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
{{Cornell}}
{{Ivy League}}
{{ECAC Hockey League}}
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[[fr:Université Cornell]]
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[[ja:コーネル大学]]
[[ka:კორნელის უნივერსიტეტი]]
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[[zh:康乃尔大学]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Cupola</title>
<id>6298</id>
<revision>
<id>37253934</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-29T20:36:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mzajac</username>
<id>61482</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>see also [[turret]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[cupola (disambiguation)]]''
[[Image:StPetersDomePD.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Cupola of St Peter's Basilica, Rome]]
In [[architecture]], a '''cupola''' consists of a [[dome]]-shaped ornamental structure located on top of a larger [[roof]] or dome, often used as a lookout or to admit light and provide ventilation. The word comes from the [[Italian language | Italian]], and expresses the idea of a "small tub".
In some cases, the entire main roof of a tower or spire can form a single cupola. More frequently, however, the cupola comprises a smaller structure which sits on top of the main roof. If the cupola can be reached by climbing a [[stairway]] inside the building, it is referred to as a ''[[belvedere (structure)|belvedere]]'' or ''widow's walk''. Some cupolas, called ''lanterns'', have small windows which illuminate the areas below.
== See also ==
* [[Turret]]
* [[Caboose#Cupola or "standard" caboose |Cupola caboose]]
==External links==
*[http://www.cupola.com/ Cupolas in Architecture]
[[Category:Architectural elements]]
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[[pt:Cúpula]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Chupacabra</title>
<id>6299</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:32:14Z</timestamp>
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<username>Ilmari Karonen</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{for|the heavy metal album by [[SOiL]]|El Chupacabra (album)}}
{{cleanup}}
[[Image:Chupacabra1.jpg|right|thumb|Drawing of a Chupacabra]]
The '''Chupacabra''' or '''Chupacabras ''' is a creature said to inhabit parts of the [[Americas]]. It is associated particularly with [[Puerto Rico]] (where it was first reported), [[Mexico]], and the [[United State]]s, especially in the latter's [[Latin American]] communities.
The name, which translates literally from [[Spanish language|Spanish]] as "[[goat]]-sucker", comes from its reported habit of attacking and drinking the blood of livestock. Physical descriptions of the creature vary. Sightings began in [[Puerto Rico]] in the early 1990s, and have since been reported as far north as the [[Carolinas]] and as far south as [[Chile]].
Though some argue that the chupacabra may be a real creature, mainstream scientists and experts generally contend that the chupacabra is a [[legendary creature]], or a type of [[urban legend]].
==History==
The legend of ''los Chupacabras'' began in about 1992, when [[Puerto Rican]] newspapers [[El Vocero]] and [[El Nuevo Dia]] began reporting the killings of many different types of animals, such as birds, horses, and as its name implies, goats. At the time it was known as ''El Vampiro de Moca'' since some of the first killings occurred in the small town of Moca. While at first it was suspected that the killings were done randomly by some members of a [[satanic]] [[cult]], eventually these killings spread around the island, and many farms reported loss of animal life. The killings had one pattern in common: each of the animals found dead had two punctured holes around their necks.
The term "chupacabra" was supposedly coined by Puerto Rican television personality [[Silverio Pérez]], who intended the name to be a joke, although the word had already been used in [[Michael Crichton]]'s 1990 novel [[Jurassic Park]], so it seems likely that there is an earlier origin.
Soon after the animal deaths in [[Puerto Rico]], other animal deaths were reported in other countries, such as the [[Dominican Republic]], [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]], [[Chile]], [[Colombia]], [[El Salvador]], [[Panama]], [[Peru]], [[Brazil]], the [[United States]] and, most notably, [[Mexico]].
Both in Puerto Rico and Mexico, ''El Chupacabra'' gained [[urban legend]] status. Chupacabras stories began to be released several times in American and [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] newscasts across the United States, and chupacabras merchandise, such as t-shirts and [[baseball]] hats, was sold.
The chupacabra is generally treated as a product of [[mass hysteria]], though the animal mutilations are sometimes real. Like many cases of such [[Cattle mutilation|mutilations]], however, it's been argued that they are often not as mysterious as they might first appear.
==Sightings==
Certain South American [[rain forest]] natives believe in the "[[mosquito-man]]", a mythical creature of their [[folklore]] that pre-dates modern chupacabras sightings. The mosquito-man sucks the blood from animals through his long nose, like a big mosquito. Some say mosquito-man and chupacabras are one and the same.
Notable sightings in the [[United States]] include one reported by multiple eye-witnesses in [[Calaveras C |
/www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2002/116/31.0.html]. During the siege several Palestinians inside the church compound were shot dead by Israeli snipers. The siege ended with an agreement for 13 militants to be sent via Cyprus to various European counties and another 26 to be sent to Gaza. The rest were set free. The IDF stated that 40 explosive devices were found and removed from the compound after the standoff was concluded. [http://www.cbc.ca/stories/2002/05/10/church_bethle020510]
===Movement restrictions===
[[Image:BethlehemRoad.jpg|left|200px|thumb|Main entrance into Bethlehem from Jerusalem, July 2005]]
Bethlehem, Beit Sahour and Beit Jala are currently surrounded by Israeli checkpoints and roadblocks, with the main road to Jerusalem cut off at the border of Jerusalem's municipal area [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4490671.stm] <!-- see the map at article and the description of municipal jerusalem --> - at Rachel's Tomb. Bethlehem residents are only allowed into Jerusalem (the main social, economic and religious centre of the region) with special permits that are usually refused. Travel to other parts of the Palestinian controlled territories of the West Bank is also impeded and sometimes prevented. The city has periodically been placed under strict curfew, preventing residents from leaving their homes. [[Palestinians]] are not allowed to enter the Jewish holy site of [[Rachel's Tomb]], which is on the outskirts of the city. Since Bethlehem and the nearby biblical [[Solomon's Pools]] lie in [[Oslo Accords|Area A]], [[Israel]]i citizens cannot go there without a permit from the Israeli military authorities.
===West Bank barrier===
The construction by Israel of the [[West Bank barrier]] has had a severe impact on Bethlehem. The barrier runs along the northern side of the town's built-up area, within metres of houses in 'A'ida refugee camp and the [[Jerusalem]] municipality.
===Demographic change===
Bethlehem's former mayor, Hanna Nasser, says an estimated 2,000 Christians in Bethlehem have emigrated during the period of 2000 - 2003. Fifty years ago, Bethlehem was overwhelmingly Christian. Today, it has a Muslim majority. [http://www.nytimes.com/2003/12/24/international/middleeast/24CND-MIDE.html?hp]
==See also==
* [[Star of Bethlehem]]
==External links==
* [http://www.bethlehem-city.org Bethlehem Municipality]
* [http://www.christusrex.org/www1/ofm/sites/TSbtmenu.html Franciscan Custody of the Holy Land website - pages on Bethlehem]
* [http://www.bethlehem2000.org/main.html Bethlehem 2000 project]
* [http://www.openbethlehem.org/ Open Bethlehem civil society project]
* [http://www.bethlehem.edu Bethlehem University]
* [http://www.dheisheh.ps Deheisheh Refugee Camp site (in Arabic)]
* [http://wikitravel.org/en/article/Bethlehem Wikitravel: Bethlehem]
-----
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[[zh:伯利恆]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Benjamin</title>
<id>4313</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-01T21:10:55Z</timestamp>
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<ip>72.49.127.84</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
'''Benjamin''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: &#1489;&#1468;&#1460;&#1504;&#1456;&#1497;&#1464;&#1502;&#1460;&#1497;&#1503;; [[Standard Hebrew]]: ''Binyamin''; [[Tiberian Hebrew]] ''Biny&#257;mîn'') is a [[Hebrew Bible]] figure. The name literally translates to "[[son]] of [[right]]," generally taken to mean "son of my right hand" but in some [[Rabbinical Judaism|rabbinical]] traditions "son of the right side [of the body]" or "son of the south," the youngest son of [[Jacob]] and [[Rachel]] (Genesis 35:18).
His birth took place on the road between [[Bethel]] and [[Ephrath]], characterized later by Christian writers as at a short distance from [[Bethlehem]], because many centuries later the prophet [[Micah]] referred to "Bethlehem Ephrata." There is no other connection with Bethlehem. His mother died in childbirth, and with her last breath named him ''bem-oni'' ("son of my pain"), an ill-omened name which was changed by his father into Benjamin. His posterity were the [[tribe of Benjamin]], sometimes translated "Benjamites" (Genesis 49:27; Deuteronomy 33:12; Joshua 18:21).
The tribe of Benjamin at [[the Exodus]] was the smallest but one Numbers 1:36-1:37; Psalms 68:27). During the march its place was along with [[Manasseh]] and [[Ephraim]] on the west of the tabernacle. At the entrance into [[Canaan]] it counted 45,600 warriors. It has been inferred by some from the words of Jacob (Genesis 49:27) that the figure of a wolf was on the tribal standard: "Benjamin is a wolf that raveneth; in the morning he shall devour the prey, at evening he shall divide the spoil."
This tribe is mentioned in [[Epistle to the Romans]] 11:1 and [[Philippians]] 3:5.
The inheritance of this tribe lay immediately to the south of that of [[Ephraim]], and was about 26 miles in length and 12 in breadth. Its eastern boundary was the [[Jordan]]. [[Tribe of Dan|Dan]] intervened between it and the [[Philistines]]. Its chief towns are named in [[Book_of_Joshua|Josh.]] 18:21-28.
The history of the tribe contains a sad record of a desolating [[civil war]] in which they were engaged with the other eleven tribes; they were almost exterminated (Judg. 20:20, 21; 21:10). (See GIBEAH ¯T0001476.)
The first king of the Jews was [[Saul the King|Saul]], a Benjamite. A close alliance was formed between this tribe and that of [[Tribe of Judah|Judah]] in the time of [[David]] ([[Books of Samuel|2 Sam.]] 19:16, 17), which continued after his death ([[Books of Kings|1 Kings]] 11:13; 12:20). After the [[Babylonian captivity|Exile]] these two tribes formed the great body of the Jewish nation (Ezra 1:5; 10:9), and to this day the other ten are referred to as the [[lost tribes of Israel]]. The tribe of Benjamin was famous for its archers ([[Books of Samuel|1 Sam.]] 20:20, 36; [[Books of Samuel|2 Sam.]] 1:22; 1 [[Books of Chronicles|Chr.]] 8:40; 12:2) and slingers ([[Book of Judges|Judges]] 20:6).
The gate of Benjamin, on the north side of [[Jerusalem]] (Jer. 37:13; 38:7; Zech. 14:10), was so called because it led in the direction of the territory of the tribe of Benjamin. It is called by [[Jeremiah (prophet)|Jeremiah]] (20:2) "the high gate of Benjamin"; also "the gate of the children of the people" (17:19). (Comp. 2 Kings 14:13.)
==Reference==
*''Easton's Bible Dictionary'', 1897.
==External links==
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/ ''The Jewish Encyclopedia,'' 1908:] Benjamin. Material on the tribe, its territory, Rabbinical tradition and Islam, where Benjamin is not specifically mentioned in the ''Qur'an.''
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<page>
<title>Black Sabbath</title>
<id>4314</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:15:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
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<comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_band |
band_name = Black Sabbath |
image = [[Image:Black_sabbath.jpg]] |
status = Active |
country = [[Birmingham]], [[England]] |
years_active = [[1969]] &ndash; present |
music_genre = [[Heavy Metal]] |
record_label = [[Warner Bros.]] |
current_members = [[Ozzy Osbourne]],<br />[[Tony Iommi]],<br />[[Geezer Butler]],<br />[[Bill Ward]] |
}}
:''This article is about the British heavy metal band. For the 1946 British arrests of Jewish paramilitaries, see [[Operation Agatha]]. For the 1963 film see [[Black Sabbath (film)]]''
'''Black Sabbath''' (sometimes called '''Sabbath''' by fans) is a British [[Heavy metal music|heavy metal]] band, originally comprising [[Ozzy Osbourne]] (vocals), [[Tony Iommi]] (guitar), [[Geezer Butler|Geezer (Terrance) Butler]] (bass), and [[Bill Ward]] (drums). They are cited by many as the very first true [[heavy metal]] band.
Black Sabbath formed in [[Birmingham]], [[England]] in [[1969]] under the name
'''Polka Tulk Blues Band''' (soon shortened to "Polka Tulk"), and later '''Earth'''. Initially a [[blues-rock]] band, Earth moved in a darker direction when their bassist, Geezer Butler, a fan of the black magic novels of [[Dennis Wheatley]], wrote an occult-themed song titled "Black Sabbath" (the song name was apparently inspired by a [[1963]] [[Mario Bava]] [[Black Sabbath (movie)|film]]). (In their reunion concert film, the band stated that the song is based on an experience Geezer had one night when he saw a black object at the end of his bed and noticed the next day that an occult book Ozzy had given him was missing). When the band found themselves being confused with another local band called Earth, they adopted the song title as their new name.
The band originated as a blues-influenced [[hard rock]] group, but as they progressed they added more European folk elements and gothic flourishes to their sound, a sound that was not like any other group during their time. Their lyrics dealt with darker issues than most conventional rock as well. During a time, the late 60s, when other bands |
and study the law &mdash; in other words, the only way to fulfil Leviticus 19:18 is to observe all the laws of the Torah, the practical embodiment of the commandment to love. Similarly, [[Maimonides]] wrote that it should only be out of love for God, rather than fear of punishment or hope for reward, that Jews should obey the law: "When man loves God with a love that is fitting he automatically carries out all the precepts of love" (Maimonides ''Yad'' Chapter 10, quoted in Jacobs 1973: 159).
Whereas Jews believe that law is the ultimate fulfilmeent of lova, Christians believe that love is "the fulfillment of the Law" (Romans 13:8-10). Nevertheless, Jesus shared Hillel's &mdash; and presumably many Jews' &mdash; notion of love and the law, when he echoed the Phariseic position that
:"Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your might." This is the first and greatest commandment. And the second is like it: "Love your neighbor as yourself." All the Law and the Prophets hang on these two commandments. (Matthew 22:37-40)
When asked in reference to the latter commandment "And who is my neighbor?" (Luke 10:29), Jesus told the parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:30-37), in which the answer to the question is ultimately a foreigner (perhaps echoing Leviticus 19: 34).
In the [[Sermon on the Mount]], Jesus extended the commandment to include not only "your neighbor" but "your enemy" as well:
:"You have heard that it was said, 'An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth.' But I say to you, do not resist an evil person; but whoever strikes you on your right cheek, turn the other to him also. If anyone wants to sue you and take your shirt, let him have your cloak also. Whoever forces you to go one mile, go with him two. Give to him who asks of you, and do not turn away from him who wants to borrow from you. You have heard that it was said, 'You shall love your neighbor and hate your enemy.' But I say to you, love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you, so that you may be sons of your Father who is in heaven; for He causes His sun to rise on the evil and the good, and sends rain on the righteous and the unrighteous. For if you love those who love you, what reward do you have? Do not even the tax collectors do the same? If you greet only your brothers, what more are you doing than others? Do not even the pagans do the same? Therefore you are to be perfect, as your heavenly Father is perfect. (Matthew 5:38-48)
Jesus lived out this teaching at the end of his life. During his arrest, trial, scourging, and crucifixion, Jesus offered no resistance, totally submitting to his persecutors, however unjust. During Jesus' arrest, one of his desciples struck with a sword the ear of a man coming to seize Jesus, but Jesus commanded him to put away the sword, and healed the ear. (Luke 22:50-51) Jesus even prayed for his persecutors from the cross, calling out "Forgive them Father, for they know not what they do." (Luke 23:34)
Because of this, Jesus' selfless life of service, and the belief that Jesus died for the salvation of His people, Christian love is personified by Jesus, the supreme example being his martyrdom on the cross. Jesus commanded his desciples to follow his example: "My command is this: Love one another as I have loved you. Greater love has no one than this, that he lay down his life for his friends." (John 15:12-13) Furthermore, this same love is believed to be shared between the Father, the Son, and all Christians: "Just as the Father has loved Me, I have also loved you; abide in My love. If you keep My commandments, you will abide in My love; just as I have kept My Father's commandments and abide in His love" (John 15:9-10). Finally, Jesus proclaimed love to be the defining characteristic of all Christians: "By this all men will know you are my desciples, if you love one another" (John 13:35).
Still, even more remarkable statements about love are made in the New Testament by the apostle John and by Paul. The most famous, and widely considered one of the earliest and most succinct summaries of the Christian faith, runs "For God so loved the world that He gave his only Son, that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but shall have eternal life" (John 3:16). Adding to this is "God demonstrates his own love for us in this: While we were still sinners, Christ died for us" (Romans 5:8).
In the first epistle of John, he makes the bold statement "God is Love" (1 John 4:8,16). So love is not merely ''a'' characteristic of God, but ''the'' characteristic, which alone sums up God's complete essence.
Bloom argues that the Hebrew word for love, [[ahavah]] אהבה , is fundamentally understood as "just dealing." In the classic characterization of Christian love, Paul's discourse in [[First Epistle to the Corinthians]], sometimes called the "love chapter," rather than using either of the two other Greek words that loosely translate to English as "love" ([[eros (love)|erōs]] ερως, meaning erotic love, or [[philos]] φιλος , meaning familial love), Paul used the word [[agape|agápē]] αγαπη, which is probably more literally translated as "charity," and was first translated as "love" by [[William Tyndale]]:
:If I speak in the tongues of men and of angels, but have not love, I am only a resounding gong or a clanging cymbal. If I have the gift of prophecy and can fathom all mysteries and all knowledge, and if I have a faith that can move mountains, but have not love, I am nothing. If I give all I possess to the poor and surrender my body to the flames, but have not love, I gain nothing. Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, always perseveres. Love never fails. (1 Corinthians 13:1-8) ... And now these three remain: Faith, hope, and love. But the greatest of these is love. (1 Corinthians 13:13)
Taking all this into account, Christian love can generally be described as: unconditional, self-sacrificing, charitable, altruistic, selfless, service-oriented, obedient, humble, peaceful, and compassionate.
The Corinthians passage is not only remarkable for the quality of love it describes. The intent of the passage is clearly to elevate love above other things traditionally considered good, including wisdom, faith, and charitable giving. It also explicitly makes love more important than the things mentioned in the previous passage: supernatural gifts, spiritual strength and positions of leadership. Many assert that this this, combined with Jesus' teachings and John's claims, expands Christian love beyond that in Leviticus. Bloom maintains that the difference is in the character of love.
To summarize, both Judaism and Christianity hold Leviticus 19:18 most sacred. Judaism understands this as "Deal justly with whomever you meet." Christianity understands this as "Give selflessly to all."
== Abortion ==
Both Jews and Christians regard pregnancy as a gift from God, and hold children to be miracles.
The only statements in the [[Tanakh]] (Hebrew Bible, Christian Old Testament) about the status of a fetus state that killing an unborn infant does not have the same status as killing a born human being, and mandates a much lesser penalty (a fine); it should be added that the instance cited in the Tanakh contemplates the accidental, rather than the deliberate, causing of an abortion.
The [[Talmud|Oral Law]] states that the fetus is not yet a full human being until it has been born (either the head or the body is mostly outside of the mother), therefore killing a fetus is not murder, and [[abortion]] - in restricted circumstances - has always been legal under Jewish law. [[Rashi]], the great 12th century commentator on the Bible and Talmud, states clearly of the fetus 'lav nefesh hu--it is not a person.' The Talmud contains the expression 'ubar yerech imo--the fetus is as the thigh of its mother,' i.e., the fetus is deemed to be part and parcel of the pregnant woman's body." Judaism prefers that such abortions, when necessary, take place before the first 40 days where the Babylonian Talmud Yevamot 69b states that: "the embryo is considered to be mere water until the fortieth day." Afterwards, it is considered subhuman until it is born. Christians who agree with these views may refer to this idea as abortion before the "quickening" of the soul by God in the fetus.
There are two additional passages in the Talmud which shed some light on the Jewish belief about abortion. They imply that the fetus is considered part of the mother, and not a separate entity:
*One section states that if a man purchases a cow that is found to be pregnant, then he is the owner both of the cow and the fetus.
*Another section states that if a pregnant woman converts to Judaism, that her conversion applies also to her fetus.
Judaism unilaterally supports, in fact mandates, abortion if doctors believe that it is necessary to save the life of the mother. Many rabbinic authorities allow abortions on the grounds of gross genetic imperfections of the fetus, such as [[Tay-Sachs disease]]. They also allow abortion if the mother were suicidal because of such defects. However, Judaism holds that abortion is impermissible for family planning or convenience reasons. Each case must be decided individually, however, and the decision should lie with the mother, father, and Rabbi.
Most branches of Christianity have historically held abortion to be generally wrong, referring to [[Old Testament]] passages such as Psalm 139 and Jeremiah |
next to be held 2006)
<br>''election results:''
Results of the last election were: Lucio Gutiérrez elected president; percent of vote - 54%
===Legislative branch===
Ecuador has a [[unicameralism|unicameral]] [[National Congress of Ecuador|National Congress]] or ''Congreso Nacional''. There are 100 members, who are elected by popular vote by province to serve four-year terms. Ecuador is divided into 22 provinces: [[Azuay Province|Azuay]], [[Bolivar Province|Bolívar]], [[Cañar Province|Cañar]], [[Carchi Province|Carchi]], [[Chimborazo Province|Chimborazo]], [[Cotopaxi Province|Cotopaxi]], [[El Oro Province|El Oro]], [[Esmeraldas Province|Esmeraldas]], [[Galápagos Islands]], [[Guayas Province|Guayas]], [[Imbabura Province|Imbabura]], [[Loja (province)|Loja]], [[Los Rios|Los Ríos]], [[Manabí Province|Manabí]], [[Morona-Santiago]], [[Napo Province|Napo]], [[Orellana Province|Orellana]], [[Pastaza]], [[Pichincha]], [[Sucumbios|Sucumbíos]], [[Tungurahua Province|Tungurahua]], [[Zamora-Chinchipe]]
<br>''elections:''
last held [[20 October]] [[2002]] (next to be held 2006)
<br>''election results:''
Seats by party -
DP 32, PSC 27, PRE 24, ID 18, P-NP 9, FRA 5, PCE 3, MPD 2, CFP 1; note - defections by members of National Congress are commonplace, resulting in frequent changes in the numbers of seats held by the various parties
===Political parties and leaders===
<br>(Main article: [[List of political parties in Ecuador]])<br>
The primary political parties are: Concentration of Popular Forces or CFP [[Averroes Bucaram]] named after [[Abdala Bucaram Ortiz]] or simply [[Bucaram]] the colourful ex-president; Democratic Left or ID [Rodrigo Borja Cevallos]; National Action Institutional Renewal Party or PRIAN [Álvaro Noboa]; Pachakutik Movement [[Gilberto Talahua]]; Patriotic Society Party or PSP [[Lucio Gutiérrez Borbúa]]; Popular Democracy or DP [Dr. Juan Manuel Fuertes]; Popular Democratic Movement or MPD [Gustavo Teran Acosta]; Radical Alfarista Front or FRA [Fabian Alarcon, director]; Roldosist Party or PRE [Abdala Bucaram Ortiz, director]; Social Christian Party or PSC [Pascual Del Cioppo]; Socialist Party - Broad Front or PS-FA [Victor Granda]
<br>''note:''
political blocs include: far left - MPD; populist - CFP and P-NP; populist left - PRE; center left - ID, DP, and FRA; center right - PSC and PCE
===Political pressure groups and leaders===
[[CONAIE | Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador]] or CONAIE [Leonidas Iza, president]; Coordinator of Social Movements or CMS [F. Napoleon Santos]; Federation of Indigenous Evangelists of Ecuador or FEINE [Marco Murillo, president]; National Federation of Indigenous Afro-Ecuatorianos and Peasants or FENOCIN [Pedro De La Cruz, president]; Popular Front or FP [Luis Villacis]
===Legal system===
Ecuador's legal system is based on the civil law system. Ecuador has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction.
===International organization participation:===
Ecuador or Ecuadorian organizations participate in the following international organizations: the [[Andean Community of Nations]] (CAN), [[Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean]] (ECLAC), [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO), Group of Eleven (G-11), Group of 77 (G-77), [[Inter-American Development Bank]] (IADB), [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA), International Bank for Reconstruction and Development ([[World Bank]]), [[International Civil Aviation Organization]] (ICAO), [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], [[International Chamber of Commerce|ICC]], [[International Confederation of Free Trade Unions]] (ICFTU), [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|International Red Cross]], [[International Development Association]] (IDA), [[International Fund for Agricultural Development]] (IFAD), [[International Finance Corporation]] (IFC), [[International Hydrographic Organization]] (IHO), [[International Labour Organization]] (ILO), [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization]] (IMO), [[International Telecommunications Satellite Organization]] (Intelsat), [[Interpol]], [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration]] (IOM), [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO), [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU), [[Latin American Economic System]] (LAES), [[Latin American Integration Association]] (LAIA), [[Nonaligned Movement]] (NAM), [[Organization of American States|OAS]], [[Agency for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean]] (OPANAL), [[Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons]] (OPCW), [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]] (PCA), [[Rio Group|RG]], [[United Nations]], [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development]] (UNCTAD), [[United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization]] (UNESCO), [[United Nations Industrial Development Organization]] (UNIDO), [[Universal Postal Union]] (UPU), [[World Confederation of Labor]] (WCL), [[World Federation of Trade Unions]] (WFTU), [[World Health Organization]] (WHO), [[World Intellectual Property Organization]] (WIPO), [[World Meteorological Organization]] (WMO), [[World Tourism Organization]] (WToO), [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO)
==External links==
*[http://www.presidencia.gov.ec/ Presidencia de Ecuador]
*[http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=20050520000305700.htm&date=fl2210/&prd=fline& The people prevail]
{{South America in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Politics of Ecuador| ]]
[[fr:Politique de l'Équateur]]
[[gl:Política do Ecuador]]
[[pt:Política do Equador]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Ecuador</title>
<id>9339</id>
<revision>
<id>40447066</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T16:48:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{South America in topic|Economy of}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
The '''economy of [[Ecuador]]''' is based on petroleum production, money transfers from nearly a million ecuadorian emigrants employed abroad, and exports of bananas, shrimp, and other primary agricultural products. In 2002, oil accounted for about one-third of public sector revenue and 40% of export earnings. Ecuador is the world's largest exporter of bananas ($936.5 million in 2002) and a major exporter of shrimp ($251 million in 2002). Exports of nontraditional products such as flowers ($291 million in 2002) and canned fish ($333 million in 2002) have grown in recent years. Industry is largely oriented to servicing the domestic market.
Deteriorating economic performance in 1997-98 culminated in a severe economic and financial crisis in 1999. The crisis was precipitated by a number of external shocks, including the El Nino weather phenomenon in 1997, a sharp drop in global oil prices in 1997-98, and international emerging market instability in 1997-98. These factors highlighted the Government of Ecuador's unsustainable economic policy mix of large fiscal deficits and expansionary money policy and resulted in an 7.3% contraction of GDP, annual year-on-year inflation of 52.2%, and a 65% devaluation of the national currency in 1999.
On January 9, 2000, the administration of President Jamil Mahuad announced its intention to adopt the U.S. dollar as the official currency of Ecuador to address the ongoing economic crisis. Subsequent protest led to the removal of Mahuad from office and the elevation of Vice President Gustavo Noboa to the presidency.
The Noboa government confirmed its commitment to dollarize as the centerpiece of its economic recovery strategy, successfully completing the transition from sucres to dollars in 2001. Following the completion of a one-year stand-by program with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in December 2001, Ecuador successfully negotiated a new $205 million stand-by agreement with the IMF in March 2003.
Buoyed by higher oil prices, the Ecuadorian economy experienced a modest recovery in 2000-01, with GDP rising 2.3% in 2000 and 5.4% in 2001. GDP growth leveled off to 3.3% in 2002. Although final figures are not yet available, it is expected to fall further, to about 1.7%, for 2003. But GDP growth is estimated to recover to over 4% in 2004, due largely to expanded oil exports. Inflation fell from an annual rate of 96.1% in 2000 to an annual rate of 22.4% in 2001; although final figures are not yet available, it is expected to drop below 7% for 2003. Despite recent gains, 70% of the population lives below the poverty line, more than double the rate of 5 years ago.
The completion of the second Transandean Oil Pipeline (OCP in Spanish) in 2003 will enable Ecuador to expand oil exports. The OCP will double Ecuador’s oil transport capacity, but Ecuador will need to attract additional foreign investment to realize the full economic potential of the added capacity.
==Ecuador and the IMF==
[[Journalism|Journalist]] [[Greg Palast]], of the [[United Kingdom|British]] ''[[Observer]]'', alleges that the [[International Monetary Fund]] is attempting an [[economics|economic]] [[coup]] against the Ecuadoran [[government]]. He cites documents which he claims show the IMF is working to force the nation to grant [[BP]] rights to build and own an [[oil pipeline]] over the [[Andes]].
See also [[Unidad de Valor Constante]]
'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $54.5 billion (1999 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
-8% (1999 est.)
'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $4,300 (1999 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
<br>''agriculture:''
14%
<br>''industry:''
36%
<br>''services:''
50% (1999 est.)
'''Population below poverty line:'''
50% (1999 est.)
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br>''lowest 10%:''
2.3%
<br>''highest 10%:''
37.6% (1994)
'''Inflation rate (consumer pri |
d; for legal reasons, his character, a tribute to Ian Fleming, was credited as "JB".
==Music==
{{Main|James Bond music}}
"[[The James Bond Theme]]" was written by [[Monty Norman]] and was first orchestrated by the [[John Barry (composer)|John Barry]] Orchestra for 1962's ''Dr. No'', although the actual authorship of the music has been a matter of controversy for many years. Barry went on to compose the [[Film score|scores]] for eleven Bond films in addition to his uncredited contribution to ''Dr. No'', and is credited with the creation of "[[The 007 Theme|007]]", which was used as an alternate Bond theme in several films, and the popular orchestrated theme "[[On Her Majesty's Secret Service]]". Both "The James Bond Theme" and "On Her Majesty's Secret Service" have been [[remix]]ed a number of times by popular artists, including [[Art of Noise]], [[Moby]], [[Paul Oakenfold]], and the [[Propellerheads]].
Barry's legacy was followed by [[David Arnold]], in addition to other well-known composers and record producers such as [[George Martin]], [[Bill Conti]], [[Michael Kamen]], [[Marvin Hamlisch]], and [[Eric Serra]]. Arnold is the series' current composer of choice, and was recently signed to compose the score for the his fourth consecutive Bond film, ''Casino Royale''.
The Bond films are known for their theme songs heard during the title credits, sung by well-known popular singers (which have included [[Tina Turner]], [[Wings (band)|Paul McCartney & Wings]], [[Tom Jones (singer)|Tom Jones]], [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]], and [[Duran Duran]], among many others.) [[Shirley Bassey]] performed three themes in total, and is the only singer to have been associated with more than one film. ''On Her Majesty's Secret Service'' is the only Bond film with a solely instrumental theme, though [[Louis Armstrong]]'s ballad "[[We Have All the Time in the World]]", which serves as Bond and his wife Tracy's love song and whose title is Bond's last line in the film, is considered the unofficial theme. The main theme for ''Dr. No'' is the "James Bond Theme", although the opening credits also include an untitled [[bongo]] interlude, and concludes with a vocal [[Calypso]]-flavoured rendition of "[[Three Blind Mice]]" entitled "Kingston Calypso" that sets the scene. ''[[From Russia with Love]]'' also opens with an instrumental version over the title credits (which then segues into the ''James Bond Theme''), but Matt Monro's vocal version also appears twice in the film, including the closing credits; the Monro version is generally considered the film's main theme, even though it doesn't appear during the opening credits.
==Video games==
{{Main|James Bond games}}
[[Image:Everything or Nothing.jpg|200px|right|thumb|''[[Everything or Nothing]]'' was Pierce Brosnan's final appearance as James Bond]]
In [[1983]], the first Bond video game, developed and published by [[Parker Brothers]], was released for the [[Atari 2600]], the [[Atari 5200]], the [[Commodore 64]], and the [[Colecovision]]. Since then, there have been numerous video games either based on the films or using original storylines.
Bond video games, however, didn't reach their popular stride until [[1997]]'s ''[[GoldenEye 007]]'' by [[Rare (video game company)|Rare]] for the [[Nintendo 64]]. Subsequently, virtually every Bond video game has attempted to copy ''GoldenEye 007''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s accomplishment and features to varying degrees of success. In [[2004]], [[Electronic Arts]] released a game entitled ''[[GoldenEye: Rogue Agent]]'' that had nothing to do with either the video game ''GoldenEye'' or the film of the same name, and Bond himself plays only a minor role in which he is "killed" in the beginning during a virtual mission similar to the climax at Fort Knox in the film ''Goldfinger''.
Electronic Arts has to date released seven games, including the popular ''[[Everything or Nothing]]'', which broke away from the [[first-person shooter]] element found in ''GoldenEye'' and went to a [[third-person shooter|third-person]] perspective. It was also the first game to feature well known actors including [[Willem Dafoe]], [[Heidi Klum]] and [[Pierce Brosnan]] as James Bond, although several previous games have used Brosnan's likeness as Bond. In 2005, Electronic Arts released another game in the same vein as ''Everything or Nothing'', this time a video game adaptation of ''[[From Russia with Love (video game)|From Russia with Love]]'', which allowed the player to play as Bond with the likeness of [[Sean Connery]]. This was the second game based on a Connery Bond film (the first was a 1980s [[text adventure]] adaptation of ''Goldfinger'') and the first to use the actor's likeness as agent 007. Connery himself recorded new voiceovers for the game, the first time the actor has played Bond in 22 years.
==Comic strips and comic books==
{{main articles|[[James Bond comic strips]] and [[James Bond comic books]]}}
In [[1957]] the ''[[Daily Express]]'', a newspaper owned by [[Lord Beaverbrook]], approached Ian Fleming to adapt his stories into comic strips. After initial reluctance by Fleming who felt the strips would lack the quality of his writing, agreed and the first strip ''[[Casino Royale#Comic strip adaptation|Casino Royale]]'' was published in [[1958]]. Since then many illustrated adventures of James Bond have been published, including every Ian Fleming novel as well as Kingsley Amis' ''[[Colonel Sun]]'', and most of Fleming's short stories. Later, the comic strip produced original stories, continuing until [[1983]].
[[Titan Books]] is presently reprinting these comic strips in an ongoing series of [[graphic novel]]-style collections; by the end of 2005 it had completed reprinting all Fleming-based adaptations as well as ''Colonel Sun'' and had moved on to reprinting original stories.
Several [[comic book]] adaptations of the James Bond films have been published through the years, as well as numerous original stories.
==Bond characters==
{{main articles|[[List of James Bond allies]], [[List of James Bond villains]], and [[Bond girl]]}}
The James Bond series of novels and films have a plethora of interesting allies and villains. Bond's superiors and other officers of the British Secret Service are generally known by letters such as [[M (James Bond)|M]] and [[Q (James Bond)|Q]]. In the novels (but not in the films), Bond has had two secretaries, [[List of James Bond allies#Ponsonby, Loelia|Loelia Ponsonby]] and [[List of James Bond allies#Goodnight, Mary|Mary Goodnight]], who in the films typically have their roles and lines transferred to M's secretary [[Miss Moneypenny]]. Occasionally Bond is assigned to work a case with his good friend, [[Felix Leiter]] of the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]. In the films, Leiter appeared regularly during the Connery era, only once during Moore's tenure, and in both Dalton films; however, he was only played by the same actor twice.
Bond's women, particularly in the films, often have [[double entendre]] names, leading to coy jokes, for example, "[[Pussy Galore (James Bond)|Pussy Galore]]" in ''Goldfinger'' (a name invented by Fleming), "Plenty O'Toole" in ''[[Diamonds Are Forever]]'', and "[[Xenia Onatopp]]" (a villainess sexually excited by [[strangling]] men with her thighs) in ''[[GoldenEye]]''. The aggressiveness of Bond's sexual conquests occasionally while his lovers eventually return his advances, he does not take the initial "no" for an answer. Despite Bond's philandering, most end up, if not in love with him, at least subdued by him. Since Brosnan's tenure, however, the character has taken on a (relatively) more progressive outlook on women; he respects the new, female M (played by [[Judi Dench]]) and has let a few women, particularly [[Paris Carver]] and Elektra King, get under his skin.
Throughout both the novels and the films there have only been a handful of recurring characters. Some of the more memorable ones include [[List of James Bond allies#Tanner, Bill|Bill Tanner]], [[List of James Bond allies#Mathis, Rene|Rene Mathis]], [[Felix Leiter]], and [[List of James Bond allies#Wade, Jack|Jack Wade]].
==Vehicles & gadgets==
{{main articles|[[List of James Bond vehicles]] and [[List of James Bond gadgets]]}}
[[Image:Aston.db5.coupe.300pix.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The [[Aston Martin DB5]] is the most famous and recognised Bond car]]
Exotic espionage equipment and vehicles are very popular elements of James Bond's literary and cinematic missions; these items often prove critically important to Bond removing obstacles to the success of his missions.
Fleming's novels and early screen adaptations presented minimal equipment such as ''From Russia with Love's'' booby-trapped [[attaché case]]; in ''Dr. No'', Bond's sole gadgets were a [[geiger counter]] and a wristwatch with a luminous (and [[radioactive]]!) face. The gadgets, however, assumed a higher, spectacular profile in the 1964 film ''Goldfinger''; its success encouraged further espionage equipment from Q Branch to be supplied to 007. Some films, in the opinion of many critics and fans, have had excessive amounts of gadgets or extremely outlandish gadgets and vehicles, specifically 1979's [[science fiction]]-oriented ''Moonraker'' and 2002's ''Die Another Day'' in which Bond's Aston Martin could become [[Cloaking device|invisible]] due to a technology Q refers to as [[adaptive camouflage]]. Since ''Moonraker'' subsequent productions struggled with balancing gadget content against the story's capacities, without implying a technology-dependent man, to mixed results.
Bond's most famous car is the silver grey [[Aston Martin DB5]] seen in ''Goldfinger'', ''Thunderball'', ''GoldenEye'', and ''Tomorrow Never Dies''. Although the films used a number of different Aston Martin DB5s on film and for |
raditional [[Thanksgiving]] feast. [[American Revolutionary War]] veteran [[Henry Hall]] is alleged to be the first to cultivate the cranberry commercially, in the [[Cape Cod]] town of [[Dennis (town), Massachusetts|Dennis]] around [[1816]].
==Cultivation and uses==
[[Image:Cranberrys beim Ernten.jpeg|thumb|left|Cranberry harvest in New Jersey]]
Cranberries are major crops in [[Massachusetts]], [[Wisconsin]], and [[New Jersey]]. Commercial cranberry fields today are diked so they may be flooded. When the berries are ripe, they float, making harvesting a matter of flooding the field, shaking the bushes a bit, and skimming off the berries into waiting trucks. Various mechanisms have been used through the years to "shake" the bushes, including a 2005 innovation that reduces bush damage and increases yield.
Usually cranberries as fruit are served as a [[compote]] or [[jelly]], often known generically as [[cranberry sauce]]. Such preparations are traditionally served with roast [[Turkey (bird)|turkey]] meat. The berry is also used in baking ([[muffin]]s and [[cake]]s) but, unlike many other berries, is normally considered too sharp to be eaten unaccompanied.
Cranberry juice, usually sweetened to reduce its natural severe tartness and make "cranberry juice cocktail" or blended with other fruit juices, is a major use of cranberries.
There is some use of cranberry juice by people with [[spinal paralysis]]; regular consumption of the juice is supposed to reduce the rate of [[urinary tract infection]]s. While much of the evidence is equivocal, a number of [[double-blind]] [[clinical trial]]s have been carried out that suggest there actually is an effect: a component of the juice appears to competitively inhibit bacterial attachment to the [[bladder]] and [[urethra]].
An Autumn 2004 caution from the [[Committee on Safety of Medicines]] (the UK agency dealing with drug safety) advises patients that are taking the medication [[warfarin]] to stay off cranberry juice after adverse effects were reported.
==External links==
{{cookbook}}
* [http://www.mhra.gov.uk/home/idcplg?IdcService=GET_FILE&dDocName=CON007448&RevisionSelectionMethod=LatestReleased October 2004 "Current Problems in Pharmacovigilance" (pdf file)] - has warfarin and cranberry juice caution, p. 10.
* [http://carecure.org/index.php?page=viewarticle&afile=0007@7_November_2001@Cranberry_UTI.htm 2001 review] of evidence for therapeutic effects of cranberry juice
* [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=2653218 1989 study] of cranberry juice's possible role in inhibiting bacterial adherence to bladder cells
* [http://www.cranberryinstitute.org The Cranberry Institute] for information on cranberry's health benefits.
* [http://www.kallipolis.com/diet/food.php?id=16019 Nutrition information for cranberries]
* [http://www.oohoi.com/natural%20remedy/everyday_food/Cranberries.htm Benefits of Cranberries]
[[Category:Ericaceae]]
[[Category:Fruit]]
[[da:Tranebær (Vaccinium oxycoccus)]]
[[de:Moosbeeren]]
[[fr:Canneberge]]
[[he:חמוציות]]
[[ko:넌출월귤]]
[[nl:Cranberry]]
[[ja:クランベリー]]
[[pl:Żurawina błotna]]
[[fi:Isokarpalo]]
[[sv:Tranbär]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Code coverage</title>
<id>7030</id>
<revision>
<id>40716666</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T14:57:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Auteurs</username>
<id>974159</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Code coverage''' is a measure used in [[software testing]]. It describes the degree to which the [[source code]] of a [[computer program|program]] has been tested. It is a form of testing that looks at the code directly and as such comes under the heading of [[white box testing]].
Code coverage techniques were amongst the first techniques invented for systematic software testing. The first published reference was by Miller and Maloney in ''Communications of the [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]]'' in 1963.
There are a number of different ways of measuring code coverage, the main ones being:
*''Statement Coverage'' - Has each line of the source code been executed and tested?
*''Condition Coverage'' - Has each evaluation point (such as a true/false decision) been executed and tested?
*''Path Coverage'' - Has every possible route through a given part of the code been executed and tested?
[[safety critical|Safety critical]] applications are often required to demonstrate that testing achieves 100% of some form of code coverage.
Some of the coverage criteria above are connected; for instance, path coverage implies both condition and statement coverage. Statement coverage does ''not'' imply condition coverage, as the code (in the [[C programming language]]) below shows:
void foo(int bar)
{
printf("this is");
if (bar < 1)
{
printf("not ");
}
printf("a positive integer");
return;
}
If the function "foo" was called with variable "bar = -1", statement coverage would be achieved. Condition coverage, however, would not.
Full path coverage, of the type described above, is usually impractical or impossible. Any module with a succession of <math>n</math> decisions in it can have up to <math>2^n</math> paths within it; loop constructs can result in an infinite number of paths. Many paths may also be infeasible, in that there is no input to the program under test that can cause that particular path to be executed. However, a general-purpose algorithm for identifying infeasible paths has been proven to be impossible (such an algorithm could be used to solve the [[halting problem]]). Techniques for practical path coverage testing instead attempt to identify classes of code paths that differ only in the number of loop executions, and to achieve "basis path" coverage the tester must cover all the path classes.
Usually the source code is instrumented and run through a series of tests. The resulting output is then analysed to see what areas of code have not been exercised, and the tests are updated to include these areas as necessary. Combined with other code coverage methods the aim is to develop a rigorous yet manageable set of regression tests.
Code coverage is ultimately expressed as a percentage, as in "We have tested 67% of the code". The meaning of this depends on what form(s) of code coverage have been used, as 67% path coverage is more comprehensive than 67% statement coverage.
The value of code coverage as a measure of test quality is debated (see external links).
== See also ==
* [[Software metric]]
* [[Regression testing]]
* [[Static code analysis]]
* [[White box testing]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.bullseye.com/coverage.html Code Coverage Analysis]
* [http://www.javaranch.com/newsletter/200401/IntroToCodeCoverage.html Introduction to Code Coverage]
* [http://www-128.ibm.com/developerworks/java/library/j-cq01316/?ca=dnw-704 Don't be fooled by the coverage report]
* [http://auteurs.blog-city.com/coverage_tools_reduces_test_quality.htm Why coverage tools will reduce your test quality]
* Tools:
** [http://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/gcc/Gcov-Intro.html gcov - a GNU Test Coverage Program]
** [http://www.digitalmars.com/d/code_coverage.html D programming language code coverage analysis tool]
** [http://emma.sourceforge.net/ EMMA, a tool for code coverage in Java]
** [http://www.ncover.org/ NCover, a tool for testing code coverage on the .NET runtime]
[[Category:Software testing]]
[[Category:Software metrics]]
[[de:Testabdeckung]]
[[fr:Couverture de code]]
[[ru:Покрытие кода]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Charles Xavier Joseph De Franque Ville Abancourt</title>
<id>7032</id>
<revision>
<id>15905133</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-13T14:18:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>62.253.64.7</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Charles d'Abancourt]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Caitlin Clarke</title>
<id>7033</id>
<revision>
<id>38828817</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T22:34:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Krash</username>
<id>219529</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Film */ [[Penn & Teller Get Killed]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Caitlin Clarke''' ([[May 3]], [[1952]] - [[September 9]], [[2004]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[theater]] and [[film]] [[actor|actress]]. She was best known for her role of Valerian in the [[1981]] fantasy film ''[[Dragonslayer]]'', and for her role of '''Charlotte Cardoza''' in the [[1998]]-[[1999]] [[Broadway_theater|Broadway]] [[musical theater|musical]] ''[[Titanic (musical)|Titanic]]''.
==Biography==
Clarke was born '''Katherine Anne Clarke''' in [[Pittsburgh]]. received her B.A. in theater from [[Mount Holyoke College]] in 1974 and M.F.A. from the [[Yale School of Drama]] in 1978 (where during her final year she performed with the [[Yale Repertory Theater]]).
The first few years of Clarke's professional career were almost completely theatrical; yet these were when she played the role for which she is best known, as Valerian in the [[1981]] [[Paramount Pictures|Paramount]]/[[Walt Disney Pictures|Disney]] film ''[[Dragonslayer]]''. After appearing in three [[Broadway_theater|Broadway]] plays in [[1985]], Clarke moved to [[Los Angeles]] for several years as a [[film]] and [[television]] actress. She returned to [[theater]] in the early 1990's, and to [[Broadway_theater|Broadway]] as Charlotte Cardoza in ''[[Titanic (musical)|Titanic]]''.
Clarke was diagnosed with [[ovarian cancer]] in [[2000]]. She returned to [[Pittsburgh]] to teach [[theater]] at the [[University of Pittsburgh]] and at a local [[conservator |
ry one of these laws in 1939; the only change was that the yellow hat was changed to a yellow star.
In general, it should be noted that these Christian laws were directed against Jews as a religious group and not against converts to Christianity, while Nazi policy targeted all those of Jewish descent. Also these laws have to be put in proper context, e.g. a medieval law demanding of Jews to wear specific clothes seems less outrageous when considering that it was common at that time to have strict dress codes for different classes.
==Reasons that anti-Semitism continued==
The isolation of Jews as a ''special case'' may be a partial cause of both beneficial and detrimental special treatment of the Jews. This ''special case'' treatment can be seen from very early times, into the present in both politics and religion.
A classical Christian principle is that all people must know God as revealed through [[Jesus]], as that is the only way that anyone can avoid damnnation and gain eternal life in Heaven. To the service of this religious motive, Christian rulers applied the same tools of the Roman empire. Many Christian rulers argued that those who take away the possibility of eternal life should be prevented by force; especially apostates from the Christian faith or those who drew converts away from the Church, since this would be worse than murder or any purely temporal evil. Therefore, at times, no public displays of any non-Christian religion were allowed, and proselytizing to convert people away from Christianity was also forbidden: sometimes purely for reason of Empire, sometimes more directly arising from the power and authority of the Church.
A special case had always been reserved for the Jewish religion. Christians have believed that the Jewish practices were prefigures of the Christian ones, and that they may not be forcibly stopped (although Christians never ceased from attempting to convert Jews). This singling out of Jews had the negative side-effect of isolating Jews into a special class, as a group excluded from the general rule.
For example, Christian law forbade Christians to lend money and reclaim it with interest; Jewish law likewise had the same restrictions. But during the middle-ages, European Christian nobility often forced Jews to take on this role; over time, some Jews naturally played an important role in the economies of the Middle Ages. On many occasions, when their high-powered debtors decided they did not want to pay back their debts, they relied on the "Christ's murderers" tradition to expel the Jews and default on their obligations. To many, this would appear to be a case of misuse of Scripture and tradition to justify actions that would otherwise be condemned.
An almost automatic respect is often accorded to a Jewish convert to Christianity, which goes hand in hand with a special contempt for Jewish [[apostasy]] from Christianity. Especially strong fascination with Jews and Judaism, both positive and negative, has typified Christianity from the beginning. No family lineage has the significance to Christianity that belongs to every Jew, simply by being born Jewish. Special interest in their history and religion has occasionally produced among Christians a special interest in winning their conversion; the dark side of which, is that an especially virulent disdain has been reserved for ethnically Jewish converts to Christianity who practice Judaism after conversion to Christianity, or revert to Judaism. The logical assumption that Jews should understand Jesus better than anyone makes Jewish rejection of Christian claims felt with unique disappointment, sometimes erupting into hatred and violence toward them, for reasons that would not even remotely apply to any other ethnic group. This has been the important cause of Christian anti-semitism for centuries, and especially during the [[Inquisition]].
As any other religion, Christianity is transmitted through the voices of humans. The shape of anti-Semitism in the Christian world has changed so much according to place and time that, on nearly anyone's account, it is unfair to say Christians ''per se'' have taught anti-Semitism. It should also be noted that anti-Semitism never was part of Christian doctrine, even before the [[Second Vatican Council]] denounced it. Nonetheless, Christian anti-Semites have often turned to Christian scripture to justify their actions.
==19th- and 20th-century Christian anti-Semitism==
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In the [[Papal States]], which existed until [[1870]], Jews were required to live only in specified neighborhoods called [[ghetto]]s. Until the 1840s, they were required to regularly attend sermons urging their conversion to Christianity. Only Jews were taxed to support state boarding schools for Jewish converts to Christianity. It was illegal to convert from Christianity to Judaism. Sometimes Jews were baptized involuntarily, and, even when such baptisms were illegal, forced to practice the Christian religion. In many such cases the state separated them from their families. See [[Edgardo Mortara]] for an account of one of the most widely publicized instances of acrimony between Catholics and Jews in the [[Papal States]] in the second half of the 19th century.
In the 19th and (before the end of the second World War) 20th centuries, the Roman Catholic church adhered to a distinction between "good anti-Semitism" and "bad anti-Semitism". The "bad" kind promoted hatred of Jews because of their descent. This was considered un-Christian because the Christian message was intended for all of humanity regardless of ethnicity; anyone could become a Christian. The "good" kind criticized alleged Jewish conspiracies to control newspapers, banks, and other institutions, to care only about accumulation of wealth, etc. Many Catholic bishops wrote articles criticizing Jews on such grounds, and, when accused of promoting hatred of Jews, would remind people that they condemned the "bad" kind of anti-Semitism. A detailed account is found in historian [[David Kertzer]]'s book ''The Popes Against the Jews''.
However, many scholars seriously dispute Kertzer's findings. Jose Sanchez, history professor at St. Louis University criticized Kertzer's work as polemical and exaggerating the papacy's role in anti-Semitism [http://www.americamagazine.org/BookReview.cfm?articletypeid=31&textID=1389&issueID=357 1]. Scholar of Jewish-Christian relations [[Rabbi David G. Dalin]] criticized Kertzer in an Oct. 29, 2001 article in the Weekly Standard http://www.chretiens-et-juifs.org/article.php?voir[]=1700&voir[]=1182 -(Linking Problem: Copy & Paste whole link into your browser) for selectively using evidence. Ronald J. Rychlak, lawyer and author of <i> Hitler, the War, and the Pope </i>, also decried Kertzer's work for omitting strong evidence that the Church was not anti-Semitic [http://www.catholicleague.org/research/kertzer.htm 2].
<!--To be written. Will include Catholic preachings against the Jews in WWII Boston, MA; Cardinal Glemp's statements against the Jews in Poland; Reaction to Vatican II by traditionalists; etc., actions of fundamentalist Evangelical preachers in the US, etc.-->
==The "White Power" movement==
The [[Christian Identity]] movement, the [[Ku Klux Klan]] and other [[White supremacy]] groups claim to be very strongly Christian in nature; they are vehemently anti-Semitic, as well as racist. The Klan is also demonstrably anti-Catholic. A racial belief common among these groups, but not universal, is an [[Historical revisionism (political)|alternative history]] doctrine, sometimes called [[British Israelism]]. In some forms this doctrine absolutely denies that modern Jews have any racial connection to Israel of the Bible. Instead, according to extreme forms of this doctrine, the true racial Israel and true humans, are the Adamic (white) race.
==Anti-Semitism in modern-day nations==
Anti-Semitism in Europe remains a substantial problem. The entry on [[Religious freedom in Poland]] discusses the current state of religious tensions in predominantly Catholic Poland. Anti-Semitism exists to a lesser or greater degree in many other nations as well, including Eastern Europe, the former Soviet Union, and the occasional tensions between some Muslim immigrants and Jews across Europe. Some European nations have singled out Jewish dietary practices for regulation; at least five nations have banned the production of [[kosher]] meat. The [[US State Department]] reports that anti-Semitism has increased dramatically in Europe and Eurasia since [[2000]] ([http://usinfo.state.gov/eur/Archive/2005/Jan/05-93928.html]).
While in a decline since the 1940s, there is still a measurable amount of anti-Semitism in the United States of America as well, although acts of violence are rare. The 2001 survey by the [[Anti-Defamation League]] reported 1432 acts of anti-Semitism in the United States that year. The figure included 877 acts of harassment, including verbal intimidation, threats and physical assaults.[http://www.adl.org/PresRele/ASUS_12/4057_12.asp]
==Current attempts to convert Jews to Christianity==
The Southern Baptist Convention, the largest Protestant Christian denomination in the U.S., has explicitly rejected suggestions that it should back away from seeking to convert Jews, a position that critics have called anti-Semitic but that Baptists see as consistent with their view that salvation is found solely through faith in Christ. In 1996, the SBC approved a resolution calling for efforts to seek the conversion of Jews "as well as for the salvation of 'every kindred and tongue and people and nation.'"
Most [[Evangelicalism|Evangelicals]] agree with the SBC position, and some have similarly been supporting efforts specifically seeking Jews' conversion. At the same time these groups are among the |
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