text stringlengths 1.83k 10k |
|---|
oldest, richest, and most famous of American seats of learning." The first two facts remain true today; the third is also arguably true. As of 2005, Harvard was ranked first among world universities by [[Times Higher Education Supplement]] and the [[Academic Ranking of World Universities]][http://ed.sjtu.edu.cn/rank/2005/ARWU2005_Top100.htm] and shared the first spot with [[Princeton_University|Princeton]] in [[US News and World Report]] rankings.
Perhaps because of this prominence, Harvard is the target of a number of criticisms, some of them leveled at other research-based American universities. It has been accused of [[grade inflation]], as have other Ivy League institutions and [[Stanford University]].{{ref|princetongrades}}. The [[Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching]], ''[[The New York Times]]'', and some students have criticized Harvard for its reliance on [[teaching assistant|teaching fellows]] in undergraduate education, as many in the faculty are engaged in research (assistant teaching is not taken into account by the major [[college and university rankings]]); they consider this to be detrimental to the quality of education.{{ref|nytimestfteach}}{{ref|carnegietfteach}} The New York Times article also detailed that the problem was prevalent in other Ivy League schools.
The Boston Globe reported obtaining a 21-page Harvard internal memorandum that expressed concern about undergraduate student satisfaction based on the Consortium on Financing Higher Education (COFHE) survey of 31 top universities. [http://www.boston.com/news/education/higher/articles/2005/03/29/student_life_at_harvard_lags_peer_schools_poll_finds/] The Harvard internal memorandum noted that: "Harvard students are less satisfied with their undergraduate educations than the students at almost all of the other COFHE schools. Harvard student satisfaction compares even less favorably to satisfaction at our closest peer institutions." While the actual survey results as reported by the Globe are open to interpretation, the Harvard Crimson editorial board opined that "we believe the implications of this survey are significant, and the administration ought to make satisfying undergraduates a top priority for the near future." [http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=506807] The Globe quoted Lawrence Buell, former Harvard Dean of Undergraduate Education, as saying "I think we have to concede that we are letting our students down."
The Globe presented COFHE survey results and quotes from Harvard students that suggest problems with faculty availability, quality of instruction, quality of advising, social life on campus, and sense of community dating back to at least 1994. The magazine section of the Harvard Crimson echoed similar academic and social criticisms. [http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=350153] [http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=350154] The Harvard Crimson quoted Harvard College Dean Benedict Gross as being aware of and committed to improving the issues raised by the COFHE survey. [http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=506758] However, in the same article, Harvard Professor Harvey C. Mansfield expressed skepticism at the willingness of faculty to improve the undergraduate experience: "I think the administration has a commitment to improving Harvard, but I don't think the majority of the faculty does. They are the ones who are complacent and deserve most of the criticism."
The undergraduate admissions office's [[legacy preferences|preference for children of alumni]]{{ref|legacy}} has been the subject of much scrutiny and debate. Under new financial aid guidelines, parents in families with incomes of less than $40,000 will no longer be expected to contribute any money at all to the cost of attending Harvard for their children, including room and board. Families in the $40,000 to $60,000 contribute an amount of only a few thousand dollars a year.
Harvard and Harvard students have also frequently been criticized for self-promotion in various forms, although it is somewhat unclear how this differentiates Harvard from the school pride of any other university. In ''"A Flood of Crimson Ink"'' ([[Wall Street Journal]], April, 2005) [http://www.opinionjournal.com/forms/printThis.html?id=110006623], the author asserts that one reason Harvard receives much attention from the press is because "Harvard graduates are disproportionately represented in the upper echelons of American journalism." Critics of Harvard self-marketing charge that the school is filled with students "specifically selected for their skills at self-promotion" [http://maroon.uchicago.edu/viewpoints/articles/2005/05/09/its_no_surprise_that.php]. This undoubtedly applies to other top schools in view of what is necessary to gain acceptance to highly competitve universities in the U.S. today.
==Further reading==
*John T. Bethell, ''Harvard Observed: An Illustrated History of the University in the Twentieth Century'', Harvard University Press, 1998, ISBN 0674377338
*<span id="Trumpbour">John Trumpbour, ed.</span>, ''How Harvard Rules'', Boston: South End Press, 1989, ISBN 0896082830
*Hoerr, John, ''We Can't Eat Prestige: The Women Who Organized Harvard;'' Temple University Press, 1997, ISBN 1566395356
==External links==
{{commons|Harvard}}
*[http://www.harvard.edu/ Harvard University]
{{Mapit-US-buildingscale|42.376253|-71.116433}}
==References==
# {{note|endowment}} Zachary M. Seward. "Endowment Up 21 Percent". ''[[The Harvard Crimson]]''. [[September 15]], [[2004]]. http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=503347
# {{note|worldrankings}} "World University Rankings". ''[[The Times]]'' Educational Supplement. http://www.thes.co.uk/worldrankings/
# {{note|acceptancerate}} Daniel J. T. Schuker. "Admissions Rate Sets New Low". ''The Harvard Crimson''. [[April 4]], [[2005]]. http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=506804
# {{note|atlanticselective}} Don Peck. "The Selectivity Illusion". ''[[The Atlantic Monthly]]''. November 2003. http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/prem/200311/peck
# {{note|rogers}} Rogers, Mary F. (1991) ''Novels, Novelists, and Readers: Toward a Phenomenological Sociology of Literature''. SUNY Press, ISBN SUNY Press p. 102 (List of Harvard-atmosphere items mentioned in first two chapters)
# {{note|king}} [http://www.thecrimson.harvard.edu/article.aspx?ref=357405 Ruffling Religious Feathers], Harvard Crimson article, February 12, 2004: "symbology" doesn't exist, and semiology isn't represented at Harvard.
# {{note|usnews}} "The Best Graduate Schools 2006". ''[[U.S. News & World Report]]''. http://www.usnews.com/usnews/edu/grad/rankings/rankindex_brief.php
# {{note|kaplan}} Kaplan (2004), ''Unofficial, Unbiased Guide to the 331 Most Interesting Colleges 2005,'' p. 174; Simon and Schuster, ISBN 0743251997 ("Duke: the Harvard of the North")
# {{note|steinberg}} Steinberg, Stephen (2001), '''The Ethnic Myth'''. Beacon Press, ISBN 080704153X. (Harvard most democratic of the Big Three under Eliot, p. 234)
# {{note|baltzell}} (1994) Baltzell, Digby E. and Howard G. Schneiderman, ''Judgment and Sensibility: Religion and Stratification." Transaction Publishers, ISBN 0819550442 1560000481. The material cited is a review of a book by Ronald Story (1980), ''The Forging of an Aristocracy: Harvard and the Boston Upper Class, 1800-1870'', Wesleyan University Press, ISBN 0819550442.
# {{note|story2}} Story, Ronald (1980), ''The Forging of an Aristocracy: Harvard and the Boston Upper Class, 1800-1870'', Wesleyan University Press, ISBN 0819550442 (p. 50: Harvard's explosive growth from 1800 to 1850 separate it from other colleges)
# {{note|story3}} Story (1980) op. cit. p. 97, (1815-1855 as the era when Harvard began to be perceived as socially advantageous)
# {{note|uselection2004}} Rebecca D. O'Brien. "Kerry Tops Crimson Poll". ''The Harvard Crimson''. [[October 29]], [[2004]]. http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=504151
# {{note|Burr}} Ty Burr. "Reel Boston". ''The Boston Globe''. [[February 27]], [[2005]]. http://www.boston.com/news/globe/magazine/articles/2005/02/27/reel_boston/
# {{note|Catalano}} Nina M. Catalano. "Harvard TV Show Popular in Korea". ''The Harvard Crinsom''. [[December 13]], [[2004]]. http://www.thecrimson.com/printerfriendly.aspx?ref=505050
# {{note|gradeinflation1}} Linda Wertheimer. "Harvard Grade Inflation". ''[[All Things Considered]]''. [[National Public Radio]]. [[November 21]], [[2001]]. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1133702
# {{note|gradeinflation2}} Rebecca M. Milzoff, Amit R. Paley, and Brendan J. Reed. "Grade Inflation is Real". ''Fifteen Minutes''. [[March 1]], [[2001]]. http://www.thecrimson.com/fmarchives/fm_03_01_2001/article4A.html
# {{note|princetongrades}} "Princeton becomes first to formally combat grade inflation". [[Associated Press]]. [[April 26]], [[2004]]. http://www.usatoday.com/news/education/2004-04-26-princeton-grades_x.htm
# {{note|nytimestfteach}} David L. Hicks. "Should Our Colleges Be Ranked?" Letter to ''The New York Times''. [[September 20]], [[2002]]. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9803E5D71130F933A1575AC0A9649C8B63
# {{note|carnegietfteach}} John Merrow. "Grade Inflation: It's Not Just an Issue for the Ivy League". ''Carnegie Perspectives''. The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. June 2004. http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/perspectives/perspectives2004.June.htm
# {{note|yaletfteach1}} Mark Alden Branch. "Who's Teaching Whom?" ''[[Yale University|Yale]] Alumni Magazine''. Summer 1999 http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/99_07/GESO.html
# {{note|dartmouthtfteach}} http://www.dartreview.com/archives/19 |
m [[Hobart]] by the [[Australian Antarctic Division]] of the Australian [[Department of the Environment and Heritage (Australia)|Department of the Environment and Heritage]]. They are populated by large numbers of [[seal (mammal)|seal]] and [[bird]] species. The islands are contained within a 65, 000 square kilometer marine reserve and are primarily visited for research.
From [[1947]] until the 1950's there were camps of visiting scientists on Heard Island (at Atlas Cove) and in [[1971]] on McDonald Island (at Williams Bay).
There is no economic activity, but they have been assigned the [[country code]] HM and [[Internet]] [[top-level domain]] [[.hm]].
<br clear="all">
== History ==
[[Image:Heard_Island.jpg|right|thumb|400px|Heard Island, from [[NASA]] [[World Wind]]]]
[[Image:Heard_Island_McDonald_Islands.png|right|thumb|182px|Map from ''[[The World Factbook]]'']]
Heard Island did not have visitors until the mid-1850s. It is probable that no human had ever seen the Island until this time. Peter Kemp, a British sealer (seal hunter), was the first person thought to have seen the island on [[November 27]], [[1833]], from the [[brig]] ''Magnet'' during a voyage from [[Kerguelen]] to the Antarctic and was believed to have entered the island in his [[1833]] chart.
Captain John Heard, an American sealer on the ship ''Oriental'', sighted the island on [[November 25]], [[1853]], en route from [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] to [[Melbourne]]. He reported the discovery one month later and had the island named after him. Coincidentally, Captain William McDonald aboard the ''Samarang'' discovered the McDonald Islands close to Heard Island shortly afterwards on [[January 4]], [[1854]].
No landing was made on the islands until March [[1855]], when sealers from the ''Corinthian'' led by Captain Erasmus Darwin Rogers went ashore, at a place called oil barrel point. In the sealing period from 1855&ndash;1880, a number of [[United States|American]] sealers spent a year or more on the island, living in appalling conditions in dark smelly huts, also at oil barrel point. At its peak the community populated 200 people. By 1880, most of the seal population had been wiped out and the sealers left the island. In all, more than 100,000 barrels of [[elephant seal]] oil was produced during this period.
There are a number of wrecks in the vicinity of the islands.
The islands have been part of [[Australia]] since [[1947]], and became a [[World Heritage Site]] in [[1997]].
== Trivia ==
The McDonalds Islands share a namesake with a worldwide famous fast food restaurant.
==See also==
*[[Sub-antarctic isla''nds]]
==External links==
*[http://www.heardisland.aq Heard Island and McDonald Islands official website]
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/hm.html CIA World Factbook entry]
*[http://modis.gsfc.nasa.gov/gallery/individual.php?db_date=2004-10-05 MODIS satellite image], taken [[September 30]], [[2004]] and showing a [[Theodore von Kármán|von Kármán]] [[Von Kármán vortex street|vortex street]] in the clouds, caused by Mawson Peak's effect on the wind
*[http://www.deh.gov.au/coasts/mpa/heard/ Heard Island and McDonald Islands Marine Reserve page on Department of the Environment and Heritage website]
*[http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=577 World Heritage Site entry]
*[http://www.btinternet.com/~sa_sa/heard_island/heard.html Fan's page] with further historical and geographic information and a map
*[http://www.travel-images.com/heard-mcdonald.html Image gallery]
*[http://www.hidxa.nlk.nf Heard Island DX Association] [[amateur radio]] site
*[http://www.infoplease.com/spot/desertisland7.html HMI at Infoplease]
{{Australia}}
{{Template:World Heritage Sites In Australia}}
<!--interwiki-->
[[Category:Islands of Australia]]
[[Category:Sub-antarctic islands]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Australia]]
[[cs:Heardův ostrov a McDonaldovy ostrovy]]
[[de:Heard- und McDonald-Inseln]]
[[es:Islas Heard y McDonald]]
[[fr:Îles Heard et McDonald]]
[[he:האי הרד ואיי מקדונלד]]
[[ja:ハード島とマクドナルド諸島]]
[[nl:Heard- en McDonaldeilanden]]
[[no:Heard- og McDonaldsøyene]]
[[pl:Wyspy Heard i McDonalda]]
[[pt:Ilha Heard e Ilhas McDonald]]
[[simple:Heard Island and the McDonald Islands]]
[[sl:Otok Heard in otočje McDonald]]
[[sv:Heard- och McDonaldsöarna]]
[[tr:Heard Adası ve McDonald Adaları]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heard Island and McDonald Islands/History</title>
<id>13384</id>
<revision>
<id>15910999</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-20T17:12:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heard Island and McDonald Islands/Geography</title>
<id>13385</id>
<revision>
<id>15911000</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-07T16:20:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]] -- merged</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heard Island and McDonald Islands/People</title>
<id>13386</id>
<revision>
<id>15911001</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-20T17:12:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heard Island and McDonald Islands/Government</title>
<id>13387</id>
<revision>
<id>15911002</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-07T16:20:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]] -- merged</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Heard Island and McDonald Islands</title>
<id>13388</id>
<revision>
<id>15911003</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-07T16:20:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]] -- merged</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heard Island and McDonald Islands/Communications</title>
<id>13389</id>
<revision>
<id>15911004</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-07T16:20:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]] -- merged</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heard Island and McDonald Islands/Transportation</title>
<id>13390</id>
<revision>
<id>15911005</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-07T16:20:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]] -- merged</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heard Island and McDonald Islands/Military</title>
<id>13391</id>
<revision>
<id>15911006</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-07T16:20:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]] -- merged</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heard Island and McDonald Islands/Transnational issues</title>
<id>13392</id>
<revision>
<id>15911007</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-30T19:39:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]] -- page had no content</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Holy See</title>
<id>13393</id>
<revision>
<id>41325444</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T16:21:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pmadrid</username>
<id>80772</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Diplomacy of the Holy See */ the holy see is not a state</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:holysee-arms.png|thumb|right|The [[coat of arms]] of the Holy See]]
The '''Holy See''' ([[Latin]]: ''Sancta Sedes'', lit. "holy seat") is the [[episcopal see]] of [[Rome]]. The incumbent of this see is the [[Bishop of Rome]], more commonly referred to as the [[Pope]]. The term '''Holy See''', as used in [[canon law]], also refers to the Pope and the [[Roman Curia]]&mdash;in effect, the central government of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]&mdash;and is the sense more widely used today.
The Holy See is also called the "[[Apostolic See]]", although this name properly refers to any see founded by the [[Apostle|Apostles]] and especially to the three original [[patriarch|patriarchal]] sees of [[Rome]] ([[St. Peter|St. Peter]] and [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]), [[Alexandria]] ([[St. Mark]]) and [[Antioch]] (St. Peter). Later [[Constantinople]], allegedly founded by [[St. Andrew]], and [[Jerusalem]], restored after its period as a pagan city, were also numbered among the [[patriarch|patriarchal]] sees. The five |
absorbing or displacing the Vardulli, Caristi, and Autrigones, and from this emerged the Basque nation.''
The pre-history of the Basques before that time is necessarily conjectural. Among the theories in contention are:
# The Basques arrived as part of the [[Indo-European]] invasion of [[Europe]], ''circa'' 2000 BC.
# The Basques arrived far earlier, when the [[Cro-Magnon]] invasion displaced the [[Homo neanderthalensis]].
In any event, it is widely believed that the Basques have occupied a single region of Europe longer than any other identifiable ethnic group. There is also considerable evidence that the Basque language was once spoken over a much wider area than the modern day Basque country.
The [[Middle Ages]] and the [[Reconquista]] extended the Basque territory beyond the limits of the Roman age.
==== Did the Basques arrive with the Indo-Europeans? ====
One theory of the origins for the Basques has them arriving along with the Indo-Europeans four thousand years ago. There have been later examples of such an event. During the [[Germanic migrations]] that swept Europe after the fall of Rome, for instance, almost all the tribes were Indo-Europeans, except the [[Huns]] and the [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]].
Furthermore it is now believed the Indo-Europeans began their invasion of Europe from a position just north of, and between, the [[Black Sea]] and [[Caspian Sea]]. South of this region is the [[Caucasus (geographic region)|Caucasus]], a small and mountainous region home to some thirty separate languages, from two separate language groups of which there are no other relatives. Similarities between Basque and the [[Caucasian languages|Caucasian language groups]] have been advocated on a number of occasions. It has been argued that a group of Caucasians could have joined the invasion of Europe by the Indo-Europeans who were departing just north of them. However, the relationship between Basque and the Caucasian languages is denied by authors such as [[Larry Trask]] who see no evidence of a connection (and most modern scholars agree with this view), leaving little evidence for this theory.
A second argument against the idea of the Basques arriving sometime around the arrival of the Indo-Europeans is archaeological. There is no evidence of a new group of people arriving in the Basque Country at this time. While traditions changed (for instance the building of [[dolmen]]s slowly faded out) such changes often occur internally to a culture rather than through the arrival of immigrants.
====Do the Basques date back to the Cro-Magnon invasion of Europe?====
The only archaeological evidence for an invasion of the Basque Country dates some 40,000 years ago when [[Cro-Magnon]] people first arrived in Europe and superseded ''[[Homo neanderthalensis]]''. It is possible that the ancestors of the Basques first arrived in Europe at this time, but the archeological evidence is shaky. Another possibility is that a precursor of the Basque language may have arrived with the advance of [[agriculture]], some 6,000 years ago. There is also an extended supposition, where some Basque mythological creatures called "[[jentilak]]" (these were huge and extremely strong humanoids who lived hidden in the forest) are thought to be related to the Neanderthal men, strengthening the theory of the Basques in the Cro-Magnon age. Note, though, that the myth of the [[Wild Man]] is not exclusively Basque.
DNA methods to seeking ancient ancestry are increasingly in use [http://cmpg.unibe.ch/teaching/HGH_3rdcourse_2005.pdf] [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bsc/ahg/2005/00000069/00000006/art00006], [http://news.boisestate.edu/newsrelease/archive/2005/072005/0726basquedna.html], This is a particularly powerful tool for this purpose, although it can have technical problems [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bsc/ahg/2005/00000069/00000006/art00006]. An interesting aside is that Parkinson's disease may relate to the Basque dardarin mutation [http://www.mdvu.org/emove/article.asp?ID=811]. However, "...there is a general consensus scientific that the Basques represent the most direct descendants of the hunter-gatherers who dwelt in Europe before the spread of agriculture, based on both linguistic and genetic evidence..." [http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/21/7/1361].
The Basque people are widely thought to be descended from some of the earliest human inhabitants of Europe; their genetic markers also show a very strong relationship with the [[Celt]]s. See e.g. [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/98/9/5078#B30]. The genetic markers shared in common between the Basque and Celts are suggestive of having passed through a genetic bottleneck during the peak of the last [[ice age]], which would mean they were in Europe by at least about 17,000 years ago, and probably 45,000 to 50,000 years ago.
For some authors, the Basque language also shows signs of dating back to the stone age, such as by having words for knife and axe that may come from the root word for stone {{ref|KurlanskyHaitz}}- suggesting that the language developed when knives and axes were made of stone.
[[Luis Villasante]] has proposed Latinate etymologies though.
====Thousands of years in the same region====
Regardless of which theories are correct, it is quite likely that the Basques arrived before the [[Indo-European]]s and thus that they are the oldest continuously surviving people inhabiting a particular location in Europe. It is believed that they have lived in or near their present location for thousands of years, a relatively small group of people surviving when many others were overwhelmed by invaders. A number of early Basque writers sought to explain this, in keeping with the academic fashion of their time, through speculation about racial superiority, but the endurance of the Basques can also be explained by good fortune: they happened to be in the right place over and over again.
Whether the Basques chose their easily defended home in the Pyrenees or were forced into it at some time in the past, it is common for mountainous regions, as for islands, to remain as bastions of an otherwise vanished culture or people. In a similar manner, for example, when the extensive Celtic cultures of Europe were overwhelmed by invaders, the only remaining areas speaking [[Celtic language]]s were [[Ireland]] and a number of remote mountainous or coastal bastions in [[Brittany]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]] and so forth which still retain Celtic speakers to the present day. Despite the fact that new research has claimed that the Basque speaking populations may share genetic markers with populations of [[Celts]] in [[Ireland]] and [[Wales]] - [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/1256894.stm], there is little reason to suppose that [[Indo-European]] Celtic languages are closely related to Basque. It may be the case that older British populations related to the Iberian population switched to Celtic, but we can only speculate on whether these ancient Irish and British speakers were using a precursor to Basque or some other language.
In any case, the Basque homeland is well suited to survival. Its low mountains are combined with dense forests and vegetation which make it impassable to outsiders ''en masse'', but still temperate enough to support a large agricultural base&mdash;one where the soil is poorer than the surrounding plains, leaving the area a much less tempting target for invaders. Furthermore, the Basque areas have few reserves of precious metals, especially in comparison to the gold reserves to the west in Spain or to the wealth in [[Gascony]] just to the north. The Basques seem to have ended up in the best locale on the European continent for uninterrupted survival.
===Roman rule===
The north-west of Spain, including the Basque regions, was first reached by the Romans under [[Pompey]] in the [[1st century BC]], but not consolidated until the time of the Emperor [[Augustus]]. The looseness of Roman rule well suited the Basques, who retained their traditional laws and leadership. This poor region was little developed by the Romans and there is not much evidence of Romanization; this certainly contributed to the survival of the separate Basque language.
A large Roman presence was situated in the garrison of Pompaelo (now [[Pamplona]]), a city founded by Pompey on the south side of the Pyrenees. The area to the north was conquered after a fierce campaign in which the Romans fought against the Cantabrians (see [[Cantabrian Wars]]). There are archaeological remains from this period of garrisons situated to protect the commercial routes all along the Ebro river and along a [[Roman causeway]] between [[Astorga (Spain)|Asturica]] and [[Burdigala]].
The Basques were used by the Romans to guard their empire. For example, a unit of Vardulli was stationed on [[Hadrian's Wall]] in the north of Britain for many years, and at some time earned the title ''fida'' (faithful) for some now forgotten service to the emperor. Even today, nationalist Basques look back on the Roman Empire as an ideal time, claiming that even though there was no Basque independence, the Basques still had almost total internal control. As well as their lack of exposure to Roman garrisons, the survival of Basque culture was aided by the fact that the Basque Country was a poor region. It had no unused cropland that could be used to settle Roman colonists and it had few commodities that would interest the Romans. Only a small number of Roman traders would have come there. This isolation is no doubt what allowed Basque to survive and not be overwhelmed by Latin as other languages were.
===Middle Ages===
The history of the Basque Country darkens, however, with the arrival of the Germanic peoples and the collapse of the Roman Empire. Rather than being an isolated area in the centre of a large empire, the Basques were placed at the border between the warring [[Visigoth |
he [[human genome]] consists of protein-coding [[exons]]. The function of the rest is a matter of speculation. It is known that certain nucleotide sequences specify affinity for [[DNA binding protein]]s, which play a wide variety of vital roles, in particular through control of replication and transcription. These sequences are frequently called [[regulatory sequence]]s, and researchers assume that so far they have identified only a tiny fraction of the total that exist. "[[Junk DNA]]" represents sequences that do not yet appear to contain genes or to have a function. The reasons for the presence of so much [[non-coding DNA]] in [[eukaryotic]] genomes and the extraordinary differences in [[genome size]] ("[[C-value]]") among species represent a long-standing puzzle in DNA research known as the "[[C-value enigma]]".
Some DNA sequences play structural roles in chromosomes. [[Telomer]]s and [[centromere]]s typically contain few (if any) protein-coding genes, but are important for the function and stability of chromosomes. Some genes code for "RNA genes" (see [[tRNA]] and [[rRNA]]). Some RNA genes code for transcripts that function as regulatory RNAs (see [[RNA interference|siRNA]]) that influence the function of other RNA molecules. The intron-exon structure of some genes (such as immunoglobin and protocadeherin genes) is important for allowing alternative splicing of pre-mRNA which allows several different proteins to be made from the same gene. Some non-coding DNA represents [[pseudogene]]s that can be used as raw material for the creation of new genes with new functions. Some non-coding DNA provided hot-spots for duplication of short DNA regions; such sequence duplication has been the major form of genetic change in the human lineage (see evidence from the [[Chimpanzee Genome Project]]). Exons interspersed with introns
allows for "exon shuffling" and the creation of modified genes that might have new adaptive functions. Large amounts of non-coding DNA is probably adaptive in that it provides chromosomal regions where [[Genetic recombination|recombination]] between homologous portions of chromosomes can take place without disrupting the function of genes. Some biologists such as [[Stuart Kauffman]] have speculated that non-coding DNA may modify the rate of evolution of a species.{{fact}}
Sequence also determines a DNA segment's susceptibility to cleavage by [[restriction enzyme]]s, the quintessential tools of [[genetic engineering]]. The position of cleavage sites throughout an individual's genome determines one kind of an individual's "[[DNA fingerprinting|DNA fingerprint]]".
==Replication==
''Main article:'' [[DNA replication]]
[[image:dna-split.png|frame|DNA replication]]
<!-- summary has been added, below, also include any extra context relevant for this article as well
..[[origin of replication]]...chromosome...plasmid...DNA polymerase...[[mutation]]...[a paragraph including these ideas would be useful and go well here]
-->
DNA replication or DNA synthesis is the process of copying the double-stranded DNA prior to [[cell division]]. The two resulting double strands are generally almost perfectly identical, but occasionally errors in replication or exposure to chemicals, or radiation can result in a less than perfect copy (see [[mutation]]), and each of them consists of one original and one newly synthesized strand. This is called ''[[semiconservative replication]]''. The process of replication consists of three steps: ''initiation'', ''elongation'' and ''termination''.
==Mechanical biological properties==
''Main article:'' [[Mechanical properties of DNA]].
===Strands association and dissociation===
The hydrogen bonds between the strands of the double helix are weak enough that they can be easily separated by [[enzyme]]s. Enzymes known as [[helicase]]s unwind the strands to facilitate the advance of sequence-reading enzymes such as [[DNA polymerase]]. The unwinding requires that helicases chemically cleave the phosphate backbone of one of the strands so that it can swivel around the other. The strands can also be separated by gentle heating, as used in [[PCR]], provided they have fewer than about 10,000 '''base pairs''' (10 kilobase pairs, or 10 kbp). The intertwining of the DNA strands makes long segments difficult to separate.
===Circular DNA===
When the ends of a piece of double-helical DNA are joined so that it forms a circle, as in [[plasmid]] DNA, the strands are [[knot theory|topologically]] knotted. This means they cannot be separated by gentle heating or by any process that does not involve breaking a strand. The task of unknotting topologically linked strands of DNA falls to enzymes known as [[topoisomerase]]s. Some of these enzymes unknot circular DNA by cleaving two strands so that another double-stranded segment can pass through. Unknotting is required for the replication of circular DNA as well as for various types of [[recombination]] in linear DNA.
===Great length versus tiny breadth===
The narrow breadth of the double helix makes it impossible to detect by conventional [[transmission electron microscope|electron microscopy]], except by heavy staining. At the same time, the DNA found in many cells can be macroscopic in length -- approximately 2 [[meter]]s long for strands in a human chromosome [http://hypertextbook.com/facts/1998/StevenChen.shtml]. Consequently, cells must compact or "package" DNA to carry it within them. This is one of the functions of the chromosomes, which contain spool-like [[protein]]s known as [[histone]]s, around which DNA winds.
===Entropic stretching behavior===
When DNA is in solution, it undergoes conformational fluctuations due to the energy available in the [[thermal bath]]. For [[Entropy|entropic]] reasons, more floppy states are thermally accessible than stretched out states; for this reason, a single molecule of DNA stretches similarly to a rubber band. Using [[optical tweezers]], the entropic stretching behavior of DNA has been studied and analyzed from a [[polymer physics]] perspective, and it has been found that DNA behaves like the ''Kratky-Porod'' [[worm-like chain]] model with a persistence length of about 53 nm.
Furthermore, DNA undergoes a stretching [[phase transition]] at a force of 65 [[Newtons|pN]]; above this force, DNA is thought to take the form that [[Linus Pauling]] originally hypothesized, with the phosphates in the middle and bases splayed outward. This proposed structure for overstretched DNA has been called "P-form DNA," in honor of Pauling.
===Different helix geometries===
The DNA helix can assume one of three slightly different geometries, of which the "B" form described by [[James D. Watson]] and [[Francis Crick]] is believed to predominate in cells. It is 2 [[nanometre]]s wide and extends 3.4 nanometres per 10 [[Base pair|bp]] of sequence. This is also the approximate length of sequence in which the double helix makes one complete turn about its axis. This frequency of twist (known as the helical ''pitch'') depends largely on stacking forces that each base exerts on its neighbors in the chain.
====Supercoiled DNA====
{{main|Supercoil}}
The B form of the DNA helix twists 360° per 10 bp in the absence of strain. But many molecular biological processes can induce strain. A DNA segment with excess or insufficient helical twisting is referred to, respectively, as positively or negatively "supercoiled". DNA ''in vivo'' is typically negatively supercoiled, which facilitates the unwinding of the double-helix required for [[transcription (genetics)|RNA transcription]].
====Sugar pucker====
There are four conformations that the [[ribofuranose]] rings in nucleotides can acquire:
# C-2' endo
# C-2' exo
# C-3' endo
# C-3' exo
Ribose is usually in C-3'endo, while deoxyribose is usually in the C-2' endo sugar pucker conformation.
The A and B forms differ mainly in their ''sugar pucker''. In the A form, the C3' configuration is above the sugar ring, whilst the C2' configuration is below it. Thus, the A form is described as "C3'-endo." Likewise, in the B form, the C2' configuration is above the sugar ring, whilst C3' is below; this is called "C2'-endo." Altered sugar puckering in A-DNA results in shortening the distance between adjacent phosphates by around one angstrom. This gives 11 to 12 base pairs to each helix in the DNA strand, instead of 10.5 in B-DNA. Sugar pucker gives uniform ribbon shape to DNA, a cylindrical open core, and also a deep major groove more narrow and pronounced that grooves found in B-DNA.
====A and Z helices formation====
The two other known double-helical forms of DNA, called A and [[Z-DNA|Z]], differ modestly in their geometry and dimensions. The A form appears likely to occur only in dehydrated samples of DNA, such as those used in [[crystallography|crystallographic]] experiments, and possibly in hybrid pairings of DNA and [[RNA]] strands. Segments of DNA that cells have [[methylation|methylated]] for regulatory purposes may adopt the Z geometry, in which the strands turn about the helical axis like a mirror image of the B form.
====Properties of different helical forms====
{| border="0" align="center" style="border: 1px solid #999; background-color:#FFFFFF"
|-align="center" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
!Geometry attribute
!A-form
!B-form
!Z-form
|-
|Helix sense ||align="center"| right-handed ||align="center"| right-handed ||align="center"| left-handed
|--bgcolor="#EFEFEF"
|Repeating unit ||align="right"| 1 bp ||align="right"| 1 bp ||align="right"| 2 bp
|-----
|Rotation/bp ||align="right"| 33.6° ||align="right"| 35.9° ||align="right"| 60°/2
|--bgcolor="#EFEFEF"
|Mean bp/turn ||align="right"| 10.7 ||align="right&q |
ABC]]), [[WHDH-TV|WHDH 7]] ([[NBC]]), [[WFXT|WFXT 25]] ([[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX]]), [[WSBK-TV|WSBK 38]] ([[UPN]]), and [[WLVI|WLVI 56]] ([[The WB Television Network|WB]]). Boston is also home to [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] station [[WGBH|WGBH 2]], which also operates [[WGBX|WGBX 44]]. WGBH is a major producer of PBS programs. Most Boston television stations have their transmitters in nearby [[Needham, Massachusetts|Needham]] and [[Newton, Massachusetts|Newton]].
===Sites of interest===
[[Image:FrogPondBostonCommon.JPG|thumb|250px|The Frog Pond in the Boston Common.]]
{{main|Sites of interest in Boston, Massachusetts}}
Because of the city's prominent role in the [[American Revolution]], several historic sites relating to that period are preserved as part of the [[Boston National Historical Park]]. Many are found along the [[Freedom Trail]], which is marked by a red line or bricks embedded in the ground. Also along the Freedom Trail is [[Boston Common]], with the [[Boston Public Garden]] being adjacent. Boston Common is part of the [[Emerald Necklace]], a string of parks designed by [[Frederick Law Olmstead]]. In the winter, the Frog Pond at Boston Common doubles as a popular ice-skating rink. Another major park is the [[Esplanade]] located along the banks of the [[Charles River]]. A major recreation site for many Bostonians, it is also the site of the [[Hatch Shell]]. Other parks are scattered throughout the city, with the major parks located near [[Castle Island]], Charlestown, the Dorchester shoreline, and East Boston.
[[Image:Boston Back Bay.jpg|thumb|250px|Back Bay]]
The [[Back Bay, Boston|Back Bay]] district includes many prominent landmarks such as the [[Church of Christ, Scientist|Christian Science Center]], [[Boston Public Library]], [[Copley Square]], and [[Newbury Street]]. Back Bay is also the home of two of New England's tallest buildings: the [[John Hancock Tower]] and the [[Prudential Center]].{{ref|Skyscraper}} Near the John Hancock Tower is the [[John Hancock Tower#The Berkeley Building (the "old John Hancock Building")|old John Hancock Building]] with its prominent weather forecast beacon. Other notable districts/neighborhoods include [[Beacon Hill, Boston, Massachusetts|Beacon Hill]], [[Charlestown, Massachusetts|Charlestown]], [[Chinatowns in North America#Massachusetts|Chinatown]], [[Downtown Crossing]], [[North End]], and [[South Boston]].
Boston is home to several world-renowned museums, including the [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston|Museum of Fine Arts]], the [[Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum]], and the [[Museum of Science, Boston|Museum of Science]]. The [[University of Massachusetts]] campus at Columbia Point houses the [[John F. Kennedy Library]]. The [[New England Aquarium]], [[Franklin Park Zoo]], [[Boston Athenaeum]] (one of the oldest independent libraries in the United States), and the [[Boston Children's Museum]] are located within the city.
There are also two self-guided walking tours: Harbor Walk, which is designed to allow people the walk the entire shore of [[Boston Harbor]], and the [[Black Heritage Trail]]. A popular guided tour is the Boston Duck Tour, which uses World War II-era [[DUKW|duck boat]]s. The outer suburbs of Boston, which tend to be forested, have vibrantly colored foliage every [[autumn#Autumn and tourism|autumn]] that attracts many tourists.
===Sports===
[[Image:Fenway park.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A [[Boston Red Sox]] [[baseball]] game at [[Fenway Park]]]]
The [[TD Banknorth Garden]] (formerly called the Fleet Center) is near [[North Station (Boston)|North Station]] is the home of two major league teams: the [[Boston Bruins]] [[ice hockey]] team ([[National Hockey League]]) and the [[Boston Celtics]] [[basketball]] team ([[National Basketball Association]]). The Celtics have the distinction of having more World Championships than any other NBA team with 16 championships from 1957 to 1986.
The [[baseball]] team [[Boston Red Sox]] is a member of the [[American League]] of [[Major League Baseball]]. Their home at [[Fenway Park]], located near [[Kenmore Square]], is the oldest ballpark in active use in the United States. Boston was once the home of the [[National League]] baseball team [[Atlanta Braves|Boston Braves]] as well as the site of the first [[World Series]] in 1903. The game was played between the Boston Americans (currently the Boston Red Sox) and the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]].{{ref|MLB}}
Once the [[Boston Patriots]], a charter team of the [[American Football League]], the [[National Football League|NFL]]'s [[New England Patriots]] [[American football|football]] team plays in nearby [[Foxborough, Massachusetts|Foxboro]]. Boston fans travel there to see the Patriots and the [[New England Revolution]] [[soccer]] team of [[Major League Soccer]]. Both teams play at [[Gillette Stadium]]. Another major league team is the [[lacrosse]] team [[Boston Cannons]] of [[Major League Lacrosse]]. The team plays at [[Boston University]]'s [[Nickerson Field]].
Boston's many colleges and universities field sports teams. The most prominent include [[Boston College]] (member of the [[Atlantic Coast Conference]]), [[Boston University]] ([[America East Conference]]), [[Northeastern University, Boston|Northeastern University]] ([[Colonial Athletic Association]]), and [[Harvard University]]. The hockey teams of these four universities meet every year in an immensely popular four-team tournament known as the "[[Beanpot]]". The city is also the site of two other major annual sporting events: the [[Boston Marathon]], the world-famous 26-mile run from [[Hopkinton, Massachusetts|Hopkinton]] to Copley Square in Boston, and the [[Head of the Charles Regatta]] rowing competition on the Charles River.
{{seealso|U.S. cities with teams from four major sports}}
==Infrastructure==
===Health and medicine===
As the home to some of the world's most respected research [[hospital]]s, Boston enjoys an international reputation in the medical field. The [[Longwood Medical Area]] is a region of Boston with a concentration of medical and research facilities, including [[Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center]], [[Brigham and Women's Hospital]], [[Children's Hospital Boston|Children's Hospital]], [[Dana-Farber Cancer Institute]], and [[Harvard Medical School]]. Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Brigham and Women's Hospital were both formed by mergers: the former between Beth Israel Hospital and New England Deaconess Hospital, and the latter by Peter Bent Brigham Hospital and the Boston Hospital for Women. [[Massachusetts General Hospital]] (MGH) is located near the Beacon Hill neighborhood, with the [[Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary]] and [[Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital]] nearby. Boston also has [[United States Department of Veterans Affairs|VA]] medical centers in the Jamaica Plain and West Roxbury neighborhoods.
Many of Boston's major medical facilities are associated with universities. The facilities in the Longwood Medical Area and MGH are world-renowned research medical centers affiliated with Harvard Medical School. New England Medical Center, located in the southern portions of the Chinatown neighborhood, is affiliated with [[Tufts University]]. Boston Medical Center, located in the South End neighborhood, is the primary teaching facility for the [[Boston University]] School of Medicine as well as the largest [[trauma center]] in the Boston area; it was formed by the merger of Boston University Hospital and Boston City Hospital.
===Transportation===
[[Image:Longfellow Bridge 2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Longfellow Bridge across the Charles River, with two [[MBTA]] Red Line trains. The [[Beacon Hill, Boston, Massachusetts|Beacon Hill]] neighborhood is in the background.]]
{{main|Boston transportation}}
[[Logan International Airport]], located in the [[East Boston, Massachusetts|East Boston]] neighborhood, is the major airport serving Boston. Another airport serving the city and surrounding areas is [[Hanscom Field]] in [[Lexington, Massachusetts|Lexington]] and [[Bedford, Massachusetts|Bedford]]. [[T. F. Green Airport]] in [[Providence, Rhode Island]], and [[Manchester Airport (US)|Manchester Airport]] in [[Manchester, New Hampshire]], are airports outside Massachusetts which serve as secondary facilities.
Boston's streets appear as though they were not planned, evolving from centuries-old foot and cow paths. Except for the reclaimed [[Back Bay, Boston, Massachusetts|Back Bay]] and part of [[South Boston, Massachusetts|South Boston]], the city has no [[Grid plan|street grid]]. Boston has been described as a "City of Squares", referring to the tradition of naming the intersections of major thoroughfares after prominent city residents. Roads change names and lose and add lanes seemingly at random. The city also has a number of [[rotary intersection|rotaries]], which have confused many drivers. In its March 2006 issue, ''Bicycling'' magazine named Boston as one of the three worst cities in U.S. for cycling, though the city does have a huge cult following of the activity, especially fixed gear.
Boston is the eastern terminus of [[Interstate 90|I-90]], also known as the [[Massachusetts Turnpike|Mass Pike]]. [[Interstate 95|I-95]], which surrounds the city, is locally referred to by its historical state route numbering &mdash; [[Massachusetts Route 128|Route 128]]. [[U.S. Highway 1|US 1]] and [[Interstate 93|I-93]] runs north to south through the city. The most infamous portion, the [[Central Artery]], runs through downtown Boston and was constantly prone to heavy traffic. Through the [[Big Dig]] the elevated highway was replaced with an underground tunnel.
The [[Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority]] (MBTA) operated the nation's first underground subway system, which has since been expanded to an extensive [[Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority#subway|rapid transit system]] reaching as far north as [[Malden, Massachusett |
he lineage of [[Leonard Bloomfield]].
<p>
One can trace three distinct early twentieth-century schools of linguistic thought:
* The western European or French school, guided by Saussure's teachings,
* The eastern European/Russian or [[Formalist]] school, centered in the Prague Linguistic Circle, led by Roman Jakobson and heavily influenced by the works of Saussure,
* The North American school, led by [[Leonard Bloomfield]], who synthesized and systematized Saussure's insights, introducing his own modifications and discoveries. The Neo-Bloomfieldian's (including Chomsky's teacher, [[Zellig Harris]]) subsequently formalized Saussure's theory, reducing its scope and the social nature of its explanations, paving the way for the autonomous syntactic formalism of [[Noam Chomsky]], who began discussing Saussure in remarks made at the 1962 International Congress of Linguists and in papers thereafter. While Chomsky did not fully agree with many of Saussure's theories, he did find certain commonalities between his own concepts and those of the Swiss linguist.
<p>
Russian Formalism (starting in 1916) was borne out of an intense interest in language. Roman Jakobson was integral to its development. Jakobson recognized the value of Saussure's theories to Russian language because of the application of Marxism and the worth accorded to literature in Russian society as a means of moral and social criticism. During World War II, Jakobson emigrated to the U.S. and brought his passion for Saussure with him. He founded the New York Circle and a new Journal ("Word") and presented a series of lectures and articles on the Cours. He also began to encourage North American comprehension and acceptance of Saussure that would finally take root in the 50's and 60's as a more open climate between the North American and European academic communities was actualized.
<p>
Meanwhile, in France, as experiments with applications of Saussure's theories to more branches of the social and human sciences and philosophy were tested, there were misunderstandings over the relationship between his teachings and the development of structuralism. The question of who really could be identified as the rightful "father" of the system was argued, and elements of the originality of Saussure's Cours were challenged. When Lacan attempted to reconfigure Saussure's signifier/signified algorithm for psychoanalitic purposes, it was dismissed by many as being too focused on the study of psychosis and the unconscious to provide real linguistic value. Had Saussure's work been overdetermined by too many theorists who were too eager to test its boundaries, only to discover that the system in fact had limits - that the model could not be applied infinitely?
<p>
While the early mania for Saussure has cooled somewhat, and the contributions of other scientists to twentieth-century linguistics are now rightfully recognized, it is important that we also acknowledge Saussure for his incredible achievements. He always said he would never publish any reflections on the 'essence' of linguistics, and yet we look to his Cours as his life's work – in a sense, a sign for him. If anything, Saussure had only identified the foundations of his work, and the Cours might have been viewed as one facet of that, rather than its whole. The key may lie in his famous challenge for scientists to pursue a new discipline: "By studying rites, customs, etc. as signs, I believe that we shall throw new light on the facts and point up the need for including them in a science of semiology and explaining them by its laws." (''Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism'', 962)
<p>
===Works===
<p>
*(1878). Essai d'une distinction des différents a indo-européens. ''Memoires de la Société de linguistique'', 3:359-70.
*(1879). ''Mémoire sur le système primitif des voyelles dans les langues indo-européennes''. Leipzig: Teubner.
*(1908). ''Mélanges de linguistique offerts à M. Ferdinand de Saussure'' (no eds.). Paris: Champion.
*(1909). ''Interview with A. Riedlinger'', [[19 January]] [[1909]]. In Godel, 1957/1969a.
*(1916). ''Cours de linguistique générale'' (published by C. Bally and A. Sechehaye in collaboration with A. Riedlinger). Lausanne and Paris: Payot. (CLG)
*(1922). ''Recueil des publications scientifiques''. Geneva: Editions Sonor.
Godel, R. (1957). ''Les sources manuscrites du Cours de linguistique générale de F. de
Saussure'' (Société de publications romanes et françaises, 61). Geneva: Droz; Paris:
Minard.
*(1957). Cours de linguistique générale Cours II 1908-1909: introduction (d'aprés des notes
d'etudiants) (ed. R. Godel). ''Cahiers Ferdinand de Saussure'', 15: 3-103.
Godel, R. (1958/9). Nouveaux documents saussuriens: les cahiers E. Constantin. ''Cahiers
Ferdinand de Saussure'', 16: 23, 32.
*(1959). ''Course in General Linguistics'' (trans. W. Baskin). New York: Philosophical
Library. (CGL-B)
*(1960). Souvenirs de F. de Saussure concernant sa jeunesse et ses études (ed. R. Godel).
''Cahiers Ferdinand de Saussure'', 17: 12-26.
Benveniste, E. (1964). Lettre de Ferdinand de Saussure a Antoine Meillet. Cahiers
Ferdinand de Saussure, 21:91-130.
*(1964/5). Notes et documents sur Ferdinand de Saussure (1880-1891) (présentées par
Michel Fleury). Annuaire de l'Ecole pratique des Hautes Etudes, Paris, 35-67.
*(1968). ''Cours de linguistique générale'' (critical edition by R. Engler, vol. 1). Wiesbaden:
Harrassowitz. (CLG/E 2)
*(1972 [1916]). ''Cours de linguistique génrale (ed. T. de Mauro). Paris: Payot. (CLG/D)
*(1974). ''Cours de linguistique générale'' (Notes personnelles) (critical edition by R. Engler,
vol. 2). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. (CLG/E 2)
*(1974 [1959]). ''Course in General Linguistics'' (trans. W. Baskin, with an introduction by
J. Culler). London: Peter Own. (CGL-B)
*(1978). Essai pour réduire les mots du grec, du latin et de l'allemand à un petit nombre de
racines (ed. B. Davies). ''Cahiers Ferdinand de Saussure'', 32: 73-101.
*(1979). ''Saggio sul vocalisimo indoeuropeo'' (Italian edition, introd., trans. and ed. G.C.
Vincenzi). Bologna: Libreria Universitaria Editrice.
*(1983). ''Course in General Linguistics'' (trans. and annotated by R. Harris). London:
Duckworth. (CGL-H)
*(1993). ''Troisiéme Cours de linguistique générale / Third Course in General Linguistics (1910-1911), d'après les cahiers d'Emile Constantin'' (ed. and trans. E. Komatsu
and R. Harris). Oxford: Pergamon.
*(1994). [Letter dated September 1912 to Bally]. ''Cahiers Ferdinand de Saussure'', 48: 132.
*(1996). ''Premier Cours de linguistique générale / First Course in General Linguistics
(1907), d'après les cahiers d'Albert Riedlinger'' (ed. and trans. E. Komatsu and G.
Wolf). Oxford: Pergamon.
*(1997). ''Deuxième Cours de linguistique générale / Second Course in General linguistics
(1908-1909), d'après les cahiers d'Albert Riedlinger & Charler Patois'' (ed. and trans.
E. Komatsu and G. Wolf). Oxford: Pergamon.
*(2002). ''Ecrits de linguistiques générale'' (ed. S. Bouquet and R. Engler). Paris: Gallimard.
(ELG)
==See also==
* [[Linguististics]]
* [[Structuralism]]
* [[Semiotics]]
* [[Formalism]]
* [[Roman Jakobson]]
* [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]]
* [[Roland Barthes]]
* [[Jacques Lacan]]
* [[Julia Kristéva]]
* [[Jacques Derrida]]
* [[Leonard Bloomfield]]
* [[Noam Chomsky]]
* [[Michael Silverstein]]
==External links==
*[http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/fr/saussure.htm Saussure's Third Course of Lectures on General Linguistics]
*[http://www.colorado.edu/English/ENGL2012Klages/saussure.html Dr. Mary Klages's lecture on Structuralism and Saussure]
*[http://www.scaruffi.com/phi/saussure.html Terms used in The Course on General Linguistics]
*[http://www.egwald.com/ubcstudent/theory/heidegger.php Hearing Heidegger and Saussure, by Elmer G. Wiens]
==Sources==
*''The Cambridge Companion to Saussure''. ed. Carol Sanders. Cambridge: Cambridge U P. 2004.
*Harris, Roy. ''Saussure and his Interpreterers''. 2nd ed. Edinburgh: Edinburgh U P. 2003.
*Klage, Mary. "Structuralism and Saussure." Introduction to Literary Theory course. University of Colorado at Boulder. (c) 2001. <http://www.colorado.edu/English/ENGL2012Klages/saussure.html>([[February 7]] [[2006]]).
*The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism. ed. Vincent B. Leitch. New York: WW Norton & Co. 2001. 956-77.
*Gabriel Rupp and Ronald Schleifer. "Ferdinand de Saussure".''Johns Hopkins Online Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism''. ed. Michael Groden, Martin Kreiswirth, and Imre Szeman Baltimore: Johns Hopkins U P. (c)2005.([[February 1]] [[2006]]).
[[Category:1857 births|Saussure, Ferdinand de]]
[[Category:1913 deaths|Saussure, Ferdinand de]]
[[Category:Linguists|Saussure, Ferdinand]]
[[Category:Swiss linguists|Saussure, Ferdinand]]
[[Category:Indo-Europeanists|Saussure, Ferdinand]]
[[Category:Structuralism|Saussure, Ferdinand]]
[[Category:Natives of Geneva|Saussure, Ferdinand]]
[[an:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[ast:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[bg:Фердинанд дьо Сосюр]]
[[ca:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[de:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[el:Φερντινάντ ντε Σωσσύρ]]
[[es:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[eo:Ferdinand de SAUSSURE]]
[[eu:Ferdinand Saussure]]
[[fa:فردینان دو سوسور]]
[[fr:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[gl:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[ko:페르디낭 드 소쉬르]]
[[io:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[it:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[he:פרדינן דה סוסיר]]
[[nl:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[ja:フェルディナン・ド・ソシュール]]
[[no:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[pl:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[pt:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[ro:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[ru:Соссюр, Фердинанд де]]
[[sk:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[fi:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[sv:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[tr:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[zh:索緒爾]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fat</title>
<id>11042</id>
<revision>
<id>41993765</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:30:44Z</timestamp>
<contr |
<timestamp>2006-03-01T03:47:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Louis3ham</username>
<id>587507</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages''' ('''ECRML''') is a European [[treaty]] (CETS 148) adopted in [[1992]] under the auspices of the [[Council of Europe]] to protect and promote historical [[regional language|regional]] and [[minority language]]s in [[Europe]]. It only applies to [[language]]s traditionally used by the nationals of the State Parties (thus excluding languages used by recent [[immigrant]]s from other states), which significantly differ from the majority or [[official language]] (thus excluding mere local dialects of the official or majority language) and which either have a territorial basis (and are therefore traditionally spoken by populations of regions or areas within the State) or are used by linguistic minorities within the State as a whole (thereby including such languages as [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] and [[Romany language|Romany]], which were used over a wide geographic area).
Languages which are official within regions or provinces or federal units within a State (for example [[Catalan language|Catalan]] in [[Spain]]) are not classified as official languages of the State and may therefore benefit from the Charter. On the other hand, the [[Republic of Ireland]] has not been able to sign the Charter on behalf of the [[Irish language]] (although a minority language) as it is defined as the first official language of the state. The [[United Kingdom]] has, though, ratified the Charter in respect of (among other languages) [[Irish language in Northern Ireland|Irish]] in [[Northern Ireland]]. [[France]], although a signatory, has been constitutionally blocked from ratifying the Charter in respect of the [[languages of France]].
The charter provides a large number of different actions state parties can take to protect and promote historical regional and minority languages. There are two levels of protection&mdash;all signatories must apply the lower level of protection to qualifying languages; signatories may further declare that a qualifying language or languages will benefit from the higher level of protection which lists a range of actions from which states must agree to undertake at least 35.
==See also==
* [[European languages]]
* [[Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities]]
* [[Languages of the European Union]]
* [[Language policy in France]]
* [[Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights]]
== External links ==
{{wikisource}}
*[http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/QueVoulezVous.asp?NT=148&CM=8&DF=23/01/05&CL=ENG More information]
[[Category:Council of Europe|Charter for Regional or Minority Language]]
[[Category:Languages of Europe]]
[[Category:Language policy of the European Union]]
[[Category:Minority languages]]
[[cs:Evropská charta jazyků]]
[[el:Ευρωπαϊκός χάρτης των περιφερειακών ή μειονοτικών γλωσσών]]
[[fr:Charte européenne des langues régionales ou minoritaires]]
[[it:Carta europea per le lingue regionali e minoritarie]]
[[nl:Europees handvest voor regionale talen of talen van minderheden]]
[[ja:ヨーロッパ地方言語・少数言語憲章]]
[[oc:Carta Europèa des lengües regionaus o minoritàries]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>English Civil War</title>
<id>9709</id>
<revision>
<id>41937651</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:24:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RJP</username>
<id>232876</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>restore Rebellion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The term '''''English Civil War''''' (or '''''Wars''''') refers to the series of armed conflicts and political machinations which took place between [[English Parliamentarian]]s and [[Cavaliers|Royalist]]s from [[1642]] until [[1651]]. The [[#The First English Civil War|first]] ([[1642]]&ndash;[[1645]]) and the [[#The Second English Civil War|second]] ([[1648]]&ndash;[[1649]]) [[civil war]]s pitted the supporters of [[Charles I of England|King Charles I]] against the supporters of the [[Long Parliament]], while the [[#The Third English Civil War|third]] (1649&ndash;1651) saw fighting between supporters of [[Charles II of England|King Charles II]] and supporters of the [[Rump Parliament]]. The third war ended with the Parliamentary victory at the [[Battle of Worcester]] on [[September 3]], 1651.
==Introduction==
The wars inextricably mingled with and formed part of a linked series of conflicts and civil wars between [[1639]] and 1651 in the kingdoms of [[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]], which at that time shared a [[monarch]] but formed distinct countries with otherwise separate political structures. Those recent historians who aim to have a unified overview (rather than treating parts of the other conflicts as background to the ''English Civil War'') sometimes call these linked conflicts the ''[[Wars of the Three Kingdoms]]''. Some have also described them as the "''British Civil Wars''", but this terminology can mislead: the three kingdoms did not become a single political entity until the [[Act of Union 1800|Act of Union]] between the [[Kingdom of Ireland]] and the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain]] ([[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]]), in 1800.
The wars led to the trial and execution of Charles I, the exile of his son Charles II, and the replacement of the English monarchy with the [[Commonwealth of England]] (1649&ndash;[[1653]]) and then with a [[The Protectorate|Protectorate]] (1653&ndash;[[1659]]): the personal rule of [[Oliver Cromwell]]. The monopoly of the [[Church of England]] on Christian worship in England came to an end, and the victors consolidated the already-established Protestant aristocracy in Ireland. Constitutionally, the wars established a precedent that British monarchs could not govern without the consent of Parliament.
Unlike other [[List of English civil wars|civil wars in England]] which focused on who ruled, this war also concerned itself with the manner of governing the British isles. Accordingly, historians also refer to the English Civil War as the '''English Revolution''' and (especially in 17th century [[Cavaliers|Royalist]] circles) as the '''Great Rebellion'''.
== Background ==
===The King's aspirations===
[[Image:Charels I by Daniel Mytens in 1631.jpg|thumb|100px|Charles I in 1631, by Daniel Mytens.]]
Contemporaries must have found it unthinkable that a civil war could result from the events taking place. War broke out less than forty years after the death of the popular [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] in 1603. At the accession of Charles I, England and Scotland had both experienced relative peace, both internally and in their relations with each other, for as long as anyone could remember. Charles hoped to unite the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland into a new single kingdom, fulfilling the dream of his father, [[James I of England]] (James VI of Scotland). Many English Parliamentarians had suspicions regarding such a move because they feared that setting up a new kingdom might destroy the old English traditions which had bound the English monarchy. As Charles shared his father's position on the power of the crown (James had described kings as "little Gods on Earth", chosen by God to rule in accordance with a doctrine called the "[[Divine Right of Kings]]"), the suspicions of the Parliamentarians had some justification.
Although pious and with little personal ambition, Charles demanded outright loyalty in return for "just rule". He considered any questioning of his orders as, at best, insulting. This latter trait, and a series of events, seemingly minor on their own, led to a serious break between Charles and his [[English Parliament]], and eventually to war.
==Parliament in the English constitutional framework==
Before the fighting, the [[Parliament of England]] did not have a permanent role in the English system of government, instead functioning as a temporary advisory committee — summoned by the monarch whenever the Crown required additional tax revenue, and subject to dissolution by the monarch at any time. Because responsibility for collecting taxes lay in the hands of the [[gentry]], the English kings needed the help of that stratum of society in order to ensure the smooth collection of that revenue. If the gentry were to refuse to collect the King's taxes, he would lack the authority to compel them. Parliaments allowed representatives of the gentry to meet, confer and send policy-proposals to the monarch in the form of Bills. These representatives did not, however, have any means of forcing their will upon the king — except by withholding the financial means he required to execute his plans.
===Mounting concerns===
[[Image:Sir Peter Lely 001.jpg|thumb|100px|Henrietta Maria, painted by [[Peter Lely]], 1660.]]
One of the first events to cause concern about Charles I came with his marriage to a [[France|French]] [[Roman Catholic]] princess, [[Henrietta Maria]]. The marriage occurred within months of Charles's accession to the throne in [[1625]]. A royal marriage with a foreign princess — commonplace at the time — caused no alarm as such; but Charles's choice of a Catholic bride made him a potential [[Papist]] in the eyes of the small but powerful [[Puritan]] minority in Parliament, who constituted around one-third of the assembly's members at the time. For many of his subjects, Charles's suspected "Papism" gave cause for concern for at least two reasons:
# because the King functioned as the head of the established Church in England, his Bishops, at his request, could possibly stipulate religious practices closer to those of Rome
# the English (since the papal [[excommunication]] of [[Henry VIII of E |
agency of the [[United Nations]], develops the principles and techniques of international air navigation and fosters the planning and development of international [[scheduled air transport|air transport]] to ensure safe and orderly growth.
The ICAO Council adopts standards and recommended practices concerning air navigation, prevention of unlawful interference, and facilitation of border-crossing procedures for international [[civil aviation]]. [[Assad Kotaite]] has served as President of the ICAO Council since [[1976]], but will retire from that post in August, [[2006]].
In addition, the ICAO defines the protocols for [[air accident investigation]] followed by transport safety authorities in countries signatory to the [[Convention on International Civil Aviation]], commonly known as the [[Chicago Convention]]. See [[NTSB]], [[Transportation Safety Board|TSB]], [[AAIB]], [[Bundesstelle für Flugunfalluntersuchung|BFU]], and [[Bureau d'Enquêtes et d'Analyses pour la sécurité de l'Aviation Civile|BEA]].
Its ''headquarters'' are located in the ''[[Quartier international de Montréal|Quartier International]]'' of [[Montreal]], [[Canada]].
The ICAO should not be confused with the [[International Air Transport Association]] (IATA), a trade organization for [[airline]]s also headquartered in Montreal.
==ICAO Codes==
Both ICAO and IATA have their own airport and airline code systems.
ICAO uses 4-letter [[ICAO airport code|airport codes]], and 3-letter [[ICAO airline designator|airline codes]]. IATA is scheduled to eventually switch its codes to the ICAO standard.
ICAO is also responsible for issuing [[alphanumeric]] [[aircraft]] type codes that contain 3 or 4 characters. These codes provide the identification that is typically used in [[flight plan]]s. An example of this is the [[Boeing 747]] that would use (depending on the variant) '''B741''', '''B742''' ,'''B743''', etc.
ICAO provides [[telephony]] designators to aircraft operators worldwide. These consist of the three letter airline identifer and a one or two word designator. They are usually, but not always, similar to the aircraft operator name. Thus the identifer for [[Aer Lingus]] is '''EIN''' and the designator is '''Shamrock''' while [[Japan Airlines]] International is '''JAL''' and '''Japan Air''' . So a flight by Aer Lingus numbered 111 would be written as "EIN111" and pronounced "Shamrock 111" on the radio, while a similarly numbered Japan Airlines flight would be written as "JAL111" and "Japan Air 111".
==ICAO statute==
The 8th edition of the Convention on International Civil Aviation includes modifications from [[1948]] up to year [[2000]]. The ICAO refers to its current edition of the convention the ''statute'', and designates it as ICAO Doc 7300/8.
The convention has 18 annexes:
*Annex 1 - Personnel Licensing
*Annex 2 - Rules of the Air
*Annex 3 - Meteorological Service for International Air Navigation
*Annex 4 - Aeronautical Charts
*Annex 5 - Units of Measurement to be Used in Air and Ground Operations
*Annex 6 - Operation of Aircraft - Aeroplanes
*Annex 7 - Aircraft Nationality and Registration Marks
*Annex 8 - Airworthiness of Aircraft
*Annex 9 - Facilitation
*Annex 10 - Aeronautical Telecommunications - Digital Data Communication Systems
*Annex 11 - Air Traffic Services
*Annex 12 - Search and Rescue
*Annex 13 - Aircraft Accident and Incident Investigation
*Annex 14 - Aerodromes - Aerodrome Design and Operations, Heliports
*Annex 15 - Aeronautical Information Services
*Annex 16 - Environmental Protection - Aircraft Noise
*Annex 17 - Security: Safeguarding International Civil Aviation Against Acts of Unlawful Interference
*Annex 18 - The Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air
==ICAO standards==
The ICAO also standardizes certain functions for use in the airline industry, such as the [[Aeronautical Message Handling System]] AMHS; this probably makes it a [[standards organization]].
==Regions and regional offices==
The ICAO has seven regional offices serving nine regions:
:1. Asia and Pacific, [[Bangkok|Bangkok, Thailand]]
:2. Middle East, [[Cairo|Cairo, Egypt]]
:3. Western and Central Africa, [[Dakar|Dakar, Senegal]]
:4. South America, [[Lima|Lima, Peru]]
:5. North America, Central America and Caribbean, [[Mexico City|Mexico City, Mexico]]
:6. Eastern and Southern Africa, [[Nairobi|Nairobi, Kenya]]
:7. Europe and North Atlantic, [[Paris|Paris, France]]
==See also==
*[[Air safety]]
*[[ICAO airport code]]
* [[Kenneth Beaumont]]
==External links==
* [http://www.icao.int International Civil Aviation Organization website]
* [http://www8.landings.com/cgi-bin/get_file?APT/icao_prefix.html ICAO airport code prefixes] (not to be confused with the [[IATA]] [http://www.faa.gov/ATPUBS/LID/LIDHME.htm location identifiers])
* [http://www.icao.int/anb/ais/8643/MnfctrerList.cfm ICAO Aircraft listing with codes]
[[Category:Aviation authorities]]
[[Category:Montreal]]
[[Category:United Nations specialized agencies]]
[[cs:Mezinárodní organizace pro civilní letectví]]
[[da:International Civil Aviation Organisation]]
[[de:International Civil Aviation Organisation]]
[[es:Organización de Aviación Civil Internacional]]
[[fr:Organisation de l'aviation civile internationale]]
[[ko:국제민간항공기구]]
[[it:Organizzazione Internazionale dell'Aviazione Civile]]
[[hu:ICAO]]
[[ms:International Civil Aviation Organization]]
[[nl:International Civil Aviation Organization]]
[[ja:国際民間航空機関]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowa Organizacja Lotnictwa Cywilnego]]
[[pt:Organização de Aviação Civil Internacional]]
[[fi:Kansainvälinen siviili-ilmailujärjestö]]
[[sv:ICAO]]
[[tr:Uluslararası Sivil Havacılık Örgütü]]
[[zh:国际民航组织]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Maritime Organization</title>
<id>14986</id>
<revision>
<id>40364437</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:58:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><div style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-style:italic;">[[Image:HeadquartersoftheInternationalMaritimeOrganisation.jpg|thumbnail|none|Headquarters of the International Maritime Organisation in Lambeth, adjacent to the east end of Lambeth Bridge]]
<br>[[Image:International Maritime Organization Building - London - Across the Thames - 240404.jpg|thumbnail|none|Headquarters building taken from the west side of the Thames]]</div>
Headquartered in [[London]], [[United Kingdom|U.K.]], the '''International Maritime Organization (IMO)''' promotes cooperation among governments and the shipping industry to improve [[maritime]] safety and to prevent marine pollution. Recent initiatives at the IMO have included amendments to the [[International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea|Safety of Life at Sea Convention (SOLAS)]], which upgraded fire protection standards on [[Passenger ship|passenger ships]], the [[STCW|International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW)]] which establishes basic requirements on training, certification and watchkeeping for seafarers and to the Convention on the Prevention of Maritime Pollution ([[MARPOL 73/78]]), which required double hulls on all [[Tanker (ship)|tankers]]. All these initiatives were instigated by representatives of the [[United States]] before the IMO.
The concept of IMO was born after the [[RMS Titanic|RMS ''Titanic'']] disaster. By modern standards, the design of the ''Titanic'' made her appallingly vulnerable. Her "watertight" bulkheads, by design, did not extend all the way to the overhead because the engineers calculated that it was impossible for the ship to take on a trim or list sufficient for water to cascade over their tops if the bulkheads were of a certain height.
When ''Titanic'' struck the iceberg, these calculations were proven dismally incorrect. When people began abandoning ship, it became obvious that not nearly enough [[lifeboat]]s were available. Many lives and much money were lost in this tragedy.
Up until that time, each nation had made its own rules about ship design, construction, and safety equipment. The ''Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO)'' was formed in response to the ''Titanic'' event, but was "put on the back burner" when [[World War I]] broke out. After the war ended, IMCO was revived and produced a group of regulations concerning shipbuilding and safety called "Safety Of Life At Sea"..."[[SOLAS]]". Through the years, SOLAS has been modified and upgraded to adapt to changes in technology and lessons learned.
IMCO eventually became IMO. IMO regularly enacts regulations (such as the [[International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea]]) which are enforced by class societies and recognized organizations who survey ships regularly to ensure compliance with specific laws applicable to each individual ship. Port State Control authority was enacted, allowing such agencies as the US and British [[coast guard]]s to inspect foreign flag ships calling at ports of the many port states. Memoranda of Understanding were signed by some countries unifying Port State Control procedures among the signators.
Of course, the numbers will never be known, but IMO has protected countless lives, saved enormous amounts of money, and prevented numerous environmental disasters over the years.
Prior to [[11 September]] [[2001]], IMO had begun work on the [[ISPS code|International Ship and Port Security Code]], which was designed to provide guidance for shipowners and port facilities in establishing strict security procedures to prevent weapons of mass destruction and other contraband from being transported by ship. The [[September 11, 2001 attacks|tragic events of 9/11]] created greater urgency to this effort |
hu''), rupee (''rupya''), buck (a deerskin), pecuniary (''pecu''), stock (''livestock''), and peso (''pecu'' or ''pashu'') all derive from animal-trade origins.
[[Image:Thackeray_william.jpg|150px|thumb|right|The first known use of the word "capitalism", if not yet in our sense, was by novelist William Thackeray in 1854]]
The first use of the word ''Kapitalist'' was in 1848 in the [[Communist Manifesto]] by Marx and Engels; however, "Kapitalismus," the german word for "capitalism" was not used. The first use of the word ''capitalism'' is by novelist [[William Makepeace Thackeray|Thackeray]] in 1854, by which he meant ownership of a large amount of capital, not a system of production.
In 1867 [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]] used the term ''capitalist'' to refer to owners of capital, and Marx and Engels refer to the "capitalist form of production" ("''kapitalistische Produktionsform''") and in ''[[Das Kapital]]'' to ''"Kapitalist"'', "capitalist" (meaning a private owner of capital). None of them, however, used "Capitalism" in our current meaning. The first person to do so in an impactful way was [[Werner Sombart]] in his ''Modern Capitalism'' in 1902. [[Max Weber]], a close friend and colleage of Sombart's, used the term in his ''[[The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism]]'' in 1904.
The [[Oxford English Dictionary]] cites the use of the term "private capitalism" by [[Karl Daniel Adolf Douai]], German-American [[socialism|socialist]] and [[abolitionism|abolitionist]] in the late 19th century, in an 1877 work entitled "Better Times", and a citation by an unknown author in 1884 in the pages of [[Pall Mall Magazine|Pall Mall]] magazine.
The definition of capitalism given in dictionaries has changed over time. For example, the 1909 [[Century Dictionary]] defined capitalism as:
# The state of having capital or property; possession of capital.
# The concentration or massing of capital in the hands of a few; also, the power or influence of large or combined capital.
The contemporary definition, however, probably influenced by the philosophical and ideological debates of the 19th century, refers to an ''economic system'' (as Sombart and Weber did). For example, the [[Webster's Third New International Dictionary|Merriam-Webster Third International Unabridged Dictionary]] refers to capitalism as: " an economic system characterized by private or corporation ownership of capital goods, by investments that are determined by private decision rather than by state control, and by prices, production, and the distribution of goods that are determined mainly in a free market."
==Capitalist theory==
Some emphasize the private ownership of [[capital (economics)|capital]] as being the essence of capitalism, or emphasize the importance of a [[free market]] as a mechanism for the movement and accumulation of capital. Others measure capitalism through class analysis, including the class structure of society and relations between [[labour (economics)|labor]] and the capitalist class. Some note the growth of a [[International trade|global market]] system.
In describing capitalism, Hayek points to the [[self-organization|self-organizing]] character of economies which are not centrally-planned by government. Many, such as Adam Smith, point to what is believed to be the value of individuals pursuing their [[self-interest]] as opposed to altruistically working to serve the "[[common good]]." [[Karl Polanyi]], a seminal figure in the field of [[economic anthropology]], argued that at the time Smith was primarily describing a period of organization of production along commercial lines. For Polanyi, capitalism is distinguishable from earlier [[mercantilist]] and commercial eras by the commodification of land, labour-power,and money. It appeared in mature form as a result of the problems raised when an industrial factory system requiring long-term investment and entailing corresponding risks was introduced into an internationalized commercial framework. Historically speaking, the most pressing needs of this new system were an assured supply of the elements of industry- land, elaborate machinery, and labour, and these imperatives led to the afforementioned commodification; not through a process of self-organizing activity, but rather as a result of deliberate, often forceful, state intervention. (see [[Karl Polanyi]], [[The Great Transformation]])
Many of these theories call attention to various [[economics|economic]] practices that became institutionalized in [[Europe]] between the 16th and 19th centuries, especially involving the right of individuals and groups of individuals acting as "legal persons" (or [[corporations]]) to buy and sell [[capital good]]s, as well as [[Land (economics)|land]], labor, and [[money]] (see [[finance]] and [[credit (finance)|credit]]), in a [[free market]] (see [[trade]]), and relying on the state for the enforcement of [[private property]] rights rather than on a system of feudal protection and obligations.
Due to the vagueness of the term, debates and controversies have emerged. In particular, there is contention on whether capitalism is an actual system, or an ideal, i.e. on whether it has actually been implemented in particular economies, or if not, then to what degree capitalism exists in them (see ''[[mixed economy]]''). From a historic point of view, there is an argument on whether capitalism is specific to a particular era or geographic region or if it is a universally valid system that may exist throughout various times and spaces. Some interpret capitalism as a purely economic system; others however contend that capitalism is a complex of political, social, and cultural institutions.
===Contrasts with capitalism===
{{npov-section}}
Capitalism contrasts with (and in Western Europe, developed out of) [[feudalism]], where a [[monarch]] holds both law-making power and the ability to claim ownership over the [[real property|land]] rather than having to purchase it; the monarch loans the land to [[vassal]]s in exchange for various services, and the vassals, in turn, use [[serf]]s to work the land.
Capitalism contrasts with [[socialism]], where the means of production are owned and run by popular collectives (such as the state) for the people. It contrasts with [[communism]] where the means of production are owned collectively rather than privately by the workers themselves, and the produce of labor is collectivized, resulting in the "abolition of [[bourgeoise]] property" ("private property") [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto#Proletarians_and_Communists]. In addition, as suggested by [[Karl Marx]], the products of labour are directly distributed "to each according to his need" [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/ch01.htm], and "buying and selling" is abolished (''Communist Manifesto'').
Capitalism as it exists in today's [[Liberal democracy|liberal democracies]] is said to be in opposition to [[planned economy|planned economies]], such as a [[command economy]], where the economy is coordinated by the state. Capitalism also contrasts with [[corporatism]], where private businesses work more closely with the government in an ostensible attempt to serve the interests of the nation. Countries undergoing periods of dynamic [[class struggle]] (as in times of [[revolution]]) would be accompanied by significant changes in material conditions such as [[industrialisation]] and display features such as the [[war economy]] and [[Commodification]].
==History of capitalism==
{{dablink|This section is on history of capitalist theory. See ''[[History of capitalism]]'' for the system's history in practice.}}
''Main article: [[History of theory of capitalism]]''
[[Image:Anders Chydenius.jpg|133px|thumb|[[Anders Chydenius]] was first to propose free trade and industry and to lay out the principles of liberalism in his 1765 book ''[[The National Gain]]'', eleven years before Adam Smith.]]
[[Image:Adam Smith.jpg|133px|thumb|[[Adam Smith]]'s more complete ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'' earned him fame as the intellectual father of capitalism.]]
Most theories of what has come to be called capitalism developed in the 18th century, 19th century and 20th century, for instance in the context of the [[industrial revolution]] and [[New imperialism|European imperialism]] (e.g. [[Anders Chydenius|Chydenius]], [[Adam Smith|Smith]], [[David Ricardo|Ricardo]], [[Karl Marx|Marx]]), [[The Great Depression]] (e.g.[[John Maynard Keynes|Keynes]]) and the [[Cold war]] (e.g. [[Friedrich Hayek|Hayek]], [[Milton Friedman|Friedman]]).
These theorists characterise capitalism as an economic system in which capital is owned by private individuals (sometimes referred to as "capitalists") and economic decisions are determined in a market - that is, by trades that occur as a result of agreement between buyers and sellers; where a market mentality and [[Entrepreneur|entrepreneurial]] spirit exists; and where specific, legally enforceable, notions of [[property]] and [[contract]] are instituted. Such theories typically try to explain why capitalist economies are likely to generate more economic growth than those subject to a greater degree of governmental intervention (see [[economics]], [[political economy]], [[laissez-faire]]).
In his 1765 book ''[[The National Gain]]'', [[Anders Chydenius]], a [[Finland|Finnish]] parliamentarian, became the first to propose freedom of trade and industry and the principles of [[liberalism]], 11 years before [[Adam Smith]] in ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'' (1776).
The conception of what constitutes capitalism has changed significantly over time, as well as varying depending on the political perspective and analytical approach. [[Adam Smith]]'s advocacy of [[economic libera |
ll Park]], [[Adelaide]]. The record for [[State of Origin]] representative games was 91,960 for [[Victoria, Australia | Victoria]] v. [[South Australia]] at the [[Melbourne Cricket Ground | MCG]] in 1989. The record for a game outside Australia was 32,789 at an [[Australian Football Exhibition Match|exhibition match]] between Melbourne and Sydney at [[B.C. Place]], [[Vancouver]], [[Canada]] in 1987.
====Television====
The 2005 [[AFL Grand Final]] was watched by a television audience of more than 3.3 million people across five of Australia's most highly populated cities, including 1.2 million in Melbourne and 991,000 in [[Sydney]].[http://www.oztam.com.au/documents/2005/E_20050918.pdf]
Since Australian national television ratings were compiled in 2002, the AFL Grand Final has reached the top 5 of Australian programmes in [[List of Australian television ratings for 2002|2002]], [[List of Australian television ratings for 2003|2003]], [[List of Australian television ratings for 2004|2004]] and [[List of Australian television ratings for 2005|2005]]. Australian rules football has achieved a #1 rating in the sports category in both [[List of Australian television ratings for 2004|2004]] and [[List of Australian television ratings for 2005|2005]].
===Participation===
With more than 400,000 participants, Australian football is also one of the most-played team sports in Australia. [http://www.ausport.gov.au/scorsresearch/table8ERASS2003.pdf] South Australia is said to be the state with the highest participation rate for people taking part in Australian football, with over 2.2% of the population aged 18 years and over participating in the sport [http://www.ausport.gov.au/fulltext/2000/ascpub/pdf/australian%20rules%20football%202.pdf], while the [[Tiwi Islands]] is said to have the highest participation rate in Australia (35%) [http://www.theage.com.au/news/northern-territory/even-a-cyclone-cant-stop-the-footy/2005/03/19/1111086063413.html].
Australian football is also now played as an amateur sport in more than 20 countries around the world. (See [[Australian football around the world]]).
Many related games have emerged from Aussie Rules, mainly with variations of contact, including [[Auskick]], [[Rec Footy]], [[Women's Footy]], [[9-a-side Footy]] and [[Masters Australian Football]]. Players outside of Australia also engage in related games such as [[Metro Footy]] and [[Samoa Rules]] based on available fields.
===Australian football internationally===
{{main|Australian football around the world}}
Australian football is a major spectator sport only in [[Australia]] and [[Nauru]], although occasional [[Australian Football Exhibition Match |exhibition games]] are staged in other countries. However, amateur competition has grown in countries such as [[New Zealand]], [[Ireland]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Denmark]], [[Sweden]] the [[United States|USA]], [[Canada]], [[Germany]], [[France]], [[Japan]], [[Samoa]], [[China]], [[South Africa]], [[Tonga]] and [[Indonesia]], since the late [[1980s]]. Many of these were initially established by Australian expatriates but collecting growing numbers of native players. The largest such competition is the [[Ontario Australian Football League]], in Canada, with 12 teams scheduled to compete in 2006. There are now youth development programs in several of these countries; since 1998, the [[Barassi International Australian Football Youth Tournament]], endorsed by the AFL as part of its International Policy, has hosted several of junior teams from other countries.
Australian football is not yet large enough internationally for a [[FIFA]]-style governing body, so the AFL is primarily responsible for funding and governance and provides around [[Australian dollar|A$]]500,000 annually for international development, especially junior programs.
The [[Arafura Games]], held in [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]], [[Northern Territory]], [[Australia]] is a [[Multi-sport event]] for [[South East Asia]] and [[East Asia]]n island nations, northern Australia and the [[Pacific Islands]] which has Australian football as a permanent competition sport, rather than a [[demonstration sport]]. Papua New Guinea won the [[gold medal]] and retained it in subsequent games. Other teams that have competed at Australian Rules in the games include Japan, Nauru and a Northern Territory [[indigenous]] team.
The [[International Australian Football Council]] (IAFC) was formed after the 1995 Arafura Games. Following internal divisions in the IAFC, another organisation, [[Aussie Rules International]] was set up in [[London]].
Inspired by successful Arafura Games competitions, the inaugural [[Australian Football International Cup]] was held in Melbourne in 2002, an initiative of the newly formed IAFC. The 2002 cup was contested by 11 teams from around the world made up exclusively of non-Australians. [[Ireland]] won the 2002 cup, defeating [[Papua New Guinea]] in the final.
:''See also:'' [[List of Australian rules football leagues outside Australia | List of Australian Football Leagues outside Australia]]
==Australian Football Hall of Fame==
:''Main article: [[Australian Football Hall of Fame]].''
For the centenary of the VFL/AFL in 1996, an [[Australian Football Hall of Fame]] was established. That year 136 identities were inducted, including 100 players, 10 coaches, 10 umpires, 10 administrators and 6 media representatives.
The selections have caused some controversy, partly because of the predominance of VFL players at the expense of those who played in other leagues, in the years before there was a national competition. [[Gary Ablett]]'s induction was deferred for several years until 2005 due to a controversy associated with the death of a young woman acquaintance shortly after his retirement, which was felt to be likely to bring the Hall into disrepute.
The elite ''Legend'' status was bestowed on 12 members of the Hall of Fame in 1996; seven other football identities have subsequently received this honour.
{| style="width: 100%;"
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| The original legends (in alphabetical order) are:
*[[Ron Barassi]] Junior
*[[Haydn Bunton Senior]]
*[[Roy Cazaly]]
*[[John Coleman]]
*[[Jack Dyer]]
*[[Graham Farmer|Graham "Polly" Farmer]]
*[[Leigh Matthews]]
*[[John Nicholls]]
*[[Bob Pratt]]
*[[Dick Reynolds]]
*[[Bob Skilton]]
*[[Ted Whitten]] Senior
|Later additions:
*[[Ian Stewart (Australian footballer)|Ian Stewart]] (later in 1997)
*[[Gordon Coventry]] (1998)
*[[Peter Hudson]] (1999)
*[[Kevin Bartlett]] (2000)
*[[Barrie Robran]] (2001)
*[[Bill Hutchison]] (2003)
*[[Jock McHale]] (2005)
|}
==See also==
<p></p>
{| style="background-color: transparent; width: {{{width|100%}}}"
<p></p>
| width="{{{width|}}}" align="{{{align|left}}}" valign="{{{valign|top}}}" |
*[[:Category:Australian Rules footballers|Wikipedia listing of Australian Rules footballers]]
*[[:Category:Australian Rules coaches|Wikipedia listing of Australian Rules coaches]]
*[[Football (Australian rules) positions|Australian Rules on-field positions]]
*[[List of Australian rules football leagues in Australia | List of Australian Football Leagues in Australia]]
*[[List of Australian rules football leagues outside Australia | List of Australian Football Leagues outside Australia]]
*[[List of Australian rules football junior leagues]]
*[[List of Australian rules football grounds]]
*[[List of Umpire Associations in Australia]]
*[[AFL Draft]]
*[[List of VFL/AFL players by ethnicity]]
<p></p>
| width="{{{width|}}}" align="{{{align|left}}}" valign="{{{valign|top}}}" |
*[[Australian Football International Cup]]
*[[Aussie Rules International]] (ARI)
*[[Best and Fairest|Best and Fairest Awards]]
*[[List of overseas-born AFL players]]
*[[List of Australian rules football computer games]]
*[[Women's Footy]]
*[[Rec Footy]]
*[[Metro Footy]]
*[[Masters Australian Football]]
*[[List of Australian Rules Football Clubs]]
<p></p>
|}
==External links==
<p></p>
{| style="background-color: transparent; width: {{{width|100%}}}"
<p></p>
| width="{{{width|}}}" align="{{{align|left}}}" valign="{{{valign|top}}}" |
Official sites:
* [http://www.afl.com.au/ Official AFL site]
* [http://www.iafc.com.au/ Official International Australian Football Council site]
* [http://afl.com.au/?pg=halloffame AFL Hall of Fame]
* [http://www.worldfooty.com Barassi International Australian Football Youth Tournament]
* [http://www.aussierulesinternational.com/ Aussie Rules International]
History-related sites:
* [http://www.footypedia.com/ Footypedia] - Covers local footy history
* [http://www.robertpascoe.net Robert Pascoe] - Author of ''The Winter Game''
* [http://www.footyjumpers.com Footyjumpers.com - Every Football Jumper in VFL/AFL History]
* [http://www.convictcreations.com/football/index.htm Convict Creations] - information on the sport's role in shaping Australian culture
* [http://www.libcom.org/history/articles/radical-history-aussie-rules/index.php The Radical History of Aussie Rules Football]
* [http://www.fullpointsfooty.net/ Full Points Footy] - unofficial history site
* [http://www.allthestats.com/ AllTheStats - Australian Football League Statistics and Records]
<p></p>
| width="{{{width|}}}" align="{{{align|left}}}" valign="{{{valign|top}}}" |
Fan & News sites:
* [http://www.FootySA.com/ FootySA.com - The Best Unofficial SANFL site]
* [http://www.cokemakeyourmark.com/ Coke Make Your Mark] - AFL affiliated fan forums
* [http://www.myafl.com/forum/ myAFL.com] - unofficial AFL fan site
* [http://www.bigfooty.com/ BigFooty.com] - unofficial AFL fan site
* [http://footystats.freeservers.com/Daily/Diary.html/ FootyStats Diary] - Australian Football News
* [http://www.footynews.net/ Footynews] - unofficial |
<ip>86.29.246.180</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Blue Crane
| status = {{StatusVulnerable}}
| image = Blue_Crane.jpg
| image_width = 300px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[crane (bird)|Gruiformes]]
| familia = [[Gruidae]]
| genus = ''[[Anthropoides]]''
| species = '''''A. paradisea'''''
| binomial = ''Anthropoides paradisea''
| binomial_authority = ([[Anton August Heinrich Lichtenstein|Lichtenstein,AAH]], [[1793]])
}}
The '''Blue Crane''' (''Anthropoides paradisea''), also known as the '''Stanley Crane''' and the '''Paradise Crane''', is the national bird of [[South Africa]]. It is a tall, ground-dwelling [[bird]] of the [[crane (bird)|crane]] family which stands a little over a metre high and is pale blue-gray in colour with a white crown, a pink bill, and long, dark dark gray wingtip feathers which trail to the ground.
Blue Cranes are birds of the dry, grassy uplands which feed on seeds and insects and spend little time in wetlands. They are altitudinal migrants, generally nesting in the upper grasslands and moving down to lower altitudes for winter. Many occupy agricultural areas.
Of the 15 species of crane, the Blue Crane has the most restricted distribution of all. While it remains common in parts of its historic range, and between 10,000 and 20,000 birds remain, it began a sudden population decline from around [[1980]] and is now classified as critically endangered.
In the last two decades, the Blue Crane has largely disappeared from the [[Eastern Cape Province|Eastern Cape]], [[Lesotho]], and [[Swaziland]]. The population in the northern [[Free State Province|Free State]], [[KwaZulu-Natal Province|KwaZulu-Natal]], [[Limpopo Province|Limpopo]], [[Gauteng Province|Gauteng]], [[Mpumalanga Province|Mpumalanga]] and [[North West Province]] has declined by up to 90%. The majority of the remaining population is in eastern and southern South Africa, with a small and separate population in the [[Etosha Pan]] of northern [[Namibia]]. Occasionally, isolated breeding pairs are found in five neighboring countries.
The primary causes of the sudden decline of the Blue Crane are human population growth, the conversion of grasslands into commercial tree plantations, and poisoning: deliberate (to protect crops) or accidental (baits intended for other species, and as a side-effect of [[crop dusting]].
The South African government has stepped up legal protection for the Blue Crane. Other conservation measures are focussing on research, habitat management, education, and recruiting the help of private landowners.
The Blue Crane is a bird very special to the amaXhosa, who call it indwe. When a man distinguished himself by deeds of valour, or any form of meritorious conduct, he was often decorated by a chief by being presented with the feathers of this bird. After a battle, the chief would organise a ceremony called ukundzabela – a ceremony for the heroes, at which feathers would be presented. Men so honoured – they wore the feathers sticking out of their hair – were known as men of ugaba (trouble) - the implication being that if trouble arose, these men would reinstate peace and order.
==Media==
Videos of the Blue Crane at Disney's Animal Kingdom.
{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item|filename=Anthropoides_paradisea1.ogg|title=Anthropoides paradisea #1|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-video item|filename=Anthropoides_paradisea2.ogg|title=Anthropoides paradisea #2|description= |format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-video item|filename=Anthropoides_paradisea3.ogg|title=Anthropoides paradisea #3|description= |format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-video end}}
==External links==
*[http://www.savingcranes.org/species/blue.cfm International Crane Foundation's Blue Crane page]
*[http://www.razsar.com/Natural%20world/B%20Crane%20Blue.htm The Blue Crane in the Northern Cape, South Africa]
[[Category:Anthropoides]]
[[Category:Wildlife of Africa]]
[[af:Bloukraanvoël]]
[[nl:Paradijskraanvogel]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Babrak Karmal</title>
<id>4463</id>
<revision>
<id>41539849</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T00:58:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JoeBot</username>
<id>958590</id>
</contributor>
<comment>typo fix: "powerfull" into "powerful" using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| align="right" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="border: 1px solid; margin-left: 1em"
|+ '''Babrak Karmal'''
! bgcolor="#efefef" colspan="2" |[[Image:Karmal.gif|Babrak Karmal]]
|-
! Date of Birth:
| [[January 6]], [[1929]]
|-
! Date of Death:
| [[September 27]], [[1996]]
|-
! bgcolor="#efefef" colspan="2" | [[President of Afghanistan]]
|-
! Tenure Order:
| 4th President of the Republic
'''( 3th President of the DRA )'''
|-
! Took Office:
| December 1979 &ndash; October 1986
|-
! Predecessor:
| [[Hafizullah Amin]]
|-
! Successor:
| [[Mohammad Najibullah]]
|-
! bgcolor="#efefef" colspan="2" | [[Prime Minister of Afghanistan]]
|-
! Tenure Order:
| 7th Prime Minister
'''( 3th Premier of the DRA )'''
|-
! Took Office:
| October 1986 &ndash; April 1992
|-
! Predecessor:
| [[Hafizullah Amin]]
|-
! Successor:
| Sultan Ali Keshtmand
|}
'''Babrak Karmal''' ([[January 6]], [[1929]] - [[December 3]], [[1996]]) was the third President of [[Afghanistan]] ([[1980]] - [[1986]]) during the period of the communist [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]]. He was an elegant actor, an expert propagandist, and the best known of the [[Marxist]] leadership.
Having been restored to power with [[Soviet]] support, he was unable to consolidate his power and, in 1986, he was replaced by Dr. [[Mohammad Najibullah]]. He left [[Afghanistan]] for [[Moscow]], but returned to [[Kabul]] in 1989. He died in [[Moscow]].
==Early years==
The son of a well-connected army general, although born into a wealthy Tajikized family of Kashmir origin in the village of Kamari (east of [[Kabul]]), Babrak Karmal lived in hardship following the death of his mother.
He was an indifferent student in high school and in the law school of [[Kabul University]], quickly gained a reputation as an orator and activist in the university’s student union in 1951. He became involved in Marxist political activities while a student at [[Kabul University]], and was imprisoned for five years as a result.
In prison, Karmal was befriended by a fellow inmate, '''Mier Akbar Khybar'''. A third inmate, '''Mier Mohammad Siddiq Farhang''', initiated both to pro-Moscow leftist views. After graduation he entered the '''Ministry of Planning''', keeping in close touch with those who had special knowledge on communism, among them Mier Mohammad Siddiq Farhang and '''Ali Mohammad Zahma'''', a professor at Kabul University.
==Political career==
On [[January 1]] [[1965]] the [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan]] was founded in Kabul, with Karmal serving as one of its twenty-eight founding members in its founding congress. Karmal was appointed its Secretary. As a result, he was elected and served in the '''National Assembly''' from 1965 until 1973.
In [[1967]], when the party split into the [[Khalq]] and the [[Parcham]] factions, Karmal became the leader of the more moderate Parcham faction. When [[Mohammed Daoud Khan]] overthrew the [[monarchy]] and instituted the Republic, Karmal’s faction shared power with him, although Karmal himself did not hold an official position. However, once President Daoud felt secure in his position, dismissed [[Parcham]]is from the presidential cabinet and tried to distance Afghanistan from the [[Soviet Union]].
The factions reunited in [[1977]], and in April [[1978]] seized control of Afghanistan. Karmal was initially deputy prime minister but following the rise of the rival Khalq faction he was soon 'exiled' as ambassador to [[Prague]].
The PDPA was attempting to modernize the country in line with socialist ideas, but there was major unrest. In December 1979 the Soviets invaded Afghanistan and called Karmal back to be President of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. Babrak Karmal, exiled leader of the Parcham faction of the PDPA was installed by the Soviets as Afghanistan's new head of government.
==President of the Republic==
[[Image:AfghanFlag1980.png|thumb|Flag of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan during Babrak Karmal's rule. The flag was changed in order to reflect a more "Islamic" and popular design, restoring the historical colors that the was common in previous flags.]]
In his first radio broadcasts Karmal gave hopeful promises. He said that henceforth there would be no [[Execution (legal)|executions]] and that a new [[constitution]] would be drawn up providing for the [[Democracy|democratic]] election of national and local assemblies. He also promised that political parties would function freely and that both personal property and individual [[freedom]] would be safeguarded. In particular, he stressed that soon a government representing a united national front would be set up and that it would not pursue socialism.
He manage to fullfill some of his promises: the release of some political prisoners; the promulgation of the Fundamental Principles of the [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]]; the change of the red, Soviet-style banner of the [[Khalq]] period to the more orthodox one of black, red, and green; the granting of concessions to religious leaders; and the conditional restoration of confiscated property.
However, his Government didn't enjoy International support from the beginning. The [[United Nations]] General Assembly voted by 104 to 18 with 18 abstentions for a resolution which "strongly deplored" the "recent armed intervention" in [[Afghanis |
losopher]] and [[writer]]. Born in [[Langres]], [[Champagne, France]] in 1713, he was a prominent figure in what became known as the [[The Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], and was the editor-in-chief of the famous ''[[Encyclopédie]]''.
Diderot also contributed to [[literature]], notably with his work ''[[Jacques le fataliste et son maître]]'', which, in emulation of [[Sterne]], challenged conventions regarding [[novel]]s and their structure and content, while also examining [[philosophy|philosophical]] ideas relating to [[free will]]. He is also known as the author of the essay ''Regrets on Parting with My Old Dressing Gown'', upon which many an [[essay|article]] and [[sermon]] about consumer desire have been based.
He was educated by the [[Jesuits]], and became a bookseller in [[Paris]]. In [[1743]] he married [[Anne Toinette Champion]], a devout [[Roman Catholic]]. He had affairs with the writer [[Madame Puisieux]] and with [[Sophie Volland]], to whom he was constant for the rest of her life. His letters to her are among the most graphic of all the pictures that we have of the daily life of the philosophic circle in Paris.
==Early works==
{{French literature (small)}}
Diderot's earliest works included a translation of [[Temple Stanyan|Stanyan]]'s ''History of Greece'' (1743); with two colleagues, [[François-Vincent Toussaint]] and [[Marc-Antoine Eidous]], he produced a translation of [[Dr. James of London|James]]'s ''Dictionary of Medicine'' [http://www.harpers.org/AMajesticLiteraryFossil.html] (1746&ndash;1748) and about the same date he published a free rendering of [[Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury|Shaftesbury]]'s ''Inquiry Concerning Virtue and Merit'' (1745), with some original notes of his own. He composed a volume of bawdy stories, the ''[[Les bijoux indiscrets]]'' (1748); in later years he repented of this work. In 1746 he wrote the ''Pensées philosophiques'' (1746), and he presently added to this a short complementary essay on the sufficiency of [[natural religion]].
In 1747 he wrote the ''Promenade du sceptique'', an [[allegory]] pointing first to the extravagances of [[Catholicism]]; second, to the vanity of the pleasures of that world which is the rival of the church; and third, to the desperate and unfathomable uncertainty of the philosophy which professes to be so high above both church and world.
Diderot's next piece was what first introduced him to the world as an original thinker, his famous ''Lettre sur les aveugles'' (1749). The immediate object of this short work was to show the dependence of men's ideas on their [[five senses]]. It considers the case of the [[intellect]] deprived of the aid of one of the senses; and in a second piece, published afterwards, Diderot considered the case of a similar deprivation in the [[deaf]] and [[speech disorder|mute]]. The ''Lettre sur les sourds et muets'', however, is substantially a digressive examination of some points in [[aesthetics]]. The philosophic significance of the two essays is in the advance they make towards the principle of [[Relativism]]. But what interested the militant philosophers of that day was an episodic application of the principle of relativism to the concept of [[God]]. What makes the ''Lettre sur les aveugles'' interesting is its presentation, in a distinct though undigested form, of the theory of [[variation]] and [[natural selection]]. It is worth noticing, too, as an illustration of the comprehensive freedom with which Diderot felt his way round any subject that he approached, that in this theoretic essay he suggests the possibility of teaching the blind to read through the sense of touch.
His speculation in the ''Lettre sur les aveugles'' was too hardy for the authorities, and he was thrown into the prison of [[Vincennes]]. Here he remained for three months; then he was released, to enter upon the gigantic undertaking of his life.
==Encyclopédie==
[[Image:ENC 1-NA5 600px.jpeg|right|200px|Cover of the Encyclopédie]]
''Main article: [[Encyclopédie]]''
The bookseller and printer [[André Le Breton]] had applied to Diderot with a project for the publication of a translation into French of [[Ephraim Chambers]]'s ''[[Cyclopaedia, or Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences]]'', undertaken in the first instance by the Englishman [[John Mills (encyclopedist)|John Mills]], and the German, [[Gottfried Sellius]]. Diderot accepted the proposal, but in his busy and pregnant intelligence the scheme became transformed. Instead of a mere reproduction of the ''Cyclopaedia'', he persuaded Le Breton to enter upon a new work, which should collect under one roof all the active writers, all the new ideas, all the new knowledge, that were then moving the cultivated class of the [[Republic of Letters]] to its depths, but still were comparatively ineffectual by reason of their dispersion.
His enthusiasm infected the publishers; they collected a sufficient capital for a vaster enterprise than they had at first planned; [[Jean le Rond d'Alembert]] was persuaded to become Diderot's colleague; the requisite permission was procured from the government; in 1750 an elaborate prospectus announced the project to a delighted public; and in 1751 the first volume was given to the world. The last of the letterpress was issued in 1765, but it was 1772 before the subscribers received the final volumes of the ''Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers''.
These twenty years were to Diderot years not merely of incessant drudgery, but of harassing persecution, and of injury from the desertion of friends. The [[ecclesiastical]] party detested the ''Encyclopédie'', in which they saw a rising stronghold for their philosophic enemies. By 1757 they could endure the sight no longer. The subscribers had grown from 2,000 to 4,000, and this was a right measure of the growth of the work in popular influence and power. The ''Encyclopédie'' was threatening to the governing [[social class]]es of France ([[aristocracy]]) because it takes for granted the justice of [[religious tolerance]], [[freedom of thought]] and the value of [[science]] and industry. It asserts the [[democratic]] doctrine that it is the common people in a nation whose lot ought to be the main concern of the nation's government.
There was a contemporary belief that the ''Encyclopédie'' was the work of an organized band of conspirators against society, and that the dangerous ideas they held were now made truly formidable by their open publication. In 1759 the ''Encyclopédie'' was formally suppressed. The decree, however, did not arrest the continuance of the work, which went on, but with its difficulties increased by the necessity of being clandestine.
D'Alembert withdrew from the enterprise and other powerful colleagues, [[Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune]], among them, declined to contribute further to a book which had acquired an evil fame. Diderot was left to bring the task to an end as he best could. He wrote several hundred articles, some of them very slight, but many of them most laborious, comprehensive and ample. He wore out his eyesight in correcting [[proof]]s, and in bringing the [[manuscript]] of less competent contributors into decent shape. He spent his days in the workshops, mastering the processes of manufacturing, and his nights in reproducing on paper what he had learnt during the day. And he was incessantly harassed all the time by alarms of a descent from the [[police]].
At the last moment, when his immense work was just drawing to an end, he encountered one last and crowning mortification: he discovered that the bookseller, fearing the displeasure of the government, had struck out from the proof sheets, after they had left Diderot's hands, all passages that he chose to think too dangerous. The monument to which Diderot had given the labour of twenty long and oppressive years was irreparably mutilated and defaced.
==Other works==
[[Image:Greuze, Portrait of Diderot.jpg|thumb|200px|Portrait by [[Jean-Baptiste Greuze]], 1766]]
Although the ''Encyclopédie'' was Diderot's monumental work, he was the author of many pieces that sowed nearly every field of intellectual interest with new and fruitful ideas. He wrote sentimental [[play]]s, ''Le Fils naturel'' (1757) and ''Le Père de famille'' (1758), accompanying them with essays on [[dramatic poetry]], including especially the ''Paradoxe sur le comédien'', in which he announced the principles of a new [[drama]], the serious, domestic, bourgeois drama of real life, in opposition to the stilted conventions of the classic French stage.
His [[art criticism]] was also highly influential. His ''Essai sur la peinture'' was described by [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]], who thought it worth translating, as "a magnificent work, which speaks even more helpfully to the poet than to the painter, though to the painter too it is as a blazing torch."
Diderot's most intimate friend was the [[philologist]] [[Friedrich Melchior Grimm]]. Grimm wrote newsletters to various high personages in Germany, reporting what was going on in the world of art and literature in Paris, then the intellectual capital of Europe. Diderot helped Grimm between 1759 and 1779, by writing for him an account of the annual exhibitions of paintings in the [[Paris Salon]]. These reports are highly readable pieces of art criticism. According to [[Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve]], they initiated the French into a new sentiment, and introduced people to the mystery and purport of colour by ideas. "Before Diderot," [[Anne Louise Germaine de Staël]] wrote, "I had never seen anything in pictures except dull and lifeless colours; it was his imagination that gave them relief and life, and it is almost a new sense for which I am indebted to his genius."
[[Jean-Baptiste Greuze]] was Diderot's favourite among contemporary artists. Greuze's most characteristic pictures were the rendering i |
n [[May 29]] [[1453]] to the [[Ottoman Empire]], when [[Constantine XI]], the last emperor of the [[Palaeologus]] dynasty, fell. Greece was gradually conquered by the Ottomans during the [[15th century]].
=== Ottoman Period ===
[[Image:Vryzakis.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Theod.Vryzakis,The sortie of Messologhi]]
While the [[Ottomans]] were completing the main conquest of the Greek Mainland, two Greek migrations occurred. The first migration saw the Greek intelligentsia migrate to [[Western Europe]] — especially to Italy — and contribute to the advent of the [[Renaissance]]. The second migration of Greeks left the plains of the Greek peninsula and resettled in the mountains, the islands and Greek regions outside Ottoman control. In the mountainous regions, the Ottomans were unable to create a permanent military and administrative presence. As a result some Greek mountain clans across the peninsula, as well as some islands, were able to maintain a status of independence. The Sphakiots of [[Crete]], the [[Souliots]] from Souli of [[Epirus]], and the Maniots from [[Mani Peninsula|Mani]] of [[Peloponnese|Peloponnesus]] were the most resilient mountain clans throughout the Ottoman Empire. By the end of the 16th century and until the 17th century, Greeks began to migrate back to the plains and cities, adding to the increasing urban population. The [[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|millet]] system contributed to the ethnic cohesion of Orthodox Greeks by segregating the various peoples within the Ottoman Empire based on religion. The [[Orthodox]] Church, a religious institution with a keen sense of its national character, contributed to the Greeks from all geographical areas of the peninsula (i.e. mountains, plains, and islands) to preserve their ethnic, cultural and linguistic heritage during the years of the Ottoman rule (although at the time it was not strictly speaking a "Greek" church — the Greek Church was instituted after the liberation). The Greeks who remained on the plains during Ottoman occupation were either Christians, who dealt with the burdens of foreign rule, or to a considerable extent Crypto-Christians (Greek Muslims who were secret practitioners of the Orthodox faith) in order to avoid heavy taxation. The Greeks who converted to [[Islam]] and were not Crypto-Christians became [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] in the eyes of Orthodox Greeks. Therefore, there was no recognition of "Greek Muslims", or of "Christian Turks". As a result, religion played an integral part in the formation of the Modern Greek and other post-Ottoman national identities.
=== Creation of the modern Greek state ===
The Ottomans ruled Greece until the early [[19th century]]. In 1821, the Greeks and their allies [[Greek War of Independence|rebelled and declared their independence]], but did not succeed until 1829. The elites of powerful European nations saw the war of Greek independence, with its accounts of Turkish [[atrocity|atrocities]], in a romantic light (see, for example, the 1824 painting ''the Massacre of [[Chios]]'' by [[Eugène Delacroix]]). Scores of non-Greeks volunteered to fight for the cause &mdash; including people like [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Lord Byron]]. At times the Ottomans seemed on the verge of entirely suppressing the Greek revolution but were eventually forced to give in by the direct military intervention of [[France]], [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]] and [[Russia]]. This was the prelude of the so called "[[Eastern Question]]", the gradual dismemberment of the decaying empire by the western powers. The Russian ex-minister of foreign affairs, [[Ioannis Kapodistrias]], himself a Greek noble from the Ionian Islands, was chosen as President of the new Republic following Greek independence. However, that republic was soon dissolved by the Great Powers which then installed a "Greek" monarchy. The Great Powers did not wish the Greeks to govern themselves and also claimed that they were not capable to do so; as such they looked elsewhere for a prospective monarch. The first king, [[Otto of Greece|Otto of Bavaria]], was of the German [[Wittelsbach|House of Wittelsbach]] and the subsequent line was from the Germano-Danish [[Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg|House of Oldenburg]]. During the 19th and especially the early [[20th century|20th]] centuries, in a series of wars with the Ottomans, Greece sought to enlarge its boundaries to include the ethnic Greek population of the Ottoman Empire (the Ionian Islands were donated by Britain upon the arrival of the new king from Denmark in 1863, and Thessaly was ceded by the Ottomans without a fight). Greece would slowly grow in territory and population until reaching its present configuration in 1947.
====World War I and its aftermath====
[[Image:He-ref-chios-painting.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Eugène Delacroix]], Massacre at Chios]]
In [[World War I]], Greece sided with the [[entente]] powers against the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the other [[Central Powers]]. In the war's aftermath, the [[Great Powers]] awarded a small part of [[Asia Minor]] to Greece, centered around the city of [[Smyrna]] (known as [[Izmir]] today) which had a majority Greek population. At that time, however, the Turkish nationalists, led by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], denounced the Sultan's government in Istanbul and formed a new one in Ankara. During the [[Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)]] the Turks eventually defeated the Greek armies and regained control of Asia Minor. Soon afterwards, the [[Treaty of Lausanne]] was signed, fixing the borders to this date. A population exchange was included in the agreement and immediately afterwards, around five hundred thousand Turks (including Muslim Greeks) then living in mainland Greek territory left for Turkey in [[Population exchange#Turkey and Greece: population exchange.2C 1922|exchange]] for more than 1.22 million Greek residents of Asia Minor (excluding [[Constantinople]], Imvros and Tenedos).
In 1936, General [[Ioannis Metaxas]] established an [[authoritarian]] [[conservative]] [[dictatorship]] in Greece, seen as similar to [[Antonio Salazar]]'s "[[Estado Novo (Portugal)|New State]]". Greece under Metaxas is also compared to Spain at the time, although it lacked the political violence associated with [[Francisco Franco]]'s regime.
====World War II====
On [[28 October]] [[1940]], the [[Italy|Italian]] dictator [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]] called on the Greeks to allow the troops to enter the country and to surrender its arms. Though Greece was alone and most of Europe occupied by the Axis, the Greek government gave a simple negative response (see [[Oxi Day]])- thereby immediately siding with the [[Allies|Allied]]. The Italian troops poured over from Albania. The Greek counter-attack along the Albanian front gave the [[Allies]] their first victory against the [[Axis]] forces (see [[Greco-Italian War]]). Eventually, Mussolini's armies were saved from defeat with the intervention of Italy's [[Axis]] ally, [[Germany]] since [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] and his generals needed to secure their strategic southern flank. German forces whose ranks included troops from [[Hungary]], [[Bulgaria]], and [[Italy]] successfully invaded Greece, overran and occupied Greece in April-May 1941. Germany held onto the country until 1944, when the Greek resistance and British, [[Australian]] and [[New Zealand]] forces liberated the country.
In May 1941, to reduce the threat of a counter-offensive by Allied forces in [[Egypt]], the Germans attempted to [[Battle of Crete|seize Crete]] in a massive attack by [[paratroop]]s. Allied forces, along with Cretan civilians, however, offered fierce resistance. Although Crete eventually fell, it is pointed out by historians that this, and the whole Greek campaign, delayed German plans significantly, with the result that the German invasion of the [[Soviet Union]] started fatally close to winter.
During the years of [[Nazi]] occupation, hundreds of thousands of Greeks died in direct combat, in concentration camps, or of starvation. The occupiers murdered the greater part of the [[Jewish]] community despite efforts by the [[Greek Orthodox]] Church and many [[Christian]] Greeks to shelter their Jewish co-citizens. The Jewish community of [[Thessaloniki]] suffered the heaviest toll by far. The Greek economy languished. After liberation, Greece experienced an equally bitter [[Greek Civil War]] between the communist-led [[Democratic Army]] and the [[Hellenic Army]] that lasted until 1949, when the communists were defeated in the battle of Grammos-Vitsi.
====Post-war development and turmoil====
During the 1950s and 1960s, Greece experienced gradual and consistent economic growth, aided by significant grants and loans by the [[United States]] through the [[Marshall Plan|Marshall]] Plan. However, starting in [[1965]], a series of turbulent political events unfolded that led to severe political uncertainty. The crisis eventually got out hand for both the elected government and King [[Constantine II]] and ended dramatically in the early hours of [[April 21]], [[1967]]. That morning, a coordinated effort by a number of Generals and other military officials succeeded in a [[coup d'etat]] and they soon managed to establish a fierce [[military junta]]. General elections planned by the conservative government to be held on May 28 never took place. In the following years, a number of supporters of the left wing as well as a number of politicians and [[communist]]s were arrested and brutally tortured by the regime. Other polititians, however, evaded capture and found political refuge in such European countries as [[France]] and [[Sweden]]. Nevertheless, the then head of state, former [[King Constantine]] officially acknowleged the new regime and it was duly recognized by the international community. Diplomatic relations contiuned unabated. In 1973, however, the junta abolished the [[Kings of |
drink.
Bishkek, at {{coor dm|42|52|N|74|34|E|region:KG_type:city(900,000)}}, is situated at about 800&nbsp;m altitude just off the northern fringe of the [[Ala-Too]] range, an extension of the [[Tien Shan]] mountain range, which rises up to 4,800&nbsp;m and provides a spectacular backdrop to the city. North of the city, a fertile and gently undulating steppe extends far north into neighboring [[Kazakhstan]]. The [[Chui]] river drains most of the area. Bishkek is connected to the [[Turkestan-Siberia Railway]] by a spur.
Bishkek is a city of wide boulevards and marble-faced public buildings combined with numerous [[Soviet Union|Soviet]]-style apartment blocks surrounding interior courtyards and, especially outside the city center, thousands of smaller, often privately built houses. It is laid out on a grid pattern, with most streets flanked on both sides by narrow irrigation channels that water the innumerable trees which provide shade in the hot summers.
==History==
[[Image:Bishkek.gif|thumb|right|300px]]
Originally a caravan rest stop (possibly founded by the [[Sogdians]]) on one of the branches of the [[Silk Road]] through the [[Tien Shan]] range, the location was fortified in 1825 by the [[Uzbek]] khan of [[Kokhand]] with a mud fort. In 1862, the fort was conquered and razed when [[Imperial Russia|Tsarist Russia]] annexed the area. The site became a Russian garrison and was redeveloped and named '''Pishpek''' from 1877 onward by the Russian government, which encouraged the settlement of Russian peasants by giving them fertile [[black soil]] farms to develop. In [[1926]], the city became the capital of the newly established [[Kirghiz ASSR]] and was renamed '''Frunze''' after [[Mikhail Frunze]], [[Vladimir Lenin|Lenin]]'s close associate who was born in Bishkek and played key roles during [[Russian Revolution of 1905|1905]] and [[Russian Revolution of 1917|1917 revolutions]] and during the [[Russian civil war]] of the early 1920s.
Following the [[History of the Soviet Union (1985-1991)|breakup of the Soviet Union]], Kyrgyzstan achieved independence in 1991, and the city was renamed '''Bishkek'''. Today, it is a vibrant, rapidly modernizing city, with many restaurants and cafes and lots of second-hand European and Japanese cars and minibuses crowding its streets. During the Soviet era the city was home to a large number of industrial plants, but most have been shut down or operate today on a much reduced scale. Bishkek was also home to a major Soviet military pilot training school; one of its students, [[Hosni Mubarak]], later became president of [[Egypt]].
In 2002, the [[United States]] obtained the right to use the nearby [[Manas International Airport]] as an air base for its military operations in [[Afghanistan]] and [[Iraq]], naming its base Ganci Air Base. Shortly after the [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] had used this name (to honor [[New York City Fire Department]] Chief [[Peter J. Ganci, Jr.]] who died in the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|World Trade Center terrorist attack]] on 11 September 2001) it was found that an AFI (Air Force Instruction) dictated that foreign air bases could not bear the name of any heroes from the US. Since then the air base has been officially called [[Manas Air Base]] (after a [[Manas (epic)|legendary Kyrgyz hero]]), yet local people and the media still tend to use the name Ganci. [[Russia]] subsequently established an air base of its own in nearby [[Kant, Kyrgyzstan|Kant]].
==Sights==
[[Image:Bishek_place_minor.jpg|thumb|right|A small, neglected square in Bishkek, near the main square]]
Bishkek is a fairly attractive city, especially in summer when its thousands of trees provide color and shade. Though the city is relatively young, the surrounding area has sites of interests dating from prehistory, the [[Greco-Buddhist]] period, the period of [[Nestorian]] influence, the era of the Central Asian khanates, and the Soviet period.
*The Ala-Too mountain range, 40&nbsp;km away, provides a spectacular backdrop to the city; in it, the [[Ala Archa]] National Park is a site worth visiting
*State Historical Museum, located in the main city square
*State Museum of Applied Arts, containing examples of Kyrgyz traditional [[handicraft]]s
*Frunze House Museum
*Several statues of [[Vladimir Lenin]] remain, the largest being opposite the parliament building in a leafy park &mdash; having been moved there in 2003 from its original more conspicuous location on the main square of the city
*An [[equestrian statue]] of [[Mikhail Frunze]] still stands in a large park across from the train station
*The main government building, the [[White House (Bishkek)|White House]], is a huge seven-story marble block and the former headquarters of the Communist Party of the [[Kirghiz SSR]]
*At Ala-Too square, there's an Independence monument where the changing of the guards may be watched.
== Sister Cities ==
Sister Cities of Bishkek include [[Colorado Springs, Colorado]] (1994).
==External links==
{{commons|Category:Bishkek|Bishkek}}
*[http://www.angelfire.com/rnb/bashiri/Bishkek/Bishkek.html A personal description of Bishkek]
*[http://www.bishkek-hotels.net List of suggested hotels in Bishkek]
*[http://www.advantour.com/kyrgyzstan/bishkek.htm Guide and Photos of Bishkek]
*[http://eng.gateway.kg/reg_bishkek Kyrgyzstan Development Gateway]
*[http://freenet.bishkek.su/kyrgyzstan/ Kyrgyzstan Online]
*[http://www.cbtkyrgyzstan.kg/ Community Based Tourism (CBT) in Kyrgystan]
[[Category:Capitals in Asia]]
[[Category:Cities along the Silk Road]]
[[Category:Cities in Kyrgyzstan]]
[[bg:Бишкек]]
[[da:Bisjkek]]
[[de:Bischkek]]
[[et:Biškek]]
[[es:Bishkek]]
[[eo:Biŝkeko]]
[[fa:بیشکک]]
[[fr:Bichkek]]
[[ko:비슈케크]]
[[hr:Biškek]]
[[io:Bishkek]]
[[id:Bishkek]]
[[it:Bishkek]]
[[he:בישקק]]
[[ky:Бишкек]]
[[hu:Biskek]]
[[nl:Bisjkek]]
[[ja:ビシュケク]]
[[no:Bisjkek]]
[[pl:Biszkek]]
[[pt:Bishkek]]
[[ru:Бишкек]]
[[sk:Biškek]]
[[fi:Biškek]]
[[sv:Bisjkek]]
[[tr:Bişkek]]
[[zh:比什凯克]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band</title>
<id>4555</id>
<revision>
<id>42014672</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:45:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CambridgeBayWeather</username>
<id>294180</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Fix some red links and avoid redirects</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''The Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band''' (more often the '''Bonzo Dog Band''') were the brainchild of a British art-school set of the [[1960s]]. Part [[jazz]] band, part [[Psychedelic music|psychedelic rockers]], the Bonzos came to the attention of a broader British public through a children's television programme, ''[[Do Not Adjust Your Set]]''.
==The band's foundation==
Unusually for a band, the actual date of conception for the Bonzos is known to us: September 25th, 1962. It was on that day that [[Vivian Stanshall]] ([[tuba]], but later [[Singer|lead vocals]] along with other wind instruments) and fellow art student [[Rodney Slater (musician)|Rodney Slater]] ([[saxophone]]) bonded over a transatlantic broadcast of a boxing match between [[Floyd Patterson]] and [[Sonny Liston]].
Rodney Slater had previously been playing in a [[trad jazz]] band at college with Chris Jennings ([[trombone]]) and Tom Parkinson ([[sousaphone]]). Eventually they recruited Roger Wilkes [[trumpet]] and Trevor Brown [[banjo]] from the Royal College of Art as they slowly turned their style from more orthodox music towards the sound of the [[Alberts]] and the [[Temperance Seven]]. Vivian was their next recruit and on that fateful day in 1962, he and Rodney christened the band, '''The Bonzo Dog Dada Band'''. ''[[Bonzo the dog]]'' after a popular British character created by artist [[George E. Studdy|George Studdy]] in the [[1920s]] and [[Dada]] after the early 20th Century art movement.
<div style="float:right; width:210px;">
[[Image:Neil Innes on Do Not Adjust Your Set.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Neil Innes performing ''Equestrian Statue'' on ''[[Do Not Adjust Your Set]]'']]
[[Image:Roger Ruskin Spear playing trumpet on Do Not Adjust Your Set.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Roger Ruskin Spear]] playing the trumpet solo concluding ''Equestrian Statue'' on ''[[Do Not Adjust Your Set]]'']]
</div>
Not long after Vivian, Rodney and Tom were evicted from their shared flat, the band added two more faces to the line-up, [[Goldsmiths College]] lecturer Vernon Dudley Bohay-Nowell and his lodger, songwriter/pianist, [[Neil Innes]].
The band had been working with drummer Tom Hedges before Rodney found Martin Ash, who later took the stage name of Sam Spoons and shortly afterwards got them their first pub gig, where they were noticed by [[Roger Ruskin Spear]].
Ruskin Spear, who was the son of the British artist [[Ruskin Spear]] claimed, "I couldn't believe anyone was that bad." He eventually changed his mind and, with his interest in the manufacture of early electronic gadgets/objets d'art and sound-making systems soon became an integral part of the band.
The line-up changed once again with the departure of Roger Wilkes, whose girlfriend demanded his resignation, and John Parry, the trombonist. The two were replaced by, respectively, Bob Kerr and "Big" Sid Nichols. The final 'classic' band member, "Legs" Larry Smith (their number one fan) joined in 1963, as a tuba player and tap-dancer (but later as a drummer), on Vivian's invitation.
The band's fortunes began to increase when their manager, Reg Tracey secured them a deal with [[Parlophone]] Records in April 1966. Their first single, a cover of the 1920s 'classic', ''My Brother Makes The Noises For The Talkies'' was backed with ''I'm Going To Bring A Watermelon To My Girl Tonight'' which was rather too risque for radio.
A second single, ''Alley Oop'', backed with ''Button Up Your Overcoat'' followed in October of that year.
==A move from jazz to rock==
Although the Bonzos had st |
n captivity Hebrew), inscriptions in Sabaean near Mekele that speak of Hebrew resident there ca. 800 BCE ruled by three queens of Sheba, and the continued presence in the region of a Hebraic remnant group, the Ibro (or Yibir) of northern Somalia.
====Valley of Kings====
[[Andis Kaulins]] claims that the hiding place of the ark, said specifically by ancient sources (such as the [[Mishnayot]]), to be
: "''a desolate valley under a hill - on its east side, forty stones deep''".
Today, it is believed by some that this refers to the Tomb of Tutankhamun (east side of the Valley of Kings, ca. forty stones deep). Some believe that what was found there are the described treasures, including the Mishkan and the Ark of the Covenant.{{ref|Kaulins}}
==Media references==
The Ark of the Covenant was the focus of the highly popular 1981 adventure film, ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]''. The plot suggests that [[Adolf Hitler]], deeply interested in supernatural power and the [[occult]], wants to acquire the Ark in order to rule the world. Intrepid archaeologist [[Indiana Jones]] opposes the Nazis and succeeds in keeping it from them. The Ark is shown to be extremely powerful, and dangerous to those who do not understand it. Jones wants to study the Ark, but it is last seen being boxed up and stored in a vast U.S. [[Government Warehouse|government warehouse]] - presumably never to be seen again.
A first season episode of the television series ''[[Xena: Warrior Princess]]'' uses the Ark as a [[plot device]]. In "The Royal Couple of Thieves", Xena recruits the [[Autolycus|King Of Thieves]] to assist her in stealing the Ark from a profiteering warlord. Xena returns it to its rightful people.
==See also==
'''[[List of ancient mysteries]]'''
'''[[Hebrews]]''': [[Most Holy Place]], [[Solomon's Temple]], [[Sanctuary]], [[Shittah-tree]], [[Cherub]], [[History of ancient Israel and Judah]], [[Tabernacle]], [[Jewish symbolism]], [[Book of Judges]], [[Books of Chronicles]], [[Exodus]], [[Idolatry]], [[Documentary hypothesis]].
'''[[Middle East]]ern''': [[Arab]], [[Ashdod]], [[Israel]], [[Philistines]], [[1050s BC]], [[Axum]], [[Tewahedo Church]]
"'''''[[Mana]]'''''": [[Nehushtan]], [[Baghdad Battery]], [[Shittah-tree]], [[Ley line]]
'''[[Mormonism]]''': [[Stake (Mormonism)|Stake]]
'''[[Rastafari movement]]'''
'''People''': [[Joshua]], [[Samuel]], [[Solomon]], [[Menelik I]], [[Theodulf]]
'''Other''': [[Acacia]], [[Foucault's Pendulum (book)]], [[Rennes-le-Château]], [[Lost History]]
==Further reading==
* Fisher, Milton C., "''The Ark of the Covenant: Alive and Well in Ethiopia?''" Bible and Spade 8/3, pp. 65-72. 1995
* [[Graham Hancock|Hancock, Graham]], "''[[The Sign and the Seal]] :
The Quest for the Lost Ark of the Covenant''". Touchstone Books, 1993. ISBN 0671865412
*Leeman, Bernard "Queen of Sheba and Biblical Scholarship". Queensland Academic Press 2005 ISBN 0975802208
* Ritmeyer, L., "''The Ark of the Covenant: Where it Stood in Solomon's Temple''". Biblical Archaeology Review 22/1: 46-55, 70-73. 1996.
==External articles==
===References===
;Mobile vangaurd
* {{note|JewishEncyclopedia}} "''[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1777&letter=A&search=Ark%20of%20the%20Covenant Ark of the Covenant]''". Jewish Encyclopedia.
;Location
* {{note|Kaulins}} Kaulins, Andis, "''[http://www.lexiline.com/lexiline/lexi80.htm Mishnayot]''".
* {{note|Mock}} Mock, Robert, "''[http://biblesearchers.com/temples/jeremiah1.shtml The Hiding of the Ark]''".
* {{note|Robins}} Robins, Gerard, "''[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Crete/9923/ark.html Vendyl Jones and the Ark of the Covenant]''". [Original: Jewish Herald Voice Newspaper, Houston, TX. May 2000.] ([http://www.lexiline.com/lexiline/gerardrobinsvendyljones.htm mirror site]).
===External links===
{{Wikibooks}}
;Classic Texts
* "''[http://www1.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=9886&showrashi=true Shemot - Chapter 25]''". Tanach - Torah, Judaica Press.
* "''[http://www.skepticsannotatedbible.com/ex/25.html Exodus 25]:10-22''". Skeptic's Annotated Bible.
;Descriptions
* "''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01721a.htm Ark of the Covenant]''". The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume I.
* Pendleton, Philip Y., "''[http://www.mun.ca/rels/restmov/texts/ppendleton/sec/ABSJT.HTM A Brief Sketch of the Jewish Tabernacle]''". 1901. (International Sunday-school Lessons for 1902. Standard Eclectic Commentary comprisiong original and selected notes, explanatory, illustrative, practical. Embellished with maps, diagrams, chronological charts, tables, ect.)
* Barrow, Martyn, "''[http://www.domini.org/tabern/arkcovnt.htm The Ark of the Covenant] (Exodus 25:10-22)''". 1995.
* Kaulins, Andis, "''[http://www.lexiline.com/lexiline/lexi000.htm Ark of the Covenant]''".
* Shyovitz, David, "''[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/ark.html The Lost Ark of the Covenant]''". Jewish Virtual Library.
;Location
* Wyatt, Ron "''[http://www.wyattmuseum.com/ark-of-the-covenant-02.htm The Ark of the Covenant]: Ron Wyatt's description of his excavations for 3.5 years, and his claim to have seen it''".
* Searcy, Jim, "''[http://www.dccsa.com/greatjoy/ark.html The Ark of the Covenant]: Present Location and Importance''". Cyprus.
* Peters, Aland, "''[http://alandpeters.tripod.com/knightstemplarera1188to1312/id15.html Templars excavaton of Solomon's Temple]''".
* Israel National News "''[http://www.israelnationalnews.com/news.php3?id=82226 Kabbalist Blesses Jones]: Now´s the Time to Find Holy Lost Ark''". May 2005 (Iyar 5765).
* JAH, "''[http://www.jahtruth.net/socio.htm The Ark of The Covenant in Ireland]''". JAH's Sociology Lecture given at Maynooth University in Ireland.
;General
* "''[http://www.thebricktestament.com//exodus/the_ark_of_the_covenant/ex25_01p08-09.html The Ark of the Covenant]''". Old Testament - Exodus, The Brick Testament.
* [http://www.cathar.info/arkofthecovenant.htm The Ark of the Covenant] and its role in various popular mysteries.
* [http://www.renneslechateaubooks.info/arkofthecovenant/index.htm The Ark of the Covenant] Books on the subject, with reviews.
;Link collections
* Shapiro, Gerald N., "''[http://www.shortcuts.com/arklinks.html A small selection of the information collected on the subject]''". September 19, 2004.
;Original article text
* Initial text from [http://www.ccel.org/e/easton/ebd/ebd.html Easton's Bible Dictionary], [[1897]] listing of the [http://www.ccel.org/e/easton/ebd/ebd/T0000300.html#T0000309 Ark]<!-- Please update as needed -->
* Portions of this article have been taken from the [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/index.jsp Jewish Encyclopedia] of 1906 listing [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1777&letter=A&search=Ark%20of%20the%20Covenant Ark of the Covenant]
[[Category:Ancient mysteries]]
[[Category:Indiana Jones artifacts]]
[[Category:Jewish mysticism]]
[[Category:Tabernacle and Jerusalem Temples]]
[[de:Bundeslade]]
[[es:Arca de la Alianza]]
[[fr:Arche d'alliance]]
[[he:ארון הברית]]
[[nl:Ark van het Verbond]]
[[ja:契約の箱]]
[[pl:Arka Przymierza]]
[[pt:Arca da Aliança]]
[[fi:Liitonarkku]]
[[sv:Förbundsarken]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Angles</title>
<id>2136</id>
<revision>
<id>40863200</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T14:32:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stan Shebs</username>
<id>7777</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.107.234.176|24.107.234.176]] ([[User talk:24.107.234.176|talk]]) to last version by Antandrus</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses|Germanic people}}
'''Angles''' (German: ''Angeln'', Old English: ''Englas'', Latin: singular ''Anglus'', plural ''Anglii'') were [[Germanic people]], from [[Angeln]] in [[Schleswig]], who settled in [[East Anglia]], [[Mercia]] and [[Northumbria]] in the [[5th century]]. Southern and eastern [[Great Britain]] was later called ''Engla-lond'' (in [[Old English language|Old English]], "Land of the Angles"), thus [[England]]. For the rulers of the Angles prior to their migration to Great Britain, see [[List of kings of the Angles]].
== Early history ==
Possibly the first instance of the Angles in recorded history is in [[Tacitus]]' ''[[Germania (book)|Germania]]'', chapter 40, in which the ''Anglii'' are mentioned in passing in a list of Germanic tribes. He gives no precise indication of their geographical position, but states that, together with six other tribes, including the Varini (the [[Warni]] of later times), they worshipped a goddess named [[Nerthus]], whose sanctuary was situated on "an island in the Ocean." [[Ptolemy]] in his ''Geography'' (ii. 11. § 15), half a century later, locates them with more precision between the [[Rhine]], or rather perhaps the [[Ems]], and the [[Elbe]], and speaks of them as one of the chief tribes of the interior. Unfortunately, however, it is clear from a comparison of his map with the evidence furnished by Tacitus and other Roman writers that the indications which he gives cannot be correct. Owing to the uncertainty of these passages there has been much speculation regarding the original home of the Angli. One theory, which however has little to recommend it, is that they dwelt in the basin of the [[Saale]] (in the neighbourhood of the canton [[Engilin]]), from which region the ''Lex Angliorum et Werinorum hoc est Thuringorum'' is believed by many to have come. At the present time the majority of scholars believe that the Angli had lived from the beginning on the coasts of the Baltic, probably in the southern part of the Jutish peninsula. The evidence for this view is derived partly from |
cuit causes each capacitor to transfer its contents to its neighbour. The last capacitor in the array dumps its charge into an [[amplifier]] that converts the charge into a [[voltage]]. By repeating this process, the control circuit converts the entire contents of the array to a varying voltage, which it samples, digitizes and stores in memory. Stored images can be transferred to a printer, storage device or video display. CCDs are also widely used as sensors for astronomical [[telescope]]s, and night vision devices.
An interesting astronomical application is to use a CCD to make a fixed telescope behave like a tracking telescope and follow the motion of the sky. The charges in the CCD are transferred and read in a direction parallel to the motion of the sky, and at the same speed. In this way, the telescope can image a larger region of the sky than its normal field of view.
CCDs are typically sensitive to [[infrared]] light, which allows [[infrared photography]], [[night-vision]] devices, and zero [[lux]] (or near zero lux) video-recording/photography. Because of their sensitivity to infrared, CCDs used in astronomy are usually cooled to liquid nitrogen temperatures, because infrared [[black body radiation]] is emitted from room-temperature sources. One other consequence of their sensitivity to infrared is that infrared from [[remote control]]s will often appear on CCD-based digital cameras or camcorders, if they don't have infrared filters. Cooling also reduces the array's dark [[current (electricity)|current]], improving the sensitivity of the CCD to low light intensities, even for ultraviolet and visible wavelengths.
Thermal noise, dark current, and cosmic [[ray]]s may alter the pixels in the CCD array. To counter such effects, astronomers take an average of several exposures with the CCD shutter closed and opened. The average of images taken with the shutter closed is necessary to lower the random noise. Once developed, the "dark frame" average image is then subtracted from the open-shutter image to remove the dark current and other systematic defects in the CCD (dead pixels, hot pixels, etc).
CCD cameras used in [[astrophotography]] often require very sturdy mounts to cope with vibrations and breezes, along with the tremendous weight that most imaging platforms inherently cause. To take long CCD exposures of galaxies and nebulae, many astronomers use a technique known as auto-guiding. Most autoguiders use off-axis CCD chips to monitor any deviation from the imaging, however, some have the autoguider CCD and the imaging CCD in the same camera. Auto-guiders use a second CCD chip which can rapidly detect period errors in tracking and command the mount's motors to correct for them.
==Color cameras==
Digital color cameras generally use a [[Bayer filter|Bayer mask]] over the CCD. Each square of four pixels has one filtered red, one blue, and two green (the human [[eye]] is more sensitive to green than either red or blue). The result of this is that [[luminance]] information is collected at every pixel, but the color resolution is lower than the luminance resolution.
Better color separation can be reached by three-CCD devices ([[3CCD]]) and a [[dichroic prism|dichroic]] [[beam splitter]] [[prism (optics)|prism]], that splits the [[image]] into [[red]], [[green]] and [[blue]] components. Each of the three CCDs is arranged to respond to a particular color. Some semi-professional digital video camcorders (and all professionals) use this technique.
Since a very-high-resolution CCD chip is very expensive [[as of 2005]], a 3CCD high-resolution still camera would be beyond the price range even of many professional photographers. There are some high-end still cameras that use a rotating color filter to achieve both color-fidelity and high-resolution. These multi-shot cameras are rare and can only photograph objects that are not moving.
==Competing technologies==
Recently it has become practical to create an [[Active Pixel Sensor]] (APS) using the [[CMOS]] manufacturing process. Since this is the dominant technology for all chip-making, CMOS image sensors are cheap to make and signal conditioning circuitry can be incorporated into the same device. The latter advantage helps mitigate their greater susceptibility to noise<!--where does it come from?-->, which is still an issue, though a diminishing one. This is due to the use of low grade amplifiers in each pixel instead of one high-grade amplifier for the entire array in the CCD. CMOS sensors also have the advantage of lower power consumption than CCDs.
==See also==
* [[Camcorder]]
* [[CMOS]]
* [[Digital camera]]
* [[Digital photography]]
* [[Electron-multiplying CCD]]
* [[Frame transfer CCD]]
* [[Intensified charge-coupled device]]
* [[Photodiode]]
* [[Super CCD]]
* [[Foveon X3 sensor]]
==External links==
*[http://www.nezumi.demon.co.uk/photo/bayer/bayer.htm Bayer masks]
* ''CCD vendors''
** [http://www.dalsa.com/ Dalsa]
** [http://www.e2v.com/ e2v technologies]
** [http://www.fairchildimaging.com/ Fairchild Imaging]
** [http://sales.hamamatsu.com/assets/applications/SSD/Characteristics_and_use_of__FFT-CCD.pdf Hamamatsu Photonics Characteristics and use of FFT-CCD ]
** [http://www.kodak.com/ Kodak]
** [http://www.panasonic.co.jp/global/ Panasonic]
** [http://www.sony.com/ Sony]
** [http://www.ti.com/ Texas Instruments]
** [http://www.toshiba.com/ Toshiba]
* ''CCD Imaging''
** [http://www.QImaging.com/ QImaging]
[[Category:Integrated circuits]]
[[Category:Image processing]]
[[Category:Image sensors]]
[[ca:Detector CCD]]
[[de:Charge-coupled Device]]
[[es:CCD]]
[[fr:Capteur de photoscope]]
[[ko:CCD]]
[[id:CCD]]
[[it:Charge Coupled Device]]
[[hu:CCD]]
[[nl:Charge Coupled Device]]
[[ja:CCDイメージセンサ]]
[[lv:Lādiņa saites matrica]]
[[pl:Matryca CCD]]
[[pt:CCD]]
[[ru:ПЗС-матрица]]
[[sv:Charge Coupled Device]]
[[tr:CCD]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communist</title>
<id>6805</id>
<revision>
<id>15904921</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communism]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Computer memory</title>
<id>6806</id>
<revision>
<id>21533802</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-21T23:59:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>K.Nevelsteen</username>
<id>364603</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[memory (computers)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Citrate cycle</title>
<id>6808</id>
<revision>
<id>38561234</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T03:03:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Unint</username>
<id>531119</id>
</contributor>
<comment>cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Citric acid cycle]] {{R from alternate name}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CDC</title>
<id>6809</id>
<revision>
<id>41348563</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T19:37:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>85.92.245.130</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''CDC''' is an [[acronym]] which can mean any of the following:
* [[California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation|California Department of Corrections]]
* [[Canadian Dairy Commission]]
* [[Career Development Course]]
* [[Cell Division Cycle]]
* '''[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]'''
* [[Century Date Change]] in reference to the Y2K bug.
* [[Child Development Center]]
* [[Citizens Development Corps]]
* [[Climate Diagnostics Center]] of the [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] (NOAA) of the [[U.S. Department of Commerce]]
* [[Communicable Disease Centre]], Singapore
* [[Community Development Corporation]]
* [[Community Development Council]], Singapore
* [[Congress for Democratic Change]]
* [[Control Data Corporation]]
* [[Connected Device Configuration]] ([[Java programming language|Java]] Profile)
* [[Council for Disabled Children]]
* [[Cul De Canard]]
* [[Cult of the Dead Cow]]
* [[Democratic Convergence of Catalonia]]
* [[Changed Data Capture]]
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:CDC]]
[[es:CDC]]
[[fr:CDC]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cipro</title>
<id>6810</id>
<revision>
<id>15904926</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ciprofloxacin]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</title>
<id>6811</id>
<revision>
<id>41992271</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:18:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vikingstad</username>
<id>34483</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Centers for Disease Control and Prevention''' ('''CDC''') in [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], is recognized as the lead [[United States]] [[government agency|agency]] for protecting the [[public health]] and [[safety]] of people by providing credible information to enhance health decisions, and promoting health through strong partnerships with state health departments and other organizations. CDC focuses national attention on developing and applying [[disease prevention]] and control (especially [[infectious diseases]]), [[environmental health]], [[health promotion]] and [[health education|education]] activities designed to improve the health of the people of the United States.
The CDC Centers include:
* National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities
* Nati |
ok of the Civilized Man]]" is a poem believed to have been written in Henry's court and is the first "book of manners" or "courtesy book" in English history, representing the start of a new awakening to etiquette and decorum in English culture.
==Coat of arms==
Henry II's coat of arms were gules a lion rampant or (red background with a golden lion on hind legs). [http://images.google.com/images?q=tbn:iiewhcw2eQcJ:www.roadlesstraveledtheatre.com/images/lion/clip_image003.gif]
==See also==
* [[History rhymes]]
==External links==
* [http://sbaldw.home.mindspring.com/hproject/henry.htm The Henry Project]
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook1n.html#Angevin%20England Medieval Sourcebook: Angevin England]
{{start box}}
|-
| width="30%" align="center" rowspan="2"|Preceded by:<br>'''[[Stephen of England|Stephen]]'''
| width="40%" align="center"|'''[[List of British monarchs|King of England]]'''<br>1154&ndash;1189
| width="30%" align="center" rowspan="5"|Succeeded by:<br>'''[[Richard I of England|Richard I]]'''
|-
| width="40%" align="center"|'''[[Dukes of Normandy|Duke of Normandy]]'''<br>1150&ndash;1189
|-
| width="30%" align="center" rowspan="2"| '''[[Geoffrey of Anjou|Geoffrey V]]'''
| width="40%" align="center" | '''[[List of Counts and Dukes of Anjou|Count of Anjou]]'''<br>''with [[Henry the Young King]]''<br>1151&ndash;1189
|-
| width="40%" align="center" | '''[[Counts and Dukes of Maine|Count of Maine]]'''<br>''with [[Henry the Young King]]''<br>1151&ndash;1189
|-
| width="30%" align="center" rowspan="2"| '''[[Louis VII of France|Louis]]''' and '''[[Eleanor of Aquitaine|Eleanor]]'''
| width="40%" align="center" | '''[[Duke of Aquitaine]]'''<br>''with [[Eleanor of Aquitaine|Eleanor]]''<br>1152&ndash;1189
|-
| width="40%" align="center" | '''[[Count of Poitiers]]'''<br>''with [[Eleanor of Aquitaine|Eleanor]]''<br>1152&ndash;1189
| width="30%" align="center" | '''[[William, Count of Poitiers|William]]'''
{{succession box | before=[[Geoffrey of Anjou|Geoffrey V]] | title=[[Count of Mortain]] | years=1151&ndash;1153 | after=[[William of Blois|William III]]}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1133 births]]
[[Category:1189 deaths]]
[[Category:English monarchs]]
[[Category:Dukes of Normandy]]
[[Category:Counts of Anjou]]
[[Category:House of Anjou]]
[[bg:Хенри II (Англия)]]
[[ca:Enric II d'Anglaterra]]
[[cs:Jindřich II. Plantagenet]]
[[cy:Harri II o Loegr]]
[[de:Heinrich II. (England)]]
[[et:Henry II]]
[[es:Enrique II de Inglaterra]]
[[fr:Henri II d'Angleterre]]
[[it:Enrico II d'Inghilterra]]
[[he:הנרי השני מלך אנגליה]]
[[nl:Hendrik II van Engeland]]
[[ja:ヘンリー2世 (イングランド王)]]
[[pl:Henryk II (król Anglii)]]
[[pt:Henrique II de Inglaterra]]
[[ro:Henric al II-lea al Angliei]]
[[ru:Генрих II (король Англии)]]
[[simple:Henry II of England]]
[[fi:Henrik II (Englanti)]]
[[sv:Henrik II av England]]
[[uk:Генріх II (король Англії)]]
[[zh:亨利二世 (英格兰)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Henry IV of the Holy Roman Empire</title>
<id>14182</id>
<revision>
<id>15911753</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>David Parker</username>
<id>42</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hentai</title>
<id>14183</id>
<revision>
<id>42016537</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T06:06:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mr Chuckles</username>
<id>999422</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 42016273 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CreamLemonMakoSexySymphonyPart1manga.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Cover from the film comics for one of the ''[[Cream Lemon]]'' OVAs.]]
{{japanese|kanji=変態|kana= へんたい|romaji=hentai|eng=Hentai}}
'''''Hentai''''' (変態), a [[ Japanese language|Japanese]]
[[word]] meaning "perverted" is used in many [[western countries]] to refer to [[anime]], [[manga]], and computer games with explicit sexual or [[pornography|pornographic]] content (see [[Japanese pornography]]). However, the Japanese very rarely use the word in this way. More commonly used terms include '''"jū hachi kin"''' (18禁; prohibited for sale to persons under 18), '''"[[ecchi]]/[[H anime]]"''' (sexual/pornographic [[anime]]) '''"eroanime"''' (エロアニメ; derived from ''erotic [[anime]]''), or '''"seinen"''' (成年; adult, not to be confused with ''[[Seinen|青年]] young adult'').
The term '''"hentai"''' may also be used to refer to pornographic animation in general that is not necessarily anime or manga. This is most often the case if the said animation is an imitation of a pre-existing cartoon or character (e.g. [[Aladdin (1992 film)|Princess Jasmine]] hentai).
==Background==
[[Image:LevelC-DVDcover.jpg|left|thumb|Cover from ''[[Level C]]'', a [[shōnen-ai]] [[hentai]] anime.]][[H anime]] is an artistic expression of pornography in Japan. As opposed to photographic pornography, they allow full use of the imagination as well as scenes that run counter to accepted society and culture. Elements of sexual fantasy are represented in ways that would be impossible to film, even with a dedicated special effects budget.
This is not without precedent in Japan. During the [[Edo Period]], which was the heyday of [[ukiyo-e]] wood-block prints, ukiyo-e had a pornographic variant, called [[shunga]], which also had scenes that were sometimes surreal.
Each culture will have a different understanding about the line between adult content and mainstream works. It's important to understand ways that the Japanese line might be different from that in other cultures. Children's anime can depict nude characters, for example in ''[[Sailor Moon]]'' it is implied that the girls are nude during their transformation. Many artists add [[nudity]] as [[fanservice]].
However, H material tends to use explicit pornographic content.
As a form of expressing sexual fantasy, depictions can include those that are unacceptable in society, or run counter to social norms.
Such fantasies can be depicted in the extreme, often demonstrating subconscious desires or purely carnal motivations. This contrast between accepted&mdash;and in some cases ''legal''&mdash;behavior and primal sexuality is a primary motivation for many works of pornography, and H art is no exception.
[[Image:RenaiConsultant.jpg|right|thumb|200px||Cover from ''Ren'ai Consultant'', an adult manga by [[Yū Igarashi]].]] This form of Japanese culture acquired some popularity in the West thanks, to a large extent, to the [[Internet]]. Although there have been many pornographic comic books and animations produced in the West, they never were as popular as H manga is today. Comic book artists who focus on provocative female figures often use their talent for mainstream comic companies rather than adult works, and may fear ridicule for working on niche adult titles that are not as widespread, compared to Japan where a large group of artistic talent draws pornography.
In comparison to other forms of pornography, H art often portrays women as regular females in society who end up in some kind of sexual encounter, and are often aroused by the encounter to the point of no return. Characters may be portrayed as shy or have no conscious thoughts about sex, until placed in a situation where they are stimulated and aroused. While there is a common theme of a male stranger convincing a female to become aroused physically by her own body and whatever the male desires, there are also depictions of consensual sex between couples, as well as assertive females who initiate sex.
Often, H artists try to portray situations in the most extreme manner possible, in order to break the boundaries of the viewer's [[comfort zone]]. This results in artists competing to show successively more excessive situations over time. An example would include [[bukkake]] and group sex, which demonstrates extreme sex that isn't usually performed by the average person. Other forms of demonstrating extreme sexual activity include bondage, tentacles, or other fetishes. Some artists may prefer to do the opposite, and focus on lighter titillation and nudity, or on character relationships and story.
==Meaning of the word==
In [[Japanese language|Japanese]], the word ''hentai'' is based on the words, "hen" meaning unusual or strange and "tai" meaning attitude or appearance. It is never used to refer to pornographic material, only to a person. The terms ''18-kin'' (18禁, literally "18-prohibited") meaning "prohibited to those not yet 18 years old", and ''seijin manga'' (成人漫画 "adult manga") are used when referring to pornography.
Compare ''[[otaku]]'' for another word altered somewhat in this transition. The English use is compared to the Japanese slang エッチ (''H'', ''[[etchi]]'', often spelled ''[[ecchi]]''), which refers to any sexually explicit content or behavior &#8212; or simply a lewd comment. ''Etchi'' is simply the spelling-out of the Japanese pronunciation of the letter ''H''; and is believed to be a shortened form of ''hentai'' used as a polite codeword in the [[1960s]]. (Note that even in Japan the origins of ''etchi'' are unclear &#8212; one playful suggestion is that an H is someone who always follows a G, or girl.) Another possibility is that ''etchi'' is not a pronunciation of anything; it simply means "d |
bstantially higher rate.
==Effects of deforestation==
Deforestation alters the hydrologic cycle, potentially increasing or decreasing the amount of water in the soil and groundwater and the moisture in the atmosphere. Forests support considerable [[biodiversity]]. Forests are valuable habitat for wild [[mushrooms]] and [[medicinal plants|medicinal conservation]] and the recharge of [[aquifer]]s; on the other hand recent studies that show that planting of new trees can sometimes lower water tables and drain rivers [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7749], and a long term study (for one subcontinent) suggest the net water managament effect of deforestation in the 20th century would be nearly neutral, so more study is required. With forest bioptopes a major, irreplacable source of new drugs (like [[Paclitaxel|taxol]]) and genetic variations (such as crop resistance) is lost irretrievably.
Shrinking forest cover lessens the landscape's capacity to intercept, retain and transport precipitation. Instead of trapping precipitation, which then percolates to groundwater systems, deforested areas become sources of surface water runoff, which moves much faster than subsurface flows. That quicker transport of surface water can translate into [[flash flood]]ing and more extreme floods than would occur with the forest cover. Deforestation also contributes to decreased [[evapotranspiration]], which lessens atmospheric moisture and precipitation levels, and affects precipitation levels downwind from the deforested area, as water is not recycled to downwind forests, but is lost in runoff and returns directly to the oceans; in deforested north and northwest China, the average annual precipitation decreased by one third between the 1950s and the 1980s [http://www.library.utoronto.ca/pcs/state/chinaeco/forest.htm].
Although short-sighted, market-driven [[forestry]] practices are often targeted as the primary cause of deforestation, the principal human-related causes are actually agriculture and livestock grazing, urban sprawl, and mining and petroleum extraction. Long-term gains can be obtained by managing forest lands sustainably to maintain both forest cover and provide a biodegrable renewable resource. Forests are also important stores of organic [[carbon]], and forests can extract carbon dioxide and [[pollutant]]s from the air, thus contributing to biosphere stability and probably relevant to the greenhouse effect. Forests are also valued for their aesthetic beauty and as a cultural resource and tourist attraction. Deforestation results in the loss of these benefits.
==Definition of deforestation==
Deforestation is the loss or continual degradation of forest habit due to either natural or human related causes. Agriculture, urban sprawl, unsustainable forestry practices, mining, and petroleum exploration all contribute to human caused deforestation. Natural deforestation can be linked to tsunamis, forest fires, volcanic eruptions, glaciation and desertification. The effects of human related deforestation can be mitigated through environmentally sustainable practices that reduce permanent destruction of forests or even act to preserve and rehabilitate disrupted forestland. (See [[Reforestation]], and [[Treeplanting]] )
The term deforestation is often the source of disagreement between various interest groups.
Deforestation can be defined broadly to include not only conversion to non-forest, but also degradation that reduces forest quality - the density and structure of the trees, the [[ecosystem services|ecological services]] supplied, the [[biomass]] of plants and animals, the [[species diversity]] and the [[genetic diversity]]. Narrow definitions of deforestation define deforestation as the removal of forest cover to an extent that allows for alternative land use. The [[United Nations]] Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD) uses a broad definition of deforestation, while the [[Food and Agriculture Organization|Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN]] (FAO) uses a narrow definition.
Definitions can also be grouped as those which refer to changes in land cover and those which refer to changes in land use.
''[[Land cover]]'' measurements often use a percent of cover to determine deforestation. This type of definition has the advantage in that large areas can be easily measured, for example from [[satellite]] photos. A forest cover removal of 90% may still be considered forest in some cases. Under this definition areas that may have few values of a natural forest such as [[plantation]]s and even urban or suburban areas may be considered forest.
''[[Land use]]'' definitions measure deforestation by a change in land use. This definition may consider areas to be forest that are not commonly considered as such. An area can be lacking trees but still considered a forest. It may be a land designated for afforestation or an area designated administratively as forest.
===Use of the term deforestation===
The term deforestation has been used to refer to [[fuel]] wood cutting, commercial [[logging]] and [[slash and burn]] cultivation. It is also used to describe forest clearing for annual crops, for grazing, and establishment of industrial forest plantations. The meaning of the term is ambiguous enough and so charged with emotion that the use of a more precise term might be better suited in specific cases. Related terms are forest decline, forest fragmentation and forest degradation, loss of forest cover and land use conversion.
==Causes of deforestation==
===Agents===
Agents of deforestation can be individuals or groups of individuals that are clearing the forest. Commercial farmers, slash and burn farmers, cattle ranches and loggers are all agents of deforestation. Agents are usually acting in their own self interest.
===Present Causes===
Causes include demand for farm land and fuel wood. Underlining causes include poverty, lack of reform. The causes of deforestation are complex and change over time. Deforestation can be most easily understood by studying the causes for each forest and country separately.
===Theories of deforestation===
Three schools of thought exist with regards to the causes of deforestation - the ''Impoverishment'' school, which believes that the major cause of deforestation is "''the growing number of poor''", the ''Neoclassical'' school which believes that the major cause is "''open-access property rights''" and the ''Political-ecology'' school which believes that the major cause of deforestation is that the "''capitalist investors crowd out peasants''". The ''Impoverishment'' school sees smallholders as the principal agents of deforestation, the ''Neoclassical'' school sees various agents, and the ''Political-ecology'' school sees capitalist entrepreneurs as the major agents of deforestation.
== History and Historical causes ==
* ''See, [[Timeline of environmental events]]''
===Prehistory===
Deforestation has been practiced by humans for thousands of years. [[Fire]] was probably the first tool that allowed humans to modify the landscape. The first evidence of deforestation shows up in the [[Mesolithic]]. Fire was probably used to drive game into more accessible areas. With the advent of [[agriculture]] fire became the prime tool to clear land for crops. In [[Europe]] there is little solid evidence before [[7000 BC|5000]] [[Before Present|BP]]. Mesolithic [[hunter-gatherer|foragers]] used fire to create openings for [[red deer]] and [[wild boar]]. In [[Britain]] shade tolerant species like [[oak]] and [[Ash tree|ash]] are replaced in the [[palynology|pollen]] record by [[hazel]]s, brambles, grasses and nettles. Removal of the forests led to decreased [[transpiration]] resulting in the formation of upland [[peat bog]]s. Widespread decreased in [[elm]] pollen across Europe between 6400-6300 BP and 5200-5000 BP, starting in southern Europe and gradually moving north to Britain, may represent land clearing by fire at the onset of [[Neolithic]] agriculture.
===Pre-industrial history===
The historic [[silting]] of ports along the southern coasts of [[Asia Minor]] (''e.g.'' [[Clarus]], and the examples of [[Ephesus]], [[Priene]] and [[Miletus]], where harbors had to be abandoned because of the silt deposited by the Meander) and in coastal [[Syria]] during the last centuries BC, and the famous silting up of the harbor for [[Bruges]], which moved port commerce to [[Antwerp]], all follow periods of increased settlement growth (and apparently of deforestation) in the river basins of their [[hinterland]]s. In early medieval [[Riez]] in upper Provence, alluvial silt from two small rivers raised the riverbeds and widened the floodplain, which slowly buried the Roman settlement in alluvium and gradually moved new construction to higher ground; concurrently the headwater valleys above Riez were being opened to pasturage.
A typical [[progress trap]] is that cities are built in a woody area providing the wood for some industry (e.g. shipbuilding, pottery) which starts consuming it so fast &ndash; and without proper replanting &ndash; that it becomes impossible to obtain it close enough to remain competitive, leading to the city's abandonment, as happened repeatedly in Ancient Asia Minor. Especially the combination of mining and metallurgy went along this self-destructive path.
Meanwhile most of the population remaining active in (or indirectly dependend on) the agricultural sector, the main pressure in most areas remained land clearing for crop and cattle farming; fortunately enough wild green was usually left standing (and partially used, e.g. to collect firewood, timber and fruits, or to graze pigs) for wildlife to remain viable, and the hunting privileges of the elite (nobility and higher clergy) often protected significant woodlands.
Major parts in the spread (and thus more durable growth) of the population were played by m |
ation incapacitated three of the six battleships in the harbour at a cost of two of the 21 attacking [[Fairey Swordfish]] [[torpedo bombers]]. Carriers also played a major part in reinforcing [[Malta]], both by transporting planes and by defending convoys sent to supply the besieged island. The use of carriers prevented the Italian Navy and land-based German aircraft from dominating the Mediterranean theatre.
In the Atlantic, aircraft from HMS ''Ark Royal'' and [[HMS Victorious (R38)|HMS ''Victorious'']] were responsible for slowing [[German Battleship Bismarck|''Bismarck'']] during May 1941. Later in the war, escort carriers proved their worth guarding convoys crossing the [[Second Battle of the Atlantic|Atlantic]] and [[Arctic convoys of World War II|Arctic]] oceans.
Many of the major battles in the Pacific involved aircraft carriers. [[Japan]] started the war with ten aircraft carriers, the largest and most modern carrier fleet in the world at that time. There were six American aircraft carriers at the beginning of the hostilities, although only 3 of them were operating in the Pacific.
[[Image:Carrier shokaku.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Planes from the Japanese aircraft carrier [[Japanese aircraft carrier Shokaku|''Shokaku'']] preparing the attack on [[attack on Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]].]]
Drawing on the 1939 Japanese development of low-depth runs for aerial torpedoes, and the 1940 British aerial attack on the Italian fleet at Taranto the 1941 Japanese surprise [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] was a clear illustration of the [[power projection]] capability afforded by a large force of modern carriers. Simultaneously, the Japanese began their advance through South East Asia and the [[sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse|sinking of ''Prince of Wales'' and ''Repulse'']] by Japanese land-based aircraft drove home the need for this ship class for fleet defence from aerial attack. In April 1942, the Japanese Fast Carrier Strike Force ranged into the [[Indian Ocean raid|Indian Ocean]] and sank shipping, including the under-repair and undefended carrier [[HMS Hermes (95)|HMS ''Hermes'']]. Smaller Allied fleets with inadequate aerial protection were forced to retreat or be destroyed. In the [[Battle of the Coral Sea|Coral Sea]], US and Japanese fleets traded aircraft strikes in the first battle where neither side's ships sighted the other. At the [[Battle of Midway]] four Japanese carriers were sunk in a surprise attack by planes from three American carriers and this is considered to be the turning point of the war in the Pacific.
Subsequently the US was able to build up large numbers of aircraft aboard a mixture of fleet, light and (newly commissioned) escort carriers. These carriers played a major part in winning the [[Pacific war]]. The eclipse of the battleship as the primary component of a fleet was clearly illustrated by the sinking of the largest battleship ever built, [[Japanese battleship Yamato|''Yamato'']], by carrier-borne aircraft in 1945. Japan also built the largest aircraft carrier of the war, [[Japanese aircraft carrier Shinano|''Shinano'']], which, like ''Yamato'', was named after a Japanese province.
==Wartime innovations==
[[Image:Viraat lengthy.jpg|thumb|250px|[[India]]'s [[INS Viraat|INS ''Viraat'']].]]
Combat experience proved that the British invention of the sealed "hurricane bow" which protected against storms was superior to any other use for the very front of the ship, be it machine-guns or a second flight deck. This became standard for British and American carriers. The Japanese carrier [[Japanese aircraft carrier Taiho|''Taiho'']] was the first of their ships to incorporate it.
Starting late in the war with the [[Midway class aircraft carrier|''Midway'' class]], American carriers had grown so large that it was no longer practical to continue the concept of designing the hangar deck to be the strength deck, and all subsequent American carriers have the flight deck as the strength deck, leaving only the island as superstructure.
===Light Aircraft Carriers===
The loss of three major carriers in quick succession in the Pacific led the US Navy to develop the light carrier (CVL) from [[light cruiser]] hulls that had already been laid down. These were intended to add fighter squadrons to a task force, and were used in the US Navy only during World War II. The Royal Navy made a similar design which served both them and [[Commonwealth]] countries after World War II. One of these carriers, India's [[INS Viraat|INS ''Viraat'']], formerly [[HMS Hermes (R12)|HMS ''Hermes'']], is still being used.
===Escort Carriers and Merchant Aircraft Carriers===
To protect Atlantic [[convoy]]s, the British developed what they called [[Merchant Aircraft Carrier]]s, which were merchant ships equipped with a flat deck for half a dozen aircraft. These operated with civilian crews, under merchant colors, and carried their normal cargo besides providing air support for the convoy. As there was no lift or hangar, aircraft maintenance was limited and the aircraft spent the entire trip sitting on the deck.
These served as stop-gap until dedicated [[escort carrier]]s could be built in the US (US classification ''CVE''). About a third of the size of a fleet carrier, it carried about two dozen aircraft for anti-submarine duties. Over one hundred were built or converted from merchantmen.
Escort carriers were built in the US from two basic hull designs: one from a merchant ship, and the other from a slightly larger, slightly faster tanker. Besides defending convoys, these were used to transport aircraft across the ocean. Nevertheless, some participated in the battles to liberate the [[Philippines]], notably the [[battle off Samar]] in which six escort carriers and their escorting destroyers briefly took on five Japanese battleships and bluffed them into retreating.
===Catapult Aircraft Merchantmen===
As an emergency stop-gap before sufficient merchant aircraft carriers became available, the British provided air cover for convoys using ''Catapult aircraft merchantman'' (CAM ships) and [[merchant aircraft carrier]]s. CAM ships were merchant vessels equipped with an aircraft, usually a battle-weary [[Hawker Hurricane]], launched by a catapult. Once launched, the aircraft could not land back on the deck and had to ditch in the sea if it was not within range of land. Over two years, fewer than 10 launches were ever made, yet these flights did have some success: 6 bombers for the loss of a single pilot.
===The Angled Deck===
During the Second World War, aircraft would land on the flight deck parallel to the long axis of the ship's [[Hull (watercraft)|hull]]. Aircraft which had already landed would be parked on the deck at the bow end of the flight deck. A crash barrier was raised behind them to stop any landing aircraft which overshot the landing area because its landing hook missed the arrestor cables. If this happened, it would often cause serious damage or injury and even, if the crash barrier was not strong enough, destruction of parked aircraft.
An important development of the 1940s was the British invention of the angled deck, where the runway was canted at an angle of a few degrees across the ship. If an aircraft misses the arrestor cables, the pilot only needs to increase [[engine]] power to maximum to get airborne again and will not hit the parked aircraft because the angled deck points out over the sea. The picture of [[USS John C. Stennis (CVN-74)|USS ''John C. Stennis'']] at the top shows an angled landing deck.
===Post-War Developments===
[[Image:FS CdG Optics.jpg|thumb|250px|Landing optics of ''[[FS Charles de Gaulle|Charles de Gaulle]]'']]
The modern steam-powered catapult, powered by steam from the ship's [[boiler]]s or reactors, was invented by Commander C.C. Mitchell [[Royal Naval Reserve|RNVR]]. It was widely adopted following trials on [[HMS Perseus (R51)|HMS ''Perseus'']] between 1950 and 1952 which showed it to be more powerful and reliable than the compressed air catapults which had been introduced in the 1930s. As now only [[nuclear power|nuclear powered]] carriers have boilers as part of their motive power system, the majority of aircraft carriers are now equipped with steam generating plant solely to power the catapults.
Another British invention was the glide-slope indicator (also known as a "meatball"). This was a gyroscopically-controlled lamp on the port side of the deck which could be seen by the aviator who was about to land, indicating to him whether he was too high or too low in relation to the desired glidepath. It also took into account the effect of the waves on the flight deck. The device became a necessity as the landing speed of aircraft increased.
The US Navy prematurely attempted to become a strategic nuclear force with the project to build [[USS United States (CVA-58)|''United States'']], termed CVA, with the "A" signifying "atomic". This ship would have carried twin-propeller bombers, each of which could carry an atomic bomb. The project was cancelled under pressure from the newly-created [[United States Air Force]], and the letter "A" was re-cycled to mean "attack." But this only delayed the growth of carriers. Nuclear weapons would put to sea despite Air Force objections in 1955 aboard [[USS Forrestal (CV-59)|USS ''Forrestal'']], and by the end of the fifties the Navy had a series of nuclear-armed attack aircraft.
The US Navy took nuclear power afloat in other ways by building aircraft carriers powered by nuclear reactors. [[USS Enterprise (CVN-65)|USS ''Enterprise'']] was the first aircraft carrier to be powered in this way and subsequent supercarriers took advantage of this technology to increase their endurance. The only other nation to have followed the US lead is France with [[FS Charles de Gaulle|''Charles de Gaulle'']].
The post-war years also saw the development of the helicopter with different capabiliti |
West, compelling almost the entire population to farm. Only a small fraction of the population lived in the towns.
Peter was deeply impressed by the advanced technology, warcraft, and statecraft of the West. He studied Western tactics and fortifications and built a strong army of 300,000 made up of his own subjects, whom he conscripted for life. In [[1697]]-[[1698]], he became the first Russian prince to ever visit the West, where he and his entourage made a deep impression. In celebration, Peter assumed the title of emperor as well as tsar, and Muscovy officially became the [[Russian Empire]] in [[1721]].
Peter's first military efforts were directed against the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]]. His attention then turned to the north. Peter still lacked a secure northern seaport except at [[Arkhangelsk|Archangel]] on the [[White Sea]], whose harbor was frozen nine months a year. Access to the Baltic was blocked by [[Sweden]], whose territory enclosed it on three sides. Peter's ambitions for a "window to the sea" led him in [[1699]] to make a secret alliance with the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] and [[Denmark]] against Sweden, resulting in the [[Great Northern War]]. The war ended in [[1721]] when an exhausted Sweden sued for peace with Russia. Peter acquired four provinces situated south and east of the Gulf of Finland, thus securing his coveted access to the sea. There he built Russia's new capital, [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]], as a "window opened upon Europe" to replace Moscow, long Russia's cultural center.
The strains of Peter's military expeditions produced another revolt. Invoking the name of populist rebel [[Stenka Razin]], another [[Cossack]] chieftain [[Kondraty Bulavin]] raised a revolt, ultimately crushed.
Peter reorganized his government on the latest Western models, molding Russia into an [[political absolutism|absolutist]] state. He replaced the old ''boyar'' [[Duma]] (council of nobles) with a nine-member senate, in effect a supreme council of state. The countryside was also divided into new provinces and districts. Peter told the senate that its mission was to collect tax revenues. In turn tax revenues tripled over the course of his reign. As part of the government reform, the Orthodox Church was partially incorporated into the country's administrative structure, in effect making it a tool of the state. Peter abolished the patriarchate and replaced it with a collective body, the [[Holy Synod]], led by a lay government official. Meanwhile, all vestiges of local self-government were removed, and Peter continued and intensified his predecessors' requirement of state service for all nobles.
Peter died in [[1725]], leaving an unsettled succession and an exhausted realm. His reign raised questions about Russia's backwardness, its relationship to the West, the appropriateness of reform from above, and other fundamental problems that have confronted many of Russia's subsequent rulers. Nevertheless, he had laid the foundations of a modern state in Russia.
===Ruling the Empire (1725&ndash;1825)===
Nearly forty years were to pass before a comparably ambitious and ruthless ruler appeared on the Russian throne. [[Catherine II of Russia|Catherine II]], the Great, was a German princess who married the Russian heir to the crown. Finding him an incompetent moron, Catherine tacitly consented to his murder. It was announced that he had died of "[[apoplexy]]", and in [[1762]] she became ruler.
Catherine contributed to the resurgence of the Russian nobility that began after the death of Peter the Great. State service had been abolished, and Catherine delighted the nobles further by turning over most government functions in the provinces to them.
Catherine the Great extended Russian political control over the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with actions including the support of the [[Targowica confederation]], although the cost of her campaigns, on top of the oppressive social system that required lords' serfs to spend almost all of their time laboring on the lords' land, provoked a major peasant uprising in [[1773]], after Catherine legalized the selling of serfs separate from land. Inspired by another Cossack named [[Yemelyan Pugachev|Pugachev]], with the emphatic cry of "Hang all the landlords!" the rebels threatened to take Moscow before they were ruthlessly suppressed. Catherine had Pugachev drawn and quartered in [[Red Square]], but the specter of revolution continued to haunt her and her successors.
While suppressing the Russian peasantry, Catherine successfully waged war against the decaying Ottoman Empire and advanced Russia's southern boundary to the Black Sea. Then, by plotting with the rulers of [[Austrian Empire|Austria]] and [[Prussia]], she annexed half of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth during the [[Partitions of Poland]] and pushed the Russian frontier westward into Central Europe. By the time of her death in [[1796]], Catherine's expansionist policy had made Russia into a major European power. This continued with [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander I's]] annexation of [[Finland]] from the weakened kingdom of [[Sweden]] in [[1809]].
[[Napoléon I of France|Napoleon]] made a major misstep when he invaded Russia after a dispute with Tsar Alexander I and launched an [[Napoleon's invasion of Russia|invasion of the tsar's realm]] in [[1812]]. The campaign was a catastrophe. Although Napoleon's Grand Army made its way to Moscow, the Russians' [[Scorched earth|scorched-earth]] strategy prevented the invaders from living off the country. In the bitterly cold Russian weather, thousands of French troops died in the snow. As Napoleon's forces retreated, the Russian troops pursued them into Central and Western Europe and to the gates of Paris. After Russia and its allies defeated Napoleon, Alexander became known as the 'savior of Europe,' and he played a prominent role in the redrawing of the map of Europe at the [[Congress of Vienna]] in 1815.
Although the Russian Empire would play a leading political role in the next century, secured by its defeat of Napoleonic France, its retention of serfdom precluded economic progress of any significant degree. As West European economic growth accelerated during the [[Industrial Revolution]], which had begun in the second half of the 18th century, Russia began to lag ever farther behind, creating new problems for the empire as a great power.
===Imperial Russia since the Decembrist Revolt (1825&ndash;1917)===
====The Decembrist Revolt====
Russia's great power status obscured the inefficiency of its government, the isolation of its people, and its economic backwardness. Following the defeat of Napoleon, Alexander I had been ready to discuss constitutional reforms, but though a few were introduced, no thoroughgoing changes were attempted.
The relatively liberal tsar was replaced by his younger brother, [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] ([[1825]]&ndash;[[1855]]), who at the onset of his reign was confronted with an uprising. The background of this revolt lay in the Napoleonic Wars, when a number of well-educated Russian officers traveled in Europe in the course of the military campaigns, where their exposure to the liberalism of Western Europe encouraged them to seek change on their return to autocratic Russia. The result was the [[Decembrist Revolt]] (December [[1825]]), the work of a small circle of liberal nobles and army officers who wanted to install Nicholas' brother as a constitutional monarch. But the revolt was easily crushed, leading Nicholas to turn away from the Westernization program begun by Peter the Great and champion the maxim "Autocracy, Orthodoxy, and Respect to the People." Russian tsars had also to deal with uprisings in their newly acquired territories of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: the [[November Uprising]] in 1830, the [[January Uprising]] in 1863.
====Ideological schisms and reaction====
[[Image:Bakuninfull.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mikhail Bakunin]]]]
The harsh retaliation for the revolt made "December Fourteenth" a day long remembered by later revolutionary movements. In order to repress further revolts, schools and universities were placed under constant surveillance and students were provided with official textbooks. Police spies were planted everywhere. Would-be revolutionaries were sent off to Siberia; under Nicholas I hundreds of thousands were sent to labor camps there.
In this setting [[Michael Bakunin]] would emerge as the father of [[anarchism]]. He left Russia in [[1842]] to Western Europe, where he became active in the socialist movement. After participating in [[May Uprising in Dresden]] of [[1849]], he was imprisoned and shipped to Siberia, but eventually escaped and made his way back to Europe. There he practically joined forces with [[Karl Marx]], despite significant ideological and tactical differences.
The question of Russia's direction had been gaining steam ever since Peter the Great's programme of Westernization. Some favored imitating Europe while others renounced the West and called for a return of the traditions of the past. The latter path was championed by [[Slavophile]]s, who heaped scorn on the "decadent" West. The Slavophiles were opponents of bureaucracy, preferred the [[collectivism]] of the [[middle ages|mediaeval]] Russian ''[[mir (social)|mir]]'', or village community, to the [[individualism]] of the West. Later, [[Communism]] in Soviet Russia would owe a debt not only to the doctrines of Karl Marx but also the long-established social pattern of the ''mir''.
====Alexander II and the abolition of serfdom====
Tsar Nicholas died with his philosophy in dispute. One year earlier, Russia had become involved in the [[Crimean War]], a conflict fought primarily in the [[Crimea|Crimean peninsula]]. Since playing a major role in the defeat of Napoleon, Russia had been regarded as militarily invincible, but the rev |
oronation Street''. London: Andre Deutsch Ltd, 2000. (ISBN 0233998063)
*Little, Daran. ''Who's Who on Coronation Street''. London: Andre Deutsch Ltd, 2002. (ISBN 0233999949)
===Video references===
*''This Is Coronation Street''. Dir. John Black. DVD. Acorn Media Publishing, 2003.
*''Coronation Street: Secrets''. Dir. John Black. DVD. Morningstar Entertainment, 2004.
*''Coronation Street: Early Days''. Video. Granada Media Group, 2001.
==Further reading==
*''Coronation Street: The War Years'', a fictional account of the Street during [[World War II]], written by [[Daran Little]] and British author [[Christine Green]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.itv.com/page.asp?partid=91 Official website, from ITV]
*[http://www.tv-heaven.co.uk/forum Coronation st. spoilers and discussion]
*[http://www.corrie.net Corrie.net volunteers site]
*[http://www.cbc.ca/coronation/ Official Canadian site]
*[http://www.csvu.net Coronation Street Visual Updates (recaps for the UK, Canada, Australia and NZ)]
*[http://www.corrieweeklyupdates.btinternet.co.uk Coronation Street weekly updates from the UK]
*[http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/C/htmlC/coronationst/coronationst.htm Encyclopedia of Television]
*[http://www.corrieblog.tv. The Corrie Blog (Episode Reviews, Previews, News and Gossip. Updated constantly by fans every weekday morning)]
*[http://www.corriecommentary.blogspot.com Corrie Commentary (weekly updates by real northerner Frank)]
*{{imdb title|id=0053494|title=Coronation Street}}
[[Category:Soap operas]]
[[Category:ITV television programmes]]
[[Category:British cultural icons]]
[[Category:CBC network shows]]
[[Category:Coronation Street]]
[[de:Coronation Street]]
[[fr:Coronation Street]]
[[ga:Coronation Street]]
[[nl:Coronation Street]]
{{featured article}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Caligula</title>
<id>6852</id>
<revision>
<id>42149571</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:37:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pookster11</username>
<id>640203</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Remoed Britain part; to my knowledge its debatable that Britain even was his target, unless you have a cite</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Caesar Caligula.jpg|thumb|300px|Caligula]]
[[Image:Gaius Caligula.jpg|right|frame]]
'''Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus''' ([[August 31]], [[12]] &ndash; [[January 24]], [[41]]), most commonly known as '''Caligula''', was the third [[Roman Emperor]] and a member of the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]], ruling from [[37]] to [[41]]. Caligula represents a turning point in the early history of the Principate. Known for his extreme extravagance, [[Eccentricity (behavior)|eccentricity]], depravity and cruelty, he is remembered as a [[despotism|despot]]. He was [[assassin]]ated in 41 by several of his own guards.
Unfortunately, Caligula's reign is the most poorly documented of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. The literary sources for these four years are meager, frequently anecdotal, and universally hostile. As a result, not only are many of the events of the reign unclear, but Caligula himself appears more as a [[caricature]] than a real person; a crazed [[Narcissistic personality disorder|megalomaniac]] given to capricious cruelty and hare-brained schemes. One popular tale is that Caligula appointed consul his favorite horse, [[Incitatus]]; the story, however, owes its unrelenting currency to its charm: it is based on a single misunderstood near-contemporary reference, in which Suetonius merely repeats an unattributed rumor that Caligula was thinking about doing it [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Caligula*.html (Suet. Cal.&nbsp;55.3)]. Caligula is often accused of having [[incest]]uous relationships with his sisters, most notably his younger sister [[Drusilla]], but there is no credible evidence to support such claims either.
==Early Life==
Caligula was born as Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus on [[August 31]], [[12]], at the resort of [[Antium]] (modern [[Anzio]]), the third of six surviving (of nine) children born to [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]]’s adopted grandson, [[Germanicus]], and Augustus’s granddaughter, [[Agrippina the Elder]]. Germanicus was son to [[Nero Claudius Drusus]] and [[Antonia Minor]]. He was an older brother to [[Claudius]]. Agrippina was daughter to [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]] and [[Julia Caesaris]]. They had four other sons (Tiberius and Gaius Julius, who died young; [[Nero Caesar|Nero]], [[Drusus Caesar|Drusus]]), and three daughters ([[Julia Livilla]], [[Drusilla]] and [[Agrippina the younger]]). See [[Julio-Claudian Family Tree]].
Gaius' life started out promisingly, as he was the son of extremely famous parents. Germanicus was a grandson to [[Tiberius Nero]] of the [[Claudius (gens) | gens Claudia]] and [[Livia]] as well as an adoptive grandson of [[Roman Emperor]] [[Caesar Augustus]] of the [[Julius | gens Julia]]. He was thus a prominent member of the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]] and was revered as the most beloved general of the [[Roman Empire]]. Agrippina was herself a granddaughter of Caesar Augustus and [[Scribonia]]. She was considered a model of the perfect Roman woman.
[[Image:Caligae from side.jpg|thumb|A caliga]]
As a baby of just two or three, he accompanied his parents on military campaigns in the north of [[Germania]] and became the mascot of his father's army. The soldiers were amused whenever Agrippina would put a miniature soldier costume on young Gaius, and he was soon given his nickname "'''Caligula'''" (or ''Caligulae''), meaning "Little (Soldier's) boots" in [[Latin]], after the small boots he wore as part of his costume. ("Caligula" is formed from the Latin word ''caliga'', meaning soldier's boot, and the [[diminutive]] [[infix]] ''-ul''.) He would end up hating this name, but he also hated the name "Gaius".
Caligula’s childhood was not a happy one, spent amid an atmosphere of paranoia, suspicion, and murder. Instability within the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]], generated by uncertainty over the succession, led to a series of personal tragedies. When his father died under suspicious circumstances on [[October 10]], [[19]], relations between his mother and his grand-uncle, the reigning emperor [[Tiberius]], deteriorated irretrievably, and the adolescent Caligula was sent to live first with his great-grandmother [[Livia]] in [[27]] and then, following Livia's death two years later, with his grandmother Antonia. Neither Livia nor Antonia had much time to watch Caligula, so the only comfort he had was with his three sisters. Stories of Caligula engaging in incest with his sisters ([[Agrippina the Younger]], [[Drusilla]], and [[Julia Livilla]]) began around this time. [[Suetonius]] in particular writes much about these acts.
Caligula's life was in constant danger. Tiberius's [[Praetorian Prefect]], [[Sejanus]], was extremely powerful, doing everything he could to gain power over Tiberius. This wasn't too difficult, as Sejanus had control of Rome while Tiberius retired to the island of [[Capri]]. Treason trials were commonly practiced, as Tiberius in his old age was growing increasingly paranoid and began to rely increasingly upon his friend [[Sejanus]], who once saved his life. These trials were the main lever [[Sejanus]] used to strengthen his position and dispose of any opposition.
From a very early age Caligula learned to tread very carefully. According to both [[Tacitus]] and Suetonius, he surpassed his brothers in intelligence, and was an excellent natural actor, realizing the danger when other members of his family could not. Caligula survived when most of the other potential candidates to the throne were destroyed. His mother Agrippina was banished to the tiny island of [[Pandataria]], where she starved herself to death. His two oldest brothers, Nero and Drusus, also died. Nero was banished to the island of [[Ponza]], while Drusus' body was found locked in a dungeon with stuffing from his mattress in his mouth to keep off the hunger pangs.
Shortly before the fall of Tiberius’s [[Praetorian Prefect]], [[Sejanus]], in [[31]], Caligula was summoned to join Tiberius at his villa on [[Capri]], where he remained until his accession in [[37]]. By this time, Caligula was already in favor with Tiberius. He was summoned to [[Capri]] to stay with Tiberius on one of the many villas on the island. [[Suetonius]] writes of extreme perversions happening on Capri, as Tiberius was without the people who managed to keep him in line (Augustus, Livia, his brother Drusus, and his best friend Nerva), so he felt free to indulge in any perversion he desired. Whether this is true or not is hard to say. Unpopular Emperors such as Tiberius and Caligula may not have had the whole truth written about them, and gossip is common throughout ancient texts.
Suetonius writes of Caligula's servile nature towards Tiberius, and his indifferent nature towards his dead mother and brothers. By his own account, Caligula mentioned years later that this servility was a sham in order to stay alive, and on more than one occasion he very nearly killed Tiberius when his anger overwhelmed him. An observer said of Caligula: "Never was there a better servant or a worse master!" Caligula proved to have a flair for administration and won further favor with the ailing Tiberius by carrying out many of his duties for him. At night, Caligula would inflict torture on slaves and watch bloody gladiatorial games with glee. In [[33]], Tiberius gave Caligula the position of honorary [[quaestor]]ship, the only form of public service Caligula would hold until his reign.
==Early Reign==
[[Image:Caligula bust.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Caligula]]
When Tiberius died on [[March 16]], [[37]], Caligula was in a perfect position to assume power, despite the obstacle of Tiberius’s will, which named him and his cousin [[Tiberius G |
son might be branded with a censorial mark in a variety of cases, which it would be impossible to specify, as in a great many instances it depended upon the discretion of the censors and the view they took of a case; and sometimes even one set of censors would overlook an offence which was severely chastised by their successors (Cicero ''[[de Senectute]]'' 12). But the offences which are recorded to have been punished by the censors are of a threefold<!-- Huh? Only two listed --> nature.
<ol type="1"><li>Such as occurred in the private life of individuals, e.g.
<ol type="a"><li>Living in celibacy at a time when a person ought to be married to provide the state with citizens (Valerius Maximus ii.9 §1). The obligation of marrying was frequently impressed upon the citizens by the censors, and the refusal to fulfil it was punished with a fine (''[[aes uxorium]]'').
<li>The dissolution of matrimony or betrothment in an improper way, or for insufficient reasons (Valerius Maximus ii.9 §2).
<li>Improper conduct towards one's wife or children, as well as harshness or too great indulgence towards children, and disobedience of the latter towards their parents (Plutarch ''Life of Cato the Elder'' 17; cf. Cicero ''de Re Publica'' iv.6; Dionys. xx.3).
<li>Inordinate and luxurious mode of living, or an extravagant expenditure of money. A great many instances of this kind are recorded (Livy ''Periochae'' 14, xxxix.4; Plutarch ''Life of Cato the Elder'' 18; Gellius, iv.8; Valerius Maximus ii.9 §4). At a later time the ''[[Sumptuary laws|leges sumtuariae]]'' were made to check the growing love of luxuries.
<li>Neglect and carelessness in cultivating one's fields (Auli Gellii iv.12; Pliny ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'' xviii.3).
<li>Cruelty towards slaves or clients (Dionysius xx.3).
<li>The carrying on of a disreputable trade or occupation (Dionysius, l.c.), such as acting in theatres (Livy vii.2).
<li>Legacy-hunting, defrauding orphans, &c.</ol>
<li>A variety of actions or pursuits which were thought to be injurious to public morality, might be forbidden by an edict (Gellius, xv.11), and those who acted contrary to such edicts were branded with the nota and degraded. For an enumeration of the offences that might be punished by the censors with ignominia, see Niebuhr, ''History of Rome'', vol. ii p399, &c.</ol>
A person who had been branded with a ''nota censoria'', might, if he considered himself wronged, endeavour to prove his innocence to the censors (''causam agere apud censores'', Varr. de Re Rust. i.7), and if he did not succeed, he might try to gain the protection of one of the censors, that he might intercede on his behalf.
====Punishments====
The punishments inflicted by the censors generally differed according to the station which a man occupied, though sometimes a person of the highest rank might suffer all the punishments at once, by being degraded to the lowest class of citizens. But they are generally divided into four classes:—
#''Motio'' ("removal") or ''ejectio e senatu'' ("ejection from the Senate"), or the exclusion of a man from the number of senators. This punishment might either be a simple exclusion from list of senators, or the person might at the same time be excluded from the tribes and degraded to the rank of an aerarian (Liv. xxiv.18). The latter course seems to have been seldom adopted; the ordinary mode of inflicting the punishment was simply this: the censors in their new lists omitted the names of such senators as they wished to exclude, and in reading these new lists in public, passed over the names of those who were no longer to be senators. Hence the expression ''praeteriti senatores'' ("passing over the senators") is equivalent to ''e senatu ejecti'' (Livy xxxviii.28, xxvii.11, xxxiv.44; Festus, s.v. Praeteriti).<p>In some cases, however, the censors did not acquiesce in this simple mode of proceeding, but addressed the senator whom they had noted, and publicly reprimanded him for his conduct (Livy xxiv.18). As, however, in ordinary cases an ex-senator was not disqualified by his ''ignominia'' for holding any of the magistracies which opened the way to the senate, he might at the next census again become a senator (Cicero ''pro Cluentio Oratio'' 42, Plutarch ''Life of Cicero'' 17).
#The ''ademptio equi'', or the taking away the publicly-funded horse from an [[eques|equestrian]]. This punishment might likewise be simple, or combined with the exclusion from the tribes and the degradation to the rank of an [[aerarian]] (Livy xxiv.18, 43, xxvii.11, xxix.37, xliii.16).
#The ''motio e tribu'', or the exclusion of a person from his tribe. This punishment and the degradation to the rank of an aerarian were originally the same; but when in the course of time a distinction was made between the rural or rustic tribes and the urban tribes, the ''motio e tribu'' transferred a person from the rustic tribes to the less respectable city tribes, and if the further degradation to the rank of an aerarian was combined with the ''motio e tribu'', it was always expressly stated (Liv. xlv.15, Plin. H.N. xviii.3).
#The fourth punishment was called ''referre in aerarios'' (Livy xxiv.18; Cicero ''pro Cluentio Oratio'' 43) or ''facere aliquem aerarium'' (Livy xliii.43), and might be inflicted on any person who was thought by the censors to deserve it. This degradation, properly speaking, included all the other punishments, for an equestrian could not be made an ''aerarius'' unless he was previously deprived of his horse, nor could a member of a rustic tribe be made an ''aerarius'' unless he was previously excluded from it (Livy iv.24, xxiv.18, &c.).
===Administration of the finances of the state===
The administration of the state's finances was another part of the censors' office. In the first place the ''[[tributum]]'', or property-tax, had to be paid by each citizen according to the amount of his property registered in the census, and, accordingly, the regulation of this tax naturally fell under the jurisdiction of the censors (cf. Livy xxxix.44). They also had the superintendence of all the other revenues of the state, the ''[[vectigalia]]'', such as the tithes paid for the public lands, the [[salt]] works, the mines, the customs, &c.
All these branches of the revenue the censors were accustomed to let out to the highest bidder for the space of a ''lustrum'' or five years. The act of letting was called ''venditio'' or ''locatio'', and seems to have taken place in the month of March ([[Macrobius]] ''[[Saturnalia (book)|Saturnalia]]'' i.12), in a public place in Rome (Cicero ''de Lege Agraria'' i.3, ii.21). The terms on which they were let, together with the rights and duties of the purchasers, were all specified in the ''leges censoriae'', which the censors published in every case before the bidding commenced (Cicero ''ad Qu. Fr.'' i.1 §12, Verr. iii.7, ''de Nat. Deor.'' iii.19, Varr. ''de Re Rust.'' ii.1). For further particulars see [[Publicani]].
The censors also possessed the right, though probably not without the concurrence of the senate, of imposing new ''vectigalia'' (Livy xxix.37, xl.51), and even of selling the land belonging to the state (Livy xxxii.7). It would thus appear that it was the duty of the censors to bring forward a budget for a five-year period, and to take care that the income of the state was sufficient for its expenditure during that time. So far their duties resembled those of a modern [[minister of finance]]. The censors, however, did not receive the revenues of the state. All the public money was paid into the ''[[aerarium]]'', which was entirely under the jurisdiction of the senate; and all disbursements were made by order of this body, which employed the [[quaestor]]s as its officers.
In one important department the censors were entrusted with the expenditure of the public money, though the actual payments were no doubt made by the quaestors. The censors had the general superintendence of all the public buildings and works (''opera publica''), and to meet the expenses connected with this part of their duties, the senate voted them a certain sum of money or certain revenues, to which they were restricted, but which they might at the same time employ according to their discretion ([[Polybius]] vi.13; Livy xl.46, xliv.16). They had to see that the temples and all other public buildings were in a good state of repair (''aedes sacras tueri'' and ''sarta tecta exigere'', Livy xxiv.18, xxix.37, xlii.3, xlv.15), that no public places were encroached upon by the occupation of private persons (''loca tueri'', Livy xlii.3, xliii.16), and that the [[Aqueduct (Roman)|aqueduct]], roads, drains, etc. were properly attended to.
The repairs of the public works and the keeping of them in proper condition were let out by the censors by public auction to the lowest bidder, just as the ''vectigalia'' were let out to the highest bidder. These expenses were called ''[[ultrotributa]]'', and hence we frequently find ''vectigalia'' and ''ultrotributa'' contrasted with one another (Livy xxxix.44, xliii.16). The persons who undertook the contract were called ''conductores'', ''mancipes'', ''redemptores'', ''susceptores'', etc.; and the duties they had to discharge were specified in the [[Leges Censoriae]]. The censors had also to superintend the expenses connected with the worship of the gods, even for instance the feeding of the sacred geese in the Capitol, which were also let out on contract (Plutarch ''[[Roman Questions]]'' 98; Pliny ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'' x.22; Cicero ''[[pro Sexto Roscio Amerino Oratio]]'' 20).
Besides keeping existing public works in a proper state of repair, the censors also constructed new ones, either for ornament or utility, both in Rome and in other parts of Italy, such as t |
e might add other qualifying characteristics, like 'used to put feet up on' or 'used to put household objects on', for example. That would make the extension of the definition bigger--that is, the definition would apply to more things, and more of the things that we use the word 'furniture' to describe. We might also choose to entirely rewrite the definition, since laundry lists of characteristics strung together by 'or' are generally regarded by philosophers as not describing a unitary concept.
== Obscurity ==
Definitions can go wrong by using [[ambiguous]], obscure, or [[Figurative language|figurative]] language. Suppose we defined '[[love]]' as 'the insensible quivering of the soul'. This is useless. Given a definition like this, one has the right to ask: but ''what'' ''is'' the insensible quivering of the soul? How would we recognize it? Is Johnny's soul insensibly quivering right now? And so on. Definitions should be stated in plain, straightforward language that can be understood by the people to whom the definitions are given. See [[jargon]].
An oft quoted example is [[Samuel_Johnson|Samuel Johnson's]] definition for [[oat]]s: "Oats: a grain which in [[England]] is generally given to horses, but in [[Scotland]], supports the people."
To which his Scots associate, [[James Boswell]], replied "That is why England is chiefly noted for its horses and Scotland for its people" (slight paraphrase).
[[Category:Logic]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fredericton, New Brunswick</title>
<id>10633</id>
<revision>
<id>41501636</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T20:16:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kirjtc2</username>
<id>3222</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Radio */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Canadian City|
Reference Name=City of {{PAGENAME}}|
Header Format=Custom Coat of Arms|Flag Image=|Coat Image=Frederictonarms.jpg|
Motto=Fredericpolis silvae filia noblis (Fredericton noble daughter of the forest) |
Latitude Longitude=|CCMapSource=coor br|d1=45|m1=57|d2=66|m2=40|EP=|
Elevation=20|
Time zone=AST|
Postal Code=E3A, E3B, E3C|
Population description=City (2001)|
Population=47,560|
Population Density=362.4|
Area=131.23|<!--4521.72 Metro-->
City Mayor=Brad Woodside |
Governing Body=Fredericton City Council|
MPs=[[Andy Scott]]|
MLAs=[[Thomas J. Burke]], [[Brad Green]], [[Kelly Lamrock]]|
website=http://www.city.fredericton.nb.ca/|
Census Year=2001|
Extra references=None|
}}
:''For the Canadian federal electoral district of the same name, see [[Fredericton (electoral district)]]''
'''Fredericton''', capital of the province of [[New Brunswick]], [[Canada]]. Fredericton is an important cultural, artistic and educational centre for the province. Fredericton boasts two universities - the [[University of New Brunswick]] and the liberal arts focused [[St. Thomas University (New Brunswick)|St. Thomas University]]. Fredericton is also home to cultural institutions such as the [[Beaverbrook Art Gallery]], the [[York-Sunbury Museum]] and [[The Playhouse (Fredericton)|The Playhouse]], the latter which serves as a venue for local talent/writers. As well, adding to the city's rich cultural milieu, Fredericton is home to the annual [[Harvest and Jazz and Blues Festival]] every fall which attracts regional and international jazz and blues artists. The city also contains a growing IT and commercial sector. The city boasts the highest percentage of residents with a post-secondary education in the province and one of the highest per capita incomes.
The population of city of Fredericton is 48,000 (greater Fredericton 81,346, both per 2001 census), although unofficial reports more around 50,750 (greater Fredericton 84,523) due to the student population which is often not counted in official censuses. The first major expansion of city the occurred on July 1, 1945 when it amalgamated with the town of [[Devon, New Brunswick|Devon]]. Today the city of Fredericton comprises Fredericton proper, and the boroughs of [[Silverwood, New Brunswick|Silverwood]], [[Nashwaaksis, New Brunswick|Nashwaaksis]], [[Barker's Point, New Brunswick|Barker's Point]] and [[Marysville, New Brunswick|Marysville]], which were incorporated into the city in 1973.
The city is situated in the west-central portion of the province and, along with [[Moncton, New Brunswick|Moncton]] and [[Saint John, New Brunswick|Saint John]], is one of the main urban centres in southern New Brunswick. The [[St. John River]] flows in a west-east direction, bisecting the city and providing the dominant natural feature for the municipality.
==History==
{{main|History of Fredericton}}
[[Image:christchurch.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Christ Church Cathedral, construction began in 1845 (officially opened 1853)]]
===Aboriginal, French, and Early British Settlement===
The area of the present-day City of Fredericton was first used for seasonal farming by the [[Mi'kmaq]] and [[Maliseet]] peoples. Corn was a primary crop they grew in the area. Interestingly, in a sense, the site of Fredericton served as a sort of capital for Aboriginals in the area. Aucpaque, the "principle village" of the [[Aboriginal peoples of Canada|Aboriginals]] in the area, was located a few kilometres up river from the site of present day Fredericton.
The first European contact in the area was by the [[France|French]] in the late [[17th Century]], who granted the land to [[Joseph de Villebon]]. In 1692, he built a fort ([[Fort Nashwaak]]) on the north side of the [[Saint John River]], at the mouth of the [[Nashwaak River]]. For a period, [[Fort Nashwaak]] served as the capital of the French colony of [[Acadia]]. After de Villebon's death in 1700 and a devastating flood, the fort was abandoned.
The Fredericton area was first permanently settled and named Pointe-Sainte-Anne (often anglicized to Ste. Anne's Point) in 1732 by Acadians fleeing [[Nova Scotia]] after the [[Great Britain|British]] took over the territory. Their townsite was on the south side of the river, approximately a mile upriver from Fort Nashwaak. The British captured Ste. Anne's Point after the [[expulsion of the Acadians]] in 1755, burning the settlement to the ground. A 1762 settlement attempt by the British was unsuccessful due to hostility of local Acadian and Aboriginal populations. These settlers ended up building a community down river at what is today the town of [[Maugerville, New Brunswick|Maugerville]]. However, three fur traders manged to permanently settle there in 1768.
===The Loyalists and the Founding of Fredericton===
In 1783, [[United Empire Loyalists]] settled in Ste. Anne's Point after the [[American Revolution]], although many died during the first winter in Fredericton which was harsh and long. Those who perished during that winter were buried in what became the Loyalist cemetery, which is still found on the south bank of the Saint John River. When spring came - more Loyalists left the new settlement to take up land grants in other areas of the countryside.
When New Brunswick became a separate colony from Nova Scotia in 1784, Ste. Anne's Point became the provincial capital, winning out over Parrtown (present-day [[Saint John, New Brunswick|Saint John]]) due to its central inland location meaning it was less prone to American attack from the sea. A street plan was laid out to the west of the original townsite, King's College (now the [[University of New Brunswick]]) was founded, and the locale was renamed "Frederick's Town", in honour of the second son of King [[George III of the United Kingdom]], [[Prince Frederick, Duke of York|Prince Frederick Augustus, Duke of York]]. The name was shortened to Fredericton shortly after the city became the official provincial capital of New Brunswick on [[April 25]], [[1785]]. Thus, in a period of less than three years, the area of Fredericton went from being a sparsley populated region to being the capital of the new colony of New Brunswick.
The same attributes that made Fredericton the capital city also made it an ideal spot for a military installation. Many of the original military buildings downtown still stand, and are now tourist attractions.
A building was constructed to house the provincial legislative assembly in 1788, but it was destroyed by a fire in 1880. Two years later, the present [[New Brunswick Provincial Legislature|Legislature Building]] was constructed.
===Nineteenth and Twentieth Century===
In 1848, [[Christ Church Cathedral (Fredericton)|Christ Church Cathedral]] (part of the [[Church of England]]) was built, allowing Fredericton to achieve city status.
A Maliseet settlement, today called the [[St. Mary's First Nation]], was founded on the north side of the river in 1847. However, Saint Mary's saw its initial allocation reduced as Fredericton grew and surrounded it.
Until [[Devon, New Brunswick|Devon]] (a town incorporated in 1917 after the merger of the village's of St. Mary's Ferry and Gibson) was amalgamated with Fredericton in 1945, the corporate limit of the city of Fredericton was restrained to the south side. The postwar period (until the end of the 1970s) saw a growth in Fredericton's population - and the development of the flat area along with the establishment of bedroom communities such as [[New Maryland, New Brunswick|New Maryland]]. This was due to the growth of the provincial government and the universities.
In 1973, the city annexed several bedroom communities, such as [[Nashwaaksis, New Brunswick|Nashwaaksis]], [[Marysville, New Brunswick|Marysville]], [[Barker's Point, New Brunswick|Barker's Point]], and [[Silverwood, New Brunswick|Silverwood]]. Although all of these names are still in common use, references to simply the "north side" or the "south side" (with the Saint John River being the dividing line) are |
as corner frequency or center frequency). This is called '''''pre-warping''''' the filter design.
The main advantage of the warping phenomenon is the absence of aliasing distortion of the frequency response characteristic, such as observed with the [[impulse invariant method]]. It is necessary, however, to compensate for the frequency warping by pre-warping the given frequency specifications of the continuous-time system. These pre-warped specifications may then be used in the bilinear transform to obtain the desired discrete-time system.
[[Category:Digital signal processing]]
[[Category:Transforms]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>British Political Scandals</title>
<id>4629</id>
<revision>
<id>35470258</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T00:07:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ProveIt</username>
<id>483858</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fixed double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of British political scandals]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brian Boitano</title>
<id>4631</id>
<revision>
<id>42032795</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T09:36:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FlorianB</username>
<id>108515</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Trivia */ copyedit</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{MedalTop}}
{{MedalSport| [[Figure skating|Figure Skating]]}}
{{MedalGold|[[1988 Winter Olympics|1988]]|[[Figure skating at the 1988 Winter Olympics#Men's|Men's Singles]]}}
{{MedalBottom}}
'''Brian Anthony Boitano''' (born [[October 22]], [[1963]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[figure skating|figure skater]] from [[Sunnyvale, California]]. Once a champion in the amateur ranks, he became a professional skater following the [[1988]] season.
Boitano is probably best remembered for his incomparable jumping technique, having propelled
the technical aspect of the sport in both the amateur and professional ranks. He was the first American to land the [[Axel jump|Triple axel]] in 1982; he was the first skater to attempt a quadruple jump in competition; and in 1987, he introduced his signature jump, the ''Tano triple [[lutz jump|lutz]]'' in which the skater, while performing the already extremely difficult jump, raises his left arm above his head.
The extent to which Boitano helped push the technical limits of the sport is quite astounding when one considers the type of elements that skaters regularly executed during the 10 years prior to Boitano's final competition as an amateur and the 10 years following his departure. The contrast in the difficulty of elements between a winning performance in [[1978]] and 1988 is quite stark, while the elements that Boitano executed in 1988 are still very much part of a top performance today. Possessing such technical ability enabled Boitano to compete as a favorite in the second Olympics following his victory while previous Olympic champions would have found the technical landscape of their sport to have dramatically changed such that they would not be able to contend. Even in the professional ranks, Boitano was the first skater to regularly execute Triple axels and land 6 triple jumps at the World Professional Championships. Prior to Boitano's entrance, professional skating had not at all emphasized technical prowess, but that significantly changed.
==Amateur career==
The highlight of Boitano's career is winning the much celebrated ''Battle of the Brians'' over [[Canada|Canadian]] [[Brian Orser]] at the [[1988 Winter Olympics]] in [[Calgary, Alberta|Calgary]]. Following the departure of four-time world champion and [[1984 Winter Olympics|1984 Olympic]] gold medalist [[Scott Hamilton]] to the professional ranks, a power vacuum had been left in the world of eligible men's figure skating. Among likely successors of Hamilton were 1984 Olympic silver medalist Brian Orser and Hamilton's fellow American, Brian Boitano, who had finished 5th at the [[Sarajevo]] Games. At the first world championships of the post-Hamilton era in [[1985]], Alexander Fadeev, then of the [[Soviet Union]], was the surprise winner, with Orser finishing 2nd and Boitano 3rd. But in the [[1986]] World Championships in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]], Boitano took the title, while Orser unfortunately suffered a disastrous free skate despite having been in an excellent position to win. The following World Championships in [[1987]] were held in [[Cincinnati]], giving the defending world champion Boitano a home-field advantage. Furthermore, the outcome of the event would set the tone for the 1988 Olympics. During the 1986-87 season, Boitano had introduced two new elements to his programs: the Tano Triple Lutz and a quadruple toe loop. Orser had also pushed the sport by introducing two Triple Axels to the free skate. In Cincinnati, Boitano fell on his quadruple toe loop attempt, despite landing it perfectly during warmups, and that set the tone for the rest of the program. Brian Orser, on the other hand, skated fantastically, and took the gold medal.
The stage was set for the all-important 1987-88 season, which of course included the 1988 Olympics. Upon losing the world title to Orser at home, Boitano and his coach [[Linda Leaver]] decided that some drastic changes needed to be made if Boitano were to become the Olympic Champion. Boitano's technical elements had always been amazing, but his presentation had not; he was a self-described "jumping robot". In order to rectify these shortcomings in his artistic side, Canadian [[Sandra Bezic]], now a legendary choreographer, was hired. Bezic recalls feeling somewhat uneasy about taking the job on two respects: 1. she wondered if becoming Boitano's choreographer would constitute taking sides in the American Boitano vs. fellow Canadian Orser's looming duel in Calgary. 2. Bezic had doubts of whether Boitano could be transformed into an artistic skater. Boitano had usually skated to upbeat rock and roll music, trying to imitate Hamilton's and Orser's quick movements, but Bezic choreographed two programs that had clean lines and accentuated the 5' 11" Boitano's skating. The short program was based on [[Giacomo Meyerbeer]]'s ballet ''Les Patineurs'' in which Boitano plays a cocky boy showing off his tricks and uses movements dating back to the 19th century. It is this program in which Boitano famously brushes off ice shavings off his skate and tosses it above his shoulder upon landing a very difficult Triple axel-double loop combination. The free program was based on the film score ''Napoleon'' by [[Francis Ford Coppola]], detailing various phases of a soldier's life. Coincidently, Orser's free program this season also had a military theme, and both skaters' costumes involved military garbs: Boitano's blue and Orser's red.
Boitano debuted his new programs at 1987 Skate Canada, held in the Saddledome in Calgary, the same venue in which he would compete against Brian Orser for the Olympic title in three months. Boitano's new programs were received with standing ovations by the audience and quite a surprise by skating pundits. Orser actually won this competition, but Boitano showed amazing early season form, landing 7 flawless triple jumps, which was more than what Orser had landed. Furthermore, the Tano Triple was refined, the Triple Axel further improved, and the Triple Flip-Triple Toe Loop combination now preceded by a footwork sequence. This sent a message that the significant strides in presentation did not come at the expense of technique; if anything, Boitano's technical elements were now much more difficult and better executed. Furthermore, Boitano, Leaver, and Bezic were so confident about the strength of Boitano's new programs that they omitted the quadruple toe loop, which if landed, would have put him a shoulder above Orser in technical merit even if Orser skated absolutely flawlessly.
The short program at the 1988 US National Championships proved to be a highlight. Boitano received marks of 6.0 from eight of the nine judges for presentation, not for his usual high mark of technical merit, although those marks were quite good as well. His free skate was not his best, but because of significant delays, the program was skated in the wee hours of the night, nearly 6 hours after it was scheduled. Boitano's only remark was, "I was sleepy." Orser faced a similar predicament at the Canadian Nationals: a fantastic short program, and a not-so-great free skate due to extremely sloppy conditions. But both skaters had the clear backing of their national federations, and the stage was set for the Olympics.
The media coverage surrounding the head-to-head competition between Boitano and Orser, dubbed the ''Battle of the Brians'' was in a state of frenzy. At the Calgary games, Fadeev won the compulsories, with Boitano 2nd and Orser 3rd. Then in the short program, Orser finished 1st with a dramatic rendition of ''Sing, sing, sing'' and Boitano finished 2nd. Heading into the final free skating portion of the competition (worth 50% of the overall total), Boitano still had a slight lead over Orser, but the lead was so minuscule that the winner of the free skate was guaranteed to win the gold medal. Boitano went on to skate the performance of his life and win the gold, landing 8 triple jumps including two triple [[axel|axels]] and a [[triple flip]]-triple [[toe loop jump|toe loop]] combination. The performance is considered to be among the very best in the history of the sport, which is particularly impressive given the pressure of the Olympic Games as well as intense media scrutiny surrounding the ''Battle of the Brians''. To this day, the ''[[Sports Illustrated]]'' cover featuring Brian Boitano landing his second triple axel of the program marks the only time a male figure skater has appeared on the cover of the magazine |
ssia]] on [[May 18]], [[2005]], slightly redefining the border they had been using since [[1991]], which the [[Riigikogu]], the Estonian parliament, ratified on [[June 20]], [[2005]]. However, Russia took exception to Estonia's preamble to the law, which makes references to the Estonian state's uninterrupted legal continuity during the Soviet period and indirect references to the [[Occupation of Baltic Republics|Soviet occupation]] of Estonia and announced that it is revoking its signature and that it desires to restart negotiations with Estonia.
Estonia has said that there is no need to renegotiate the border and that it has no land claims against Russia.
=== Etymology ===
After Estonia regained independence in 1991, a public debate ensued on the chosen [[English language]] name for Estonia. The ending ''–onia'' in the name ''Estonia'' (earlier also ''Esthonia'') is of [[Latin]] origin. Many Estonians tend to identify more with Northern Europe, and would prefer the country to have a more Nordic-sounding name. The most widely-known of these alternative English language names is ''Estland'', which is in fact the name for the country in most other [[Germanic languages]] (e.g., [[German language|German]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Danish language|Danish]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]]).
== Politics ==
[[Image:Estonian parliament building.jpg|thumb|right|256px|The Estonian Parliament building in Tallinn]]
{{main|Politics of Estonia}}
Estonia is a [[constitution]]al [[democracy]], with a president elected by its unicameral [[parliament]] (elections every four years). The government or the [[executive branch]] is formed by the prime minister, nominated by the president, and a total of 14 ministers. The government is appointed by the president after approval by the parliament.
[[Legislative]] power lies with the unicameral parliament, the [[Riigikogu]] or State Assembly, which consists of 101 seats. Members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. The supreme [[judiciary]] court is the National Court or ''Riigikohus'', with 19 justices whose chairman is appointed by the parliament for life on nomination by the president.
[[Internet voting]] has already been used in local elections in Estonia, and the lawmakers in Estonia have authorized internet voting for parliamentary elections as well. [http://news.com.com/Estonia+pulls+off+nationwide+Net+voting/2100-1028_3-5898115.html (see COM)].
== Counties ==
{{main|Counties of Estonia}}
Estonia numbers 15 main administrative subdivisions. Due to the geographical and demographic size of these subdivisions, they are to be considered counties rather than states (Estonian: pl. ''maakonnad''; sg. - ''maakond''). Here is a list of them:
[[Image:Estonia counties.png|thumb|400px|Counties of Estonia]]
*[[Harju County]] (Estonian: ''Harjumaa'')
*[[Hiiu County]] (Estonian: ''Hiiumaa'')
*[[Ida-Viru County]] (Estonian: ''Ida-Virumaa'')
*[[Järva County]] (Estonian: ''Järvamaa'')
*[[Jõgeva County]] (Estonian: ''Jõgevamaa'')
*[[Lääne County]] (Estonian: ''Läänemaa'')
*[[Lääne-Viru County]] (Estonian: ''Lääne-Virumaa'')
*[[Pärnu County]] (Estonian: ''Pärnumaa'')
*[[Põlva County]] (Estonian: ''Põlvamaa'')
*[[Rapla County]] (Estonian: ''Raplamaa'')
*[[Saare County]] (Estonian: ''Saaremaa'')
*[[Tartu County]] (Estonian: ''Tartumaa'')
*[[Valga County]] (Estonian: ''Valgamaa'')
*[[Viljandi County]] (Estonian: ''Viljandimaa'')
*[[Võru County]] (Estonian: ''Võrumaa'')
== Geography ==
[[Image:En-map.png|right|Map of Estonia]]
{{main|Geography of Estonia}}
Estonia lies on the eastern shores of the [[Baltic Sea]] on the level northwestern part of the rising east European platform between 57.3° and 59.5° N and 21.5° and 28.1° E. Average elevation reaches only 50&nbsp;m, and the country's highest point is the [[Suur Munamägi]] in the southeast (318&nbsp;m).
[[Oil shale]] (or kukersite) and [[limestone]] deposits, along with forests which cover 47% of the land, play key economic roles in this generally resource-poor country. Estonia boasts over [[List of lakes in Estonia|1,400 lakes]] (most very small, with the largest, [[Lake Peipus]], (Peipsi in Estonian) being 3,555 km²), numerous [[bogs]], and 3,794 kilometers of coastline marked by numerous bays, straits, and inlets. The number of islands and islets is estimated at some 1,500, with two of them large enough to constitute their own counties, [[Saaremaa]] and [[Hiiumaa]].
=== Climate ===
See [http://weather.ee/ Weather] (English), [http://ilm.ee/ Ilm] (Estonian) or [http://pogoda.ee/ Pogoda] (Russian).
== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Estonia}}
As a member of the [[European Union]], Estonia is part of the world's largest economic zone. In [[1999]], Estonia experienced its worst year economically since it regained independence in [[1991]], largely because of the impact of the August [[1998]] Russian financial crisis. Estonia joined the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] in November 1999 — the second Baltic state to join — and continued its [[EU]] accession talks. [[Privatization]] of energy, [[telecommunications]], railways, and other state-owned companies is a continuing process. With assistance from the European Union, the [[World Bank]] and the [[Nordic Bank]], Estonia completed most of its preparations for EU membership by the end of [[2002]] and now has one of the strongest economies of the new member states of the European Union, which Estonia joined on [[1 May]] [[2004]]. The Estonian economy is growing fast, partly due to a number of [[Scandinavia]]n companies relocating their routine operations and [[Russia]]n oil transit using Estonian ports. Estonia has a strong [[information technology]] (IT) sector. [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP PPP per capita]] is at $17,672, the highest among the [[Baltic states]].
[[Image:Seascape.jpg|thumb|right|256px|The north-west coast of [[Estonia]] near [[Nõva]], [[Lääne_County|Lääne county]]]]
In 1994, Estonia became among the first in the world to adopt a [[flat tax]], with a uniform rate of 26% regardless of the income a person makes. In January 2005 the personal income tax rate was reduced to 24%. A subsequent reduction to 23% followed in January 2006. In the following years the income tax rate will be decreased by 1% annually to reach 20% by January 2009.
Since [[January 1]], [[2000]], companies have not had to pay income tax on re-invested income. However, tax is due on profit distributions (incl. hidden distributions) at a rate of 24%. Despite the fact that only the moment of taxation was shifted from earning profits to their distribution, leaving the rest of the corporate taxation system mostly unchanged, the current legislation is said to be in violation of one of the fundamental freedoms of the European Union - free movement of capital. Estonia is to remove this hindrance by January 2009 when the temporary derogation expires.
In June 1992, Estonia replaced the [[Ruble]] with its own freely convertable currency, the [[Kroon]] (EEK). A currency board was created and the new currency was pegged to the German Mark at the rate at 8 EEK for 1 DEM. When Germany introduced the [[Euro]] the peg was changed to 15.6466 Kroon for 1 Euro.
The Estonian government is intending to adopt the [[Euro]] as the country's currency on [[1 January]] [[2007]], and finalised the design of Estonia's Euro coins in late 2004.
== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of Estonia}}
Indigenous Estonian-speaking ethnic Estonians constitute nearly 70 percent of the population. First and second generation immigrants from various parts of the former Soviet Union, mainly [[Russia]] comprise most of the remaining 30 percent. The latter, mostly Russian-speaking ethnic minorities reside predominantly in the capital city (Tallinn) and the industrial urban areas in northeastern Estonia ([[Ida-Virumaa]] county). There is also a small group of [[Finland|Finnish]] descent.
The country's official language is [[Estonian language|Estonian]], which is closely related to [[Finnish language|Finnish]]. [[Russian language|Russian]] is also widely spoken as a secondary language by 30-70 year old ethnic Estonians because Russian was a compulsory second language in school during the Soviet era. Younger people, born at the end of or following the Soviet era, can usually speak [[English language|English]], having learned it as their first foreign language.
Estonia has the second highest [[HIV]] adult prevalence rate in Europe after [[Ukraine]] (1.1% in 2001).
=== Ethnicity ===
According to the most recent national census taken in 2003, the population of Estonia comprised the following self-reported ethnic groups:
* 68.4% [[Estonians]]
* 25.7% [[Russians]]
* 2.1% [[Ukrainians]]
* 1.2% [[Belarusians]]
* 0.8% [[Finns]]
* 1.7% others
=== Religion ===
[[Image:FL-Tallinn.jpg|thumb|220px|Tallinn, churches in the background]]
The predominant religion of indigenous ethnic Estonians is the [[Christianity|Christian]] belief in the form the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] [[Evangelical Lutheran]] confession, however less than a quarter of ethnic Estonians define themselves as active believers at present. Most believers amongst the Russian minority are [[Eastern Orthodox]]. The [[Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople]] has since 1920s recognised a separate national [[Estonian Orthodox Church]], which has led to strained relations with the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], which claimed sole authority over Orthodox believers in the country during the period of Soviet rule.
Today, over 31% of the adult population are active followers of a particular faith, and they are made up of:
* 15% [[Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church]]
* 14% [[Orthodox]]
* 0.5% [[Baptist]]s
* 0.5% [[Roman Catholic]]s
There are also a number of smaller Protestant and [[Jewish]] groups, as well as some [[neopagans]] who revere the local ancient deity [[Taara]].
== Culture ==
[[Image:Estonian Folk Dancing.jp |
ich a radio wave is reflected by an ionospheric layer at vertical [[angle of incidence|incidence]]. If the transmitted frequency is higher than the plasma frequency of the ionosphere, then the electrons cannot respond fast enough, and they are not able to re-radiate the signal. It is calculated as shown below:
: <math>f{critical} = 9 \times 10^{-3} \sqrt{N}</math>
where N = electron density per cm<sup>3</sup> and f<sub>critical</sub> is in MHz.
The Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) is defined as the upper frequency limit that can be used for transmission between two points at a specified time.
: <math>f{muf} = \frac{f{critical}}{ \sin{(I)}} </math>
where I = [[angle of attack]], the angle of the wave relative to the [[horizon]], and sin is the [[sine]] function.
The [[cutoff frequency]] is the frequency below which a radio wave fails to penetrate a layer of the ionosphere at the incidence angle required for transmission between two specified points by reflection from the layer.
==Other Applications==
The [[open system]] [[space tether]], which uses the ionosphere, is being researched. The space tether uses plasma contactors and the ionosphere as parts of a circuit to extract energy from the Earth's magnetic field by [[electromagnetic induction]].
==Measurements==
=== Ionograms ===
Ionograms show the virtual heights and '''critical frequencies''' of the ionospheric layers and which are measured by an ionosonde. An ionosonde sweeps a range of frequencies, usually from 0.1 to 30 MHz, transmitting at vertical incidence to the ionosphere. As the frequency increases, each wave is refracted less by the ionization in the layer, and so each penetrates further before it is reflected. Eventually, a frequency is reached that enables the wave to penetrate the layer without being reflected. For ordinary mode waves, this occurs when the transmitted frequency just exceeds the peak plasma, or critical, frequency of the layer. Tracings of the reflected high frequency radio pulses are known as ionograms.
=== Solar Flux ===
Solar Flux is a measurement of the intensity of solar radio emissions at a frequency of 2800 MHz made using a [[radio telescope]] located in [[Ottawa]], Canada. Known also as the 10.7 cm flux (the wavelength of the radio signals at 2800 MHz), this solar radio emission has been shown to be proportional to sunspot activity. However, the level of the sun's ultraviolet and X-ray emissions is primarily responsible for causing ionization in the earth's upper atmosphere. We now have data from the [[GOES]] spacecraft that measures the background '''X-Ray flux''' from the sun, a parameter more closely related to the ionization levels in the ionosphere.
* The ''A and K indices'' are a measurement of the behavior of the horizontal component of the '''geomagnetic field'''. The K index uses a scale from 0 to 9 to measure the change in the horizontal component of the geomagnetic field. A new K index is determined at the [[Table Mountain]] Observatory, north of [[Boulder, Colorado]].
* The geomagnetic activity levels of the earth are measured by the fluctuation of the Earth's magnetic field in a unit called [[Gauss]]. The earth's magnetic field is measured around the planet by many observatories. The data retrieved is processed and turned into measurement indices. Daily measurements for the entire planet are made available through an estimate of the ''ap'' index, called the ''planetary A-index'' (PAI).
=== Scientific research on Ionspheric propagation ===
Scientists also are exploring the structure of the ionosphere by a wide variety of methods, including passive observations of optical and radio emissions generated in the ionosphere, bouncing radio waves of different frequencies from it, incoherent scatter radars such as the EISCAT, Sondre Stromfjord, Millstone Hill, Arecibo, and Jicamarca radars, coherent scatter radars such as the [[Super Dual Auroral Radar Network|Super Dual Auroral Radar Network (SuperDARN)]] radars, and using special receivers to detect how the reflected waves have changed from the transmitted waves.
A veriety of experiments, such as Project HAARP ([[High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program]]), involve high power radio transmitters to modify the properties of the ionosphere. These investigations focus on studying the properties and behavior of ionospheric plasma, with particular emphasis on being able to understand and use it to enhance communications and surveillance systems for both civilian and defense purposes. HAARP was started in 1993 for a proposed twenty year experiment.
The SuperDARN radar project researches the high- and mid-latitudes using coherent backscatter of radio waves in the 8 - 20 MHzrange. Coherent backscatter is similar to Bragg scattering in crystals and involves the constructive interference of scattering from ionospheric density irregularities. The project involves more than 11 different countries and multiple radars in both hemispheres.
Scientists are also examining the ionosphere by the changes to radio waves from satellites and stars passing through it. The [[Arecibo radio telescope]] located in [[Puerto Rico]], was originally intended to study Earth's ionosphere.
==History==
In [[1899]], [[Nikola Tesla]] researched ways to utilize the ionosphere to [[wireless energy transfer|transmit energy wirelessly]] over long distances. In his experiments, he transmitted extremely low frequencies between the earth and ionosphere, up to what is called the [[Kennelly-Heaviside Layer]] (Grotz, 1997). Tesla made mathematical calculations and computations based on his experiments. He predicted the resonant frequency of this area within 15% of modern accepted experimental value. (Corum, 1986) In the [[1950s]], researchers confirmed the resonant frequency was at the low range 6.8 Hz.
[[Guglielmo Marconi]] received the first trans-Atlantic radio signal on [[December 12]], [[1901]], in [[St. John's, Newfoundland]] (now in [[Canada]]) using a 400-foot kite-supported antenna for reception. The transmitting station in [[Poldhu]], Cornwall used a spark-gap transmitter to produce a signal with a frequency of approximately 500 [[Kilohertz|kHz]] and a power of 100 times more than any radio signal previously produced. The message received was three dots, the [[Morse code]] for the letter '''S'''. To reach Newfoundland the signal would have to bounce off the ionosphere twice. Dr. Jack Belrose has recently contested this, however, based on theoretical work as well as an actual experiments. However, Marconi did achieve transatlantic wireless communications beyond a shadow of doubt in Glace Bay one year later.
In [[1902]], [[Oliver Heaviside]] proposed the existence of the ''Kennelly-Heaviside Layer'' of the ionosphere which bears his name. Heaviside's proposal included means by which radio signals are transmitted around the Earth's curvature. Heaviside's proposal, coupled with Planck's law of black body radiation, may have hampered the growth of radio astronomy for the detection of electromagnetic waves from celestial bodies until [[1932]] (and the development of high frequency radio transceivers). Also in [[1902]], [[Arthur Edwin Kennelly]] discovered some of the ionosphere's radio-electrical properties.
In [[1912]], the [[U.S. Congress]] imposed the [[Radio Act of 1912]] on amateur radio operators, limiting their operations to frequencies above 1.5 MHz (wavelength 200 meters or smaller). The government thought those frequencies were useless. This led to the discovery of HF radio propagation via the ionosphere in [[1923]].
[[Edward V. Appleton]] was awarded in [[1947]] a [[Nobel Prize]] for his confirmation of the existence of the ionosphere in [[1927]]. [[Lloyd Berkner]] first measured the height and density of the ionosphere. This permitted the first complete theory of short wave radio propagation. [[Maurice V. Wilkes]] and [[J. A. Ratcliffe]] researched the topic of radio propagation of very long radio waves in the ionosphere. [[Vitaly Ginzburg]] has developed a theory of electromagnetic wave propagation in plasmas such as the ionosphere.
In [[1962]] the [[Canada|Canadian]] satellite [[Alouette 1]] was launched to study the ionosphere. Following its success were [[Alouette 2]] in [[1965]] and the two [[ISIS (satellite)|ISIS]] satellites in [[1969]] and [[1971]], all for measuring the ionosphere.
==References==
* Corum, J. F., and Corum, K. L., "''A Physical Interpertation of the Colorado Springs Data''". Proceedings of the Second International Tesla Symposium. Colorado Springs, Colorado, 1986.
* Grotz, Toby, "''The True Meaing of Wireless Transmission of power''". Tesla : A Journal of Modern Science, 1997.
* Hargreaves, J. K., "''The Upper Atmosphere and Solar-Terrestrial Relations''". Cambridge University Press, 1992,
* Kelley, M. C, and Heelis, R. A., "''The Earth's Ionosphere: Plasma Physics and Electrodynamics''". Academic Press, 1989.
* Leo F. McNamara. (1994) ISBN 0-89464-807-7 ''Radio Amateurs Guide to the Ionosphere''.
* Davies, K., 1990. Peter Peregrinus Ltd, London. ISBN 0-86341-186-X ''Ionospheric Radio''.
==See also==
* '''[[Geophysics]]'''
** [[Van Allen radiation belt]]
* '''[[Radio]]'''
** [[Fade (radio)]]
** [[Line-of-sight propagation]]
** [[List of telecommunications transmission terms]]
* '''Related'''
** [[Tether propulsion]]
** [[Pioneer Venus project]]
** [[Nozomi]]
** ''[[New Horizons]]''
** [[Nuclear explosion]]
** [[Nuclear weapon]]
** [[Soft gamma repeater]]
** [[TIMED (Thermosphere Ionosphere Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics)]]
** [[International Geophysical Year]]
** [[Lightning#Sprites, Elves, Jets and other Upper Atmospheric Lightning|Upper Atmospheric Lightning]]
* '''Lists'''
** [[List of astronomical topics]]
** [[List of electronics topics]]
==External links==
* Gehred, Paul, and Norm Cohen, ''[http://www.sec.noaa.gov/radio/radio.html SEC' |
, such as iLife '06. Other applications, such as [[Microsoft Office]] and [[Adobe Photoshop]], compiled for the PowerPC, run in emulation mode, using a technology known as [[Rosetta (software)|Rosetta]].
(see [[Apple Intel transition]] for more information regarding the transition)
The Intel-based machines do not support Classic (as it has not been translated to x86 binaries), so applications that run only in Mac OS 9 and earlier will not run on these machines. All Macintosh product lines are expected to transition to Intel processors by the end of 2006. The Apple online store sold out of 17-inch iMac G5 computers in [[February 2006]], and Apple ended the life of its 15 inch PowerBook G4 on Wednesday the 22nd of February 2006.
The Apple/Intel partnership has coined a new catch-phrase among computer users: "Mactel", in response to the phrase "[[Wintel]]," an informal moniker that describes all Intel-powered systems running the Microsoft Windows operating system. This moniker has never been used seriously by Apple's PR or exceutives, mainly in use only in Apple fanatic circles.
==Current products==
[[Image:Ipod 5th Generation white.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Apple iPod | iPod]], shown here, is one of Apple's most successful products. The latest iPod, with a 60 [[gigabyte]] sized hard drive, is capable of playing video.]]
Hardware :
* Power Mac G5
* MacBook Pro
* PowerBook (G4)
* iMac (Intel)
* iMac (G5)
* Mac mini (Intel)
* iBook (G4)
* Xserve
* iPod 5G
* iPod Nano
* Various iPod acessories
Software :
* Mac OS X
* iLife (iPhoto, iMovie, iDVD, iWeb, Garageband)
* iWork (Pages, Keynote)
* Final Cut Pro
* Final Cut Express
* Aperture
* Logic Pro
* Logic Express
* Shake
* Motion
* Etc.
===Hardware===
Apple introduced the [[Apple Macintosh]] family in 1984 and today makes consumer, professional, and educational computers. The [[Mac mini]] is the company's consumer sub-desktop computer, introduced in January 2005 and designed to motivate [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] users to switch to the Macintosh platform. The [[iMac]] is a consumer desktop computer that was first introduced by Apple in 1998, and its popularity helped save the company from bankruptcy. Now in its third design iteration, the iMac is similar in concept to the original Macintosh in that the monitor and computer are housed in a single unit. The [[Power Mac G5]], Apple's desktop computer for the professional and creative market, is a member of the [[Power Macintosh]] series first introduced in 1994. The [[eMac]] is Apple's cheaper alternative to the iMac for the education market. Apple's server range includes the [[Xserve]], a single-processor, dual-processor, and cluster-node server range, and the [[Xserve RAID]] for server storage options.
Apple introduced the [[iBook]] consumer portable computer as a companion to the iMac; it is Apple's lowest cost portable computer. The [[MacBook Pro]] is the professional portable computer alternative to the iBook intended for the professional and creative market and replaced the [[PowerBook]] range. PowerBooks are still being manufactured and sold, but is expected that Apple will phase out both the PowerBook and iBook lines upon arrival of the heavily rumoured MacBook, the low end version of the [[MacBook Pro]] and [[Intel]]-based version of the [[iBook]]. The Powerbook range was first introduced in 1991 and helped Apple's profits increase during the 1990s.
In 2001, Apple introduced the [[Apple iPod |iPod]] [[digital music player]] and currently sells the iPod (with video), available in 30 and 60 GB models; the [[iPod nano]], available in 1 GB, 2GB and 4 GB models; and the [[iPod shuffle]], available in 512 MB and 1 GB models.
[[Image:MacminiWhiteBGSmall.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Mac mini]] is Apple's lowest cost desktop computer.]]
Apple sells a variety of computer accessories for Macintosh computers including the [[iSight]] video conferencing camera, the [[AirPort]] wirelss networking products; [[Apple Cinema Display|Apple Cinema HD Display]] and [[Apple Displays]] computer displays; [[Apple Mighty Mouse|Mighty Mouse]] and [[Apple Wireless Mouse]] computer mice; the [[Apple Wireless Keyboard]] computer keyboard and the [[Apple USB Modem]].
===Software===
Apple independently develops [[computer software]] titles for its [[Mac OS X]] operating system. Much of the software Apple develops is bundled with its computers. An example of this is the consumer-oriented [[iLife]] software package which bundles [[iDVD]], [[iMovie|iMovie HD]], [[iPhoto]], [[iTunes]], [[GarageBand]], and [[iWeb]]. Both [[iTunes]] and a feature-limited version of the [[QuickTime]] media player are available as free downloads for both Mac OS X and Windows. For presentation and page layout, [[iWork]] is available.
Apple also offers a range of professional software titles. Their range of server software includes the [[Mac OS X Server]] operating system; [[Apple Remote Desktop]], a remote desktop control application; [[WebObjects]], [[Java 2 Platform, Enterprise Edition|Java]] [[World Wide Web|Web]] [[application server]]; and [[Xsan]], a [[Storage Area Network]] file system. For the professional creatives market, there is [[Aperture (software)|Aperture]] for professional [[RAW]]-format [[photo]] processing; [[Final Cut Studio]], a video software package, as well as [[Final Cut Express HD]], a cut-down version, for [[Standard-definition television|SD]] and [[High-definition television|HD]] video editors; [[Logic Pro]], a comprehensive music toolkit, and [[Logic Express]], its prosumer cousin; and [[Shake (software)|Shake]], an advanced effects composition program.
Apple also offers online services with [[.Mac]] which bundles [[Web page|.Mac HomePage]], [[E-mail|.Mac Mail]], .Mac Groups [[social network service]], [[iDisk|.Mac iDisk]], [[Backup (backup software)|.Mac Backup]], [[iSync|.Mac Sync]], and Learning Center online tutorials.
:See also:
:*[[List of Macintosh models grouped by CPU]]
:*[[List of Macintosh software]]
:*[[List of products discontinued by Apple Computer]]
==Corporate affairs==
===Logo===
[[Image:Originalapplelogo.jpg|thumb|left|110px|The original Apple logo featuring [[Isaac Newton]] under the fabled apple tree.]]
[[Image:Striped apple logo.png|thumb|right|110px|The rainbow Apple logo, used from late 1976 to early 1998.]]
[[Image:Apple-logo.png|thumb|right|110px|The current Apple logo. On products, a simple gray version of the Apple is used, without embellishing it as has been done to computerized images.]]
The original Apple logo was designed by [[Steve Jobs]] and [[Ron Wayne]] and depicts Isaac Newton sitting under an apple tree. However this design was soon to be replaced by the now famous [[rainbow]] apple with a "bite" taken out of it. It was one of a set of designs [[Rob Janoff]] presented Jobs in 1976 <ref>[http://wired-vig.wired.com/news/mac/0,2125,60597,00.html Wired News: Apple Doin' the Logo-Motion]</ref>.
In the book Zeroes and Ones, author [[Sadie Plant]] speculates that the rainbow Apple logo was a homage to [[Alan Turing]], the homosexual father of modern computer science who committed suicide by eating a cyanide-laced apple in imitation of the movie ''[[Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)|Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs]]''. This seems to be an [[urban legend]] as the Apple logo was designed two years before [[Gilbert Baker]]'s [[Rainbow flag|rainbow pride flag]], and did not follow the same color pattern.
In 1998, the logo became single-colored, though no specific color is prescribed; for example, it is grey on the [[Power Mac G5]] and [[iMac G5|Apple iMac]], blue (by default) in [[Mac OS X]], chrome on the 'About this Mac' panel and the boot screen in OS X 10.3 and 10.4, red on many [[Software]] packages, and white on the [[iBook]], [[PowerBook G4]] and [[MacBook Pro]]. The logo's shape is one of the most recognized brand symbols in the world, and is featured quite prominently on all Apple products and retail stores.
===Criticism===
Apple was criticized for its [[vertical integration|vertically integrated]] business model, which runs against the "received wisdom" of some economists, particularly those who study the computer industry. However, the company is profitable. Others criticize the company by suggesting it has been personality-driven, especially during the two eras of Steve Jobs' tenure. Some even regard the company as a cult or at least having cult-like features. Jobs' charisma, infamously referred to as his [[reality distortion field]], has drawn criticism.
From a technical standpoint, Apple was also criticized for having a closed and proprietary architecture with the original Macintosh and refusing to adopt open standards; for many years a "[[Not Invented Here]]" (NIH) culture seemed to prevail. The [[ITunes Music Store|iTunes Music Store]] continues this trend, utilizing a proprietary [[Digital rights management|Digital Rights Management]] system called [[FairPlay]] that requires burning and re-ripping a CD to place purchased songs on any [[digital audio player]] besides the [[Apple iPod | iPod]].
That trend was largely reversed with [[Mac OS X]], and the company now has an official policy of adopting relevant open industry standards. Mac OS X is based on a [[free software]] / [[Open-source software|open source software]] [[Kernel (computer science)|kernel]] and core operating system called [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]]. Apple also uses an open source framework called [[WebKit]] in its [[Safari (web browser)|Safari web browser]].
Apple has used industry-standard hardware technologies for many years. Many Apple technologies have also become industry standards where no former standard existed, for example [[Zeroconf|Bonjour]] zero-configuration networking, and [[FireWire]]. Some non-Apple technologies only gained wide industry acceptance after Apple adopted them, including 3.5-inch [[floppy disk]]s |
ns for either belief or unbelief... We are interested in the question of what ''good reasons'' there are for or against God's existence, and no light is thrown on that question by discovering people who hold their beliefs without having good reasons for them. (p.10) </blockquote>
So, in philosophy (Flew and Martin notwithstanding), atheism is commonly defined along the lines of "rejection of theistic belief". This is often misunderstood to mean only the view that there is no God, but it is conventional to distinguish between two or three main sub-types of atheism in this sense (writers differ in their characterization of this distinction, and in the labels they use for these positions).
The terms ''weak atheism'' and ''strong atheism'' (or ''negative atheism'' and ''positive atheism'') are often used as synonyms of Smith's less-well-known ''implicit'' and ''explicit'' categories. However, the original and technical meanings of implicit and explicit atheism are quite different and distinct from weak and strong atheism, having to do with conscious rejection and unconscious rejection of theism rather than with positive belief and negative belief.
People who do not use the broad definition of atheism as "lack of theism", but instead use the most common definition "disbelief in or denial of the existence of God or gods" [http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=atheism] would not recognize mere absence of belief in deities (implicit atheism) as a type of atheism at all, and would tend to use other terms, such as "skeptic" or "agnostic" or "non-atheistic nontheism", for this position.
===Atheism as immorality===
The first attempts to define or develop a typology of atheism were in religious apologetics. These attempts were expressed in terminologies and in contexts which reflected the religious assumptions and prejudices of the writers. A diversity of atheist opinion has been recognized at least since [[Plato]], and common distinctions have been established between ''practical atheism'' and ''speculative'' or ''contemplative atheism''.
====Practical atheism====
Practical atheism was said to be caused by moral failure, hypocrisy, willful ignorance and infidelity. Practical atheists ''behaved'' as though God, morals, ethics and social responsibility did not exist. Maritain's typology of atheism (1953, Chapter 8) proved influential in Catholic circles; it was followed in the ''New Catholic Encyclopedia'' (see Reid (1967)). He identified, in addition to practical atheism, ''pseudo-atheism'' and ''absolute atheism'' (and subdivided theoretical atheism in a way that anticipated Flew). For an atheist critique of Maritain, see Smith (1979, Chapter 1, Section 5) [http://www.positiveatheism.org/writ/smith.htm].
According to the French Catholic philosopher Étienne Borne (1961, p.10), "Practical atheism is not the denial of the existence of God, but complete godlessness of action; it is a moral evil, implying not the denial of the absolute validity of the moral law but simply rebellion against that law."
According to [[Karen Armstrong]] (1999):
<blockquote> During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the word 'atheist' was still reserved exclusively for polemic... In his tract ''Atheism Closed and Open Anatomized'' (1634), John Wingfield claimed: "the hypocrite is an Atheist; the loose wicked man is an open Atheist; the secure, bold and proud transgressor is an Atheist: he that will not be taught or reformed is an Atheist". For the [[Wales|Welsh]] poet [[William Vaughan]] (1577 [sic]-1641), who helped in the colonisation of [[Newfoundland]], those who raised rents or enclosed commons were obvious atheists. The English dramatist [[Thomas Nashe]] (1567-1601) proclaimed that the ambitious, the greedy, the gluttons, the vainglorious and prostitutes were all atheists. The term 'atheist' was an insult. Nobody would have dreamed of calling ''himself'' an atheist. (p.331-332) </blockquote>
On the other hand, the existence of serious speculative atheism was often denied. That anyone might ''reason'' their way to atheism was thought to be impossible. Thus, speculative atheism was collapsed into a form of practical atheism, or conceptualized as hatred of God, or a fight against God. This is why Borne finds it necessary to say, "to put forward the idea, as some apologists rashly do, that there are no atheists except in name but only 'practical atheists' who through pride or idleness disregard the divine law, would be, at least at the beginning of the argument, a rhetorical convenience or an emotional prejudice evading the real question." (p.18)
Martin (1990, p.465-466) suggests that practical atheism would be better described as ''alienated theism''.
====Other pejorative definitions of atheism====
When denial of the existence of "speculative" atheism became unsustainable, atheism was nevertheless often repressed and criticized by narrowing definitions, applying charges of dogmatism, and otherwise misrepresenting atheist positions. One of the reasons for the popularity of euphemistic alternative terms like [[secularism|secularist]], [[empiricism|empiricist]], [[agnosticism|agnostic]], or [[bright (noun)|bright]] is that ''atheism'' still has pejorative connotations arising from attempts at suppression and from its association with practical atheism (''godless'' is still used as an abusive epithet).
Mynga Futrell and Paul Geisert, the originators of the term ''Bright'', made this explicit in an essay published in 2003:
<blockquote>Our personal frustration regarding labels reached culmination last fall when we were invited to join a march on Washington as "Godless Americans." The causes of the march were worthy, and the march itself well planned and conducted. However, to unite for common interests under a disparaging term like godless (it also means "wicked") seemed ludicrous! Why accept and utilize the very derogatory language that so clearly hampers our own capacity to play a positive and contributing role in our communities and in the nation and world? [http://www.the-brights.net/vision/essays/futrell_geisert_nix.html]</blockquote>
Gaskin (1989) abandoned the term ''atheism'' in favour of ''unbelief'', citing "the pejorative associations of the term, its vagueness, and later the tendency of religious apologists to define atheism so that no one could be an atheist..." (p.4)
Despite these considerations, for others ''atheist'' has always been the preferred name. [[Charles Bradlaugh]] once said (in debate with [[George Jacob Holyoake]], [[10 March]] [[1870]], cited in Bradlaugh Bonner (1908)):
<blockquote>I maintain that the opprobrium cast upon the word Atheism is a lie. I believe Atheists as a body to be men deserving respect... I do not care what kind of character religious men may put round the word Atheist, I would fight until men respect it. (p.334) </blockquote>
For more on repressive definitions of atheism, see Berman (1982), (1983), (1990).
===Weak and strong atheism===
:''Main articles: [[Weak atheism]], [[Strong atheism]]''
''[[Weak atheism]]'', sometimes called ''soft atheism'', ''negative atheism'' or ''neutral atheism'', is the absence of belief in the existence of [[deity|deities]] without the positive assertion that deities do not exist. ''[[Strong atheism]]'', also known as ''hard atheism'' or ''positive atheism'', is the belief that no deities exist.
While the terms ''weak'' and ''strong'' are relatively recent, the concepts they represent have been in use for some time. In earlier philosophical publications, the terms ''negative atheism'' and ''positive atheism'' were more common; these terms were used by [[Antony Flew]] in 1972, although [[Jacques Maritain]] (1953, Chapter 8, p.104) used the phrases in a similar, but strictly Catholic apologist, context as early as 1949 [http://www.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/jm3303.htm].
Although explicit atheists ([[nontheism|nontheists]] who consciously reject theism), may subscribe to either ''weak'' or ''strong'' atheism, weak atheism also includes implicit atheists - that is, nontheists who have not consciously rejected theism, but lack theistic belief, arguably including infants.
Theists claim that a single deity or group of deities exists. Weak atheists do not assert the contrary; instead, they only refrain from assenting to theistic claims. Some weak atheists are without any opinion regarding the existence of deities, either because of a lack of thought on the matter, a lack of interest in the matter (see [[apatheism]]), or a belief that the arguments and evidence provided by both theists and strong atheists are equally unpersuasive. Others (explicit weak atheists) may doubt or dispute claims for the existence of deities, while not actively asserting that deities do not exist, following [[Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein's]] famous dictum, "Whereof one cannot speak thereof one must remain silent."
Some weak atheists feel that theism and strong atheism are equally untenable, on the grounds that faith is required both to assert and to deny the existence of deities, and as such both theism and strong atheism have the burden of proof placed on them to prove that a god does or doesn't exist. Some also base their belief on the notion that it is impossible to prove a negative.
While a weak atheist might consider the nonexistence of deities likely on the basis that there is insufficient evidence to justify belief in a deity's existence, a strong atheist has the additional view that positive statements of nonexistence are merited when evidence or arguments indicate that a deity's nonexistence is certain or probable.
Strong atheism may be based on arguments that the concept of a deity is self-contradictory and therefore impossible (positive [[ignosticism]]), or that one or more of the p |
any of his troops to reinforce [[John Pope (military officer)|John Pope]]'s Union [[Army of Virginia]]. Pope was beaten spectacularly by Lee in the [[Northern Virginia Campaign]] and the [[Second Battle of Bull Run]] in August.
[[Image:conf_dead_chancellorsville.jpg|thumb|300px|Confederate dead behind the stone wall of Marye's Heights, Fredericksburg, Virginia, killed during the Battle of Chancellorsville, May 1863.]]
Emboldened by Second Bull Run, the Confederacy made its first invasion of the North, when General Lee led 55,000 men of the [[Army of Northern Virginia]] across the [[Potomac River]] into [[Maryland]] on [[September 5]]. Lincoln then restored Pope's troops to McClellan. McClellan and Lee fought at the [[Battle of Antietam]] near [[Sharpsburg, Maryland]], on [[September 17]] [[1862]], the bloodiest single day in American history. Lee's army, checked at last, returned to Virginia before McClellan could destroy it. Antietam is considered a Union victory because it halted Lee's invasion of the North and provided justification for Lincoln to announce his [[Emancipation Proclamation]].
When the cautious McClellan failed to follow up on Antietam, he was replaced by Maj. Gen. [[Ambrose Burnside]]. Burnside suffered near-immediate defeat at the [[Battle of Fredericksburg]] on [[December 13]] [[1862]], when over ten thousand Union soldiers were killed or wounded. After the battle, Burnside was replaced by Maj. Gen. [[Joseph Hooker|Joseph "Fighting Joe" Hooker]]. Hooker, too, proved unable to defeat Lee's army; despite outnumbering the Confederates by more than two to one, he was humiliated in the [[Battle of Chancellorsville]] in May 1863. He was replaced by Maj. Gen. [[George G. Meade]] during Lee's second invasion of the North, in June. Meade defeated Lee at the [[Battle of Gettysburg]] ([[July 1]]&ndash;[[July 3|3]], [[1863]]), the largest battle in North American history, which is sometimes considered the war's [[Turning point of the American Civil War|turning point]]. Lee's army suffered 28,000 casualties (versus Meade's 23,000), again forcing it to retreat to Virginia, never to launch a full-scale invasion of the North again. Lincoln was angry that Meade failed to intercept Lee's retreat, and decided to turn to the Western Theater for new leadership.
On the use of balloons, see [[Aerial warfare]] section on the American Civil War.
===Western Theater 1861&ndash;1863===
{{see details|Western Theater of the American Civil War}}
While the Confederate forces had numerous successes in the Eastern theater, they crucially failed in the West. They were driven from Missouri early in the war as result of the [[Battle of Pea Ridge]]. [[Leonidas Polk]]'s invasion of [[Kentucky]] enraged the citizens there who previously had declared neutrality in the war, turning that state against the Confederacy.
[[Nashville, Tennessee]], fell to the Union early in 1862. Most of the [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]] was opened with the taking of [[Battle of Island Number Ten|Island No. 10]] and [[New Madrid, Missouri]], and then [[Memphis, Tennessee]]. [[New Orleans, Louisiana]], was captured in May 1862, allowing the Union forces to begin moving up the Mississippi as well. Only the fortress city of [[Vicksburg, Mississippi]], prevented unchallenged Union control of the entire river.
[[Braxton Bragg]]'s second Confederate invasion of Kentucky was repulsed by [[Don Carlos Buell]] at the confused and bloody [[Battle of Perryville]] and he was narrowly defeated by [[William S. Rosecrans]] at the [[Battle of Stones River]] in [[Tennessee]].
The one clear Confederate victory in the West was the [[Battle of Chickamauga]] in [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], near the [[Tennessee]] border, where Bragg, reinforced by the corps of [[James Longstreet]] (from Lee's army in the east), defeated Rosecrans, despite the heroic defensive stand of [[George Henry Thomas]], and forced him to retreat to [[Chattanooga, Tennessee|Chattanooga]], which Bragg then besieged.
The Union's key strategist and tactician in the west was Maj. Gen. [[Ulysses S. Grant]], who won victories at: Forts [[Battle of Fort Henry|Henry]] and [[Battle of Fort Donelson|Donelson]], by which the Union seized control of the [[Tennessee River |Tennessee]] and [[Cumberland River|Cumberland]] Rivers; [[Battle of Shiloh|Shiloh]]; the [[Battle of Vicksburg]], cementing Union control of the Mississippi River and considered one of the [[Turning point of the American Civil War |turning points]] of the war; and the [[Battle of Chattanooga III|Battle of Chattanooga, Tennessee]], driving Confederate forces out of Tennessee and opening an invasion route to [[Atlanta, Georgia |Atlanta]] and the heart of the Confederacy.
===Trans-Mississippi Theater 1861&ndash;1865===
{{see details| Trans-Mississippi Theater of the American Civil War}}
Though geographically isolated from the battles to the east, a number of small-scale military actions took place west of the Mississippi River. Confederate incursions into Arizona and New Mexico were repulsed in 1862. Guerilla activity turned much of Missouri and Indian Territory (Oklahoma) into a battleground. Late in the war the Federal [[Red River Campaign]] was a failure. Texas remained in Confederate hands throughout the war, but was cut off after the capture of [[Vicksburg]] in 1863 gave the Union control of the Mississippi River.
===End of the War 1864&ndash;1865===
[[Image:President-Jefferson-Davis.jpg|thumb|left|[[Jefferson Davis]], first and only President of the Confederate States of America]]
At the beginning of 1864, Lincoln made Grant commander of all Union armies. Grant made his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac, and put Maj. Gen. [[William Tecumseh Sherman]] in command of most of the western armies. Grant understood the concept of [[total war]] and believed, along with Lincoln and Sherman, that only the utter defeat of Confederate forces and their economic base would bring an end to the war. He devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the heart of Confederacy from multiple directions: Generals Grant, Meade, and [[Benjamin Franklin Butler (politician)|Benjamin Butler]] would move against Lee near Richmond; General [[Franz Sigel]] (and later [[Philip Sheridan]]) would [[Valley Campaigns of 1864|invade the Shenandoah Valley]]; General Sherman would and capture [[Atlanta]] and march to the sea; Generals [[George Crook]] and [[William W. Averell]] would operate against railroad supply lines in [[West Virginia]]; and General [[Nathaniel Prentiss Banks|Nathaniel Banks]] would capture [[Mobile, Alabama]].
Union forces in the East attempted to maneuver past Lee and fought several battles during that phase ("Grant's [[Overland Campaign]]") of the Eastern campaign. An attempt to outflank Lee from the south failed under Butler, who was trapped inside the [[Bermuda Hundred Campaign | Bermuda Hundred]] river bend. Grant was tenacious and, despite astonishing losses (over 66,000 casualties in six weeks), kept pressing Lee's Army of Northern Virginia back to Richmond. He pinned down the Confederate army in the [[Siege of Petersburg]], where the two armies engaged in [[trench warfare]] for over nine months.
Grant finally found a commander, General [[Philip Sheridan]], aggressive enough to prevail in the [[Valley Campaigns of 1864]]. Sheridan proved to be more than a match for [[Jubal Anderson Early|Jubal Early]], and defeated him in a series of battles, including a final decisive defeat at [[Battle of Cedar Creek|Cedar Creek]], Sheridan then proceeded to destroy the agricultural base of the Valley, a strategy similar to the tactics Sherman would later employ in Georgia.
Meanwhile, Sherman marched from [[Chattanooga]] to Atlanta, defeating Confederate Generals [[Joseph E. Johnston]] and [[John B. Hood]]. The fall of Atlanta, on September 2, 1864, was a significant factor in the re-election of Abraham Lincoln, as President of the Union. Leaving Atlanta, and his base of supplies, Sherman's army marched with an unclear destination, laying waste to about 20% of the farms in Georgia in his celebrated "[[Sherman's March to the Sea|March to the Sea]]", and reaching the [[Atlantic Ocean]] at [[Savannah, Georgia]] in December 1864. Burning plantations as they went, Sherman's army was followed by thousands of freed slaves. When Sherman turned north through South Carolina and North Carolina to approach the Virginia lines from the south, it was the end for Lee and his men, and for the Confederacy.
Lee attempted to escape from the besieged Petersburg and link up with Johnston in [[North Carolina]], but he was overtaken by Grant. He surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia on [[April 9]], [[1865]], at [[Appomattox Court House]]. Johnston surrendered his troops to Sherman shortly thereafter at a [[Bennett Place|local family's farmhouse]] in [[Durham, North Carolina]]. The [[Battle of Palmito Ranch]], fought on [[May 13]], [[1865]], in the far south of [[Texas]], was the last Civil War land battle and ended, ironically, with a Confederate victory. All Confederate land forces surrendered by June 1865.
==Analysis of the outcome==
Why the Union prevailed (or why the Confederacy was defeated) in the Civil War has been a subject of extensive analysis and debate.
Could the South have won? A significant number of scholars believe that the Union held an insurmountable advantage over the Confederacy in terms of industrial strength, population, and the determination to win. Confederate actions, they argue, could only delay defeat. Southern historian [[Shelby Foote]] expressed this view succinctly in Ken Burns's television series on the Civil War: "I think that the North fought that war with one hand behind its back.... If there had been more Southern victories, and a lot more, the North simply would have brought that other hand out from behind its back. I don't think the South ever had a chance |
by [[Simon Schama]], BBC/Miramax, 2001 ISBN 0786866756
*<cite>A History of Britain - The Complete Collection</cite> on DVD by [[Simon Schama]], BBC 2002 ASIN B00006RCKI
*<cite>The Isles, A History</cite> by [[Norman Davies]], Oxford University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-19-513442-7
*<cite>The History of England, From the First Invasion by the Romans to the Accession of William and Mary in 1688</cite>, [[1819]] by [[John Lingard|Father John Lingard]] ([[Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] perspective)
*<cite>Shortened History of England</cite> by [[George Macaulay Trevelyan|G. M. Trevelyan]] Penguin Books ISBN 0140233237
*<cite>[[A_History_of_the_English_Speaking_Peoples|History of the English-Speaking Peoples]]<cite> by [[Winston Churchill|Sir Winston Churchill]] Cassell reference, ISBN: 0304363898 -- the writing of which helped bring Churchill to public attention in the 1930s, and which forms the basis of many later reference works
[[Category:History by country|England]]
[[Category:History of England|*]]
[[Category:Politics of England]]
[[de:Geschichte Englands]]
[[es:Historia de Inglaterra]]
[[fr:Histoire de l'Angleterre]]
[[it:Storia dell'Inghilterra]]
[[ja:&#12452;&#12531;&#12464;&#12521;&#12531;&#12489;&#12398;&#27508;&#21490;]]
[[lt:Anglijos istorija]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Engeland]]
[[pl:Historia Anglii]]
[[pt:História da Inglaterra]]
[[ru:История Англии]]
[[zh:&#33521;&#26684;&#34349;&#27511;&#21490;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hippocrates</title>
<id>13486</id>
<revision>
<id>41990863</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:05:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DanielCD</username>
<id>81016</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/128.253.6.224|128.253.6.224]] ([[User talk:128.253.6.224|talk]]) to last version by 69.117.179.134</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Expert}}
:''"Hippocrates" could refer as well to the fictional character from the [[Harry Potter]] series, [[Hippocrates Smethwyck]];''
:''Or to the ancient [[Greece|Greek]] [[geometer]] [[Hippocrates of Chios]], who wrote the first known work systematizing the fundamentals of [[geometry]].''
[[Image:Hippocrates.jpg|thumb|240px|right|Hippocrates: a conventionalized image in a Roman "portrait" bust (19th century engraving)]]
'''Hippocrates of Cos''' (c. [[460 BC]]&ndash;c. [[380 BC]]) was an [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] [[physician]]. He has been called "[[List of people known as the father or mother of something|the father of medicine]]", and is commonly regarded as one of the most outstanding figures in [[medicine]] of all time. According to the biographical tradition, he was a physician trained at the [[Dream temple]] of [[Kos]], and may have been a pupil of [[Herodicus]]. Writings attributed to him (''Corpus hippocraticum'', or "Hippocratic writings") rejected the [[superstition]] and magic of primitive "medicine" and laid the foundations of medicine as a branch of science. Attributed sayings of Hippocrates include: ''"He who does not understand astrology is not a doctor, but a fool,"'' and ''"There are in fact, two things: science, and opinion; the former begets knowledge, the latter ignorance."'' Little is actually known about Hippocrates' personal life, but some of his medical achievements were documented by such people as [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]].
==Writings==
[[Image:Asklepion414.jpg|thumb|left]]
The Hippocratic writings introduced patient confidentiality, a practice still in use today. This was described under the [[Hippocratic Oath]] and other treatises. Hippocrates recommended that physicians record their findings and their medicinal methods, so that these records may be passed down and employed by other physicians.
Other Hippocratic writings associated [[personality]] traits with the relative abundance of [[the four humours]] in the body: [[phlegm]], [[bile|yellow bile]], [[black bile]], and [[blood]], and were a major influence on [[Galen]] and later on [[medieval medicine]].
The ''[[Hippocratic Corpus]]'' is a collection of about sixty treatises, most written between [[430 BC]] and [[AD 200]]. They are actually a group of texts written by several different people holding several different viewpoints erroneously grouped under the name of Hippocrates, perhaps at the [[Library of Alexandria]]. None of the texts included in the Corpus can be considered to have been written by Hippocrates himself, and at least one of them was written by his son-in-law Polybus. The best known of the Hippocratic writings is the [[Hippocratic Oath]]; however, this text was most likely not written by Hippocrates himself. A famous, time-honoured medical rule ascribed to Hippocrates is ''[[Primum non nocere]]'' ("first, do no harm"); another one is ''[[Ars longa, vita brevis]]'' ("art is long, and life short").
==Works==
Of these works, none can be demonstrably credited to Hippocrates, but they are considered to form the ''Corpus Hippocraticum'':
*''[[Aphorisms]]''
*''Instruments Of Reduction''
*''Of The [[Epidemics]]''
*''On Airs, Waters, And Places''
*''On [[Ancient Medicine]]''
*''On [[Fistulae]]''
*''On [[Fracture (bone)|Fracture]]s''
*''On [[Hemorrhoids]]''
*''On Injuries Of The Head''
*''On Regimen In Acute Diseases''
*''On The Articulations''
*''On [[The Sacred Disease]]''
*''On The [[Surgery]]''
*''On [[Ulcer]]s''
*''The Book Of [[Prognostics]]''
*''The Law''
*''The Oath''
==The "portrait" of Hippocrates==
The purely conventional iconography of Greek poets and philosophers were set in the "portrait" busts, (''illustration, above right''), produced in series to decorate the villas of the Roman cultured class. The changing careers of these idealized "character" images have been studied by Paul Zanker, ''The Mask of Socrates: The Image of the Intellectual in Antiquity,'' translated by Alan Shapiro. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996. [ ISBN 0-520-20105-1]. See [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr/1996/96.08.04.html review in ''Bryn Mawr Classical Review''].
==See also==
*[[Hippocratic face]]
*[[Hippocratic fingers]] (clubbing)
*[[Medical astrology]]
*[[Hippocratic bench]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}
*[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/aut/hippocrates.html Online version of works]
*[http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/browse-Hippocrates.html Translations of Hippocratic texts in English]
*[http://194.254.96.6/FMPro?-DB=livanc.fp3&-Format=livanc-rech.htm&cote=*&-max=1000&-Find Texts in Greek]
*Aphorisms available at [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Aphorisms WikiSource]
*[http://www.healthvoices.com/blog/hippocrates/2005/10/24/what_would_hippocrates_do What Would Hippocrates Do?]
*[http://www2.sjsu.edu/depts/Museum/hippoc.html Article on Sané Jose Site]
[[Category:460 BC births]]
[[Category:380 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Greeks]]
[[Category:Classical humanists]]
[[Category:History of ancient medicine]]
[[bn:হিপোক্রেটিস]]
[[ca:Hipòcrates]]
[[cs:Hippokratés]]
[[da:Hippokrates]]
[[de:Hippokrates von Kós]]
[[el:Ιπποκράτης]]
[[es:Hipócrates]]
[[eo:Hipokrato]]
[[eu:Hipokrates]]
[[fr:Hippocrate]]
[[hr:Hipokrat]]
[[id:Hippokrates]]
[[it:Ippocrate di Kos]]
[[he:היפוקרטס]]
[[ka:ჰიპოკრატე]]
[[la:Hippocrates]]
[[lt:Hipokratas]]
[[hu:Hippokratész]]
[[mn:Хиппократэс]]
[[nl:Hippocrates van Kos]]
[[ja:ヒポクラテス]]
[[no:Hippokrates]]
[[pl:Hipokrates]]
[[pt:Hipócrates]]
[[ro:Hippocrate]]
[[ru:Гиппократ]]
[[sco:Hippocrates]]
[[simple:Hippocrates]]
[[sk:Hippokrates]]
[[sl:Hipokrat]]
[[fi:Hippokrates]]
[[sv:Hippokrates]]
[[tr:Hipokrat]]
[[uk:Гіппократ]]
[[zh:希波克拉底]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hermann Göring</title>
<id>13487</id>
<revision>
<id>42109699</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:05:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Header - references plural</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hermann_goering2.jpg|thumb|250px|right|framed|Hermann Göring]]
'''Hermann Wilhelm Göring''' (also '''Goering''' in [[English language|English]]) ([[January 12]], [[1893]] &ndash; [[October 15]], [[1946]]) was an early member of the [[Nazi party]], leader of the [[Gestapo]], and one of the main leaders of [[Nazi Germany]]. He was tried for [[war crimes]] and [[crimes against humanity]] at the [[Nuremberg Trials]] in 1945-1946 and sentenced to death. He avoided execution by committing [[suicide]] in his cell a few hours before the sentence was to be carried out.
===Early life===
Göring was born in [[Rosenheim]], [[Bavaria]] to Heinrich Ernst Göring, a [[lawyer]] and [[German colonial empire|colonial]] [[bureaucrat]] (in [[South-West Africa]], today's [[Namibia]]), and his wife Franziska. Often apart from his parents, he was tutored at home before attending [[cadet]] schools at [[Karlsruhe]] and Lichterfelde.
[[Image:Göring.jpg|left|150px|thumb|Hermann Göring in WWI. 22 air victories, Commander of Jasta 11 following the death of Wilhelm Reinhard, the successor of [[Manfred von Richthofen]], the Red Baron.]]
In [[World War I]] he was commissioned in the infantry, then became a pilot. He flew reconnaissance and bombing missions before becoming a [[fighter]] pilot. By the end of the war he was a highly decorated "ace" and commanded the famed [[Jasta 11]].
In mid-[[1915]] Göring began his pilot training at Freiburg, and on completing the course he was posted to ''Jagdstaffel'' 5. He was soon shot down and spent most of [[1916]] recovering from his injuries. On his return in November 1916 he joined ''Jagdstaffel'' 26, before being given his first command. In [[1917]] he was awarde |
The largest lake in Costa Rica is [[Lake Arenal]]. The country is highly recognized and praised for its [[National Parks of Costa Rica|national park system]]: a developed and progressive system which stresses [[ecotourism]]. Costa Rica protects over 25% of its national territory within national parks.
==Politics==
[[Image:CostaRica.AbelPacheco.01.jpg|thumb|Abel Pacheco, President of Costa Rica (2002-2006) © Organization of American States]]
{{main|Politics of Costa Rica}}
Costa Rica is a democratic republic with a strong constitution. It is seen as one of the most stable countries in Latin America. Costa Rica has avoided the violence that has plagued Central America; it is seen as an example of political stability in the region, and is referred to as the "Switzerland of the Americas". Executive responsibilities are vested in a [[List of Presidents of Costa Rica|president]], who is the country's center of power. There also are two vice presidents and a 15-member cabinet that includes one of the vice presidents. The president and 57 [[Legislative Assembly of Costa Rica|Legislative Assembly]] deputies are elected for 4-year terms. A constitutional amendment approved in [[1969]] limited presidents and deputies to one term, although a deputy may run again for an Assembly seat after sitting out a term. An amendment to the constitution to allow second presidential terms was proposed and also the constitutionality of the prohibition against a second presidential term has been challenged in the courts. In April [[2003]] the prohibition was officially recognized, in a highly polemic resolution, as anti-constitutional allowing [[Óscar Arias]] ([[Nobel Peace Prize]], [[1987]]) to run for President a second time in the upcoming 2006 elections. Arias is a promoter of free trade and supports the free trade agreement with the United States which is the source of a great controversy that might develop in protests around the country in the upcoming months. Costa Rica uses a form of [[proportional representation]] to elect its national legislative body.
Governors appointed by the president head the country's seven provinces, but they exercise little power. There are no provincial legislatures. Autonomous state agencies enjoy considerable operational independence; they include the telecommunications and electrical power monopoly, the nationalized commercial banks, the state insurance monopoly, and the social security agency. Costa Rica has no military by constitution but maintains domestic Police and armed National Guard forces for internal security.
''See also: [[Military of Costa Rica]]''
==Provinces==
{{main|Provinces of Costa Rica}}
[[Image:Costa Rica provinces.png|thumb|Provinces of Costa Rica]]
Costa Rica consists of seven provinces:
#
# [[Alajuela Province|Alajuela]] (central; north of capital [[San Jose, Costa Rica|San José]], agriculture and industrial manufacturing)
# [[Cartago Province|Cartago]] (former Costa Rican Provicial capital during colonial times)
# [[Guanacaste Province|Guanacaste]] (north-west, important touristic and agricultural area)
# [[Heredia Province|Heredia]] (central; north of capital, manufacturing and core of Costa Rica's IT industry)
# [[Limón Province|Limón]] (caribbean coast, agricultural and eco-tourism area)
# [[Puntarenas Province|Puntarenas]] (along most of the Pacific coast, with a large bulge in the south-west and a smaller one at the northern end at both sides of the [[Golfo de Nicoya]], where the homonymous capital is located)
#[[San José Province|San José]] (Capital) (political and economical center of Costa Rica, see image below)
[[Image:Downtown_San_Jose.jpg|thumb|Downtown San José]]
==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Costa Rica}}
[[Costa Rica]]'s economy was based on [[agriculture]] (coffee, bananas, pineapples, ornamentals), but in recent times [[ecotourism]], [[electronics]],pharmaceutics, financial outsourcing and software develoment are in the actuality the main sources of business. Costa Rica's location in the [[Central America]]n [[isthmus]] provides easy access to American markets as it has the same time zone as the central part of the United States and direct ocean access to Europe and Asia.
The economy has been expanding for Costa Rica in part because the Government had implemented a seven year plan of expansion in the high tech industry. The central government offers tax exemptions for those who are willing to invest in the country. High levels of education among its residents make the country an attractive investing location. Several global high tech corporations have already started developing in the area exporting goods including chip manufacturer Intel and pharmaceutical companies such as Procter & Gamble and Glaxo Smith Kline. Trade with South East Asia and Russia has boomed during 2004 and 2005, and the country is expected to obtain full Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum (APEC) membership by 2007 (the country became an observer in 2004).
For the fiscal year 2005 the country showed a government deficit of 2.1%, internal revenue increased an 18%, exports increased a 12.8% and the number of visiting tourists increased a 19%, reaching 1.5 million people. Economic growth stood at 4.2%, nevertheless the country faced high inflation (14%) and a trade deficit of 5.2%.
The unit of [[currency]] is the [[Costa Rican colón|colón]] ([[CRC]]), which trades around 500 to the [[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]]; currently about 600 to the [[euro]].
==Foreign affairs==
While Costa Rica is not expected to join the tide of new left-leaning governments in Latin America its foreign policy does not always line up with the interests of the USA. Costa Rica is a member of the [[International Criminal Court]] and rejected U.S. offers to set up a security training center in the country on the grounds that a country with no army could not harbor a center with possible military purposes. The U.S. instead set up such a center in [[El Salvador]], a country alleged to have a tradition of human rights equivocacy.
Costa Rica has no embassy in [[Cuba]], but does have an embassy in [[Israel]], and has diplomatic relations with the [[Republic of China]] in Taiwan, not the [[People's Republic of China]].
Costa Rica is currently a member of the [[Cairns Group]], an alliance of countries opposed to agricultural subsidies in the first world.
Costa Rica's main foreign policy objective is to foster human rights and sustainable development as a way to secure stability and growth. Nevertheless, economic pragmatism may prevail over ideology. For instance, during the [[Cold War]] Costa Rica was the first Central American country to have diplomatic ties with the [[Soviet Union]] as a way to boost its [[coffee]] exports, to the dismay of the [[Nixon]] administration.
==Flora and Fauna==
[[image:Anhinga b.jpg|left|thumb|[[Anhinga]] drying its feathers]]
Costa Rica is home to a rich variety of [[plant]]s and [[animal]]s. While the country has only about 0.1% of the world's land mass, it contains 5% of the world's [[biodiversity]]. As Costa Rica has no [[military]] or [[navy]], but an abundance of [[wildlife]], it has been said that the [[soldiers]] are the leaf cutter [[ant]]s, the [[aviator|pilot]]s are the [[macaw]]s and the navy ships are the [[whale]]s. Over 25% of Costa Rica is composed of protected [[forest]]s and reserves.
One national park that is internationally renowned among [[ecology|ecologists]] for its biodiversity (including big cats and [[tapirs]]) and where visitors can expect to see an abundance of wildlife is the [[Corcovado National Park]].
Tortuguero National Park (the name ''Tortuguero'' can be translated as turtle catcher or turtle hunter) is home to [[spider monkey|spider]], [[howler monkey|howler]] and [[White-throated Capuchin]] monkeys, the [[Three-toed sloth]], 320 species of birds (including eight species of [[parrot]]s), a variety of [[reptile]]s, but is mostly recognized for the annual nesting of the endangered green turtle. is considered the most important nesting site for this species. Giant leatherback, hawksbill, and loggerhead turtles also nest here.
The Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve hosts 2,000 plant species including numerous [[orchid]]s. Over 400 types of [[birds]] can be found here, as well as over 100 species of [[mammal|mammals]]. Costa Rica as a whole has about 600 species of birds. The entity entrusted to do genetic and biochemical prospection on Costa Rica's biological wealth is the INBIO (Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad), and it is allowed to collect royalties on any biological discoveries of medical importance.
Also see:
*[[Wildlife of Costa Rica]]
*[[List of birds of Costa Rica]]
*Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad [http://www.inbio.ac.cr/es/default.html]
<br style="clear: left"/>
==Demographics==
[[Image:Metalchurchingreciacostarica.jpg|thumb|Metal church in grecia, Costa Rica]]
[[Image:Cataract on the Rio Savegre.jpg|thumb|200px|on the Rio Savegre just below San Gerardo de Dota in the Talamanca Mountains of Costa Rica]]
[[Image:Valle Central de Costa Rica.jpg|thumb|Valle Central de Costa Rica]]
[[Image:Oldchurchcartagocostarica.jpg|thumb|old basilica in Cartago, Costa Rica]]
[[Image:Teatro National de Costa Rica - inside.jpg|thumb|210px|inside of the Teatro National de Costa Rica, the Costa Rican national theatre]]
[[Image:Irazu Crater.jpg|thumb|The crater of Volcán Irazú, an active volcano near Cartago, Costa Rica]]
{{main|Demographics of Costa Rica}}
Costa Rica has a population of 4,016,173 persons (July 2005 est.) In the central part of the country, most people are of European descent but some are also [[mestizo]]s (to varying degrees).[http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0857591.html] Because of little intermarriage, most of the population today retain European complexions. The pure indigenous population today numbers about 29,000, less than one percent of the population. In [[Gu |
<tr>
<td>[[1989 in baseball|1989]]</td>
<td>[[Bret Saberhagen]]</td>
<td>[[Kansas City Royals]]</td>
<td align="center">23-6</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.16</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1990 in baseball|1990]]</td>
<td>[[Bob Welch (baseball player)|Bob Welch]]</td>
<td>[[Oakland Athletics]]</td>
<td align="center">27-6</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.95</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1991 in baseball|1991]]</td>
<td>[[Roger Clemens]]</td>
<td>[[Boston Red Sox]]</td>
<td align="center">18-10</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.62</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1992 in baseball|1992]]</td>
<td>[[Dennis Eckersley]]</td>
<td>[[Oakland Athletics]]</td>
<td align="center">7-1</td><td align="center">51</td><td align="center">1.91</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1993 in baseball|1993]]</td>
<td>[[Jack McDowell]]</td>
<td>[[Chicago White Sox]]</td>
<td align="center">22-10</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">3.37</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1994 in baseball|1994]]</td>
<td>[[David Cone]]</td>
<td>[[Kansas City Royals]]</td>
<td align="center">16-5</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.94</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1995 in baseball|1995]]</td>
<td>[[Randy Johnson]]</td>
<td>[[Seattle Mariners]]</td>
<td align="center">18-2</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.48</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1996 in baseball|1996]]</td>
<td>[[Pat Hentgen]]</td>
<td>[[Toronto Blue Jays]]</td>
<td align="center">20-10</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">3.22</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1997 in baseball|1997]]</td>
<td>[[Roger Clemens]]</td>
<td>[[Toronto Blue Jays]]</td>
<td align="center">21-7</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.05</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1998 in baseball|1998]]</td>
<td>[[Roger Clemens]]*</td>
<td>[[Toronto Blue Jays]]</td>
<td align="center">20-6</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.65</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1999 in baseball|1999]]</td>
<td>[[Pedro Martínez]]*</td>
<td>[[Boston Red Sox]]</td>
<td align="center">23-4</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.07</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[2000 in baseball|2000]]</td>
<td>[[Pedro Martínez]]*</td>
<td>[[Boston Red Sox]]</td>
<td align="center">18-6</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">1.74</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[2001 in baseball|2001]]</td>
<td>[[Roger Clemens]]</td>
<td>[[New York Yankees]]</td>
<td align="center">20-3</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">3.51</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[2002 in baseball|2002]]</td>
<td>[[Barry Zito]]</td>
<td>[[Oakland Athletics]]</td>
<td align="center">23-5</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.75</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[2003 in baseball|2003]]</td>
<td>[[Roy Halladay]]</td>
<td>[[Toronto Blue Jays]]</td>
<td align="center">22-7</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">3.25</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[2004 in baseball|2004]]</td>
<td>[[Johan Santana]]*</td>
<td>[[Minnesota Twins]]</td>
<td align="center">20-6</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.61</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[2005 in baseball|2005]]</td>
<td>[[Bartolo Colón]]</td>
<td>[[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim]]</td>
<td align="center">21-8</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">3.48</td>
</tr>
</table>
=== National League (1967-present) ===
<table border="0" cellspacing="3" cellpadding="3" width="550">
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<th align=left>Year</th><th align=left>Pitcher</th><th align=left>Team</th>
<th>Record</th><th>Saves</th><th>ERA</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1967 in baseball|1967]]</td>
<td>[[Mike McCormick]]</td>
<td>[[San Francisco Giants]]</td>
<td align="center">22-10</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.85</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1968 in baseball|1968]]</td>
<td>[[Bob Gibson]]*</td>
<td>[[St. Louis Cardinals]]</td>
<td align="center">22-9</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">1.12</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1969 in baseball|1969]]</td>
<td>[[Tom Seaver]]</td>
<td>[[New York Mets]]</td>
<td align="center">25-7</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.21</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1970 in baseball|1970]]</td>
<td>[[Bob Gibson]]</td>
<td>[[St. Louis Cardinals]]</td>
<td align="center">23-7</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">3.12</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1971 in baseball|1971]]</td>
<td>[[Ferguson Jenkins]]</td>
<td>[[Chicago Cubs]]</td>
<td align="center">24-13</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.77</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1972 in baseball|1972]]</td>
<td>[[Steve Carlton]]*</td>
<td>[[Philadelphia Phillies]]</td>
<td align="center">27-10</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">1.98</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1973 in baseball|1973]]</td>
<td>[[Tom Seaver]]</td>
<td>[[New York Mets]]</td>
<td align="center">19-10</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.08</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1974 in baseball|1974]]</td>
<td>[[Mike Marshall (baseball pitcher)|Mike Marshall]]</td>
<td>[[Los Angeles Dodgers]]</td>
<td align="center">15-12</td><td align="center">21</td><td align="center">2.42</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1975 in baseball|1975]]</td>
<td>[[Tom Seaver]]</td>
<td>[[New York Mets]]</td>
<td align="center">22-9</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.38</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1976 in baseball|1976]]</td>
<td>[[Randy Jones (baseball player)|Randy Jones]]</td>
<td>[[San Diego Padres]]</td>
<td align="center">22-14</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.74</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1977 in baseball|1977]]</td>
<td>[[Steve Carlton]]</td>
<td>[[Philadelphia Phillies]]</td>
<td align="center">23-10</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.64</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1978 in baseball|1978]]</td>
<td>[[Gaylord Perry]]</td>
<td>[[San Diego Padres]]</td>
<td align="center">21-6</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.73</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1979 in baseball|1979]]</td>
<td>[[Bruce Sutter]]</td>
<td>[[Chicago Cubs]]</td>
<td align="center">6-6</td><td align="center">37</td><td align=" |
ign="right">[[250s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[240s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[230s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[220s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[210s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[200s BC]]</td>
</tr><tr>
<td align="right">'''[[2nd century BC]]'''</td>
<td align="right">[[190s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[180s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[170s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[160s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[150s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[140s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[130s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[120s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[110s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[100s BC]]</td>
</tr><tr>
<td align="right">'''[[1st century BC]]'''</td>
<td align="right">[[90s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[80s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[70s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[60s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[50s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[40s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[30s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[20s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[10s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[0s BC]]</td>
</tr><tr>
<td align="right">'''[[1st century]]'''</td>
<td align="right">[[0s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[10s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[20s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[30s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[40s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[50s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[60s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[70s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[80s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[90s]]</td>
</tr><tr>
<td align="right">'''[[2nd century]]'''</td>
<td align="right">[[100s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[110s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[120s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[130s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[140s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[150s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[160s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[170s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[180s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[190s]]</td>
</tr><tr>
<td align="right">'''[[3rd century]]'''</td>
<td align="right">[[200s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[210s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[220s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[230s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[240s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[250s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[260s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[270s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[280s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[290s]]</td>
</tr><tr>
<td align="right">'''[[4th century]]'''</td>
<td align="right">[[300s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[310s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[320s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[330s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[340s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[350s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[360s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[370s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[380s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[390s]]</td>
</tr><tr>
<td align="right">'''[[5th century]]'''</td>
<td align="right">[[400s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[410s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[420s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[430s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[440s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[450s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[460s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[470s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[480s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[490s]]</td>
</tr><tr>
<td align="right">'''[[6th century]]'''</td>
<td align="right">[[500s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[510s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[520s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[530s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[540s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[550s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[560s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[570s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[580s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[590s]]</td>
</tr><tr>
<td align="right">'''[[7th century]]'''</td>
<td align="right">[[600s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[610s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[620s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[630s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[640s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[650s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[660s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[670s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[680s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[690s]]</td>
</tr><tr>
<td align="right">'''[[8th century]]'''</td>
<td align="right">[[700s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[710s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[720s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[730s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[740s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[750s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[760s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[770s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[780s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[790s]]</td>
</tr><tr>
<td align="right">'''[[9th century]]'''</td>
<td align="right">[[800s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[810s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[820s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[830s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[840s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[850s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[860s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[870s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[880s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[890s]]</td>
</tr><tr>
<td align="right">'''[[10th century]]'''</td>
<td align="right">[[900s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[910s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[920s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[930s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[940s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[950s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[960s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[970s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[980s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[990s]]</td>
</tr><tr>
<td align="right">'''[[11th century]]'''</td>
<td align="right">[[1000s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[1010s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[1020s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[1030s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[1040s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[1050s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[1060s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[1070s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[1080s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[1090s]]</td>
</tr><tr>
<td align="right">'''[[12th century]]'''</td>
<td align="right">[[1100s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[1110s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[1120s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[1130s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[1140s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[1150s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[1160s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[1170s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[1180s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[1190s]]</td>
</tr><tr>
<td align="right">'''[[13th century]]'''</td>
<td align="right">[[1200s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[1210s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[1220s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[1230s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[1240s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[1250s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[1260s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[1270s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[1280s]]</td>
<td align="right">[[1290s]]</td>
</tr><tr>
<td align="right">'''[[14th century]]'''</td>
<td align="right">[[1300s]]</td>
<td al |
are placed on exposed surfaces to further increase the house's temperature stability. The water system starts with rain water, processed for drinking, then washing, then plant watering, then toilet flushing, and finally black water is recycled again for more plant watering. The cisterns are placed and used as thermal masses. Power, including electricity, heat and water heating, is from solar power.
== Practicality ==
First and fundamentally, independence is a matter of degree. Complete independence is very hard or impossible to attain. For example, eliminating dependence on the electrical grid is one thing, and growing all of your own food is a more demanding and time-consuming proposition.
Living in an autonomous shelter can require one to make sacrifices in one's lifestyle choices, personal behavior, and social expectations. Even the most comfortable and technologically advanced autonomous houses may require some differences in behavior. Some persons adjust easily. Others describe the experience as inconvenient, irritating, isolating, or even as an unwanted full-time job. A well-designed building can reduce this issue, but usually at the expense of reduced autonomy.
An autonomous house must be custom-built (or extensively retrofitted) to suit the climate and location. Passive solar techniques, alternative toilet and sewage systems, thermal massing designs, basement battery systems, efficient fenestration, and the array of other design tactics require some degree of non-standard construction, added expense, ongoing experimentation and maintenance, and also have an effect on the psychology of the space.
The Vales, among others, have shown that living off-grid can be a practical, logical lifestyle choice - under certain conditions.
== Maintenance Systems ==
This section includes some minimal descriptions of methods, to give some feel for such a building's practicality, provide indexes to further information, and give a sense of modern trends.
=== Water ===
Water is the most important utility, and is fast becoming a scarce resource. There are many methods of collecting and conserving water, and use reduction is usually quite cost-effective.
[[Greywater]] systems reuse wash water to flush [[toilet]]s, and water lawns and [[garden]]s. Greywater systems can halve the water use of most residential buildings; however, they require the purchase of a sump, greywater pressurization pump and secondary [[plumbing]]. Some builders are installing [[waterless urinal|waterless urinals]] and even [[composting toilet|composting toilets]] that completely eliminate water usage in sewage disposal.
Most [[desert]] and [[temperate climate]]s get at least 250 mm (10 in) of [[rain]] per year. This means that a typical one story [[house]] with a greywater system can supply its year-round water needs from its roof alone. In the most extremely dry areas, it will require a cistern of 30 m&sup3; (8400 US gallons). Many areas average 13 mm (0.5 in) of rain per week, and these can use a cistern as small as 10 m&sup3;. It can be convenient to use the cistern as a heat sink or trap for a [[heat pump]] or [[HVAC|air conditioning]] system; however this can make cold drinking water warm, and in drier years the efficiency of the HVAC system may decrease.
Cistern design can reduce costs and inconvenience. Gravity tanks on short towers are reliable, so pump repairs are less urgent. The least expensive bulk cistern is a fenced pond or pool at ground level.
The size and expense of a cistern can be reduced substantially when supplemented with water deliveries. Many autonomous homes can reduce water use below ten gallons per person per day. In a [[drought]], water can be delivered to the house inexpensively via truck. Self delivery is possible by installing fabric water-tanks that can fit inside the bed of a pick-up truck.
In some areas, it is difficult to keep a roof clean enough to assure that the [[water]] collection is sanitary for drinking. Commercial [[reverse osmosis]] systems provide good quality drinking water, and some people attach devices to remineralize drinking water afterwards, or simply buy bottled water for drinking. Water makers are available for yachts that convert seawater and electricity into [[Drinking water|potable water]] and brine.
New technologies, like [[Reverse Osmosis]] Water Processors and [[Vapaire]]s can create unlimited amounts of pure water from polluted water, ocean water, and even from air.
=== Sewage ===
Sewage handling is not attractive, but it is essential for public health. Many [[disease]]s are transmitted by poorly functioning sewage systems.
The standard system is a tiled leach field combined with a [[septic tank]]. The basic idea is to provide a small system with primary [[sewage treatment]]. Sludge settles to the bottom of the septic tank, is partially reduced by anaerobic digestion, and fluid is dispersed in the leach field. The leach field is usually under a yard growing grass. Septic tanks can operate entirely by gravity, and if well managed, are reasonably safe.
Septic tanks have to be pumped periodically by a "honey wagon" to eliminate non reducing solids. Failure to pump a septic tank can cause overflow that damages the leach field, and contaminates ground water. Septic tanks may also require some lifestyle changes, such as not using garbage disposals, minimizing fluids flushed into the tank, and minimizing nondigestible solids flushed into the tank. For example, septic safe toilet paper is recommended.
However, septic tanks remain popular because they permit standard plumbing fixtures, and require few or no lifestyle sacrifices.
Composting or packaging toilets make it economical and sanitary to throw away sewage as part of the normal garbage collection service. They also reduce water use by half, and eliminate the difficulty and expense of septic tanks. However, they require the local landfill to use sanitary practices.
Incinerator systems are quite practical. The ashes are biologically safe, and less than 1/10 the volume of the original waste, but like all incinerator waste, are usually classified as hazardous waste.
State of the art home sewage treatment systems use biological treatment, usually beds of plants and aquaria, that eliminate nutrients and bacteria and convert greywater and sewage to clear water. This odor and color free reclaimed water can be used to flush toilets and water outside plants. When tested, it approaches standards for potable water. In climates that freeze, the plants and aquaria need to be kept in a small greenhouse space. Good systems need about as much care as a large [[aquarium]].
[[NASA]]'s [[bioreactor]] is such an advanced biological sewage system. It can turn sewage into air and water through microbial action. NASA plans to use it in the manned [[Mars]] mission.
A big disadvantage of living sewage treatment systems is that if the house is empty, the sewage system starves to death.
The approaches above treat human excrement as a waste rather than a resource. [[Humanure]] is composted human excrement, and can return nutrients to a garden. Recycling human excrement requires minimal life-style changes.
Another method is NASA's urine-to-water [[distill]]ation system.
Some of the oldest pre-system sewage types are [[pit toilet]]s, [[latrine]]s, and [[outhouse]]s. These are still used in many developing countries.
=== Storm drains ===
Drainage systems are a crucial compromise between human habitability and a secure, sustainable watershed. Paved areas and lawns or turf do not allow much precipitation to filter through the ground to recharge aquifers. They can cause flooding and damage in neighbourhoods, as the water flows over the surface towards a low point.
Typically, elaborate, capital-intensive storm [[sewer]] networks are engineered to deal with [[storm water]]. In some cities, such as [[Victorian era]] [[London Sewers]] or much of the [[old City of Toronto]] the storm water system is combined with the sanitary sewer system. In the event of heavy precipitation, the load on the sewage treatment plant at the end of the pipe becomes too great to handle and raw sewage is dumped into holding tanks, and sometimes into surface water.
Autonomous buildings can address precipitation in a number of ways:
If a water absorbing [[swale (geographical feature)|swale]] for each yard is combined with permeable [[concrete]] streets, storm drains can be omitted from the neighbourhood. This can save more than $500 per house (1995) by eliminating storm drains. One fine way to use the savings is to purchase larger lots, which permits more amenities at the same cost. Permeable concrete is an established product in warm climates, and in development for freezing climates. In freezing climates, the elimination of storm drains can often still pay for enough land to construct swales (shallow water collecting ditches) or water impeding berms instead. This plan provides more land for homeowners and can offer more interesting topography for landscaping.
A [[green roof]] captures precipitation and uses the water to grow plants. It can be built into a new building or used to replace an existing roof.
=== Electricity ===
Since electricity is an expensive utility, the first step towards conservation is to design a house and lifestyle to reduce demand. Fluorescent lights, laptop computers and gas-powered refrigerators save both electricity and money.
Using a solar roof, [[solar cell]]s can currently ([[as of 2004|2004]]) provide electric power. Solar roofs are far more cost-effective than retrofitted solar power, because buildings need roofs anyway. Modern solar cells last about 40 years, which makes them a reasonable investment in some areas.
A number of areas that lack [[sun]] have [[wind]]. To generate power, the average autonomous house needs only one small [[wind generator|wind turbine]], 5 m or le |
rice continues to rise | work=Daily Telegraph | url=http://sport.telegraph.co.uk/sport/main.jhtml?xml=/sport/2005/10/13/sfnbos13.xml | accessdate=December 23 | accessyear=2005}}
#{{note|premierleague}} Up until 1992, the top division of [[Football in England|English football]] was the [[Football League First Division]]; since then, it has been the [[FA Premier League]].
==References==
*{{cite book | author=Hornby, Nick | title=Fever Pitch | publisher=Indigo| year=1992| id=ISBN 1840189002}}
*{{cite book | author=Soar, Phil & Tyler, Martin | title=The Official Illustrated History of Arsenal | publisher=Hamlyn | year=2000| id=ISBN 0600601757}}
*{{cite book | author=Spurling, Jon | title=Rebels for the Cause: The Alternative History of Arsenal Football Club | publisher=Mainstream| year=2004| id=ISBN 0575400153}}
*{{cite web | title=Arsenal.com - The Club| url=http://www.arsenal.com/clubnews.asp?nav=The+club&lid=AboutArsenal&title=About+Arsenal | accessdate=July 27 | accessyear=2005}}
*{{cite web | title=ArseWeb statistics page| url=http://www.arseweb.com/history/ | accessdate=July 27 | accessyear=2005}}
*{{cite web | title=Arsenal Shirts| url=http://hem.passagen.se/arsenalshirts/ | accessdate=August 12 | accessyear=2005}}
==External links==
{{commonscat|Arsenal F.C.}}
{{wikinewscat|Arsenal F.C.}}
;Official websites
* [http://www.arsenal.com/ Arsenal.com]
* [http://www.arsenalpics.com/ Official Arsenal Picture Site]
* [http://www.premierleague.com/fapl.rac?command=forwardOnly&nextPage=enClubDetail&id=1006 Premierleague.com: Arsenal]
;General fan sites
* [http://www.arseweb.com/ Arseweb]
* [http://www.arsenal-mania.com/ Arsenal-Mania]
* [http://www.arsenal-world.co.uk/ Arsenal World]
* [http://www.arsenal-land.co.uk/ Arsenal Land]
;News sites
{{BBC Football Info|BBClinkname=a/arsenal}}
* [http://sport.independent.co.uk/football/arsenal/ ''The Independent'': Arsenal]
* [http://www.anr.uk.com/ Arsenal News Review]
* [http://www.arsenal.vitalfootball.co.uk/ Arsenal news from Vital football]
;Fanzines
* [http://www.upthearse.net/ Up the Arse!]
* [http://www.onlinegooner.com/ The Gooner]
* [http://www.footballchants.org/viewChantsRecent.php?teams=5 Arsenal Football Chants]
;Blogs
* [http://www.arseblog.com/ Arseblog]
* [http://antithesis98.blogspot.com/ Arsenal wtf]
* [http://arsenalamerica.com/new/index.php Arsenal America]
* [http://www.arsenalshorts.com/index.html Arsenal Shorts]
* [http://arsenaltalk.bravejournal.com/ Arsenal Talk]
{{Arsenal F.C.}}
{{Champions League 2005/06}}
{{FA Premier League}}
{{featured article}}
[[Category:Arsenal F.C.| ]]
[[Category:English football clubs]]
[[Category:Sport in London]]
[[Category:FA Premier League]]
[[Category:G-14 clubs]]
[[Category:1886 establishments]]
{{Link FA|pl}}
[[ar:آرسنال]]
[[bg:Арсенал (футболен отбор)]]
[[cs:Arsenal FC]]
[[da:Arsenal F.C.]]
[[de:Arsenal F.C.]]
[[es:Arsenal Football Club]]
[[fr:Arsenal Football Club]]
[[ko:아스널]]
[[it:Arsenal Football Club]]
[[he:ארסנל]]
[[nl:Arsenal FC]]
[[ja:アーセナル]]
[[no:Arsenal FC]]
[[pl:Arsenal Londyn]]
[[pt:Arsenal FC]]
[[ru:Арсенал (футбольный клуб)]]
[[simple:Arsenal F.C.]]
[[fi:Arsenal FC]]
[[sv:Arsenal FC]]
[[th:สโมสรฟุตบอลอาร์เซนอล]]
[[vi:Arsenal F.C.]]
[[tr:Arsenal F.C.]]
[[zh:阿森纳足球俱乐部]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cuisine of the United States</title>
<id>2175</id>
<revision>
<id>39651546</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T23:08:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SimonP</username>
<id>1591</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>{{expansion}} to talk page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">
{{Usculture}}
{{cuisine}}
The '''cuisine of the United States''' is characterized by the broad diversity of foods, driven by the tendency of the country as a whole to integrate widely divergent ingredients and styles of cooking. [[Cuisine]]s differ from region to region and are influenced by innovation and centuries of immigration.
Some kinds of [[United States|American]] cuisine include:
* [[American Chinese cuisine]]
* [[Barbecue]]
* [[Cuisine of California|California cuisine]]
* [[Euro-Asian cuisine]], a kind of [[fusion cuisine]]
* [[Fast food]]
* [[Floribbean]]
* [[Cuisine of Kentucky]]
* [[Cuisine of Hawaii|Hawaiian cuisine]]
* [[Midwestern cuisine]]
* [[Native American cuisine#Native American Cuisine of the United_States|Native American cuisine]]
* [[New England cuisine]]
* [[New York City cuisine]]
* [[Pennsylvania Dutch cuisine]]
* [[Cuisine of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rican cuisine]]
* [[Southern US cuisine|Southern cuisine]]
** [[Cajun cuisine|Cajun food]]
** [[Louisiana Creole cuisine|Creole]]
** [[Soul food]]
** [[Tex-Mex cuisine|Tex-Mex]]
* [[Cuisine of the Southwest|Southwestern cuisine]]
** [[Tex-Mex cuisine|Tex-Mex]]
==List of American foods==
*[[Apple Pie]]
*[[Boston baked beans]]
*[[Chocolate brownie|Brownies]]
*[[Buffalo wings]]
*[[American Bison|Buffalo]] steaks and burgers
*[[Chicago-style pizza]]
[[Image:Motherhood and apple pie.jpg|250px|thumb|[[Apple pie]] shown alongside other cultural icons.]]
*[[Chili con carne]]
*[[Chocolate chip cookies]]
*[[Chop suey]]
*[[Corn dog]]s
*[[Maize|Corn on the cob]]
*[[Cream cheese]]
*[[Disco fries]]
*[[Fortune cookie]]s
*[[French Fries]]
*[[Fudge]]
*[[Grits]]
*[[Grilled pizza]]
*[[Gumbo]]
*[[Hamburger]]s
[[Image:Hamburger.jpg|thumb|250px|The hamburger may be the most famous United States food.]]
*[[Hoagie]]
*[[Hot dish]]
*[[Hotcakes]]
*[[hushpuppy|Hush puppies]]
*[[Ice cream cone]]
*[[Jambalaya]]
*[[Macaroni and cheese]]
*[[Pancake]]
*[[Peanut butter]]
**[[Peanut butter and jelly sandwich]]
*[[Pecan pie]]
*[[Pecan pralines]]
*[[Cheesesteak|Philadelphia cheesesteak]]
*[[Potato Chip]]s
*[[Pumpkin pie]]
*[[Scrapple]]
*[[Shoo-fly pie]]
*[[Sloppy joe]]
*[[Sweet potato]] pie
*[[Thanksgiving#Thanksgiving Dinner|Thanksgiving Dinner]] (Roast [[Domesticated turkey|Turkey]], [[Cranberry sauce]], etc.)
*[[Whoopie pies]]
==See also==
* [[Cuisine#Cuisines of the Americas|Cuisines of other countries]]
* [[Cuisine of the Southern United States]]
* [[Cuisine of the Southwestern United States]]
* [[Christmas food in the United States]]
* [[New England cuisine]]
* [[Cuisine of the Midwestern United States]]
==External links==
{{Cookbook}}
{{commonscat|American cuisine}}
* [http://www.elook.org/recipes/american/ American Recipes]
[[Category:American culture]]
[[Category:American cuisine| ]]
[[de:US-amerikanische Küche]]
[[fr:Cuisine des États-Unis d'Amérique]]
[[pt:Culinária dos Estados Unidos da América]]
[[zh:美国烹饪]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ahmed Shah Massoud</title>
<id>2176</id>
<revision>
<id>40662907</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T03:37:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>John Hill</username>
<id>179750</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */ added reference</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Celebrity
| name =Ahmed Shah Masood
| image = AhmedShahMassoud.jpg
| caption =
| birth_date = 1953
| birth_place = [[Afghanistan]]
| death_date = [[September 9]], [[2001]]
| death_place = North Afghanistan
| occupation = Prominent ''Mujaidin'' and ''Minister of Defense'' after the [[Soviet-Afghan War]]|
| salary =
| networth =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Ahmed Shah Masood''' ('''&#1575;&#1581;&#1605;&#1583; &#1588;&#1575;&#1607; &#1605;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;''') (c. 1953 - [[September 9]], [[2001]]) (''variant [[transliteration]]s include Ahmad, Massoud, etc.'') was a [[Kabul University]] engineering student turned [[Afghanistan|Afghan]] military leader who played a leading role in driving the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] army out of [[Afghanistan]], earning him the nickname ''Lion of [[Panjshir]]''.
Massoud was an ethnic [[Tajiks|Tajik]] who was charismatic and respected by the Afghan population.
In the early [[1990s]] he became Defence Minister under President [[Burhanuddin Rabbani]]. Following the collapse of Rabbani's government and the rise of the [[Taliban]] regime, Massoud became the military leader of the [[Afghan Northern Alliance|Northern Alliance]], a coalition of various armed Afghani opposition groups, in a prolonged civil war. As the Taliban established control over most of Afghanistan, Massoud's forces were increasingly forced into the mountainous areas of the north, where they controlled some 10% of Afghanistan's territory and perhaps 30% of its population until late 2001.
Massoud was the victim of a suicide attack which occurred at Khvajeh Ba Odin on [[September 9]], [[2001]], two days before the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack]] in the [[United States]], a timing considered significant by some commentators who believe [[Osama bin Laden]] ordered the assassination to ensure he would have the Taliban's protection and cooperation in Afghanistan. The attackers were two [[Arab]]s who claimed to be [[Belgium|Belgian]]s originally from [[Morocco]]. However their passports turned out to be stolen. According to some accounts they were posing as journalists, perhaps intending to attack several Northern Alliance council members simultaneously.
They set off a bomb in either a video camera or a belt worn by one of the attackers. It appears that Massoud died within 30 minutes, although his death was denied until an official announcement that was made on [[September 13]]. The explosion also killed Mohammed Asim Suhail, a Northern Alliance official, while [[Mohammad Fahim Dashty]] and Massoud Khalili were injured. One of the attackers was killed by the explosion and the other was shot while trying to escape.
The French secret service revealed [[October 16]], [[2003]] that the camera used by Massoud's assassins had been stolen in [[December]] [[2000]] in [[Grenoble]], [[France]] from a [[photojournalist]], [[Jean-Pierre Vincendet]], who was then working on a st |
f [[orbit]] around the sun. Additionally, the equator is the only line of latitude which is also a [[great circle]].
The [[Sun]], in its [[season]]al movement through the sky, passes directly over the equator twice each [[year]] on the [[vernal point|Vernal]] and [[autumnal equinox|Autumnal]] [[Equinox]]es, which occur in March and September respectively. At the equator, the rays of the sun are [[perpendicular]] to the surface of the earth on these dates.
Places near the equator experience the quickest rates of [[sunrise]] and [[sunset]] in the world, taking minutes. Such places also have a relatively constant amount of day/night time on every day throughout the year compared with more northerly or southerly places.
== Equatorial climate ==
In many [[Tropics|tropical]] regions people identify two [[season]]s, wet and dry, but most places very close to the equator are wet throughout the year, although seasons can vary depending on a variety of factors including elevation and proximity to an [[ocean]].
[[Image:equator_sign.JPG|right|thumb|250px|In tourist areas, the equator is often marked on the sides of roads]]
The surface of the Earth at the equator is mainly [[ocean]].
The highest point on the Equator is 4,690 m, at [http://kvaleberg.com/extensions/mapsources/index.php?params=00_00_00_S_77_59_31_W_region:EC_scale:100.000 <span style="white-space:nowrap">77°59′31" W</span>] on the south slopes of [[Cayambe (volcano)|Volcán Cayambe]] (summit 5,790 m) in [[Ecuador]]. This is a short distance above the [[snow]] line, and is the only point on the Equator where snow lies on the ground ([[Google Earth]] satellite data and photos).
== Equatorial countries ==
The equator traverses the land and/or water of 13 [[country|countries]] in total:
* [[São Tomé and Príncipe]] - passing through [[Ilhéu das Rolas]], an [[islet]] in this archipelago
* [[Gabon]]
* [[Republic of the Congo]]
* [[Democratic Republic of Congo]]
* [[Uganda]] - including some islets in [[Lake Victoria]]
* [[Kenya]]
* [[Somalia]]
* [[Maldives]] - misses every [[island]], passing between [[Gaafu Dhaalu Atoll]] and [[Gnaviyani Atoll]]
* [[Indonesia]] - crosses many islands, most notably [[Sumatra]], [[Borneo]], [[Sulawesi]], and [[Halmahera]]
* [[Kiribati]] - misses every island, passing between [[Aranuka]] and [[Nonouti]] Atolls in the [[Gilbert Islands]]
* [[Ecuador]] - including [[Isabela Island]] in the [[Galápagos Islands]]
* [[Colombia]]
* [[Brazil]] - including some islands in the mouth of the [[Amazon River]]
== "Crossing the Line" ==
Seafaring tradition maintains that all sailors who cross the equator during a nautical voyage must undergo rites of passage and elaborate rituals initiating them into The Solemn Mysteries of the Ancient Order of the Deep. These rituals date back to the Middle Ages, though the current ceremonies are most likely derived from [[Viking]] traditions. Those who have never "crossed the line" are derisively referred to as "pollywogs" or simply "slimy wogs". Upon entering the domain of His Royal Majesty, Neptunus Rex, all wogs are subject to various initiation rituals performed by those members of the crew who have made the journey before. Upon completion of the initiation ceremony, the wogs are then known as "trusty Shellbacks". If the crossing of the equator is done at the [[180th meridian]], the title of "Golden Shellback" is conferred, recognizing the simultaneous entry into the realm of the Golden Dragon. If the crossing occurs at the Greenwich or [[Prime Meridian]], the sailor is considered to be an "Emerald Shellback".
== See also ==
* [[Thermal equator]]
{{Commons2|Equator}}
<!-- [[category:astronomy]] too general -->
[[Category:Lines of latitude]]
[[Category:Spherical astronomy]]
[[als:Äquator]]
[[ar:خط الاستواء]]
[[bg:Екватор]]
[[zh-min-nan:Chhiah-tō]]
[[bs:Ekvator]]
[[ca:Línia equatorial]]
[[cs:Rovník]]
[[cy:Cyhydedd]]
[[da:Geografisk ækvator]]
[[de:Äquator]]
[[et:Ekvaator]]
[[es:Línea ecuatorial]]
[[eo:Ekvatoro]]
[[fr:Équateur (ligne équinoxiale)]]
[[fy:Evener]]
[[gl:Ecuador terrestre]]
[[io:Equatoro]]
[[id:Khatulistiwa]]
[[is:Miðbaugur]]
[[he:קו המשווה]]
[[lt:Pusiaujas]]
[[hu:Egyenlítő]]
[[ms:Garisan Khatulistiwa]]
[[nl:Evenaar]]
[[ja:赤道]]
[[no:Ekvator]]
[[nn:Ekvator]]
[[pl:Równik]]
[[pt:Linha do Equador]]
[[ru:Экватор]]
[[sh:Ekvator]]
[[simple:Equator]]
[[sk:Rovník]]
[[sl:Ekvator]]
[[sr:Екватор]]
[[fi:Päiväntasaaja]]
[[sv:Ekvatorn]]
[[tl:Ekwador]]
[[th:เส้นศูนย์สูตร]]
[[vi:Xích đạo]]
[[tr:Ekvator]]
[[zh:赤道]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ELF file format</title>
<id>9913</id>
<revision>
<id>15907767</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Executable and Linkable Format]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Executable and Linkable Format</title>
<id>9914</id>
<revision>
<id>40464121</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T19:20:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>200.11.242.33</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */ +es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[computing]], the '''Executable and Linkable Format''' ('''ELF''', née '''Extensible Linking Format''') is a common standard [[file format]] for [[executable]]s, [[object code]], [[shared libraries]], and [[core dump]]s. First published in the [[System V]] [[application binary interface|Application Binary Interface]] specification, and later in the [[Tool Interface Standard]], it was quickly accepted among different vendors of [[Unix]] systems.
Today the ELF format has replaced the proprietary (or sometimes just platform-specific) or less extensible executable formats (primarily [[a.out (file format)|a.out]] and [[COFF]]) in the [[Linux]], [[Solaris Operating Environment|Solaris]], [[Irix]], and almost all modern [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]] operating systems, with the exception of [[Mac OS X]], which uses [[Mach-O]]. It is also used in the Itanium version of [[OpenVMS]], a non-UNIX based operating system.
Other object code file formats include a.out, COFF, and Mach-O; ELF could be considered a "competitor" to those, although it is generally considered to outperform them.
==ELF file layout==
Each ELF file is made up of one ELF header, followed by zero or more segments and zero or more sections. The segments contain information that is necessary for runtime execution of the file, while sections contain important data for linking and relocation. Each byte in the entire file is taken by no more than one section at a time, but there can be orphan bytes, which are not covered by a section. In the normal case of a UNIX executable one or more sections are enclosed in one segment. The segments and sections of the file are listed in a program header table and section header table respectively.
On many UNIX systems the command
man elf
may provide some more details.
==Tools==
*<code>readelf</code> is a UNIX binary utility that displays information about one or more ELF files. A [[GPL]] implementation is provided by [[GNU Binutils]]
*<code>elfdump</code> is a Solaris command for viewing ELF information in an elf file.
==See also==
* [[Portable Executable]] (PE)
* [[DWARF]]
==External links==
*[http://x86.ddj.com/ftp/manuals/tools/elf.pdf Tool Interface Standard (TIS) Executable and Linking Format (ELF) Specification Version 1.2]
*[http://www.cs.ucdavis.edu/~haungs/paper/node10.html Description of the ELF binary format]
*Article "[http://developers.sun.com/solaris/articles/elf.html LibElf and GElf - A Library to Manipulate ELF Files]" by [[Neelakanth Nadgir]]
*[http://www.mr511.de/software/english.html free ELF object file access library]
*[http://www.dac.neu.edu/cgi-bin/man-cgi?elf manual page]
*[http://ou800doc.caldera.com/en/man/html.3elf/CONTENTS.html Elf library routines]
*[http://elfio.sourceforge.net/ ELFIO: a C++ library for reading and generating files in the ELF binary format.]
*[http://www.cs.dartmouth.edu/~cs38/local/teensy.html "A Whirlwind Tutorial on Creating Really Teensy ELF Executables for Linux"]
*[http://www-128.ibm.com/developerworks/power/library/pa-spec12/?ca=dgr-lnxw41ELFHero An unsung hero: The hardworking ELF]
[[Category:Executable file formats]]
[[de:Executable and Linking Format]]
[[es:Executable and Linkable Format]]
[[fr:Executable and Linking Format]]
[[pl:Executable and Linkable Format]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Extremely Low Frequencies</title>
<id>9915</id>
<revision>
<id>15907769</id>
<timestamp>2004-05-27T20:15:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Extremely low frequency]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electronic Frontier Foundation</title>
<id>9916</id>
<revision>
<id>42058431</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:46:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dposse</username>
<id>421060</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Blueribbon.png|right|thumb|112px|The EFF uses the blue ribbon as symbolism for their Free Speech defense.]]
The '''Electronic Frontier Foundation''' ('''EFF''') is a [[non-profit organization|non-profit]] advocacy and legal [[organization]] based in the [[United States]] with the stated purpose of being dedicated to preserving free speech rights such as those protected by the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution]] in the context of today's [[digital]] age. Its stated main goal is to educate the pre |
rld war]]s, immigration to Canada has fluctuated somewhat but become more heterogeneous in makeup. [[Asian Canadian]], is the most significant minority (9% of the population in 2001). Most Asian Canadians are concentrated in [[southern Ontario]], and the [[Vancouver]] area. The largest immigrant groups are [[Chinese]] (1 million members) and [[South Asian]] ([[Desi]]) (0.9 million members). Those who are [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Aboriginal]], [[mixed race]], [[Black Canadian]] etc. make up the remaining 4.1%.
{{see|List of cities in Canada|List of the 100 largest metropolitan areas in Canada|List of the 100 largest cities in Canada by population|List of Canadians by ethnicity|Religion in Canada}}
===Aboriginal peoples===
{{main|Aboriginal peoples in Canada}}
The [[Constitution of Canada|Constitution Act of 1982]] recognizes three groups of [[aboriginal peoples in Canada]]: the "Indians" (their legal designation, but now usually called [[First Nations]]), [[Inuit]], and [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]]. The aboriginal population is growing almost twice as fast as the rest of the population in Canada. According to the [[Canada 2001 Census]], people identified themselves as aboriginal numbered 976,305 people (or 3.3% of Canada's population) of whom about 62% are First Nations, 30% are Métis, and 5% are Inuit.
===Religion===
{{main|Religion in Canada}}
According to the last census [http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo30a.htm]77.1% of Canadians identified as being [[Christianity|Christians]]; of this, [[Catholicism|Catholics]] make up the largest group – 43.6% of Canadians. About 17% of Canadians declared no religious affiliation, and the remaining 6.3% were affiliated with religions other than Christianity such as [[Sikhism]], [[Hinduism]], [[Judaism]], and [[Islam]].
==Language==
[[Image:Montreal-mcgillcollege.jpg|200px|thumb|right|A view of downtown [[Montreal]], [[Quebec]], showing [[Mount Royal]] in the distance]]
:''Main articles: [[Language in Canada]], [[Bilingualism in Canada]]''
Canada's two official languages are [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]], spoken by 56.3% and 28.7% of the population respectively. On [[July 7]], [[1969]], under the [[Official Languages Act (Canada)|Official Languages Act]], French was made commensurate to English throughout the federal government. This started a process that led to Canada redefining itself as a [[Bilingualism in Canada|bilingual]] and [[multiculturalism|multicultural]] nation.
English and French have equal status in federal courts, Parliament, and in all federal institutions.
The public has the right, where there is sufficient demand, to receive federal government services in either English or French. While multiculturalism is official policy, to ''become'' a citizen one must be able to speak either English or French and more than 98% of Canadians speak English or French or both. While the nation remains officially bilingual, the majority of Canadians are fluent only in English.
[[Image:Montreal-Place Vauquelin, Note.jpg|250px|thumb|left|A [[Bilingualism in Canada|bilingual]] sign in [[Quebec]]. Bilingualism is a defining feature of Canada's culture.]]
French is mostly spoken in [[Quebec]] with pockets in [[New Brunswick]], eastern and northern [[Ontario]], [[Saskatchewan]], the south shore of [[Nova Scotia]] and southern [[Manitoba]]. Of those who speak French as a [[first language]], 85% live in Quebec.
Several [[Canada#Aboriginal peoples|aboriginal]] languages have official status in the [[Northwest Territories]]. [[Inuktitut]] is the majority language in [[Nunavut]] and has official status there.
Non-official languages are also important in Canada, with 5,470,820 people listing a non-official language as a first language. (The above three statistics include those who listed more than one first language.) Among the most important non-official first language groups are [[Chinese language|Chinese]] (853,745 first-language speakers), [[Italian language|Italian]] (469,485), [[German language|German]] (438,080), and [[Punjabi]] (271,220).
==Culture==
[[Image:RCMP2.jpg|thumb|270px|right|The [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] are the federal and national police force in Canada, and an international icon for the country.]]
:''Main articles: [[Culture of Canada]], [[Canadian identity]]''
Due to its colonial past, Canadian culture has historically been heavily influenced by English, French, Irish and Scottish cultures and traditions. In more modern times, Canadian culture is now greatly influenced by American culture, due to the proximity and the migration of people, ideas, and capital.
Many American movies, authors, TV shows, and [[List of Canadian musicians|musicians]] are equally popular in Canada (and vice versa), many have been successful worldwide. Most cultural products of these types are now increasingly marketed toward a unified "North American" market, and not specifically a Canadian or American one.
Amidst this large American cultural presence, which has prompted some fears of a "cultural takeover", a more robust and distinct Canadian culture with unique characteristics has developed in recent years due to a focus by the federal government on programs, laws and institutions to support culture and the arts, including the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]], the [[National Film Board of Canada]], and the [[Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission|CRTC]].
Many Canadian citizens see Canadian culture as based on the policy of [[multiculturalism]], while others see it as based on a predominantly [[British culture|British]] and [[French culture|French]] core, with [[American culture|American]] and new immigrant influences and modifications.{{fact}}
{{see|Canadian and American politics compared}}
===Sports===
[[Image:CanCup87.jpg|thumb|right|Ice hockey events like the [[World Cup of Hockey]] (formerly Canada Cup) are popular in Canada. [[Ice hockey]] originated in Canada when residents began playing [[Shinty]] on ice.]]
{{main|Sport in Canada}}
Canada's official national sports are [[ice hockey]] (winter) and [[lacrosse]] (summer), however, hockey is considerably more a part of Canadian culture, and is by far the most popular spectator sport in the country. Canada's six [[List of the 100 largest metropolitan areas in Canada|largest metropolitan areas]] have franchises in the [[National Hockey League]], and there are more Canadian players in the league than from all other countries combined. The three major junior leagues that together comprise the [[Canadian Hockey League]] have a combined total of 49 teams in Canadian towns or cities, from all 10 provinces. There are also strong women's leagues accross the country
[[Curling]] is another extremely popular winter sport in Canada, with the strongest support in the prairie provinces. At the international level, Canada has dominated the sport of curling, with 29 out of 46 Men's [[List of World Curling Men's Champions|World Curling Championship]]s won by Canada. Additionally, 13 out of 27 Women's World Curling Championships have gone to the Canadian side.
[[Canadian football]], like [[American football]], is a descendant from [[rugby football]] but evolved differently and has unique rules. The nine team [[Canadian Football League]] is the top league of the sport, and the annual [[Grey Cup]] championship game is viewed by a large television audience. Traditional [[association football|football]] (soccer) is widely popular in youth, interscholastic, and senior leagues but not at the professional level as it is in Europe or Latin America.
As the vast majority of Canadians live in very close proximity to the [[United States]], Canadians can also watch sporting events from the professional leagues in that country, such as [[NASCAR]] and the [[National Football League]]. The NHL and the [[National Lacrosse League]] are comprised of teams from both Canada and the United States, and [[Toronto]] currently has franchises in [[Major League Baseball]] and the [[National Basketball Association]]. Other notable participatory sports which are enjoyed throughout Canada include [[skating]], [[skiing]], [[golf]], [[soccer]], [[swimming]], [[baseball]] and [[softball]].
===National symbols===
[[Image:Common Loon head sideways.jpg|thumb|210px|right|The [[common loon]] is a well-recognized Canadian symbol, also depicted on the one-dollar coin or "[[loonie]]".]]
The use of the [[maple leaf]] as a Canadian symbol dates back to the early 18th century, and is depicted on its [[Flag of Canada|current]] and [[Red Ensign|previous]] flags, the [[penny (Canadian coin)|penny]], and on the [[Coat of Arms of Canada|coat of arms]].
The Crown appears on the [[Coat of arms of Canada|Royal Arms of Canada]] (displayed in many [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:SSC-Courtroom.jpg courtrooms] and [http://www.pm.gc.ca/ government websites]); the [[Flag of the Governor General of Canada]]; the [[Coat of arms of Quebec|Coat of Arms]] of many provinces as well as [[Nunavut]]; the badges of the [[Canadian Forces|Canadian Armed Forces]], many [[The Royal Newfoundland Regiment|Regiments]], and [[Ontario Provincial Police|Police Forces]]; as well as some highway signs. Also, the [[Monarchy in Canada|Queen's]] image appears in Canadian government buildings, military installations, schools, etc.; and on Canadian [[Queen Elizabeth II definitive stamp (Canada)|stamps]], $20 [[Canadian dollar|notes]], and all coins.
Canada is known for its vast forests and mountain ranges, and the animals that reside within them, such as [[moose]], [[caribou]], [[beaver]]s, [[polar bear]]s, [[grizzly bear]]s, [[Canada goose]] and the [[common loon]]. The [[beaver]]'s emblematic status originated from the fact much of Canada's early economic history was tied to the [[fur trade]]. Other products made from the country's natural resources, such as [[maple s |
Pearl, born [[July 8]], [[1992]]; August Anna, born [[May 3]], [[1994]]; and Allie Colleen, born [[July 28]], [[1996]].
Brooks' August 1993 album ''[[In Pieces]]'' was another instant number 1 success, going on to sell in the region of 10 million copies world-wide. However, it was not issued across the world all at once, which caused upset among his fans. In the [[United Kingdom]], one of Brooks' most committed fan bases outside the United States, country music disc jockeys, such as Martin Campbell and John Wellington, noted that many fans were buying the album on import; indeed it was the first album to debut in the top 10 of the UK Country album charts when it was not actually released there. Once officially released, it reached the top spot on the UK Country chart and number two on the UK pop albums chart. The following year "The Red Strokes" became Brooks' first single to make the pop top 40 there, reaching a high of number 13; it was followed by "Standing Outside The Fire", which made number 23. Previous albums ''No Fences'', ''Ropin' The Wind'' and ''The Chase'' also remained in the top 30.
Brooks then embarked on a 1994 UK tour, selling out venues such as [[Birmingham]]'s [[National Exhibition Centre]] and [[London]]'s [[Wembley Arena]]. He opened the London radio station, [[Country 1035]]. He also made a number of other television and radio appearances, experiencing considerable rude treatement from the British media (see [[#Rude treatment from British media|Controversies]] below). Nevertheless, Brooks success in bringing his brand of country music to Britain was evident; indeed, Brooks has been nicknamed '''Garth Vader''' (a play on [[Darth Vader]]) in reference to his "invasion" of the charts and his success as an icon of the country genre, and the nickname probably originated from Britain when a top disc jockey, Nick Barraclough, used the phrase to describe Brooks' success on his [[BBC]] radio show. Brooks returned to the UK in 1996 for more sold-out concerts, although this time his media appearances were mostly restricted to country radio and interviews with magazines.
Brooks' success as a star elsewhere in the world is also evident, enjoying hit records and sell-out tours in [[Ireland]], [[Spain]], throughout [[Europe]], [[Brazil]], [[The Far East]], [[New Zealand]], [[Australia]], etc.
One of the later peaks in Brooks' fame came on [[August 7]], [[1997]], when he gave a free concert in [[New York City]]'s [[Central Park]], drawing hundreds of thousands of people in a city that many would say is far removed from the country music world. Estimates of the actual crowd size varied considerably, from 250,000 to 750,000 or even higher (this is because many were outside the actual venue, which was filled, enjoying the show)[http://www.cnn.com/SHOWBIZ/9708/07/garth.late/]; an additional 14.6 million viewers saw it live on [[HBO]]. Billy Joel and [[Don McLean]] made guest appearances. Brooks once again won the award for the ACM ''Entertainer of the year'' in 1998.
== "Chris Gaines" ==
In [[1999]] Brooks launched upon a conceptually ambitious and unorthodox multi-media project. He wanted to star in a thriller film in [[development hell|development]] called ''The Lamb'' that was about an emotionally conflicted fictional pop/rock star named [[Chris Gaines]]. He got the role, with [[Don Was]] to produce it. To prepare for the film, Brooks then decided to ''become'' Chris Gaines, adopting an [[alter ego]] look and personality&mdash;slimmer, black hair, [[soul patch]], somewhat [[angst]]-ridden&mdash;and constructing a sizable [[back story]]. Much of this back story had to be musical, so with altered style and voice Brooks wrote and recorded Gaines' "Greatest Hits" album, ''In the Life of Chris Gaines''. This was announced to the world, and met with a confused reaction, in May 1999 [http://www.eonline.com/News/Items/0,1,4744,00.html].
In October 1999, this album, now titled ''[[Garth Brooks In ... The Life of Chris Gaines]]'', was finally released. It can best be described as a collection of Brooks's experiments in other [[popular music]] genres, such as [[alternative rock]] and [[rhythm and blues]]. It received mixed reviews in the United States, although in [[Great Britain]] the magazine ''[[Country Music People]]'' referred to it as "a work of genius".
A [[mockumentary]], ''Garth Brooks ... In The Life of Chris Gaines'' was also made and shown on [[VH1]] in that same year. Additionally, Brooks appeared once as guest host on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' with Gaines as special musical guest.
The success of the Chris Gaines experiment was decidedly doubtful mere weeks after the album was released. Some critics admired Brooks for demonstrating his range as a musician and actor, but most of the American public was either totally bewildered, or completely unreceptive to the idea of Garth Brooks as anything but a pop-country singer. Many of his fans also felt that by supporting the Gaines project they would lose the real Garth Brooks. Sales of the album were unspectacular, and although it made it to #2 on the pop album chart, expectations had been higher and retail stores were heavily discounting their oversupply.
''The Lamb'' film project, which had been the genesis of the whole idea, was then cancelled and "Chris Gaines" quickly faded away into obscurity. In 2005, ''[[Late Night with Conan O'Brien]]'' would display and mention Chris Gaines in its "Late Night Wall of National Jokes".
== Charitable activities ==
In 1991, Brooks took part in '''Voices That Care''', a multi-artist project that featured other top names in music for a one-off single to raise money for the allied troops in the Gulf War. The project included fellow country singers [[Randy Travis]], [[Kenny Rogers]] and [[Kathy Mattea]].
In 1999, Garth Brooks began the ''Teammates for Kids Foundation'' which provides financial aid to charities for children. The organization breaks down into three categories spanning three different sports.
* Touch 'Em All Foundation - Baseball Division
* Top Shelf - Hockey Division
* Touchdown - Football Division
The foundation enlists players to donate a predetermined sum of money depending on their game performance. Brooks has participated in spring training for the [[San Diego Padres]] in 1998 and 1999; the [[New York Mets]] in 2000, and most recently currently with the [[Kansas City Royals]] in 2004 to promote his foundation.
Brooks is also fundraiser for other various charities, including a number of children's charities and [[famine]] relief. He has also donated at least $1 million to [[wildlife]] causes.
== Retirement ==
As his career rose, Garth Brooks seemed frustrated by the conflicts between career and family. He talked of retiring from performing in 1992 [http://www.planetgarth.com/news/article.php?cid=00229] and 1995, but went back out on tour each time instead. In 1999, he talked again of retirement again on [[The Nashville Network]]'s ''[[Crook & Chase]]'' program; this time, falling records sales may have been an additional trigger. [http://www.wholenote.com/default.asp?iTarget=http%3A//www.wholenote.com/news/item.asp%3Fi%3D116]
In 1999, Garth and Sandy Brooks separated [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1717257.stm]; they made public their plans to divorce on [[October 9]], [[2000]] [http://music.yahoo.com/read/news/12054809] which became final in [[2001]].
On [[October 26]], 2000, Brooks officially announced his retirement from recording and performing. [http://music.yahoo.com/read/news/12057103] That same night, Capitol Records saluted his achievement of selling 100 million albums in the US with a lavish party at Nashville's [[Gaylord Entertainment Center]]. [http://music.yahoo.com/read/news/12057079]
[[November 13]], 2001, saw the release of Brooks' last album, ''[[Scarecrow (2001 album)|Scarecrow]]''. Brooks staged a few performances for promotional purposes, but stated that he would be retired from recording and performing at least until his youngest daughter, Allie, turned 18. Although the album did not sell as well as his heyday, it still sold comfortably well, reaching #1 on both the pop and country charts.
Although Brooks' ceased to record new material between 2002 and (most of) 2005, he continued to chart with previously recorded material, including a top 30 placing for "Why Ain't I Running" in [[2003]].
On [[May 25]], [[2005]], Brooks proposed to girlfriend and fellow country music superstar [[Trisha Yearwood]] in front of a packed house in [[Bakersfield, California|Bakersfield]], [[California]]. In December 2005, Patricia Lynn Yearwood and Troyal Garth Brooks drove to [[Claremore, Oklahoma]] and got their [[marriage license]] at the [[Rogers County, Oklahoma|Rogers County]] Courthouse. They wed on [[December 10]], 2005, at their home in Oklahoma. It was Brooks' second marriage and the third for Yearwood. Trisha and Garth are constantly spotted at [[Utica Square]] in Tulsa where they shop and dine. They also live on Garth's plot of land off [[Oklahoma State Highway 20]], just northeast of Tulsa next to Sandy's home.
Later in 2005 there were rumours of a comeback concert in [[Las Vegas]]; however, these proved false and Brooks insisted he was not touring, neither did he have any plans to make any new studio material until 2015. However, there was some good news for his fans in August 2005 when it was announced that Brooks had signed a deal with [[Wal-Mart]], leasing them the rights to his [[back catalog]] following his split with Capitol. Three months later, Brooks and Wal-Mart issued ''[[The Limited Series (2005 box set)|The Limited Series]]'', a six-CD box set containing past material and a ''Lost Sessions'' disc with eleven previously unissued recordings. [http://www.countryweekly.com/stories/scene/63174] This is the first time in histo |
s]
*[http://www.ecanned.com/indsum/level1/IA/index.html Iowa Employment] - State and County Data
*[http://www.omaha-neb.com/iowa.htm Iowa News.] (civil liberties)
*[http://mcc.sws.uiuc.edu/climate_midwest/mwclimate_data_summaries.htm Midwest Regional Climate Center] (climate statistics)
*[http://KarlKing.us Karl King, Iowa's <i>March King</i>]
{{Iowa}}
{{USPoliticalDivisions}}
==Sources==
*[http://www.enchantedlearning.com/usa/states/iowa/ Iowa: Facts, Map and State Symbols - EnchantedLearning.com]
*[http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0801717.html State Symbols]
*The Graduate Center, [[City University of New York|CUNY]]: Research Studies: [http://www.gc.cuny.edu/studies/key_findings.htm American Religious Identification Survey]
[[Category:Iowa|*]]
[[Category:States of the United States]]
[[Category:1846 establishments]]
[[ang:Iowa]]
[[bg:Айова]]
[[ca:Iowa]]
[[cs:Iowa]]
[[da:Iowa]]
[[de:Iowa]]
[[et:Iowa]]
[[es:Iowa]]
[[eo:Iovao]]
[[fa:آیووا]]
[[fr:Iowa]]
[[ga:Iowa]]
[[ko:아이오와 주]]
[[id:Iowa]]
[[is:Iowa]]
[[it:Iowa]]
[[he:איווה]]
[[ka:აიოვა]]
[[lv:Aiova]]
[[lt:Ajova]]
[[hu:Iowa]]
[[mk:Ајова]]
[[nl:Iowa]]
[[ja:アイオワ州]]
[[no:Iowa]]
[[nn:Iowa]]
[[os:Айовæ]]
[[pl:Iowa]]
[[pt:Iowa]]
[[ro:Iowa]]
[[ru:Айова]]
[[sa:आयोवा]]
[[sq:Iowa]]
[[sk:Iowa]]
[[sl:Iowa]]
[[sr:Ајова]]
[[fi:Iowa]]
[[sv:Iowa]]
[[th:มลรัฐไอโอวา]]
[[uk:Айова]]
[[zh:爱荷华州]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>INRI</title>
<id>14590</id>
<revision>
<id>41931049</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T18:29:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Montrealais</username>
<id>3378</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Krucifix2.JPG|thumb|right|A Crucifix with the INRI plaque attached, the [[Holy Spirit Church]] in [[Košice]], [[Slovakia]]]]
[[Image:Crucifix.JPG|thumb|right|A Crucifix with the stylized INRI plaque attached, the cornfields near [[Mureck]] in rural [[Styria (state)|Styria]], [[Austria]]]]
'''INRI''' is an abbreviation of the [[Latin language|Latin]] phrase '''''IESVS NAZARENVS REX IVDAEORVM''''' ('''''Iesus Nazarenus Rex Iudaeorum'''''), which translates to [[English language|English]] as: "[[Jesus]] the [[Nazarene]], the King of the Jews" (or, in more natural English, "Jesus of [[Nazareth]], the King of the Jews").
Many [[crucifix]]es and other depictions of the [[crucifixion]] include a stylized plaque or parchment, called a titulus or title, bearing the letters INRI, occasionally carved directly into the cross, and usually just above the figure of Jesus.
In the [[Gospel of John]] (19:19&ndash;20) the inscription is explained:
:[[Pontius Pilate|Pilate]] also had an [[inscription]] written and put on the cross. It read, "Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews". Many of the Jews read this inscription, because the place where Jesus was crucified was near the city; and it was written in Hebrew, in Latin, and in Greek.
Some [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox Churches]] use the [[Greek language|Greek]] letters INBI based on the Greek text of the inscription on the cross, ''{{Polytonic|Ἰησοῦς ὁ Ναζωραῖος ὁ Bασιλεὺς τῶν Ἰουδαίων}}''. Many Orthodox depictions, however, change the title to ''{{Polytonic|ὁ Bασιλεὺς τοῦ κόσμου}}'' (the King of the World), not implying that this was really what was written, but that it is what should have been written.
As Pilate was loath to crucify Jesus without justification, he used the standing Roman treaty with the Jews which allowed them limited self-government. When the Jewish priests complained that Jesus was interfering with that self-rule by holding himself to possess authority that he lacked, Pilate challenged him to deny that he was the "King of the Jews". Jesus did not deny the accusation.
Some believe that the justification for his crucifixion was his claim to an illegitimate title. However, John 19:21&ndash;22 KJV, alludes that Pilate rejected the charge that Jesus was crucified because he falsely claimed to be king and instead stated that Jesus was crucified because he ''was'' the King of the Jews. Thus, some Christians claim that Pilate was personally convinced that Jesus was the [[Jewish Messiah]]. The consequence of this is taken to the logical extreme by the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]], which regards Pilate as a [[saint]] (commemorated on [[June 25]]) based on a tradition of his conversion to Christianity and [[martyr]]dom by crucifixion. Most historians outside the Ethiopian church have rejected this tradition as spurious.
Conspiracy theories regarding the Society of Jesus — the [[Jesuits]] — accused them of harboring the secret meaning of ''Iustum Necare Reges Impios'', interpreted to mean sanctioning the murder of impious kings or tyrants who opposed the [[Roman Catholic Church]].
See [[Jewish Messiah]] and [[Jewish eschatology]] for related concepts in [[Judaism]].
[[Category:Jesus]]
[[Category:Christian symbols]]
[[cs:INRI]]
[[de:INRI]]
[[es:Inri]]
[[fr:INRI]]
[[id:INRI]]
[[it:INRI]]
[[la:INRI]]
[[nl:INRI]]
[[pt:INRI]]
[[sv:INRI]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Iao Valley</title>
<id>14591</id>
<revision>
<id>28532123</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-16T20:52:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Peter Delmonte</username>
<id>322475</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:iaovalley_sm.jpg|thumb|250px|Right|''&#298;'ao Valley'']]
The '''&#298;&lsquo;ao Valley''' is a lush, stream cut valley in West [[Maui]], [[Hawaiian Islands]] located 5 km (3 mi) west of [[Wailuku, Hawaii|Wailuku]], at {{coor dms|20|52|51|N|156|32|42|W|}}. ''&#298;&lsquo;ao'' means "cloud supreme". Because of its natural beauty it has become one of [[Hawaii]]'s most popular locations to visit on Maui.
== &#298;&lsquo;ao Valley State Monument ==
[[Image:Iao_Needle.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The &#298;&lsquo;ao Needle]]
The state park is located on 6.2 acres (2.5 hectares) at the end of Iao Valley Road (Highway 32). The '''&#298;&lsquo;ao Needle''' is a famous landmark in the state park. It is a lava remnant rising 1200 feet (365 m) into the air 2250 ft (685 m) measured from sea level), covered with vegetation. The needle is surrounded by the cliffs of the dormant volcano, [[Puu Kukui|Pu&lsquo;u Kukui]]. One can take a short trail to a windy overlook for some good views. Park hours are from 7 am to 7 pm.
<br clear=all>
== Rainforest ==
&#298;&lsquo;ao Valley is considered to be the second wettest spot in the state, after [[Mount Waialeale|Mount Wai&lsquo;ale&lsquo;ale]] on [[Kauai|Kaua&lsquo;i]]. The valley and the surrounding [[West Maui Mountains]] can receive more than 400 inches (more than 10,000 mm) per year which ends up flowing into the &#298;'ao Stream. Trails in the State Park run alongside &#298;'ao Stream and through the forest, making it a nice place for a short hike, if you don't mind the chance of getting wet.
== History ==
The Hawaiian god [[Kane Milohai|Kane]] is considered to be the procreator and the provider of life. He is associated with [[wai (water)|wai]] (fresh water) as well as clouds, rain, streams and springs. [[Tangaroa|Kanaloa]], the Hawaiian god of the ocean, is represented by the phallic stone of the &#298;'ao Needle.
During the late 15th century, &#298;&lsquo;ao Valley was designated as an [[Alii|Ali&lsquo;i]] burial area by [[Kakae|Kaka&lsquo;e]], the ruler of Maui and O&lsquo;ahu. The remains of the chiefs were buried in secret hiding places in the valley. In [[1790]] the valley was the site of the '''Battle of Kepaniwai'''. It was the battle in which [[Kamehameha I of Hawaii|Kamehameha the Great]] defeated [[King Kalanikupule]] and conquered the Maui army in order to unify the islands. The battle was said to be so bloody that dead bodies blocked the Iao Stream, and in turn, the battle site was named ''Kepaniwai'' ("damming of the waters").
== Kepaniwai Park's Heritage Gardens ==
Since 1952, Kepaniwai Park's Heritage Gardens have memorialized the multicultural history of Maui. Scale models of ethnic buildings and gardens representing the immigration of Caucasians, Filipinos, Hawaiians, Japanese, and Portuguese cultures are the highlight of the park. The gardens were restored in 1994.
[[Category:Valleys]]
[[Category:Hawaii state parks]]
[[de:Iao Valley]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International trade/Risks</title>
<id>14592</id>
<revision>
<id>15912134</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-30T06:23:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>WojPob</username>
<id>34</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International trade]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Individual</title>
<id>14593</id>
<revision>
<id>40157501</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T16:22:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>86.133.223.154</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Tidy up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[vernacular|common speech]], the word '''individual''' most often refers to a [[person]], or, by analogy, to any specific object in a group of things. For example, you the reader are an individual person, and a lawn is made of individual blades of grass. Originally, in the 15th century or earlier, the term meant "[[indivisible]]" as still used in statistics (see below), but from the seventeenth century on the term indicated separateness, as in [[individualism]]. (Abbs 1986, cited in Klein 2005, p.26-27)
In [[metaphysics]] and [[statistics]], the word '''individual''', while sometimes meaning "a person", more typically describes any numerically singular thing. |
o prove, his name did in fact appear on the list of the dead and missing.
The number of references to Corbett pulling a gun on his friends, or waving a gun before a crowd, suggests that Corbett became something of a legend, casting some doubt on the veracity of such stories.
There is a Boston Corbett roadside monument just outside of Concordia, Kansas.
== External links ==
*[http://members.aol.com/RVSNorton/Lincoln32.html Boston Corbett: The Man Who Killed John Wilkes Booth]
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=5836144 Find-A-Grave profile for Boston Corbett]
[[Category:1832 births|Corbett, Boston]]
[[Category:American Civil War people|Corbett, Boston]]
[[Category:Year of death missing|Corbett, Boston]]
[[pl:Boston Corbett]]
[[sv:Boston Corbett]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Berber languages</title>
<id>4693</id>
<revision>
<id>42138375</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:55:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>El C</username>
<id>92203</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/130.184.81.27|130.184.81.27]] ([[User talk:130.184.81.27|talk]]) to last version by KnightRider</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Berber languages''' (or ''Tamazight'') are a group of closely related [[language]]s mainly spoken in [[Morocco]] and [[Algeria]]. A very sparse population extends into the whole [[Sahara]] and the northern part of the [[Sahel]]. They belong to the [[Afro-Asiatic_languages | Afro-Asiatic languages phylum]]. There is a strong movement among [[Berber]]s to unify the closely related northern Berber languages into a single standard, Tamazight.
Among the Berber languages are [[Tarifit]] or ''Riffi'' (northern Morocco), [[Kabyle]] (Algeria) and [[Tashelhiyt language|Tashelhiyt]] (central Morocco). Tamazight has been a written language, on and off, for almost 3000 years; however, this tradition has been frequently disrupted by various invasions. It was first written in the [[Tifinagh]] alphabet, still used by the [[Tuareg]]; the oldest dated inscription is from about [[200 BC]]. Later between about [[1000]] AD and [[1500]] AD, it was written in the [[Arabic alphabet]] (particularly by the [[Tachelhit language|Shilha]] of [[Morocco]]); in this century, it is often written in the [[Latin alphabet]], especially among the [[Kabyle]]. A variant of the [[Tifinagh]] alphabet was recently made official in [[Morocco]], while the [[Latin alphabet]] is official in [[Algeria]], [[Mali]], and [[Niger]]; however, both Tifinagh and Arabic are still widely used in Mali and Niger, while Latin and Arabic are still widely used in Morocco.
After independence, all the [[Maghreb]] countries to varying degrees pursued a policy of "Arabization", aimed primarily at displacing [[French language|French]] from its colonial position as the dominant language of education and literacy, but under which teaching, and use in certain highly public spheres, of both Berber languages and [[Maghrebi Arabic]] dialect have been suppressed as well. This state of affairs was protested by Berbers in [[Morocco]] and [[Algeria]] - especially [[Kabylie]] - and is now being addressed in both countries by introducing Berber language education and by recognizing Berber as a "national language", though not necessarily an official one. No such measures have been taken in the other Maghreb countries, whose Berber populations are much smaller. In [[Mali]] and [[Niger]], there are a few schools that teach partially in [[Tamasheq languages|Tamasheq]].
==Nomenclature==
The term "Berber" is disliked by many modern Berbers, because it comes from the [[ancient Greek]] ''barbaros'', "[[barbarian]]". Nonetheless, it is used in Western languages by many Berber writers, such as the [[Kabyle]] Professor [[Salem Chaker]] of [[INALCO]] in [[Paris]], [[Werner Vycichl]], and Maarten Kossmann and Harry Stroomer of [[Leiden University]].
The term '''Tamazight''' is often substituted, particularly to refer to [[Northern Berber languages]]; in Western languages, this term can also (somewhat misleadingly) be used specifically to refer to the language of the Middle [[Atlas mountains]] in [[Morocco]], closely related to [[Tashelhiyt language|Tashelhiyt]]. Etymologically, it means "language of the free" or "of the noblemen." Traditionally, the term "tamazight" (in various forms: "thamazighth", "tamasheq", "tamajeq", "tamahaq") was used by many Berber groups to refer to the language they spoke, including the Middle Atlas, the [[Rif]], [[Sened]] in [[Tunisia]], and the [[Tuareg]]. However, other terms were used by other groups; for instance, many parts of western Algeria called their language "taznatit" or [[Zenata|Zenati]], while the [[Kabyle]]s called theirs "thaqvaylith", the inhabitants of [[Siwa]] "tasiwit", and the [[Zenaga]] "Tuddhungiya"[http://www.rosettaproject.org/live/search/showpages?ethnocode=ZEN&doctype=detail&version=0&scale=six]. Around the turn of the century, it was reported that the Zenata of the Rif called their language "Zenatia" specifically to distinguish it from the "Tamazight" spoken by the rest of the Rif.
One group, the [[Linguasphere Observatory]], has attempted to introduce the [[neologism]] "Tamazic languages" to refer to the Berber languages.
==Origin==
Tamazight is a member of the [[Afro-Asiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic language family]] (formerly called Hamito-Semitic). Traditional genealogists often considered the Berbers as [[Arab]]s that immigrated from [[Yemen]]; for this reason, some considered Tamazight to derive from [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. For political reasons, the converse view has occasionally been suggested: Dr [[M. A'ashi]], for instance, wrote "Tamazight is older than the Semitic languages. It is possible that the Semitic languages are even branches of Tamazight". However, both views are rejected by most linguists, who regard Semitic and Berber as two separate branches of Afro-Asiatic; Prof. [[Karl Prasse]], for instance, regards it as "a sister language of Semitic in general".
==Population==
<!-- NOTE: this section is intended only for estimates backed up by a referenced academic or academic organization. Many sites (eg [http://www.libyamazigh.org/] for Libya) make claims about population backed up neither by data nor by academic reputation.-->
The exact population of Berber speakers is hard to ascertain, since most [[Maghreb]] countries do not record language data in their censuses. The [[Ethnologue]] provides a useful academic starting point; however, its bibliographic references are inadequate, and it rates its own accuracy at only B-C for the area. Early colonial censuses may provide better documented figures for some countries; however, these are also very much out of date.
:"Few census figures are available; all countries (Algeria and Morocco included) do not count Berber languages. The 1972 Niger census reported Tuareg, with other languages, at 127,000 speakers. Population shifts in location and number, effects of urbanization and education in other languages, etc., make estimates difficult. In 1952 A. Basset (LLB.4) estimated the number of Berberophones at 5,500,000. Between 1968 and 1978 estimates ranged from eight to thirteen million (as reported by Galand, LELB 56, pp. 107, 123-25); Voegelin and Voegelin (1977, p. 297) call eight million a conservative estimate. In 1980, S. Chaker estimated that the Berberophone populations of Kabylie and the three Moroccan groups numbered more than one million each; and that in Algeria, 3,650,000, or one out of five Algerians, speak a Berber language (Chaker 1984, pp. 8-9)."[http://www.isp.msu.edu/AfrLang/Berber-root.html]
*'''[[Morocco]]''': In 1952, André Basset ("La langue berbère", ''Handbook of African Languages'', Part I, Oxford) estimated that a "small majority" of Morocco's population spoke Berber. The 1960 census estimated that 34% of Moroccans spoke Berber, including bi-, tri-, and quadrilinguals. In [[2000]], [[Karl Prasse]] cited "more than half" in an interview conducted by Brahim Karada at Tawalt.com. According to the Ethnologue (by deduction from its Moroccan Arabic figures), the Berber-speaking population is estimated at 35% (1991 and 1995). However, the figures it gives for individual languages only add up to 7.5 million, or about 28%. Most of these are accounted for by three dialects:
**[[Tarifit]]: 1.5 million (1991)
**[[Tachelhit]]: 3 million (1998)
**[[Middle Atlas Tamazight]]: 3 million (1998)
:This nomenclature is common in linguistic publications, but is significantly complicated by local usage: thus Tachelhit is sub-divided into Tasusit(the language of the Souss) and several mountain dialects. Moreover, linguistic boundaries are blurred, such that certain dialects can accurately be described as either Tamazight or Tachelhit.
:[[Mohammad Chafik]] claims 80% of Moroccans are Berbers.[http://www.syphax.nl/dossiers/trouw.html] It is not clear, however, whether he means "speakers of Berber languages" or "people of Berber descent".
*'''[[Algeria]]''': In [[1906]], the total population speaking Berber languages in Algeria (excluding the thinly populated Sahara) was estimated at 1,305,730 out of 4,447,149, ie 29%. (Doutté & Gautier, ''Enquête sur la dispersion de la langue berbère en Algérie, faite par l'ordre de M. le Gouverneur Général'', Alger 1913.) The [[1911]] census, however, found 1,084,702 speakers out of 4,740,526, ie 23%; Doutté & Gautier suggest that this was the result of a serious undercounting of [[Chaouia]] in areas of widespread [[bilingualism]]. A trend was noted for Berber groups su |
le urging the utmost fidelity to Yahweh.
==Context==
Hosea prophesied in a difficult period of [[kingdom of Israel|Israel]]'s history, the period of the Northern Kingdom's decline and fall in the [[8th century BC]]. Hosea was himself a native of the Northern Kingdom, and wrote in a distinctive northern dialect.
During Hosea's lifetime, the kings of the Northern Kingdom, their aristocratic supporters, and the priests had led the people in falling away from the Law of God, as given in the [[Pentateuch]]. Forsaking the worship of Yahweh, they worshipped other gods, especially Baal, the Canaanite fertility god. Other sins followed, including homicide, perjury, theft, and sexual sin. Hosea, like other 8th century prophets, declares that, unless they repent of these sins, Yahweh will allow their nation to be destroyed, and the people will be taken into captivity by Assyria, the greatest nation of the time.
In fact, Assyria did capture Samaria, the capital of the Northern Kingdom, in 722 BC. All the members of the upper classes and many of the ordinary people were taken captive and carried off to live as prisoners of war.
==Themes==
The primary theme of the Book of Hosea is that God loves Israel, just as a man loves his wife. This is shown by the extended metaphor of Hosea's own marriage.
In conjunction with that theme, however, are the twin themes of Israel's sin and the coming retribution. Although Yahweh loves Israel, Israel has not returned His love. This has been shown by the continued idolatry and acts of violence, oppression, and sexual sin among the people. Because Israel has not returned God's love, He will put them away from Him, just as Hosea did his wife, and send them into exile.
This introduces the fourth theme, which is the restoration of Israel from exile. The country will be conquered; the people will be sent into exile; but some will return and build the land up once more. God will embrace them as His people, and they will be loyal to Him as their God.
[[de:Prophet Hosea]]
[[fr:Osée (prophète)]]
[[he:הושע הנביא]]
[[jv:Hosea]]
[[fi:Hoosea]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Habakkuk</title>
<id>13967</id>
<revision>
<id>38447581</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T10:40:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.70.95.203</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Redirect|Habbakuk}}
'''Habakkuk''' or '''Havakuk''' ('''&#1495;&#1458;&#1489;&#1463;&#1511;&#1468;&#1493;&#1468;&#1511;''', [[Standard Hebrew]] '''&#7716;avaqq&#363;q''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&#7716;&#259;&#7687;aqqûq''') was a prophet in the [[Bible]] [[Old Testament]] and [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[Tanakh]]. The name is possibly related to an [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] word for a plant or the Hebrew word meaning "embrace." He was the eighth of the twelve [[minor prophets]], and likely the author of the [[Book of Habakkuk]], which bears his name.
Practically nothing is known about Habakkuk's personal history, and all that we surmise is inferred from the text of his book, which consists of five oracles about the [[Chaldean]]s ([[Assyria]]ns) and a song of praise to [[God]]. Since the Chaldean rise to power is dated c. 612 B.C., we can assume that he was active about that time, making him an early contemporary of [[Jeremiah (prophet)|Jeremiah]] and [[Zephaniah]]. Jewish sources, however, do not group him with those two prophets, who are often placed together, so it is possible that he was slightly earlier than them.
Habakkuk is unique among the prophets in that he openly questions the wisdom of God. In the first part of the first chapter, the Prophet sees the injustice among his people and asks why God does not take action. ''"1:2 Yahweh, how long will I cry, and you will not hear? I cry out to you “Violence!” and will you not save?" - World English Bible.''
In the middle part of Chapter 1, God explains that he will send the Chaldeans to punish his people. ''1:5 “Look among the nations, watch, and wonder marvelously; for I am working a work in your days, which you will not believe though it is told you. 1:6 For, behold, I raise up the Chaldeans, that bitter and hasty nation, that march through the breadth of the earth, to possess dwelling places that are not theirs. (World English Bible)''
In the final part of the first chapter, the prophet expresses shock at God's choice of instrument for judgement. ''1:13 You who have purer eyes than to see evil, and who cannot look on perversity, why do you tolerate those who deal treacherously, and keep silent when the wicked swallows up the man who is more righteous than he, (World English Bible[http://www.ebible.org/web/Habakkuk.htm])''
In Chapter 2, he awaits God's response to his challenge. God explains that He will also judge the Chaldeans, and much more harshly. ''2:8 Because you have plundered many nations, all the remnant of the peoples will plunder you, because of men’s blood, and for the violence done to the land, to the city and to all who dwell in it. 2:9 Woe to him who gets an evil gain for his house, (World English Bible[http://www.ebible.org/web/Habakkuk.htm])''
Finally, in Chapter 3, Habakkuk expresses his ultimate faith in God, even if he doesn't fully understand.
''3:17 For though the fig tree doesn’t flourish, nor fruit be in the vines; the labor of the olive fails, the fields yield no food; the flocks are cut off from the fold, and there is no herd in the stalls: 3:18 yet I will rejoice in Yahweh. I will be joyful in the God of my salvation! (World English Bible[http://www.ebible.org/web/Habakkuk.htm])''
Because of the final chapter of his book, which is a poetic praise of God, it has been assumed that Habakkuk was likely a member of the Levitical choir in the Temple. Contemporary scholars point out, however, that this chapter is missing from the [[Dead_sea_scrolls|Dead Sea Scrolls]] and has some similarities with texts found in the [[Book of Daniel]]. They therefore suggest that it is a later interpolation which influenced the authors of Daniel, and that it is impossible to make the assumption of Habakkuk's background based on it.
There is a mausoleum in the city of [[Tuyserkan]] in west of [[Iran]] which is believed to be the mausoleum of Habakkuk the Prophet.[http://ofoq.com/gallery/details.php?image_id=623&sessionid=aadd312deb714858d2dd7c2e6c1e80d8]
{{HeBible-stub}}
[[Category:Christian prophets]]
[[Category:Tanakh prophets]]
[[es:Habacuc]]
[[fa:حبقوق]]
[[id:Habakuk]]
[[it:Abacuc]]
[[he:חבקוק]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Haggai</title>
<id>13968</id>
<revision>
<id>36281441</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-22T23:40:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BL Lacertae</username>
<id>341494</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>stubsort</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Haggai''' ('''&#1495;&#1463;&#1490;&#1468;&#1463;&#1497;''', [[Standard Hebrew]] and [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&#7716;aggay''') was one of the twelve [[Minor prophets|minor prophets]] and the author of the [[Book of Haggai]]. He was the first of three prophets (with [[Zechariah]], his contemporary, and [[Malachi]], who lived about one hundred years later), whose ministry belonged to the period of [[History of ancient Israel and Judah|Jewish history]] which began after the return from captivity in [[Babylon]].
Scarcely anything is known of his personal history. He may have been one of the captives taken to Babylon by [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar]]. He began his ministry about sixteen years after the return of the Jews to [[Palestine]]. The work of rebuilding the temple had been put a stop to through the intrigues of the [[Samaritan]]s. After having been suspended for fifteen years, the work was resumed through the efforts of Haggai and Zechariah ([[Ezra]] 6:14). They exhorted the people, which roused them from their lethargy, and induced them to take advantage of a change in the policy of the Persian government under [[Darius the Great]].
-----
{{eastons}}
==See also==
* [[Book_of_Haggai]]
{{HeBible-stub}}
[[Category:Hebrew Bible/Tanakh prophets]]
[[Category:Christian prophets]]
[[ca:Ageu]]
[[de:Prophet Haggai]]
[[he:חגי]]
[[ro:Ageu]]
[[zh:哈該]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Herman Hollerith</title>
<id>13969</id>
<revision>
<id>41615087</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T15:05:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.130.190.191</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hollerith.jpg|thumb|Herman Hollerith (1860-1929)]]
'''Herman Hollerith''' ([[February 29]], [[1860]] &ndash; [[November 17]], [[1929]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[statistics|statistician]] who developed a mechanical [[tabulator]] based on [[punched card]]s to rapidly tabulate statistics from thousands and millions of data.
==Personal Life==
He was born on February 29, 1860 in [[Buffalo, New York]] to Johann Georg Hollerith (1808–1869); and Franciska Brunn, both of [[Rheinpfalz]], [[Germany]]. He entered the [[City College of New York]] in 1875 and graduated from [[Columbia University School of Mines]] with an "Engineer of Mines" degree in 1879. In 1880 he listed himself as a mining engineer while living in Manhattan, and he completed his Ph.D. in 1890 at [[Columbia University]]. In 1890 he married Lucia Beverley Talcott (1865–?) of Vera Cruz, Mexico and they had six children. He died in 1929 of a heart attack and was buried in the [[Oak Hill Cemetery]] in [[Georgetown, Washington, D.C.]].
==Electronic tabulation of statistical data==
Hollerith spent 1882 on the staff of the [[Mechanical Engineering]] faculty at [[MIT]]. During that year he developed a prototype of a system for storing data on punched cards. This was partly inspired by the system used b |
ding social, political and [[Anthropology|anthropological]] insights into the areas he visited.
On the voyage, Darwin read [[Charles Lyell]]'s ''Principles of Geology'', which explained geological features as the outcome of gradual processes over huge periods of time, and wrote home that he was seeing landforms "as though he had the eyes of Lyell": he saw stepped plains of shingle and seashells in [[Patagonia]] as raised beaches; in [[Chile]], he experienced an earthquake and noted [[mussel]]-beds stranded above high tide showing that the land had been raised; and even high in the [[Andes]], he was able to collect seashells. He theorised that [[coral]] [[atoll]]s form on sinking volcanic mountains, an idea he confirmed when the ''Beagle'' surveyed the [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]].
In South America he discovered fossils of gigantic extinct mammals including [[megatherium|megatheria]] and [[glyptodon]]s in strata which showed no signs of catastrophe or change in climate. At the time, he thought them similar to African species, but after the voyage [[Richard Owen]] showed that the remains were of animals related to living creatures in the same area. In [[Argentina]] two species of [[Rhea (bird)|rhea]] had separate but overlapping territories. On the [[Galápagos Islands]] Darwin found that [[mockingbird]]s differed from one island to another, and on returning to Britain he was shown that Galápagos [[tortoise]]s and [[finch]]es were also in distinct species based on the individual islands they inhabited. The Australian [[marsupial]] [[Potoridae|rat-kangaroo]] and [[platypus]] were such strikingly unusual animals that he thought "An unbeliever... might exclaim 'Surely two distinct Creators must have been [at] work'." He puzzled over all he saw, and, in the first edition of ''[[The Voyage of the Beagle]]'', he explained species distribution in light of [[Charles Lyell]]'s ideas of "centres of creation". In later editions of this ''Journal'' he foreshadowed his use of Galápagos Islands fauna as evidence for evolution: "one might really fancy that from an original paucity of birds in this archipelago, one species had been taken and modified for different ends."
Three native missionaries were returned by the ''Beagle'' to [[Tierra del Fuego]]. They had become "civilised" in England over the previous two years, yet their relatives appeared to Darwin "savages" little above animals. Within a year, the missionaries had reverted to their harsh previous way of life, yet they preferred this and did not want to return to England. This experience and his detestation of the [[slavery]] and other abuse he saw elsewhere such as ill treatment of natives by English settlers in [[Tasmania]] persuaded him that there was no moral justification for the mistreating of others based on the concept of race. <!--Please substantiate the following, and add it to [[the Voyage of the Beagle]]: In [[Tasmania]] Darwin learnt that English settlers belonging to the [[Church of England]] hunted natives for fun and let dogs eat the corpses. [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/john_murphy/charlesdarwin.html]--> He now thought that humanity was not as far removed from animals as his clerical friends believed.
While on board the ship, Darwin suffered from seasickness. In October 1833 he caught a fever in Argentina, and in July 1834, while returning from the Andes down to [[Valparaíso]], he fell ill and spent a month in bed. From 1837 onwards Darwin was repeatedly incapacitated with episodes of stomach pains, vomiting, severe boils, palpitations, trembling and other symptoms. These symptoms particularly affected him at times of stress, such as when attending meetings or dealing with controversy over his theory. The cause of [[Charles Darwin's illness|Darwin's illness]] was unknown during his lifetime, and attempts at treatment had little success. Recent speculation has suggested he caught [[Chagas disease]] from insect bites in South America, leading to the later problems. Other possible causes include psychobiological problems and [[Ménière's disease]].
== Career in science, inception of theory ==
{{main|Inception of Darwin's theory}}
[[Image:Charles_Darwin_by_G._Richmond.jpg|thumb|left|While still a young man, Charles Darwin joined the scientific élite.]]
While Darwin was still on the voyage, [[John Stevens Henslow|Henslow]] carefully fostered his former pupil's reputation by giving selected naturalists access to the fossil specimens and printed copies of Darwin's geological writings. When the ''Beagle'' returned on [[2 October]] [[1836]], Darwin was a celebrity in scientific circles. He visited his home in Shrewsbury and his father organised investments so that Darwin could become a self-funded gentleman scientist. Darwin then went to [[Cambridge]] and persuaded Henslow to work on botanical descriptions of modern plants he had collected. Afterwards Darwin went round the [[London]] institutions to find the best naturalists available to describe his other collections for timely publication. An eager [[Charles Lyell]] met Darwin on [[29 October]] and introduced him to the up-and-coming anatomist [[Richard Owen]]. After working on Darwin's collection of fossil bones at his [[Royal College of Surgeons]], Owen caused great surprise by revealing that some were from gigantic extinct [[rodent]]s and [[sloth]]s. This enhanced Darwin's reputation. With Lyell's enthusiastic backing Darwin read his first paper to the [[Geological Society of London]] on [[4 January]] [[1837]], arguing that the South American landmass was slowly rising. On the same day Darwin presented his mammal and bird specimens to the [[Zoological Society of London|Zoological Society]]. The Mammalia were taken on by [[George Robert Waterhouse|George R. Waterhouse]]. Though the birds seemed almost an afterthought, the ornithologist [[John Gould]] revealed that what Darwin had taken to be wrens, blackbirds and slightly differing finches from the Galápagos were all finches, but each was a separate species. Others on the ''Beagle'' including FitzRoy had also collected these birds and had been more careful with their notes, enabling Darwin to find which island each species had come from.
In London Darwin stayed with his [[freethought|freethinking]] brother [[Erasmus Alvey Darwin|Erasmus]] and at dinner parties met inspiring [[savant]]s who thought that God preordained life by natural laws rather than ad hoc miraculous creations. His brother's lady friend Miss [[Harriet Martineau]] was a writer whose stories promoted [[Thomas Malthus|Malthusian]] [[Whig]] [[Poor Law]] reforms. Scientific circles were buzzing with ideas of [[transmutation of species]] controversially associated with [[Radicalism (historical)|''Radical'' unrest]]. Darwin preferred the respectability of his friends the Cambridge Dons, even though his ideas were pushing beyond their belief that [[natural history]] must justify religion and social order.
On [[17 February]] [[1837]], Lyell used his presidential address at the Geographical Society to present Owen's findings to date on Darwin's fossils, noting particularly the unexpected implication that extinct species were related to current species in the same locality. At the same meeting Darwin was elected to the Council of the Society. He had already been invited by FitzRoy to contribute a ''Journal'' based on his field notes as the natural history section of the captain's account of the ''Beagle'''s voyage. He now plunged into writing a book on South American Geology. At the same time he speculated on transmutation in his ''Red Notebook'' which he had begun on the ''Beagle''. Another project he started was getting the expert reports on his collection published as a multivolume ''Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle'', and Henslow used his contacts to arrange a Treasury grant of £1,000 to sponsor this. Darwin finished writing his ''Journal'' around [[20 June]] when King [[William IV of the United Kingdom|William IV]] died and the [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Victorian]] era began. In mid-July he began his secret ''"B" notebook'' on transmutation, and developed the [[hypothesis]] that where every island in the Galápagos Archipelago had its own kind of [[tortoise]], these had originated from a single tortoise species and had adapted to life on the different islands in different ways.
Under pressure with organising ''Zoology'' and correcting proofs of his ''Journal'', Darwin's health suffered. On [[20 September]] [[1837]] he suffered "palpitations of the heart" and left for a month of recuperation in the country. He visited [[Maer Hall]] where his invalid aunt was being cared for by her spinster daughter [[Emma Darwin|Emma Wedgwood]], and entertained his relatives with tales of his travels. His uncle [[Josiah Wedgwood II|Jos]] pointed out an area of ground where cinders had disappeared under [[loam]] and suggested that this might have been the work of earthworms. This led Darwin to the idea for a talk which he gave to the Geological Society on [[1 November]], on the unusually mundane subject of worm casts. He had avoided taking on official posts which would have taken up valuable time, but by March [[William Whewell]] had recruited him as Secretary of the Geological Society. Illness prompted Darwin to take a break from the pressure of work and he went "geologising" in Scotland. In glorious weather he visited [[Glen Roy]] to see the phenomenon known as "roads" which he (incorrectly) identified as raised beaches.
[[Image:Emma Darwin.jpg|thumb|left|Charles chose to marry his cousin, [[Emma Darwin|Emma Wedgwood]].]]
Fully recuperated, he returned home to Shrewsbury. Scientifically pondering his career and prospects he drew up a list with columns headed ''"Marry"'' and ''"Not Marry"''. Entries in the pro-marriage column included "constant companio |
ando]], is a [[superhero]] who wears a futuristic armor of unknown origin. His name forms the words CapCom when the first three letters of each word are combined. He originally appeared in the early Capcom [[Famicom]]/NES game ''[[Section Z]]'' (the arcade version of ''Section Z'' has similar [[gameplay]], but it is not clear that the hero is the same person) and in the manuals of Capcom's early NES games to thank players for purchasing them. He later appeared as the title character in an arcade game bearing his name, as well as in ''[[Marvel vs. Capcom series|Marvel vs. Capcom]]'' and its [[sequel]], in which he is often considered to be an excessively powerful character. In ''Marvel vs. Capcom'', he still serves as a mascot, regularly shouting "Capcom!" during fights and relaying Capcom-themed messages after winning. He displays the ability to quickly change from regular clothing, including a cowboy hat, into his armor, suggesting a [[secret identity]]. [[Mega Man (character)|Mega Man]] has superseded Captain Commando as Capcom's official mascot, primarily because of the immense popularity of the ''[[Mega Man]]'' series. Captain Commando's storyline is not connected to that of ''[[Commando (game)|Commando]]'' and ''[[Bionic Commando]]'', despite the similar name.
==Subsidiaries and related corporations==
'''Capcom U.S.A., Inc.''' was established in [[California]] as the official North American subsidiary of Capcom in [[August]] [[1985]].
'''Capcom Entertainment, Inc.'''
'''Capcom Studio 8, Inc.''' was established as the [[R&D]] division of Capcom USA, Inc. in [[June]] [[1995]].
'''Capcom Asia Co., Ltd.''' was established in [[Hong Kong]] as the official Asian subsidiary of Capcom in [[July]] [[1993]].
'''KOKO Capcom Asia Co., Ltd.''' the official South Korean subsidiary of Capcom in [[July]] [[2001]].
'''Capcom Eurosoft Ltd.''' was established in [[United Kingdom]] as the official European subsidiary of Capcom in [[July]] [[1998]].
'''Suleputer''' was established to market and distribute games and related merchandising ([[books]], [[music]], [[anime]], etc.) in [[Asia]]. Their current name is a conjunction of Cap'''sule''' Com'''puter'''.
'''Captron Co., Ltd.''' manages the rent, lease and operation of real estate properties.
'''[[Flagship (company)|Flagship Co., Ltd.]]''' is the development studio that made ''[[Onimusha]]'' and the ''[[The Legend of Zelda series|Zelda]]'' games on the [[Game Boy Color]] and [[Game Boy Advance]], most recently releasing ''[[The Legend of Zelda: The Minish Cap]]''.
'''Capcom Charbo Co., Ltd.''' manages the rental, maintenance and lease of electronic game machines.
'''CE Europe Ltd.''' was established in [[London]] in [[November 2002]].
'''CEG Interactive Entertainment GmbH''' was established in [[Germany]] in [[February 2003]].
'''[[Nude Maker]] Co., Ltd.''' is the development studio that made Clock Tower 1, 2 and the Steel Batalion games on the PlayStation and Xbox..
'''[[Clover Studio]] Co., Ltd.''' is a development studio based in [[Osaka]]. It was founded in [[July 2004]] and has been responsible for the ''Viewtiful Joe'' series.
==Movies and Television==
Capcom's games and characters therein have been featured in a number of television cartoons and theatrical movies. Some of which include:
* One-time company mascot, '''Mega Man''', played a supporting role in a Nintendo inspired TV-show [[Captain N: The Game Master]] and has later been featured in two separate TV-cartoons. ''Mega Man'' produced by Ruby-Spears and an anime-series ''[[Mega Man: NT Warrior]]''. He also starred in three OVAs originally released in Japan in 1993, released later on DVD in North America.
* '''Street Fighter 2''' has also been a popular source films and cartoons. A flopped [[Street Fighter (film)|live action adaption]] was released in 1994. Shortly afterwards a more popular anime adaptation was released as well as an american cartoon-series based on the movie.
* The fighting-game '''Dark Stalkers''' was made into two animated adaptations in Japan and US.
* So far the most successful series (of [[Resident Evil (film)|films]]) has been based on Capcom's popular survivor horror series '''[[Resident Evil]]'''. Though the first received a cold reception in theatres, its VHS and DVD sales motivated Paul Anderson to make a sequel which was also a financial success. Two more sequels are due to be released; the plot of the third will lead to the fourth which is planned to be the last one.
==See also==
*'''[[List of Capcom games]]'''
*[[List of Japanese companies]]
*[[Survival horror game]]
*[[Capcom Production Studio]] (Contains links to studios 1-8, no 7)
==References==
* "[http://www.capcom.co.jp/ir/english/company/adress.html CAPCOM: Corporate Profile: Capcom Group]." December 27, 2004. Accessed on June 20, 2005.
* "[http://www.capcom.co.jp/ir/english/company/history.html CAPCOM: Corporate Profile: Corporate History]." Accessed on June 20, 2005.
* "[http://www.capcom.co.jp/ir/english/finance/index.html CAPCOM: Financial Information]." Accessed on June 20, 2005.
==External links==
*[http://www.capcom.co.jp/ Capcom Co. Ltd.] (in Japanese)
*[http://www.capcom.com/ Capcom U.S.A., Inc.]
*[http://www.devilmaycry.org/capcom/ Devil May Cry.org - Capcom Info]
*[http://www.mobygames.com/company/sheet/companyId,642/ MobyGame's entry on Capcom]
[[Category:Capcom|*]]
[[Category:Computer and video game companies]]
[[de:Capcom]]
[[es:Capcom]]
[[fr:Capcom]]
[[it:Capcom]]
[[ja:カプコン]]
[[pt:Capcom]]
[[fi:Capcom]]
[[sv:Capcom]]
[[zh:CAPCOM]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cross-examine</title>
<id>5423</id>
<revision>
<id>15903633</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-02T09:32:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andre Engels</username>
<id>300</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>redirect to cross-examination</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cross-examination]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Class warfare</title>
<id>5425</id>
<revision>
<id>15903634</id>
<timestamp>2004-10-17T15:55:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sam Spade</username>
<id>29048</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Class conflict]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Class conflict]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Compressed</title>
<id>5426</id>
<revision>
<id>15903635</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Data compression]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of Cambodia</title>
<id>5428</id>
<revision>
<id>41447032</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T10:50:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Buckboard</username>
<id>878382</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* The Khmer Republic and the War */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Cambodia}}
This is the '''History of Cambodia''' series.
==Early Kingdoms==
{{main|Early history of Cambodia}}
The [[Khmer people]], one of the first inhabitants of South East Asia, were among the first in [[Southeast Asia]] to adopt religious ideas and political institutions from India and to establish centralized kingdoms encompassing large territories. The earliest known kingdom in the area, [[Funan]], flourished from around the first to the sixth century A.D. It was succeeded by [[Chenla]], which controlled large areas of modern [[Cambodia]], [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]], and [[Thailand]].[[Khmer empire]] The golden age of Khmer civilization, however, was the period from the ninth to the thirteenth centuries, when the kingdom of [[Kambojas |Kambuja]], which gave Kampuchea, or Cambodia, its name, ruled large territories from its capital in the region of Angkor in western Cambodia.
Under [[Jayavarman VII of Kambuja|Jayavarman VII]] (1181-ca. 1218), Kambuja reached its zenith of political power and cultural creativity. Jayavarman VII gained power and territory in a series of successful wars against its close enemies; the Chams and the Vietnamese. Following Jayavarman VII's death, Kambuja experienced gradual decline. Important factors were the aggressiveness of neighboring peoples (especially the Thai, or [[Siam]]ese), chronic interdynastic strife, and the gradual deterioration of the complex irrigation system that had ensured rice surpluses. The [[Angkor]]ian monarchy survived until 1431, when the Thai captured [[Angkor Thom]] and the Cambodian king fled to the southern part of his country.
==Dark Ages==
{{main|Dark ages of Cambodia}}
The fifteenth to the nineteenth century was a period of continued decline and territorial loss. Cambodia enjoyed a brief period of prosperity during the sixteenth century because its kings, who built their capitals in the region southeast of the [[Tonle Sap]] along the [[Mekong River]], promoted trade with other parts of Asia. This was the period when [[Spain|Spanish]] and [[Portugal|Portuguese]] adventurers and missionaries first visited the country. But the Thai conquest of the new capital at [[Lovek]] in 1594 marked a downturn in the country's fortunes and Cambodia became a pawn in power struggles between its two increasingly powerful neighbors, Siam and Vietnam. Vietnam's settlement of the [[Mekong Delta]] led to its annexation of that area at the end of the seventeenth century. Cambodia thereby lost some of its richest territory and was cut off from the sea. Such foreign encroachments continued through the first half of the nineteenth century because Vietnam was determined to absorb Khmer land and to force the inhabitants to accept Vietnamese culture.
==French Colonial Period==
{{main|Colonial Cambodia}}
In |
the affairs of [[Poland]], if it is a question of its restoration."
The treaty of Vienna, which added largely to the [[Duchy of Warsaw]], he complained had "ill requited him for his loyalty," and he was only mollified for the time by Napoleon's public declaration that he had no intention of restoring Poland, and by a convention, signed on the [[4 January]], [[1810]] but not ratified, abolishing the Polish name and orders of [[chivalry]].
But if Alexander suspected Napoleon, Napoleon was no less suspicious of Alexander; and, partly to test his sincerity, he sent an almost peremptory request for the hand of the [[Grand Duchess]] Anne, the younger sister of the Tsar. After some little delay Alexander returned a polite refusal, on the plea of the tender age of the [[Princess]] and the objection of the [[Empress dowager]] [[Sophie Marie Dorothea of Württemberg|Maria Fyodorovna]] to the marriage. Napoleon's answer was to refuse to ratify the convention of the [[4 January]], [[1810]] and to announce his engagement to the [[Archduke |Archduchess]] [[Marie Louise of Austria|Marie Louise]] in such a way as to lead Alexander to suppose that the two marriage treaties had been negotiated simultaneously. From this time the relation between the two emperors gradually became more and more strained.
The annexation of [[Oldenburg (state) | Oldenburg]], of which the [[Peter Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Oldenburg|Duke of Oldenburg]] ([[January 3]], [[1754]]&ndash;[[July 2]], [[1823]]) was the Tsar's uncle, to [[France]] in December, [[1810]], added another to the personal grievances of Alexander against Napoleon; while the ruinous reaction of "the continental system" on Russian trade made it impossible for the Tsar to maintain a policy which was Napoleon's chief motive for the alliance. An acid correspondence followed, and ill-concealed armaments, which culminated in the [[Summer]] of [[1812]] in Napoleon's invasion of Russia. Yet, even after the French had passed the frontier, Alexander still protested that his personal sentiments towards the Emperor were unaltered; "but," he added, "[[God]] Himself cannot undo the past." It was the occupation of [[Moscow]] and the desecration of the [[Kremlin]], the sacred centre of Holy Russia, that changed his sentiment for Napoleon into passionate hatred. In vain the French Emperor, within eight days of his entry into Moscow, wrote to the Tsar a letter, which was one long cry of distress, revealing the desperate straits of the [[Grand Army]], and appealed to "any remnant of his former sentiments." Alexander returned no answer to these
"fanfaronnades." "No more peace with Napoleon!" he cried, "He or I, I or He: we cannot longer reign together!"
===The campaign of 1812===
[[Image:Russparis.jpg|thumb|350px|''Russian army enters [[Paris]] in [[1814]]''.]]
The campaign of [[1812]] was the turning-point of Alexander's life; and its horrors, for which his sensitive nature felt much of the responsibility, overset still more a mind never too well balanced. When Napoleon crossed the Russian border with his [[Grand Army]], Alexander I was quite unprepared for the war, trusting the Francophile chancellor [[Rumyantsev|Nikolay Rumyantsev]] more than his French ambassador [[Alexander Kurakin]], who had warned him about Napoleon's bellicose plans. Russia proclaimed a [[Napoleon's invasion of Russia|Patriotic War]] in defence of the Motherland. At the burning of [[Moscow]], he declared afterwards, his own [[soul]] had found illumination, and he had realized once for all the divine revelation to him of his mission as the peacemaker of Europe. He tried to calm the unrest of his conscience by correspondence with the leaders of the [[evangelicalism|evangelical]] revival on the [[continent]], and sought for [[omen]]s and [[supernatural]] guidance in texts and passages of [[scripture]]. It was not, however, according to his own account, till he met the [[Barbara Juliana, Baroness von Krudener|Baroness de Krüdener]] &mdash; a religious adventuress who made the conversion of princes her special mission&mdash;at [[Basel]], in the [[Autumn]] of [[1813]], that his soul found peace. From this time a [[mystic]] [[pietism]] became the avowed force of his political, as of his private actions. Madame de Krüdener, and her colleague, the evangelist Empaytaz, became the confidants of the Emperor's most secret thoughts; and during the campaign that ended in the occupation of [[Paris]] the imperial [[prayer]]-meetings were the [[oracle]] on whose revelations hung the fate of the world.
==Liberal political views==
From the end of the year [[1818]] Alexander's views began to change. A [[revolution]]ary [[conspiracy]] among the officers of the guard, and a foolish plot to kidnap him on his way to the [[Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)|Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle]], are said to have shaken the foundations of his [[Liberalism]]. At Aix he came for the first time into intimate contact with Metternich, and the astute Austrian was swift to take advantage of the psychological moment. From this time dates the ascendancy of Metternich over the mind of the Russian Emperor and in the councils of Europe. It was, however, no case of sudden conversion. Though alarmed by the revolutionary agitation in Germany, which culminated in the murder of his agent, the dramatist [[August von Kotzebue]] ([[March 23]], [[1819]]), Alexander approved of Castlereagh's protest against Metternich's policy of "the governments contracting an alliance against the peoples," as formulated in the [[Carlsbad Decrees]] of July, [[1819]], and deprecated any intervention of Europe to support "a league of which the sole object is the absurd pretensions of absolute power."
He still declared his belief in "free institutions, though not in such as age forced from feebleness, nor contracts ordered by popular leaders from their sovereigns, nor constitutions granted in difficult circumstances to tide over a crisis. "Liberty," he maintained, "should be confined within just limits. And the limits of liberty are the principles of order".
It was the apparent triumph of the principles of disorder in the revolutions of [[Naples]] and [[Piedmont (Italy)|Piedmont]], combined with increasingly disquieting symptoms of discontent in France, Germany, and among his own people, that completed Alexander's conversion. In the seclusion of the little town of [[Troppau]], where in October of [[1820]] the powers met in conference, Metternich found an opportunity for cementing his influence over Alexander, which had been wanting amid the turmoil and feminine intrigues of Vienna and Aix. Here, in confidence begotten of friendly chats over afternoon tea, the disillusioned autocrat confessed his mistake. "You have nothing to regret," he said sadly to the exultant chancellor, "but I have!"
The issue was momentous. In January Alexander had still upheld the ideal of a free confederation of the European states, symbolized by the Holy Alliance, against the policy of a dictatorship of the great powers, symbolized by the Quadruple Treaty; he had still protested against the claims of collective Europe to interfere in the internal concerns of the sovereign states. On [[19 November]] he signed the [[Troppau Protocol]], which consecrated the principle of intervention and wrecked the harmony of the concert.
==The revolt of the Greeks==
At [[Congress of Laibach]], whither in the [[Spring (season)|Spring]] of [[1821]] the congress had been adjourned, Alexander first heard of the [[Greek War of Independence | Revolt of the Greeks]]. From this time until his death his mind was torn between his anxiety to realize his dream of a confederation of Europe and his traditional mission as leader of the Orthodox crusade against the [[Ottoman Empire]]. At first, under the careful nursing of Metternich, the former motive prevailed.
He struck the name of [[Alexander Ypsilanti (1792-1828)|Alexander Ypsilanti]] from the Russian army list, and directed his foreign minister, [[John Capodistria | Giovanni, Count Capo d'Istria]], himself a Greek, to disavow all sympathy of [[Russia]] with his enterprise; and, next year, a deputation of the [[Morea]] Greeks on its way to the [[Congress of Verona]] was turned back by his orders on the road.
He made, indeed, some effort to reconcile the principles at conflict in his mind. He offered to surrender the claim, successfully asserted when the [[Ottoman Sultan]] [[Mahmud II]] had been excluded from the Holy Alliance and the affairs of the [[Ottoman empire]] from the deliberations of Vienna, that the affairs of the East were the "domestic concerns of Russia," and to march into the [[Ottoman Empire]], as Austria had marched into [[Naples]], "as the mandatory of Europe."
Metternich's opposition to this, illogical, but natural from the Austrian point of view, first opened his eyes to the true character of Austria's attitude towards his ideals. Once more in Russia, far from the fascination of Metternich's personality, the immemorial spirit of his people drew him back into itself; and when, in the Autumn of [[1825]], he took his dying Empress [[Louise of Baden]] ([[January 24]], [[1779]]&ndash;[[May 26]], [[1826]]) for change of air to the south of Russia, in order&mdash;as all Europe supposed&mdash;to place himself at the head of the great army concentrated near the Ottoman frontiers, his language was no longer that of "the peace-maker of Europe," but of the Orthodox Tsar determined to take the interests of his people and of his religion "into his own hands". Before the momentous issue could be decided, however, Alexander died in [[Taganrog]] on [[1 December]] ([[November 18]], [[Julian calendar | O.S.]]) [[1825]], "crushed", to use his own wo |
==
*[[Pourpoint]]
[[Category:Personal armor]]
[[de:Gambeson]]
[[pl:Przeszywanica]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Galinder</title>
<id>12680</id>
<revision>
<id>19565013</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-25T10:03:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ghirlandajo</username>
<id>147410</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Galindae]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Afghanistan</title>
<id>12681</id>
<revision>
<id>40187339</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T20:58:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Brian0918</username>
<id>90640</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/65.8.27.22|65.8.27.22]] ([[User talk:65.8.27.22|talk]]) to last version by Mipchunk</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Afghanistan map.png|right| ]]
'''Afghanistan''' is located in [[Central Asia]] and specifically upon the geologic [[Iranian plateau]] at a [[longitude]] of 33°00&prime;N and a [[latitude]] of 65°00&prime;E, and is 647,500[[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (similar to the [[Australia]]n state of [[New South Wales]], or the [[Canada|Canadian]] province of [[Manitoba]], and slightly smaller than the [[U.S. state]] of [[Texas]]). The country is [[landlocked]] and [[mountain]]ous, containing the south-western ranges of the [[Hindu Kush]]. There are four major rivers in the country: [[Amu Darya]], [[Hari Rud]], and the [[Kabul River|Kabul]] and [[Helmand River|Helmand]] Rivers.
==[[Border]]s==
Afghanistan has a total of 5,529 km of borders, with the longest being the 2,430 km southeast-south border of [[Waziristan]], the semiautonomous tribal area of [[Pakistan]]. Afghanistan is also bordered to the west by [[Iran]] (936 km) and to the north by the Central Asian states of [[Tajikistan]] (1,206 km), [[Turkmenistan]] (744 km), and [[Uzbekistan]] (137 km). Afghanistan's shortest border is on its eastern frontier with [[People's Republic of China|China]] (76km).
==[[Terrain]] and [[agriculture]]==
[[Image:Afghan_topo_en.jpg|thumb|300px|Topography]]
: Mostly rugged mountains - the [[Hindu Kush]] and connected ranges; plains in north and southwest and large areas of sandy desert near the southern border with Pakistan.
; Elevation extremes:
:* Lowest point: [[Amu Darya]] 258 m
:* Highest point: [[Noshaq]] 7,492 m
; Land use:
:* Arable land: 12.13%
:* Permanent crops: 0.22%
:* Other: 87.65% (2001)
; Irrigated land:
: 23,860 km&sup2; (1998 est.)
; Natural hazards:
: Damaging [[earthquake]]s occur in [[Hindu Kush]] mountains; [[flooding ]], [[drought|droughts]]
: Landlocked, the Hindu Kush mountains that run northeast to southwest divide the northern provinces from the rest of the country; the highest peaks are in the northern Vakhan ([[Wakhan Corridor]])
See also: [[Afghan Turkestan]]
==[[Natural resource]]s==
Afghanistan's natural resources include [[gas]], [[petroleum]], [[coal]], [[copper]], [[chromite]], [[talc]], [[barite]]s, [[sulfur]], [[lead]], [[zinc]], [[iron]] ore, [[salt]], precious and semiprecious stones.
==Mountain systems==
The dominant mountain system of Afghanistan is the [[Hindu Kush]], and that extension westwards of its water-divide which reindicated by the [[Koh-i-Baba]] to the north-west of [[Kabul]], and by the [[Firozkhoi plateau]] ([[Karjistan]]), which merges still farther to the west by gentle gradients into the [[Paropamisadae|Paropamisus]], and which may be traced across the [[Hari Rud]] to [[Mashad]].
The culminating peaks of the Koh-i-Baba overlooking the sources of the Hari Rud, the Helmand, the Kunduz and the Kabul very nearly reach 17,000 ft (over 5,000 m) in height ([[Shah Fuladi]], the highest, is 16,870 ft or 5,142 m).
Important passes include the [[Khyber Pass]] crossing the [[Sefid Koh]], the [[Gumal Pass]], and the [[Bolan Pass]] across the [[Toba Kakar Range]], all crossing into Pakistan, the [[Unai Pass]] across the [[Sanglakh Range]], and the [[Kotal-e Salang]], connecting Kabul with central and northern Afghanistan, respectively.
==Climate==
[[Image:Afghanistan.A2003266.0625.500m.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The brown and tan landscape of deserts and rugged mountains in southern Afghanistan (top), northwest Pakistan (below), and southeastern Iran (left) encountering a devastating sandstorm on September 23, 2003. The image shows the green vegetation growing along the banks of the Helmand River, which flows toward the center of the scene from top right. The river brings life-giving water to portions of the Margo Desert (center).]]
The variety of climate is immense, as might be expected. Taking the highlands of the country as a whole, there is no great difference between the mean temperature of Afghanistan and that of the lower [[Himalaya]]. Each may be placed at a point between 10 °C and 15 °C (50 °F to 60 °F). But the remarkable feature of Afghan climate is its extreme range of temperature within limited periods. The least daily range in the north is during the cold weather, the greatest in the hot. For seven months of the year (from May to November) this range exceeds 30 °F (17 °C) daily. Waves of intense cold occur, lasting for several days, and one may have to endure a cold of 12 °F below zero (&minus;24 °C), rising to a maximum of 17 °F (&minus;8 °C). On the other hand the summer temperature is exceedingly high, especially in the Oxus regions, where a shade maximum of 110 °F to 120 °F (45 °C to 50 °C) is not uncommon. At Kabul, and over all the northern part of the country to the descent at [[Gandamak]], winter is rigorous, but especially so on the high Arachosian plateau. In Kabul the snow lies for two or three months; the people seldom leave their houses, and sleep close to stoves. At Ghazni the snow has been known to lie long beyond the vernal equinox; the thermometer sinks between &minus;10 °F and &minus:15 °F (about &minus;25 °C); and tradition relates the entire destruction of the population of Ghazni by snowstorms more than once.
At Jalalabad the winter and the climate generally assume an Indian character. The summer heat is great everywhere in Afghanistan, but most of all in the districts bordering on the Indus, especially Sewi, on the lower Helmund and in Seistan. All over Kandahar province the summer heat is intense, and the simoon is not unknown. The hot season throughout this part of the country is rendered more trying by frequent dust storms and fiery winds; whilst the bare rocky ridges that traverse the country, absorbing heat by day and radiating it by night, render the summer nights most oppressive. At Kabul the summer sun has great power, though the heat is tempered occasionally by cool breezes from the Hindu Kush, and the nights are usually cool. At Kandahar snow seldom falls on the plains or lower hills; when it does, it melts at once.
At [[Herat]], though 800 ft (240 m) lower than Kandahar, the summer climate is more temperate; and, in fact, the climate altogether is far from disagreeable. From May to September the wind blows from the northwest with great violence, and this extends across the country to Kandahar. The winter is tolerably mild; snow melts as it falls, and even on the mountains does not lie long. Three years out of four at Herat it does not freeze hard enough for the people to store ice; yet it was not very far from Herat, and could not have been at a greatly higher level (at Rafir Kala, near Kassan) that, in [[1750]], Ahmad Shah's army, retreating from Persia, is said to have lost 18,000 men from cold in a single night. In the northern Herat districts, too, records of the coldest month (February) show the mean minimum as 17° F (&minus;8 °C), and the maximum 38 °F (3 °C). The eastern reaches of the Hari Rud river are frozen hard in the winter, rapids and all, and the people travel on it as on a road.
The summer rains that accompany the southwest monsoon in [[India]], beating along the southern slopes of the Himalaya, travel up the Kabul valley as far as Laghman, though they are more clearly felt in [[Bajour]] and [[Panjkora]], under the high spurs of the [[Hindu Kush]], and in the eastern branches of [[Safed Koh]]. Rain also falls at this season at the head of [[Kurram]] valley. South of this the [[Suliman mountains]] may be taken as the western limit of the monsoon's action. It is quite unfelt in the rest of Afghanistan, in which, as in all the west of Asia, the winter rains are the most considerable. The spring rain, though less copious, is more important to agriculture than the winter rain, unless where the latter falls in the form of snow. In the absence of monsoon influences there are steadier weather indications than in India. The north-west blizzards which occur in winter and spring are the most noticeable feature, and their influence is clearly felt on the Indian frontier. The cold is then intense and the force of the wind cyclonic. Speaking generally, the Afghanistan climate is a dry one. The sun shines with splendour for three-fourths of the year, and the nights are even more clear than the days. Marked characteristics are the great differences of summer and winter temperature and of day and night temperature, as well as the extent to which change of climate can be attained by slight change of place. As the emperor Baber said of Kabul, at one day's journey from it you may find a place where snow never falls, and at two hours' journey a place where snow almost never melts.
==Vegetation==
The characteristic distribution of vegetation on the mountains of Afghanistan is worthy of attention. The great mass of it is confined to the main ranges and their immediate off-shoots, whilst on the more distant and terminal prolongations it is almost entirely absent; in fact, these are naked rock and stone.
Take, for example, the Safed Koh. On the alpin |
32 Assembly Tutorial]
[[Category:Assemblers|*Assembler]]
[[Category:Programming languages]]
[[de:Assembler_(Informatik)]]
[[es:Ensamblador]]
[[fr:Programme assembleur]]
[[he:&#1488;&#1505;&#1502;&#1489;&#1500;&#1512;]]
[[id:Assembler]]
[[lt:Asembleris]]
[[pl:Asembler]]
[[ru:&#1040;&#1089;&#1089;&#1077;&#1084;&#1073;&#1083;&#1077;&#1088;]]
[[sv:Assembler]]
[[pt:Assembler]]
[[tr:Assembler]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Al Qaida</title>
<id>2001</id>
<revision>
<id>15900455</id>
<timestamp>2004-11-13T17:43:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Neutrality</username>
<id>68411</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Al-Qaeda]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Argument from common consent</title>
<id>2002</id>
<revision>
<id>39616496</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T18:18:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
<id>293907</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] delete duplicate word.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Argument from consensus''' or '''argument from common consent''' purports to prove the existence of God. It can be summarized as follows.
"Throughout the world, in all lands, people believe in some God. And not just now, but in the past, a belief in some God was a very common part of daily life. So the person who denies that God exists is opposing the common consent of all of humanity, that God exists. Who are we to oppose such an enormous consensus? Therefore, God exists."
This argument has a number of problems.
*Not ''everyone'' in ''all'' times has believed that [[God]] exists. There have been dissenters, atheists, everywhere. Furthermore, it is misleading to describe all religions as theistic - the Dalai Lama, for instance, has called Buddhism an "atheistic religion". For more on this, see the next point...
*There are a number of different ''versions'' of God that people believe in: the gods of the ancient Greeks are very different from the Hindu gods, which are very different indeed from the spirits that some Africans traditionally worship, which are of course very different still from the [[Judeo-Christian]] God. At the very best, the most one could say is that ''some higher power of some sort'' has been ''commonly'', although not universally, thought to exist.
*The argument as stated does not differentiate between the actual existence of some form of God(s) and the desire for God(s). Widespread belief in God could reflect ''either'' God's existence or the desire of a community (in this case, humanity) for a protective force to answer difficult questions ranging from the reason for thunder ([[Thor]]) to what happens after death ([[Heaven]]). Children in many countries believe in [[Santa Claus]], not because he exists, but because they wish he did, and they have been encouraged in their belief by their parents. This highlights another problem:
*Reinforced opinions are still opinions. The established churches in countries across the world have encouraged belief in their tenets throughout history. It is natural for people raised in a tradition to believe that tradition, just as children believe in Santa because parents tell them it's true, and parents don't generally lie to their children.
*Finally, and most importantly, the argument engages in a [[logical fallacy]] known as the [[argumentum ad numerum|bandwagon fallacy]]. Essentially, the fact that there is widespread consensus about a topic does not mean that the consensus is correct. A commonly cited example is that most people in medieval Europe believed that the Earth was flat, but that did not change the fact that the Earth is round. This example is itself an example&mdash;the fact that the Earth was round was quite well established in medieval Europe, but not widely discussed because it had no significant impact on people. So our widespread belief about these people in no way affects what they actually knew about the shape of the planet.
These problems have led many to abandon the ''argument from common consent'', and is not nowadays taken seriously in philosophy or theology.
[[Category:Philosophy]]
[[Category:Theology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Argument from morality</title>
<id>2003</id>
<revision>
<id>41878209</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T08:34:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>208.187.181.226</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Contrary evidence */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
{{npov}}
The '''argument from morality''' is one of several [[arguments for the existence of God]]. This argument comes in different forms, all aiming to prove God’s existence from the evidence of morality in the world.
==The argument==
The moral argument works on the idea that most people have some experience of morality, and feel there are certain rules about how they should behave.
===Divine Command===
# Moral law requires a moral lawgiver.
# There is a moral law.
# There must be a moral lawgiver. (from 1 and 2)
# This moral lawgiver is God.
The two premises must, of course, be defended separately. However, usually this argument is employed with those (the great majority of the human population) who already subscribe to the second premise. Thus, the first premise is the more oft-debated. That the moral lawgiver is God must also be justified, but so with most arguments for God's existence must the proven entity be shown to be God as regularly understood (e.g., that Aquinas' prime mover is the God of the Bible). This is not, however, a circular argument.
Another argument from morality can be expressed as follows:
# If [[God]] exists, then God and God alone decides what is (truly) right and wrong. Without God there could be no ultimate standards of [[morality]].
# So, if people assumed that God does not exist, then they would be doomed to a life without fixed moral standards. They would have no reasons to think that [[lie|lying]], [[theft|stealing]], or even [[murder]] are wrong. According to this view, nonbelievers contribute to the corruption of themselves and the entire [[culture]]. (Cf the famous quote associated with [[Dostoevsky]], "If God does not exist, everything is permitted".)
# Given the above, it is necessary that God exists if society is to have stable standards of morality.
# Everyone in society either obviously needs or already has stable standards of morality. Therefore, God exists.
That is the basis of [[theological ethics]], or alternatively, the [[divine command theory]]. The argument is valid if and only if the following assumptions are correct:
# There is an ultimate standard of morality.
# People are able to know God's commands, and the sources of such knowledge are infallible.
# Something is right if and only if God commands it; something is wrong if and only if God forbids it; and something is morally permissible if and only if God neither commands nor forbids it.
# God's standards are stable; God's commands are as valid today as they were when the infallible sources of information were created.
# There is no alternative source of moral and ethical ideas and action, meaning that all other systems such as [[utilitarianism]] are invalid; that is to say, even if they ultimately endorse the same morals they are wrong about what it is that makes those things moral.
A third variant of the argument from morality is based on the existence of standards, and the existence of conscience in humans. In any argument, various standards are appealed to, and only unreasonable arguers would make claims like "I am right because I think I am." If no standard really exists, then no ''[[justice]]'' system can ever be objectively just, and all justice systems would be shams, which is assumed to be untrue. Therefore, it is argued that the standards of moral good exists external from ourselves, and are not arbitrary. Since such standards exist, so must God.
===Pointing towards God===
This form of the moral argument interprets morality as an indirect religious experience which points towards God.
# Our feelings of obligation guide us to make a moral decision.
# This obligation is due to the fact that each person has value, and this supports each decision.
# If people have an intrinsic value, there must be a source to this value.
# This source must be God.
===Kant's argument===
[[Immanuel Kant]] believed that in a perfect world behaving morally should lead to happiness. However, as this rarely happens in our world, he considered that there must be another answer.
He argued that there are certain rational laws which we feel duty bound to follow, and these he called categorical imperatives. He concluded that if this is true, we can assume three things:
*Freedom – We must have the freedom to act
*Immortality – happiness will eventually reward us
*God – there is a regulating being that will reward virtue with happiness.
His argument is thus:
# If it is our unconditional duty to follow these moral laws, it must be our unconditional duty to aim for the goal of these laws, and so we seek to bring about the highest good.
# Humans do not have enough power to bring about the highest good. Even with perfect morality, we cannot ensure the perfect happiness that should follow.
# However, if we aim for the highest good, it must be possible to achieve it. If we are unable to attain this goal in our present life, there must be someone else to ensure we can attain it in a future life.
# God has this necessary power, therefore we can assume the existence of God.
Kant believes that this does not prove the existence of God, but our sense of morality implies the world is order |
is most often employed by ground troops up to [[platoon]] size against enemy targets which may be other ground troops or possibly vehicles. During ancient warfare, an ambush often might involve thousands of soldiers on a large scale, such as over a [[mountain pass]].
===Planning===
Ambushes are complex multi-phase operations and are therefore usually planned in some detail. First a suitable ''killing zone'' is identified. This is the place where the ambush will be laid. It is generally a place where enemy units are expected to pass, and which gives reasonable cover for the deployment, execution, and extraction phases of the ambush patrol. A path along a wooded valley floor would be a stereotypical example.
===Preparation===
To be successful an ambush patrol must deploy into the area covertly, ideally under the cover of darkness. The patrol will establish secure and covert positions overlooking the ''killing zone''. Usually, two or more ''cut off'' groups will be sent out a short distance from the main ambushing group into similarly covert positions. Their job is twofold; firstly to give the ambush commander early-warning of approaching enemy (usually by radio), and secondly, when the ambush is initiated, to prevent any enemy from escaping. Another group will cover the rear of the ambush position and thus give [[all round defence]] to the ambush patrol.
Care must be taken by the ambush commander to ensure that fire from any weapon cannot inadvertently hit any other friendly unit.
===Waiting===
Having set the ambush, the next phase is to wait. This could be for a few hours or a few days depending on the tactical and supply situation. It is obviously much harder for an ambush patrol to remain covert and alert if sentry rosters, shelter, sleeping, sanitary arrangements, food and water, have to be considered. Ambush patrols will almost always have to be self-sufficient as re-supply would not be possible without compromising their covert position.
===Execution===
The arrival of an enemy in the area should be signalled by one of the cut-off units. This may be done by radio or by some other signal, but the enemy must not detect the signal. The ambush commander will have given a clear instruction for initiating the ambush. This might be a burst from an automatic [[weapon]], use of an explosive device (such as a [[claymore mine]]or other directonal weapon), or possibly a simple whistle blast. When the ambush commander judges that the ambush will be most effective he gives the signal.
After the [[firefight]] has been won, the now compromised ambush patrol will need to leave the area as soon as it is practical to do so. Before this is done it is a common practice to clear the killing zone by checking bodies for intelligence, taking prisoners, and treating any enemy wounded. If communication orders permit, a brief contact report may be sent. This done, the ambush patrol will leave the area by a pre-determined route.
==See also==
* [[sniper]]
* [[List of military tactics]]
[[Category:Military tactics]]
[[da:Baghold]]
[[de:Hinterhalt]]
[[fr:embuscade]]
[[io:Embusko]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Astronomical aberration</title>
<id>1906</id>
<revision>
<id>15900366</id>
<timestamp>2003-09-18T12:14:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ap</username>
<id>122</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect [[Aberration of light]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aberration of light]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abzyme</title>
<id>1908</id>
<revision>
<id>33648317</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-02T22:34:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FlaBot</username>
<id>228773</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: de</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''abzyme''' (from [[antibody]] and [[enzyme]]), also called ''catmab'' (from ''catalytic monoclonal antibody''), is a [[monoclonal antibody]] with [[catalytic activity]]. Molecules which are modified to gain new catalytic activity are called [[synzymes]]. Abzymes are usually artificial constructs, but are also found in normal humans (anti-vasoactive intestinal peptide autoantibodies) and in patients with the [[autoimmune disease]] systemic [[lupus erythematosus]], where they can bind and hydrolyze [[DNA]]. Abzymes are potential tools in [[biotechnology]], e.g., to perform specific actions on DNA.
Enzymes function by lowering the activation energy of the transition state, thereby catalyzing the formation of an otherwise-less-favorable molecular intermediate between reactants and products. If an antibody is developed to a stable molecule that's similar to an unstable intermediate of another (potentially unrelated) reaction, the developed antibody will enzymatically bind to and stabilize the intermediate state, thus catalyzing the reaction.
Source: Vevek Parikh - Biochem Dept., Univ. of Miami.
{{biochem-stub}}
[[de:Abzyme]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Adaptive radiation</title>
<id>1909</id>
<revision>
<id>40670588</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T04:46:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.73.160.177</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Adaptive radiation''' describes the rapid [[speciation]] of a single or a few [[species]] to fill many [[ecological niche]]s. This is an [[evolution]]ary process driven by [[mutation]] and [[natural selection]].
Adaptive radiation often occurs when a species is introduced to a new [[ecosystem]], or when a species can survive in an [[natural environment|environment]] that was unreachable before. For example, 14 species of [[Darwin's finch]]es on the [[Galapagos islands]] developed from a single species of [[finch]]es that reached the islands. Other examples include anoles of the Caribbean islands, Hawaiian silverswords and picture-winged fruit flies, the development of the first [[bird]]s, which suddenly were able to expand their [[territory]] into the air, or the development of [[lung fish]] during the [[Devonian period]], about 300 million years ago. Another example of adaptive radiation is the diversity within Phylum [[Mollusca]].
The dynamics of adaptive radiation are such that, within a relatively short time, many species derive from a single or a few ancestor species. The rise and fall of new species is now progressing very slowly, compared to the initial outburst of species.
There are three basic types of adaptive radiation. They are :
# '''General adaptation.''' A species that develops a radically new ability can reach new parts of its environment. An example of general adaptation is bird flight.
# '''Environmental change.''' A species that can, in contrast to the other species in the ecosystem, successfully survive in a radically changed environment will probably branch into new species that cover the new ecological niches created by the environmental change. An example of adaptive radiation as the result of an environmental change is the rapid spread and development of [[mammal]]ian species after the extinction of the dinosaurs.
# '''[[Archipelago]]es.''' Isolated [[ecosystem]]s, such as islands and mountain areas, can be colonized by a new species which upon establishing itself undergoes rapid divergent evolution. [[Darwin's finches]] are examples of adaptive radiation occurring in an archipelago.
In [[science fiction]] sometimes adaptive radiation of [[human]]s is imagined. This often makes for interesting multi-species [[science fiction universe|worlds]].
==References==
*Wilson, E. et al. ''Life on Earth,'' by Wilson,E.; Eisner,T.; Briggs,W.; Dickerson,R.; Metzenberg,R.; O'brien,R.; Susman,M.; Boggs,W.; (Sinauer Associates, Inc., Publishers, Stamford, Connecticut), c 1974. Chapters: ''The Multiplication of Species; Biogeography,'' pp 824-877. 40 Graphs, w species pictures, also Tables, Photos, etc. Includes '''[[Galapagos Islands]], [[Hawaii]], and Australia subcontinent,''' (plus [[St. Helena]] Island, etc.).
[[Category:Speciation]]
[[de:Adaptive Radiation]]
[[es:Radiación adaptativa]]
[[ja:適応放散]]
[[nl:Adaptieve radiatie]]
[[pl:Radiacja adaptacyjna]]
[[sk:Adaptívna radiácia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Agarose gel electrophoresis</title>
<id>1910</id>
<revision>
<id>37497532</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-31T10:11:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SeventyThree</username>
<id>183256</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* References */ reformatting done, rm duplicates</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:DNA Agarose Gel Electrophor.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Digital printout of an agarose gel electrophoresis of ''cat''-insert plasmid DNA]]
'''Agarose gel electrophoresis''' is a method used in [[molecular biology]] to separate [[DNA]] strands by size, and to determine the size of the separated strands by comparison to strands of known length. Similarly, in [[proteomics|proteomics research]], this method is also used to separate and quantify proteins based on their charge and size.
Electrophoresis uses a mechanism similar to sifting objects through a sieve. In the case of DNA-based gel electrophoresis, an [[electric field]] is used to push negatively charged DNA molecules through a gel matrix. Shorter, more compact DNA molecules move faster than longer, more convoluted ones since they are able to slip through the matrix more easily. The same general principal applies to protein separation although more variables exist to determine how a protein will run through a gel. DNA-based gel electrophoresis can be used for the separation of DNA fragments of 50 [[base pair]]s up to several megabases (millions of bases). Large DNA molecules are only able to move end on in a process called "reptation" and are more difficult to separate. In ge |
anything, and is usually called upon by Dennis to 'gnash' their way out of situations; however, he usually prefers to bite the postal workers in the mornings.
Since [[1986]] Gnasher has had a son, '''Gnipper''', who appears with him in the separate strip ''[[Gnasher and Gnipper]]''. He first appeared in issue 2286, dated [[10 May]] [[1986]].
Gnasher also has several daughters, their names being Gnatasha, Gnaomi, Gnanette, Gnorah and Gnancy, though these tend not to be seen much. He also used to have another strip, ''[[Gnasher's Tale]]'', which began in [[1977]] and continued for another nine years. (It is rather unusual for cartoon animals to have children; usually they just have nephews e.g. [[Mickey Mouse]], [[Scooby Doo]].)
'''[[Rasher]]''' is a [[pig]] (hence the name) and is Dennis' other loyal pet, first seen in issue 1920, dated [[5 May]] [[1979]]. He loves to eat swill and was rescued by Dennis. Rasher also has children, their names being Oink, Snort, Grunt, Squeal, and Squeak. He also used to have his own strip called ''Rasher'', which started in [[1984]] and continued for another four years, with a few one off appearances after that.
Dennis has also been seen with his pet [[spider]] called '''Dasher'''. He first appeared in about [[1997]], and was the mascot of the Beano [[website]] when it launched a year later.
Dennis also has two main friends. '''Curly''' was the first to appear, appearing a few months after the strip started in [[1951]]. He has a lot of blonde, curly hair, hence his name. In a [[1996]] episode of the animated TV series entitled 'The Bath-Night Club', we learnt he has a little brother named '''Spiky'''. He has spiky hair, and, according to Curly, could not escape and was put in the bath. The next day he started smelling of soap and began prancing about with Softies and girls. The episode was reprinted in print form in [[1998]] as Number 81 of The Beano Super Stars.
'''[[Pieface]]''' (Real name 'Kevin') is the second. His favourite food is pies, hence the name.
Together, Dennis, Curly and Pie-Face battle the '''Softies''', a group of children who enjoy things such as [[teddy bear]]s, [[doll]]s and [[flower]]s. The most famous, Dennis' sworn enemy, is a character called '''Walter''', the 'Prince of Softies'. He has a pet [[poodle]] called '''Foo-Foo''' and a cat named '''Fluffy'''. The two most other frequently seen Softies are '''Algernon 'Spotty' Perkins''' and '''Bertie Blenkinsop''', who are usually seen playing with him. Walter, Spotty and Bertie once had a competition to decide who had the cutest teddy, but they agreed that they were all lovely. In a [[1984]] strip both their pets were seen, two dogs called Yorkie and Papillon, although it did not state which pet belong to which Softy. Other softies include '''Sweet William''', '''Dudley Nightshirt''', '''Jeremy Snodgrass''' and '''Nervous Rex''', a character who is scared of everything and everyone.
==See also==
*[[Dennis the Menace (US)]]
*[[Dennis the Menace Annual]]
*[[Beryl the Peril]]
==External links==
*[http://www.toonopedia.com/dennisb.htm Toonopedia profile]
[[Category:Comics characters]]
[[Category:Beano strips|Dennis the Menace]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dennis the Menace/whacking</title>
<id>8173</id>
<revision>
<id>15906189</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-23T04:05:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ap</username>
<id>122</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dennis the Menace]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dennis the Menace/Gnasher</title>
<id>8175</id>
<revision>
<id>15906191</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-25T12:51:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eloquence</username>
<id>52</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dennis the Menace (UK)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dave Brubeck</title>
<id>8176</id>
<revision>
<id>41390365</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T00:42:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nobunaga24</username>
<id>830002</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dave Brubeck Notes.jpg|thumb|Brubeck in 1954]]
[[image:Dave Brubeck 2005 in Ludwigshafen 1 fcm.jpg|thumb|Brubeck in 2005]]
'''David Warren (Dave) Brubeck''' (born [[December 6]] [[1920]] in [[Concord, California]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[Jazz piano|jazz pianist]] who has written a number of [[jazz standard]]s, including ''In Your Own Sweet Way'' and ''The Duke''. Brubeck's style ranges from refined to bombastic, reflecting his mother's attempts at [[European classical music|classical]] training and his [[improvisation]]al skills. Much of his music employs unusual [[time signature]]s.
His long-time musical partner, alto saxophonist [[Paul Desmond]], wrote what is arguably the quartet's most famous piece, ''[[Take Five]]'' (which is in 5/4 time). Brubeck experimented with time signatures through much of his career, recording ''Pick Up Sticks'' in 6/4, ''Unsquare Dance'' in 7/4, and ''Blue Rondo A La Turk'' in 9/8, an experimentation begun with his attempts to put [[music]] to the odd rhythms generated by various machines around him on his parents' cattle ranch in a small town in the western United States. The title of ''Blue Rondo A La Turk'' is a play on [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]'s ''Rondo alla Turca: Allegretto'' from his [[Piano Sonata No. 11 (Mozart)|''Piano Sonata No. 11'']], and the 9/8 metre of traditional [[Turkey|Turkish]] music, the country in which the band was touring when the tune was written.
Brubeck's mother studied piano in [[England]] and intended to become a concert pianist; at home she taught piano for extra money. Brubeck was not particularly interested in learning by any particular method, but preferred to create his own [[melody|melodies]], and therefore avoided learning to read [[sheet music]]. In college Brubeck was nearly expelled when one of his professors discovered that he could not read sheet music. Several of his professors came forward arguing for his ability with [[counterpoint]] and [[harmony]], but the school was still afraid that it would cause a scandal, and only agreed to let Brubeck graduate once he promised never to teach piano.
After graduating from the [[University of the Pacific]] in [[1942]], Brubeck was [[conscription|drafted]] into the [[army]] and served overseas in [[George Patton]]'s Third Army during the [[Battle of the Bulge]]. He played in a band, quickly [[Racial integration|integrating]] it and gaining both popularity and deference. He returned to college after serving nearly 4 years in the army, this time attending [[Mills College]] and studying under [[Darius Milhaud]], who encouraged him to study [[fugue (music)|fugue]] and [[orchestration]] but not classical piano. (Oddly enough, most critics consider Brubeck something of a classical pianist playing jazz.)
After completing his studies under Milhaud, Brubeck signed with [[Berkeley, California]]'s [[Fantasy Records]]. He started an [[Dave Brubeck Octet|octet]] including [[Cal Tjader]] and [[Paul Desmond]]. The group was highly experimental and made few recordings, and got even fewer paying jobs. A bit discouraged, Brubeck started a trio with two of the members, not including Desmond, who had a gig of his own, and spent several years playing nothing but jazz standards. Brubeck then formed [[The Dave Brubeck Quartet]] in [[1951]], which consisted of [[Joe Dodge]] on drums, [[Bob Bates]] on bass, [[Paul Desmond]] on saxophone, and of course Brubeck on piano. They took up a long residency at [[San Francisco]]'s [[Black Hawk (nightclub)|Black Hawk nightclub]] and gained great popularity touring college campuses, recording a series of albums with such titles as ''Jazz at Oberlin'', ''Jazz Goes to College'' and ''Jazz Goes to Junior College''. In [[1954]] he was featured on the cover of [[Time Magazine]], the first Jazz musician to be so honored. In the mid-1950s Bates and Dodge were respectively replaced by [[Eugene Wright]] and [[Joe Morello]]. Eugene Wright is [[African-American]]; in the late [[1950s]] Brubeck cancelled many concerts because the club owners wanted him to bring a different bassist. He also cancelled a [[television]] appearance when he found out that the venue intended to keep Wright off-camera.
In [[1959]] the Dave Brubeck Quartet released ''[[Time Out (album)|Time Out]]'', an album their label was enthusiastic about but nonetheless hesitant to release. The album contained all original compositions, almost none of which were in [[common time]]. Nonetheless, on the strength of these unusual time signatures (the album included ''Take Five'', ''Blue Rondo A La Turk'', and ''Pick Up Sticks''), it quickly went [[platinum album|platinum]]. The quartet followed up its success with several more albums in the same vein, including ''Time Further Out'' ([[1961]]), ''Time in Outer Space'', and ''Time Changes''. These albums were also known for using contemporary paintings as cover art, featuring the work of [[Neil Fujita]] on ''Time Out'', [[Joan Miró]] on ''Time Further Out'', [[Franz Kline]] on ''Time in Outer Space'', and [[Sam Francis]] on ''Time Changes''. A high point for the group was their classic [[1963]] live album ''[[At Carnegie Hall]]'', described by critic [[Richard Palmer]] as "arguably Dave Brubeck's greatest concert".
[[Image:Davebrubeckquartet1967a.jpg|thumb|left|Dave Brubeck Quartet 1967]]The Dave Brubeck Quartet broke up in [[1967]] except for a 25th anniversary reunion in [[1976]]; Brubeck continued playing with Desmond and then began recording with [[Gerry Mulligan]]. Desmond died in [[1977]] and left everything, including residuals and the immense royalties for ''Take Five'', to the [[American Red Cross]]. Mulligan and Brubeck recorded tog |
the food in cases where microbial spoilage is the limiting factor in shelf life. Some foods (e.g., [[herb]]s and [[spice]]s) are irradiated at such high doses (5 [[gray (unit)|kilograys]] or more) that they are partially sterilized. It has also been shown that irradiation can delay the ripening or sprouting of [[fruit]]s and [[vegetable]]s and replace the need for [[pesticide]]s. Irradiation may also create new chemicals in food that are unique to this process - chemicals that would not be created by cooking or other standard food processing techniques.
The [[United Nations Environmental Program]] passed the [[Montreal Protocol|Montreal Protocol on Substances that deplete the Ozone Layer]] banning amongst other substances all non-critical uses of [[Methyl bromide|methyl bromide]], the most common [[fumigant]] for post-[[harvest]] [[quarantine]] treatment of fruit. Although in theory still permitted for quarantine applications, prices of the fumigant have increased dramatically as a consequence. Some governments and corporations think that irradiation is a legitimate replacement for such fumigants and in consequence some large agricultural nations of the world are currently building irradiation facilities for fresh fruit, although the food industry has been slow to adopt this technology on any large scale.
The United States [[Department of Agriculture]] has approved irradiation technology as an alternative treatment for fruits and vegetables that are considered hosts to a number of [[Tephritidae|fruit flies]] and seed [[weevil]]s. [[Food and agriculture organization of the United Nations|The United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization]] (FAO) have passed a motion to support this step committing the member states to implement this technology for their national [[Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agreement|phytosanitary]] programs.
== Processes ==
While the term irradiation pertains to all forms of treating food products with ionizing radiation, specific types of radiation treatments are used in the food industry today.
===Radurization===
Radurization is the process of pasteurization by the use of radiation. It primarily used to treat foods that have a high moisture content and a high [[pH]]. The microbes that are targeted are mainly spoilage organisms. Meat and fish are the foods for which this process is mainly used. For dryer, acidic foods, [[yeast]]s and [[mold]]s can be denatured. The treatment dose for radurization is approximately 1 kGy.
===Radicidation===
The process of radicidation is used to eliminate [[pathogen]]s. This process kills vegetative cells only, meaning that it will not kill [[spore]]s. Also, certain radiation-resistant vegetative cells can survive, including some strains of the bacterium [[Salmonella]] which have been found to be radiation-resistant. [[Refrigeration]] is required for the product post-treatment. The dose for radicidation ranges from 2.5 - 5.0 kGy. At this level some physical and chemical changes may be detected, depending on the type of food. For example, leafy vegetables such as lettuce are more sensitive to irradiation than foods with a tougher consistency.
===Radappertization===
Radappertization involves treating the product to levels of radiation of approximately 30 kGy. This high level of radiation kills all vegetative cells and also destroys spores from organisms such as [[Clostridium botulinum]]. Such levels are generally deemed suffcient for clinical sterility, but not usually employed on food items. Based on recommendations of the International Consultative Group on Food Irradiation that was formed by the joint FAO/IAEA division many national legislation limit applicable doses to 10kGy for many food items.
== Technologies ==
===Electron beam irradiation===
Electron beam irradiation uses [[electron]]s accelerated in an [[electric field]] to a velocity close to the speed of light. International and national regulations limit the energy of the beam to guarantee that no [[Induced radioactivity|induced radioactivity]] occurs. Electrons have [[cross-section]]s many times larger than photons, so that they do not penetrate the product beyond a few inches, making it necessary to treat fruit and vegetables individually; on the other hand, treatment times are only a few seconds. Electron facilities rely on substantial concrete shields to protect workers and the environment from radiation exposure.
===Gamma radiation===
[[Gamma radiation]] is radiation of [[photon]]s in the gamma part of the [[Electromagnetic spectrum|spectrum]]. The radiation is obtained through the use of [[radioisotope]]s, generally [[cobalt]] 60 or in very few cases [[cesium]] 137. It is the most cost-effective technology and is preferred by many processors because the good penetration enables administering treatment to entire industrial pallets or totes, greatly reducing the need for material handling. A pallet or tote is typically exposed for several minutes depending on dose. The environment is protected by a large concrete shield. With most designs the radioisotope can be lowered into a water storage pool in order to allow maintenance personnel to enter the radiation shield. In this mode the water in the pool absorbs practically all radiation providing a safe working environment for plant personnel. Other not commonly used designs feature dry storage by providing movable shields that eliminate radiation levels in areas of the irradiation chamber.
One variant of gamma irradiators keeps the cobalt 60 under water at all times and lowers the product to be irradiated under water in hermetic bells. No shielding is required for such designs.
===X-Ray irradiation===
Similar to gamma radiation, [[x-ray]]s are a lower-energy substitute for the former. These systems are scalable and have good penetration, with the added benefit of using an electronic source that stops radiating when switched off. They also permit very good dose uniformity. However these systems require a great deal of electrical energy when operating, and exposure times are longer than with gamma rays. Like most other types of facilities, X-Ray systems rely on concrete shields to protect the environment from radiation.
== Public perception==
The effects of food irradiation have been studied for over 60 years. Under certain circumstances some research suggests that irradiation forms new chemicals in food, some of which are uniquely [[Radiolyse|radiolytic]] products. However, the levels of these compounds produced in irradiated foods have been deemed too low to present a meaningful risk to consumers. At very high doses, e.g. >6 [[Gray (unit)|kilogray]], irradiation can reduce the [[vitamin]]s and other [[essential nutrient]]s; and negatively impact the [[flavor]], [[odor]] and [[texture]] of food. At the doses typically used in irradiation treatment of food, e.g. <3.5 kilogray, these changes appear minimal. Independent scientific research on the subject has been extensive leading to endorsement of food irradiation by the [[US Food and Drug Administration]], the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] and the U.N. [[World Health Organization]] as a safe, effective process.
Concerns have been expressed by public health groups that irradiation, by killing all [[bacteria]] in food, can serve to disguise poor food-handling procedures that could lead to other kinds of [[contamination]]. However, processors of irradiated food are subject to all existing regulations, inspections and potential penalties regarding plant safety and sanitization, including fines, recalls and criminal prosecutions.
Others are concerned with the safety of irradiation plants and accidents that have occurred previously. The three recorded accidents on file at the IAEA in the history of irradiation facilities in the world were suffered by individual employees who entered the radiation chamber, disabling all available safety measures.
Based on the intrinsic inability of the techniques used for food irradiation to induce radioactivity into the targets it is impossible for an irradiation facility to release radioactive material into the environment with the processed items. Any problems that might occur are therefore contained in the radiation zone of the installation. Radioactive sources used in irradiators are thermally hot, and the repeated cycling of the source in and out of the shielding pool can cause thermal shocks that may eventually cause breakage of the cladding around the radioactive materials. Although this risk has been eliminated by modern source configuration, this is not commonly a major problem as by far the most common isotope employed is cobalt 60 which is not water soluble making a clean-up relatively simple. An irradiator in the [[Atlanta, Georgia]] area, however, had to be closed after the storage pool became radioactive after a leak of the water-soluble Cesium 137 isotope sources. As a result, the US NRC has banned cesium 137 for in water storage. These concerns do not apply to electron beam, or x-ray irradiators or the most common cobalt 60 facilities, in which the radiation is gone as soon as the source is switched off or in the case of cobalt 60 stored in water.
Activist websites frequently quote the unknown cancer risk of radiolytic byproducts such as 2-dodecylcyclobutanone or 2DCB as a source of concern citing mainly the work of Henry Delincee and Beatrice-Luise Pool Zobel. On several occasions has Dr. Delincee clarified that he does not agree with the interpretation of such activists[http://www.mnbeef.org/opinion_on_the_expert_affidavit_.htm],[http://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/dockets/99f4372/99f-4372-bkg0001-Tab-56-Delincee.pdf]. Furthermore it has been established by the World Health Organization that sufficient research has been conducted to conclude that "based on the current scientific evidence, including the long-term feeding studies, 2-DCB and 2-alkylcyclobutanones in general do not appear to pose a health risk |
t of [[Realpolitik]], Kissinger played a dominant role in [[United States foreign policy]] between 1969 and 1977. During this time, he pioneered the policy of ''[[détente]]'' that led to a significant relaxation in U.S.-Soviet tensions and played a crucial role in 1972 talks with [[People's Republic of China|Chinese]] foreign minister [[Zhou Enlai]] that concluded with the [[History of the People's Republic of China#Reform and opening up|"opening" of China]] and the formation of a new strategic anti-Soviet Sino-American alliance.
Kissinger favoured the maintenance of friendly diplomatic relationships with [[Anti-communism|anti-Communist]] [[military dictatorships]] in the [[Southern Cone]] and elsewhere in [[Latin America]], and approved of covert intervention in [[Chile|Chilean]] politics. He has been accused of complicity and encouragement in the atrocities committed by the [[Proceso de Reorganización Nacional|Argentine military junta]]. Spanish judge [[Baltasar Garzon]] requested that Kissinger answer questions about matters relating to these humans rights abuses, but the U.S. State Department rejected this petition. [http://edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/europe/04/18/spain.kissinger/index.html], [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1329/is_2_29/ai_n6133993/pg_2]
During his time in the Nixon and Ford administrations he cut a flamboyant figure, appearing at social occasions with many of America's most celebrated beauties. His foreign policy record made him enemies amongst anti-war [[liberalism|liberals]] and [[conservatism|conservative]] anti-Communist hawks alike; controversy surrounding Kissinger has by no means receded in the years since.
With the recent declassification of Nixon and Ford administration documents relating to U.S. policy toward [[South America]] and [[East Timor]], Kissinger has come under fire from certain journalists and [[human rights]] advocacy groups, both in the U.S. and abroad. Several have accused him of having committed [[war crimes]] [http://archives.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/europe/04/22/uk.kissinger/]; author/journalist [[Christopher Hitchens]] is perhaps most prominent among the accusers.
==Personal background==
Kissinger was born in [[Fürth]] in [[Franconia]] ([[Bavaria]]) as Heinz Alfred Kissinger into a [[Judaism|Jewish]] family. In 1938, fleeing [[Adolf Hitler]]'s persecution, his family moved to [[New York City|New York]]. Kissinger was [[Naturalization|naturalized]] a U.S. citizen on [[June 19]], [[1943]].
He spent his high school years in the [[Washington Heights]] section of upper [[Manhattan]] but never lost his pronounced [[German (language)|German]] [[Accent (linguistics)|accent]]. Kissinger attended [[George Washington High School]] at night and worked in a shaving-brush factory during the day. While attending [[City College of New York]], in 1943, he was drafted into the army, trained at [[Clemson University|Clemson College]] in South Carolina, and became a German interpreter for the 970th [[Counter Intelligence Corps]].
Henry Kissinger received his [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]] degree ''[[summa cum laude]]'' at [[Harvard College]] in 1950, where he studied under [[William Yandell Elliot]]. Kissinger is rumored to be the only person to receive a perfect [[grade point average]] from Harvard, but in fact he received one B in his senior year. He received his [[Master of Arts (postgraduate)|M.A.]] and [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] degrees at [[Harvard University]] in 1952 and 1954, respectively. His doctoral dissertation was titled ''A World Restored: [[Metternich]], [[Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh|Castlereagh]] and the Problems of Peace 1812&ndash;22''. Kissinger's doctoral dissertation was a continuation of his undergraduate thesis, which at 383 pages prompted the "Kissinger rule" restricting future senior theses to one-third that length (150 pages).
A liberal [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] and keen to have a greater influence on American foreign policy, Kissinger became a supporter of and advisor to [[New York]] [[Governor of New York|Governor]] [[Nelson Rockefeller]], who sought the Republican nomination for President in 1960, 1964 and 1968. After Richard Nixon won the presidency in 1968, he offered Kissinger the job of national security adviser.
With his first wife, Ann Fleischer, he had two children, Elizabeth and David. He currently lives with his second wife; [[Nancy Kissinger|Nancy Maginnes]], in [[Kent, Connecticut]]. He is the head of [[Kissinger and Associates]], a consulting firm.
Kissinger is well known as being a [[New York Yankees]] fan. He is also a great fan of the German soccer club [[SpVgg Greuther Fürth|Greuther Fürth]] from his home town.
==Foreign policy==
[[Image:Nixon and Kissinger.png|thumb|250px|On [[October 31]], [[1973]], Egyptian foreign minister [[Ismail Fahmi]] meets with [[Richard Nixon]] and Henry Kissinger about a week after fighting ends in the [[Yom Kippur War]]]]
Under Nixon, Kissinger served as [[United States National Security Advisor|National Security Advisor]] from 1969 to 1973 and then [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] until 1977, staying on board as Secretary of State under President Gerald Ford following Nixon's 1974 resignation in the aftermath of the Watergate scandal.
===''Détente'' and the opening of China===
As National Security Advisor under Nixon, Kissinger pioneered the policy of ''[[détente]]'' with the [[Soviet Union]], seeking a relaxation in tensions between the two superpowers. As a part of this strategy, he negotiated the [[Strategic Arms Limitation Talks]] (culminating in the [[SALT I treaty]]) and the [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty]] with [[Leonid Brezhnev]], [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|General Secretary]] of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Soviet Communist Party]].
Kissinger also sought to place diplomatic pressure on the Soviet Union; to accomplish this, he made two secret trips to the [[People's Republic of China]] in July and October 1971 to confer with Premier [[Zhou Enlai]], then in charge of Chinese foreign policy. This set the stage for the [[Nixon visit to China 1972|groundbreaking 1972 summit]] between Nixon and Zhou and [[Communist Party of China]] Chairman [[Mao Zedong]] as well as the [[Sino-American relations|normalization of relations]] between the two countries, ending 23 years of diplomatic isolation and mutual hostility and resulting in the formation of a strategic anti-Soviet Sino-American alliance. Today, Kissinger is often remembered by Chinese leaders as "the old friend of the Chinese people." The talks between Kissinger and Zhou were highly secretive; recently declassified documents show that the talk highly focused on the [[Political status of Taiwan|Taiwan issue]]. While Kissinger's diplomacy led to economic and cultural exchanges between the two sides, the establishment of official diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China would not occur until 1979 as the United States continued to recognize the [[Republic of China]] government on Taiwan.
[[Image:Kissinger Mao.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Kissinger, shown here with [[Zhou Enlai]] and [[Mao Zedong]], negotiated the normalization of relations with the People's Republic of China.]]
===Vietnamization and the Cambodian bombing campaign===
Nixon had been elected in 1968 on the promise of achieving "peace with honor" and ending the [[Vietnam War]]. Once in office, he began implementing a policy of Vietnamization that aimed to gradually withdraw U.S. troops while expanding the combat role of the [[Army of the Republic of Vietnam]] (ARVN) so that it would be capable of independently defending [[South Vietnam]] against the [[Viet Cong|National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam]] and [[People's Army of Vietnam|North Vietnamese Army]] (NVA). At the same time, Kissinger, with Nixon's support, played a key role in expanding American bombing campaigns into [[Cambodia]] to target NVA and Viet Cong units launching raids against the South. The bombing campaign was initially secret and ignited significant anti-war protests in the U.S., particularly at university campuses, when it became known. The bombing campaign also inadvertently contributed to the chaos of the [[Cambodian Civil War]], which saw the forces of dictator [[Lon Nol]] unable to defeat the growing [[Khmer Rouge]] insurgency that would emerge victorious in 1975.
Kissinger was awarded the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize along with diplomatic [[North Vietnam]]ese representative [[Lê Ðức Thọ]] for their work in negotiating a ceasefire between the South and the North. Kissinger accepted the award, but Lê declined, claiming that a true peace had not been reached. The ceasefire was broken in 1975 when the NVA invaded and occupied South Vietnam, establishing a united Socialist Republic of Vietnam in 1976 with [[Hanoi]] as its capital.
===The 1971 Bangladesh (East Pakistan) Genocide===
Kissinger has been viewed as complicit in the [[1971 Bangladesh massacres]] by [[Pakistan]] (then [[West Pakistan]]) in [[Bangladesh]] (then [[East Pakistan]]). During the 1971 Bangladesh genocide [http://www.gendercide.org/case_bangladesh.html] an estimated 1,247,000 people were killed over nine months period. Kissinger did not want to upset leaders in Pakistan by intervening, as Pakistan had a key role in opening talks with China at that time. When American diplomats in East Pakistan protested the violence, Kissinger had them demoted or fired. Then he thanked Pakistani General [[Yahya Khan]] for his "delicacy and tact".
In June of 2005 the U.S. state department declassified documents concerning the visit of Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi to the White House. Included in the documents was a transcript of a conversation between Kissinger and President Nixon on the morning of November 5, 1971;
[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/nixon/e7/48529.htm]
Nix |
reased left atrial pressure pushes the ''septum primum'' against the ''septum secundum'', closing the ''foramen ovale'', which now becomes the ''fosse ovalis''. This completes the separation of the circulatory system into two halves, the left and the right.
The ''ductus arteriosus'' normally closes off within one or two days of birth, leaving behind the ligamentum arteriosum. The umbilical vein and the ductus venosus closes off within two to five days after birth, leaving behind the ''[[ligamentum teres]]'' and the ''[[ligamentum venosus]]'' of the liver respectively.
===Developmental problems===
Infants with certain congenital anomalies of the heart can survive only as long as the ductus remains open: in such cases the closure of the ductus can be delayed by the administration of [[prostaglandin]]s to permit sufficient time for the surgical correction of the anomalies. Conversely, in cases of [[patent ductus arteriosus]], where the ductus does not properly close, drugs that inhibit prostaglandin synthesis can be used to encourage its closure, so that surgery can be avoided.
===Differences to the adult circulatory system===
Remnants of the fetal circulation can be found in adults:
*The fetal ''foramen ovale'' becomes the adult ''fosse ovalis''.
*The fetal ''ductus arteriosus'' becomes the adult ''ligamentum arteriosum''.
*The extra-hepatic portion of the fetal left umbilical vein becomes the adult ''[[ligamentum teres hepatis]]'' (the "round ligament of the liver").
*The intra-hepatic portion of the fetal left umbilical vein (the ''ductus venosus'') becomes the adult ''[[ligamentum venosum]]''.
*The proximal portions of the fetal left and right umbilical arteries become the adult umbilical branches of the internal iliac arteries.
*The distal portions of the fetal left and right umbilical arteries become the adult medial umbilical ligaments.
In addition to differences in circulation, the developing fetus also employs a different type of oxygen [[transport protein|transport molecule]] than adults (adults use [[hemoglobin|adult hemoglobin]]). [[Fetal hemoglobin]] enhances the fetus' ability to draw oxygen from the placenta. Its association curve to oxygen is shifted to the right, meaning that it will take up oxygen at a lower concentration than adult hemoglobion will. This enables fetal hemoglobin to absorb oxygen from adult hemoglobin in the placenta, which has a lower pressure of oxygen than at the lungs.
==Legal issues==
===USA===
Since the 1970s in the [[United States]], there has been continuing debate over the "[[fetal personhood|personhood]]" of the fetus before birth, generally in the context of the argument over [[abortion]], which is currently legal in the United States following the case of ''[[Roe v. Wade]]''.
According to legislation which passed the [[United States Senate|US Senate]] in March 2004, an '''unborn child''' is defined as "a member of the species ''[[Homo sapiens]]'', at any stage of development, who is carried in the [[womb]] and who is injured or killed during the commission of a federal crime of violence..". ([http://www.nrlc.org/Unborn_Victims/Key%20Facts%20on%20Unborn%20Victims%20of%20Violence%20Act.pdf Unborn Victims of Violence Act, April 2004])
==Etymology and spelling variations==
The word ''fetus'' originates from the [[Latin]] ''fetus'' meaning "offspring," "act of bearing young," or "is or was filled with young". ''Foetus'' is an English variation on this rather than a Latin or Greek word, but has been in use since at least [[1594]] according to the [[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]], which describes fetus as etymologically preferable but almost unknown in actual use. In general, the medical community only permits the spelling ''fetus'' (preferred by the [[British Medical Journal]], for example), but the spelling ''foetus'' persists in general use, especially in Britain.
==See also==
{{commons|Fetus}}
* [[Fetal development]]
* [[Pregnancy]]
* [[Child]]
* [[Superfetation]]
* [[Neural development]]
* [[Fetoscopy]]
* [[Fetal position]]
* [[Abortion]]
[[Category:Developmental biology]]
[[cs:Fétus]]
[[da:Foster]]
[[de:Fetus]]
[[es:Feto]]
[[eo:Feto]]
[[fr:Fœtus]]
[[it:Feto]]
[[he:עובר]]
[[nl:Foetus]]
[[ja:胎児]]
[[no:Foster]]
[[pl:Płód]]
[[pt:Feto]]
[[ru:Плод (анатомия)]]
[[simple:Fetus]]
[[su:Fétus]]
[[fi:Sikiö]]
[[sv:Foster]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>West Flemish</title>
<id>10874</id>
<revision>
<id>36842757</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T21:09:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sandertje</username>
<id>539414</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''West Flemish''' (in West Flemish, ''Vlaemsch'') is a group of dialects, spoken in parts of the [[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]], and [[France]].
There is a [[dialect continuum]] between West Flemish and some neighbouring [[Dutch (language)|Dutch]] (Flemish) dialects, being called ''[[East Flemish]]'', and many linguists still consider West Flemish a Dutch dialect. The main reason to set it apart is that West Flemish almost totally remained outside the main stream of Dutch regional languages and did not join the central Brabantic innovations at all. This gives West Flemish a somewhat strange character.
West Flemish is spoken by around 1.05 million people in [[West Flanders]] (in Belgium), 90,000 in the neighbouring [[Netherlands|Dutch]] coastal district of [[Zeeuws-Vlaanderen]], and 20,000 in the northern part of the [[France|French]] ''[[département in France|département]]'' of [[Nord]] where it is classified as one of the [[Languages of France]].
The dialects of the Dutch province of [[Zeeland]], [[Zealandic]], are sometimes also classified under ''West Flemish'', but are so much more like [[Hollandic]] Dutch that this is disputed. The dialects of Zeeuws-Vlaanderen however ''do'' count as West Flemish variants, as is stated above. In fact, both [[regional language]]s are linked by a [[dialect continuum]], which proceeds further north into Hollandic.
== See also ==
* [[Flemish dialects]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=VLA Ethnologue report for West Flemish]
* [http://www.uoc.es/euromosaic/web/document/neerlandes/an/i1/i1.html Euromosaic report on West Flemish and Dutch in France]
[[Category:Low Germanic languages]]
[[Category:Languages of France]]
[[Category:Languages of Belgium]]
[[Category:Flanders]]
[[de:Westflämische Dialektgruppe]]
[[fr:Flamand occidental]]
[[nds:West-Vlaams]]
[[nl:West-Vlaams]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fritz Leiber</title>
<id>10875</id>
<revision>
<id>38893468</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T08:36:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bangers</username>
<id>184268</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Added link to oprhan</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Fritz Reuter Leiber Jr.''' ([[December 24]], [[1910]] - [[September 5]], [[1992]]) was an influential [[United States|American]] writer of [[fantasy fiction|fantasy]], [[horror fiction|horror]] and [[science fiction]].
His popularity amongst both fans and his fellow writers was considerable, and his science fiction [[novel]]s ''[[The Big Time]]'' ([[1958]]) and ''[[The Wanderer (Fritz Leiber novel)|The Wanderer]]'' ([[1965]]) and the short stories "[[Gonna Roll the Bones]]" ([[1967]]), about a [[gambler]] playing [[dice]] with [[Death (personification)|Death]], and "Ship of Shadows" ([[1970]]) all won [[Hugo award]]s ("Bones" won a [[Nebula award]] too).
As the child of two [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]an [[actor]]s, Fritz Sr. (see below) and Virginia (n&#233;e Bronson), Leiber was fascinated with the [[theater|stage]] and described itinerant Shakespearean companies in stories like "No Great Magic" and "Four Ghosts in Hamlet", and created an actor/producer protagonist for the novel ''[[A Specter is Haunting Texas]]''. An interesting feature of ''The Big Time'' is that though it is about a [[war]] between two factions changing and rechanging history throughout the Universe, all the action takes place in a small bubble of isolated [[space-time]], about the size of a theatrical stage, with only a handful of characters.
Many of Leiber's best works are short stories, especially [[horror fiction|horror]]. In such stories as "The Girl With the Hungry Eyes", and "You're All Alone" (AKA "The Sinful Ones"), he is widely regarded as one of the forerunners of the modern urban horror story. In his later years, Leiber returned to short story horror in such works as "Horrible Imaginings", "Black Has Its Charms", and the award-winning "The Button Moulder".
Among his most famous works are the ''[[Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser]]'' stories, written over a span of 50 years. The first of these, "Two Sought Adventure", appeared in ''[[Unknown magazine|Unknown]]'' in [[1939]]. They are concerned with an unlikely pair of heroes, Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser, who are found in and around the fascinating city of [[Lankhmar]], a fertile hunting ground. (Fafhrd was based on Leiber himself and the Mouser on his friend Harry Fischer.) These stories were, in fact, the progenitors of many of the [[trope]]s of the [[sword and sorcery]] genre. They are also unique among sword and sorcery stories in that, over the course of the stories, his two heroes mature, take on more responsibilities, and eventually settle down into marriage. It has been noted that [[Terry Pratchett]]'s city of [[Ankh-Morpork]] bears more than a passing resemblance to Lankhmar (wittily acknowledged by Pratchett by the placing of the swordsman-thief "The Brown Weasel" and his giant barbarian comrade in the opening scenes of the first [[Discworld]] novel).
Leiber mar |
/sup> to Fe<sup>2+</sup> to continue the cycle.
:M<sup>3+</sup> <tt>-></tt> M<sup>5+</sup>
The [[gold]] is now separated from the ore and in solution.
The process for [[copper]] is very similar. The mineral [[chalcopyrite]] (CuFeS<sub>2</sub>) follows the two stages of being dissolved and then further oxidised, with Cu<sup>2+</sup> ions being left.
=== Extraction from mixture ===
Copper (Cu<sup>2+</sup>) ions are removed from the solution by [[ligand]] exchange solvent extraction which leaves other ions in the solution. The copper is removed by bonding to a ligand, which is a large molecule consisting of a number of smaller groups each possessing a lone pair. The ligand is dissolved in an [[organic compound|organic]] solvent such as [[kerosene]] and shaken with the solution producing this reaction:
:Cu<sup>2+</sup><sub>(aq)</sub> + 2LH(organic) <tt>-></tt> CuL<sub>2</sub>(organic) + 2H<sup>+</sup><sub>(aq)</sub>
The ligand donates electrons to the copper, producing a complex - a central metal atom (copper) bonded to 2 molecules of the ligand. Because this complex has no charge, it is no longer attracted to [[polar molecule|polar]] water molecules and dissolves in the kerosene, which is then easily separated from the solution. Because the initial reaction is [[reversible reaction|reversible]], and therefore not a [[displacement reaction]], it is determined by pH. Adding concentrated acid reverses the equation, and the copper ions go back into an aqueous solution.
Then the copper is passed through an electro-winning process to increase its purity: an electric [[current (electricity)|current]] is passed through the resulting solution of copper ions. Because copper ions have a 2+ charge, they are attracted to the negative cathodes and collect there.
The copper can also be concentrated and separated by displacing the copper with Fe from scrap iron:
:Cu<sup>2+</sup><sub>(aq)</sub> + Fe<sub>(s)</sub> <tt>-></tt> Cu<sub>(s)</sub> + Fe<sup>2+</sup><sub>(aq)</sub>
The electrons lost by the iron are taken up by the copper. Copper is the oxidising agent (it accepts electrons), and iron is the reducing agent (it loses electrons).
Traces of precious metals such as gold may be left in the original solution. Treating the mixture with [[sodium cyanide]] in the presence of free oxygen dissolves the gold. The gold is removed from the solution by adsorbing (taking it up on the surface) to [[charcoal]].
===Bioleaching with fungi===
Several species of fungi can be used for bioleaching. Fungi can be grown on many different strata like for Electronic scrap, catalytic converters and fly ash from municipal waste incineration. Experiments have shown, that two fungal strains (''Aspergillus niger, Penicillium simplicissimum'') were able to mobilize Cu and Sn by 65%, and Al, Ni, Pb, and Zn by more than 95%.
=== Further Reading ===
*''[[BHP Billiton]]'' - [http://www.imm.org.uk/gilbertsonpaper.htm]
*''Bactech'' - [http://www.bactech.com]
*''T. A. Fowler and F. K. Crundwell'' - 'Leaching of zinc sulfide with Thiobacillus ferrooxidans'
*''[http://www.bioheap.com.au BioHeap]''
*''Brandl H.'' (2001) Microbial leaching of metals. In: Rehm H.J. (ed.) Biotechnology, Vol. 10. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, pp. 191-224
[[Category:Biotechnology]]
[[Category:Mining]]
[[Category:Economic geology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bloomfield, Leonard</title>
<id>4112</id>
<revision>
<id>15902410</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Leonard Bloomfield]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bouldering</title>
<id>4113</id>
<revision>
<id>41927496</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T17:59:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.226.195.75</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>cswiki</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Boulderer.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Boulderer in Fontainebleau, France]]
'''Bouldering''' is a form of [[climbing]] which is undertaken without a rope.
==Description==
'''Bouldering''' is undertaken without a rope and is normally limited in respect to the height the climber ascends the route so that any fall will not risk significant injury. This variation of climbing can be practiced on large [[boulder]]s, at the base of larger rock faces/climbing routes, in indoor climbing centres, or even on manmade structures (see [[buildering]]). It was pioneered by the [[United Kingdom|British]] in the [[1880s]], according to [[John Gill (climber)|John Gill]]'s [http://www128.pair.com/r3d4k7/ website]. For many years, bouldering was only practiced as training for [[climbing|climbers]]. It was first pursued as a sport of its own during the [[1950s]] by Mr. Gill, a former [[gymnast]] who found the movement of bouldering enjoyable.
Typically bouldering is a more high impact sport focusing on individual moves rather than the endurance required in [[traditional climbing]] or [[sport climbing]]. Boulder routes are most commonly referred to as 'problems', because the nature of the climb is often short, curious, and much like problem solving. As in other types of climbing there are entire [[grade (bouldering)|grading systems]] for bouldering alone. The most commonly used grading systems are the John Sherman V-grade system, beginning at V0 and increasing by integers to a current achievement of V15, and the Fontainebleau system which ranges from 1 to 8c+. Both scales are open-ended at the top, and thus the upper grade of these systems increases as boulderers ascend more difficult problems.
To reduce the risk of injury after a fall, climbers rarely go higher than a few meters above the ground (anything over 7 meters is generally considered to be [[free-soloing]] although such climbs might also be termed high-ball bouldering problems). They may also put a [[crash pad]]/[[bouldering mat]] on the ground to break their fall and/or assign a [[spotting|spotter]], a person standing on the ground to prevent the climber from landing badly. The spotter generally works to direct the climbers body toward the crashpad during a fall, while protecting the climber's head from hazards.
The region around [[Fontainebleau]] near [[Paris]] is particularly famous for its beautiful and concentrated bouldering sites. Well known areas include [[Stanage]] (UK), [[Dover Island]] (Canada), [[Hueco Tanks]] (Texas), [[Castle Hill, New Zealand]], and [[Bishop, California]] amongst [[climbing area|others]].
Bouldering is continually gaining in popularity, partly as evidenced by the growth of bouldering areas in indoor climbing gyms and even entire climbing gyms dedicated to bouldering. Children are joining the sport now as well as adults. In fact, studies have found that when you start when you are young you have better climbing skills when you are older due to getting past disadvantages such as height and strength.
==Gear==
;Chalk
:Boulderers use loose, powdered chalk on their hands as a drying agent while climbing. The chalk is stored in a small hand-sized pouch worn on the climber's lower back called a chalk bag.
;Pads
:Boulderers commonly carry a mattress-like object called a crash pad. These are generally 50" x 40" x 3" foam pads with a heavy-duty fabric shell. Crash pads can be folded in half and worn like a backpack. It is opened and placed at the based of a boulder to cover irregularities in the landing and provide some cushion if the climber falls. Often a group of climbers will boulder together, each carrying his or her own crash pad. When using many crash pads together, the landing zones are larger and safer. A crash pad is not a substitute for a human spotter to protect a climber in a fall, and crash pads cannot eliminate all risk of injury.
;Ropes
:Ropes are generally not used in bouldering. Occassionally, a top rope will be to practice a particularly high or dangerous boulder problem; however, many boulderers consider this to be poor form.
;Shoes
:While shoes desgned for technical climbing are not required to participate in bouldering, they can offer the climber a distinct advantage.
;Climbing Walls
:* hand holds
:* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Climbing_Hand_Holds] How to make Climbing hand holds
:* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Build_A_Climbing_Wall] How to build a climbing wall
==List of Bouldering Sites or Gyms==
===Lists by U.S. state:===
<!-- please add links in alphabetical order-->
*[[List of Indiana bouldering sites]]
*[[List of New York bouldering sites]]
*[[List of Pennsylvania bouldering sites]]
*[[List of Rhode Island bouldering sites]]
==External links==
* [http://www.jesenickekameny.cz/ Bouldering in Czech Republic]
* [http://www.ukbouldering.com/ Bouldering in the UK]
* [http://www.javu.co.uk/ Bouldering in Devon, UK]
* [http://www.theshortspan.com/ Bouldering in Ireland]
* [http://www.lakesbloc.co.uk/ Bouldering in the Lake District, UK]
* [http://www.northwalesbouldering.com/ Bouldering in North Wales, UK]
* [http://www.udini.com/ Bouldering in the UK, Germany, the US, NZ and more...]
* [http://www.scottishclimbs.com/ Bouldering in Scotland]
* [http://www.newenglandbouldering.com/ Bouldering in the US]
* [http://www.phoenixboulderingcontest.com/ The largest outdoor bouldering contest in the world]
* [http://ns.bouldering.ca/ Bouldering In Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada]
[[Category:Climbing]]
[[cs:Bouldering]]
[[de:Bouldern]]
[[he:טיפוס בולדרינג]]
[[nl:Boulder]]
[[ja:ボルダリング]]
[[no:Buldring]]
[[pl:Bouldering]]
[[ru:Боулдеринг]]
[[sl:Balvansko plezanje]]</text>
</revision>
</page |
preserve">{{dablink|For the Dakotan town, see [[Corsica, South Dakota]].}}
{{Infobox French Région |
native_name = Collectivité Territoriale de Corse |
common_name = Corse |
image_flag = Corsica flag.png |
flag = (flag)|
image_flag_size = 130px|
image_logo = CorseLogo.jpg|
image_logo_size = 64px|
capital = [[Ajaccio]] |
area = 8,680 |
area_scale = 9 |
Regional president = &sup2; [[Ange Santini]]<br>([[Union for a Popular Movement|UMP]]) (since [[2004]]) |
population_rank = 25th|
population_census = 260,196 |
population_census_year = 1999 |
population_estimate = 272,000 |
population_estimate_year = 2004 |
population_density = 32 |
population_density_year = 2005 |
arrondissements = 5 |
cantons = 52 |
communes = 360 |
départements = [[Corse-du-Sud]]<br>[[Haute-Corse]] |
image_map = Corse map.png |
footnotes=&sup2; The Regional President's title is ''President of the Executive Council'' |
|}}
'''Corsica''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Corse''; [[Corsican language|Corsican]]: ''Corsica'') is the fourth largest [[island]] in the [[Mediterranean Sea]] (after [[Sicily]], [[Sardinia]], and [[Cyprus]]). It is located west of [[Italy]], southeast of [[France]], and north of the island of [[Sardinia]].
Corsica is one of the 26 ''[[région]]s'' of [[France]], although strictly speaking Corsica is called a "territorial collectivity" (''collectivité territoriale'') by law. As a territorial collectivity, it enjoys powers slightly more important than other French ''régions'', but for the most part its status is quite similar to the status of the other French ''régions''. Corsica is referred to as a "''région''" in common speech, and is almost always listed among the other ''régions'' of France. Although the island is separated from the [[continental]] [[mainland]] by the [[Ligurian Sea]], [[Political geography|politically]] Corsica is considered part of [[Metropolitan France]].
Corsica is famed as the birthplace of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoléon Bonaparte]].
==Geography==
Corsica has 1,000km of coastline and more than 200 beaches, as well as being largely mountainous, with [[Monte Cinto]] as the highest peak at 2706m and 50 other summits of more than 2000m.
The island is separated from Sardinia by the [[Strait of Bonifacio]].
Main towns: (''Corsican names'')
:[[Ajaccio]] (''Aiacciu'') &ndash; also known by its Latin name of Ajax
:[[Bastia]] (''Bastia'')
:[[Corte]] (''Corti'')
:[[Sartène]] (''Sartè'')
Other towns and villages:
:[[Saint-Florent, Haute-Corse|Saint-Florent]] (''San Fiurenzu'')
:[[Calvi]] (''Calvi'')
:[[L'Île-Rousse]] (''Isula Rossa'')
:[[Porto-Vecchio]] (''Porti Vechju'')
:[[Bonifacio]] (''Bunifaziu'')
:[[Appietto]] (''Appiettu'')
==Ecology==
[[Image:CorsicaSatellite.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Satellite image of Corsica, December 7, 2001 (NASA image)]]
The island has a [[Mediterranean climate]], with hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. The natural vegetation was [[Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and shrub]]. The coastal lowlands are part of the [[Tyrrhenian-Adriatic sclerophyllous and mixed forests]] [[terrestrial ecoregion|ecoregion]], in which forests and woodlands of [[evergreen]] [[sclerophyll]] [[oak]]s predominate, chiefly [[Holm Oak]] ''(Quercus ilex)'' and [[Cork Oak]] ''(Quercus suber)''. The mountains are cooler and wetter, and home to the [[Corsican montane broadleaf and mixed forests]] ecoregion, which support diverse forests of [[oak]], [[pine]], and broadleaf deciduous trees, with vegetation more typical of northern Europe on the slopes of the highest peaks.
Much of the coastal lowlands has been cleared for [[agriculture]], and grazing and logging have reduced the mountain forests considerably.
The island has a natural park ([[Parc Naturel Régional de Corse]]), which protects thousands of rare animal and plant species. The park was created in 1972 and includes the [[Golfe de Porto]], the [[Réserve Naturelle de Scandola]] (a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]), and some of the highest mountains on the island. This park is protected and cannot be reached on foot, but sumptuous sails are available in order to discover unique landscapes. Two endangered subspecies of hoofed mammals, the [[mouflon]] ''(Ovis aries musimon)'' and [[Corsican red deer]] ''(Cervus elaphus corsicanus)'' inhabit the island; the Corsican red deer is [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]].
==History==
[[Image:Corsica-NapoleonHouse.jpg|thumb|right|The birthplace of Napoleon Bonaparte in Ajaccio]]
Because of the strategic position it occupies in the Mediterranean, Corsica has long been considered significant as a platform for military operations, particularly during the several centuries of violent conflict between Italy and France. During those times, possible unification with the neighbouring island of [[Sardinia]] was seen as a dangerous eventuality by many European states, because it would have given the ruler of the islands a dominant position in the Mediterranean Sea.
The city state of [[Genoa]] held sway over the island for centuries before ceding Corsica to France in [[1768]] to help pay off a debt. An important figure in Corsican history is [[Pasquale Paoli]] (1725-1807), the Corsican general and patriot who struggled for Corsican independence, first against Genoa, then against France. It was essentially with him that the [[Maure|Moor]]'s head ("Testa Maura") became Corsica's emblem in 1760, hearking back to the period when Corsica had been controlled by Moors (850 to 1034).
Corsica is also the birthplace of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]], who was born in [[Ajaccio]], into minor Corsican nobility. Corsica was under French control at the time, and Corsican nobles were offered the ability to gain French titles if they could prove their genealogy sufficiently. In an attempt to do so, Napoleon's parents travelled to court in France, and, like many other Corsican nobles, sent their son to school there.
==Administration==
[[Image:CorsicaMap.jpg|thumb|left|120px|Map of Corsica]]
The capital of the territorial collectivity of Corsica is [[Ajaccio]] (Corsican: ''Aiacciu''). The territorial collectivity is divided in two ''[[département in France|département]]s'': [[Corse-du-Sud]] and [[Haute-Corse]]. These two ''départements'' were created on [[September 15]], [[1975]] by splitting the hitherto united ''département'' of Corse.
Recent attempts to gain greater autonomy for the territorial collectivity of Corsica have failed. A local referendum held in [[2003]], aimed at disbanding the ''départements'' and leaving only the territorial collectivity with extended powers, was voted down by a narrow margin.
==Economy==
Tourism plays a major role in the Corsican economy. The island's pleasant climate, beautiful mountains and breathtaking coastlines make it a popular destination among the French and other Western Europeans. However, the island has not had the same level of intensive development as other parts of the Mediterranean and is thus relatively unspoiled. Tourism is particularly concentrated in the area around Porto Vecchio and Bonifacio in the south of the island and Calvi in the northwest.
==Politics==
Corsica is currently governed almost as any other ''[[région in France|région]]'' of France, as explained in the introduction. There are several movements on the island calling for some degree of Corsican [[autonomy]] from France, or even full [[independence]]. Generally speaking, autonomist proposals focus on the promotion of the [[Corsican language]], more power for local governments, and some exemptions from national [[tax]]es in addition to those already applying to Corsica.
The French government is opposed to full independence, as it would threaten France's unity, but has at times shown support for some level of autonomy. There is support on the island for proposals of greater autonomy, but polls show that a large majority of Corsican are opposed to full independence.
Some groups who claim to support Corsican independence have carried out a violent campaign since the 1970s that includes [[bombing]]s and a few [[assassination]] attempts, usually targeting ''[[Pied-noir|pieds-noir]]s'' and other non-Corsicans, or buildings and officials representing the French government. The peaceful occupation of a ''pied-noir'' vineyard in [[Aléria]] in 1975 marked a turning point when the French government responded with overwhelming force, generating sympathy for the independence groups among the Corsican population. However, events such as the murder of ''[[préfet]]'' [[Claude Érignac]] on [[February 6]], [[1998]] (for which [[Yvan Colonna]] was arrested five years later) have only served to convince many in Corsica, as well as in the French government and the general French public, that Corsican nationalists cannot be trusted with more autonomy. Recent attacks on Muslims have reinforced this opinion.
Some of the independence groups are known to practice [[extortion]] and other [[intimidation|intimidatory]] tactics, not dissimilar from [[mafia]] activity in [[Sicily]] and southern [[Italy]]. Non-Corsican homeowners may be threatened with the destruction of their home, able to be avoided only through paying a ransom. Journalists writing articles critical of the armed groups have sometimes been threatened. Prosecutions are made difficult by a pervasive "law of silence". It is sometimes suggested that such behavior could be directly related to longstanding cultural traditions of banditry in the rugged interior of the island.
In [[2000]], [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]] [[Lionel Jospin]] agreed to grant increased autonomy to Corsica in exchange for an end to violence. The proposed autonomy f |
e to be sung or played on an instrument. Similarly, the notation frequently does not indicate what key to play the music in, if any. Accidentals were not necessary. Notations for rhythm go back only to about 1200. There is thus a speculative element to all modern performances of Medieval and Renaissance music. However, Renaissance musicians would have been highly trained in [[dyadic counterpoint]] and thus possessed this and other information necessary to read a score, "what modern notation [now] requires [accidentals] would then have been perfectly apparent without notation to a singer versed in counterpoint" (ibid). See the article on [[Renaissance music]] and its section on notation and performance.
==See also==
* [[List of early music ensembles]]
==Sources==
*Judd, Cristle Collins. "Introduction: Analyzing Early Music" in Judd, Cristle Collins (ed.) (1998). ''Tonal Structures of Early Music''. New York: Garland Publishing. ISBN 0815323883.
*Bent, Margaret. "The Grammar of Early Music: Preconditions for Analysis" in Judd, Cristle Collins (ed.) (1998). ''Tonal Structures of Early Music''. New York: Garland Publishing. ISBN 0815323883.
==External links==
*[http://www.medieval.org/emfaq/ Early Music FAQ]
** [http://www.medieval.org/emfaq/misc/whatis.htm What is Early Music?]
[[Category:Early music]]
{{Link FA|he}}
[[de:Alte Musik]]
[[fr:Musique ancienne]]
[[he:מוזיקה עתיקה]]
[[hu:Régi zene]]
[[sv:Tidig musik]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Elfenland</title>
<id>10035</id>
<revision>
<id>31168308</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-13T08:17:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nameneko</username>
<id>169784</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */ rv boardgamegeek as linkspam</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Game|
subject_name=Elfenland |
image_link= |
image_caption= |
players= 2&ndash;6 |
ages= 10 and up |
setup_time=< 5 minutes |
playing_time= 60 minutes |
complexity=Easy |
strategy=Medium |
random_chance=Medium |
skills=[[Route|Route planning]]<br>[[Racing]] |
footnotes=
}}
:''For the legendary mystical "Elfland", see [[Álfheim]]''
'''Elfenland''' is a [[German-style board game]] designed by [[Alan R. Moon]] and published by [[Amigo Spiele]] in German and [[Rio Grande Games]] in English in [[1998]].
It won the [[Spiel des Jahres]] in 1998 and the [[Deutscher Spiele Preis]] 3rd place 1998. <br />
It is originally based on his earlier game [[Elfenroads]] (published by [[White Wind]]), but since Elfenroads took about four hours for a good game, the play was simplified to reduce the time closer to an hour, making it appeal better for a family game.
== Gameplay ==
The game is played by 2-6 players, with 4-5 making for the best game.
Each player tries to reach as many cities as possible and then return to his "home city."
Home cities are drawn at the beginning of the game from a pack of city cards and they remain hidden throughout the game.
The game is thus reminiscent of the [[traveling salesman problem]].
Players move using transportation cards.
Elves can travel on a wide variety of vehicles including troll wagons, elf cycles, rafts, giant pigs, unicorns, dragons and [[Magic (game)|magic]] clouds.
Different types of transportation will travel better over different terrain.
There is only one problem: you cannot travel over a route (except water) unless there is a tile of that type on the board. Before anyone can move, tiles are drawn and laid out across the board and this part is the one that calls for the most strategy as players try to line up their tiles to set up a nice route for themselves and try to mess up their opponents at the same time.
As well as normal tiles, each player receives one trouble tile for the length of the game.
These mess up other players by forcing them to use an extra transportation card at that point.
Also, any player can simply use any three cards to pass over any route that has a tile already there.
The game has subtle strategies to make others navigate through the cities.
When a player puts a transportation type you don't want in your path then you have to find a way around it.
All of the aspects of the game make for a very exciting race to visit the most cities while never quite being sure who is winning until the last round.
==Expansion==
There was an expansion for Elfenland published, called '''Elfengold'''.
Note that this is different from the original '''Elfengold''' published by White Wind.
The expansion is, however, hard to find.
[[Category:Board games]]
[[Category:Spiel des Jahres winners]]
[[de:Elfenland]]
[[zh:精靈國度]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Earthworm</title>
<id>10036</id>
<revision>
<id>42146555</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:09:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Canderson7</username>
<id>202193</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/70.251.17.182|70.251.17.182]] ([[User talk:70.251.17.182|talk]]) to last version by WormRunner</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Earthworms
| image = Earth-worm_1.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image2 = lumbricus.jpg
| image2_width = 250px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Annelida]]
| classis = [[Clitellata]]
| subclassis = [[Oligochaeta]]
| ordo = '''Haplotaxida'''
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision =
Suborder [[Haplotaxina]]<br/>
&nbsp; [[Haplotaxidae]]<br/>
Suborder [[Moniligastrina]]<br/>
&nbsp; [[Moniligastridae]]<br/>
Suborder [[Lumbricina]]<br/>
&nbsp; [[Alluroididae]]<br/>
&nbsp; [[Eudrilidae]]<br/>
&nbsp; [[Glossoscolecidae]]<br/>
&nbsp; [[Lumbricidae]]<br/>
&nbsp; [[Sparganophilidae]]<br/>
&nbsp; [[Acanthodrilidae]]<br/>
&nbsp; [[Octochaetidae]]<br/>
&nbsp; [[Exxidae]]<br/>
&nbsp; [[Megascolecidae]]<br/>
&nbsp; [[Microchaetidae]]<br/>
&nbsp; [[Eudrilidae]]<br/>
Suborder [[Tubificina]]<br/>
&nbsp; [[Dorydrilidae]]<br/>
&nbsp; [[Enchytraeidae]]<br/>
&nbsp; [[Naididae]]<br/>
&nbsp; [[Opistocystidae]]<br/>
&nbsp; [[Phreodrilidae]]<br/>
&nbsp; [[Tubificidae]]
}}
'''Earthworm''' is the common name for the larger members of the [[Oligochaeta]] (which is either a class or subclass depending on the author) in the phylum [[Annelida]]. In classical systems they were placed in the order '''Opisthopora''', on the basis of the male pores opening to the outside of body posterior to the female pores, even though the male segments are anterior to the female. [[Cladistics|Cladistic]] studies have supported placing them instead in the '''Haplotaxida''', which also includes the family [[Haplotaxidae]]. Folk names for earthworm include "dew-worm", "night crawler" and "angleworm".
Earthworms are also called '''megadriles''' (or big worms), as opposed to the [[microdrile]]s, which include the families [[Tubificidae]], [[Lumbriculidae]], and [[Enchytraeidae]], among others. The haplotaxids have been traditionally considered microdriles. The megadriles are characterized by having a multilayered [[clitellum]] (which is much more obvious than the single-layered one of the microdriles), a vascular system with true capillaries, and male pores behind the female pores.
==Overview==
There are over 2,200 species known worldwide, existing everywhere but [[Arctic climate|Arctic]] and [[arid]] [[climate]]s. They range in size from two centimeters (less than one inch) to over three meters (almost ten feet) in the [[Giant Gippsland Earthworm]]. Amongst the main earthworm species commonly found in the soil are the red coloured ''[[Lumbricus terrestris]]'', which dwells close to and leaves its deposits on the surface, whilst the greyish blue ''[[Aporrectodea caliginosa]]'' is deeper burrowing.
In temperate zone areas, the most commonly seen earthworms are lumbricids ([[Lumbricidae]]), mostly due to the recent rapid spread of a relatively small number of European species, but there are several other families, e.g. [[Megascolecidae]], [[Sparganophilidae]], [[Glossoscolecidae]], [[Haplotaxidae]], and others. These other families are often very different from the lumbricids in [[behavior]], [[physiology]] and [[habitat (ecology)|habitat]].
==Anatomy==
Earthworms have a closed [[circulatory system]]. They have two main blood vessels that extend through the length of their body: a ventral blood vessel which leads the blood to the posterior end, and a dorsal blood vessel which leads to the anterior end. The dorsal vessel is contractile and pumps blood forward, where it is pumped into the ventral vessel by a series of "hearts" which vary in number in the different taxa. A typical [[Lumbricidae|lumbricid]] will have 5 pairs of hearts. The blood is distributed from the ventral vessel into capillaries on the body wall and other organs and into a vascular sinus in the gut wall where gases and nutrients are exchanged. This arrangement may be complicated in the various groups by suboesophageal, supraoesophageal, parietal and neural vessels, but the basic arrangement holds in all earthworms.
==Dissection==
The classroom [[dissection]] of the earthworm and other animals has become controversial in recent years. One response to this has been the development of online "[http://www.com/mt/archives/2005/02/more_virtual_di.html virtual dissections]".
==Reproduction==
Earthworms are [[hermaphrodite]]s (both female and male organs within the same individual) but cannot fertilize their own eggs. They have testes, [[seminal vesicles]] and male [[pore]]s which produce, store and release the sperm, and |
ntified or devised with the twin objectives of simplicity and completeness, and each typically represents the status and timing of the climate factor they represent. By their very nature, indices are simple, and combine many details into an generalized, overall description of the atmosphere or ocean which can be used to characterize the factors which impact the global climate system. Because the climate indices are generally determined from measurements made in a localized area, they can have impacts in other areas around the globe, through processes sometimes called teleconnections.
References:
*[http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/essay_bond.html Why and how do scientists study climate change in the Arctic? What are the Arctic climate indices?]
*[http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/climate.html Climate index and mode information]
==Classifications==
In the original sense, '''climate''' is a concept used to divide the world into regions sharing similar climatic parameters. Climate regions can be classified on the basis of temperature and [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] alone. Examples of such climate schemes are the [[Köppen climate classification]] or the [[Thornthwaite climate classification]] schemes.
For more details about specific climates, see:
* [[Tropical climate]]
* [[Subtropical climate]]
* [[Desert climate|Arid climate]]
* [[steppe|Semiarid climate]]
* [[Mediterranean climate]]
* [[Temperate climate]]
* [[Oceanic climate]]
* [[Continental climate]]
* [[Alpine climate]]
* [[Subarctic climate]]
* [[Polar climate]]
* [[Climate of Antarctica]]
For the climate of a specific place or area, see the article on that place or area.
==See also==
* [[Climate change]]
* [[Solar variation]]
* [[Temperature extreme]]
* [[Climateprediction.net]] - a [[distributed computing]] project (using, amongst others, [[BOINC]]) to try and produce a [[forecast]] of the climate in the 21st century [http://climateapps2.oucs.ox.ac.uk/cpdnboinc/ Website]
* [[Biome]] - an [[ecology|ecological]] term for a major regional group of distinctive plant and animal communities best adapted to the region's physical environment
==Historical climates==
*[[Climate changes of 535-536]]
*[[Medieval climate optimum]]
==National climates==
*[[Climate of the Alps]]
*[[Climate of India]]
*[[Climate of the United Kingdom]]
==External links==
* [http://climateapps2.oucs.ox.ac.uk/cpdnboinc/ Climate Prediction Project]
* [http://www.worldclimate.com WorldClimate]
* [http://www.atmosphere.mpg.de/enid/1442 ESPERE Climate Encyclopaedia]
* [http://www.weatherbase.com Weatherbase]
* [http://www.climate-zone.com Global Climate Data]
* [http://www.limaperunet.com/climate/climateall.html The Climate of Peru]
* [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/climate.html Climate index and mode information]
* [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/essay_bond.html Why and how do scientists study climate change in the Arctic? What are the Arctic climate indices?]
* [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/detect/ A near-realtime Arctic Change Indicator Website]
* [http://www.beringclimate.noaa.gov/ A current view of the Bering Sea Ecosystem and Climate]
==See also==
* [[How directness of sunlight causes warmer weather]]
== Notes ==
# In "Climatology" by W G Kendrew (OUP; 3rd edition 1949; chapter 38; page 359) we find: "A well-known cycle is one with a mean period of about 35 years... which was worked out by Bruckner... the reality of this cycle seems to be well established, though it is of little use for actual forecasting; it is a basis of the choice of 35 years as the period estimated to give true mean values of climate elements."
[[Category:Climate| ]]
[[Category:Climatology]]
[[Category:Ecology]]
[[af:Klimaat]]
[[bg:Климат]]
[[bn:জলবায়ু]]
[[ca:Clima]]
[[cs:Podnebí]]
[[da:Klima]]
[[de:Klima]]
[[et:Kliima]]
[[es:Clima]]
[[eo:Klimato]]
[[fr:Climat]]
[[gl:Clima]]
[[ko:기후]]
[[hr:Klima]]
[[it:Clima]]
[[he:אקלים]]
[[hu:Éghajlat]]
[[nl:Klimaat]]
[[ja:気候]]
[[no:Klima]]
[[nn:Klima]]
[[oc:Climat]]
[[pl:Klimat]]
[[pt:Clima]]
[[ru:Климат]]
[[simple:Climate]]
[[sk:Podnebie]]
[[sl:Podnebje]]
[[sr:Клима]]
[[fi:Ilmasto]]
[[sv:Klimat]]
[[uk:Клімат]]
[[zh:氣候]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of Comoros</title>
<id>6000</id>
<revision>
<id>41747163</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T13:20:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nick Levine</username>
<id>608324</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv vandal</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{TOCright}}
==Early inhabitants==
Over the centuries, the [[island]]s of [[Comoros]] were invaded by a succession of diverse groups from the coast of [[Africa]], the [[Persian Gulf]], [[Indonesia]], and [[Madagascar]]. Portuguese explorers visited the archipelago in 1505. "[[Shirazi]]" Arab migrants introduced [[Islam]] at about the same time.
==Colonial Rule==
Between [[1841]] and [[1912]], [[France]] established [[colonialism|colonial]] rule over [[Grande Comore]], [[Anjouan]], [[Mayotte]], and [[Mohéli]] and placed the islands under the administration of the governor general of Madagascar.
Until the opening of the [[Suez Canal]], the islands used to be an important refueling and provisioning stop for ships from [[Europe]] to the [[Indian Ocean]].
Later, [[France|French]] settlers, French-owned companies, and wealthy Arab merchants established a plantation-based economy that now uses about one-third of the land for export crops. After [[World War II]], the islands became a French overseas territory and were represented in France's National Assembly. Internal political autonomy was granted in [[1961]]. Agreement was reached with France in [[1973]] for Comoros to become independent in [[1978]]. On [[July 6]], [[1975]], however, the Comorian parliament passed a resolution declaring unilateral independence. The deputies of [[Mayotte]] abstained.
In two referendums, in December 1974 and February 1976, the population of Mayotte voted against independence from France (by 63.8% and 99.4% respectively). Mayotte thus remains under French administration, and the Comorian Government has effective control over only Grande Comore, Anjouan, and Mohéli.
==Coups d'état==
Unstable Comoros has endured 19 coups or attempted coups since gaining independence from France in 1975. Probably many of these coups were orchestrated by France which still maintained substantial interests in the area (especially on Mayotte), although it is hard to find definite proof. [[Bob Denard]] overthrew the government four times.
The second time was in 1978, when president [[Ali Soilih]], who had a firm anti-French attitude, was killed and [[Ahmed Abdallah]] came to power. Under the reign of Abdallah, Denard was commander of the Presidential Guard (PG) and de facto ruler of the country, trained, supported and funded by the white regimes in [[South Africa]] (SA) and [[Rhodesia]] (now Zimbabwe) in return to the permission to set up a secret listening station on the islands. South-African agents had to keep an ear on the important [[ANC]] bases in [[Lusaka]] and [[Dar es Salaam]] and to watch the war in Mozambique, in which SA played an active role. The Comoros were also used for evading arms sanctions.
When in 1981 [[François Mitterrand]] was elected president Denard lost the support of the French intelligence service, but he managed to strengthen the link between SA and the Comoros. Besides the Guard, Denard established his own company SOGECOM, in both the security and building business. He seemed to be pretty rich. In period 1985-87 the relationship of the PG with the local Comorians became worse.
At the end of the 1980s the South Africans did not want to continue to support a mercenary regime and France also wanted to get rid of the mercenaries. Finally, also President Abdallah wanted the mercenaries to leave. Their response was a (third) coup and the death of President Abdallah in which Denard and his men were probably involved. The SA and the French government subsequentially forced Denard and his mercenaries to leave the islands in 1989. [[Said Mohamed Djohar]] became president. His time in office was turbulent, including an impeachment attempt in 1991 and a coup attempt in 1992.
On [[September 28]], [[1995]] Bob Denard and a group of mercenaries took over the Comoros islands in a coup (named operation Kaskari by the mercanaries) against President Djohar. France immediately severely denounced the coup, and backed by the [[1978]] defense agreement with the Comoros, President [[Jacques Chirac]] ordered his special forces to retake the island. Bob Denard began to take measures to stop the coming invasion. A new presidential guard was created. Strong points armed with heavy machine guns were set up around the island, particularly around the islands two airports.
On [[October 3]], [[1995]], 11 PM, the French deployed 600 men against a force of 33 mercenaries and a 300 man dissident force. Denard however ordered his mercenaries not to fight. Within 7 hours the airports at Iconi and Hahaya and the French Embassy in Moroni are secured. By 3:00 pm the next day Bob Denard and his Mercenaries had surrendered. This operation, codename ''Azalée'', was remarkable, because there were no casualties, and just in seven days, plans were drawn up and soldiers were deployed. Denard was taken to France and jailed. Prime minister [[Caambi El-Yachourtu]] became acting president until Djohar returned from exile in January 1996. In March of 1996, following presidential elections, [[Mohamed Taki Abdoulkarim]], a member of the civilian government that Denard had tried to set up in October 1995, became president.
==Secession of Anjouan and Mohéli==
In [[1997]], the islands of [[Anjouan]] and [[Mohéli]] declared their independence from Comoros. A subsequent attempt by the government to reestablish control over the rebellious islands by force failed, and presently the [[African Union]] is brokering |
used to drive the chain, which in turn drives the rear wheel
* [[Crank (mechanism)]], in mechanical engineering, a bent portion of an axle, or shaft, or an arm keyed at right angles to the end of a shaft, by which motion is imparted to or received from it
* in mathematics, used to explain congruence patterns in [[integer partition]]s, as coined by [[Freeman Dyson]]
As a '''colloquial''' term:
* [[Crank (person)]], a person who holds unorthodox opinions, but is alleged to have false or ludicrous beliefs
* Several recreational drugs, including [[amphetamine]] and [[methamphetamine]]
In '''entertainment and media''':
* [[Crank! (magazine)]], a science fiction fanzine edited by Bryan Cholfin
* [[Crank! (record company)]], a record label that released albums by [[Emo (music)|emo]] bands [[Mineral (band)|Mineral]], [[The Gloria Record]], and [[Bright Eyes]]
{{disambig}}
[[es:Manivela]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Clade</title>
<id>6682</id>
<revision>
<id>41646217</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T19:43:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Elijahmeeks</username>
<id>410579</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Stub and categorization status update</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''clade''' is a term belonging to the discipline of [[cladistics]]. For all practical purposes it will usually refer to :
* a branch in a [[cladogram]], which is a diagram in the form of a tree resulting from a cladistic analysis.
* a [[monophyletic]] group of organisms, ''i.e.'' a group of [[organisms]] which share a common ancestor and which includes the ancestor and all the descendents of that ancestor.
Strictly speaking, a clade is a scientific hypothesis of evolutionary relationships among the organisms included in the analysis, based on the data considered in a cladistic analysis. Therefore, it will depend upon the data used to produce it; a particular clade may be supported or disproved by a subsequent analysis using different data.
If a clade proves robust in different analyses using different kinds of data, it may be translated to [[alpha taxonomy|taxonomy]]: it will become a [[taxon]], and may get a formal name and a rank. The idea that all taxa should be clades enjoys widespread support, but it remains controversial. A clade may or may not conform to an existing taxon, and vice versa: see also [[evolutionary grade|grade]].
The [[PhyloCode]] is an attempt at a ''Code'' that would allow clades to get a formal name.
{{evolution-stub}}
{{phylo}}
{{Evolution}}
[[Category:Phylogenetics]]
[[es:Clado]]
[[fr:Clade]]
[[nl:Klade]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Charles I</title>
<id>6683</id>
<revision>
<id>33629328</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-02T19:59:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdrbot</username>
<id>263608</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation: Charles V</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The name '''Charles I''' is used to refer to numerous persons in history:
* Kings:
** [[Charles I of England]], [[Scotland]], and [[Ireland]]
** [[Charles I of France]] (also known as [[Charlemagne]])
** [[Charles I of Spain]] (also known as [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]] of the [[German Empire]])
** [[Charles I of Romania]]
** [[Charles I of Sicily]]
** [[Charles I of Portugal]]
** [[Charles I of Hungary]]
** [[Charles I, Holy Roman Emperor]] ([[Charlemagne]])
* Other:
** [[Charles I, Duke of Bourbon]]
** [[Charles I, Duke of Lorraine]]
** [[Karl of Austria|Charles I, Emperor of Austria]] (also known as [[Charles IV of Hungary|Charles IV]], [[King of Hungary]])
{{disambig}}
[[cs:Karel I. (rozcestník)]]
[[eo:Karolo la 1-a]]
[[es:Carlos I]]
[[it:Carlo I]]
[[ja:&#12471;&#12515;&#12523;&#12523;1&#19990;]]
[[nl:Karel I]]
[[nn:Karl I]]
[[zh:&#26597;&#29702;&#19968;&#19990;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Afghanistan</title>
<id>6684</id>
<revision>
<id>41433683</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T07:36:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>205.250.158.209</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* [[Internet]] */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The following article is about '''Communications in Afghanistan'''.
==[[Telephone]]==
There is one phone line for approximately every 100 people, leaving a total of 33,100 as of [[2002]]. Mobile communications are improving though, because of the introduction of two wireless carriers into this developing country. There are approximately 15,000 [[Cellular phone|cellular lines]] as of [[2002]]. The international calling code for Afghanistan is +93. There are five [[VSAT|VSAT's]] installed in Afghanistan, providing international and domestic voice and data connectivity.
==[[Television]]==
Televisions are somewhat popular however, as there are approximately 100,000 televisions installed in Afghanistan as of [[1999]], with at least 10 television broadcast stations.
==[[Radio]]==
There are 23 [[FM|FM stations]] broadcasting, 21 [[mediumwave|mediumwave stations]], and 1 [[shortwave|shortwave staion]].
==[[Internet]]==
There are approximately 1,000 internet users in Afghanistan as of [[2002]]. Internet access is growing through [[Internet cafe|internet cafes]] as well as public "telekiosks" in [[Kabul]] that are part of a nationwide network proposed by the Transitional Authority for internet access. The country code for Afghanistan is "[[.af]]".
==References==
{{CIA_WFB_2005}}
==External links==
* [http://topics.developmentgateway.org/afghanistan/rc/ItemDetail.do~1003046 Afghanistan Telecom Sector Summary]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/4085955.stm Difficulties of operating media organizations in Afghanistan]
* Some [http://www.satsig.net/ivsat-asia.htm satellite communications] options for internet and voice access.
[[Category:Communications in Afghanistan| ]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Afghanistan]]
[[pt:Comunicações no Afeganistão]]
[[zh:&#38463;&#23500;&#27735;&#36890;&#35759;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Coca Cola</title>
<id>6685</id>
<revision>
<id>15904808</id>
<timestamp>2004-07-03T03:53:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joseaperez</username>
<id>19898</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Coca-Cola]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Christian of Oliva</title>
<id>6689</id>
<revision>
<id>27402831</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-05T00:33:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Aecis</username>
<id>91397</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{bishop-stub}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Christian of Oliva''' was the first [[bishop]] of [[Prussia (Baltic)|Prussia]]. He was a [[Cistercian]] [[monk]] of the [[Abbey|monastery]] of [[Oliwa]] near [[Gdańsk]] at the [[Baltic Sea]], which was founded in [[1178]].
== External links ==
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03704a.htm Article in Catholic Encyclopedia at newadvent.org]
{{bishop-stub}}
[[Category:Cistercians]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic bishops]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Coca-Cola</title>
<id>6690</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42111724</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:19:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kingdom Wealthy</username>
<id>1025178</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
[[Image:CocaCola.gif|right|150px|The official Coca-Cola logo]]
'''Coca-Cola''' is a [[carbonation|carbonated]] [[cola]] [[soft drink]], produced by the [[The Coca-Cola Company]] ([[NYSE]]:KO) of Atlanta, GA. The beverage is widely referred to as '''Coke''', a [[nickname]] eventually trademarked by the company. Coke is one of the world's most recognizable and widely sold commercial [[brand]]s.
Originally intended as a [[patent medicine]] when it was invented in the late 19th century, Coca-Cola was acquired by the businessman [[Asa Griggs Candler]], whose shrewd marketing tactics led Coke to its world-wide soft drink market dominance during the twentieth century. Though beset periodically by critiques of its health effects and by allegations of wrongdoing by the company, Coca-Cola has remained an internationally popular soft drink.
==History==
===Early years===
[[Image:World-of-coca-cola.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Las Vegas]] ''World of Coca-Cola'' museum in 2000]]
[[Columbus, Georgia]] druggist [[John Pemberton|John Stith Pemberton]] invented a [[cocawine]] called [[Pemberton's French Wine Coca]] in [[1884]]. He was inspired by the formidable success of French [[Angelo Mariani]]'s cocawine, [[Vin Mariani]].
The following year, when [[Atlanta]] and [[Fulton County]] passed [[Prohibition]] legislation, Pemberton began to develop a non-alchoholic version of the French Wine Cola. He named it Coca-Cola, because it included the [[stimulant]] [[coca]] [[leaves]] from [[South America]] and was [[Flavouring|flavored]] using [[kola nut|kola nuts]], a source of [[caffeine]]. Pemberton called for 5 ounces of coca leaf per gallon of [[syrup]]. The first sales were made at Jacob's [[Pharmacy]] in [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], on [[May 8]], [[1886]], and for the first eight months only an average of nine drinks were sold each day. Pemberton ran the first [[advertisement]] for the beverage on [[May 29]] that year in the ''[[Atlanta Journal]]''.
Coca-Cola was initially sold as a patent medicine for five [[Cent (currency)|cent]]s a glass. Although Pemberton intended it to be mixed with still water, it was sold at [[soda fountain]]s, which were popular in the [[United States]] at the time thanks to a belief that [[ |
. Such orders are known as Provisional (or Interim) Measures and are analogous to [[interlocutory injunction]]s in domestic law. Article 41 of the statute allows the Court to make such orders. The major legal question that has arisen on such applications is to what extent the Court must be satisfied that it has jurisdiction to hear the merits of the case before granting provisional measures.
===Applications to intervene===
In cases where a third state's interests are affected, that state may be permitted to intervene in the case, and participate as a full party. Under Article 62, a state "with an interest of a legal nature" may apply; however, it is within the Court's discretion whether or not to allow the intervention. Intervention applications are rare - the first successful application occurred in [[1990]].
Once deliberation has taken place, the Court will issue a majority opinion. Individual judges may issue separate opinions (if they agree with the outcome reached in the judgment of the court but differ in their reasoning) or dissenting opinions (if they disagree with the majority). No appeal is possible.
==See also==
*[[UN Economic and Social Council]]
*[[UN Secretariat]]
*[[UN Trusteeship Council]]
*[[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]]
*[[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda]]
*[[List of International Court of Justice cases]]
*[[List of treaties that confer jurisdiction on the ICJ]]
* [[Mundialization]]
* [[Nicaragua vs. United States]]
* [[World citizen]]
==Notes==
<div style="font-size: 90%">
#{{note|1}}[http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/ibasicdocuments/ibasictext/ibasicstatute.htm Statute of the International Court of Justice]. Accessed [[17 December]] [[2005]].
#{{note|2}}See ''Case Concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities In and Against Nicaragua'' (Nicaragua v USA), [1986] ICJ Reports 14, 158-60 (Merits) per Judge Lachs.
#{{note|3}}This occurred in the ''Legality of the Use by a State of Nuclear Weapons in Armed Conflict'' (Opinion requested by WHO), [1996] ICJ Reports 66.
#{{note|4}}''Gulf of Maine Case'' (USA v Canada), [1984] ICJ Reports 53.
#{{note|5}}Schwebel S "Ad Hoc Chambers of the International Court of Justice" (1987) 81 ''American Journal of International Law'' 831.
#{{note|6}}See the ''Nittebohm Case'' (Liechtenstein v Guatemala), [1955] ICJ Reports 4.
#{{note|7}}See [[List of treaties that confer jurisdiction on the ICJ]].
#{{note|8}}''Case Concerning United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran'' (USA v Iran), [1979] ICJ Reports 7.
#{{note|9}}See Charney J "Compromissory Clauses and the Jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice" (1987) 81 ''American Journal of International Law'' 855.
#{{note|10}}See Alexandrov S ''Reservations in Unilateral Declarations Accepting the Compulsory Jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice'' (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 1995).
#{{note|11}}For a complete list of countries and their stance with the ICJ, see [http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/ibasicdocuments/ibasictext/ibasicdeclarations.htm Declarations Recognizing as Compulsory the Jurisdiction of the Court]. Accessed [[17 December]] [[2005]].
#{{note|4}}[http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/ibasicdocuments/ibasictext/ibasicrulesofcourt_20050929.htm Rules of Court of the International Court of Justice 1978] (as amended on [[5 December]] [[2000]]). Accessed [[17 December]] [[2005]]. See also [http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/ibasicdocuments/ibasictext/ibasic_practice_directions_20040730_I-XII.htm Practice Directions I-XII] (as at [[30 July]] [[2004]]). Accessed [[17 December]] [[2005]].
</div>
==Further reading==
*Rosenne S, ''Rosenne's the world court: what it is and how it works'' 6th ed (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2003).
==External links==
*[http://www.icj-cij.org/ International Court of Justice], Official site
*[http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/idecisions.htm List of cases] ruled upon by the ICJ since its creation in 1946
{{United Nations}}
[[Category:International courts]]
[[Category:United Nations]]
[[Category:International law]]
[[Category:International Court of Justice]]
[[ar:محكمة العدل الدولية]]
[[bg:Международен съд]]
[[zh-min-nan:Kok-chè Hoat-têng]]
[[ca:Cort Internacional de Justícia de l'ONU]]
[[da:ICJ]]
[[de:Internationaler Gerichtshof]]
[[es:Corte Internacional de Justicia]]
[[fa:دیوان دادگستری بینالمللی]]
[[fr:Cour internationale de justice]]
[[ko:국제사법재판소]]
[[is:Alþjóðadómstóllinn]]
[[it:Corte Internazionale di Giustizia]]
[[he:בית הדין הבינלאומי לצדק]]
[[kn:ಅಂತರರಾಷ್ಟ್ರೀಯ ನ್ಯಾಯಸ್ಥಾನ]]
[[ka:გაეროს საერთაშორისო სასამართლო]]
[[nl:Internationaal Gerechtshof]]
[[ja:国際司法裁判所]]
[[no:Den internasjonale domstolen]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowy Trybunał Sprawiedliwości]]
[[pt:Tribunal Internacional de Justiça]]
[[sl:Meddržavno sodišče OZN]]
[[sv:Internationella domstolen i Haag]]
[[tl:Hukumang Internasyonal ng Katarungan]]
[[th:ศาลยุติธรรมระหว่างประเทศ]]
[[vi:Tòa án Quốc tế vì Công lý]]
[[zh:国际法院]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ISBN</title>
<id>14919</id>
<revision>
<id>42090766</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:40:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Amaltsev</username>
<id>284107</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>reverting back what seems like an accidental edit</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''International Standard Book Number''', or '''ISBN''' (sometimes pronounced "is-ben"), is a unique{{ref|1}} [[identifier]] for books, intended to be used commercially. The ISBN system was created in the [[United Kingdom]] in [[1966]] by the booksellers and stationers [[W H Smith]] and originally called Standard Book Numbering or SBN (still used in [[1974]]). It was adopted as international standard [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] 2108 in [[1970]]. A similar identifier, the International Standard Serial Number ([[ISSN]]), is used for periodical publications such as magazines.
==Overview==
Each edition and variation (except reprints) of a book receives its own ISBN. The number is either 10 or 13 digits long, and consists of four or five parts:
#if 13-digit ISBN, an [[European Article Number|EAN]] prefix, either 978 or 979
#the country of origin or language code,
#the publisher,
#the item number, and
#a [[checksum]] character.
The different parts can have different lengths and are usually separated by hyphens. Hyphens are not strictly necessary however, since [[prefix code]]s are used, which ensure that no two codes start the same way. If present, hyphens must be placed correctly (instructions are given [http://www.isbn.org/standards/home/isbn/international/hyphenation-instructions.asp here]); however they are not sufficient since different agencies are responsible for allocating different ISBN subranges and a complete, up-to-date list is not available at isbn.org.
The country field is 0 or 1 for English speaking countries, 2 for French speaking countries, 3 for German speaking countries, etc. (The original SBN lacked the country field, but prefixing 0 to a 9-digit SBN creates a valid ISBN.) The country field can be up to 5 digits long; 99936 for instance is used for [[Bhutan]]. See [http://www.isbn-international.org/en/identifiers/allidentifiers.html this complete list].
The publisher number is assigned by the national ISBN agency, and the item number is chosen by the publisher. There is, in general, no requirement for a publisher to assign an ISBN to a book nor for that book to display its number - but see below for the exception in China. However, many bookstores will only deal with items bearing an ISBN.
Publishers receive blocks of ISBNs, with larger blocks going to publishers that are expected to need them; a small publisher might receive ISBNs consisting of a digit for the language, seven digits for the publisher, and a single digit for the individual items. Once that block is used up, the publisher can receive another block of numbers, with a different publisher number. As a consequence, different publisher numbers may correspond to the same publisher.
The [[International ISBN Agency]] [http://www.isbn-international.org/] in its official manual [http://www.isbn-international.org/en/userman/download/ISBNmanual.pdf] states that the 10-digit ISBN [[check digit]], which is the last digit of the 10 digit ISBN, is calculated on a [[modular arithmetic|modulus]] 11 with weights 10 to 2, using X in lieu of 10 where ten would occur as a check digit. This means that each of the first nine digits of the 10-digit ISBN – excluding the check digit itself – is multiplied by a number in a sequence from 10 to 2 and that the resulting sum of the products, plus the check digit, must be divisible by 11 without a remainder.
By this method the calculation for the 10-digit ISBN whose first nine digits are 0-306-40615 would be done thus:
&nbsp; 10×0 + 9×3 + 8×0 + 7×6 + 6×4 + 5×0 + 4×6 + 3×1 + 2×5
= &nbsp;0&nbsp; + &nbsp;27&nbsp; + &nbsp;0&nbsp; + &nbsp;42 + &nbsp;24 + &nbsp;0&nbsp; + &nbsp;24 + &nbsp;3&nbsp; + &nbsp;10
= 130
The next complete multiple of 11 is 12×11 = 132
132 - 130 = 2
So the check digit is 2, and the complete sequence is <nowiki>ISBN 0-306-40615-2</nowiki>.
A second method to find the check digit is by first multiplying each digit of the 10-digit ISBN by that digit's place in the number sequence from 1 to 9, with the leftmost digit being multiplied by 1, the next digit by 2, and so on. Next, take the sum of these multiplications and calculate the sum [[modular arithmetic|modulo]] 11, with "10" represented by the character "X".
For example, to find the check digit for the 10-digit ISBN whose first nine digits are 0-306-40615:
&nbsp; 1×0 + 2×3 + 3×0 + 4×6 + 5×4 + 6×0 + 7×6 + 8×1 + 9×5
= &nbsp;0&nbsp; + &nbsp;6&nbsp; + &nbsp;0&nbsp; + & |
ut never built). Ludgate's engine would be much smaller than Babbage's of about 8 cubic feet (230 L) and hypothetically would be capable of multiplying two 20-decimal-digit numbers in about 6 seconds. [[Leonardo Torres y Quevedo]] and [[Vannevar Bush]] also knew of Babbage's work, though the three inventors likely did not know of each other.
Closely related to Babbage's work on the analytical engine was the work of [[George Stibitz]] of [[Bell Laboratories]] in [[New York]] just prior to [[World War II|WWII]] and [[Howard Aiken|Howard Hathaway Aiken]] at [[Harvard]], during and just after WWII. They both built electromechanical (i.e. relay-and-switch) computers which were closely related to the analytical engine, though neither was (quite) a modern programmable computer. Aiken's machine was largely financed by [[IBM]] and was called the [[Harvard Mark I]].
From Babbage's autobiography:
:''As soon as an Analytical Engine exists, it will necessarily guide the future course of the science. ''
===Fiction===
The [[cyberpunk]] novelists [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]] and [[Bruce Sterling]] co-authored a [[steampunk]] novel of [[Alternate history (fiction)|alternative history]] entitled ''[[The Difference Engine]]'' in which Babbage's difference and analytical engines became available to Victorian society. The novel explores the consequences and implications of the early introduction of computational technology.
==External links==
*[http://www.fourmilab.ch/babbage The Analytical Engine at Fourmilab]
* L. F. Menabrea, Ada Augusta, [http://www.fourmilab.ch/babbage/sketch.html Sketch of the Analytical Engine], Bibliothèque Universelle de Genève, Number 82, October 1842.
* [[Brian Randell|Randell, Brian]], [http://www.cs.ncl.ac.uk/research/pubs/articles/papers/398.pdf From Analytical Engine to Electronic Digital Computer: The Contributions of Ludgate, Torres, and Bush], ''[[Annals of the History of Computing]]'', Volume 4, Number 4, October 1982.
[[Category:History of computing]]
[[Category:Early computers]]
[[Category:English inventions]]
[[Category:One-of-a-kind computers]]
[[Category:Mathematical tools]]
[[Category:Mechanical calculators]]
[[de:Analytical Engine]]
[[es:Máquina analítica]]
[[fi:Analyyttinen kone]]
[[ja:解析機関]]
[[sv:Den analytiska maskinen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Augustus</title>
<id>1273</id>
<revision>
<id>42120054</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:22:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.12.208.244</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Select Bibliography */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Statue-Augustus.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The famous statue of Octavian at the Prima Porta ([[Vatican Museums]])]]
'''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] [[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]]''' ([[Latin]]:<small>Imperator Caesari Divi Filius Augustus</small>) [[#Notes|&sup1;]] ([[23 September]] [[63 BC]] &ndash; [[19 August]] [[14|AD&nbsp;14]]), known to modern historians as '''Octavian''' for the period of his life prior to [[27 BC]], is considered the first and one of the most important [[Roman Emperors]], though he downplayed his own position by preferring the traditional Republic title of ''[[princeps]],'' usually translated as "first citizen". Although he preserved the outward form of the [[Roman Republic]], he ruled as an [[autocrat]] for more than 40 years and his rule is the dividing line between the Republic and the [[Roman Empire]]. He ended a century of [[Civil war|civil wars]] and gave Rome an era of peace, prosperity, and imperial greatness, known as the ''[[Pax Romana]]'', the Roman peace. He was married to [[Livia Drusilla]] for 51 years.
==Early life==
Augustus was born in Rome with the name '''Gaius Octavius'''. His father, also [[Gaius Octavius]], came from a respectable but undistinguished family of the [[equestrian (Roman)|equestrian]] order and was governor of [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]]. Shortly after Octavius's birth, his father gave him the surname of '''Thurinus''', possibly to commemorate his victory at [[Thurii]] over a rebellious band of slaves. His mother, [[Atia|Atia Balba Caesonia]], was the niece of [[Julius Caesar]], soon to be Rome's most successful general and [[Dictator]] for Life. He spent his early years in his grandfather's house near Veletrae (modern [[Velletri]]). In [[58 BC]], when he was four, his father died. He spent most of his childhood in the house of his stepfather, [[Lucius Marcius Philippus]].
In [[51 BC]], aged eleven, he delivered the funeral oration for his grandmother [[Julia Caesaris]]. He put on the ''[[toga virilis]]'' at fifteen, and was elected to the [[College of Pontiffs]]. Caesar requested that Octavius join his staff for his campaign in [[Africa (province)|Africa]], but Atia protested that he was too young. The following year, [[46 BC]], she consented for him to join Caesar in [[Hispania]], but he fell ill and was unable to travel. When he had recovered, he sailed to the front, but was shipwrecked; after coming ashore with a handful of companions, he made it across hostile territory to Caesar's camp, which impressed his great-uncle considerably. Caesar and Octavius returned home in the same carriage, and Caesar secretly changed his will.
==Rise to power==
[[Image:aug11_01.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Bust of Caesar Augustus.]]
When [[Julius Caesar#Assassination|Caesar was assassinated]] in March 44 BC, Octavius was studying in Apollonia, in what is now [[Albania]]. When Caesar's will was read it revealed that, having no legitimate children, he had adopted his great-nephew as his son and main heir. By virtue of his [[adoption in Rome|adoption]], Octavius assumed the name Gaius Julius Caesar. Roman tradition dictated that he also append the surname ''Octavianus'' to indicate his biological family, from which historians derive the name ''Octavian''; however, no evidence exists that he ever used the name ''Octavianus''. [[Mark Antony]] later charged that he had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favors, though [[Suetonius]] describes Antony's accusation as political slander.{{ref|slander}}
Octavian, as he is now conventionally called, recruited a small force in Apollonia. Crossing over to Italy, he bolstered his personal forces with Caesar's veteran legionaries, gathering support by emphasizing his status as heir to Caesar. Only eighteen years old, he was consistently underestimated by his rivals for power.
In Rome, he found Marcus Antonius ([[Mark Antony]]) in control. After a tense standoff, and a war in Gaul after Antony tried to take control of the province from [[Decimus Brutus]], he formed an uneasy alliance with [[Mark Antony]] and [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)|Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]], Caesar's principal colleagues. The three formed a [[junta]] called the [[Second Triumvirate]], an explicit grant of special powers lasting five years and supported by law, unlike the unofficial [[First Triumvirate]] of [[Pompey]], Caesar and [[Marcus Licinius Crassus|Crassus]].{{ref|2ndTri}}
The triumvirs then set in motion proscriptions in which three hundred senators and two thousand ''[[Equestrian (Roman)|equites]]'' were deprived of their property and, for those who failed to escape, their lives, going beyond a simple purge of those allied with the assassins, and probably motivated by a need to raise money to pay their troops.{{ref|pros}}
Antony and Octavian then marched against Brutus and Cassius, who had fled to the east. At [[Philippi]] in [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]], the Caesarian army was victorious and Brutus and Cassius committed [[suicide]] ([[42 BC]]). While Octavian returned to Rome, Antony went to [[Egypt]] where he allied himself with Queen [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]], the ex-lover of Julius Caesar and mother of Caesar's infant son, [[Caesarion]].
While in Egypt, Antony had an affair with Cleopatra that resulted in the birth of three children, [[Alexander Helios]], [[Cleopatra Selene (II)|Cleopatra Selene]], and [[Ptolemy Philadelphus (Cleopatra)|Ptolemy Philadelphus]]. Antony later left Cleopatra to make a strategic marriage with Octavian's sister [[Octavia]] in [[40 BC]]. During their marriage Octavia gave birth to two daughters, both named [[Antonia]]. In [[37 BC]] Antony deserted Octavia and went back to Egypt to be with Cleopatra. The Roman dominions were then divided between Octavian in the west and Antony in the east.
Antony occupied himself with military campaigns in the east and a romantic affair with Cleopatra; Octavian built a network of allies in Rome, consolidated his power, and spread [[propaganda]] implying that Antony was becoming less than Roman because of his preoccupation with Egyptian affairs and traditions. The situation grew more and more tense, and finally, in [[32 BC]], Octavian declared war. It was quickly decided: in the bay of [[Battle of Actium|Actium]] on the western coast of Greece, after Antony's men began deserting, the fleets met in a great battle in which many ships burned and thousands on both sides lost their lives. Octavian defeated his rivals who then fled to Egypt. He pursued them, and after another defeat, Antony committed suicide. Cleopatra also committed suicide after her upcoming role in Octavian's triumph was "carefully explained to her" and [[Caesarion]], the supposed son of Julius Caesar by Cleopatra, was "butchered without compunction". Augustus supposedly said "two Caesars are one too many" as he ordered Caesarion's death.{{ref|suicide}}. It is said that Cleopatra used a snake to kill herself.
==Octavian becomes Augustus: the creation of the Principate==
[[Image:Caesar augustus.jpg|right|thumb|200px|<small>Augustus as a magistrate</small>]]
The Western half of the Empire had sworn allegiance to Octavian prior to Actium in [[30 BC]], and after Actium and the defeat of Antony |
ename=Bassoon-technical-fluttertongue.ogg|title=Flutter tonguing|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
=== Solo music ===
{{multi-listen item|filename=Bassoon_beethoven.ogg|title=1st movement|description=Bassoon performance from [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]'s 4th Symphony|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Bassoon_rimsky.ogg|title=''Scheherezade''|description=Bassoon solo composed by [[Rimsky-Korsakov]]|format=[[Ogg]]}}
=== Ensemble music ===
{{multi-listen item|filename=Josquin Des Prez-Tu Pauperum Refugium.ogg|title=Tu Pauperum Refugium|description=Four bassoon ensemble performing from [[Josquin Des Prez]]'s Magnus es tu, Domine|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}
<br style="clear:both;">
==Notable bassoonsists==
* [[Étienne Ozi]] (1754&ndash;1813): [[bassoonist]], [[composer]], [[pedagogue]]
* [[Carl Almenräder]] (1786&ndash;1843): bassoonist, instrument designer, composer
* [[Louis Marie Eugène Jancourt]] (1815&ndash;1900): bassoonist, composer, pedagogue, instrument designer
* [[Julius Weissenborn]] (1837-1888): bassoonist, composer, pedagogue
* [[Archie Camden]] (1888&ndash;1979): bassoonist, pedagogue
* [[Simon Kovar]] (1890&ndash;1970): bassoonist, arranger, pedagogue
* [[Sol Schoenbach]] (1915&ndash;1999): bassoonist, pedagogue, Philadelphia Orchestra principal preceding Bernard Garfield
* [[Leonard Sharrow]] (1915&ndash;2004): bassoonist, pedagogue
* [[Maurice Allard]] (1923&ndash;): bassoonist, arranger
* [[Sherman Walt]] (1923-1989): bassoonist, pedagogue, [[Boston Symphony Orchestra]] principal 1953&ndash;1989.
* [[Mordechai Rechtman]] (1925&ndash;): bassoonist, pedagogue, arranger, conductor, [[Israel Philharmonic]] principal for 45 years
* [[Bernard Garfield]] (1928&ndash;): bassoonist, pedagogue, [[Philadelphia Orchestra]] principal 1957&ndash;2000.
* [[William Waterhouse]] (1931&ndash;): bassoonist, pedagogue, [[Royal Northern College of Music]]
* [[Walter Ritchie]] (1936–): bassoonist, pedagogue, [[Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra]]
* [[Judith LeClair]] (1958-): bassoonist, pedagogue, [[New York Philharmonic]] principal
==References==
* "The Double Reed" (currently three issues per year), I.D.R.S. Publications (see [http://www.idrs.org www.idrs.org])
* "Journal of the International Double Reed Society" (annual since about 1972), I.D.R.S. Publications
* Baines, Anthony (ed.), ''Musical Instruments Through the Ages'', Penguin Books, 1961
* Langwill, Lyndesay G., "The Bassoon and Contrabassoon", W. W. Norton & Co., 1965
* Popkin, Mark and Glickman, Loren, "Bassoon Reed Making", The Instrumentalist Publishing Company, 2nd ed., 1987
* Sadie, Stanley, ed., "The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments", s.v. "Bassoon", 2001
* Spencer, William (rev. Mueller, Frederick), "The Art of Bassoon Playing", Summy-Birchard Inc., 1958
* Stauffer, George B. (1986). "The Modern Orchestra: A Creation of the Late Eighteenth Century". In Joan Peyser (Ed.) ''The Orchestra: Origins and Transformations'' pp. 41-72. Charles Scribner's Sons.
* Weaver, Robert L. (1986). "The Consolidation of the Main Elements of the Orchestra: 1470-1768". In Joan Peyser (Ed.) ''The Orchestra: Origins and Transformations'' pp. 7-40. Charles Scribner's Sons.
==External links==
*[http://www.wfg.woodwind.org/bassoon/ Bassoon fingering guide]
==See also==
*[[Tenoroon]]
[[Category:Woodwind instruments]]
{{link FA|de}}
[[de:Fagott]]
[[es:Fagot]]
[[fa:فاگوت]]
[[fr:Basson]]
[[gd:Torm-fheadan]]
[[gl:Fagot]]
[[ko:바순]]
[[hr:Fagot]]
[[it:Fagotto]]
[[he:בסון]]
[[nl:Fagot]]
[[ja:ファゴット]]
[[pl:Fagot]]
[[pt:Fagote]]
[[ru:Фагот]]
[[sl:Fagot]]
[[sr:Фагот]]
[[fi:Fagotti]]
[[sv:Fagott]]
[[vi:Kèn dăm kép]]
[[zh:巴松管]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>B-52 Stratofortress</title>
<id>4209</id>
<revision>
<id>42063927</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:39:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>204.108.8.5</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|B-52}}
[[image:usaf.b52.750pix.jpg|300px|thumb|right|float|A B-52 in flight.]]
The '''[[Boeing]] B-52 Stratofortress''' is a long-range [[strategic bomber]] flown by the [[United States Air Force]] (USAF) since [[1954]], replacing the [[Convair B-36]] and the [[B-47 Stratojet|Boeing B-47]]. Although built for the role of [[Cold War]]-era nuclear deterrent, its conventional capabilities are these days the more important role in USAF operations, where its long range, heavy weapons load and comparatively economical operation are highly valued.
==Mission==
Air Combat Command's B-52 is a long-range heavy bomber that can perform a variety of missions. The bomber is capable of flying at high subsonic speeds at altitudes up to 50,000 feet (15 km). It can carry a variety of weapons, including [[nuclear weapon|nuclear]] or conventional [[precision-guided munition]] and has the capability to navigate the world precisely. It was originally designed to carry just two enormous [[thermonuclear weapons]] to any point in the [[USSR]].
==Background==
For more than 50 years, the B-52 Stratofortress has been the backbone of the manned strategic bomber force for the United States. The B-52 is capable of dropping or launching a wide array of weapons in the U.S. inventory, including free-fall ([[gravity bomb]]s), [[cluster bomb]]s, and precision guided [[ordnance]] such as [[Joint Direct Attack Munition]]s. When updated with the latest technology, the B-52 will be capable of delivering the full complement of joint developed weapons; allowing it to continue well into the 21st century as an important element of U.S. military capabilities. Current engineering analyses show the B-52's life span to extend beyond the year [[2045]].
[[Image:USAF YB52.jpg|thumb|300px|The YB-52 prototype. Note bubble canopy similar to that on the [[B-47 Stratojet|B-47]].]]
[[Image:B-52 landing.jpg|thumb|300px|A B-52H Stratofortress deploying its drag chute for landing.]]
Two B-52 prototypes were built, and were designated '''XB-52''' and '''YB-52'''. In actuality, both aircraft were almost identical, but the YB-52 incorporated enough changes to warrant a different designation. The most notable difference between the prototypes and the B-52A was that the X and Y aircraft used a tandem cockpit for the pilot and co-pilot, very similar to that on the B-47. The cockpit for the B-52A was completely redesigned due to the insistence of General [[Curtis LeMay]], Commander of the [[Strategic Air Command]], who was opposed to the tandem seating arrangement. Although the XB-52 was the first prototype to be completed and rolled out, the YB-52 was the first to fly - on April 15, 1952 - due to damage on the XB-52's wing trailing edges caused by a hydraulic system failure. The XB-52 eventually flew for the first time on October 2, 1952. Unfortunately, both aircraft were scrapped in the mid-1960s, though the YB-52 was available for viewing in the USAF Museum from the late '50s until the time when it was decided to scrap it.
The B-52A first flew in August [[1954]] and the B model entered service in [[1955]]. A total of 744 B-52s were built with the last, a B-52H, delivered in October [[1962]]. Only the H model is still in the Air Force inventory and is assigned to Air Combat Command and the Air Force Reserves. The oldest B-52 still flying was a B-52B that was built in [[1955]], though it also has the fewest flight hours of any surviving B-52. It was operated by [[NASA]]'s [[Dryden Flight Research Center]] and was used for drop tests of various research aircraft until its retirement on [[December 17]], [[2004]]. On [[July 30]], [[2001]], Dryden received a B-52H that is expected to fully replace the older B-model aircraft by the end of [[2004]].
The first of 102 B-52H's was delivered to [[Strategic Air Command]] in May [[1961]]. The H model can carry up to 20 air launched cruise missiles. In addition, it can carry the conventional [[cruise missile]] that was launched in several contingencies during the 1990s, starting with [[Operation Desert Storm]] and culminating with [[Operation Allied Force]] in the spring of [[1999]].
The threat of B-52 attacks motivated the Soviet Union back down from its threat to deploy nuclear-armed missiles to [[Cuba]] in the [[1962]] [[Cuban Missile Crisis]].
For duty in Vietnam, the B-52D/E/F received the "Big Belly" modification which enabled the aircraft to squeeze 108 500-pound conventional [[bombs]] into the bomb bay, as well as 28 750-pound bombs on underwing pylons.
==Alert Duty==
A proportion of the B-52 force was kept fuelled, crewed and loaded with nuclear weapons so that it could take off on a few minutes' notice. The plan was to get the aircraft away from their bases, which would have been destroyed by incoming enemy missile warheads. The B-52s would have escaped and headed toward their targets. Along the way, each B-52 would have met at least one [[KC-135 Stratotanker]]. KC-135 tanker aircraft would have refueled the bombers, even at the cost of their own fuel supplies. Every drop of fuel would have been given to the bombers, thus sacrificing the tankers to ensure the mission would succeed.
Early on, high-altitude bombing attacks over the Soviet Union were considered possible. B-52s carried [[ADM-20 Quail]] [[decoys]], which emulated the B-52s flight characteristics, flying through enemy territory emitting B-52-like electronic signals. However, in the late 1950s and 1960s, Soviet high-altitude air defenses improved. To counter this, B-52 crews were trained to launch their unmanned missiles such as the [[hypersonic]] AGM-69 [[AGM-69 SRAM|Short Range Attack Missile]] and then fly "below the radar" attacks at nearly tree top level.
B-52s also performed airborne alert duty under the code-name "Chrome Dome" where bombers would loiter ne |
rities were in settling and strengthening its claim on New France and the exploration and settlement of interior North America and the [[Mississippi River]] valley.
===1713 - 1745===
Further French-English conflict resulted in the [[Treaty of Utrecht (1713)|Treaty of Utrecht]] in [[1713]] which saw France formally relinquish [[Acadia]] to [[United Kingdom|Britain]]. Confusion over the boundaries between Acadia, New France, and the [[Massachusetts|Commonwealth of Massachusetts]] left Britain in possession of what is present-day mainland Nova Scotia. The early British capital of the Colony of Nova Scotia (sometimes referred to as the ''14th Colony'') was established at Annapolis Royal, where [[Fort Anne]] was constructed.
France still maintained control over much of present-day New Brunswick and northern [[Maine]], [[Prince Edward Island|Ile-Saint-Jean]], and [[Cape Breton|Ile-Royale]]. In [[1719]], to further protect strategic interests in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and St. Lawrence River, France began the 20-year construction of a large [[fortress]] at [[Fortress Louisbourg|Louisbourg]] on Ile-Royale. Massachusetts was increasingly concerned over reports of the capabilities of this fortress, and of [[privateer|privateers]] staging out of its harbour to raid New England fishermen on the Grand Banks. The [[War of the Austrian Succession]] saw Britain and France in conflict with each other, and in [[1745]] several [[warship]]s and a small contingent of troops were sent from Boston, first to the Nova Scotian fishing port of [[Canso, Nova Scotia|Canso]], and on to Louisbourg where they laid siege to the fortress until the French surrendered and were evacuated.
===1745 - 1763===
The British returned control of Ile-Royale to France with the fortress virtually intact three years later under the [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle]] and the French reestablished their forces there. In [[1749]], to counter the rising threat of Louisbourg, Halifax was founded and the [[Royal Navy]] established a major naval base and [[Citadel Hill|citadel]].
The [[Seven Years' War]] from [[1756]] to [[1763]] was the final struggle for European domination of North America. The [[French colony]] of New France was the objective and the present-day Maritime provinces saw conflict beginning in [[1755]] with the British capture of French forces at [[Fort Beausejour]] and [[Fort Gaspereau]], guarding the Isthmus of Chignecto. In [[1758]], the fortress of Louisbourg was laid siege for a second time within 15 years, this time by in excess of 27,000 British soldiers and sailors with over 150 warships. After the French surrender, Louisbourg was thoroughly destroyed by British engineers to ensure it would never be reclaimed. With the fall of Louisbourg, French resistance in the region crumbled. British forces seized remaining French control over Acadia in the coming months, with Ile-Saint-Jean falling in [[1759]] to British forces on their way to [[Quebec City, Quebec|Quebec City]] for the Siege of Quebec and ensuing [[Battle of the Plains of Abraham]].
It was also during the course of this war that British administrators in Nova Scotia began the expulsion of the [[Acadians|Acadians]] from their adopted homeland. Some Acadian families, and sometimes entire communities, escaped British soldiers tasked with their deportation, by hiding for years in hidden forest settlements, aided by the [[Mi'kmaq]] First Nations. These Acadians during the [[19th century]] created new settlements in western Nova Scotia, southwestern and northwestern Cape Breton Island, and western Prince Edward Island, but their most significant concentration was along the New Brunswick shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
===1763 - 1784===
Following the [[Seven Years' War]], empty Acadian lands were settled first by [[New England Planters]] and then by immigrants brought from [[Yorkshire Emigration to Nova Scotia|Yorkshire]]. Ile-Royale was renamed to Cape Breton Island and incorporated into the Colony of Nova Scotia at this time. Both the colonies of Nova Scotia (present-day Nova Scotia and New Brunswick) and St. John's Island (Prince Edward Island) were impacted during the [[American War of Independence]], largely by privateering against American shipping, but several coastal communities were also the targets of American raiders.
The most significant impact from this war were the settling of [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalist]] refugees. Following the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] in [[1783]], Loyalists persuaded Britain to split the Colony of Nova Scotia to create the neighbouring Colony of [[New Brunswick]] in [[1784]]. At the same time, another part of the Colony of Nova Scotia, Cape Breton Island, was split off to become the Colony of Cape Breton Island.
===1784 - 1814===
The Colony of St. John's Island was renamed to [[Prince Edward Island]] in [[1798]].
The [[War of 1812]] had some impact on the shipping industry in the Maritime colonies of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Cape Breton Island; however, the significant [[Royal Navy]] presence in Halifax and other ports in the region prevented any serious attempts by American raiders. Maritime and American [[privateer|privateers]] targeted unprotected shipping of both the United States and Britain respectively, further reducing trade. The American border with New Brunswick did not have any significant action during this conflict, although British forces did occupy a portion of coastal [[Maine]] at one point. The most significant incident from this war which occurred in the Maritimes was the British capture and detention of the American frigate ''USS Chesapeake'' in Halifax.
===1814 - 1865===
In [[1820]], the Colony of Cape Breton Island was merged back into the Colony of Nova Scotia for the second time by the British government.
British settlement of the Maritimes, as the colonies of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island came to be known, accelerated throughout the late [[18th century]] and into the [[19th century]] with significant immigration to the region as a result of [[Scotland|Scottish]] migrants displaced by the [[Highland Clearances]] and [[Irish diaspora|Irish]] escaping the [[Irish potato famine|potato famine]]. As a result, significant portions of the three provinces are influenced by [[Celt|Celtic]] heritages, with [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]] having been widely spoken, particularly in [[Cape Breton]], although it is less prevalent today.
The [[American Civil War]] saw some Maritimers emigrate to the United States for participating in military service. However, the majority of the conflict's impact was felt in the shipping industry since diplomatic tensions between [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and the [[U.S. Northern states|Unionist North]] had deteriorated after Britain expressed support for the secessionist [[Confederate States of America|Confederate South]]. The Union navy, although much smaller than the Royal Navy, did posture off Maritime coasts at times. Although an amphibious invasion was never in question, blockading by Union naval forces was relatively common, particularly at Halifax, where Confederate navy ships sought refuge and reprovisioning.
The immense size of the Union army (the largest on the planet toward the end of the Civil War), however, was viewed with increasing concern by Maritimers throughout the early [[1860s]]. Another concern was the rising threat of [[Fenian]] raids on border communities in [[New Brunswick]] by those seeking to end British rule of [[Ireland]]. This combination of events, coupled with an ongoing decline in British military and economic support to the region as the Home Office favoured newer colonial endeavours in Africa and elsewhere, led to a call among Maritime politicians for a conference on [[Maritime Union]], to be held in early [[September]], [[1864]] in [[Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island|Charlottetown]] - chosen in part because of Prince Edward Island's reluctance to give up its jurisdictional sovereignty in favour of uniting with New Brunswick and Nova Scotia into a single colony. New Brunswick and Nova Scotia felt that if the union conference were held in Charlottetown, they might be able to convince Island politicians to support the proposal.
The [[Charlottetown Conference]], as it came to be called, was also attended by a slew of visiting delegates from the neighbouring colony of [[United Province of Canada|Canada]], who had largely arrived at their own invitation with their own agenda. This agenda saw the conference dominated by discussions of creating an even larger union of the entire territory of [[British North America]] into a single new nation. The Charlottetown Conference ended with an agreement to meet the following month in [[Quebec City]], whereby more formal discussions ensued, culminating with meetings in [[London]] and the signing of the [[British North America Act]]. Only Nova Scotia and New Brunswick were initially party to the BNA Act, Prince Edward Island's reluctance, combined with a booming agricultural and fishing export economy having led to that colony opting not to sign on.
===1865 - 1873===
New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were two of the original four provinces to enter into [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation]] on [[July 1]], [[1867]] while Prince Edward Island entered on [[July 1]], [[1873]].
==See also==
*[[Atlantic Canada]]
*[[Central Canada]]
*[[List of regions of Canada]]
*[[Maritime Film Classification Board]]
==External links==
*[http://www2.marianopolis.edu/quebechistory/federal/maritime.pdf The Maritime Provinces, the Maritime Rights Movement and Canadian Federalism]
*[http://www.apec-econ.ca Atlantic Provinces Economic Council]
*[http://www.umoncton.ca/icrdr/fs_act_pub_colmar_etat_en.html "Maritime Series - State of the Regions," Canadian Institute for Research on Regional Development]
*[http://www.aims.ca Atlantic Institute of Market Stu |
does prove certain impossibility results, including an incompleteness theorem similar in spirit to [[Gödel's incompleteness theorem]]; see [[Kolmogorov complexity]] for details.
The Berry paradox was proposed by [[Bertrand Russell]] (Russell, 1906). He attributed it to [[G. G. Berry]] of the [[Bodleian library]] (c.f. Russell and Whitehead 1910), who had suggested the idea of considering the paradox associated to the expression "the first undefinable [[ordinal number|ordinal]]".
== Resolution of the paradox ==
It is generally accepted that the Berry paradox and other similar paradoxes (such as the [[Richard's paradox]]) result from interpreting sets of possibly self-referential expressions. According to (Russell and Whitehead, 1910) these paradoxes "embody vicious circle fallacies". To resolve one of these paradoxes means to pinpoint exactly where our use of language went wrong and to provide restrictions on the use of language which may avoid them.
Note that some Berry type expressions present only minor problems of interpretation:
* ''The smallest positive integer not nameable in under two words.''
under reasonable definitions of English denotes 21, since "twenty one" is two words and any indirect definition of the number (such as "the number of dots on a six sided die", or indeed "the smallest positive integer not nameable in under two words") is necessarily two or more words long.
However, Berry's paradox ''can'' be forced into a formal system. Boolos used a specific formalization to provide an alternate proof of [[Godel's Incompleteness Theorem]]. The basic idea of the proof is that a [[proposition]] that holds of x if x=n for some natural number n can be called a "name" for x, and that the set {(n,k): the natural number n has a name that is k symbols long} can be shown to be representable (using G&ouml;del numbers). Then the proposition "m is the first number not nameable in under k symbols" can be formalized and shown to be a name.
==References==
* Charles H. Bennett, ''On Random and Hard-to-Describe Numbers'', IBM Report RC7483 (1979) <br>http://www.research.ibm.com/people/b/bennetc/Onrandom.pdf
* George Boolos, ''A new proof of the G&ouml;del Incompleteness Theorem.'' ''Notices of the American Mathematical Society'', 36(4), pp. 388-390.
* Bertrand Russell, ''Les paradoxes de la logique'', Revue de métaphysique et de morale, vol 14, pp 627-650
* Bertrand Russell and Alfred N. Whitehead, ''Principia Mathematica'', Cambridge University Press/ A paperback reissue up to *56 was published in 1962.
== See also ==
* [[Definable number]]
* [[Busy beaver]]
==External links==
* http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/CDMTCS/chaitin/unm2.html A discussion by [[Gregory Chaitin]]
* http://www.cs.yorku.ca/~peter/Berry.html
* http://mathworld.wolfram.com/BerryParadox.html The entry for the Berry paradox at [[Wolfram Research|Wolfram Research's]] [[MathWorld]]
* http://www.hgsc.bcm.tmc.edu/~kdurbin/texts/alg.info.chiatin.html
[[Category:Paradoxes]]
[[he:&#1492;&#1508;&#1512;&#1491;&#1493;&#1511;&#1505; &#1513;&#1500; &#1489;&#1512;&#1497;]]
[[ja:&#12505;&#12522;&#12540;&#12398;&#12497;&#12521;&#12489;&#12483;&#12463;&#12473;]]
[[pl:Paradoks nieciekawej liczby]]
[[it:Paradosso di Berry]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Big Briar</title>
<id>5037</id>
<revision>
<id>15903280</id>
<timestamp>2005-03-19T03:24:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.13.89.235</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Moog Music]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Olympic medalists in biathlon</title>
<id>5038</id>
<revision>
<id>42057300</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:36:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wernher</username>
<id>19431</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Relay (4&times;7.5/6 km) */ romanization corrections</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Olympic [[biathlon]] competitions were first held at the [[1960 Winter Olympic Games]], when only one event, the individual race for men, was held. Women's events were not included until [[1992]].
==Men==
''See the [[List of IOC country codes]] for expansions of country abbreviations.''
===Individual (20 km)===
This event was first held in [[1960]].
{| class="wikitable" cellspacing="1"
! Year
! style="background:gold" width="180" | Gold
! style="background:silver" width="180" | Silver
! style="background:#cc9966" width="180" | Bronze
|-
|1960
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Klas Lestander]]|SWE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Antti Tyrväinen]]|FIN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Privalov]]|URS}}
|-
|1964
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vladimir Melanin]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Privalov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olav Jordet]]|NOR}}
|-
|1968
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magnar Solberg]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Tikhonov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vladimir Gundartsev]]|URS}}
|-
|1972
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magnar Solberg]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Hansjörg Knauthe]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Lars-Göran Arwidsson]]|SWE}}
|-
|1976
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Nikolay Kruglov Sr.]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Heikki Ikola]]|FIN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Elisarov]]|URS}}
|-
|1980
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anatoliy Alyabyev]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Ullrich]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eberhard Rösch]]|GDR}}
|-
|1984
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Peter Angerer]]|FRG}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank-Peter Rötsch]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eirik Kvalfoss]]|NOR}}
|-
|1988
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank-Peter Rötsch]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Valeriy Medvedtsev]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Johann Passler]]|ITA}}
|-
|1992
<!--|{{flag athl iocc|[[Evgeniy Redkin]]|EUN}}-->
|[[Image:olympic-rings.png|22px]] [[Evgeniy Redkin]] ([[Unified Team|EUN]])
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Mark Kirchner]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Mikael Löfgren]]|SWE}}
|-
|1994
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sergei Tarasov]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Luck]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sven Fischer]]|GER}}
|-
|1998
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Halvard Hanevold]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Pieralberto Carrara]]|ITA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexei Aidarov]]|BLR}}
|-
|2002
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Luck]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Viktor Maigourov]]|RUS}}
|-
|2006
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Michael Greis]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Halvard Hanevold]]|NOR}}
|}
===Sprint (10 km)===
This event was first held in [[1980]].
{| class="wikitable" cellspacing="1"
! Year
! style="background:gold" width="180" | Gold
! style="background:silver" width="180" | Silver
! style="background:#cc9966" width="180" | Bronze
|-
|1980
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Ullrich]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vladimir Alikin]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anatoliy Alyabyev]]|URS}}
|-
|1984
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eirik Kvalfoss]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Peter Angerer]]|FRG}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Matthias Jacob]]|GDR}}
|-
|1988
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank-Peter Rötsch]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Valeriy Medvedtsev]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sergei Tchepikov]]|URS}}
|-
|1992
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Mark Kirchner]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ricco Groß]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Harri Eloranta]]|FIN}}
|-
|1994
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sergei Tchepikov]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ricco Groß]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sergei Tarasov]]|RUS}}
|-
|1998
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frode Andresen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ville Räikkönen]]|FIN}}
|-
|2002
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sven Fischer]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Wolfgang Perner]]|AUT}}
|-
|2006
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sven Fischer]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Halvard Hanevold]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frode Andresen]]|NOR}}
|}
===Pursuit (12.5 km)===
This event was first held in [[2002]].
{| class="wikitable" cellspacing="1"
! Year
! style="background:gold" width="180" | Gold
! style="background:silver" width="180" | Silver
! style="background:#cc9966" width="180" | Bronze
|-
|2002
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Raphaël Poirée]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ricco Groß]]|GER}}
|-
|2006
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vincent Defrasne]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sven Fischer]]|GER}}
|}
===Mass start (15 km)===
This event was first held in [[2006]].
{| class="wikitable" cellspacing="1"
! Year
! style="background:gold" width="180" | Gold
! style="background:silver" width="180" | Silver
! style="background:#cc9966" width="180" | Bronze
|-
|2006
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Michael Greis]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Tomasz Sikora]]|POL}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|}
===Relay (4&times;7.5 km)===
This event was first held in [[1968]].
{| class="wikitable" cellspacing="1"
! Year
! style="background:gold" width="180" | Gold
! style="background:silver" width="180" | Silver
! style="background:#cc9966" width="180" | Bronze
|-
|1968
|{{URS}}<br />[[Alexander Tikhonov]]<br />[[Nikolai Pusanov]]<br />[[Victor Mamatov]]<br />[[Vladimir Gundartsev]]
|{{NOR}}<br />[[Ola Wærhaug]]<br />[[Olav Jordet]]<br />[[Magnar Solberg]]<br />[[Jon Istad]]
|{{SWE}}<br />[[Lars-Göran Arwidsson]]<br />[[Tore Eriksson]]<br />[[Olle Petruss |
ads of state began to cease taking their armies onto the field personally around this time as well, although this was likely as much due to the increasing skills required for generalship and division of power within the government as it was for safety concerns.
As the 20th century dawned, the prevalence of assassins and their capabilities skyrocketed, and so did measures to protect against them. For the first time, [[armored car]]s or [[armored limousine]]s were put into service for safer transport, with modern versions rendering them virtually invulnerable to [[small arms]] fire. [[Bulletproof vest]]s were also commissioned, though not often used for political reasons. Access to famous persons, too, became more and more restrictive; potential visitors would be forced through dozens of different checks and double-checks before being granted access to the official in question, and as [[communication]] became better and [[information technology]] more prevalent, it has become next-to-impossible for a would-be killer to get close enough to the personage at work to effect an attempt on his or her life, especially given the common use of [[metal detector|metal]] and [[bomb detector]]s. As such most modern assassinations have been committed either during a public performance or during [[transport]], both due to weaker security and security lapses, such as with US [[President of the United States|President]] [[John F. Kennedy]] or as part of [[Coup d'état|coups d'état]] where security is either overwhelmed or completely removed, such as with [[Patrice Lumumba]] and possibly also [[Salvador Allende]].
Some of the wilder and arguably stranger methods used for protection by famous people of both today and yesterday have evoked many reactions from different people, some resenting the separation from their officials or major figures, some comforted by the security and some lamenting the state of society that such measures are necessary. One example might be traveling in a car protected by a bubble of clear [[bulletproof glass]], such as the [[Popemobile]] of [[Pope]] [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] (built following an extremist's attempt at his life). [[Friedrich Wilhelm I of Prussia|Frederick William I of Prussia]] had an entire command of soldiers above two [[meters]] of height, and would reportedly go to great lengths to obtain more. Many leaders, such as [[Josef Stalin]] or the Argentinean [[junta]] were so possessed by paranoia that they executed their opponents ''en masse'', with the death toll ranging from hundreds to millions. Still others go into seclusion, rarely heard from or seen in public afterwards, such as [[writer]] [[Salman Rushdie]] or eccentric [[inventor]] [[Howard Hughes]], though it is more likely that Hughes was concerned about [[germ]]s than about assassination. A more exotic form of protection is the use of a body double. A body double in this case is a person who is built similar to the person he is expected to protect and made up to look like him. The body double then takes the place of the person in high risk situations. Fidel Castro, Adolf Hitler and Saddam Hussein are known to have used [[political decoy|body doubles]].
It is important to note that, in the final analysis, it is thought by many that if a person or group is committed beyond [[reason]] or concerns for [[welfare|self-preservation]] towards the removal of a certain person or leader from not only their position but this plane of existence, then the chances are better than fair that any security measures taken will come to naught. The [[ninja]] of Japan and [[suicide bombers|suicide attackers]] are both groups known for pursuing every avenue for however long necessary to accomplish their 'hit'. Often, such people or groups would [[suicide|operate without concern for their own life]] in order to gain the slightest chance of eliminating their mark. Certain leaders, notably [[Abraham Lincoln]], were thought to have wrestled with this supposed inevitability during difficult times (with some, like Lincoln's, proving prophetic). In the end it comes down to will - if the will of the would-be assassins to execute their target surpasses that of their security to save them, or the will of the targeted person to survive, then success for a killer may be a matter of time.
== See also ==
* [[Assassin's Guild]]
* [[The Assassination Bureau]]
* [[Assassination market]]
* [[Asymmetric warfare]]
* [[Counter terror]]
* [[Espionage]]
* [[Hashshashin]]
* [[Low intensity conflict]]
* [[Mark (victim) | Mark (slang)]]
* [[Moral equivalence]]
* [[Ninja]]
* An anarchist justification of [[regicide]]s and other acts of "[[propaganda of the deed]]" (nowadays shared by a ultra-minority of anarchists)
* [[Terrorism]]
=== Related lists ===
* [[List of assassins]]
* [[List of unsuccessful assassinations]]
* [[List of assassinated people]]
* [[List of U.S. Presidential assassination attempts]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.yale.edu/yup/books/074743.htm Cloak and Dollar (A History of American Secret Intelligence)] by Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones
* [http://www.cnn.com/2002/LAW/11/04/us.assassination.policy A short article on the U.S. policy banning political assassination since 1976] from CNN. See also [[Gerald Ford|Ford]]'s 1976 [http://www.ford.utexas.edu/library/speeches/760110e.htm#assassination executive order]. However, [[Executive Order 12333]] which prohibited the CIA from assassinations was relaxed by the [[George W. Bush administration]].
* [http://www.historyguy.com/biofiles/domestic_terrorists_and_assassins.html American Domestic Terrorists and Assassins]
*[http://www.stormingmedia.us/58/5872/A587224.html Lawful Targeted Killing or Assassination: A Roadmap for Operators in the Global War on Terror] by John Tinetti; NAVAL WAR COLL NEWPORT RI JOINT MILITARY OPERATIONS DEPT
*[http://www.noisetoknowledge.com/targeted_killing.htm Targeted Killing] by Roy D. Follendore III. [[November 5]] [[2002]]
*[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2004/03/26/EDGK65QPC41.DTL Responses to Terrorism. Targeted killing is a necessary option] by Abraham D. Sofaer. [[March 26]] [[2004]]
*[http://www.defenddemocracy.org/publications/publications_show.htm?doc_id=218872 The Targeted Killing of Sheikh Ahmed Yassin] by Jonathan L. Snow. [[March 26]] [[2004]]
*[http://www.bepress.com/til/default/vol5/iss1/art7/ Targeted Killing] by Daniel Statman
*[http://www.meforum.org/article/515 The Logic of Israel's Targeted Killing] by Gal Luft
*[http://www.biu.ac.il/SOC/besa/david.pdf Fatal Choices: Israel's Policy of Targeted Killing] (PDF) by Steven R. David at [[Johns Hopkins University]]. A paper prepared for the BESA Center Conference on Democracy and Limited War, 4-[[6 June]] [[2002]]; revised July 2002.
*[http://www.ejil.org/journal/Vol16/No2/art1.pdf Targeted Killing of Suspected Terrorists: Extra-Judicial Executions or Legitimate Means of Defence?] (PDF) by David Kretzmer
[[Category:Assassins|*]]
[[Category:Murder]]
[[Category:Arabic words]]
[[da:Attentat]]
[[de:Attentat]]
[[fr:Attentat]]
[[id:Pembunuhan rahasia]]
[[he:התנקשות]]
[[ja:暗殺]]
[[pt:Assassinato]]
[[sl:Atentat]]
[[fi:Salamurha]]
[[sv:Attentat]]
[[zh:刺客]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Audio CD</title>
<id>2964</id>
<revision>
<id>15901342</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Compact_disc]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alcoholism</title>
<id>2965</id>
<revision>
<id>42009683</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:52:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Longhair</username>
<id>99037</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/164.113.111.1|164.113.111.1]] ([[User talk:164.113.111.1|talk]]) to last version by Light current</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alcoholism''' (rel. [[drug abuse]]) is a chemical [[addiction]] to either or both the ''consumption of'' or the ''[[inebriation|inebriating]] effects of'' [[alcohol]].
== Terminology ==
There are many terms, such as use, [[misuse]], [[heavy use]], [[addiction]], [[abuse]] [[dependence]], all of which have different and sometimes non-standard meanings. 'Use' refers to simple use of a substance.
An individual who drinks a beer once a day uses alcohol. Misuse and 'heavy use' do not have standard definitions in the field.
Addiction has two meanings:
*development of tolerance to the use of a substance (needs more of the substance to achieve the same effect). Withdrawal effects upon discontinuing use.
*The second definition of addiction is a chemical [[addiction]] to either or both the ''consumption of'' or the ''[[inebriation|inebriating]] effects of'' [[alcohol]].
The first definition refers to physiologic dependence, something which for certain drugs can be created in anyone taking the drug. The second refers to the "disease" state of interest to readers of this section, and which cannot be created in an individual simply through use of the drug.
Psychiatrists and some others refer to the second definition of addiction as dependence. This is where frequent confusion arises since physiologic dependence does not imply the existence of the disease state which psychiatrists call dependence. For example, a test subject might be given alcohol in increasing amounts each day to the extent that the individual would have severe withdrawal if the alcohol were suddenly stopped; in this case, physiologic dependence has formed, but no disease is present. Similarly, an alcoholic in recovery is not drinking at all yet still has the condition just as a diabetic who keeps his blood glucose at precisely 100 (normal) all the time is still diabetic.
Neither individu |
<timestamp>2006-03-02T13:24:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gurklurk</username>
<id>727727</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* SIG-552 */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In the [[first-person shooter]] [[computer game]] ''[[Counter-Strike]]'', at the beginning of a round each player has a certain amount of time to buy items. Available equipment includes [[firearm]]s, throwable weapons, [[body armor]] and other devices. Sometimes, equipment that is exclusively for one team has a foil on the opposing team, such as the [[AK-47]] for the Terrorists and the [[M4 Carbine]] for Counter-Terrorists.
Weapons in ''Counter-Strike'', as in most first-person shooter games, are not entirely true to their real life counter parts, generally in the interests of balance. Although the Assault Rifles such as the M4A1 and AK-47 tend to dominate matches (with 1-2 team members in a sniping role with the AWM/P) after several rounds when sufficient money has been accumulated, the large selection of weapons allows players variety and the opportunity to "show off". As a general rule of thumb: in the game, the higher the rate of fire and the larger the magazine capacity of a weapon, the less damage each individual round will do, even if caliber and barrel length are equal.
The [[Development stage|beta]] releases of ''Counter-Strike'' featured left-handed weapon models that were using weapons meant for right-handed people (it is supposed that the [[Mod (computer gaming)|mod]]'s original creator preferred to model weapons this way, as his work on Action Quake 2 shows) and the style has been retained through the current version, 1.6. In the interim, the option of flipping the model over so that it would appear right-handed has become available. However, since the weapon models are direct mirror images, the left and right side of the weapons are reversed. For instance, the forward assist and ejection port of the M4A1 carbine and the bolt release and selector switch of the AK-47 appear on the left side of the rifle. This is incorrect and rather absurd in reality, as right-handed users would be showered with the ejected cartridges of their weapons. It is even worse for the bolt-action rifles, since the original left-handed models incorporated a right-hand bolt, which equates to a left-hand bolt when the image is flipped to a right-handed model.
The weapons included are the same in ''Counter-Strike'', ''[[Counter-Strike: Condition Zero]]'' and ''[[Counter-Strike: Source]]'', but the skins are different, as are some aspects of weapons in different versions. When ''Counter-Strike'' for the ''[[Half-Life]]'' engine was released as a retail product, many of the firearms, save for the [[MAC-10]] by the now-defunct [[Military Armament Corporation]], were renamed possibly due to legal or licensing issues (e.g. the Desert Eagle .50AE was renamed the Nighthawk and the GLOCK 18C is renamed the 9x19mm Sidearm). ''[[Counter-Strike: Source]]'' for the ''[[Half-Life 2]]'' engine continues this renaming.
==Reloading==
When reloading in Counter-Strike, the magazine inside the gun is 'refilled' to full, and the bullets used are subtracted from storage. So if a player was reloading a 30-rounds magazine with 10 rounds left, 20 rounds would be moved from the stores to the magazine.
== Knife ==
Each player starts out with a combat [[Ka-bar]] knife; unlike the other weapons, the knife cannot be dropped. The knife has a fast, low-damage primary attack and a slow, high-damage secondary attack which can kill opponents with two stabs, if not one. Since version 1.6, both attacks inflict more damage when attacking an enemy in the back. Players are able to run faster with the knife equipped than with any primary weapon other than lighter [[submachine gun]]s and the Scout sniper rifle. For this reason knives are often equipped when [[rush (computer gaming)|rushing]]. Knife kills do not occur frequently and being killed by a knife-wielding player is considered one of the most embarrassing ways of dying in the game; many servers using stats plugins such as [[AMX Half-Life Server Mod|AMX Mod]] and StatsMe emphasise the event using the "humiliation" announcement from ''[[Quake 3 Arena]]''.
There is a form of [[etiquette]] in which if there are only two remaining players and one pulls out a knife (sometimes noisily scratching scenery to announce their decision over long distances), the other player must follow suit. The two will then run back and forth stabbing at each other. Using a firearm to kill the player with the knife will usually result in the shooter being criticized by other players or even kicked or banned from the server. However, this is not very common in public servers, and usually the opponent can kill the knife-wielding survivor with their weapon and suffer no punishment.
==[[Pistol]]s==
===GLOCK 18===
''Alternate name: 9x19mm Parabellum''
The [[GLOCK 18]] Select Fire 9mm is the pistol Terrorists automatically start with, although it can be dropped and replaced with a different purchase. It costs $400, has 20-round 9mm magazines, and can be fired in either semi-automatic or burst mode, which fires three shots rapidly and is typically most effective at close range. The semi-automatic can require an experienced player to use effectively, especially when compared to the USP (the default CT weapon).
Advantages of the [[GLOCK 18]] include its large magazine size, high [[stopping power]] (enemies struck by a bullet from a Glock are momentarily stunned), fast rate of fire, choice of semi-auto or burst fire modes and the ability of burst-fire to stay fairly accurate while the player is in the air. It has no recoil, but firing quickly will still result in poor accuracy. Disadvantages of the [[GLOCK 18]] include its meager power and the fact that it is not accurate at anything further than close to medium range. The [[GLOCK 18]] has been in CS since Beta 1.0.
In real life, a [[GLOCK 18]] is either semi-automatic or full-automatic; there is no burst fire. The three-shot burst was implemented for game balancing purposes, since a Terrorist with a full-auto [[GLOCK 18]] would make short work of his Counter-Terrorists rivals during pistol round. The closest weapon that has similar attributes to the game's [[GLOCK 18]] is a [[Beretta 93R]]. Also, a [[GLOCK 18]] in real life is highly accurate, an attribute somewhat toned down in the game.
===H&K USP .45 Tactical===
''Alternate name: K&M .45 Tactical''
The [[Heckler & Koch USP|Heckler & Koch USP45 Tactical]] is the pistol automatically given to spawning Counter-Terrorists. It costs $500, has 12-round .45 ACP magazines, and has an optional [[suppressor]], use of which slightly reduces accuracy and damage but makes it difficult for an opposing player to detect your position when you are firing at them from long distances.
Advantages of the USP include its high accuracy, power, general ease of use (when compared to the Terrorists' equivalent, the GLOCK) and the aforementioned suppressor. Disadvantages include a merely average amount of ammo (12 rounds per magazine), more recoil than some of the other pistols and a weakness against opponents with armor. The USP has been in CS since Beta 1.0.
===Desert Eagle ("Deagle")===
[[Image:Cs-screenshot.jpg|thumb|right|Screenshot from a player using a [[Desert Eagle]].]]
''Alternate name: Night Hawk .50C''
The [[Israeli Military Industries|IMI]] [[Desert Eagle]] .50 AE has the most raw power of any pistol in the game. It costs $650 and has the 7-round magazines of a [[.50 Action Express]]. The main advantage of this pistol is its high power: it is the only pistol in the game with the ability to shoot through walls/armor like a rifle. Disadvantages include its small ammo capacity (7 rounds with 35 in reserve), inaccuracy at long ranges, relativity slow rate of fire and reload speed and its price (the Desert Eagle is the third most expensive pistol in the game). Despite its high price, the Desert Eagle is still cheaper than a rifle or SMG yet formidable against both; players often purchase a Desert Eagle and use it to acquire a better weapon.
In real life, Desert Eagle handguns are very heavy and bulky, and are not practical for self-defense or military use. Still, the large calibre and shiny appearance has ensured it's continued popularity in both games and movies. The internal name for the weapon in the game is "weapon_deagle", hence the "Deagle" nickname.
===SIG P228===
''Alternate name: 228 Compact''
The [[SIGARMS]] [[Sig P228]] costs $600 and uses 13-round magazines of [[.357 SIG]] ammo. It is moderately powerful and highly accurate. Its rate of fire is faster than that of most other pistols allowing the user to get off more shots than an opposing player. Even so it is one of the least used pistols in the game. The advantages of this pistol are its 13 round magazine (one more than the USP) and its ability to tear through armor almost as well as the Desert Eagle. There are no major disadvantages to this pistol but it is infrequently used because most players would rather pay $50 more for the Desert Eagle to get the extra power. In addition, the P228 is not much of an advantage over the [[Heckler & Koch USP|USP45 Tactical]] that Counter-Terrorists spawn with, although for Terrorists the P228 is a good alternative to the [[GLOCK 18]]C. The P228 was added in Beta 4.0.
In real life, the P228 is only chambered for 9x19mm and not .357 SIG. The .357 SIG variant is the [[P229]].
===Dual Beretta 96G Elites ("Dualies")===
''Alternate name: .40 Dual Elites''
The dual [[Beretta 96G Elite IA]] 40 S&W are a pair of pistols that can be wielded [[Akimbo (gaming)|akimbo]] (one in each hand) and are only available to the Terrorist team. The pair originally cost $1000, but this has since been reduced to $800 in version 1.6 and ''C |
, first called "colonies", but now referred to as "Homes," in various cities around the world. They would [[proselytism|proselytize]] in the streets and distribute literature. New converts who joined the movement memorized [[scripture]], went through a course of Bible knowledge classes, and were expected to emulate the lives of early Christians while rejecting mainstream denominational Christianity. (See [[religious conversion]])
In common with converts to some other religions, and in keeping with Biblical custom, most incoming members adopted a [[name change|new "Bible" name]].
Berg communicated with his followers through his more than 3,000 published letters written over 24 years, referred to as "Mo Letters" by members of the group. By January 1972 David Berg introduced through his letters that he was God's prophet for this time, further establishing his spiritual authority within the group. Nonetheless, Berg freely acknowledged his failings and weaknesses.<ref>Chancellor, James (2000). "Life in The Family: An Oral History of the Children of God". ''University of Syracuse Press'', Syracuse, NY. pp. 64-67</ref>
Up to the end of 1972 COG members had distributed approximately 42 million Christian tracts, mostly on God’s Salvation and America’s doom. Street distribution of Berg’s Letters (called "litnessing") became the COG's predominant method of outreach--as well as support--for the next five years.
The Children of God ended as an organizational entity in February 1978. Reports of serious misconduct, financial mismanagement, and abuse of their positions by a number of the established leaders, including the opposition of some to FFing ([[Flirty Fishing]]), caused Berg to reorganize the movement. He dismissed over 300 of the movement’s leaders and declared the general dissolution of the then existing COG structure. This shift was known as the "Reorganization Nationalization Revolution" (RNR). A third of the total membership left the movement, and those who remained became part of the reorganized movement, dubbed the "Family of Love," and later, simply the "Family." Most of the group's beliefs remained the same. <ref name=Origins> ''[http://www.thefamily.org/dossier/statements/origins.htm The Origins of a Movement: From "The Children of God" to "The Family International"]'', found on the official website</ref>
===The Family of Love (1978-1981)===
The Family of Love era was characterised by movement of Family members into more countries. Regular witnessing methods included door to door, giving out tracts and other gospel literature, classes which included Family music as well as classes on various aspects of the Christian life.
In 1974, David Berg introduced a new witnessing method called [[Flirty Fishing]] (or FFing), which allowed female members to physically express God's love by engaging in sexual activity with potential converts. It began as an experiment started as early as 1973 by members of Berg's inner circle and was eventually introduced to the rest of the membership. By 1978, it was more widely practiced by members of the group. In some areas, Flirty Fishers used escort agencies to meet people. As in other witnessing methods, people who were reached through FF'ing supported the movement generously. Even though FF'ing was practised for a relatively short length of time, several people who were FF'd remain friends, supporters and well wishers to this day.
According to the Family, as a result of Flirty Fishing, ''"over 100,000 received God's gift of salvation through Jesus, and some chose to live the life of a [[disciple]] and [[missionary]]."''<ref name=Origins/> According to data provided by the Family to researcher Bill Bainbridge, from 1974 until 1987 Family members had sexual contact with 223,989 people while practicing Flirty Fishing.<ref>Bainbridge, William Sims (1996). "The Sociology of Religious Movements". ''Routledge''. ISBN 0-4159-1202-4. pg 223</ref> Flirty Fishing also resulted in the birth of many children, including Karen Zerby's son, Davidito (aka Rick Rodriguez). Children born as result of Flirty Fishing were referred to as "Jesus Babies". By the end of 1981, over 300 "Jesus Babies" had been born.
In an official statement on its origins, the Family International partly describes the practice of Flirty Fishing as follows:
<blockquote style="padding: 1em; border: 2px dotted green;">
In part as a response to the sexual liberality of the early '70s, Father David presented a more intimate and personal, voluntary form of evangelism, which became known as "Flirty Fishing" or "FFing." ...Father David proposed that the boundaries of expressing God's love to others could at times go beyond just showing kindness and doing good deeds. He suggested that for those who were in dire need of physical love and affection, even sex could be used as evidence to them of the Lord's love. The motivation, guiding principle, and reasoning behind the FFing ministry was that through this sacrificial proof of love, some would better accept and understand God's great love for them. The goal was that they would come to believe in and receive God's own loving gift of salvation through His Son, Jesus, who gave His life for them. By this unorthodox method David felt many would find the Lord's love and salvation, who never would have otherwise.
Although we no longer practice FFing, we believe the scriptural principles behind the ministry remain sound. <ref name=Origins/> </blockquote>
In his judgment of a child custody court case in England in 1994, after extensive research of Family publications and the testimony of many witnesses, The Lord Justice Ward said this about FFing:
<blockquote style="padding: 1em; border: 2px dotted green;">
I am quite satisfied that most of the women who engaged in this activity and the subsequent refinement of ESing, (which was finding men through escort agencies), did so in the belief that they were spreading God's word. But I am also totally satisfied that that was not Berg's only purpose. He and his organization had another and more sordid reason. They were procuring women to become common prostitutes. They were knowingly living in part on the earnings of prostitution. That was criminal activity. Their attempts to deny this must be dismissed as cant and hypocrisy. To deny that the girls were acting as prostitutes because "we are not charging but we expect people to show their thanks and their appreciation and they ought to give more for love than if we charged them" is an unacceptable form of special pleading. The "FFers handbook" told the girls that fishing could be fun but fun did not pay the bills. "You've got to catch a few to make the fun pay for itself. So don't do it for nothing."<ref name=Origins/> </blockquote>
A judge in Italy came to a very different conclusion in 1991, deciding that flirty fishing was not prostitution (see Tribunale Penale di Roma (Criminal Court of Rome), November 15, 1991, In re Berg and others, and in the archives of the Criminal Court of Rome (RG 3841/84):
The judges concluded that it was only in "the last months of 1977 Berg started counseling the members that it was permissible for proselyting reasons to offer sexual contacts and services to perspective [sic] members, the more so when the latter were potentially good financial contributors to the cult." Among the Children of God, the judges argued, flirty fishing was not understood as prostitution but "as a personal contribution to the humanitarian aims that the sect always claimed to pursue."
The practice of [[Flirty Fishing]] or "FFing" was officially abandoned in 1987 in favor of other [[Evangelism|witnessing]] methods and also to avoid contracting [[AIDS]]. In 1987, new rules were introduced that banned, under penalty of [[excommunication]], sexual contact with non-members. However, the new rules also stated that exceptions to the rule would be allowed in certain cases. For example, one publication stated: "All sex with outsiders is banned!--Unless they are already close and well-known friends!" [http://www.exfamily.org/pubs/ml/b5/ml2531.shtml]
===The Family (1982-1994)===
By 1982 more Family members had moved to southern and eastern parts of the world and by the end of 1983 the Family was reporting 10,000 fulltime members living in 1,642 Family Homes. In addition the Music With Meaning radio club had by this time grown to almost 20,000 members. The Family also stated that at this time witnessing efforts were resulting in an average of 200,000 conversions to Christ and distribution of nearly 30 million pages of literature per month.
Berg's writings contributed to suspicions about the movement's care of their children, because of his challenging of modern-day taboos in Western society about adult/child sexuality. Some individuals do not believe that Berg merely questioned society's boundaries&mdash;they believe he ignored them. Several women have publicly accused Berg of molesting them as children, including his eldest daughter [[Deborah Davis]], his granddaughter [[Merry Berg]], another of his granddaughters, [[Joyanne Treadwell Berg]], and [[Davida Kelley]], a child who had grown up in his household.
A childcare manual published by the group in January of 1982 described the education, home life, and care of the son of [[Karen Zerby]], known as Davidito or [[Ricky Rodriguez]]. The 700-page book also included a dozen or so photographs depicting the child engaged in sexual play with his governesses, particularly Sara (also known as Sara Davidito, Sara Kelley, or Prisca Kelley). This book was removed from circulation and reprinted without the |
s own [[Christianity|Christian]] conception of the battle between good and evil and, as other authors had done before him, added new gods and creatures to the stories.
When Lovecraft died in [[1937]], Derleth and [[Donald Wandrei]] put together a collection of that author's [[short story|stories]] and tried to get them published. With existing publishers showing little interest, they founded [[Arkham House]] in 1939 to do it themselves. The name of the company comes from Lovecraft's [[fictional town]] of [[Arkham]], [[Massachusetts]], which featured in many of his stories.
In [[1939]] Arkham House published ''[[The Outsider and Others]]'', a huge collection that contained most of Lovecraft's short stories then known to exist. Derleth and Wandrei soon decided to expand Arkham House and began a regular publishing schedule after its second book, ''[[Someone in the Dark]]'' in [[1941]], a collection of some of Derleth's own [[horror stories]].
In [[1941]] he became literary editor of ''[[The Capital Times]]'' newspaper in [[Madison, Wisconsin|Madison]], a post he held until his resignation in [[1960]].
Derleth was married [[April 6]] [[1953]] to Sandra Evelyn Winters, and they were divorced six years later in [[1959]]. He retained custody of their two children, April Rose and Walden William. In [[1960]], Derleth began editing and publishing a magazine called ''Hawk and Whippoorwill'', dedicated to [[poetry|poems]] of man and nature.
He died on [[July 4]] [[1971]] and is buried in [[St. Aloysius]] Cemetery, [[Sauk City]], Wisconsin.
Derleth wrote more than 150 short stories and more than 100 books during his lifetime. Included among that number were several novels about a British detective named [[Solar Pons]], who was quite similar in many respects to [[Sherlock Holmes]]. Derleth, however, lacked the knowledge to make the details of those stories authentic, as he had never been to [[England]]. He also wrote under the [[pseudonym|pseudonyms]] Stephen Grendon, Kenyon Holmes and Tally Mason.
==See also==
[[August derleth bibliography | Derleth Bibliography]]
==External links==
*[http://www.derleth.org/ The August Derleth Society]
*[http://www.waldeneast.fsnet.co.uk/adp1.htm A more detailed biography]
*[http://www.arkhamhouse.com/augustderleth.htm A short autobiography]
*[http://lovecraft.cjb.net "The Ultimate Cthulhu Mythos Book List"] - Listing of all mythos novels, anthologies, collections, comic books, and more.
[[Category:1909 births|Derleth, August]]
[[Category:1971 deaths|Derleth, August]]
[[Category:American short story writers|Derleth, August]]
[[Category:American mystery writers|Derleth, August]]
[[Category:American novelists|Derleth, August]]
[[Category:Cthulhu mythos|Derleth, August]]
[[Category:Horror writers|Derleth, August]]
[[Category:People from Wisconsin|Derleth, August]]
[[de:August Derleth]]
[[fr:August Derleth]]
[[ja:オーガスト・ダーレス]]
[[pl:August Derleth]]
[[sv:August Derleth]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alps</title>
<id>981</id>
<revision>
<id>41456986</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T13:34:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Perconte</username>
<id>111314</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+ digital images</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Alps in Europe. For other mountain ranges see [[Alps (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Alps in the Chamonix Valley, near the Mer de Glace.jpg|thumb|275px|right|The West face of the Petit Dru above the [[Chamonix]] valley near the [[Mer de Glace]].]]
[[Image:Alpenrelief 01.jpg|thumb|275px|Digital relief of the Alps]]
The '''Alps''' (Alpi in Italian) is the name for one of the great [[mountain range]] systems of [[Europe]], stretching from [[Austria]], [[Italy]] and [[Slovenia]] in the east, through [[Italy]], [[Switzerland]], [[Liechtenstein]] and [[Germany]] to [[France]] in the west. The word "Alps" was taken via [[French language|French]] from [[Latin]] ''Alpes'' (meaning "the Alps"), which may be influenced by the Latin words ''albus'' (white) or ''altus'' (high), or a [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] word.
The highest mountain in the Alps is [[Mont Blanc]] at 4810&nbsp;[[metre|m]] on the French-Italian border. All the main peaks of the Alps can be found in the [[list of mountains of the Alps]] and [[list of Alpine peaks by prominence]].
==Geography==
:''Main article: [[Geography of the Alps]]''
===Subdivision===
[[Image:Alpenrelief 02.jpg|thumb|275px|the Alps with the Borders of the Countries]]
[[Image:Italian alps1.jpg|thumb|right|275px|The Italian Alps - Taken from an airplane]]
The Alps are generally divided into [[Western Alps]] and [[Eastern Alps]]. The division is along the line between [[Lake Constance]] and [[Lake Como]], following the [[Rhine]]. The Western Alps are located in [[Italy]], [[France]] and [[Switzerland]], the Eastern Alps in [[Austria]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Slovenia]] and [[Switzerland]]. The highest peak of the Western Alps is [[Mont Blanc]], 4810 m. The highest peak in the Eastern Alps is [[Piz Bernina]], 4052 meters.
The Eastern Alps are commonly subdivided according to the different geological composition of the more central parts of the Alps and the groups at its northern and southern fringes: [[Northern Limestone Alps]], [[Central Eastern Alps]] and [[Southern Limestone Alps]]. The border between the [[Central Eastern Alps]] and the [[Southern Limestone Alps]] is the [[Periadriatic Seam]]. The [[Northern Limestone Alps]] are separated from the [[Central Eastern Alps]] by the [[Grauwacken Zone]].
The [[Western Alps]] are commonly subdivided into the following:
*[[Ligurian Alps]]
*[[Maritime Alps]]
*[[Cottian Alps]]
*[[Dauphiné Alps]]
*[[Graian Alps]]
*[[Pennine Alps]]
*[[Bernese Alps]]
*[[Lepontine Alps]]
*[[Glarus Alps]]
*[[North-Eastern Swiss Alps]]
Series of lower mountain ranges run parallel to the main chains of the Alps, including the [[French Prealps]].
===Main chains===
:''Main article: [[Main chain of the Alps]]''
[[Image:alps.space.300pix.jpg|thumb|right|The European Alps from space in May 2002.]]
The "main chain of the Alps" follows the watershed from the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the [[Wienerwald]], passing over many of the highest and most famous peaks in the Alps. From the Colle di Cadibona to [[Col de Tende]] it runs westwards, before turning to the north-west and then, near the [[Colle della Maddalena]], to the north. Upon reaching the Swiss border, the line of the main chain heads approximately east-north-east, a heading it follows until its end near [[Vienna]].
===Principal passes===
:''Main article: [[Principal passes of the Alps]]''
The Alps do not form an impassable barrier; they have been traversed for [[war]] and [[commerce]], and later by [[pilgrim]]s, [[student]]s and [[tourist]]s. Crossing places by [[road]], [[train]] or foot are called passes, these are depressions in the mountains to which a valley leads from the plains and hilly pre-mountainous zones.
==Climate==
:''Main article: [[Climate of the Alps]]''
The ''climate of the Alps'' is the [[climate]], or average [[weather]] conditions over a long time, of the central Alpine region of [[Europe]]. As we rise from [[sea level]] into the upper regions of the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]], the [[temperature]] [[adiabatic lapse rate|decreases]]. The effect of [[mountain]] chains on prevailing [[wind]]s is to carry warm air belonging to the lower region into an upper zone, where it expands in [[volume]] at the cost of a proportionate loss of [[heat]], often accompanied by the [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] of moisture in the form of [[snow]] or [[rain]].
==Geology==
:''Main article: [[Geology of the Alps]]''
The Alps arose as a result of the pressure exerted on [[sediment]]s of the [[Tethys Ocean]] basin as its [[Mesozoic]] and early [[Cenozoic]] [[Stratum|strata]] were pushed against the stable [[Eurasia]]n landmass by the northward-moving [[Africa]]n landmass. Most of this occurred during the [[Oligocene]] and [[Miocene]] epochs. The pressure formed great recumbent folds, or ''nappes'', that rose out of what had become the [[Tethys Sea]] and pushed northward, often breaking and sliding one over the other to form gigantic thrust [[Geologic fault|fault]]s. [[Crystal]]line rocks, which are exposed in the higher central regions, are the rocks forming [[Mont Blanc]], the [[Matterhorn]], and high peaks in the Pennine Alps and Hohe Tauern.
The landscape seen today is mostly formed by [[glaciation]] during the past two million years. At least five [[ice age]]s have done much to remodel the region, scooping out the lakes and rounding off the limestone hills along the northern border. [[Glaciers]] have been retreating during the past 10,000 years, leaving large granite boulders scattered in the forests in the region. As the last ice age ended, it is believed that the [[climate]] changed so rapidly that the glaciers retreated back into the mountains in a span of about 200 to 300 years.
==Political history==
:''Main article: [[Political history and modern state of the inhabitants of the Alps]]''
Little is known of the early dwellers in the Alps, save from the scanty accounts preserved by [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] and [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[historian]]s and [[geographer]]s. A few details have come down to us of the conquest of many of the Alpine tribes by [[Augustus]].
The successive emigration and occupation of the Alpine region by various [[Germanic peoples|Teutonic tribes]] from the [[5th century|5th]] to the [[6th century|6th centuries]] are known only in outline, because to them, as to the [[Frankish]] kings and emperors, the Alps offered a route from one place to another rather than a permanent residence.
It is not until the final breakup of the [[Carolingian Empire]] in the [[10th century|10th]] and [[11th century|11th centuries]] that it become |
e Cocos (Keeling) Islands do have a five-person police force.
==Economy==
Grown throughout the islands, [[coconut]]s are the sole [[cash crop]]. [[Copra]] and fresh coconuts are the major export earners. Small local gardens and fishing contribute to the food supply, but additional food and most other necessities must be imported from [[Australia]]. There is a small but growing tourist industry.
The Cocos Islands Cooperative Society Ltd. employs construction workers, stevedores, and lighterage worker operations. Tourism employs others.
The islands are connected within Australia's telecommunication system. There is one paved airport (on the West Island) and a lagoon anchorage.
The region's internet [[top-level domain]] is [[.cc]].
==Links and References==
*[http://www.cocos-tourism.cc Cocos (Keeling) Islands Tourism website]
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ck.html Cocos (Keeling) Islands] entry from the [[CIA World Factbook]]
*[http://www.shire.cc/ Shire of Cocos (Keeling) Islands]
*[http://www.awm.gov.au/journal/j34/cocosmutiny.htm Noel Crusz, ''The Cocos Islands mutiny'', Reviewed by: PETER STANLEY, Principal Historian, Australian War Memorial]
{{Australia}}
[[Category:British rule in Singapore]]
[[Category:Cocos (Keeling) Islands]]
[[Category:Islands of Australia]]
[[da:Cocosøerne]]
[[de:Kokosinseln]]
[[es:Islas Cocos]]
[[eo:Kokosinsuloj]]
[[fr:Îles Cocos]]
[[gl:Illas Cocos]]
[[ko:코코스 제도]]
[[is:Kókoseyjar]]
[[he:איי קוקוס]]
[[hu:Kókusz (Keeling)-szigetek]]
[[nl:Cocoseilanden]]
[[no:Kokosøyene]]
[[ja:ココス諸島]]
[[no:Kokosøyene]]
[[pl:Wyspy Kokosowe]]
[[pt:Ilhas Cocos]]
[[fi:Kookossaaret]]
[[sv:Kokosöarna]]
[[tr:Cocos Adaları]]
[[zh:科科斯(基林)群岛]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands</title>
<id>5521</id>
<revision>
<id>15903726</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-16T23:12:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Docu</username>
<id>8029</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands</title>
<id>5522</id>
<revision>
<id>15903727</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-16T23:29:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Docu</username>
<id>8029</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands</title>
<id>5523</id>
<revision>
<id>15903728</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-16T23:29:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Docu</username>
<id>8029</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Government of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands</title>
<id>5524</id>
<revision>
<id>15903729</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-16T23:29:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Docu</username>
<id>8029</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cocos Islands/Economy</title>
<id>5525</id>
<revision>
<id>15903730</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-31T15:46:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands</title>
<id>5526</id>
<revision>
<id>15903731</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-16T23:30:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Docu</username>
<id>8029</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands</title>
<id>5527</id>
<revision>
<id>15903732</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-02T02:01:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Longhair</username>
<id>99037</id>
</contributor>
<comment>cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Railways:'''
0 km
'''Highways:'''
<br />''total:''
15 km (2001)
<br />''paved:''
NA km
<br />''unpaved:''
NA km
'''Ports and harbours:'''
none; lagoon anchorage only
'''Merchant marine:'''
none (2002 est.)
'''Airports:'''
1 (2002)
'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
<br />''total:''
1
<br />''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
1 (2002)
''Information from the [[CIA World Factbook]], [[2003]] edition.''
:''See also :'' [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]]
[[Category:Transport in Australia]]
[[Category:Cocos (Keeling) Islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands</title>
<id>5528</id>
<revision>
<id>15903733</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-16T23:30:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Docu</username>
<id>8029</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Conspiracy theory</title>
<id>5530</id>
<revision>
<id>41903615</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T14:26:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tom harrison</username>
<id>42168</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/82.249.117.123|82.249.117.123]] ([[User talk:82.249.117.123|talk]]) to last version by Tom harrison</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the 1997 film, see [[Conspiracy Theory (film)]].''
[[Image:IAO-logo.png|thumb|225px|This proposed logo for the [[Information Awareness Office]] (a US governmental agency) was dropped due to fears that its pseudo-[[Freemasonry|Masonic]] symbolism would provoke conspiracy theories.]]
A '''conspiracy theory''' attempts to explain the cause of an event as a secret, and often deceptive, [[Conspiracy|plot]] by a [[covert]] alliance rather than as an overt activity or as natural occurrence.
The term "conspiracy theory" is used by scholars and in popular culture to identify a type of [[folklore]] similar to an [[urban legend]], having certain regular features, especially an explanatory narrative which is constructed with certain naive methodological flaws. The term is also used [[pejorative|pejoratively]] to dismiss allegedly misconceived, paranoid or outlandish rumors.
Most people who have their theory or speculation labeled a "conspiracy theory" reject the term as prejudicial. Others use it in an attempt to evade an analysis of a subject.[http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline.jsp?timeline=complete_911_timeline&startpos=1300#a111001bushtheories]
__TOC__
==Overview==
The term "conspiracy theory" may be a neutral descriptor for a [[conspiracy]] claim.
However, conspiracy ''theory'' is also used to indicate a [[narrative]] [[genre]] that includes a broad selection of (not necessarily related) arguments for the existence of grand conspiracies, any of which might have far-reaching social and political implications if true.
Many conspiracy theories are false, or lack enough verifiable evidence to be taken seriously, raising the intriguing question of what mechanisms might exist in popular culture that lead to their invention and subsequent uptake. In pursuit of answers to that question, conspiracy theory has been a topic of interest for sociologists, psychologists and experts in folklore since at least the 1960s, when the [[John_F._Kennedy_assassination|assassination]] of US President [[John F. Kennedy]] provoked an unprecedented [[Kennedy_assassination_theories|level of speculation]]. This academic interest has identified a set of familiar structural features by which membership of the genre may be established, and has presented a range of hypotheses on the basis of studying the genre.
Whether or not a particular conspiracy allegation may be impartially or neutrally labelled a conspiracy theory is subject to [[Conspiracy theory#Controversies|some controversy]]. If legitimate uses of the label are admitted, they work by identifying structural features in the story in question which correspond to those features listed below.
See also [[Conspiracy#Conspiracy_in_law|conspiracy as a legal concept]].
==Features==
Allegations exhibiting several of the following features are candidates for classification as conspiracy theories. Confidence in such classification improves the more such features are exhibited:
# Initiated on the basis of limited, partial or circumstantial evidence;<br>''Conceived in reaction to [[Mass media|media]] reports and images, as opposed to, for example, thorough knowledge of the relevant [[Forensics|forensic]] evidence''.
# Addresses an event or process that has broad historical or emotional impact;<br>''Seeks to interpret a phenomenon which has near-universal interest and emotional significance, a story that may thus be of some compelling interest to a wide audience''.
# Reduces morally complex social phenomena to simple, immoral actions;<br>''Impersonal, institutional processes, especially errors and oversights, interpreted as malign, consciously intended and designed by immoral individuals''.
# Personifies complex social phenomena as powerful individual conspirators;<br>''Related to (3) but distinct from it, deduces the existence of powerful individ |
beliefs some might describe as atheistic, though those holding such beliefs do not normally describe themselves as atheists.
Atheism should not be confused with the related, but not equivalent, position of [[antitheism]], as many atheists do not directly oppose theism.
==Etymology==
In early [[Ancient Greek]], the adjective ''atheos'' (from [[privative a|privative ''a-'']] + ''theos'' "gods") meant "without gods" or "lack of belief in gods". The word acquired an additional meaning in the [[5th century BCE]], expressing a total lack of relations with the gods; that is, "denying the gods, godless, ungodly", with more active connotations than ''asebēs'', "impious". Modern translations of classical texts sometimes translate ''atheos'' as "atheistic". As an abstract noun, there was also ''atheotēs'': "atheism". [[Cicero]] transliterated ''atheos'' into [[Latin]]. The discussion of ''atheoi'' was pronounced in the debate between early Christians and pagans, who each attributed atheism to the other.
A.B. Drachmann (1922) notes:
<blockquote>Atheism and atheist are words formed from Greek roots and with Greek derivative endings. Nevertheless they are not Greek; their formation is not consonant with Greek usage. In Greek they said ''atheos'' and ''atheotes''; to these the English words ungodly and ungodliness correspond rather closely. In exactly the same way as ungodly, ''atheos'' was used as an expression of severe censure and moral condemnation; this use is an old one, and the oldest that can be traced. Not till later do we find it employed to denote a certain philosophical creed. (p.5)</blockquote>
In [[English language|English]], the term ''atheism'' is the result of the adoption of the [[French language|French]] ''athéisme'' in about 1587. The term ''atheist'' in the sense of "one who denies or disbelieves" actually predates atheism, being first attested in about 1571 (the phrase ''Italian atheoi'' is recorded as early as 1568). ''Atheist'' in the sense of practical godlessness was first attested in 1577. The French word is derived from ''athée'', "godless, atheist", which in turn is from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''atheos''. The words ''deist'' and ''theist'' entered English after ''atheism'', being first attested in 1621 and 1662, respectively, with ''[[theism]]'' and ''[[deism]]'' following in 1678 and 1682, respectively. ''Deism'' and ''theism'' exchanged meanings around 1700 due to the influence of ''atheism''. ''Deism'' was originally used with a meaning comparable to today's ''theism'', and vice-versa.
The [[Oxford English Dictionary]] also records an earlier irregular formation, ''atheonism'', dated from about 1534. The later and now obsolete words ''athean'' and ''atheal'' are dated to 1611 and 1612, respectively.
==Types and typologies of atheism==
Many people have disagreed on how best to characterize atheism, and much of the literature on the subject is erroneous or confusing. There are many discrepancies in the use of terminology between proponents and opponents of atheism, and even divergent definitions among those who share near-identical beliefs.
Among proponents of atheism and neutral parties, there are two major traditions in defining atheism and its subdivisions. The first tradition understands atheism very broadly, as including both those who believe gods don't exist (''[[strong atheism]]'') and those who are simply not theists (''[[weak atheism]]''). [[George H. Smith]], [[Michael Martin (philosopher)|Michael Martin]], and (formerly) [[Antony Flew]] fall into this tradition, though they do not use the same terminology. (Flew has recently adopted a form of [[deism]].)
The second tradition understands atheism more narrowly, as the conscious rejection of theism, and does not consider absence of theistic belief or suspension of judgment concerning theism to be forms of atheism. [[Ernest Nagel]], [[Paul Edwards (philosopher)|Paul Edwards]] and [[Kai Nielsen]] are prominent members of this camp. Using this definition of atheism, "[[Atheism#Implicit and explicit atheism|implicit atheism]]", lack of theism without the conscious rejection of it, may not be regarded as atheistic at all, and the umbrella term ''[[nontheism]]'' may be used in its place.
A third tradition, more common among laypeople, understands atheism even more narrowly than that. Here, atheism is defined in the strongest possible terms, as the belief that there is no god. Such usage is not exclusive to laypeople, however--atheist philosopher Theodore Drange uses the narrow definition [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/theodore_drange/defending.html].
===Atheism as lack of theism===
Among modern atheists, the view that atheism means "without [or, polemically, "free of"] theistic beliefs" has a great deal of currency. This very broad definition is justified by reference to etymology as well as consistent usage of the word by atheists.
However, this definition of atheism has not gone unchallenged. Although, over the last few hundred years, atheism has evolved and broadened beyond the narrow meaning of "wickedness", impiety, heresy and religious denial, as well as [[pantheism]] and similar beliefs, it is less commonly understood to include everything not explicitly theistic. Whether a writer's definition of atheism as an "absence" or "lack" of theistic belief is in fact intended to mean "not theistic" in the widest possible sense, or just refers to particular forms of the rejection of theism (see below), is often ambiguous.
However, while this definition of atheism is frequently disputed, it is not a recent invention; this use has a history spanning over 230 years. Two atheist writers who are clear in defining atheism so broadly that uninformed children are counted as atheists are d'Holbach (1772) ("All children are born Atheists; they have no idea of God" [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext05/gsens10.txt]) and George H. Smith (1979).
According to Smith,
<blockquote>The man who is unacquainted with theism is an atheist because he does not believe in a god. This category would also include the child without the conceptual capacity to grasp the issues involved, but who is still unaware of those issues. The fact that this child does not believe in god qualifies him as an atheist. (p.14) [http://www.positiveatheism.org/writ/smith.htm] </blockquote>
One atheist writer who explicitly disagrees with such a broad definition is Ernest Nagel (1965):
<blockquote>Atheism is not to be identified with sheer unbelief... Thus, a child who has received no religious instruction and has never heard about God, is not an atheist - for he is not denying any theistic claims. (p.460-461)</blockquote>
For Nagel, atheism is the ''rejection'' of theism, not just the absence of theistic belief. However, this definition leaves open the question of what term can be used to describe those who lack theistic belief, but do not necessarily reject theism.
The obsolete word ''atheous'', first recorded in the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] as a synonym of atheism or impiety, is sometimes used to mean "not dealing with the existence of a god" in a purely privative sense, as distinguished from the negative ''atheistic''. This 1880 coinage captures some of what is intended by the broad definition of atheism, though it is hard to sustain the claim that the philosophical rejection of theism can be characterized in such terms.
====Implicit and explicit atheism====
[[Image:Atheismimplicitexplicit2.PNG|thumb|230px|A chart showing the relationship between the weak/strong (positive/negative) and implicit/explicit dichotomies. Strong atheism is always explicit, and implicit atheism is always weak.]]
The terms ''implicit atheism'' and ''explicit atheism'' were coined by George H. Smith (1979, p.13-18).
Implicit atheism is defined by Smith as "the absence of theistic belief without a conscious rejection of it." Explicit atheism is defined as "the absence of theistic belief due to a conscious rejection of it", which, according to Smith, is sometimes called ''antitheism'' (see below).
For Smith, explicit atheism is subdivided further according to whether or not the rejection is on rational grounds. The term ''critical atheism'' is used to label the view that belief in god is irrational, and is itself subdivided into a) the view usually expressed by the statement "I do not believe in the existence of a god or supernatural being"; b) the view usually expressed by the statement, "god does not exist" or "the existence of god is impossible"; and c) the view which "refuses to discuss the existence or nonexistence of a god" because "the concept of a god is unintelligible" (p.17).
Although Nagel rejects Smith's definition of atheism as merely "lack of theism", acknowledging only explicit "atheism" as true atheism, his tripartite classification of ''rejectionist atheism'' (commonly found in the philosophical literature) is identical to Smith's ''critical atheism'' typology.
The difference between Nagel on the one hand and d'Holbach and Smith on the other has been attributed to the different concerns of professional philosophers and layman proponents of atheism (see Smith (1990, Chapter 3, p.51-60 [http://www.positiveatheism.org/writ/smithdef.htm]), for example, but also alluded to by others).
Everitt (2004) makes the point that professional philosophers are more interested in the grounds for giving or withholding assent to propositions:
<blockquote>We need to distinguish between a ''biographical'' or ''sociological'' enquiry into why some people have believed or disbelieved in God, and an ''epistemological'' enquiry into whether there are any good reaso |
anada]]
[[haw:Kanakā]]
[[he:קנדה]]
[[hr:Kanada]]
[[ht:Kanada]]
[[hu:Kanada]]
[[ia:Canada]]
[[id:Kanada]]
[[ilo:Canada]]
[[io:Kanada]]
[[is:Kanada]]
[[it:Canada]]
[[iu:ᑲᓇᑕ]]
[[ja:カナダ]]
[[ka:კანადა]]
[[ko:캐나다]]
[[ku:Kanada]]
[[kw:Kanada]]
[[la:Canada]]
[[li:Canada]]
[[lt:Kanada]]
[[lv:Kanāda]]
[[ms:Kanada]]
[[na:Canada]]
[[nah:Canadatlan]]
[[nds:Kanada]]
[[nl:Canada]]
[[nn:Canada]]
[[no:Canada]]
[[pl:Kanada]]
[[pt:Canadá]]
[[ro:Canada]]
[[ru:Канада]]
[[sa:केनडा]]
[[scn:Canada]]
[[sco:Canadae]]
[[se:Kanáda]]
[[simple:Canada]]
[[sk:Kanada]]
[[sl:Kanada]]
[[sq:Kanadaja]]
[[sr:Канада]]
[[sv:Kanada]]
[[ta:கனடா]]
[[th:ประเทศแคนาดา]]
[[tl:Canada]]
[[tr:Kanada]]
[[uk:Канада]]
[[vi:Canada]]
[[yi:קאַנאַדע]]
[[zh:加拿大 (Chinese)]]
[[zh-min-nan:Canada]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Carmen Electra</title>
<id>5136</id>
<revision>
<id>42126251</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:11:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Yamla</username>
<id>128551</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/128.62.82.24|128.62.82.24]] ([[User talk:128.62.82.24|talk]]) to last version by RexNL</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Playboy1200.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Carmen Electra on the cover of [[Playboy Magazine]].]]
'''Carmen Electra''' (born [[April 20]], [[1972]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[Model (person)|model]], television personality, [[Actor|actress]] and singer, born in [[Cincinnati, Ohio]], as '''Tara Leigh Patrick''' to a family of [[Irish people|Irish]], [[German peoples|German]], and [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] ([[Cherokee]]) descent. She is not related to [[pornographic movie|adult film]] actress [[Tera Patrick]], born Linda Hopkins Shapiro. She attended [[Princeton High School]] for four years in [[Sharonville, Ohio|Sharonville]], a suburb of Cincinnati. She is married to guitarist [[Dave Navarro]] of [[Jane's Addiction]] and [[Red Hot Chili Peppers]] fame.
== Career highlights ==
Before moving to Los Angeles in [[1991]], she lived in [[Minneapolis]], MN and worked for [[Target Corporation]]. After moving to California she met singer [[Prince (artist)|Prince]] (a Minneapolis native), who persuaded her to change her name to Carmen Electra. Soon after, she signed a recording contract with [[Paisley Park Records]], Prince's company, marking the start of a short-lived but not very successful singing career.
In [[1995]], Electra started appearing in various television programs. Then in May of [[1996]] she appeared in ''[[Playboy]]'' magazine. This led to an increasing role as a television personality on various shows, including regular roles on ''[[Baywatch]]'' and [[MTV]]'s ''[[Singled Out]]''.
Electra has appeared in several films, such as ''[[Good Burger]]'' ([[1997]]), ''[[The Mating Habits of the Earthbound Human]]'' ([[1999]]), the horror spoof ''[[Scary Movie]]'' (2000), and the remake of the [[1970s]] TV show ''[[Starsky & Hutch]]'' ([[2004]]). She also regularly performed with the exotic dance troupe [[The Pussycat Dolls]]. Her most recent movie appearance is as [[Eugene Levy]]'s trophy wife in ''[[Cheaper by the Dozen 2]]''. Her acting work is regularly derided by critics; in the [[Roger Ebert]] review of the film [[Dirty Love]], he states: "The Carmen Electra character, meanwhile, struts around like a ho in a bad music video, speaking black street talk as if she learned it phonetically, and pulling out a gun and holding it to a man's head because she thinks, obviously, that pulling guns on guys is expected of any authentic black woman. A scene like that would be insulting in any other movie; here it possibly distracts her from doing something even more debasing." [http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20050922/REVIEWS/509220303/1023 1]
Electra achieved considerable notoriety during her on-again, off-again marriage to basketball star [[Dennis Rodman]] from [[1998]] to [[1999]]. The wedding to Rodman took place in [[Las Vegas, Nevada]]. Later, she allegedly had an affair with [[Tommy Lee]], the ex-husband of Pamela Anderson. Electra's current husband, [[musician]] [[Dave Navarro]], was formerly the lead guitarist of the rock bands [[Jane's Addiction]] and [[The Red Hot Chili Peppers]]. The couple documented their courtship and marriage on an [[MTV]] reality show in [[2004]] entitled ''Til Death Do Us Part: Carmen & Dave''.
==Discography==
* ''[[Carmen Electra (album)|Carmen Electra]]'', [[1993]]
==Filmography==
[[Image:Carmen Esquire June04.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Carmen Electra on an ''[[Esquire (magazine)|Esquire]]'' cover parodying the famous [[Coppertone girl]].]]
*''An American Vampire Story'' ([[1997]])
*''[[Good Burger]]'' ([[1997]])
*''Starstruck'' ([[1998]])
*''[[The Chosen One: Legend of the Raven]]'' ([[1998]])
*''The Mating Habits of the Earthbound Human'' ([[1999]])
*''Christmas Vacation 2000'' ([[1999]])
*''The Great White Dope'' ([[2000]]) (short subject)
*''[[Scary Movie]]'' ([[2000]])
*''Welcome to Hollywood'' ([[2000]]) (documentary)
*''Sol Goode'' ([[2001]])
*''Perfume'' ([[2001]])
*''[[Get Over It (film)|Get Over It]]'' ([[2001]])
*''Rent Control'' ([[2002]])
*''Naked Movie'' ([[2002]])
*''Whacked!'' ([[2002]])
*''[[Uptown Girls]]'' ([[2003]])
*''My Boss's Daughter'' ([[2003]])
*''[[Starsky & Hutch]]'' ([[2004]])
*''[[Mr. 3000]]'' ([[2004]]) (Cameo)
*''Max Havoc: Curse of the Dragon'' ([[2004]])
*''[[Dirty Love (film)|Dirty Love]]'' ([[2005]])
*''Lil' Pimp'' ([[2005]]) (voice)
*''Searching for Bobby D'' ([[2005]])
*''Getting Played'' ([[2005]])
*''[[Cheaper by the Dozen 2]]'' ([[2005]])
*''[[Date Movie]]'' ([[2006]])
Upcoming:
*''Full of It'' (2006)
*''Hot Tamale'' (2006)
*''[[National Lampoon's Pledge This!]]'' (2006)
*''[[Scary Movie 4]]'' (2006)
*''Beyond Legend: Johnny Kakota'' (2006)
[[Image:yasminebleethfhmbaywatchcover2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Carmen Electra (left), [[Pamela Anderson]] (center) and [[Yasmine Bleeth]] (right) on the cover of [[FHM]] magazine.]]
==TV Work==
*''[[Singled Out]]'' (host in [[1997]])
*''[[Loveline]]'' (host in [[1997]])
*''[[Baywatch]]'' (cast member from [[1997]]-[[1998]])
*''Baywatch: White Thunder at Glacier Bay'' ([[1998]])
*''Hyperion Bay'' (cast member in [[1999]])
*''Electra's Guy'' ([[2000]])
*''VH1's 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock ([[2000]] host)
*''Cleavage ([[2002]]) (documentary) (narrator)
*''Carmen & Dave: An MTV Love Story'' ([[2002]])
*''Livin' Large'' (host from [[2002]]-[[2003]] and from [[2003]]-[[2004]])
*''[[BattleBots]]'' (host in [[2002]])
*''[[Dance Fever]]'' ([[2003]]) (contest judge)
*''[[Baywatch: Hawaiian Wedding]]'' ([[2003]])
*''Til Death Do Us Part: Carmen + Dave'' ([[2004]]) (miniseries)
*''Monster Island'' ([[2004]])
*''Manhunt: The Search for America's Most Gorgeous Male Model'' ([[2004]]) (miniseries)
*''Naked Women's Wrestling League'' (host [[2004]]) (pay-per-view event)
*''[[Tripping the Rift]]'' ([[2005]]-present) (voice of ''Six'' in the second season of the Canadian version of the series, replacing [[Gina Gershon]])
She also has appeared on an episode of ''[[The Simpsons]]'', on which she was hosting a game show (and had posed as an old woman who Homer had allegedly killed earlier in the episode).
==Other Work==
*''[[Embrace]]'' [[Comic Book]] written by Carmen Electra for London Night Studios.
Worked exclusively on Jim Wolfe from 10/96-12/97
"Glam Slam Ulysses" Interactive Musical Theatrical Production,” conceived by Prince. Debuted at Prince's legendary *''[[Glam Slam L.A.]]'' nightclub.
== External links ==
* [http://www.carmenelectra.com/ Official website]
* {{imdb name|id=0001182|name=Carmen Electra}}
[[Category:1972 births|Electra, Carmen]]
[[Category:Living people|Electra, Carmen]]
[[Category:Cincinnatians|Electra, Carmen]]
[[Category:American models|Electra, Carmen]]
[[Category:Adult models|Electra, Carmen]]
[[Category:American female singers|Electra, Carmen]]
[[Category:American film actors|Electra, Carmen]]
[[Category:Prince protégés|Electra, Carmen]]
[[Category:Worst Supporting Actress Razzie nominees|Electra, Carmen]]
[[Category:Irish-American actors|Electra, Carmen]]
[[Category:German-Americans|Electra, Carmen]]
[[Category:Multiracial Americans|Electra, Carmen]]
[[bg:Кармен Електра]]
[[da:Carmen Electra]]
[[de:Carmen Electra]]
[[fr:Carmen Electra]]
[[he:כרמן אלקטרה]]
[[nl:Carmen Electra]]
[[pl:Carmen Electra]]
[[sv:Carmen Electra]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ClusterSampling</title>
<id>5137</id>
<revision>
<id>15903367</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cluster sampling]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CumulativeDistributionFunction</title>
<id>5138</id>
<revision>
<id>15903368</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cumulative distribution function]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CartesianProduct</title>
<id>5139</id>
<revision>
<id>15903369</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cartesian product]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Comedy Film</title>
<id>5140</id>
<revision>
<id>15903370</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<commen |
ganized into two [[dukedom]]s; the [[Pannonia]]n duchy in the north and the [[Dalmatia]]n duchy in the south. The [[Christianization]] of the Croats ended in the [[9th century]].
The first native Croatian ruler recognized by a [[pope]] was duke [[Branimir]], whom [[Pope John VIII]] called ''dux Chroatorum'' in [[879]].
[[Image:Branimir.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The inscription of duke [[Branimir]], ca. [[888]].]]
The first [[List of rulers of Croatia|King of Croatia]], [[Tomislav]] of the Trpimirović dynasty, was crowned in [[925]]. Tomislav, ''rex Chroatorum'', united the Pannonian and Dalmatian duchies and created a sizeable state. He defeated Bulgarian Tsar Symeon I in one of the greatest battles in history ([[Battle of the Bosnian Highlands]]). The [[mediæval]] Croatian kingdom reached its peak during the reign of King [[Petar Krešimir IV of Croatia|Petar Krešimir IV]] ([[1058]]–[[1074]]).
Following the disappearance of the major native dynasty by the end of the [[11th century]] in the [[Battle of Gvozd Mountain (Peter`s Mountain)]], the Croats eventually recognized the Hungarian ruler [[Coloman of Hungary|Coloman]] as the common king for Croatia and [[Hungary]] in a treaty of [[1102]] (often referred to as the ''[[Pacta Conventa]]'').
[[Image:Tomislav.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Croatia during king [[Tomislav]]'s reign]]
The main families of Croatia which formed their county are unknown with over a 1000 surnames but some names such as Miljak and Milicic are certain
==Personal union with Hungary (1102–1526)==
{{main|Croatia in the union with Hungary}}
The consequences of the change to the Hungarian king included the introduction of [[feudalism]] and the rise of the native noble families such as [[Frankopan]] and [[Šubić]]. The later kings sought to restore some of their previously lost influence by giving certain privileges to the towns. The primary governor of Croatian provinces was the ''[[ban (title)|ban]]''.
The princes of Bribir from the Šubić family became particularly influential, asserting control over large parts of [[Dalmatia]], [[Slavonia]] and Bosnia. Later, however, the [[Angevin]]es intervened and restored royal power. They also sold the whole of [[Dalmatia]] to [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] in [[1409]].
As the [[Ottoman Empire|Turkish]] incursion into Europe started, Croatia once again became a border area. The Croats fought an increasing amount of battles and gradually lost increasing amounts of territory to the Ottoman Empire ([[Battle of Krbava field]]).
== Habsburg Empire, Venice and the Ottomans ([[1527]] – [[1918]]) ==
{{main|Croatia in the Habsburg Empire}}
[[Image:Ivan Zasche, Portret bana Josipa Jelacica.jpg|150px|thumb|right|Ban [[Josip Jelačić]].]]
The [[1526]] [[Battle of Mohács]] was a crucial event in which the rule of the
[[Jagiellon dynasty]] was shattered by the death of King [[Louis II of Hungary|Louis II]]. The Ottoman Empire further expanded in the [[16th century]] to include most of [[Slavonia]], western Bosnia and [[Lika]].
Later in the same century, large areas of Croatia and Slavonia adjacent to the Ottoman Empire were carved out into the [[Military Frontier]] (''Vojna Krajina'', ''German'' Militaergrenze) and ruled directly from Vienna military headquarters. The area became rather deserted and was subsequently resettled by [[Serbs]], [[Ethnic German|Germans]] and others. As a result of their compulsory military service to the Habsburg Empire during conflict with the [[Ottoman Empire]], the population in the Military Frontier was free of serfdom and enjoyed much political autonomy unlike the population living in the parts ruled by Hungary.
After the [[Bihać]] fort finally fell in [[1592]], only small parts of Croatia remained unconquered. The remaining 16,800 km² were referred to as the ''remnants of the remnants of the once great Croatian kingdom''. The Ottoman army was successfully repelled for the first time on the territory of Croatia following the Battle of [[Sisak]] in [[1593]]. The lost territory was mostly restored, except for large parts of today's [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]].
The [[Croats]] have participated in the [[30-years' War]]. They were remebered by brutality throughout the Protestant world. One Protestant church in Aachen still has a saying about Croats as they were remembered in common prayers of German people from that time: "God save us from hunger, Croats and plague!".
By the 1700s, the [[Ottoman Empire]] was driven out of [[Hungary]] and Croatia, and [[Austria]] brought the empire under central control. Empress [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresia]] was supported by the Croatians in the [[War of Austrian Succession]] of [[1741]]–[[1748]] and subsequently made significant contributions to Croatian matters.
With the fall of the [[Venetian Republic]] in [[1797]], its possessions in eastern [[Adriatic]] became subject to a dispute between [[France]] and Austria. The Habsburgs eventually secured them (by [[1815]]) and Dalmatia and Istria became part of the empire, though they were in [[Cisleithania]] while Croatia and Slavonia were under Hungary.
Croatian [[romantic nationalism]] emerged in mid-[[19th century]] to counteract the apparent Germanization and Magyarization of Croatia. The ''[[Illyria]]n'' Movement attracted a number of influential figures from [[1830s]] on, and produced some important advances in the [[Croatian language]] and culture.
Following [[the Revolutions of 1848 in Habsburg areas]] and the creation of the dual monarchy of [[Austria-Hungary]], Croatia lost its domestic autonomy, despite the contributions of its ban [[Josip Jelačić|Jelačić]] in quenching the Hungarian rebellion. Croatian autonomy was restored in [[1868]] with the Hungarian–Croatian Settlement which wasn't particularly favorable for the Croatians.
== First Yugoslavia (1918–1941) ==
{{main|Croatia in the first Yugoslavia}}
[[Image:Stjepan Radic founder of the Croatian Farmers' Party in the beginning of the 20 century.jpg|thumb|left|[[Stjepan Radić]].]]
Shortly before the end of the [[First World War|Great War]] in [[1918]], the [[Croatian Parliament]] severed relations with [[Austria-Hungary]] as the [[Entente]] armies defeated those of the Habsburgs. ''[[Croatia]] and [[Slavonia]]''' became a part of the [[State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs]] composed out of all Southern Slavic territories of the now former [[Austro-Hungarian Monarchy]] with a transitional government headed in [[Zagreb]]. Although the state inheriteb much of Austro-Hungary's military arsenal, including the entire fleet, the Kingdom of Italy moved rapidly to annex the state's most western territories, promised to her by the [[Treaty of London]]. An Italian Army eventually took [[Istria]], started to annex the [[Adriatic]] islands one by one, and even landed in [[Zadar]]. After [[Srijem]] left ''Croatia and Slavonia'' and joined Serbia together with Vojvodina, which was shortly followed by a referendum to join Bosnia and Herzegovina to Serbia, the People's Council (''Narodno vijeće'') of the state, guided by what was by that time a half a century long tradition of [[pan-Slavism]], joined the [[History of Serbia|Kingdom of Serbia]] into the [[Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes]].
The Kingdom underwent a crucial change in [[1921]] to the dismay of the Croatian political leadership led by the [[Croatian Peasant Party|Peasant Party]] of [[Stjepan Radić]]. The new constitution abolished the historical/political entities, including '''[[Croatia]] and [[Slavonia]]''' centralizing authority in the capital of [[Belgrade]]. The Croatian Peasent Party boycotted the government of the [[Serbian Radical People's Party]] throughout the period, except for a brief interlude between [[1925]] and [[1927]], when external [[Italian]] expansionism was at hand with her allies, [[Albania]], [[Hungary]], [[Romania]] and [[Bulgaria]] that threatened Yugoslavia as a whole.
In [[1928]], Radić was mortally wounded during a Parliament session by [[Puniša Račić]], a deputy of the Serbian Radical People's Party, which caused further upsets among the [[Croatian]] elite. In [[1929]], King [[Alexander of Yugoslavia|Aleksandar]] proclaimed a dictatorship and imposed a new constitution which, among other things, renamed the country into the [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]]. The territory of Croatia was roughly composed out of the [[Sava Banate|Sava]] and [[Littoral Banate|Littoral Banates]].
In [[1934]], King Aleksandar was [[assassination|assassinated]] abroad, in [[Marseilles]], by a coalition of two radical groups: the Croatian [[Ustaše]] and the Macedonian pro-Bulgarian [[VMORO]]. The [[Serbian]]-[[Croatian]] [[Cvetković]]-[[Maček]] government that came to power distanced Yugoslavia's former allies of [[France]] and the [[United Kingdom]], and moved closer to Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany in the period of [[1935]]-[[1941]]. A national '''Croatian Banate''' was created in [[1939]] out of the two Banates, as well as parts of the Zeta, [[Vrbas Banovina|Vrbas]], [[Drina Banovina|Drina]] and Danube Banates. It had a reconstructed [[Croatian Parliament]] which would choose a Croatian [[Ban (title)|Ban]] and Viceban. This [[Croatia]] included a part of [[Bosnia (region)]], most of [[Herzegovina]] and the city of [[Dubrovnik]] and the surroundings.
==World War II ([[1941]]–[[1945]]) ==
{{main|Independent State of Croatia}}
[[Image:Ante Pavelic.jpg|right|thumb|120px|[[Ante Pavelić]].]]
The [[Axis powers|Axis]] occupation of Yugoslavia in [[1941]] allowed the Croatian radical right [[Ustaše]] party to come into power, forming the so-called "[[Independent State of Croatia]]", led by [[Ante Pavelić]], he was styled ([[Führer]]-like) '''''Poglavnik''' Nezavisne Drzave Hrvatske'' (i.e. Leader of the Independent State of Croatia). His fascistoid puppet regime enacted racial laws, formed eight concentration camps and started a campaign to exterminate Croatia's ethnic minorities ([[Serbs]], [[Roma|Romas] |
Homo sapiens'' (humans) live in South Africa (Klasies River Mouth) and Israel (Qafzeh and Skhul), probably alongside Neanderthals. Modern humans enter Asia via two routes: one North through the Middle East, and another further South from Ethiopia, via the Red Sea and southern Arabia. (See: [[Single-origin hypothesis]]). Mutation causes skin color changes in order to absorb optimal UV light for different geographical latitudes. Modern "race" formation begins. African populations remain more 'diverse' in their genetic makeup than all other humans, since only a subset of their population (and therefore only a subset of their diversity) leaves Africa. For example, [[Mitochondrial DNA|mtDNA]] shows that an individual with English ancestors is more similar genetically to an individual with Japanese ancestors than are two individuals drawn from two African populations.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 82.5 kYA
| Humans in Zaire fish using sharp blades spears made from animal bones.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 80 kYA
| Humans make bone harpoons in Katanda, Democratic Republic of Congo.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 74 kYA
| Supervolcanoic [[Toba catastrophe theory|eruption in Toba]], Sumatra, Indonesia, causes ''Homo sapiens'' population to crash to 2,000. Six years without a summer are followed by a 1,000 year ice-age. Volcanic ash up to 5 m deep covers India and Pakistan.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 70 kYA
| The most recent [[ice age]], the [[Wisconsin glaciation]], begins.
Humans in the [[Blombos cave]] in South Africa make tools from bones, show symbolic thinking by creating ochre paintings. They also collect and pierce holes through sea shells to make necklaces.
[[Giant beaver]]s (''Castoroides ohioensis'', Toronto, Canada) largest rodents, length up to 2.5 m, dies out 10,000 years ago.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 60 kYA
| [[Y-chromosomal Adam]] lives in Africa. He is the last male human from whom all current human Y chromosomes are descended.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 50 kYA
| Modern humans expand from Asia to [[Australia]] (to become today's [[Indigenous Australians]]) and Europe. Expansion along the coasts happens faster than expansion inland. Woolly rhino (''[[Coelodonta antiquus]]'') in Britain.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 40 kYA
| [[Cro-Magnon]] Humans paint and hunt [[mammoth]]s in France. They have extraordinary cognitive powers equivalent to modern humans, which enable them to become predators/hunters at the top of the food chain. Extinction of gigantic marsupials in Australia, probably due to humans, results in the lack of domesticated animals, partially leading to the relatively primitive lifestyle of the humans there, later, when compared to the rest of the world.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 32 kYA
| First sculpture found in Vogelherd, Germany. First (bird bone) flute found in France. Stone tools in Kota Tampan, Malaysia.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 30 kYA
| Modern humans enter North America from [[Siberia]] in numerous waves, some later waves across the Bering land bridge, but early waves probably by island-hopping across the [[Aleutian Islands|Aleutians]]. At least two of the first waves left few or no genetic descendants among Americans by the time Europeans arrive across the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. Humans reach Solomons. Humans move into Japan. Bow and arrows used in [[Sahara]] (grassland). Fired ceramic animal models made in Moravia (Czech Republic).
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 28 kYA
|Oldest known painting: in the Apollo 11 Rock Shelter<ref>"<cite>These stones were found in association with charcoal which has been dated to between 19,000 and 26,000 years old (Wendt 1974, 1976). Border Cave in Kwazulu has yielded engraved bone and wood dated between 35,000 and 37,500 years old (Butzer et al 1979); and a 20,000 year old incised stone was found at Matupi Cave, Zaire (Van Noten 1977).<cite>" [http://www.oubliette.zetnet.co.uk/Six.html Introduction to upper palaeolithic art] (URL accessed on [[January 9]], [[2005]])</ref>., Namibia, Africa. A 20 cm-long, 3 cm-wide object found in Hohle Fels Cave near Ulm in the Swabian Jura in Germany is the earliest sculpted stone penis<ref>"<cite>The 20 cm-long, 3 cm-wide stone object, which is dated to be about 28,000 years old, was buried in the famous Hohle Fels Cave near Ulm in the Swabian Jura. </cite>" [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4713323.stm Ancient phallus unearthed in cave] (URL accessed on [[January 9]], [[2005]])</ref>.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 27 kYA
| ''Neanderthals'' die out leaving ''Homo sapiens'' and ''Homo floresiensis'' as the only living species of the genus ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]''. Czech invented textile and pressed weaving patterns into pieces of clay before firing them.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 25 kYA
| Throwing sticks for hunting animals made from [[mammoth]] tusk (Poland).
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 23 kYA
| [[Venus of Willendorf]], a small statuette of a female figure, discovered at a paleolithic site near Willendorf, Austria, dates from this era.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 20 kYA
| Humans leave foot and hand prints in Tibetan plateau. Oil lamps made from animal fats on shells used in caves in Grotte de la Mouthe, France. Bone needles used to sew animal hides. ([[Shandingdong Man]], China). [[Microlith|Microblade]] culture (Northern China). [[Mammoth]] bones used to build houses (Russia).
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 18 kYA
| ''[[Homo floresiensis]]'' existed in the Liang Bua limestone cave on Flores, remote Indonesian island.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 15 kYA
| The [[Wisconsin glaciation|last Ice Age]] ends. Sea levels across the globe rise, flooding many coastal areas, and separating former mainland areas into islands. Japan separates from Asia mainland. Siberia separates from Alaska. Tasmania separates from Australia. Java island forms. Sarawak, Malaysia and Indonesia separate. One group of humans in the [[Fertile Crescent]] of the [[Middle East]] develop [[agriculture]] and, as a result of the benefits it brings, permanent settlements and cities. These appear first in what is now [[Iraq]]. This process of food production, coupled later with the [[Domestication#History_of_domestication|domestication]] of available animals caused a massive increase in [[World population|human population]] that has continued to the present. In this time, also, the [[cave painting]]s of [[Lascaux]] and [[Altamira]] were produced.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 14 kYA
| [[Holocene extinction event|Megafauna extinction]] starts (continuing to current day), where over 100 large mammal species disappear possibly caused by the expanding human population.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 11.5 kYA
| Extinction of the [[saber-toothed cat|Sabertooth]] (''[[Smilodon]]'').
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | [[9th_millennium_BC|11 kYA]]
| [[World population|Human population]] reaches 5 million. Extinction of ''[[Homo floresiensis]]''.
Extinction of [[mammoth|woolly mammoth]]. [[Canis_familiaris#Ancestry_and_history_of_domestication|Domestication of dogs]] (first domesticated animal) from [[Grey Wolf]] subspecies (''Canis lupus pallipes''). All modern dogs today (5 main groups, about 400 breeds) belong to a single subspecies ''[[Canis lupus familiaris]]''.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 10.4 kYA
| [[Domestication|Plant domestication]] begins with cultivation of [[Neolithic founder crops]] in [[Near East]]. [[Jericho]] (modern Israel) settlement with about 19,000 people.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | [[8th_millennium_BC|10 kYA]]
| [[Sahara]] is green with rivers, lakes, cattles, crocodiles and [[monsoons]]. Japan's hunter-gatherer [[Jomon]] culture creates world earliest pottery. Humans reach [[Tierra del Fuego]] at the tip of [[South America]], the last continental region to be inhabited by humans (excluding [[Antarctica]]).
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | [[6th_millennium_BC|8 kYA]]
| Domestic [[wheat]] ''[[Wheat|Triticum aestivum]]'' originates in southwest Asia, Syria, Jordan, Turkey, and Iraq, due to hybridisation of [[emmer wheat]] with a goat-grass, ''[[Aegilops tauschii]]''.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 6.5 kYA
|Two [[rice]] species are domesticated: Asian rice ''[[Rice|Oryza sativa]]'' and African rice ''[[Rice|Oryza glaberrima]]''.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | [[1st_millennium_BC|3 kYA]]
| Humans start using [[iron age|iron tools]].
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | [[1|AD 1]]
| [[World population|Human population]] 150 million.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | [[1835|AD 1835]]
| [[World population|Human population]] 1 billion.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | [[1969|AD 1969]]
| Humans [[Project Apollo|walk on the moon]].
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | [[{{CURRENTYEAR}}|AD {{CURRENTYEAR}}]]
| [[World population|Human population]] approaching 6.5 billion<ref>An [[United States Census Bureau]] estimate of the number of people alive on Earth at any given moment. [http://www.census.gov/cgi-bin/ipc/popclockw United States census bureau]</ref>.
[[Holocene extinction event]] continues with the o |
yrup]], are also strongly associated with Canadian identity.
Additional national symbols the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]], and anything pertaining to [[ice hockey|hockey]], Canada's official winter sport, which is often used as a national symbol of unity and pride.
In recent years, other symbols have become a source of pride: notably, the ''[[I am Canadian]]'' campaign by [[Molson]], most notably the commercial featuring [[Joe Canada]], infused [[Canadian beer|home-grown beer]] with nationalism. The Canadian fashion retailer [[Roots Canada Ltd.|Roots]] also sells a variety of merchandise designed to evoke nationalistic sentiment.
<br style="clear: left" />
==Holidays==
{{main|Holidays in Canada}}
Statutory and major holidays in Canada include [[New Year's Day]], [[Good Friday]], [[Easter]] [[Easter Monday|Monday]], [[Victoria Day]], [[Canada Day]], [[Labour Day]], [[Thanksgiving]], [[Remembrance Day]], [[Christmas]], and [[Boxing Day]].
Canada's provinces and territories generally adopt statutory holidays similar to federal ones with some variations (including [[civic holiday]]s), and many Canadians celebrate numerous unofficial and religious holidays as well.
==International rankings==
* [[A.T. Kearney]]/[[Foreign Policy|Foreign Policy Magazine]]: [http://www.atkearney.com/main.taf?p=5,4,1,116 Globalization Index 2005], ranked 6 out of 62 countries
* [[IMD International]]: [http://www01.imd.ch/wcy/ World Competitiveness Yearbook 2005], ranked 5 out of 60 economies (countries and regions)
* [[The Economist]]: [http://www.economist.com/theworldin/international/displayStory.cfm?story_id=3372495&d=2005 The World in 2005 - Worldwide quality-of-life index, 2005], ranked 14 out of 111 countries
*Environmental Sustainability Index, 2005: 6th (out of 146); Yale University Center for Environmental Law and Policy & Columbia University Center for International Earth Science Information Network (pdf) [http://www.yale.edu/esi/ESI2005_Main_Report.pdf]
*Press Freedom Index 2005: 21st (out of 167); Reporters Without Borders World-wide [http://www.rsf.org]
*Total value of foreign trade (imports and exports), 2003: 4th (out of 185)
*Corruption Perceptions Index 2005: 14th (out of 159); Transparency International [http://www.transparency.org/cpi/2005/2005.10.18.cpi.en.html]
*Index of Economic Freedom, 2005: 16th (out of 155); Heritage Foundation/Wall Street Journal [http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/]
==References==
*{{cite book
|author=Bickerton, James & Gagnon, Alain-G & Gagnon, Alain (Eds).
|title=Canadian Politics
|publisher=Broadview Press
|edition=4th edition
|location=Orchard Park, NY
|id=ISBN 1551115956
|year=2004
}}
* {{cite book
| title = History of Canada Since 1867
| first = Robert | last = Bothwell
| publisher = Michigan State University Press
| year = 1996
| location = East Lansing, MI
| id = ISBN 0870133993
}}
*{{cite book
|first=Stephen | last=Brooks
|title=Canadian Democracy : An Introduction
|publisher=Oxford University Press Canada
|edition=3rd edition
|location=Don Mills, ON
|id=ISBN 0195415035
|year=2000
}}
* {{cite book
| title = History of the Canadian Peoples
| first = J. | last = Bumstead
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| location = Oxford, UK
| year = 2004
| id = ISBN 0195416880
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Who is Responsible? Phase 1 Report
| first = John | last = Gomery
| publisher = Public Works and Government Services Canada
| year = 2005
| location = Ottawa
| id = ISBN 0660195321
| url = http://www.gomery.ca/en/phase1report/index.asp
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Gordon | last = Currie
| title = 100 years of Canadian football: The dramatic history of football's first century in Canada, and the story of the Canadian Football League
| publisher = Pagurian Press
| location = Don Mills, ON
| year = 1968
| id = ASIN B0006CCK4G
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Secession and international law : conflict avoidance - regional appraisals
| first = Julie | last = Dahlitz
| publisher = T.M.C. Asser Press
| year = 2003
| location = The Hague
| id = ISBN 9067041424
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Eugene A. | last = Forsey
| authorlink = Eugene Forsey
| title = How Canadians Govern Themselves
| edition = 6th ed.
| publisher = Canada
| location = Ottawa
| year = 2005
| id = ISBN 0-662-39689-8
| url = http://www.parl.gc.ca/information/library/idb/forsey/PDFs/How_Canadians_Govern_Themselves-6ed.pdf
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Richard | last = Gruneau
| coauthors = Whitson, David
| title = Hockey Night in Canada: Sports, Identities, and Cultural Politics
| publisher = Garamond Press
| location = Toronto
| year = 1994
| id = ISBN 0920059058
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Warren | last = Hanson
| title = Curling: The History, The Players, The Game
| publisher = Key Porter Books
| location = Toronto
| year = 1999
| id = ISBN 1552630838
}}
* {{cite journal
| first = W. Kaye | last = Lamb
| title = Canada
| journal = The Canadian Encyclopedia
| year = 2006
| url = http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=J1SEC808542
}}
* {{cite book
| title = The Canadian Global Almanac 2005
| author = Langlois, Nicole (ed.)
| publisher = John Wiley and Sons Canada
| location = Toronto
| year = 2005
| id = ISBN 0-470-83523-0
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Historical statistics of Canada
| author = Leacy, F. H. (ed.)
| publisher = Statistics Canada
| location = Ottawa
| id =
| url = http://www.statcan.ca/english/freepub/11-516-XIE/sectiona/toc.htm
| year = 1983
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Doug | last = Maxwell
| title = Canada Curls: The Illustrated History of Curling in Canada
| publisher = Whitecap books
| location = North Vancouver, BC
| year = 2002
| id = ISBN 1552854000
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Brian | last = McFarlane
| title = Brian McFarlane's History of Hockey
| year = 1997
| location = Champaign, IL
| publisher = Sports Publishing Inc
| id = ISBN 1571671455
}}
* {{cite web
| year = 2004
| url = http://www.nascar.com/2004/news/business/06/14/nascar_canada/index.html
| title = NASCAR Canada formed to partner with TSN
| format = HTML
| author = NASCAR
| accessdate = 2006-02-28
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Natural Resources Canada
| title = National Atlas of Canada
| publisher = Information Canada
| location = Ottawa
| year = 2005
| url = http://atlas.gc.ca/site/english/index.html
| id = ISBN 0770511988
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Steve | last = O'Brien
| title = The Canadian Football League: The Phoenix of Professional Sports Leagues
| publisher = Lulu Press
| location = Morrisille, NC
| year = 2004
| id = ISBN 1411613023
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Naming Canada: Stories of Canadian Place Names
| edition = 2nd ed.
| first = Alan | last = Rayburn
| publisher = University of Toronto Press
| location = Toronto
| year = 2001
| id = ISBN 0-8020-8293-9
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Canadian Oxford World Atlas
| author = Stanford, Quentin H. (ed.)
| edition = 5th ed.
| location = Toronto
| publisher = Oxford University Press (Canada)
| id = ISBN 0-19-541897-2
| year = 2003
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Statistics Canada
| title = Canada Year Book
| publisher = Queen of Canada
| location = Ottawa
| year = 2001
| url = http://142.206.72.67/r000_e.htm
| id = ISBN 0-660-18360-9
}}
* {{cite book
| title = History of Canada Before 1867
| first = Gordon T. | last = Stewart
| publisher = Michigan State University Press
| year = 1996
| location = East Lansing, MI
| id = ISBN 0870133985
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Nancy | last = Theberge
| title = Higher Goals: Women's Ice Hockey and the Politics of Gender
| publisher = State University of New York Press
| location = Albany, NY
| year = 2000
| id = ISBN 0791446425
}}
===Other references===
*National Sports of Canada Act (1994). Retrieved November, 2005 from http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/sc/legislation/n-16_e.cfm.
==See also==
* [[List of Canada-related topics]]
{{Canadian topics}}
==External links==
{{Sisterlinks|Canada}}{{portal}}
* [http://www.gc.ca Official website of the Government of Canada]
* [http://atlas.gc.ca/site/index.html Official Government of Canada online Atlas of Canada]
* [http://www.cbc.ca/ Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]
* [http://www.justlanded.com/english/canada A Guide to living in Canada - Justlanded]
* [http://www.iccs-ciec.ca/blackwell.html Canadian Studies: A Guide to the Sources]
* [http://statcan.ca/english/edu/clock/population.htm Statistics Canada with Canada's population clock]
* [http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/atlas/ The Canadian Atlas Online]
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ca.html Canada] at ''[[The World Factbook]]''
* [http://www.international.gc.ca/canada_un/new_york/ Permanent Mission of Canada to the United Nations]
==Footnotes==
#{{note|UEL1}} [http://www.uelac.org/whatis.html United Empire Loyalists' Association of Canada]
#{{note|UEL}} [http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/history/A0850061.html United Empire Loyalists]
#{{note|GG1}} [http://www.gg.ca/gg/rr/index_e.asp Role and Responsibilities of the Governor General]
#{{note|forsey1}} [http://www.parl.gc.ca/information/library/idb/forsey/institutions_02-e.asp How Canadians Govern Themselves]
#{{note|Her1}} [http://www.pch.gc.ca/royalvisit2005/53_e.cfm The Queen and Canada: 53 Years of Growing Together]
{{Canada}}
{{Canada ties}}
[[Category:Canada| ]]
[[Category:Former British colonies]]
[[Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:Monarchies]]
[[Category:1867 establishments]]
{{Link FA|hu}}
{{Link FA|vi}}
[[af:Kanada]]
[[als:Kanada]]
[[an:Canadá]]
[[ang:Canada]]
[[ar:كندا]]
[[ast:Canadá]]
[[bg:Канада]]
[[bn:কানাডা]]
[[bs:Kanada]]
[[ca:Canadà]]
[[cs:Kanada]]
[[cy:Canada]]
[[da:Canada]]
[[de:Kanada]]
[[el:Καναδάς]]
[[eo:Kanado]]
[[es:Canadá]]
[[et:Kanada]]
[[fa:کانادا]]
[[fi:Kanada]]
[[fr:Canada]]
[[fy:Kanada]]
[[ga:Ceanada]]
[[gd:C |
d into a [[topological space]] in just one way (by defining the empty set to be open); this empty topological space is the unique initial object in the category of topological spaces with [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] maps.
[[Category:Set theory]]
[[cs:Prázdná množina]]
[[da:Tomme mængde]]
[[de:Leere Menge]]
[[et:Tühi hulk]]
[[es:Conjunto vacío]]
[[fr:Ensemble vide]]
[[ko:공집합]]
[[it:Insieme vuoto]]
[[he:הקבוצה הריקה]]
[[hu:Üres halmaz]]
[[nl:Lege verzameling]]
[[ja:空集合]]
[[pl:Zbiór pusty]]
[[ru:Пустое множество]]
[[sl:Prazna množica]]
[[fi:Tyhjä joukko]]
[[sv:Tomma mängden]]
[[uk:Порожня множина]]
[[zh:空集]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Egoism</title>
<id>9567</id>
<revision>
<id>37729590</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-01T21:04:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jfdwolff</username>
<id>46555</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Brentonpatterson|Brentonpatterson]] ([[User talk:Brentonpatterson|talk]]) to last version by Audriusa</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Egoism''' may refer to any of the following:
* [[psychological egoism]] - the doctrine that holds that individuals are always motivated by self-interest.
* [[ethical egoism]] - the ethical doctrine that holds that individuals ''ought'' to do what is in their self-interest.
* [[rational egoism]] - the belief that it is rational to act in one's self-interest.
* [[solipsism]] - (sometimes called egoism) - the belief that only one's self exists, or that only the experiences of one's self can be verified.
* [[egotism]] - an excessive or exaggerated sense of self-importance. In extreme forms, egoism (as egotism) may include [[narcissism]] and [[Antisocial personality disorder|antisocial behavior]].
{{disambig}}
== See also ==
'''Egoism''' may also imply or may be fundamental to any number of related concepts, such as:
* [[Amorality]] - lack of adherence to a meaningful moral system.
* [[Antisocial personality disorder]] - the psychiatric disease which involves disregard for the consequences of behavior on others.
* [[Autism]] - the neurodevelopmental disorder which restricts an individual's ability to interact with others normally.
* [[Bigotry]] - intransigent intolerance of opinions which differ from one's own.
* [[Individualism]] - a focus on the individual as opposed to society.
* [[Individualist anarchism]] - anarchism that exalts the supremacy of the individual.
* [[Libertarianism]] - a political ideology that advocates individual liberty and private property.
* [[Machiavellianism]] - a tendency to deceive and manipulate others for personal gain.
* [[Narcissistic Personality Disorder]] - self-love as psychological illness.
* [[Objectivist philosophy|Objectivism]] - a philosophical system that advocates egoism.
* [[Suitheism]] - worship of one's own self as Deity.
[[Category:Core issues in ethics]]
[[Category:Philosophical terminology]]
[[da:Egoisme]]
[[de:Egoismus]]
[[fi:Egoismi]]
[[fr:Égoïsme]]
[[ja:&#21033;&#24049;&#20027;&#32681;]]
[[pl:Egoizm]]
[[sv:Egoism]]
[[ru:Эгоизм]]
[[lt:Egoizmas]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Essex</title>
<id>9568</id>
<revision>
<id>39767268</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T19:13:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>82.3.93.70</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Transport, commerce and industry */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the county of '''Essex''' in England. For other places named Essex, see [[Essex (disambiguation)]].''
{| class="toccolours" style="border-collapse: collapse; float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em" border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" width="300"
|+ <big>'''Essex'''</big>
|-
| colspan=2 style="text-align: center; background: white;"|[[Image:EnglandEssex.png]]
|-
| colspan=2 style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;" | Geography
|-
! width="45%" | Status
|[[Ceremonial counties of England|Ceremonial]] & (smaller) [[Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England|Non-metropolitan]] county
|-
!Region
|[[East of England]]
|-
! style="font-weight: normal;" | '''[[Surface area|Area]]'''<br />- Total<br />- Admin. council<br />- Admin. area
|[[List of ceremonial counties of England by area|Ranked 11th]]<br />[[1 E9 m²|3,670]] [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]]<br />[[List of non-metropolitan counties of England by area|Ranked 11th]]<br />3,465 km&sup2;
|-
!Admin HQ
|[[Chelmsford]]
|-
![[ISO 3166-2:GB|ISO 3166-2]]
|GB-ESS
|-
![[ONS coding system|ONS code]]
|22
|-
![[Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics|NUTS]] 3
|UKH33
|-
| colspan=2 style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;" | Demographics
|-
! style="font-weight: normal;" | '''[[Population]]'''<br />- Total ([[2004]] est.)<br />- [[Density]]<br />- Admin. council<br />- Admin. pop.
|[[List of ceremonial counties of England by population|Ranked 6th]]<br />1,635,600<br />445 / km&sup2;<br />[[List of non-metropolitan counties of England by population|Ranked 2nd]]<br />1,330,300
|-
!Ethnicity
|96.8% White<br />1.2% S. Asian
|-
| colspan=2 style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;" | Politics
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|[[Image:arms-essex.jpg|200px|Arms of Essex County Council]]<br />Essex County Council<br />http://www.essexcc.gov.uk/
|-
!Executive
|[[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]
|-
![[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005|Members of Parliament]]
|
*[[David Amess]]
*[[John Baron]]
*[[Simon Burns]]
*[[Douglas Carswell]]
*[[James Duddridge]]
*[[Mark Francois]]
*[[Alan Haselhurst]]
*[[Bernard Jenkin]]
*[[Eleanor Laing]]
*[[Andrew Mackinlay]]
*[[Brooks Newmark]]
*[[Eric Pickles]]
*[[Bill Rammell]]
*[[Bob Russell]]
*[[Angela Smith]]
*[[Bob Spink]]
*[[John Whittingdale]]
|-
| colspan=2 style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;" | Districts
|-
|colspan=2|<center>[[Image:Essex_Ceremonial_Numbered.png]]</center>
#[[Harlow]]
#[[Epping Forest (district)|Epping Forest]]
#[[Brentwood (borough)|Brentwood]]
#[[Basildon (district)|Basildon]]
#[[Castle Point]]
#[[Rochford (district)|Rochford]]
#[[Maldon (district)|Maldon]]
#[[Chelmsford (borough)|Chelmsford]]
#[[Uttlesford]]
#[[Braintree (district)|Braintree]]
#[[Colchester (borough)|Colchester]]
#[[Tendring]]
#[[Thurrock]] (Unitary)
#[[Southend-on-Sea]] (Unitary)
|}
'''Essex''' is a [[Counties of England|county]] in the [[East of England]]. It borders [[Greater London]] to the south west, [[Hertfordshire]] by the [[Stort Navigation|River Stort]] to the west, [[Cambridgeshire]] and [[Suffolk]] by the [[River Stour, Suffolk|River Stour]] to the north and [[Kent]] by the [[River Thames]] to the south.
The [[county town]] is [[Chelmsford]] and the highest point of the county is Chrishall Common near the village of [[Langley, Essex|Langley]] near the Hertfordshire border, which reaches 147m/482ft.
==History==
{{main|History of Essex}}
The name '''Essex''' derives from the [[Kingdom of Essex]] or ''Kingdom of the East Seaxe'' which was founded around [[500]] AD, occupying territory to the north of the [[River Thames]], incorporating much of what would later become [[Middlesex]] and [[Hertfordshire]], though its territory was later restricted to lands east of the [[River Lee]].
The boundaries of the [[ceremonial county]] cover a larger area than the present [[shire county]], including the [[Unitary Authority|unitary authorities]] of [[Thurrock]] and [[Southend-on-Sea]]; the historic county boundaries additionally include parts of [[East London, England|East London]].
==Population and settlement==
Because of its proximity to [[London]] and the economic magnetism which that city exerts, many of Essex's settlements function as [[dormitory town]]s or villages where London workers raise their families. Essex is known for being the origin of the political term [[Essex man]], and of the [[Essex girl]] joke. Essex has recently overtaken Lancashire as England's most populous county.
The pattern of settlement in the county is diverse. The [[Green Belt (UK)|London Green Belt]] has effectively prevented of the further sprawl of the metropolis into the County, although it contains the [[new town]]s of [[Basildon]] and [[Harlow]], originally developed to resettle Londoners following the destruction of London housing in [[World War II]] but since much expanded. Part of the south east of the county, already containing the major population centres of [[Southend-on-Sea|Southend]] and [[Thurrock]], is within the [[Thames Gateway]] and designated for further development. To the north of the Green Belt, with the exception of major towns such as [[Chelmsford]], the county is rural, with many small towns, villages and hamlets largely built in the traditional materials of timber and brick, with clay tile or thatched roofs. [[Colchester]] in the north east of the county is Britain's oldest recorded town, dating back to Roman times, and has a rich history. A book has been recently published called '350 miles: An Essex Journey' by photographer Jason Orton and writer Ken Worpole, detailing a journey by foot and bicycle along the full length of the distinctive Essex coastline (ExDRA 2005).
In [[1998]] the districts of [[Southend-on-Sea]] (pop. 160,300) and [[Thurrock]] (pop. 143,000) separated from the county of Essex becoming [[unitary authority area]]s.
==Transport, commerce and industry==
The [[Lakeside Shopping Centre]] at [[Thurrock]] was one of England's first out-of-town shopping centres; it remains popular despite congestion on the nearby [[M25 motorway]] and direct competition from [[Bluewater Shopping Centre]].
Essex also contains [[London |
me longer-haul flights are also operated.
==History==
{| align=right
| [[Image:ba.b757-200.g-cpen.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|British Airways [[Boeing 757]].]]
|-
| {{British Airways}}
|}
The airline's origins go back to the birth of civil aviation and the pioneering days after the First World War. On [[25 August]] [[1919]] its forerunner company, Aircraft Transport and Travel (AT&T), launched the world's first daily international scheduled air service, between [[London]] and [[Paris]]. On [[31 March]] [[1924]], Britain's four fledgling airlines - Instone, Handley Page, Daimler Airways (a successor to AT&T) and British Air Marine Navigation - merged to form [[Imperial Airways]], which developed its Empire routes to [[Australia]] and [[Africa]].
Meanwhile a number of smaller UK air transport companies had started flights. These merged in [[1935]] to form the original privately-owned [[British Airways Ltd]]. Following a government review Imperial Airways and British Airways were nationalised in [[1939]] to form the [[British Overseas Airways Corporation]] (BOAC). Post-war, BOAC continued to operate long-haul services, other than routes to South America - these were flown by [[British South American Airways]], which was merged back into BOAC in [[1949]]. Continental European and domestic flights were flown by a new airline, [[British European Airways]] (BEA).
The 1950s saw the world enter the passenger jet era - led by BOAC, with the [[De Havilland Comet]] flying to [[Johannesburg]] in [[1952]], halving the previous flight time. The birth of the mass package-holiday business meant changes for the airline industry. BEA met this by establishing BEA Airtours, which took off in [[1970]]. In [[1972]] BOAC and BEA were combined under the newly formed British Airways Board, with the separate airlines coming together as British Airways in [[1974]]. British Airways, simultaneously with [[Air France]], inaugurated the world's first supersonic passenger service with [[Concorde]] in January [[1976]].
===Privatisation===
[[John King (businessman)|Sir John King]], later Lord King, was appointed as Chairman in [[1981]] with the mission of preparing the airline for privatisation. King hired [[Colin Marshall]] as CEO in [[1983]]. King was credited with turning around the loss-making giant into one of the most profitable air carriers in the world, boldly claiming to be "The World's Favourite Airline", while many other large airlines struggled. The airline's fleet and route map were overhauled in the early years of King's tenure, with brand and advertising experts being recruited to overhaul the airline's image. Over 23,000 jobs were shed in the early 1980s, though King managed the considerable trick of boosting staff morale and modernise operations at the same time. Lord King also recognised the importance of Concorde to the company's business strategy, and used the supersonic airliner to win business customers by guaranteeing a certain number of Concorde upgrades in return for corporate accounts with BA.
The flag carrier was privatised and floated on the [[London Stock Exchange]] in February [[1987]] by the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] government, with the initial share offering being 11 times oversubscribed. In April [[1988]] British Airways effected the controversial takeover of Britain's second-force airline [[British Caledonian]], and in [[1992]] absorbed Gatwick-based carrier [[Dan-Air]].
==="Dirty tricks"===
Soon after privatisation [[Richard Branson]]'s [[Virgin Atlantic Airways|Virgin Atlantic]], which began with one route and one [[Boeing 747]] in [[1984]], was beginning to emerge as a serious threat on some of BA's most lucrative routes. Following Virgin's highly publicised mercy mission to [[Iraq]] to fly home hostages of [[Saddam Hussein]] in [[1991]], King is reported to have told Marshall and his PA Director [[David Burnside]] to "do something about Branson" ¹. This began the campaign of "dirty tricks" that ended in Branson suing King and British Airways for [[libel]] in [[1992]]. King countersued Branson and the case went to trial in [[1993]]. British Airways, faced with likely defeat, settled the case, giving £500,000 to Branson and a further £110,000 to his airline; further, BA was to pay the legal fees of up to £3 million. Branson divided his compensation among his staff, the so-called "BA bonus".
[[Image:ba.concorde.g-boac.719pix.jpg|thumb|left|250px|British Airways [[Concorde]], since retired]]
During the 1990s BA became the world's most profitable airline and trumpeted the slogan "The World's Favourite Airline." In [[1992 in aviation|1992]] [[Deutsche BA]] was established as a subsidiary operating in [[Germany]]. By the time it was sold in June [[2003]] DBA was operating 16 [[Boeing 737]]s and was the second-largest German domestic carrier, after [[Lufthansa]].
Lord King stepped down as chairman in [[1993]] and was replaced by former deputy Colin Marshall, who initially combined the roles of CEO and Chairman. [[Bob Ayling]], who would later take on the role of CEO, was appointed Managing Director by Marshall at that time. Lord King was appointed President, a role created specifically for him, and became President [[Emeritus]] in [[1997]], until his death in July [[2005]].
In [[1995 in aviation|1995]] BA formed [[British Asia Airways]], a subsidiary based in [[Taiwan]]. British Asia Airways was set up due to political sensitivities, the Union Jack tailfin being replaced by Chinese characters. Many airlines followed the same practice, e.g. [[Qantas]] flew to Taiwan as "Australia Asia Airways" and KLM's Taiwan operations became "KLM Asia". [[British Asia Airways]] ceased operation in 2001 as the airline suspend operation to [[Taiwan]] due to low yield.
===Bob Ayling===
In [[1996 in aviation|1996]] British Airways, with its newly appointed Chief Executive Bob Ayling, entered a period of turbulence. Increased competition, high oil prices and a strong pound hurt profits. BA management and trade unions clashed and the resulting disruption cost the company hundreds of millions of pounds. In 1997 Ayling dropped BA's traditional Union Flag tailfin livery in favour of [[British Airways ethnic liveries|world design tailfins]], in an effort to change its image from a strictly British and aloof carrier to a more cosmopolitan airline. The move was not a success and Ayling slowed the process, eventually declaring the fleet would sport a dual livery; half a Union Flag design, half the world design tailfins. Ayling devoted a lot of time pursuing a merger with [[American Airlines]], but this was ultimately unsuccessful due to the conditions placed on the deal by regulatory authorities, the most painful of which would have been the sacrificing of landing slots at Heathrow.
Positive news during Ayling's reign included cost savings of £750m and the establishment of the successful, but highly subsidised, [[Go Fly|Go]] in [[1998 in aviation|1998]]. Go was a [[low-cost carrier|low-cost]] carrier intended to compete in the rapidly emerging "no-frills" segment. After four years of successful operations, the airline was sold off to venture capitalists [[3i]] and later merged with [[Easyjet|easyJet]]. Another efficiency sought by Ayling was the reduction of capacity, cancelling [[Boeing 747-400]] orders in favour of the [[Boeing 777]] and rationalising BA's short-haul fleet with an order for the efficient Airbus A319/A320/A321 family.
===Rod Eddington===
In [[1999 in aviation|1999]] British Airways reported a 50% slump in profits, its worst since privatisation. In March [[2000]] Bob Ayling was removed from his position. British Airways announced [[Rod Eddington]] as his successor in May. Eddington set about cutting the workforce further, dramatically so after the slump caused by the [[September 11th attacks]] in [[2001]]. In May 2001 Eddington announced the return of the Union Flag to the entire fleet, reversing his predecessor's rebranding exercise.
Marshall, who had been appointed a [[life peer]] in [[1998]], retired as Chairman in July [[2004]] and was replaced by [[Martin Broughton]], former Chairman of [[British American Tobacco]].
On [[8 March]] [[2005]], Broughton announced that former [[Aer Lingus]] CEO [[Willie Walsh]] would take over from Rod Eddington upon his retirement in September 2005.
During the fiscal year ending 2005, BA carried some 35m passengers on revenue exceeding £7.8bn, posting a pre-tax profit of £415m. It employs 51,939 staff.
===Willie Walsh===
In September 2005 new CEO Willie Walsh announced changes to the management of British Airways, with the aim of saving £300 million by 2008, the cost of the move to Heathrow's Terminal 5. Walsh had shadowed his predecessor for four months prior to taking charge of the company.
===Industrial action===
Over the last 3 years British Airways employees have engaged in substantial strike action three times. Over 600 BA flights were grounded on [[11 August]] [[2005]] - [[12 August]] [[2005]], when [[baggage handler]]s, loaders, and cargo staff went on strike in support of laid-off catering workers.
==Financial performance==
{| class="wikitable"
! Year ended
! Turnover (£m)
! Profit/(loss) before tax (£m)
! Net profit/(loss) (£m)
! Basic [[earnings per share|eps]] (p)
|-
| [[31 March]] [[2005]]
| 7,813
| 415
| 251
| 23.4
|-
| [[31 March]] [[2004]]
| 7,560
| 230
| 130
| 12.1
|-
| [[31 March]] [[2003]]
| 7,688
| 135
| 72
| 6.7
|-
| [[31 March]] [[2002]]
| 8,340
| (200)
| (142)
| (13.2)
|-
| [[31 March]] [[2001]]
| 9,278
| 150
| 114
| 10.5
|-
| [[31 March]] [[2000]]
| 8,940
| 5
| (21)
| (2.0)
|-
| [[31 March]] [[1999]]
| 8,915
| 225
| 206
| 19.5
|-
| [[31 March]] [[1998]]
| 8,642
| 580
| 460
| 44.7
|-
| [[31 March]] [[1997]]
| 8,359
| 640
| 553
| 55.7
|-
| [[31 March]] [[1996]]
| 7,760
| 585
| 473
| 49.4
|}
= |
nsity of 348.0/km&sup2; (900.3/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the town is 98.30% [[Race (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.17% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.70% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.20% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.07% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 0.57% from two or more races. 0.43% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.
[[image:Fairmount-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|left|Fairmount from the air, looking southwest.]]
There are 1,226 households out of which 31.2% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.5% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 11.0% have a female householder with no husband present, and 29.9% are non-families. 26.5% of all households are made up of individuals and 12.5% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.44 and the average family size is 2.91.
In the town the population is spread out with 25.2% under the age of 18, 8.2% from 18 to 24, 28.2% from 25 to 44, 24.3% from 45 to 64, and 14.1% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 38 years. For every 100 females there are 90.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 90.0 males.
The median income for a household in the town is $33,843, and the median income for a family is $44,033. Males have a median income of $31,136 versus $23,041 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the town is $18,029. 9.1% of the population and 7.4% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 11.8% of those under the age of 18 and 7.8% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
== External links ==
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|40.417702|-85.648942}}
[[Category:Grant County, Indiana]]
[[Category:Towns in Indiana]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Epistles to the Thessalonians</title>
<id>11477</id>
<revision>
<id>18919931</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-15T22:13:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ZwoBot</username>
<id>332929</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: de</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">There are two '''[[Epistle]]s to the [[Thessaloniki|Thessalonians]]''' in the [[Bible]]:
* [[First Epistle to the Thessalonians]]
* [[Second Epistle to the Thessalonians]]
{{disambig}}
[[de:Briefe des Paulus an die Thessalonicher]]
[[nl:Brieven van Paulus aan de Tessalonicenzen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Free verse</title>
<id>11478</id>
<revision>
<id>41804587</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T21:36:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>72.154.40.226</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Precursors */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Free verse''' (also at times referred to as ''vers libre'') is a term describing various styles of [[poetry]] that are not written using strict [[Poetic meter|meter]] or [[rhyme]], but that still are recognizable as 'poetry' by virtue of complex patterns of one sort or another that readers can perceive to be part of a coherent whole.{{ref|coherentWhole}}
==Some types of Free Verse==
[[Philip Hobsbaum]] identifies three major types of free verse:
# free iambic verse which is an extension of the work of the [[Jacobean literature|Jacobean]] dramatists. Practitioners of this sort of free verse include: [[T. S. Eliot]], [[Hart Crane]], and [[W. H. Auden]].
# [[Cadence (music)|cadenced]] verse in the manner of [[Walt Whitman]]
# free verse proper, where the discrepancies and variations of meter are centre stage
Cadenced free verse is based on rhythmical phrases that are more irregular than those of traditional poetic meter. While traditional poetic forms are based on fixed stress-patterns and syllable counts, free verse is not constrained to use a fixed number of syllables for each line, and distributes its stress accents in irregular patterns. Free verse may or may not use rhyme. When it is used, it tends to follow a looser pattern than would be expected in formal verse. Free verse does away with the structuring devices of regular meter and rhyme schemes; other traditional elements of expression, such as diction and syntax may still be prominent.
==History==
An early usage of the term appears in [[1915]] in the anonymous preface to the first [[Imagist]] anthology. The main author of this preface was [[Richard Aldington]]. The preface states: "We do not insist upon 'free-verse' as the only method of writing poetry. We fight for it as for a principle of liberty."
The ideal of the early practitioners of free verse was well described by [[Ezra Pound]], who wrote: "As regarding rhythm: to compose in the sequence of the musical phrase, not in sequence of a metronome." [[D. H. Lawrence]] wrote that Whitman "pruned away his clichés &mdash; perhaps his clichés of rhythm as well as of phrase" and that all one could do with free verse was "get rid of the stereotyped movements and the old hackneyed associations of sound and sense".{{ref|lawrence}}
Some poets have explained that free verse, despite its freedom, must still display some elements of form. Pound's friend [[T. S. Eliot]] wrote: "No verse is free for the man who wants to do a good job."{{ref|musicOfPoetry}} [[Donald Hall]] goes as far as to say that "the ''form'' of free verse is as binding and as liberating as the ''form'' of a [[rondeau (poetry)|rondeau]]."{{ref|hallRondeau}}
Some poets think free verse too limiting. In [[1922]] [[Robert Bridges]] voiced his reservations in the essay '[[Humdrum and Harum-Scarum]].' [[Robert Frost]], later remarked that writing free verse was like "playing tennis without a net".
{{sectstub}}
==Precursors==
As the name ''vers libre'' suggests, this technique of using more irregular cadences is often said to derive from the practices of 19th century French poets like ''[[Gustave Kahn]].'' However, in English it can be traced back at least as far as the [[King James Bible]]. Walt Whitman, who based his verse approach on the Bible, was the major precursor for modern poets writing free verse, though they were reluctant to acknowledge his influence.
Many poets of the Victorian era experimented with form. [[Christina Rossetti]], [[Coventry Patmore]], and [[T. E. Brown]] all wrote examples of unpatterned rhymed verse. [[Matthew Arnold]]'s poem ''Philomela'' contains some rhyme but is very free. Poems such as [[W. E. Henley]]'s 'Discharged' (from his ''In Hospital'' sequence), and [[Robert Louis Stevenson]]'s poems 'The Light-Keeper' and 'The Cruel Mistress' could be counted early examples of free verse.{{ref|victorianFreeVerse}}
{{sectstub}}
==References==
*[[G. Burns Cooper]], ''[[Mysterious Music: Rhythm and Free Verse]],'' Stanford University Press, 1998
*[[Charles O. Hartman]], ''[[Free Verse: An Essay on Prosody]],'' Northwestern University Press, 1980. ISBN 0810113163
*[[Philip Hobsbaum]], ''[[Metre, Rhythm and Verse Form (book)|Metre, Rhythm and Verse Form]]''
*[[H. T. Kirby-Smith]], ''[[The Origins of Free Verse]],'' University of Michigan, 1996. ISBN 0-472-08565-4.
*[[Timothy Steele]], ''[[Missing Measures: Modern Poetry and the Revolt Against Meter]]'', University of Arkansas Press, 1990
==Notes==
#{{note|coherentWhole}} Burns Cooper, ''op. cit.''
#{{note|lawrence}} D. H. Lawrence, from intoduction to ''New Poems''
#{{note|musicOfPoetry}} in the essay "The Music of Poetry" 1942
#{{note|hallRondeau}} Donald Hall, in the essay 'Goatfoot, Milktongue, Twinbird' in the book of the same title. 1978. ISBN 0472400002.
#{{note|victorianFreeVerse}} see note 25 on pae LX of ''The Penguin Book of Victorian Verse'' Penguin Classics, 1999. ISBN 0140445781
[[Category:Poetic form]]
[[de:Freie Rhythmen]]
[[eo:Libera verso]]
[[nl:Vrij vers]]
[[ja:自由詩]]
{{poetry-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Frederik Willem de Klerk</title>
<id>11479</id>
<revision>
<id>41914437</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:10:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
<id>754619</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Ending apartheid */ dab. sanctions</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FWdeKlerk.jpg|thumb|'''F.W. de Klerk'''<br><small>State President of South Africa 1989&ndash;1994<br>Deputy President of South Africa 1994&ndash;1996</small>]]
'''Frederik Willem de Klerk''' (born [[March 18]], [[1936]]) was the last [[State President of South Africa|State President]] of [[History of South Africa in the apartheid era|Apartheid]] [[South Africa]], serving from September 1989 to May 1994. De Klerk was also leader of the [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]] (which later became the [[New National Party (South Africa)|New National Party]]) from February 1989 to September 1997.
De Klerk is best known for agreeing to end [[History of South Africa in the apartheid era|apartheid]], South Africa's racial segregation policy, and supporting the transformation of South Africa into a democracy by entering into the negotiations that resulted in all citizens, including the country's black majority, having equal voting and other rights. He shared the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] with [[Nelson Mandela]] in 1993 for his role in the ending of apartheid.
He was the [[Deputy President of South Africa|Deputy President]] of [[South Africa]] during the presidency of [[Nelson Mandela]] until 1996. In 1997, he retired from [[politics]].
==Early career==
Born in [[Johannesburg]], de Klerk is the son of former Senator [[Jan de Klerk]] and a nephew of [[J.G. Strijdom]] ([[Prime Minister of South Africa|Prime Minister]] from [[1954]]–[[1958|58]]). After completing high school in [[Krugersdorp]], de Klerk graduated in |
have a female householder with no husband present, and 52.5% are nonfamilies. 35.5% of all households are made up of individuals and 6.6% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.22 and the average family size is 2.90.
In the city the population is spread out with 16.8% under the age of 18, 26.8% from 18 to 24, 31.2% from 25 to 44, 17.3% from 45 to 64, and 7.9% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 28 years. For every 100 females there are 97.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 96.4 males.
The median income for a household in the city is $46,299, and the median income for a family is $71,293. Males have a median income of $48,880 versus $36,561 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $26,419. 16.6% of the population and 4.6% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 7.3% of those under the age of 18 and 5.1% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
Ann Arbor’s crime rate is below the national average. Compared with that average, the violent crime rate is much lower than the property crime rate: 50% and 26% less than the national average, respectively.
{| class="infobox" style="width:100%; font-size:95%; text-align:left;"
|-
! colspan="2" style="background-color: #e0e0e0; text-align:center;" | Violent and property crime statistics
|-
| align="center" |[[Image:Ann Arbor Violent Crime (by type), 2004.svg|200px]] [[Image:Ann Arbor Property Crime (by type), 2004.svg|200px]]
|-
! colspan="2" style="background-color: #e0e0e0; text-align:center;" | Comparision with national averages
|-
| align="center" |[[Image:Ann Arbor Crime Statistics, 2004.svg|200px]] [[Image:Ann Arbor Violent Crime Statistics, 2004.svg|200px]] [[Image:Ann Arbor Property Crime Statistics, 2004.svg|200px]]
|}
==Government and politics==
[[Image:AACityHall.JPG|thumb|200px|The Guy C. Larcom, Jr. Municipal Building houses the city hall and police station]]
Ann Arbor has a [[mayor]]-[[city council|council]] form of government. The mayor, who is elected every even-numbered year, is the presiding officer of the City Council and has the power to appoint all Council committee members as well as board and commission members, with the approval of the City Council. The City Council has ten members, two from each of the city's five wards, with the mayor wielding the tie-breaking vote. Council members serve two-year terms, with half the council elected in annual elections.
Ann Arbor is located in the 15th Congressional district, and is represented by Representative [[John Dingell]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]]), the longest-serving member of the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House]]. On the state level, the city is in the 18th district in the [[Michigan Senate]]. In the [[Michigan State House of Representatives]], the city of Ann Arbor is in the 53rd district, while northeastern Ann Arbor and Ann Arbor Township are in the 52nd district. As the seat of [[Washtenaw County, Michigan|Washtenaw County]], the city is the location of the county's trial, civil, and criminal courts. Ann Arbor is also the site of a [[United States district court]], whose downtown building also houses a [[post office]].
[[Left-wing politics]] have been particularly strong in municipal government since the 1960s – an orientation evident in the passage of [[rent control|rent-control]] and strong [[civil rights|antidiscrimination]] ordinances, as well as voter-approved charter amendments that have [[Marijuana laws in Ann Arbor, Michigan|lessened the penalties]] for possession of marijuana (1974) and that aim to protect access to [[abortion]] in the city should it ever become illegal in the State of Michigan (1990). In 1974, [[Kathy Kozachenko|Kathy Kozachenko's]] victory in an Ann Arbor city-council race made her the country's first openly [[gay]] or [[lesbian]] candidate to win public office. In 1975, Ann Arbor became the first U.S. city to use [[instant-runoff voting]] for a mayoral race. Adopted through a ballot initiative sponsored by the local [[Human Rights Party]], which feared a splintering of the left/liberal vote, the process was repealed in 1976 after use in only one election. As of February 2006, [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] hold the mayorship and all ten council seats.
Ann Arbor is the [[Town twinning|sister city]] to various municipalities around the world, including [[Tübingen]], [[Germany]] (since 1965); [[Belize City]], [[Belize]] (since 1967); [[Hikone]], [[Japan]] (since 1969); [[Peterborough, Ontario]], [[Canada]] (since 1983); [[Juigalpa]], [[Nicaragua]] (since 1986); and [[Dakar]], [[Senegal]] (since 1997).
{{seealso|List of mayors of Ann Arbor, Michigan}}
==Economy==
The University of Michigan plays a major role in shaping Ann Arbor's economy, both through its role as the city's largest employer (with approximately 15,000 workers plus an additional 6,000 at its medical center), and by attracting companies through its graduates and research and development work. Aside from education, [[high tech]], health services and [[biotechnology]] are major components of the city's economy, with numerous medical offices, laboratories, and associated companies located within the city. Companies associated with the [[automobile industry]], such as [[General Motors]] and [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]], also employ a large number of residents. Nevertheless, the city's economy remains relatively stable due to the major presence of the University of Michigan.
[[Image:AA Downtown.JPG|thumb|200px|left|Downtown Ann Arbor highrises]]
There are a number of high-tech companies located in the city. Ann Arbor Terminals, during the 1980s, was the manufacturer of the famous video-display terminal, the Ann Arbor Ambassador. Other high-tech companies in the area include Arbortext (provider of XML-based publishing software), Harris & Baseview (provider of newspaper publishing software and ASP services), and [[ProQuest]], which includes [[UMI]].
Websites and online media companies located in the city include [[All Media Guide]], [[Everything2]], and the [[Weather Underground (weather service)|Weather Underground]]. Ann Arbor is also the site of the Michigan Information Technology Center (MITC), whose offices also house [[Internet2]] and the Merit Network, a nonprofit research and education computer network.
[[Pfizer]] operates a large pharmaceutical research facility on the northeast side of town. It was previously operated by Warner-Lambert and, before that, Parke-Davis. The city is the home of other research and engineering centers, including those of [[General Dynamics]] and the [[National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration]] (NOAA). Other research centers sited in the city are the [[Environmental Protection Agency]]'s National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory and the [[Toyota|Toyota Technical Center]].
Ann Arbor serves as the headquarters to several major companies. The original [[Borders Books]] was opened on Ann Arbor's State Street in 1971 by brothers Tom and Louis Borders, and began operating other outlets around the region beginning in 1985. The Borders chain is still based in the city, as is its flagship store (although not in its original location). A little-known fact is that dogs are allowed inside the flagship store, and the cashiers have a stock of doggy treats for canine visitors. [[Domino's Pizza]]'s headquarters are in Ann Arbor on Domino's Farms, a massive 271-acre (109 hectare) [[Frank Lloyd Wright]]-inspired complex in the northeastern portion of the city. Flint Ink Corp., another Ann Arbor-based company, was until recently the world's largest privately held ink manufacturer (in October 2005 it was acquired by Stuttgart-based XSYS Print Solutions). Another Ann Arbor-based company is [[Zingerman's|Zingerman's Delicatessen]], which serves sandwiches and Jewish foods, and has derived and developed a variety of businesses under different brand names.
Many [[cooperatives|cooperative]] enterprises were founded in the city during the 1960s and 1970s; among those that survive today are the [[People's Food Co-op, Ann Arbor|People's Food Co-op]] and the [[Inter-Cooperative Council at the University of Michigan]], a student-housing cooperative. The [[North American Students of Cooperation]] (NASCO) is an association of cooperatives, headquartered in Ann Arbor. There are also three [[Sunward Cohousing|cohousing]] communities located just outside the city limits to the west.
==Education==
[[image:Annarbor um law library.jpg|200px|right|thumb|Rackham School of Graduate Studies, University of Michigan]]
The [[University of Michigan]] is the dominant institution of higher learning in Ann Arbor, providing the city with a distinctly [[college town|college-town]] atmosphere. Much of the campus is adjacent to and intermixed with the city's downtown district. Because the campus and the city expanded side-by-side, there is often no firm divide between the two, with university buildings scattered through much of the city center.
Other colleges and universities located in the city are [[Cleary University]], a private business school; [[Concordia University, Ann Arbor|Concordia University]], a Lutheran liberal-arts institution; and [[Washtenaw Community College]]. [[Ave Maria School of Law]], a Catholic institution established by [[Domino's Pizza]] cofounder [[Tom Monaghan]], opened in northeastern Ann Arbor in 2000. There were plans to establish [[Ave Maria University]] on land occupied by Domino's Farms. However, due to conflicts with local zoning authorities, the new campus is under construction near [[Naples, Florida]].
The Ann Arbor Public School District – which enrolls a total of 16,885 students (2004/2005 September head count) – consists of twenty-one [[elementary school]]s, five [[middle s |
ns]] in [[County Down]], [[Northern Ireland]]. [[Castlerock|Downhill House]] was his inspiration for the Witch's Castle. Lewis cited [[George MacDonald|MacDonald]] as an influence in writing the series.
'''Other works.''' Lewis’s last novel was ''[[Till We Have Faces]]''. Many believe (as he did) that it is his most mature and masterful work of fiction, but it was never a popular success. It is a retelling of the myth of [[Cupid and Psyche]] from the unusual perspective of Psyche’s sister. It is deeply concerned with religious ideas, but the setting is entirely pagan, and the connections with specific Christian beliefs are left implicit.
Before Lewis’ conversion to Christianity, he published two books: ''[[Spirits in Bondage]]'', a collection of poems, and ''[[Dymer]]'', a single narrative poem. Both were published under the pen name of "Clive Hamilton".
== Career as a writer on Christianity ==
In addition to his career as an English professor and an author of fiction, Lewis also wrote a number of books about [[Christianity]] — perhaps most famously, ''[[Mere Christianity]]'', which is considered a classic of [[Christian apologetics]]. In 2000, ''Mere Christianity'' was named the best book of the twentieth century by ''[[Christianity Today]]'' magazine, after the magazine asked 100 of its contributors and Church leaders to vote for best book. He was very much interested in presenting a reasonable case for the truth of Christianity. ''[[Mere Christianity]]'', ''[[The Problem of Pain]]'', and ''[[Miracles (book)|Miracles]]'' were all concerned, to one degree or another, with refuting popular objections to Christianity.
He has become popularly known as ''The Apostle to the Sceptics'' because he says he originally approached religious belief as a sceptic but was converted by the evidence. Consequently, his books on Christianity examine common difficulties in accepting Christianity, such as "How could a good God allow pain to exist in the world?", which he examined in detail in ''The Problem of Pain''.
Lewis also wrote an autobiography entitled ''[[Surprised by Joy]]'', which describes his conversion. (It was written before he met his wife, [[Joy Gresham]].) His essays and public speeches on Christian belief, many of which were collected in ''[[God in the Dock]]'' and ''[[The Weight of Glory and Other Addresses]]'', remain popular today.
His most famous works, the ''Chronicles of Narnia'', contain many strong [[Christianity|Christian]] messages. These are often mistaken for [[allegory]], but, as Lewis himself said, are certainly not allegory. Lewis is said to have stated that he wrote the novels when he wondered what it would be like if Jesus Christ was incarnated on another world or planet to save the souls of those inhabitants.
=== Trilemma ===
In the book ''Mere Christianity'', Lewis famously proposed that Jesus' status as a great moral teacher cannot be divorced from his claims to divinity:
:"''I am trying here to prevent anyone saying the really foolish thing that people often say about him: I'm ready to accept Jesus as a great moral teacher, but I don’t accept his claim to be God. That is the one thing we must not say. A man who was merely a man and said the sort of things Jesus said would not be a great moral teacher. He would either be a lunatic — on the level with the man who says he is a poached egg — or else he would be the Devil of Hell. You must make your choice. Either this man was, and is, the Son of God, or else a madman or something worse. You can shut him up for a fool, you can spit at him and kill him as a demon and you can fall at his feet and call him Lord and God, but let us not come with any patronising nonsense about his being a great human teacher. He has not left that open to us. He did not intend to.''"
According to the argument, most people are willing to accept Jesus Christ as a great [[morality|moral]] teacher, but the [[Gospels]] record that Jesus made many claims to [[divinity]], either explicitly ("I and the father are one." — [[Gospel of John|John]] 10:30) or implicitly, by assuming authority only God could have ("…the Son of Man has authority on earth to forgive sins…" — [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 9:6). Assuming that the [[Biblical_inerrancy|Gospels are accurate]], Lewis said there are three options:
# Jesus was telling falsehoods and knew it, and so he was a liar.
# Jesus was telling falsehoods but believed he was telling the truth, and so he was insane.
# Jesus was telling the truth, and so he was divine.
Lewis held that for Jesus to be a liar or insane would contradict his position as a "great moral teacher", and the remaining option would make Jesus both a "great moral teacher" and divine. This was aimed against a specific line of reasoning which accepts the Jesus portrayed in the gospels as a "great moral teacher", but not as a divine being. Lewis maintained that they are failing to deal with the logical consequences of their position.
His argument was later expanded by the Christian apologist [[Josh McDowell]] to serve as a logical proof to Jesus' Divinity. It is from this latter development that the term "[[trilemma]]" actually comes from. Outside of experts on the subject, trilemma is often taken to mean both arguments, assuming that in fact they are one and the same. Various versions of both Lewis's argument and McDowell's have been extensively debated and frequently attacked on the truth of their premises as well as the validity of their structure. (See the [[trilemma]] article for more.)
== Portrayals of Lewis's life ==
Interest in Lewis has resulted in several biographies (including books written by close friends of Lewis, among them [[Roger Lancelyn Green]] and [[George Sayer]]), at least one play about his life, and a [[1993]] movie, titled ''[[Shadowlands]]'', based on an original stage and television play. The movie fictionalizes his relationship with the American writer [[Joy Gresham]], whom he met and married in [[London]], only to watch her die slowly from bone cancer. Lewis’s book ''[[A Grief Observed]]'' describes his experience of bereavement in such a raw and personal fashion that Lewis originally released it under the pseudonym N.W. Clerk to keep readers from associating the book with him (ultimately too many friends recommended the book to Lewis as a method for dealing with his own grief, and he made his authorship public).
== Lewis’ death and legacy ==
Lewis died on [[November 22]], [[1963]], at the Oxford home he shared with his brother, [[Warren Lewis|Warren]]. He is buried in the Headington Quarry Churchyard, Oxford, England. Media coverage of his death was overshadowed by news of the [[assassination of President John F. Kennedy]], which occurred on the same day, as did the death of author [[Aldous Huxley]]. (This coincidence was the inspiration for [[Peter Kreeft]]'s book [[Between Heaven and Hell: A Dialog Somewhere Beyond Death with John F. Kennedy, C. S. Lewis & Aldous Huxley]]. In this philosophical work, the three men meet in a limbo before the afterlife, and debate the divinity of Jesus Christ, contrasting the differences in their personalities and world views — [[humanism]], [[Christianity]], and [[pantheism]].)
A bronze statue of Lewis looking into a wardrobe stands in Belfast’s Holywood Arches.
Many books have been inspired by Lewis, including ''[[A Severe Mercy]]'' by his correspondent [[Sheldon Vanauken]]. ''The Chronicles Of Narnia'' has been particularly influential. Modern children’s authors like [[Daniel Handler]] (''[[A Series of Unfortunate Events]]''), [[Eoin Colfer]] (''[[Artemis Fowl (series)|Artemis Fowl]]''), and [[J. K. Rowling]] (''[[Harry Potter]]'') have been influenced more or less by Lewis’s series. Authors of adult [[fantasy]] literature such as
[[Tim Powers]] have also testified to being influenced by Lewis’s work.
Most of Lewis’s posthumous work has been edited by his [[literary executor]], [[Walter Hooper]]. An independent Lewis scholar, the late [[Kathryn Lindskoog]], argued in several books that Hooper’s scholarship is not reliable and that he has made false statements and attributed forged works to Lewis. (See ''[[The Dark Tower (1977 novel)|The Dark Tower]]''.) Scholars in the field of Lewis studies are divided over whether these charges have been settled at all, and if so in whose favour.
Lewis was strongly opposed to the creation of live-action versions of his works due to the technology at the time. His major concern was that the anthropomorphic animal characters "when taken out of narrative into actual visibility, always turn into buffoonery or nightmare." This was said in the context of the 1950s, when technology would not allow the special effects required to make a coherent, robust film version of Narnia. Whether or not Lewis would be happy with the CGI creations of Disney, naturally, cannot be known.
== Bibliography ==
=== Nonfiction ===
* ''[[The Allegory of Love]]: A Study in Medieval Tradition'' (1936)
* ''[[Rehabilitations]] and other essays'' (1939) — with two essays not included in ''Essay Collection'' (2000)
* ''[[The Personal Heresy]]: A Controversy'' (with [[E. M. W. Tillyard]], 1939)
* ''[[The Problem of Pain]]'' (1940)
* ''[[A Preface to Paradise Lost]]'' (1942)
* ''[[The Abolition of Man]]'' (1943)
* ''[[Beyond Personality]]'' (1944)
* ''[[Miracles (book)|Miracles]]: A Preliminary Study'' (1947, revised 1960)
* ''[[Arthurian Torso]]'' (1948; on [[Charles Williams]]' poetry)
* ''[[Mere Christianity]]'' (1952; based on radio talks of 1941-1944)
* ''[[English Literature in the Sixteenth Century]] Excluding Drama'' (1954)
* ''[[Major British Writers, Vol I]]'' (1954), Contribution on Edmund Spenser
* ''[[Surprised by Joy]]: The Shape of My Early Life'' (1955; [[autobiography]])
* ''[[Reflections on the Psalms]]'' (1958)
* ''[[The Four Loves]]'' (1960)
* ''[[Studies in W |
rsonal identity]].
== Summary ==
The argument of the Enquiry proceeds following these steps:
# '''Of the different species of philosophy.''' In the first section of the Enquiry, Hume provides a rough introduction to philosophy as a whole. For Hume, philosophy can be split into two general parts: natural and moral philosophy. By "moral philosophy" Hume means the philosophy of human nature, which investigates both actions and thoughts. He emphasizes in this section, by way of warning, that philosophers with nuanced thoughts will likely be cast aside in favor of those who weild flowery rhetoric. However, he insists, precision helps art and craft of all kinds.
# '''Of the origin of ideas.''' In this section, Hume discusses the distinction between impressions and ideas. By "impressions", he means sensations, while by "ideas", he means memories and imaginings. According to Hume, the difference between the two is that ideas are less vivacious than impressions. Along with the empiricist's program, he argues that the source of all ideas are impressions, combined with the operations of the imagination. One noteworthy consequence which he gives some treatment of is the "missing blue shade" problem.
# '''Of the association of ideas.''' In this chapter, Hume discusses how thoughts tend to come in sequences, as in trains of thought. He explains that there are at least three kinds of associations between ideas: resemblance, contiguity, and cause-and-effect. He argues that there must be some universal principle that must account for the various sorts of connections that exist between ideas, but does not immediately show what this principle might be.
# '''Skeptical doubts concerning the operations of the understanding (in two parts)'''. In the first part, Hume discusses how the objects of inquiry are either "relations of ideas" or "matters of fact", which is roughly the distinction between [[analytic proposition|analytic]] and [[synthetic proposition]]s. In part two, Hume inquires into how anyone can justifiably believe that experience yields any conclusions about the world. He shows how a satisfying argument for experience can be based neither on principles (since no principle exists) nor experience (since that would be a [[circular argument]]).
# '''Skeptical solution of these doubts (in two parts).''' For Hume, we assume that experience tells us something about the world because of habit or custom, which human nature forces us to take seriously. This is also, presumably, the principle that organizes the connections between ideas. Indeed, one of the many famous passages of the ''Enquiry'' was on the topic of the incorrigibility of human custom. Hume wrote:''"The great subverter of Pyrrhonism or the excessive principles of skepticism is action, and employment, and the occupations of common life. These principles may flourish and triumph in the schools; where it is, indeed, difficult, if not impossible, to refute them. But as soon as they leave the shade, and by the presence of the real objects, which actuate our passions and sentiments, are put in opposition to the more powerful principles of our nature, they vanish like smoke, and leave the most determined skeptic in the same condition as other mortals."''
# '''Of probability.'''
# '''Of the idea of necessary connection (in two parts).'''
# '''Of liberty and necessity (in two parts).'''
# '''Of the reason of animals (comparable to man).'''
# '''Of miracles (in two parts).'''
# '''Of a particular providence and of a future state.'''
# '''Of the academical or sceptical philosophy (in three parts).''' The first section of the last chapter is organized as an outline of various skeptical arguments. The treatment includes the arguments of atheism, Cartesian skepticism, "light" skepticism, and rationalist critiques of empiricism. Hume shows that even light skepticism leads to crushing doubts about the world which - while ultimately are more philosophically justifiable - may only be combatted through the non-philosophical adherance to custom or habit. He ends the section with his own reservations towards Cartesian and Lockean epistemologies.
==External links==
*[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/h/h92e/ ebook text]
*{{gutenberg|no=9662|name=An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding}}
[[Category:1748 books|Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, An]]
[[Category:Books by David Hume|Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, An]]
[[Category:Philosophy books|Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, An]]
{{Scotland-stub}}
{{book-stub}}
[[lv:Pētījums par cilvēka sapratni]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andrew of Longjumeau</title>
<id>1758</id>
<revision>
<id>39937801</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T23:18:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>200.160.81.208</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Andrew of Longjumeau''' (also Longumeau, Lonjumel, etc.) was a [[13th century]] [[France|French]] [[Dominican Order|Dominican]], [[exploration|explorer]] and diplomat.
He accompanied the mission that was sent by [[Pope Innocent IV]] to the [[Mongols]] in [[1247]] under Friar Ascelin or Anselm, which was chronicled by [[Simon of St Quentin]]. At the [[Tatars]]' camp near [[Kars]] he met a certain David, who next year ([[1248]]) appeared at the court of King [[Louis IX of France]] in [[Cyprus]]. Andrew, who was now with Saint Louis, interpreted David's message to the King, a real or pretended offer of alliance from the Mongol general [[Ilchikdai]] (Ilchikadai), and a proposal of a joint attack upon the [[Islam]]ic powers for the conquest of [[Syria]].
In reply to this the French sovereign dispatched Andrew as his ambassador to the great [[Guyuk|Kuyuk Khan]]; with Longjumeau went his brother (a [[monk]]) and several others — John Goderiche, John of Carcassonne, Herbert "Le Sommelier," Gerbert of Sens, Robert (a clerk), a certain William, and an unnamed clerk of [[Poissy]].
The party set out about [[February 16]], [[1249]], with letters from King Louis and the [[papal legate]], and rich presents, including a chapel-tent, lined with scarlet cloth and embroidered with sacred pictures. From Cyprus they went to the port of [[Antioch]] in Syria, and thence travelled for a year to the Khan's court, going ten leagues (55.56 kilometers) per day. Their route led them through [[Iran|Persia]], along the southern and eastern shores of the [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] (whose inland character, unconnected with the outer ocean, their journey helped to demonstrate), and probably through [[Talas, Kyrgyzstan|Talas]], north-east of [[Tashkent]].
On arrival at the supreme Mongol court — either that on the [[Imyl river]] (near [[Lake Ala-kul]] and the present Russo-Chinese frontier in the [[Altai]]), or more probably at or near [[Karakorum]] itself, south-west of [[Lake Baikal]] — Andrew found Kuyuk Khan dead, poisoned, as the envoy supposed, by [[Batu Khan]]'s agents. The regent-mother [[Ogul Gaimish]] (the "Camus" of [[William of Rubruck]]) seems to have received and dismissed him with presents and a letter for Louis IX, the latter a fine specimen of Mongol insolence. But it is certain that before the friar had quitted "Tartary" [[Mangu Khan]], Kuyuk's successor, had been elected.
Andrew's report to his sovereign, whom he rejoined in [[1251]] at [[Caesarea Palaestina|Caesarea]] in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], appears to have been a mixture of history and fable; the latter affects his narrative of the Mongols' rise to greatness, and the struggles of their leader, evidently [[Genghis Khan]], with [[Prester John]]; it is still more evident in the position assigned to the [[Tatars]] homeland, close to the prison of [[Gog and Magog]]. On the other hand, the envoy's account of Tatar manners is fairly accurate, and his statements about [[Mongolia|Mongol]] Christianity and its prosperity, though perhaps exaggerated (e.g. as to the 800 chapels on wheels in the nomadic host), are based on fact.
Mounds of bones marked his road, witnesses of devastations which other historians record in detail. He found [[Christianity|Christian]] prisoners, from [[Germany]] in the heart of "Tartary" (at Talas), and was compelled to observe the ceremony of passing between two fires, as a bringer of gifts to a dead Khan, gifts which were of course treated by the Mongols as evidence of submission. This insulting behaviour, and the language of the letter with which Andrew reappeared, marked the mission a failure: King Louis, says [[Jean de Joinville|Joinville]], "''se repenti fort''" ("felt very sorry").
We only know of Andrew through references in other writers: see especially [[William of Rubruck]]'s in ''Recueil de voyages'', iv. (Paris, 1839), pp. 261, 265, 279, 296, 310, 353, 363, 370; Joinville, ed. Francisque Michel (1858, etc.), pp. 142, etc.; Jean Pierre Sarrasin, in same vol., pp. 254–235; [[William of Nangis]] in ''Recueil des historiens des Gaules'', xx. 359–367; [[Charles de Rémusat|Rémusat]], ''Mémoires sur les relations politiques des princes chrétiens… avec les… Mongols'' (1822, etc.), p. 52.
==See also==
*[[Giovanni da Pian del Carpine]]
==References==
{{1911}}
[[Category:Dominicans|Longjumeau, Andrew of]]
[[Category:French diplomats|Longjumeau, Andrew of]]
[[Category:French explorers|Longjumeau, Andrew of]]
[[Category:Explorers of Asia|Longjumeau, Andrew of]]
[[fr:André de Longjumeau]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andriscus</title>
<id>1759</id>
<revision>
<id>28108625</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-12T11:43:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluebot</username>
<id>527862</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Andriscus''', (also spelt Andriskos) of |
ed. Such schools are like Thahiri, Sufian Al'thawree, Sufian bin O'yayna, Layth bin Sa'ad. In fact the four most famous schools mentioned go back to the schools as Sufian Bin Oyayna ..etc.
*[[Jafari fiqh]], or the Shi'a fiqh
*[[Qur'an alone]] fiqh
For some sub-articles about methodoligies of jurisprudence, see:
* [[Shariah]]
* [[Qiyas]]
* [[Ijtihad]]
* [[al-urf]]
* [[Taqlid]]
===The four schools===
The four schools of [[Sunnite|Sunni]] Islam are each named by students of the classical jurist or ulama who taught them. The Sunni schools (and where they are commonly found) are the [[Shafi'i]] ([[Indonesia]] and [[Malaysia]]), [[Hanafi]] ([[Turkey]], [[the Balkans]], [[Central Asia]], [[Indian subcontinent]], [[Egypt]], [[China]]), [[Maliki]] ([[North Africa]], [[West Africa]] and several of the [[Arab Gulf states]]), and [[Hanbali]] ([[Arabia]]).
These four schools share most of their rulings, but differ on the particular [[hadith]]s they accept as authentically given by [[Muhammad]] and the weight they give to analogy or reason ([[qiyas]]) in deciding difficulties.
In chronological order, the [[Hanafi]] school was the earliest established under the jurist Imam [[Abu Hanifa]], who was born and taught in Iraq. Imam Abu Hanifa (80A.H. - 150A.H.), whose real name was Nu'man ibn Thabit, was born in the city of Kufa (modern day Iraq) in the year 80 A.H (689 A.D). Born into a family of tradesmen, the Imam's family were of Persian origin as well as descending from the noble Prophets (saw) companion Salman al Farsi (ra). Imam Abu Hanifah's father Thabit had met in Kufa, Imam Ali Ibn Abi Talib (ra) who made dua for him and his progeny, and some say that Abu Hanifah was a result of this dua. Being distant from the source of Islamic literatures based in Mecca and Madina, Imam Abu Hanifa was more apt at interpreting Islamic legal rules based on thought and reason if he was not able to get access to sources. Under Imam Abu Hanifa, the witr prayer was considered to be compulsory and the Hanafis also differed with other sects in relation to methods of taking ablution, prayers and payment of tithe or zakat. Imam Abu Hanifa also differed with the other three fiqh schools in many areas including the type of punishments meted out for various crimes in Islam. On the whole, the Hanafi school of jurisprudence could be said to have the most differences compared with the other three schools.
Students of Imam Malik established the Maliki school of which a majority now can be found in North Africa and some Arabian gulf states . Imam Malik, whose real name was Abu Abdullah, Malik bin Anas, was born in Medina in the year 715 AD. His ancestral home was in Yemen, but his grandfather settled in Medina after embracing Islam. He received his education in Medina, which was the most important seat of Islamic learning, and where the immediate descendants of the Companions of the Holy Prophet lived. Imam Malik was highly attracted to the study of law, and devoted his entire interest to the study of Fiqh. His principal book, the Kital al-Muwatta, is the earliest surviving book on Qur'an and hadith. Differences under the Maliki school included the fact that those following the Maliki school could state their purpose (or niat) once only for compulsory fasting which is valid for the whole month of Ramadhan whilst for the Syafi'ie school (see below), one would have to state his purpose every day of the month of Ramadhan for his fast to be valid the next day.
It must be said that although the four schools differed on various aspects of Islamic jurisprudence due to their varying interpretation of the Qur'an and Hadiths, the four schools as a whole remained united in terms of Islam as a whole.
===[[Ja'fari jurisprudence]]===
The [[Jaferi]] school ([[Iran]], [[Iraq]], and parts of [[Afghanistan]]) is more associated with [[Shiite|Shia Islam]]. The [[fatwa]]s, or time and space bound rulings of early jurists, are taken rather more seriously in this school, due to the more hierarchical structure of Shia Islam, which is ruled by the [[imam]]s. But they are also more flexible, in that every jurist has considerable power to alter a decision according to his opinion.
Each school reflects a unique [[al-urf]] or culture, that the classical jurists themselves lived in, when rulings were made. Some suggest that the discipline of [[isnah]] which developed to validate [[hadith]] made it relatively easy to record and validate also the rulings of jurists, making them far easier to imitate ([[taqlid]]) than to challenge in new contexts. The effect is, the schools have been more or less frozen for centuries, and reflect a culture that simply no longer exists.
Early [[shariah]] had a much more flexible character, and many modern Muslim scholars believe that it should be renewed, and that the classical jurists should lose special status. This would require formulating a new fiqh suitable for the modern world, e.g. as proposed by advocates of the [[Islamization of knowledge]], and would deal with the modern context. This [[modernization]] is opposed by most conservative [[ulema]].
===Salafi===
These are the people who claim to follow the way of the [[Salaf]] of Islam. The Salafis are of the opinion that following a single [[mujtahid]] [[imam]] ([[taqlid]]) is not correct and that one should rely on personal interpretations of the Qur'an and the Hadith. For more information, refer the main article on [[salafism]].
===Qur'an alone===
A relatively new sect, instigated by Rashid Khalifa, whose life was called for by a fatwa (edict) from scholars all over the Islamic world, and who met his fate unexpectedly in his hometown. He claimed that following the Qur'an only was how God wanted the religion of Islam, and that any other ideology, including advice from the Prophet, was to be rejected. This group is considered by the majority of the Muslims to be outside of mainstream Islam.
== See also ==
* [[Hadith]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.fonsvitae.com/jurisprudence.html Books/Resources on Islamic Law]
[[Category:Islamic law]]
[[da:Fiqh]]
[[de:Fiqh]]
[[fa:فقه]]
[[fr:Fiqh]]
[[id:Fiqh]]
[[pt:Fiqh]]
[[tr:Fıkıh]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Flank</title>
<id>11115</id>
<revision>
<id>37177664</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-29T05:57:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.34.126.141</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">* A '''flank''' is the side of either a [[horse]] or a [[military unit]]. The parts of a military unit are regularly called the "left flank", "right flank" and "[[center]]". The use of these terms came from a time when armies would clash in an open field, but is still used today. Throughout military history, a common tactic has been to try to catch the enemy forces in the flank, see below.
* To '''flank''' is a verb, meaning to catch someone or something in the side (the flank, see above) or even from behind in order to attack them. The use of attack from an unexpected direction is generally very effective, and severely limits the offensive response possible for the attacked party. Flanking maneuvers (that is, movement in order to flank an enemy) are used on all levels of [[military tactics]], from individual [[soldier]] up to [[army]] divisions.
* '''Flank''' can also refer to a region of the posterior [[torso]] (lower back) beneath the [[ribs]] and above the [[ilium]]. Pain in this region is generally associated with [[kidney infection]] or calculi ([[kidney stone]]s). Flank pain might come from an [[ulcer]] on the posterior extension of the [[duodenum]] or more serious problems, such as increased posterior interabdominal pressure from an abdominal [[aortic aneurysm]].
* '''Flank''', also called '''flanker''' can refer to specific positions in the sport of [[rugby union]], and in American football. Flanks form part of the forwards and bind onto the side of the scrum. The two positions are blind-side flank (number 6) and open-side flank (number 7).
==See also==
* [[ambush]]
* [[charge (warfare)|charge]]
* [[Pincer maneuver]]
* [[Echelon formation]]
{{dab}}
[[Category:Military tactics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fimbrium</title>
<id>11117</id>
<revision>
<id>15908882</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pilus]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>First Council of Nicaea</title>
<id>11118</id>
<revision>
<id>42146152</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:05:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.169.0.43</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Notes */ add polytonic wrapper, increases readability?</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Ecumenical council|council_name=First Council of Nicaea|council_date=AD [[325]]|accepted_by=[[Catholicism]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], [[Oriental Orthodoxy]], [[Assyrian Church of the East]], [[Anglicanism]], [[Lutheranism]]|previous=''none''|next=[[First Council of Constantinople]]|convoked_by=Emperor [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]]|presided_by=[[Alexander of Alexandria|Bishop Alexander of Alexandria]]|attendance=250-318 (only 5 from Western Church)|topics=[[Arianism]], celebration of Passover, now called [[Easter]], Miletian [[schism]], validity of [[baptism]] by heretics, lapsed Christians|documents=[[Nicene_Creed#The_original_Nicene_Creed_of_325|Original Nicene Creed]] and about 20 decrees}}
The '''First Council of Nicaea''', convoked by the [[Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]] [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine the Great]] in AD [[325]], was the first [[ecumenical council|ecumenical]]{{fn|4}} conference of [[bishop]]s of the [[Christianity|Christian]] Church.
The purpose of the council (also called a [[sy |
[[George Washington Carver]]
== Agricultural science and agriculture crisis==
Agriculture sciences seek to feed the world's population while preventing [[biosafety]] problems that may affect human health and the [[Natural environment|environment]]. This requires promoting good management of [[natural resources]] and respect for the environment, and increasingly concern for the psychological wellbeing of all concerned in the food production and consumption system.
Economic, environmental, and social aspects of agriculture sciences are subjects of ongoing debate. Recent crises (such as Avian Flu, [[Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy|mad cow disease]] and issues such as the use of [[genetically modified organism]]s) illustrate the complexity and importance of this debate.
== Fields of agricultural science ==
* [[Agricultural engineering]]
* [[Agricultural philosophy]]
* [[Biosystems engineering]]
* [[Aquaculture]]
* [[Agronomy]] and [[Horticulture]]
* [[Agrophysics]]
* [[Livestock|Animal science]]
* Plant [[fertilizer|fertilization]], [[animal nutrition|animal]] and [[human nutrition]]
* Plant protection and animal health
* [[Soil science]], especially [[edaphology]].
* [[hydrology|water science]]
* [[Agricultural biotechnology|Biotechnology]], [[genetic engineering]], and [[microbiology]]
* Farming equipment
* [[Irrigation]] and [[water management]]
* Agricultural [[economics]]
* [[Food science]]
* [[Environmental science]] and [[environmental engineering|engineering]]
* [[Waste management]]
* [[Ecology]] and [[Natural environment|environment]]
* [[Theoretical production ecology]]
== See also ==
*[[Agricultural sciences basic topics]]
*[[Agrology]]
*[[Agronomy]]
*[[History of agricultural science]]
[[Category:Agriculture]]
[[Category:Agronomy|*]]
[[Category:Soil science]]
[[bg:Аграрни науки]]
[[da:Agronomi]]
[[de:Agrarwissenschaft]]
[[fr:Agronomie]]
[[id:Agronomi]]
[[it:Agronomia]]
[[he:אגרונומיה]]
[[nl:Landbouwkunde]]
[[ja:農学]]
[[pl:Agronomia]]
[[fi:Maataloustiede]]
[[sv:Agronomi]]
[[th:เกษตรศาสตร์]]
[[zh:农学]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alchemy</title>
<id>573</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42147983</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:23:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Silence</username>
<id>84942</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Alchemy in Medieval Europe */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{Otheruses}}
[[Image:Alchemist's Laboratory, Heinrich Khunrath, Amphitheatrum sapientiae aeternae, 1595 c.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Alchemist's laboratory, by Hans Vredman de Vries, c 1595.]]
'''Alchemy''' is an early [[protoscience|protoscientific]] and [[philosophy|philosophical]] discipline combining elements of [[chemistry]], [[metallurgy]], [[physics]], [[medicine]], [[astrology]], [[semiotics]], [[mysticism]], [[spiritualism]], and [[art]]. Alchemy has been practiced in ancient [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], [[India]], and [[China]], in [[Classical Antiquity|Classical]] [[Greece]] and [[Rome]], in the [[Caliphate|Islamic empire]], and then in [[Europe]] up to the 19th century &mdash; in a complex network of schools and philosophical systems spanning at least 2500 years.
Western alchemy has always been closely connected with [[Hermeticism]], a philosophical and spiritual system that traces its roots to [[Hermes Trismegistus]], a [[syncretism|syncretic]] Egyptian-Greek deity and legendary alchemist. These two disciplines influenced the birth of [[Rosicrucianism]], an important esoteric movement of the 17th century. In the 19th century, as mainstream alchemy evolved into modern chemistry, its mystic and Hermetic aspects became the focus of a modern [[spiritual alchemy]], where material manipulations are viewed as mere symbols of spiritual transformations.
The alchemists did not follow what is now known as the [[scientific method]], and much of the "knowledge" they produced was later found to be banal, limited, wrong, or meaningless. Today, the discipline is of interest mainly to [[history of science|historians of science]] and [[history of philosophy|philosophy]], and for its mystic, [[esoterism|esoteric]], and artistic aspects. Nevertheless, alchemy was one of the main precursors of modern [[science]]s, and we owe to the ancient alchemists the discovery of many substances and processes that are the mainstay of modern chemical and metallurgical industries.
==Overview==
[[Image:William Fettes Douglas - The Alchemist.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The alchemist - by Sir [[William Fettes Douglas]].]]
=== Alchemy as a proto-science ===
The common perception of alchemists is that they were [[pseudoscience|pseudo-scientists]], [[crackpot]]s and [[charlatans]], who attempted to turn [[lead]] into [[gold]], believed that the universe was composed of the [[classical element|four elements]] of earth, air, fire, and water, and spent most of their time concocting miraculous [[medication|remedies]], [[poison]]s, and [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] [[potion]]s.
This picture is rather unfair. Although many alchemists were indeed crackpots and charlatans, many were well-meaning and intelligent scholars, who were simply struggling to make sense of a subject which, as we now know, was far beyond the reach of their tools. These people were basically "proto-scientists", who attempted to explore and investigate the nature of chemical substances and processes. They had to rely on unsystematic experimentation, traditional know-how, [[rule of thumb|rules of thumb]], &mdash; and plenty of speculative thought to fill in the wide gaps in existing knowledge.
Given these conditions, the mystic character of alchemy is quite understandable: to the early alchemist, chemical transformations could only seem like magical phenomena governed by incomprehensible laws, whose potential and limitations he had no way of knowing. Having discovered that a specific procedure could turn an earth-like ore into glistening metal, it was only natural to speculate that some different procedure could turn a metal into another.
At the same time, it was clear to the alchemists that "something" was generally being conserved in chemical processes, even in the most dramatic changes of physical state and appearance; i.e. that substances contained some "principles" that could be hidden under many outer forms, and revealed by proper manipulation. Throughout the history of the discipline, alchemists struggled very hard to understand the nature of these principles, and find some order and sense in the results of their chemical experiments &mdash; which were often undermined by impure or poorly characterized reagents, the lack of quantitative measurements, and confusing and inconsistent nomenclature.
In spite of those difficulties, and of many false turns and loops, the alchemists managed to make steady progress in the understanding of the natural world. To them we owe the discovery of many important substances and chemical processes, which paved the way for the modern science of chemistry, and are still the mainstay of today's chemical and metallurgical industries.
=== Alchemy as a philosophical and spiritual discipline ===
The best known goals of the [[alchemist]]s were the [[transmutation]] of common metals into [[gold]] or [[silver]], and the creation of a "[[universal panacea|panacea]]", a remedy that supposedly would cure all diseases and prolong life indefinitely. Starting with the Middle Ages, European alchemists invested much effort on the search for the "[[philosopher's stone]]", a mythical substance that was believed to be an essential ingredient for either or both of those goals. Alchemists enjoyed prestige and support through the centuries, though not for their pursuit of those unattainable goals, nor the mystic and philosophical speculation that dominates their literature. Rather it was for their mundane contributions to the "chemical" industries of the day &mdash; ore testing and refining, metalworking, production of ink, dyes, paints, and cosmetics, leather tanning, ceramics and glass manufacture, preparation of extracts and liquors, and so on. (It seems that the preparation of ''[[aqua vitae]]'', the "water of life", was a fairly popular "experiment" among European alchemists.)
On the other hand, alchemists never had the intellectual tools nor the motivation to separate the physical (chemical) aspects of their craft from the metaphysical interpretations. Indeed, from antiquity until well into the [[Modern Age]], a physics devoid of metaphysical insight would have been as unsatisfying as a metaphysics devoid of physical manifestation. For one thing, the lack of common words for chemical concepts and processes, as well as the need for secrecy, led alchemists to borrow the terms and symbols of [[Bible|biblical]] and [[Paganism|pagan]] [[mythology]], [[astrology]], [[kabbalah]], and other mystic and [[esoterism|esoteric]] fields; so that even the plainest chemical recipe ended up reading like an abstruse magic incantation. Moreover, alchemists sought in those fields the theoretical frameworks into which they could fit their growing collection of disjointed experimental facts.
Starting with the middle ages, some alchemists increasingly came to view these metaphysical aspects as the true foundation of alchemy; and chemical substances, physical states, and material processes as mere metaphors for spiritual entities, states and transformations. Thus, both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea symbolized evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible and ephemeral state towards a perfect, healthy, incorruptible and everlasting state; and the philosopher's stone then represented some mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the alchemist |
hristianity In the Science Fiction of "Cordwainer Smith"] James P. Jordan argued for the importance of Anglicanism to Linebarger's works back to 1949. However, Linebarger's daughter has indicated that he did not become an Anglican until 1950 and was not strongly interested in religion until later still [http://www.cordwainer-smith.com/remember.htm]. In the introduction to the collection '''Rediscovery of Man''' it is indicated that from around [[1960]] he became more devout and expressed this in his writing. Linebarger's works are sometimes included in analyses of Christianity in fiction, along with the works of authors such as [[C. S. Lewis]] or [[J.R.R. Tolkien]].
The bulk of Cordwainer Smith's stories are set in an era starting some 14,000 years in the future. The [[Instrumentality of Mankind]] rules Earth and goes on to control other planets later inhabited by humanity. The Instrumentality attempts to revive old cultures and languages in a process known as the Rediscovery of Man. This rediscovery can be seen either as the initial period when humankind emerges from a mundane utopia and the nonhuman underpeople gain freedom from slavery, or as a continuing process begun by the Instrumentality, encompassing the whole cycle, where mankind is constantly at risk of falling back to its bad old ways.
Smith's stories describe a long [[future history]] of Earth, from a [[postapocalyptic]] landscape with walled cities defended by agents of the Instrumentality to a state of utopia in which freedom can be found only deep below the surface, in long-forgotten and buried [[anthropogenic]] strata. These features may place Smith's works within the [[Dying Earth subgenre]] of [[Science Fiction]], but it can be argued that they are ultimately more optimistic and distinctive.
Smith's most important short story is perhaps his first-published, "Scanners Live in Vain", which led many of its earliest readers to assume that "Cordwainer Smith" was a new pen name for one of the established giants of the genre. It was selected as one of the best SF short stories of the pre-[[Nebula Award]] period by the [[Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America]], and appeared in [[The Science Fiction Hall of Fame Volume One, 1929-1964]].
Linebarger's stories feature strange and vivid creations, such as:
* Planet [[Norstrilia]], a semi-arid planet where an immortality drug is harvested from gigantic virus-infected sheep, each weighing more than 100 tons
* The punishment world of ''Shayol'' (cf. [[Sheol]]), where criminals are punished by the regrowth and harvesting of their organs for transplanting in the manner of [[Prometheus]]'s punishment
* ''Planoforming'' [[spacecraft]], which are crewed by humans telepathically linked with cats and which defend themselves against the attacks of unknown malevolent entities in space with the flash of small atomic weapons (these entities are perceived by humans as dragons, and by cats as gigantic rats)
* The ''Underpeople'', animals modified genetically into human form to fulfill servile roles, and treated as property. Several stories feature clandestine efforts to liberate the underpeople and grant them equal rights. They are seen everywhere throughout regions controlled by the Instrumentality.
* ''Habermen'' and their supervisors, ''Scanners'', whose sensory [[nerve]]s have been cut to block the "pain of space", and who perceive only by vision and various life-support implants. Other modes of perception can be temporarily restored to scanners by "cranching".
== Published non-fiction works ==
{|
|1937
|The Political Doctrines of Sun-Yat-Sen: An Exposition of the San Min Chu I
|Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press
|----
|1938
|Government in Republican China (with [[Fritz Morstein Marx]])
|London: McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0883550814
|----
|1941
|The China of Chiang K'ai-shek: A Political Study
|Boston: World Peace Foundation, ISBN 0837167795
|----
|1948
|Psychological Warfare
|Washington: Infantry Journal Press
|----
|1951
|Foreign milieux (HBM 200/1)
|Dept. of Defense, Research and Development Board
|----
|1951
|Immediate improvement of theater-level psychological warfare in the Far East
|Operations Research Office, Johns Hopkins University
|----
|1954
|Far Eastern Government and Politics: China and Japan (with [[Djang Chu]] and [[Ardath W. Burks]])
|Van Nostrand
|----
|1956
|Draft statement of a ten-year China and Indochina policy, 1956-1966
|Foreign Policy Research Institute, University of Pennsylvania
|----
|1965
|Essays on military psychological operations,
|Special Operations Research Office, [[American University]]
|}
==External links==
* [http://www.cordwainer-smith.com/ The Remarkable Science Fiction of Cordwainer Smith] Maintained by his daughter Rosana.
* {{isfdb name|name=Cordwainer Smith|id=Cordwainer_Smith}}
* [http://www.gwillick.com/Spacelight/smith_c.html Personal data on Paul Linebarger]
* [http://www.arlingtoncemetery.com/linebarg.htm Arlington National Cemetery: Linebarger]
* [http://www.ulmus.net/ace/csmith/linebargerbiography.cfm Unofficial Cordwainer Smith Biography Page]
[[Category:1913 births|Smith, Cordwainer]]
[[Category:1966 deaths|Smith, Cordwainer]]
[[Category:American writers|Smith, Cordwainer]]
[[Category:Anglicans|Smith, Cordwainer]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers|Smith, Cordwainer]]
[[de:Cordwainer Smith]]
[[es:Cordwainer Smith]]
[[fr:Cordwainer Smith]]
[[he:קורדוויינר סמית]]
[[ja:コードウェイナー・スミス]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Commedia del Arte</title>
<id>7107</id>
<revision>
<id>15905190</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-11T12:38:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Commedia dell'arte]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Claude Shannon</title>
<id>7108</id>
<revision>
<id>19695094</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-27T05:46:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CYD</username>
<id>45</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Claude Elwood Shannon]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cascading style sheet</title>
<id>7109</id>
<revision>
<id>15905192</id>
<timestamp>2003-01-02T14:57:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hirzel</username>
<id>3205</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cascading Style Sheets]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CSS</title>
<id>7110</id>
<revision>
<id>41902051</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T14:11:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Can't sleep, clown will eat me</username>
<id>603177</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/195.195.47.18|195.195.47.18]] to last version by Zpb52</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''CSS''' may refer to:
In computing:
*[[Cascading Style Sheets]], used to format [[SGML]] and [[XML]]-based documents
*[[Closed source]] software
*[[Content-scrambling system]], an [[encryption algorithm]] in [[DVD]]s
*[[Core System Software]]
*[[Cross site scripting]]
*[[Calderbank-Shor-Steane]] codes, class of [[quantum error correction]] codes
*Central Structure Store in the [[PHIGS#Technical details |PHIGS]] 3D API
*Cluster Synchronization Services in [[Oracle database]] management
*[[Curvature Scale Space]], a method of extracting shapes in images
Other:
*[[CSS Profile]], a U.S. student aid application form
*[[Central Security Service]] of the U.S. government
*[[Catalina Sky Survey]]
*[[Central Superior Services of Pakistan]]
*[[Chow Sang Sang]]
*[[Closed Shell Syndrome]], a fictional disease
*[[Counter-Strike: Source]], a mod of the Half-Life 2 computer game
*Chicago South Shore and South Bend Railroad, former name of the [[South Shore Line (NICTD)]]
*[[Comcast/Charter Sports Southeast]], a regional sports [[cable television]] network in the [[Southern United States]] co-owned by [[Comcast]] and [[Charter Communications]] who share the "C" depending on the subscriber's cable provider.
*Confederate States Ship, of the [[Confederate States Navy]]
*County Surveyors Society, UK
*College of Social Studies, [[Wesleyan University]]
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:CSS]]
[[ja:CSS]]
[[pl:CSS]]
[[th:CSS]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Commedia dell Arte</title>
<id>7111</id>
<revision>
<id>15905194</id>
<timestamp>2004-04-14T06:26:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jeffq</username>
<id>23204</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Reverted because my "fix" didn't work, either.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Commedia dell'arte]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Colorado Front Range</title>
<id>7112</id>
<revision>
<id>30004372</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-03T10:11:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MattWright</username>
<id>277326</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Colorado Front Range''' is a colloquial geographic term for the populated areas of the state of [[Colorado]] in the [[United States]] which are just east of the [[foothills]] of the [[Front Range]], from which the region takes its name. The region contains the largest cities and the majority of the population of Colorado, aligned in a north-south configuration on the western edge of the [[Great Plains]], where they meet the Rockies. [[Geology|Geologically]], the region lies mostly within the [[Colorado Piedmont]], in the valley of the [[South Platte River|South Platte]] and [[Arkansas River|Arkansas]] rivers on the east side of the Rockies.
The Colorado Front R |
of Europeans, many of them Christian [[missionary|missionaries]], had sought to penetrate China. The most famous of these travelers was [[Marco Polo]]. But these journeys had little permanent effect on East-West trade because of a series of political developments in Asia in the last decades of the 14th century, which put an end to further European exploration of Asia. The [[Yuan dynasty]] in China, which had been receptive to European missionaries and merchants, was overthrown, and the new [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] rulers were found to be inward oriented and unreceptive to foreign religious proselytism. Meanwhile, Muslim Turks consolidated control over the eastern [[Mediterranean Sea| Mediterranean]], closing off key overland trade routes. Thus, until the 15th century, only minor trade and cultural exchanges between Europe and Asia continued at certain terminals controlled by Muslim traders.
===The search for new East-West trade routes===
The three existing major routes by which trade flowed from South and East Asia to Europe dated back to [[Ancient Rome|Roman times]]. The northern one cut across Central Asia and the Caspian and Black Seas to [[Constantinople]]; the middle route went by sea along the coasts of India and Persia through the [[Persian Gulf]] and [[Euphrates]] valley to [[Antioch]]; and the southern route charted across the Indian Ocean and up the [[Red Sea]] to [[Alexandria]] in Egypt.
The search by Europeans for new routes began in earnest in the 15th century, a period of rapid growth in the westward flow of commerce and wealth, despite the expansion of the Turks, which greatly hampered the flow of people and capital between East and West. The most important imports into Europe were [[spices]], including [[cinnamon]], [[cloves]], [[ginger]], [[black pepper|pepper]], and [[nutmeg]], which rapidly became [[commodity|commodities]] in Europe highly valued primarily as [[preservative]]s for foods, and secondarily as condiments. Chinese silk, Indian [[cotton]] cloth, and various precious minerals and metals were also commodities in increasingly high demand in Europe.
The Mediterranean carrying trade in oriental goods was in the hands of [[Venice]] and other Italian city-states, which wielded an extensive and lucrative monopoly. Since the Arabs held a similar monopoly east of the Mediterranean, South and East Asian goods were sold in Europe for many times the price to produce them in Asia. As the demand for the products of the East increased during the latter half of the 15th century, the rulers of the new nations of Western Europe, particularly Spain and Portugal, following the increasingly influential economic doctrine of [[mercantilism]], became aware that their adverse [[balance of trade]] was draining their coined money away to Mediterranean trade monopolies and merchants.
===Oceanic voyages to Asia===
Western European rulers determined to find new trade routes of their own. The Portuguese spearheaded the drive to find oceanic routes that would provide cheaper and easier access to South and East Asian goods. This chartering of oceanic routes between East and West began with the unprecedented voyages of Portuguese and Spanish sea captains. Their voyages were influenced by medieval European adventurers, who had journeyed overland to the Far East and contributed to geographical knowledge of parts of Asia upon their return.
In [[1488]] [[Bartholomew Diaz]] rounded the southern tip of Africa under the sponsorship of Portugal's [[John II of Portugal|John II]], from which point he noticed that the coast swung northeast. Although his crew forced him to turn back, he was pleased with the prospect of soon finding a sea route to India. Later, starting in [[1497]], Portuguese navigator [[Vasco da Gama]] made the first open voyage from Europe to India. In 1520 [[Ferdinand Magellan]], a Portuguese navigator in the service of Spain, found a sea route into the [[Pacific Ocean]].
==Portuguese and Spanish trade and colonization in Asia==
''For further detail see [[Portuguese Empire]].''
===Portuguese monopoly over trade in the Indian Ocean===
[[Image:afonso_albuquerque3.jpg|thumb|left|Early in the 16th century [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] (above) emerged as the Portuguese colonial viceroys most instrumental in consolidating Portugal's holdings in Africa and in Asia. He understood that Portugal could wrest commercial supremacy from the Arabs only by force, and therefore devised a plan to establish forts at strategic sites which would dominate the trade routes and also protect Portuguese interests on land. In 1510 he sized [[Goa]] in India, which enabled him to gradually consolidate control of most of the commercial traffic between Europe and Asia, and even between India and the Far East.]]
In Asia, European powers initially exploited the discoveries of their explorers largely through trade; Europeans started to carry on trade from forts, acting as foreign merchants rather than as settlers. In contrast, early European expansion in the "[[West Indies]]," (later known to Europeans as a separate continent from Asia that they would call the "[[Americas]]") following the 1492 voyage of [[Christopher Columbus]], involved heavy settlement in colonies that were treated as political extensions of the mother countries, which sought to transplant European civilization to a new environment.
Lured by the potential of high profits from another expeditions, the Portuguese established a permanent base south of the Indian trade port of [[Calicut]] in the early 15th century. In [[1510]] the Portuguese seized [[Goa]] on the coast of India, which Portugal held until [[1961]]. The Portuguese soon acquired a monopoly over trade in the Indian Ocean.
Portuguese viceroy [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] ([[1509]]-[[1515]]) resolved to consolidate Portuguese holdings in Africa and Asia, and secure control of trade with the [[East Indies]] and [[China]]. His first objective was [[Malacca]], which controlled the narrow strait through which most Far Eastern trade moved. Captured in [[1511]], Malacca became the springboard for further eastward penetration; several years later the first trading posts were established in the [[Moluccas]], or "Spice Islands," which was the source for some of the world's most hotly demanded spices. By [[1516]] the first Portuguese ships had reached [[Canton]] on the southern coasts of China. By [[1557]] the Portuguese gained a permanent base in China at [[Macao]], which they held until [[1999]]. The Portuguese, based at Goa and Malacca, had now established a lucrative maritime empire in the Indian Ocean meant to monopolize the [[spice trade]]. The Portuguese also began a channel of trade with the Japanese, becoming the first recorded Westerners to have visited Japan. This contact introduced Christianity and fire-arms into Japan.
The energies of Spain, the other major colonial power of the 16th century, were largely concentrated on the Americas, not South and East Asia. But the Spanish did establish a footing in the Far East in the [[Philippine Islands]]. After [[1565]], cargoes of Chinese goods were transported from the Philippines to Mexico and from there to Spain. By this long route, Spain reaped some of the profits of Far Eastern commerce. Spanish officials converted the island to Christianity and established some settlements, permanently establishing the Philippines as the area of East Asia most oriented toward the West in terms of culture and commerce.
===The decline of Portugal's Asian empire since the 17th century===
[[Image:2 tanga 1643 rev.jpg|thumb|A silver Indo-Portuguese coin featuring a standing figure facing right with flag struck for and minted in [[Goa]] during the reign of [[John IV of Portugal|John IV]].]]
The lucrative trade was vastly expanded when the Portuguese began to export [[Slavery|slave]] from Africa in [[1541]]; however, over time, the rise of the slave trade left Portugal over-extended, and vulnerable to competition from other Western European powers. Envious of Portugal's control of trade routes, other Western European nations—mainly Holland, France, and England—began to send in rival expeditions to Asia. In [[1642]] the Dutch drove the Portuguese out of the [[Gold Coast]] in Africa, the source of the bulk of Portuguese slave laborers, leaving this rich slaving area to other Europeans, especially the Dutch and the English.
Rival European powers began to make inroads in Asia as the Portuguese and Spanish trade in the Indian Ocean declined primarily because they had become hugely over-stretched financially due to the limitations on their investment capacity and contemporary naval technology. Both of these factors worked in tandem, making control over Indian Ocean trade extremely expensive.
The existing Portuguese interests in Asia proved sufficient to finance further colonial expansion and entrenchment in areas regarded as of greater strategic importance in nearer Africa and Brazil. Portuguese maritime supremacy was lost to the Dutch in the 17th century, and with this came serious challenges for the Portuguese. However, they still clung to Macau, and settled a new colony in [[Timor]] Island. It was as recent as the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]] that the Portuguese began to relinquish their colonies in Asia. Goa was invaded by India in [[1962]]; [[East-Timor]] was abandoned in [[1975]] and was then invaded by Indonesia; and Macau was handed over to the Chinese as per a treaty in [[1999]].
==Dutch trade and colonization in Asia==
{{main article|[[Dutch colonial empire]]}}
===The rise of Dutch control over Asian trade in the 17th century===
[[Image:Dutcheastindies.jpg|left|thumb|Dutch settlement in the East Indies. Batavia, Java (now [[Jakarta]]), c. 1665.]]
Portuguese decline in Asia was accelerated by the attacks on their commercial empire by the Dutch and the English, which began a global struggle over empire in Asia that lasted until the end of the [[Se |
ardware]] &ndash; up to third generation ([[1960s]])
*[[History of computing hardware (1960s-present)]] &ndash; third generation and later
*[[Programming language timeline]]
*[[Operating systems timeline]]
*[[Commercial computer apps timeline]]
*[[Computer science timeline]]
*[[History of the graphical user interface]]
*[[History of the Internet]]
==Graphical timeline==
{{Timeline_History_of_Computing}}
[[Category:Computing timelines|Computing]]
[[Category:History of computing]]
[[fr:Chronologie informatique]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Colorado Springs, Colorado</title>
<id>6250</id>
<revision>
<id>41685672</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T01:28:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.88.87.174</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Demographics */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City |
official_name = Colorado Springs, Colorado |
nickname = The Springs |
image_flag = Us-co-cs.gif |
image seal = |
image_map = COMap-doton-ColoradoSprings.PNG |
image_skyline = Colorado springs downtown.jpg |
map_caption = Location in the state of [[Colorado]] |
subdivision_type = [[Counties of the United States|County]] |
subdivision_name = [[El Paso County, Colorado|El Paso]] |
leader_title = [[Mayor]] |
leader_name = [[Lionel Rivera]] |
area_magnitude = 1 E9 |
area_total = 482.1 |
area_land = 481.1 |
area_water = 1.0 |
population_as_of = 2004 |
population_note = 572,264 ([[List of metropolitan areas by population|metro area]]) |
population_total = 369,363 (city proper) |
population_density = 1,942.9 |
timezone = [[Mountain Standard Time|MST]] |
utc_offset = -7 |
timezone_DST = [[Mountain Daylight Time|MDT]] |
utc_offset_DST = -6 |
latd=38|latm=51|lats=48|latNS=N|
longd=104|longm=47|longs=31|longEW=W|
<!-- latitude = 38&deg;51'48" N |
longitude = 104&deg;47'31" W | -->
website = [http://www.springsgov.com/ http://www.springsgov.com/] |
footnotes = |
}}
'''Colorado Springs''' is a mid-sized city located just east of the geographic center of the state of [[Colorado]] in the [[United States]]. It has a population of 360,890 (according to the [[2000]] census) and is the second largest city in Colorado. At elevation 6,035 feet, it is situated near the base of one of the most famous American peaks, [[Pikes Peak]], on the east side of the [[Rocky Mountains]]. The capital of Colorado, [[Denver, Colorado|Denver]], is 68 miles to the north. The city is the [[county seat]] of [[El Paso County, Colorado|El Paso County]]{{GR|1}}.
Today Colorado Springs has many features of a modern urban area, such as parks, bike trails, urban open-area spaces, business and commerce, theatres and other entertainments. It was established as a posh resort community and the tourist industry is strong and offers many activities and attractions. It also has problems like overcrowded roads and highways, crime, and government budget issues. There are a number of military installations in the area, high-tech industry, and many Christian organizations and churches make their headquarters there.
== History ==
=== Founded as a resort community ===
Colorado Springs was founded in August [[1871]] by [[General William Palmer]], with the intention of creating a high quality resort community, and was nicknamed at the time "Little London". Nearby [[Pikes Peak]] and the [[Garden of the Gods]] made the city's location a natural.
Within two years the Antlers Hotel opened, welcoming [[United States|U.S.]] and international travellers as well as health-seekers looking for the high altitude and dry climate, and Palmer's visions of a thriving, quality resort town were coming true.
[[America the Beautiful]] was written by visiting English professor [[Katharine Lee Bates]] in August [[1893]], while she stayed at the Antlers Hotel after visiting the top of nearby [[Pikes Peak]].
=== General William Palmer and Spencer Penrose ===
General Palmer had quite a personal history, being an [[American Civil War]] General for the Union, a POW in that war, the construction manager for the [[Kansas Pacific Railroad]] which brought railroad service to the Pikes Peak region, and then founded and owned the [[Denver & Rio Grande Railroad]], a critical regional railroad. After founding Colorado Springs he made many grants of land to many important civic institutions in the community.
[[Image:hogbckrdg.JPG|thumb|left|240px|Garden of the Gods, public park famous for towering red rock formations.]]
Palmer and his wife saw Colorado Springs develop into one of the most popular travel destinations in the United States.
Palmer built his dream home [[Glen Eyrie]] northwest of [[Garden of the Gods]], living there for many years before and after his retirement around the turn of the century. Both the town of [[Palmer Lake, Colorado|Palmer Lake]] and a geographic feature called the Palmer Divide (and other more minor features) are named after him, and a bronze sculpture of Palmer on his horse is prominently displayed downtown.
[[Spencer Penrose]] also made his mark on Colorado Springs in its early years--though not until two decades after its founding. Penrose started as a ladies-man and an adventurer who made a huge fortune in the nearby gold fields of nearby [[Cripple Creek]] in the 1890s, then married Julie Villiers Lewis McMillan, and settled down considerably.
Penrose used his vast amounts of money to invest in other national mineral concerns, financed construction of the [[Broadmoor Hotel]], the [[Cheyenne Mountain Zoo]], the [[Will Rogers Shrine of the Sun]], the [[Pikes Peak Highway]], an important local hospital, and established the El Pomar Foundation, which still oversees many of his contributions in Colorado Springs today.
=== Old Colorado City ===
Colorado Springs' present downtown location, where General Palmer first founded the city, is due to Palmer's dislike of nearby rough-and-ready Colorado City and its many saloons; Palmer ensured his new city stayed alcohol free by buying a huge tract of land to the east of Colorado City&#151;and in fact, Colorado Springs stayed dry until the end of [[Prohibition]] in [[1933]].
In its earliest days of [[1859]]-[[1860]], Colorado City was a major supply route of supplies for miners in the [[South Park (Colorado basin)|South Park]], where a major strike in the [[Colorado Gold Rush]] was found. Routes further north from present-day Denver's area proved more effective, and as only a few very minor gold finds were made in the Pikes Peak region, commerce instead shifted towards serving the agriculture of Colorado's eastern plains. (Eventually General Palmer's Denver &amp; Rio Grand Railroad would snake from Denver into the South Park.)
Colorado City also briefly served as Colorado's territorial capital starting on [[July 7]], [[1862]]. By this time the town's fortunes were already waning. The territorial legislature met in a log cabin on Colorado Avenue, and on [[August 14]], 1862 the legislature approved an act which named [[Golden, Colorado|Golden]] as the territorial capital. Colorado City was never recognized by the Federal government as the territorial capital.
In [[1891]], very major gold strikes happened in Cripple Creek and Victor, on the other side of Pike's Peak from Colorado City&#151;and suddenly supplies were needed for this last major phase of the Colorado Gold Rush and the town's big boom was on. Eventually Colorado City was processing much of the gold ore as Palmer's railroads connected the areas. Colorado City became a booming town with a reputation for [[bar (establishment)|saloons]], [[prostitution]], and alcohol-fueled fun. Quite a contrast to General Palmer's more genteel community across the river to the east!
The flow of gold and silver ebbed as the decades passed, and Colorado City's economic fortunes faded with it; the miners and those who processed the ore left or retired. Now "Old Colorado City" is a quaint old Victorian and brick neighborhood in the west part of Colorado Springs, with [[National Historic District]] status and a bustling main street of businesses, tourism, antique shops, and Victorian charm.
== Geography and climate ==
=== Geography ===
Colorado Springs is located at 38&deg;51'48" North, 104&deg;47'31" West (38.863443, -104.791914){{GR|1}}.
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 482.1 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (186.1 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]). 481.1 km&sup2; (185.7 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 1.0 km&sup2; (0.4 mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 0.21% water.
=== Climate ===
Colorado Springs averages 250 days of sunshine per year, and receives 15.42 inches of annual [[precipitation]]. Average [[snow|snowfall]] for the area (included in the previous annual precipitation calculation) is 5.5" in November, 5.7" in December, 5.0" in January, 5.1" in February, 9.4" in March, and 6.3" in April. Average January low and high [[temperatures]] are 14&deg;F/ 42&deg;F (-10&deg;C/ 5.5&deg;C) and average July low and high temperatures are 55&deg;F/ 85&deg;F (12.7&deg;C/ 29.4&deg;C). The hottest temperature ever recorded in Colorado Springs was 101&deg;F (38.3&deg;C) on [[June 7]], [[1874]] and the coldest temperature ever recorded was -32&deg;F (-35.5&deg;C) on [[January 20]], [[1883]].
== Demographics ==
[[Image:springssign.jpg|thumb|right|293px|Colorado Springs sign.]]
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 360,890 people, 141,516 households, and 93,117 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 750.2/km&sup2; (1,942.9/mi&sup2;). There are 148,690 housing units at an average density of 309.1/km&sup2; (800.5/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 80.66% [[Race (U.S. Census)|White]], 6.56% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race |
r provide staff to collect tickets or monitor attractions for people sneaking on without tickets.
<gallery>
Image:DlandPassport83 wb.jpg|[[Disneyland]] 1983 two-day admission ticket; price on the back is $20.
Image:DlandPassport90 wb.jpg|[[Disneyland]] 1990 one-day Passport; price on back is $23.50
Image:DlandPassport95 wb.jpg|[[Disneyland]] 1995 Passport four days for $55.
Image:AdmissionTicket wb.jpg|2000 five-day admission ticket for $99.
</gallery>
[[Image:FastPass wb.jpg|thumb|100px|2002 Fast Pass.]]
In 1999, in an effort to offset the long waits for the most popular attractions, Disney implemented a new service named [[FASTPASS]] [http://disneyland.disney.go.com/disneyland/en_US/help/gsDetail?name=FastPassGSDetailPage&bhcp=1]. At attractions featuring FASTPASS, a guest can use his park admission ticket to obtain a FASTPASS ticket with a return time later that day (an hour-long window) printed on it. If the guest returns to the attraction at his return time, he can wait in a shorter line and be on the attraction within ten minutes, or often much more quickly. Initially, only a few attractions offered this service, but its popularity ensured its spread to many of the park's attractions. The [[List of FASTPASS equipped attractions|selection of rides offering Fastpass]] changes over time.
==Deaths==
Over the half century that Disneyland Park has been in operation, nine Guests and one Cast Member have died inside the park. A greater number of guests have been injured.
Seven of the deaths were the result of negligence on the Guests' part rather than the park's:
*In [[1964]], 15-year-old Mark Maples of [[Long Beach, California]] died after he stood up in the [[Matterhorn Bobsleds]] and fell out.
*In [[1966]], Thomas Guy Cleveland, 19, of [[Northridge, California]] was crushed by the [[Monorail]] during a Grad Nite celebration while trying to sneak into the park by climbing its track.
*In [[1967]], Ricky Lee Yama, 17, of [[Hawthorne, California]] was crushed while jumping between two moving [[PeopleMover]] cars.
*In [[1973]], Bogden Delaurot, 18, of [[Brooklyn, New York]] drowned while trying to carry his little brother swimming across the Rivers of America.
*In [[1980]], Gerrardo Gonzales, 18, of [[San Diego, California]] was crushed by the [[PeopleMover]] while jumping between moving cars.
*In [[1983]], Philip Straughan, 18, of [[Albuquerque, New Mexico]] drowned in the Rivers of America while trying to pilot a rubber emergency boat from Tom Sawyer's Island.
*In [[1984]], Dolly Regene Young, 48, of [[Fremont, California]] unbuckled her seatbelt and was thrown from a [[Matterhorn Bobsleds]] car and struck by the next oncoming bobsled.
Two of the deaths were ruled by [[CalOSHA]] to be the result of negligence on the park's part rather than misbehavior by guests:
*On [[December 24]], [[1998]], a heavy metal cleat fastened to the hull of the sailing ship "Columbia" tore loose, striking one cast member and two park guests. Of the guests, Luan Phi Dawson, 33, of [[Duvall, Washington]], died of a head injury. The normal non-elastic rope (designed to break easily) used to tie the boat off was improperly replaced by an elastic rope which stretched and tore the cleat from the ship's wooden hull. The park received much criticism for this incident due to its policy of restricting outside medical personnel in the park to avoid frightening visitors, as well as for the fact that the Cast Member in charge of the ship at the time was a novice. This accident prompted California to pass its [[Theme Park Safety Law]].
*On [[September 5]], [[2003]], 22-year-old Marcelo Torres of nearby [[Gardena, California]] died after suffering injuries in a derailment of the [[Big Thunder Mountain Railroad]] roller coaster. The cause of the accident was determined to be improper maintenance.
Other deaths include:
*In [[1974]], Cast Member Deborah Gail Stone, 19, of nearby [[Santa Ana, California]] was crushed to death between a revolving wall and a stationary platform inside the now-closed "[[America Sings]]" attraction. She was in the wrong place during a ride intermission; it was unclear whether this was due to inadequate training or a misstep. The attraction was subsequently refitted with breakaway walls. [http://www.mouseplanet.com/david/dk040708.htm]
*In [[1979]], Sherrill Anne Hoffman, ignoring the signs posted outside [[Space Mountain]] warning guests with any medical conditions to bypass such tumultuous rides, boarded Space Mountain and started to ride through it. During the ride, she got sick and when her ride vehicle reached the unload area, she couldn't get out of the rocket. Employees told her to stay in her rocket and that rocket would be removed from the track. But the attendants didn't understand and sent Hoffman's vehicle on another three-minute go-round. By the end of the second trip, she was almost unconscious. She got carried to a bench and was then wheeled in a wheelchair to First Aid. They told her husband not to worry; she only fainted. But then he insisted that she be sent to the hospital after her condition didn't improve. She was taken to the hospital where she remained in a coma for a week and then passed away. It was later revealed that she had a tumor in her heart. It was possible that the ride removed it. Pieces of it got in her brain and killed her. Her husband tried to sue the park, convinced that the second Space Mountain trip broke the tumor free and that the park declined to properly or quickly care for her. The case was eventually dismissed.
==Incidents==
In August [[1970]], Disneyland Park was literally invaded by several [[Youth International Party|Yippies]] who planned the stunt as an attack on what they saw as bloated establishment decadence. In their leaflets, they stated they would help "liberate" [[Minnie Mouse]], arrange a [[Black Panther]] Breakfast at the now-closed Aunt Jemima Pancake House, and attack the [[Bank of America]] on [[Main Street, USA]] and the attraction [[it's a small world]], which Bank of America sponsored. They wanted to attack [[Bank of America]] because the Bank was supposedly financing the [[Vietnam War]], which they oppossed. They raised a [[Viet Cong]] flag on Tom Sawyer's Island chanting "[[Ho Chi Minh|Ho, Ho, Ho Chi Minh]]", filled the now-closed Inner Space [[dark ride]] with [[marijuana]] smoke and even displayed the Yippie flag (which had on it an image of a marijuana leaf in a red star on a black background).
With memories of this event in mind, in May [[1989]], park security personnel were prepared for rumors of an invasion of the park by [[neo-Nazis]], in honor of the birth of an obscure Nazi leader named [[Gregor Strasser]]. Although several leaflets were published announcing this, only one car of neo-Nazis was seen in the parking lot before the park opened, and none entered. They approached the gates, only to be dismissed at the gates.
==Closures==
Disneyland Park has only been forced to close twice in its history.
The first occurrence was due to [[John F. Kennedy assassination|President Kennedy's assassination]], yet urban legends have circulated that [[Walt Disney]] refused to heed orders from Under Secretary of State [[George Ball]] to lower the US Flag in Town Square - although Disney and his brother were on the other side of the country surveying land for the future site of the [[Walt Disney World Resort]].
Disneyland Park stayed closed during the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|attacks of September 11, 2001]], out of respect for the time of national mourning and out of fear of further attacks directed at high-profile targets such as the park.
A scheduled closure occurred on [[May 4]], [[2005]]. Though the original stated reason was to put the finishing touches on the 50th Anniversary Celebration, Disneyland Park also played host to a large media event designed to generate interest in the 50th anniversary celebration. The celebration began on [[May 5]].
An additional restriction was imposed by the [[Federal Aviation Administration]] after September 11, a [[temporary flight restriction]], which forbids civilian and media aircraft from flying over the park. Although called "temporary," this restriction is still in place as of May, 2005, however it has since been weakened, only creating the "No-Fly Zone" when the [[Terror Alert Level]] is Orange or higher.
==Disneyland in fiction==
Disneyland Park, and a learned discussion of its social function, occurs with deliberate incongruity in the closing pages of [[E. L. Doctorow]]'s novel ''[[The Book of Daniel (novel)|The Book of Daniel]]''.
In the 1962 movie ''The Three Stooges in Orbit'', [[The Three Stooges|Larry, Moe and Curly Joe]] prevent Martians from attacking Disneyland from a flying submarine.
The 1962 movie ''40 Pounds Of Trouble'' starring [[Tony Curtis]] and [[Suzanne Pleshette]] culminates in a madcap chase through Disneyland's various realms.
In The [[Doctor Who]] serial "The Delta and the Bannermen", [[Sylvester McCoy's]] Doctor takes a bus tour supposedly going to Disneyland. This trip goes awry and chaos ensues.
In [[Kim Stanley Robinson]]'s novel ''The Gold Coast'' (set in a [[dystopian]] [[Orange County, California|Orange County]] of 2030), the core characters mention a perverse game where the person who has to wait the longest for the least thrilling ride at Disneyland wins.
In Eric Wilson's young adult novel ''Disneyland Hostage'' (which is part of the Canadian mystery series featuring [[Liz Austen]]) terrorists take over Disneyland and hold guests hostage on Tom Sawyer's Island.
==Management==
The operations of Disneyland are mostly merged with that of its sister park, [[Disney's California Adventure]] (DCA), so both parks, as well as the other Disneyland Resort properties, are managed by one team of senior executives.
[[Matt Ouimet]] is the president of the [[Disneyland R |
was receiving from English supporters peaked during England's 3&ndash;2 defeat by Portugal in {{Ec2|2000}}, when a group of England supporters taunted him throughout the match with chants including "we hope your kid dies of cancer".{{ref|scum}} Beckham responded with [[the finger|a one-fingered gesture]] and, while the gesture attracted some criticism, many of the newspapers that had previously encouraged his vilification asked their readers to stop abusing him.{{ref|aboutturn}}
Following [[Kevin Keegan]]'s resignation as England manager in October 2000, Beckham was promoted to team captain by the caretaker manager [[Peter John Taylor|Peter Taylor]], and then kept the role under new manager [[Sven-Göran Eriksson]]. He helped England to qualify for the {{Wc|2002}} Finals, with their performances including an impressive 5&ndash;1 victory over [[Germany national football team|Germany]] in [[Munich]]. The final step in Beckham's conversion from villain to hero happened in England's 2&ndash;2 draw against [[Greece national football team|Greece]] on [[6 October]] [[2001]]. England needed to win or draw the match in order to qualify for the World Cup, but were losing 2&ndash;1 with little time remaining. With [[Teddy Sheringham]] being fouled some eight yards outside the Greek penalty area, England was awarded a free-kick and Beckham ensured England's qualification with a curling strike of the kind which had become his trademark. Shortly afterwards, he was voted the [[BBC Sports Personality of the Year]] for 2001.
===Metatarsal injury===
On [[April 10]], [[2002]], Beckham was injured during a Champions League match against [[Deportivo La Coruña]], breaking the [[metatarsal]] bones of his left foot. There was speculation that the injury might have been caused deliberately, as the player who had injured Beckham was Argentinian [[Aldo Duscher]] and England and Argentina were due to meet in that year's World Cup {{ref|duscher}}. Those speculations were unfounded, though, and the accusations were never proved. The injury prevented Beckham from playing for United for the rest of the season, but he signed a three-year contract in May, following months of negotiations with the club, mostly concerning extra payments for his image rights. The income from his new contract and the many endorsement deals he had made him the highest-paid player in the world at the time. {{ref|lastunitedcontract}}
===World Cup 2002 and final season at United===
He was partially fit by the time of the {{wc|2002}} and played in the first match against [[Sweden national football team|Sweden]]. Beckham scored the winning goal of the match against Argentina, with a penalty, and that caused Argentina to fail to qualify for the playoff stage. England were eventually knocked out of the tournament by [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]] in the Quarter-Finals.
Following an injury early in the 2002-03 season, Beckham was unable to regain his place in the team, with [[Ole Gunnar Solskjær]] having replaced him on the right side of midfield. His relationship with his manager deteriorated further on [[15 February]] [[2003]] when, in the changing room following a defeat to [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]], Alex Ferguson kicked a football boot which struck Beckham over the eye, causing a cut which required stitches. The incident led to a great deal of transfer speculation involving Beckham, with [[bookmakers]] offering odds on whether he or Ferguson would be first to leave the club.{{ref|boot}} Although the team had started the season badly, their results improved greatly from December onwards and they won the league. In the second leg of the Champions League quarter final tie against Real Madrid, Manchester United were trailing 3-1 from the first leg at the [[Santiago Bernabéu Stadium|Bernabéu Stadium]]. In the return leg at [[Old Trafford]] on [[23 April]], [[2003]], Beckham was controversially left on the bench for the start of the match. It got even worse for United when Real Madrid went 1-0 up inside the opening 10 minutes through [[Ronaldo]]. At half time it was 1 all with [[Ruud van Nistelrooy]] levelling matters just before the break. Ronaldo scored two more goals after the break in the space of eight minutes to seal his hat-trick, with [[Iván Helguera]] scoring an own goal for United in between Ronaldo's two goals. In the 63rd minute, with United trailing 3-2 on the night and 6-3 on aggregate, Ferguson elected to bring on Beckham at the expense of [[Juan Sebastián Verón]]. Six minutes after coming off the bench Beckham had a free kick which he dispatched into the net with great power and accuracy, with the ball coming off the underside of the crossbar. In the 84th minute Beckham managed to reach the ball in a goalmouth scramble before Helguera to poke the ball over the line to score his second of the night. United won on the night thanks to Beckham's heroic's, but went out 6-5 on aggregate, needing two goals to progress due to the away goal ruling. Beckham also scored the winning goal in their final match of the season against [[Everton F.C.|Everton]]. He was still a first-choice player for England, however, and he was awarded an OBE for services to football on [[13 June]].{{ref|obe}}
==Real Madrid==
On [[June 17]], [[2003]], Beckham signed a four-year [[contract]] with [[Real Madrid]] of [[Spain]], potentially worth up to [[Euro|€]]35 million ([[Pound Sterling|£]]25 million, [[United States dollar|USD]] 41 million). The transfer was completed on [[2003-07-01]] and made him the third Englishman to ever play for the club after [[Laurie Cunningham]] in the [[1980s]] and [[Steve McManaman]] in the late [[1990s]] to early [[2000s]].
It was speculated that Real's desire to sign him came from the merchandising opportunities he would bring as well as from his football ability. For example, Real Madrid shirts bearing his name and number sold out in [[Madrid]] on the day his transfer was completed and the club were expected to receive €624,000 for the sale of the shirts. At the time the transfer was announced, Beckham and his wife were on a week-long tour of Asia promoting beauty products, [[chocolate]], motor oil, and [[mobile phone]]s. It was reported that this tour would earn more money for the Beckhams than the first year of David's Real Madrid contract.
Although Beckham had worn the number seven shirt for Manchester United and England, he was unable to wear it at Madrid as [[Raúl González|Raúl]] had the right to wear it written into his contract. He chose to wear 23 instead, in tribute to [[Michael Jordan]] who had worn that number for the [[Chicago Bulls]].
===2003-04 season===
====Alleged affair with Rebecca Loos====
Beckham immediately became a favourite with the Real Madrid supporters, scoring five times in his first 16 matches, but the team, whose club president expected them to win either the Spanish league or the Champions League each season, were not performing well. Beckham had further problems in April 2004, when the British tabloid ''[[News of the World]]'' carried claims by his former personal assistant [[Rebecca Loos]] that he and Loos had had an extramarital affair. A week later, the Malaysian-born Australian model [[Sarah Marbeck]] claimed that she had slept with Beckham on two occasions. Beckham dismissed both accusations as "ludicrous".{{ref|loos}}
Near the end of the 2003-04 season, ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'' reported that Beckham's major sponsors were trying to arrange for him to return to England for the 2004-05 season. Sources within the family told the ''Telegraph'' that Beckham would almost certainly be back in London. Real Madrid denied rumours that they were interested in selling Beckham, and banned British reporters from access to the team.
Real Madrid finished the season in a diasppointing fourth place like min, and were knocked out of the [[UEFA Champions League]] at the quarter-final stage.
[[Image: Beckham_Euro2004.jpg |frame|right|David Beckham on international duty
<br/>Image © http://soccer-europe.com]]
====Disappointment at Euro 2004====
Beckham played in all of England's matches at {{Ec2|2004}}, but the tournament was a disappointment for him. He had a penalty saved in England's 2-1 defeat to [[France national football team|France]] and missed another in a [[penalty shootout (football)|penalty shootout]] in the quarter final against [[Portugal national football team|Portugal]]. England lost the shootout and went out of the competition.
===2004-05 season===
In July 2004, while David was in pre-season training in Spain, an intruder scaled a wall at the Beckhams' home while carrying a can of petrol. Victoria and their children were in the house at the time, but security guards apprehended the man before he reached the house.{{ref|intruder}}
====Deliberate booking====
Beckham made more headlines on [[9 October]] when he admitted he had intentionally fouled [[Ben Thatcher]] in an England match against [[Wales national football team|Wales]] in order to get himself booked. Beckham was due to receive a one-match suspension for his next [[yellow card|caution]], and picked up an injury which he knew would keep him out of England's next match, so he deliberately fouled Thatcher in order to serve his suspension in a match that he would have had to miss anyway. [[The Football Association]] asked Beckham for an explanation of his actions and he admitted that he had "made a mistake" and apologised.{{ref|walesbooking}}
In November 2004 it was reported that Real Madrid intended to offer Beckham a two-year extension to his contract, which would effectively keep him in Madrid for the remainder of his playing career.
The following month, the announcement of plans for the christening of the Beckhams' two children, including the construction of a fake [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] chapel for £120,000 on the grounds of their [[Berkshire]] estate, were received with som |
r is disgusted. It has yellow, watery eyes, translucent skin, and is of an abominable size. Victor finds this revolting and although the creature expressed him no harm (in fact it grins at him and reaches his hands out innocently to his creator), Victor runs out of the room in terror whereupon the creature disappears. Overwork causes Victor to take ill for several months. After recovering, in about a year's time, he receives a letter from home informing him of the murder of his youngest brother William. He departs for Switzerland at once.
Near Geneva, Victor catches a glimpse of the creature in a thunderstorm among the rocky boulders of the mountains, and is convinced it killed William. Upon arriving home he finds Justine, the family's beloved maid, framed for the murder. Despite Victor's feelings of overwhelming guilt, he does not tell anyone about his horrid creation and Justine is convicted and executed. To recover from the ordeal, Victor goes hiking into the mountains where he encounters his "cursed creation" again, this time atop a [[glacier]].
The creature converses with Victor and tells him his story, speaking in strikingly eloquent language. He describes his feelings first of confusion, then rejection and hate. He explains how he learned to talk by studying a poor peasant family through a crack in the wall. He performs in secret many kind deeds for this family, but in the end, they drive him away when they see his appearance. He gets the same response from any human who sees him. The creature confesses that it was indeed he who killed William and framed Justine, and that he did so out of [[revenge]]. But now, the creature only wants one thing; he begs Victor to create a female companion for him so that he may have companionship.
At first, Victor agrees, but later, he tears up the half-made companion in disgust and madness. In retribution, the creature kills Clerval, Victor's best friend. On Victor's wedding night, the creature kills his wife. Victor now becomes the hunter: he pursues the creature into the Arctic ice, though in vain. Near exhaustion, he is stranded when an iceberg breaks away, carrying him out into the ocean. At that moment, Captain Walton's ship arrives and he is rescued.
Walton assumes the narration again, describing a temporary recovery in Victor's health, allowing him to relate his extraordinary story. However Victor's health soon fails, and he dies. Unable to convince his shipmates to continue north and bereft the charismatic Frankenstein, Walton is forced to turn back towards [[England]] under the threat of [[mutiny]]. Finally, the creature boards the ship and finds Victor dead, and greatly laments what he has done to his maker. He vows to commit [[suicide]]. He leaves the ship by leaping through the cabin window onto the ice, and is never seen again.
==Genesis==
:"How I, then a young girl, came to think of, and to dilate upon, so very hideous an idea?"
During the snowy summer of 1816, the "[[Year Without A Summer]]," the world was locked in a long cold [[volcanic winter]] caused by the eruption of [[Tambora]] in 1815. In this terrible year, the then Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin, age 19, and her husband-to-be [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]], visited [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Lord Byron]] at the Villa Diodati by [[Lake Geneva]] in [[Switzerland]]. The weather was consistently too cold and dreary that summer to enjoy the outdoor vacation activities they had planned, so after reading ''[[Fantasmagoriana]]'', an anthology of German ghost stories, Byron challenged the Shelleys and his personal physician [[John William Polidori]] to each compose a story of their own, the contest being won by whoever wrote the scariest tale. Mary conceived an idea after she fell into a [[nightmare|waking dream]] or nightmare during which she saw "the pale student of unhallowed arts kneeling beside the thing he had put together." This was the germ of ''Frankenstein''. Byron managed to write just a fragment based on the [[vampire]] legends he heard while travelling the [[Balkans]], and from this Polidori created ''[[The Vampyre]]'' (1819), the progenitor of the romantic vampire literary [[genre]]. Thus, the Frankenstein and vampire themes were created from that single circumstance.
==Publication==
Mary Shelley completed her writing in May 1817, and ''Frankenstein, or The Modern Prometheus'' was first published on [[1 January]] [[1818]] by the small [[London]] [[publishing house]] of Lackington, Hughes, Harding, Mavor & Jones. It was issued anonymously, with a preface written for Mary by [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]] and with a dedication to philosopher [[William Godwin]], her father. It was published in an edition of just 500 copies in three volumes, the standard "triple-decker" format for 19th century first editions. The novel had been previously rejected by Percy Bysshe Shelley's publisher Charles Ollier and by Byron's publisher [[John Murray (publisher)|John Murray]].
Critical reception of the book was mostly unfavourable, compounded by confused speculation as to the identity of the author, which was not well disguised. [[Walter Scott]] wrote that "Upon the whole, the work impresses us with a high idea of the author's original genius and happy power of expression", but most reviewers thought it "a tissue of horrible and disgusting absurdity" (''Quarterly Review'').
Despite the reviews, ''Frankenstein'' achieved an almost immediate popular success. It became widely known especially through melodramatic theatrical adaptations &ndash; Mary Shelley saw a production of ''Presumption; or The Fate of Frankenstein'', a play by Richard Brinsley Peake, in 1823. A French translation appeared as early as 1821 (''Frankenstein: ou le Prométhée Moderne'', translated by Jules Saladin).
The second edition of ''Frankenstein'' was published on [[11 August]] [[1823]] in two volumes (by G. and W. B. Whittaker), and this time credited Mary Shelley as the author.
On [[31 October]] [[1831]], the first "popular" edition in one volume appeared, published by Henry Colburn & Richard Bentley. This edition was quite heavily revised by Mary Shelley, and included a new, longer preface by her, presenting a somewhat embellished version of the genesis of the story. This edition tends to be the one most widely read now, although editions containing the original 1818 text are still being published.
The revised edition was changed in several significant ways: any indication that Frankenstein's monster was created by vice was removed, and the text details a benevolent creator who creates the monster merely for the purposes of science. Suggestions of an incestuous relationship between Victor and Elizabeth are also removed, by making Elizabeth an adopted child of the Frankensteins.
==Name origins==
===The creature===
{{main|Frankenstein's Monster}}
The creature &ndash; "my hideous progeny" &ndash; was not given a name by Mary Shelley, and is only referred to by words such as 'monster', 'creature', 'daemon', and 'wretch'.
After the release of [[James Whale]]'s popular 1931 film ''Frankenstein'', the filmgoing public immediately began speaking of the monster itself as Frankenstein. A reference to this occurs in ''[[The Bride of Frankenstein]]'' (1935) and in several subsequent films in the series, as well as in film titles such as ''[[Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein]].''
Some justify referring to the Creature as "Frankenstein" by pointing out that the Creature is, so to speak, Victor Frankenstein's offspring.
===Frankenstein===
Mary Shelley always maintained that she derived the name "Frankenstein" from a dream-vision, yet despite these public claims of originality, the name and what it means has been a source of many speculations. Literally, in [[German language|German]], the name ''Frankenstein'' means ''stone of the [[Franks]]''. Frankenstein is the former name of [[Ząbkowice Śląskie]], a city in [[Silesia]], and the historical home of the Frankenstein family.
More recently, [[Radu Florescu]], in his ''In Search of Frankenstein'', argued that Mary and Percy Shelley stayed at Castle Frankenstein on their way to Switzerland, near [[Darmstadt]] along the Rhine, where a notorious alchemist named [[Johann Conrad Dippel|Konrad Dippel]] had experimented with human bodies, but that Mary suppressed mentioning this visit, to maintain her public claim of originality. However, this theory is not without critics; Frankenstein expert [[Leonard Wolf]] calls it an "unconvincing...conspiracy theory" (Wolf, p.20).
===Victor===
A likely interpretation of the name Victor derives from the poem ''[[Paradise Lost]]'' by [[John Milton]], a great influence on Shelley (a quotation from ''Paradise Lost'' is on the opening page of ''Frankenstein'' and Shelley even allows the monster himself to read it). Milton frequently refers to God as "the Victor" in ''Paradise Lost'', which Shelley obviously sees Victor as playing God by creating life. In addition, Shelley's portrayal of the monster owes much to the character of [[Satan]] in ''Paradise Lost''; indeed, the monster says, after reading the epic poem, that he sympathizes with Satan's role in the story.
Victor was also a pen name of Percy Shelley's, as in the collection of poetry he wrote with his sister Elizabeth, ''Original Poetry by Victor and Cazire''. [http://www.litencyc.com/php/sworks.php?rec=true&UID=3010] There is speculation that one of Mary Shelley's models for Victor Frankenstein was Percy, who at Eton had "experimented with electricity and magnetism as well as with gunpowder and numerous chemical reactions," and whose rooms at Oxford were filled with scientific equipment. [http://www.dickinson.edu/~nicholsa/Romnat/pbshelley.htm]
==="Modern Prometheus"===
''The Modern Prometheus'' is the novel's subtitle (t |
ighest point in Fuerteventura is Mount [[Jandía]] (807 m) in the southwestern part of the island. Geographical features include '''Istmo de la Pared''' which is 5 km wide and is the narrowest part of Fuerteventura, the island is divided into two parts, the northern portion which is '''Maxorata''' and the southwestern part called the Jandía peninsula. The island is the least settled in the Canary Islands.
==Climate==
The climate on the island throughout the year is pleasant. The island is also called the island of eternal springs. The sea adjusts the temperature making the hot [[Sahara]] winds blow away from the island of Fuerteventura. During the winter months, temperatures average a high of 21°C and a low of around 15°C, whereas during the summer a mean high of 27°C and a low of 20°C can be expected. Precipitation is about 147 mm per annum, most of which falls in the winter. The sandstorm known as the [[scirocco]], ''Leveche'' in Spain blows to the southwest from the Sahara desert causing high temperatures and low visibility and drying air. Temperatures during this phenomena rise by 10 degrees Celsius. The wind brings in fine white sand, visibility drops to about 100 to 200 m or lower, and also African [locust]s. The local inhabitants call this phenomena the "[[Calima]]".
==Economy==
[[Image:Fuerteventura kueste3 750px.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fuerteventura Coastline]]
The main economy on Fuerteventura is tourism; other main industries are fishing, agriculture (cereals and vegetables), and businesses. Primary tourist areas are around the existing towns of [[Corralejo]] in the north and [[Morro Jable]] in [[Jandia]], plus the purely tourist development at [[Caleta de Fuste]] south of [[Puerto del Rosario]].
==History==
The island's colourful past can be traced in a variety of ancient buildings, monuments, archaeological sites and museums.
The first settlers are believed to have arrived here from North Africa - the word ''Mahorero'' or ''Maho'' is still used today to describe the people of Fuerteventura and comes from the ancient word 'mahos' meaning a type of goatskin shoe worn by the original inhabitants. They lived in caves and semi-subterranean dwellings, a few of which have been discovered and excavated revealing relics of early tools and pottery. In antiquity, the island was known as ''Planaria'', among other names, in reference to the flatness of most of its landscape.
In the [[11th century BC]], the [[Phoenicia]]n settlers arrived in Fuerteventura and Lanzarote. In [[850 BC]], the island was mentioned by [[Homer]] in the [[Odyssey]], the Canary Islands as ''Insulae Fortunatae''.
Several Spanish and Portuguese expeditions occurred in about [[1340]] around the island and the island were inhabited by Maurs and were afflicted with European slave holders.
In [[1405]], the French conqueror [[Jean de Bethencourt]] took the island and gave his name to the former capital, [[Betancuria]], on the west coast (Puerto Rosario took over the mantle as island capital in 1835). The name of the island itself is believed to have come from Bethencourt's exclamation "Que forte aventure!" ("What a grand adventure"). A less romantic explanation is that the name simply means "strong wind".
In [[1852]], the free trade zone was extened by [[Isabella II of Spain|Isabella II]] to the Canary Islands. The military rule over the island which began from [[1708]] dissolved in [[1859]] and Puerto de Cabras (now Puerto del Rosario) became entirely the new capital.[[Image:Fuerteventura kueste2 750px.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Ajuy]] beach]]
The Canary islands had the right to self-govern in [[1912]].
In [[1927]], Fuerteventura and [[Lanzarote]] became part of the province of [[Gran Canaria]].
By the 1940s the island had an airport (just west of [[Puerto del Rosario]] on the road to Tindaya, still visible today).
Tourism arrived in the mid-1960s with the building of the present airport at [[El Mattoral]] and the first tourist hotels.
The seat of the island government (''cabildo insular'') is in [[Puerto del Rosario]]. A total of 74,983 people (2003) live on the island.
Since the island is close to [[Africa]], many illegal African immigrants try to enter the European Union through it, by a dangerous boat trip from Morocco.
==Sites of interest==
The sites of interest includes [[Corralejo]] and El Jable to the north which are made up of fine sand [[dunes]], the south is filled with long beaches and remote bays. The constant winds blowing the beaches make the paradise for [[windsurfing]]. [[Water skiing]] is common in the west coast where there are large waves. Windsurfing is common north of Corralejo or at the north coast.
At [[Cofete]] on the western side of Jandía a remote and imposing house - [[Villa Winter]] - looks out to sea across wide and generally empty beaches. It was reputedly built by a Herr Winter on land given by [[Francisco Franco|Generalissimo Franco]].
In [[January 18]], [[1994]], the luxury liner [[SS America (1940)|SS America]] (once was ''USS Westpoint'') was abandoned and left in Playa de Garcey. Better known as [http://www.maritimematters.com/america.html The American Star], conspiracy theories abound as to how the ship came to be wrecked there.
==External links==
Official Sites
*[http://www.fuerteventuraturismo.com/ Fuerteventuraturismo.com ] - Official page for Tourism in Fuerteventura. (Spanish)
*[http://www.laoliva.es/ LaOliva.es] - Official Tourism website. Local Authority of La Oliva. Fuerteventura. (Spanish - English - German)
*[http://www.ayuntamientopajara.com/ AyuntamientoPajara.com] - Official Tourism website. Local Authority of Pajara. Fuerteventura. (Spanish - English - German)
*[http://www.cabildofuer.es/ Cabildo de Fuerteventura] - Official Info page for Fuerteventura. (Spanish)
Commercial Sites
*[http://www.fuerteventurainfo.com/ Fuerteventura Info] - Tourist Guide to the Island (English & Spanish)
*[http://www.sunnyfuerteventura.com/ Sunnyfuerteventura.com ]- Another comprehensive website devoted solely to Fuerteventura (English, Spanish and German)
*[http://www.fuerteventura-forum.com/ Fuerteventura-Forum.com ] - Fuerteventura's Forum & Chat Room
*[http://www.fuerteventura3d.com/ Fuerteventura3D.com ] - Interactive Maps and 3D Satellite Images. Plenty of pictures and info. English and Spanish.
*[http://www.geocities.com/fuerteventuraholidayhomes/ Fuerteventura Holidays and Homes] - Holiday apartments, villas and houses for rent - property management specialists(English)
*[http://www.geocities.com/holiday_fuerteventura/ Holiday Fuerteventura] - Holiday guide to the Island (English)
*[http://www.rent-fuerteventura.com/ Rent Fuerteventura] - Directory of holiday rentals, apartments, villas and self catering accommodation
*[http://www.fuerteventura-travels.com/index.php Fuerteventura-Travels] (English)
*[http://www.spain-holidayrentals.com/ Holiday rentals home accommodation]
*[http://www.sun4free.com/fuerteventura-property/ Property in Fuerteventura]
*[http://surfing-fuerteventura.blogspot.com/ Surf Fuerteventura]-(Spanish and English)
*http://www.fuerteventura-virtuell.de (in German)
*[http://www.fuerteventuravirtual.com/ www.fuerteventuravirtual.com ] - More than 200 360º panoramic images. News, Events, Guide of companies, etc.
<!-- 2 External Comercial sites have been reported & REMOVED for irregular edition practises. Please follow edition rules or check w-forum for further details-->
{{commons|Fuerteventura|Fuerteventura}}
{{Canary Islands}}
[[Category:Canary Islands]]
[[ca:Fuerteventura]]
[[de:Fuerteventura]]
[[et:Fuerteventura]]
[[es:Fuerteventura]]
[[eo:Fuerteventura]]
[[fi:Fuerteventura]]
[[fr:Fuerteventura]]
[[it:Fuerteventura]]
[[nl:Fuerteventura]]
[[no:Fuerteventura]]
[[fi:Fuerteventura]]
[[sv:Fuerteventura]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fairmount, Indiana</title>
<id>11476</id>
<revision>
<id>33695920</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-03T05:55:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Netoholic</username>
<id>41995</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Infobox City</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City |
official_name = Town of Fairmount, Indiana |
nickname =|
image_map = US-IN-Fairmount.png |
map_caption = Location in the state of [[Indiana]] |
subdivision_type = [[List_of_Indiana_counties|County]] |
subdivision_name = [[Grant County, Indiana|Grant]]|
leader_title= |
leader_name= |
area_note =|
area_magnitude = 1 E6 |
area_total = 3.8 |
area_land = 3.8 |
area_water = 0.0 |
population_as_of = 2000 |
population_note =|
population_total = 2,992 |
population_density = 785.9 |
timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time|EST]] |
utc_offset = -5 |
timezone_DST = [[Eastern Standard Time|EST]] |
utc_offset_DST = -5 |
latitude = 40&deg;25'4" N |
longitude = 85&deg;38'56" W |
website = |
}}
'''Fairmount''' is a town located in [[Grant County, Indiana|Grant County]] in east central [[Indiana]]. As of the [[2000]] census, the town had a total population of 2,992. It is ninety kilometers (fifty-five miles) northeast of [[Indianapolis]]. Largely a bed town to its three thousand citizens, Fairmount is best known as the boyhood home of actor [[James Dean]], who is buried there.
== Geography ==
Fairmount is located at 40&deg;25'4" North, 85&deg;38'56" West (40.417702, -85.648942){{GR|1}}.
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the town has a total area of 3.8 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (1.5 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]). 3.8 km&sup2; (1.5 mi&sup2;) of it is land and none of the area is covered with water.
== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 2,992 people, 1,226 households, and 859 families residing in the town. The [[population density]] is 785.9/km&sup2; (2,033.0/mi&sup2;). There are 1,325 housing units at an average de |
50 edition of ''The Explorers Journal''. <ref>Hubbard, [http://www.dianetics.org/en_US/l-ron-hubbard/articles/terra/ "Terra Incognita: The Mind"]</ref> Dianetics was clearly not quite finished - at this stage, engrams were called ''comanomes'', a [[neologism]] proposed by Winter that was later abandoned.
In April 1950, Hubbard, Campbell, Winter and several others established a Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation in [[Elizabeth, New Jersey]] to coordinate work related to the forthcoming publication. Hubbard wrote ''Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health'' around the same time, claiming to have taken only six weeks to do so <ref>"L.R.H. Biography", Sea Org Flag Information Letter 67, [[October 31]] [[1977]]</ref> (though according to another Scientology source he wrote all 180,000 words in only three weeks <ref>Hubbard, ''Child Dianetics'', p. 178. Publications Organization Worldwide, Edinburgh (1968 edition)</ref>).
Dianetics was launched in the May 1950 issue of ''Astounding'' (published in April 1950), and the book ''Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health'' was published on [[9 May]] 1950. It became an immediate best-seller, with the first run of 8,000 copies quickly selling out. Only two months after the book's publication, ''[[Newsweek]]'' magazine reported that over 55,000 copies had been sold and enthusiasts had established 500 Dianetics clubs across the United States. <ref>[http://www.xenu.net/archive/fifties/e500821.htm "BOOKS Industry: Best Seller"], ''Newsweek'', No. 36, August 1950</ref> John W. Campbell reported in the August 1950 edition of ''Astounding Science Fiction'' that the magazine was receiving up to a thousand letters a week about Dianetics. Sales reached 150,000 copies by the end of the year.
The popularity of Dianetics was due to a number of factors. Campbell's endorsement was invaluable to its success. ''Astounding Science Fiction'' had over 150,000 readers, many of whom were familiar with Hubbard's earlier [[science fiction]] and had a strong interest in new scientific discoveries (according to Winter, 80% were college graduates). Among the wider population, Dianetics gained popularity as a cheaper, simpler and apparently more effective means of self-improvement than conventional psychotherapies. Hubbard's optimistic view that Dianetics could alleviate the Cold War climate of tension and fear also struck a chord. One of his supporters, Frederick Schuman, wrote in the ''[[New York Times]]'' that "History has become a race between Dianetics and catastrophe".
The success of Dianetics brought in a flood of money. Hubbard offered teaching courses for Dianetic "auditors" though the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation, costing $500 per person. This bought four to six weeks of instruction, plus thirty-six hours of Dianetic therapy. The president of Hermitage House, the publisher of ''Dianetics'', reported in the August 1950 issue of ''Astounding'' that the book was selling a thousand copies a day (at $4 each) and all 100 special leather-bound copies (at $25 each) had already sold, with all proceeds going to the Dianetic Foundation. Hubbard recruited his friend and fellow science fiction writer [[A. E. Van Vogt]] to act as the Foundation's treasurer, and five other Foundations were soon established in [[Washington, DC]], [[New York]], [[Chicago]], [[Los Angeles]] and [[Honolulu]]. <ref>[http://www.xenu.net/archive/fifties/1950-look.html "Dianetics: Science or Hoax?"], ''Look'', [[December 5]] [[1950]]</ref> The scale of the Foundation's income at the time can be judged by the fact that its Los Angeles property was valued at $4.5 million. <ref>Miller, ''Bare Faced Messiah'' p. 166</ref>
===Opposition to Dianetics===
The scientific and medical communities were far less enthusiastic about Dianetics, which received a mixture of bemused, concerned and denunciatory reviews in the US media. Nobel-prize winning physicist [[Isidor Isaac Rabi|I.I. Rabi]], reviewing ''Dianetics'' for ''[[Scientific American]]'', declared that "this volume probably contains more promises and less evidence per page than has any publication since the invention of printing." <ref>[http://www.xenu.net/archive/fifties/e500814.htm "The Dianetics Craze"], ''The New Republic'', [[August 14]] [[1950]]</ref> ''The Nation'' also pointed to the lack of documentation provided by Hubbard in ''Dianetics'': "No case histories are offered to substantiate his claims, nor is there documentation of any kind to indicate that any previous thinker, medical or otherwise, ever made a significant contribution to the subject of human behavior." Similarly, the ''Individual Psychology Bulletin'' criticized Hubbard for "not offer[ing] any other evidence than a vague reference to hundreds of cured patients, without furnishing case histories or other specific data. The book is crammed with bragging and swaggering, pseudoscientific bombast, platitudes and vulgarities, and a great deal of sheer nonsense." <ref>Leonhard Deutsch, ''Individual Psychology Bulletin'', 9:1 (1951) p.38-9</ref>
The ''New Republic'' noted that the publication of ''Dianetics'' had coincided with that of ''[[Worlds in Collision]]'', a notorious work of pseudoscience by [[Immanuel Velikovsky]], with which ''Dianetics'' shared the top of the best-seller lists. This, its writer said, illustrated "the most frightening proof of the confusion of the contemporary mind and its tendency to fall prey to pseudo-scientific concepts." <ref>Isaac Isidor Rabi, [http://www.xenu.net/archive/fifties/e510100.htm Review of Dianetics], ''Scientific American'', January 1951</ref> Other writers expressed concern at the possible dangers of unskilled amateurs practicing therapy on patients, and skepticism about Hubbard's claims that Dianetics could be effective in dealing with illnesses.
In September 1950, the [[American Psychological Association]] issued a resolution calling on psychologists not to use Hubbard's methods for treatment purposes unless and until they had been shown effective through scientific testing. <ref>[http://www.apa.org/about/division/cpmscientific.html#4 "M. Scientific Affairs - IV. DIANETICS"], ''APA Council Policy Manual'', 1950</ref> In a number of localities, complaints were made against Dianetics practitioners for allegedly practicing medicine without a license. This eventually prompted Dianetics advocates to disclaim any medicinal benefits in order to avoid regulation.
Hubbard later claimed that the [[United States Government]], the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[American Communist Party]] had sought to take over Dianetics and had orchestrated opposition to it. He claimed that "just about the time [Dianetics] hit the stands" (i.e. April-May 1950), a "very high-ranking officer" of the US Navy had approached him to sound him out about "using what you know about the mind to make people more suggestible." Hubbard was apparently able to avoid this by resigning from the Navy. <ref>Hubbard, "The National Academy of American Psychology", lecture of [[31 December]] [[1957]]</ref> However, his letter of resignation from the Navy, dated [[May 27]] [[1950]], makes no mention of this; he said merely that he "sometimes must write on technical subjects and while these have no bearing on naval matters or government security of any kind I would feel much freer were I not a commissioned officer in the naval reserve." <ref>Hubbard, [http://www.lermanet.com/L_Ron_Hubbard/mr177.htm letter of resignation from the US Navy], [[May 27]] [[1950]]</ref>
In 1952, Hubbard claimed that the [[Soviet Union]] had also tried to co-opt him to develop Dianetics. He told the FBI in an interview that "the Soviets apparently realized the value of Dianetics because as early as 1938 an official of Amtorg [the Soviet-run American Trade Organization], while at The Explorers Club in New York, contacted him to suggest that he go to Russia and develop Dianetics there." <ref>US Govt memo 62-116151-70, [[March 7]] [[1951]]</ref> The FBI agent conducting the interview was not convinced, describing Hubbard as "a mental case." <ref>Letter in FBI files, [[March 10]] [[1951]]</ref>
Hubbard also claimed that the [[American Communist Party]] had sought to take over Dianetics, and blamed the hostile press coverage on a Communist plot. The [[Authors League of America]], which represented American authors and playwrights, was "100 percent, almost, Communist Party card-carrying members." According to Hubbard,
:These people in the early days of Dianetics said, "We can use Dianetics." They were all my friends. Everywhere I looked, every writer I knew who had ever been a member of the Communist Party was right there alongside of me pumping my hand, saying, "Good going, Ron. We knew you had it in you." ... We had the potential of an organization the influence of which could be used by another interest! And when they finally got it through their thick skulls in October of 1950 that I didn't care to have Dianetics and Scientology covertly used by any other organization on Earth for their own special purposes, Dianetics and Scientology in the public presses had it. <ref>Hubbard, "Final Lecture", lecture of [[November 8]] [[1959]]</ref>
In later years, Hubbard decided that the psychiatric profession was the origin of all of the criticism of Dianetics, as (in his view) it secretly controlled the governments of the United States, the Soviet Union and "nearly every government in the world". <ref>Hubbard, "Ron's Journal 67", taped message of [[September 20]] [[1967]]</ref> This view is |
rus'''.
* '''Cyrus''', another moniker of [[Basic Channel]]'s [[Moritz Von Oswald]] and Mark Ernestus
* Cyrus, a brand of audio hardware.
* [[Cyrus Broacha]],MTV India VJ
* [[Cyrus Sahukar]],MTV India VJ.
{{disambig}}
[[de:Kyros]]
[[es:Ciro]]
[[fa:کوروش]]
[[nl:Cyrus]]
[[pl:Cyrus]]
[[pt:Ciro]]
[[sv:Kyros]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Case</title>
<id>6603</id>
<revision>
<id>42062468</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:25:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>63.157.131.36</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Case''' can refer to:
General:
* Erik and Rachel's Fantastic case that the nice judge should vote for.
* [[Legal case]], a dispute between opposing parties resolved by a court.
* A term of [[jurisprudence]], referring to the [[evidence (law)|evidence]] against a [[defendant]] or [[suspect]]
* [[Suitcase]], [[briefcase]], [[attaché case]], [[packing case]] or similar.
* [[Bookcase]] or [[casement]] [[window]] an enclosure desinged to hold something.
* A computer [[chassis]]. See [[computer case]].
* [[Letter case]] in [[typography]] (the distinction between [[majuscule]] and [[minuscule]] letter forms) or [[sentence case]]
* An instance or [[example]] (see also [[case study]])
* Cases in [[morphology (linguistics)|linguistic morphology]]; see [[declension]] and [[list of grammatical cases]]
* [[Computer-aided software engineering]] (CASE)
* Shakespearean English: A container or covering; (applied to) a mask. Like [[vizard]].
* To reconnoiter or to get an understanding of a location (''slang'')
People, organisations, places:
* ''[[Case Corporation]]'', equipment manufacturer, see [[International Harvester]]
* [[Steve Case]], head of [[AOL Time Warner]]
* [[Case (Neuromancer)|Case]], the protagonist of [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]]'s [[Neuromancer]]
* [[Case Western Reserve University]], an independent research university in [[Cleveland, Ohio]].
* [[Case (singer)|Case]], an [[R&B]] singer singed to the [[Def Soul]] label, with hits such as "Touch Me, Tease Me" and "Missing You".
*Neighborhoods of the [[Italy|Italian]] city of [[Cesena]] (Pronunciation: KAH-zeh):
**Case Castagnoli
**Case Missiroli
**Case Gentili
**Case Scuola Vecchia
**Case Venzi
*Case (KAH-seh) is also a plural form of the [[Italian language|Italian]] word [[wikt:en:casa|casa]].
==See also==
{{Wiktionary}}
*[[Casa]]
*[[Case analysis]]
*[[Best, worst and average case]]
{{disambig}}
[[ja:&#12465;&#12540;&#12473;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Rendering (computer graphics)</title>
<id>6604</id>
<revision>
<id>42051179</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:36:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hxa7241</username>
<id>109064</id>
</contributor>
<comment>removed off-topic, non-informative, external link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Rendering''' is the process of generating an image from a model, by means of a software program. The model is a description of three dimensional objects in a strictly defined language or data structure. It would contain geometry, viewpoint, [[texture mapping|texture]] and [[lighting]] information. The image is a [[digital image]] or [[raster graphics]] [[image]]. The term may be by analogy with an "artist's rendering" of a scene. 'Rendering' is also used to describe the process of calculating effects in a video editing file to produce final video output.
It is one of the major sub-topics of [[3D computer graphics]], and in practice always connected to the others. In the 'graphics pipeline' it's the last major step, giving the final appearance to the models and animation. With the increasing sophistication of computer graphics since the 1970s onward, it has become a more distinct subject.
It has uses in: [[computer and video games]], simulators, [[movies]] or TV special effects, and design visualisation, each employing a different balance of features and techniques. As a product, a wide variety of renderers are available. some are integrated into larger modelling and animation packages, some are stand-alone, some are free open-source projects. On the inside, a renderer is a carefully engineered program, based on a selective mixture of disciplines related to: [[optics|light physics]], [[visual system|visual perception]], mathematics, and [[software engineering|software development]].
In the case of 3D graphics, rendering may be done slowly, as in [[pre-rendered|pre-rendering]], or in real time. Pre-rendering is a computationally intensive process that is typically used for movie creation, while real-time rendering is often done for 3D video games which rely on the use of graphics cards with 3D hardware accelerators.
== Usage ==
When the pre-image (a [[wireframe]] sketch usually) is complete, rendering is used, which adds in [[bitmap textures]] or [[procedural textures]], lights, [[bump mapping]], and relative position to other objects. The result is a completed image the consumer or intended viewer sees.
For movie animations, several images (frames) must be rendered, and stitched together in a program capable of making an animation of this sort. Most 3D image editing programs can do this.
== Features ==
A rendered image can be understood in terms of a number of visible features. Rendering research and development has been largely motivated by finding ways to simulate these efficiently. Some relate directly to particular algorithms and techniques, while others are produced together.
* [[flat shading|'''shading''']] &mdash; how the color and brightness of a surface varies with lighting
* [[texture mapping|'''texture-mapping''']] &mdash; a method of applying detail to surfaces
* [[bump mapping|'''bump-mapping''']] &mdash; a method of simulating small-scale bumpiness on surfaces
* [[distance fog|'''fogging/participating medium''']] &mdash; how light dims when passing through non-clear atmosphere or air
* '''shadows''' &mdash; the effect of obstructing light
* '''soft shadows''' &mdash; varying darkness caused by partially obscured light sources
* '''reflection''' &mdash; mirror-like or highly glossy reflection
* '''transparency''' &mdash; sharp transmission of light through solid objects
* '''translucency''' &mdash; highly scattered transmission of light through solid objects
* '''[[refraction]]''' &mdash; bending of light associated with transparency
* [[global illumination|'''indirect illumination''']] &mdash; surfaces illuminated by light reflected off other surfaces, rather than directly from a light source
* [[Caustic (optics)|'''caustics''']] (a form of indirect illumination) &mdash; reflection of light off a shiny object, or focusing of light through a transparent object, to produce bright highlights on another object
* '''[[depth of field]]''' &mdash; objects appear blurry or out of focus when too far in front of or behind the object in focus
* '''[[motion blur]]''' &mdash; objects appear blurry due to high-speed motion, or the motion of the camera
* '''[[Photorealistic (Morph) | photorealistic morphing]]''' &mdash; photoshopping 3D renderings to appear more life-like
* '''[[non-photorealistic rendering]]''' &mdash; rendering of scenes in an artistic style, intended to look like a painting or drawing
== Techniques ==
Two families of overall, light transport, techniques have emerged: '''[[radiosity]]''' &mdash; related to [[finite element]] mathematics, and '''[[ray tracing]]''' &mdash; related to [[Monte Carlo method|Monte Carlo]] mathematics. Radiosity attempts to simulate the way in which reflected light instead of just reflecting to another surface also illuminates the area around it, this is because some diffuse light is reflected in a large spectrum of directions and illuminates the area around it, in this way the scene has an ambience that is very true to real life, radiosity as a technique comes with a variety in complexity, many realtime renderings have a very rough estimate of radiosity simply illumination an entire scene very slightly with a factor known as ambience, however some renderings incorporate ray-tracing principles and deliver great realism particularly for indoor scenes. Monte Carlo rendering techniques effectively use complicated geometry to trace virtual rays of light, it uses estimation and properties of objects as in most radiosity but it actually estimates the spreading of light and many programs are advanced enough to include complex and accurate rendering of shadows and even refraction! Ray tracing allows you to add complicated objects into a scene and describe them mathematically, of course tracing every ray of light in a scene would be impractical and would take gigantic amounts of time, that's where Monte Carlo maths comes in, it calculates a rough irradiance (joules per metre squared on a surface) using probabilities therefore finding roughly the photon density hitting the surface, so the program is not restricted to basic renderings of different objects as a real time solution tends to be. Take the example of a sauce pan, the bottom of a sauce pan has two triangular specular highlights from the center, this effect is due to the micro-geometry of the pan and can be described accurately in a program. Of course when done badly this means some scenes end up with objects that look brutally out of place. Both solutions can provide a framework for a fairly complete solution to the rendering equation. Such approaches can be very slow and computationally-intensive, however as time has gone on radiosity has become the leading real time rendering method but when computer power increases it could be over taken by ray-tracing or another more complicated method.
For real-time, a complete calculation is not currently possible. Much faster is to simplify with one or both of these com |
involved the deployment of tactical stations armed with Bomarc missiles along the east and west coasts of [[North America]] and the central areas of the continent. BOMARC and [[Semi Automatic Ground Environment|SAGE]] were phased out in the late sixties as they were ineffective and costly.
The Bomarcs were capable of carrying conventional or [[nuclear weapon|nuclear]] warheads. Their intended role in defence was in an intrusion prevention perimeter. Bomarcs aligned on the eastern and western coasts of North America would theoretically launch and disintegrate enemy bombers before the bombers could drop their payload on industrial regions.
The name Bomarc was conceived as a merge of the two organisations who played the most prominent roles in its creation: [[Boeing]] and the [[Michigan Aeronautical Research Center]] (MARC). It was originally designated F-99, imagined as being equivalent to a fighter, but was quickly redesignated "IM" for Interceptor Missile, retaining the -99 series number.
The "Bomarc IM-99A" was the first production Bomarc missile. It had an operational radius of 200 miles, and was designed to fly at [[Mach number|Mach]] 2.5-2.8 at a cruising altitude of 60,000 feet. It was 14.2 m (46.6 ft) long and weighed 7,020 kg (15,500 lb). A [[rocket]] engine boosted the Bomarc to Mach 2, and then its [[ramjet]] engines would take over for the remainder of the flight.
The "Super Bomarc IM-99B" was the 99A's successor, with improvements to its operational parameters. It was capable of striking targets within a radius of 400 miles, and able to fly at Mach 4 as high as 100,000 feet. It was 13.7 m (45 ft) long and weighed 7,250 kg (16,000 lb).
[[International Business Machines|IBM]] designed an additional component to this, called SAGE, which allowed for remote launching of the Bomarc missiles.
At the height of the program, there were 14 Bomarc sites located in the United States, and two in Canada.
The Bomarc Missile Program was highly controversial in Canada. The [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada|Progressive Conservative]] government of [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]] [[John George Diefenbaker]] initially agreed to deploy the missiles, and controversially scrapped the [[Avro Arrow]] interceptor program arguing that the missile program made the Arrow unnecessary.
Initially, it was unclear whether the missiles would be equipped with nuclear warheads. Once their use as nuclear weapons became known in [[1960]], a debate ensued about whether Canada should accept nuclear weapons. Ultimately, the Diefenbaker government decided that the Bomarcs should be equipped with conventional warheads. The dispute split the Diefenbaker [[Canadian Cabinet|Cabinet]], and led to the collapse of the government in [[1963]]. The Opposition [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal Party]] argued in favour of accepting nuclear warheads, and, after winning the [[Canadian federal election, 1963|1963 election]], the new Liberal government of [[Lester Pearson]] proceeded to accept nuclear warheads, with the first being deployed on [[December 31]], [[1963]].
[[Pierre Trudeau]], who was at the time a member of the [[New Democratic Party]], witheringly attacked Pearson for the decision. While he was forced to reverse himself when he decided to run as a candidate for the Liberals in the [[Canadian federal election, 1965|1965 election]], he remained unenthusiastic. Shortly after becoming prime minister in [[1968]], he announced that the missiles would be phased out by [[1971]].
Although a number of IM-99/CIM-10 Bomarcs have been placed on public display, concerns about the possible environmental hazards of the thoriated magnesium structure of the airframe have resulted in several being removed from public view. Radiation contamination from a fire at [[McGuire AFB]], N.J., that destroyed an active Bomarc-A airframe on the launch pad on June 7, [[1960]], resulted in that area remaining off-limits to the present day. The nuclear warhead was not activated in this [[Broken Arrow]] accident, however.
''Sources:'' Russ Sneddon, director of the USAF Armament Museum, Eglin AFB, Florida. (Provided information about missing CIM-10 exhibit airframe serial 59-2016, one of the museum's original artifacts from its founding in [[1975]] and donated by the 4751st Air Defense Squadron at [[Hurlburt Field]], Eglin Aux. Fld. 9. As of mid-April [[2005]], the suspect missile was still stored in a secure compound behind the Armaments Museum.)
[http://rcaf-atc.org/misc/bomarc/bomarc8.html History of the Royal Canadian Air Force 'Pinetree Line' air defense stations ]
[[Category:Cold War weapons of the United States]]
[[Category:Weapons of Canada]]
[[Category:Nuclear anti-aircraft weapons]]
[[de:Bomarc]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Britannia Games</title>
<id>4131</id>
<revision>
<id>15902427</id>
<timestamp>2002-12-07T18:35:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Scipius</username>
<id>488</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Brittannia Game Designs]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Brittannia Game Designs]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Branco River</title>
<id>4132</id>
<revision>
<id>34760568</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-11T15:10:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nick Taylor</username>
<id>699162</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Changed link from Negro River to Rio Negro</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Rio Branco''' is the principal [[affluent]] of the [[Rio Negro]] from the north; it is enriched by many streams from the sierras which separate [[Venezuela]] and [[Guyana]] from [[Brazil]]. Its two upper main tributaries are the [[Urariquira River|Urariquira]] and the [[Takutu River|Takutu]]. The latter almost links its sources with those of the [[Essequibo River|Essequibo]].
The Branco flows nearly south, and finds its way into the Negro through several channels and a chain of lagoons similar to those of the latter river. It is 350 miles long, up to its Urariquira confluence. It has numerous islands, and, 235 miles above its mouth, it is broken by a bad series of rapids.
[[Category:Amazon river tributaries]]
[[Category:Rivers of Brazil]]
[[Category:Rivers of Venezuela]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Boston/Transportation</title>
<id>4133</id>
<revision>
<id>15902429</id>
<timestamp>2004-02-24T02:50:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michael Hardy</username>
<id>4626</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Boston transportation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership</title>
<id>4135</id>
<revision>
<id>41073856</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T22:00:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>216.39.146.233</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Targeting publicity efforts */ minor edit- spelling change</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{historical}}
[[fr:Wikipédia:Comment recruter des contributeurs]]
[[ja:Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership]]
[[zh:&#23459;&#20256;Wikipedia]]
As far as our server can handle it, we like to increase traffic to [[Wikipedia]]: it helps improving the quality and quantity of the content and increases the total amount of joy and other utility it has for people. This page lists ways of doing this.
----
Let's talk about how to increase traffic to Wikipedia, of both readers and writers--that is now going to become one of the main focuses of my Wikipedia work. So I want your help! How can we increase "membership" in Wikipedia--both readers ''and'' new writers?
Let's brainstorm. Please, add an idea below, or help develop ideas. (Sometimes, a really great new idea is a slight variation on a just-OK old idea.)
Also, if you do any work that you think someone else might inadvertently replicate, can you please write it down here somehow (as on the [[Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Encyclopedia links solicited|Encyclopedia links solicited]] page)? Thanks! --[[User:Larry Sanger|Larry Sanger]]
==Urban poster campaign==
See [[meta:Wikimedia urban postering campaign]]!
==Brainstormin'==
* How about we do something like [[Spread Firefox]]? We could start our own publicity campaign, and if we ever get something like the NYT ad or the Firefox coins (see article) then I get the feeling wikipedia use would go WAY up! :D
[[User:203.59.117.99|203.59.117.99]] 08:35, 22 August 2005 (UTC)
* Solicit links from (mentioning [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia banners and logos]]):
** Websites with substantial traffic, like [[Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/About.com|About.com]] (see [[Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Big traffic links solicited|Big traffic links solicited]])
** People with lists of encyclopedias (see [[Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Encyclopedia list links solicited|Encyclopedia list links solicited]])
** People with encyclopedia-type websites (see [[Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Encyclopedia links solicited|Encyclopedia links solicited]])
** Best-of websites and similar resources (see [[Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Best of sites links solicited|Best of sites links solicited]])
** Web sites for authors, films, whatever. There's always a list of links. Add a link to the Wikipedia Stephen King page to Stephen King web sites, to the Japan page on Japan web sites, and so on.
* for individual articles, solicit links from:
** related resources (particularly if we mention them in ''external links'')
** directories such as [[LookSmart]], [[Open Directory Project]] and [[Yahoo!]]
* Get people to add article review requests to [[User:Larry Sanger/Review requests]]; find reviewers for t |
on, Sikhs 16%, Muslims 4% and Christians 0.10%.
== Districts ==
{{Districts of Haryana}}
== External links ==
* [http://www.haryana-online.com Haryana Online]
** [http://haryana-online.com/History/history.htm History of Haryana]
** [http://haryana-online.com/People/people.htm People of Haryana]
** [http://haryana-online.com/Culture/culture.htm Culture of Haryana]
** [http://haryana-online.com/Fauna/haryana_birds.htm Birds of Haryana]
** [http://haryana-online.com/tourism.htm Tourism in Haryana]
* [http://haryana.nic.in Haryana Government Website]
* [http://www.indian-elections.com/assembly-elections/haryana]
{{India}}
[[Category:Haryana|*]]
[[Category:States and territories of India]]
[[de:Haryana]]
[[et:Haryana]]
[[es:Haryana]]
[[eo:Harjano]]
[[fr:Haryana]]
[[gu:હરિયાણા]]
[[hi:हरियाणा]]
[[ka:ჰარიანა]]
[[ml:ഹരിയാന]]
[[mr:हरियाणा]]
[[nl:Haryana]]
[[pt:Haryana]]
[[ru:Харьяна]]
[[sv:Haryana]]
[[ta:ஹரியானா]]
[[te:హర్యానా]]
[[zh:哈里亚纳邦]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Himachal Pradesh</title>
<id>14190</id>
<revision>
<id>41277768</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T06:13:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pathoschild</username>
<id>240994</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/The71|The71]] ([[User talk:The71|talk]]) to last version by 69.242.102.168</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{India state infobox|
state_name=Himachal Pradesh |
image_map=IndiaHimachalPradesh.png |
capital=[[Shimla]] |
latd = 30.06|longd=77.11|
largest_city=[[Shimla]]|
abbreviation=IN-HP |
official_languages=[[Hindi]] and [[Pahari]]|
legislature_type=Unicameral |
legislature_strength=68 |
governor_name=[[Vishnu Sadashiv Kokje]] |
chief_minister=[[Virbharda Singh]] |
established_date=[[1971-01-25]] |
area=55,673 |
area_rank=17th |
area_magnitude=10 |
population_year=2001 |
population=6,077,248 |
population_rank=20th |
population_density=109 |
districts=12 |
website=himachal.nic.in |
seal=[[image:HPseal.jpg|center]] |
footnotes = |
}}
'''Himachal Pradesh''' ([[Devanagari]]: &#2361;&#2367;&#2350;&#2366;&#2330;&#2354; &#2346;&#2381;&#2352;&#2342;&#2375;&#2358;), formally the [[Punjab Hill States]], is a mostly mountainous [[States and territories of India|state]] in northwest [[India]]. Neighbouring regions are [[Tibet]] to the east, [[Jammu and Kashmir]] to the north and northwest, [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] to the southwest, [[Haryana]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]] to the south and [[Uttaranchal]] to the southeast.
It is 55,658 sq km (21,490 sq mi) and the population in [[1991]] was 5,111,079.
The state capital is [[Shimla]] (formerly British India's summer capital under the name Simla), other major towns are [[Dharamsala]], [[Kangra]], [[Mandi]], [[Kullu]], [[Chamba]], [[Dalhousie, India|Dalhousie]] and [[Manali]]. The western [[Himalaya]] lies in the north and east and the smaller [[Siwalik Hills|Shiwalik]] (or Shivalik) range in the south. The [[Ghaggar River]] originates in the Shivalik range. The main rivers are the [[Sutlej River|Sutlej]] (home of the [[Bhakra Nangal Dam]] Project) and the [[Beas River|Beas]]. The [[bridge]] on the [[Sutlej River]] at Kandraur, [[Bilaspur District, Himchal Pradesh|Bilaspur District]] is one of the highest in [[Asia]].
== Districts ==
[[Image:Himachal Pradesh map.jpg|thumb|380px|right|Himachal Pradesh]]
* [[Kangra District|Kangra]]
* [[Hamirpur District, Himachal Pradesh|Hamirpur]]
* [[Mandi District|Mandi]]
* [[Bilaspur district, Himachal Pradesh|Bilaspur]]
* [[Una District|Una]]
* [[Chamba District|Chamba]]
* [[Lahul and Spiti]]
* [[Sirmaur District|Sirmaur]]
* [[Kinnaur District|Kinnaur]]
* [[Kullu District|Kullu]]
* [[Solan District|Solan]]
* [[Shimla District|Shimla]], containing the state capital
==Culture==
The major spoken languages are [[Kangri language|Kangri]], [[Pahari]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Hindi]] and [[Mandiali language|Mandiali]]. Kangri and Mandiali are believed to be twin dialects originating from Punjabi.
[[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Sikhism]] are the main religions. [[Dharmshala]], in the western area of the state is the home of the [[Dalai Lama]] and many Tibetan refugees.
==Politics==
See Also: ''[[:Category:Indian political parties-Himachal Pradesh|List of political parties in the state]]''
In [[2003]] the state legislative assembly was won by the [[Indian National Congress]]. The main opposition is the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].
==Transportation and Communication==
Roads are the main mode of transport. Transportation can be risky especially during [[monsoon]] season due to frequent landslides and washouts. The government-owned Himachal Road Transport Corporation runs a network of buses across the state and there are private buses and taxis. Most areas have landline and cellular telephone service and Internet cafes.
==History==
Himachal Pradesh came under [[British India|British]] control in the middle of the [[19th century]]. The British annexed [[Kangra District]], which includes present-day Kangra, [[Kullu District|Kullu]], [[Hamirpur District, Himachal Pradesh|Hamirpur]], and [[Lahul and Spiti]] districts, in 1846 at the conclusion of the [[First Anglo-Sikh War]]. The remainder of Himachal Pradesh was made up of a number of [[princely state]]s. Kangra District was part of the British province of [[Punjab region|Punjab]], and the princely states, then known as the ''Simla Hill States'', were under the authority of Punjab until the early 1930's, when the [[Punjab States Agency]] was created, under the direct authority of the [[Governor-General of India]]. The [[Punjab Hill States Agency]], which included most of the princely states in present-day Himachal Pradesh, was separated from Punjab States Agency in 1936.
India became independent of the United Kingdom in 1947, and Himachal Pradesh was established as a state on April 15 1948, composed of the territory of some 30 [[Hill states]] (including feudatories) that acceded to the [[Government of India]], while [[Bilaspur, Himachal Pradesh|Bilaspur]] remained a separate state in the Indian Union. Bilaspur was merged with Himachal Pradesh on July 1, 1954 by an act of the Indian Parliament. Himachal Pradesh became a [[union territory]] on November 1, 1956. The state was enlarged in 1966 by the transfer of the districts of Shimla, Kangra (which included present-day districts of Kangra and Hamirpur), Kullu, Lahul and Spiti, and Una from Punjab state. It was made the 18th state of India on [[January 25]], [[1971]].
{{India}}
==References==
*Verma, V. 1996. ''Gaddis of Dhauladhar: A Transhumant Tribe of the Himalayas''. Indus Publishing Co., New Delhi.
*Handa, O. C. 1987. ''Buddhist Monasteries in Himachel Pradesh''. Indus Publishing Co., New Delhi. ISBN 81-85182-03-5.
==External links==
*[http://himachal.us Another Himachal Blog]: Information and photos of Himachal Pradesh
*[http://himachalpardesh.blogspot.com Himachal Blog]: Information and photos of Himachal Pradesh
*[http://himachal.nic.in/welcome.asp Official website of Himachal Pradesh Government]
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/himachal/ Website about Himachal Pradesh]
*[http://www.123himachal.com/ A Portal to art & culture of Himachal]
*[http://www.himachalonline.com Guide to Himachal]
*[http://www.himvikas.org/ News about Himachal Pradesh]
[[Category:Himachal Pradesh|*]]
[[Category:States and territories of India]]
[[de:Himachal Pradesh]]
[[et:Himachal Pradesh]]
[[es:Himachal Pradesh]]
[[fr:Himachal Pradesh]]
[[gu:હિમાચલ પ્રદેશ]]
[[hi:हिमाचल प्रदेश]]
[[hr:Himachal Pradesh]]
[[ka:ჰიმაჩალ-პრადეში]]
[[ml:ഹിമാചല് പ്രദേശ്]]
[[mr:हिमाचल प्रदेश]]
[[nl:Himachal Pradesh]]
[[pt:Himachal Pradesh]]
[[ru:Химачал-Прадеш]]
[[sv:Himachal Pradesh]]
[[ta:இமாசலப் பிரதேசம்]]
[[te:హిమాచల్ ప్రదేశ్]]
[[zh:喜马偕尔邦]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hakra River</title>
<id>14191</id>
<revision>
<id>25052106</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-08T11:26:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Machaon</username>
<id>193632</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merging to Ghaggar-Hakra River</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Ghaggar-Hakra River]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Helene</title>
<id>14192</id>
<revision>
<id>41901807</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T14:08:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
<id>754619</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Other namesakes */ disambig servant</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Helene''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]]: 'Ελένη [''helene'' - "torch" or "corposant"], modern Greek pronuncation ''Eleni'', [[English language|English]] also '''Helena''', '''Hellen''' or '''Ellen''') is a very popular female name, first attested in the [[Iliad]] ([[Helen of Troy]]). The name is used in many other languages. Name days: [[Hungary]] (as ''Heléne'') - [[October 14]], [[Estonia]] (as ''Helen'') - [[August 18]].
==Famous namesakes==
* Two [[Helene (mythology)|Helene]] in Greek mythology
* [[Saint Helena]]'''
* '''Helene''', the consort of [[Simon Magus]]
* [[Helene (moon)|Helene]], a [[natural satellite|moon]] of [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]]
* [[101 Helena]], an asteroid
*[[Princess Helena of the United Kingdom]]
*[[Helen Atkinson-Wood]]
*[[Helen Chadwick]]
*[[Helen Clark (UK)|Helen Clark]], [[United Kingdom]] politician
*[[Helen Clark]], [[New Zealand]] Prime Minister
*[[Helen Frankenthaler]]
*[[Helen Gandy]]
*[[Helen Garner]]
*[[Helen Keller]]
*[[Helen Hayes]]
*[[Helen Hunt]]
*[[Helen Mirren]]
*[[Bollywood]] actress [[Helen_(Bollywood_actress)|Helen]]
*[[Helen, Sweetheart of the Internet]], a webcomic.
There are also [[town]]s named '''Helena''' or '''Helen''' in the [[United States]]:
*[[Helena, Alabama]]
*[[Helena, Arkansas]]
*[[Helena, Montana]]
*[[Helena, Ohio]]
*[ |
.birmingham.gov.uk/edalji The George Edalji Case]
*[http://www.crimefiction.com/slater.htm The Oscar Slater Case]
*[http://www.visitdunkeld.com/barnbougle-castle.htm The true legend of the Hound of the Baskervilles; see 'Sir Roger de Mowbray']
[[Category:1859 births|Doyle, Arthur Conan]]
[[Category:1930 deaths|Doyle, Arthur Conan]]
[[Category:Arthur Conan Doyle|*]]
[[Category:Freemasons|Doyle]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of St Michael and St George|Doyle, Arthur Conan]]
[[Category:Old Stonyhurst|Doyle, Arthur Conan]]
[[Category:Sherlock Holmes| ]]
[[af:Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]]
[[ar:آرثر كونان دويل]]
[[bg:Артър Конан Дойл]]
[[ca:Arthur Conan Doyle]]
[[cs:Arthur Conan Doyle]]
[[da:Arthur Conan Doyle]]
[[de:Arthur Conan Doyle]]
[[et:Arthur Conan Doyle]]
[[es:Arthur Conan Doyle]]
[[eo:Arthur Conan DOYLE]]
[[fa:آرتور کونان دویل]]
[[fr:Arthur Conan Doyle]]
[[hr:Arthur Conan Doyle]]
[[id:Arthur Conan Doyle]]
[[it:Arthur Conan Doyle]]
[[he:ארתור קונאן דויל]]
[[nl:Arthur Conan Doyle]]
[[ja:アーサー・コナン・ドイル]]
[[no:Arthur Conan Doyle]]
[[pl:Arthur Conan Doyle]]
[[pt:Arthur Conan Doyle]]
[[ro:Arthur Conan Doyle]]
[[ru:Конан Дойль, Артур]]
[[sco:Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]]
[[simple:Arthur Conan Doyle]]
[[fi:Arthur Conan Doyle]]
[[sv:Arthur Conan Doyle]]
[[th:อาร์เทอร์ โคนัน ดอยล์]]
[[uk:Дойл Артур Конан]]
[[zh:阿瑟·柯南·道尔]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Author</title>
<id>914</id>
<revision>
<id>40424417</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T13:06:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cacumer</username>
<id>625255</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fixing concept, hopefuly</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
An '''author''' is the person who creates a written work, such as a [[book]], story, article or the like. This can be short or long, fiction or nonfiction, [[poetry]] or prose, technical or [[literature]]. Since [[capitalism]], the '''author''' also needs to do it for [[payment]] (as a [[service]]).
==Role in critical theory==
One key issue in [[literary theory]] is the relationship between the meaning of a literary [[text]] and its author's conscious intent.
* The phrase "[[death of the author|Death of the Author]]" was popularized by [[Roland Barthes]] in his [[1968]] essay with the same name. It is used to convey the idea that [[Text|texts]] have meaning and an independent existence outside that intended by the author, depending on the context and reader.
* The death of the author is in self-conscious opposition to the [[New Criticism]], a literary critical movement popular in England and America in the first half of the 20th century. According to this movement, the author's intent is assumed to be quite clear to the author and it becomes the critic's task to understand this intent.
==See also==
* [[Novel|novelist]]
* [[writer]]
* [[Lists of authors]]
* [[Lists of poets]]
* [[List of novelists]]
[[Category:Media occupations]]
[[Category:Literary criticism]]
[[cs:Autor]]
[[da:Forfatter]]
[[de:Autor]]
[[es:Autor]]
[[eo:Aŭtoro]]
[[fr:Écrivain]]
[[gl:Autor]]
[[he:סופר]]
[[nl:Auteur]]
[[id:Penulis]]
[[ja:作者]]
[[no:Forfatter]]
[[pt:Autor]]
[[ru:Автор]]
[[sv:Författare]]
[[zh:&#20316;&#23478;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andrey Markov</title>
<id>915</id>
<revision>
<id>36527423</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-24T18:35:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stevertigo</username>
<id>4099</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This is an article about Russian mathematician Andrey Markov. For [[ice hockey]] player Andrei Markov, see [[Andrei Markov (hockey player)]].''
'''Andrey Andreyevich Markov''' (Андрей Андреевич Марков) ([[June 14]], [[1856]] [[N.S.]] - [[July 20]], [[1922]]) was a [[Russia|Russian]] [[mathematician]].
Markov was born in [[Ryazan]]. He studied at [[Saint Petersburg State University|St. Petersburg University]] in [[1874]] under the tutelage of [[Pafnuty Chebyshev|Chebyshev]]. In [[1886]], he became a member of the [[Russian Academy of Sciences|St. Petersburg Academy of Science]]. He is best known for his work on theory of [[stochastic process]]es. His research later became known as [[Markov chain]]s.
==See also==
* [[Markov chain]]
* [[Gauss-Markov theorem]]
* [[Hidden Markov model]]
* [[Markov number]]
* [[Markov property]]
* [[Markov's inequality]]
== References ==
* А. А. Марков. "Распространение закона больших чисел на величины, зависящие друг от друга". "Известия Физико-математического общества при Казанском университете", 2-я серия, том 15, ст. 135-156, 1906.
* A.A. Markov. "Extension of the limit theorems of probability theory to a sum of variables connected in a chain". reprinted in Appendix B of: R. Howard. ''Dynamic Probabilistic Systems, volume 1: Markov Chains''. John Wiley and Sons, 1971.
== External links ==
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Markov}}
* [http://mac03-204ha.math.ncsu.edu/~langville/naoumov.pdf The Life and Work of AA Markov]
* [http://logic.pdmi.ras.ru/Markov/ Andrey Andreevich Markov (1903-1979)] ''(biography of Markov's son, located at the Steklov Institute of Mathematics at St.Petersburg)''
<br>{{mathbiostub}}
[[Category:1856 births|Markov, Andrei Andreevich]]
[[Category:1922 deaths|Markov, Andrei Andreevich]]
[[Category:Russian mathematicians|Markov, Andrey]]
[[de:Andrei Andrejewitsch Markow]]
[[es:Andrei Markov]]
[[fr:Andrei Markov (mathématicien)]]
[[it:Andrej Andreevic Markov (padre)]]
[[pl:Andriej Markow (starszy)]]
[[pt:Andrei Andreyevich Markov]]
[[ru:Марков, Андрей Андреевич (старший)]]
[[uk:Марков Андрій Андрійович]]
[[zh:安德雷·马尔可夫]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anders Jonas Angstrom</title>
<id>917</id>
<revision>
<id>27589147</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-07T03:57:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Curpsbot-unicodify</username>
<id>397664</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>2 &<name>; → Unicode</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Anders Jonas Ångström]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anti-semitism</title>
<id>918</id>
<revision>
<id>15899430</id>
<timestamp>2004-05-18T05:26:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>82.80.10.110</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anti-Semitism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anti-semitic</title>
<id>919</id>
<revision>
<id>15899431</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-06T16:34:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anti-Semitism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alumnus/a</title>
<id>920</id>
<revision>
<id>40636250</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T23:51:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michael Hardy</username>
<id>4626</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Alumnus status is a RELATIONSHIP between the person and the school.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- So far we have a dictionary definition and a discussion of the correct use of the term -->
An '''alumnus''' (masculine) or '''alumna''' (feminine) of a [[colleges and universities|college, university]], or school is a former student. Informal equivalents are '''alum''' and '''alumn''' (with a silent "n"). The term is often mistakenly thought of as synonymous with "graduate." Alumni/ae [[reunion]]s are popular events at many institutions. They are usually organized by [[alumni association]]s and are often social occasions for [[fundraising]].
In [[Latin]], ''alumnus'' is the masculine singular form and ''alumna'' the feminine singular form. (The words are derived from the Latin verb ''alere'', "to nourish," and literally mean "nourished one" or "nursling.") Although these terms are recommended by leading [[English language|English-language]] [[dictionary|dictionaries]], their use can be limited because they are [[non-sexist language|gender-specific]]. The Latin plural is '''alumni''' for men and mixed groups and '''alumnae''' for women. The gender-neutral English term ''alum''/''alumn'', created by [[clipping#Linguistics|clipping]] the ending from ''alumnus'', is also used, along with its plural '''alums'''/'''alumns'''.
Recently, the definition of "alum" has expanded to include people who have "[[matriculation|matriculated]] at" or exited from any kind of organization or process. As such, one can potentially be a "corporate alum" of XYZ Company, or an alum of a military branch, [[non-profit organization]], or training process.
Educational institutions tend to follow Latin usage: ''alumnus'' for males, ''alumna'' for females, and ''alumni'' for mixed groups. All-women colleges use ''alumna'' and ''alumnae''. Some institutions, such as [[Texas A&M University]], do not refer to their graduates as "alumni" or even "graduates," choosing to use the term ''former students''.
In the [[United Kingdom]] and, to a lesser extent, [[Australia]], the phrases '''old boy''' and '''old girl''' are traditionally used for former school pupils, and '''old member''' for former university students. Some private schools in [[Canada]], such as [[Upper Canada College]] and the [[Bishop Strachan School]] also use '''old boy''' and '''old girl'''. The term '''old student''' can nowadays refer to the graduates of either schools or universities. In Scotland, the term ''Former Pupil'' (FP) is also used, especially when referring to sports teams of a school.
==See also==
* [[Alma mater]]
* [[Old boy network]]
* [[Alumni association]]
[[Category:Academia]]
[[Category:People by educational |
y mindful of the great coaches who had preceded him, such as John Wooden, Pete Newell, and [[Hank Iba]] of [[Oklahoma State University|Oklahoma State]]. In [[1991 in sports|1991]], Bob Knight joined them by being elected to the [[Basketball Hall of Fame|James A. Naismith National Basketball Hall of Fame]] &mdash; his first year of eligibility.
== Controversy ==
Bob Knight is, undisputedly, a disciplinarian. His long coaching career is replete with incidents where his volatile temper and surliness have come to the surface.
Not only have his own players bore the brunt of Knight's behavior, but so have opposing players, reporters, referees, and Indiana University officials alike. Moreover, sometimes bizarre incidents involving him have often made national and international news.
In [[1979 in sports|1979]], Bob Knight was arrested for assaulting a police officer during the [[Pan American Games]] in [[Puerto Rico]]. Knight was angry that a practice [[gym|gymnasium]] was not opened to his team, which featured future NBA stars [[Kevin McHale]] of [[University of Minnesota|Minnesota]] and [[Ralph Sampson]] (who was then a high school player) at center, and his own [[Isiah Thomas]]. The team swept through the tournament, posting a 9-0 record. Bob Knight was later convicted ''[[in absentia]]'' in a Puerto Rican court. However, the charges were later dropped when Indiana Governor [[Otis R. Bwen]] refused to cooperate in extraditing him to the island commonwealth. Knight's reception in the US was initially sympathetic, as witnesses suggested that he had been provoked. However, he soon lost much of the good will after a number of ill-considered public comments about Puerto Rico and its inhabitants.
Other notable incidents include Knight pulling guard Jim Wisman off the court by his jersey in 1976, throwing a chair across the court in protest of a referee's call during a [[1985 in sports|1985]] game against the rival [[Purdue University|Purdue Boilermakers]], allegedly kicking his own son, Pat Knight, during a [[1993 in sports|1993]] game (Knight claims he actually kicked a chair), and berating a NCAA university volunteer at a [[1998 in sports|1998]] news conference, for which the school was later fined $30,000.
Women's groups nationwide were outraged by Bob Knight's comments during an April, 1988 interview with [[Connie Chung]] in which Knight said, "I think that if rape is inevitable, relax and enjoy it." Knight's comment was in reference to an Indiana basketball game in which he felt the referees were making poor calls against the Hoosiers. Knight claimed he called for Chung to not use the comment in the story immediately after saying it and Chung agreed it would not be used. A crowd of about 300 protested on the Indiana University campus.
Indiana University was once again fined in 1999, this time for $10,000 for Knight's derogatory remarks about a referee. Knight paid the fine himself to avoid being suspended by the university for a tournament game.
An Indiana University secretary also accused Knight of throwing a potted plant at her, and assistant coach Ron Felling claimed Knight threw him off a chair, and punched him in the chest after an eavesdropping Knight overheard him criticizing his program and methods on the telephone. (Felling allegedly said "Knight's ranting and raving ... takes the fun out of winning"). Felling sued Knight for assault and received an out-of-court settlement of $35,000 from IU. Many feel it was Felling who precipitated Knight's 2000 firing by Indiana University president [[Myles Brand]] by leaking a video of a private practice session to the media in which Knight appears to strike and hold the throat of player Neil Reed. It is believed that Felling leaked the video in retaliation for being fired by Knight for disloyalty.
Reed was later voted off the team by his own teammates.
But, arguably, the most controversial incident involved Knight feigning whipping [[African American|black]] player named [[Calbert Cheaney]] in [[1992 in sports|1992]], an incident which made national headlines and resulted in howls of protests by civil rights leaders. Although Knight had done the same thing to several white players, only this made the press. Knight apologized for the incident. However, Cheaney later revealed that the incident was staged for the benefit of the press after Knight's players tired of being repeatedly asked about how tough it is to play for Bob Knight. The whip, in fact, was a gift from his players. Cheaney feigned whipping Knight with a towel as a reponse to this.
Most recently, in March, 2006, a student's heckling at [[Baylor University]] resulted in Knight having to be restrained by a police officer. The incident, though, was not severe enough to warrant any action from the [[Big 12 Conference]].{{ref|baylor}}
== Knight's supporters ==
Despite the controversies, Bob Knight has tremendous support among many Indiana basketball fans especially those who are aware of his many accomplishments off the court and the positive influence he's had on former and present players. They cite his honesty and exacting ethical standards, the fact that the Indiana University program was never charged with NCAA violations. He was intolerant of behavior of other people, on court or off, that would taint his the team or the school in any way. The majority of his players earned degrees. Many parents of Knight's players praise the coach for instilling ethics and a drive to succeed in their sons and are grateful to him. Knight has also raised countless dollars through his charity work and volunteer efforts.
One of the best indicators of Knight's positive influence is how some former players, assistant coaches, and even student managers have gone on to successful coaching careers. Examples include [[Duke University|Duke]] coach Mike Krzyzewski and [[University of Iowa|Iowa]] coach Steve Alford.
== The end of an era ==
On March 14, 2000, right before Indiana was set to begin play in the NCAA tournament, the CNN/SI network ran a negative piece on Knight featuring former players and critics. The most notable claim was that of former player Neil Reed, who claimed he was choked by Bob Knight in a 1997 practice. Knight denied the claims in the story.
On April 11th, 2000, CNN/SI aired a tape of an IU practice from 1997 which seemed to show Knight "choking" Neil Reed. Knight's supporters claim the tape is blurry, it is unclear whether Knight was choking Reed or placed his hands under the neck, and that the tape was repeatedly shown in slow motion and not full speed (where the incident only lasts a couple seconds). The actual video tape differed greatly from Reed's earlier account of the incident. The Indiana University Board of Trustees started an investigation into Knight. As the investigation continued, media in Indiana leaked alleged incidents involving Knight that were uncovered. Most of these were five or more years old.
In [[May 2000|May, 2000]], Indiana University president [[Myles Brand]] announced that he had adopted a a zero tolerance policy in regards to Bob Knight.
In [[September 2000|September, 2000]], a [[freshman]] student named [[Kent Harvey]] reportedly said, "Hey Knight, what's up?" to Bob Knight. According to Harvey, Knight grabbed him by the arm and berated him for not showing him proper respect. Knight later told the media that Harvey was exaggerating the incident; he only placed his hand on his shoulder and quietly lectured him about manners and respect. Knight's assistant coaches backed his version of the story.
Although IU President Miles Brand states that even after a zero tolerance policy was placed on Bob Knight, the Harvey incident was only one of numerous complaints that occurred after its issuance that led to Knight being fired. Harvey was supported by some, but vilified by many Knight supporters who claim Harvey intentionally set Knight up. Knight's supporters contend that he was the victim of a media smear campaign orchestrated by enemies in the Indiana University administration and that the majority of Brand's reasons for firing Knight were not credible.
On [[September 12]], [[2000 in sports|2000]], Knight scolded [[ESPN]] reporter [[Jeremy Schaap]] for interrupting him and accused Brand and other Indiana administrators of distorting facts. The next day, Knight said goodbye to a crowd of some 6,000 supporters. Knight asked that they not hold a grudge against Kent Harvey, and that they let Kent Harvey get on with his education and his life.
Two years later, Knight sued [[Indiana University]], claiming the university violated his employment contract. The lawsuit was eventually dismissed.
== A new start ==
After taking the next season off, all the while on the lookout for vacancies, Bob Knight accepted the head coaching job at [[Texas Tech University]]. Since joining the Red Raiders, Knight has won his 800th game. He has 854 wins through the 2004-05 season
== Books about Bob Knight ==
Several independent books were written about Knight during this period, and although they noted his temper, they were not entirely uncomplimentary. Three of the best-known are [[A Season on the Brink|''"A Season on the Brink"'']] (ISBN 0025372300) by [[John Feinstein]], "Bob Knight: His Own Man" by Joan Mellen (ISBN 0-380-70809-4), and ''"Playing for Knight: My Six Seasons with Bobby Knight"'' (ISBN 067172441X) by former player and current [[University of Iowa|Iowa]] head basketball coach [[Steve Alford]].
"A Season on the Brink" was a national phenomenon, topping bestseller lists for many weeks and is one of the highest selling sports books in history. Knight became not only the most famous sports coach in America but also one of the most recognizable celebrities in the country. Both supporters and detractors feasted on a wealth of inside information about Knight and th |
nd colleague General Sir [[Edward Quinan]]. Instead he returned to India, where he spent almost a year "unemployed" before in [[1943]] becoming again Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army, Wavell meanwhile having been appointed [[Governor-General of India|Viceroy]]. Auchinleck retained this post after the end of the war.
==Post-war life==
[[Image:Monty, wavvel, auk.jpg|thumb|200px|Auchinleck as C-in-C of the Indian Army, with the then [[Governor-General of India|Viceroy]] [[Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell|Wavell]] and [[Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein|Montgomery]].]]
Much against his own convictions, Auchinleck helped prepare the future Indian and Pakistani armies prior to [[Partition of India|Partition]] scheduled for August [[1947]]. In [[1946]] he was promoted to field marshal but he refused to accept a peerage, lest he be thought associated with a policy (i.e. Partition) that he thought fundamentally dishonourable. Having disagreed sharply with [[Lord Mountbatten]], the last [[Viceroy of India]], he resigned as C-in-C and retired in 1947. In [[1948]] the Auk returned to Britain his wife having left him for another officer in 1946.
Although a somewhat dour character, he was known as a generous and welcoming host. Despite being a general for longer than almost any other soldier, he was never pompous, and hated all forms of display and affectation. Above all, he was a soldier of the utmost integrity who was popular with his troops, and respected by his foes. Rommel considered him to be one of the greatest generals of the war. In retirement, the Auk moved to [[Marrakesh]], where he lived quietly in a modest flat for many years, befriended and cared for by Corporal Malcolm James Millward, a serving soldier, up until the death of Sir Claude in [[1981]].
{{commons|Claude Auchinleck}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Commander-in-Chief, India]] | before=[[Robert Archibald Cassels|Sir Robert Archibald Cassels]] | after=[[Archibald Percival Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell|Archibald Wavell]] | years=1941}}
{{succession box | title=[[Commander-in-Chief, India]] | before=[[Archibald Percival Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell|Archibald Wavell]] | after=[[Robert Lockhart|Sir Robert Lockhart]] | years=1943&ndash;1947}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1884 births|Auchinleck, Claude]]
[[Category:1981 deaths|Auchinleck, Claude]]
[[Category:British Field Marshals|Auchinleck, Claude]]
[[Category:British World War II people|Auchinleck, Claude]]
[[Category:British Indian Army officers|Auchinleck, Claude]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Bath|Auchinleck, Claude]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Commander of the Indian Empire|Auchinleck, Claude]]
[[Category:Companions of the Star of India|Auchinleck, Claude]]
[[Category:Officers of the British Empire|Auchinleck, Claude]]
[[Category:Old Wellingtonians|Auchinleck, Claude]]
[[cs:Claude Auchinleck]]
[[de:Claude Auchinleck]]
[[es:Claude Auchinleck]]
[[ja:クルード・オーキンレック]]
[[no:Claude Auchinleck]]
[[pl:Claude Auchinleck]]
[[sv:Claude Auchinleck]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Camilla Hall</title>
<id>7797</id>
<revision>
<id>34353002</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-08T10:22:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Academic Challenger</username>
<id>30528</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>typo correction</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Camilla Hall''' aka Gabi ([[1945]] - [[May 17]] [[1974]]) was an early member of the [[Symbionese Liberation Army]]. The daughter of a Lutheran minister, she was the only surviving child of four; two of her siblings died of a kidney disorder and a third of [[polio]].
Camilla moved to Los Angeles in [[1968]] in search of a place where her art and her [[lesbianism]] would be more welcome. She lived there for three years, surviving on a small income from her art sales, before moving to Berkeley, where she fell in love with her upstairs neighbor, [[Patricia Soltysik]], to whom she gave the name "Mizmoon".
Camilla died in a shootout ([[May 17]], [[1974]], 9&nbsp;000 rounds fired) with police in which five other SLA members were killed. Reportedly, she was shot in the head while charging the police with a pistol.
[[Category:1945 births|Hall, Camilla]]
[[Category:1974 deaths|Hall, Camilla]]
[[Category:Firearm deaths|Hall, Camilla]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cydney Grossman</title>
<id>7798</id>
<revision>
<id>38306974</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T13:12:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Docu</username>
<id>8029</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-importance}}
'''Cydney''' ([[1909]]-?), American [[painter]] of [[clown]]s and [[Circus (performing art)|circus]] scenes. He was born as Cydney Grossman in [[1909]] in [[New York City]].
[[Category:1909 births|Grossman, Cydney]]
[[Category:Possibly living people|Grossman, Cydney]]
[[Category:American painters|Grossman, Cydney]]
{{US-painter-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Clone</title>
<id>7800</id>
<revision>
<id>40483005</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T22:18:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ravn</username>
<id>47881</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 40160859 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Clone''' may refer to:
* [[Cloning]], in biology, any organism whose genetic information is identical to that of a "mother organism" from which it was created
* [[Clone (genetics)]], in molecular biology, an exact replica of all or part of a macromolecule (eg. DNA)
* [[Clone (computer science)]]
* [[Clone (computer and video games)]], a game heavily inspired by another
* [[Clone (voting)]], in the analysis of voting systems, an additional candidate who appears as attractive to each voter as an existing candidate
{{disambig}}
[[de:Klon]]
[[cs:Klon]]
[[es:Clon]]
[[eo:Klono]]
[[fr:Clone]]
[[ia:Clon]]
[[it:Clone (disambigua)]]
[[nl:Kloon]]
[[ru:Клон]]
[[zh:克隆 (消歧义)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Critical psychology</title>
<id>7801</id>
<revision>
<id>29021610</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-23T01:07:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.41.27.50</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Critical psychology around the world */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Critical psychology is both a critique of "mainstream" [[psychology]] and an attempt to apply psychology in more progressive ways (based, for example, on [[marxism|Marxist]] or [[feminism|feminist]] analyses) and contexts than have thus far been the case. There are a number of textbooks of critical psychology and at least two critical psychology institutes, in [[Manchester]] and [[Sydney]]. Compare: [[critical theory]].
== Critical psychology around the world ==
'''Germany'''
Critical psychology started in the [[1970s]] in Berlin at the [[Free University of Berlin|Freie Universität Berlin]], and the German branch of critical psychology predates and has developed largely separately from the rest of the field. Critical psychology here is not really seen as a division of psychology; it follows its own methodology. It tries to reformulate traditional psychology on an unorthodox [[Marxism|Marxist]] base. The appeal of critical psychology to socialists is that it is an attempt to come to grips with the social and the historical "conditionality" of human beings. One of the most important books in the field is the ''Grundlegung der Psychologie'' (''Foundations of Psychology'') by [[Klaus Holzkamp]] (Frankfurt a. M. 1983), who might be considered the theoretical founder of critical psychology.
Some years ago the department of critical psychology at the FU-Berlin was closed and was added to the traditional psychology department. Nevertheless, this approach of psychology is still alive.
'''South Africa'''
The University of KwaZulu-Natal in [[Durban]], [[South Africa]], is one of few worldwide to offer a [http://www.ukzn.ac.za/psychology/default.asp masters course in critical psychology]. For an overview of critical psychology in South Africa, see Desmond Painter and Martin Terre Blanche's article on [http://www.criticalmethods.org/collab/critpsy.htm Critical Psychology in South Africa: Looking back and looking forwards]. They have also now started a [http://critpsy.blogspot.com/ critical psychology blog].
'''United States and Canada'''
Critical psychology in the United States and Canada has, for the most part, focused on critiques of mainstream psychology's support for an unjust ''status quo''. No departments of critical psychology exist, though critical perspectives are sometimes encountered in traditional universities, perhaps especially within community psychology departments. North American efforts include the 1993 founding of RadPsyNet [http://radpsynet.org Radical Psychology Network] and the 1997 publication of [http://dennisfox.net/critpsy/book.html Critical Psychology: An Introduction] (edited by Dennis Fox and Isaac Prilleltensky).
Like many critical applications, critical psychology has expanded beyond Marxist roots to benefit from other critical approaches. Consider ecopsychology and [[transpersonal psychology]]. Critical psychology and related work has also sometimes been labelled [[radical psychology]] and [[liberation psychology]].
== External links ==
* http://Kritische-Psychologie.de
* http://www.radpsynet.org/
* [http://www.portalpsicologia.org/busqueda.jsp?idTeoria=2 Portalpsicologia.org]
* [http://birchmore.tripod.com/ Critical Perspectives on Mental Health]
[[Category:Branches of psychology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Crossfire</title>
<id>7803</id>
<revision>
<id> |
xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Biology]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BibleHistory</title>
<id>3285</id>
<revision>
<id>15901642</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-18T23:25:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Biblical canon]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Biblical canon]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BrilliantProse</title>
<id>3286</id>
<revision>
<id>15901643</id>
<timestamp>2004-01-21T12:18:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gentgeen</username>
<id>25065</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fixed double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Featured articles]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BillClinton</title>
<id>3288</id>
<revision>
<id>15901644</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bill Clinton]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BooksOfTheBible</title>
<id>3290</id>
<revision>
<id>15901645</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Books of the Bible]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BooleanAlgebra</title>
<id>3291</id>
<revision>
<id>15901646</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Boolean algebra]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brass</title>
<id>3292</id>
<revision>
<id>41460868</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T14:18:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.92.212.150</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>adding [[uk:Латунь]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
'''Brass''' is the term used for [[alloy]]s of [[copper]] and [[zinc]] in a [[solid solution]]. Typically it is more than 50% copper and from 5 to 20% zinc{{ref|zinc|1}}, in comparison to [[bronze]] which is principally an alloy of copper and [[tin]].{{ref|copper-alloy|2}}. Despite this distinction, some types of brasses are called [[bronze]]s.
[[Image:Brass.jpg|right|thumb|250px|(L-R) Decorative brass paperweight, along with zinc and copper samples]]
Brass has a yellow colour, somewhat similar to [[gold]]. Because of this, and its relative resistance to [[tarnish|tarnishing]], it is often used as a decoration.
Brass has been known to man since prehistoric times, long before zinc itself was discovered. It was produced by melting copper together with [[calamine]], a zinc ore. During this process, the zinc is extracted from the calamine and instantly mixes with the copper. Pure zinc, on the other hand, is too reactive to be produced by ancient metalworking techniques.
== Properties ==
The malleablity and acoustic properties of brass have made it the metal of choice for [[brass instrument|brass]] [[musical instrument]]s such as the [[tuba]].
In some environments, brasses with higher content of zinc are prone to a [[selective leaching]] corrosion known as dezincification. In some territories, plumbing fittings designed to resist dezincification are embossed "CR" (corrosion resistant). A dezincified fitting has the pink appearance of pure copper and will easily crumble, being reduced to a weak sponge-like matrix.
Brass is a versatile manufacturing material because of its hardness and workability.
== Brass types ==
* '''Admiralty brass''' contains 30% zinc and 1% [[tin]] which inhibits dezincification.
* '''Alpha brasses''' ([[Prince's metal]]), with less than 35% zinc, are malleable, can be worked cold, and are used in pressing, forging, or similar. They contain only one phase, with [[face-centered cubic]] [[crystal structure]].
* '''Alpha-beta brass''' ([[Muntz metal]]), also called '''duplex brass''', is 35-45 % zinc and is suited for hot working. It contains both &alpha; and &beta;' phase; the &beta;'-phase is [[body-centered cubic]] and is harder and stronger than &alpha;. Alpha-beta brasses are usually worked hot.
* '''Aluminium brass''' contains aluminium, which improves its corrosion resistance.
* '''Arsenical brass''' contains an addition of [[arsenic]] and frequently aluminium and is used for [[boiler]] [[firebox]]es.
* '''Beta brasses''', with 45-50 % zinc content, can only be worked hot, is harder, stronger, and suitable for casting.
* '''Cartridge brass''' is a 30% zinc brass with good cold working properties.
* '''Common brass''', or '''rivet brass''', is a 37% zinc brass, cheap and standard for cold working.
* '''High brass''', contains 65% copper and 35% zinc, has a high tensile strength and is used for [[spring (device)|springs]], [[screw]]s, [[rivet]]s.
* '''Leaded brass''' is an alpha-beta brass with addition of [[lead]]. It has excellent machinability.
* '''Low brass''' is a copper-zinc alloy containing 20% zinc with a light golden color, excellent ductility and is used for flexible metal hoses and metal [[bellows]].
* '''Naval brass''', similar to admiralty brass, is a 40% zinc brass and 1% tin.
* '''Red brass''' is an American term for CuZnSn alloy known as [[gunmetal]].
* '''White brass''' contains more than 50 % zinc and is too brittle for general use.
* '''Yellow brass''' is an American term for 33% zinc brass.
== See also ==
*[[Calamine brass]] &mdash; brass alloy and manufacturing process from discovery until the late [[18th century]]
*[[Pinchbeck (alloy)|Pinchbeck]] &mdash; a brass that closely resembles gold in appearance.
*[[Bronze]] &mdash; an alloy of [[copper]] with [[tin]] and optionally [[zinc]], [[silicon]], [[nickel]] and other metals
*[[Cupronickel]] &mdash; an alloy of copper with [[nickel]]
*[[Brass instrument]] &mdash; a musical instrument usually made of brass
*[[Brass rubbing]] &mdash; reproduction of ''[[Monumental brass|brasses]]'', commemorative plates laid down in British and European churches from the 13th Century onwards
==External links==
*[http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/27.html National Pollutant Inventory - Copper and compounds fact sheet]
== References ==
#{{note|zinc|1}} ''Brasses and other Copper-Zinc Alloys'', Copper Development Association, London, England. Publication No.6,
#{{note|copper-alloy|2}} ''Machinery Handbook'', Industrial Press Inc, New York, Edition 24, page 501
[[Category:Copper alloys]]
[[ca:Llautó]]
[[cs:Mosaz]]
[[da:Messing]]
[[de:Messing]]
[[es:Latón]]
[[eo:Latuno]]
[[fr:Laiton]]
[[ko:황동]]
[[is:Látún]]
[[it:Ottone (metallo)]]
[[he:פליז]]
[[nl:Messing]]
[[ja:黄銅]]
[[no:Messing]]
[[pt:Latão]]
[[ru:Латунь]]
[[simple:Brass]]
[[fi:Messinki]]
[[sv:Mässing]]
[[ta:பித்தளை]]
[[uk:Латунь]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense</title>
<id>3293</id>
<revision>
<id>15901648</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-17T07:13:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kevyn</username>
<id>71581</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bonn</title>
<id>3295</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>40686007</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T08:01:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stemonitis</username>
<id>156441</id>
</contributor>
<comment>remove redundant category</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Town DE|
name = Bonn|
name_local = |
image_coa = Wappen Bonn.png|
image_map = Lage der kreisfreien Bundesstadt Bonn in Deutschland.png|
state = [[North Rhine-Westphalia]] |
regbzk = [[Cologne (region)|Cologne]] |
district = [[List of German urban districts|urban district]]|
population = 312,295 |
population_as_of = 2005 |
population_ref = [http://www.lds.nrw.de/statistik/datenangebot/amtlichebevoelkerungszahlen/rp3_juni05.html source]|
pop_dens = 2,211 |
area = 141.22 |
elevation = 46-195 |
lat_deg = 50 |
lat_min = 44 |
lat_hem = N |
lon_deg = 7 |
lon_min = 6 |
lon_hem = E |
postal_code = 53000-53359 |
area_code = 0228 |
licence = BN |
mayor = [[Bärbel Dieckmann]] ([[SPD]]) |
website = [http://www.bonn.de/ bonn.de]|
}}
{| style="float:right;clear:right"
| [[Image:Bonn_Stadtbezirke.png|thumb|right|200px|Districts of Bonn]]
|-
|[[Image:Bonn_Rathaus.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Historic Town Hall]]
|-
|[[Image:Bonn_Muenster.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Münster Cathedral]]
|-
|[[Image:Godesburg 2 db.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Godesburg Fortress]]
|}
'''Bonn''' is a city in [[Germany]] (19th largest), in the [[States of Germany|Federal State]] of [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], located about 20 kilometres south of [[Cologne]] on the river [[Rhine]] in the north of the [[Siebengebirge]]. It was the [[capital]] of [[West Germany]] from 1949 to 1990. From 1288 to 1803 it was the residence of the [[Archbishopric of Cologne|Archbishops and Prince-electors of Cologne]].
----
==History==
The history of the city dates back to [[Roman Empire|Roman]] times. About [[10 BC]] the Romans constructed a bridge across the Rhine close to a place called "Bonna". After the Roman defeat in the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]] this small camp was enlarged to become a fort for 7000 legionnaires.
The fort became a town which remained after the Romans left |
ashington]] |
location = [[Chicago, Illinois]], [[USA]] |
key_people = [[Jim McNerney]], CEO |
num_employees = 152,091 (1/9/05)|
industry = [[Aerospace]] and [[Arms industry|defense]] |
products = Commercial airliners<br>Military aircraft <br>Munitions<br>Space systems |
revenue = $52.45 billion [[United States dollar|USD]] ([[Fiscal year|FY]] [[2004]])<br>({{profit}}$1.95B)|
homepage = [http://www.boeing.com/ www.boeing.com]
}}
'''The Boeing Company''' ({{nyse|BA}})({{tyo|7661}}) is the world's largest [[aircraft manufacturer|aircraft]] and [[aerospace manufacturer|aerospace]] manufacturer, headquartered in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Illinois]], with its largest production facilities in [[Everett, Washington|Everett]], [[Washington]], about 30 miles north of [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]], Washington. It is also the second-largest [[defense contractor]] in the world {{ref|contractor}}, and was in 2005 the world's largest civil aircraft manufacturer in terms of value (but 49 % of orders and 45% of deliveries), overtaking [[Airbus]] for the first time since 2000. It is also the largest exporter in the world. Boeing's stock is a component of the {{DJIA}}.
Boeing's two principal divisions are [[Boeing Integrated Defense Systems]] (IDS), responsible for military and space products, and [[Boeing Commercial Airplanes]] (BCA), responsible for civil airliners. (A full list of [[Boeing#Divisions|subsidiaries]] is included below.)
{{TOCleft}}
==History==
=== Before 1950s ===
The company was founded in Seattle by [[William E. Boeing]] on [[July 15]], [[1916]], together with [[George Conrad Westervelt]], a [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] engineer, and was named "B&W" after their initials. Soon the name was changed to "Pacific Aero Products" and, in 1917, the company became the "Boeing Airplane Company." William E. Boeing had studied at [[Yale University]] and worked initially in the [[timber]] industry, where he became a rich man. There he also acquired knowledge about [[wood]]en structures which was later revealed to be of value for the design and assembly of [[airplane]]s.
In 1927, Boeing created an airline, named Boeing Air Transport (BAT). A year later, BAT, as well as [[Pacific Air Transport]] and Boeing Airplane Company merged into a single corporation. The company changed its name to United Aircraft And Transport Corporation in 1929 and acquired [[Pratt & Whitney]], [[Hamilton Standard|Hamilton Standard Propeller Company]], and [[Chance Vought]]. United Aircraft then purchased [[National Air Transport]] in 1930. The [[Air Mail Act]] of 1934 prohibited airlines and manufacturers from being under the same corporate umbrella, so the company split into three smaller companies - Boeing Airplane Company, [[United Airlines]], and [[United Aircraft Corporation]], the precursor to [[United Technologies]]. As a result, Bill Boeing sold off his shares.
[[Image:Boeing314.jpg|frame|The Boeing 314 Clipper.]]
Shortly after, an agreement with [[Pan American World Airways]] was reached, to develop and build a commercial flying-boat able to carry passengers on transoceanic routes. The first flight of the [[Boeing 314|Boeing 314 Clipper]] was in June 1938. It was the largest civil aircraft of its time, with a capacity of 90 passengers on day flights, and of 40 passengers on night flights. One year later, the first regular passenger service from the US to the [[United Kingdom|UK]] was inaugurated. Subsequently other routes were opened, so that soon Pan American flew with the Boeing 314 to destinations all over the world.
In 1938, Boeing completed work on the [[Boeing 307|Model 307 ''Stratoliner'']]. This was the world's first pressurized-cabin transport aircraft, and it was capable of cruising at an altitude of 20,000 feet. &mdash; above most weather disturbances.
During [[World War II]], Boeing built a huge number of [[bomber]]s. Many of the workers were women whose spouses had gone to war. In the beginning of March 1944, production had been scaled up in such a manner that over 350 planes were built each month. To prevent an attack from the air, the plants had been covered with greenery and farmland items. During these years of war the leading aircraft companies of the US cooperated. The Boeing-designed [[B-17 Flying Fortress|B-17]] bomber was assembled also by [[Lockheed Corporation|Lockheed Aircraft Corp.]] and [[Douglas Aircraft Company|Douglas Aircraft Co.]], while the [[B-29 Superfortress|B-29]] was assembled also by [[Bell Aircraft Corporation|Bell Aircraft Co.]] and by [[Glenn L. Martin Company|Glenn L. Martin Co.]]
After the war, most orders of bombers were canceled and 70,000 people lost their jobs at Boeing. The company aimed to recover quickly by selling its [[Stratocruiser]], a luxurious four-engine commercial [[airliner]] developed from a military aircraft. However, sales of this model were not as expected and Boeing had to seek other opportunities to overcome the situation. The company successfully sold military aircraft adapted for troop transportation and for [[aerial refueling]].
[[Image:Boeing707.jpg|frame|The Boeing 707.]]
=== 1950s ===
In the mid-1950s technology had advanced significantly, which gave Boeing the possibility to develop and manufacture totally new products. One of the first was the guided short-range [[missile]] used to intercept enemy aircraft. At that time the [[Cold War]] had become a fact to live with, and Boeing used its short-range missile technology to develop and build an intercontinental missile.
In 1958, Boeing began delivery of its [[Boeing 707|B707]], the United States' first commercial [[jet airliner]], in response to the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[De Havilland Comet]],[[France|French]] [[Sud Caravelle]] and [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Tupolev Tu-104]]; which were the world's first generation of commercial jet aircraft. With the B707, a four-engine, 156-passenger airliner, the US became leaders in commercial jet manufacture. A few years later, Boeing added a second version of this aircraft, the [[Boeing 720|B720]] which was slightly faster and had a shorter range. A few years later, Boeing introduced the [[Boeing 727|B727]], another commercial jet airliner of similar size, which had however three engines and was designed for medium-range routes. The B727 was immediately well accepted as a comfortable and reliable aircraft by passengers, crews, and airlines. Although production was discontinued in 1984, at the turn of the millennium nearly 1,300 B727s were still in service at airlines around the world.
=== 1960s ===
The [[Piasecki Helicopter]] company was acquired by Boeing in 1960, and this became [[Boeing Vertol]]. The twin-rotor [[CH-47 Chinook]], produced by Vertol, took its first flight in 1961. This heavy-lift [[helicopter]] remains a work-horse vehicle up to the present day. In 1964, Vertol also began production of the [[CH-46 Sea Knight]].
[[Image:UA747.HNL.1973..reprocessed.arp.jpg|thumb|270px|The 707 and 747 formed the backbone of many major airline fleets through the end of the 1970s.]]
In 1967, Boeing introduced another short- and medium-range airliner, the twin-engine [[Boeing 737|B737]]. It has become since then the best-selling commercial jet aircraft in aviation history. The B737 is still being produced, and continuous improvements are made. Several versions have been developed, mainly to increase [[seating capacity]] and range.
The roll-out ceremonies for the first [[Boeing 747|747-100]] took place in 1968, at the massive new factory in [[Everett]]. The aircraft made its first flight a year later, and its first commercial flight occurred in 1970.
=== 1970s ===
In the beginning of the 1970s Boeing faced a new crisis. The [[Apollo program]] in which Boeing had participated significantly during the preceding decade was almost entirely cancelled. Once more, Boeing hoped to compensate sales with its commercial airliners. At that time, however, there was a heavy recession in the airlines industry so that Boeing did not receive one single order during more than one year. Boeing's bet for the future, the new [[Boeing 747|B747 Jumbo Jet]] was delayed in production and originated much higher costs than forecasted. Another problem was that, in 1971, the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] decided to stop the financial support for the development of the [[supersonic]] [[Boeing 2707|2707]], Boeing's answer to the British-French [[Concorde]], forcing the company to discontinue the project. The company had to reduce the number of employees from over 80,000 to almost half, only in the Seattle area. In 1970 the first B747, a four-engine long-range airliner, finally entered service. This famous aircraft changed completely the way of flying, with its 450-passenger [[seating capacity]] and its upper deck. Until 2001, Boeing had been the only aircraft manufacturer to offer such an airliner and has delivered near to 1,400 units. ([[Airbus]] now offers the [[Airbus A380|A380]], which when delivered will be the largest operational airliner). The B747 has undergone continuous improvements to keep it technologically up-to-date. Larger versions have also been developed by stretching the upper deck.
[[Image:Ba.b757-200.g-cpen.750pix.jpg|thumb|270px|The narrowbody Boeing 757 replaced the 707 and 727.]]
=== 1980s ===
In 1983, the economic situation began to improve. Boeing assembled its 1,000th B737 passenger airliner. During the following years, commercial aircraft and their military versions became the basic equipment of airlines and air forces. As passenger air traffic increased, competition was harder, mainly from a [[Europe|European]] newcomer in commercial airliner manufacturing, [[Airbus]]. Boeing had to offer new aircraft, and developed the single-aisle [[Boeing 757|B757]], the larger, twin-aisle [[Boeing 767|B767]], and upgraded version |
cently opened, while a research building is scheduled to open in June 2006. Research I will be a four-story 100,000 s.f. facility that will include faculty offices and instructional and research laboratories. It will include a semi-detached tower that will house the Astronomy Department’s rooftop telescope.
However, the university unveiled an ambitious plan last summer for the largest development to date on campus; the Northeast Sector. Work has begun and buildings are scheduled to open in phases, but all should be complete by 2008. Planned and executed as a design-build effort, the 450,000 SF mixed-use development consists of:
*Five multistory residence buildings, at 5 to 6 floors each, supporting a total of 1,030 beds.
*Exhibition-style dining facility with a capacity to seat over 500 diners.
*Fitness center with cardio, weight training, and indoor basketball and racquetball courts.
*Retail operations that will include a coffee house/convenience store and wood-fired pizza and pasta restaurant.
*Various recreation and office spaces.
==Athletics==
The Patriots began to move from NAIA and NCAA Division II status into the NCAA Division I ranks with men’s basketball in the 1978-79 season. Within a few years, all other sports also were elevated to Division I status. George Mason reached its current level of 22 varsity sports (11 for men, 11 for women) with the addition of women’s lacrosse (1993-94), women’s rowing (1997-98) and men’s and women’s swimming & diving (1999-2000). George Mason is a founding member of the [[Colonial Athletic Association]] and joined during the conference inception in [[1985]].
George Mason has been very successful at the NCAA Division I level, producing national champions in women’s soccer in 1985 (defeating perennial power [[University of North Carolina]]) and men’s indoor track & field in 1996.
The men’s volleyball team has reached the NCAA “Final Four” championship round on three occasions, and the men’s and women’s soccer, baseball and women’s volleyball teams have advanced to NCAA regional play on numerous occasions.
In the [[Colonial Athletic Association]], George Mason has won a total of 42 championships in baseball (2), men’s basketball (3), women’s cross country (4), men’s soccer (4), women’s soccer (1), women’s swimming & diving (4), men’s track & field (3), women’s track & field (9 straight from 1990-98), women’s volleyball (7, including 5 in a row from 1992-96) and wrestling (5).
Overall, a total of 23 George Mason student-athletes have claimed 35 individual national championships, 13 George Mason teams have made more than 117 NCAA postseason appearances, Patriot student-athletes have earned national All-America honors 300+ times and have captured 280 individual CAA championshipsto garner academic player of the year in baseball.
===Men's Basketball===
While many of the school's athletic programs have had historical seasons the men's basketball program remains the flagship sport at the university. The men's basketball team has played at the [[Patriot Center]] since 1985 and played the prior years in the PE Building on the west side of the Fairfax Campus. The men's basketball team has made the NCAA tournament three times (1989, 1999 and 2001) and the NIT tournament three times (1986, 2002 and 2004). The programs largest rivals include conference foes [[UNC Wilmington]], [[Old Dominion University]], [[Virginia Commonwealth University]] and [[James Madison University]].
The most well-known player in Patriot's history is George Evans, who played from 1997-01 and was a CAA player of year three consecutive seasons. He shares the CAA record with [[NBA]] legend [[David Robinson]] for winning the award three straight times. Other Patriot greats include, Andre Gaddy, Carlos Yates, Kenny Sanders, Robert Dykes, Rob Rose, Jason Miskiri, Jai Lewis, and Tony Skinn.
The head coach of the Patriots is [[Jim Larranaga]]. He has been the coach since the 1997-98 season and is the winningest coach in CAA history and school history.
==Famous alumni==
*[[Anna E. Cabral]], Treasurer of the United States. Part of the law school class of 2007.
*[[Hala Gorani]], News Anchor, CNN International
*[[Brian van de Graaff]], Meteorologist, ABC 7 News
*[[Mike Kohn]], Olympic Athlete
*[[John Wilburn]], Interim Managing Editor, Houston Chronicle
*[[Debora J. Wilson]], President, The Weather Channel
*[[Chris Widger]], Baseball Player, Chicago White Sox
*[[William P. Winfree, Ph.D.]], Physicist
*[[Karl Rove]] attended from [[1973]]-[[1975]]
*[[Archie Kao]] Actor, Power Ranger, CSI
*[[Susan Rook]], former News Anchor, CNN & CNN Talkback Live
== External links ==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|George_Mason_University.ogg|2006-01-16}}
*[http://www.gmu.edu/ George Mason University]
*[http://www.gmu.edu/vcenter/masonfacts/ Facts & Figures]
*[http://www.broadsideonline.com/ Broadside (student newspaper)]
*[http://www.hemlockoverlook.org/ Hemlock Overlook Center for Outdoor Education]
*[http://www.masonhoops.com/ Masonhoops.com (Basketball Fan Site)]
*[http://www.wgmuradio.com WGMU Radio Site]
{{Public colleges and universities in Virginia}}
{{Colonial Athletic Association}}
[[Category:Universities and colleges in Virginia]]
[[ga:Ollscoil George Mason]]
[[ja:&#12472;&#12519;&#12540;&#12472;&#12539;&#12513;&#12540;&#12477;&#12531;&#22823;&#23398;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Grammar</title>
<id>12569</id>
<revision>
<id>41730548</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T09:52:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Babajobu</username>
<id>125012</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>alphabetize interwikis using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about grammar from a linguistic perspective. For English grammar rules, see [[English grammar]] or [[Disputed English grammar]]''
{{linguistics}}
'''Grammar''' is the study of [[rule]]s governing the use of [[language]]. The set of rules governing a particular language is also called the '''grammar''' of the language; thus, each language can be said to have its own distinct grammar. Grammar is part of the general study of language called [[linguistics]].
The subfields of contemporary grammar are [[phonetics]], [[phonology]], [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], [[syntax]], [[semantics]], and [[pragmatics]]. Traditional grammars include only [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] and [[syntax]].
==Types of grammar==
* A [[prescription and description|prescriptive grammar]] presents authoritative norms for a particular language, and tends to deprecate non-standard constructions. Traditional grammars are typically prescriptive. Prescriptive grammars are usually based on the [[prestige dialect]]s of a [[speech community]], and often specifically condemn certain constructions which are common only among lower [[socioeconomic]] groups, such as the use of "[[ain't]]" and [[double negative]]s in [[English language|English]]. Though prescriptive grammars remain common in [[pedagogy]] and foreign [[language teaching]], they have fallen out of favor in modern academic [[linguistics]], as they describe only a subset of actual language usage.
*A [[Prescription and description|descriptive grammar]] attempts to describe actual usage, avoiding prescriptive judgments. Descriptive grammars are bound to a particular [[speech community]], and attempt to provide rules for any [[utterance]] considered grammatically correct within that community. For example, in many dialects of English, the use of [[double negative]]s is very common, though ungrammatical from the point of view of a prescriptive English grammar. A descriptive grammar of a speech community where "I didn't do nothing" is acceptable will treat that sentence as grammatical, and provide rules that account for it. A descriptive grammar of formal English would rather provide rules for "I didn't do anything."
* [[Traditional grammar]] is the collection of ideas about grammar that Western societies have received from Greek and Roman sources. Prescriptive grammar is usually formulated in terms of the descriptive concepts inherited from traditional grammar. Modern descriptive grammar aims to correct the errors of traditional grammar, and generalize them, so as to avoid shoehorning all languages to the model of Latin. Nearly all materials used in teaching language, however, are still based on traditional grammar.
*A [[formal grammar]] is a precisely defined grammar, typically used for computer [[programming language]]s.
*A [[generative grammar]] is a [[formal grammar]] that can in some sense "generate" the well-formed expressions of a [[natural language]]. An entire branch of linguistic theory is based on generative grammars. Generative grammars were popularized by [[Noam Chomsky]]. Generative grammar may include [[Transformational grammar]], which is a broad term mostly describing natural language grammars which have been developed in a Chomskian tradition. Transformational grammar is usually synonymous with the slightly more specific transformational-generative grammar (TGG).
==Development of grammars==
Grammars evolve through usage and human population separations. With the advent of written [[representation]]s, formal rules about language usage tend to appear also. Formal grammars are [[codification]]s of usage that are developed by [[observation]]. As the rules become established and developed, the prescriptive concept of grammatical correctness can arise. This often creates a gulf between contemporary usage and that which is accepted as correct. Linguists normally consider that prescriptive grammars do not have any justification beyond their authors' aesthetic tastes. However, prescriptions are considered in [[sociolinguistics]] as part of the explanation for why s |
[[it:Calvin & Hobbes]]
[[ja:カルビンとホッブス]]
[[nl:Casper en Hobbes]]
[[no:Tommy og Tigern]]
[[pt:Calvin e Hobbes]]
[[simple:Calvin and Hobbes]]
[[sv:Kalle och Hobbe]]
[[tr:Calvin ve Hobbes]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Campaign for Real Ale</title>
<id>6060</id>
<revision>
<id>41006354</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T12:46:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bobet</username>
<id>445629</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/155.232.250.19|155.232.250.19]] to last version by 81.144.192.148</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CAMRA.jpg|right]]
'''CAMRA''' (the '''CAMpaign for Real Ale''') is an independent, voluntary, [[consumer organisation]] in the [[United Kingdom]], with the main aim of promoting [[real ale]] and the traditional [[United Kingdom|British]] [[public house|pub]]. It is now the biggest single-issue consumer group in the UK.
==Founder Members==
The organization was founded in 1971 by a group of four drinkers, Graham Lees, Bill Mellor, Michael Hardman, and Jim Makin opposed to the growing industrialisation and homogenisation taking place within the British [[brewing]] industry. One of the early members is [[Good Beer Guide]] editor [[Roger Protz]]. Camra has over 75,000 members as of March 2005. Member benefits include a monthly newsletter "What's Brewing" and reduced price admission to CAMRA-organised [[beer festival]]s.
==Details==
The original name was the CAMpaign for the Reactivation of Ale.
CAMRA's campaign aims include promoting small brewing and pub businesses, reforming licensing laws, reducing tax on beer, and stopping continued consolidation among local British brewers. It also makes an effort to promote less common varieties of beer and similar brewed beverages including [[Stout beer|stout]], [[Porter (beer)|porter]], [[Mild beer|mild]], traditional [[cider]] and [[scrumpy]], and [[perry]].
CAMRA publishes the [[Good Beer Guide]], an annually compiled directory of its recommended pubs and brewers. They also run the [[Great British Beer Festival]], a yearly event held in [[London]] which presents a selection of [[cask ale]]s.
CAMRA has established influence at national government level, including with [[English Heritage]]
==Awards==
CAMRA presents many local and national awards including:
CAMRA National Pub of the Year
2005
Winner: The Swan, Little Totham, Essex
Runners Up: The Check Inn at North Wroughton, Wiltshire
Old Coach House, Southwell, Nottinghamshire
The Robin Hood, Jarrow, Tyne and Wear
2004
Winner: The Fat Cat, Norwich
Runners Up: The Arden Arms, Stockport and New Inn, Halse, Somerset
The Olde Swan, Netherton, West Midlands
2003
Winner: The Crown & Thistle, Gravesend, Kent, DA12 2RF
Runners Up: Marquis of Granby, Granby, Nottinghamshire, NG13 9PN
Taps, Lytham St Anne's, Lancashire, FY8 5LR
South Western Arms, St Denys, Southampton, SO17 2HW
2002
Winner: The Swan, Little Totham, Essex, CM9 8JL
Runners Up: The Albert Tavern, Freuchie, Fife, KY15 7EX
Plough and Harrow, Monknash, Glamorgan, CF71 7QQ
Railway, Stockport, Greater Manchester, SK1 2BZ
2001
Winner: Nursery Inn, Heaton Norris, Greater Manchester, SK4 2NA
2000
Winner: Blisland Inn, Blisland, Cornwall, PL30 4JF
1999
Winner: The Rising Sun, Tipton, West Midlands, DY4 7NH
1998
Winner: The Fat Cat, Norwich, NR2 4NA
1997/1998
Winner: Volunteer Arms (Staggs), Musselburgh, EH21 6JE
1997
Winner: Sair Inn, Linthwaite, West Yorkshire, HD7 5SG
1996
Winner: Halfway House, Pitney, Somerset, TA10 9AB
1995
Winner: Coalbrookedale Inn, Coalbrookedale, Telford, TF8 7DX
1994
Winner: Beamish Mary Inn, No Place, Co Durham, DH9 0QH
1993
Winners: Three Kings, Hanley Castle, Worcestershire, WR8 0BL and Fisherman's Tavern, Broughty Ferry, Tayside, DD5 2AD
1992
No Award
1991
Great Western, Wolverhampton, West Midlands, WV3 9SE
1990
Bell, Aldworth, Berkshire, RG17 9QJ
1989
Cap & Feathers, Tillingham, Essex, CM0 7TH
1988
The Boars Head, Kinmuck, Grampian
==See also==
*[[Society Of Independent Brewers]]
==External links==
*[http://www.camra.org.uk/ CAMRA's website]
*[http://www.faqs.org/faqs/uk/food/realale/ Newsgroup FAQ]
[[Category:Public houses in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:British beer]]
[[Category:British organisations]]
[[no:Campaign for Real Ale]]
[[sv:CAMRA]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CNO cycle</title>
<id>6061</id>
<revision>
<id>38737602</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T07:45:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mike18xx</username>
<id>305845</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{unsourced}}
The '''CNO''' ([[carbon]]-[[nitrogen]]-[[oxygen]]) cycle
is one of two [[nuclear fusion|fusion]] [[nuclear reaction|reaction]]s by which [[star]]s convert [[hydrogen]] to [[helium]], the other being the [[proton-proton chain]].
While the proton-proton chain is more important in stars the size of the [[sun]] or less, theoretical models show that the CNO cycle is the dominant source of energy in heavier stars. The CNO process was proposed in [[1938]] by [[Hans Bethe]].
The reactions of the CNO cycle are:
<dl><dd><table border="0">
<tr><td><sup>12</sup>C + <sup>1</sup>H </td><td>&rarr;</td><td> <sup>13</sup>N + [[gamma ray|&gamma;]] </td><td>+1,95 [[MeV]]</td></tr>
<tr><td><sup>13</sup>N </td><td>&rarr;</td><td> <sup>13</sup>C + [[positron|e]]<sup>+</sup> + [[neutrino|&nu;<sub>e</sub>]] </td><td>+1,37 MeV</td></tr>
<tr><td><sup>13</sup>C + <sup>1</sup>H </td><td>&rarr;</td><td> <sup>14</sup>N + &gamma; </td><td>+7,54 MeV</td></tr>
<tr><td><sup>14</sup>N + <sup>1</sup>H </td><td>&rarr;</td><td> <sup>15</sup>O + &gamma; </td><td>+7,35 MeV</td></tr>
<tr><td><sup>15</sup>O </td><td>&rarr;</td><td> <sup>15</sup>N + e<sup>+</sup> + &nu;<sub>e</sub> </td><td>+1,86 MeV</td></tr>
<tr><td><sup>15</sup>N + <sup>1</sup>H </td><td>&rarr;</td><td> <sup>12</sup>C + <sup>4</sup>He </td><td>+4,96 MeV</td></tr>
</table>
</dd></dl>
The net result of the cycle is to [[nuclear fusion|fuse]] four [[proton]]s into an [[alpha rays|alpha particle]] plus two [[positron]]s and two [[neutrino]]s, releasing energy in the form of [[gamma ray]]s. The carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen nuclei serve as [[catalyst]]s and are regenerated.
In a minor branch of the reaction, occurring just 0.04% of the time, the final reaction shown above does not produce <sup>12</sup>C and <sup>4</sup>He, but instead produces <sup>16</sup>O and a photon and continues as follows:
<dl><dd><table border="0">
<tr><td><sup>15</sup>N + <sup>1</sup>H </td><td>&rarr;</td><td> <sup>16</sup>O + &gamma; </td></tr>
<tr><td><sup>16</sup>O + <sup>1</sup>H </td><td>&rarr;</td><td> <sup>17</sup>F + &gamma; </td></tr>
<tr><td><sup>17</sup>F</td><td>&rarr;</td><td> <sup>17</sup>O + e<sup>+</sup> + &nu;<sub>e</sub> </td></tr>
<tr><td><sup>17</sup>O + <sup>1</sup>H </td><td>&rarr;</td><td> <sup>14</sup>N + <sup>4</sup>He </td></tr>
</table>
</dd></dl>
Like the carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen involved in the main branch, the fluorine produced in the minor branch is merely catalytic and at steady state, does not accumulate in the star.
== See also ==
* [[Triple-alpha process]]
* [[Proton-proton chain]]
[[Category:Nuclear fusion]]
[[ar:دورة CNO]]
[[de:Bethe-Weizsäcker-Zyklus]]
[[fr:Cycle carbone-azote-oxygène]]
[[ko:CNO 순환]]
[[nl:Koolstof-stikstofcyclus]]
[[pl:Cykl węglowo-azotowo-tlenowy]]
[[ru:CNO-цикл]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Craps</title>
<id>6062</id>
<revision>
<id>41343864</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T19:00:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.56.215.213</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Commonly observed etiquette */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|November 2005}}
[[Image:craps.jpg|right|350px]]
'''Craps''' (previously known as crabs) is a [[casino]] [[dice game]], which is especially popular in the USA. Craps is a simplification of the Old English game [[Hazard (game)|hazard]]. Players wager money against the casino on the outcome of one roll, or of a series of rolls of two dice.
Craps can also be played in less formal settings and is said to be popular among soldiers. In such situations side bets are less frequent, with one or several participants covering or "fading" bets against the dice.
==The basic game==
The players take turns rolling the dice, and they all bet on the same roll, regardless of who is rolling. The player rolling the dice is called the shooter. The first roll of a new round is called the "come-out roll." All bets are based on the total of both dice together, never o |
lue but makes the grain more resistant to degredation and makes the grain more appealing to many palates. [[Health]]-conscious people tend to prefer '''whole grains''', which are not milled. Overconsumption of milled cereals is sometimes blamed for [[obesity]]. Milled grains do keep better because the outer layers of the grains are rich in rancidity-prone [[fat]]s.
The waste from milling is sometimes mixed into a prepared animal [[feed]].
Once (optionally) milled and ground, the resulting flour is made into [[bread]], [[pasta]], [[dessert]]s, [[dumpling]]s, and many other products.
Besides cereals, flour is sometimes made from [[potato]]es, [[chestnut]]s and [[pulses]] (especially [[chickpea]]s).
In [[American English]], cold [[breakfast cereal]]s and porridges are simply called '''cereal'''.
Cereals are the main source of energy providing about 350 kcal per 100 grams
Cereal proteins are poor in nutritive quality, being deficient in essential amino acid lysine. The proteins of maize are still poor, being deficient in lysine and tryptophan (a precursor of niacin)
Rice proteins are richer in lysine than other cereal proteins and for this reason, rice protein is considered to be of better quality. Rice is a good source of B group vitamins, especially Thiamine. It is devoid of Vitamines A, D, C and is a poor source of Calcium and Iron.
==See also==
* [[Zadoks scale]]
* [[List of edible seeds]]
[[Category:Cereals| ]]
[[Category:Grains]]
[[ca:Cereal]]
[[de:Getreide]]
[[eo:Cerealo]]
[[es:Cereal]]
[[fa:غلات]]
[[fr:Céréale]]
[[he:דגנים]]
[[ja:穀物]]
[[la:Frumentum]]
[[ms:Bijirin]]
[[nl:Graan]]
[[pl:kasza]]
[[pt:cereal]]
[[sk:Obilie]]
[[ru:Крупа (еда)]]
[[sr:Житарице]]
[[sv:Spannmål]]
[[es:cereal]]
[[zh:粮食]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Christina</title>
<id>6702</id>
<revision>
<id>41898223</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T13:32:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>195.194.9.254</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Christina''' is a female name originating from [[Christian]].
The historically best known person with this name was Queen [[Christina of Sweden]] ([[17th century]]).
The most famous "Christina" is Christina Aguilera the famous pop singer.</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Christendom</title>
<id>6704</id>
<revision>
<id>41994849</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:39:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.131.16.167</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Christendom as a polity */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:T and O map Guntherus Ziner 1472.jpg|thumb|This [[T-and-O map]], which abstracts the known world to a cross inscribed within an orb, remakes geography in the service of Christian iconography. More detailed versions place [[Jerusalem]] at the centre of the world.]]
'''Christendom''', in the widest sense, refers to [[Christianity]] as a territorial phenomenon: those countries where most people are Christians, or nominal Christians, are part of Christendom.
==Christendom as a polity==
In a more significant, and meaningful sense, it refers to the medieval and renaissance notion of the Christian world as a sort of social and political [[polity]]. In essence, the vision of Christendom is a vision of a Christian [[theocracy]], a [[government]] devoted to the enforcement of Christian values, and whose institutions are suffused with Christian piety. In this vision, members of the Christian [[clergy]] wield plenty of political clout. Secular rulers are their subordinates and agents; and national or political divisions are subsumed under the unitary government of a unique and universal [[church]] institution. This [[temptation|tempting]] vision of an earthly [[The Crown|crown]] was one of the greatest challenges to the institutional Christian church.
The seeds of Christendom were laid in <small>A.D.</small> [[306]], when Emperor [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine]] became co-ruler of the [[Roman Empire]]. In [[312]] he converted to Christianity, and after the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in [[325]] government [[persecution of Christians]] ended. [[Christianity]] became the [[state religion]] of the Empire in [[392]] when [[Emperor Theodosius|Theodosius I]] passed legislation prohibiting the practice of [[Religion in ancient Rome|pagan religions]].
Christendom was given a firmer meaning with the creation of [[Charlemagne]]'s kingdom, the Christian Empire of the West. On [[Christmas]] Day, <small>A.D.</small> [[800]], Charlemagne was crowned by the Pope as ruler of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], a title which would exist up until [[Napoleon]]'s defeat of [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis II]] in [[1806]].
After the collapse of Charlemagne's empire, Christendom became a collection of states loosely connected to the [[Holy See]]. Tensions between the [[popes]] and secular rulers ran high, as the pontiffs attempted to retain control over their temporal counterparts. The idea of Christendom was already greatly discredited by the time of the Renaissance Popes because of the moral laxity of the pontiffs and their willingness to make war, peace, and alliances like secular rulers.
Christendom as a cohesive political unit effectively ended with the [[Reformation]].
The term can also refer to Christians considered as a group (the "Christian World") or to the informal cultural hegemony that Christianity has traditionally enjoyed in the [[Western world|West]].
There is another sense to the polity, with less of a secular meaning, which would have been compatible with the idea of both a religious and a temporal body: ''Corpus Christianum''.
==Corpus Christianum==
The Latin term '''Corpus Christianum''' is often translated as ''the Christian body'', meaning the community of all Christians.
It described the pre-modern notion of the [[community]] of all [[Christian]]s united under the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. This community was to be guided by Christian values in its politics, economics and social life. Its legal basis was the [[Canon Law|corpus iuris canonica]] (body of canon law). The Church's peak of authority over all European Christians in the [[Middle Ages]] and common endeavours of the Christian community -- for example, the [[Crusades]], the fight against [[Moors]] in [[Spain]] and that against the [[Ottomans]] in the [[Balkans]] -- helped to develop this sense of communal identity against the obstacle of Europe's deep political divisions. The Corpus Christianum can be seen as a Christian equivalent of the Muslim [[Ummah]]. The concept also justified the [[Inquisition]] and anti-Jewish [[pogroms]], to root out divergent elements and create a religiously uniform community.
This concept has been in crisis since the late [[Middle Ages]], when the [[monarch|kings]] of [[France]] managed to establish a French national church during the [[14th century]] and the papacy became ever more aligned with the [[Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation]]. [http://www.fritzwagner.com/ev/disintegration_of_christianitas.html Other developments] in philosophy and events in England and Europe were also critical: the [[War of the Roses]], the [[Hundred Years War]], the end of [[feudalism]] and the rise of strong, centralized monarchies presaging the modern nation state. The Empire, due to its massive size, did represent a large portion of European Christians. Thus the Corpus Christianum was limited to the Christian community of the Empire, rather than all Christians worldwide.
The rise of [[Modernity]] and the [[Reformation]] during the early [[16th century]] entailed the further deconstruction of the Corpus Christianum. The acceptance of different interpretations of the [[Bible]] by the [[Peace of Augsburg]] in [[1555]] officially ended the idea that all Christians could be united under one church. The principle of ''[[cuius regio, eius religio]]'' ("whose the region is, his religion") established the religious, political and geographic divisions of Christianity. The Corpus Christianum was replaced by something foreshadowing the modern idea of a tolerant and diverse society consisting of many different communities.
However, under the motto of the [[clash of civilizations]], the idea might currently experience a revival, in order to help define the [[Western Culture|West]] in contrast to other cultures.
== See also ==
* [[Oikoumene]]
* [[Caesaropapism]]
* [[Constantinian shift]]
* [[Dar al-Islam]] and [[Ummah]]
[[Category:Christianity]]
[[Category:Christian group structuring]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic Church history]]
[[fr:Chrétienté]]
[[ia:Christianitate]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Command line interface</title>
<id>6707</id>
<revision>
<id>41733725</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T10:33:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ixfd64</username>
<id>6284</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/212.219.39.100|212.219.39.100]] ([[User talk:212.219.39.100|talk]]) to last version by Yath</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:bash_screenshot.png|thumb|300px|Screenshot of a sample [[Bash]] session, taken on [[Gentoo Linux]].]]
A '''command line interface''' or '''CLI''' is a method of [[human-computer interaction|interacting with a computer]]. Commands are entered as lines of text (that is, sequences of typed characters) from a [[computer keyboard|keyboard]], and output is also received as text. CLIs originated when [[teleprinter|teletype]] machines were connected to computers in the [[1950s]]. In terms of immediate interaction and feedback, they represented an advance over the use of [[punch card]]s.
With the use of [[cathode ray tube|CRT]]s as interface devices, CLIs began evolving toward [[graphical user interface]]s (GUIs) like [[Microsoft Windows]], the [[X Window |
tors typically provide some money (the [[Capital (economics)|capital]]) which is used by the business to buy or [[lease]] some means of production. For example, the enterprise may buy or [[lease]] a piece of land and a building; it may buy machinery and hire workers ([[Labour (economics)|labor-power]]), or the capitalist may provide the labor himself. The commodities produced by the workers become the property of the capitalist ("capitalist" in this context refers to a person who has capital, rather than a person who favors capitalism), and are sold by the workers on behalf of the capitalist or by the capitalist himself. The money from sales also becomes the property of the capitalist. The capitalist pays the workers a portion of this profit for their labor, pays other overhead costs, and keeps the rest. This profit may be used in a variety of ways, it may be consumed, or it may be used in pursuit of more profit such as by investing it in the development of new products or technological innovations, or expanding the business into new geographic territories. If more money is needed than the initial owners are willing or able to provide, the business may need to borrow a limited amount of extra money with a promise to pay it back with interest. In effect, it may rent more capital.
====Self interest====
[[Image:Ayn_Rand1.jpg|150px|thumb|right|[[Ayn Rand]] was an outspoken advocate of the role of [[self-interest]] in capitalism]]
The pursuit of self-interest is commonly regarded as playing an essential role in capitalism. Many writers, such as [[Adam Smith]] and [[Ayn Rand]], point to what they believe to be the benefit of individuals trading for their [[self-interest]] rather than [[altruism|altruistically]] attempting to serve the "common good." Smith, widely considered to be the intellectual father of capitalism, says in ''[[Wealth of Nations]]'':
:"By pursuing his own interest, [an individual] frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it. I have never known much good done by those who affected to trade for the [common] good."
Ayn Rand, probably the most outspoken advocate of the role of self-interest in capitalism, says in ''Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal'':
:"America's abundance was created not by public sacrifices to the common good, but by the productive genius of free men who pursued their own personal interests and the making of their own private fortunes."
Rand, though largely respectful of Smith's economic theories, didn't technically agree with his interpretation of the role of self-interest. She believed that self-interest was [[Objectivist philosophy|philosophically]] justified and did not accept Smith's idea of, as she would describe it 'people blindly pulled towards serving the common good.'
Nobel-economist [[Milton Friedman]] also embraces the role of self-interest in capitalism. In his famous article ''The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase Profits'', as he asserts that business has no [[social responsibility]] other than to increase profits and refrain from engaging in "deception or fraud." He maintains that when business seeks to maximize profits, while respecting the guidelines of a [[free market]] by not defrauding or deceiving, it almost always incidentally does what is good for society. Friedman does not argue that business should not help the community but that it may indeed be in the long-run self-interest of a business to "devote resources to providing amenities to [the] community..." in order to "generate goodwill" and thereby increase profits. Some, including some supporters of capitalism, dislike the focus on self-interest. For example, self-described "free market libertarian" founder and CEO of [[Whole Foods Market]], [[John Mackey (businessman)|John Mackey]], claims in an article in ''Reason'' magazine that he is serving customers and society out of "love" rather than self-interest while he boasts the profitability of his company in that article. (''[http://www.reason.com/0510/fe.mf.rethinking.shtml Rethinking the Social Responsibility of Business]'', [[Reason magazine]] October 2005).
[[Image:Profit&Loss.jpeg|200px|thumb|The pursuit of [[profit]] is one characteristic of capitalism]]
The pursuit and realization of [[profit]] as a method of self-interest is therefore an essential characteristic of capitalism. Profit is derived by selling a product for more than the cost required to produce or acquire it. Some consider the pursuit of profit to be the essence of capitalism. Sociologist and economist, Max Weber, says that "capitalism is identical with the pursuit of profit, and forever renewed profit, by means of conscious, rational, capitalistic enterprise." However, it is not a unique characteristic for capitalism, some hunter-gatherers practiced profitable barter and monetary profit has been known since antiquity. In capitalism, profit is necessary for economic growth, with the growth being a function of the amount of profit reinvested rather than consumed.
===Free market===
The notion of a "[[free market]]" where all economic decisions regarding transfers of money, goods, and services take place on a voluntary basis, free of coercive influence, is commonly considered to be an essential characteristic of capitalism. Some contend that in systems where individuals are prevented from owning the means of production (including the profits), or coerced to share them, not ''all'' economic decisions are free of coercive influence, and, hence, are not free markets. In an ideal free market system none of these economic decisions involve coercion. Instead, they are determined in a decentralized manner by individuals trading, bargaining, cooperating, and competing with each other. In a free market, government may act in a defensive mode to forbid coercion among market participants but does not engage in proactive interventionist coercion; this state of affairs is also called ''[[laissez-faire]]''. Nevertheless, some authorities claim that capitalism is perfectly compatible with interventionist [[authoritarian]] governments, and/or that a free market can exist without capitalism (see [[market socialism]]).
A legal system that grants and protects property rights provides property owners the entitlement to sell their property in accordance to their own valuation of that property; if there are no willing buyers at their offered price they have the freedom to retain it. According to standard capitalist theory, as explained by Adam Smith in ''Wealth of Nations'', when individuals make a trade they value what they are purchasing more than they value what they are giving in exchange for a commodity. If this were not the case, then they would not make the trade but retain ownership of the more valuable commodity. This notion underlies the concept of mutually-beneficial trade where it is held that both sides tend to benefit by an exchange.
[[Image:CME.JPG|200px|thumb|left|The [[Chicago Mercantile Exchange]]. A free market consists of voluntary trade without interventionist regulation. Prices, for example, are determined by trade rather than by government.]]
In regard to pricing of goods and services in a free market, rather than this being ordained by government it is determined by trades that occur as a result of price agreement between buyers and sellers. The prices buyers are willing to pay for a commodity and the prices at which sellers are willing to part with that commodity are directly influenced by [[supply and demand]] (as well as the quantity to be traded). In abstract terms, the price is thus defined as the equilibrium point of the demand and the supply curves, which represent the prices at which buyers would buy (and sellers sell) certain quantities of the good in question. A price above the equilibrium point will lead to oversupply (the buyers wish to buy fewer goods at that price than the sellers are willing to produce), while a price below the equilibrium point will lead to the opposite situation. When the price a buyer is willing to pay coincides with the price a seller is willing to offer, a trade occurs and price is determined.
[[Financial markets]], though some of these markets are far from being free due to heavy regulation, allow the large scale, standardized, and easy trading of [[debt]], [[foreign exchange]], and ownership of companies (see [[finance capitalism]]). Similar changes have taken place for products from [[agriculture]], [[mining]], and [[energy]] production. Standardized markets have even appeared for [[pollution]] rights and for the prediction of future events like future [[weather]] and political elections.
Markets have, of course, existed throughout human history. Hunter-gatherers used to exchange their goods in [[barter]]. The appearance of money in [[Ancient history|antiquity]] facilitated exchanges, permitting the flowering of trade fairs in the [[Middle Ages]]. Nevertheless, many regulations existed, and the influence of the [[guild]]s prevented truly free markets. In modern economies, governments likewise do not allow unfettered market operation in many areas, but the price restrictions are much smaller than those imposed by guilds.
====Economic growth and mobility====
One of the primary objectives in a social system in which commerce and property have a central role is to promote the growth of capital. The standard measures of growth are Gross Domestic Product or [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]], [[capacity utilization]], and 'standard of living'.
The ability of capitalist economies to sustainably increase and improve their stock of capital was central to the argument which [[Adam Smith]] advanced for a free market setting production, price and resource allocation. It has been argued that GDP per capita was essentially flat until the industrial revolution and the eme |
lly have multiple [[ovulation]]s in a single [[estrus cycle]], and, when the [[ovum|ova]] get fertilized, the animal gestates multiple offspring in one single pregnancy.
The time interval of a gestation is called ''gestation period'', and the length of time the offspring have spent developing in the uterus is called ''[[gestational age]]''.
In humans, [[parturition]] normally occurs at a gestational age of 37 to 42 weeks. Childbirth occurring before 37 weeks of gestation is considered preterm and has been associated with 70% of neonatal mortality and 75% of morbidity. A preterm fetus is considered viable only if it is delivered after the 28th week of gestation; before this age, those major developmental events that would allow the fetus to survive outside the womb have not occurred.
{{developmental-biology-stub}}
{{developmental-psychology-stub}}
[[Category:Biological reproduction]]
[[Category:Mammals]]
[[fr:Gestation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GNU General Public Licence</title>
<id>12313</id>
<revision>
<id>15910010</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zundark</username>
<id>70</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to American spelling</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[GNU_General_Public_License]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GNU General Public License</title>
<id>12314</id>
<revision>
<id>42147902</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:22:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.218.243.12</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Freedom */ replace scare quote with italics</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|GPL}}
[[Image:Heckert GNU white.svg|thumb|200px|right|The GNU logo]]
The '''GNU General Public License''' ('''GNU GPL''' or simply '''GPL''') is the most popular [[free software license]], originally written by [[Richard Stallman]] for the [[GNU|GNU project]]. The latest version of the license, version 2, was released in 1991. The [[GNU Lesser General Public License]] (LGPL) is a modified version of the GPL, intended for some [[library (computing)|software libraries]].
== Freedom ==
The GPL grants the recipients of a [[computer program]] the following rights, or ''freedoms'':
* the freedom to run the program, for any purpose.
* the freedom to study how the program works, and modify it. (Access to the source code is a precondition for this)
* the freedom to redistribute copies.
* the freedom to improve the program, and release the improvements to the public. (Access to the source code is a precondition for this)
In contrast, the [[EULA|end-user licenses]] that come with [[proprietary software]] rarely grant the [[end-user]] any rights (other than the right to use the software, although it is debatable whether one requires a license for use ''per se''), and may even attempt to restrict activities normally permitted by law, such as [[reverse engineering]].
The primary difference between the GPL and more "permissive" free software licenses such as the [[BSD License]] is that the GPL seeks to ensure that the above freedoms are preserved in copies and in [[derivative work]]s. It does this using a legal mechanism known as [[copyleft]], invented by Stallman, which requires derivative works of GPL-licensed programs to also be licensed under the GPL. [[BSD and GPL licensing|In contrast]], BSD-style licenses allow for derivative works to be redistributed as proprietary software.
By some measures, the GPL is the single most popular license for [[Free Software|free]] and [[Open Source|open source]] software. [[As of 2004|As of April 2004]], the GPL accounted for nearly 75% of the 23,479 free-software projects listed on [[Freshmeat]], and about 68% of the projects listed on [[SourceForge]]. (These sites are owned by [[OSTG]], a company that advocates [[Linux]] and the GPL.) Similarly, a [[2001]] survey of [[Red Hat Linux]] 7.1 found that 50% of the source code was licensed under the GPL, and 1997 survey of [[Metalab]], then the largest free-software archive, showed that the GPL accounted for about half of the licenses used. Prominent free software programs licensed under the GPL include the [[Linux kernel]] and the [[GNU Compiler Collection]] (GCC). Some other prominent free software programs are licensed under multiple licenses, one of which is the GPL; [[Perl]] is a well-known example (see [[:Category:Free software]]).
==History==
The GPL was written by [[Richard Stallman]] for use with programs released as part of the [[GNU|GNU project]]. It was based on a unification of similar licenses used for early versions of [[Emacs|GNU Emacs]], the [[GNU Debugger]] and the [[GNU Compiler Collection]]. These licenses contained similar provisions to the modern GPL, but were specific to each program. Stallman's goal was to produce one license that could be used for any project, thus making it possible for many projects to share code. This became the GPL version 1, released in January [[1989]].
By [[1990]], it was becoming apparent that a less restrictive license would be strategically useful for some [[library (computing)|software libraries]]; when version 2 of the GPL was released in June [[1991]], therefore, a second license - the Library General Public License, or LGPL - was introduced alongside it, and was also numbered version 2 to show that the two were complementary. The version numbers diverged in [[1999]] when version 2.1 of the LGPL was released, which renamed it the [[Lesser General Public License]] to reflect its place in the GNU philosophy.
In May of 2005, [[Daniel Wallace (plaintiff)|Daniel Wallace]] filed suit against the [[Free Software Foundation]] (FSF) in the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Indiana|Southern District of Indiana]]. The suit contends that the GPL is an attempt to fix prices at zero. The FSF has moved to dismiss Daniel Wallace's complaint.
===GPLv3===
{{wikinews|Free Software Foundation releases first draft of GPLv3}}
[[As of 2005]], version 3 of the GPL is being written by [[Richard Stallman]], with legal counsel from [[Eben Moglen]] and [[Software Freedom Law Center]] [http://www.ifso.ie/documents/rms-gplv3-2006-02-25.html].
At a presentation by Richard Stallman at [[FOSDEM]] on the 25th of February 2006 in Brussels, Belgium, he said: [http://www.ifso.ie/documents/rms-gplv3-2006-02-25.html]
:Among the changes, the most important four, I will say, concern dealing with software patents, compatibility with other licences, the definition of which parts of the source code and what constitutes the source code that must be included in it, and dealing with [[Digital Rights Management|Digital Restrictions Management]].
In 2006, the [[Free Software Foundation]] began a 12-month public consultation about the possible changes to the GPL. This process is being coordinated by the Free Software Foundation, [[Software Freedom Law Center]], and [[Free Software Foundation Europe]].
A [http://gplv3.fsf.org/draft draft of the GPLv3] was made available on [[January 16]] [[2006]]. Unofficial [[diff|diffs]] between version 2 and the v3 draft are also available [http://kohl.wikimedia.org/~avar/gpl3/] [http://www.groklaw.net/article.php?story=20060118155841115].
Richard Stallman expects GPLv3 to be be finalised either in October 2006 or early 2007, after another draft in July 2006.
== License terms ==
The following is a colloquial summary of the terms of the GPL. The only legally precise description, however, is that of the actual text of the GPL, which is available through an external link at the end of this article.
=== Granting of rights ===
The terms and conditions of the GPL are available to anybody receiving a copy of the GPLed work ("the licensee"). Any licensee who adheres to the terms and conditions is given permission to modify the work, as well as to copy and redistribute the work or any derivative version. The licensee is allowed to charge a fee for this service, or do this free of charge. This latter point distinguishes the GPL from software licenses that prohibit commercial redistribution. Stallman has argued that free software should not place restrictions on commercial use, and the GPL explicitly states that GPLed works may be (re)sold.
The GPL additionally states that a distributor may not impose "further restrictions on the rights granted by the GPL". This forbids e.g. the distribution of the software under a non-disclosure agreement or contract. Distributors under the GPL also grant a license for any of their patents practiced by the software, to practice those patents in GPL software.
=== The copyleft ===
The GPL does not give the licensee unlimited redistribution rights. The right to redistribute is granted only if the licensee includes the [[source code]] (or a legally-binding offer to provide the source code), including any modifications made. Furthermore, the distributed copies, including the modifications, must also be licensed under the terms of the GPL.
This requirement is known as [[copyleft]], and it gets its legal teeth from the fact that the program is [[copyright]]ed. Because it is copyrighted, a licensee has no right to modify or redistribute it (barring [[fair use]]), except under the terms of the copyleft. One is only required to adhere to the terms of the GPL if one wishes to exercise rights normally restricted by copyright law, such as redistribution. Conversely, if one distributes copies of the work without abiding by the terms of the GPL (for instance, by keeping the source code secret), they can be [[lawsuit|sued]] by the original author under copyright law.
The copyleft thus uses copyright law to accomplish the opposite of its usual purpose: instead of imposing restrictions, it grants rights to other people, in a way that ensures the rights cannot subsequently be taken away. This is the rea |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.