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lly gave its name to [[France]] and [[Franconia]], while the Alamanni gave their name for "German" in French (''Allemand''), Spanish (''Alemán'') and Portuguese (''Alemão'').
==References==
*''Franks and Alamanni in the Merovingian Period: An Ethnographic Perspective (Studies in Historical Archaeoethnology)''; Ian Wood (Foreword) ISBN 1843830353
{{1911}}
[[Category:Alamanni|*]]
[[als:Alamannen]]
[[br:Alemanned]]
[[ca:Alaman]]
[[de:Alamannen]]
[[es:Alamanes]]
[[fr:Alamans]]
[[la:Alamanni]]
[[nl:Alemannen]]
[[pl:Alamanowie]]
[[pt:Alamanos]]
[[ru:Алеманны]]
[[sl:Alemani]]
[[fi:Alemannit]]
[[sv:Alemanner]]
[[uk:Алемани]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aland Islands</title>
<id>1487</id>
<revision>
<id>15899957</id>
<timestamp>2003-03-06T17:20:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mic</username>
<id>6273</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Moved to Åland</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Åland]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>American Stock Exchange</title>
<id>1488</id>
<revision>
<id>41734446</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T10:43:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.84.178.102</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''American Stock Exchange''' ('''AMEX''') is a [[stock exchange]] operated by American Stock Exchange LLC, a subsidiary of the [[NASD]], in the [[United States|United States of America]].
[[Image:AMEX.jpg|250px|thumb|right|American Stock Exchange]]
The Exchange traces its roots back to [[colonial]] times when [[stock broker]]s created outdoor markets to trade new government [[security (finance)|securities]]. The AMEX started out as such a market at the curbstone on Broad Street near Exchange Place. The curb brokers gathered around the lamp posts and mail boxes, resisting wind and weather, putting up lists of [[stock]]s for sale. As trading activity increased, the shouting reached such a high level that special hand signals had to be introduced so that the brokers could continue trading. In [[1921]] the market was moved indoors into the building where it still resides, and the hand signals remained in place for decades even after the move.
In 1998, the American Stock Exchange merged with the National Association of Securities Dealers (operators of [[NASDAQ]]) to create "The Nasdaq-Amex Market Group" where AMEX is an independent entity of the NASD parent company.
Out of the three major American stock exchanges, the AMEX is known to have the most liberal policies concerning company listing, as most of its companies are generally smaller compared to the NYSE and NASDAQ. The Amex also specialises in the trading of ETFs, and hybrid/structured securities. Located next to the [[World Trade Center]], it was tragically affected by the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], but has recovered well since then.
==See also==
*[[Exchange-traded fund]] ([http://www.amex.com/?href=/etf/EtMain.jsp American Stock Exchange - ETFs])
* [[List of stock exchanges]]
* [[NASDAQ]]
* [[New York Stock Exchange]] (NYSE)
* [[Stock exchange]]
* [[Economy of New York City]]
==External links==
* [http://www.amex.com/ American Stock Exchange website]
[[Category:Stock exchanges]]
[[Category:Stock exchanges in North America]]
[[de:American Stock Exchange]]
[[es:American Stock Exchange]]
[[fr:American Stock Exchange]]
[[sv:American Stock Exchange]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>August 17</title>
<id>1490</id>
<revision>
<id>41777133</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T17:55:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rklawton</username>
<id>754622</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Deaths */ added birth years</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=17}}
|}
'''[[August 17]]''' is the 229th day of the year (230th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 136 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1427]] - First band of gypsies visits Paris, according to an account of the [[citizen of Paris]]
*[[1807]] - [[Robert Fulton]]'s first American [[steamboat]] leaves [[New York City]] for [[Albany, New York]] on the [[Hudson River]], inaugurating the first commercial steamboat service in the world.
*[[1850]] - Argentine's War of Independence hero, General [[José de San Martín]], dies in Boulogne-sur-Mer (France), at the age of 77.
*[[1862]] - [[Indian Wars]]: [[Lakota]] (Sioux) uprising begins in [[Minnesota]] as desperate Lakota attack white settlements along the [[Minnesota River]]. They will be overwhelmed by the U.S. military six weeks later.
*[[1863]] - [[American Civil War]]: In [[Charleston, South Carolina]], [[United States|Union]] batteries and ships bombard [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]]-held [[Fort Sumter]]. Bombardment will not end until [[December 31]], 1863.
*[[1864]] - American Civil War: Confederate forces defeated [[United States|Union]] troops at the [[Battle of Gainesville]].
*[[1877]] - [[Arizona]] blacksmith F.P. Cahill is fatally wounded by [[Billy the Kid]]. Cahill will die the next day, becoming the first person killed by the Kid.
*[[1883]] - [[Dominican Republic]] the first public performance of the Dominican National Anthem, [[Quisqueyanos valientes]]
*[[1896]] - [[London]] - [[Bridget Driscoll]] becomes the first person in the world to die in an [[automobile]] accident after being struck by a car travelling about 4 MPH.
*[[1914]] - [[World War I]]: The [[Germany|German]] army of General [[Hermann von Francois]] defeats the [[Russia]]n force commanded by [[Pavel Rennenkampf]] at the [[Battle of Stalluponen]].
*[[1915]] - [[Jew]]ish American [[Leo Frank]] is [[lynching|lynched]] for the alleged murder of a 13-year-old girl in [[Atlanta, Georgia]].
*[[1918]] - [[Bolshevik]] revolutionary leader [[Moisei Uritsky]] is [[assassination|assassinated]].
*[[1943]] - [[World War II]]: The US 7th Army under General [[George S. Patton]] arrive in [[Messina, Italy]], followed several hours later by the British 8th Army under Field Marshal [[Bernard L. Montgomery]], thus completing the [[Allies|Allied]] conquest of [[Sicily]].
*[[1945]] - [[Indonesia]] proclaims itself independent from the [[Netherlands]].
*[[1953]] - [[Addiction]]: First meeting of [[Narcotics Anonymous]] in Southern [[California]].
*[[1960]] - [[Gabon]] gains independence from [[France]].
*[[1962]] - [[East Germany|East German]] border guards kill 18-year-old [[Peter Fechter]] as he attempts to cross the [[Berlin Wall]] into West [[Berlin]]. He thus became the first victim of the wall.
*[[1963]] - A ferry linking remote islands off the coast of [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]] sinks, killing 112.
*[[1969]] - Category 5 [[Hurricane Camille]] hits the [[Mississippi]] coast, killing 248 people and causing $1.5 billion in damage.
*[[1970]] - [[Venera program]]: [[Venera 7]] is launched. It will later becomes the first spacecraft to successfully transmit data from the surface of another [[planet]], [[Venus (planet)|Venus]].
*[[1978]] - ''[[Double Eagle II]]'' becomes first [[balloon]] to cross the [[Atlantic Ocean]] when it lands in [[Miserey]] near [[Paris]], 137 hours after leaving [[Presque Isle, Maine]].
*[[1979]] - Two [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Aeroflot]] jetliners collide in mid-air over [[Ukraine]], killing 156
*[[1980]] - [[Azaria_Chamberlain_disappearance|Azaria Chamberlain disappears]], likely taken by a [[dingo]], leading to what was then the most [[trial by media|publicised trial]] in [[Australian history]].
*[[1988]] - [[Pakistan]]i President [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]] and US Ambassador [[Arnold Raphel]] are killed in a plane crash.
*[[1989]] - Paul Murphy is born in Belfast
*[[1991]] - Wade Frankum starts his killing spree in Strathfield, Australia, an event that was later dubbed the [[Strathfield Massacre]].
*[[1998]] - [[Monica Lewinsky scandal]]: [[US President]] [[Bill Clinton]] admits in taped testimony that he had an "improper physical relationship" with [[White House]] intern [[Monica Lewinsky]]. On the same day he admits before the nation that he "misled people" about his relationship.
*[[1999]] - A 7.4-magnitude [[earthquake]] strikes [[1999 Izmit, Turkey Earthquake|Izmit, Turkey]], killing more than 17,000 and injuring 44,000.
*[[2002]] - In [[Santa Rosa, California]], the [[Charles M. Schulz]] Museum opens to the public.
*[[2004]] - [[MD5]] collision found by [[China|Chinese]] researchers.
*2004 - The [[National Assembly of Serbia]] unanimously adopts new state symbols for [[Serbia]]: [[Boze Pravde]] becomes the new anthem and the [[Serbian coat of arms|coat of arms]] is adopted for the whole country.
*[[2005]] - The first forced [[evacuation]] of [[settlers]], as part of the [[Israel unilateral disengagement plan]], starts.
==Births==
*[[1473]] - [[Richard, Duke of York (Prince in the Tower)|Richard, Duke of York]], one of the [[Princes in the Tower]] (d. [[1483]]?)
*[[1562]] - [[Hans Leo Hassler]] (baptised), German composer (d. [[1612]])
*[[1578]] - [[Francesco Albani]], Italian painter (d. [[1660]])
*[[1601]] - [[Pierre de Fermat]], French mathematician (d. [[1665]])
*[[1629]] - King [[John III of Poland]] (d. [[1696]])
*[[1786]] - [[Davy Crockett]], frontiersman, soldier (d. [[1836]])
*[[1828]] - [[Jules Bernard Luys]], French neurologist (d. [[1897]])
*[[1844]] - Emperor [[Menelek II of Ethiopia]] (d. [[1913]])
*[[1866]] - [[Julia Marlowe]], nee Sarah Frost, Shakespearean actress (d. [[1950]])
*[[1882]] - [[Samuel Goldwyn]], Hollywood producer (d. [[1974]])
*[[1887]] - [[Marcus Garvey]], Jamaican leader, [[Rastafari movement|Rastafari]] prophet (d. [[1940]])
*1887 - Emperor [[Charles I of Austria]] (d. [[1922]])
*[[1893]] - [[Mae West]], American actress and playwright (d. [[1980]])
*[[1904]] - [[Leopold Nowak]], |
mage:calgaryalberta34.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Calgary, Alberta]]
<small>''Sources: All 2005 figures are based on official 2005 census data from municipalities. Where no 2005 data is available, ''(*)'' indicates the most recent official data from either the municipality or the 2001 [[Statistics Canada]] federal census. All data for 2001 and 1996 is from the respective federal census.''</small>
<small>''(**) indicates 2005 CMA estimates according to [http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo05a.htm Statistics Canada - Population of Census Metropolitan Areas]''</small>
<small>''Although the city of [[Lloydminster, Alberta/Saskatchewan|Lloydminster]] has a total population of 23,632, it is not included on the list because the city straddles the Alberta-[[Saskatchewan]] border. Only 15,487 people live on the Alberta side, which would make it Alberta's 11th largest city.''</small>
==Industry==
:''Main article: [[Industry in Alberta]]''
Alberta is the largest producer of [[petroleum|conventional crude oil]], [[synthetic crude]], [[natural gas]] and gas products in the country. Two of the largest producers of [[petrochemicals]] in [[North America]] are located in central and north central Alberta. In both [[Red Deer, Alberta|Red Deer]] and [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]], world class [[polyethylene]] and [[vinyl]] manufacturers produce products shipped all over the world, and Edmonton's [[oil refinery|oil refineries]] provide the raw materials for a large [[petrochemical]] industry to the east of Edmonton.
The [[Athabasca Oil Sands]] (previously known as the Athabasca [[Tar sands|Tar Sands]]) have estimated [[Petroleum|oil]] reserves in excess of that of the rest of the world, estimated to be 1.6 trillion barrels (254 km³). With the advancement of extraction methods, bitumen and economical synthetic crude are produced at costs nearing that of conventional crude. This technology is Alberta grown and developed. Many companies employ both conventional [[surface mining|strip mining]] and non-conventional methods to extract the [[bitumen]] from the Athabasca deposit. With current technology, only 315 billion barrels (50 km³) are recoverable. [[Fort McMurray]], one of Canada's youngest and liveliest cities, has grown up entirely because of the large [[multinational corporation]]s which have taken on the task of oil production.
Another factor determining the viability of oil extraction from the Tar Sands is the price of oil. In 2005, record oil prices have made it more than profitable to extract this oil, which in the past would give little profit or even a loss.
While [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]] is considered the pipeline junction, manufacturing, chemical processing, research and refining centre of the province, [[Calgary, Alberta|Calgary]] is known for its senior and junior oil company head offices (unlike Edmonton, Calgary is not close to any large sources of oil).
With concerted effort and support from the provincial government, several high-tech industries have found their birth in Alberta, notably the invention and perfection of [[liquid crystal display]] systems. With a growing economy, Alberta has several financial institutions dealing with several civil and private funds.
==Agriculture and forestry==
[[Image:Alberta red farm buildings.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Farm Buildings]]
[[Image:Field 150.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Alberta canola field]]
[[Image:Grain Elevator 047.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Grain Elevator - Alberta]]
[[Agriculture]] has a significant position in the province's economy. Over 5 million [[cattle]] are residents of the province at one time or another, and Alberta beef has a healthy worldwide market. Nearly one half of all Canadian beef is produced in Alberta. Alberta is one of the prime producers of plains [[American Bison|buffalo (bison)]] for the consumer market. [[domestic sheep|Sheep]] for [[wool]] and [[mutton]] are also [[sheep farm|raised]].
[[Wheat]] and [[canola]] are primary farm crops, with Alberta leading the provinces in spring wheat production, with other [[cereal|grain]]s also prominent. Much of the farming is dryland farming, often with fallow seasons interspersed with cultivation. Continuous cropping (in which there is no fallow season) is gradually becoming a more common mode of production because of increased profits and a reduction of soil erosion. Across the province, the once common [[grain elevator]] is slowly being lost as rail lines are decreased and farmers now truck the grain to central points.
Alberta is the leading [[beekeeping]] province of Canada, with some beekeepers wintering [[hive]]s indoors in specially designed barns in southern Alberta, then migrating north during the summer into the [[Peace River (Alberta)|Peace River]] valley where the season is short but the working days are long for [[honeybee]]s to produce honey from [[clover]] and [[fireweed]]. [[Hybrid]] [[canola]] also requires [[bee]] [[pollination]], and some beekeepers service this need.
The vast northern [[forest]] reserves of [[softwood]] allow Alberta to produce large quantities of [[lumber]] and [[plywood]], and several northern Alberta plants supply [[North America]] and the [[Pacific Rim]] [[nation]]s with bleached [[wood pulp]] and [[newsprint]].
==Government==
:''See also: [[Politics of Alberta]]''
[[Edmonton]] is the seat of government of Alberta. It is a [[parliamentary]] [[democracy]]. Its [[unicameral]] legislature -- the [[Legislative Assembly of Alberta|Legislative Assembly]] -- consists of 83 members. As Canada's head of state, Queen Elizabeth II is the Government of Alberta's chief executive. Her duties in Alberta are carried out by Lieutenant Governor, Norman Kwong. The government is headed by the [[Premier]], [[Ralph Klein]]. The city of [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]] is Alberta's government capital.
The province's revenue comes mainly from the taxation of oil, natural gas, beef, softwood lumber, and wheat, but also includes [[grant]]s from the [[federal government]] primarily for [[infrastructure]] projects. Albertans are the lowest-[[tax]]ed people in [[Canada]], and Alberta is the only province in Canada without a provincial [[sales tax]] (though residents are still subject to the federal sales tax, the [[GST]]). Alberta's municipalities have their own governments which (usually) work in co-operation with the provincial government.
Alberta's [[politics]] are much more conservative than those of other Canadian provinces. Alberta has traditionally had three political parties, the [[Alberta Progressive Conservatives|Progressive Conservatives]] ("Conservatives" or "Tories"), the centrist [[Alberta Liberal Party|Liberals]], and the social democratic [[Alberta New Democratic Party|New Democrats]]. A fourth party, the strongly conservative [[Social Credit Party of Alberta|Social Credit Party]], was a power in Alberta for many [[decade]]s, but fell from the political map after the Progressive Conservatives came to power in the early [[1970s]]. Since that time, no other political party has governed Alberta. In fact, only three parties have governed Alberta: the [[United Farmers of Alberta]] the Social Credit Party, and the currently-governing Progressive Conservative Party
As is the case with many western Canadian provinces, Alberta has had occasional bouts of separatist sentiment. Even during the [[1980|1980s]], when these feelings were at their strongest, there has never been enough interest in secession to initiate any major movements or referenda. There are a number of groups wishing to promote the independence of Alberta in some form currently active in the province. See also: [[Alberta separatism]].
In the [[Alberta general election, 2004|2004 provincial election]], held in November, the [[Alberta Alliance Party]], running to the [[right-wing politics|right]] of the Conservatives, won one seat.
See also: [[List of Alberta Premiers]], [[List of Alberta general elections]]
==Education==
As with any Canadian province, the Alberta government is the highest authority in education, creating and regulating the school boards, public colleges, universities, and other educational institutions.
===K-12===
The vast majority of Alberta's schools are run by publicly funded school boards (each with its own district of authority). The largest are English language Public school boards. Alberta also has English Separate Catholic boards throughout the province, which serve a substantial minority of students. There is one protestant school board in part of the province. Where numbers warrant, there are francophone school boards (Public and Separate Catholic). All five of these types of boards are primarily publicly funded (basic school fees range from $200-$750 depending on the school board) by local property taxes and provincial grants given on an equal per student basis by the province (with some adjustments). The different types of school boards are a necessity under the Canadian constitution, which guarantees the francophones and Catholic communities both the right to their own schools, and the right to administer them.
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Myhallway.jpg|thumb|210px|right|School Hallway]] -->
Some other Canadian provinces have reformed their school systems on non-religious lines, by seeking a constitutional amendment, but Alberta has not. Often the decision to go to one system or another is not based on religion, but a parent's belief of which system provides a better education.
Starting in 1994, the province has allowed some [[Alberta charter schools|chartered schools]] to operate, independently of any district school board, reporting directly to the province. Homeschooling is officially recognized and partially funded from within the Alberta school system.
Originally in Alberta, school boards had the power to levy property taxes within their respective |
projects, such as ''Chrono Resurrection'' [http://www.opcoder.com/projects/chrono/], and ''Chrono Trigger Remake Project'' [http://www.chrono-trigger.com/] were forcibly terminated by Square-Enix with a [[cease and desist]] order. Some fans hope that Square-Enix has plans for an official remake of ''Chrono Trigger''. However, other fans view a possible official remake as being detrimental to the series. [[Masato Kato]] and his team have stated that while making ''Chrono Cross'', they were focused on innovating and not rehashing old games in their work. This, coupled with Kato's status as a freelance scenarist and [[Yasunori Mitsuda]]'s status as a freelance scorer, strongly suggests a hypothetical remake would not be headed by the original creators or team.
==Sequels==
===Satellaview sequel series (1995)===
Released on the Satellaview were the ''Chrono Trigger: Jet Bike Special'' (1995), ''Chrono Trigger: Character Library'' (1995), and ''Chrono Trigger: Music Library'' (1995). The Character and Music Libraries from this game were added into the Playstation version of ''Chrono Trigger''.
===''Radical Dreamers'' (1996)===
{{Main|Radical Dreamers}}
A [[side story]] for ''Chrono Trigger'' was released for Nintendo's [[Satellaview]] add-on for the [[Super Famicom]] and was called ''[[Radical Dreamers]]''. The original ''Radical Dreamers'' was a very short, [[Text_adventure|text-based game]], available only in [[Japan]]. ''Radical Dreamers'' was later remade to form the beginning sequence of ''Chrono Trigger'''s better known PlayStation sequel, ''[[Chrono Cross]]''.
===''Chrono Cross'' (1999)===
{{Main|Chrono Cross}}
While it has been contended that ''Chrono Cross'' is not the sequel to ''Trigger'' because of developer remarks stating such, it is important to note that these battle programmers were speaking of wanting to avoid rehashing the system and locations of ''Trigger'' rather than innovating with new ideas, and that ''Chrono Cross'' sufficiently expands on the plot of its predecessor. In any case, ''Chrono Trigger'' definitely takes place before Chrono Cross.
==Potential future sequels==
When SquareEnix copyrighted the names ''Chrono Brake'' in Japan and ''[[Chrono Break]]'' in the United States, it attracted the attention of ''Chrono'' fans, who were thrilled that another sequel might be forthcoming. Their hopes were diminished when the name registration was dropped in the US, but due to the Japanese name still being copyrighted, many fans continue to hope for a possible second sequel.
==Packaging artwork==
<center>
<gallery>
Image:CT Pre-release.jpg|''Chrono Trigger Pre-release Sample ROM'' <br />Super Famicom<br />Japan, 1995
Image:Ctsnesjapanboxart.jpg|''Chrono Trigger''<br />Super Famicom<br />Japan, 1995
Image:Vjumpbox.png|''Chrono Trigger V-Jump Contest Prize Edition''<br />Super Famicom<Br />Japan, 1995
Image:Chrono Trigger Front Cover.jpg|''Chrono Trigger''<br />Super Nintendo Entertainment System<br />North America, 1995
Image:Ctpsjapanboxart.jpg|''Chrono Trigger''<br />Sony PlayStation<br />Japan, 1999
Image:Ffcbox.jpg|''[[Final Fantasy Chronicles]]''<br />Sony PlayStation<br />North America, 2001
</gallery>
</center>
<!--Please do not mention that Marle is using Fire magic in the US package artwork. This has already been discussed in the [[Talk:Chrono Trigger|Talk page]]. -->
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikibooks}}
* [http://www.chronocompendium.com/ Chrono Compendium], a Chrono series Wiki with a guide to the Prerelease
* [http://www.mobygames.com/game/chrono-trigger MobyGame's entry for ''Chrono Trigger'']
* [http://www.gamefaqs.com/console/snes/game/563538.html GameFAQs' Chrono Trigger FAQs; Meowthnum1's includes pre-release information by StarNeptune]
* [http://www.personal.psu.edu/faculty/w/r/wrp103/wrp/ct_end.html List of all the endings and how to see them]
* {{note|testament}}[http://www.chronocompendium.com/wiki/index.php?title=Chrono_Testament Chrono Trigger Testament] &mdash; attempts Biblical parallels to Chrono Trigger
* [http://www.rpgclassics.com/shrines/snes/ct/walkthrough.shtml RPGClassics' Chrono Trigger Walkthrough], an <i>excellent</i> walkthrough guide, with humorous quips and comments by the author.
* [http://www.mooglecave.com/ChronoTrigger MoogleCave.com - Chrono Trigger Section], contains lots of information about the game
* {{musicbrainz album|id=f2b550d2-bd02-4c6b-aad8-e64e12e36038|name=Chrono Trigger Official Soundtrack}}
* {{musicbrainz album|id=7e278b3b-4f83-4f59-a94a-adab7a321d77|name=Chrono Trigger Original Soundtrack}}
* {{musicbrainz album|id=24d7728e-c78d-4cf9-ac6a-42f378058f12|name=Chrono Trigger: The Brink of Time}}
* {{musicbrainz album 3|id1=c71d6600-0b24-46d3-85df-7546ad82883f|id2=cdbe4f34-19cf-4343-be6b-fef243fe2b98|id3=3f9ff2cc-5313-432e-ab33-109273d1ccd3|name=Chrono Trigger: Original Sound Version}}
{{Chrono Trigger}}
[[Category:Chrono games]]
[[Category:Super NES games]]
[[Category:PlayStation games]]
[[Category:1995 computer and video games]]
[[Category:1999 computer and video games]]
[[Category:2001 computer and video games]]
[[de:Chrono Trigger]]
[[es:Chrono Trigger]]
[[fr:Chrono Trigger]]
[[it:Chrono Trigger]]
[[ms:Chrono Trigger]]
[[ja:クロノ・トリガー]]
[[pt:Chrono Trigger]]
[[fi:Chrono Trigger]]
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[[zh:时空之轮]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cornwall Wildlife Trust</title>
<id>6615</id>
<revision>
<id>38507174</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T20:37:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mais oui!</username>
<id>394460</id>
</contributor>
<comment>cats</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Cornwall Wildlife Trust''' is a charitable organisation founded in [[1962]] that is concerned solely with [[Cornwall]].
It deals with the conservation and preservation of Cornwall's wildlife and habitats managing over 50 nature reserves covering approximately 4300 acres (17 km&sup2;), amongst them [[Looe Island]].
Cornwall Wildlife Trust is part of [[The Wildlife Trusts partnership]] of 47 wildlife trusts in the [[United Kingdom]].
==External links==
* [http://www.wildlifetrust.org.uk/cornwall/index.htm Cornwall Wildlife Trust]
* [http://www.wildlifetrusts.org The Wildlife Trusts partnership]
[[Category:Cornwall|Wildlife]]
[[Category:Wildlife Trusts of England]]
{{England-stub}}
{{UK-org-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Conservatory</title>
<id>6616</id>
<revision>
<id>18245259</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-06T07:30:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Modrac</username>
<id>274410</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">*A '''conservatory''' is a school dedicated to teaching of various arts, such as [[music]] (including playing of [[musical instrument]]s, [[musical composition]], musicianship and [[music theory]]) and [[acting]]. See: [[music school]]. Famous conservatories: [[Julliard]] (music, acting), [[AFI Conservatory]] (film).
*A '''conservatory''' is also another name for a large [[greenhouse]] where [[plant]]s are cultivated. See: [[conservatory (greenhouse)]].
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Compactification (mathematics)</title>
<id>6617</id>
<revision>
<id>39950444</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T01:01:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Melchoir</username>
<id>454640</id>
</contributor>
<comment>there are unique ways</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the concept of compactification in physics, see [[compactification (physics)]]''
In [[mathematics]], '''compactification''' is applied to [[topological space]]s to make them [[compact space]]s. The methods of compactification are various, but each is a way of controlling points from ''going off to infinity'' by in some way reifying a limit into a point or points, or preventing such an ''escape''.
==A simple, slightly handwavy example==
We all know that the circle is a compact space in the plane. It is closed and bounded, which due to the special properties of the euclidean plane, means that is compact. What we would like to do is to show that we can adjust the line (which is not bounded) and identify it with the circle, making it a compact in a slightly modified topology which will preserve the topology everywhere except where we have modified it.
The construction is to add on a single point "infinity". Take a point on the circle and represent it by its degree value, in radians, going from -π to π for simplicity. Identify each point θ on the circle with the corresponding point on the real line tan(θ/2). This function is undefined at the point π, since tan(π/2) is undefined there; we will identify this point with our "infinity" point.
Note that since tangent and inverse tangent are both continuous, our identification function is a [[homeomorphism]]. It is not difficult to show that it remains a homeomorphism even when we consider our little tweak of adding "infinity". Topological properties, including compactness, are preserved over homeomorphisms, and since we know the circle is compact, we know that our modified line is compact, in fact, it is [[isomorphic]] to a circle.
Compactification, and in particular, one-point compactification can largely be considered a generalization of this process.
==Compactification in general topology==
It is often useful to embed [[topological space|topological spaces]] in [[compact space|compact spaces]], because of the strong properties compact spaces have. An embedding of a topological space ''X'' as a [[dense (mathematics)|dense]] subset of a compact space is called a '''compactification''' of X.
Of particular interest are Hausdorff compactifications, i.e., compactifications in which the compact space i |
d to solve the problem of powerful and rebellious governors in Britain by dividing the existing province into [[Britannia Superior|Upper Britain]] and [[Britannia Inferior|Lower Britain]]. Although this kept the potential for rebellion in check for almost a century, it was not permanent. Historical sources provide little information on the following decades, a period often called the Long Peace. Even so the number of [[hoard]]s found in the period rises, suggesting unrest and a string of forts were built along the coast of southern Britain to control piracy, over the next hundred years they expanded in number, becoming the [[Saxon Shore Forts]].
During the middle of the third century the Roman empire was convulsed by barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperial pretenders. Britannia apparently avoided these troubles, although increasing [[inflation]] had its economic effect. In [[259]], a so-called [[Gallic Empire]] was established when [[Postumus]] rebelled against [[Gallienus]]. Britannia was part of this until [[274]] when [[Aurelian]] reunited the empire.
In the late 270s a half-Brythonic usurper named [[Bononus]] rebelled to avoid the repercussions of letting his fleet be burnt by barbarians at [[Cologne]]. He was quickly crushed by [[Probus]], but soon afterwards an unnamed governor in Britannia also attempted an uprising. Irregular troops of [[Vandal]]s and [[Burgundians]] were sent across the Channel by Probus to put down the uprising, perhaps in [[278]].
The last of the string of rebellions to affect Britannia was that of [[Carausius]] and his successor [[Allectus]]. Carausius was a naval commander, probably in the [[English Channel]]. He was accused of keeping pirate booty for himself, and his execution was ordered by the Emperor [[Maximian]]. He then in 286 set himself up as emperor in Britain and northern Gaul, and remained in power whilst Maximian dealt with uprisings elsewhere. In 288, an invasion failed to unseat the usurper. An uneasy peace ensued, during which Carausius issued coins proclaiming his legitimacy and inviting official recognition.
In [[293]] [[Constantius Chlorus]] launched a second offensive, besieging the rebel's port at [[Boulogne-sur-Mer|Boulogne]] and cutting it off from naval assistance. After the town fell, Constantius tackled Carausius' [[Franks|Frankish]] allies. Subsequently the usurper was murdered by his treasurer, [[Allectus]]. Allectus' brief reign was brought to an end when [[Asclepiodotus]] landed near [[Southampton]] and defeated him in a land battle.
Constantius himself arrived in London to receive the victory and chose to divide the province further, into four provinces:
*[[Maxima Caesariensis]] (based on London): from Upper Britannia
*[[Britannia Prima]]: from Upper Britannia
*[[Flavia Caesariensis]]: from Lower Britannia
*[[Britannia Secunda]]: from Lower Britannia
These four provinces were part of [[Diocletian]]'s [[Tetrarchy]] reform in 293, Britannia became one of the four dioceses&mdash;governed by a ''vicarius''&mdash;of the prætorian prefecture [[Galliae]] ('the [[Gaul]]s', also comprising the provices of [[Gaul]], [[Germania]] and [[Hispania]]), after the abolition of the imperial tetrarchs under the Western Emperor (in Rome itself, later [[Ravenna]]).
==Government of Britannia==
Under the Roman Empire, administration of peaceful provinces was ultimately the remit of the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] but those like Britain that required permanent garrisons of troops were placed under the Emperor's control. On the ground however imperial provinces were run by resident [[Roman governor|governors]] who were former senators who had held the [[Roman consul|consul]]ship. These men were carefully selected often having strong records of military success and administrative ability. In Britain, a governor's role was primarily military but numerous other tasks were also his responsibility such as maintaining diplomatic relations with local client kings, building roads, ensuring the public courier system functioned, supervising the [[civitates]] and acting as a judge in important legal cases. When not campaigning he would travel the province hearing complaints and recruiting new troops.
To assist him in legal matters he had an adviser, the ''legatus iuridicus'', and those in Britain appear to have been distinguished lawyers perhaps because of the challenge of incorporating tribes into the imperial system and devising a workable method of taxing them. Financial administration was dealt with by a ''procurator'' with junior posts for each tax-raising power. Each legion in Britain had a commander who answered to the governor and in time of war probably directly ruled troublesome districts. Each of these commands carried a tour of duty of two to three years in different provinces. Below these posts was a network of administrative managers covering intelligence gathering, sending reports to Rome, organising military supplies and dealing with prisoners. A staff of seconded soldiers provided clerical services.
Colchester was probably the earliest capital of Roman Britain but it was soon eclipsed by London with its strong mercantile connections.
==The fourth century==
Constantius Chlorus returned to Britain in 306, aiming to invade northern Britain. The province's defences had been rebuilt in the preceding years and, although his health was poor, Constantius wished to penetrate far into enemy territory and win a further victory. Little is known of his campaigns and there is little archaeological evidence for them. From fragmentary historical sources it seems he reached the far north of Britain and won a great battle in early summer of that year before returning south to York.
Constantius remained in Britain for the rest of the time he was part of the [[Tetrarchy]], dying on [[July 25|25th July]] [[306]]. His son, [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]] had managed to be by his side at that moment, and assumed his duties in Britain. Unlike the earlier usurper Albinus, he was able to successfully use his base in Britain as a starting point on his march to the imperial throne.
For a few years, the British provinces were loyal to the usurper [[Magnentius]], who succeeded [[Constans]] following his death. Following his defeat and death in the [[Battle of Mons Seleucus]] in 353, [[Constantius II]] dispatched his chief imperial notary [[Paul "Catena"]] to Britain to hunt down Magnentius' supporters. Paul's investigations deteriorated into a [[witch hunt]], which forced the ''vicarius'' [[Flavius Martinus]] to intervene. When Paul instead suspected Martinus of treason, the ''vicarius'' found himself forced to physically attack Paul with a sword with the aim of [[assassin]]ating him, but at the end committed [[suicide]].
In the 4th century, Britain also saw increasing attacks from the [[Saxon people|Saxons]] in the east, and the [[Ireland|Irish]] in the west. A series of forts was built, starting around 280, to defend the coasts, but these preparations were not enough when a general assault of Saxons, [[Ireland|Irish]] and [[Attacotti]], combined with apparent dissension in the garrison on Hadrian's Wall, left Roman Britain prostrate in 367. This crisis, sometimes called the [[Great Conspiracy]], was settled by [[Count Theodosius]] with a string of military and civil reforms.
Another usurper, [[Magnus Maximus]], raised the standard of revolt in [[Segontium Roman Fort|Segontium]] in 383, and crossed [[English Channel|the Channel]]. Maximus held much of the western empire, and fought a successful campaign against the [[Picts]] and [[Scoti|Scots]] around [[384]]. His continental exploits required troops from Britain, and it appears that forts at Chester and elsewhere were abandoned at this period, triggering raids and settlement in north Wales by the Irish. His rule was ended in 388, but not all of the British troops may have returned: the Empire's military resources were struggling after the catastrophic [[Battle of Adrianople (378)|Battle of Adrianople]] in 378. Around 396, there were increasing barbarian incursions in Britain, and an expedition, possibly led by [[Stilicho]], brought naval action against the raiders. It seems peace was restored by 399, although it is likely that no further garrisoning was ordered, and indeed by 401 more troops were withdrawn to assist in the war against [[Alaric I]].
==Town and country==
A number of important settlements were founded by the Romans, during their occupation of Britain. Many of which still survive.
Cities and towns which have Roman origins include: (with their Latin names in brackets)
*[[Alcester]] - (''Aluana'')
*[[Bath]] - (''Aquae Sulis'')
*[[Caerleon]] - (''Isca Silurum'')
*[[Caerwent]] - (''Venta Silurum'')
*[[Canterbury, Kent|Canterbury]] - (''Durovernum'')
*[[Carmarthen]] - (''Moridunum'')
*[[Colchester]] - (''Camulodonum'')
*[[Corbridge]] - (''Corstopitum'')
*[[Chichester]] - (''Noviomagus'')
*[[Chester]] - (''Deva'')
*[[Cirencester]] - (''Corinium'')
*[[Dover]] - (''Portus Dubris'')
*[[Dorchester, Dorset|Dorchester]] - (''Durnovaria'')
*[[Exeter]] - (''Isca Dumnoniorum'')
*[[Gloucester]] - (''Glevum'')
*[[Leicester]] - (''Ratae Coritanorum'')
*[[London]] - (''Londinium'')
*[[Lincoln, England|Lincoln]] - (''Lindum'')
*[[Manchester]] - (''Mamucium'')
*[[Northwich]] - (''Condate'')
*[[St Albans]] - (''Verulamium'')
*[[Towcester]] - (''Lactodorum'')
*[[Whitchurch]] - (''Mediolanvm'')
*[[Winchester, Hampshire|Winchester]] - (''Venta Belgarum'')
*[[York]] - (''Eboracum'')
For a larger list, see [[list of Roman place names in Britain]].
==The end of Roman rule==
[[image:Brittain_410.jpg|thumb|250px|Roman Britain in the year 410]]
The traditional view of historians, informed by the work of [[Michael Rostovtzeff]], was of a widespread economic decline at this time. However, consistent archaeological evidence has told another story, and the accepted view is undergoing re-evaluation. The destru |
xamples of fungi that have been developed as [[bioinsecticide|bioinsecticides]] are ''[[Beauveria bassiana]]'', ''[[Metarhizium anisopliae]]'', [[Hirsutella]], ''[[Paecilomyces fumosoroseus]]'', and ''[[Verticillium lecanii]]'' (=''[[Lecanicillium lecanii]]'' ).
==References==
* {{cite web
| url = http://www.healthatoz.com/healthatoz/Atoz/ency/mushroom_poisoning.jsp
| author = Kaminstein, D.
| year = 2002
| title = Mushroom poisoning
| accessdate = 2006-01-05
}}
==External links==
* [http://www.britmycolsoc.org.uk/ British Mycological Society]
* [http://www.mycolog.com/fifthtoc.html ''The Fifth Kingdom'']
* [http://www.msafungi.org/ Mycological Society of America]
* [http://www.mykoweb.com/ MykoWeb]
* [http://www.namyco.org/ North American Mycological Society]
[[Category:Fungi|*]]
[[Category:Mycology]]
[[Category:Cryptogams]]
[[Category:Flora of Antarctica]]
[[ar:فطر]]
[[ast:Fungi]]
[[bg:Гъби]]
[[bn:ব্যাঙের ছাতা]]
[[ca:Fong]]
[[cs:Houby]]
[[cy:Ffwng]]
[[da:Svampe]]
[[de:Pilze]]
[[eo:Fungo]]
[[es:Fungi]]
[[et:Seened]]
[[fi:Sienet]]
[[fr:Mycota]]
[[ga:Fungas]]
[[he:פטריות]]
[[hu:Gomba]]
[[it:Fungi]]
[[ja:菌類]]
[[ko:균류]]
[[la:Fungi]]
[[lb:Pilzeräich]]
[[lt:Grybų karalystė]]
[[mk:Габа]]
[[nds:Poggenstöhl]]
[[nl:Schimmels]]
[[no:Sopper]]
[[pl:Grzyby]]
[[pt:Fungos]]
[[ru:Грибы]]
[[sv:Svampar]]
[[ta:பூஞ்சைகள்]]
[[th:เห็ดรา]]
[[tr:Mantar]]
[[wa:Tchampion]]
[[zh:真菌]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Four Cardinal Virtues</title>
<id>11436</id>
<revision>
<id>15909181</id>
<timestamp>2003-06-19T11:58:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Patrick</username>
<id>4388</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Virtue]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Virtue]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Friedrich I of Brandenburg</title>
<id>11438</id>
<revision>
<id>15909183</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-24T11:21:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andre Engels</username>
<id>300</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixing redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Faster-than-light</title>
<id>11439</id>
<revision>
<id>41434123</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T07:42:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gregwmay</username>
<id>696324</id>
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<minor />
<comment>sp: handfulls -> handfuls</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{unsourced}}
'''Faster-than-light''' (also '''superluminal''' or '''FTL''') [[Superluminal communication|communications]] and [[interstellar travel|travel]] refer to the propagation of [[information]] or [[matter]] faster than the [[speed of light]]. This concept is a staple of the [[science fiction]] genre, and is also the subject of ongoing scientific study.
{{unsolved|physics|Is it possible to go faster than the speed of light? If so, would it violate the theoretical principles of the universe?}}
== Terminology ==
In the context of this article, FTL actually refers to the transmission of information or matter faster than ''c'', a constant equal to the [[speed of light]] in a vacuum, roughly 300 million metres per second. This is not quite the same as travelling faster than light, since:
* There are some processes which do propagate faster than ''c'', but which can't actually carry information (See the [[#Apparent FTL|Apparent FTL]] section in this article).
* Light itself will travel at a speed slower than ''c'' when not in a vacuum (causing [[refraction]]), and in certain materials other particles can travel faster than that speed (but still slower than ''c''), leading to [[Cherenkov radiation]].
Neither of these phenomena violate special relativity or create problems with causality, and thus do not qualify as ''FTL'' as described here.
== Possibility of FTL ==
Faster-Than-Light travel or communication is problematic in a universe that is consistent with Einstein's [[Theory of relativity|Theory of Relativity]]. In a hypothetical universe where [[Newton's laws of motion]] and the [[Galilean_transformation|Galilean transformations]] are exact, rather than approximate, the following would be true:
* Space and time measurements always give the same results in every '[[frame of reference]]'
* Velocities add linearly
* There is nothing fundamental about the [[wave velocity]] of light
* [[Absolute simultaneity|Simultaneity]] is a well-defined concept
However, according to Einstein's theory of [[Special relativity|Special Relativity]], what we measure as the [[speed of light]] in a vacuum is actually the fundamental physical constant ''c''. This means that all observers, regardless of their [[acceleration]] or relative [[velocity]], will always measure zero-mass particles (e.g., [[graviton]]s as well as [[photon]]s) naturally traveling at ''c''. This result means that measurements of space, time, and velocity are ''not'' consistent between different reference frames, but are instead related by the [[Lorentz transformation|Lorentz transformations]]. These transformations have important implications:
* To accelerate an object of non-zero [[Mass in special relativity|rest mass]] to ''c'' would require infinite time with any finite acceleration, or infinite acceleration for a finite amount of time
* Either way, such acceleration requires infinite energy. Going beyond the speed of light in a homogeneous space would hence require more than infinite energy, which is not a sensible notion.
Because of this, there appear to be only five ways to justify Faster-Than-Light behavior:
=== Option A: Ignore special relativity. ===
This is the simplest solution, and is particularly popular in [[science fiction]]. Empirical evidence unanimously affirms that the universe obeys Einstein's laws rather than Newton's where they disagree. And while physicists consider [[General relativity|General Relativity]] only an approximation (due to its incompatibility with [[quantum mechanics]]), virtually all consider special relativity exact, and there appear to be no serious theoretical challenges to its supremacy.
=== Option B: Get light to go faster. ===
Einstein's equations of special relativity posit that the speed of
light is invariant in inertial frames. That is, it will be the same from
any frame of reference moving at a constant speed. The equations do not
specify any particular value for the speed of the light itself. That is
an experimentally determined quantity.
The experimental determination has been made in vacuum. However the
vacuum we know is not the only possible vacuum which can exist. The
vacuum has energy associated with it, called the [[vacuum energy]]. This
vacuum energy can be changed in certain cases. When vacuum energy is
lowered, light itself can go faster than the standard value 'c'. Such
a vacuum can be produced by bringing two perfectly smooth metal plates
together at near atomic diameter spacing. It is called a [[Casimir effect#Vacuum energy|Casimir vacuum]].
Calculations show light will go faster in such a vacuum. However,
there has been no experimental verification, since the technology to
detect the change isn't yet available.
Einstein's equations of special relativity have an implicit assumption
of homogeneity. Space is assumed to be the same everywhere. In the case
of the Casimir vacuum, this assumption is clearly violated. Inside the
Casimir vacuum, we have homogeneous space, and outside it, we have
homogeneous space as well. Inside the Casimir vacuum, the equations of
special relativity will apply with the increased value of the speed of
light. Outside it, the equations of special relativity will apply with
the normal 'c'. However, when considering two frames of reference, one
inside the vacuum, and one outside, the equations of special relativity
can no longer be applied, since the assumption of homogeneity has been
broken. In other words, the [[Casimir effect]] breaks up space into distinct
homogeneous regions, each of which obey the special relativity laws
separately.
=== Option C: Give up causality. ===
An other approach is to accept special relativity, but to posit that mechanisms allowed by General Relativity (e.g., [[Wormhole|wormholes]]) will allow traveling between two points without going through the intervening space. While this gets around the infinite acceleration problem, it still would lead to [[closed timelike curve]]s (i.e., time travel) and causality violations. Causality is not required by special or general relativity, but is nonetheless considered a basic property of the universe that should not be abandoned. Because of this, most physicists expect (or perhaps hope) that [[quantum gravity]] effects will preclude this option. An alternative is to conjecture that, while time travel is possible, it somehow never leads to paradoxes; this is the [[Novikov self-consistency principle]].
Note that causality is often misunderstood in this context. Just seeing
time in another frame pass in reverse does not violate causality. In a
sense, this is equivalent to recording an event and playing it in
reverse. It is the ability to send a signal back to the past that violates
causality. Moving faster than the speed of light will enable a person
to view events in another frame in reverse time. But just motion faster
than light alone does not allow the sending of signals back into the
past of the other frame. Many cases of faster than light travel do allow
such signalling, and hence are considered unviable. But it is not a
must that causality violation result from faster than light travel.
=== Option D: Give up (absolute) relativity. ===
Due to the strong empirical support for special relativity, any modifications to it must necessarily be quite subtle and difficult to measure. The most well-known attemp |
ion about the seventh book from an analysis of Chapterhouse Dune
[[Category:1985 books]]
[[Category:Frank Herbert novels]]
[[Category:Dune universe media]]
[[es:Casa Capitular Dune]]
[[fr:La Maison des Mères]]</text>
</revision>
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<page>
<title>Computer bus</title>
<id>6631</id>
<revision>
<id>42022527</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T07:22:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ihatethetv</username>
<id>1015491</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Serial + I2C */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer architecture]], a '''bus''' is a subsystem that transfers data or power between computer components inside a [[computer]] or between computers. Unlike a point-to-point connection, a bus can logically connect several [[peripheral]]s over the same set of wires. Each bus defines its set of [[connector]]s to physically plug devices, cards or cables together.
Early computer buses were literally parallel [[electrical bus]]es with multiple connections, but the term is now used for any physical arrangement that provides the same logical functionality as a parallel electrical bus. Modern computer buses can use both parallel and bit-serial connections, and can be wired in either a [[multidrop]] (electrical parallel) or [[daisy chain]] topology, or connected by switched hubs, as in the case of [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]].
== History ==
Early [[computer]] buses were bundles of wire that attached memory and peripherals. They were named after [[Electrical bus|electrical buses]], or busbars. Almost always, there was one bus for memory, and another for peripherals, and these were accessed by separate instructions, with completely different timings and protocols.
One of the first complications was the use of [[interrupt]]s. Early computers performed [[Input/output|I/O]] by waiting in a loop for the peripheral to become ready. This was a waste of time for programs that had other tasks to do. Also, if the program attempted to perform those other tasks, it might take too long for the program to check again, resulting in lost data. Engineers thus arranged for the peripherals to interrupt the CPU. The interrupts had to be prioritised, because the CPU can only execute code for one peripheral at a time, and some devices are more time-critical than others.
Some time after this, some computers (such as the [[RCA Spectra]], running [[Multics]]) began to share memory between several CPUs. On these computers, access to the bus had to be prioritised, as well.
The classic, simple way to prioritise interrupts or bus access was with a [[daisy chain]].
[[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] noted that having two buses seemed wasteful and expensive for small, mass-produced computers, and mapped peripherals into the memory bus, so that the devices appeared to be memory locations. At the time, this was a very daring design. Cynics predicted failure.
Early [[microcomputer]] bus systems were essentially a passive [[backplane]] connected to the pins of the [[Central processing unit|CPU]]. Memory and other devices would be added to the bus using the same address and data pins as the CPU itself used, connected in parallel. In some instances, such as the [[IBM PC]], instructions still generated signals at the CPU that could be used to implement a true I/O bus.
In many microcontrollers and [[embedded systems]], an I/O bus still does not exist. Communication is controlled by the [[Central processing unit|CPU]], which reads and writes data from the devices as if they are blocks of memory (in most cases), all timed by a central clock controlling the speed of the CPU. Devices ask for service by signalling on other CPU pins, typically using some form of [[interrupt]].
For instance, a [[disk drive]] controller would signal the CPU that new data was ready to be read, at which point the CPU would move the data by reading the memory that corresponded to the disk drive. Almost all early computers were built in this fashion, starting with the [[S-100 bus]] in the [[Altair 8800|Altair]], and continuing through the [[IBM PC]] in the [[1980s]].
These simple bus systems had a serious drawback for general-purpose computers. All the equipment on the bus has to talk at the same speed, and thus shares a single clock.
Increasing the speed of the CPU is not a simple matter, because the speed of all the devices must increase as well. This often leads to odd situations where very fast CPUs have to "slow down" in order to talk to other devices in the computer. While acceptable in [[embedded system]]s, this problem was not tolerated for long in commercial computers.
Another problem is that the CPU is required for all operations, so if it becomes busy with other tasks, the real [[throughput]] of the bus could suffer dramatically.
Such bus systems are difficult to configure when constructed from common off-the-shelf equipment. Typically each added PC board requires many [[jumper]]s in order to set memory addresses, I/O addresses, interrupt priorities, and interrupt numbers.
"Second generation" bus systems like '''[[NuBus]]''' addressed some of these problems. They typically separated the computer into two "worlds", the CPU and memory on one side, and the various devices on the other, with a ''bus controller'' in between. This allowed the CPU to increase in speed without affecting the bus. This also moved much of the burden for moving the data out of the CPU and into the cards and controller, so devices on the bus could talk to each other with no CPU intervention. This led to much better "real world" performance, but also required the cards to be much more complex. These buses also often addressed speed issues by being "bigger" in terms of the size of the data path, moving from 8-bit [[parallel bus]]es in the first generation, to 16 or 32-bit in the second, as well as adding software setup (now standardised as [[Plug-n-play]]) to supplant or replace the jumpers.
However these newer systems shared one quality with their earlier cousins, in that everyone on the bus had to talk at the same speed. While the CPU was now insulated and could increase speed without fear, CPUs and memory continued to increase in speed much faster than the buses they talked to. The result was that the bus speeds were now very much slower than what a modern system needed, and the machines were left starved for data. A particularly common example of this problem was that [[video card]]s quickly outran even the newer bus systems like '''[[Peripheral Component Interconnect|PCI]]''', and computers began to include the '''[[AGP]]''' bus just to drive the video card. By [[2004]] AGP was outgrown again by high-end video cards and is being replaced with the new '''[[PCI Express]]''' bus.
An increasing number of external devices started employing their own bus systems as well. When disk drives were first introduced, they would be added to the machine with a card plugged into the bus, which is why computers have so many slots on the bus. But through the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]], new systems like '''[[SCSI]]''' and '''[[Integrated Drive Electronics|IDE]]''' were introduced to serve this need, leaving most slots in modern systems empty. Today there are likely to be about five different buses in the typical machine, supporting various devices.
A useful differentiation then became popular, the concept of the '''local bus''' as opposed to '''external bus'''. The former referred to bus systems that were designed to be used with internal devices, such as graphics cards, and the latter to buses designed to add external devices such as [[image scanner|scanner]]s. Note, though, that "local" also referred to the greater proximity to the processor of VL-Bus and PCI than ISA. IDE is an external bus in terms of how it is used, but is almost always found inside the machine.
"Third generation" buses are now in the process of coming to market, including '''[[HyperTransport]]''' and '''[[InfiniBand]]'''. They typically include features that allow them to run at the very high speeds needed to support memory and video cards, while also supporting lower speeds when talking to slower devices such as disk drives. They also tend to be very flexible in terms of their physical connections, allowing them to be used both as internal buses, as well as connecting different machines together. This can lead to complex problems when trying to service different requests, so much of the work on these systems concerns software design, as opposed to the hardware itself. In general, these third generation buses tend to look more like a [[computer network|network]] than the original concept of a bus, with a higher protocol overhead needed than early systems, while also allowing multiple devices to use the bus at once.
On another track, integrated circuits are increasingly being designed from predesigned logic, "intellectual property." Buses such as [[Wishbone (computer bus)|Wishbone]] have been developed to permit devices on integrated circuits to talk to one another.
==Description==
At one time, "bus" meant an electrically parallel system, with electrical conductors similar or identical to the pins on the CPU. This is no longer the case, and modern systems are blurring the lines between buses and networks.
Buses can be [[parallel bus]]es, which carry data words striped across multiple wires, or [[serial bus]]es, which carry data in bit-serial form. The addition of extra power and control connections, differential drivers, and data connections in each direction usually means that most serial buses have more conductors than the minimum of two used in the [[I²C]] serial bus. As data rates increase, the problems of [[timing skew]] and [[crosstalk]] across parallel buses become more and more difficult to circumvent. One partial solution t |
s it was intended, in its main major key. On a diatonic, starting note is hole 1 blow. On a C-chromatic, starting hole is the same, resulting in C major scale
*2nd position (or "cross harp"): Mixolydian mode. playing the harmonica in a key a fifth above its intended key. Playing just the unbended notes, this position gives the [[mixolydian mode|mixolydian scale]] between 2 draw and 6 blow. However, bending the 3 draw allows the player to play a minor third (or a blue third), allowing a player to use a C harmonica to play in G mixolydian or G minor. Blues players can also play a tritone in this position by bending the 4 draw. See a more extensive discussion of this position at the [[blues harp|article on blues harp]]. On a diatonic, starting note is hole 2 draw or hole 3 blow. On a C-chromatic, starting hole is hole 3 blow, resulting in G major with a flatted 7th.
*3rd position (or "slant harp"): Dorian mode. Playing the harmonica a full tone above its intended key. This gives a [[dorian mode|dorian scale]] between 4 draw and 8 draw, though once again bends and overblows give players a variety of options. Blues players can achieve a tritone by bending the 6 draw. On a diatonic, starting hole is hole 1 draw. On a C-chromatic, starting hole is hole 1 draw, resulting in D-minor with a raised 6th. This is the traditional way of playing Blues on Chromatic.
The terminology for other positions is slightly more varied, though it is possible of course to play in any of the modes and, using overblows and bends, it is possible to play in all 12 keys on a single harmonica — though this is very rarely done on a diatonic, while chromatic harmonica players may prefer having numerous chromatics in different keys, due to difficulties in chord construction.
===Breaking in a Harmonica===
Harmonica players disagree on the need to break in the reeds of a new harmonica, and on break in technique. Even among those that favor a break in period, numerous techniques appear: some may prefer to play a new harmonica for several hours without bending notes; others prefer to play short licks as frequent as possible with reasonable break in between, as recommended by acclaimed harmonica repairer Douglas Tate. Although not recommended (many manufacteurers are against this practice), some players break in their harmonicas by soaking them in warm water, and even beer, whiskey, or vodka; this is common for past [[blues harp]] players. Other players have made break in devices out of low volume car vacuum's to accomplish this task.
== History ==
The harmonica developed from the intense interests in free-reeds which arose in [[Europe]] in the early [[19th century]]. While free-reeds had been fairly common throughout East [[Asia]] for centuries and known in Europe for some time before this period, around [[1820]] there was a virtual eruption of new free-reed designs in Europe and [[North America]]. While a young Friederich Ludwig Buschmann is often cited as the inventor of the harmonica in [[1821]], it was almost certainly a case of simultaneous development amongst several inventors working independently with mouth-blown free-reed instruments appearing in the [[United States|U.S.]], [[Britain]] and on the [[Europe|continent]] at roughly the same time. In 1825, Richter tuning was developed, while in 1857, Matthias Hohner, a clockmaker, purchased one of Buschmann's harmonica, and became the first person to mass-produce it. Sometime by the [[1850s]], the diatonic harmonica had more or less found its modern form and the other diatonic types followed soon thereafter (the various tremolo and [[octave]] harmonicas). By the late 19th century, harmonica production was big business and had evolved from a handcraft into mass-production with figures well into the millions, a status which continues to this day. New designs continued to be developed in the [[20th century]] including the [[chromatic harmonica]], the bass harmonica, the chord harmonica and others. Even in the [[21st century]] radical new designs such as the Suzuki Overdrive and Hohner XB-40 continue to be brought to market.
The harmonicas massive success is attributable to many factors. First, it is a fairly easy instrument to play. Of, course, some talent is necessary to play. The diatonic harmonicas were designed primarily for the playing of [[Germany|German]] and other European [[folk music]]s and are extremely successful for that. However, probably unintentionally the basic design and tuning was extremely adaptable to other types of music such as the [[blues]], [[country music|country]], old-time and similar. Second, the majority of harmonicas are quite small--often small enough to unobtrusively fit in a pocket. Third, harmonicas are cheap - amongst the most inexpensive of musical instruments available while not being intended as a toy. Fourth, harmonicas are fairly easy to manufacture and their simple construction allowed for industrial level production without sacrificing the quality of a hand-crafted instrument, unlike most [[string instruments]] or other [[wind instruments]]. For these reasons the harmonica was a success almost from the very start of production, and while the center of the harmonica business has shifted from Germany the output of the various harmonica manufacturers is still very high indeed. Major companies are now found in Germany ([[:de:C. A. Seydel Söhne|Seydel]], [[Hohner]] - once the dominant manufacturer in the world, producing some 20 million harmonicas alone in [[1920]] when German manufacturing totaled over 50 million harmonicas), [[Japan]] ([[Suzuki]], [[Tombo]], [[Yamaha Corporation|Yamaha]]), China (Huang, Leo Shi, Suzuki, Hohner) and Brasil (Hering). Ironically, as the demand for higher quality instruments which respond to more demanding performance techniques has increased, there has been a resurgence in the world of hand-crafted harmonicas which cater to those wanting the absolute best without the compromises inherent in mass manufacturing.
==='''Europe and North America'''===
The first recordings of harmonica were made in the [[United States|U.S.]] in the [[1920s]]. These recordings are mainly 'race-records', intended for the black market of the southern states. They consist mainly of solo recordings ([[DeFord Bailey]]), duo recordings with a guitarist ([[Hammie Nixon]], [[Walter Horton]], [[Sonny Terry]]) or recordings featuring the harmonica in some kind of novelty act called the 'Jug Band', of which the [[Memphis Jug Band]] is the most famous. But the harmonica still represented a toy instrument in those years and was associated with the poor. It is also during those years that musicians started experimenting with new techniques such as tongue-blocking, hand effects and the most important innovation of all, the 2nd position, or cross-harp.
The harmonica then made its way with the blues and the black migrants to the north, mainly to Chicago but also to Detroit, St. Louis and New York. The music played by the [[Afro-American]]s started to become increasingly different there. The main difference is the electric amplification of the instrument: first the [[guitar]] and then the [[harp]], [[double bass]], [[vocals]], etc. The original [[Sonny Boy Williamson]] is the most important harmonicist of this era. Using a full blues band, he became one of the most popular acts of Chicago. He also installed for good the [[blues harp|cross-harp]] technique, opening the possibilities of harp playing to new sky. It is hard to imagine how much influence he would have had on the blues, if he had lived longer. Unfortunately, Sonny Boy liked to bring women from the audience on stage and dance with them as he played, and he eventually was stabbed by a [[jealousy|jealous]] husband.
But the harmonica didn't die with him. A young harmonicist by the name of Marion "[[Little Walter]]" Jacobs would completely revolutionize the instrument. He had the idea to play the harmonica near a microphone (typically a "Brown Bullet" microphone marketed for use by radio [[Taxicab#Dispatching|taxi dispatcher]]s, giving it a "punchy" midrange sound that can be heard above radio static, or an [[electric guitar]]) and cup his hands around it, thus tightening the air around the harp, giving it a powerful, distorted sound, sometimes reminiscent of a [[saxophone]]. This technique, combined with a great [[virtuoso|virtuosity]] on the instrument made him arguably the most influential harmonicist in history. It is almost impossible nowadays to find a harp player who wasn't influenced by Walter. Unfortunately, Little Walter also died young, from injuries suffered in a fight.
Little Walter's only contender was perhaps [[Big Walter Horton]]. Relying less on the possibilities of amplification (although he made great use of it) than on sheer skill, Big Walter was the favored harmonicist of many [[Chicago]] leaders, including [[Muddy Waters]] and [[Willie Dixon]]. He graced many sides of Waters in the mid-fifties with extremely colorful solos, using the full register of his instrument as well as some chromatic harmonica. The only reason he is less known than Little Walter is because of his taciturn personality and his inconsistency, and his incapacity of holding a band as a leader.
Other great harmonicists have graced the Chicago blues records of the [[1950s]]. [[Howling Wolf]] is often overlooked as a harp player, but his early recordings demonstrate great skill, particularly at blowing powerful riffs with the instrument. [[James Cotton]] is also a household name of the [[Chicago Blues]] scene. He used a less amplified tone, relying on hand effects, giving his playing a country blues feeling to it. [[Sonny Boy Williamson II]] also used the possibilities of hand effects to give a very talkative feel to his harp playing. A number of his compositions have also become standards in the blues world.
The [[1960s]] and [[1 |
1942. The text verifies this and I only changed the quick facts on the right side</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox World's Tallest Building
|building_name= Chrysler Building
|image= [[Image:Chrysler Building detail.jpg|center|220px|A closeup view of the Chrysler Building's upper tower]]
|previous_building= [[40 Wall Street]]
|year_built= [[1930]]
|surpassed_by_building= [[Empire State Building]]
|year_end= [[1931]]
|location= [[New York City]], [[USA]]
|height_meters= 282 (roof)
|height_feet= 925 (roof)
|height_stories= 77
| construction_period= [[1928]]-[[1930]]
|destroyed=
|emporis_id=114867}}
{{Infobox Skyscraper/Tallest
|roof= 282.0 m
|top_floor= 274.0 m
|antenna_spire= 318.9 m
|floor_area= 111,201 m²
|elevator_count= 32
|architect= [[William Van Alen]]|}}
Completed in [[1930]], the '''Chrysler Building''' is a distinctive symbol of [[New York City]], standing 1,048 feet (319 m) high on the east side of [[Manhattan]] at the intersection of [[42nd Street]] and [[Lexington Avenue (Manhattan)|Lexington Avenue]]. Originally built for the [[Chrysler Corporation]], the building is presently co-owned by TMW Real Estate (75%) and Tishman Speyer Properties (25%). The Chrysler Building was the first structure in the world to surpass the 1,000 foot threshold.
==History==
The Chrysler building was [[design]]ed by [[William van Alen]] for a contractor, [[William H. Reynolds]], the same man who dreamed up [[Dreamland (amusement park)|Dreamland]], a by-gone [[amusement park]] of [[Coney Island]]'s heyday. The design was subsequently sold to [[Walter Chrysler|Walter P. Chrysler]] as a home for his company's headquarters.
At the time the building was erected, the builders of New York were in the throes of a stiff competition to build the world's tallest [[skyscraper]]. The Chrysler building was constructed at an average rate of 4 [[floor]]s per week, and no workers were killed during construction. Just prior to completion, the building stood even with [[H. Craig Severance]]'s [[40 Wall Street]]. Mr. Severance subsequently added two feet to his building, and claimed the title of the world's tallest building (this distinction excluded "structures", such as the [[Eiffel Tower]].)
Not one to be outdone, Mr. van Alen had already secretly obtained permission to build a 185 foot (58.4 m) spire, which was being constructed inside of the building. The spire, composed of 'Nirosta' [[stainless steel]], was hoisted to the top of the building on October 23, [[1929]], making the Chrysler Building not only the world's tallest building, but also the world's tallest structure. Van Alen and Chrysler enjoyed this distinction for less than a year, before it was surrendered to the [[Empire State Building]]. Unfortunately, Mr. van Alen's satisfaction was muted by Walter Chrysler's refusal to pay his fee. The Chrysler Building opened to the public on [[May 27]], [[1930]].
==Architecture==
The Chrysler Building is an example of [[Art Deco]] architecture, and the distinctive ornamentation of the tower is based on the [[hubcap]]s that were then being used on Chrysler automobiles. The building is also arguably the best example of the Art Deco period of New York architecture, which was noted as perhaps the most beautiful period of development of buildings in the city.
The lobby is similarly elegant. When the building first opened it contained a public viewing [[gallery]] near the top, which a few years later was changed into a restaurant, but neither of these enterprises was able to be financially self sustaining during the [[Great Depression]] and the former observation floor became a [[Cloud Club|private club]]. The very top stories of the building are narrow with low sloped ceilings, designed mostly for exterior appearance with interiors useful only to hold radio broadcasting and other mechanical and electrical equipment.
In more recent years the Chrysler Building has continued to be a favorite among New Yorkers. In the summer of 2005, New York's own [[Skyscraper Museum]] asked one hundred architects, builders, critics, engineers, historians, and scholars, among others, to choose their 10 favorites among 25 New York towers. The Chrysler Building came in first place as 90% of them placed the building in their top 10 favorite buildings. [http://select.nytimes.com/search/restricted/article?res=F70B13FC3C550C728CDDA00894DD404482]
==Images==
<gallery>
Image:ChryslerBuildingConstruction1929.jpg
Image:Chrysler building.jpg
Image:Chrysler_building_from_street_2.jpg
Image:Chrysler_Building-HP.jpg
Image:Chrysler building from east.jpg
Image:Chrysler building- top.jpg
Image:Chrysler_lobby.JPG
</gallery>
==The building in popular culture==
* In the movie ''[[Armageddon (film)|Armageddon]]'', a chunk of the asteroid hits the Chrysler Building, severing its upper quarter and causing it to crash down on the streets.
* Larry Cohen's low budget classic movie ''Q: The Winged Serpent'' (1982) has the titular dragon-beast nesting just below the spire of the Chrysler Building, from where it launches its campaign of terror on New York City, staying invisible to the citizens by "flying against the sun".
* In the animated series ''[[Spider-Man]]'', one of the main villains, Kingpin, runs his crime syndicate from the Chrysler Building. The upper floors had launch and landing facilities for [[VTOL]]-capable aircraft.
* In the movie ''[[Godzilla_(1998_film)|Godzilla]]'' two [[AH-64|Apache]] helicopters accidently blow up the building while chasing the gigantic beast through [[Manhattan|Midtown]].
* In the [[video game]] ''[[Parasite Eve]]'', the building is a site of a thorough hostile creature infestation. The secret "true" [[boss (video game)|boss]] is on the top floor.
* Artist [[Matthew Barney]] narrates the construction of the Chrysler Building (which is itself a character) in the [[art film]] ''[[The Cremaster Cycle#Cremaster_3_.282002.29|Cremaster 3]]''.
==See also==
* [[Buildings and architecture of New York City]]
* [[50 Tallest buildings in the U.S.]]
* [[Tallest buildings in New York City]]
* [[World's tallest structures]]
* [[List of buildings]]
==External links==
{{Commonscat|Chrysler Building}}
* [http://www.cbsforum.com/cgi-bin/articles/partners/cbs/search.cgi?template=display&dbname=cbsarticles&key2=chrysler&action=searchdbdisplay The story of Chrysler Building] - by [http://www.cbsforum.com/ CBS Forum]
* [http://www.salon.com/ent/masterpiece/2002/02/25/chrysler/ Salon.com article (02/2002)]
* [http://perrin.olivier.free.fr/new_york_2005/Chrysler%20Building/index.html Newyork-evasion gallery of photographs on the Chrysler Building]
* [http://www.bobjagendorf.smugmug.com/gallery/605886.com Views Of The Chrysler Building]
* [http://www.nycfoto.com/showPage.php?albumID=65 NYCfoto.com] - Photos of Chrysler Building
* [http://newyorkbirds.free.fr/manhattan/lower%20midtown/chrysler%20building/index.php Air photographs]
* [http://www.nyc-architecture.com/MID/MID021.htm New York Architecture Images-the Chrysler Building]
{{New York City}}
{{Supertall}}
[[Category:Skyscrapers in New York City]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Manhattan]]
[[Category:Art Deco]]
[[Category:Skyscrapers between 300 and 349 meters]]
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[[es:Edificio Chrysler]]
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[[zh:克萊斯勒大廈]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Condiment for seasoning minestrone</title>
<id>6789</id>
<revision>
<id>15904907</id>
<timestamp>2003-08-24T03:13:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TUF-KAT</username>
<id>8351</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moving to minestrone</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Minestrone]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cape Breton</title>
<id>6790</id>
<revision>
<id>34669262</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-10T22:21:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>142.167.199.161</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Sports teams */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{TOCright}}
'''Cape Breton''' can refer to several different things:
==Geographic locations==
*[[Cape Breton Island]], a [[Canada|Canadian]] island on the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] coast.
*[[Cape Breton County, Nova Scotia]]
*[[Cape Breton Highlands]]
==Communities==
*[[Cape Breton Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia]] (CBRM)
==Companies==
* [[Cape Breton Development Corporation]]
==National parks==
* [[Cape Breton Highlands National Park]]
==Universities==
*[[Cape Breton University]]
==Sports teams==
* [[Cape Breton Screaming Eagles]]
* [[Cape Breton Oilers]]
* [[Cape Breton Crush]]
==Electoral districts==
*[[Cape Breton (electoral district)]]
*[[Cape Breton North and Victoria]]
*[[Cape Breton South]]
*[[Cape Breton—Canso]]
==Political parties==
* [[Cape Breton Labour Party]]
==Newspapers==
* [[Cape Breton Post]]
==Accents==
* [[Cape Breton accent]]
==Railways==
* [[Cape Breton and Central Nova Scotia Railway]]
==Music==
* [[Cape Breton fiddling]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CND</title>
<id>6792</id>
<revision>
<id>15904910</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-24T15:59:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andre Engels</username>
<id>300</id>
</contributor>
<comment>changed acronym explanation into a redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament]].</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament</title>
<id>6793</id>
<revision>
<id>42011274</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:0 |
ce Essence, and so undergoes the Spice Trance. Gurney thinks it is on Jessica's instructions but it is really Alia's.
Leto goes through the transformatory experience. Leto experiences fascinating and overwhelming oracular visions of possible futures. He nearly loses his mind, but in the end he manages to get through it. In all these futures but one, humanity goes extinct. This future is the one he has deemed the Golden Path.
In his vision of the Golden Path, he sees the way out of his dilemma. He does this by seeking allies within the ancestors for the future, principally an old ruler from the distant past named Harum. These allies within join with him in order to make the Golden Path happen. After his experience he is tested by Namri, and survives the first test. Before they can test him again, he escapes into the desert. When they discover Leto gone, Namri and Gurney argue. Namri tells Gurney that he has been serving Alia, not Jessica as he thought, and attacks him. This was a serious mistake: Gurney kills him easily and silently escapes from Jacurutu.
Alia and Duncan meet up again. Alia is shocked to learn her mother is not dead and is indeed training Farad'n. She is not aware that this was deliberate 'treachery' on Duncan's part, instead she thinks it is his innocence, that led him to take her literally. However, Alia/The Baron decides to arrange an accident for Duncan, seeing him as too dangerous. Duncan, as a mentat, sees through her clumsy plot, pretends to agree with her plans, and then escapes in a thopter.
Leto's escape is not a complete one. He discovers that Namri had cut the heel pumps in his stillsuit and he has lost half his water. So he goes to Shuloch on his own terms. He meets a party of the men of Jucurutu/Shuloch, and through subterfuge gets Muriz, the leader, to offer him hospitality rights.
Leto discovers at Shuloch that these Fremen are trapping Giant Worms for sale and transfer off world. This presents him with the opportunity to make his vision real. Leto sacrifices his humanity and, for the sake of the survival of the human race, chooses to accept the body of a sandworm. He dives into a pool of sandtrout, which form a living skin around him. He then explores the desert with his new, near-invulnerable body with which he runs through the desert at tremendous speed and possesses the strength of many men. Leto is no longer fully human, and his powers have become superhuman.
Leto travels through the desert until he comes across the Preacher. He puts himself across the path of the worm which the Preacher and his guide are travelling on. Despite the guide's urging, the giant worm refuses to ride over Leto, recognising the sandtrout on Leto's body. Leto greets his father. It is a terrible moment for Paul Atreides, facing a son who had the bravery to do what he would not.
Stilgar has been maintaining his neutrality between Alia and the rebels. But Duncan Idaho deliberately provokes Stilgar into a rage by killing Javid, and then insulting Stilgar. The maddened Stilgar kills him. Stilgar immediately recognizes Idaho's plan. By killing him, Stilgar has no choice but to become a rebel to escape the vengeance which Alia would be forced to display for the public murder of her husband. By his actions, Idaho forced Stilgar to flee, taking Ghanima away from Alia's reach.
Alia hears of Duncan's death. She does the expected Fremen thing and orders her forces to find Stilgar and kill him. After doing this, and much to the internal Baron's surprise she grieves for Duncan, and for a moment returns to being just Alia.
While conflict continues between the rebels and the loyalists and as Stilgar flees from hiding place to hiding place, Leto spends his time moving through the desert wrecking the ecological transformation of Arrakis by destroying the reservoirs (Qanats) that were being used to feed it. He is seen as a desert demon. Leto makes his base at Jacurutu. He kills all who oppose him, and Jacurutu accepts his orders with religious awe: he wears the skin of Shai-Hulud.
After long conflict, Alia manages to recapture Ghanima through treachery. She offers Ghanima as bride to Farad'n. Ghanima agrees to this wedding, but only so she can get close enough to Farad'n, who, she believes, had her brother assassinated, to kill him. Farad'n arrives on Dune for the ceremony.
Leto makes his move. He goes to Arakeen as The Preacher's guide. Paul as the Preacher makes a virulent speech against Alia, which provokes a priest to kill him in front of the eyes of Alia, Farad'n and Jessica. At this point Leto arrives with Ghanima, to everyone's shock. He says the keywords to awaken Ghanima's secret memories. She asks him if the plan worked, and he says "well enough." Alia orders the guards to seize him, but he throws them aside, and they are too scared to enter the room. Leto advances on Alia, and offers his help to fight the inner lives within. This causes Alia to break down, she fragments totally, and different voices in different languages pour out of her, until finally the Old Baron takes control. He is confronted by Leto and Jessica, and they urge Alia to fight him. She does so by hurling herself out of the window to her death.
Leto makes himself emperor. He uses his new near-invulnerable body to establish himself as undisputed Emperor, scaring all the Fremen naibs into submission. He ingests poisons, lifts heavy weights, and survives wounds from blades in order to prove this power. In the end all the naibs come to Arakeen to surrender leadership to him.
Leto reveals the [[Golden Path]] to Farad'n. Farad'n, whom Leto renames Harq al-Ada, accepts a post at Leto's empire, gives Leto his legions of [[Sardaukar]], and agrees to marry Ghanima in secret.
Leto Atreides's position as God Emperor of the galaxy is secure. With his armies, prescience, and ancestral memories he cannot be defeated, and with an iron hand rules the human race for millennia, forcing it down his Golden Path.
[[Category:1976 books|Children of Dune]]
[[Category:Frank Herbert novels|Children of Dune]]
[[Category:Science fiction novels|Children of Dune]]
[[Category:Dune universe media]]
[[es:Hijos de Dune]]
[[fr:Les Enfants de Dune]]
[[ru:Дети Дюны (фантастический роман)]]
[[sv:Children of Dune]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Candide</title>
<id>6629</id>
<revision>
<id>41669481</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T23:27:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.153.160.185</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''Note: For the [[operetta]] based on the book, please see [[Candide (operetta)]].''
'''''Candide, ou l'Optimisme''''', ([[English language|English]]: ''Candide, or Optimism'') ([[1759]]) is a [[picaresque novel]] by [[the Enlightenment]] [[philosopher]] [[Voltaire]]. Voltaire never openly admitted to having written the controversial ''Candide''. The work is signed with a [[pseudonym]]: "Monsieur le docteur Ralph," literally "Dr. Ralph."
Sardonic in outlook, it follows the naïve protagonist Candide from his first exposure to the [[precept]] that "all is for the best in this, the best of all [[Possible world|possible worlds]]," and on through a series of adventures that dramatically disprove that precept even as the protagonist clings to it.
The novel [[satire|satirizes]] the philosophy of [[Gottfried Leibniz]] and is a showcase of the horrors of the [[18th century]] world. In ''Candide,'' Leibniz is represented by the philosopher [[Pangloss]], the tutor of the title character. Despite a series of misfortunes and misadventures, Pangloss continually asserts that ''tout est au mieux'' ("everything is for the best") and that he lives in ''le meilleur des mondes possibles'' ("[[Best of all possible worlds|the best of all possible worlds]]").
{{Wikisourcelang|fr|Candide|Candide}}
==Memorable passages from ''Candide''==
* In [[Great Britain]] at least, the best known passage is where it refers to the execution of the British Admiral [[John Byng]]: ''Dans ce pays-ci, il est bon de tuer de temps en temps un amiral pour encourager les autres.'' ("In this country, it is wise to kill an admiral from time to time to encourage the others.")
* The Venetian senator Pococurante's summing up for his simpler visitors his views of the authors whose works comprise his library. <br><br>''&laquo; Les sots admirent tout dans un auteur estimé. Je ne lis que pour moi ; je n'aime que ce qui est à mon usage. &raquo; Candide, qui avait été élevé à ne jamais juger de rien par lui-même, était fort étonné de ce qu'il entendait ; et Martin trouvait la façon de penser de Pococuranté assez raisonnable.''<br><br>English translation:<br><br>''"Fools admire everything in an author of reputation. For my part, I read only to please myself. I like only that which serves my purpose." Candide, having been educated never to judge for himself, was much surprised at what he heard. Martin found there was a good deal of reason in Pococurante's remarks.''
* Candide has just arrived in Holland, broke and starving, and is trying to beg from an anti-Catholic speaker for a few guilders to get a meal. <br>(English only) ''"My friend," said the orator to him, "do you believe the Pope to be Anti-christ?" "I have not heard it," answered Candide, "but whether he be, or whether he be not, I want bread." "Thou dost not deserve to eat," said the other. "Begone, rogue; begone, wretch; do not come near me again." The orator's wife, putting her head out of the window, and spying a man that doubted whether the Pope was Anti-christ, poured over him a full... Oh, heavens! to what excess does religious zeal carry the ladies.''
* The priests of Portugal decide to burn a few people at the stake after the [[Lisbon earthquake |
mics history.
Moore's run on Supreme has been collected in two trade paperback volumes, "Story Of The Year" and "The Return".
===From Hell===
{{main|From Hell}}
[[Image:From hell tpb.jpg|right|thumb|The cover of the ''From Hell'' collected edition. Art by [[Eddie Campbell]].]]
''From Hell'' is, in a different way, as intricately constructed as ''Watchmen'', but this time the intricacy is not of form but of message. It was partly inspired by [[Douglas Adams]]' novel ''[[Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency]]''; to solve a crime [[holism|holistically]], one would need to solve the entire society it occurred in. Moore's take on the [[Jack the Ripper]] murders is not a "[[whodunit]]": he spells out his (fictional) culprit and the reasons for his actions very early on. ''From Hell'' takes [[Stephen Knight]]'s largely discredited ''Final Solution'', slightly modified, as its starting point (see [[Jack the Ripper royal conspiracy theories]]): the killer is Sir [[William Withey Gull]], the royal surgeon, silencing all those who knew about [[Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence|Prince Albert Victor]]'s illegitimate child. But as Gull remarks, "Averting Royal embarrassment is but the fraction of my work that's visible above the waterline."
The murders are an occult ritual, a complex sacrifice using Victorian [[London]] itself as an altar. The symbolism of London's landmarks is explored in a ''tour de force'' chapter, in which Gull explains his motives to his uncomprehending coachman. Women had power over men once, Gull believes, and the irrational, [[Dionysus|Dionysian]] unconscious mind once dominated the rational, [[Apollo|Apollonian]] conscious mind. Gull is reason's lunatic, carrying out an act of magic to enforce the rational, masculine hegemony. Following the murder of Marie Kelly, Gull claims to have "delivered" the twentieth century, a mysterious statement perhaps clarified by the conception of [[Adolf Hitler]], depicted at the beginning of Chapter 5, which must have taken place in the month of the murders.
On a more prosaic level, Moore indicts the inequalities of Victorian society, contrasting Gull and the wealthy circles he moves in with the hand-to-mouth existence of the women he targets, the moral disgust shown at the peccadilloes of the poor with the depths the rich are prepared to sink to to protect the appearance of propriety, the imaginary [[Anti-Semitism|anti-Semitic]] conspiracy theories which divert the police's investigations with the real conspiracy that controls them. Just about every notable figure of the period is connected with the events in some way, from [[Joseph Merrick]], the "Elephant Man", to [[Oscar Wilde]], from the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] writer [[Black Elk]] to [[William Morris]], the artist [[Walter Sickert]] to [[Aleister Crowley]], who makes a brief appearance as a young boy in short trousers, sucking on a candy cane, and lecturing the police about magic.
Almost none of this made it into the film adaptation, which merely dramatised Knight's theory as a "whodunnit", with the addition of a psychic, [[opium]]-addicted police detective, who bears some superficial similarities to Sherlock Holmes. The finished film thus has many points of comparison with the 1979 [[Bob Clark]]-directed ''[[Murder by Decree]]'', which featured Holmes catching the Ripper in a dramatisation of the Knight theory.
Moore has always been at pains to point out that ''From Hell'' is fiction, and that he used Knight's theory for its artistic potential rather than its accuracy, yet he included an "author's statement" in the serialised publication of the epilogue which consisted of a blown-up panel from the prologue, depicting the psychic [[Robert Lees (psychic)|Robert Lees]] confessing that although his visions were accurate, they were fraudulent: "I made it all up, and it all came true anyway. That's the funny part."
==Prose==
Moore has written a novel, ''[[Voice of the Fire]]'', a set of short stories about linked events in his home-town of Northampton through the centuries, from the [[Bronze Age]] to the present day.
==Film==
Moore has written one [[screenplay]], the unmade ''Fashion Beast'', a recreation of ''[[Beauty and the Beast]]'' commissioned by [[Malcolm McLaren]]. Two of his comics, ''From Hell'' and ''The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen'', have been made into Hollywood movies, and the film ''Constantine'' was based upon the character John Constantine, which Moore created during his ''Swamp Thing'' run; however, Moore has been disappointed by the adaptations and refused to accept any money for any future film adaptations of his work, donating it instead to the artists with whom he created the respective characters. Nonetheless, a film of ''V for Vendetta'' is due for release in March 2006, written by the [[Wachowski brothers]] and starring [[Natalie Portman]]. Again, Moore requested that his name not be associated with the film, after seeing the script and calling it "imbecilic". After a press release falsely reported that Moore supported the film, Moore cut all of his ties with [[DC Comics]], removing the last project he had with the company, ''The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen'', from their lineup.
==Music and performance art==
Alan Moore has also made brief forays into music. Notably, with ex-[[Bauhaus (band)|Bauhaus]] musician [[David Jay]] and [[Max Akropolis]], he formed a band known as [[The Sinister Ducks]] and released a single, "March of the Sinister Ducks", under the pseudonym Translucia Baboon. Moore and Jay also released a [[12-inch single]] featuring a recording of "Vicious Cabaret", from ''V for Vendetta''. He has also performed with the Northampton band Emperors of Ice Cream.
Moore is a practising magician, having become a [[Gnosticism|gnostic]] in the mid-1990s, and part of a [[performance art]] group, the Moon and Serpent Grand Egyptian Theatre of Marvels. Several of their pieces have been released on CD, and two, ''[[The Birth Caul]]'' and ''[[Snakes and Ladders]]'', have been adapted for comics by [[Eddie Campbell]].
==Partial list of published work==
===Comics===
*''[[1963 (comic)|1963]]'', 6 issues (1993), [[Image Comics]]; with [[Stephen R. Bissette]], [[Rick Veitch]] and others,
*''Alan Moore's Shocking Futures'' (1986), [[Titan Books]]; reprints a selection of ''[[Future Shocks]]'' short strips originally published in ''[[2000 AD (comic) | 2000 AD]]'' between 1981 and 1983, with various artists. ISBN 0907610714
*''Alan Moore's Twisted Times'' (1987), Titan Books; reprints a selection of ''Time Twisters'' short strips originally published in ''2000 AD'' between 1980 and 1983, with various artists. ISBN 0907610722
*''[[Albion (comics)|Albion]]'', 6 issues (2005), Wildstorm (plotted by Alan Moore, written by [[Leah Moore]] & [[John Reppion]]
* ''[[The Ballad of Halo Jones]]'', with [[Ian Gibson (artist)|Ian Gibson]], ''[[2000 AD (comic) | 2000 AD]]'' progs 376-385, 405-415, 451-466, (1984-1986); collected in several editions by Titan Books
*''[[Batman: The Killing Joke]]'' (1988), [[DC Comics]]; with [[Brian Bolland]]
*"Batman: Mortal Clay", ''Batman Annual'' #11 (1987), DC Comics; with [[George Freeman]],
* ''[[Big Numbers]]'', 2 issues of a projected 12 (1990), [[Mad Love (comics)|Mad Love]]; with [[Bill Sienkiewicz]],
* ''[[The Bojeffries Saga]]'': ''[[Warrior (comic)|Warrior]]'' #12, 13, 19 & 20 (1983-1984), Quality Communications; ''[[Dalgoda]]'' #8 (1986), [[Fantagraphics Books]]; ''[[A1 (comics)|A1]]'' #1-4, ''A1 True Life Bikini Confidential'' (1989-1990), [[Atomeka Press]]; collected edition (1992) Tundra; with [[Steve Parkhouse]]
* ''[[Captain Britain]]'' (2002), [[Marvel Comics]]; reprinted from various Marvel UK Publications ca. 1983-1984; with [[Alan Davis]]
* ''[[DC Comics Presents]]'' #85 (September 1985) featuring [[Superman]] and [[Swamp Thing]]
* ''[[D.R. and Quinch]]'', ''[[2000 AD (comic) | 2000 AD]]'' progs 317, 350-359, 363-367 (1983-1984); collected in several editions by Titan Books; with Alan Davis
*''[[From Hell]]'': first 6 installments in ''Taboo'' #2-7 (1989-1992), SpiderBaby Graphics; 11 volumes (1991-1998), Mad Love/Tundra/[[Kitchen Sink Press]]; collected edition (1999) Eddie Campbell Comics; with [[Eddie Campbell]]
*''[[Green Lantern]]'' vol. 2 #188 (May 1985): "Mogo Doesn't Socialize"; with [[Dave Gibbons]])
*''[[The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen]]'' Volume 1, 6 issues (1999-2000), collected hardback edition (2001), paperback (2002), DC Comics/[[Wildstorm]]/[[America's Best Comics|ABC]]; with [[Kevin O'Neill (comics)|Kevin O'Neill]]
*''The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen'' Volume 2, 6 issues (2002-2003), collected hardback edition (2003), paperback (2004), DC Comics/Wildstorm/ABC; with Kevin O'Neill
* ''[[Lost Girls]]'': ''Taboo'' #5-7 (1991-1992), SpiderBaby Graphics; 2 issues (1995-1996) Kitchen Sink Press; with [[Melinda Gebbie]]
*''[[Marvelman]]'': ''[[Warrior (comic)|Warrior]]'' #1-21 (1982-1984), Quality Communications; ''Miracleman'' #1-16 (1985-1989), [[Eclipse Comics]]; collected in 3 volumes; with [[Garry Leach]], Alan Davis, [[John Totleben]] and others
*''Maxwell the Magic Cat'', 4 volumes (1986-1987), [[Acme Press]]; reprints weekly strip from Northants Post, originally published 1979-1986
* ''[[Meatcake]]'' #9 (1999), Fantagraphics Books; with [[Dame Darcy]]
* ''[[Promethea]]'', 32 issues (1999-2005), collected in 5 volumes, DC Comics/Wildstorm/ABC; with [[J.H. Williams III]] and others
* "Shadowplay: the Secret Team", ''[[Brought to Light]]'' (1989), Eclipse Comics; with Bill Sienkiewicz
* ''[[Skizz]]'', ''2000 AD'' progs 308-330 (1983); collected in several editions by Titan Books; with [[Jim Baikie]]
*''[[A Small Killing]]'' (1991), [[Victor Gollancz Ltd]]; republished (2003), Avatar Press; with [[Oscar Zarat |
ur brain on Ecstasy: MDMA Neurochemistry Slideshow] Slideshow that shows the chemical reactions in the brain that cause the effects of MDMA - hosted by Dancesafe.
* [http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/mdma/mdma.shtml Erowid's Ecstasy page] - lots of information
* [http://www.ndh.org.uk/facts_ecstasy.html UK National Drugs Line factsheet on Ecstasy]
* [http://www.acde.org/common/ecstasy.htm American Council for Drug Education factsheet on Ecstasy]
* http://www.ecstasy.org
* [http://www.mdma.net Utopian Pharmacology]. Detailed essay discussing the history and uses of MDMA
* [http://TheDEA.org TheDEA.org] An ecstasy user's guide with detailed discussions of risks and scientific research.
* [http://www.bruceeisner.com/writings/2004/09/mdma_personalit.html MDMA, Personality and Human Nature: The Power to Transform People]. Essay by [[Bruce Eisner]], author of Ecstasy: The MDMA Story
== References ==
* de la Torre, Rafael et al. (2000), Non-linear pharmacokinetics of MDMA (`ecstasy') in humans. ''Br J Clin Pharmacol'', 2000; 49(2):104-9
* de la Torre, Rafael & Farré, Magí (2004). Neurotoxicity of MDMA (ecstasy): the limitations of scaling from animals to humans. ''Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 25'', 505-508.
* Jennings, Peter. ''Ecstasy Rising'', [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] [[television]] documentary. 2004-01-04.
* Jones, Douglas C. et al. (2004). Thioether Metabolites of 3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine and 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine Inhibit Human Serotonin Transporter (hSERT) Function and Simultaneously Stimulate Dopamine Uptake into hSERT-Expressing SK-N-MC Cells. ''J Pharmacol Exp Ther 311'', 298-306.
* Kalant H. (2001) The pharmacology and toxicology of "ecstasy" (MDMA) and related drugs. ''[[CMAJ]]''. Oct 2;165(7):917-28. Review. PMID 11599334 [http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/165/7/917 Full Text]
* Miller, R.T. et al. (1997). 2,5-Bis-(glutathione-S-yl)-alpha-methyldopamine, a putative metabolite of (+/-)-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine, decreases brain serotonin concentrations. ''Eur J Pharmaco. 323(2-3)'', 173-80. Abstract retrieved Apr 17, 2005, from PubMed.
* Monks, T.J. et al. (2004). The role of metabolism in 3,4-(+)-methylenedioxyamphetamine and 3,4-(+)-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (ecstasy) toxicity. ''Ther Drug Monit 26(2)'', 132-136.
* Morgan, Michael John (2000). Ecstasy (MDMA): a review of its possible persistent psychological effects. ''Psychopharmacology 152'', 230-248.
* Strote, Jared et al. (2002). Increasing MDMA use among college students: results of a national survey. ''Journal of Adolescent Health 30'', 64-72.
* Sumnall, Harry R. & Cole, Jon C. (2005). Self-reported depressive symptomatology in community samples of polysubstance misusers who report Ecstasy use: a meta-analysis. ''Journal of Psychopharmacology 19(1)'', 84-92.
{{Entactogens}}
{{Amphetamines}}
{{Hallucinogenic phenethylamines}}
[[Category:Alkaloids]]
[[Category:Entactogens and Empathogens]]
[[Category:Class A drugs]]
[[Category:Schedule I controlled substances]]
[[Category:Psychedelic phenethylamines]]
{{Link FA|he}}
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>European flag</title>
<id>10025</id>
<revision>
<id>40420990</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T12:15:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jrleighton</username>
<id>140144</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Life in the European Union}}
[[Image:European flag.svg|thumb|left|250px|European flag, ratio 2:3]]
The '''European flag''' consists of a circle of twelve golden stars on a blue background.
Although the [[flag]] is most commonly associated with the [[European Union]] (EU), it was initially used by the [[Council of Europe]] (COE), and intended to represent [[Europe]] as a whole as opposed to any particular organisation such as the EU or the COE.
The flag was originally adopted by the [[Council of Europe]] on [[December 8]], [[1955]], from a design attributed to Arsène Heitz. The Council of Europe from the beginning desired it to be used by other regional organisations seeking European integration. The [[European Community]] (EC) adopted it on [[May 26]], [[1986]]. The [[European Union]], which was established by the [[Maastricht Treaty]] in [[1992]] to replace the EC and encompass its functions, also adopted the flag. Since then the use of the flag has been controlled jointly by the Council of Europe and the European Union.
[[Image:EU_Flag_specification.svg|left|thumb|250px|Proportions of the European flag]]
The flag appears on the face of all [[Euro]] currency banknotes, and the stars on Euro coins.
The number of stars on the flag is fixed at 12 and is not related to the number of member states of EU. In 1953, the Council of Europe had 15 members; it was proposed that the future flag should have one star for each member, and would not change based on future members. [[West Germany]] objected to this as one of the members was the disputed area of [[Saarland]], and to have its own star would imply [[sovereignty]] for the region. On this basis, [[France]] also objected to fourteen stars, as this would imply the absorption of Saarland into Germany. Myth has it that the [[Italy|Italian]] representative then objected that thirteen was an unlucky number, as well as the fact that early [[flag of the United States|flags of the United States]] featured that number of stars. [[12 (number)|Twelve]] was eventually adopted as a number with no political connotations and as a symbol of perfection and completeness[http://europa.eu.int/abc/symbols/emblem/index_en.htm] because of the ubiquity of the number for groups in European cultures and traditions such as:
* 12 [[Astronomical_symbols#Zodiacal_symbols|symbols of the zodiac]];
* 12 [[Hour|hours]] on a [[Clock|clock]];
* 12 [[Month|months]] in a [[Year|year]];
* 12 [[Twelve Apostles|Apostles]];
* 12 [[Caesars]] chronicled by [[Suetonius]];
* 12 [[Twelve_Olympians|Olympian gods]];
* 12 [[Twelve_Tables|tables of Roman Law]].
The number has led to a number of unproved assertions that there is further meaning in the stars, for example its similarity to the twelve-star halo of the [[Blessed Virgin Mary|Virgin Mary]] seen in [[Roman Catholic]] art and thus part of a [[conspiracy theory|conspiracy]] to revive a Catholic supremacy or the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. Interestingly, some staunchly religious organisations make the counter-claim that the stars represent the [[Queen of Heaven]] in Babylonian myth and show the existence of an ungodly movement in the leadership of the [[EU]]. Most non-partisan authorities on the subject disregard such theories as myth [http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/eun.html#hist]. However, flag designer Arsene Heitz has acknowledged that the [[Book of Revelation]] helped to inspire him. [http://www.economist.com/printedition/PrinterFriendly.cfm?Story_ID=3332056]
==Common mistakes==
<gallery>
Image:European flag, upside down.svg|This flag is, or the individual stars are, upside-down.
Image:European flag, incorrect star rotation.svg|The stars are rotated incorrectly. All the stars should be rotated the same i.e. with two points at the bottom and one at the top.
Image:European flag, incorrect star positions.svg|The stars are in the wrong positions; they should be in the "O'Clock" positions.
</gallery>
==Proposals==
[[Image:Barcode 15 european.PNG|thumb|275px|The original 15 member proposed European Flag by the architect Rem Koolhaas]]
[[Image:European Presidency Austria 2006.png|thumb|275px|The 25 member proposed European Flag by the architect Rem Koolhaas]]
Following the signing of the [[Treaty of Nice]] in May [[2001]], which made [[Brussels]] the official capital of Europe, the then President of the [[European Commission]], [[Romano Prodi]] and the Belgian Prime Minister [[Guy Verhofstadt]] invited the designer [[Rem Koolhaas]] to discuss the necessities and requirements of a European capital.
During these talks and as an impetus for further discussion, Koolhaas and his think-tank [[Office for Metropolitan Architecture|OMA]] suggested the development of a visual language. This idea inspired a series of drawings and drafts, including the "[[Barcode]]". The barcode tries to unite the flags of all the EU member countries into a single, colourful symbol.
In the current European flag, there is a fixed number of stars. In the barcode however, new Member States of the EU can be added without space constraints. Originally, the barcode displayed 15 EU countries. In [[2004]], the symbol was adapted to include the ten new Member States.
Since the time of the first drafts of the barcode it has never been officially used by commercial or political institutions. During the [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union|Austrian EU Presidency 2006]] it is officially used for the first time, but only as part of the logo of the presidency, not as a new EU flag. The logo has already been used for the EU information campaign which will also be continued during the Austrian EU Presidency.
== See also ==
* [[European symbols]]
* [[Rainbow flag]] - another non-national flag in similar design to the barcode.
==External links==
*[http://europa.eu.int/abc/symbols/emblem/graphics1_en.htm Graphical specifications for the European Emblem]
*[http://www.proeurope.org EU Insignia/Flag Site]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1974721.stm BBC News | On Koolhaas' proposal]
*[http://www.fotw.net/flags/eu!cha.html#rem FOTW | Entry on proposal]
*[http://homepage.eircom.net/%7Eseanjmurphy/chiefs/euroflagmemo.html Memorandum on design of |
="preserve">[[Image:Camp ArbeitMachtFrei.JPG|thumb|''Arbeit Macht Frei'' gate at [[Sachsenhausen concentration camp|KZ Sachsenhausen]]]]
"'''''Arbeit macht frei'''''" is a [[German language|German]] phrase meaning "work brings freedom" or "work shall make you free". It is probably derived from [[Gospel of John|John]] 8:32 in [[The Bible]], "the truth shall make you free" and from there, via the [[Protestant work ethic]], developed into a German and Swiss-German [[peasant]] saying.
In 1872, the German-nationalist author [[Lorenz Diefenbach]] used it as a title for a novel, which caused it to become well-known in nationalist circles. It was adopted by the [[Weimar Republic|Weimar government]] in 1928 as a slogan describing the effects of their desired policy of large-scale public work programmes to end unemployment. It was continued in this usage by the [[NSDAP]] when it came into power in 1933.
As either a sign of contempt for Judaic culture or as an ironic joke or satire, or a way of instilling false hope, this slogan was placed at the entrances of a number of [[Nazi Germany|Nazi]] [[concentration camp]]s. Although it was common practice in [[Germany]] to post inscriptions of this sort at the entrances to institutional properties or large estates, the use of the slogan in this particular way was ordered by SS General [[Theodor Eicke]], inspector of the concentration camps and first commandant of [[Dachau concentration camp|Dachau]]. The slogan can still be seen at several sites, including those at [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz I]] (although according to ''Auschwitz: A New History'' by BBC historian Laurence Rees, it was placed at this location by commandant Rudolf Höss who believed that doing menial work when he had been imprisoned during the Weimar Republic had helped him through the experience), [[Dachau concentration camp|Dachau]], [[Gross-Rosen]], [[Sachsenhausen (detention camp)|Sachsenhausen]], and the [[Concentration camp Theresienstadt|Theresienstadt]] Ghetto-Camp (at [[Buchenwald concentration camp|Buchenwald]], however, "'''''[[Jedem das Seine]]'''''" was used instead; which translates to "To each his own").
[[Image:Terezin.ArbeitMachtFrei.JPG|thumb|''Arbeit Macht Frei'' at concentration camp [[Terezin]] in the Czech Republic.]]
As a consequence, this saying has acquired very negative and sinister undertones in much of the western world.
In [[1938]], the [[Austria]]n political cabaret writer [[Jura Soyfer]] and the composer [[Herbert Zipper]], then both prisoners at [[Dachau concentration camp]], wrote the ''Dachaulied'', the Dachau song. They had spent weeks marching in and out of the gates of the camp to forced work every day, and considered the motto "Arbeit macht frei" above the gates as an insult. The song repeats the phrase cynically as a "lesson" taught by Dachau. The first verse is translated in the article on Jura Soyfer.
{{Commons|Category:Arbeit macht frei}}
[[Category:German phrases]]
[[Category:Nazi Germany]]
[[Category:Labor]]
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[[fr:Arbeit macht frei]]
[[it:Arbeit macht frei]]
[[he:העבודה משחררת]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Axayacatl</title>
<id>2907</id>
<revision>
<id>36640748</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-25T13:51:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Valentinian</username>
<id>256198</id>
</contributor>
<comment>stub sorting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Axayacatl''' (pron. {ah-sha-ya-ka'-tl} - the name means "Water-mask" or "Water-face") was an [[Aztec]] ruler ([[Tlatoani]]) of the city of [[Tenochtitlán]] from [[1469]] to [[1481]].
He is chiefly remembered for subjugating [[Tlatelolco]], Tenochtitlán's sister city, in [[1473]]. Using as a pretext the insulting behavior of a few Tlatelolcan citizens, he invaded his neighbor, killed its ruler, [[Moqui-huix]], and replaced him with a military governor. The Tlatelolcans lost any voice they had in forming Aztec policy.
He was preceded on the throne by [[Moctezuma I]] and followed by his brother [[Tizoc|Tízoc]] in [[1481]].
{{start box}}
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[[Category:Aztec history]]
[[Category:1481 deaths]]
[[Category:Mexican emperors]]
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[[lb:Axayacatl]]
[[nl:Axayacatl]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Auítzotl</title>
<id>2908</id>
<revision>
<id>36640681</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-25T13:50:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Valentinian</username>
<id>256198</id>
</contributor>
<comment>stub sorting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Auítzotl''' (sometimes rendered as '''Ahuitzotl''' or Axayacatl) was the eighth [[Aztec]] ruler, the ''Chief Speaker'', of the city of [[Tenochtitlán]]. He was responsible for the expansion of the Mexica domain, and consolidated the empire's power after a weak performance by his predecessor. He took power as [[Tlatoani]] in [[1486]], after his predecessor [[Tízoc]] was poisoned.
Perhaps the greatest known military leader of [[Pre-Columbian]] [[Mesoamerica]], Auítzotl began his reign by suppressing a [[Huastec]] rebellion, and then swiftly more than doubled the size of lands under Aztec dominance. He conquered the [[Mixtec]], [[Zapotec]], and other peoples from Mexico's Pacific coast down to the western part of [[Guatemala]]. Auitzotl also supervised a major rebuilding of Tenochtitlán on a grander scale including the expansion of the Great Pyramid or [[Templo Mayor]]. He ordered over 20,000 people to be sacrificed in the dedication of the Great Pyramid.
Auitzotl was the third son of Lord [[Moctezuma I]] (also found as Motecuhzome and Ilhuicamina), who was the fifth Chief Speaker. He was succeeded in [[1502]] by his son, [[Moctezuma II]] (the famous "Montezuma" humiliated by [[Hernán Cortés|Cortés]]). A second son, [[Cuitláhuac]], was the tenth true Chief Speaker.
The Aztec king [[Ahuitzotl]] took the [[Ahuizotl (creature)|Ahuizotl]] as his [[mascot]], but it appears the Aztecs thought of it as a creature in its own right, and not merely a mythical beast representing the king.
{{start box}}
{{succession box|
title=[[Hueyi Tlatoani|Tlatoani of Tenochtitlán]]|
years=1486&ndash;1502|
before=[[Tízoc]]|
after=[[Moctezuma II]]}}
{{end box}}
{{royal-stub}}
[[Category:Aztec history]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Albinism</title>
<id>2909</id>
<revision>
<id>41970515</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:26:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arcadian</username>
<id>104523</id>
</contributor>
<comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Albino}}
{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Albinism |
ICD10 = E70.3 |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|270.2}} |
}}
'''Albinism''' (from [[Latin language|Latin]] ''albus'', meaning "white") is a lack of [[pigment|pigmentation]] in the eyes, skin and hair. It is an inherited condition resulting from the combination of [[recessive allele]]s passed from both parents of an individual. This condition is known to affect mammals, fish, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. While the most common term for an individual affected by albinism is "albino", some of them prefer "person with albinism", because "albino" is often used in a derogatory way. A humorous compensation for this was the invention of the word "pigmento" for a normally pigmented person.
The gene which results in albinism prevents the body from making the usual amounts of a [[pigment]] called [[melanin]]. Albinism used to be categorised as [[Tyrosinase]] positive or negative. In cases of Tyrosinase positive albinism, the [[enzyme]] tyrosinase is present but is unable to enter [[melanocyte|pigment cells]] to produce melanin. In tyrosinase negative cases, this enzyme is not produced. This classification has been rendered obsolete by recent research.
About 1 in 17,000 people have some type of albinism, although up to 1 in 70 are carriers.
There are many alterations of [[genes]] which are proven to be associated with albinism. All alterations, however, lead to an alteration of the melanin (pigment/coloring) production in the body. [[Melanin]] helps protect the [[skin]] from [[ultraviolet]] [[light]] coming from the [[sun]] (see [[human skin color]] for more information). Organisms with albinism lack this protective pigment in their skin, and can burn easily from exposure to the sun as a result. Lack of melanin in the eye also results in problems with vision unrelated to [[photosensitivity]], which are discussed further below.
There are two main categories of albinism in humans: oculocutaneous and ocular. In ocular albinism, only the eyes lack pigment. In oculocutaneous pigment is missing from the hair, eyes, and skin. People who have ocular albinism have normal skin/hair color and many have normal eye color. People with oculocutaneous albinism can have no pigment to almost normal. Some may even tan.
[[Image:Albino brother & sister.jpg|thumb|240px|left|African brother & sister with albinism (parents in the back)]]
The eyes of a person with albinism occasionally appear red due to the underlying blood vessels showing through where there is not enough pigment to cover them. In humans this is rarely the case, as a human eye is quite large and thus produces enough pigment to l |
| name=[[Cole Skuse]]}}
{{football squad player | no=22 | nat=England | pos=DF | name=[[Ryan Harley]]}}
{{football squad player | no=23 | nat=Wales | pos=GK | name=[[Sam Pearce]]}}
{{football squad player | no=24 | nat=Ireland | pos=DF | name=[[Richard Keogh]]}}
{{football squad player | no=25 | nat=England | pos=DF | name=[[Liam Fontaine]] (5)}}
{{football squad player | no=26 | nat=England | pos=DF | name=[[Adam Green (footballer)|Adam Green]] (5)}}
{{football squad player | no=28 | nat=Brazil | pos=GK | name=[[Adriano Basso]]}}
{{football squad player | no=29 | nat=England | pos=MF | name=[[David Noble (footballer)|David Noble]]}}
{{football squad player | no=30 | nat=England | pos=FW | name=[[Bas Savage]]}}
{{football squad player | no=33 | nat=England | pos=FW | name=[[Elliot Benyon]]}}
{{football squad player | no=?? | nat=England | pos=GK | name=[[Nathan Abbey]]}}
{{football squad end}}
*(1) On loan to [[Walsall FC|Walsall]]
*(2) On loan to [[Milton Keynes Dons]]
*(3) On loan to [[Port Vale]]
*(4) On loan from [[Luton Town]]
*(5) On loan from [[Fulham F.C.|Fulham]]
*(6) On loan from [[Brighton & Hove Albion F.C.]]
==Famous players==
*[[Billy Wedlock]]
*[[John Atyeo]]
*[[Gus Caesar]]
*[[Andy Cole]]
*[[Brian Tinnion]]
*[[Marcus Stewart]]
*[[Dariusz Dziekanowski|Dariusz 'Jacki' Dziekanowski]]
*[[Ade Akinbiyi]]
*[[Shaun Goater]]
*[[David Moyes]]
*[[Steve McClaren]]
*[[Norman Hunter]]
==Managers==
* Sam Hollis (1897-99)
* Bob Campbell (1899-1901)
* Sam Hollis (1901-05)
* Harry Thickett (1905-10)
* Sam Hollis (1911-13)
* George Hedley (1913-17)
* Jack Hamilton (1917-19)
* Joe Palmer (1919-21)
* [[Alex Raisbeck]] (1921-29)
* Joe Bradshaw (1929-32)
* Bob Hewison (1932-49)
* Bob Wright (1949-50)
* Pat Beasley (1950-58)
* Peter Doherty (1958-60)
* Fred Ford (1960-67)
* [[Alan Dicks]] (1967-80)
* [[Bobby Houghton]] (1980-82)
* [[Roy Hodgson]] (1982)
* [[Terry Cooper]] (1982-88)
* [[Joe Jordan (footballer)|Joe Jordan]] (1988-90)
* Jimmy Lumsden (1990-92)
* [[Denis Smith (football manager)|Denis Smith]] (1992-93)
* [[Russell Osman]] (1993-94)
* [[Joe Jordan (footballer)|Joe Jordan]](1994-97)
* [[John Ward (football manager)|John Ward]] (1997-98)
* Benny Lennartsson (1998-99)
* [[Tony Pulis]] (1999)
* Tony Fawthrop (2000)
* [[Danny Wilson (football)|Danny Wilson]] (2000-04)
* [[Brian Tinnion]] (2004-05)
* [[Gary Johnson (footballer)|Gary Johnson]] (September 2005-Present)
==Ashton Gate==
{{main|Ashton Gate}}
Bristol City play at [[Ashton Gate]] in the south-west of Bristol, just south of the [[River Avon, Bristol|River Avon]]. The ground has an all-seated capacity of about 21,500, with an effective capacity (depending on how many away tickets are allocated, and how they are segregated) of around 19,100. It was the home of Bedminster F.C. until the 1900 merger, and the merged team played some games there the following season, but it did not become the permanent home of Bristol City until 1904.
The Wedlock Stand at the south-east end of the ground was the traditional home fans' end until 1994, housed visiting fans from then until 2005 and is about to be redeveloped. The Williams Stand, on the south-west side, which includes the directors' box and press box, was built in 1958. The Dolman Stand, which lies opposite it, was built in 1970. The most recent addition to the stadium is the Atyeo Stand at the north-west end, which was built in 1994 to replace an open terrace, and contains new dressing rooms and a large gymnasium.
==External links==
* [http://www.bcfc.co.uk/ Official website] (requires registration)
* [http://www.otib.co.uk/ Fan's forum]
{{Football League One}}
[[Category:Bristol City F.C.]]
[[Category:English football clubs]]
[[de:Bristol City F.C.]]
[[fr:Bristol City Football Club]]
[[simple:Bristol City F.C.]]
[[zh:布里斯托尔城足球俱乐部]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bioterrorism</title>
<id>4393</id>
<revision>
<id>41591305</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T10:02:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tlusťa</username>
<id>649807</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+[[cs:Bioterorismus]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{terrorism}}
'''Bioterrorism''' is [[terrorism]] using [[germ warfare]], an intentional human release of a naturally-occurring or human-modified [[toxin]] or [[biological agent]].
== Types of biological agents ==
=== Category A agents ===
These are biological agents with both a high potential for adverse public health impact and that also have a serious potential for large-scale dissemination. The Category A agents are anthrax, smallpox, plague, botulism, tularemia, and viral hemorrhagic fevers.
; [[Anthrax disease|Anthrax]] : Anthrax is a [[bacterium]] with a highly resistant [[spore]] form. It is highly infectious and lethal when inhaled. It is a non-contagious disease which does not spread from one person to another. An anthrax vaccine does exist but requires many injections and has enough [[side effect]]s that it is considered unsuitable for general use.
[[Image:Daschle_letter.jpg|thumb|150px| Letter sent to [[Senate Majority Leader]] [[Tom Daschle]] containing 'weaponised' [[anthrax disease|anthrax]] powder which caused the deaths of two postal workers during the [[2001 anthrax attacks]] in the [[USA]].]]
; [[Smallpox]] : Smallpox is a highly contagious [[virus]]. It transmits easily through the atmosphere and has a high [[mortality rate]] (up to 30%). Smallpox was eliminated in the world in the [[1970s]], thanks to a worldwide vaccination program. However, some virus samples are still available in [[Russia]]n and [[USA|America]]n laboratories. It is also believed it could be available in other labs.
; [[Botulin]] : Botulin is one the deadliest toxins produced by a bacterium namely ''Clostridium botulinum''. Botulism causes [[respiratory failure]] and [[paralysis]].
; [[Ebola]] : Ebola is a [[viral hemorrhagic fever]]. It is extremely lethal, with no cure. The symptoms are profuse bleeding from all orifices.
; [[Bubonic plague|Plague]] : Plague is a disease caused by any one of several highly contagious bacteria. It can be a type of [[pneumonia]] and may be fatal.
; [[Marburg virus|Marburg]] : Marburg is a [[viral hemorrhagic fever]]. It is extremely lethal, with no cure.
; [[Tularemia]] : Tularemia is a bacterium, responsible for non-lethal but extremely incapacitating diseases (weight loss, fever, [[headache]]s, and often pneumonia).
=== Category B agents ===
Category B agents are moderately easy to disseminate and have low mortality rates.
* [[Brucellosis]] (''Brucella'' species)
* Epsilon toxin of ''[[Clostridium perfringens]]''
* Food safety threats (e.g., ''[[Salmonella]] species'', [[Escherichia coli O157:H7|''E coli'' O157:H7]], ''[[Shigella]]'')
* [[Glanders]] (''Burkholderia mallei'')
* [[Melioidosis]] (''[[Burkholderia]] pseudomallei'')
* [[Psittacosis]] (''Chlamydia psittaci'')
* [[Q fever]] (''Coxiella burnetii'')
* [[Ricin]] toxin from ''Ricinus communis'' ([[castor bean]]s)
* [[Staphylococcus|Staphylococcal]] enterotoxin B
* [[Typhus]] (''Rickettsia prowazekii'')
* Viral [[encephalitis]] ([[alphavirus]]es, e.g.: Venezuelan [[equine encephalitis]], eastern equine encephalitis, western equine encephalitis)
* Water supply threats (e.g., ''[[Vibrio cholerae]]'', ''[[Cryptosporidium]] parvum'')
=== Category C agents ===
Category C agents are [[pathogen]]s that might be [[genetic engineering|engineered]] for mass dissemination because they are easy to produce and have potential for high [[morbidity]] or mortality (examples: [[Henipavirus|Nipah virus]], [[hantavirus]] and multi-drug resistant Tuberculosis (MTB)).
== Modern bioterrorist incidents ==
=== 1984 Rajneeshee ''salmonella'' attack ===
In [[1984]], followers of the [[Rajneesh|Bhagwan Shri Rajneesh]] attempted to control a local [[election]] by infecting [[salad]] bars in 10 restaurants with [[Salmonella typhimurium]] in the small town of [[The Dalles]], [[Oregon]]. The attack caused about 751 people to get sick (no fatalities). This incident was the first known bioterrorist attack in the United States in the 20th century.
=== 2001 anthrax attack ===
In September and October of [[2001]], several cases of anthrax broke out in the [[United States]] in the [[2001 anthrax attacks]], caused deliberately. This was a well-publicized act of bioterrorism. It motivated efforts to define [[biodefense]] and [[biosecurity]], where more limited definitions of [[biosafety]] had focused on unintentional or accidental impacts of agricultural and medical technologies.
=== 2003 ricin incidents ===
* [[Ricin#Use as a chemical/biological warfare agent|2003 ricin incidents]]
{{sect-num-stub|5}}
== Planning and reacting to a bioterrorist attack ==
Planning may involve the development of biological identification systems.
Until recently in the United States of America, most biological defense strategies have been geared to protecting soldiers on the battlefield rather than ordinary people in cities. Financial cutbacks have limited the tracking of disease outbreaks. Some, like food poisoning due to ''E. coli'' or ''Salmonella'', could be natural or deliberate.
In Europe, disease surveillance is beginning to be organised on the continent-wide scale needed to track a biological emergency. In addition of monitoring sick people, it is thought interesting to track whether a disease is due to natural outbreaks or deliberate attack. For example, a natural variety of anthrax occurs in southern [[Africa]].
Researchers are experimenting with devices to detect the existence of a threat:
* tiny [[integrated circuit|electronic chips]] that would contain living [[neuron|nerve cell]]s to warn of the presence of bacterial toxins (identification of broad range toxins)
* [[fibre-optic]] tube lined with [[antibody|antibodies]] coupled to light-emitting molecules (identification of specific pathogens, such as ant |
slightly less public than on shared-medium Ethernet. Despite this, switched Ethernet should still be regarded as an insecure network technology, because it is easy to subvert switched Ethernet systems by means such as [[ARP spoofing]] and [[MAC flooding]], as well as for network administrators to use monitoring functions to copy traffic from the network.
When only a single device (anything but a hub) is connected to a switch port, [[full-duplex]] Ethernet becomes possible. In full duplex mode both devices can transmit to each other at the same time and there is no collision domain. This doubles the aggregate bandwidth of the link and was sometimes advertised as double the link speed (e.g. 200 Mbit/s) to account for this. However, this is misleading as performance will only double if traffic patterns are symmetrical (which in reality they rarely are). The elimination of the collision domain also means that all the link's bandwidth can be used (collisions can occupy a lot of bandwidth as links get busy) and that segment length is not limited by the need for correct collision detection (this is most significiant with some of the fiber variants of ethernet).
== Autonegotiation ==
It is essential that both the switch port and the device connected to it use the same speed and duplex settings. To that end, [[autonegotiation]] was introduced in 1995 as an option for [[100BASE-TX]] devices (802.3u). Although it worked correctly in many applications, it had two problems. One mistake was that its implementation was optional which led to some devices incapable of using autonegotiation. Secondly, a portion of the specification was not tightly written. Although most manufacturers implemented it one way, some including network giant [[Cisco]], implemented it the other way. This unfortunately led to autonegotiation getting a bad name and, moreover, for Cisco to basically recommend to its customers and administrators to not use it.
The debatable portions of the autonegotiation specifications were eliminated by the 1998 release of 802.3z ([[1000BASE-X]]) followed by the negotiation protocols over twisted pair being significantly enhanced for 802.3ab ([[1000BASE-T]]). More notably, the new standard specified that to achieve gigabit speed over copper wiring, it was required for autonegotiation to be enabled. Now, all network equipment manufacturers—including Cisco[http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/product/lan/cat2970/12218se/2970scg/swint.htm#1080632]—recommend to use autonegotiation whenever possible.
Note that some switch OSes, as well as some card drivers, still have the option to disable autonegotiation and force a twisted pair connection to 1000Full or 1000Half, but doing that is against specification and should never be used as you won't properly negotiate any of the other parameters. Instead the proper way, for example, to force GigE over a Cat 5 connection is to still specify autonegotiation, but limit the advertised capabilities to only 1000Base-T[http://standards.ieee.org/reading/ieee/interp/IEEE802.3af-2003interp-6.pdf].
In cases of very old equipment that has trouble with autonegotiation, make sure that you disable autonegotiation and force the same speed and duplex on both sides of the connection. Enabling autonegotiation on one end and a forced speed on the other end will likely just lead to network errors.
==Dual speed hubs==
In the early days of [[Fast Ethernet]], fast ethernet switches were relatively expensive devices. However, hubs suffered from the problem that if there were any 10baseT devices connected then the whole system would have to run at 10 Mbit. Therefore a compromise between a hub and a switch appeared known as a [[dual speed hub]]. These effectively split the network into two sections, each acting like a hubbed network at its respective speed then acted as a two port switch between those two sections. This meant they allowed mixing of the two speeds without the cost of a Fast Ethernet switch.
== Ethernet frame types and the EtherType field ==
Frames are the format of data packets on the wire.
There are several types of Ethernet frame:
* The Ethernet Version 2 or Ethernet II frame, the so-called [[DIX]] frame (named after [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]], [[Intel]], and [[Xerox]]); this is the most common today, as it is often used directly by the [[Internet Protocol]].
* Novell's homegrown variation of [[IEEE 802.3]] ("raw 802.3 frame") without [[IEEE 802.2]] [[Logical Link Control|LLC]]
* [[IEEE 802.2]] [[Logical Link Control|LLC]] frame
* IEEE 802.2 LLC/[[Subnetwork Access Protocol|SNAP]] frame
In addition, Ethernet frames may optionally contain a [[IEEE 802.1Q]] tag to identify what [[Virtual LAN|VLAN]] it belongs to and its IEEE 802.1p priority ([[quality of service]]). This doubles the potential number of frame types.<!-- umm two new options wouldn't that quadruple the number of frame types?-->
The different frame types have different formats and [[MTU (networking)|MTU]] values, but can coexist on the same physical medium.
<center>
[[Image:Ethernet Type II Frame format.png|Ethernet Type II Frame format]]
'''The most common Ethernet Frame format, type II'''
</center>
It is claimed that some older (Xerox?) Ethernet specification had a 16-bit length field, although the maximum length of a packet was 1500 bytes. Versions 1.0 and 2.0 of the [[Digital Equipment Corporation|Digital]]/[[Intel]]/[[Xerox]] (DIX) Ethernet specification, however, have a 16-bit sub-protocol label field called the '''[[EtherType]]''', with the convention that values between 0 and 1500 indicated the use of the original Ethernet format with a length field, while values of 1536 decimal (0600 hexadecimal) and greater indicated the use of the new frame format with an EtherType sub-protocol identifier.
IEEE 802.3 defined the 16-bit field after the MAC addresses as a length field again, with the MAC header followed by an [[IEEE 802.2]] LLC header. The convention described earlier allows software to determine whether a frame is an Ethernet II frame or an IEEE 802.3 frame, allowing the coexistence of both standards on the same physical medium. All 802.3 frames have an [[IEEE 802.2]] '''[[logical link control]]''' (LLC) header. By examining this header, it is possible to determine whether it is followed by a [[Subnetwork Access Protocol|SNAP]] ('''subnetwork access protocol''') header. (Some protocols, particularly those designed for the [[Open Systems Interconnection|OSI]] [[protocol stack|networking stack]], operate directly on top of 802.2 LLC, which provides both datagram and connection-oriented network services.) The LLC header includes two additional eight-bit address fields (called '''service access points''' or SAPs in OSI terminology); when both source and destination SAP are set to the value 0xAA, the SNAP service is requested. The SNAP header allows EtherType values to be used with all [[IEEE 802]] protocols, as well as supporting private protocol ID spaces. In IEEE 802.3x-1997, the IEEE Ethernet standard was changed to explicitly allow the use of the 16-bit field after the MAC addresses to be used as a length field or a type field.
[[Novell]]'s "raw" 802.3 frame format was based on early IEEE 802.3 work. Novell used this as a starting point to create the first implementation of its own [[IPX]] Network Protocol over Ethernet. They did not use any LLC header but started the IPX packet directly after the length field. In principle this is not interoperable with the other later variants of 802.x Ethernet, but since IPX has always FF at the first byte (while LLC has not), this mostly coexists on the wire with other Ethernet implementations (with the notable exception of some early forms of [[DECnet]] which got confused by this).
Novell [[Netware]] used this frame type by default until the mid nineties, and since Netware was very widespread back then (while IP was not) at some point in time most of the world's Ethernet traffic ran over "raw" 802.3 carrying IPX. Since Netware 4.10 Netware now defaults to IEEE 802.2 with LLC (Netware Frame Type Ethernet_802.2) when using IPX. (See "Ethernet Framing" in References for details)
[[Mac OS]] uses 802.2/SNAP framing for the [[AppleTalk]] protocol suite on Ethernet ("EtherTalk") and Ethernet II framing for TCP/IP.
The 802.2 variants of Ethernet are not in widespread use on common networks currently, with the exception of large corporate Netware installations that have not yet migrated to Netware over IP. In the past, many corporate networks supported 802.2 Ethernet to support transparent translating bridges between Ethernet and IEEE 802.5 Token Ring or FDDI networks.
The most common framing type used today is Ethernet Version 2, as it is used by most [[Internet Protocol]]-based networks, with its [[EtherType]] set to 0x0800 for [[IPv4]] and 0x86DD for [[IPv6]]
There exists an [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1042.txt Internet standard] for encapsulating IP version 4 traffic in [[IEEE 802.2]] frames with LLC/SNAP headers. It is almost never implemented on Ethernet (although it is used on [[FDDI]] and on [[Token ring]], [[IEEE 802.11]], and other [[IEEE 802]] networks). IP traffic can not be encapsulated in IEEE 802.2 LLC frames without SNAP because, although there is an LLC protocol type for IP, there is no LLC protocol type for [[Address Resolution Protocol|ARP]]. IP Version 6 can also be transmitted over Ethernet using IEEE 802.2 with LLC/SNAP, but, again, that's almost never used (although LLC/SNAP encapsulation of IPv6 is used on IEEE 802 networks).
The [[IEEE 802.1Q]] tag, if present, is placed between the Source Address and the EtherType or Length fields. The first two bytes of the tag are the Tag Protocol Identifier (TPID) value of 0x8100. This is located in the same place as the EtherType/Length field in untagged frames, so an EtherType value of 0x8100 means th |
, and southeast, along the railroad. The Soviet defences at main road at Summa held, but Finns encircled these defences by breaching the defences at Munasuo. The defending remains of Soviet 123.D managed to hold Finnish advance only few places and and continued withdrawing towards Leningrad. At the morning of August 30 12.D cut Koivisto-Leningrad railroad at Kuolemanjärvi and reached the Gulf of Finland during the same day. Also at Vammelsuu 12.D cut the railroad at the same evening, but failed to cut main road. The Gulf was reached also here next morning, and the attack continued east to Terijoki, which was captured August 31 and reached old border at River Rajajoki next day. The encircled Soviet forces at Koivisto retreated to the islands and Soviet fleet transferred them to Leningrad. Last defenders of Koivisto were evacuated November 1.
At the left side of 12.D from August 23 the 18.D started attacking southeast between Lake Muolaanjärvi and Vuoksi. By August 26 the first lake isthmuses were breached. Meanwhile first units of 2.D were relieving the forces of the 18.D from isthmus between Lake Kirkkojärvi and Lake Punnusjärvi and 10.D those from Lake Punnusjärvi to River Vuoksi. After the mottis at the northwestern shores of Lake Ladoga had been cleared, I Corps was moved to River Vuoksi where it took 10.D and 15.D to its command. The 18.D breached the second lake isthmuses August 27 and rested one day before continuing attack towards Kivennapa road crossing which it captured August 29. The attack continued towards old border which was reached August 31. Also the 2.D reached the old border at August 31. The 10.D had more troubles as Soviet 198.D had started its counterattack August 29. The Finnish attack started to gain speed during August 30, and also 15.D joined the attack from the other side of the River Vuoksi. Valkjärvi railroad endpoint was captured at August 31 and because of the threat of encirclement, the Soviet forces were ordered to withdraw from the souther side of River Vuoksi behind the old border. 15.D followed retreating Soviets closely and by September 2 old border had been reached everywhere.
At August 20, General W. Erfurth notified Mannerheim, that Field Marshall W. Keitel will send a letter where Finns were asked to attack Leningrad. Mannerheim explained practical difficulties to the proposal and presented the opposition of both political and military leadership to the issue. The government had decided beforehand, that Finland will not attack Leningrad, and only after the pressure of military leadership they accepted small advance across the old border to capture better defensive positions. Especially social democrats opposed crossing the border. When Keitel's letter came, Ryti and Mannerheim prepared negative answer together. At August 31 Erfurth contacted Mannerheim again and proposed that Finns should cancel the attack to East Karelia and instead attack Leningrad. Ryti and Mannerheim provided refusal again. At August 31 Mannerheim gave order, that attack will be stopped at the mouth of River Rajajoki-Ohta-line. The exact line between Ohta and Lake Ladoga would be ordered later, when Finns had reached the old border there. That would shorten the frontline without the need to attack Soviet fortifications north of Leningrad ([[KaUR]]). At this last phase Soviets had six infantry divisions and number of separate batallions and regiments defending Leningrad from the north, but all of them were half strength due to hard fighting with Finns.
12.D had reached the target already at September 1, but elsewhere attack started at September 2. 18.D captured Mainila at the same day and Valkeasaari at next day. By September 7 both 18.D and 2.D had reached their targets between River Rajajoki and Ohta. The commander of I Corps, Colonel Mäkinen, ordered his troops to advance to the line Ohta-Lake Lempaalanjärvi-Old border at Lake Ladoga with an addition, that if strong defences were met, the offensive could be stopped there. At September 4 the attack begun, and at September 6 10.D managed to encircle and destroy Soviet IR941 at Kirjasalo. Finally at September 9 the ordered line was reached everywhere and Finnish forces moved to defensive.
=== Occupation of East Karelia ===
=== Advancement from Northern Finland ===
=== Political development ===
On [[July 10]], the Finnish army began a major offensive on the [[Karelian Isthmus]] and north of [[Lake Ladoga]]. Mannerheim's order of the day, the [[Sword scabbard declaration]], clearly states that the Finnish involvement was an offensive one.[http://www.mannerheim.fi/10_ylip/e_mtuppi.htm] By the end of August 1941, Finnish troops had reached the pre-war boundaries. The crossing of the pre-war borders led to tensions in the army, the cabinet, the parties of the parliament, and domestic opinion. Military expansionism might have gained popularity, but it was far from unanimously championed.
Also, international relations were strained &mdash; notably with Britain and Sweden, whose governments in May and June had learned in confidence from Foreign Minister [[Witting]] that Finland had absolutely no plans for a military campaign coordinated with the Germans. Finland's preparations were said to be purely defensive.
Sweden's leading cabinet members had hoped to improve the relations with Nazi Germany through indirect support of Operation Barbarossa, mainly channelled through Finland. [[Per Albin Hansson|Prime Minister Hansson]] and [[Christian Günther|Foreign Minister Günther]] found however, that the political support in the [[National Unity Government]] and within the Social Democratic organizations turned out to be insufficient, particularly after Mannerheim's Sword Scabbard Declaration, and even more so after Finland within less than two months undeniably had begun a [[war of conquest]]. A tangible effect was that Finland became still more dependent on food and munitions from Germany.
The [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] put Finland under blockade and the British ambassador was withdrawn. On [[July 31]], [[1941]], British [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] made an air raid on the northern Finnish port of [[Petsamo]] [http://www.fleetairarmarchive.net/RollofHonour/Battlehonour_crewlists/Petsamo_Kirkenes_1941.html]. Damages were limited since the harbour was almost empty of ships.
[[September 11]], the U.S. ambassador Arthur Schoenfeld was informed that the offensive on the Karelian Isthmus was halted on the pre-Winter War border (with a few straightened curves at the municipalities of Valkeasaari and Kirjasalo), and that "under no conditions" Finland would participate in an offensive against [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]], but would instead maintain static defence and wait for a political resolution. Witting stressed to Schoenfeld that Germany, however, should not hear of this.
On [[September 22]], a British note was presented (by Norway's ambassador Michelet) demanding the expulsion of German troops from Finland's territory and Finland's withdrawal from [[East Karelia]] to positions behind the pre-Winter War borders. Finland was threatened by a British declaration of war unless the demands were met. The declaration of war was exacted on Finland's Independence Day, [[December 6]].
In December 1941, the Finnish advance had reached [[River Svir]] (which connects the southern ends of [[Lake Ladoga]] and [[Lake Onega]] and marks the southern border of [[East Karelia]]). By the end of 1941, the front stabilized, and the Finns did not conduct major offensive operations for the following two and a half years. The fighting morale of the troops declined when it was realized that the war would not soon end.
It has been suggested that the execution of the prominent [[pacifism|pacifist]] leader [[Arndt Pekurinen]] in November 1941 was due to fear of army demoralization being exacerbated by such activism.
== International volunteers and support ==
Like in the [[Winter War]], Swedish volunteers were recruited. Until December, for guarding the Soviet naval base at [[Hanko]], that was then evacuated by sea, and the Swedish unit was officially disbanded. During the Continuation War, the volunteers signed for three&ndash;six months of service. In all, over 1,600 fought for Finland, though only about 60 remained by the summer of 1944. About a third of the volunteers had been engaged already in the Winter War. Another significant group, about a fourth of the men, were Swedish officers on leave.
There was also a ''[[Schutzstaffel|SS]]''-battalion of volunteers on the northern Finnish front 1942&ndash;1944, that was recruited from [[Norway]], then under German occupation, and similarly some Danes.
About 3,400 Estonian volunteers also took part of the Continuation War.
== Diplomatic manoeuvres ==
Operation Barbarossa was planned as a ''[[blitzkrieg]]'' lasting a few weeks. British and US observers believed that the invasion would be concluded before August. In the autumn of 1941, this turned out to be wrong, and leading Finnish military officers started to mistrust Germany's capacity. German troops in Northern Finland faced circumstances they were not properly prepared for, and failed badly to reach their targets, most importantly [[Murmansk]]. Finland's strategy now changed. A separate peace with the Soviet Union was offered, but Germany's strength was too great. The idea that Finland had to continue the war while putting its own forces at the least possible danger gained increasing support, perhaps in the hopes that the Wehrmacht and the Red Army would wear each other down enough for negotiations to begin, or to at least get them out of the way of Finland's independent decisions. Some may also have still hoped for an eventual victory by Germany.
Finland's participation in the war brought major benefits to Nazi Germany. The Soviet fleet was blockaded in the [[Gulf of Finland]], so that the Baltic was freed for the training of German submarine c |
ional Monetary Fund, and the Organization of American States in 1975. Grenada also is a member of the Eastern Caribbean's Regional Security System (RSS).
As a member of [[CARICOM]] Grenada strongly backed efforts by the United States to implement UN Security Council Resolution 940, designed to facilitate the departure of Haiti's de facto authorities from power. Grenada subsequently contributed personnel to the multinational force which restored the democratically elected government of [[Haiti]] in October 1994.
Prime Minister Mitchell joined President Clinton, in May 1997, for a meeting with 14 other Caribbean leaders during the first-ever U.S.-regional summit in [[Bridgetown, Barbados]]. The summit strengthened the basis for regional cooperation on justice and counter-narcotics issues, finance and development, and trade.
'''Disputes - international:'''
none
'''Illicit drugs:'''
small-scale [[cannabis]] cultivation; lesser transshipment point for [[marijuana]] and [[cocaine]] to US
:''See also :'' [[Grenada]]
[[category:Government of Grenada]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Grenada, Foreign affairs of]]
[[Category:Politics of Grenada]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Guadaloupe</title>
<id>12138</id>
<revision>
<id>15909844</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Guadeloupe]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>History of Guam</title>
<id>12148</id>
<revision>
<id>42033950</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T09:52:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Olihist</username>
<id>571520</id>
</contributor>
<comment>added some wikilinks</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''history of Guam''' involves phases including the early arrival of people known today as the ancient [[Chamorros]], the development of "pre-contact" society, [[Spain|Spanish]] [[colonization]], and the present [[United States|American]] rule of the island. Guam's history of colonialism is the longest among the Pacific islands.
==Guam prior to European contact==
===Migrations===
[[Image:Gadao_Guam.jpg|thumb|px300|Chief [[Gadao]] is featured in many legends about Guam before European colonization.]]
It is believed that [[Guam]] was first discovered by sea-faring people who migrated from [[Indonesia#Geography|southeastern Indonesia]] around 2000 BC. Another theory points to the [[Philippines]] as a possible origin. Most of what is known about Pre-Contact ("Ancient") [[Chamorros]] comes from legends and myths, archaeological evidence, [[Jesuit]] [[missionary]] accounts, and observations from visiting scientists like [[Otto von Kotzebue]] and [[Louis de Freycinet]].
===Chamorro society===
Chamorro society roughly fell into three classes: matua (upper class), achaot (middle class), and mana'chang (lower class). The matua were located in the coastal [[Villages of Guam|villages]], which meant they had the best access to fishing grounds, while the mana'chang were located in the interior of the island. Matua and mana'chang rarely communicated with each other, and matua often used achaot as a go-between. There were also "makana" (shamans), skilled in healing and medicine. When Europeans first arrived on Guam, the Chamorros were noted for their fast sailing vessels and [[trade|traded]] with other islands of [[Micronesia]].
===Latte===
The "[[Latte Stones|latte stones]]" familiar to Guam residents and visitors alike were in fact a recent development in Pre-Contact Chamorro society. The latte stone consists of a head and a base shaped out of limestone. Like the [[Easter Island]] statues, there is plenty of speculation over how this was done by a society without machines or metal, but the generally accepted view is that the head and base were etched out of the ground by sharp adzes and picks (possibly with the use of fire), and carried to the assembly area by an elaborate system of ropes and logs. The latte stone was used as a part of the raised foundation for a magalahi (matua chief) house, although they may have also been used for canoe sheds.
Archaeologists using carbon-dating have broken Pre-Contact Guam (i.e. Chamorro) history into three periods: "Pre-Latte" (BC 2000? to AD 1) "Transitional Pre-Latte" (AD 1 to AD 1000), and "Latte" (AD 1000 to AD 1521). Archaeological evidence also suggests that Chamorro society was on the verge of another transition phase by 1521, as latte stones became bigger. Assuming the stones were used for chiefly houses, it can be argued that Chamorro society was becoming more stratified, either from population growth or the arrival of new people. The theory remains tenuous, however, due to lack of evidence, but if proven correct, will further support the idea that Pre-Contact Chamorros lived in a vibrant and dynamic environment.
==The Spanish Era==
==="Discovery"===
[[Image:Svitores Guam.jpg|thumb|px200|Engraving showing the death of Padre [[San Vitores]], the first missionary to Guam.]]
On [[March 6]], [[1521]] [[Ferdinand Magellan]] came across Guam on his [[expedition]] to [[circumnavigation|circumnavigate]] around the globe. He and his crewmen were greeted by the [[Chamorros]], in small fast vessels called "flying [[proa|proas]]". They welcomed the Europeans with [[food]] and drink. According to Chamorro folk history, the Chamorros expected to be paid in return while the Europeans saw the supplies given to them as gifts. When &mdash; having not been recompensed for the food and hospitality &mdash; the Chamorros stole upon Magellan's ships taking [[iron]] from the decks. In response, the Spaniards killed several islanders and burned their homes. Magellan and his men left Guam and continued their journey to the spice islands. Angry at the 'larcenous' natives, he first dubbed Guam and the rest of the [[Mariana Islands]] "Las Islas de los Ladrones", (The Islands of the Thieves), but in [[1668]] the first [[missionary]] to Guam, Padre [[San Vitores]], changed the name to "Las Marianas" after [[Mariana of Austria]], widow of Spain's [[Philip IV of Spain|Philip IV]].
===Colonization===
Within decades, Guam was [[colony|colonized]] by [[Spain]]. It was an important stop along the Spanish route between the [[Philippines]] and [[Mexico]] for trade galleons and whaling ships. The [[Indigenous peoples| original inhabitant population]] dwindled significantly as a result of [[disease]] and [[rebellion]] against the Spaniards. Much of the adult male population was killed. Still, a population of those who identified themselves as Chamorros remained, though the [[culture]] and bloodlines began to incorporate Spanish and other European [[religion]], [[Convention (philosophy and social sciences)|custom]]s, and [[language]].
==The American Era==
===Capture of Guam===
[[Image:Piti 1900.jpg|thumb|350px|The [[Villages of Guam|village]] of [[Piti, Guam|Piti]] shortly after Guam's capture by the Americans.
]]
On [[June 21]], [[1898]], Guam was captured by the [[United States]] in the bloodless [[Battle of Guam (1898)|Battle of Guam]] during the [[Spanish-American War]]. By the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Treaty of Paris]], Spain officially ceded Guam to the United States. Since then, Guam served as a way station for American ships traveling to and from the [[Philippines]].
The 1910 [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] wrote, "Guam is 32 miles long, from 3 to 10 miles broad, and about 200 sq. miles in area. Of its total population of 11,490 (11,159 natives), [[Agana]], the capital, contains about 7,000. Possessing a good harbour, the island serves as a United States [[Apra Harbor| naval station]], the naval commandant acting also as [[governor]]. The products of the island are [[maize]], [[copra]], [[rice]], [[sugar]], and valuable [[timber]]."
===World War II===
During [[World War II]], Guam was attacked and invaded by the [[Japan]]ese [[Imperial Japanese Army|armed forces]] shortly after [[December 7]], [[1941]]. Most U.S. military personnel evacuated prior to the invasion. The Japanese [[military occupation]] lasted from 1941 to 1944 and was a brutal experience for the Chamorro people, whose loyalty to the United States became a point of contention with the Japanese. Some American servicemen were still on the island and were hidden by the Chamorro people. The [[Battle of Guam]] started on [[July 21]], [[1944]] with American troops landing on the island and Guam was recaptured from Japanese military rule on [[August 10]] in an [[Allies | Allied]] victory.
The immediate years after [[World War II]] saw the [[United States armed forces|U.S. Navy]] attempting to resume its predominance in Guam affairs. This eventually led to resentment, and thus increased political pressure for greater [[autonomy]] from Chamorro leaders. The result was the [[Organic Act of 1950]] (signed by [[President of the United States|President]] [[Harry S. Truman]]), which established Guam as an [[unincorporated]] [[organized territory]] of the [[United States]] and, for the first time in Guam History, provided for a civilian government. The [[Immigration and Nationality Act]] of 1952, section 307, granted [[U.S. citizenship]] to "all persons born in the island of Guam on or after April 11, 1899 (whether before or after August 1, 1950)". In the [[1960s]], under [[President of the United States|President]] [[John F. Kennedy]], the island's required [[security clearance]] for visitors was lifted.
Guam's [[U.S. military]] installations are among the most strategically vital in the [[Pacific Ocean]]. When the [[United States]] closed its [[United States Navy|Navy]] and [[United States Air Force| |
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<page>
<title>Bikini</title>
<id>4550</id>
<revision>
<id>41766147</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T16:19:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Saluton</username>
<id>791422</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Added Link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bikini Model Jassi 3.jpg|thumb|A woman wearing a bikini.]]
:''This article is about the women's bathing suit. For other uses see [[Bikini (disambiguation)]]''.
A '''bikini''' or '''two-piece''' is a type of women's [[bathing suit]], characterized by two separate parts&mdash;one covering the [[breasts]], the other the groin (and optionally the buttocks), leaving an uncovered area between the two garments. The shapes of both parts of a bikini closely resemble women's underwear, and the lower part of a bikini can therefore range from the more revealing thong or [[g-string]] to briefs and the more modest square-cut shorts.
Two-piece garments worn by women for athletic purposes have been observed on [[Greece|Greek]] [[urn]]s and paintings, dated as early as [[1400s BC|1400 BC]].
==Modern origin==
[[Image:MichelineBernardini.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Micheline Bernardini]] wearing the first modern bikini.]]
The modern bikini was invented by engineer [[Louis Reard]] in [[Paris]] in [[1946]] (introduced on [[July 5]]), and named after [[Bikini Atoll]], the site of [[nuclear weapon]] tests in the [[Marshall Islands]], on the reasoning that the burst of excitement it would cause would be like the [[atomic bomb]].
Reard's suit was a refinement of the work of [[Jacques Heim]] who, two months earlier, had introduced the "Atome" (named for its size) and advertised it as the world's "smallest bathing suit". Reard split the "atome" even smaller, but could not find a model who would dare to wear his design. He ended up hiring [[Micheline Bernardini]], a [[nude]] [[dancer]] from the [[Casino de Paris]], as his model.
==Bikinis in modern culture==
It took fifteen years for the bikini to be accepted in the [[United States]]. In [[1951]] bikinis were banned from the [[Miss World|Miss World Contest]]. In [[1957]], however, [[Brigitte Bardot]]'s bikini in ''[[And God Created Woman]]'' created a market for the swimwear in the US, and in [[1960]], [[Brian Hyland]]'s pop song "[[Itsy Bitsy Teenie Weenie Yellow Polka Dot Bikini]]" inspired a bikini-buying spree. Finally the bikini caught on, and by [[1963]], the movie ''[[Beach Party]]'', starring [[Annette Funicello]] (emphatically ''not'' in a bikini, by mentor [[Walt Disney]]'s personal request) and [[Frankie Avalon]], led a wave of films that made the bikini a pop-culture symbol.
People who are familiar with the history of [[Bikini Atoll]]&mdash;particularly opponents of [[nuclear proliferation]]&mdash;may find the etymology and use of the word "bikini" for a garment as inappropriate, as its tongue-in-cheek "explosive" reputation effectively reduces the significance of a [[Castle Bravo|serious historic humanitarian crisis]]&mdash;one that still influences the [[politics of the Marshall Islands]]&mdash;to a mere [[popular culture]] [[sex symbol]] in the minds of most people. The term '''two-piece''' is considered a neutral alternative.
==Evolution of the bikini==
[[Image:Bikini-Tanga.jpg||right|thumb|A woman wearing a string bikini]]
In recent years, the term ''[[monokini]]'' has come into use for [[topless]] bathing by women: where the bikini has two parts, the monokini is the lower part. Where monokinis are in use, the word ''bikini'' may jokingly refer to a two-piece outfit consisting of a monokini and a sun hat. The term was coined by [[Rudi Gernreich]].
The ''[[tankini]]'' is a swimsuit combining a [[tank top]] and a bikini bottom. A [[string bikini]] is a more revealing alternative style where both top and bottom are reduced to triangles of cloth connected by strings.
The lower part of the bikini was further reduced in size in the [[1970s]] to the Brazilian [[G-string|thong]], where the back of the suit is so thin that it disappears into the buttocks. Recently bikinis have been getting smaller. This trend started with the top piece, but after shrinking the top so much that it barely covers the [[nipple]]s, swimsuit manufacturers have moved on to reducing the size of the bottom piece. One can see the trend toward reduction in the following styles: [[Slingshot bikini|slingshot]], [[mini]], [[teardrop]], [[minimini]], [[micro]], and, what could be called a double g-string, the [[minimicro]].
Female athletes who play [[beach volleyball]] professionally are required to wear two-pieces.
==Media depiction==
[[Image:Sunbathe Bikini.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Women usually wear bikinis when they are [[sun tanning|tanning]].]]
The obvious [[sex appeal]] of the apparel prompted numerous [[film]] and [[television]] productions as soon as public morals changed to accept it. They include the numerous [[surf movie]]s of the early [[1960s]] and the [[Television program|television series]], ''[[Baywatch]]''. Iconic portrayals of bikinis in movies include [[Ursula Andress]] as [[Bond girl]] Honey Ryder in ''[[Dr. No]]'' ([[1962 in film|1962]]), [[Raquel Welch]] as the prehistoric cavegirl in the [[1966 in film|1966]] film ''[[One Million Years B.C.]]'', and [[Phoebe Cates]] in the [[1982]] [[teen film]] ''[[Fast Times at Ridgemont High]]''. These scenes were recently ranked 1, 86, and 84 in [[Channel 4]] ([[UK]])'s ''[[100 Greatest Sexy Moments]]''.
In addition, a variant of the bikini popular in [[fantasy literature]] is a bikini that is made up of metal to serve as (admittedly rather impractical) [[armor]] (Sometimes referred to as a [[Chainmail]] Bikini). The character [[Red Sonja]] is a famous example. A [[re-enactment]] term for such usage, where sex appeal is more important than actual practicality is ''babes-at-arms'' (parody from "men-at-arms" for a fully armoured soldier).
<br style="clear:both" />
==Images of Roman bikinis==
{|
|[[Image:Roman bikini 2.jpg|thumb|150px|left|A Roman, ca. [[300]].]]
|[[Image:Roman bikini 3.jpg|thumb|150px|left|A Roman, ca. 300.]]
|[[Image:Roman bikini 4.jpg|thumb|150px|left|A Roman.]]
|}
<br style="clear:both" />
{|
[[Image:Roman bikini 1.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Romans exercising, ca. 300]]
|}
<br style="clear:both" />
==See also==
{{commons|Category:Bikini}}
* [[Bikini waxing]]
* [[Brazilian waxing]]
* [[Bikini contest]]
* [[Microkini]]
==External links==
* [http://www.bikiniscience.com Bikini Science a study of the bikini]
* [http://www.beachwear.net/history_of_bikini.html Bikini facts and information]
* [http://www.channel4.com/film/newsfeatures/microsites/S/sexy/index.html Channel 4 100 Greatest Sexy Moments with iconic Bikini portrayals]
* [http://www.everythingbikini.com/ Bikini quotes and facts]
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[[zh:比基尼泳衣]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Babur</title>
<id>4551</id>
<revision>
<id>41371011</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T22:24:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Guanaco</username>
<id>47960</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.253.115.202|207.253.115.202]] ([[User talk:207.253.115.202|talk]]) to last version by Siddiqui</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the founder of the Mughal Empire. For the Pakistani cruise missile, see [[Babur missile]]''
{| cellpadding=3px cellspacing=0px class="toccolours" style="float:right; border:1px #CCCCCC solid; margin:5px"
|+ <big>'''Babur'''</big>
|colspan=2 align=center style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|[[Image:Babur.jpg| Babur portrait]]
|-
|align=left style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|'''Birth name:'''||style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|Zahir-ud-din Mohammad Babur
|-
|align=left style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|'''Family name:'''||style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|[[Timur House]]
|-
|align=left style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|'''Title:'''||style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|[[Emperor]] of [[Mughal Empire]]<br />
|-
|align=left style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|'''Birth:'''||style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|[[February 14]], [[1483]]
|-
|align=left style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|'''Death:'''||style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|[[December 26]], [[1530]]
|-
|align=left style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|'''Succeeded by:'''||style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|[[Humayun]]
|-
|align=left style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|'''Marriage:'''||style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|
*[[Ayisheh Sultan Begum]]<br>
*[[Bibi Mubarika Yusufzay]]<br>
*[[Dildar Begum]]<br>
*[[Gulnar Agacheh]]<br>
*[[Gulrukh Begum]]<br>
*[[Maham Begum]]<br>
*[[Masumeh Begum]]<br>
*[[Nargul Agacheh]]<br>
*[[Sayyida Afaq]]<br>
*[[Zainab Sultan Begum]]<br>
|-
|align=left style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|'''Children:'''||style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|
*[[Humayun]], son<br>
*[[Kamran Mirza]], son<br>
*[[Askari Mirza]], son<br>
*[[Hindal Mirza]], son<br>
* |
allest independent South American country). It borders the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the north, [[Brazil]] to the east and south, and Suriname to the west (part of the eastern border with Suriname is disputed).
==History==
''Main article: [[History of French Guiana]]''
First settled by the French in [[1604]], French Guiana was the site of notorious penal settlements (see [[Devil's Island]]) until [[1951]].
==Politics==
''Main article: [[Politics of French Guiana]]''
As an integral part of France, French Guiana is part of the [[European Union]], the largest part in area outside [[Europe]] and the only significant part outside Europe that is not an island (other than the Spanish exclaves in Morocco). The Head of State is the French President who appoints a Préfet (resident at the Prefecture building in Cayenne) as his/her representative. There are two legislative bodies: the 19-member General Council and the 34-member Regional Council, both elected. French Guiana has two seats at the National Assembly in [[Paris]]. French Guiana has traditionally been conservative, though the socialist party has been increasingly successful in recent years. Though many would like to see more autonomy for the region, support for complete independence is very low.
A chronic issue affecting French Guiana is the influx of illegal immigrants and clandestine [[gold prospecting|gold prospectors]] from [[Brazil]] and [[Suriname]]. The border between the ''département'' and Suriname is formed by the [[Maroni River]], which flows through rainforest and is difficult for the [[French Gendarmerie]] to patrol. (The border line with Suriname is disputed.) Illegal [[gold]] mining generates pollution, especially by [[mercury (element)|mercury]], and is also a vector for [[alcoholism]] and [[sexually-transmitted diseases]].
==Geography==
''Main article: [[Geography of French Guiana]]''
Though sharing cultural affinities with the [[French language|French]]-speaking territories of the [[Caribbean]], French Guiana cannot be considered to be part of that region, since the Caribbean Sea actually lies several hundred miles to the west, beyond the arch of the [[Lesser Antilles]].
French Guiana consists of two main geographical regions: a coastal strip where the majority of the people live, and dense, near-inaccessible [[rainforest]] which gradually rises to the modest peaks of the [[Tumac-Humac mountains]] along the Brazilian frontier. French Guiana's highest peak is Bellevue de l'Inini (851&nbsp;[[metre|m]]&nbsp;/&nbsp;2,792&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). Other mountains include Mont Machalou (782&nbsp;m&nbsp;/&nbsp;2,566&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]), Pic Coudreau (711&nbsp;m&nbsp;/&nbsp;2,333&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) and Mont St Marcel (635&nbsp;m&nbsp;/&nbsp;2,083&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]), Mont Favard (200&nbsp;m&nbsp;/&nbsp;656&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) and Montagne du Mahury (156&nbsp;m&nbsp;/&nbsp;512&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). Several small islands are found off the coast, the three [[Iles du Salut]] Salvation Islands which includes [[Devil's Island]] and the isolated Ile de Connetable bird sanctury further along the coast towards Brazil.
The [[Barrage de Petit-Saut]] hydroelectric dam in the north of French Guiana forms an artificial lake and provides [[hydroelectricity]]. There are many rivers in French Guiana.
''See also: [[Communes of the Guyane département]] and [[List of cities in French Guiana]]''
==Economy==
''Main Article: [[Economy of French Guiana]]''
French Guiana is heavily dependent on [[France]] for subsidies and goods. The main industries are fishing (accounting for 3/4 of foreign exports), [[gold]] mining and [[timber]]. In addition the European Space Centre at [[Kourou]] accounts for 25% of the GDP and employs about 1700 people. There is very little manufacturing and agriculture is largely undeveloped (except among the [[Hmong]] population). Tourism, especially [[eco-tourism]], is growing. Unemployment is a major problem, running at about 20%-30%.
[[Image:French Guiana CIA.gif|right|Map Of French Guiana]]
==Demographics==
''Main article: [[Demographics of French Guiana]]''
French Guiana's population of 195,506 (July 2005 est.), most of whom live along the coast, is very ethnically diverse. Estimates of the percentages of French Guiana ethnic composition vary, a problem compounded by the large numbers of legal and illegal immigrants (about 20,000).
[[Creole peoples|Creoles]] (black and mixed black and white) are the largest ethnic group, though estimates vary as to the exact percentage depending upon whether the large [[Haitian]] community is included as well. Generally the Creole population is judged at about 60%-70% with Haitians (roughly 1/3) and 30%-50% without. Roughly 10% are Europeans, the vast majority of whom are [[French people|French]].
There are smaller groups of people from neighbouring states, attracted by French Guiana's relative wealth. Of these about 8% are [[Brazilian]], 4% Surinamese and 2.5% Guyanese. The main Asian communities are the [[Hmong]] from [[Laos]] (1.5%) and [[overseas Chinese|Chinese]] (primarily from [[Hong Kong]] and Zhejiang province; 3.2%). There are also smaller groups from various [[Caribbean]] islands, mainly St Lucia. The main groups living in the interior are the [[Maroon (people)|Maroons]] (also called Bush Negroes) and [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Amerindians]].
The [[Maroon (people)|Maroons]], descendents of escaped African slaves, live primarily along the [[Maroni River]]. The main Maroon groups are the Paramacca, Aucan (both of whom also live in [[Suriname]]) and the Boni (Aluku).
The main Amerindian groups (forming about 3%-4% of the population) are the [[Arawak]], [[Emerillon]], [[Galibi]] (now called the Kaliña), [[Palikour]], [[Wayampi]] (also known as Oyampi) and [[Wayana]].
The predominant religion in the country is [[Roman Catholicism]], though the Maroons and some Amerindian peoples still practice their own religions. The Hmong people are also mainly Catholic owing to the influence of Catholic missionaries who helped bring them to French Guiana.
==See also==
* [[Communications in French Guiana]]
* [[Inini]]
* [[Foreign relations of French Guiana]]
* [[Military of French Guiana]]
* [[Transportation in French Guiana]]
* [[French overseas departments and territories]]
* [[Administrative divisions of France]]
== Further reading ==
* ''France's Overseas Frontier : Les Départements et territoires d'outre-mer'' Robert Aldrich and John Connell
* ''Dry guillotine: Fifteen years among the living dead'' René Belbenoit, 1938, Reprint: Berkley (1975). ISBN 0425029506
* ''Hell on Trial'' René Belbenoit, 1940, Translated from the Original French Manuscript by Preston Rambo. E. P Dutton & Co. Reprint by Blue Ribbon Books, New York, 1941. Reprint: Bantam Books, 1971
*''Papillon'' [[Henri Charrière]] Reprints: Hart-Davis Macgibbon Ltd. 1970. ISBN 0246639873 (hbk); Perennial, 2001. ISBN 0060934794 (sbk)
* ''Space in the Tropics: From Convicts to Rockets in French Guiana'' Peter Redfield
== External links ==
'''General information'''
*[http://www.geocities.com/kouroufrenchguiana/index.html Gabe's French Guiana] with information and many photos
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/French_Guiana Open Directory Project - French Guiana] directory category
* [http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1117.html US Consular Information Sheet]
'''Other'''
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=French+Guiana Ethnologue French Guiana page]
* [http://www.kwata.org/index_eng.htm Kwata - French Guiana conservation group]
* [http://kourou.cirad.fr/ Silvolab Guyanae - scientific interest group in French Guiana]
* [http://www.luxner.com/cgi-bin/view_article.cgi?articleID=661 Article on separatism in French Guiana]
* [http://gosouthamerica.about.com/cs/frenchguiana/ About.com French Guiana travel site]
* [http://rainforests.mongabay.com/20frenchg.htm Status of Forests in French Guiana]
* [http://r.douzal.free.fr/FM-Guyana-01.htm French Guiana photo gallery]
* [http://www.horizo.com/photo_guyane.htm French Guiana image gallery]
* [http://www.galenfrysinger.com/cayenne.htm Photo gallery]
* [http://us.i1.yimg.com/us.yimg.com/i/travel/dg/maps/7a/750x750_frenchguiana_m.gif French Guiana map]
{{South_America}}
{{Regions_of_France}}
[[Category:French Guiana]]
[[Category:Special territories of the European Union]]
[[Category:South American countries]]
[[an:Guayana Franzesa]]
[[zh-min-nan:Guyane]]
[[ca:Guaiana Francesa]]
[[cs:Francouzská Guyana]]
[[da:Fransk Guiana]]
[[de:Französisch-Guayana]]
[[et:Prantsuse Guajaana]]
[[es:Guayana Francesa]]
[[eo:Franca Gviano]]
[[fr:Guyane française]]
[[gl:Güiana Francesa - Guyane française]]
[[ko:프랑스령 기아나]]
[[hr:Francuska Gvajana]]
[[id:Guyana Perancis]]
[[is:Franska Gvæjana]]
[[it:Guyana Francese]]
[[he:גיאנה הצרפתית]]
[[la:Guiana Francica]]
[[lt:Prancūzų Gviana]]
[[hu:Francia Guyana]]
[[nl:Frans-Guyana]]
[[ja:フランス領ギアナ]]
[[no:Fransk Guyana]]
[[pl:Gujana Francuska]]
[[pt:Guiana Francesa]]
[[ro:Guiana Franceză]]
[[ru:Французская Гвиана]]
[[simple:French Guiana]]
[[sk:Francúzska Guyana]]
[[fi:Ranskan Guayana]]
[[sv:Franska Guyana]]
[[tr:Fransız Guyanası]]
[[zh:法屬圭亞那]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of French Guiana</title>
<id>10761</id>
<revision>
<id>39360763</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T17:27:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>217.85.196.113</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* References */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">== Pre-colonial ==
[[French Guiana]] was originally inhabited by a number of Native American peoples, among them the [[Carib]], [[Arawak]], [[Emerillon]], [[Galibi]], [[Palikour]], [[Wayampi]] (also known as Oyampi) and [[Wayana]].
== Beginnings of European involvement ==
In [[14 |
er in the southeastern Deccan. [[Megasthenese]], who visited the Court of [[Chandragupta Maurya]] (322-297 BCE), mentioned that Andhra country had 30 fortified towns and an army of a million infantry, 2000 cavalry and 1000 elephants. Buddhist books reveal that Andhras established their kingdoms on the [[Godavari]] belt at that time. [[Asoka]] referred in his [[13th rock edict]] (232 BCE) that Andhra region is under his rule.
After the fall of the Mauryan Empire, the history of the Andhras, as a continuous account of political and cultural events, commences with the rise of the [[Satavahana]]s as a political power. According to [[Matsya Purana]] there were 29 rulers of this dynasty. They ruled over the Andhradesa including [[Deccan]] for about 400 years from the 2nd century BCE to beyond the 2nd century CE.
The decline and fall of the Satavahana empire left the Andhra country in a political chaos. Local rulers as well as invaders tried to carve out small kingdoms for themselves and to establish dynasties. During the period from 180 to 624 CE, [[Ikshvakus]], [[Brihatphalayanas]], [[Salankayanas]], [[Vishnukundins]], [[Vakatakas]], [[Pallavas]], [[Anandagotras]], [[Kalingas]] and others ruled over the Andhra area with their small kingdoms. Perhaps most important among these small dynasties were the Ikshvakus. [[Nagarjunakonda]] was their capital and they patronised [[Buddhism]], though they followed the [[vedic]] [[ritualism]].
The period of Andhra history, between 624 and 1323, spanning over seven centuries, is significant for the sea-change it brought in all spheres of the human activity; social, religious, linguistic and literary. During this period, [[Desi]], the indigenous [[Telugu]] language, emerged as a literary medium overthrowing the domination of [[Prakrit]] and [[Sanskrit]]. As a result, Andhradesa achieved an identity and a distinction of its own. This change was brought by strong historical forces, namely, the Eastern and Western Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas and the early Cholas.
The [[Eastern Chalukyas]] was a branch of the [[Chalukyas]] of [[Badami]]. [[Pulakesin II]], the renowned ruler of Chalukyas conquered [[Vengi]] (near [[Eluru]]) in 624 CE and installed his brother [[Kubja Vishnuvardhana]] (624-641 CE) as its ruler. His dynasty, known as the Eastern Chalukyas, ruled for nearly four centuries. Vishnuvardhana extended his dominions up to [[Srikakulam]] in the north and [[Nellore]] in the south.
The Eastern Chalukyas occupied a prominent place in the history of Andhra Pradesh. Since the time of [[Gunaga Vijayaditya]], inscriptions show Telugu stanzas, culminating in the production of literary works. Later on, in the 11th century, the great epic [[Mahabharata]] was translated partly by the court poet [[Nannaya]] under the patronage of the then-Eastern Chalukya king [[Rajaraja]]
The 12th century was a period of chaos. The [[Western Chalukyas]] of [[Kalyani]], who were at first successful in overthrowing the Eastern Chalukyas, were driven out after 17 years by the [[Imperial Cholas]] with the help of local chiefs. But the latter did not rule directly and thought it prudent to leave the kingdom to the feudatories themselves in lieu of nominal allegiance. The [[Velanati Cholas]] of [[Tsandavolu]] ([[Guntur]] district) were the foremost among the feudatories. Between 1135 and 1206, several minor dynasties ruled over parts of Andhra Pradesh recognising the authority of the Velanati Cholas nominally.
The 12th and the 13th centuries saw the emergence of the [[Kakatiyas]]. They were at first the feudatories of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyana, ruling over a small territory near [[Warangal]]. A ruler of this dynasty, [[Prola II]], who ruled from 1110 to 1158, extended his sway to the south and declared his independence. His successor [[Rudra]] (1158-1195) pushed the kingdom to the north up to the [[Godavari delta]]. He built a fort at [[Warangal]] to serve as a second capital and faced the invasions of the [[Yadavas]] of [[Devagiri]]. The next ruler [[Mahadeva]] extended the kingdom to the coastal area. In 1199, [[Ganapati]] succeeded him. He was the greatest of the Kakatiyas and the first after the Satavahanas to bring the entire Telugu area under one rule. He put an end to the rule of the Velanati Cholas in 1210.
The [[Kakatiya]] period was rightly called the brightest period of the Telugu history. The entire Telugu speaking area was under the kings who spoke Telugu and encouraged Telugu. They established order throughout the strife torn land and the forts built by them played a dominant role in the defence of the realm. Kakatiya art preserved the balance between architecture and sculpture, that is, while valuing sculpture, it laid emphasis on architecture where due. The Kakatiya temples, dedicated mostly to [[Siva]], reveal in their construction a blending of the styles of [[North India]] and [[South India]] which influenced the political life of the Deccan.
In 1323, the [[Delhi]] [[Sultan]] [[Ghiaz-ud-din Tughlaq]] sent a large army under [[Ulugh Khan]] to conquer the [[Telugu]] country and lay siege to [[Warangal]]. The disastrous fall of the [[Kakatiya]] capital in 1323 brought the [[Andhras]], for the first time in their history, under the yoke of an alien ruler, the [[Muslim]]s. In 1347, an independent Muslim state, the [[Bahmani]] kingdom, was established in south India by [[Alla-ud-din Hasan Gangu]] in a revolt against the [[Delhi Sultanate]]. By the end of the 15th century, the [[Bahmani]] rule was plagued with faction fights and there came into existence the five [[Shahi]] kingdoms. Of these, it was the [[Qutbshahi]] dynasty that played a significant and notable role in the history of Andhras.
The [[Qutb Shahi]] dynasty held sway over the Andhra country for about two hundred years from the early part of the 16th century to the end of the 17th century. [[Sultan Quli Qutb Shah]], the founder of the dynasty, served the [[Bahmanis]] faithfully and was appointed governor of [[Telangana]] in 1496. He declared independence after the death of his patron king, [[Mahmud Shah]], in 1518. [[Qutb Shahi]] rulers adopted religious tolerance and local customs to a great extent. They treated Hindus equal with Muslims as well and maintained cordial relations between the two throughout. They encouraged the local language Telugu besides the Deccani [[Urdu]]. The socio-cultural life of the people during the rule of the Qutb Shahis was marked by a spirit of broad-mindedness and [[catholicity]] based on sharing and adopting of mutual traditions and customs. The [[Deccani architecture]], is a combination of [[Persian Empire|Persian]], [[Hindu]] and [[Pathan]] styles. [[Charminar]], [[citadel]] of [[Hyderabad]], is the most remarkable of all the Qutb Shahi monuments.
[[Aurangazeb]], the [[Mughal]] emperor, invaded [[Golconda]] in 1687 and annexed it to the Mughal empire. He appointed a [[Nizam]] (governor) and thus for about a period of 35 years this region was ruled by Mughal [[Nizam]]s. Aurangazeb died in 1707 and the administrative machinery of the Mughal imperial regime began to crumble and it gradually lost control over the provinces. It enabled two foreign mercantile companies to consolidate themselves as political powers capable of subsequently playing decisive roles in shaping the destiny of the nation. They were the [[East India Company]] of [[England]] and the [[Compagnie de Inde Orientale]] of [[France]].
===The Colonial Era===
During the [[17th century]], the British acquired the [[Coastal Andhra]] region along the [[Bay of Bengal]], then known as the [[Northern Circars]], from the [[Nizam]]s, which became part of the British [[Madras Presidency]]. The [[Nizam]]s retained control of the interior provinces as the [[princely state]] of [[Hyderabad]], acknowledging British rule in return for local autonomy.
The provinces were at the time governed in a feudal manner, with [[zamindar]]s in areas such as Kulla and other parts of the Godavari acting as lords under the Nizam. The feudal or zamindari system was removed after independence.
The Andhra (or [[Telugu people|Telugu]]) were at the forefront of Indian nationalism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. [[Potti Sriramulu]] fought for independence alongside [[Mahatma Gandhi]], and later fought for Andhra unification.
===Post-Independence===
[[Independence of India|India became independent]] from the [[United Kingdom]] in [[1947]]. The [[Muslim]] [[Nizam of Hyderabad]] wanted to retain his independence from India, but his state was [[History of Hyderabad#The Liberation of Hyderabad|forcibly integrated]] into India in [[1948]] as [[Hyderabad state]]. In 1953, the northern, Telugu-speaking portion of [[Madras State]] voted to become the new state of Andhra Pradesh, the first of India's linguistic states. The state acquired its present boundaries on [[November 1]], [[1956]], when Hyderabad State was partitioned along linguistic lines and its [[Telangana]] region was added to Andhra Pradesh.
(''See also [[History of Hyderabad|Hyderabad]]'')
===Dynasties===
*[[Satavahana]]
*[[Shakas]]
*[[Ikshvakus]]
*[[Chalukya|Eastern Chalukyas]]
*[[Vengi]]
*[[Kakatiya|Kakatiyas]]
*[[Musunuri Nayaks]]
*[[Vijayanagar]]
*Reddys{{fact}}
*[[Qutb Shahi]]
*[[Nizam]]
==Geography==
===Regions===
Andhra Pradesh can be broadly divided into three regions, namely [[Coastal Andhra]] (Konaseema), [[Telangana]] and [[Rayalaseema]].
[[Coastal Andhra]] occupies the coastal plain between [[Eastern Ghats]] ranges, which run the length of the state, and the [[Bay of Bengal]].
[[Telangana]] lies west of the Ghats on the [[Deccan]] plateau. The [[Godavari River|Godavari]] and [[Krishna River|Krishna]] rivers rise in the [[Western Ghats]] of [[Karnataka]] and [[Maharashtra]] and flow east across Telangana to empty into the Bay of Bengal in a combined [[river delta]].
[[Rayalaseema]] lies in the southeast of the state on the Deccan plateau, in the basin of the [[Penn |
year|y]]
| dm=[[beta emission|&beta;]] | de=0.373 | pn=182 | ps=[[tantalum|Ta]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
'''Hafnium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Hf''' and [[atomic number]] 72. A lustrous, silvery gray tetravalent [[transition metal]], hafnium resembles [[zirconium]] chemically and is found in zirconium [[mineral]]s. Hafnium is used in [[tungsten]] [[alloy]]s in filaments and [[electrode]]s and also acts as a [[neutron]] absorber in nuclear control rods.
== Notable characteristics ==
[[Image:HafniumMetalUSGOV.jpg|thumb|left|Hafnium metal]]
This is a shiny silvery, ductile [[metal]] that is [[corrosion]] resistant and chemically similar to [[zirconium]]. The properties of hafnium are markedly affected by zirconium impurities and these two elements are amongst the most difficult to separate. The only notable difference between them is their density (zirconium is about half as dense as hafnium).
[[Hafnium carbide]] is the most [[Refraction (metallurgy)|refractory]] [[binary compound]] known and [[hafnium nitride]] is the most refractory of all known metal nitrides with a [[melting point]] of 3310 [[Celsius|&deg;C]]. This metal is resistant to concentrated [[alkali]]s, but [[halogen]]s react with it to form hafnium tetrahalides. At higher temperatures hafnium reacts with [[oxygen]], [[nitrogen]], [[carbon]], [[boron]], [[sulfur]], and [[silicon]].
The [[nuclear isomer]] Hf-178-2m is also a source of energetic [[gamma rays]], and is being studied as a possible power source for gamma ray [[laser]]s.
== Applications ==
Hafnium is used to make nuclear control rods, such as those found in [[nuclear energy|nuclear]] [[submarine]]s because of its ability to absorb [[neutron]]s (its thermal neutron absorption cross section is nearly 600 times that of zirconium), excellent mechanical properties and exceptional corrosion-resistance properties. Other uses:
*Used in gas-filled and [[incandescent lamp]]s,
*for scavenging oxygen and nitrogen,
*as the electrode in [[plasma cutting]] because of its ability to shed electrons into air,
*and in [[iron]], [[titanium]], [[niobium]], [[tantalum]], and other metal [[alloy]]s.
*[[Hafnium dioxide]] is a candidate for [[High-K]] gate insulators in future generations of [[integrated circuits]].
*Recently, hafnium has been put into development of newer nuclear weapons by the U.S. government.
*DARPA has been intermittently funding programs to determine the possibility of using a [[nuclear isomer]] of hafnium (the above mentioned Hf-178-2m) to construct small, high yield weapons with simple x-ray triggering mechanisms&mdash;the ''[[hafnium bomb]]''. That work follows over two decades of on-again, off-again enthusiasm for the idea of [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1560258497/002-5814966-0538419?v=glance&n=283155 isomer weapons]. There is considerable scientific opposition to this program, both on technical and moral grounds (the argument is that though a hafnium bomb might be infeasible, other countries will use an imagined "isomer weapon gap" to justify nuclear weapons development stockpiling). A related proposal is to use the same isomer to power [[Unmanned Aerial Vehicles]] [http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article1534.htm], which could remain airborne for weeks at a time.
== History ==
Hafnium ([[Latin]] ''Hafnia'' for "[[Copenhagen]]", the home town of [[Niels Bohr]]) was discovered by [[Dirk Coster]] and [[Georg von Hevesy]] in [[1923]] in Copenhagen, [[Denmark]]. Soon after, the new element was predicted to be associated with [[zirconium]] by using the Bohr theory and was finally found in zircon through [[X-ray]] [[spectroscope]] analysis in [[Norway]].
It was separated from zirconium through repeated recrystallization of double [[ammonium]] or [[potassium]] fluorides by Jantzen and von Hevesey. Metallic hafnium was first prepared by [[Anton Eduard van Arkel]] and [[Jan Hendrik deBoer]] by passing tetraiodide vapor over a heated [[tungsten]] filament.
== Occurrence ==
Hafnium is found combined in natural [[zirconium]] compounds but it does not exist as a free element in nature. [[Mineral]]s that contain zirconium, such as alvite [(Hf, [[thorium|Th]], [[zirconium|Zr]])[[silicon|Si]][[oxygen|O]]<sub>4</sub> [[water|H<sub>2</sub>O]]], [[thortveitite]] and [[zircon]] (ZrSiO<sub>4</sub>), usually contain between 1 and 5% hafnium. Hafnium and zirconium have nearly identical chemistry, which makes the two difficult to separate. About half of all hafnium metal manufactured is produced by a by-product of zirconium refinement. This is done through reducing [[hafnium(IV) chloride]] with [[magnesium]] or [[sodium]] in the [[Kroll process]].
== Precautions ==
Care needs to be taken when machining hafnium because when it is divided into fine particles, it is [[pyrophoric]] and can ignite spontaneously in air. Compounds that contain this metal are rarely encountered by most people and the pure metal is not normally toxic but all its compounds should be handled as if they are toxic (although there appears to be limited danger to exposed individuals).
==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/72.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Hafnium]
== External links ==
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Hf/index.html WebElements.com - Hafnium]
{{Commons|Hafnium}}
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Transition metals]]
[[ca:Hafni]]
[[cs:Hafnium]]
[[da:Hafnium]]
[[de:Hafnium]]
[[et:Hafnium]]
[[es:Hafnio]]
[[eo:Hafnio]]
[[fr:Hafnium]]
[[ko:하프늄]]
[[io:Hafnio]]
[[is:Hafnín]]
[[it:Afnio]]
[[he:הפניום]]
[[ku:Hafniyûm]]
[[lv:Hafnijs]]
[[lt:Hafnis]]
[[lb:Hafnium]]
[[hu:Hafnium]]
[[nl:Hafnium]]
[[ja:ハフニウム]]
[[no:Hafnium]]
[[nn:Hafnium]]
[[pl:Hafn]]
[[pt:Háfnio]]
[[ru:Гафний]]
[[sl:Hafnij]]
[[sr:Хафнијум]]
[[fi:Hafnium]]
[[sv:Hafnium]]
[[th:แฮฟเนียม]]
[[uk:Гафній]]
[[zh:铪]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hamburg</title>
<id>13467</id>
<revision>
<id>42154874</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:31:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lpgeffen</username>
<id>693745</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Music */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the city in Germany. For other articles named Hamburg, see [[Hamburg (disambiguation)]].''
{| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1" style="float:right; empty-cells:show; margin-right:0em; margin-left:2em; margin-bottom:0.5em; background:#FFDEAD;"
|+<font size="+1">'''Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg'''</font><br />
! colspan="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD" | Flag
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| colspan="2" align="center" bgcolor="#EFEFEF" |[[Image:Flag of Hamburg.svg|200px|Flag of Hamburg]]<br />
|- bgcolor="#FFDEAD"
! Coat of arms !! Map of Hamburg in Germany
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
! align="center" | [[Image:Coat of arms of Hamburg.svg|center|100px|Coat of Arms of Hamburg]] || [[Image:Germany Laender Hamburg.png|center|140px|Map of Hamburg in Germany]]
|-
!colspan="2" bgcolor="#ffdead" | Basic Information
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|[[Area]]: || 755.16&nbsp;[[kilometer|km]]²
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|[[Population]]: || 1,738,483 [http://www.statistik-nord.de source] (2005)
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|[[Population density]]: || 2,302 residents/km²
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|[[Elevation]]: || 3 m above [[sea level]]
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|[[Postal code]]s: || 20001–20999,<br />21001–21149,<br />22001–22609
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|[[Area code]]: || 040
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|td valign="top" | [[Latitude]] and [[Longitude]]: || {{coor dm|53|33|N|10|0|E|type:city(1,738,483)}}
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|[[License plate]] prefix: || HH
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|[[ISO 3166-2:DE|ISO 3166-2]]: || DE-HH
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|Website: || [http://www.hamburg.de/ www.hamburg.de]
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|[[Mayor]]: || [[Ole von Beust]] ([[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)|CDU]])
|}
[[Image:Hamburg-alster-dusk.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Alster Lake at dusk]]
'''Hamburg''' is the second largest city in [[Germany]] and with the [[Hamburg Harbour]], its principal port. Hamburg is also the second largest port city in the [[European Union]].
The official name ''Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg'' ([[German language|German]] ''Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg'') refers to Hamburg's membership in the [[mediæval]] [[Hanseatic League]] and the fact that Hamburg is a [[City State]] and one of the sixteen [[States of Germany|Federal States of Germany]].
Hamburg is situated on the southern tip of [[Jutland Peninsula]], geographically centered a) between [[Continental Europe]] and [[Scandinavia]] and b) between [[North Sea]] and [[Baltic Sea]]. The city of Hamburg lies at the junction of the river [[Elbe]] with the rivers [[Alster]] and [[Bille]] and the city center is beautifully set around Lake [[Binnenalster]] and Lake [[Außenalster]].
Hamburg is an international trade city and the commercial and cultural center of Northern Germany. Hamburg is famous for its sophisticated music scene.
==Politics and Administration==
The ''Bürgerschaft'' (City Assembly) is the parliament of the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg, which is elected by the citizens of Hamburg every four years.
The ''Erster Bürgermeister'' (''First Mayor'') is head of the senate (which forms the government) and gets elected by the city assembly and is thus head of the city state. The current mayor is [[Ole von Beust]] (see also [[List of mayors of Hamburg]]).
[[Image:Hamburgrathaus.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Hamburg Rathaus (Town Hall)] |
at the Egyptians used [[Emery (mineral)|emery]] shown to have higher [[Hardenability|hardness]] on the [[Mohs scale of mineral hardness|Mohs scale]].
===Modern===
Granite has been extensively used as a dimension stone and as flooring tiles in public and commercial buildings and monuments. With increasingly [[acid rain]] in parts of the world, granite has begun to supplant marble as a monument material, since it is much more durable. Polished granite has been a popular choice for [[kitchen]] countertops due to its high durability and aesthetic qualities.
[[Engineers]] have traditionally used polished granite surfaces to establish a [[plane]] of reference, since they are relatively impervious and inflexible.
In the world of sports, [[curling]] rocks are traditionally fashioned of granite.
<center> <gallery>
Image:Granite azul noce.jpg|<center>Azul Noce ([[Spain]])</center>
Image:Granite giallo.jpg|<center>Giallo Veneziano ([[Brazil]])</center>
Image:Granite_gran_violet.jpg|<center>Gran Violet ([[Brazil]])</center>
Image:Granite lavanda blue.jpg|<center>Lavanda Blue ([[Brazil]])</center> </gallery> </center>
==See also==
* [[List of minerals]]
* [[List of rocks]]
* [[Igneous rocks]]
* [[Skarn]]
* [[Greisen]]
* [[Aplite]]
==External links==
{{Commons|Granite}}
*[http://www.geologynet.com/granite1.htm The Emplacement and Origin of Granite]
[[Category:Igneous rocks]]
[[Category:Granite domes]]
[[Category:Stone]]
[[bg:Гранит]]
[[ca:Granit]]
[[cs:Žula]]
[[da:Granit]]
[[de:Granit]]
[[et:Graniit]]
[[es:Granito]]
[[eo:Granito]]
[[fa:سنگ خارا]]
[[fr:Granite]]
[[gl:Granito]]
[[ko:화강암]]
[[it:Granito]]
[[he:גרניט]]
[[lt:Granitas]]
[[nl:Graniet]]
[[ja:花崗岩]]
[[no:Granitt]]
[[nn:Granitt]]
[[pl:Granit]]
[[pt:Granito]]
[[ru:Гранит]]
[[simple:Granite]]
[[fi:Graniitti]]
[[sv:Granit]]
[[zh:花崗岩]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Global Climate Coalition</title>
<id>13089</id>
<revision>
<id>36958023</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-27T16:21:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluebot</username>
<id>527862</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Bringing "External links" and "See also" sections in line with the [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|Manual of Style]].</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Global Climate Coalition''' was a group of mainly [[United States]] businesses opposing immediate action to reduce [[greenhouse gas]] emissions. The group formed as a response to several reports from the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]]. A major scientific report on the severity of [[global warming]] by the IPCC in [[2001]] led to large-scale membership loss. Since [[2002]] the GCC has been dormant, or in its own words, "deactivated".
It says of itself:
: ''The Global Climate Coalition has been deactivated. The industry voice on climate change has served its purpose by contributing to a new national approach to global warming'' [http://www.globalclimate.org/].
[[Benjamin D. Santer]] wrote:
:"The Global Climate Coalition - a less than disinterested party - has made serious allegations regarding the scientific integrity of the Lead Authors of Chapter 8, and of the IPCC process itself." (Source: [http://www.sepp.org/ipcccont/Item08.htm E-mail correspondence between S. Fred Singer and Ben Santer])
== Prominent members (to 1997) ==
* [[Exxon]]
* [[Ford]]
* [[Royal Dutch Shell|Royal Dutch/Shell]]
* [[Texaco]]
* [[BP|British Petroleum]]
* [[General Motors]]
* [[DaimlerChrysler]]
Between 1997 and the Coalition's deactivation in 2001, a number of its members left, as part of their move to acknowledge global warming and attempt to reduce their carbon emissions (see [[Business action on climate change]]). Dupont and British Petroleum left in 1997, Royal Dutch/Shell in 1998, Ford in 1999, and DaimlerChrysler, General Motors, and Texaco in 2000.
==External links==
* http://www.globalclimate.org/ - GCC homepage
* John Vidal, ''[[The Guardian]]'', [[June 8]], 2005, [http://www.guardian.co.uk/climatechange/story/0,12374,1501646,00.html "Revealed: how oil giant influenced Bush: White House sought advice from Exxon on Kyoto stance"]
* Bob May, [[The Guardian]], [[27 January]] [[2005]], "Under-informed, over here" [http://www.guardian.co.uk/life/lastword/story/0,13228,1398885,00.html]
[[Category:Astroturf groups]]
[[Category:Defunct climate change organizations]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gotham City</title>
<id>13090</id>
<revision>
<id>42090965</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:42:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>130.184.211.146</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Recent events */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other meanings of '''Gotham''', see [[Gotham]].}}
[[Image:Gotham_skyline.JPG|right|thumbnail|250px|Gotham City's [[skyline]], as it appears in the 1989 ''Batman'' movie.]]
'''Gotham City''' is a [[fictional cities|fictional city]] appearing in [[DC Comics]], and is best known as the home of [[Batman]]. Batman's place of residence was first identified as Gotham City in [[Detective Comics]] #48 (February 1941); before then, Batman's adventures happened in either [[New York, New York|New York City]] or an unnamed city. Gotham is known to be architecturally modeled after New York or [[Chicago, Illinois]], but with more exaggerated vices. The name [[Gotham]] is an old nickname of New York.
In terms of how Gotham City's atmosphere is usually depicted, it has been said by some that, metaphorically, [[Metropolis (Superman)|Metropolis]] (home to [[Superman]]) is "New York during the day," and Gotham is "New York at night." This comparison is helped by the fact that Metropolis is more often seen during the day, and Gotham more at night. Longtime Batman writer and editor [[Dennis O'Neil]] has also said figuratively that Metropolis is New York above 14th St. on a sunny summer day, and that Gotham City is New York below 14th St. on a cold, rainy November night. Within the comics themselves, however, New York, Metropolis and Gotham City all exist as separate cities.
Gotham City's atmosphere took on a lighter tone in the comics of the 1950s and part of the 1960s, similar to the tone of Batman stories of that era; by the early 1970s, however, Gotham's tone (and the Batman stories themselves) had become grittier.
==History==
According to ''[[Swamp Thing]]'' #53 (and various subsequent [[comic book]] stories), Gotham City was founded in 1635 [[Swedish colonization of the Americas|by a Swedish]] mercenary and was later taken over by the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]]. This loosly mirrors the history of New York, which was founded by the Dutch and taken over by the British. During the [[American Revolutionary War]] it was the site of a major battle and various [[occult]] rites were rumored to have been conducted within the city. Perhaps for these reasons Gotham is a dark and foreboding place rife with crime, grime, and corruption. Despite this, Gotham City has maintained a thriving economy and is considered a major economic center of activity.
===Architecture===
[[Image:Merry_christmas,_from_gotham_city.JPG|right|thumbnail|250px|Gotham during [[Christmas]], as seen in ''[[Batman Returns]]''.]]
The unique architecture of Gotham City can be traced back to Judge Solomon Wayne during the pre-[[American Civil War]] era. Wayne's entrepreneurial skills made him a leading citizen in Gotham, starting a dozen businesses including the Gotham Buggy Whip Works. His campaign to reform Gotham came to a head when he met Cyrus Pinkney, a young architect looking for a commission. After the promotion of Pinkney's designs in the Property Holders Association, Wayne commissioned the first "Gotham Style" structures to be built in what is now the center of the city's financial district. Despite mixed reviews from critics, the [[Gothic architecture]] became a focal point for a thriving commercial center. Wayne and Pinkney would raise a dozen similar buildings in the years that followed, as Gotham took on a new face that would make it famous the world over.
===GCPD and corruption===
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:GCPD.JPG|right|thumbnail|250px|A Gotham City Police Department (GCPD) promotional poster.]] -->
In addition to rampant [[organized crime]] activity in the city, the [[Gotham City Police Department]] (GCPD) was steeped in corruption up until the late 1980s. The strongest blow against police corruption came in 1986, when an increasing amount of [[conspiracy]] charges, arranged by the intervention of the mysterious Batman, against Commissioner Gillian Loeb forced him to resign his position. The Falcone crime family, which had had a stranglehold on Gotham's underground for generations, finally crumbled by the end of the 1980s, when a series of killings shook the structure of the [[mafia]] organization. After the death of [[Carmine Falcone]] in 1988, the [[Mafia]] lashed out in sloppy, retaliatory crimes, which, in combination with rising [[gang violence]], severely crippled organized crime in Gotham City. Simultaneously, the ebbing presence of corrupt police officers allowed [[James Gordon (comics)|James Gordon]] to become the new [[commissioner]], a man determined to eradicate crime wherever it existed.
===Arkham Asylum===
Numerous costumed maniacs have emerged, necessitating the construction of an [[asylum]] dedicated to the incarceration of the criminally insane (called [[Arkham Asylum]] in homage to the fictional city of [[Arkham]], [[Massachusetts]] in the works of [[H. P. Lovecraft]], whose stories often included forbidding and decrepit [[New England]] cities with histories of occult practices and other evils). The origins of the asylum have been traced back to 1920, when |
slamic Jihad. For the general Islamic idea of jihad as a "holy war," see [[Jihad]].''
'''Islamic Jihad''' (''Arabic:'' '''Harakat al-Jihad al-Islami''') is a militant [[Islamism|Islamist]] group based in the [[Syria]]n [[capital]], [[Damascus]]. See: [[Palestinian Islamic Jihad]].
'''Islamic Jihad''' is also a name used by various other militant groups. Since 1983, when a group calling itself "Islamic Jihad" claimed the [[April 1983 U.S. Embassy bombing]] in [[Beirut]], it has been used by several other organizations. [[Hezbollah]] is believed to have used the name in the [[1980s]] to claim responsibility for attacks in [[Lebanon]], parts of the [[Middle East]], and [[Europe]]. There is also the [[Egyptian Islamic Jihad]] and the [[Yemeni Islamic Jihad]].
In the [[Western world]], the Palestinian Islamic Jihad is the organization usually meant by the term "Islamic Jihad", due to the widespread media coverage of the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]].
==See also==
*[[Jihad]]
*[[Terrorism]]
*[[Islamic Terrorism]]
[[Category:Islamist groups]]
[[de:Islamischer Dschihad]]
[[es:Yihad Islámico]]
[[fr:Jihad islamique]]
[[pl:Islamski Dżihad]]
[[sv:Islamiska jihad]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Igneous</title>
<id>15159</id>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Igneous rock]]
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<page>
<title>Intel 80486</title>
<id>15161</id>
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<id>42097662</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:36:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bloodshedder</username>
<id>20963</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move misplaced info</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|486 processor|other uses|486 (number)}}[[Image:80486dx2-v2.jpg|300px|thumb|The exposed die of an Intel 80486DX2 microprocessor.]]
[[Image:80486DX2_arch.png|300px|thumb|The 486DX2 architecture.]]
The '''Intel i486''' (also called '''486''' or '''80486''') is a range of [[Intel]] [[CISC]] [[microprocessor|microprocessors]] which is part of the Intel [[x86]] family of processors. The i486's predecessor was the [[Intel 80386]] processor. The i486 was so named without the usual 80-prefix, because of a court ruling that prohibited trademarking numbers (like 80486). Intel dropped number-based naming altogether with the successor to the i486 &ndash; the [[Pentium]] processor.
From a software point of view, the [[instruction set]] of the i486 family is very similar to its predecessor, the [[Intel 80386]], with the addition of only a few extra instructions.
From a hardware point of view, however, the architecture of the i486 is a vast improvement. It has an on-chip unified instruction and data [[CPU cache|cache]], an optional on-chip [[floating-point unit]] (FPU) (DX models only), and an enhanced [[computer bus|bus]] interface unit. In addition, under optimal conditions, the processor core can sustain an execution rate of one instruction per clock cycle. These improvements yield a rough doubling in performance over an Intel 80386 at the same [[clock rate]]. However, some low-end i486 models were actually slower than the highest-speed 386s, especially so with the 'SX' i486s.
A 25 [[megahertz|MHz]] version was introduced in April [[1989]], a 33 MHz version in May [[1990]], and a 50 MHz version in June [[1991]].
There are several suffixes and variants including:
*[[Intel 80486SX]] - a i486DX with its FPU disabled, although the earlier variants were simply normal i486s with defective FPUs. In later versions, the FPU was removed from the [[Integrated circuit|die]] to reduce its area and thus reduce cost.
*[[Intel 80486DX]] - same as above, with a working [[FPU]].
*[[Intel 80486DX2]] - the internal processor clock runs at twice the [[clock rate]] of the external bus clock.
*[[Intel 80486SX2]] - same as the i486DX2, but with the FPU disabled.
*[[Intel 80486SL]] - i486SX with power conservation circuitry. Mainly for use in portable computers.
*[[Intel 80486SL-NM]] - i486SX with power conservation circuitry; SL enhanced suffix, denotes a i486 with special power conservation circuitry similar to that in the i486SL processors.
*[[Intel 80487]] - i486DX with a slightly different pinout for use in i486SX systems as a FPU.
*[[Intel 80486 OverDrive]] - i486SX, i486SX2, i486DX2 or i486DX4. Marked as upgrade processors, some models had different pinouts or voltage handling abilities from 'standard' chips of the same speed stepping.
*[[Intel 80486DX4]] - designed to run at triple clock rate (not quadruple as often believed; the DX3, which was meant to run at 2.5x the clock speed, was never released).
Internal clock rates included 16, 20, 25, 33, 40, 50, 66, 75 and 100 MHz, although the 100 MHz versions could be somewhat unstable. The 486DX2 66 MHz was the most widespread high-end 486 chip, while more powerful iterations such as the OverDrive and DX4 were less used in favour of the succeeding [[Pentium]].
486 compatible processors have been produced by other companies such as [[International Business Machines|IBM]], [[Texas Instruments]], [[AMD]], [[Cyrix]], and [[Chips and Technologies]]. Some are almost exact duplicates in specifications and performance, some are not. The 486 was, however, covered by many of Intel's 386 patents as well as some of its own. Intel and IBM have broad cross-licenses of these patents, and AMD was granted rights to the relevant patents in the 1995 settlement of a lawsuit between the companies.[http://www.amd.com/us-en/assets/content_type/DownloadableAssets/AMD_-_Intel_Litigation_History.pdf]
The Intel project manager for the 80486 was Patrick Gelsinger.
==See also==
*[[List of Intel microprocessors]]
*[[Motorola 68040]], often considered the [[Motorola]] equivalent to the Intel 80486.
==References==
{{FOLDOC}}
== External links ==
* http://users.erols.com/chare/486.htm
* [http://www.cpu-collection.de/?l0=co&l1=Intel&l2=i486%20DX Intel 80486 images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de]
* [http://www.cpu-info.com/index2.php?mainid=html/cpu/486.php CPU-INFO: 80486, indepth processor history]
{{Intel_processors}}
[[Category:x86 microprocessors|Intel 486]]
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[[fi:Intel i486]]
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<page>
<title>Intel Pentium</title>
<id>15162</id>
<revision>
<id>15912655</id>
<timestamp>2003-07-17T03:16:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Crusadeonilliteracy</username>
<id>12542</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pentium]]</text>
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<title>Internet humour</title>
<id>15163</id>
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<page>
<title>Intel 80486SX</title>
<id>15164</id>
<revision>
<id>27890976</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-10T04:31:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Megapixie</username>
<id>312706</id>
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<comment>Moved image to image thumbnail.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:I486sx.jpg|right|thumb|300px|An Intel 80486SX from the early [[1990s]]]]
The '''Intel 80486SX''' is an [[Intel 80486DX|Intel 486DX]] [[microprocessor]] with its [[floating-point unit]] (FPU) disconnected. All early 486SX chips were actually 486DX chips with a defective FPU. If testing showed that the [[central processing unit]] was working but the FPU was defective, the FPU's power and bus connections were destroyed with a laser and the chip was sold cheaper as an SX; if the FPU worked it was sold as a DX. Some have claimed that DX chips with working FPUs were turned into SX chips to meet demand for lower-cost chips.
Some systems allowed a DX chip to be plugged into an expansion socket. A board jumper would disable the SX chip, which was hard to remove because it was inserted in a non-[[ZIF]] socket.
The FPU unit was shipped as the [[Intel 80487]], a full blown [[486DX]] chip with an extra pin to prevent it being used as a 486DX.
==References==
{{FOLDOC}}
== External links ==
* [http://www.cpu-collection.de/?l0=co&l1=Intel&l2=i486%20SX Intel 80486SX images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de]
[[fr:Intel 80486SX]]
{{Intel_processors}}
[[Category:x86 microprocessors|Intel 4861S]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Ivory</title>
<id>15165</id>
<revision>
<id>39661682</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T00:22:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michael Snow</username>
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<minor />
<comment>images not freely licensed</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Ivory decoration.jpg|thumb|right|An elaborately carved ivory decoration]]
'''Ivory''' is a hard, white, opaque substance that is the bulk of the [[teeth]] and [[tusk]]s of animals such as the [[elephant]], [[hippopotamus]], [[walrus]], [[mammoth]], etc. Prior to the introduction of [[plastics]], it was used for [[billiards|billiard]] balls, [[piano]] keys, buttons and ornamental items. The word "ivory" was traditionally applied to the tusks of [[elephant]]s. Plastics have been viewed by piano purists as a |
along with [[Prussia]], formed the original core of the modern federal state of [[Germany]]. It contained the future German capital [[Berlin]] and since [[1618]] both Brandenburg and [[Prussia]], then [[Brandenburg-Prussia]], were ruled by [[Hohenzollern]] dukes and later kings of [[Prussia]]. The Frankish [[Nuremberg]], Ansbach and southern German [[Hohenzollern]] and the eastern European connections of Berlin and the [[prince-elector]] together were instrumental in the rise of that state.
Brandenburg is situated entirely in territory of Germania recorded by [[Tacitus]] in [[98]] AD. By [[600]] first groups of Slavic people arrived. In [[948]] Emperor [[Otto I the Great]] established German control over the now largely Slavic inhabitants of the area and founded the [[diocese]]s of [[Havelberg]] and Brandenburg; he died in [[983]]. In the great uprising in [[983]] the [[Slavs]] wiped out German control from the territory of present day Brandenburg. The monasteries were buried, priests and Germans officials killed or expelled. The [[Slavic tribes]] living east of [[Elbe]] remained independent and pagan for the next 150 years.
===12th Century===
In the beginning of the [[12th century]] the [[Saxony|Saxon]] German kings and emperors conquered the Slavic-inhabited lands of present-day Brandenburg. Many Slavic inhabitants survived the conquests and live there still today - [[Sorbs]], [[Lusatians]]. The church brought bishoprics, which with their walled towns, afforded protection for the townspeople from attack. With the monks and bishops, the history of the town of [[Brandenburg (town)|Brandenburg]], which in time became the state of Brandenburg, began. In [[1134]], in the wake of a German crusade against the [[Wends]], the German magnate [[Albert the Bear]] was granted the [[Northern March]] by the [[Holy Roman Empire|Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Lothair II, Holy Roman Emperor|Lothar II]]. For some time up until the [[15th century]], some part of the area that would become Brandenburg was inhabited by the Slavic [[Wends]], who still make up a part of the area's modern population.
Albert's control of the region was nominal for several decades, but he engaged in a variety of campaigns against the Wends, as well as more diplomatic efforts which saw his control become more real by the middle of the century. In [[1150]], he formally inherited Brandenburg from its last Wendish ruler, [[Pribislav]]. Albert, and his descendants the [[Ascanian]]s, then made considerable progress in Christianizing and cultivating the lands. There was never any distinction made by any of the German rulers and the Slavic and German tribes intermarried.
===13th Century===
In [[1320]] the Brandenburg Ascanian line came to an end, and from [[1323]] until [[1373]] Brandenburg was under the control of the [[Wittelsbach]] family, better known as rulers of [[Bavaria]]. After a period of rule by the Imperial [[House of Luxembourg|Luxembourg]] dynasty, however, the margravate was granted [[1415]] by the Emperor [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor|Sigismund]] to the house of [[Hohenzollern]], which would rule until the end of [[World War I]]. From [[1356]] until the Empire's end in [[1806]], the [[Margrave of Brandenburg]] was also one of the electors of the Holy Roman Empire.
===16th Century===
Brandenburg was one of the German states to switch in [[1539]] to [[Protestantism]] in the wake of the [[Reformation]], and generally did quite well in the century following, as the dynasty expanded its lands to include the [[Duchy of Prussia]] in [[1618]] and along the lower Rhine [[Duchy of Cleves]] ([[1614]]) and elsewhere. The result was a sprawling, disconnected country that was in poor shape to defend itself during the [[Thirty Years' War]].
Towards the end of that devastating conflict and after, however, Brandenburg (and its [[successor state]]s) enjoyed a string of talented rulers who gradually maneuvered their country towards the heights of power in Europe. The first of these was [[Frederick William I]], the so-called "Great Elector", who worked tirelessly to rebuild and consolidate the nation. He moved the capital from the town of Brandenburg to [[Potsdam]].
When Frederick William died in [[1688]], he was followed by his son [[Friedrich I of Prussia|Frederick]], third of that name in Brandenburg. As the lands that had been acquired in Prussia were outside the formal boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire, Frederick assumed (as Frederick I) the title of "King in Prussia" ([[1701]]), basing this promotion from margrave on his title to what were, in actuality, vast but less agriculturally valuable stretches of sandy ground. Brandenburg was still the most important portion of the kingdom (and the state was often referred to informally as Brandenburg-Prussia) but for the purposes of accuracy, the continuation of this history can be found at [[Prussia]].
When Prussia was subdivided into provinces in [[1815]], the territory of the Margraviate of Brandenburg became the '''Province of Brandenburg'''. In [[1881]], the City of [[Berlin]] was separated from the Province of Brandenburg. Brandenburg had an area of 39,039 km² and a population of 2.6 million (1925). After [[World War II]], those parts of Brandenburg that were east of the [[Oder-Neiße Line]] were annexed by [[Poland]]; the remainder of the province became a state when Prussia was dissolved in [[1947]]. The State of Brandenburg was dissolved in [[1952]] by the government of [[East Germany]].
===Reunification===
The present State of Brandenburg was established after [[German reunification]] in [[1990]]. In [[1995]] the governments of Berlin and Brandenburg proposed to merge the states in order to form a new state with the name of '''Berlin-Brandenburg'''. The merger was rejected in a [[plebiscite]] in [[1996]]: While West Berliners voted for a merger, East Berliners and Brandenburgers voted against it.
==List of minister presidents of Brandenburg==
For earlier rulers, see [[List of rulers of Brandenburg]].
# [[1947]] - [[1949]]: [[Karl Steinhoff]] ([[Socialist Unity Party of Germany|SED]], formerly [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]])
# [[1949]] - [[1952]]: [[Rudolf Jahn]] (SED)
# [[1990]] - [[2002]]: [[Manfred Stolpe]] (SPD)
# since [[2002]]: [[Matthias Platzeck]] (SPD)
== Miscellaneous ==
Brandenburg is served by the same three airports that serve [[Berlin]]. They are [[Tegel International Airport]], [[Tempelhof International Airport]], and [[Schönefeld International Airport]]. Schönefeld Airport will eventually become [[Berlin-Brandenburg International Airport]], while Tegel and Tempelhof will close after BBI is established.
==External links==
* State's official website: http://www.brandenburg.de/
* For more information see Brandenburg at: [http://www.vdiest.nl/Europa/Germany/brandenburg.htm]
{{Germany_states}}
[[Category:States of Germany]]
[[Category:Brandenburg]]
[[Category:States of the Holy Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Provinces of Prussia]]
[[ar:براندنبورغ]]
[[bg:Бранденбург]]
[[ca:Brandeburg]]
[[cs:Braniborsko]]
[[da:Brandenburg]]
[[de:Brandenburg]]
[[et:Brandenburg]]
[[es:Brandeburgo]]
[[eo:Brandenburgio]]
[[fa:براندنبورگ]]
[[fr:Brandebourg]]
[[ko:브란덴부르크 주]]
[[hr:Brandenburg]]
[[id:Brandenburg]]
[[it:Brandeburgo]]
[[he:ברנדנבורג]]
[[ka:ბრანდენბურგი (მხარე)]]
[[lt:Brandenburgas]]
[[hu:Brandenburg]]
[[nl:Brandenburg (deelstaat)]]
[[nds:Brannenborg]]
[[ja:ブランデンブルク州]]
[[no:Brandenburg]]
[[pl:Brandenburgia]]
[[pt:Brandemburgo]]
[[ro:Brandenburg]]
[[ru:Бранденбург]]
[[simple:Brandenburg]]
[[sk:Brandenbursko]]
[[fi:Brandenburg]]
[[sv:Brandenburg (delstat)]]
[[uk:Бранденбурґ]]
[[zh:勃兰登堡]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Bremen (city)</title>
<id>3766</id>
<revision>
<id>40893426</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T18:43:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kelisi</username>
<id>173996</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Sister City */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Town DE|
name = Bremen|
name_local = |
image_coa = Mittleres Wappen Bremen.png|
image_map = Lage der kreisfreien Stadt Bremen in Deutschland.gif|
state = [[Bremen (state)]]|
regbzk = |
district = [[List of German urban districts|urban district]]|
population = 545,869|
population_as_of = 2005|
population_ref = [http://www.statistik.bremen.de/aktuelle_statistiken/AI1_m.pdf source]|
pop_dens = 1,671|
area = 326.72|
elevation = 12|
lat_deg = 53|
lat_min = 4|
lat_hem = N|
lon_deg = 8|
lon_min = 49|
lon_hem = E|
postal_code = 28001–28779|
area_code = 0421|
licence = HB|
mayor = [[Jens Böhrnsen]] ([[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]])|
website = [http://www.bremen.de/ bremen.de]|
}}
[[image:Weser watershed 3.png|thumb|The river Weser flows through Bremen to the estuary at Bremerhaven.]]
'''Bremen''' {{IPA|[&#x02c8;bre&#x02d0;mən]}} is a city in northern [[Germany]] (official name: '''Freie Hansestadt Bremen'''<sup><small>[[#Footnotes|1]]</small></sup> (''Free Hanseatic City of Bremen''), referring to its membership in the medieval [[Hanseatic League]]). It is a port city, situated along the [[Weser River|river Weser]], about 50 km south from its outflow into the [[North Sea]]. Bremen is one of two towns belonging to the [[States of Germany|state]] of [[Bremen (state)|Bremen]], the other being [[Bremerhaven]]. Population: 545,983 (1st June 2005).
==Politics==
The ''Bürgerschaft'' (city assembly) is the parliament of the Free Hanseatic City of Bremen (official name, German: ''Freie Hansestadt Bremen''), which is voted for by the citizens of Bremen every four years.
One of the two mayors (''Bürgermeister'') is elected President of the Senate (''Präsident des Senats'') and serves as head of the city state. The current ''[[Mayor of Bremen|President of the Senate of Bremen]]'' is [[Jens Böhrnsen]].
==History ==
In the [[8th century]] the troops of [[Charlemagne]] adv |
>.
He met his wife Betty when she was a numerical analyst at [[Bell Labs]].
==Shannon's computer chess program==
In 1950 Shannon published a groundbreaking paper on [[computer chess]] entitled ''Programming a Computer for Playing Chess''. It describes how a machine or computer could be made to play a reasonable game of [[chess]]. His process for having the computer decide on which move to make is a [[minimax]] procedure, based on an [[evaluation function]] of a given chess position. Shannon gave a rough example of an evaluation function in which the value of the black position was subtracted from that of the white position. ''Material'' was counted according to the usual relative [[chess piece point value]] (1 point for a pawn, 3 points for a knight or bishop, 5 points for a rook, and 9 points for a queen). He considered some positional factors, subtracting &frac12; point for each [[Doubled pawns|doubled pawn]], [[backward pawn]], and [[isolated pawn]]. Another positional factor in the evaluation function was ''mobility'', adding 0.1 point for each legal move available. Finally, he considered [[checkmate]] to be the capture of the king, and gave it the artificial value of 200 points. Quoting from the paper:
:''The coefficients .5 and .1 are merely the writer's rough estimate. Furthermore, there are many other terms that should be included. The formula is given only for illustrative purposes. Checkmate has been artificially included here by giving the king the large value 200 (anything greater than the maximum of all other terms would do).''
The evaluation function is clearly for illustrative purposes, as Shannon stated. For example, according to the function, pawns that are doubled as well as isolated would have no value at all, which is clearly unrealistic.
The reason for assigning checkmate a value higher than the maximum sum of all other terms is so that the minimax procedure will value checkmate above all else and thus it will sacrifice as much material as it has to in order to prevent itself from being checkmated, or to checkmate the opponent. The value is arbitrary — any number larger than the sum of all of the other terms would cause the minimax procedure to give the same result.
==Awards and honors==
*[[Alfred Noble Prize]] in [[1940]]
*[[Morris Liebmann]] Memorial Award of the [[Institute of Radio Engineers]] in [[1949]]
*[[Yale University]] (Master of Science) in [[1954]]
*[[Stuart Ballantine]] Medal of the [[Franklin Institute]] in [[1955]]
*[[Research Corporation Award]] in [[1956]]
*[[University of Michigan]], honorary doctorate, in [[1961]]
*[[Rice University]] Medal of Honor in [[1962]]
*[[Princeton University]], honorary doctorate, in [[1962]]
*[[Marvin J. Kelly Award]] in [[1962]]
*[[University of Edinburgh]], honorary doctorate, in [[1964]]
*[[University of Pittsburgh]], honorary doctorate, in [[1964]]
*[[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] Medal of Honor in [[1966]]
*[[National Medal of Science]] in [[1966]], presented by President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]
*Golden Plate Award in [[1967]]
*[[Northwestern University]], honorary doctorate, in [[1970]]
*[[Harvey Prize]], the [[Technion]] of [[Haifa]], [[Israel]], in [[1972]]
*[[Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences]] (KNAW), foreign member, in [[1975]]
*[[University of Oxford]], honorary doctorate, in [[1978]]
*[[Joseph Jacquard]] Award in [[1978]]
*[[Harold Pender]] Award in [[1978]]
*[[University of East Anglia]], honorary doctorate, in [[1982]]
*[[Carnegie Mellon University]], honorary doctorate, in [[1984]]
*[[Audio Engineering Society]] Gold Medal in [[1985]]
*[[Kyoto Prize]] in [[1985]]
*[[Tufts University]], honorary doctorate, in [[1987]]
*[[University of Pennsylvania]], honorary doctorate, in [[1991]]
*[[Eduard Rhein]] Prize in [[1991]]
*[[National Inventors Hall of Fame]] inducted in [[2004]]
==See also==
* [[Shannon-Fano coding]]
* [[Shannon-Hartley law]]
* [[Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem]]
* [[Shannon capacity]]
* [[Rate distortion theory]]
* [[Information theory]]
* [[Confusion and diffusion]]
* [[One-time pad]]
* [[Shannon switching game]]
* [[Shannon number]]
* [[Claude E. Shannon Award]]
==References==
<references/>
* C. E. Shannon: ''A mathematical theory of communication.'' Bell System Technical Journal, vol. 27, pp. 379&ndash;423 and 623&ndash;656, July and October, 1948.
* Claude E. Shannon and Warren Weaver: ''The Mathematical Theory of Communication.'' The University of Illinois Press, Urbana, Illinois, 1949. ISBN 0252725484
* Claude E. Shannon: ''Programming a Computer for Playing Chess'', Philosophical Magazine, Ser.7, Vol. 41, No. 314, March 1950. (Available online under ''External links'' below)
* David Levy: ''Computer Gamesmanship: Elements of Intelligent Game Design'', Simon & Schuster, 1983. ISBN 0-671-49532-1
==External links==
*[http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/what/shannonday/paper.html ''A Mathematical Theory of Communication'']
*[http://www.cs.ucla.edu/~jkong/research/security/shannon1949.pdf ''Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems'']
*[http://www.stanford.edu/class/ee104/shannonpaper.pdf ''Communication in the Presence of Noise'']
*[http://www.lucent.com/minds/infotheory/who.html Summary of Shannon's life and career]
*[http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/Shannon.html Another Summary]
*[http://www.research.att.com/~njas/doc/shannonbio.html Biographical summary from Shannon's collected papers]
*[http://www.ucsd.tv/search-details.asp?showID=6090 Video documentary: "Claude Shannon - Father of the Information Age"]
*[http://web.mit.edu/6.933/www/Fall2001/Shannon1.pdf Mathematical Theory of Claude Shannon] In-depth MIT class paper on the development of Shannon's work to 1948.
*[http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/nr/2001/shannon.html Obituary at MIT]
*[http://www.exp-math.uni-essen.de/~immink/pdf/levensbericht-shannon.pdf Obituary Royal Netherlands Academy of Sciences (in Dutch)]
*[http://www.engin.umich.edu/150th/alum-legends/shannon.html Retrospective at the University of Michigan]
*[http://www.nightgarden.com/infosci.htm Notes on Computer-Generated Text]
*[http://www.nightgarden.com/shannon.htm Shannonizer An example of his work]
*[http://www2.bc.edu/~lewbel/Shannon.html Shannon's Juggling Theorem and Juggling Robots]
*[http://www.pi.infn.it/%7Ecarosi/chess/shannon.txt Shannon's paper on computer chess, text]
*[http://www.ascotti.org/programming/chess/Shannon%20-%20Programming%20a%20computer%20for%20playing%20chess.pdf Shannon's paper on computer chess] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://www.dcc.uchile.cl/~cgutierr/cursos/IA/shannon.txt Shannon's paper on computer chess, text, alternate source]
*[http://www.adeptis.ru/vinci/m_part5.html Photos]
[[Category:1916 births|Shannon, Claude E.]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Shannon, Claude E.]]
[[Category:Computer pioneers|Shannon, Claude E.]]
[[Category:Pre-computer cryptographers|Shannon, Claude E.]]
[[Category:Electrical engineers|Shannon, Claude E.]]
[[Category:American mathematicians|Shannon, Claude E.]]
[[Category:American engineers|Shannon, Claude E.]]
[[Category:MIT alumni|Shannon, Claude E.]]
[[Category:National Medal of Science recipients|Shannon]]
{{Cybernetics}}
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[[zh:克劳德·艾尔伍德·香农]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cracking</title>
<id>5694</id>
<revision>
<id>21202316</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-17T07:48:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Moverton</username>
<id>82329</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Crack]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Community</title>
<id>5695</id>
<revision>
<id>42088346</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:22:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zsinj</username>
<id>597658</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.28.14.2|207.28.14.2]] to last version by SundarBot</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses|a group of people}}
{{portal}}
{{cleanup-rewrite}}
A '''community''' is an amalgamation of living things that share an [[environment]]. The individual living beings can be [[plant]] or [[animal]]; any [[species]]; any size. What characterizes a community is sharing interaction in many ways. In [[human]] communities, intent, [[belief]], [[resources]], preferences, needs and a multitude of other conditions may be present and common, affecting the degree of adhesion within the mixture, but the definitive driver of community is that all individual subjects in the mix have ''something'' in common. This is even true in [[biological]] communities.
== The context of community ==
From the days of the hunter-gatherer culture, individual humans have formed communities. A sense of community is the aspect of giving of one's self to others. Related etymology for ''munere'' expands the meaning to included something prized, precious and worth defending. It is the same root as used for the word ''[[munition]]s'' (defences). Sharing in this "[[defense (military)|common defence]]" incorporates a balance between self-interest and shared-interests within and among members of a group and is a crucial factor in community formation. When enough participants in a group develop an attitude of caring for the well-being of the [[whole]], or the [[common good]], the prospect of community is present.
Whatever drives people to cooperate an |
characteristics. There are golf discs designed to fly straight, turn left, or turn right, depending on how they are thrown by the player. There are several classes of drivers intended for different distances. Mid-range drivers tend to be the most versatile discs, and are very good for beginners. For longer drives there are many variations of long-range and extra long-range drivers.
===Throwing style
===
:''See [[Frisbee throws]] for more details''
The two most common throwing techniques are the ''forehand'' throw (aka side-arm), and the ''backhand'' throw. Of the two the backhand style is most familiar to new players and is the most common.
A right-handed player performing a forehand throw will generally hold the disc in his right hand and throw the disc with the palm of his hand facing the direction of the throw.<br/>
A right-handed backhand thrower will throw the disc with the back side of his hand facing the direction of the throw.
The different types of throws spin the disc in opposite directions, causing the disc to turn and fade left or right, depending on type of disc thrown, windage, spin speed and various other variables. Many players try to master both techniques or learn to play both left- and right-handed to account for as many situations as possible.
Another throwing style is the roller, which can be done two different ways. One way a roller can be thrown is with a forehand grip and the disc is released vertically and allowed to roll. The other way a roller can be thrown is with a backhand grip. The person would throw the disc, releasing it vertically. Most people can get more distance with a backhand roller than with a forehand roller.
Additional throwing techniques include (but are not limited to):
*Tomahawk - A throw where the player holds the disc over his shoulder and releases it vertically, with his thumb on the topside of the frisbee, and the index and middle fingers wrapped around the back edge of the frisbee. The purpose of this is to have a very straight throwing shot that won't turn into a roller and will land relatively flat.
*Thumber - Also known as a thumbhook. The player will hold the frisbee in the same manner as the Tomahawk, except with the thumb wrapped around the under-edge of the frisbee. In releasing, the frisbee will spin off of the thumb of the thrower, and create a very straight throw, that has the possibility to roll quite far if thrown with enough force and spin.
*Grenade - an overhand throw with the intention of the disk rolling most of the throw distance (can be very inaccurate and cause the disk to roll way off course)
*Prebinator - A chip shot where the disc is held upside down and chipped to the basket with a normal forehand toss. The disc flies and dives straight down at the basket. Back spin is generated such that in case the disc misses the basket, it will come to a rest near the basket. The Prebinator takes a great dive down "into" the basket, taking advantage of the larger basket entry area.
==Physics==
Stability is one of the most important disc properties when choosing a disc. There are three stability classifications, based on the behavior of a disc when thrown using a level right-handed backhand:
*''Understable:'' An understable disc has a natural tendency to curve to the right during its flight when thrown backhand by a right-handed player.
*''Stable:'' A stable disc will maintain a straight flight path.
*''Overstable:'' An overstable disc that tends to curve to the left when thrown backhand by a right-handed player.
The stability of a disc depends on a number of factors, including the weight, size and shape of the disc and the speed with which it is thrown. Thus, a disc that is overstable for one player may be stable or even understable for another. The ratio of disc spin, angle upon release, and air speed (partially related to arm speed) are important control factors.
==Disc Golf Hall of Fame==
*1993: Vanessa Chambers | Dave Dunipace | Ed Headrick | Tom Monroe | Jim Palmeri | Dan Roddick | Ted Smethers
*1994: Harold Duvall | Nobuya Kobayashi | Darrell Lynn | Dan Mangone | Doug Newland | Snapper Pierson | Lavone Wolfe
*1995: Ken Climo | John David | David Greenwell | Johnny Roberts | Dr. Rick Voakes
*1996: Mike Conger | Patti Kunkle | Rick Rothstein
*1997: Steve Slasor | Elaine King | Jim Kenner
*1998: Gregg Hosfeld | John Houck | Carlton Howard
*1999: Sam Ferrans | Steve Wisecup | Tim Selinske
*2000: Tom Schot | Royce Racinowski
*2001: Stan McDaniel | Johnny Sias
*2002: Alan Beaver | Gary Lewis
*2003: Mark Horn | Brian Hoeniger | Dr. Stancil Johnson,
*2004: Derek Robins | Geoff Lissaman | Johnny Lissaman | Marty Hapner
*2005: Mats Bengtsson | Sylvia Voakes
For more information, visit the website of the
'''[http://www.discgolfhalloffame.org/ Disc Golf Hall of Fame.]'''
==Disc Golfers (external links)==
* [http://www.pdga.com/members.php PDGA Membership Search]
* [http://www.KenClimo.com Ken Climo]
* [http://www.scottstokely.com Scott Stokely]
* [http://www.discgolfwarehouse.com Tom Monroe]
* [http://www.innovadiscs.com/juliana Juliana Korver]
* [http://www.gdstour.com/team/ Gateway's Team]
* [http://www.discgolfassoc.com/index2.shtml Ed Headrick, Father of Disc Golf]
* [http://www.sharkysshots.com/ SharkysShots.com disc golf photos]
* [http://www.geocities.com/pdga14567/Disc_Golf.html Cubby's Disc Golf World Podcast]
==Disc manufacturers==
[[Image:Discs in basket.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A number of assorted discs.]]
* [http://www.chingdiscgolf.com CHING®]
* [http://www.discgolfassoc.com Disc Golf Association]
* [http://www.discraft.com Discraft]
* [http://www.innovadiscs.com Innova]
* [http://www.lightninggolfdiscs.com Lightning]
* [http://golfdisc.com/ Millennium]
* [http://www.gdstour.com Gateway]
* [http://www.latitude64.se/ Lattitude 64°]
* [http://www.discwing.com/ Discwing]
==Courses==
* [http://www.PleasureIslandDiscGolf.com Pleasure Island/Port Arthur, Texas; home of 1994-95 World Championships]
* [http://www.pdga.com/course/index.php PDGA's extensive online directory of courses]
* [http://www.referential-integrity.com/DiscGolfCourseGmap/ Google Maps Disc Golf Courses]
* [http://homepage.mac.com/disctivity DiscSports in the Utrecht,NL area]
* [http://www.md-discgolf.com/ Maryland Disc Golf]
* [http://www.sedgleywoods.org/ Sedgley Woods Disc Golf Course - Philadelphia, PA]
* [http://SenecaDiscGolf.com/ Seneca Creek Disc Golf Course - Gaithersburg, MD]
* [http://stafforddiscgolf.blogspot.com/ Stafford Lake - Novato, CA]
* [http://sbdiscgolf.com/ Home of the Seth Burton Memorial Disc Golf Course]
* [http://columbusdiscgolf.com/ The Brent Hambrick Memorial Disc Golf Course]
==Clubs==
{{main|Disc golf clubs}}
* {{dmoz|Sports/Flying_Discs/Disc_Golf/Clubs/|Disc golf clubs}}
Idaho Falls Disc Golf Course (Freeman Park) [http://www.idahofallsdiscgolf.com]
* [http://wvdiscgolf.org/ West Virginia Disc Golf Association]
* [http://www.mbdg.org/ Manhattan Beach CA Disc Golf Club] (Polliwog Park)
* [http://www.memphisdiscgolf.com/ Memphis Disc Golf Club]
==Popular Culture==
Frisbee golf (Frolf) was referenced in the "[[Summer of George]]" episode of [[Seinfeld]]. From the realization that each of them, (George and Jerry), are only about "a half man", George starts helping Jerry with his new girlfriend. When George is supposed to be delivering cards for a party Jerry's girlfriend is hosting, he is met by a stranger in the park that asks: "You know we need a 4th for the back 9, you want in?", he decides to partake in the game.
==External links==
* [http://www.PDGA.com Professional Disc Golf Association]
* [http://www.discgolf.com DiscGolf.com]
* [http://www.discgolfassoc.com Disc Golf Association], The company that started the sport in 1975.
* [http://www.disclife.com DiscLife.com]
* [http://EpicenterDiscGolf.com Epicenter Disc Golf Services - Augusta, GA] Host of the 2006 PDGA Pro Disc Golf World Championships.
* [http://www.pdga.com/schedule/ Sanctioned PDGA Tournaments]
* [http://www.worlddiscgames.com World Disc Games], Main International Disc Tournament held every two years starting 1977.
* [http://www.playitagainsports.com Play It Again Sports], buy/sell new/used discs. Call, not all locations carry them.
* [http://www.discgolfassoc.com/history.html History of Disc Golf]
* [http://www.pleasureislanddiscgolf.com/hole-in-one.html A disc golf hole-in-one: video clip]
* [http://www.chainbangers.com ChainBangers Disc Golf] Sells disc golf equipment, including apparel, and provides information about the disc golf community in Middle Tennessee.
* [http://www.sportdiscs.com/dxmisprints.html Misprint Discrafts - Cheap]
*[http://www.minidiscgolf.com Mini Disc Golf Federation's Homepage]
* [http://www.discyard.com/ Disc Golf Info and Gear]
* [http://www.chingdiscgolf.com CHING®] - Manufacturer
* [http://www.innovadiscs.com Innova Disc Golf] - Manufacturer
* [http://www.hyzernauts.de/ Hyzernauts.de] German-Site with nice Videos and reports on european activities.
* [http://EpicenterDiscGolf.com Epicenter Disc Golf Services - Augusta, GA] Developers of the PDGA National Disc Golf Center.
* [http://www.bdga.org.uk British Disc Golf Association]
* [http://www.discgolflive.com/ Disc Golf Live Video Magazine] A TV show available at no cost for broadcast on community and public access stations.
* [http://www.dsmdiscgolf.org The Des Moines Disc Golf Club] Des Moines, IA.
* [http://www.edgediscgolf.org Educational Disc Golf Experience]
[[Category:Frisbee]]
[[Category:Precision sports]]
[[Category:Individual sports]]
[[Category:Forms of golf]]
[[Category:Sports in the United States]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Decimal</title>
<id>8214</id>
<revision>
<id>41784389</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T18:57:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mfc</ |
civilian life, and joined a Freikorps in search of stability within a [[military]] structure. Others, angry at their sudden, apparently inexplicable defeat, joined up in an effort to put down [[communism|Communist]] uprisings or exact some form of revenge (see [[Dolchstoßlegende]]). They received considerable support from [[Gustav Noske]], the German Defence Minister who used them to crush the [[Spartakist League]] with enormous violence, including the murders of [[Karl Liebknecht]] and [[Rosa Luxemburg]] on [[January 15]], [[1919]]. They were also used to put down the [[Bavarian Soviet Republic]] in [[1919]].
Several Freikorps fought in the Baltic, Silesia, and Prussia after the
end of World War I, sometimes with significant success even against
regular troops.
They were officially 'disbanded' in 1920, although former members later backed the [[Kapp Putsch]] in March 1920 (which ended in disaster).
Some future members and, indeed, leaders of the [[Nazi Party]] were members of a Freikorps, including [[Ernst Röhm]], future head of the Sturmabteilung or [[Sturmabteilung|SA]], and [[Rudolf Höß]], the future ''Kommandant'' of [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz]].
In [[1919]]-[[1920]], [[Hitler]] had just begun his political career, as the leader of a tiny and as-yet-unknown party in [[Munich]]. Most Freikorps members, however, remained outsiders during the [[Third Reich]]. A frequent conversational topic amongst Freikorps veterans was, "Where was Hitler back in [[1919]]/[[1920|20]], when we fought the Communists?".
[[Hermann Ehrhardt]] and his deputy Commander Eberhard Kautter, leaders of the Viking League refused to help Hitler and [[Erich von Ludendorff|Ludendorff]] in their [[Beer Hall Putsch]] and conspired against them.
==See also==
*[[Martin Bormann]]
*[[Reinhard Heydrich]]
*[[Heinrich Himmler]]
*[[Hans Kammler]]
*[[Ernst Roehm]]
*[[Ernst von Salomon]]
*[[Hugo Sperrle]]
*[[Gregor Strasser]]
*[[Otto Strasser]]
*[[British Free Corps]]
*[[Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten]]
*[[Sudetendeutsches Freikorps]]
==External links==
* [http://www.reitergenosten.de The history of the German Freikorps 1918-23]
* [http://www.axishistory.com/index.php?id=5773 Axis History Factbook; Freikorps section] &ndash; By Marcus Wendel and contributors;&nbsp;&nbsp;site also contains an apolitical forum
[[Category:Counter-revolutionaries]]
[[Category:Weimar Republic]]
[[Category:Militias]]
{{Link FA|he}}
[[ast:Freikorps]]
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[[sv:Freikorps]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Francisco I. Madero</title>
<id>11285</id>
<revision>
<id>40319787</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T20:13:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TigerShark</username>
<id>161478</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.137.220.38|69.137.220.38]] to last version by 65.120.80.8</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox MexicanPresident | name=Francisco I. Madero
| image name=Francisco_I_Madero.jpg
| date1=[[6 November]] [[1911]]
| date2=[[18 February]] [[1913]]
| preceded=[[Francisco León de la Barra]] (interim)
| succeeded=[[Pedro Lascuráin]] (interim)
| date of birth=[[30 October]] [[1873]]
| place of birth=[[Parras]], [[Coahuila]]
| date of death=[[22 February]] [[1913]]
| place of death=[[Mexico City]]
| profession=Businessman
| wife=Sara Pérez
| party=''Anti re-electionist''
}}
'''Francisco I. Madero González''' ([[30 October]] [[1873]] &ndash; [[22 February]] [[1913]]) was a [[revolutionary]] who served as [[President of Mexico|President]] of [[Mexico]] from 1911 to 1913. As a respectable upper-class politician he supplied a center around which opposition to the dictatorship of [[Porfirio Díaz]] could coalesce. However, once Díaz was deposed, the [[Mexican Revolution]] quickly spun out of Madero's control. He was deposed and executed by rival revolutionaries, and stable government did not return to Mexico for another 15 years.
==Early Life==
He was born in [[Parras]], [[Coahuila]], the son of Francisco Madero and Mercedes González Treviño. (Some people say his middle initial, "I", stood for "Indalecio" but according to his birth certificate it stood for "Ignacio") His parents were one of the richest families in [[Mexico]], of [[Portugal|Portuguese]] descent. Madero was educated in [[Baltimore]], [[Versailles]], and at the [[University of California, Berkeley]].
Affected by the plight of the poor under the dictator [[Porfirio Díaz]], in 1904 Madero became involved in [[politics]] with the ''Benito Juárez Democratic Club''.
Madero was a vegetarian, mystic, liberal capitalist who feared that the existing regime under Díaz would inevitably breed true social revolution &mdash; a fear that proved accurate with the subsequent rise of [[Emiliano Zapata]] and [[Pancho Villa]]. Madero favored an oligarchic façade democracy that would protect the elite from popular insurrection; he wrote that "the ignorant public ... should take no direct part in determining who should be the candidate for public office." Madero thus criticized Díaz's presidency as counterproductive. He proposed that Díaz offer concessions to peasants and the proletariat to promote a climate of order and stability from which both foreign and domestic elites would benefit. Madero also hoped such concessions would curb the growth of radical ideas.
==The Revolution==
During the election of 1910, Madero (Anti-Reelectionist) ran against Díaz. Díaz had promised a true democratic election, proclaiming that Mexico was ready for democracy. However during the election, Díaz had Madero and approximately 6,000 other members of the Anti-Reelectionists jailed. Vasquez Gomez took over the nomination, and during Madero's time in jail, Díaz was declared president with an electoral vote of 196 to 187. Madero's father had posted substantial bail, and Madero was able to take daily rides around San Luis Potosi by day, accompanied by guards. On the 4 of October 1910, Madero simply galloped away from his lazy jailers, and smuggled himself across the border to Laredo, Texas. Moving to San Antonio, Texas, he issued his [[Plan of San Luis Potosi]], which proclaimed the elections of 1910 null and void, and called for an armed revolution at 6 p.m. on [[November 20]] [[1910]] against the 'illegitimate' presidency of Díaz. The Revolution spread, and [[Francisco Villa]] occupied [[Chihuahua, Chihuahua]], and [[Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua]]. The overthrow of Díaz was accomplished on [[May 17]], when Madero signed the [[Treaty of Ciudad Juárez]], in which he demanded the resignation of Díaz as a condition for an armistice. Díaz resigned on [[May 25]], [[1911]].
Madero appointed [[Francisco León de la Barra]] as Interim President. De la Barra was strongly conservative and acted to neutralise the more radical ideas of the Revolution. With this in mind, apart from his lack of real political experience and excessive optimism, created a rift with many of his former allies, including Emiliano Zapata, who felt that Madero was not pushing hard enough for land reform.
==Fall and execution==
In early 1913, [[Victoriano Huerta]], the commander of the armed forces, conspired with [[Félix Díaz]] (Porfirio Díaz's nephew) and [[United States|US Ambassador]] [[Henry Lane Wilson]], against Madero. Madero's brother and advisor [[Gustavo A. Madero]] was kidnapped off the street, tortured, and killed. Following Huerta's [[coup d'état]] on [[February 18]], [[1913]], Madero was forced to resign. After a very brief term of office by [[Pedro Lascuráin]], Huerta took over the presidency later that day. Francisco Madero was executed four days later, aged 39. The Huerta government claimed he was ordered killed after a failed rescue attempt by his supporters.
'''Curiosities:''' He was the first chief executive to fly in an airplane. Mexico City, [[November 30]], [[1911]].
{{Commons|Francisco I. Madero}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[President of Mexico]]|before=[[Francisco León de la Barra]]|after=[[Pedro Lascuráin]]|years=1911&ndash;1913}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1873 births|Madero, Francisco I.]]
[[Category:1913 deaths|Madero, Francisco I.]]
[[Category:Executed presidents|Madero, Francisco]]
[[Category:Mexican Revolution|Madero, Francisco]]
[[Category:People from Coahuila|Madero, Francisco I.]]
[[Category:Presidents of Mexico|Madero, Francisco]]
[[Category:Mexican presidential candidates (1910)|Madero, Francisco]]
[[Category:Revolutionaries|Madero, Francisco]]
[[Category:Teetotalers|Madero, Francisco]]
[[Category:Vegetarians|Madero, Francisco]]
[[da:Francisco I. Madero]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fruitarianism</title>
<id>11286</id>
<revision>
<id>42063649</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:36:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Psantora</username>
<id>257756</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fruit Stall in Barcelona Market.jpg|thumb|A fruit stall in Barcelona]]
'''Fruitarians''' (or '''fructarians''') are a subgroup of [[veganism|vegans]] who eat only the [[fruit]] of [[plant]]s. This includes not only what one typically thinks of as a "fruit" in the culinary sense such as [[apple]]s and [[Orange (fruit)|orange]]s, but also other [[food]]s that are botanically the fruits of [[flowering plant]]s (tha |
350 millimeters or more of rain, mostly during July and August. A carpet of green springs from the desert during this brief wet season, attracting herders from throughout the region who come to pasture their cattle and camels. Because very few wells and springs have water throughout the year, the herders leave with the end of the rains, turning over the land to the antelopes, gazelles, and ostriches that can survive with little groundwater.
===Sahelian region===
The semiarid sahelian zone, or Sahel, forms a belt about 500 kilometers wide that runs from Lac and Chari-Baguirmi prefectures eastward through Guéra, Ouaddaï, and northern Salamat prefectures to the Sudanese frontier. The climate in this transition zone between the desert and the southern soudanian zone is divided into a rainy season (from June to early September) and a dry period (from October to May). In the northern Sahel, thorny shrubs and acacia trees grow wild, while date palms, cereals, and garden crops are raised in scattered oases. Outside these settlements, nomads tend their flocks during the rainy season, moving southward as forage and surface water disappear with the onset of the dry part of the year. The central Sahel is characterized by drought-resistant grasses and small woods. Rainfall is more abundant there than in the Saharan region. For example, N'Djamena records a maximum annual average rainfall of 580 millimeters, while Ouaddaï Prefecture receives just a bit less. During the hot season, in April and May, maximum temperatures frequently rise above 40 °C. In the southern part of the Sahel, rainfall is sufficient to permit crop production on unirrigated land, and millet and sorghum are grown. Agriculture is also common in the marshlands east of Lake Chad and near swamps or wells. Many farmers in the region combine subsistence agriculture with the raising of cattle, sheep, goats, and poultry.
===Soudanian region===
The humid ''soudanian'' zone includes the southern prefectures of Mayo-Kebbi, Tandjilé, Logone Occidental, Logone Oriental, Moyen-Chari, and southern Salamat. Between April and October, the rainy season brings between 750 and 1,250 millimeters of precipitation. Temperatures are high throughout the year. Daytime readings in Moundou, the major city in the southwest, range from 27 °C in the middle of the cool season in January to about 40 °C in the hot months of March, April, and May.
The soudanian region is predominantly savanna, or plains covered with a mixture of tropical or subtropical grasses and woodlands. The growth is lush during the rainy season but turns brown and dormant during the five-month dry season between November and March. Over a large part of the region, however, natural vegetation has yielded to agriculture.
==Area==
'''Area:'''
<br>''total:''
1.284 million km²
<br>''land:''
1,259,200 km²
<br>''water:''
24,800 km²
'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly more than three times the size of [[California]]
==Boundaries==
'''Land boundaries:'''
<br>''total:''
5,968 km
<br>''border countries:''
[[Cameroon]] 1,094 km, [[Central African Republic]] 1,197 km, Libya 1,055 km, [[Niger]] 1,175 km, [[Nigeria]] 87 km, [[Sudan]] 1,360 km
'''Coastline:'''
0 km (landlocked)
'''Maritime claims:'''
none (landlocked)
'''Elevation extremes:'''
<br>''lowest point:''
[[Djourab Depression]] 160 m
<br>''highest point:''
[[Emi Koussi]] 3,415 m
==Land use and resources==
'''Natural resources:'''
[[petroleum]], [[uranium]], [[natron]], [[kaolin]], [[fish]] ([[Chari River]], [[Logone River]] and [[Lake Chad]])
'''Land use:'''
<br>''arable land:''
3%
<br>''permanent crops:''
0%
<br>''permanent pastures:''
36%
<br>''[[forests]] and woodland:''
26%
<br>''other:''
35% (1993 est.)
'''Irrigated land:'''
140 km² (1993 est.)
==Environmental issues==
'''Natural hazards:'''
hot, dry, dusty harmattan winds occur in north; periodic droughts; locust plagues
'''Environment - current issues:'''
inadequate supplies of potable water; improper waste disposal in rural areas contributes to soil and water pollution; desertification
'''Environment - international agreements:'''
<br>''party to:''
[[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Desertification]], [[Endangered Species]], [[Nuclear Test Ban]], [[Ozone Layer Protection]], [[Wetlands]]
<br>''signed, but not ratified:''
[[Law of the Sea]], [[Marine Dumping]]
'''Geography - note:'''
landlocked; [[Lake Chad]] is the most significant water body in the [[Sahel]]
==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}
{{CIAfb}}
[[Category:Geography by country|Chad]]
[[Category:Geography of Chad| ]]
[[pt:Geografia do Chade]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Chad</title>
<id>5331</id>
<revision>
<id>39374260</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T19:18:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.121.2.141</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chad-demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of Chad, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]
The people of [[Chad]] speak more than 100 different languages and divide themselves into many ethnic groups. It is important to note, however, that language and ethnicity are not the same. Moreover, neither element can be tied to a particular physical type. In Chad, [[Europe]]an conquest and administration intensified feelings of ethnic separateness by drawing local boundaries along perceived ethnic lines. The Europeans also appointed chiefs and other local African authorities who had little legitimacy over the groups they were to lead. In general, the [[France|French]] favored southerners over northerners and settled populations over nomads. This bias continued after independence and has been an important element in internecine conflict.
Although the possession of a common language shows that its speakers have lived together and have a common history, peoples also change languages. This is particularly so in Chad, where the openness of the terrain, marginal rainfall, frequent drought and famine, and low population densities have encouraged physical and linguistic mobility. Slave raids among non-Muslim peoples, internal slave trade, and exports of captives northward from the ninth to the twentieth centuries also have resulted in language changes.
Anthropologists view ethnicity as being more than genetics. Like language, ethnicity implies a shared heritage, partly economic, where people of the same ethnic group may share a livelihood, and partly social, taking the form of shared ways of doing things and organizing relations among individuals and groups. Ethnicity also involves a cultural component made up of shared values and a common worldview. Like language, ethnicity is not immutable. Shared ways of doing things change over time and alter a group's perception of its own identity.
Not only do the social aspects of ethnic identity change but the biological composition (or gene pool) also may change over time. Although most ethnic groups emphasize intermarriage, people are often proscribed from seeking partners among close relatives -- a prohibition that promotes biological variation. In all groups, the departure of some individuals or groups and the integration of others also changes the biological component.
The Chadian government has avoided official recognition of ethnicity. With the exception of a few surveys conducted shortly after independence, little data were available on this important aspect of Chadian society. Nonetheless, ethnic identity was a significant component of life in Chad.
Chad's languages fall into ten major groups, each of which belongs to either the
[[Nilo-Saharan]], [[Afro-Asiatic]], or [[Congo-Kordofanian]] language family. These represent three of the four major language families in Africa; only the [[Khoisan]] languages of southern Africa are not represented. The presence of such different languages suggests that the [[Lake Chad]] Basin may have been an important point of dispersal in ancient times.
==Religions==
The separation of religion from social structure in Chad represents a false dichotomy, for they are perceived as two sides of the same coin. Three religious traditions coexist in Chad-- classical African religions, [[Islam]] (see [[Islam in Chad]]), and [[Christianity]]. None is monolithic. The first tradition includes a variety of ancestor and/or place-oriented religions whose expression is highly specific. Islam, although characterized by an orthodox set of beliefs and observances, also is expressed in diverse ways. Christianity arrived in Chad much more recently with the arrival of Europeans. Its followers are divided into Roman Catholics and Protestants (including several denominations); as with Chadian Islam, Chadian Christianity retains aspects of pre-Christian religious belief.
The number of followers of each tradition in Chad is unknown. Estimates made in 1962 suggested that 35 percent of Chadians practiced classical African religions, 55 percent were [[Islam|Muslims]], and 10 percent were [[Christianity|Christians]]. In the 1970s and 1980s, this distribution undoubtedly changed. Observers report that Islam has spread among the [[Hajerai]] and among other non-Muslim populations of the Saharan and sahelian zones. However, the proportion of Muslims may have fallen because the birthrate among the followers of traditional religions and Christians in southern Chad is thought to be higher than that among Muslims. In addition, the upheavals since the mid-1970s have resulted in brought the departure of some missionaries; whether or n |
:''I am profoundly concerned about the European situation. ... 3. An iron curtain is drawn down upon their front. We do not know what is going on behind. There seems little doubt that the whole of the regions east of Lübeck-Trieste-Corfu will soon be completely in their hands. To this must be added the further enormous area conquered by the American armies between Eisenach and the Elbe, which will, I suppose, in a few weeks be occupied, when the Americans retreat, by the Russian power. All kinds of arrangements will have to be made by General [[Eisenhower]] to prevent another immense flight of the German population westward as this enormous Muscovite advance towards the centre of Europe takes place. And then the curtain will descend again to a very large extent, if not entirely. Thus a broad land of many hundreds of miles of Russian-occupied territory will isolate us from Poland. ... ''
(US Dept of State, Foreign Relations of the US, The Conference of Berlin (Potsdam) 1945, vol. 1, p. 9)
Churchill repeated the words in a further telegram to Truman on June 4, 1945 in which he protested against such a US retreat to what was earlier designated as, and ultimately became, the US occupation zone, saying the military withdrawal would bring
:''Soviet power into the heart of Western Europe and the descent of an iron curtain between us and everything to the eastward.''
(Ibid., p. 92)
At the Potsdam Conference, Churchill complained to Stalin about an "iron fence" coming down upon the British Mission in Bucharest.
[[Allen Dulles]] used the term in a speech on [[December 3]], [[1945]], referring to only [[Germany]]:
:''It is difficult to say what is going on, but in general the Russians are acting little better than thugs. They have wiped out all the liquid assets. No food cards are issued to Germans, who are forced to travel on foot into the Russian zone, often more dead than alive. An iron curtain has descended over the fate of these people and very likely conditions are truly terrible. The promises at Yalta to the contrary, probably 8 to 10 million people are being enslaved.''
==External links==
*[http://www.theanswerbank.co.uk/Answered/Question1990-6.asp?Page=1 Where did the term Iron Curtain originate?]
*[http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/episodes/02/reflections/ Soviet reaction to Churchill's speech - CNN site]
{{Cold War}}
[[Category:Cold War]]
[[Category:Cold War speeches]]
[[Category:Metaphors]]
[[cs:Železná opona]]
[[da:Jerntæppet]]
[[de:Eiserner Vorhang (Politik)]]
[[es:Telón de Acero]]
[[eo:Fera Kurteno]]
[[fr:Rideau de fer]]
[[hr:Željezna zavjesa]]
[[it:Cortina di ferro]]
[[he:מסך הברזל]]
[[mo:Кортина де фиер]]
[[nl:IJzeren gordijn]]
[[ja:鉄のカーテン]]
[[pl:Żelazna kurtyna]]
[[pt:Cortina de ferro]]
[[ro:Cortina de fier]]
[[sk:Železná opona]]
[[fi:Rautaesirippu]]
[[sv:Järnridån]]
[[zh:铁幕]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Integrated Services Digital Network</title>
<id>15231</id>
<revision>
<id>41947235</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:38:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Uzume</username>
<id>51070</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Protocols */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Integrated Services Digital Network''' ('''ISDN''') is a type of circuit switched [[telephone]] network system, designed to allow digital transmission of voice and data over ordinary telephone copper wires, resulting in better quality and higher speeds than available with [[analog signal|analog]] systems. More broadly, '''ISDN''' is a set of [[protocol (computing)|protocol]]s for establishing and breaking circuit switched connections, and for advanced call features for the user. The English term is a "[[backronym]]", thought better for English-language advertisements than the original, "Integriertes Sprach- und Datennetz" (German for "integrated voice and data net").
In a videoconference, ISDN provides simultaneous voice, video, and text transmission between individual desktop videoconferencing systems and group (room) videoconferencing systems.
== Configurations ==
In ISDN, there are two types of channels, ''B'' (for "Bearer") and ''D'' (for "Delta"). ''B channels'' are used for data (which may include voice), and ''D channels'' are intended for signalling and control (but can also be used for data).
There are two kinds of access to ISDN. '''[[Basic rate interface]] (BRI)''' &mdash; also '''[[Basic rate access]] (BRA)''' &mdash; consists of two B channels, each with bandwidth of 64 [[kbit/s]], and one D channel with a bandwidth of 16 kbit/s. Together these three channels can be designated as 2B+D. '''[[Primary rate interface]] (PRI)''' &mdash; also '''[[Primary rate access]] (PRA)''' &mdash; contains a greater number of B channels and a D channel with a bandwidth of 64 kbit/s. The number of B channels for PRI varies according to the nation: in North America and Japan it is 23B+1D, with an aggregate bit rate of 1.544 Mbit/s (T1); in Europe and Australia it is 30B+1D, with an aggregate bit rate of 2.048 Mbit/s (E1).
Using a variation of the [[Alternate Mark Inversion|alternate mark inversion]] encoding technique, call data is transmitted over the data (B) channels, with the signalling (D) channels used for call setup and management. Once a call is set up, there is a simple 64 kbit/s synchronous bidirectional data channel between the end parties, lasting until the call is terminated. There can be as many calls as there are data channels, to the same or different end-points. Bearer channels may also be [[multiplexing|multiplexed]] into what may be considered single, higher-bandwidth channels via a process called B channel bonding.
The D channel can also be used for sending and receiving [[X.25]] data packets, and connection to X.25 packet network, this is specified in [[X.31]]. In practice, X.31 was only commercially implemented in France and Japan.
== Reference points ==
A set of ''[[reference point]]s'' are defined in the ISDN [[International standard|standard]] to refer to certain points between the [[Telephone company|telco]] and the end user ISDN equipment.
*[[R interface|R]] - defines the point between a non-ISDN device and a ''[[terminal adapter]]'' (TA) which provides translation to and from such a device
*[[S interface|S]] - defines the point between the ISDN equipment (or TA) and a ''Network Termination Type 2'' ([[Network termination 2|NT-2]]) device
*[[T-interface|T]] - defines the point between the NT-2 and [[network termination 1|NT-1]] devices<sup>1</sup>
*[[U interface|U]] - defines the point between the NT-1 and the telco switch<sup>2</sup>
''<sup>1</sup> Most NT-1 devices can perform the functions of the NT-2 as well, and so the S and T reference points are generally collapsed into the S/T reference point.''<br>
''<sup>2</sup> Inside North America, the NT-1 device is considered [[customer premises equipment]] and must be maintained by the customer, thus, the U interface is provided to the customer. In other locations, the NT-1 device is maintained by the telco, and the S/T interface is provided to the customer.''<br>
== Types of communications handled ==
Among the kinds of data that can be moved over the 64 kbit/s channels are [[Pulse code modulation|pulse-code modulated]] voice calls, providing access to the traditional voice [[PSTN]]. This information can be passed between the network and the user end-point at call set-up time.
In North America, ISDN is nowadays mostly used as an alternative to analog connection, most commonly for Internet access. Some of the services envisaged as being delivered over ISDN are now delivered over the Internet instead. In Europe, and in Germany in particular, ISDN has been successfully marketed as a phone with features, as opposed to a POTS phone (Plain Old Telephone Service) with few or no features. However meanwhile features that were first available with ISDN (such as Three-Way Call, Call Forwarding, Caller ID, etc.) are now commonly available for ordinary analog phones as well, eliminating this advantage of ISDN. Another advantage of ISDN was the possibility of multiple simultaneous calls (one call per B channel), e.g. for big families, but with the increased popularity and reduced prices of mobile telephony this has become less interesting as well, making ISDN rather unappealing to the private customer.
Where an analog connection requires a [[modem]], an ISDN connection requires a [[terminal adapter]] (TA).
==A sample ISDN call==
The following is an example of a Primary Rate (PRI) ISDN call showing the [[Q.921]]/[[Link Access Procedures, D channel|LAPD]] and the [[Q.931]]/Network message intermixed (i.e. exactly what was exchanged on the D-channel). The call is originating from the switch where the trace was taken and goes out to some other switch, possibly an end-office '''LEC''', who terminates the call.
The first line format is &lt;time&gt; &lt;D-channel&gt; &lt;Transmitted/Received&gt; &lt;LAPD/ISDN message ID&gt;. If the message is an ISDN level message, then a decoding of the message is attempted showing the various Information Elements that make up the message. All ISDN messages are tagged with an ID number relative to the switch that started the call (local/remote). Following this optional decoding is a dump of the bytes of the message in &lt;offset&gt; &lt;hex&gt; ... &lt;hex&gt; &lt;ascii&gt; ... &lt;ascii&gt; format.
The '''RR''' messages at the beginning prior to the call are the keep alive messages. Then you will see a '''SETUP''' message that starts the call. Each message is acknowledged by the other side with a '''RR'''.
<pre>
10:49:47.33 21/1/24 R RR
0000 02 01 01 a5 ....
10:49:47.34 21/1/24 T |
age guns" and wingtip search radar for the anti-shipping/anti-submarine role.
==Operators==
* Australia, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, China, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, France, Indonesia, Italy, Mexico, Netherlands, Netherlands East Indies, Peru, Soviet Union, Uruguay, United Kingdom, United States (Army Air Corps, Army Air Force, Air Force, Marine Corps, Navy), Venezuela,
== Specifications (B-25J) ==
{{airtemp|
<!-- if you do not understand how to use this template, please ask at [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Aircraft]] -->
<!-- please answer the following questions -->
|plane or copter?=plane
|jet or prop?=prop
<!-- Now, fill out the specs. Please include units where appropriate (main comes first, alt in parentheses).
If an item doesn't apply, like capacity, leave it blank. For additional lines, end your alt units with a right paranthesis ")" and start a new, fully-formatted line -->
|crew=6 (pilot, co-pilot, navigator/bombardier/gunner, turret gunner/engineer, radio operator/waist gunner, tail gunner. No co-pilot on H variant.)
|length main=52 ft 11 in
|length alt=16.1 m
|span main=67 ft 6 in
|span alt=20.6 m
|height main=17 ft 7 in
|height alt=4.8 m
|area main=610 ft&sup2;
|area alt=57 m&sup2;
|empty weight main=21,120 lb
|empty weight alt=9,580 kg
|loaded weight main=33,510 lb
|loaded weight alt=15,200 kg
|max takeoff weight main=41,800 lb
|max takeoff weight alt=19,000 kg
|engine (prop)=[[Wright R-2600]] Cyclone
|type of prop=[[radial engine]]s
|number of props=2
|power main=1,850 hp
|power alt=1,380 kW
|max speed main=275 mph
|max speed alt=442 km/h
|cruise speed main=230 mph
|cruise speed alt=370 km/h
|range main=1,350 mi operational, 2,700 mi ferry
|range alt=2,170 km / 4,300 km
|ceiling main=25,000 ft
|ceiling alt=7,600 m
|climb rate main=790 ft/min
|climb rate alt=4 m/s
|loading main=55 lb/ft&sup2;
|loading alt=270 kg/m&sup2;
|power/mass main=0.110 hp/lb
|power/mass alt=0.182 kW/kg
|armament=
* 12&times; .50-calibre [[machine gun]]s
* 3,200 lb (1,800 kg) bombs
}}
== References ==
* {{cite book|author=Green, William|title=Famous Bombers of the Second World War|publisher=New York, NY: Doubleday & Company|year=1975|id=ISBN 0385124678}}
* {{cite book|author=Johnsen, Frederick A.|title=North American B-25 Mitchell|publisher=Stillwater, Minnesota: Voyageur Press|year=1997|id=ISBN 0933424779}}
* Higham R, Williams C. (eds.) (1975) ''Flying combat aircraft of USAAF-USAF (Vol.1).'' Air Force Historical Foundation. ISBN 081380325
* Higham R, Williams C. (eds.) (1978) ''Flying combat aircraft of USAAF-USAF (Vol.2).'' Air Force Historical Foundation. ISBN 0813803756 (v.2)
* {{cite book|author=Scutts, Jerry|title=North American B-25 Mitchell|publisher=Ramsbury, Marlborough, Wiltshire, United Kingdom: Crowood Press|year=2001|id=ISBN 1861263945)}}
== Museum displays ==
*[[Mid-Atlantic Air Museum]], [[Reading, Pennsylvania]]
::B-25J "Briefing Time"
== External links ==
* [http://www.b25.net Detailed historical overview]
* [http://www.fantasyofflight.com/aircraftpages/b25.htm Fantasy of Flight's B25]
== Related Content ==
{{aircontent|
|related=
* [[XB-28 Dragon]]
|similar aircraft=
* [[B-26 Marauder]]
|sequence=
[[B-18 Bolo#Variants and Design Stages|XB-22]] -
[[B-23]] -
[[B-24]] -
'''B-25''' -
[[B-26 Marauder|B-26]] -
[[Martin XB-27|XB-27]] -
[[XB-28 Dragon|XB-28]]
|see also=
* [[Fantasy of Flight]]
}}
[[Category:U.S. bomber aircraft 1930-1939|B-25 Mitchell]]
[[de:North American B-25]]
[[es:B-25 Mitchell]]
[[fr:North American B-25 Mitchell]]
[[it:North American B-25 Mitchell]]
[[pl:North American B-25 Mitchell]]
[[zh:B-25米切尔型轰炸机]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>British Open</title>
<id>4219</id>
<revision>
<id>41732858</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T10:22:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mikkalai</username>
<id>28438</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''British Open''' is the title or popular name of a number of sporting tournaments:
* [[The Open Championship]], one of [[golf]]'s [[major championships]] is often referred to as the [[British Open]], especially in the [[United States]].
* The [[Wimbledon Championships]] are a Grand Slam [[tennis]] tournament held in the United Kingdom.
* The [[British Open Squash Championships]].
* [[British Open (snooker)|British Open snooker]].
* [[British Open (ballroom)]]
{{disambig}}
[[no:British Open]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bengali language</title>
<id>4220</id>
<revision>
<id>42005582</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:18:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SameerKhan</username>
<id>334377</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Vocabulary */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the Bengali language. For the script, see [[Bengali script]]. For the ethnic group, see [[Bengali people]]}}
{{Infobox Language
|name=Bengali
|nativename=বাংলা ''{{IAST|Bāṇlā}}''
|states=[[Bangladesh]], [[India]] and several others
|region=Eastern [[South Asia]]
|speakers=270 million
|rank=4 (native speakers) [http://www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/languages.htm]
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2=[[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
|fam3=[[Indo-Aryan languages|Indic (Indo-Aryan)]]
|fam4=[[List of Eastern Indo-Aryan languages|Magadhan Prakrit]]
|fam5=[[Apabhramsa|Apabhramsa Avahattha]]
|fam6=Bengali-Assamese
|nation=[[Bangladesh]], [[India]], and Indian states of [[West Bengal]] and [[Tripura]] |agency=[[Bangla Academy]] (Bangladesh)<br>[[Paschimbanga Bangla Academy]] (West Bengal)
|iso1=bn|iso2=ben|iso3=ben|notice=Indic}}
'''Bengali''' or '''Bangla''' (বাংলা ''{{IAST|Bāṇlā}}'') is an [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] [[language]] of [[South Asia]] that evolved as a successor to the [[Sanskrit]], [[Pāli|Pali]], and [[Prakrit]] languages. ''Bengali'' is the [[English language|English]] word for the name of the language and for its speakers; in Bengali, the language itself is called ''Bangla'' (pronounced: {{IPA2|'baŋla}}), a term that now has greater currency in English. From this point forward, ''Bangla'' will be used to refer to the language.
With more than 200 million [[first language|native speakers]], it is the fourth or fifth [[List of languages by total speakers|most widely spoken language]] in the world (after [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[English language|English]] and [[Hindustani language|Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu)]]. It is also the fourth most spoken language in terms of native speakers [http://www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/languages.htm]. Bangla is the second most commonly spoken language in India (after Hindi). Along with [[Assamese]], it is geographically the most eastern of the [[Indo-European languages]].
As a result of the [[Bengal renaissance]] in the 19th and 20th centuries, much of [[India|India's]] most famous literature, poetry, and lyrics are in Bangla; the works of [[Rabindranath Tagore]] (the first Asian to be awarded a [[Nobel Prize]]), for example, are in Bangla. Many of the reformist religious, philosophical, and political movements that began in that era were led by Bengalis.
==Classification and Related languages==
Bangla is an [[List_of_Eastern_Indo-Aryan_languages|Eastern]] [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] language of the [[Indo-European language family|Indo-European]] language family.
[[Assamese language|Assamese]], [[Oriya language|Oriya]], and [[Maithili language|Maithili]], three other languages belonging to the [[List_of_Eastern_Indo-Aryan_languages|Maghadan]] Branch of the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] [[language family]], are very closely related to Bangla. Standard [[Assamese]], [[Oriya]], and Bangla are considered by some to be nearly [[Mutually intelligible languages|mutually intelligible]]; some local [[dialect|dialects]] of one language bear a striking resemblance to one or more dialects of the other two languages.
[[Sylheti language|Sylheti]], Chittagonian, and [[Chakma]] are some of the many languages that are often considered dialects of Bangla. Although these languages are mutually intelligible with neighboring dialects of Bangla, they would not be understood by a native speaker of Standard Bangla.
==Geographic distribution==
Bangla is native to the region of eastern [[South Asia]] known as [[Bengal]], which comprises [[Bangladesh]] and the [[India|Indian]] state of [[West Bengal]]. More than 98% of the total population of Bangladesh speak Bangla as a native language. It is the official language in Bangladesh and one of the official languages in the Indian states of West Bengal and Tripura. There are significant Bangla-speaking communities in the Indian states of [[Assam]] and [[Tripura]] and in immigrant populations in the [[Western world| West]] and the [[Middle East]]. The national anthems of both [[Jana Gana Mana|India]] and [[Amar Shonar Bangla|Bangladesh]] are written in Bangla.
===Official status===
Bangla is the official language of Bangladesh and one of the 23 regional languages recognized by the Union of India. It is the official language of the state of West Bengal and the co-official language of the state of Tripura.
===Spoken and literary variants===
Like many languages of South Asia, Bangla exhibits a strong case of [[diglossia]] between the formal, written language and the vernacular, spoken language. The two standard written forms of Bangla, '''Shadhubhasha''' and '''Choltibhasha''', stand in sharp contrast with the spoken forms of Bangla, often referred to as '''Ancholik Bangla''' "Regional Bangla".
Shadhubhasha (literally, "language of sages") adheres to an archaic form of Medieval Bangla and to a heavily Sanskrit-like vocabulary. Songs like the Indian national anthem ''Jôno Gôno Môno'' (by [[Rabindranath Tagore]]) and the national song of India ''B |
> A = ovary; B = tube of corolla with teeth of the corolla; C = theca; D = style with stigma </small>]]
<br clear= all />
== References ==
* [http://www.itis.usda.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=35420 ITIS report 2002-09-10]
* International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN, St. Louis Code). 1999. [http://www.bgbm.fu-berlin.de/iapt/nomenclature/code/SaintLouis/0000St.Luistitle.htm website] (Published as ''Regnum Vegetabile 138''. Koeltz Scientific Books, Königstein. ISBN 3904144227)
* Walters, Dirk R. and David J. Keil (1996). ''Vascular plant taxonomy''. 4th ed. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. Dubuque, Iowa.
* Wagner,W.L., D.R. Herbst, and S.H. Sohmer. 1990. ''Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai&lsquo;i'', Vol. I. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. 988 pp.
* Judd, W.S., C.S. Campbell, E.A. Kellogg, and P.F. Stevens. 1999. Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA.
[[Image:Gnaphalium supinum0.jpg|thumb|left|200px|''Helichrysum petiolare'']]
{{commonscat|Asteraceae}}
[[Category:Plant families]]
[[Category:Asteraceae| ]]
<!--[[en:Asteraceae]]-->
[[cs:Hvězdnicovité]]
[[da:Kurvblomst-familien]]
[[de:Korbblütengewächse]]
[[es:Asteraceae]]
[[eo:Asteracoj]]
[[fr:Asteraceae]]
[[it:Asteraceae]]
[[la:Asteraceae]]
[[lt:Astriniai augalai]]
[[mi:Asteraceae]]
[[nl:Composietenfamilie]]
[[ja:キク科]]
[[no:Kurvplantefamilien]]
[[nn:Korgplantefamilien]]
[[pl:Astrowate]]
[[pt:Asteraceae]]
[[sv:Korgblommiga växter]]
[[vi:Họ Cúc]]
[[zh:菊科]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Apiaceae</title>
<id>957</id>
<revision>
<id>41545057</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T01:40:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Berton</username>
<id>549980</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+ link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Carrot family
| image = QALace2675.JPG
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = Flower of Wild Carrot (''Daucus carota'')
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Apiales]]
| familia = '''Apiaceae''' or '''Umbelliferae'''
| subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]]
| subdivision =
See text<br />
Ref: [http://hortiplex.gardenweb.com/plants/p1/gw3000704.html Hortiplex 2003-11-14]
}}
The '''Apiaceae''' or '''Umbelliferae''' (both names are allowed by the [[International Code of Botanical Nomenclature|ICBN]]) are a family of usually aromatic [[plant]]s with hollow stems, including [[parsley]], [[carrot]], and other relatives. It is a large family with about 300 [[genus|genera]] and more than 3,000 [[species]]. The earlier name Umbelliferae derives from the [[inflorescence]] being in the form of a compound "umbel".
The small flowers are radially symmetrical with 5 small [[sepal]]s, 5 [[petal]]s and 5 [[stamen]]s.
The family contains some highly [[toxic]] plants, such as [[hemlock]], which was used to execute [[Socrates]] and also used to poison arrow tips. It also contains some highly useful plants, such as carrots, parsley, [[caraway]], and [[fennel]]. Many plants in this family, such as [[wild carrot]] have [[estrogen]]ic properties, and have been used as [[folk medicine]] for [[birth control]]. Most notable for this use is the extinct giant fennel, [[silphium]].
Notable members include:
*''Anethum graveolens'' - [[Dill]]
*''Anthriscus cerefolium'' - [[Chervil]]
*''Angelica'' spp. - [[Angelica]]
*''Apium graveolens'' - [[Celery]]
*''Carum carvi'' - [[Caraway]]
*''Centella asiatica'' - [[Gotu kola]] (pennywort)
*''Conium maculatum'' - [[Conium|Poison hemlock]]
*''Coriandrum sativum'' - [[Coriander]]
*''Cuminum cyminum'' - [[Cumin]]
*''Daucus carota'' - [[Carrot]]
*''Eryngium'' spp. - [[Sea holly]]
*''Foeniculum vulgare'' - [[Fennel]]
*''Myrrhis odorata'' - [[Cicely]]
*''Pastinaca sativa'' - [[Parsnip]]
*''Petroselinum crispum'' - [[Parsley]]
*''Pimpinella anisum'' - [[Anise]]
*''Levisticum officinale'' - [[Lovage]]
==Genera==
*''[[Aciphylla]]''
*''[[Actinotus]]''
*''[[Aegopodium]]''
*''[[Aethusa]]''
*''[[Aletes (genus)|Aletes]]''
*''[[Ammi (genus)|Ammi]]''
*''[[Ammoselinum]]''
*''[[Anethum]]''
*''[[Angelica]]''
*''[[Anthriscus]]''
*''[[Apiastrum]]''
*''[[Apium]]''
*''[[Arracacia]]''
*''[[Astrantia]]''
*''[[Athamantha]]''
*''[[Azorella]]''
*''[[Berula]]''
*''[[Bifora]]''
*''[[Bolax]]''
*''[[Bowlesia]]''
*''[[Bunium]]''
*''[[Bupleurum]]''
*''[[Carum]]''
*''[[Caucalis]]''
*''[[Centella]]''
*''[[Chaerophyllum]]''
*''[[Ciclospermum]]''
*''[[Cicuta]]''
*''[[Cnidium]]''
*''[[Coelopleurum]]''
*''[[Conioselinum]]''
*''[[Conium]]''
*''[[Conopodium]]''
*''[[Coriandrum]]''
*''[[Crithmum]]''
[[Image:Apiaceae Pimpinella anisum.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Anise (''Pimpinella anisum'') <br /> from ''Medical botany by William Woodville''. London, James Phillips, 1793]]
*''[[Cryptotaenia]]''
*''[[Cuminum]]''
*''[[Cyclospermum]]''
*''[[Cymopterus]]''
*''[[Cynosciadium]]''
*''[[Daucosma]]''
*''[[Daucus]]'' [[carrot]]
*''[[Dorema]]''
*''[[Erigenia]]''
*''[[Eryngium]]''
*''[[Eurytaenia]]''
*''[[Falcaria]]''
*''[[Ferula]]''
*''[[Foeniculum]]''
*''[[Glehnia]]''
*''[[Harbouria]]''
*''[[Heracleum]]''
*''[[Hydrocotyle]]'' (is now classified under [[Araliaceae]])
*''[[Laser (plant)|Laser]]''
*''[[Laserpitium]]''
*''[[Levisticum]]''
*''[[Ligusticum]]''
*''[[Lilaeopsis]]''
*''[[Limnosciadium]]''
*''[[Lomatium]]''
*''[[Meum]]''
*''[[Monizia]]''
*''[[Musineon]]''
*''[[Myrrhis]]''
*''[[Neoparrya]]''
*''[[Oenanthe (plant)|Oenanthe]]''
*''[[Oreomyrrhis]]''
*''[[Oreonana]]''
*''[[Oreoxis]]''
*''[[Orogenia]]''
*''[[Osmorhiza]]''
*''[[Oxypolis]]''
*''[[Pastinaca]]''
*''[[Perideridia]]''
*''[[Petroselinum]]''
*''[[Peucedanum]]''
*''[[Pimpinella]]''
*''[[Pleurospermum]]''
*''[[Podistera]]''
*''[[Polytaenia]]''
*''[[Prangos]]''
*''[[Pseudocymopterus]]''
*''[[Pteryxia]]''
*''[[Ptilimnium]]''
*''[[Sanicula]]''
*''[[Scandix]]''
*''[[Selinum]]''
*''[[Seseli]]''
*''[[Shoshonea]]''
*''[[Silaum]]''
*''[[Sison]]''
*''[[Sium]]''
*''[[Smyrnium]]''
*''[[Spermolepis]]''
*''[[Sphenosciadium]]''
*''[[Sympholoma]]''
*''[[Synelcosciadium]]''
*''[[Taenidia]]''
*''[[Tauschia]]''
*''[[Thapsia]]''
*''[[Thaspium]]''
*''[[Tilingia]]''
*''[[Tordylium]]''
*''[[Torilis]]''
*''[[Trachymene]]''
*''[[Trachyspermum]]''
*''[[Trepocarpus]]''
*''[[Turgenia]]''
*''[[Yabea]]''
*''[[Zizia]]''
==External links==
*[http://herbarium.uvsc.edu/Virtual/default.asp?table=Family&f=310&t=Apiaceae UVSC Herbarium - Apiaceae]
*[http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/URC/frames.html?http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/URC/urchomepage.html Umbellifer Resource Centre]
[[Category:Plant families]]
[[Category:Apiaceae|*]]
[[cs:Miříkovité]]
[[da:Skærmplante-familien]]
[[de:Doldenblütler]]
[[es:Apiaceae]]
[[eo:Apiacoj]]
[[fr:Apiaceae]]
[[la:Apiaceae]]
[[lt:Salieriniai]]
[[hu:Ernyősvirágúak]]
[[nl:Schermbloemenfamilie]]
[[ja:セリ科]]
[[no:Skjermplantefamilien]]
[[nn:Skjermplantefamilien]]
[[pl:Selerowate]]
[[fi:Sarjakukkaiskasvit]]
[[sv:Flockblommiga växter]]
[[vi:Họ Hoa tán]]
[[zh:伞形科]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Axon</title>
<id>958</id>
<revision>
<id>41988547</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T01:47:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.211.228.234</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''axon''', or '''nerve fiber''', is a long slender projection of a nerve cell, or [[neuron]], that conducts [[action potential|electrical impulses]] away from the neuron's [[cell body]] or soma. Axons are in effect the primary transmission lines of the [[nervous system]], and as bundles they help make up [[nerve]]s. Individual axons are microscopic in diameter - typically about one [[micrometre]] across - but may extend to [[macroscopic]] lengths. The longest axons in the human body, for example, are those of the [[sciatic nerve]], which run from the base of the [[spine (anatomy)|spine]] to the big toe of each foot. These single-cell fibers may extend a meter or even longer.
In [[vertebrate]]s, the axons of many neurons are sheathed in [[myelin]], which is formed by either of two types of [[glia|glial cells]]: [[Schwann cell]]s ensheathing [[PNS|peripheral]] neurons and [[oligodendrocyte]]s insulating those of the [[central nervous system]]. Along myelinated nerve fibers, gaps in the sheath known as [[nodes of Ranvier]] occur at evenly-spaced intervals, enabling an especially rapid mode of electrical impulse propagation called [[saltatory conduction|saltation]]. The demyelination of axons is what causes the multitude of neurological symptoms found in the disease [[Multiple Sclerosis]].
The axons of some neurons branch to form [[axon collateral]]s, along which the bifurcated impulse travels simultaneously to signal more than one other cell.
==Growth & Development==
Growing axons move through their environment via the [[growth cone]], which is at the tip of the axon. The growth cone has a broad sheet like extension called [[lamellipodia]] which contain protrusions called [[filopodia]]. The filopodia are the mechanism by which the entire process adheres to surfaces and explores the surrounding environment. [[Actin]] plays a major role in the mobility of this system.
Environments with high levels of [[cell adhesion molecule]]s or CAM's create an ideal environment for axonal growth. This seems to provide a "sticky" surface for axons to grow along. Examples of CAM's specific to neural systems include [[N-CAM]], neuroglial CAM or [[NgCAM]], [[TAG-1]], [[MAG]], and [[Dicyclohexylcarbodiimide|DCC]], all of which are part of the [[immunoglobulin]] superfamily. Another set of molecules called [[extracellular matrix adhesion molecule]]s also provide a sticky substrate for axons to grow along. Examples of these molecules include [[laminin]], [[fibronectin]], [[tenascin]], and [[perlecan]]. Some of these are surface bound to cells and thus act as short r |
rds, "beneath the terrible burden of a crown" which he had more than once declared his intention of resigning. A report, current at the time and often revived, affirmed that he did not in fact die. By some it is supposed that a mysterious hermit named Fomich, who lived at Tomsk until [[1870]] and was treated with peculiar deference by successive Tsars [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] and [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]], was none other than Alexander.
==A tragic figure==
Modern history knows no more tragic figure than that of Alexander. The brilliant promise of his early years; the haunting memory of the [[crime]] by which he had obtained the power to realize his ideals; and, in the end, the terrible legacy he left to Russia: a principle of government which, under lofty pretensions, veiled a tyranny supported by [[spies]] and [[secret police]]; an uncertain succession; an army permeated by organized disaffection; an armed Poland, whose hunger for liberty the tsar had whetted but not satisfied; the quarrel with the [[Ottoman Empire]], with its alternative of war or humiliation for Russia; an educational system rotten with official hypocrisy; a Church in which conduct counted for nothing, [[Orthodoxy]] and ceremonial observance for everything; economical and financial conditions scarce recovering from the verge of ruin; and lastly, that curse of Russia&mdash;[[serfdom]].
==Private life==
In private life Alexander displayed many lovable qualities. All authorities combine in praising his handsome presence and the affability and charm of his address, together with a certain simplicity of personal tastes, which led him in his intercourse with his friends or with the representatives of friendly powers to dispense with ceremony and etiquette. His personal friendship, too, once bestowed, was never lightly withdrawn. By nature he was sociable and pleasure-loving, he proved himself a notable patron of the arts and he took a conspicuous part in all the gaieties of the [[congress of Vienna]]. In his later years, however, he fell into a mood of settled melancholy; and, though still accessible to all who chose to approach him with complaints or petitions, he withdrew from all but the most essential social functions, and lived a life of strenuous work and of Spartan simplicity. His gloom had been increased by domestic misfortune. He had been married, on [[October 9]], [[1793]], without his wishes being consulted, to the beautiful and amiable princess [[Louise of Baden]] (Elisabeth Alexeyevna), a political match which, as he regretfully confessed to his friend [[Frederick William III of Prussia|Frederick William III]], had proved the misfortune of both; and he consoled himself in the traditional manner. The two children of the marriage, a little grand-duchess Elizaveta, died on [[12 May]] [[1808]] and the other little grand-duchess Maria, that died six years earlier on [[26 June]] (or [[8 July]]) [[1800]]; and their common sorrow drew husband and wife closer together. Towards the close of his life their reconciliation was completed by the wise charity of the Empress in sympathizing deeply with him over the death of his beloved daughter by [[Princess Maria Naryshkina]].
==Death==
Tsar Alexander I, the man of mystery, became increasingly involved in [[mysticism]] and increasingly more suspicious of those around him. On the way to the conference in [[Aachen]], [[Germany]], an attempt had been made to kidnap him. Now he would trust no one. At home, his young daughter, an only child, died, and his wife became ill.
In [[1825]], the "Tsar of All the Russians" died in the city of [[Taganrog]]. After an official announcement of the Tsar's death, a British ambassador at the Russian court said he had seen Alexander boarding a ship. It was later rumored that a [[monk]] in [[Siberia]], Feodor Kuzmich, was really the former ruler. Whatever the truth, when the [[Soviet]] Government opened Alexander's grave many, many years later, it was empty.
Within weeks of Alexander's death, there was an unsuccessful attempt by liberal-minded military officers to seize power from the crown, now known as the [[Decembrist Revolt]]. The Decembrists were caught off guard by confusion regarding the order of succession. Historians believe that the secret societies to wrest power from the crown appeared after the Russian officers' return from their [[Napoleonic wars|Napoleonic campaigns]] in [[Europe]] in 1815.
==Offspring==
He had other illegitimate children, nine all together. His other mistresses were [[Sophia Vsevolojsky]], [[Maria Ivanovna Katatcharova]], [[Veronica Dzierzanowska]], [[Marguerite-Josephine Weimer]], and Princess [[Barbara Tourkestanova]].
{{start box}}
{{succession box three to one|before1=[[Paul I of Russia|Paul I]]|before2=[[Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden|Gustav IV Adolf]]|before3=&mdash;|title1=[[Emperor of Russia]]|title2=[[Grand Duke of Finland]]|title3=[[King of Poland]]|years1=[[March 23]], [[1801]]&ndash;[[December 1]], [[1825]]|after=[[Nicholas I of Russia]]|years2=1809&ndash;1825|years3=1815&ndash;1825}}
{{end box}}
-----
{{1911}}
[[Category:1777 births]]
[[Category:1825 deaths]]
[[Category:Natives of Saint Petersburg]]
[[Category:Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov]]
[[Category:Russian emperors]]
[[Category:Rulers of Finland|Alexander I of Russia]]
[[bg:Александър I (Русия)]]
[[cs:Alexandr I. Pavlovič]]
[[da:Alexander 1. af Rusland]]
[[de:Alexander I. (Russland)]]
[[es:Alejandro I de Rusia]]
[[eo:Aleksandro la 1-a (Rusio)]]
[[fr:Alexandre Ier de Russie]]
[[ko:러시아의 알렉산드르 1세]]
[[id:Alexander I dari Rusia]]
[[it:Alessandro I di Russia]]
[[he:אלכסנדר הראשון קיסר רוסיה]]
[[lt:Aleksandras I, Rusija]]
[[nl:Alexander I van Rusland]]
[[ja:アレクサンドル1世]]
[[no:Alexander I av Russland]]
[[pl:Aleksander I Pawłowicz]]
[[pt:Alexandre I da Rússia]]
[[ru:Александр I]]
[[sq:Aleksandri I]]
[[sr:Александар I Романов]]
[[fi:Aleksanteri I (Venäjä)]]
[[sv:Alexander I av Ryssland]]
[[uk:Олександр І (російський імператор)]]
[[zh:亚历山大一世 (俄国)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexander II of Russia</title>
<id>1591</id>
<revision>
<id>41917826</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:38:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jareth</username>
<id>293836</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/86.10.40.202|86.10.40.202]] ([[User talk:86.10.40.202|talk]]) to last version by 156.35.192.3</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AlexanderIIRussia.jpeg|frame|right|Alexander II (1818-1881)]]
'''Alexander (Aleksandr) II Nikolaevitch ([[Russian language|Russian]]: Александр II Николаевич)''' ([[April 17]] [[1818]], [[Moscow]]&ndash;[[March 13]] [[1881]]) was the Emperor ([[Czar]]) of [[Russia]] from [[March 2]] [[1855]] until his [[assassination]]. He was also the [[Grand Duke of Finland]].
Born in 1818 and assassinated in 1881, he was the eldest son of Czar [[Nicholas I of Russia]] and [[Charlotte of Prussia]], daughter of [[Frederick William III of Prussia]] and [[Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz]]. His early life gave little indication of his ultimate potential, and up to the time of his accession in [[1855]], few imagined that he would be known to posterity as a great reformer.
==Early life==
Insofar as he may have had political convictions in his youth, Alexander seemed to possess the reactionary spirit predominant in Europe at the time of his birth, a trend which continued in [[Russia]] through to the end of his father's reign. In the period of thirty years during which he was [[heir apparent]], the atmosphere of [[Saint Petersburg, Russia|St. Petersburg]] was unfavourable to the development of any intellectual or political innovation. Government was based on principles under which all freedom of thought and all private initiative were, as far as possible, suppressed vigorously. Personal and official [[censorship]] was rife; criticism of the authorities was regarded as a serious offence.
Under supervision of the liberal poet [[Vasily Zhukovsky]], Alexander received the education commonly given to young Russians of good family at that time: a smattering of a great many subjects, and a good practical acquaintance with the chief modern [[Europe|European]] [[European languages|languages]]. He took little personal interest in military affairs. To the disappointment of his father, who was passionate about the [[military]], he showed no love of soldiering. Alexander gave evidence of a kind disposition and a tender-heartedness which were considered out of place in one destined to become a military [[autocrat]].
==Marriages and Children==
[[Image:Cartetsar.JPG|thumb|right|Tsar Alexander II, his wife Marie and son, the future Alexander III]]
On [[April 16]] [[1841]] he married [[Marie of Hesse and by Rhine|Princess Marie of Hesse]] in St. Petersburg, the daughter of [[Ludwig II, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine]], thereafter known as [[Empress Maria Alexandrovna of Russia|Maria Alexandrovna]]. The marriage produced six sons and two daughters:
* [[Alexandra Alexandrovna]] (1842-1849).
* [[Nicholas Alexandrovich]] (1843-1865). He was engaged to princess Dagmar of Denmark, who later married his brother Alexander III under the name [[Maria Fyodorovna (Dagmar of Denmark)|Maria Fyodorovna]].
* [[Alexander III of Russia|Alexander Alexandrovich]], the future emperor
* [[Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia|Maria Alexandrovna]] (1853-1920). Married [[Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]].
* [[Vladimir Alexandrovich of Russia]] (1847-1909). Married Princess Marie of [[Mecklenburg-Schwerin]] and had issue: three sons (Grand Dukes Kirill, Boris and Andrey Vladimirovich) and a daughter (Grand Duchess Elena, who married Prince Nicholas of Greece).
* [[Grand Duke Alexei Alexandrovich of Russia|Alexei Alexandrovich]] (1850-1908). Married Alexandra Zhukovsky and had a son (executed by the Communis |
ely famous ''[[STOS BASIC programming language|STOS]]'', a cousin of AMOS on the Amiga, and powerful enough that it was used (with a compiler, opposed to its usual runtime interpreter) for the production of at least two commercial titles and an innumerable host of good quality shareware and public domain games.
The ST was one of the leading platforms for computer games from 1986 to 1988, inclusive, and continued as a mainstay of the scene for many years later, until succumbing to the greater success of the Amiga, and the rise of consoles and IBM PCs in the early-mid 90s, with some of the very best games not being released until 1992 or 1993.
Notable individuals who developed games on the ST include [[Peter Molyneux]], [[Doug Bell]], [[Jeff Minter]], [[Jeremy San]], [[James Hutchby]], [[Dimitri Koveos]] and [[David Braben]]. The first real-time 3D role-playing computer game, ''[[Dungeon Master (computer game)|Dungeon Master]]'', was first developed and released on the ST, and was the best-selling software ever produced for the platform. In the early [[1990s]] the software houses gradually stopped producing ST versions of their games as demand dried up, and the games' technical requirements increasingly outpaced what even a master programmer could achieve with the system (it is puzzling as to why so few Sega Genesis games were ported to either the ST or Amiga, as they shared the same CPU and much in the way of graphics and sound capability, even down to the Yamaha synth chip - the gamut of 90s ST games might otherwise have been much larger). The final 'big' game which was reputedly in development but didn't quite make it to publication was a port of 'Monkey Island II - LeChuck's Revenge' from LucasArts. An Amiga version had already made it to market, so an almost straight translation should have been easy from this existing 68000 code - however the small potential market must not have seemed worth the amount of work down-converting a (then-) record-breaking (and expensive to manufacture) seven floppy discs' worth of graphics, animation, sound and custom chip code would have represented. See ''[[List of Atari ST games]]'' and ''[[:Category:Atari ST games]]''.
Utility software was available to drive hardware add-ons such as video digitisers. Office Productivity and graphics software was also bundled with the ST ([[HyperPaint II]] by [[Dimitri Koveos]], [[HyperDraw]] by [[David Farmborough]], [[3D-Calc]] spreadsheet by Frank Schoonjans, and several others commissioned by [[Bob Katz]], later of [[Electronic Arts]]).
There was a thriving output of [[public domain]] and [[shareware]] software which was distributed by, in the days long before public internet access, [[public domain software library|public domain software libraries]] that advertised in magazines and on popular dial-up Bulletin Board Systems.
Remarkably, a modest core fanbase for the system, supporting a dwindling number of good quality print magazines, survived to the mid 90s and the birth of the modern, publicly accessible internet as we know it. Despite the limited graphics, memory, and temporary hard storage capabilities of the system, several email, FTP, telnet, IRC, and even full-blown graphical world wide web browser applications are available and usable on the ST.
=== Screenshots ===
{| class="toccolours" border="1" cellpadding="1" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|-
|[[Image:ST_Desktop.png|160px|Screenshot of GEM (Desktop)]]
|[[Image:ST_Neochrome.png|160px|Screenshot of Neochrome]]
|[[Image:ST_1st_Word.png|160px|Screenshot of 1st Word]]
|[[Image:ST_STZip.png|160px|Screenshot of STZip]]
|-bgcolor="#dcdcdc"
|''[[Graphical Environment Manager|GEM]]'' (Desktop)
|''Neochrome''
|''1st Word''
|''STZip''
|-bgcolor="#ececec"
|[[Atari]]/[[Digital Research]] ([[1985]])
|''Dave Staugas'' ([[1985]])
|''GST'' ([[1985]])
|''Vincent Pomey'' ([[1994]])
|}
{| class="toccolours" border="1" cellpadding="1" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|-
|[[Image:ST_Dungeon_Master_fight.png|160px|Screenshot of Dungeon Master]]
|[[Image:ST_Midi_Maze.png|160px|Screenshot of MIDI Maze]]
|[[Image:ST_Populous.png|160px|Screenshot of Populous]]
|[[Image:ST_Xenon_2.png|160px|Screenshot of Xenon 2 Megablast]]
|-bgcolor="#dcdcdc"
|''[[Dungeon Master (computer game)|Dungeon Master]]''
|''[[MIDI Maze]]''
|''[[Populous]]''
|''[[Xenon 2 Megablast]]''
|-bgcolor="#ececec"
|''[[Mirrorsoft]]''/[[FTL Games|FTL]] ([[1987]])
|''Hybrid Arts'' ([[1987]])
|[[Electronic Arts|EA]]/[[Bullfrog Productions|Bullfrog]] ([[1989]])
|''Bitmap Brothers'' ([[1989]])
|}
More screenshots can be found on the [[Atari ST/Games|Atari ST Games]] page.
== Technical specifications ==
===ST/ST<sup>F</sup>/ST<sup>M</sup>/ST<sup>FM</sup>===
As originally released in the '''520ST''':
*CPU: [[Motorola 68000]] @ 8&nbsp;[[megahertz|MHz]]
*RAM: 512&nbsp;[[kilobyte|kB]] to a maximum of 4 MiB (depending on system purchased - later 3rd party upgrades extended this to 14 MiB by replacing the original limited capability MMU)
*Display modes: 320×200 (16 colour), 640×200 (4 colour), 640×400 (mono), palette of 512 colours (all resolutions and palettes extendible to some extent with software tricks)
*Sound: [[General Instruments AY-3-8912|Yamaha YM2149]] 3-voice squarewave plus 1-voice white noise mono soundchip (4-bit sample capable with software tricks)
*Drive: Single-sided 3½" [[floppy disk]] drive, 360 kB capacity when formatted to standard 9 sector, 80 track layout.
*Ports: TV out (on ST-M and ST-FM models, NTSC or PAL standard RF modulated), [[MIDI]] in/out (with 'out-thru'), [[RS-232]] serial, [[Centronics]] parallel (printer), monitor ([[RGB]] or Composite Video colour and [[monochrome|mono]], 13-pin DIN), extra disk drive port (15 pin DIN), [[Direct memory access|DMA]] port (ACSI port, Atari Computer System Interface) for [[hard disk]]s and Atari Laser Printer (sharing RAM with computer system), joystick and mouse ports (9-pin MSX standard)
*[[Operating System]]: [[Atari TOS|TOS]] v1.00 ('''''T'''he '''O'''perating '''S'''ystem''/'Tramiel Operating System') with the [[Graphical Environment Manager]] (GEM) WiMP (Windows, Mouse, Pointer) GUI
Very early machines included the OS on a floppy disk (bootstrapped from a very small core boot ROM), but this was quickly replaced with (expanded capacity) [[Read-only memory|ROM]] versions of TOS 1.0 instead (this change also removed any possibility for memory specifications below 512 kB, as GEM loaded it's entire 192 kB code into faster RAM when booting the desktop). Soon after this change, most production models became ST<sup>F</sup>s, with an integrated single (520STF / 512 kB RAM) or double (1040STF / 1024 kB RAM) sided double density drive built-in, but no other changes. The next later models used an upgraded version of TOS - 1.02 (also known as TOS 1.2). Another early addition (after about 6 months) was an [[RF Modulator]] that allowed the machine to be hooked to a colour TV when run in its low or medium resolution (525/625 line 60/50 Hz interlace, even on RGB monitors) modes, greatly enhancing the machine's saleability and perceived value (no need to buy a prohibitively expensive, even if exceptionally crisp and clear, monitor). These models were known as the '''520ST<sup>M</sup>''' (or '''520STM'''). Later '''F''' and '''FM''' models of the 520 had a built in double-sided disk drive instead of a single-sided one.
===ST<sup>E</sup>===
As originally released in the '''520ST<sup>E</sup>''':
*All of the features of the 520STFM
*Drive: Double-sided 3½" [[floppy disk]] drive, 720 kB when formatted to standard 9-sector, 80-track parameters (over 900 kB with certain extended-sector and -track formats)
*Built in RF Modulator
*Extended palette of 4,096 available colours to choose from
*[[BLiTTER]] chip for fast movement of large data blocks around memory
*Hardware-support for horizontal and vertical fine scrolling (using BLiTTER)
*Sound: Additional [[National LMC 1992]] [[sound chip]] with 2-channel stereo 8-bit [[PCM]] sound at up to 50 kHz, with adjustable Bass and Treble EQ (output only).
*Memory: 30-pin SIMM memory slots allowing upgrades up to 4&nbsp;[[mebibyte|MiB]] (allowable: 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 2.5 and 4.0 MiB due to configuration restraints - later 3rd party upgrade kits allowing a maximum of 14mb, bypassing stock MMU)
*Ability to synchronise the video-timings with an external device so that a video [[Genlock]] device can be used without having to make any modifications to computer's hardware
*Additional ports: Stereo RCA jacks and two analogue joystick ports (with support for analogue devices such as paddles and light pens - no record of these ever being used! Two normal digital joysticks could be plugged into each analogue port with an adaptor). Standard mouse and joystick ports also moved to more accessible positions.
* [[Atari TOS|TOS]] 1.06 (also known as TOS 1.6) on ROM.
Later ST<sup>E</sup> models had TOS 1.62 that fixed some major backwards-compatibility bugs in TOS 1.6.
== Models ==
A number of machines were released in the ST family.
Here they are, in rough chronological order after the original 520ST:
* 520ST+ - Name for early 520STs with 1&nbsp;MiB of RAM, but without floppy disk
* 260ST - European name for the 520ST with 512&nbsp;kB. Used after the release of the 520ST+ to differentiate the cheaper 512&nbsp;kB models from the 1&nbsp;MiB models
* 520ST<sup>M</sup> - a 520ST with a built-in modulator for TV output
* 520ST<sup>FM</sup> - a 520STM with a newly redesigned motherboard in a larger case with a built-in floppy disk drive
* 1040ST<sup>F</sup> - a 520STFM with 1&nbsp;MiB of RAM and a built-in double-sided floppy disk, but without modulator
* 1040ST<sup> |
tt]]
[[pl:Boksyt]]
[[pt:Bauxita]]
[[ru:Боксит]]
[[simple:Bauxite]]
[[sk:Bauxit]]
[[sr:Боксит]]
[[sv:Bauxit]]
[[tr:Boksit]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Baden-Wuerttemberg</title>
<id>3761</id>
<revision>
<id>15902076</id>
<timestamp>2002-07-31T23:55:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jeronimo</username>
<id>108</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Baden-Württemberg]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bundesland</title>
<id>3762</id>
<revision>
<id>34492371</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-09T13:05:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KnightRider</username>
<id>430793</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>warnfile Adding: es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Bundesland''''' (plural ''Bundesländer'') is the [[German language]] name for the [[State (national)|federal states]] of [[Austria]]. Oftentimes it is also used for the states of [[Germany]], but strictly speaking, this is not correct since the German constitution (the [[Grundgesetz]]) names the states simply as '''''Länder''''' (singular ''Land'').
*For Bundesländer of Austria, see [[States of Austria]].
*For Länder of Germany, see [[States of Germany]].
{{disambig}}
[[Category:Subnational entities]]
[[Category:German loanwords]]
[[de:Bundesland]]
[[et:Liidumaa]]
[[es:Bundesland]]
[[ro:Bundesland]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bayern</title>
<id>3763</id>
<revision>
<id>15902078</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bavaria]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bavaria</title>
<id>3764</id>
<revision>
<id>41789875</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T19:43:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jasonuhl</username>
<id>441072</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>date formatting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses}}
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right"
|-
! colspan="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD" | Flags
|-
The '''[[Free state (government)|Free State]] of Bavaria'''&nbsp;&nbsp;([[German language|German]]: ''Freistaat Bayern''), with an area of 70,553 km² (27,241 square miles) and 12.4 million inhabitants, forms the southernmost [[States of Germany|state]] '' ''of [[Germany]]. Its capital is [[Munich]].
| align="center" bgcolor="#FFDEAD" | "lozengy" variant
| align="center" bgcolor="#FFDEAD" | striped variant
|-
| align="center" bgcolor="#EFEFEF" | [[Image:Flag of Bavaria (lozengy).svg|center|100px]] || [[Image:Flag of Bavaria (striped).svg|center|100px]]
|-
! colspan="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD" | Coat of Arms
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" bgcolor="#EFEFEF" | [[Image:Coat of arms of Bavaria.svg|none|200px|Staatswappen]]
|-
! colspan="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD" | Statistics
|-
| Capital: || [[Munich]] ''(München)''
|-
| Area: || 70,553 [[square kilometre|km²]]
|-
| Inhabitants:
| 12.444 Million <small>''(2004-12-31)''</small>
|-
| [[population density|pop. density]]:
| 176 inh./km²
|-
| Website: || [http://www.bayern.de/English/ bayern.de]
|-
| [[ISO 3166-2]]: || DE-BY
|-
! colspan="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD" | Politics
|-
| [[Minister-president]]:
| [[Edmund Stoiber]] ([[Christian Social Union in Bavaria|CSU]])
|-
| Ruling party:
| [[Christian Social Union in Bavaria|CSU]]
|-
! colspan="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD" | Map
|-
| colspan=2 align=center | [[Image:Germany Laender Bayern.png|250px|Federal states of Germany: Bavaria]]
|}
== Culture ==
Bavaria has a culture very distinct from the rest of Germany. Noteworthy differences (especially in rural areas, less significant in the major cities) can be found with respect to:
''Religion:'' Bavarians are typically very conservative Roman Catholics, contrasting markedly with the more casual attitude to religion in much of the rest of Germany. The current pope, [[Pope Benedict XVI|Benedict XVI]], is from Bavaria. This is expressed by the typical Bavarian greeting: "''Gr&uuml;ss Gott!''" (God greet you).
''Appearance:'' Bavarians resemble the inhabitants of Latin countries in that they give great attention to their personal appearance, while much of the rest of Germany dresses very casually. Also, in a business context, wearing traditional-style clothing is not unusual at least in the south of the Free State. Bavarian cities and towns, whether rich or poor, are among the best looked-after locations in Germany.
''Food and Drink:'' Bavarians tend to place a greater value on food and drink than do other Germans. Bavarians also consume many items of food and drink which are unusual elsewhere in [[Germany]].
''Language:'' Bavarians are very proud of their marked [[dialect]]s and most of them speak with their Bavarian, Franconian or Swabian accent.
''Politics:'' The Christian Social Union, which has ruled in Bavaria uninterruptedly since [[1957]], doesn't seek election in any other state of Germany. The [[Christian Social Union of Bavaria|CSU]], arguably the most inward looking of the major German political parties, combines socially conservative positions with advocacy for extensive involvement of the state in the economy.
''Social behaviour:'' In comparison to the elaborate formality in the rest of [[Germany]], Bavarians can be extremely egalitarian and folksy.
== Geography ==
Bavaria shares international borders with [[Austria]] and the [[Czech Republic]]. Neighbouring states within Germany are [[Baden-Württemberg]], [[Hesse]], [[Thuringia]] and [[Saxony]]. Two major rivers flow through the state, the [[Danube]] (''Donau'') and the [[Main]].
The major cities in Bavaria are [[Munich]] (''München''), [[Nuremberg]] (''Nürnberg''), [[Augsburg]], [[Regensburg]], [[Würzburg]], [[Ingolstadt]], [[Fürth]] and [[Erlangen]].
See also: [[List of places in Bavaria]].
== Politics ==
Bavaria has a [[unicameral]] ''Landtag'', or state parliament, elected by universal suffrage. Until [[December]] [[1999]], there was also a ''Senat'', or [[Senate]], whose members were chosen by social and economic groups in Bavaria, but following a referendum in [[1998]], this institution was abolished. The head of government is the [[Minister-president]].
Bavaria has long been a bastion of conservative politics in Germany, with the [[Christian Social Union]] having almost a stranglehold on power since its inception in 1946. Every Minister-president since 1957 has been a member of this party.
In the 2003 elections the CSU won more than two thirds of the seats in ''Landtag''. No party in post-war West German history had achieved this before (not counting the rigged wins of the [[Socialist Unity Party of Germany|SED]] in [[East Germany]]).
On the other hand the bigger and for that more liberal cities, especially Munich, have been governed for decades by the SPD (Social Democrats).
From the historical point of view older Bavaria used to be one of the most liberal states until the (today) rather rural areas of Swabia and Francia were added in 1814/15 at the Congress of Vienna.
The Free State of (older) Bavaria and the Duchery of Baden were the first German States to have a constitution in the early 19th Century.
== Administrative Divisions ==
===Regierungsbezirke (administrative regions)===
Bavaria is divided into 7 administrative regions called ''Regierungsbezirke'' (singular ''Regierungsbezirk'').
[[Image:Bavarian_Admin_Districts.jpg]]
# [[Oberfranken]] (Upper Franconia)
# [[Mittelfranken]] (Middle Franconia)
# [[Unterfranken]] (Lower Franconia)
# [[Swabia (administrative region)|Schwaben]] (Swabia)
# [[Oberpfalz]] (Upper Palatinate)
# [[Oberbayern]] (Upper Bavaria)
# [[Niederbayern]] (Lower Bavaria)
These administrative regions consist of 71 administrative districts (called ''Landkreise'', singular ''Landkreis'') and 25 independent cities (''kreisfreie Städte'', singular ''kreisfreie Stadt'').
===Landkreise/kreisfreie Städte (administrative districs/independent cities)===
[[image:bavaria_map.png|Map of Bavaria]]
Administrative districts:
{|
|-
| width="34%" valign="top" |
# [[Aichach-Friedberg]]
# [[Altötting (district)|Altötting]]
# [[Amberg-Sulzbach]]
# [[Ansbach (district)|Ansbach]]
# [[Aschaffenburg (district)|Aschaffenburg]]
# [[Augsburg (district)|Augsburg]]
# [[Bad Kissingen (district)|Bad Kissingen]]
# [[Bad Tölz-Wolfratshausen]]
# [[Bamberg (district)|Bamberg]]
# [[Bayreuth (district)|Bayreuth]]
# [[Berchtesgadener Land]]
# [[Cham (district)|Cham]]
# [[Coburg (district)|Coburg]]
# [[Dachau (district)|Dachau]]
# [[Deggendorf (district)|Deggendorf]]
# [[Dillingen (district)|Dillingen]]
# [[Dingolfing-Landau]]
# [[Donau-Ries]]
# [[Ebersberg (district)|Ebersberg]]
# [[Eichstätt (district)|Eichstätt]]
# [[Erding (district)|Erding]]
# [[Erlangen-Höchstadt]]
# [[Forchheim (district)|Forchheim]]
# [[Freising (district)|Freising]]
| width="33%" valign="top" |
<ol start=25>
<li> [[Freyung-Grafenau]]
<li> [[Fürstenfeldbruck (district)|Fürstenfeldbruck]]
<li> [[Fürth (district)|Fürth]]
<li> [[Garmisch-Partenkirchen (district)|Garmisch-Partenkirchen]]
<li> [[Günzburg (district)|Günzburg]]
<li> [[Haßberge]]
<li> [[Hof (district)|Hof]]
<li> [[Kelheim (district)|Kelheim]]
<li> [[Kitzingen (district)|Kitzingen]]
<li> [[Kronach (district)|Kronach]]
<li> [[Kulmbach (district)|Kulmbach]]
<li> [[Landsberg (distri |
thony Blond
* Bosman at his best: a choice of stories and sketches (1965) edited by Lionel Abrahams ISBN 0798102497 Human & Rousseau
* Bosman's Johannesburg (1986) edited by Stephen Gray ISBN 0798120010 Human & Rousseau
* Ramoutsa Road (1987) ISBN 0868521302 Ad. Donker
* A Bekkersdal marathon (1971) ISBN 0798100303 Human & Rousseau
* The Earth is Waiting (1974)
* Willemsdorp (1977) ISBN 0798139013 Human & Rousseau
* Almost Forgotten Stories (1979) ISBN 0869781677 H. Timmins
* Selected Stories (1980) edited by Stephen Gray ISBN 0798110317 Human & Rousseau
* The Collected Works of Herman Charles Bosman (1981) edited by Lionel Abrahams ISBN 0868500291 Jonathan Ball
* The Bosman I like (1981) edited by Patrick Mynhardt ISBN 0798111798 Human & Rousseau
* Death Hath Eloquence (1981) ISBN 0869841890 Christelike Uitgewersmaatskappy
* Uncollected essays (1981) ISBN 0869781677 Timmins
* The Illustrated Bosman (1985) ISBN 0868501123 Jonathan Ball
* Makapan's cave and other stories (1987) edited by Stephen Gray ISBN 0140092625 Penguin Books
* A Bosman Treasury (1991) edited by Ian Lusted ISBN 0798128305 Human & Rousseau
* Jurie Steyn's Post Office (1991) ISBN 0798129034 Human & Rousseau
* Herman Charles Bosman : the prose juvenilia (1998) collected and introduced by M.C. Andersen ISBN 1868880494 University of South Africa
* Idle talk : voorkamer stories (1999) edited by Craig MacKenzie ISBN 079813982X Human & Rousseau
* Old Transvaal Stories (2000) edited by Craig MacKenzie ISBN 0798140852 Human & Rousseau
* The Rooinek and Other Boer War Stories (2000) edited by Craig MacKenzie ISBN 0798140313 Human & Rousseau
* Jacaranda in the Night (2000) ISBN 0798140844 Human & Rousseau
* Best of Bosman (2001) edited by Stephen Gray and Craig MacKenzie ISBN 0798142030 Human & Rousseau
* Seed-Time and Harvest, and Other Stories (2001) edited by Craig MacKenzie ISBN 0798141867 Human & Rousseau
* Verborge skatte : Herman Charles Bosman in/oor Afrikaans (2001) collected by Leon de Kock ISBN 0798141859 Human & Rousseau
==Plays==
* Cold Stone Jug (1982) adapted by Barney Simon from the play by Stephen Gray ISBN 079811309X Human & Rousseau
==External links==
*[http://www.marico.co.za/HCBosman/Index.htm The Herman Charles Bosman Literary Society]
[[Category:1905 births|Bosman, Herman Charles]]
[[Category:1951 deaths|Bosman, Herman Charles]]
[[Category:South African people|Bosman, Herman Charles]]
[[Category:South African writers|Bosman, Herman Charles]]
*[http://www.joburg.org.za/2004/jan/jan20_bosman.stm City of Johannesburg Bosman page]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hungarian</title>
<id>14390</id>
<revision>
<id>40529061</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T05:41:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Curps</username>
<id>44727</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/CrotchStench|CrotchStench]] ([[User talk:CrotchStench|talk]]) to last version by Sndr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hungarians''' or '''[[Magyars]]''' are an [[ethnic group]] primarily associated with [[Hungary]].
'''Hungarian''' may refer to:
*[[Hungary]] or the [[Kingdom of Hungary]].
*The [[Magyar people|Magyar]] or [[Hungarian people]], an [[ethnic group]].
*The [[Szekler]] or [[Szekely]] people in [[Transylvania|Erdély|Ardeal]] an area awarded to [[Romania]] at the [[Treaty of Versailles]] at [[Trianon]] after [[WWI]].
*The [[Hungarian language|Magyar]] or [[Hungarian language]].
*[[Music of Hungary|Hungarian music]]
*[[Hungarian beer]]
*[[Hungarian notation]], a method of naming program variables.
*The ''Hungarian algorithm'' for the assignment problem, also known as [[Munkres' assignment algorithm]]
{{disambig}}
[[it:Ungherese]]
[[hu:Magyar]]
[[simple:Hungarian]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Howitzer</title>
<id>14392</id>
<revision>
<id>41792609</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:06:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BECPL</username>
<id>1006785</id>
</contributor>
<comment>better worded</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:15in howitzer.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Loading a WW1 British 15 in (381 mm) howitzer]]
A '''howitzer''' or '''hauwitzer''' is a type of field [[artillery]]. The name derives from the [[Czech language|Czech]] word ''houfnice'', denoting a [[15th century]] cannon used by [[Hussite]]s during the [[Hussite Wars]]. Howitzers are distinguished from other types of [[cannon]] artillery by their trajectory in that they tend to fire at high angles and deliver plunging fire. In addition to this the barrel of a howitzer is commonly below 30 calibers (the length of the [[Barrel (firearms)|barrel]] is less than 30 times as long as the diameter of the [[bore]]), whereas other cannon and field guns tend to fire at no more than 45° ''and'' have a caliber of 30 or over. Development of the gun-howitzer, a weapon that can fire at both high and low angles was continued after the [[World War II|Second World War]]. With much longer barrels than howitzers, barrel lengths of 39, 45 or longer are now common, they have replaced separate guns and howitzers on the battlefield.
Howitzers are still either towed, or now self-propelled where they mix the maneuverability and to some extent the protection of tanks with their heavy firepower. Small howitzers can be towed by a light vehicle or carried by [[helicopter]]. Most are towed by five-ton or larger trucks.
The "pack" howitzer (such as the [[25 Pounder Short Mark 1]]) has existed since before the [[World War I|First World War]]. It can be disassembled into several main components and carried by [[mule]] through very difficult terrain, although the gun size is still a limiting factor and smaller howitzers have generally been abandoned in favor of larger guns with greater capabilities.
Modern self-propelled howitzers such as the [[South Africa]]n [[G6 howitzer|G6]] fire 105 to 155 mm diameter shells up to about 25-30 km at a maximum rate of about 10 per minute.
[[Image:Howitzer_firing.jpg|thumb|left|250px|155 mm [[M198 howitzer]]]]
The Dutch, German, Italian and Greek armies have been using or will be using [[PzH 2000 howitzer]] (155 mm, self-propelled) shortly.
The [[Big Bertha]] was a large, 42 [[centimetre|centimeter]] howitzer used in the German push of 1914. The gun was based on a similar 42 centimeter gun manufactured for a short while by [[Krupp]] for the German military.
[[Image:DSCN5244 fortlaramie12poundermtnhowitzer e.jpg|250px|right|thumb|[[19th century]] 12 pounder (5 kg) mountain howitzer displayed by the [[National Park Service]] at [[Fort Laramie]] in [[Wyoming]], [[USA]]]]
That similar, older 42 centimeter gun was based almost completely on a gun designed by [[Louis Gathmann]] in the late [[1800s]]. Louis was known as the inventor of the "Big Berthas" up through his death in June of 1917.
In November [[1990]] [[United Kingdom|British]] customs officers seized parts of a 1000 mm howitzer destined for the [[Iraq]] [[Project Babylon]] "supergun", which, had it been built, would have been the largest gun ever constructed.
== See also ==
[[Image:Canon 155mm TRF1 fh000024.jpg|thumb|French TRF1 155 mm howitzer]]
Examples of howitzers and gun-howitzers
* [[SSPH1]] Modern 155 mm self propelled gun howitzer
* [[QF 25 pdr|25 pounder]] - WW2 gun-howitzer
* [[25 Pounder Short Mark 1]] - WW2 pack howitzer
* [[M107 (projectile)|M107 ]] - typical modern howitzer shell
* [[L118 howitzer]] Modern 105 mm, towed gun howitzer (also L119 variant)
* [[M198 howitzer]] Modern 155 mm, towed gun howitzer
* [[M109 howitzer]] Modern 155 mm self-propelled howitzer
* [[M110 howitzer]] Post WW2 8 inch self-propelled howitzer
For more examples, see [[List of artillery]]
[[Category:Artillery]]
[[de:Haubitze]]
[[fr:Obusier]]
[[nl:Houwitser]]
[[ja:榴弾砲]]
[[no:Haubits]]
[[pl:Haubica]]
[[pt:Obus]]
[[ru:Гаубица]]
[[sl:Havbica]]
[[fi:Haupitsi]]
[[sv:Haubits]]
[[vi:Lựu pháo]]
[[zh:榴弹炮]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>HMMWV</title>
<id>14393</id>
<revision>
<id>15911952</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>High Mobility Multi-Purpose Wheeled Vehicle</title>
<id>14394</id>
<revision>
<id>15911953</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hummer</title>
<id>14395</id>
<revision>
<id>42101223</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:06:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.36.166.74</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{|align=right
| [[Image:Hummer_logo.png|center|200px|Hummer logo]]
|-
| [[Image:2006 Hummer H3 H1 and H2.jpg|right|thumb|400px|2006 Hummer lineup: [[Hummer H3|H3]], [[Hummer H1|H1]], and [[Hummer H2|H2]] (L-R)]]
|}
:''This article is about the ''Hummer'' vehicle. For the form of oral sex, see [[Oral sex#Variants]], or for the common variant of bird, see [[Hummingbird]].''
'''Hummer''' is a [[marque]] of vehicles sold by [[General Motors]]. For the military vehicles of which the trademark is based see [[HMMWV]].
==History==
Hummers were traditionally built by [[AM General]] Corporation, formerly the heavy industries division of [[American Motors]], in its [[Mishawaka, Indiana]] assembly plant. AM General had planned to sell a civil |
at the dealer's 'hole card' is a 10-value card, i.e. a 10, a Jack, a Queen or a King. Because the dealer's upcard is an Ace, this means that the player who takes Insurance is essentially betting that the dealer was dealt a ''natural'', i.e. a two-card 21 (a blackjack), and this bet by the player pays off 2:1 if it wins.
Example: The player bets $10, the cards are dealt, the player's hand is 19, and the dealer shows an Ace. The player takes Insurance by betting an additional amount of $5. The dealer checks her hole card and sees that it's a 10-valued card. The player loses his $10 bet on his blackjack hand, but he wins the insurance bet, so the player gets 2:1 on his $5 Insurance wager and receives $10 (on top of the $5 which is returned to him). Note that the player came out even on that round (i.e. did not lose any money).
Conversely, a player may win his original bet and lose his Insurance bet. Let's say we have the same situation as above except this time the dealer's hole card is not a ten, but rather a seven. In this case the player instantly loses his $5 Insurance wager. (All Insurance wagers are settled as soon as the dealer turns over her 'hole card', before all else.) But the player wins his $10 bet. Note that the player made a net profit on that round.
Of course, a player may lose both his original bet and his Insurance bet.
Insurance is statistically a bad bet for the player who has no direct knowledge nor estimation (e.g. through [[card counting]]) of the dealer's 'hole card' because Insurance has a negative [[expected value]] for the player. Even for the player who has been dealt a natural (a two-card 21) it is unwise to take ''Insurance''. In such a case, the dealer usually asks the player "Even money?" This means that instead of 3:2, the player with the natural accepts to be paid off at 2:2. Thus it is exactly the same thing as buying Insurance, losing the Insurance bet and getting paid 3:2 on the natural. (If the player with the natural refuses the offer of "even money", and the dealer turns over his hole card to make a natural (a blackjack), it is a tie and the player's bet is returned to him.)
==Basic strategy==
As in all [[casino game]]s, the house has a statistical advantage over the players that will play itself out in the long run. But because blackjack, unlike other games, has an element of player choice, players can actually reduce the casino advantage to a small percentage by playing what is known as ''basic strategy''. This strategy determines when to hit and when to stand, and also determines when doubling down or splitting is the correct action. Basic strategy is based on the player's point total and the dealer's visible card. There are slight variations in basic strategy depending on the exact house rules and the number of decks used. Under the most favorable conditions (single deck, downtown [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]] rules), the house advantage over a basic strategy player can be as low as 0.16%. Indeed, casinos offering special rules like surrender and double-after-split may actually be offering a positive expectation to basic strategy players; they are counting on players making mistakes to make money.
The following rules are beneficial to the player:
# Doubles are permitted on any two-card hand except a blackjack.
# Doubles are permitted after splitting.
# Early surrender; the ability to forfeit half your wager against a face or ace before the dealer checks for blackjack.
# Normal (aka "late") surrender.
# Resplitting Aces.
# Drawing more than one card against a split Ace.
# Five or more cards with the total still no more than 21 as an automatic win (a "[[Charlie (blackjack)|Charlie]]")
The following rules are detrimental to the player:
# Less than 3:2 payout on blackjacks (as is the case with Las Vegas Strip single-deck blackjack, paying out 6:5)
# Dealer hits on soft seventeen (ace, six)
# Splitting a maximum of once (to two hands)
# Double down restricted to certain totals, such as 9-11 or 10,11
# Aces may not be resplit
# No-Peek (European) blackjack—player loses splits and doubles to a dealer blackjack
# Player losing ties
==Basic strategy tables==
<CENTER>
{| BORDER="1" class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! rowspan="2" | Your Hand
! COLSPAN="10" | Dealer's face-up card
|-
| 2
| 3
| 4
| 5
| 6
| 7
| 8
| 9
| 10
| A
|-
! COLSPAN="11" | Hard totals
|-
! 18-21
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
|-
! 17
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| Rs
|-
! 16
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| H
| H
| Rh
| Rh
| Rh
|-
! 15
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| H
| H
| H
| Rh
| Rh
|-
! 13-14
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
|-
! 12
| H
| H
| S
| S
| S
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
|-
! 11
| D
| D
| D
| D
| D
| D
| D
| D
| D
| H
|-
! 10
| D
| D
| D
| D
| D
| D
| D
| D
| H
| H
|-
! 9
| H
| D
| D
| D
| D
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
|-
! 5-8
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
|-
! COLSPAN="11" | Soft totals
|-
! A,9
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
|-
! A,8
| S
| S
| S
| S
| D
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
|-
! A,7
| D
| D
| D
| D
| D
| S
| S
| H
| H
| H
|-
! A,6
| H
| D
| D
| D
| D
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
|-
! A,4-5
| H
| H
| D
| D
| D
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
|-
! A,2-3
| H
| H
| H
| D
| D
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
|-
! COLSPAN="11" | Pairs
|-
! A,A
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
|-
! 10,10
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
|-
! 9,9
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| S
| SP
| SP
| S
| S
|-
! 8,8
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| Rsp
|-
! 7,7
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| H
| H
| H
| H
|-
! 6,6
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
|-
! 5,5
| D
| D
| D
| D
| D
| D
| D
| D
| H
| H
|-
! 4,4
| H
| H
| H
| SP
| SP
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
|-
! 2,2 3,3
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| H
| H
| H
| H
|}
</CENTER>
The above is a basic strategy table for the most common 6- to 8-deck, Las Vegas Strip rules. Specifically: dealer hits on soft 17, double after split allowed, multiple split aces, one card to split aces, blackjack pays 3:2, and (optionally) late surrender.
Key:
:'''S''' = Stand
:'''H''' = Hit
:'''D''' = Double
:'''SP''' = SPlit
:'''Rh''' = suRrender if allowed, otherwise hit
:'''Rs''' = suRrender if allowed, otherwise Stand
:'''Rsp''' = suRrender if allowed, otherwise SPlit
In some LV Strip casinos you may still be able to find the older version of the multi-deck shoe game, where dealer stands on soft 17; those are usually high minimum ($50 or more) tables. This version is much more advantageous to the player, but requires a slightly modified basic strategy table. Basic strategy for [http://wizardofodds.com/blackjack other decks].
Interactive strategy tables for each possible card-distribution in the shoe can be generated using a [[JavaScript]] based [http://www.bewersdorff-online.de/black-jack/ blackjack calculator].
==Shuffle tracking==
There are techniques other than [[card counting]] that can swing the advantage of casino 21 towards the player, at least in theory. (It must be noted, however, that almost all of these techniques are based on the value of the cards to the player and the casino, as originally conceived by [[Edward O. Thorp]].) One such technique, mainly applicable in multi-deck games (aka shoes), involves tracking groups of cards (aka slugs, clumps, packs) during the play of the shoe, following them through the shuffle and then playing and betting accordingly when those cards come into play from the new shoe. This technique, which is admittedly much more difficult than straight card counting and requires excellent eyesight and powers of visual estimation, has the additional benefit of fooling the casino people who are monitoring the player's actions and the count, since the shuffle tracker could be, at times, betting and/or playing opposite to how a straightforward card counter would.
[[Arnold Snyder]]'s articles in [[Blackjack Forum magazine]] were the first to bring Shuffle Tracking to the general public.
==Variants==
[[Spanish 21]] provides players with many liberal blackjack rules, such as doubling down any number of cards (with the option to 'rescue', or surrender only one wager to the house), payout bonuses for five or more card 21's, 6-7-8 21's, 7-7-7 21's, late surrender, and player blackjacks always winning and player 21's always winning, at the cost of having no 10 cards in the deck (though there are jacks, queens, and kings). With correct basic strategy, a Spanish 21 game has a lower house edge than a comparable blackjack game.
Certain rules changes are employed to create new variant games. These changes, while attracting the novice player, actually increase the house edge in these games. [[Double Exposure Blackjack]] is a variant in which the dealer's cards are both face-up. This game increases house edge by paying even-money on blackjacks and players losing ties. [[Double Attack Blackjack]] has very liberal blackjack rules and the option of increasing one's wager after seeing the dealer's up card. This game is dealt from a Spanish shoe, and blackjacks only pay even money.
[[Chinese Blackjack]] is played by many in Asia, having no splitting of cards, but with other card combination regulations.
==References==
'''Blackjack'''
* ''Beat the Dealer : A Winning Strategy for the Game of Twenty-One'', [[Edward O. Thorp]], 1966, ISBN 0394703103
* ''Playing Blackjack as a Business'', [[Lawrence Revere]], 1998 (1971), ISBN 0-8184-0064-1
* ''Professional Blackjack'', [[Stanford Wong]], 1994 (1975), ISBN 0935926216
* ''The Theory of Blackjack'', Peter Griffin, 1996 (1979), ISBN 0929712129
* ''The World's Greatest Blackjack Book'', Lance Humble and Carl Cooper, 1980, ISBN 0-285-15382-1
* ''Blackbelt in Blackjack'', [[Arnold Snyder]], 1998 (1980), ISBN 0910575053
* ''Million Dollar Blackjack'', [[Ken Uston]], 1994 (1981), ISBN 0-89746-068-5
* ''Ken Uston on Blackjack'', [[Ken Uston]], 1986, ISBN 0818404116
* ''Kn |
Pesto, voiced by Maurice LaMarche, [[John Mariano]] and [[Chick Vennera]] — spoofing characters from the movie ''[[Goodfellas]]''
* [[Rita and Runt]] - a singing cat (voiced by [[Bernadette Peters]]) and a loyal but stupid dog (voiced by Frank Welker)
* [[Buttons and Mindy]] - a heroic [[Lassie]]-like dog (voiced by Frank Welker) and the accident-prone baby (voiced by [[Nancy Cartwright (actress)|Nancy Cartwright]]) he is sworn to protect
* [[Minerva Mink]] - an incredibly sexy [[mink]], voiced by [[Julie Brown]], who inspires lustful fits in every male creature around her
* [[Katie Ka-Boom]] - a girl, voiced by [[Laura Mooney]], who has comically violent overreactions to trivially "embarrassing" situations in a parody of stereotypical teenage behavior, obviously modeled on the [[Incredible Hulk]]
* [[Flavio and Marita]] - also known as "the Hip Hippos", a wealthy hippo couple (voiced by Frank Welker and Tress MacNeille) obsessed with being trendy
* [[Chicken Boo]] - a six-foot-tall chicken who is curiously successful at imitating humans despite minimal efforts at disguise
* [[Mr. Director]] - a caricature of [[Jerry Lewis]] (voiced by [[Paul Rugg]]) who first appears in ''Hello Nice Warners''; in later episodes he parodies [[Marlon Brando]] in ''[[Apocalypse Now]]'' and appears as a clown who scares Mr. Plotz and Wakko
* [[The Flame]] - a childlike candle flame (voiced by [[Cody Ruegger]]) who is present at important historical events such as [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson's]] authoring of [[Declaration of Independence (United States)|The Declaration of Independence]] and [[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow|Longfellow]]'s writing of ''The Midnight Ride of Paul Revere''
* [[Charlton Chipmunk]] - an aspiring actor/director and generally neurotic [[chipmunk]]; when people annoy him, he asks them to write their names down in a book and promises that when he becomes famous, he will remember to not like them
* [[Mr. Skullhead]] - a mute skeleton seen in short ''Good Idea/Bad Idea'' clips and a parody of [[Tim Burton]]'s ''[[Edward Scissorhands]]''. These clips were narrated by humorist and [[Motel 6]] spokesman, [[Tom Bodett]].
* The Mime - a nameless [[Mime_artist|mime]] who mainly appeared in brief clips; the mime would usually begin a demonstration of some miming technique (e.g. "walking against the wind" or "trapped in a box") only to be inexplicably maimed
* Colin, also known as the Randy Beaman Kid - a wide-eyed boy who relates improbable stories that allegedly happened to his (never-seen) friend Randy Beaman
* [[Ms. Flamiel]]- the Warners' prim and easily frustated teacher.
* [[Pip (Animaniacs)|Pip]] - generally a foil and annoyance to the Warners, endlessly shaking hands and rambling nonsensically with an iron grip. The Warners could never seem to get their hand detached from the grip of Pip, despite the great length of sight gags they employed to remove themselves. Voiced by [[Ben Stein]].
Celebrities in "Animaniacs":
* [[Steven Spielberg]] - Spielberg plays as himself - always referred to in hushed tones as simply "Steven" - making short cameo appearances in very few episodes with one (or two) lines.
* [[Kirk Douglas]] - Not mentioned by name - Caricatured in the role of [[Michaelangelo]] painting the [[Sistine Chapel]] ceiling, reminiscent of [[Charlton Heston]] in [[The Agony and the Ecstasy]]. Meets [[Steven Spielberg]] who is referred to as "His Eminence".
== Popularity of Animaniacs==
The comedy of ''Animaniacs'' was a broad mix of old-fashioned wit, [[slapstick]], [[pop culture]] references, and cartoon wackiness. The show also featured a number of [[education]]al segments that covered subjects from [[history]] to [[math]] to [[geography]]. These educational segments, while simplistic in nature, were at a considerably more advanced level than in such children's shows as ''[[Sesame Street]]''; in fact, most adults could probably learn something from the show's explanations of world geography, the voyage of [[Ferdinand Magellan]], or the [[Panama Canal]].
While episodes of the show did have their share of flops (the Hip Hippos especially, followed mostly by Chicken Boo and Katie Ka-Boom), a surprisingly high number of well-written, outrageously funny cartoons were aired during the series, as the new madcap Warner Bros. animators merrily poked fun at everything and everyone, including their own fans ("The Please Please Pleese Get A Life Foundation", which directly took from the ''alt.tv.animaniacs'' [[FAQ]] for its material). <!-- That "pleese" is correct here, it was spelled that way on screen. -->
While the show was very popular among younger viewers (the target demographic for Warner Bros.' TV cartoons), a great deal of the show's sly, subversive humor was definitely aimed at an adult audience. In fact, one character, Minerva Mink, was soon deemphasized as a feature character on account that her featured episodes were considered too sexually suggestive for the show's intended timeslot. Adults responded in droves, giving the show cult-hit status and leading to one of the first [[Internet]]-based [[fandom]] cultures. During the show's prime, the Internet newsgroup ''[news:alt.tv.animaniacs alt.tv.animaniacs]'' was an active, popular gathering place for fans of the show (most of whom were definitely adults) to discuss the latest antics of the Warner Brothers and the Warner Sister. The online popularity of the show did not go unnoticed by the show's producers, and several of the most active participants on the newsgroup were invited to the [[Warner Bros. Animation]] studios for informal get-togethers.
== Series history ==
===Reputation and legacy===
[[Image:TTA meets YWD.jpg|right|thumb|[[Yakko, Wakko and Dot]] shake hands with their predecessors: [[Babs and Buster Bunny|Buster and Babs Bunny]] and [[Plucky Duck]] (from ''[[Tiny Toon Adventures]]'') in an episode of ''Animaniacs'']]
''Animaniacs'' premiered on [[September 13]], [[1993]]. New episodes of the show were aired during the [[1993]] through [[1998]] seasons, and episodes of the show were rerun in [[TV syndication|syndication]] for several years after production of new episodes ceased. One feature-length [[direct-to-video]] ''Animaniacs'' movie, ''[[Wakko's Wish]]'', was released on VHS only (there was no [[DVD]] release) in [[1999]]. The series was popular enough for Warner Bros. Animation to invest in additional episodes of the show past the traditional 65-episode marker for syndication; a total of 99 episodes were finally produced. One theatrical cartoon short film starring the Warner siblings, "I'm Mad," was produced and released to theaters in [[1994]] with the feature ''[[Thumbelina (film)|Thumbelina]]''.
The show introduced the popular cartoon characters [[Pinky and the Brain]], who were subsequently [[spin off|spun-off]] into their own TV series in [[1995]].
Animation fans consider ''Animaniacs'' the high point of the Warner Bros. revival of the [[1990s]] that was inspired by the original [[Termite Terrace]]. After ''Animaniacs,'' Spielberg collaborated with Warner Bros. Animation for a third time to produce the short-lived series ''[[Freakazoid]]'', along with the Animaniacs spin-off series ''[[Pinky and the Brain]]''. Warner Bros. also produced two additional "zany" and "madcap" series in the later half of the decade entitled ''[[Histeria!]]'' (much like Animaniacs, but focusing on American history) and ''[[Detention]]'' (an animated sitcom of several quirky junior high kids trying to get out of after-school holding), but neither of these series found a sizable audience, and they were both swiftly cancelled. Warner Bros. cut back the size of its animation studio (the high cost and relatively low profit of its animated feature films of the period also had an effect on the studio), and production on further Warner Bros. animated comedy series ceased. ''Animaniacs'' and ''Tiny Toon Adventures'' continued to rerun in syndication through the [[1990s]] into the early [[2000s]]. In [[2005]], it was removed from the [[NickToons TV|NickToons]] network, and is not currently airing on [[TV]] in the [[U.S.]] &ndash; In the [[United Kingdom]], however, it currently airs on [[Boomerang (TV channel)|Boomerang]].
An ''Animaniacs'' comic book, published by [[DC Comics]], ran from [[1995]] to [[2000]] (59 regular monthly issues, plus two specials). [[Animaniacs (video game)|Animaniacs]], the [[Computer and video games|video game]] based on the series was also made for the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|Super NES]] and [[Sega Genesis]]. There are new ''Animaniacs'' [[video games]] planned for release in the future on the [[Nintendo GameCube]] (''[[Animaniacs: The Great Edgar Hunt]]'') and [[Nintendo DS]] (''[[Animaniacs: Lights, Camera, Action!]]'').
An Animaniacs book called ''Dezanitized'' was produced. Apparently to take place when the Warners first escape, Dr. Scratchansniff attempts to subject the Warners to psychicatry, and thus root out the cause of the their zaniness and, as the book's title says, successfully ''dezanitize'' them. Although he meets them both as a trio and as indiviuals, Scratchansniff is unsuccessful, and in the book's final segment, is is he who is being psycho-analyzed by the Warners themselves. The book appears in a black-and-white comic strip or graphic novel format, and the [[fourth wall]] is often broken: Scratchansniff comments, when people yell at him, that "the big letters" hurt his ears. Wakko also splatters ink over the page, and the doctor complains that the book is messy, and now no one will want to buy it.
The series will re-run on Warner Bros. and [[AOL]]'s new broadband internet channel [[Toontopia TV]].
== The Animaniacs on DVD ==
Warner Bros. has announced ''Animaniacs'' may be released on DVD in the summer of 2006: [http://www.tvshowsondvd.com/ne |
ed theory. See [[Astrochicken]].
*The first technical design study of a self-replicating interstellar probe was published in a [http://www.rfreitas.com/Astro/ReproJBISJuly1980.htm 1980 paper] by [[Robert Freitas]]
*Clanking replicators are also mentioned briefly in the [http://www.foresight.org/EOC/EOC_Chapter_4.html#section01of03 fourth chapter] of [[K. Eric Drexler|K. Eric Drexler's]] [[1986]] book ''[[Engines of Creation]]''.
*Article about a proposed clanking replicator system to be used for developing Earthly deserts in the October [[1995]] [[Discover Magazine]], featuring forests of solar panels that powered desalination equipment to irrigate the land.
*In [[1998]], [[Chris Phoenix]] [http://groups.google.com/groups?hl=en&selm=6f0nui%248ih%241%40news.nanospace.com suggested] a general idea for a macroscale replicator on the sci.nanotech [[usenet|newsgroup]], operating in a pool of [[ultraviolet]]-cured liquid [[plastic]], selectively solidifying the plastic to form solid parts. Computation could be done by [[fluidic logic]]. Power for the process could be supplied by a pressurized source of the liquid.
*In [[2004]], General Dynamics completed a [http://www.niac.usra.edu/files/studies/final_report/883Toth-Fejel.pdf study] for NASA's Institute for Advanced Concepts. It concluded that complexity of the development was equal to that of a Pentium 4, and promoted a design based on cellular automata.
*In 2004, [[Robert Freitas]] and [[Ralph Merkle]] published the first comprehensive review of the field of self-replication, in their book [http://www.MolecularAssembler.com/KSRM.htm Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines], which includes 3000+ literature references.
*In 2005, [[Adrian Bowyer]] of the [[University of Bath]] started the [[RepRap]] project to develop a [[rapid prototyping]] machine which would be able to replicate itself, making such machines cheap enough for people to buy and use in their homes. The project is releasing material under the [[GNU GPL]]. [http://staff.bath.ac.uk/ensab/replicator/]
==Clanking replicators in fiction==
In fiction, the idea dates back at least as far as [[Karel &#268;apek]]'s [[1921]] play ''[[R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots)]]''.
An early treatment was the short story ''[[Autofac]]'' by [[Philip K. Dick]], published in [[1955]], which precedes von Neumann's original paper about self-reproducing machines. Dick also touched on this theme in his earlier [[1953]] short story ''[[Second Variety]]''. Another example can be found in the [[1962]] short story ''[[Epilogue (short story)|Epilogue]]'' by [[Poul Anderson]], in which self-replicating factory barges were proposed that used minerals extracted from ocean water as raw materials.
In his short story "Crabs on the Island" ([[1958]]) [[Anatoli Dneprov]] speculated on the idea that since the replication process is never 100% accurate, leading to slight differences in the descendants, over several generations of replication the machines would be subjected to [[evolution]] similar to that of living organisms. In the story, a machine is designed, the sole purpose of which is to find metal to produce copies of itself, intended to be used as a weapon against an enemy's war machines. The machines are released on a deserted island, the idea being that once the available metal is all used and they start fighting each other, [[natural selection]] will enhance their design. However, the evolution has stopped by itself when the last descendant, an enormously largy crab, was created, being unable to reproduce itself due to lack of energy and materials.
[[Stanisław Lem]] has also studied the same idea in his novel ''[[The Invincible]]'' ([[1964]]), in which the crew of a spacecraft landing on a distant planet finds non-biological life-form, which is the product of long, possibly of millions of years of mechanical evolution. This phenomenon is also key to the aforementioned Anderson story.
[[John Sladek]] used the concept to humorous ends in his first novel ''The Reproductive System'' (1968, also titled ''Mechasm'' in some markets), where a U.S. military research project goes out of control.
NASA's Advanced Automation for Space Missions study directly inspired the science fiction novel ''[[Code of the Lifemaker]]'' (1983) by author [[James P. Hogan (writer)|James P. Hogan]].
More modern references to this idea can also be seen in the TV show ''[[Stargate SG-1]]'' with the race called [[Replicator (Stargate)|Replicator]]s, in which self-replication is achieved and enhanced through absorption of raw materials and technology; this however follows the [[Grey goo]] scenario.
The movie ''[[Screamers (film)|Screamers]]'', based on Dick's short story ''Second Variety'', features a group of robot weapons created by mankind to act as Von Neumann devices / berserkers. The original robots are subterranean buzzsaws that make a screaming sound as they approach a potential victim beneath the soil. These machines are self-replicating and, as is found out through the course of the movie, they are quite intelligent and have managed to "evolve" into newer, more dangerous forms, most notably human forms which the real humans in the movie cannot tell apart from other real humans except by trial and error.
===Other notable works containing clanking replicators===
*"[[Autofac]]" by [[Philip K. Dick]]
*The [[Berserker (Saberhagen)|Berserker]] series of books and short stories by [[Fred Saberhagen]]
*''[[The Forge of God]] by [[Greg Bear]]
*''[[2010: Odyssey Two]] by [[Arthur C. Clarke]]
*''[[The World at the End of Time]]'' by [[Frederik Pohl]]
*''[[Recursion (novel)|Recursion]]'' by [[Tony Ballantyne]] ISBN 0330426990
*''[[Evolution (Stephen Baxter novel)|Evolution]]'' by [[Stephen Baxter]]
==Prospects for implementation==
As the use of industrial automation has expanded over time, some factories have begun to approach a semblance of self-sufficiency that is suggestive of clanking replicators. However, such factories are unlikely to achieve "full closure" until the cost and flexibility of automated machinery comes close to that of human labour and the manufacture of spare parts and other components locally becomes more economical than transporting them from elsewhere. Fully-capable machine replicators are most useful for developing resources in dangerous environments which are not easily reached by existing transportation systems.
A clanking replicator can be considered to be a form of [[artificial life]]. Depending on its design, it might be subject to evolution over long time periods. However, with robust [[error correction]], and the possibility of external intervention, the common [[science fiction]] theme of robotic life run amok is unlikely in the near term.
==Etymology==
It should probably be noted that ''clanking'' is an example of [[onomatopoeia]], understandable to some English speakers, but not to all. The term is meant to evoke the image of a nineteenth century factory, powered by [[steam]], pushing [[gear]]s and rods, noisy and clamorous.
[[Category:Robots]]
[[Category:Artificial life]]
[[Category:Robotics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Convention on Biological Diversity</title>
<id>6198</id>
<revision>
<id>41945249</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:22:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>207.81.107.130</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Convention on Biological Diversity''' is an international [[treaty]] that was adopted at the [[Earth Summit]] in [[Rio de Janeiro]] in [[1992]]. The Convention has three main goals:
#conservation of biological diversity (or [[biodiversity]]);
#sustainable use of its components; and
#fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.
In other words, its objective is to develop national strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. It is often seen as the key document regarding [[sustainable development]].
It was opened for signature on [[June 5]], [[1992]] and entered into force on [[December 29]], [[1993]].
== Parties ==
''176'' - [[Albania]], [[Algeria]], [[Angola]], [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Argentina]], [[Armenia]], [[Australia]], [[Austria]], [[Azerbaijan]], The [[Bahamas]], [[Bahrain]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Barbados]], [[Belarus]], [[Belgium]], [[Belize]], [[Benin]], [[Bhutan]], [[Bolivia]], [[Botswana]], [[Brazil]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Burma]], [[Burundi]], [[Cambodia]], [[Cameroon]], [[Canada]], [[Cape Verde]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Chile]], [[People's Republic of China]], [[Colombia]], [[Comoros]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Cook Islands]], [[Costa Rica]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Croatia]], [[Cuba]], [[Cyprus]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Denmark]], [[Djibouti]], [[Dominica]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Ecuador]], [[Egypt]], [[El Salvador]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Eritrea]], [[Estonia]], [[Ethiopia]], [[EU]], [[Fiji]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Gabon]], [[The Gambia]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Germany]], [[Ghana]], [[Greece]], [[Grenada]], [[Guatemala]], [[Guinea]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Guyana]], [[Haiti]], [[Honduras]], [[Hungary]], [[Iceland]], [[India]], [[Indonesia]], [[Iran]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Israel]], [[Italy]], [[Jamaica]], [[Japan]], [[Jordan]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kenya]], [[Kiribati]], [[North Korea]], [[South Korea]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Laos]], [[Latvia]], [[Lebanon]], [[Lesotho]], [[Liberia]], [[Libya]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Lithuania]], [[Luxembourg]], The Former Yugoslav [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[Madagascar]], [[Malawi]], [[Malaysia]], [[Maldives]], [[Mali]], [[Malta]], [[Marshall Islands]], [[Mauritania]], [[Mauritius]], [[Mexico]], [[Federated States of Micronesia]], [[Republic of Moldova|Moldova]], [[Monaco]], [[Mongolia]], [[Morocco]], [[Mozambique]] |
ystem controls voluntary muscle movement, aided by the [[motor cortex]], [[cerebellum]], and the [[basal ganglia]]. The system eventually projects to the spinal cord and then out to the muscle effectors. Nuclei in the brain stem control many involuntary muscle functions such as heart rate and breathing. In addition, many automatic acts (simple reflexes, locomotion) can be controlled by the spinal cord alone.
Brains also produce a portion of the body's [[hormone]]s that can influence organs and glands elsewhere in a body—conversely, brains also react to hormones produced elsewhere in the body. In mammals, most of these hormones are released into the [[circulatory system]] by a structure called the [[pituitary gland]].
It is hypothesized that developed brains derive consciousness from the complex interactions between the numerous systems within the brain. Cognitive processing in mammals occurs in the cerebral cortex but relies on midbrain and [[limbic system|limbic]] functions as well. Among "younger" (in an evolutionary sense) vertebrates, advanced processing involves progressively rostral (forward) regions of the brain.
Hormones, incoming sensory information, and cognitive processing performed by the brain determine the brain state. Stimulus from any source can trigger a general arousal process that focuses cortical operations to processing of the new information. This focusing of cognition is known as [[attention]]. Cognitive priorities are constantly shifted by a variety of factors such as hunger, fatigue, belief, unfamiliar information, or threat. The simplest dichotomy related to the processing of threats is the [[fight-or-flight response]] mediated by the [[amygdala]] and other limbic structures.
===Brain pathology===
[[Image:Frontotemporal_degeneration.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A [[human brain]] showing [[frontotemporal lobar degeneration]] causing frontotemporal dementia.]]
Clinically, [[death]] is defined as an absence of brain activity as measured by EEG. Injuries to the brain tend to affect large areas of the organ, sometimes causing major deficits in intelligence, memory, and movement. Head trauma caused, for example, by vehicle and industrial accidents, is a leading cause of death in youth and middle age. In many cases, more damage is caused by resultant swelling ([[edema]]) than by the impact itself. [[Stroke]], caused by the blockage or rupturing of blood vessels in the brain, is another major cause of death from brain damage.
Other problems in the brain can be more accurately classified as diseases rather than injuries. [[Neurodegenerative disease]]s, such as [[Alzheimer's disease]], [[Parkinson's disease]], [[motor neurone disease]], and [[Huntington's disease]] are caused by the gradual death of individual neurons, leading to decrements in movement control, memory, and cognition. Currently only the symptoms of these diseases can be treated. [[Mental illness]]es, such as [[clinical depression]], [[schizophrenia]], [[bipolar disorder]], and [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] are brain diseases that impact the personality and typically on other aspects of mental and somatic function. These disorders may be treated by [[psychiatry|psychiatric therapy]], [[medication|pharmaceutical]] intervention, or through a combination of treatments; therapeutic effectiveness varies significantly among individuals.
Some infectious diseases affecting the brain are caused by [[virus|viral]] and [[bacteria]]l infection(s). Infection of the meninges, the membrane that covers the brain, can lead to [[meningitis]]. [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] (also known as mad cow disease), is deadly in [[cattle]] and is linked to [[prion]]s. [[Kuru (disease)|Kuru]] is a similar prion-borne degenerative brain disease affecting humans. Both are linked to the ingestion of neural tissue, and may be an evolutionary defense against [[cannibalism]]. Viral or bacterial causes have been substantiated in [[multiple sclerosis]], Parkinson's disease, [[Lyme disease]], [[encephalopathy]], and [[encephalomyelitis]].
Some brain disorders are [[congenital disorder|congenital]]. [[Tay-Sachs disease]], [[Fragile X syndrome]], and [[Down syndrome]] are all linked to [[gene]]tic and [[chromosome|chromosomal]] errors. Malfunctions in the embryonic [[neural development|development]] of the brain can be caused by genetic factors, by [[drug use]], and [[disease]] during a mother's [[pregnancy]].
==The study of the brain==
===Fields of study===
Several areas of [[science]] specifically study the brain. Neuroscience seeks to understand the nervous system, including the brain, from a biological and [[computational neuroscience|computational]] perspective. Psychology seeks to understand behavior and the brain. The terms [[neurology]] and psychiatry usually refer to [[medicine|medical]] applications of neuroscience and psychology respectively. [[Cognitive science]] seeks to unify neuroscience and psychology with other fields that concern themselves with the brain, such as [[computer science]] ([[artificial intelligence]] and similar fields) and [[philosophy]].
===Methods of observation===
{{main|neuroimaging}}
====Electrophysiology====
Each method for observing activity in the brain has its advantages and drawbacks. Electrophysiology, in which wire electrodes are implanted in the brain, allows scientists to record the electrical activity of individual neurons or fields of neurons. However this method requires invasive surgery and thus this technique is typically usually used only with lab animals or during [[neurosurgery]].
====EEG====
By placing electrodes on the scalp one can record the summed electrical activity of the cortex in a technique known as (EEG). EEG measures the mass changes in electrical current from the cerebral cortex, but can only detect changes over large areas of the brain with very little sub-cortical activity.
====fMRI and PET====
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) measures changes in [[blood flow]] in the brain, but the activity of neurons is not directly measured, nor can it be distinguished whether this activity is inhibitory or excitatory. Similarly, a positron emission tomography (PET), is able to monitor [[glucose]] metabolism in different areas within the brain which can be correlated to the level of activity in that region.
====Behavioral====
Behavioral tests can measure symptoms of disease and mental performance, but can only provide indirect measurements of brain function and may not be practical in all animals. In humans however, a neurological exam can be done to determine the location of any trauma, [[lesion]], or [[tumor]] within the brain, brain stem, or spinal cord.
====Anatomical====
[[post-mortem|Autopsy]] analysis of the brain allows for the study of anatomy and [[protein]] expression patterns, but is only possible after the human or animal is dead. [[Magnetic resonance imaging]] (MRI) can be used to study the anatomy of a living creature and is widely used in both research and medicine.
====Other methods====
Attempts have also been made to directly "read" the brain, which has been accomplished in a rudimentary manner through a brain-computer interface. Brain activity can be detected by implanted electrodes, raising the possibility of direct mind-computer interface. The reverse method has been successfully demonstrated: [[brain implant]]s have been used to generate artificial hearing and (crude and experimental) artificial vision for deaf and blind people. [[Brain pacemaker]]s are now commonly used to regulate brain activity in conditions such as Parkinson's disease.
===Other matters===
[[computer science|Computer scientists]] have produced simulated neural networks loosely based on the structure of neuron connections in the brain. Artificial intelligence seeks to replicate brain function—although not necessarily brain mechanisms—but as yet has been met with limited success.
Creating [[algorithm]]s to mimic a biological brain is very difficult because the brain is not a static arrangement of circuits, but a network of vastly interconnected neurons that are constantly changing their connectivity and sensitivity. More recent work in both neuroscience and artificial intelligence models the brain using the [[mathematics|mathematical]] tools of [[chaos theory]] and [[dynamical system]]s. Current research has also focused on recreating the neural structure of the brain with the aim of producing human-like cognition and artificial intelligence.
==Brain as food==
Like most other internal organs, the brain can serve as nourishment. For example, in the [[Southern United States]] canned [[pork]] brain in [[gravy]] can be purchased for consumption as food. The form of brain is often fried with [[scrambled eggs]] to produce the famous "Eggs n' Brains".{{ref|2}} The brain of animals also features in [[French cuisine]] such as in the dish ''[tête de veau]'', or ''head of calf''. Although it might consist only of the outer meat of the skull and [[jaw]], the full meal includes the brain, [[tongue]], and [[gland]]s, with the latter form being the favorite food of [[President of the French Republic|French President]] [[Jacques Chirac]].{{ref|tete_de_veau}} Similar delicacies from around the world include [[Mexico|Mexican]] ''[[taco]]s de sesos'' made with cattle brain as well as [[squirrel]] brain in the US South.{{ref|around_the_world}} The [[Anyang]] tribe of [[Cameroon]] practiced a tradition in which a new [[tribal chief]] would consume the brain of a hunted [[gorilla]] while another senior member of the [[tribe]] would eat the heart.{{ref|3}}
Consuming the brain and other nerve tissue of animals is not without its risks. The first problem is that the brain is made up of 60% fat due to the myelin (which by itself is 70% fat) insulating the axons of neurons and glia.{{ref|4}} As an example, a 0.14 kg can of "pork brains in milk gravy", a single serving, contains |
eared in the [[CP/M]] operating system, describing the part of CP/M loaded during [[boot time]] that interfaced directly with the [[hardware]] (CP/M machines usually had a simple boot loader in [[Read-only memory|ROM]], and nothing else). Most versions of [[DOS]] have a file called "[[IBMBIO.COM]]" or "[[IO.SYS]]" that is analogous to the CP/M disk BIOS.
==How the BIOS Boots ==
The BIOS runs off the onboard [[PROM]], [[EPROM]] or, most commonly, [[flash memory]] when the computer is powered on and it initializes and sometimes performs diagnostic tests on the hard drive, memory, video, chipset and other hardware. Subsequently, it typically decompresses itself from the BIOS memory space into the system main memory and starts executing from there. Nearly all BIOS implementations can optionally execute a setup program interfacing the [[nonvolatile BIOS memory|nonvolatile BIOS memory (CMOS)]]. This memory holds user-customizable configuration data (time, date, [[hard drive]] details, etc.) accessed by BIOS code. The [[80x86]] source code for early PC and AT BIOS was included with the [[IBM Technical Reference Manual]].
In most modern BIOS implementations, users select which device boots first: [[Compact Disc|CD]], [[hard disk]], [[floppy disk]], [[keydrive|flash keydrive]], and the like. This is particularly useful for installing [[operating system]]s or booting to [[LiveCD]]s, and for selecting the order of testing for the presence of bootable media.
Some BIOSes allow the user to select the operating system to load (e.g. load another OS from the second hard disk), though this is more often handled by a second-stage [[boot loader]].
==BIOS as firmware==
[[Image:Phoenix bios.jpg|thumb|150px|ROM with BIOS]]
BIOS is sometimes called [[firmware]] because it is an integral part of the system hardware. Before 1990 or so BIOSes were held on [[Read-only memory|ROM]] chips that could not be altered. As their complexity and the need for updates grew, BIOS firmware was stored on [[EEPROM]] or [[flash memory]] devices that can be easily upgraded by the user. However, an improperly executed or aborted BIOS update can render the computer or device unusable. To avoid BIOS corruption, some new [[motherboard]]s have a backup BIOS ("Dual BIOS" boards). Also, most BIOSes have a "boot block" which is a portion of the ROM that runs first and is not updateable. This code will verify that the rest of the BIOS is intact (via checksum, hash, etc.) before jumping to it. If the boot block detects that the main BIOS is corrupt, then it will typically boot to a floppy so that the user can try [[flashing]] again, hopefully with a better image. Hardware manufacturers frequently issue BIOS updates to upgrade their products and remove [[Computer bug|bugs]].
== Firmware on adapter cards ==
A computer system can contain several BIOS firmware chips. The motherboard BIOS typically contains code to access fundamental hardware components such as the keyboard, [[floppy drive]]s, ATA (IDE) hard disk controllers, and [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]] human interfaces, and storage devices. In addition, plug-in adapter cards such as [[SCSI]], [[Redundant array of independent disks|RAID]], [[Network interface card]]s, and video boards often include their own BIOS, complementing or replacing the system BIOS code for the given component.
In some cases, where devices which may also be used by add-in adapters, and actually directly integrated on the motherboard, the add-in ROM may also be stored as separate code on the main BIOS flash chip. It may then be possible to upgrade this "add-in" BIOS (sometimes called an "option ROM") separately from the main BIOS code.
Add-in cards usually only require such an add-in BIOS if they:
* Need to be used prior to the time that the operating system (e.g. they may be used as part of the process which loads ([[Bootstrapping|bootstraps]]) the operating system, and:
* Are not sufficiently simple, or generic in operation to be handled by the main BIOS directly
Older [[operating system]]s such as [[DOS]], as well as bootloaders, may continue to make use of the BIOS to handle input and output. However, most modern [[operating system]]s will interact with hardware devices directly by using their own [[device driver]]s to directly access the hardware. Occasionally these add-in BIOSes are still called by modern operating systems, in order to carry out specific tasks such as preliminary device initialisation.
To find these memory mapped expansion ROMs during boot, PC BIOS implementations scan real memory from 0xC8000 to 0xF0000 on 2 kilobyte boundaries looking for a 0x55 0xaa signature, which is immediately followed by a byte indicating the number of 512 byte blocks the expansion ROM occupies in real memory. The BIOS then jumps to the offset immediately after the size byte, at which point the expansion ROM code takes over and uses BIOS services to provide a user configuration interface, register interrupt vectors for use by post-boot applications, or display diagnostic information.
For UNIX and Windows/DOS systems there is a utility with which you can dump your BIOS firmware software at http://www.linuks.mine.nu/ree/
== The BIOS boot specification ==
If the expansion ROM wishes to change the way the system boots (such as from a network device or a SCSI adapter for which the BIOS has no driver code), it can use the BIOS Boot Specification (BBS) API to register its ability to do so. Once the expansion ROMs have registered using the BBS APIs, the user can select among the available boot options from within the BIOS's user interface. This is why most BBS compliant PC BIOS implementations will not allow the user to enter the BIOS's user interface until the expansion ROMs have finished executing and registering themselves with the BBS API...
== The Fall and Rise of the BIOS ==
Older operating systems such as [[DOS]] called on the BIOS to carry out most input-output tasks within the PC, with the introduction of newer operating systems such as Microsoft Windows and Linux, the BIOS was relegated to principally providing initial hardware setup, and [[bootstrapping]]. Once it was up and running, the operating system didn't have to rely on the BIOS for much.
In recent years, however by way of systems such as [[ACPI]], the BIOS has taken on more complex functions such as aspects of power management, hotplug, thermal management etc. This has led to renewed reliance on the BIOS by operating system producers, and an increase in complexity in the BIOS code.
== The BIOS Business ==
The vast majority of PC motherboard suppliers license a BIOS "core", and toolkit from a commercial third party, which creates and maintains such a core. The motherboard manufacturer then customises this BIOS to suit their own hardware - for this reason updated BIOSes are normally obtained directly from the motherboard manufacturer.
== List of BIOS suppliers: ==
* [[American Megatrends Incorporated|American Megatrends Inc.]]
* [[Phoenix Technologies]]
* [[Award Software International]] (merged with Phoenix in 1998)
* [[MicroID Research]] (MRBIOS)
* [[Insyde Software]] (Insyde)
* [[General Software]] (General Software)
==See also==
* [[Extensible Firmware Interface]] (EFI)
* [[LinuxBIOS]], a [[free software]] project aimed at replacing the normal BIOS
* [[Open Firmware]]
* [[Input/Output Base Address]]
* [[Advanced Configuration and Power Interface]]
* [[machine code]]
* [[microchip]]
* [[Booting#BIOS boot devices|BIOS boot devices]]
* [[BIOS Interrupt Calls]]
* [[Network interface|Interface]]
* [[Power-On Self Test]] (POST)
==External links==
* [http://www.openbios.org/ OpenBIOS homepage]
* [http://linuxbios.org/ LinuxBIOS homepage]
* [http://www.rojakpot.com/bog.aspx Adrian's Rojak Pot's The Definitive BIOS Optimization Guide]
* [http://www.rojakpot.com/showarticle.aspx?artno=93 Motherboard BIOS Flashing Guide]
* [http://www.rojakpot.com/showarticle.aspx?artno=62 BIOS Hot Flashing Guide]
* [http://www.bios-info.de/ BIOS-Kompendium Homepage == BIOS-Info, BIOS-Forum, Selling/programming: (E)EPROMs & FLASH-EEPROMs ("BIOS Chips")]
* [http://www.biosflash.com Biosflash homepage - BIOS Chips Sale + Programming]
* [http://www.esupport.com/biosagent/ BIOS Agent]
* [http://www.phoenix.com/NR/rdonlyres/56E38DE2-3E6F-4743-835F-B4A53726ABED/0/specsbbs101.pdf The BIOS Boot Specification]
* [http://www.winamp5.de.tt/borg_bios/borgs_biostool-collection BNOBTC - BIOS Tool collection - (All?) BIOS Tools in one collection]
* [http://www.rojakpot.com/showarticle.aspx?artno=91 Video BIOS Hot Flashing Guide]
* [http://www.pcnineoneone.com/howto/biosflash1.html How to flash a BIOS]
* [http://www.wimsbios.com/numbers.shtml Award bios identification page]
* [http://wimsbios.com Wim's BIOS Page]
* [http://www.elfqrin.com/docs/biospw.html How to bypass BIOS passwords]
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0131455362 Breaking Through The BIOS Barrier Book On BIOS Optimization for PCs]
[[Category:BIOS|BIOS]]
[[Category:Boot loader]]
[[Category:Technology neologisms]]
[[ar:بيوس]]
[[bs:BIOS]]
[[cs:BIOS]]
[[da:BIOS]]
[[de:Basic Input Output System]]
[[es:BIOS]]
[[fi:BIOS]]
[[fr:Basic Input Output System]]
[[gl:BIOS]]
[[he:BIOS]]
[[hr:BIOS]]
[[hu:BIOS]]
[[it:BIOS]]
[[ja:Basic Input/Output System]]
[[ko:바이오스]]
[[ku:BIOS]]
[[lt:BIOS]]
[[nl:BIOS]]
[[no:BIOS]]
[[pl:BIOS]]
[[pt:BIOS]]
[[ru:BIOS]]
[[sk:BIOS]]
[[sl:BIOS]]
[[sv:BIOS]]
[[uk:Основна система вводу-виводу]]
[[vi:BIOS]]
[[zh:BIOS]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bose-Einstein condensate</title>
<id>4474</id>
<revision>
<id>42118047</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:06:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>131.230.66.114</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>A comma.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''Bose-Einstein condensate''' is a [[phase (matter)|phase]] of [[matter]] formed by [[ |
and [[245]], at a great age.
The details of the life of the philosopher Ammonius Saccas are so unclear that he has frequently been confused with a Christian philosopher of the [[Ammonius of Alexandria (Christian)|same name]].
==See also==
*[[Origen]]
[[Category:240s deaths]]
[[Category:Neoplatonists]]
[[Category:Roman era philosophers]]
[[cs:Ammónios Sakkás]]
[[de:Ammonios Sakkas]]
[[es:Ammonio Saccas]]
[[fr:Ammonios Saccas]]
[[it:Ammonio Sacca]]
[[hu:Ammóniosz Szakkasz]]
[[pl:Amoniusz]]
[[pt:Amônio Sacas]]
[[ru:Аммоний Саккас]]
[[sk:Ammonios Sakkas]]
[[fi:Ammonios Sakkas]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amorites</title>
<id>1725</id>
<revision>
<id>15900190</id>
<timestamp>2004-01-05T04:09:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zestauferov</username>
<id>21678</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merge & redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Amorite]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Book of Amos</title>
<id>1726</id>
<revision>
<id>41198988</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T19:00:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bdc822</username>
<id>990774</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Where was it written? */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}} {{Books of Nevi'im}}
The '''Book of Amos''' is one of the books of the [[Nevi'im]] and of the [[Old Testament]].
==Who wrote it?==
'''[[Amos (prophet)|Amos]]''' was a [[prophet]] during the reign of Jeroboam ben Joash (Jeroboam II), ruler of [[Israel]] from 793 BCE to 753 BCE, and the reign of Uzziah, King of Judah, at a time when both kingdoms (Israel in the North and Judah in the South) were peaking in prosperity. He was a contemporary of the prophet [[Hosea]], but likely preceded him. Many of the earlier accounts of prophets found in the [[Old Testament]] are found within the context of other accounts of Israel's history. Amos, however, is the first prophet whose name also serves as the title of the corresponding biblical book in which his story is found.
It is unlikely that Amos was a "professional prophet", trained to work in the king's court. Rather, he gives the account of being called by God while working in his trade as a herdsman and farmer. The food that he farmed (sycamore figs) is thought to be a food most widely known as part of an [[Ancient Egyptian|Egyptian]] commoner's diet. Therefore, scholars assume that Amos was not a member of the wealthy elite who he, by God's command, condemns in his prophesy. Rather he appears to be a working-class shepherd. Amos pointed out that he was not trained as a professional prophet, but did not condemn prophecy in itself.
==When was it written?==
Most scholars believe that [[Amos (prophet)|Amos]] gave his message in the autumn of 750 BCE or 749 BCE. It is generally understood that his preaching at [[Bethel]] lasted only a single day at the least and a few days at the most. Leading up to this time, Assyrian armies battled against [[Damascus]] for a number of years, which greatly diminished Syria's threat to [[Israel]]. As a result of the fighting amongst its neighbors, Israel had the benefit of increasing its borders almost to those of the time of [[David]] and [[Solomon]].
It should also be noted that Amos preached about two years before a very large earthquake, and made reference to it twice in his book. [[Zechariah]] remembers this earthquake over 200 years later (Zech. 14:5).
==Where was it written?==
Some scholars believe that [[Amos (prophet)|Amos]]' message was recorded after he delivered it to the Northern Kingdom, upon returning to his southern homeland of [[Tekoa]], a town eight kilometres south of [[Bethlehem]]. It is mentioned many times in the [[Old Testament]] ([[Joshua]] 15:39, [[2 Samuel]] 14:9 and 23:26, [[1 Chronicles]] 11:28). [[Rehoboam]] is reported to have fortified Tekoa along with other cities in [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] in [[2 Chronicles]] 11:5-6.
There are some differing opinions as to the location of the Tekoa Amos was presumably from. It is believed by most that Amos was a southern farmer, called by [[God]] to deliver his prophetic message in the North. However, some believe that Amos was actually from a Tekoa in the North, near [[Galilee]], but this is most likely not true. They believe that it is more probable that Amos was from the North because it has conditions more suitable for the cultivation of sycamore figs than the Tekoa of the South. Sycamore figs grow at a low elevation, lower than the Tekoa of Judah, which is at a relatively high elevation of 850 metres (overlooking both [[Jerusalem]] and [[Bethlehem]]). Others have discredited the theory about the Galilean Tekoa, citing that the difference in elevation between the two locations is not significant. Scholars in support of the idea of Amos being from the North also say it makes more sense because of Amaziah's accusation of conspiracy in chapter seven, verse 10. A conspirator, they argue, is more likely to be a national.
Two other opinions of where Amos' writings were recorded deserve mention. They are that 1) disciples of Amos followed him and recorded his message and 2) that someone in his audience in the North recorded his message.
==Why was it written?==
The Book of Amos is set in a time when the people of [[Israel]] have reached a low point in their devotion to [[Yahweh]] - the people have become greedy and have stopped following and adhering to their values. The wealthy elite are becoming rich at the expense of others. Peasent farmers who once practiced subsistence farming are being forced to farm what is best for foreign trade, mostly wine and oil.
Yahweh speaks to Amos, a farmer and herder and tells him to go to [[Samaria]], the capital of the Northern kingdom. Through Amos, Yahweh tells the people that he is going to judge Israel for its sins, and it will be a foreign nation that will enact his judgement.
The people understand judgment as the coming of "the Day of the Lord." "The Day of the Lord" was widely celebrated and highly anticipated by the followers of Yahweh. However, Amos came to tell the people that "the Day of the Lord" was coming soon and that it meant divine judgment and justice for their own iniquity.
==What are the themes of the books?==
Many scholars break the book of Amos up into three sections. Chapters one and two look at the nations surrounding [[Israel]] and then Israel itself through a moral/ethical filter. Chapters three to six are a collection of verses that look more specifically at Israel's transgressions. Chapters seven to nine include visions that [[Yahweh]] gave Amos as well as Amaziah's rebuke of the prophet. The last section of the book (7:1 to 9:8), commonly referred to as the Book of Visions, contains the only narrative section.
In the first two visions, [[Amos (prophet)|Amos]] is able to convince Yahweh not to act out the scenes of discipline presented to him. The ideas of discipline and justice, although not enacted here, corresponds to the central message in what some refer to as the Book of Woes (5:1 to 6:14). This message can be seen most clearly in verse 24 of chapter five. The plagues in the preceding chapter, chapter four, were supposed to be seen as acts of discipline that turned Israel back to Yahweh. However, the people did not interpret the acts this way and the discipline turned into judgment for the people's disobedience. In the second set of visions (7:7-9), there is no intercession by Amos and Yahweh says that he "will never pass by them again." The plight of Israel has become hopeless. [[God]] will not hold back judgment because Israel refuses to listen to the prophets and even goes so far as to try to silence them (2:12, 3:8, 7:10-17).
The central idea of the book of Amos according to most scholars is that Yahweh puts his people on the same level as the nations that surround it -- Yahweh expects the same morality of them all. As it is with all nations that rise up against the kingdom of Yahweh, even Israel and Judah will not be exempt from the judgment of Yahweh because of their idolatry and unjust ways. The nation that represents Yahweh must be made pure of anything or anyone that profanes the name of Yahweh. Yahweh's name must be exalted.
Other major themes in the book of Amos include: social justice and concern for the disadvantaged; the idea that Israel's [[covenant]] with Yahweh did not exempt them from his standards of morality; Yahweh is [[God]] of all nations; Yahweh is judge of all nations; Yahweh is God of moral righteousness; Yahweh made all people; Yahweh elected Israel and then redeemed Israel so that he would be known throughout the world; election by Yahweh means that those elected are responsible to live according to the purposes clearly outlined to them in the law; Yahweh will only destroy the unjust and a remnant will remain and; Yahweh is free to judge, redeem and act as savior to Israel.
----
===Translations of the book of Amos:===
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=16098 Amos] from Chabad.org
*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=amos;&version=49; ''Amos'' at BibleGateway.com] (Various translations)
===References:===
* Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897.
* LaSor, William Sanford et al. ''Old Testament Survey: the Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament''. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996.
* Keil, C.F. et al. ''Commentary on the Old Testament in Ten Volumes''. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1986.
* Metzger, Bruce M. et al. ''The Oxford Companion to the Bible''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
* Doorly, William J. ''Prophet of Justice: Understanding the Book of Amos''. New York: Paulist Press 1989.
* Carroll R., M. Daniel ''Amos: The Prophet |
of [[Asturias, Principality of|Asturias]] and the [[Basque Country]] are well known for traditional ''sidra'', an alcoholic cider of 4 to 8% strength. ''Sidra'' or ''Sagardoa'' ([[Euskadi]]) is traditionally poured in very small quantities from a height into a wide glass, with the arm holding the bottle extended upwards and the one holding the glass extended downwards. This is called to ''escanciar'' (or, in [[asturian]], ''echar'') and is done to get air bubbles into the drink, thus giving it a sparkling taste like Champagne that lasts a very short time. Spanish ''sidra'' is closely associated with ''sidrerías'' or ''sidreríes'' (Asturias) or ''sagardotegiak'' (Euskadi) ("cider houses"). In the Basque region of [[Guipúzcoa]], it is a tradition to visit ''sagardotegiak'' between February and May to drink new ''sidra'' from the barrel accompanied by a meal (like the well known "txuleton").
===United Kingdom===
In the [[United Kingdom]] cider is predominantly (but by no means exclusively) made in the southwest and west of [[England]] and is known as '''scrumpy''' in the [[West Country]]. Cider from [[Gloucestershire]], [[Herefordshire]] and [[Worcestershire]] in [[England]] made from traditional recipes forms a [[European Union]] [[Protected Geographical Indication]].
Cider is often the drink of choice for teenagers in the UK (along with [[alcopop|alcopops]]; see also [[Snakebite (cocktail)|Snakebite]]). This is aided by preferentially low [[duty]] rates for cider compared to beer, which reduces its cost. Abdominal pains known as "[[Devon colic]]" have been attributed to mild [[lead poisoning]]; the acidic juice dissolves lead from the traditional cider presses used in that region.
Local West Country legends tell of cider served at concerts for the [[Somerset]] band [[The Wurzels]], often being described as 'proper' ''scrumpy''. Many locals insist the reputed 'bits' in such ''scrumpy'' enhanced the flavour, and sometimes the strength of the alcoholic content.
West Country cider is parodied by [[Terry Pratchett]] in his descriptions of the ''[[Discworld]]'' beverage [[Minor Discworld concepts#Scumble|scumble]].
====Real cider====
[[CAMRA]] has defined "real cider" as the following:
<blockquote>"'''DEFINITION OF REAL DRAUGHT CIDER & PERRY'''
<br>A) INGREDIENTS
#The liquid content before fermentation must consist entirely of non-pasteurized apple (Cider), or pear (Perry) juice.
#No apple or pear juice concentrates to be used.
#Normally, only the sugar naturally available in the fruit should be used to cause fermentation, but in years when the level of natural sugar in the fruit is low, the addition of extraneous sugar to aid fermentation is acceptable.
B) PROCESS
#No pasteurization to take place during the production process in relation to the cask product.
#No added colourings to be used.
#No added flavorings to be used.
#There must be no artificial carbonation for draught products.
#Sweetener may be added to fully fermented Cider/Perry to make it sweet or medium.
#The addition of water is permitted to bring the alcoholic content of the Cider/Perry down to the level required by the producer. Ideally, however the minimum juice content should not be lower than 90% volume.
#No micro filtration allowed (this takes all the yeast, leaving a "dead" product).
</blockquote>
The above is item 5.2 as extracted from CAMRA's External Policy Document 2003 - 2004" (from [http://www.camra.org.uk/SHWebClass.ASP?WCI=ShowDoc&DocID=759 CAMRA's Cider & Perry page])
</blockquote>
<br>
'''[[UKCider]], the [[Community of Practice]] for small scale cidermakers''' has developed a definition of real cider as follows:
<blockquote> "'''WHAT DO WE MEAN BY REAL CIDER?'''<br>
<br>
Real cider is the product of fermenting fresh apple juice. <br>
<br>
The amount of apple juice which went into the final product must be between 85 and 100% and should be clearly stated on the container it is sold in or dispensed from. No artificial sweetners, flavourings or colourings are permitted.<br>
<br>
(For real perry substitute pear juice.)"
</blockquote>
Taken from [http://www.ukcider.co.uk/real.htm the ukcider website]
===United States===
Somewhere around the time of [[Prohibition]], the word cider came to mean sparkling apple juice, largely through the influence of [[Martinelli's]] sparkling apple cider, which was once touted specifically as "non-alcoholic cider". The patented "Golden Apple" bottle design is well known throughout the world, as it intentionally resembles a champagne bottle. The Martinelli's brand of sparkling non-alcoholic cider is so well known in many parts of the country that "cider" and "Martinelli's" are often synonymous.
== See also ==
*[[Devon colic]] - lead poisoning caused by cider drinking in 18th century [[Devon]]
==External links==
{{Commons|Category:Cider}}
* [http://www.cidermuseum.co.uk/ The Hereford Cider Museum]
* [http://www.middlefarm.com/cidershop.html The National Collection of Cider and Perry], [[East Sussex]], [[England]]
* [http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a2_048.html The Straight Dope: What's the difference between apple juice and apple cider?]
* [http://www.iespana.es/valdedios]
* [http://www.ratebeer.com Review ciders at RateBeer,com]
* [http://www.camra.org.uk/SHWebClass.asp?WCI=ShowCat&CatId=9 CAMRA Cider & Perry Division]
* [http://ukcider.co.uk/wiki/index.php/Main_Page UKCider Wiki]
* [http://www.cookingforengineers.com/article.php?id=151 Cooking For Engineers: Mulled Cider Recipe]
* [http://flickr.com/photos/intrnal/sets/1357981/ A flickr set documenting how to brew your own Cider]
==References==
* ''[[Household Cyclopedia]]'', [[1881]]
* ''Farmhouse Cider & Scrumpy'', Bob Bunker [[1999]]
*Richard A. Fletcher, 1984. ''Saint James' Catapault: The Life and Times of Diego Gelmírez of Santiago de Compostela'' (Oxford University Press)
R.A. Fletcher
[[Category:Cider|*]]
[[Category:English Protected designation of origin]]
[[af:Sider]]
[[ast:Sidra]]
[[bg:Ябълково вино]]
[[da:Cider]]
[[de:Cidre]]
[[es:Sidra]]
[[eu:Sagardoa]]
[[fr:Cidre]]
[[hu:Almabor]]
[[nl:Cider]]
[[ja:シードル]]
[[no:Sider]]
[[nn:Sider]]
[[pl:Cydr]]
[[ru:Сидр]]
[[simple:Cider]]
[[fi:Siideri]]
[[sv:Cider]]
[[zh:苹果酒]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Chuck Smith</title>
<id>7495</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:17:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Scott Sanchez</username>
<id>21150</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Calvary Chapel */ rv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Chuck Smith''' ('''Charles Ward Smith''')(born [[1927]]) is a [[Christian]] leader in the [[United States]].
Smith was born in [[Ventura, California]] to Charles and Maude Smith. He graduated from [[Life Pacific College|LIFE Bible College]] and was ordained as a [[International Church of the Foursquare Gospel|Foursquare]] [[Pentecostal]] pastor. After struggling for years as pastor and frustrated by church growth and recruitment techniques (in [[Tucson, Arizona]]; [[Huntington Beach, California]]; and [[Corona, California]]) he founded [[Calvary Chapel]] (later called Calvary Chapel, Costa Mesa), located in [[Santa Ana, California]], in 1965 with 25 people. What began as a small chapel grew to a church with [[seating capacity]] of over 2,000. Today, Smith's simple, biblical-based teaching style draws 25,000 people weekly.
Many among a generation of hippies and surfers who were the focus of Smith's outreach, such as [[Greg Laurie]], [[Jon Courson]], [[Mike MacIntosh]], [[Raul Ries]], and [[Skip Heitzig]], as well as others, now have Christian ministries of their own.
Since then, Smith extended his teaching nationally through [[The Word for Today]] radio program, as well as internationally over the internet. A list of his resource materials, which include audio tape packs, videos, and books, is also available on the [http://www.twft.com internet]. Under Smith's leadership, a number of other ministries were brought into existence, including:
* [[Maranatha Music]], a Christian music recording company
* [[CSN, International]], a growing radio ministry
* [[Hope for the Children International]], an outreach to needy, inner-city children
* The Word For Today, a multi-media publishing/radio broadcasting company
* [[Maranatha Christian Academy]] and [[Calvary High School]]
* [[Calvary Chapel Bible College]]
* [http://www.ccsom.org Calvary Chapel School of Ministry]
== Calvary Chapel ==
Smith is the active founder of the [[Calvary Chapel]] movement. There are over 500 churches across America, with over 300 in California, and over 100 churches in over 25 different countries.
Because of [[Calvary Chapel]], the increasingly popular ministry of [[Ray Comfort]] (founder and host of [[The Way of the Master]] television show and [[Living Waters Publications]]) was able to find a home in the [[United States]] from [[New Zealand]].
Smith is well respected throughout the Christian community. His wife, Kay, heads up Costa Mesa's women's ministry, while his son, Jeff, oversees The Word for Today and CSN International. Smith's other three children are also involved in the ministry.
{{Christian-clergy-stub}}
== External links ==
* [http://calvarychapel.org Calvary Chapel - Official Site]
[[Category:Christian leaders|Smith, Chuck]]
[[Category:Christian ministers|Smith, Chuck]]
[[Category:Christian pastors|Smith, Chuck]]
[[Category:Christian writers|Smith, Chuck]]
[[Category:1927 births|Smith, Chuck]]
[[Category:People from California|Smith, Chuck]]
[[Category:Living people|Smith, Chuck]]</text>
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<title>Counter-Strike equipment</title>
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|
d]] '''D/1993&nbsp;F2''') was a [[comet]] which collided with [[Jupiter]] in 1994, providing the first direct observation of the collision of two [[solar system]] objects. This generated a large amount of coverage in the popular media, and SL9 was closely observed by [[astronomy|astronomers]] worldwide. The comet provided many revelations about Jupiter and its atmosphere and highlighted Jupiter's role in reducing [[space debris]] in the inner solar system.
Astronomers [[Carolyn Shoemaker|Carolyn]] and [[Eugene M. Shoemaker]] and [[David Levy (astronomer)|David Levy]] discovered the comet, which was the eleventh one they had found. It is called "Shoemaker-Levy 9" because only ''periodic'' comets are numbered in this way; the Shoemakers-Levy team has discovered four non-periodic comets in addition to its nine periodic ones. Shoemaker-Levy 9 was located on the night of [[March 24]], [[1993]], in a [[photograph]] taken with the 0.4-[[metre]] [[Schmidt telescope]] at the [[Mount Palomar Observatory]] in [[California]]. Unlike all other comets discovered before then, it was orbiting Jupiter rather than the [[Sun]].
SL9 was in pieces ranging in size up to 2&nbsp;[[kilometre]]s in diameter, and is believed to have been pulled apart by Jupiter's [[tidal force]]s during a close encounter in July 1992. These fragments collided with Jupiter's southern hemisphere over a period of time between [[July 16]] and [[July 22]] [[1994]], at a speed of approximately 60&nbsp;[[kilometres per second]] (37&nbsp;[[mile per second|miles per second]]). The prominent scars from the impacts could be seen on Jupiter for many months after the impact, and observers described them as more easily visible even than the [[Great Red Spot]].
==Discovery==
Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 (SL9) was discovered on the night of [[March 24]] [[1993]] by the Shoemakers and Levy, who were conducting a program of observations designed to uncover [[near-Earth object]]s. The comet was thus a [[serendipity|serendipitous]] discovery, but one that quickly overshadowed the results from their main observing program. The discovery was announced in [[IAU Circular]] 5725 on [[March 27]] [[1993]]. Subsequently, several other observers found the comet in images obtained before [[March 24]], including [[Kin Endate|K. Endate]] from a photograph exposed on [[March 15]], [[Satoru Otomo|S. Otomo]] on [[March 17]], and a team led by [[Eleanor Helin]] from images on [[March 19]] [http://cometography.com/pcomets/1993f2.html].
The discovery image gave the first hint that SL9 was an unusual comet, as it appeared to show multiple nuclei in an elongated region about 50&nbsp;[[arcsecond]]s long and 10&nbsp;arcseconds wide. [[Brian Marsden]] of the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams noted that the comet lay only about 4 [[degree (angle)|degree]]s from Jupiter as seen from Earth, and that while this could of course be a projection effect, its [[apparent motion]] suggested that it was physically close to the giant planet [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iauc/05700/05725.html]. Because of this, he suggested that the Shoemakers and David Levy had discovered the fragments of a comet that had been disrupted by Jupiter's [[gravity]].
==A Jupiter-orbiting comet==
[[Image:Montage_of_Jupiter_and_SL9.jpg|thumb|left|150px|A montage of images of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]] and the comet, showing the relative scale and angle of impact.]]
Orbital studies of the new comet soon revealed that, unlike all other comets discovered before then, it was orbiting Jupiter rather than the [[Sun]]. Its orbit around Jupiter was very loosely bound, with a period of about 2 years and an [[apojove]] (furthest distance from Jupiter) of 0.33&nbsp;[[Astronomical Unit]]s (AU) (49.4 million km). Its orbit around the planet was highly eccentric (''e'' = 0.9986).
Tracing back the comet's orbital motion revealed that it had been orbiting Jupiter for some time. It was most likely captured from a solar orbit in the early 1970s (the first likely date is [[April 26]], [[1971]]&nbsp;<sup>[18]</sup>), although the capture may have occurred much earlier (around 1966). No [[precovery]] images dating back to earlier than March 1993 have been found so far. Before the comet was captured by Jupiter, it was probably a short-period comet with an [[aphelion]] just inside Jupiter's orbit, and a [[perihelion]] interior to the [[asteroid belt]]&nbsp;<sup>[1]</sup>.
The volume of space within which an object can be said to orbit Jupiter is defined by Jupiter's [[Hill sphere]] (also called the Roche sphere). When the comet passed Jupiter in the late 1960s or early 1970s, it happened to be near its aphelion, and found itself slightly within Jupiter's Hill sphere. Jupiter's gravity nudged the comet towards it. Because the comet's motion with respect to Jupiter was very small, it fell almost straight into Jupiter, which is why it ended up on a Jupiter-centric orbit of very high eccentricity &mdash;that is to say, the ellipse was nearly flattened out.
The comet had apparently passed extremely close to Jupiter on [[July 7]], [[1992]], just over 40,000&nbsp;km above the planet's cloud tops &mdash; a smaller distance than Jupiter's radius of 70,000&nbsp;km, and well within the orbit of Jupiter's innermost moon [[Metis (moon)|Metis]] and the planet's [[Roche limit]], inside which [[tidal force]]s are strong enough to disrupt a body held together only by gravity. Although the comet had approached Jupiter closely before, the [[July 7]] encounter seemed to be by far the closest, and the fragmentation of the comet is thought to have occurred at this time. Each fragment of the comet was denoted by a letter of the [[alphabet]], from "fragment A" through to "fragment W", a practice already established from previously observed broken-up comets.
More exciting for planetary astronomers was that the best orbital solutions suggested that the comet would pass within 45,000&nbsp;km of the centre of Jupiter, a distance smaller than the planet's radius, meaning that there was an extremely high probability that SL9 would collide with Jupiter in July 1994. Studies suggested that the train of nuclei would plough into Jupiter's atmosphere over a period of about five days.
==Predictions for the collision==
[[Image:Astronomers await the first images of the impacts.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Astronomers at [[STSCI]] await the first images from the impact of fragment A.]]
The discovery that the comet was likely to collide with Jupiter caused great excitement within the astronomical community and beyond, as astronomers had never before seen two significant solar system bodies collide. Intense studies of the comet were undertaken, and as its orbit became more accurately established, the possibility of a collision became a certainty. The collision would provide a unique opportunity for scientists to look inside Jupiter's atmosphere, as the collisions were expected to cause eruptions of material from the layers normally hidden beneath the clouds.
Astronomers estimated that the visible fragments of SL9 ranged in size from a few hundred metres to at most a couple of kilometres across, suggesting that the original comet may have had a nucleus up to 5&nbsp;km across – somewhat larger than [[Comet Hyakutake]], which became very bright when it passed close to the Earth in 1996. One of the great debates in advance of the impact was whether the effects of the impact of such small bodies would be noticeable from Earth, apart from a flash as they disintegrated like giant [[meteor]]s.
Other suggested effects of the impacts were [[seismic]] waves travelling across the planet, an increase in [[stratosphere|stratospheric]] haze on the planet due to dust from the impacts, and an increase in the mass of the [[Rings of Jupiter|Jovian ring system]]. However, given that observing such a collision was completely unprecedented, astronomers were cautious with their predictions of what the event might reveal.
==Impacts==
[[Image:SL9 BDGLNQ12R hst19.jpg|thumb|left|Jupiter in Ultraviolet (about 2.5 hours after R's impact)]]
Anticipation was high as the predicted date for the collisions approached, and astronomers trained their telescopes on Jupiter. Several space observatories did the same, including the [[Hubble Space Telescope]], the [[ROSAT]] [[X-ray]] observing [[satellite]], and significantly the [[Galileo spacecraft]], then on its way to a rendezvous with Jupiter scheduled for 1996. While the impacts would take place on the side of Jupiter hidden from Earth, Galileo, then at a distance of 1.6&nbsp;AU from the planet, would be able to see the impacts as they occurred. Jupiter's rapid rotation would bring the impact sites into view for terrestrial observers a few minutes after the collisions.
Two other satellites made observations at the time of the impact: the [[Ulysses (spacecraft)|Ulysses spacecraft]], primarily designed for [[Sun|solar]] observations, was pointed towards Jupiter from its location 2.6&nbsp;AU away, and the distant [[Voyager 2]] probe, some 44&nbsp;AU from Jupiter and on its way out of the solar system following its encounter with [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]] in 1989, was programmed to look for [[radio]] emission in the 1–390&nbsp;[[kHz]] range.
[[Image:Impact fireball appears over the limb of Jupiter.jpg|thumb|right|150px|HST images of a fireball from the first impact appearing over the [[limb]] of the planet.]]
The first impact occurred at 20:15 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] on [[July 16]] [[1994]], when fragment A of the nucleus slammed into Jupiter's southern hemisphere at a speed of about 60&nbsp;km/s. Instruments on Galileo detected a fireball which reached a peak temperature of about 24,000&nbsp;[[Kelvin|K]], compared to the typical Jovian cloudtop temperature of about 130&nbsp;K, before expanding and cooling r |
e [[New Testament]]. Differences exist in the [[Biblical canon|canon]]s of the Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant churches — primarily their treatment of the [[Apocrypha#Majority Christian usage|Deuterocanonical books]] used by Catholic and Orthodox Churches but rejected by Protestants as [[Apocrypha]]. This issue affects doctrines only indirectly. More theologically significant is the [[Swedenborgian]] churches' rejection of the New Testament Epistles, a stance which has not won acceptance from any other denomination.
Whereas Jews see the [[Torah]] as the most important part of the Bible, most Christians regard the [[Gospels]], which tell of the life and teachings of Jesus, as central. Ornamental books of the four gospels are sometimes used in church liturgies. These may be carried into the church in procession, and laid upon the altar during the first part of the service. The "gospel" means the "good news" of the Christian message, which Christians regularly disseminate to others. This may include [[missionary]] work as well as the translation and distribution of Bibles, as practiced by [[Gideons International]], [[Wycliffe Bible Translators]] and others.
====Interpretation====
Though Christians largely agree on the content of the Bible, no such consensus is forthcoming on the crucial matter of its interpretation, an issue which divides denominations from within as well as from one another. "[[Biblical literalism]]" or "[[Christian fundamentalism]]" describe well-known [[conservative Christianity]] hermeneutic stances with respect to Christian scriptures, and are mainly associated with Protestantism.
Catholics, the Orthodox, and some Anglicans consider the Bible as having been produced by one phase (albeit formative) of the development of church tradition, or "Holy Tradition." This Holy Tradition has been established and perpetuated through the decisions of the [[ecumenical council]]s, the writings of the [[Church Fathers]], the lives and teachings of the [[saint]]s, liturgical practice, sacred art, and papal statements (for Roman Catholics), and is thought to be alive today. Indeed, one Orthodox theologian has characterized Holy Tradition as "the voice of the Holy Spirit in the Church."
Protestants, meanwhile, tend to strongly reject portions of "Holy Tradition" while readily accepting other portions. Most Protestants tend to accept [[Martin Luther]]'s dictum of [[sola scriptura]], which sees the Bible as the ultimate, or only, source of faith and doctrine. Protestantism also assumes that any Christian believer is capable of rightly interpreting the Bible. Even Protestants concede that this view raises difficulties, especially given the wide variety of practices and beliefs which have some arguable claim to biblical warrant and, based on these divergences, because Protestantism has spawned such a large variety of denominations and traditions.
====Other works in addition to Scripture====
Some Christian groups have also elevated additional writings to the status of inspired scripture. Well-known examples would include the ''[[Book of Mormon]]'', considered to be "another Testament of Jesus Christ" by the [[Latter Day Saints]]; several works of [[Ellen G. White]], considered sacred by many [[Seventh-day Adventists]]; and ''[[Science and Health With Key to the Scriptures]]'' by [[Christian Science]] founder [[Mary Baker Eddy]]. Others, such as the Jehovah's Witnesses, have produced translations of the Bible which they hold to be wholly reliable. This elevation of other writings to the same level as accepted scriptures is a major cause for disputes between these groups and mainstream Christians. One might expect [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]] and [[Calvinism|Calvinists]] to regard the interpretations of Martin Luther and [[John Calvin]], respectively, with similar reverence, but most theologians agree that their writings are a mixture of good and bad and are not "inspired."
==Worship and practices==
Orthodox and Catholic believers describe Christian worship in terms of the seven [[sacrament]]s or "[[mystery|mysteries]]." These include [[baptism]], the [[Eucharist]] ([[Eucharist|communion]]), [[Catholic marriage|matrimony]], [[Holy Orders]], [[Confirmation (sacrament)|confirmation]] or [[Chrismation]], [[Confession#Roman Catholicism|penance and reconciliation]], and the [[Anointing of the Sick]].
Many Protestant groups, following [[Martin Luther]], recognize the sacramental nature of baptism and communion, but not usually the other five in the same way. [[Anabaptist]] and [[Brethren]] groups would add [[feet washing]]. [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]], [[Charismatic]], and [[Holiness Churches]] emphasize "[[gifts of the Spirit]]" such as [[spiritual healing]], [[prophecy]], [[exorcism]], and [[glossalalia|speaking in tongues]]. These emphases are used not as "sacraments" but as means of worship and ministry. The [[Quakers]] deny the entire concept of sacraments. Nevertheless, their "testimonies" affirming peace, integrity, equality, and simplicity are affirmed as integral parts of the Quaker belief structure.
In general, Protestants tend to view Christian rituals in terms of commemoration apart from mystery. Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Old-Catholic and many Anglican and Lutheran Christians hold the commemoration and mystery of rituals together, seeing no contradiction between them.
Virtually all Christian traditions affirm that Christian practice should include acts of personal piety such as [[prayer]], Bible reading, and attempting to live a moral lifestyle. This lifestyle includes not only obedience to the [[Ten Commandments]], as interpreted by Christ (as in the [[Sermon on the Mount]]), but also love for one's neighbor in both attitude and action &mdash; whether friend or enemy, Christian or non-Christian. This love is commanded by Christ and, according to him, is next only in importance to love toward God; which includes obedience to such injunctions as "feed the hungry" and "shelter the homeless", both informally and formally. Christianity teaches that it is impossible for people to completely reform themselves, but that moral and spiritual progress can only occur with God's help through the gift of the [[Holy Spirit]], who dwells within all faithful believers. Christians believe that by sharing in Christ's life, death, and resurrection, they die with Him to sin and can be resurrected with Him to new life.
===Weekly worship services===
[[Justin Martyr]] (''First Apology'', chapter LXVII) describes a second-century church service thus:
:And on the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits; then, when the reader has ceased, the president verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. Then we all rise together and pray, and, as we before said, when our prayer is ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability, and the people assent, saying Amen; and there is a distribution to each, and a participation of that over which thanks have been given, and to those who are absent a portion is sent by the deacons. And they who are well to do, and willing, give what each thinks fit; and what is collected is deposited with the president, who succours the orphans and widows and those who, through sickness or any other cause, are in want, and those who are in bonds and the strangers sojourning among us, and in a word takes care of all who are in need.
Justin's description, which applies to some extent to most church services today, alludes to the following components:
:*Scripture readings drawn from the Old Testament, one of the Gospels, or an Epistle. Often these are arranged systematically around an annual cycle, using a book called a [[lectionary]].
:*A [[sermon]]. In ancient times this followed the scripture readings; today this may occur later in the service, although in liturgical churches, the sermon still often follows the readings.
:* Congregational [[prayer]] and thanksgiving. These will probably occur regularly throughout the service. Justin does not mention this, but some of these are likely to be sung in the form of [[hymns]]. The [[Lord's Prayer]] is especially likely to be recited.
:*The [[Eucharist]] (also called [[Holy Communion]], or the [[Lord's Supper]])&mdash; a ritual in which small amounts of bread and wine are consecrated, and then eaten and drunk. Some Christians say these ''represent'' the body and blood of Christ whereas Orthodox, Catholics, and most Anglicans say that they ''become'' the body and blood of Christ (the doctrine of the [[Real Presence]]). Churches in the "liturgical" family (Orthodox, Catholic, and some Anglican) see this as the main part of the service, while some Protestants may celebrate it less frequently. In many cases there are restrictions on who may partake, concerning which visitors should apprise themselves. For example, only Catholics free from unconfessed [[mortal sin]] may receive Communion in a Catholic church, though it is rare for the Eucharist to be denied to anyone.
:*A "collection" or "offering" in which the people are asked to contribute money. One common method is to pass around a [[collection plate]]. Christians traditionally use these monies not only for upkeep for the church, but also for charitable work of various types.
Several variations or exceptions exist. Sometimes these are due to special events, such as baptisms or weddings which are incorporated into the service. In many churches today, children and youth will be excused from the main service in order to attend [[Sunday school]]. Many denominations |
*[[Belarusians]] - [[Slavic people]] of [[eastern Europe]], [[Belarus]]
*[[Bengalis]] - [[South Asia]]n [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] people, inhabiting [[Bangladesh]] and the [[India]]n state of [[West Bengal]]
*[[Berbers]] - a [[North Africa]]n people, living in [[Morocco]], [[Algeria]], [[Tunisia]], [[Libya]] and [[Egypt]]
*[[Betammaribe]]
*[[Bethio]]
*[[Beti-Pahuin]] - group of peoples from [[Central Africa]]
*[[Bhotia]] - majority population of [[Bhutan]], of [[Tibet]]an descent
*[[Biafran]]s - inhabitant of eastern [[Nigeria]]n region (see also [[Ibo]])
*[[Bit]]
*[[Blackfeet]] (or ''Blackfoot'') - group of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] peoples of the [[Great Plains]] of the [[United States]], comprising the Blackfoot, [[Blood (people)|Blood]], and [[Piegan]] tribes.
*[[Bo Y]]
*[[Bonan]]
*[[Bonaire|Bonairean]]
*[[BORAN - Oromo]] inhabitants of Kenya and Ethiopia and Part of the Large Oromo Community
*[[Bosniak]] - [[Muslim]] [[Slavic people]] of [[southeastern Europe]], inhabiting chiefly [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] and [[Sandžak]]
*[[Bouganvilleans]] - inhabitants of island near [[Papua New Guinea]]
*[[Boyko]] - the mountain people in [[Central Europe]]
*[[Brau]]
*[[Breton people|Bretons]] - [[Celt]]ic group in northwest [[France]]
*[[Briton]]s - indigenous and majority population of [[Great Britain]] encompassing the groups of [[English people|English]], [[Scottish people|Scottish]] and [[Welsh people|Welsh]] as well as regional groups within these groups. Also used to refer to citizens of the [[United Kingdom]] which includes [[Northern Ireland]].
*[[British-Canadian]] - Anglophone Canadians, largely of British descent.
*[[Bru-Van Kieu]] - [[Vietnam]]
*[[Brule|Brulé]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people inhabiting parts of [[Nebraska]] and [[South Dakota]]; one of the [[Sioux]] peoples
*[[Bubi]] minority ethnic group in [[Equatorial Guinea]] Majority Ethnic group on the island of [[Bioko]]
*[[Bugis]] is one of the etnics in [[Indonesia]] and [[Malaysia]], mostly inhabiting [[South Sulawesi]] of Indonesia and state of [[Sabah]] of Malaysia.
*[[Bulang]]
*[[Bulgars]] - an ancient people of [[central Asia]]
*[[Bulgarians]] - [[Slavic people]] of [[southeastern Europe]]
*[[Bunjevci]] - [[Slavic people]] of the [[Balkans]]
*[[Buryats]] - people of the eastern Russian republic of [[Buryatia]]
*[[Bushongo]] - inhabitants of the [[Congo basin]] region
*[[Buyi]] - national minority of [[China]]
==C==
*[[Caddo]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] peoples formerly residing in [[Louisiana]], [[Arkansas]] and [[Texas]], now located in central [[Oklahoma]].
*[[Cahuilla]]
*[[Kaingang|Caingang]]
*[[Cajuns]] - [[France|French]]-[[United States|Americans]] in [[Louisiana]]. See also [[Acadian]].
*[[Canaanites]]
*[[Cape Coloured]] - mixed-race population of the [[Western Cape Province]] of [[South Africa]]
*[[Cape Malays|Cape Malay]] - [[Malay people|Malay]]-descended population of the [[Western Cape Province]] of [[South Africa]]
*[[Cape Verdean]]
*[[Caprivian]] - inhabitants of the [[Caprivi Strip]] in northeastern [[Namibia]]
*[[Caribs]] - group of [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] peoples of northern [[South America]], the [[Lesser Antilles]], and the east coast of [[Central America]]; now mostly extinct
*[[Caribbean]]
*[[Caripuna]]
*[[Catalan people|Catalans]] - inhabitants of north-eastern [[Spain]] and southwestern [[France]]
*[[Catawba (tribe)|Catawba]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] from the Carolina region of the [[United States]], now resident in western [[South Carolina]]
*[[Cayman Islands|Caymanian]]
*[[Cayuga]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people of [[New York state]], now resident in [[Wisconsin]] and [[Oklahoma]]; one of the [[Iroquois]] group of peoples
*[[Cayuse]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people of northeast [[Oregon]] and southeast [[Washington]]
*[[Cham people|Cham]] - a people of [[Indonesian]] stock living in [[Cambodia]] and central [[Vietnam]]
*[[Chagga]] - a people of [[Bantu]] stock (Niger-Congo-B) living in [[Kilimanjaro]] Region in [[Tanzania]]
*[[Chechens]] - inhabitants of northern [[Caucasus]], chiefly in [[Chechnya]] in [[Russia]]
*[[Chehalis]]
*[[Chemakum]]
*[[Chemehuevi]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people of the southwest [[United States]]
*[[Chepang]]
*[[Chere]]
*[[Cherokee]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people originally of [[Tennessee]] and [[North Carolina]], now mostly living in [[Oklahoma]]
*[[Cheyenne (ethnic group)|Cheyenne]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people of the [[Great Plains]] of the [[United States]]
*[[Chicano]] - a [[United States]] citizen of [[Mexican]] origin
*[[Chickahominee]]
*[[Chickasaw]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people formerly of northeast [[Mississippi]] and northwest [[Alabama]], now living in [[Oklahoma]]
*[[Chilcotin]] - [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Native American]] inhabitants of [[British Columbia]]
*[[Han Chinese|Chinese]] - [[Han Chinese]] people, the dominant ethnic group of [[China]]
*[[Chinookan]] - members of a number of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] peoples living in the [[Columbia River]] valley in [[Washington]] and [[Oregon]]
*[[Chipewyan]] - [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Native American]] people of northwest [[Canada]]
*[[Ojibwa|Chippewa]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] people inhabiting the [[Great Lakes (North America)|Great Lakes]] region of [[Canada]] and also living in [[Minnesota]], [[North Dakota]], [[Wisconsin]], [[Michigan]] and [[Montana]]
*[[Chitimacha]]
*[[Circassians]] or [[Cherkezians]]
*[[Cho Ro]]
*[[Choctaw]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people formerly of [[Mississippi]] and [[Alabama]], now mostly living in [[Oklahoma]]
*[[Chukchansi]]
*[[Chumash]] - Group of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] peoples inhabiting coastal southern California
*[[Chuvash]] - A [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] people in [[Russia]]
*[[Chut]]
*[[Ciboney]] - [[Mesoamerica]]n inhabitants of [[Cuba]], now extinct
*[[Circassians]]
*[[Clayoquot]] - [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Native American]] people of [[Vancouver Island]], [[British Columbia]]
*[[Co (ethnicity)|Co]]
*[[Co Ho]]
*[[Co Lao]]
*[[Co Tu]]
*[[Coast Salish]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] of the [[Pacific Northwest]]
*[[Cochiti]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people of the southwestern [[United States]]
*[[Cocopah]]
*[[Coeur d'Alene (tribe)|Coeur d'Alene]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] people of the [[Rocky Mountains]]
*[[Coharie]]
*[[Colchians]] or [[Kolchians]]
*[[Coloured]] - term used to denote mixed-race inhabitants of [[South Africa]]. See also [[Cape Coloured]]
*[[Colville]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people inhabiting [[Washington]]; one of the [[Salish]] tribes
*[[Comanche]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people inhabiting [[Oklahoma]], [[Texas]], [[California]] and [[New Mexico]]
*[[Cong (ethnic group)|Cong]]
*[[Coquille]]
*[[Cornish people|Cornish]] - a [[Great Britain|British]] people from [[Cornwall]] in the South West of [[Great Britain]].
*[[Corsicans]] - inhabitants of island off the south coast of [[France]]
*[[Costanoan]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people of central California, one of the [[Mission Indian]] peoples
*[[Coushatta]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] now resident in [[Texas]]. See also [[Alabama (people)|Alabama]]
*[[Cowichan]] - [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Native American]] inhabitants of [[Vancouver Island]], [[British Columbia]]
*[[Cowlitz (tribe)|Cowlitz]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people of western [[Washington]]; one of the [[Salish]] peoples
*[[Cree]] - widely dispersed [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] people inhabiting the northern [[United States]] and [[Canada]]
*[[Creek (people)|Creek]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people originally of [[Alabama]] but now mostly residing in [[Oklahoma]]
*[[Créole]] - referring either to people of [[Iberians|Iberian]] or [[France|French]] ancestry in the [[The Americas|Americas]], or people of mixed [[Alaska Natives|Native American]] and [[European]] ancestry in [[Alaska]]
*[[Croats]] - [[Slavic people]] of [[southeastern Europe]]
*[[Crow (ethnic group)|Crow]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people of the northern [[Great Plains]], now chiefly residing in southeast [[Montana]]; one of the [[Sioux]] peoples
*[[Cupeño]]
*[[Curacao|Curacaoan]]
*[[Czechs]] - [[Slavic people]] of [[central Europe]]
==D==
*[[Dai]] ([[Thai ethnic groups|Thai]], [[Thai Lue]])
*[[Dakelh]] - [[First Nations]] people of [[British Columbia]], [[Canada]], one of the [[Athabaskan]] group of peoples
*[[Dakota (ethnic group)|Dakota]]
*[[Damara (people)|Damara]]
*[[Danmin]]
*[[Dargins]] - [[Dagestan]]i
*[[Daur]]
*[[De'ang]]
*[[Deg Hi'tan]] - [[Alaska]]n natives
*[[Lenni Lenape|Delaware]] - Eastern [[United States]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]
*[[Dena'ina (tribe)|Dena'ina]] (also known as the Tanaina)
*[[Dendi]]
*[[Derbish]]
*[[Danes|Danish]] - [[Germanic people]] of [[Scandinavia]]
*[[Diegueno]]
*[[Dinka]]
*[[Diola people|Diola]]
*[[Dogon]] - The Dogon are an ethnic group located mainly in the administrative districts of [[Bandiagara]] and [[Douentza]] in [[Mali]], [[West Africa]].
*[[Dominican Republic|Dominican]] - from the [[Dominican Republic]], [[Hispaniola]]
*[[Dominica|Dominican]] - from [[Dominica]]
*[[Dong people|Dong]]
*[[Dongxiang]]
*[[Dravidians]] - inhabitants of |
complained of the 'aridity' of Weil's ''Foundations of Algebraic Geometry''. This is a good joke, if unintentional.) Through Bourbaki's writings and seminars, Weil's ideas can also be traced in the mainstream of post-war mathematics.
More trivially, he invented the notation "Ø" for the [[empty set]] (''q.v.'').
:<small>André Weil is not be confused with [[Hermann Weyl]], who helped Weil receive a [[Guggenheim fellowship]] in 1944; or with [[Andrew Wiles]], another famous mathematician who, like Weil, has done important work in [[elliptic curve]]s. Pronunciation: "Weil" is ''vay'', while "[[Weyl]]" is ''vile'', and "Wiles" is just ''wiles''. </small>
==Books==
*''Arithmétique et géométrie sur les variétés algébriques'' (1935)
*''Sur les espaces à structure uniforme et sur la topologie générale'' (1937)
*''L'intégration dans les groupes topologiques et ses applications'' (1940)
*''Foundations of Algebraic Geometry'' (1946)
*''Sur les courbes algébriques et les variétés qui s’en déduisent'' (1948)
*''Variétés abéliennes et courbes algébriques'' (1948)
*''Introduction à l'étude des variétés kählériennes'' (1958)
*''Discontinuous subgroups of classical groups'' (1958) Chicago lecture notes
*''Basic Number Theory'' (1967)
*''Dirichlet Series and Automorphic Forms, Lezioni Fermiane'' (1971) Lecture Notes in Mathematics, vol. 189,
*''Essais historiques sur la théorie des nombres'' (1975)
*''Elliptic Functions According to Eisenstein and Kronecker'' (1976)
*''Œuvres Scientifiques, Collected Works, three volumes'' (1979)
*''Number Theory for Beginners'' (1979) with Maxwell Rosenlicht
*''Adeles and Algebraic Groups'' (1982)
*''Number Theory: An Approach Through History From Hammurapi to Legendre'' (1984)
*''Souvenirs d’Apprentissage'' (1991) as The Apprenticeship of a Mathematician (1992)
==See also==
*[[Weil cohomology]]
*[[Weil conjecture]] disambiguation page
*[[Weil conjectures]]
*[[Weil conjecture on Tamagawa numbers]]
*[[Weil distribution]]
*[[Weil divisor]]
*[[Siegel-Weil formula]]
*[[Weil group]], [[Weil-Deligne group scheme]]
*[[Weil-Châtelet group]]
*[[Chern-Weil homomorphism]]
*[[Chern-Weil theory]]
*[[Hasse-Weil L-function]]
*[[Weil pairing]]
*[[Weil reciprocity law]]
*[[Weil representation]]
*[[Borel-Weil theorem]]
*[[De Rham-Weil theorem]]
*[[Mordell-Weil theorem]].
==External links==
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Weil}}
==Bibliography==
* ''The Apprenticeship of a Mathematician'' (autobiography), ISBN 0817626506, English translation of ''Souvenirs d'apprentissage (Vita mathematica)'', ISBN 3764325003.
[[Category:1906 births|Weil, André]]
[[Category:1998 deaths|Weil, André]]
[[Category:20th century mathematicians|Weil, André]]
[[Category:French mathematicians|Weil, André]]
[[Category:Jewish mathematicians|Weil, André]]
[[Category:Number theorists|Weil, André]]
[[Category:Alumni of the École Normale Supérieure|Weil, André]]
[[Category:Bourbaki|Weil, André]]
[[de:André Weil]]
[[fr:André Weil]]
[[he:אנדרה וייל]]
[[it:André Weil]]
[[ja:アンドレ・ヴェイユ]]
[[ko:앙드레 베유]]
[[zh:安德烈·韦伊]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Achaeans</title>
<id>2020</id>
<revision>
<id>41577330</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T06:44:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dbachmann</username>
<id>86857</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the ancient people of the Achaeans. See [[Achaea (MUD)]] for the [[MUD]] created by Iron Realms Entertainment.''
The '''Achaeans''' (also '''Akhaians''', [[Greek language|Greek]] Αχαιοί) is the collective name given to the Greek forces in [[Homer]]'s [[Iliad]] (used 598 times). An alternative name, used interchangeably, is '''Danaans''' (Δαναοί, used 138 times) and '''Argives''' (Αργίτες, used 29 times). ''Argives'' is a political annotation drawn from the original capital of the Achaeans, [[Argos]]. ''Danaans'' is the name attributed to the tribe first dominating the [[Peloponnese]] and the area near Argos. ''Achaeans'' is the name of the tribe that, reinforced by the [[Aeolians]], first dominated Greek territories, centering itself around its capital in [[Mycenae]].
More specifically, '''Achaea''' in Homer is the province of [[Agamemnon]], chief commander of the Greek forces, the northern part of the [[Peloponnese]] peninsula, roughly corresponding to the modern [[Prefectures of Greece|prefectures]] of [[Achaea]] and [[Corinth]]. The Homeric Achaeans would have been a part of the [[Mycenaean civilization]] that dominated Greece from ca. [[1600 BC]], with a history as a tribe that may have gone back to the prehistoric [[Hellenic]] immigration in the late [[3rd millennium BC]].
Some [[Hittite language|Hittite]] texts mention a nation in western [[Anatolia]] called '''''Ahhiyawa'''''; in particular the [[Hittites|Hittite]] king [[Mursili II]] in ca. [[1320 BC]] wrote a letter to the king of the ''Ahhiyawa'', treating him as an equal and suggesting that [[Miletus]] (''Millawanda'') was under his control, and also referring to an earlier "''Wilusa'' episode" involving hostility on the part of the ''Ahhiyawa''. This people has been identified with the Achaeans of the [[Trojan War]] and the city of Wilusa with the legendary city of [[Troy]] (note the similarity with ''Ilion'', the name of the [[acropolis]] of Troy). However the exact relationship of the term ''Ahhiyawa'' to the Achaeans beyond a similarity in pronunciation is hotly debated by scholars.
==See also==
*[[Achaea]], [[Achaea (province)]]
*[[Aegean civilization]]
*[[Mycenaean Greece]]
*[[Historicity of the Iliad]]
*[[Mycenaean language]]
*[[Homer]]
*[[Troy]]
[[Category:Greek mythology]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[da:Achaier]]
[[fr:Achéens]]
[[nl:Ahhiyawa]]
[[it:Achei]]
[[zh:亚该亚人]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Atle Selberg</title>
<id>2021</id>
<revision>
<id>40514559</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T03:22:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chobot</username>
<id>259798</id>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: ko</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Atle Selberg''' (born [[June 17]], [[1917]]) is a [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[mathematician]] known for his work in [[analytic number theory]], and in the theory of [[automorphic form]]s, in particular bringing them into relation with [[spectral theory]].
Selberg was born in [[Langesund]], [[Norway]]. While he was still at school he was influenced by the work of [[Srinivasa Aaiyangar Ramanujan]]. He studied at the [[University of Oslo]] and completed his dr. philos. ([[Ph.D.]]) grade in [[1943]].
During the [[second world war]] he worked in isolation due to the German military occupation of [[Norway]]. After the war his accomplishments became known, including a proof that positive proportion of the zeros of the [[Riemann zeta function]] lie on the line 1/2. After the war he turned to [[sieve theory]], a previously neglected topic which Selberg's work brought into prominence. In a [[1947]] paper he introduced the [[Selberg sieve]], a method which led to [[Chen's theorem]] among other important results. Then in [[1948]] Selberg, working with [[Paul Erdős]], gave an elementary [[mathematical proof|proof]] of the [[prime number theorem]] (although there was a dispute between them about to whom this result should primarily be attributed). For all these accomplishments Selberg received the [[1950]] [[Fields Medal]].
Selberg moved to the [[United States]] and settled at the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] in the [[1950s]] where he remains today. During the 1950s he worked on introducing [[spectral theory]] into [[number theory]], culminating into his development of the [[Selberg trace formula]], his most famous result. This establishes a duality between the length spectrum of a [[Riemann surface]] and the [[eigenvalue]]s of the [[Laplacian]] which is analogous to the duality between the [[prime number]]s and the zeros of the zeta function. He was awarded the [[1986]] [[Wolf Prize in Mathematics]].
==See also==
*[[Critical line theorem]]
*[[Chowla-Selberg formula]]
==External links==
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Selberg}}
{{Fields medalists}}
[[Category:Norwegian mathematicians|Selberg, Atle]]
[[Category:Number theorists|Selberg, Atle]]
[[Category:1917 births|Selberg, Atle]]
[[Category:Living people|Selberg, Atle]]
[[de:Atle Selberg]]
[[fr:Atle Selberg]]
[[ko:아틀레 셀베르그]]
[[ja:アトル・セルバーグ]]
[[no:Atle Selberg]]
[[sv:Atle Selberg]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aeschylus</title>
<id>2023</id>
<revision>
<id>39880912</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T14:52:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cornischong</username>
<id>64522</id>
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<comment>+ lb</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Eschyle.jpg|right|thumb|220px|Aeschylus]]
{{dablink|This article is about the ancient Greek playwright. For other uses, see [[Aeschylus (disambiguation)]]}}
'''Aeschylus''' ([[525 BC]]&mdash;[[456 BC]]; [[Greek language|Greek]]: '''Α{{polytonic|&#x1f30;}}σχύλος''') was a [[playwright]] of [[ancient Greece]].
Aeschylus was the earliest of the three greatest [[Greek tragedy|Greek tragedians]], the others being [[Sophocles]] and [[Euripides]].
==Biography==
Born in [[Eleusis]], a district of [[Athens]], he wrote his first plays in [[498 BC]], but his earliest surviving [[play]] is probably ''[[The Persians]]'', performed in [[472 BC]]. In [[490 BC]], he participated in the [[Battle of Marathon]], and in [[480 BC]] he fought at the [[Battle of Salamis]]. Salamis was the subject of ''[[The Persians]]'', written eight years later; it is now generally accepted that ''[[The Suppliants (Aeschylus)|The Suppliants]]'', once thought to be Aeschylus's earliest surviving tragedy, and so the earliest complete Attic tragedy to survive, was |
ref> <ref>http://countrystudies.us/iran/35.htm</ref>
Inversely, Iran has a [[diaspora]] estimated between two to three million people who emigrated to [[North America]], [[Western Europe]], and [[South America]], for the most part occurring after the [[Iranian revolution]].
[[Image:Iran ethnoreligious distribution 2004.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Map showing ethnic and religous diversity among the population of Iran.]]
===Major Languages===
The number of Persian-speakers of Iran is estimated more than 42 millions, (see: [[Persian people]]) ( [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=IR Ethnologue] using an obsolete and old information claims that in 1997 there were 22 million native speakers of [[Persian language]] spoken in [[Iran]]). Other major languages in Iran are [[Azeri language|Azeri]] (c. 16.8 million), [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] (7.6 million) (Northern, Central, Southern and Laki), [[Gilaki]] (3.265 million), [[Mazandarani]] (3.265 million), [[Luri]] (2.375 million), [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]] (2 million), [[Bakhtiari]] (1 million).
===Religion===
Most Iranians are Muslims; 90% belong to the [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'a]] branch of [[Islam]], the official state religion, and about 9% belong to the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] branch (many of whom are Kurds). The remainder consists of non-Muslim [[Religious minorities in Iran|religious minorities]], mainly [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'ís]], [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrians]], [[Persian Jews|Jews]] and [[Christians in Iran|Christians]].<ref name="factbook">http://cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ir.html</ref>
The latter three [[minority]] religions are officially recognized and have reserved seats in the ''[[Majles]]'' (Parliament), and are officially protected religions. In contrast, the Bahá'í Faith, the largest religious minority in Iran, is not officially recognized, and has been persecuted during its existence in Iran. Since the 1979 revolution the persecution has increased with executions and the denial of access to higher education. See [[Persecution of Bahá'ís]] and [[Religious minorities in Iran]] for more information.
===Major cities===
Iran's eight largest cities ([[as of 2006|2006]] populations, unless otherwise noted) are as follows (non-metropolitan estimates): <ref>http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=1139346236&geo=-106&men=gcis&lng=en</ref>
<center>
<gallery>
Image:Milad Tower2.jpg|'''[[Tehran]]''': 7,160,094
Image:Mashad masjed khiyaboon.jpg|'''[[Mashad]]''': 2,837,734
Image:40sotoon.jpg|'''[[Esfahan (city)|Isfahan]]''': 1,573,378
Image:Karaj-top.jpg|'''[[Karaj]]''': 1,523,085
Image:Poets tomb tabriz.jpg|'''[[Tabriz]]''': 1,460,961
Image:Hafez_tomb.jpg|'''[[Shiraz]]''': 1,279,140
Image:GonbadSabz.jpg|'''[[Qom]]''': 1,046,578
Image:Ahvaz-karun.jpg|'''[[Ahvaz]]''': 841,145
</gallery>
</center>
==Culture==
{{main|Culture of Iran}}
Iran has a long history of [[art]], [[music]], [[architecture]], [[poetry]], [[philosophy]], [[tradition]]s, and [[ideology]]. Many Iranians believe their culture to be the one and only reason why their civilization has continuously survived thousands of years of turmoil.
[[Image:Mehmooni2.jpg|thumb|right|''Farhang'' ("culture") has always been the [[focal point]] of Iranian civilization. Most Iranians consider themselves the proud [[Cultural heritage|inheritors]] and [[Guardian|guardians]] of an ancient and sophisticated culture.]]
که ایران بهشت است یا بوستان<br>
همی بوی مشک آید از دوستان
''"Whether one thinks of Iran as [[Garden of Eden|Eden]] or [[Persian Garden|Garden]],''<br>
''The smell of [[musk]] abounds there from friend and companion."''<br>
--''[[Firdawsi]]''
همه عالم تن است و ایران دل<br>
نیست گوینده زین قیاس خجل
"''Iran is The Heart and all the universe The Body,''<br>
''Of this claim, the poet feels no regret or humility."''<br>
--''[[Nizami]]''
[[Persian literature]] is also highly regarded by both native Persians and foreign scholars. The [[Persian language]] being used for over 2,500 years has left distinct marks in the history of the written word. Because of such poets as [[Hafez]], Molavi([[Rumi]]), [[Nizami]], [[Omar Khayyam]], and [[Ferdowsi]], Iranian poetry has received world-wide attention for their beautiful poems and songs.
With 300 international awards in the past twenty-five years, films from Iran continue to be celebrated worldwide. Perhaps the best known director is [[Abbas Kiarostami]]. All media in Iran are controlled directly or indirectly by the state and must be approved by the [[Ministry of Islamic Guidance]]. This includes the [[Internet]], which has become an expanding means to accessing information and self-expression among the younger population. Iran is now the world's fourth largest country of [[bloggers]].
The quest for [[social justice]] and equity is an important Iranian cultural trait. Respect for the elderly and hospitality for foreigners are also integral an part of [[Iranian etiquette]].
The Iranian new year ([[Norouz]]) is celebrated on [[March 21]], the first day of [[spring (season)|spring]]. Norouz was nominated as one of [[UNESCO]]'s [[Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity]] in 2004. <ref>http://www.payvand.com/news/04/jul/1090.html</ref>
In her book, ''New Food of Life'', Najmieh Batmanglij writes that ''"[[Cuisine of Iran|Iranian food]] has much in common with the other cuisines of the [[Middle East]], but is often considered to be the most sophisticated and imaginative of them all, as colorful and complex as a [[Persian carpet]]."''
==Miscellaneous topics==
{{portal}}
{{Iran-related topics}}
==Notes and references==
<div style="font-size: 90%">
<references/>
Additional references and bibliography can be found in the more detailed articles linked to in this article.
</div>
==External links==
===Official Government Links===
The following websites belong to the various branches of government, or are directly operated by the government of the Islamic Republic of Iran.
* [http://www.leader.ir Official site of the Supreme Leader], [http://www.wilayah.org/ (Qom office)]
* [http://www.president.ir Presidency of the Islamic Republic of Iran] - Official website.
* [http://www.irisn.com/ The Council of Guardians], Official website.
* [http://mellat.majlis.ir/ The Majlis], Iran's parliament. [http://www.majlis.ir/ (2)].
* [http://www.iranjudiciary.org/ The Judiciary of The Islamic Republic of Iran]
* [http://www.mfa.gov.ir Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
* [http://www.ershad.gov.ir/ Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance]
* [http://www.mod.ir/ Ministry of Defense and Armed Forces]
* [http://www.freezones.ir/ Secretariat of The High Council of Iran Free Trade Industrial Zones]
* [http://www.iranculture.org Secretariat of The High Council of The Cultural Revolution]
* [http://www.spk-gov.ir/ Official Spokesman of the Islamic Republic of Iran]
* [http://www.aeoi.org.ir/ Islamic Republic of Iran Atomic Energy Organization]
* [http://www.iranmiras.ir/ Islamic Republic of Iran Cultural Heritage Organization]
* [http://www.rcs.ir/en Islamic Republic of Iran Red Crescent Society]
* [http://www.irib.com Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting], official website.
* [http://www.shahid.ir/ Bonyad e Shahid Foundation]
* [http://www.iran-bonyad.com/ Bonyad e Mostazafeen Foundation]
* [http://www.irtobacco.com/ Iranian Tobacco Company]
===Other links===
{{sisterlinks|Iran}}
* {{wikitravel}}
* [http://www.round-planet.com/en/diaporama.php3?geolevel=2&geoid=149 Slideshows: Iran, from Damavand to Ispahan]
* [http://www.cais-soas.com Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies (CAIS)]
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ir.html CIA World Factbook - ''Iran'']
* [http://www.state.gov/p/nea/ci/c2404.htm U.S. State Department - ''Iran''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Middle_East/Iran/ Open Directory Project - ''Iran''] directory category
* [http://www.iranoilgas.com/ Iran Oil and Gas]
* [http://www.iranmilitaryforum.com Iran Military Forum]
* [http://www.ifex.org/en/content/view/full/221/ Freedom of Expression in Iran] - IFEX
* [http://cns.miis.edu/research/wmdme/iran.htm List of alleged weapons]
* [http://www.islam.org.au/articles/24/iran.htm The Dismal Reality of Ahlus Sunnah in Iran ]
* [http://www.thepersiangulf.org Iran, The Persian Gulf] - Iran in the Persian Gulf
* List of [http://www.irpedia.com/iran/touristinfo.php?ID=1203 Iranian High Commissions, embassies and consulates] around the world.
* [http://www.farhangsara.com/ Farhangsara.com] - an independently-produced Iran encyclopedia
; Iran News Sites
* [http://www.Economist.com/countries/Iran Country Briefings: Iran] Economist.com country briefings and news articles.
* [http://www.gooya.com Directory of Iranian online newspapers] Gooya.com
* [http://www.havenworks.com/world/iran Iran News] HavenWorks.com news portal on Iran.
* [http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/middle_east/iran Governing Iran] PBS NewsHour special on Iranian politics.
* [http://news.yahoo.com/fc?tmpl=fc&cid=34&in=world&cat=iran Yahoo! News Full Coverage ''Iran''] Yahoo headline links
* [http://www.kargaran-iran.com] kargaran-iran.com Labor news and views of workers in Iran and exile.
; Iran News Articles
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/middle_east/03/iran_power/html/default.stm BBC News - ''Iran: Who holds the power?'']
{{Southwest Asia}}
{{Middle East}}
{{Asia}}
[[Category:Persian Gulf states]]
[[Category:Iran| ]]
[[Category:Near Eastern countries]]
[[ar:إيران]]
[[an:Irán]]
[[ast:Irán]]
[[az:İran]]
[[zh-min-nan:Iran]]
[[ca:Iran]]
[[cs:Írán]]
[[cy:Iran]]
[[da:Iran]]
[[de:Iran]]
[[et:Iraan]]
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[[es:Irán]]
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[ |
and a waiting period of approximately 6 months applies. Written permission must be given by the [[BATFE|ATF]] at least 30 days in advance if one wishes to take his full-automatic firearm out of his state. Due to the static number of full-automatic firearms on the market (fixed at 1986 levels), their collective value continues to increase. Most full-automatic firearms for sale cost in excess of $8,000USD, which is for many seeking to make a legal purchase the most prohibitive factor. Several states have decided to prohibit the sale of full-automatic firearms altogether. In most US states however, one can buy semi-automatic firearms over the counter if the buyer meets basic legal requirements, and after completing the [[Federal Form 4473|proper paperwork]] and a criminal background check (and in some states, a waiting period).
Internationally, many countries have an outright ban on full-automatic weapons, and some countries ban nearly all kinds of firearms.
In [[Switzerland]], however, every male between the ages of 20 and 42 is considered a candidate for [[conscription]] into the military, and following a brief period of active duty will commonly be enrolled in the [[swiss army|national guard]] until age or debility ends his service obligation. During their national guard enrollment, these men are required to keep their government-issued [[selective fire]] combat rifles and [[semi-automatic]] handguns in their homes, together with a specified quantity of government-issued ammunition, sealed and inspected regularly to ensure that each reservist is always combat-ready. In addition to these official weapons, Swiss citizens commonly purchase surplus-to-inventory combat rifles, and shooting is a popular sport in all the Swiss cantons. Ammunition (also [[MIL-STD|MilSpec]] surplus) sold at rifle ranges is intended to be expended at the time of purchase, but target and sporting ammunition is widely available in gun and sporting goods stores.
The case in Switzerland demonstrates that the widespread possession and use of military-grade small arms is wholly compatible with one of the lowest murder rates in the world. Gun control advocates point out, however, that the degree of training Swiss receive in gun care and use, and the fact that the ownership of government-issued guns in and of itself constitutes a kind of gun control.
Another issue is whether individuals have the right to carry a [[handgun]] concealed on their person, even if it is perfectly legal and easy to own a pistol in general. In the [[United States]] another area of dispute is whether any requirement that firearms be registered constitutes a violation of the [[Second Amendment]] by impairing the exercise of that explicitly protected right. There is the perception that firearms registration - by making it easier for government officers to target gun owners for harassment and confiscation - constitutes an easily exploited encroachment upon individual personal privacy and property rights.
==General discussion of arguments==
=== Balance of power ===
Advocates for the right to bear arms often point to previous [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]] regimes that passed gun control legislation, which was later followed by confiscation. [[Totalitarian]] governments such as [[Fascism|Fascist]] [[Italy]] and [[Germany]] during [[World War II]], as well as [[Communist state|Communist regimes]] such as the former [[U.S.S.R.]] and the [[People's Republic of China]] are some examples of this.
There is no direct causal relationship between gun control and totalitarianism. A number of countries have had gun control in place for many years, without becoming totalitarian regimes. The [[United Kingdom]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], and [[Japan]], for example, are not considered to be totalitarian regimes.
On the other hand however, totalitarian nations often were democratic prior to becoming totalitarian. The [[Weimar Republic]], for instance, constituted one of the weakest governments in Europe in the twenties and early thirties; yet it was from the Weimar Republic that the Third Reich arose.
The [[Nazi]]s actually liberalized the gun laws of the [[Weimar Republic]] with the ''Reichswaffengesetz'' in 1938, but prohibited possession of weapons by [[Jews]] shortly thereafter. [http://www.law.uchicago.edu/news/harcourt_nazigun.html]
Firearms-rights advocates also point to the fact that [[Japan]] had a long history of weapons ownership that was strictly limited to only the elite and their [[Samurai]] bodyguards. Peasants, without any access to arms, were at the mercy of powerful warlords.
Registration of firearms in some countries has led to confiscations of formerly legal firearms and the outlawing of the ownership of firearms to various degrees.
Some oppose registration of guns or licensing of gun owners because if captured, the associated records would provide military invaders with the locations and identities of gun owners, simplifying elimination of law-abiding (i.e. patriotic) resistance fighters. Location and capture of such records is a standard doctrine taught to military intelligence officers; and was widely practiced by German and Soviet troops during [[World War II]].
===Self-defense===
{{main|Guns and crime}}
Both sides actively debate the relevance of self-defense in modern society. Some scholars, ''e.g.'' [[John Lott]], claim to have discovered a positive correlation between gun control legislation and crimes in which criminals confront citizens - that is, increases in the number or strictness of gun control laws are correlated with increases in the number or severity of violent crimes. Other scholars, ''e.g.'' [[Gary Kleck]], take a slightly different tack; while criticizing Lott's theories as (paradoxically) overemphasizing the threat to the average American from armed crime, and therefore the need for armed defense, Kleck's work speaks towards similar support for firearm rights by showing that the number of Americans who report incidents where their guns averted a threat vastly outnumber those who report being the victim of a firearm-related crime. The efficacy of gun control legislation at reducing the availability of guns has been challenged by, among others, the testimony of criminals that they do not obey gun control laws, and by the lack of evidence of any efficacy of such laws in reducing violent crime. In his paper, ''Understanding Why Crime Fell in the 1990s: Four Factors that Explain the Decline and Six that Do Not''[http://dss.ucsd.edu/~sscroggi/Econ1/LevittCrimeInThe90s18JEP163_2004.pdf], [[University of Chicago]] economist [[Steven Levitt]] argues that available data indicate that neither stricter gun control laws nor more liberal concealed carry laws have had any significant effect on the decline in crime in the [[1990s]] (In his 2005 book, [[Freakonomics]], Levitt argues that legalized abortion was the most important factor). While the debate remains hotly disputed, it is therefore not surprising that a comprehensive review of published studies of gun control, released in [[November]] [[2004]] by the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]], was unable to determine any reliable statistically significant effect, pro or con, resulting from such laws, although the authors suggest that further study may provide more conclusive information.
Irrespective of the statistical arguments, 38 US states have passed [[concealed carry]] legislation of one form or another. In these states, law-abiding citizens (usually after giving evidence of completing a training course) may carry handguns on their person for self-protection. Indeed, only 4 states have explicit legislation restricting personal carry in this way, while 2 others ([[Vermont]], and [[Alaska]]) place no restrictions at all on lawful citizens carrying concealed weapons.
===Domestic violence===
The strongest evidence linking availability of guns to [[injury]] and [[mortality rate]]s comes in studies of [[domestic violence]], the most well known being the series of studies by [[Arthur Kellermann]], although other slightly different studies have similar results. In response to suggestions that homeowners were at risk from [[home invasion]]s and would be wise to acquire a firearm for purposes of protection, Kellermann tabulated domestic homicide figures in three cities over several years, and found that the risk of a homicide was in fact higher in homes where a gun was present; his study led to the conclusion that the risk of a [[crime of passion]] or other domestic dispute ending in homicide when a gun was available was large enough to overwhelm any protective effect the presence of a gun might have against burglaries, home invasions, etc. In confirmation of this conclusion is his little-remarked upon finding that almost all the risk was limited to homes where a handgun was kept both loaded and unlocked, and therefore available for immediate use; apparently, the amount of time and effort required even to just remove a loaded gun from a locked cabinet was sufficient to allow tempers to cool enough to prevent a shooting.
Although Kellermann's papers themselves do not make any recommendations, they were immediately held up as support by advocates of gun control, and decried as [[bad science]] by proponents of gun rights. See [[Arthur Kellermann]] for the alleged flaws in the study. The findings are essentially what would be predicted ''a priori''; the presence of any object which adds some degree of risk, no matter how small, will always mathematically increase the total risk. For instance, the presence of a [[swimming pool]] in a home can only increase the risk of death because it adds the risk of death by [[drowning]]; ownership of an [[automobile]] can only increase the risk of death because it adds the risk of death in an [[Car accident|automobile crash]], etc. The only way this type of study could have found a reduction in risk of homicide from the presence of a gun in the home |
h scholar [[Maimonides]] once argued that one of the purposes of the Brit milah was to reduce sexual behavior and to weaken the sexual bond between man and woman ([[Guide for the Perplexed]] part III, chapter 49).
==Kvatter==
The name of ''Kvatter'' among [[Ashkenazi Jews]] is for the person who carries the baby from the mother to the [[mohel]]. The origins of the term are not clear, but it is likely to be a [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] erroneous combination of the words "Kavod" ("honor" in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]) and "Tier" ("door" in Yiddish), meaning "The person honored by bringing the baby". The traditional custom is to honor as the ''Kvatter'' a young newly-wed couple (without children of their own yet) as a merit for having a baby. The young woman (''Kvatterin'') carries the baby from the mother and then hands it over to her husband.
==Metzitzah==
Alternately spelled ''mezizah'', mean "suction".
===By mouth===
''Metzitzah b'peh'' ("suction by mouth") is a [[Halakha|Halakhic]] practice in [[Haredi]] and [[Hasidic]] circles in which the [[mohel]] has mouth-to-genital contact during ritual circumcision of baby boys. After the ''mila'', the ''mohel'' then sucks the baby's penis once to draw blood, much in the same fashion as medical science once prescribed for snakebite. The ''mohel'' spits the blood into a receptacle provided. Afterwards the circumcised penis is bandaged, and the operation considered complete.
Some have feared that the practice may spread diseases to the babies from the mohel's mouth (such as [[herpes]]), but most ''mohelim'' are aware of this and ensure that their mouths are sanitized and washed out by rinsing with [[ethanol|alcohol]] to disinfect the mouth. However, controversy arose in [[New York City]] when health officials announced that in December of 2005 that they suspected that two infants who underwent the procedure had been infected with herpes and that one of them had subsequently suffered brain damage. As the of the date of this writing, Jan/2006, there has been no confirmation that the mohel was the source of these infections. [http://select.nytimes.com/2006/01/09/nyregion/09matters.html?8hpib] The foundation for the ritual of metzitzah b’peh is found in Mishnah Shabbat 19:2, which lists metzitzah b’peh as one of the four steps involved in the circumcision rite. The Chatam Sofer observed that the Mishnah states that the rationale for this part of the ritual was hygienic — i.e., to protect the health of the child. He also cited a passage in Nedarim 32a as a warrant for the position that metzitzah b’peh was not an obligatory part of the circumcision ceremony.
As a result of these texts, the Chatam Sofer contended that Jewish tradition instituted metzitzeh b’eh solely to prevent danger to the infant and stated that metzitzah b’peh was not a required part of the circumcision ceremony.
[http://www.thejewishweek.com/top/editletcontent.php3?artid=4591]
===By tube===
Most ''mohels'' have given up on the traditional practice of direct contact. The [[Modern Orthodox Judaism|Modern Orthodox]] way is a modified procedure in which a tube separates the penis of the baby and the mouth of the rabbi, so the rabbi's mouth does not have direct contact with the baby's penis.
In addition three studies in Israel Canada and the United States have documented 11 cases of genital herpes.
1)Rubin LG, Lanzkowsky P. Cutaneous neonatal herpes simplex infection associated with ritual circumcision. Pediatric Infectious Diseases Journal. 2000. 19(3) 266-267.
2)Distel R, Hofer V, Bogger-Goren S, Shalit I, Garty BZ. Primary genital herpes simplex infection associated with Jewish ritual circumcision. Israel Medical Association Journal. 2003 Dec;5(12):893-4
3)Gesundheit B, Grisaru-Soen G, Greenberg D, Levtzion-Korach O, Malkin D, Petric M, Koren G, [[Moshe David Tendler#Brit milah|Tendler MD]], Ben-Zeev B, Vardi A, Dagan R, Engelhard D. Neonatal genital herpes simplex virus type 1 infection after Jewish ritual circumcision: modern medicine and religious tradition. [http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/114/2/e259? 2004. Pediatrics. 114(2):259-63]
== Conversion and exceptions ==
A ''Brit milah'' could be circumvented with ''Dam Brit'', or foregone altogether with a ''Milah L'Shem Giur'':
=== Hatafat dam brit ===
Medical circumcision alone, in the absence of the brit milah ceremony, does not fulfill the requirements of the mitzvah. In the case of a Jew who was circumcised outside of a brit milah, or an already-circumcised convert, the mohel draws a symbolic drop of blood from the penis.
''Hatafat dam brit'' (''[[Hebrew language|heb.]]'' [[w:he:הטפת דם ברית|דם ברית]] "Drop of the blood [of the] Covenant") refers to the fulfillment of the ''[[mitzvah]]'' of a ''brit milah''.
====Blood====
A [[brit milah]] is not considered complete unless blood is actually drawn. This is not the intentional spilling of blood, as [[genital integrity|circumcision opponents]] might allege. The standard medical methods of [[circumcision]] through constriction do not meet the requirements of the [[halakhah]] for brit milah, because they cause [[hemostasis]], ''i.e.'', they stop the flow of blood. A brit milah, to be conducted properly, requires the use of a specialized surgical knife, called an ''[[wiktionary:Izmel|izmel]]'', which does allow for ''dam brit''.
Unlike the traditional Jewish method, when circumcision is performed by a [[urologist]] or other surgeon the foreskin is removed by constriction, either with the use of clamps or a synthetic ring. This non-Jewish method works by crushing the skin until it is severed. The nerve endings and the blood vessels are severed in the same manner, causing pain and hemeostasis.
====Role in conversion====
There are reasons not to perform a circumcision when a man has [[Ger tzedek|converted to Judaism]]. A circumcision is not possible if a convert was already circumcised prior to conversion, or if he has a medical condition (such as [[hemophilia]]) which would cause a circumcision to potentially endanger his life. In these situations, a brit milah can not be performed, and instead a single drop of blood is extracted, in a practice called ''hatafat dam brit'' (Heb. הטפת דם ברית).
=== Milah l'shem giur ===
*A ''Milah L'shem giur'' ("Circumcision for [the eventual] purpose of conversion") is a private [[brit milah]] that is a "conditional act":
**If anyone else is present, other than the biological parents and the ''[[beth din]]'', it is considered "in front of the community" and invalid.
**It does not have to be performed on a particular day, though it would be considered surgical malpractice (in the US) for the [[mohel]] to perform a circumcision after the child is 30 days old.
**The child is not [[who is a Jew?|technically Jewish]], and does not receive a [[Hebrew name]].
**This is usually performed for a boy whose mother has not converted, but with the intention that the child be raised Jewish. Should the mother convert, and if the boy has not yet reached his third birthday, the child may be immersed in the [[mikveh]] with the mother, after the mother has already immersed, to become Jewish. If the mother does not convert, or did not immerse in the [[mikveh]], or the boy was too old, then the child may choose of their own accord to become Jewish as a [[Bar Mitzvah]].
**At [[Bar Mitzvah]], if a ''Milah l'shem giur'' had been performed when the boy was an infant, it would remove the obligation to undergo either a full [[brit milah]] or ''hatafat dam brit''.
**If the mother does not convert to Judaism, the child may be immersed in a mikveh, or body of natural waters, to complete the child's conversion to Judaism. This can be done before the child is even one year old. This conversion of a child to Judaism without the conversion of the mother is allowed by [[halakha]] ("Jewish law"), but only under the condition that the child be raised as a Jew in a single-faith household. Technically the conversion is valid until the boy reaches the age of 13. At that time he has the option of renouncing his conversion and Judaism, and the conversion will then be considered invalid. If he does not make such a statement it is accepted that the boy is halakhically Jewish.
==Social context==
According to the [[Hebrew Bible]], it was "a reproach" for an [[Israelite]] to be uncircumcised ([[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] 5:9.) The name ''arelim'' ("uncircumcised" [plural]) is used opprobriously, denoting the [[Philistines]] and other non-Israelites ([[Books of Samuel|I Samuel]] 14:6, 31:4; II Samuel 1:20) and used synonymously with ''tameh'' (unclean) for heathen ([[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 52:1). The word ''arel'' ("uncircumcised" [singular]) is also employed for "unclean" ([[Leviticus]] 26:41, "their uncircumcised hearts"; compare [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 9:25; [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] 44:7,9); it is even applied to the first three years' fruit of a tree, which is forbidden ([[Leviticus]] 19:23).
However, the Israelites born in the wilderness after the [[Exodus]] from Egypt reportedly did not practice circumcision. As recorded in [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] 5:2-9, "all the people that came out" of [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] were circumcised, but those "born in the wilderness" were not. Therefore Joshua, before the celebration of the [[Passover]], had them circumcised at Gilgal.
[[Deuteronomy]] 10:16 says: "Circumcise the foreskin of your heart," suggesting that ethical acts (among people) are as important as spiritual acts (between people and God). The prophetic tradition emphasizes that God expects people to be good as well as pious, and that non-Jews will be judged based on their ethical behavior. Thus, Jeremiah 9:25-26 says that circumcised and uncircumcised will be |
] declaring war against America. These two fatwas, in particular, have drawn a great deal of attention in Western media, which has given rise to the use of the term '''fatwa''' to apply to statements by non-Muslims that advocate an extreme religious or political position, such as [[Pat Robertson]]'s call for the [[assassination]] of [[Hugo Chávez]].
Because Islam has no centralized priestly hierarchy, there is no uniform method to determine who can issue a valid fatwa and who cannot, and upon whom such fatwas are binding. Some [[Islamic scholars]] complain that too many people feel qualified to issue fatwas.
The Sheikh of [[Al-Azhar University]] in [[Cairo]], [[Muhammad Sayid Tantawy]], who is the leading religious authority in the Sunni Muslim establishment in [[Egypt]], said the following about fatwas issued by ''himself'' or the entire Al-Azhar University:
"Fat&#257;wa issued by [[Al-Azhar]] are not binding; individuals are free to accept them or not. It is the right of Muslims in [[France]] who object to the [[French law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools|law banning the veil]] to bring it up to the legislative and judicial authorities. If the judiciary decides in favor of the government because the country is secular, they would be considered to be Muslim individuals acting under compelling circumstances."
[http://middleeastinfo.org/article4171.html]
In [[Morocco]], where king [[Mohammed VI of Morocco|Mohammed VI]] is also [[Amir al-Muminin]] (Commander of the faithful) have tried to organize the field by creating a scholars' council (''conseil des oulémas'') composed of muslim scholars ([[ulema]]) which is the only one allowed to issue fatwas.
In nations where [[Sharia|Islamic law]] is the basis of civil law, fatwas by the national religious leadership are debated prior to being issued. Thus, they are rarely contradictory. If two fatwas were contradictory, the ruling bodies (combined civil and religious law) attempt to define a compromise interpretation that will eliminate the resulting ambiguity.
In nations where Islamic law is not the basis of law, different Muftis can issue contradictory fatwas. In such cases, Muslims would typically honour the fatwa deriving from leadership of their religious tradition. For example, [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] Muslims would favor a Sunni fatwa over a [[Shi'a Islam|Shiite]] one.
The word fatwa is used also loosely or as [[slang]] for other sorts of decrees, for example:-
:"The [[pope]] issued a fatwa." (in a [[BBC]] [[television]] history [[television program| program]])
:"The town's [[scuba diving]] [[club]]'s [[committee]] at last issued its fatwa about [[rebreather]]s."
== Quotes ==
* "In Sunni Islam, a fatwa is nothing more than an opinion." ― [[Maulana Mehmood Madani]], president of the Jamaat-e-Ulema-e-Hind [http://www.outlookindia.com/full.asp?fodname=20051212&fname=Cover+Story+%28F%29&sid=1&pn=2]
* "The current fashion for online fatwas has created an amazingly legalistic approach to Islam as [[Mullah|scholars]] - some of whom have only a tenuous grip on reality - seek to regulate all aspects of life according to their own interpretation of the [[Qur'an|scriptures]]." ― [[Brian Whitaker]], [[The Guardian]], [http://www.guardian.co.uk/elsewhere/journalist/story/0,,1688285,00.html January 17, 2006]
==See also==
* [[taqlid]], [[ijtihad]], [[ijma]], [[Tafsir]], <!--[[blasphemy]],--> [[list of Islamic terms in Arabic]], [[posek]]
<!--* [[Salman Rushdie]], [[goddess]], [[Satanic Verses]], [[The Satanic Verses (novel)]], [[Cat Stevens]]-->
* [[List of famous fatwas|List of famous fatāwa]]
* [[Papal bull]]
==External links==
*[http://www.representativepress.org/1998Fatwa.html The 1998 Fatwa summary and text]
*[http://www.why-war.com/commentary/2003/12/what_fatwa_islam.html The Fatwa and Revolutionary Islamic Movements]
*[http://www.islamonline.net/livefatwa/english/select.asp Live Fatwa & archive]
*[http://www.islamtoday.com/fatwa_archive_main.cfm Fatwa archive]
*[http://www.ict.org.il/articles/fatwah.htm Osama bin Ladin&#8217;s Fatwa urging jihad against Americans]
*[http://www.askimam.org/ Ask the Imam] Fat&#257;wa by Mufti Ebrahim Desai (The Fatwa Department)
*[http://www.islam-qa.com/ Salafi fat&#257;wa]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Relax (single)</title>
<id>11260</id>
<revision>
<id>40434016</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T14:48:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jaiwills</username>
<id>849340</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Song in pop culture */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" width="225" align="right"
!align="center" bgcolor="yellow" colspan="3"|"Relax"
|-
|align="center" colspan="3"|[[Image:Relax_single.jpg|225px]]
|-
!align="center" bgcolor="yellow" colspan="3"|Single by [[Frankie Goes To Hollywood]]
|-
!align="center" colspan="3"|From the album ''[[Welcome To The Pleasuredome (album)|Welcome To The Pleasuredome]]''
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Single Released
|colspan="2" valign="top"|[[24 October]], [[1983]]
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Single Format
|colspan="2" valign="top"|[[vinyl record]] (7" & 12"), [[Cassette tape]]
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Recorded
|colspan="2" valign="top"|May - June, [[1983]]
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|[[Musical genre|Genre]]
|colspan="2" valign="top"|[[Dance]], [[New Wave music|New Wave]]
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|[[Record label]]
|colspan="2" valign="top"|[[ZTT Records|ZTT]]
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|[[Record producer|Producer]]
|colspan="2" valign="top"|[[Trevor Horn]]
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|[[Top 40|Chart]] positions
|colspan="2" valign="top"|1 (UK)<br>10 (USA)
|-
!bgcolor="yellow" colspan="3"|Frankie Goes To Hollywood single chronology
|-align="center"
|valign="top"|<small><br /></small>
|valign="top"|<small>"[[Relax (single)|Relax]]"<br />[[1983]]</small>
|valign="top"|<small>"[[Two Tribes]]"<br />[[1984]]</small>
|}
"'''Relax'''" was the first single from [[Frankie Goes to Hollywood]], released in October [[1983]].
It is also the first to be released on [[Trevor Horn]]'s record label, [[ZTT Records|ZTT]]. It sold 1.9 million copies in the UK alone and spent 5 weeks at number one, becoming one of the best-selling singles of all-time.
With its lyrics filled with thinly-veiled references to homosexual sex it was banned by the [[BBC|BBC]], providing it with publicity that only aided its popularity, especially as a [[gay anthem]].
== Mixing ==
The original 12" mix of "Relax" by [[Trevor Horn]] was an amazingly rambling 21 minute affair. It was completed mainly as a dare by [[Paul Morley]].
The first 12" mix to appear on vinyl was an overblown 16 minute "Sex mix", completed in part as a reaction to Horn's visiting [[New York]]'s [[Paradise Garage]] night club with [[Chris Blackwell]] of [[Island Records]]. This was quickly withdrawn and trimmed down to a shorter 8 minute version, entitled the "New York Remix" or "Sex Mix Edit".
The more popular extended version everyone knows is called the "Long Version" or "U.S. Mix" and is basically "Relax (from soft to hard)", the instrumental version of the track, tacked onto the beginning of the single mix to roughly double the length of the track.
== B-sides and Videos ==
The single featured two b-sides. The first, "One September Monday" is essentially an interview between ZTT media man [[Paul Morley]] and the musicians of the band recorded on a Monday in September 1983. The second is an expanded cover version of "Ferry 'Cross The Mersey" originally done by [[Gerry And The Pacemakers]]. A short version of the track, entitled "Fury", appears on the ''Welcome To The Pleasuredome'' album.
Videowise, there were a myriad of videos shot for "Relax", most of them banned. The one that was shown (directed by duo [[Godley & Creme]]) mainly featured band members [[Holly Johnson]] and [[Paul Rutherford]] in a room lit by lasers.
== Charts ==
"Relax" eventually [[List of Number 1 singles from the 1980s (UK)#1984|topped the charts]] in the UK in January 1984, taking a lengthy ten weeks to do so. By March 1984, "Relax" had sold over 1 million copies in the UK alone.
Staying at Number One for five weeks, it eventually resurfaced at Number 2 when [[Two Tribes]] reached top spot.
However, in the US it didn't fare nearly as well, eventually reaching the paltry heights of Number 10 in March [[1985]]. On its original US chart run in 1984, it managed to hit Number 67.
==Tracklisting==
All discographical information pertains to UK releases only
*7" single <small>(ZTAS 1)</small>
*# "Relax (move)" (3:52)
*# "One September Monday" (4:47)
*12" single <small>(12 ZTAS 1)</small>
*# "Relax (sex mix)" (16:24)
*# "Ferry 'Cross The Mersey" (4:03)
*# &qu |
[[Category:SS]]
[[af:Gestapo]]
[[ar:جيستابو]]
[[bg:Гестапо]]
[[ca:Gestapo]]
[[cs:Gestapo]]
[[da:Gestapo]]
[[de:Gestapo]]
[[es:Gestapo]]
[[eo:Gestapo]]
[[fa:گشتاپو]]
[[fr:Gestapo]]
[[ko:게슈타포]]
[[id:Gestapo]]
[[it:Gestapo]]
[[he:גסטאפו]]
[[lb:Gestapo]]
[[hu:Gestapo]]
[[nl:Gestapo]]
[[ja:ゲシュタポ]]
[[no:Gestapo]]
[[nn:Gestapo]]
[[pl:Gestapo]]
[[pt:Gestapo]]
[[ru:Гестапо]]
[[sr:Гестапо]]
[[fi:Gestapo]]
[[sv:Gestapo]]
[[tr:Gestapo]]
[[zh:盖世太保]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Grammatical conjugation</title>
<id>12900</id>
<revision>
<id>41766762</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T16:24:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gandalf1491</username>
<id>922626</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[linguistics]], '''conjugation''' is the creation of derived forms of a [[verb]] from its [[principal parts]] by [[inflection]] (regular alteration according to rules of [[grammar]]). Conjugation may be affected by [[grammatical person|person]], [[grammatical number|number]], [[grammatical gender|gender]], [[grammatical tense|tense]], [[grammatical mood|mood]], [[grammatical voice|voice]], [[grammatical aspect]], or other language-specific factors. All the different forms of the same verb constitute a [[lexeme]] and the form of the verb that is conventionally used to represent the canonical form of the verb is a [[lemma (linguistics)|lemma]].
Conjugated forms of a verb which show a given person, number, tense, etc. are called ''finite'' forms. In many languages there are also one or more several ''non-finite'' forms, such as the [[infinitive]] or the [[gerund]]. A table giving all the conjugated variants of a verb in a given language is called a '''conjugation table''' or a '''verb paradigm'''.
A [[regular verb]] has a paradigm of conjugation that derives all forms from a few specific forms or ''[[principal parts]]'' (maybe only one, such as the infinitive in English). When a verb cannot be conjugated straightforwardly like this, it is said to be [[irregular verb|irregular]]. Typically the principal parts are the [[root (linguistics)|root]] and/or several modifications of it ([[stem (linguistics)|stem]]s).
'''Conjugation''' is also the traditional name of a group of verbs that share a similar conjugation pattern in a particular language (a ''verb class''). This is the sense in which teachers say that [[Latin]] has four conjugations of verbs. This means that any regular Latin verb can be conjugated in any person, number, tense, mood, and voice by knowing which of the four conjugation groups it belongs to, and its principal parts.
==Examples of conjugation==
[[Indo-European language]]s tend to [[inflection|inflect]] the verb for several categories and thus they have large verb paradigms and a difficult conjugation. The [[copula]]r verb ''to be'' is usually the most irregular. Here is a sample conjugation of ''to be'' in [[English language|English]] and its [[Latin]], [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], and [[Swedish language|Swedish]] equivalents &mdash; ''esse'', ''être'', ''sein'', ''ser'', ''ser'', and ''vara'', respectively. Notice the similarities between English, German, and Swedish on the one hand and French, Spanish, Portuguese and Latin on the other; notice also that, where the infinitive is concerned, only English and Swedish are very much divergent from the rest of the major European languages.
''(Except for the infinitive, which is in the present active form, all the verbs listed are in the present indicative active. The appropriate [[pronoun]] is included in most of the examples.)''
{| class="wikitable"
|+ |''To be'' in several Indo-European languages
|-
!Form / Person
!English
!Latin
!French
!German
!Spanish
!Portuguese
!Swedish
!Latvian
!Italian
!Hindi
|-
|infinitive
|[[Wiktionary:be|to be]]
|[[Wiktionary:esse|esse]]
|[[Wiktionary:être|être]]
|[[Wiktionary:sein|sein]]
|[[Wiktionary:ser|ser]]
|ser
|[[Wiktionary:vara|vara]]
|[[Wiktionary:būt|būt]]
|[[Wiktionary:essere|essere]]
|'hona'
|-
|1st singular
|I am
|(ego) sum
|je suis
|ich bin
|(yo) soy
|eu sou
|jag är
|es esmu
|io sono
|'main hoon'
|-
|2nd singular
|you are
|(tū) es
|tu es
|du bist
|(tú) eres
|tu és
|du är
|tu esi
|tu sei
|'tu hai', 'tum ho'(informal),
|-
|3rd singular
|he/she/it is
|(is/ea/id) est
|il / elle est
|er / sie / es ist
|él / ella / usted es
|ele / ela / você é
|han / hon / den / det är
|viņš/ viņa ir
|lei é
|'woh hai', 've hain(formal)'
|-
|1st plural
|we are
|(nōs) sumus
|nous sommes
|wir sind
|(nosotros / nosotras) somos
|nós somos
|vi är
|mēs esam
|noi siamo
|'ham hain'
|-
|2nd plural
|you are
|(vōs) estis
|vous êtes
|ihr seid
|(vosotros / vosotras) sois
|vós sois
|ni är
|jūs esat
|voi siete
|'tum log ho/aap log ho/aap log hain'
|-
|3rd plural
|they are
|(eī/eae/ea) sunt
|ils / elles sont
|sie sind
|(ellos / ellas / ustedes) son
|eles / elas / vocês são
|de är
|viņi, viņas ir
|loro sono
|'ve hain'
|-
|Formal
|~
|~
|vous êtes
|Sie sind
|~
|~
|~
|~
|'aap ho/aap hain'
|}
==See also==
*[[Word class]]
*[[Screeve]]
*[[Latin verbs]]
==External links==
*[http://www.scientificpsychic.com/verbs1.html Conjugation of over 7,000 English verbs.]
*[http://www.verbix.com/webverbix/ Online Conjugator for 85 different languages]
*[http://www.helloworld.com.es/ Spanish Verb Conjugation]and English Verb Conjugation. Free Conjugators - Trainers here. New Spanish Verb Conjugator now with Sound Files. Practice Conjugating and Pronouncing Spanish Verbs.
*[[wiktionary:Wiktionary Appendix:Conjugations|Conjugations]] at Wiktionary, Wikipedia's sister project
[[Category:Linguistic morphology]]
[[ca:Conjugació]]
[[de:Konjugation (Grammatik)]]
[[es:Conjugación]]
[[eo:Konjugacio]]
[[fr:Conjugaison]]
[[he:בניין (שפה)]]
[[nl:Vervoeging]]
[[ja:活用]]
[[sv:Konjugation]]
[[wa:Codjowaedje]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gomoku</title>
<id>12902</id>
<revision>
<id>40302354</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T17:41:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>85.216.196.252</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gomoku''', '''go-moku''', or '''gobang''' ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]: 五目並べ, Gomoku Narabe, "five points") is an [[abstract strategy]] [[board game]]. It is traditionally played with [[Go (board game)|go]] pieces (black and white stones) on a go board (19x19 intersections); however, because once placed pieces are not moved or removed from the board, gomoku may also be played as a [[Paper and pencil game]].
Black plays first, and players alternate in placing a stone of their color on an empty intersection. The winner is the first player to get an unbroken row of five stones horizontally, vertically, or diagonally. Gomoku is known in [[Korean language|Korean]] by its cognate '''omok''' (오목) and in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] as "五子棋" ([[Pinyin]]: wǔzǐqí).
==Example game==
[[Image:gomoku-game-1.png|right|300px|Moves 1-21 of a game of gomoku]]
This game on the 15×15 board is adapted from the paper "Go-Moku and Threat-Space Search".
The opening moves show clearly black's advantage. An open row of three (one that is not blocked by an opponent's stone at either end) has to be blocked immediately, or countered with a threat elsewhere on the board. If not blocked or countered, the open row of three will be extended to an open row of four, which threatens to win in two ways. White has to block open rows of three at moves 10, 14, 16 and 20, but black only has to do so at move 9.
Move 20 is a blunder for white (it should have been played next to black 19). Black can now force a win against any defence by white, starting with move 21.
<br style="clear:both" />[[Image:gomoku-game-3.png|right|300px|Moves 22-39 of first variation]]
There are two forcing sequences for black, depending on whether white 22 is played next to black 15 or black 21. The diagram on the right shows the first sequence. All the moves for white are forced (except for 38, but by then it is too late). Such long forcing sequences are typical in gomoku, and expert players can read out forcing sequences of 20 to 40 moves rapidly and accurately.
<br style="clear:both" />[[Image:gomoku-game-2.png|right|300px|Moves 22-37 of second variation]]
The diagram on the right shows the second forcing sequence. This diagram shows why white 20 was a blunder; if it had been next to black 19 (at the position of move 32 in this diagram) then black 31 would not be a threat and so the forcing sequence would fail.
<br style="clear:both" />
==Variations==
Black was long known to have a big advantage, even before [[L. Victor Allis]] proved that black could force a win (see below). So a number of variations are played with extra rules that aimed to reduce black's advantage.
* '''Free-style gomoku''' is the basic game as described above.
* '''Standard gomoku''' requires a row of exactly five stones for a win: rows of six or more, called '''overlines''', do not count.
* The rule of '''three and three''' bans a move that simultaneously forms two open rows of three stones (rows not blocked by an opponent's stone at either end).
* '''Gomoku+''' the winner must have an unbroken row of five stones and this row must not be blocked at either end. This rule makes Gomoku more flexible and provides more power for White to defend.
* The rule of '''four and four''' bans a move that simultaneously forms two rows of four stones (open or not).
* The [http://www.littlegolem.net Little Golem] game server has a "forbidden zone" where black cannot play his second move.
These restrictions are often applied only to black.
* '''[[Renju]]''' is played on a 15×15 board, with the rules of three and three, four and four, and overlines applied to black |
ritualized in villages as a pre-Morris vestige from a much earlier era. Whereas several figures common to English Country Dance, e.g. arming and the straight hey, go back into antiquity, as a social phenomenum, ECD's origins rest among the gentry, first at court, then spreading to bourgeois-London, finally moving into country manors around England.
==History==
In the early 20th century, ECD was revived in England by [[Cecil Sharp]], who also was known for collecting folksongs. ECD continues
today as a social dancing form, in Britain, the United States, and around the world. There are also descendants of ECD, such as [[Scottish country dance]], [[contradance]], and perhaps [[square dance]]. There is also English Ceilidh
which uses many simpler ECD dances but is definitely danced rather than walked.
The first published instructions for English Country Dance is [[John Playford|John Playford's]] [[The Dancing Master|The English Dancing Master]], which was first published in 1651 and was reprinted and enlarged many times, with a final edition published sometime around 1728.
Despite the title, English Country Dance was also popular in France. [[Raoul Auger Feuillet]] visited the English Court in the late 17th century and published a book, ''Orchesography'', with instructions for English Country Dances, in 1705. This book used a novel system for notating the dances and contained some dances invented by the author. It was subsequently translated into English and printed in England. Copies of these books may be found online at:
* http://www.pbm.com/~lindahl/weaver/
==Some (modern) English Country Dance terms==
'''Arm right (or left)''' - couples link arms and turn half way.
'''Back to back''' - facing another person, move forward ''passing'' right shoulders and ''fall back'' to place passing left. May also start by passing left and falling back right. Called a [[dosado|do si do]] in other dance forms.
'''Balance back''' - a ''single'' backward.
'''Both hands''' - two dancers face each other and give hands right to left and left to right.
'''Cast off''' - turn outward and dance outside the set.
'''Cast up (or down)''' - turn outward and dance up (or down) outside the set.
'''Changes (starting right or left)''' - like the ''circular hey'', but dancers give hands as they pass (handing hey). The number of changes is given first (e.g. two changes, three changes, etc).
'''Chassé''' - slipping step to right or left as directed.
'''Circular hey''' - dancers face partners or along the line and ''pass'' right and left alternating a stated number of changes. Usually done without hands, the circular hey may also be done by more than two couples facing alternately and moving in opposite directions - usually to their original places. This name for the figure is apparently modern, since "hey" also means certain long, and not circular, objects (e. g. fences). Nonetheless, some early dances calling for heys have been interpreted in modern times using circular heys.
'''Clockwise''' - in a ring, move to one's left. In a ''turn single'' turn to the right.
'''Contrary''' - your contrary is not your partner. In Playford's original notation, this term meant the same thing that ''Corner'' (or sometimes ''Opposite'') means today.
'''Corner''' - in a two-couple set, the dancer diagonally opposite, i.e., the first man and the second woman, first woman and second man.
'''Counter-clockwise''' - the opposite of clockwise - in a ring, move right. In a ''turn single'', turn to the left.
'''Cross hands''' - face and give left to left and right to right.
'''Cross over''' - cross with another dancer passing right.
'''Cross over one couple''' - cross as above and go outside below one couple ending improper.
'''Double''' - four steps forward (or back) closing the feet on the 4th step.
'''Fall (back)''' - dance backwards.
'''Figure of 8 '''- a weaving figure in which dancers pass between two standing people and move around them in a figure 8 pattern. A full figure of 8 returns the dancer to original position; a half figure of 8 leaves the dancer on the opposite side of the set from original position. In doing this figure, the man lets his partner pass in front of him.
'''Forward''' - ''lead'' or move in the direction you are facing.
'''Gip or Gypsy''' - two dancers move around each other in a circular path facing outward or towards the center as directed (4 bars).
'''Hands across''' - right or left hands are given to ''corners'', and dancers move in the direction they face.
'''Hands three, four etc'''. - the designated number of dancers form a ring and move around in the direction indicated, usually first to the left and back to the right.
'''Hey''' - a weaving figure in which two groups of dancers move in single file and in opposite directions (see ''circular hey'' and ''straight hey'').
'''Honor''' - couples step forward and right, close, shift weight, and curtsey or bow, then repeat to their left. In the time of Playford's original manual, a woman's curtsey was similar to the modern one, but a man's honor (or reverence) kept the upper body upright and involved sliding the left leg forward while bending the right knee.
'''Lead''' - couples join inside hands and walk up or down the set.
'''Mad Robin''' - a [[Dosado|back to back]] with your neighbor while maintaining eye-contact with your partner across the set. Men take one step forward and then slide to the right passing in front of their neighbour, then step backwards and slide left behind their neighbour. Conversely women take one step backwards and then slide to the left passing behind of their neighbour, then step forwards and slide right in front of their neighbour.
'''Neighbour''' - the person you are standing beside, but not your partner.
'''Opposite''' - the person you are facing.
'''Pass''' - change places with another dancer moving forward and passing by the right shoulder, unless otherwise directed.
'''Pousette''' - two dancers face, give both hands and change places as a couple with two adjacent dancers. One pair moves a ''double'' toward the right wall, the other toward the left wall. In this half-pousette, couples pass around each other diagonally. To complete the pousette, move in the opposite direction. Dancers end in their original places. In a similar movement, the '''Draw Pousette''', the dancing pairs move on a U-shaped track with one dancer of the pair always moving forwards.
'''Right &amp; left''' - like the ''circular hey'', but dancers give hands as they pass (handing hey).
'''Single''' - two steps in any direction closing feet on the second step.
'''Straight hey for four''' - dancers face alternately, the two in the middle facing out. Dancers pass right shoulders on either end and weave to the end opposite. If the last pass at the end is by the right. the dancer turns right and reenters the line by the same shoulder; vice versa if the last pass was to the left. Dancers end in their original places.
'''Straight hey for three''' - the first dancer faces the other two and ''passes'' right shoulders with the second dancer, left shoulder with the third - the other dancers moving and passing the indicated shoulder. On making the last pass, each dancer makes a whole turn on the end, bearing right if the last pass was by the right shoulder or left if last pass was by the left, and reenters the figure returning to place. Each dancer describes a figure of eight pattern.
'''Swing''' - a ''turn'' with two hands, but moving faster and making more than one revolution.
'''Three hands across or Three hands star''' - two dancers join right or left hands. Third dancer places right or left hand on top. Dancers move in the direction they face.
'''Turn''' - face, give ''both hands'', and make a complete circular, clockwise turn to place.
'''Turn by right or left''' - dancers join right (or left) hands and turn around, separate, and ''fall'' to places.
'''Turn single''' - dancers turn in four steps clockwise.
See also: [[Contredanse#Figures|figures in contra dances]]
==External links==
The Country Dance and Song Society is an umbrella organization whose members enjoy English Country Dancing.
http://www.cdss.org/
The English Folk Dance and Song Society runs dance evenings in England.
http://www.efdss.org/
The [[Society for Creative Anachronism]] practices many English country dances in a historical context. http://www.sca.org
Of interest may be the history of Felpham & Middleton Country Dance Club from 1933 - 1994 about one of the oldest extant English Country Dance Clubs in England. http://www.interfolk.co.uk/fmcdc/hist.html
[[Category:English folk dance]]
[[Category:Historical dance]]
[[eo:Anglaj contredances]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ecosystem</title>
<id>9632</id>
<revision>
<id>42007209</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:33:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>125.212.98.48</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[ecology]], the word '''ecosystem''' is an abbreviation of the term, '''ecological system'''. Some consider this the basic unit in ecology. Ecosystems are not to be confused with [[biome]]s because they are smaller than biomes. They can be as big as the [[Sahara|Sahara Desert]], but as small as a [[pond]]. The term [[microecosystem]] may be used to describe a very small (often closed)ecosystem.
In general terms an ecological system can be thought of as an assemblage of [[organism]]s (plant, animal and other living organisms&mdash;also referred to as a '''biotic community''' or '''[[biocoenosis]]''') living together with their [[natural environment|environment]] (or '''[[biotope]]'''), functioning as a loose unit. That is, a dynamic and complex whole, interacting as an "ecological unit."
Early conceptions of this unit were as a structured functional unit in equilibrium. This equilibriu |
he LDP, it is unopposed to the war in Iraq. It is now led by [[Takenori Kanzaki]].
=== [[Japanese Communist Party]] ===
The Japanese Communist Party is Japan's fourth largest party and the middle partner of the opposition coalition. It is a [[moderate]] [[communist]] party of the [[left-wing]]. Though it is communist, it is a very moderate communist party, and is not against religion and does not want the [[emperor]] to step down. It supports multi-party democracy and does not advocate the imposition of radical change on Japanese society. That is why the Communists have more seats than the [[Social Democratic Party (Japan)| Social Democrat Party]]. It is very pacifist and does not support an alliance with the [[United States]].
=== [[Social Democratic Party (Japan)]] ===
The Social Democrat Party of Japan is Japan's fifth largest party and the junior partner in the opposition coalition. It is a [[moderate]] [[social-democratic]] party of the [[left-wing]]. It is seen more as a [[moderate]] social-democratic, and [[populist]] party rather than a [[revolutionary]] [[socialist]] party. It grew out of the [[Japan Socialist Party]] and the [[Democratic Socialist Party (Japan)]] It is not popular in Japan and the Communists have more votes than the Social Democrats. It is against the war in Iraq.
=== Minor Political Parties ===
==== [[Liberal League]] ====
The Liberal League is a [[right-wing]] party in Japan, which, despite its name, is actually [[conservative]]. The party is not very popular among the Japanese people, but it has 1 seat so far in the Diet.
==== Other minor parties ====
Japan has other minor parties, but these are just about defunct. Most other parties are [[communist]] and [[socialist]] parties, as well as a few [[nationalist]], [[reformist]], and even [[racist]] and far [[right-wing]] parties.
==Census==
The government of Japan collects information on the population. The [[2005]] census collects information on population, age, sex, household size, work and income as of the end of September.
==See also==
*[[Japanese Foreign minister]]
*[[Japan general election, 2003]]
*[[Japanese nationalism]]
*[[Neoconservatism (Japan)]]
*[[Political funding in Japan]]
== Reference ==
* {{loc}} - [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/jptoc.html Japan]
==External links==
* [http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk ''Electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies'']
[[Category:Politics of Japan]]
[[de:Politik Japans]]
[[es:Política del Japón]]
[[fr:Politique du Japon]]
[[gl:Política do Xapón]]
[[lt:Japonijos politinė sistema]]
[[ja:日本の政治]]
[[pt:Política do Japão]]
[[zh:日本政治]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Japan</title>
<id>15578</id>
<revision>
<id>42137368</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:46:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rentastrawberry</username>
<id>144857</id>
</contributor>
<comment>category</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Japan table}}
==Economic Profile==
[[Japan]]'s [[industrialized]], [[free-market]] [[economics|economy]] is the world's third-largest by [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP) after the [[United States]] and [[China]], and second-largest by [[market]] [[exchange rates]]. Its economy is highly efficient and competitive in areas linked to international trade, but productivity is lower in areas such as agriculture, distribution, and services. After achieving one of the [[Japanese post-war economic miracle|highest economic growth rates in the world]] from the [[1960s]] through the [[1980s]], the Japanese economy slowed dramatically in the early [[1990s]], when the "[[Japanese asset price bubble|bubble economy]]" collapsed. Its reservoir of industrial leadership and technicians, well-educated and industrious work force, high savings and investment rates, and intensive promotion of industrial development and foreign trade have produced a mature industrial economy. Japan has few natural resources, and trade helps it earn the foreign exchange needed to purchase raw materials for its economy.
Sliding stock and real estate prices marked the end of the "bubble economy" of the late 1980s, and ushered in a decade of stagnant economic growth. Real GDP in Japan grew at an average of roughly 1.5% yearly between 1991-1999, compared to growth in the 1980s of about 4% per year. Growth in Japan throughout the 1990s was slower than growth in other major industrial nations, and the same as [[France]] and [[Germany]]. Japan endured periods of recession around the turn of the millennium, exacerbated by recession in the [[United States]], but from 2003 began to grow strongly again at 2.0% and this rate has held steady through 2004 and projected by a survey of economists through 2005. Japan has already achieved over 5% growth in the first half of 2005.'''
==Natural resources==
A mountainous, island nation, Japan has inadequate [[natural resources]] to support its growing economy and large population. Although many kinds of minerals were extracted throughout the country, most mineral resources had to be imported in the postwar era. Local deposits of metal-bearing ores were difficult to process because they were low grade. The nation's large and varied [[forest]] resources, which covered 70 percent of the country in the late 1980s, were not utilized extensively. Because of the precipitous terrain, underdeveloped road network, and high percentage of young trees, domestic sources were only able to supply between 25 and 30 percent of the nation's timber needs. Agriculture and fishing were the best developed resources, but only through years of painstaking investment and toil. The nation therefore built up the manufacturing and processing industries to convert raw materials imported from abroad. This strategy of economic development necessitated the establishment of a strong economic infrastructure to provide the needed energy, transportation, communications, and technological know-how.
Given its heavy dependence on imported energy, Japan has aimed to diversify its sources. Since the oil shocks of the 1970s, Japan has reduced dependence on petroleum as a source of energy from more than 75% in 1973 to about 57% at present. Other important energy sources are coal, liquefied natural gas, nuclear power, and hydropower. Demand for oil is also dampened by higher government taxes on automobile engines over 2000 cc, as well as on gasoline itself, currently 54 yen per liter sold retail. Kerosene is also used extensively for home heating in portable heaters, especially farther north. Many taxi companies run their fleets on liquefied gas with tanks in the car trunks. A recent success towards greater [[fuel economy]] was the introduction of mass-produced [[Hybrid vehicle]]s. (''see also'' [[Energy production in Japan]])
Deposits of gold, magnesium, and silver meet current industrial demands, but Japan is dependent on foreign sources for many of the minerals essential to modern industry. [[Iron ore]], [[Coke (fuel)|coke]], [[copper]], and [[bauxite]] must be imported, as must many forest products.
==Agriculture==
Only 15% of Japan's land is suitable for cultivation. The agricultural economy is highly subsidized and protected. With per unit area crop yields among the highest in the world, Japan maintains an overall agricultural self-sufficiency rate of about 50% on fewer than 56,000 km&sup2; (14 million acres) cultivated. Japan normally produces a slight surplus of rice but imports large quantities of [[wheat]], [[sorghum]], and [[soybean]]s, primarily from the [[United States]]. Japan is the largest market for U.S. agricultural exports. Potatoes are also grown, mostly in [[Hokkaido]], as well as where they were first introduced by Dutch traders, in [[Nagasaki]] in the late 18th century.
==Industry==
The nation's industrial activities (including [[Japanese mining industry|mining]], manufacturing, and power, gas, and water utilities) contributed 46.6 of total domestic industrial production in 1989, up slightly from 45.8 percent in 1975. This steady performance of the industrial sector in the 1970s and 1980s was a result of the growth of high-technology industries. During this period, some of the older [[heavy industry|heavy industries]], such as steel and shipbuilding, either declined or simply held stable. Together with the [[Construction industry of Japan|construction industry]], those older heavy industries employed 34.9 of the work force in 1989 (relatively unchanged from 34.8 percent in 1980). The service industry sector grew the fastest in the 1980s in terms of GNP, while the greatest losses occurred in agriculture, forestry, mining, and transportation. Most industry catered to the domestic market, but exports were important for several key commodities. In general, industries relatively geared toward exports over imports in 1988 were transportation equipment (with a 24.8 percent ratio of exports over imports), motor vehicles (54 percent), electrical machinery (23.4 percent), general machinery (21.2 percent), and metal products (8.2 percent).
Industry is concentrated in several regions, in the following order of importance: the [[Kantō region]] surrounding [[Tokyo]], especially the prefectures of [[Chiba Prefecture|Chiba]], [[Kanagawa Prefecture|Kanagawa]], [[Saitama Prefecture|Saitama]] and Tokyo (the [[Keihin region|Keihin industrial region]]); the [[Nagoya]] metropolitan area, including [[Aichi Prefecture|Aichi]], [[Gifu Prefecture|Gifu]], [[Mie Prefecture|Mie]], and [[Shizuoka Prefecture|Shizuoka]] prefectures (the [[Chukyo-Tokai industrial region]]); [[Kansai|Kinki]] (the [[Keihanshin industrial region]]); the southwestern part of [[Honshū]] and northern [[Shikoku]] around the [[Inland Sea]] (the [[Setouchi industrial region]]); and the northern part of [[Kyushu]] ([[Kitakyushu]]). In addition, a long narrow belt of industrial centers is found between [[Tokyo]] and [[Hiroshima]], e |
l names ''Llewellyn'' and ''Lloyd'' &ndash; and a smaller number beginning ''Ff-'' (e.g. ''[[Ffestiniog]]'', ''[[Ffrith]]''). A number of Japanese names begin ''Ii-'' when transliterated into the Roman alphabet.
The words ''euouae'', ''Aeaea'' and ''euoi'', mentioned earlier under "Many vowels", start with six, five and four vowels respectively. There are very few other words starting with four vowels. Some proper name examples are: ''[[El Aaiún]]'' (a city in Western Sahara),
''Aeaetes'' (a character in Greek mythology), ''ʻAiea'' (a town in Hawaiʻi), ''Aouad'' (personal name), ''Aouita'' (personal name), ''Euaechme'' (a character in Greek mythology), and ''Ueueteotl'' (an Aztec god).
The list of words starting with three vowels is rather longer, but most are obscure. Some of the more familiar examples are: ''[[aeolian]]'' (relating to the wind), ''[[aeon]]'' (an age),
''aoudad'' (a sheep-like animal of northern Africa), ''eau'' (French for "water", encountered in English in compounds such as ''[[eau de Cologne]]''), ''Iain'' (personal name), ''oeuvre'' (an artist's body of work), ''[[Ouagadougou]]'' (capital of the African country Burkina Faso), and ''[[ouija]]'' (a board used by mediums to reveal spirit messages). ''Aeolian'' and ''aeon'' are British spellings.
There are similarly few English words beginning with a large number of consonants. ''Tsktsks'' appears in [[Collins Dictionary]]. Also, ''cwrth'' and ''cwtch'' (of Welsh origin) are five consonants, although the "w" functions as a vowel. There is also a surname ''Schkrohowsky'' of Russian origin.
There are a reasonable number of words beginning with four consonants. The commonest beginnings are ''phth-'' (''phthalein'', ''phthisis'', ''Phthirus'') and ''sch-'' (mostly words of German/Yiddish origin such as ''schlep'', ''schmaltz'', ''schnapps''). Other examples are ''chthonic'', ''pschent'', ''sphragide'' and ''tshwala''.
A partial list of words with other unusual initial letter combinations follows. Unsurprisingly, many are of foreign origin: ''[[bdellium]]'', ''[[bwana]]'', ''[[Wiktionary:cnemis|cnemis]]'', ''ctenoid'' (comb-like), ''[[czar]]'', ''dghaisa'' (a Maltese rowing boat), ''[[dvandva]]'', ''dziggetai'' (a Mongolian wild ass), ''[[fjord]]'', ''Gbari'' (an African language), ''[[gmelina arborea|gmelina]]'', ''[[jnana]]'', ''kgotla'' (in southern Africa, a meeting place), ''[[kshatriya]]'', ''[[Wiktionary:kvetch|kvetch]]'', ''[[mbaqanga]]'', ''[[mho]]'', ''[[mnemonic]]'', ''[[mridanga]]'', ''[[Mwera]]'' (an African language), ''mzungu'' (in East Africa, a white person), ''[[Ndebele]]'', ''[[ngaio]]'', ''[[oquassa]]'' (a type of North American trout), ''[[pfennig]]'', ''[[pneumonia]]'', ''[[ptarmigan]]'', ''pzazz'' (glamour), ''[[qawwali]]'', ''[[qintar]]'', ''[[qoph]]'', ''[[sforzando]]'', ''[[sfumato]]'', ''[[sjambok]]'', ''[[Wiktionary:svelte|svelte]]'', ''[[tmesis]]'', ''[[tsunami]]'', ''[[tzar]]'', ''vlei'' (in southern Africa, a seasonally flooded area), ''vroom'' (a revving sound), ''[[Xhosa]]'', ''[[xiphoid]]'', ''xoanan'' (a carved wooden icon), ''[[Yggdrasil]]'', ''[[ylem]]'', ''ynambu'' (a South American bird), ''[[yttrium]]'', ''[[zloty]]'', ''[[zwitterion]]''.
=== "Q" without "U" ===
''See main article: [[List of English words containing a Q not followed by a U]].''
=== Other unusual spellings ===
Most people are aware that the letter ''y'' can serve as both a consonant and a vowel. ''w'' can also be an [[orthography|orthographic]] vowel, since ''how'' is pronounced /hau/ (with ''w'' representing the second half of the [[diphthong]].)
However, ''[[cwm]]'' (pronounced "koom", defined as a steep-walled hollow on a hillside) is a rare case of a word using ''w'' to represent a [[Syllable nucleus|nucleus]] vowel, as is ''[[crwth]]'' (pronounced "krooth", a type of stringed instrument). Both words are in [[Merriam-Webster]]'s Collegiate Dictionary. They derive from the [[Welsh language|Welsh]] use of ''w'' as a vowel. The word ''cwm'' is commonly applied to Welsh place names; [[cwm]]s of [[glacier|glacial]] origin are a common feature of Welsh geography. It is also used to describe features in the [[Himalaya]].
Both these examples may belong in 'Words of Foreign Origin', as they are actual words in the Welsh language which have been absorbed into English. See ''coombe'' as the south-west English equivalent of ''cwm''.
===Containing the letters a,b,c,d...===
''Boldface'' and ''feedback'' both contain all the letters from ''a'' to ''f'' (there are many such words, but these are the shortest at eight letters). There is probably no common English word that contains all letters ''a'' through ''g''. Feedbacking may be acceptable is some usage. ''Black-figured'' (referring to a type of pottery decoration) and ''double-refracting'' are hyphenated examples.
The longest word consisting entirely of letters from the first half of the alphabet (''a'' through ''m'') may be ''[[Hamamelidaceae]]'' (a plant family) at 14 letters. Long common words include ''fiddledeedee'' (12 letters), ''blackballed'' (11) and ''blackmailed'' (11).
''Soupspoons'' (10) consists entirely of letters from the second half of alphabet, as does the hyphenated ''topsy-turvy'' and a number of rarer 10-letter words such as ''nonsupport'' (failure to support), ''puttyroots'' (plural of ''[[puttyroot]]'', a species of orchid), and ''zoosporous'' (relating to a ''[[zoospore]]'', a type of fungal or algal spore).
===Letters in alphabetic order===
Words whose letters are in alphabetical order include the eight-letter ''[[Aegilops]]'' (a grass genus), and the seven-letter ''addeems'' (from the archaic verb ''addeem'', meaning to award), ''alloquy'' (an archaic or literary word for an address), ''beefily'' (in a beefy manner), ''billowy'' (like a wave or surge), ''[[dikkops]]'' (a South African bird) and ''gimmors'' (plural of ''gimmor'', an old-fashioned word for a mechanical contrivance).
In reverse alphabetical order are the nine-letter ''spoonfeed'' and the eight-letter ''spoonfed'' and ''trollied''.
There are a number of words that contain a string of four consecutive letters of the alphabet. The commonest combination is ''rstu'', with most examples having the prefix ''under-'', ''over-'' or ''super-'' (e.g. ''understudy'', ''overstuff'', ''superstud''). Words with the combination ''mnop'' include ''cremnophobia'' (a fear of steep slopes), ''gymnopaedic'' (of birds, having unfeathered young), ''limnophilous'' (marsh-loving) and ''[[Prumnopitys]]'' (a genus of conifers). ''[[Chelmno]]'', a town in Poland, has the unusual combination ''lmno''.
===Palindromes===
:''See main articles [[Palindrome]] and [[Semordnilap]].''
===First and last words by reversed spelling===
In a dictionary that lists the reversed spellings of words alphabetically, some of the first entries (excluding proper names) would be:
*''a'' (=''a'', the indefinite article)
*''aa'' (=''aa'', a type of lava)
*''aab'' (=''baa'', the sound made by a sheep)
*''aahc'' (=''chaa'', a variant of ''char'', British slang for tea)
*''aakkram'' (=''markkaa'', plural of ''[[markka]]'', a former Finnish unit of currency)
*''aam'' (=''maa'', a dialect word for a seagull)
*''aamaju'' (=''Ujamaa'', a political system in East Africa)
*''aaupaukunukunumuhumuh'' (=''[[humuhumunukunukuapuaa]]'', a type of Hawaiian fish)
*...
Some proper names would appear earlier: ''aabbirem'' (=''Meribbaa'', a Biblical name); ''aabmup'' (=''[[Pumbaa]]''); ''aabre'' (=''Erbaa'', a town in Turkey); ''aacisuan'' (=''[[Nausicaa]]''); ''aaemu'' (=''[[Umeaa]]''); ''aagsin'' (=''[[Nisga'a]]'').
The first entries that correspond to common words (including some proper names) would be, in normal letter order, ''casaba'', ''Abba'', ''Sheba'', ''amoeba'', ''[[Toshiba]]'', ''[[Elba]]'', ''melba'', ''mamba'', ''samba''.
The last few entries all come from words ending ''-uzz'', including:
*''zzuh'' (=''huzz'', to buzz or murmur)
*''zzuks'' (=''skuzz'', variant of ''scuzz'')
*''zzul'' (=''luzz'', British slang, meaning to chuck)
*''zzum'' (=''muzz'', British slang, meaning to confuse)
*''zzurf'' (=''fruzz'', to brush hair the wrong way)
===First and last words in anagram dictionary===
Suppose that, in a dictionary of anagrams, the letters of each word are sorted into alphabetical order (for example, "alphabet" becomes "aabehlpt"), and then the resulting strings are themselves sorted alphabetically. After the usual culprits ''a'' and ''aa'', some of the first few words in the dictionary (including only the singular form of nouns) would be:
*''aaaaaacceglllnorst'' (=''astragalocalcaneal'')
*''aaaaaaccegllnorrst'' (=''calcaneoastragalar'')
*''aaaaaalmrsstt'' (=''[[taramasalata]]'', a fish roe paste)
*''aaaaaannrstyy'' (=''Satyanarayana'', another name for [[Vishnu]])
*''aaaaabbcdrr'' (=''[[abracadabra]]'', a word said when performing a magic trick)
The end of the list might appear something like:
*''utx'' (=''tux'', contraction of ''tuxedo'', a dinner jacket)
*''uty'' (=''Tuy'', a city in Spain)
*''uw'' (=''[[Wu (linguistics)|Wu]]'', a Chinese dialect (and region))
*''ux'' (=''xu'', a Vietnamese unit of currency)
*''uy'' (=''yu'', Chinese jade)
*''uz'' (=''Zu'', a Sumerian god)
*''uzz'' (=''zuz'', an ancient Hebrew coin)
== Pairs and groups of words ==
===Homophones===
''[[Sheep|Ewe]]'' and ''[[you]]'' are a pair of words with identical pronunciations that have no letters in common. Another example is the pair ''[[eye]]'' and ''[[I]]''. However, such word pairs are often dependent on the accent of the speaker. For instance, Americans might well believe that ''[[a]]'' and ''[[eh]]'' form such a pair whereas other English speakers might not.
See also [[Homophone]], [[List of homophones]] and [[List of commonly confused homonyms]].
=== Homographs ===
[[Homograph]]s are words with identical spellings but different meanings. A famous exampl |
the ''Føroysk-donsk orðabók'' in [[1928]] and the enhanced edition in [[1961]], which is still useful. In [[1967]], [[Jóhannes av Skarði]] published the ''Donsk-føroysk orðabók'' (Danish-Faroese), which remains also the base for all newer editions up to now. Skarði also wrote the English-Faroese dictionary (''Ensk-føroysk orðabók''), which came out in [[1985]] for the first time. In the same year, [[G.V.C. Young]] presented the Faroese-English dictionary (''Føroysk-ensk orðabók''). In [[1987]], the Faroese-Norwegian dictionary (''Færøysk-norsk ordbok'') was issued.
In 1993 a new Danish-Faroese dictionary was published, Donsk-føroysk orðabók, edited by Hjalmar P. Petersen. It is not a puristic dictionary as the former published, but reflects spoken Faroese of today.
The ''Føroysk orðabók'' was not published until [[1998]] by Professor [[Jóhan Hendrik Winther Poulsen]] (et al.) as the first monolingual dictionary with 65,700 entries of old and new words, synonyms and illustrations.
In [[2004]], the first Faroese-Italian dictionary came out and won the National Literature Prize of the Faroes. In December [[2005]], the Icelandic-Faroese dictionary (''Íslensk-færeysk orðabók'') followed, and a Faroese-German dictionary is expected in [[2006]].
==Mutual intelligibility==
The former colonial language Danish has still more importance than in Iceland. The advantage of the remaining dual education in schools is responsible for the Faroese to understand ''all'' Scandinavian languages better, than any other of the neighboring people.
A variation of spoken Danish from the past still exists, called ''[[gøtudanskt]]''. Even though, this "charming accent" (as a Danish author mentioned), is more and more replaced by the school Danish (realm Danish ''rigsdansk'') and Danish today considered a pure foreign language, it still colours the Faroese's pronunciation of Danish, and makes it easier for non-Danes to understand. It has further been proven that Faroese school children write better Danish than their Danish mates in the "flatland" (as the Faroese refer to the Danish).
''Spoken Faroese'' is perhaps best understood by the speakers of ''[[nynorsk]]'' dialects in [[Western Norway]] (where most of the viking settlers seem to have come from). Icelandic native speakers would not understand spoken Faroese without some training, and Danish speakers have almost no chance of understanding it without extensive studies.
''Written Faroese'' is not much of a problem for those who can read Old Norse, Icelandic and perhaps Nynorsk, and just want to understand the sense of a text. However, to ''translate'' it, a dictionary is necessary. Too many words are different and no related words with the certain meaning to be found in the respective languages. This is also due to the fact that [[Faroese language policy]] today does not directly borrow from Icelandic, even though some [[neologism]]s are the same "by accident", i.e. from the same Old Norse heritage.
==Learning Faroese==
It is unusual for Faroese to be taught at universities outside the Faroes (within Scandinavian studies). So most students are forced to learn it autodidactically by books, listening to Faroese on the radio (there is an internet live stream) and trying to correspond with Faroese people. A good opportunity for learning Faroese is also visiting the websites of [[Postverk Føroya]] and reading their stories to the stamp editions both in Faroese and English (or German, French, Danish).
However, the [[University of the Faroe Islands]] offers an annual ''Summer institute'' over 3 weeks including:
*50 lessons of Faroese grammar and language exercises.
*20 lectures on linguistic subjects, culture, society and nature. The lectures on culture include oral poetry and modern literature.
*2 excursions to places of historical and geographical interest.
Languages of instruction are Faroese and English. It is said to be very intensive and comprehensive.
== Alphabet ==
[[Image:Faroe islands isoglosses.png|thumb|right|Some Faroese [[isogloss]]es]]
The '''[[Faroese language|Faroese]] [[alphabet]]''' consists of 29 letters:
: [[A]], [[Á]], [[B]], [[D]], [[Ð]], [[E]], [[F]], [[G]], [[H]], [[I]], [[Í]], [[J]], [[K]], [[L]], [[M]], [[N]], [[O]], [[Ó]], [[P]], [[R]], [[S]], [[T]], [[U]], [[Ú]], [[V]], [[Y]], [[Ý]], [[Æ]], [[Ø]]
Notes:
*Ð, ð can never come at the beginning of a word, but can occur in capital letters in logos or on maps, such as SUÐUROY (Southern Isle).
*Ø, ø can also be written [[ö]] in poetic language, such as ''Föroyar'' (the Faroes).
*Common family names on the Faroes are e.g. L'''ü'''t'''z'''en, M'''ü'''ller, '''W'''inther, or the Christian name '''Z'''a'''c'''harias. Even [[x]] was known in Hammershaimbs orthography, such as Sa'''x'''un for [[Saksun]].
*While the Faroese keyboard layout allows one to write in Latin, English, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Finnish, etc., the Old Norse and Modern Icelandic letter [[þ]] is missing. In related Faroese words it is written as <t> or as <h>, and if an Icelandic name has to be transcribed, <nowiki><th></nowiki> is common.
== Phonetics ==
=== Vowels ===
{| align=left id=toc style="margin-left: 15px;" width=350 cellpadding=2 style="margin-right:10px;"
|- style="background:#ccccff"
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"|[[Grapheme]]
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"|Name
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"|Short
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"|Long
|-
|[[A]], a
|''fyrra a'' {{IPA|[ˈfɪɹːa ɛaː]}} ("leading a")
|{{IPA|/a/}}
|{{IPA|/ɛa/}}
|-
|[[Á]], á
|''á'' {{IPA|[ɔaː]}}
|{{IPA|/ɔ/}}
|{{IPA|/ɔaː/}}
|-
|[[E]], e
|''e'' {{IPA|[eː]}}
|{{IPA|/ɛ/}}
|{{IPA|/eː/}}
|-
|[[I]], i
|''fyrra i'' {{IPA|[ˈfɪɹːa iː]}} ("leading i")
|{{IPA|/ɪ/}}
|{{IPA|/iː/}}
|-
|[[Í]], í
|''fyrra í'' {{IPA|[ˈfɪɹːa ʊiː]}} ("leading í")
|{{IPA|/ʊi/}}
|{{IPA|/ʊiː/}}
|-
|[[O]], o
|''o'' {{IPA|[oː]}}
|{{IPA|/ɔ/}}
|{{IPA|/oː/}}
|-
|[[Ó]], ó
|''ó'' {{IPA|[ɔuː]}}
|{{IPA|/œ/}}
|{{IPA|/ɔuː/}}
|-
|[[U]], u
|''u'' {{IPA|[uː]}}
|{{IPA|/ʊ/}}
|{{IPA|/uː/}}
|-
|[[Ú]], ú
|''ú'' {{IPA|[ʉuː]}}
|{{IPA|/ʏ/}}
|{{IPA|/ʉuː/}}
|-
|[[Y]], y
|''seinna i'' {{IPA|[ˈsaiːdna iː]}}] ("rear i")
|{{IPA|/ɪ/}}
|{{IPA|/iː/}}
|-
|[[Ý]], ý
|''seinna í'' {{IPA|[ˈsaiːdna ʊiː]}} ("rear í")
|{{IPA|/ʊi/}}
|{{IPA|/ʊiː/}}
|-
|[[Æ]], æ
|''seinna a'' {{IPA|[ˈsaiːdna ɛaː]}} ("rear a")
|{{IPA|/a/}}
|{{IPA|/ɛaː/}}
|-
|[[Ø]], ø
|''ø'' {{IPA|[øː]}}
|{{IPA|/œ/}}
|{{IPA|/øː/}}
|-
| colspan=4 bgcolor="#eeeeee" | Other vowels
|-
|ei
| -
|{{IPA|/ai/}}
|{{IPA|/aiː/}}
|-
|ey
| -
|{{IPA|/ɛ/}}
|{{IPA|/ɛiː/}}
|-
|oy
| -
|{{IPA|/ɔi/}}
|{{IPA|/ɔiː/}}
|}
As in other languages, including English, stressed vowels in Faroese are long when not followed by two or three consonants. Two consonants or a consonant cluster usually indicates a short vowel. Exceptions may be short vowels in particles, pronouns, adverbs, and prepositions in unstressed positions, consisting of just one syllable.
<br clear=all>
==== Short vowels in endings ====
{| align=left id=toc style="margin-left: 15px;" width=420 cellpadding=2 style="margin-right:10px;"
|- style="background:#ccccff"
|colspan="5" align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff"| Unstressed /i/ and /u/ in dialects
|-
|
|bgcolor="#eeeeee" colspan=| [[Borðoy]], [[Kunoy]], [[Tórshavn]]
|bgcolor="#eeeeee" colspan=| [[Viðoy]], [[Svínoy]], [[Fugloy]]
|bgcolor="#eeeeee" colspan=| [[Suðuroy]]
|bgcolor="#eeeeee" colspan=| Elsewhere (''standard'')
|-
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| ''gulur'' (yellow)
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|ˈg̊uːl'''ə'''ɹ}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|ˈg̊uːl'''ə'''ɹ}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|ˈg̊uːl'''ø'''ɹ}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|ˈg̊uːlʊɹ}}]
|-
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| ''gulir'' (yellow ''pl.'')
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|ˈg̊uːl'''ə'''ɹ}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|ˈg̊uːl'''ə'''ɹ}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|ˈg̊uːl'''ø'''ɹ}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|ˈg̊uːlɪɹ}}]
|-
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| ''bygdin'' (the town)
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|ˈb̥ɪg̊d̥ɪn}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|ˈb̥ɪg̊d̥'''ə'''n}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|ˈb̥ɪg̊d̥'''ø'''n}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|ˈb̥ɪg̊d̥ɪn}}]
|-
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| ''bygdum'' (the towns ''dat. pl.'')
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|ˈb̥ɪg̊d̥ʊn}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|ˈb̥ɪg̊d̥'''ə'''n}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|ˈb̥ɪg̊d̥'''ø'''n}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|ˈb̥ɪg̊dʊn}}]
|-
|colspan=6|Source: ''Faroese : An Overview and Reference Grammar'', 2004 (page 350)
|}
While in other languages a short /e/ is common for inflectional endings, Faroese uses /a, i, u/. This means, that there are no unstressed short vowels except of these three. Even if a short unstresed /e/ is seen in writing, it will be pronounced like /i/: ''áðrenn'' {{IPA|[ˈɔaːɹɪnː]}} (before). Very typical are endings like ''-ur'', ''-ir'', ''-ar''. The dative is often indicated by ''-um'' which is always pronounced {{IPA|[ʊn]}}.
*{{IPA|[a]}} - ''bát'''ar''''' {{IPA|[ˈbɔaːtaɹ]}} (boats), ''kall'''ar''''' {{IPA|[ˈkadlaɹ]}} ((you) call, (he) calls)
*{{IPA|[ɪ]}} - ''gest'''ir''''' {{IPA|[ˈʤɛstɪɹ]}} (guests), ''dug'''ir''''' {{IPA|[ˈduːjɪɹ]}} ((you, he) can)
*{{IPA|[ʊ]}} - ''bát'''ur''''' {{IPA|[ˈbɔaːtʊɹ]}} (boat), ''gent'''ur''''' {{IPA|[ʤɛntʊɹ]}} (girls), ''renn'''ur''''' {{IPA|[ˈɹenːʊɹ]}} ((you) run, (he) runs).
In some dialects, unstressed {{IPA|/ʊ/}} is realized as {{IPA|[ø]}} or is reduced further to {{IPA|[ə]}}. {{IPA|/ɪ/}} goes under a similar reduction pattern so unstressed {{IPA|/ʊ/}} and {{IPA|/ɪ/}} can rhyme. This can cause spelling mistakes related to these two vowels. The table to the left displays the different realizations in different dialec |
''[[60 Sati]]''
* [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]], ''[[To Sam Ja]]''
* [[Croatia]], ''[[To Sam Ja]]''
* [[Czech Republic]] ''[[VyVolení (CZ)|VyVolení]]''
* [[France]], ''[[Les Colocataires]]''
* [[France]], ''[[Nice People]]''
* [[Germany]], ''[[Der Container Exklusiv]]''
* [[Hungary]], ''[[Való Világ]]''
* [[Indonesia]], ''[[Penghuni Terakhir]]''
* [[Ireland]], ''[[Cabin Fever (TV series)|Cabin Fever]]''
* [[Israel]], ''[[Project Y]]''
* [[Israel]], ''[[The Yacht]]''
* [[Korea]], ''[[Twenty Eyes]]''
* [[Latvia]], ''[[Fabrika]]''
* [[Latvia]], ''[[Barbarossa]]''
* [[Netherlands]], ''[[De Bus]]''
* [[Norway]], ''[[Singel 24-7]]''
* [[Peru]], ''[[La Casa De Gisela]]''
* [[Peru]], ''[[Gran Hermano De Chollywood]]''
* [[Puerto Rico]], ''[[360 Estudio]]''
* [[Republic of Macedonia|FYR Macedonia]], ''[[Tom Sam Ja]]''
* [[Russia]], ''[[12 Negrityat]]''
* [[Russia]], ''[[Dom]]''
* [[Russia]], ''[[Golod]]''
* [[Russia]], ''[[Za Steklom]]''
* [[Serbia]], ''[[To Sam Ja]]''
* [[Slovakia]] ''[[VyVolení (SK)|VyVolení]]''
* [[Slovenia]], ''[[To Sam Ja]]''
* [[Spain]], ''[[El Bus]]''
* [[Spain]], ''[[La Casa De Tu Vida]]''
* [[Turkey]], ''[[Biri Bizi Gözetliyor]]''
* [[UK]], ''[[Back To Reality]]''
* [[Ukraine]], ''[[Dom]]''
[[Category:Big Brother]]
[[bg:Big Brother (?? ?????????)]]
[[cs:Big Brother]]
[[de:Big Brother (Fernsehshow)]]
[[es:Gran Hermano]]
[[fr:Loft Story]]
[[it:Grande Fratello (televisione)]]
[[nl:Big_Brother (televisieprogramma)]]
[[no:Big Brother]]
[[pl:Big Brother (program telewizyjny)]]
[[pt:Big Brother]]
[[fi:Big Brother]]
[[sv:Big Brother]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bristol City F.C.</title>
<id>4392</id>
<revision>
<id>42072609</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:07:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Matt101</username>
<id>708516</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Current Squad */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Football club infobox |
clubname = Bristol City |
image = [[image:Bristol_City_badge.gif|Bristol City badge]] |
fullname = Bristol City Football Club |
nickname = The Robins |
founded = 1897 |
ground = [[Ashton Gate]], [[Bristol]] |
capacity = 22,500 |
chairman = [[Steve Lansdown]] |
manager = {{flagicon|UK}} [[Gary Johnson (footballer)|Gary Johnson]]|
league = [[Football League One|League One]] |
season = [[2004-05 in English football|2004-05]] |
position = League One, 7th |
shirtsupplier= TFG |
shirtsponsors= Bristol Trade Centre |
pattern_la1=|pattern_b1=|pattern_ra1=|
leftarm1=FF0000|body1=FF0000|rightarm1=FF0000|shorts1=FF0000|socks1=FF0000|
pattern_la2=|pattern_b2=|pattern_ra2=|
leftarm2=FFFFcc|body2=FFFFcc|rightarm2=FFFFcc|shorts2=FFFFcc|socks2=FFFFcc|
}}
'''Bristol City''' is a [[football (soccer)|football]] club in [[Bristol|Bristol, England]], which plays in [[Football League One]]. Its home is [[Ashton Gate|Ashton Gate Stadium]]. [[Gary Johnson (footballer)|Gary Johnson]] has been the team's manager since [[23 September]] [[2005]].
Home colours are presently all red, though for most of the club's history red shirts and white shorts have been the norm. The away kit for 2005-6 is "champagne gold"; in the past a variety of combinations have been used, particularly white shirts and black shorts, but yellow, green-and-purple, all black and all white have also been seen in recent years. The club's nickname is "the Robins", and a [[European Robin|robin]] featured on the club's badge from 1976 to 1994.
City's [[Local derby|derby]] rivals are [[Bristol Rovers F.C.|Bristol Rovers]] and there is considerable antipathy between the sides and supporters. Even the issue of oldest club is still a matter of contention, Rovers claim to be the oldest professional club in Bristol, however City have enjoyed league status for longer. City draw their main support from the south of Bristol, Rovers from the east. Over the years City have usually finished higher in the league than Rovers, though neither team has enjoyed huge success.
==Honours==
The team played in the [[FA Cup]] final, losing 1 - 0 to [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] at [[Crystal Palace National Sports Centre|Crystal Palace]], [[London]], on [[April 26]] [[1909]], and won the [[Welsh Cup]] in 1934, defeating [[Tranmere Rovers F.C.|Tranmere Rovers]] 3 - 0.
Their highest finishing position in the League was in the 1906-07 season
when the team were runners-up to [[Newcastle United F.C.|Newcastle]] in [[Football League First Division|Division 1]].
Minor honours include: [[Football League Second Division|Second Division]] champions 1905-06; [[Football League Third Division South|Third Division South]] champions three times; [[Football League Trophy|Associate Members' Cup]] winners 1985-86 (as Freight Rover Trophy); [[Football League Trophy]] winners 2002-3 (as LDV Vans Trophy); [[Anglo-Scottish Cup]] winners 1977-78.
==History==
The club was founded in 1897, when Bristol South End F.C. turned professional and changed its name to Bristol City. In 1900 the club merged with local rival Bedminster F.C., which had been founded as Southville in 1887. The side joined the [[English Football League teams|Football League]] in 1901. They first entered Division 1 in 1906 as Division 2 champions, and as newcomers became known as the "Bristol Babes", a nickname that would last into the thirties. They were runners-up in their first season in the top flight, but couldn't match this performance again, and were relegated in 1911. They would not return for sixty-five years.
The 1920s were a rocky time as City "yo-yoed" between Division 2 and Division 3 South. By the thirties they were solidly stuck in the third division, and stayed that way until after World War II. Harry Dolman became chairman in 1949, a post he would hold for over 30 years. An engineer who had bought out the firm he worked for, he designed the first set of floodlights installed at Ashton Gate in the early 1950s. The late 1950s were a better time for City, with a five year stay in Division 2, a league they returned to for a further spell in 1965. In 1967 [[Alan Dicks]] was appointed manager, and he eventually led them back to the top division in 1976 when they were runners-up in Division 2.
Surviving just four seasons in the top division and only managing a peak of 13th position in the 1978-79 season, they were relegated in 1980 and plummeted to Division 4 in straight seasons. The club went bankrupt and was only able to continue playing under the ownership of a new company, BCFC (1982) plc, because eight highly-paid senior players (the "Ashton Gate Eight") accepted redundancy.
City's stay in the basement was short - just two years - since when they have remained in the middle two divisions of the League structure. The late nineties were a period of instability for the club, with five managers in four seasons. [[Danny Wilson (football)|Danny Wilson]] was appointed as manager in June 2000, but left by mutual consent in June 2004 after successive seasons of finishing 3rd but narrowly failing to win the play-offs. Long-serving City midfielder [[Brian Tinnion]] became player-manager in his place and led the team to a place just outside the play-offs in his first season.
The summer of 2005 saw a major rebuilding of the squad, bringing in the Premiership strikers [[Marcus Stewart]] (who supported City as a boy) and [[Michael Bridges]]. Three games into the 2005-2006 season City were one of only two clubs in the entire league without a goal; the drought ended abruptly in their fourth game, with three goals in the first quarter hour of a 4-2 victory over [[Port Vale F.C.|Port Vale]]. Results remained poor, however, and Tinnion resigned as manager after a 7&ndash;1 thrashing by [[Swansea City A.F.C.|Swansea]]. He was replaced by [[Gary Johnson (footballer)|Gary Johnson]], who was lured from west country neighbours [[Yeovil Town F.C.|Yeovil Town]]. A club record of 9 successive defeats was brought to an end with a 2-0 victory at home to Huddersfield on 10/12/2005.
==Current Squad==
(As of [[17 February]] [[2006]])
{{Football squad start}}
{{football squad player | no=1 | nat=England | pos=GK | name=[[Steve Phillips (footballer)| Steve Phillips]]}}
{{football squad player | no=2 | nat=England | pos=DF | name=[[Jamie Smith(footballer)|Jamie Smith]]}}
{{football squad player | no=3 | nat=Scotland | pos=MF | name=[[Grant Smith]] (1)}}
{{football squad player | no=4 | nat=England | pos=DF | name=[[Matthew Heywood]]}}
{{football squad player | no=5 | nat=Wales | pos=DF | name=[[David Partridge]] (2)}}
{{football squad player | no=6 | nat=Scotland | pos=DF | name=[[Louis Carey]]}}
{{football squad player | no=7 | nat=Scotland | pos=MF | name=[[Scott Murray(footballer|Scott Murray]]}}
{{football squad player | no=9 | nat=England | pos=FW | name=[[Steve Brooker]]}}
{{football squad player | no=10 | nat=England | pos=FW | name=[[Marcus Stewart]]}}
{{football squad player | no=11 | nat=Wales | pos=FW | name=[[David Cotterill]]}}
{{football squad player | no=12 | nat=England | pos=MF | name=[[Alex Russell]]}}
{{football squad player | no=14 | nat=Australia | pos=MF | name=[[Luke Wilkshire]]}}
{{football squad player | no=15 | nat=England | pos=DF | name=[[Craig Woodman]]}}
{{football squad player | no=16 | nat=England | pos=DF | name=[[Clayton Fortune]] (3)}}
{{football squad mid}}
{{football squad player | no=17 | nat=England | pos=MF | name=[[Bradley Orr]]}}
{{football squad player | no=18 | nat=England | pos=FW | name=[[Calvin Andrew]] (4)}}
{{football squad player | no=19 | nat=England | pos=FW | name=[[Mark McCammon]] (6)}}
{{football squad player | no=20 | nat=England | pos=MF | name=[[Scott Brown(footballer)|Scott Brown]]}}
{{football squad player | no=21 | nat=England | pos=MF |
username>
<id>94806</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Biology and medicine */ fix link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar2|ABC|abc}}
{{tocright}}
'''ABC''' may mean:
== Organizations ==
* [[Anarchist Black Cross]]
* [[ABC Futebol Clube]], a Brazilian football (soccer) club
* [[ABC Motors]], a former British vehicle manufacturer
* [[ABC store]], an Alcoholic Beverage Control liquor store
* [[Aerial Board of Control]], a fictional world government organisation
* [[Alcoholic beverage control states]]
* [[American Baptist Churches USA]] (formerly ''American Baptist Convention'')
* [[American Bowling Congress]]
* [[Association for Bright Children]], a Canadian organization
* [[Association of British Counties]]
* [[Atlanta Bread Company]]
* [[Atlantic Baptist University]] (formerly ''Atlantic Baptist College'')
* [[Audit Bureau of Circulations]], an organization for advertisers and publications
=== Media companies ===
* [[ABC Records]], a recording label
* [[American Broadcasting Company]]
** [[ABC Family]], the cable TV division
** [[ABC News]], the news division
** [[ABC Radio]], the radio division
** [[ABC Sports]], the sports division
* [[Asahi Broadcasting Corporation]] in Osaka, Japan
* [[Associated British Corporation]], a former British television company
* [[Associated Broadcasting Company]], a television network in the Philippines
* [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]], a radio and television network in Australia, including:
**[[ABC Local Radio]]
**[[Radio Australia]]
* [[Diario ABC]], a newspaper in Spain
* ABC Cinemas in Southport
* [[ABC (newspaper)|ABC]], newspaper in [[List of newspapers in Albania|Albania]].
== Science and technology (not organizations) ==
* [[Abc Conjecture]], in number theory
* [[ABC weapons]] for waging ''atomic, biological, and chemical'' warfare
=== Automotive ===
* [[ABC (1906 automobile)]], an American car
* [[ABC (1920 automobile)]], an English car
* [[ABC (1922 automobile)]], a planned (but never built) American car
* [[Active Body Control]], Active Suspension for Mercedes S-Class
=== Biology and medicine ===
* [[Abacavir]], an antiviral drug developed for treatment of AIDS
* [[ABC (first aid)]]
* [[ABC-Transporter Genes]]
* [[Abortion-breast cancer hypothesis]] in developmental biology
* ''Abstain - Be faithful - Condomize'', a method to prevent [[AIDS]]
* ABC (Angry Backfiring C nocireceptors), a rare autoimmune disorder
=== Computing ===
* [[ABC (Yet Another BitTorrent Client)]], a BitTorrent client
* [[ABC ALGOL]], a programming language
* [[ABC programming language]]
* [[ABC80]], a home computer sold around 1980
* [[Atanasoff Berry Computer]], the first electronic digital computer
=== Psychology ===
* ABC = Antecedent, behavior, consequence See also:[[behavior modification]]
==Music==
* [[ABC (album)]], an album by The Jackson 5, which included the hit song [[ABC (song)|"ABC" (song)]]
* [[ABC (band)]], an early 1980s new wave musical group
* [[ABC (musical notation)]]
* [[Another Bad Creation]], an early 1990s juvenile hip hop/R&B musical group
==People==
* [[American-born Chinese]]
* [[Australian-born Chinese]]
* [[Andrew Browne Cunningham]] (1883&ndash;1963), British admiral
* [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]
==Other==
* [[ABC islands]] (Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao)
* ''[[The ABC Murders]]'', a novel by Agatha Christie
* The [[ABC region]] of São Paulo, Brazil
* [[ABC countries]] of Argentina, Brazil and Chile
* [[ABC Trial]] in the United Kingdom
* [[Activity-based costing]], in accounting
* [[Alien big cat]], a possibly fictitious creature
* "Anything But Chardonnay"
* "Already been chewed"
* [[Altnabreac railway station]] (National Rail code: '''ABC''') in the United Kingdom
* [[Closing|Always Be Closing]], a sales term which refers to the process of making a sale, popularized by the film ''[[Glengarry Glen Ross (film)|Glengarry Glen Ross]]''
* [[America's Best Comics]]
* [[Assignment for the Benefit of a Creditor]], in law
* [[Los Llanos Airport]] (IATA airport code: '''ABC''') in Albacete, Spain
{{TLAdisambig}}
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[[vi:ABC]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alford plea</title>
<id>2167</id>
<revision>
<id>41736256</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T11:06:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Acerperi</username>
<id>173184</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">In the law of the [[United States]], an '''''Alford''''' '''plea''' is a [[plea]] in criminal court. In this plea, the defendant does not admit the act and asserts innocence, but admits that sufficient evidence exists with which the prosecution could likely convince a judge or jury to find the defendant guilty. Upon receiving an Alford plea from a defendant, the court may immediately pronounce the defendant guilty and impose [[sentence (law)|sentence]] as if the defendant had otherwise been convicted of the crime. However, in many states, such as Massachusetts, a plea which "admits sufficient facts" more typically results in the case being continued without a finding and later dismissed. It is the prospect of an ultimate dismissal of charges which engenders most pleas of this type.
The Alford plea differs slightly from the [[nolo contendere]] ("no contest") plea. An Alford plea is simply a form of a guilty plea, and, as with other guilty pleas, the judge must see there is some factual basis for the plea. Therefore, a defendant's prior conviction via an Alford plea can be considered in future trials; and it will count as a "strike" if a [[three strikes law]] applies. On the other hand, a nolo contendere plea is in no way an admission of guilt, and it cannot be introduced in future trials as evidence of [[incorrigibility]]. However, courts do not have to accept a plea of nolo contendere, and usually do not, except in certain nonviolent cases.
This plea originated in the [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] case of [[North Carolina v. Alford]] ([[1970]]), [http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=case&court=US&vol=400&invol=25 400 US 25]. Under subsequent case law, an ''Alford'' plea generally has the same effect as a plea of guilty with respect to sentencing, and use of the conviction as an aggravating factor if the defendant is later convicted of another offense.
Some critics have spoken out against the ''nolo contendere'' and ''Alford'' pleas on the moral grounds that they undermine public confidence in the accuracy and fairness of the criminal justice system, sending some people to jail who are unrepentant or innocent; and that they dodge the "morality play" aspect of a criminal trial, in which upright civilization is vindicated and the community sees that the guilty are punished. Others see this as the major benefit of these pleas.
==References==
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/plea/four/nolo.html] ''Harmonizing Substantive Criminal Law Values and Criminal Procedure: The Case of ''Alford'' and Nolo Contendere Pleas'', originally published in the ''Cornell Law Review'', Volume 88, Number 6, July 2003
{{law-stub}}
[[Category:Pleas]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ABCD</title>
<id>2170</id>
<revision>
<id>37751193</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-01T23:24:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vinayak.nagpal</username>
<id>866393</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the mnemonic. ABCD is also an [[initialism]] for [[American Born Confused Desi]].'' ''ABCD was also a saying in World War II that means America, Britain, China, and Dutch.''
'''ABCD''' is a [[mnemonic]] for memorizing essential steps in [[resuscitation]].
* '''A''' - airways - clear the [[Respiratory_system|airways]]
* '''B''' - breathing - restore [[cellular respiration|respiration]]
* '''C''' - circulation - restore [[Circulation (physiology)|circulation]]
* '''D''' - drugs/[[defibrillation]] - defibrillate/give drugs ([[adrenaline]], [[atropine]], etc.)
In the [[United Kingdom|UK]] the [[mnemonic]] [[DR ABC]] is commonly used.
The general public do not normally have the knowledge or authority to administer drugs.
== See also: ==
* [[cardiac arrest]]
* [[ventricular fibrillation]]
* [[asystole]]
* [[ventricular tachycardia]]
* [[cardiopulmonary resuscitation]]
* [[artificial respiration]]
* [[first aid]]
[[Category:First aid]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anti-realism</title>
<id>2171</id>
<revision>
<id>34477648</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-09T09:25:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jahsonic</username>
<id>5720</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[philosophy]], the term '''anti-realism''' is used to describe any
position involving either the denial of the objective reality of entities of a certain type or the insistence that we should be [[agnosticism|agnostic]] about their real existence. Thus, we may speak of '''anti-realism''' with respect to other minds, the past, the future, [[Universal (metaphysics)|universals]], [[mathematics|mathematical entities]] (such as [[natural numbers]]), [[morality|moral categories]], the material world, or even thought.
The term was popularised by [[Michael Dummett]], who introduced it in
his paper ''Realism'' to re-examine several classical philosophical
disputes involving such doctrines as [[nominalism]],
[[conceptual realism]], [[idealism]] and [[phenomenalism]]. The novelty of
Dummett's approach consisted in seeing these disputes as analogous to
the dispute between [[intuitionism (phi |
pon the environment.
While desertification has received tremendous publicity by the political and news media, there are still many things that we don't know about the degradation of productive lands and the expansion of deserts. In 1988 [[Ridley Nelson]] pointed out in an important scientific paper that the desertification problem and processes are not clearly defined. There is no consensus among researchers as to the specific causes, extent, or degree of desertification. Contrary to many popular reports, desertification is actually a subtle and complex process of deterioration that may often be reversible.
At the local level, individuals and governments can help to reclaim and protect their lands. In areas of sand [[dune]]s, covering the dunes with large boulders or [[petroleum]] will interrupt the wind regime near the face of the dunes and prevent the sand from moving. [[Sand fence]]s are used throughout the [[Middle East]] and the United States, in the same way [[snow fence]]s are used in the north. Placement of straw grids, each up to a square meter in area, will also decrease the surface wind velocity. Shrubs and trees planted within the grids are protected by the straw until they take root. However, some studies suggest that planting of trees actually depletes water supplies in the area. [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7749] In areas where some water is available for [[irrigation]], shrubs planted on the lower one-third of a dune's windward side will stabilize the dune. This vegetation decreases the wind velocity near the base of the dune and prevents much of the sand from moving. Higher velocity winds at the top of the dune level it off and trees can be planted atop these flattened surfaces.
Oases and farmlands in windy regions can be protected by planting tree fences or grass belts. Sand that manages to pass through the grass belts can be caught in strips of trees planted as wind breaks 50 to 100 meters apart adjacent to the belts. Small plots of trees may also be scattered inside oases to stabilize the area. On a much larger scale, a "[[Green Wall]]," which will eventually stretch more than 5,700 kilometers in length, nearly as long as the [[Great Wall of China]], is being planted in northeastern China to protect "sandy lands"--deserts believed to have been created by human activity.
More efficient use of existing water resources and control of salinization are other effective tools for improving arid lands. New ways are being sought to use surface-water resources such as rain water harvesting or irrigating with seasonal runoff from adjacent highlands. New ways also being sought to find and tap groundwater resources and to develop more effective ways of irrigating arid and semiarid lands. Research on the reclamation of deserts also is focusing on discovering proper crop rotation to protect the fragile soil, on understanding how sand-fixing plants can be adapted to local environments, and on how grazing lands and water resources can be developed effectively without being overused.
[[Off-road vehicle]]s significantly increase soil loss in the delicate desert environment of the western United States, which can be controlled by restrictions on such vehicles.
==See also==
*[[Deforestation]]
*[[List of environment topics]]
*[[Steppe]]
==External links and references==
*[http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/agll/drylands/index.htm FAO Information Portal - Properties and Management of Drylands]
*[http://www.unccd.int/ Secretariat of the] [[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification]]
*[http://www.unep.org/desertification/successstories/ UNEP page on desertification]
*Benjaminsen, Tor A; & Berge, Gunvor (2000). ''Timbuktu: myter, menneske, miljø.'' [[Oslo]]: [[Spartakus forlag]].
*Stock, Robert (1995). ''Africa South of the Sahara.'' [[New York]]: [[The Guilford Press]].
*[http://www.eden-foundation.org/project/desertif.html Eden Foundation article on desertification]
*[http://www.gtz.de/desert GTZ CCD Project - A key player in combating desertification and drought effects]
*[http://www.dri.edu/ Desert research Institute]
[[Category:Environmental threats]]
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[[pt:Desertificação]]
[[fi:Aavikoituminen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Data compression/Huffman coding</title>
<id>8105</id>
<revision>
<id>15906127</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-29T07:05:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andre Engels</username>
<id>300</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>removing text from redirect page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Huffman coding]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Data compression/Arithmetic coding</title>
<id>8106</id>
<revision>
<id>15906128</id>
<timestamp>2002-07-17T16:49:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Enchanter</username>
<id>1104</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Arithmetic coding]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Arithmetic coding]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Data compression/JPEG</title>
<id>8107</id>
<revision>
<id>15906129</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-07T19:46:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>*removed old article from below the redirect; it's been moved, and duplication will only lead to tears</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[JPEG]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Data compression/MP3</title>
<id>8108</id>
<revision>
<id>15906130</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-24T07:35:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stephen Gilbert</username>
<id>86</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>removed old text</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[MP3]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Data compression/lossless</title>
<id>8110</id>
<revision>
<id>15906131</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Lossless_data_compression]]
:''See also :'' [[Data compression]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Data compression/lossy</title>
<id>8111</id>
<revision>
<id>15906132</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-24T07:35:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stephen Gilbert</username>
<id>86</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>removed old text</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Lossy data compression]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Data compression/entropy</title>
<id>8112</id>
<revision>
<id>15906133</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Information entropy]]
:''See also :'' [[Data compression]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Multimedia compression</title>
<id>8113</id>
<revision>
<id>35841338</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-19T18:40:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Light current</username>
<id>360593</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+of data\hdg</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Multimedia compression''' is a general term referring to the [[data compression|compression]] of data for any type of [[multimedia]], most notably graphics, [[sound reproduction|audio]], and [[video]].
== Explanation ==
Because multimedia typically derives from data sampled by a device such as a [[camera]] or a [[microphone]], and because such data contains large amounts of random noise, traditional lossless compression algorithms tend to do a poor job compressing multimedia.
Multimedia compression algorithms, traditionally known as [[codec|codecs]], work in a [[lossy data compression|lossy]] fashion:
#Transform the data according to a model designed to reduce sample-to-sample correlation, concentrating the important signal in a few data values.
#Quantize the data, most of which has become noise. Some codecs use a scalar quantizer followed by [[run-length encoding]]; others use [[vector quantization]].
#Use [[entropy coding]] such as [[Huffman coding]] to reduce the number of bits that the most common values use.
This method is called [[transform coding]].
Multimedia compression has become the primary focus of compression research, primarily in a search for more efficient models.
It is the most important part in [[video coding]] formats.
See also:
* [[Video compression]]
* [[Audio compression]]
* General [[data compression]]
* [[Digital signal processing]]
[[Category:Data compression]]
[[zh:&#22270;&#20687;&#21387;&#32553;&#25216;&#26415;]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Four-stage model of data compression</title>
<id>8114</id>
<revision>
<id>39204945</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T13:50:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>R.Koot</username>
<id>170083</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merge; original research; factual accuracy</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Data compression}}
{{originalresearch}}
{{accuracy}}
Almost all [[data compression]] systems can be viewed as comprising
'''four successive stages of data processing''' arranged as a processing [[pipeline]] (though some stages
will often be combined with a neighboring stage,
performed "off- |
[Dąbrówno]]). On [[July 13]] both castles were captured and the way towards Marienburg was opened.
== Opposing forces ==
In the early morning of [[July 15]], [[1410]], both armies met in the fields near the villages of [[Grunwald]], [[Tannenberg]] and Łodwigowo (Ludwigsdorf). Both armies were dislocated in line formations. The Polish-Lithuanian army was set up in front of the villages of Łodwigowo/Ludwigsdorf and Stębark/Tannenberg. The left flank was guarded by the [[Jagiellon Poland|Polish]] forces of king [[Wladislaus II of Poland|Władysław Jagiełło]] and composed mostly of heavy cavalry. The right flank of the allied forces was guarded by the army of Grand Duke [[Vytautas the Great|Vytautas]], and composed mostly of light cavalry. Among the forces on the right flank were banners from all over the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Grand Duchy]], as well as [[Lithuanian Tatars|Tatar]] skirmishers and (probably) [[Moldavia]]n mercenaries. The opposing forces of the [[Teutonic Order]] were composed mostly of heavy cavalry and infantry. They were aided by mercenaries from Western Europe, called "the guests of the Order".
[[Image:Krzyzac3.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Teutonic Knights before the Battle of Grunwald. [[Screenshot]] from the 1960 Polish movie ''[[Krzyżacy (movie)|Krzyżacy]]'', based on a 19th century novel by [[Henryk Sienkiewicz]].]]
The exact number of soldiers on both sides is hard to estimate. There are only two reliable sources describing the battle. The best-preserved and most complete was written by [[Ioannes Longinus]] but does not mention the exact numbers. The other is incomplete and preserved only in a brief [[16th century]] document. Shortly after the battle in December [[1410]] the new Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, [[Heinrich von Plauen]], sent letters to Western European monarchs, in which he described the battle as a war against the forces of evil pagans. This view was shared by many chronicle writers. Since the outcome of the battle was subject to propaganda campaigns on both sides, many foreign authors frequently overestimated the Polish-Lithuanian forces in an attempt to explain the dramatic result.
In one of the Prussian chronicles it is mentioned that "''the forces of the Polish king were so numerous that there is no number high enough in the human language''". One of the anonymous chronicles from [[Lubeck]] mentions that the forces of Jagiello numbered some 1,700,000 soldiers, the forces of Vytautas with 2,700,000 (as well as ''a great number of Ruthenians''), in addition to 1,500,000 Tatars. Among the forces supposedly aiding the Polish-Lithuanian army were "''[[Saracens]], [[Turkic peoples|Turks]], pagans of [[Damascus]], [[Iran|Persia]] and other lands''". According to [[Enguerrand de Monstrelet]] the Teutons fielded some 300,000 men, while their enemies under the kings of "''Lithuania, Poland and [[Sarmatia]]''" fielded 600,000. [[Andrew of Regensburg]] estimated the Polish-Lithuanian forces at 1,200,000 men-at-arms.
More recent historians estimate the strength of the opposing forces at a much lower level. [[Ludwik Kolankowski]] estimated the Polish-Lithuanian forces at 16,000-18,000 Polish cavalry and 6,000-8,000 Lithuanian light cavalry, with the Teutonic Knights fielding 13,000-15,000 heavy cavalry. [[Jerzy Dąbrowski]] estimated the overall strength of the allied forces at 18,000 Polish cavalry and 11,000 Lithuanians and Ruthenians, with the opposing forces bringing 16,000 soldiers.
<!--SCROLL DOWN TO EDIT THE ARTICLE-->
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size: 85%; border: gray solid 1px; border-collapse: collapse; text-align: center;" align="right"
! Historian
! Poland
! Lithuania
! Others
! Teutonic Order
|-
| Luebeck Chronicle
| 1 700 000
| 2 700 000
| 1 500 000
|
|-
| [[Enguerrand de Monstrelet]]
| 600 000
|
|
| 300 000
|-
| [[Andrew of Regensburg]]
| 1 200 000
|
|
|-
| [[Ludwik Kolankowski]]
| 18 000 heavy cavalry
| 8 000 light cavalry
|
| 15 000 heavy cavalry
|-
| [[Jerzy Dabrowski|Jerzy Dąbrowski]]
| 18 000
| 11 000
|
| 16 000 + 3 000 ''guests''
|-
| [[Henryk Lowmianski|Henryk Łowmiański]]
| 12 000 heavy cavalry
| 7 200 light cavalry
|
| 11 000 heavy cavalry
|-
| [[Andrzej Nadolski]]
| 20 000
| 10 000
| 1000
|
|-
|}
Regardless of such estimates, most of the modern historians count only the cavalry units. Apart from 16,000 cavalry, the Teutonic Order also fielded some 9,000 infantry, [[archer]]s and [[crossbow]] troops. Both armies also had large [[military camp]]s, [[Tabor (formation)|tabor]]s and other units, which made up some 10% of their total strength.
Both armies were organised in ''[[banner]]s''. Each heavy cavalry banner was composed of approximately 240 mounted [[knight]]s as well as their squires and armour-bearers. Each banner flew its own standard and fought independently. Lithuanian banners were usually weaker and composed of approximately 180 light cavalry soldiers. The structure of foot units ([[pikemen]], [[archer]]s, [[crossbow]]men) and the artillery is unknown.
The forces on both sides were composed of troops coming from a variety of countries and lands. Apart from units fielded by lands of [[Poland]], [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] and the [[Teutonic Order]], there were also mercenaries from Western Europe (most notably [[Alsace]], [[Lorraine (province)|Lorraine]], [[Germany|German Countries]], [[Moravia]], [[Bohemia]] and probably [[Moldavia]]. Historians of the [[Soviet Union]] attempted to overemphasize the Russian role in the battle. For example, they included some Lithuanian banners, such as [[Smolensk]], into the Russian list. They also phrased the desciption of the battle to make it appear that the support from Russian lands was decisive. In fact there was a joke that "the battle with the [[fascism|fascist]] Teutons was won by joint Polish-Soviet forces" (most of the territory of the Grand Duchy was part of the [[Soviet Union]] in [[20th century]]).
The overall commander of the joint Polish-Lithuanian forces was king [[Wladislaus II of Poland|Władysław Jagiełło]], with the Polish units subordinated to Marshal of the Crown [[Zbigniew of Brzezie]] and Lithuanian units under the immediate command of Grand Duke of Lithuania [[Vytautas the Great|Vytautas]]. Until recently it was believed that the Sword Bearer of the Crown [[Zyndram of Maszkowice]] was the commander in chief of the joint army, but this idea was based on a false translation of the description of the battle by [[Ioannes Longinus]]. The Teutonic Forces were commanded directly by the Grand Master of the Order [[Ulrich von Jungingen]].
<!--SCROLL DOWN TO EDIT THE ARTICLE-->
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size: 85%; border: gray solid 0px; border-collapse: collapse; text-align: center;" align="right"
| [[Image:Grunwald_1_ang.jpg|right|280px|Initial position]]
|-
| [[Image:Grunwald_2_ang.jpg|right|280px|Lithuanian light cavalry retreat]]
|-
| [[Image:Grunwald_3_ang.jpg|right|280px|Right-flank Polish/Lithuanian assault]]
|-
| [[Image:Grunwald_4_ang.jpg|right|280px|Polish heavy cavalry break-through]]
|-
|}
== Course of the battle ==
The opposing forces formed their lines at dawn. At noon the forces of Grand Duke of Lithuania [[Vytautas the Great|Vytautas]] started an all-out assault on the left flank of the Teutonic forces, near the village of Tannenberg ([[Stębark]]). The Lithuanian cavalry was supported by a cavalry charge of several Polish banners on the right flank of the enemy forces. The enemy heavy cavalry counter-attacked on both flanks and fierce fighting occurred. After more than an hour, the [[Lithuanian]] light cavalry started to a planned retreat maneuver towards marshes and woods. This maneuver was oftenly used in the east of [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] by Mongols so Vytautas who had experience in battles against Mongols used it in this battle. Only three banners of [[Smolensk]] commanded by [[Semen Lingwen]], son of [[Algirdas]], brother of [[Jogaila|Jagiełło]] and a cousin of [[Vytautas the Great|Vytautas]], remained on the right flank after the retreat of [[Vytautas the Great|Vytautas]] and his troops. One of them was totally destroyed while the remaining two were backed up by the Polish cavalry held in reserve and broke through the enemy lines to the Polish positions.
Heavy cavalry of the Order started a disorganised pursuit after the retreating Lithuanians and entered the marshes, where [[Vytautas the Great|Vytautas]] reorganized his forces to return to battle. At the same time heavy fighting continued on the left flank of the Polish forces. After several hours of massed battle, the Teutonic cavalry started to gain the upper hand. According to [[Ioannes Longinus]] the Grand Master [[Ulrich von Jungingen]] personally led a cavalry charge on the strongest Polish unit — the Banner of the Land of [[Kraków]]. The Polish ranks started to waver and the flag of the banner was lost. However, it was soon recaptured by the Polish knights and king [[Wladyslaw Jagiello|Władysław Jagiełło]] ordered most of his reserves to enter combat. The arrival of fresh troops allowed the Poles to repel the enemy assault and the forces of [[Ulrich von Jungingen]] were weakened. At the same time his reserves were still busy pursuing the evading Lithuanian cavalry. When they finally returned to the battlefield, it was already too late for the Teutonic charge to succeed and the forces of the Order started the withdrawal.
After several hours of fighting, [[Ulrich von Jungingen]] decided to join his embattled forces in the main line of engagement. [[Vytautas the Great|Vytautas]], however, also returned to the battlefield with the reorganized forces of [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] and joined the fierce fighting. The Teutonic forces were by then becoming outnumbere |
cal Association]]
* [[American Go Association]]
* [[American Grand Prix Association]]
* [[Accredited Gem Appraisers]]
* [[American Gas Association]]
* [[Anti Gay Association]]
* [[Advanced Graphics Architecture]], a graphics standard invented by Commodore, for the [[Amiga]] Computer.
* [[AGA (automobile)|AGA]], the [[Germany|German]] [[automobile]].
* AGA, a [[Sweden|Swedish]] company, which mainly produces various gases.
See also: [[aga]]
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:AGA]]
[[fr:AGA]]
[[fi:AGA]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amiga 1200</title>
<id>3101</id>
<revision>
<id>39961143</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T02:56:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Seek100</username>
<id>946532</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Amiga 1200 with mouse, drives.jpg|right|300px]]
The '''Amiga 1200''', or '''A1200''', was [[Commodore International]]'s third-generation [[Amiga]] computer, aimed at the home market. It was released in October 1992, at a base price of £399 in the [[United Kingdom]] and $599 in the [[United States]].
Like its predecessor, the [[A500]], it featured an all-in-one design incorporating the [[Central processing unit|CPU]], keyboard, and [[disk drive]]s (including, unlike the A500, the option of an internal [[hard disk drive]]) in one physical unit. It shipped with 2 MB of [[Chip RAM]] (and no [[Fast RAM]] as in it's bigger brother the [[A4000]]), Commodore's third-generation chipset, [[Advanced Graphics Architecture|AGA]]; and [[AmigaOS]] 3.0. It utilized a [[Motorola]] [[MC68EC020]] [[CISC]] [[Central processing unit|CPU]] (a 68020 with 24bit addressing) running at 14.18 MHz [[PAL]] / 14.32 MHz [[NTSC]]. For expansion, the A1200 featured a memory/CPU slot, a [[PCMCIA]] slot and a feature unique to the A1200 - a clockport, a remnant of an abandoned design feature (a real time clock and expandable Chip RAM) which has since been used by third-party expansion boards.
Because the unit's memory was shared between the CPU and the sound and video chips, expanding memory beyond 2 MB greatly increased the A1200's speed. Various third-party accelerators featuring [[Motorola 68020|68020]], [[Motorola 68030|68030]], [[Motorola 68040|68040]], [[Motorola 68060|68060]] and later [[PowerPC]] processors quickly became available to increase the computer's speed further.
Unlike the A500 and A600, which were only incremental upgrades over the original A1000 released in 1985, the A1200 was a significant upgrade, featuring more than four times the processing power and greatly enhanced graphics capabilities. However, the A1200 proved not to be as popular as the A500. Although its graphics capabilities stood up well in comparison to the [[Intel 80386]] and [[Intel 80486|486]]-based [[IBM PC compatible]]s it competed against, many PC clones had more processing power and a lower price, in addition to a larger software library. The Amiga's custom chips were simply more expensive to produce than the commodity chips utilized in PCs, which drove up the A1200's price. In addition, fewer retailers carried the A1200 than earlier Commodore computers, especially in the United States. Although Commodore never released any official sales figures, it is estimated that Commodore shipped fewer than 1 million A1200s worldwide before going bankrupt in April 1994.
The A1200 was re-launched in 1995 after the Amiga assets were sold to Escom, but the new units were priced at 1992 levels and experienced compatibility problems. As of 2003, the A1200 is still being sold by Amiga, Inc., the fourth company to own the rights to the machine.
{{CBM_computers}}
[[Category:Commodore Amiga]]
[[de:Amiga 1200]]
[[es:Commodore Amiga 1200]]
[[fr:Amiga 1200]]
[[fi:Amiga 1200]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amiga 1000</title>
<id>3104</id>
<revision>
<id>42118205</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:08:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Anss123</username>
<id>744916</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Technical specifications */ Added Parrallel port</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Amiga 1000.jpg|thumb|Amiga 1000 (1985)]]
The '''A1000''', or [[Commodore_International|Commodore]] [[Amiga]] 1000, was Commodore's initial Amiga [[multimedia]] [[home computer|home]]/[[personal computer]], released in the summer of [[1985]] at an original retail price of US$1,295 without a monitor. A 13-inch analog [[RGB]] monitor was available for around US$300. Before the follow-up [[A500]] and [[A2000]] models were released in 1987, the A1000 was usually just called the '''Amiga'''.
The A1000 had a number of characteristics that distinguished it from later Amigas: It was the only model to feature the short-lived Amiga "checkmark" logo on its case; the case was elevated slightly to give a storage area for the keyboard when not in use (a "keyboard garage"); and the inside of the case was engraved with the signatures of the Amiga designers, including [[Jay Miner]] and the paw print of his dog Mitchy.
Many A1000 owners remained attached to their machines long after newer models rendered the units technically obsolete, and it attracted numerous aftermarket upgrades. Many CPU upgrades that plugged into the [[Motorola 68000]] socket functioned in the A1000. Additionally, a line of products called the ''Rejuvinator'' series allowed the use of newer chipsets in the A1000, and an [[Australia|Australian]]-designed replacement A1000 motherboard called ''The Phoenix'' utilized the same chipset as the A3000 and added an A2000-compatible video slot and onboard [[SCSI]].
== Writable Control Store ==
Because [[AmigaOS]] was rather [[computer bug|buggy]] at the time of the A1000's release, the OS was not placed in ROM. Instead, the A1000 included a [[daughterboard]] with 256 KB of RAM, dubbed the "Writable Control Store" (WCS), into which the operating system was [[booting|booted]] from floppy disk (the disk containing the 256 KB image was called "Kickstart"). The WCS was write-protected after loading, and system resets did not require a reload of the WCS.
== Technical specifications ==
[[Image:JayMiner_Mitch.jpg|thumb|Jay Miner's signature from the top cover of a Commodore Amiga 1000 computer. The paw print is that of Mitch, Miner's dog.]]
* CPU: [[Motorola 68000]] (7.16 MHz NTSC, 7.09 MHz PAL)
* Chipset: [[Original_Amiga_chipset|OCS]] (Original Chipset)
**Audio (Paula):
*** 4 voices / 2 channels (Stereo)
*** 8-bit resolution / 6-bit volume
*** 28 KHz sampling rate
*** 70 dB S/N Ratio
**Video (Common resolutions):
***320x200 with 16 colors or HAM-6
***320x400i with 16 colors
***640x200 with 16 colors or HAM-6
***640x400i with 16 colors
* Memory:
** 8 [[KiB]] ROM for [[bootstrap]] code.
** 256 [[kilobyte|KiB]] of [[Chip RAM]] by default, with an additional 256 KiB provided by a dedicated cartridge.
** Practical upper limit of about 9 [[megabyte|MiB]] of [[Chip_RAM|Fast RAM]] memory due to being limited to an 24-bit [[address bus]].
***This memory can not be utilized by the chipset, and is therefore faster.
* Removable Storage:
** 3.5" DD Floppy drive, capacity 880 [[KiB]]
* Input/Output connections:
** Composite [[Television|TV]] out ([[PAL]] versions sold in Europe and Australia, [[NTSC]] elsewhere)
** Analogue RGB video plug
** RCA audio plugs
** 2 x Game/Joy ports ''(used by the mouse)''
** Keyboard port
** RS232 Serial port ([[DB25]])
** Centronics Parrallel port ([[DB25]])
** Port for external floppy drive
** One expansion port for add-ons (memory, [[SCSI]] adaptor, etc), electrically identical to the [[Amiga 500]] expansion port.
*** Resources handled by [[AutoConfig]].
*Software (Bundled):
** [[AmigaOS]] 1.0/1.1/1.2 operation system, loaded from the [[Kickstart]] [[floppy disk]] at power-on.
** Microsoft Amiga BASIC
** Voice synthesis library
== The two versions of the A1000 ==
There were two versions of the Amiga 1000. The first one was sold only in [[Canada]] and the [[United States]], had a [[NTSC]] display and lacked the EHB video mode which all other models of the Amiga had. Later versions of this version would have this video mode built in. The second one had a [[PAL]] display, the enhanced video modes (EHB) and was built in [[Germany]].
== External links ==
*[http://www.old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?st=1&c=28 The Commodore Amiga A1000 at OLD-COMPUTERS.COM]
{{CBM computers}}
[[Category:Commodore Amiga]]
[[de:Amiga 1000]]
[[es:Commodore Amiga 1000]]
[[fr:Amiga 1000]]
[[it:Amiga 1000]]
[[pl:Amiga 1000]]
[[fi:Amiga 1000]]
[[ru:Amiga 1000]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AmigaOS</title>
<id>3105</id>
<revision>
<id>41387022</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T00:19:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gennaro Prota</username>
<id>749040</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Overview */ fixed internal link to [[colon (punctuation)]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''AmigaOS''' is the default native [[operating system]] of the [[Amiga]] and [[AmigaOne]] personal computers.
==Overview==
The main [[modularity (programming)|modularization]] technique in AmigaOS is based on ''libraries'' (files with a "<code>.library</code>" extension), which are collections of functions much like [[shared library|shared libraries]] in other operating systems, but don't make use of [[dynamic linking]] (this has advantages and disadvantages).
One standard AmigaOS library enjoys a special status: the ''exec.library'' is the only library in the system hooked to a fixed memory address (address 4), and it basically functions as the AmigaOS [[kernel (computer science)|kernel]].
[[Device driver]]s are files with a "<code>.device</code>" extensions and are basically special libraries with somewhat standardized calls. The higher-lev |
oor]] are found in the [[Middle East]] and [[India]], respectively.
The instrument has seen somewhat of a revival in America in the American [[folk music]] traditions. It is also still played in [[Wales]], [[East Anglia]], [[Northumbria]], the [[Middle East]], China and [[Thailand]].
==Names of hammered dulcimers from around the world==
* Austria - Hackbrett
* Brazil - [[saltério]]
* Cambodia - [[khim]]
* China - [[yangqin]]
* Germany - Hackbrett
* Greece - [[santouri]]
* Hungary - [[cimbalom]]
* India - [[santoor]]
* Iran - [[santur]]
* Italy - [[salterio]]
* Korea - [[yanggum]]
* Laos - [[khim]]
* Mexico - [[salterio]]
* Netherlands - [[hakkebord]]
* Romania - [[cymbalum|ţambal]]
* Spain - [[salterio]]
* Sweden - [[hackbräda]], [[hammarharpa]]
* Switzerland - [[Hackbrett]], [[Hachbrattli]]
* Thailand - [[khim]]
* United States - [[hammered dulcimer]]
* Yiddish - [[tsimbl]]
== See also ==
* [[List of hammered dulcimer players]]
== Further reading ==
* Gifford, Paul M., ''The Hammered Dulcimer: A History'', The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2001 (ISBN 0810839431). A comprehensive history of the hammered dulcimer and its variants.
* Kettlewell, David, ''The Dulcimer'', PhD thesis, 1976. History and playing traditions around the world; web-version at http://www.new-renaissance.net/dulcimer.
==External links==
*[http://www.rtpnet.org/~hdweb/ The Hammered Dulcimer Page]
*[http://www.tsimbl.com/ Tsimbl.com]
*[http://www.boldersounds.com/Product.aspx?PID=25 Hammered Dulcimer Sample Library & MP3 Demos]
*[http://www.si.edu/resource/faq/nmah/hdhist.htm Smithsonian Institution booklet on hammered dulcimer history and playing]
*[http://www.si.edu/resource/faq/nmah/hdmake.htm Smithsonian Institution booklet on making a hammered dulcimer (by Sam Rizzetta)]
[[Category:String instruments]]
[[Category:Box zithers]]
[[nl:Hakkebord]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Humanae Vitae</title>
<id>14071</id>
<revision>
<id>37760878</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T00:25:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Musical Linguist</username>
<id>233733</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.22.44.66|24.22.44.66]] ([[User talk:24.22.44.66|talk]]) to last version by JASpencer</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Humanae Vitae''''' ([[Latin]] "of human life", but typically translated as '''On the Regulation of Human Birth''') is an [[encyclical]] written by [[Pope Paul VI]] and promulgated on [[July 25]], [[1968]]. It expresses the official position of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] regarding [[abortion]], [[contraception]], and other issues pertaining to human life. Mainly because of its prohibition of all forms of artificial birth control, the encyclical remains controversial even within the Church.
== Summary ==
The encyclical opens with the observation that circumstances often dictate that married couples should limit the number of children, and that the sexual act between husband and wife is still worthy even if it can be foreseen not to result in procreation.
Nevertheless, it is held that the sexual act must "retain its intrinsic relationship to the procreation of human life", and the "direct interruption of the generative process already begun" is unlawful.
[[Abortion]], even for therapeutic reasons, is absolutely forbidden, as is [[sterilization (surgical procedure)|sterilization]], even if temporary.
Similarly, every action specifically intended to prevent procreation is forbidden. This includes both chemical and barrier methods of contraception. All these are held to directly contradict the "moral order which was established by God".
Therapeutic means which induce infertility are allowed, if they are not specifically intended for that purpose (double effect).
[[Natural family planning]] methods (abstaining from intercourse during certain parts of the [[menstrual cycle|women's cycle]]) are allowed, since they take advantage of "a faculty provided by nature."
The acceptance of artificial methods of contraception is then claimed to result in several negative consequences, among them a "general lowering of moral standards" resulting from sex without consequences, and the danger that men may reduce women "to being a mere instrument for the satisfaction of [their] own desires".
The encyclical acknowledges that "perhaps not everyone will easily accept this particular teaching", but points out that the Church cannot "declare lawful what is in fact unlawful".
The encyclical closes with an appeal to public authorities to oppose laws which undermine the natural moral law (see [[natural law]]), an appeal to scientists to further study effective methods of natural birth control and appeals to doctors, nurses and priests to promote the method.
== History ==
There had been a long-standing general Christian prohibition on contraception and abortion, with such Church Fathers as [[Clement of Alexandria]] and [[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]] condemning the practices. At the [[1930]] [[Lambeth Conference]], the [[Anglican Communion]] changed its position by allowing for contraception in limited circumstances. Every other [[mainline]] [[Protestant]] denomination has since modified its view on contraception to one of approval.
In a partial reaction, [[Pope Pius XI]] wrote the encyclical [[Casti Connubii]] (On Christian Marriage) in 1930, reaffirming the Catholic Church's attachment to various traditional Christian teachings on marriage and sexuality, including artificial contraception even within marriage.
With the appearance of [[oral contraceptives]] in the early 1960s, some voices in the Church argued for a reconsideration of these positions.
In [[1963]] [[Pope John XXIII]] established a commission of theologians to study questions of birth control. After John's death in 1963, [[Pope Paul VI]] added laymen to this commission. The commission produced a report in [[1966]], stating that artificial birth control was not intrinsically evil and that Catholic couples should be allowed to decide for themselves about the methods to be employed. Two members of the commission produced a minority report stating that the Church should not and could not change its earlier teaching. Even though intended for the Pope only, the commission's reports were leaked to the press in [[1967]], raising public expectations of liberalization. However, Paul VI explicitly rejected the majority's recommendations.
===The role of Karol Wojty&#322;a===
The final language of the encyclical was heavily influenced by the Bishop of [[Kraków]], Karol Wojty&#322;a, who would later become [[Pope John Paul II]]. Bishop Wojty&#322;a had earlier defended the traditional church position from a philosophical standpoint in his [[1960]] book ''Love and Responsibility''.
As reported in George Weigel's biography of John Paul II, Wojty&#322;a had in fact been named by Paul VI to the commission to study the question. However, the [[Communist]] authorities in [[Poland]] would not permit him to travel to [[Rome]] to take part in the key meeting of June 1966 in which the majority decision of the commission was made.
After he became pope in [[1978]], John Paul II gave a series of lectures, entitled the [[Theology of the Body]], that further developed themes in ''Humanae Vitae'' and ''Love and Responsibility''.
== Reception ==
Many Catholics disagree with the prohibition on artificial birth control and continue to use these methods. The publication of the encyclical marks the first time in the twentieth century that open dissent about teachings of the church was voiced widely and publicly. The policy has been criticized by development organizations and others who claim that it limits the methods available to fight world-wide population growth and that the prohibition on condoms hinders the struggle against [[AIDS]].
Within two days of the encyclical's release, a group of dissident theologians, led by Rev. [[Charles Curran (theologian)|Charles Curran]], then of the [[Catholic University of America]], issued a statement affirming that Catholics' individual consciences should prevail in such a personal and private issue.
More recently, there has been a degree of resurgence of support for the teaching in the Church. Catholic writers, including [[Janet Smith]], [[Kimberly Hahn]], and [[Mary Shivanandan]] have all written extensively in support of the teaching, and on the reasons behind it.
==External links==
*[http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/paul_vi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-vi_enc_25071968_humanae-vitae_en.html Complete English text from the Vatican]
*[http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/paul_vi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-vi_enc_25071968_humanae-vitae_lt.html Original Latin text]
* Karol Wojty&#322;a: "[http://www.tcrnews2.com/HumanaeVitae.html The Truth of the Encyclical 'Humanae Vitae']", ''L'Osservatore Romano'', [[16 January]] [[1969]]
* [http://www.viastuas.net.au/bc/WeigelHV.html The Humanae Vitae controversy], chapter from George Weigel's biography of Karol Wojty&#322;a
* Megan Hartman: "[http://www.catholicsforchoice.org/articles/thirty.asp Humanae Vitae: Thirty Years of Discord and Dissent]", Conscience, Autumn 1998
==Further reading==
* Wojtyła, Karol, ''Love and Responsibility'', Ignatius Press, ISBN 0898704456, 1993.
* Smith, Janet, ''Why Humanae Vitae Was Right: A Reader'', Ignatius Press, ISBN 0898704332, 1993.
* Shivanandan, Mary, ''Crossing the Threshold of Love: A New Vision of Marriage'', Catholic University of America Press, ISBN 0813209412, 1999.
* Hahn, Kimberly, ''Life-Giving Love'', Charis Books, ISBN 0813209412, 2002.
[[Category:Papal Encyclicals]]
[[Category:Documents of the Catholic Church]]
[[Category:Catholic doctrines]]
[[Category:Theology of the Body]]
[[de:Humanae Vitae |
well and able to get up. She believed that the healing came from her belief as a Christian. As she recounted in her autobiography, ''Retrospection and Introspection'':
<blockquote>
Even to the [[homeopathic]] physician who attended me, and rejoiced in my recovery, I could not then explain the ''modus'' of my relief. I could only assure him that the divine Spirit had wrought the miracle—a miracle which later I found to be in perfect scientific accord with divine law.
</blockquote>
She referred to this event as her "Great Discovery", the "falling apple" that led to her "discovery how to be well" herself (ibid.) (Later, she gave it the name of "[[Christian Science]]".) Not knowing how it had occurred, she spent the next three years studying the Bible, experimenting and [[prayer|praying]] to discover if the experience was repeatable and if there were knowable laws that governed it. She claimed that she was able to heal others and began to be called out to the bedsides of those whom the medical faculty had not been able to help. A [[physician|doctor]] attending a severe case in [[New Hampshire]] is said to have witnessed her healing one of his patient and asked if she could explain her system. At the time, she said only that [[God]] did it. But he urged her to write about it and soon she began her main work explaining her system of Christian healing, ''[[Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures]]''.
Soon others began to ask her to teach her healing method and she claimed that her students were able to approximate her ability to heal. The readers of her book gathered into an organization and gradually developed into a church, with Mary Baker Eddy as its [[pastor]].
==== Possible influences ====
Although she had little formal education, Mary Baker Eddy spent much of her youth reading works in [[natural philosophy]], [[logic]], and [[moral science]], as well as the [[Bible]] and other Christian works. Prior to her recovery in [[1866]], she had investigated a number of common healing methods of her day, including [[allopathy]], [[homeopathy]], and [[hydropathy]]. But it was her experience as a patient of [[Phineas Quimby|P.P. Quimby]] that was to have one of the most profound effects, and certainly the most controversial, on her religious development.
Mary Baker Eddy asked her husband at the time, Daniel Patterson, to seek out Quimby's help for her in 1862, during a severe illness. Until Quimby's death in 1866, Eddy relied heavily on Quimby for her physical health. At the very least, he provided inspiration for Eddy's early writing on Christian Science; in fact, Quimby was to use the phrase "Christian Science" (in 1863). Some feel that there are remarkable similarities between the published works of Quimby and very early versions of "Science and Health."
In fact William Adams used the term "Christian Science" before Quimby in a book he wrote, ''The Elements of Christian Science'' first printed in 1850, and a later edition in 1857.
The extent of Quimby's influence on Eddy is controversial. Eddy would later claim that she in fact provided much of the foundation of ''his'' thoughts on healing. Those more sympathetic to Quimby and the [[New Thought]] religions stemming from his teachings find this to be unlikely, arguing that Quimby introduced some key elements that would appear in Christian Science as early as 1859. Also, Eddy was in fragile health prior to her "Great Discovery", and her letters to Quimby reveal a high degree of dependence. Despite this, Christian Science practice does not resemble Quimby's healing system, nor are their respective theologies remotely similar. Biographer Gillian Gill, who is relatively sympathetic to Eddy, writes that Quimby "had a profound influence on" Eddy although her religion was quite different from his (in her ''Mary Baker Eddy'' (1998), 146). The American religious scholar [[Ann Taves]] probes for specific differences and argues that "Quimby's rejection of special revelation was in keeping with both Spiritualism and the later New Thought tradition, while Eddy's insistence on revelation aligned Christian Science more strategically with evangelical Protestantism as represented by Edwards and Wesley and with [[Seventh-day Adventism]]" (in her ''Fits, Trances, and Visions'' (1999), 218).
An essay entitled "The Metaphysical Religion of Hegel" by Francis Lieber, written in November 1865, and copied in April 1866, was also to have an infuence on Mrs. Eddy and Christian Science. This essay can be found on page 68 of a book entitled ''Mrs. Eddy Purloins from Hegel: Newly Discovered Source Reveals Amazing Plagiarisms In Science and Health'' by Walter M. Haushalter, (1936). Written on the cover of the Lieber document in Eddy's own words are "N. B. This is Metaphysical Basis of Healing and Science of Health. Same as "Christ-power" and "Truth-power". "Christ-power" and "Truth-power" refer to two other essays by Francis Lieber on Hegel that she also read. See also ''The Healing Revelations of Mary Baker Eddy'' by Martin Gardner (1993) for other references to the Lieber document.
=== Theology ===
In ''[[Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures]]'', Eddy argues that given the absolute goodness and perfection of [[God]], sin, disease, and death were not created by Him, and therefore cannot be truly real. She bases this reading on Genesis 1, calling that the true record of creation in contrast to Genesis 2, the false record of creation obscuring the true (which occurred when "a mist went up from the face of the ground"). Rather than being [[ontology|ontologically]] real, in Christian Science evil and its manifestations are instead terrible lies about God and His creation. This, it contends, is what Jesus meant when he said that "the devil is a liar and the father of it" (John 8:44). The demand for Christians, therefore, is to "unmask" the devil's lies through Christ, revealing the true and eternal perfection of God's creation. Eddy therefore called evil "error" and felt it could be remedied through a better spiritual understanding of humanity's relationship to God. She contended that this understanding was what enabled the [[Bible|biblical]] [[Jesus]] to heal.
This teaching is the foundation of the Christian Science principle that disease &#8211; and any other adversity &#8211; can be cured through prayerful efforts, made possible only by God's grace, to fully understand this spiritual relationship. It is encapsulated in ''Science and Health'' as "The [[Scientific Statement of Being]]". It is read aloud in churches and Sunday schools at the end of every Sunday service, along with I John 3:1-3 and a biblical benediction:
::''There is no life, truth, intelligence, nor substance in matter.''
::''All is infinite Mind and its infinite manifestation, for God is All-in-all.''
::''Spirit is immortal Truth; matter is mortal error.''
::''Spirit is the real and eternal; matter is the unreal and temporal.''
::''Spirit is God, and man is His image and likeness.''
::''Therefore man is not material; he is spiritual.'' (p. 468)
This belief in the unreality of imperfection, stemming from the allness of God, is the basis of Christian Scientists' characteristic reliance on [[faith healing|prayer]] in place of traditional medical care, often with the aid of [[Christian Science Practitioner|Christian Science practitioners]].
Christian Science practitioners are listed in the [[Christian Science Journal]], with the permission of the church's [[Christian Science Board of Directors|Board of Directors]], their only form of official recognition by the church and among the Christian Science laity. (Some "unlisted" practitioners maintain active practices as well, but they do so without the prestige that a ''Journal'' listing brings. Additionally, medical plans that cover Christian Science treatment generally only cover treatment provided by Journal-listed practitioners.)
Practitioners treat patients, in Christian Science parlance, through prayer. Such treatment often, though not always, is for health-related problems, and a practitioner's patient may request help for personal problems as well, such as relationships, problems of employment or housing and so on. Practitioners may also charge modest fees for their services. Christian Scientists believe that through scientific study of the inspired word of the 'Bible,' especially Jesus' words and works, one can learn to heal. Healing is understood not as an end in itself, but a natural result of drawing closer to God. Healing sin is particularly important. Eddy called this the "emphatic purpose" of Christian Science, writing that it is also sometimes more difficult than healing sickness, because "while mortals love to sin, they do not love to be sick" (Rudimental Divine Science, 2).
Christian Scientists celebrate the sacraments of [[baptism]] and [[eucharist]] in an entirely non-material way. "Our baptism," wrote Eddy, "is purification from all error...Our Eucharist is spiritual communion with the one God. Our bread, 'which cometh down from heaven,' is Truth. Our cup is the cross. Our wine the inspiration of Love, the draught the Master drank and commended to his followers" (Science and Health 35). The only ritual in the Christian Science church is voluntary kneeling at the Sacrament service twice a year, while repeating the Lord's prayer. Marriage is not a sacrament in Christian Science, but it holds a special place as the context in which a man and a woman can partner to help one another grow into a fuller "demonstration," or lived understanding, of their spiritually complete natures as expressions of Father-Mother God.
Jesus Christ is both "Wayshower" |
vil War==
{{main articles|[[Finland's declaration of independence]], [[Finnish Civil War]]}}
In the aftermath of the [[February Revolution]] in Russia, Finland received a new [[Senate of Finland|Senate]], a coalition-Cabinet with the same power structure as the Finnish Parliament. Based on the [[general election]] in [[1916]], the [[Social democracy|Social Democrat]]s had a small majority, and the Social Democrat [[Oskari Tokoi]] became [[Prime Minister]]. The new Senate was willing to cooperate with the revolutionary government of Russia, but no agreement was reached. The Finns' view was basically that the [[personal union]] with Russia was finished after the [[Tsar]] was dethroned. They expected the Czar's authority to be transferred to Finland's Parliament, which the [[Russian Provisional Government, 1917|provisional government]] of Russia couldn't accept. For the Finnish Social Democrats it seemed as though the Russian [[Bourgeoisie]] was an obstacle on Finland's road to [[independence]] as well as on the [[Proletariat]]'s road to justice. The non-Socialists in Tokoi's Senate were however more confident. They, and most of the non-Socialists in the Parliament, rejected the Social Democrats' proposal on [[Parliamentarism]] (the so-called "Power Act") as being too far-reaching and provocative. The act restricted Russia's influence on domestic Finnish matters, but didn't touch the Russian government's power on matters of defence and foreign affairs. For the Russian Provisional government this was however far too radical. As the Parliament had exceeded its authority, it was dissolved.
The minority of the Parliament, and of the Senate, were content. New elections promised a chance to gain majority, which they were convinced would improve the chances to reach an understanding with Russia. The non-Socialists were also inclined to cooperate with the Russian Provisional government because they feared the Socialists' power would grow, resulting in radical reforms, such as [[Suffrage|equal suffrage]] in municipal elections, or a [[land reform]]. The majority had, of course, the squarely opposite opinion. They didn't accept the Provisional government's right to dissolve the Parliament.
The Social Democrats held on to the Power Act and opposed the publication of the decree of dissolution of the Parliament, whereas the non-Socialists voted for publishing it. The disagreement over the Power Act led to the Social Democrats leaving the Senate. When the Parliament met again after the summer recess in August 1917, only the groups supporting the Power Act were present. Russian troops took possession of the chamber, the Parliament was dissolved, and new elections were carried out. The result was a (small) bourgeois majority and a purely non-Socialist Senate. The abolishment of the Power Act, and the cooperation between Finnish bourgeois forces and oppressive Russia provoked great bitterness among the Socialists, and dozens of politically motivated [[terror]] [[assault]]s, including murders.
====Successful independence====
The [[Bolshevik Revolution]] turned Finnish politics upside down. Now the new non-Socialist majority of the Parliament felt a great urge for total independence, and the Socialists came gradually to view Russia as an example to follow. On [[November 15]], [[1917]], the [[Bolshevik]]s had declared a general right of [[self-determination]], including the right of complete [[secession]], [[Declaration of Rights of Peoples of Russia|"for the Peoples of Russia"]].
Worried by the development in Russia, and Finland, the non-Socialist Senate proposed for the parliament to [[Finland's declaration of independence|declare Finland's independence]], which was agreed on in the parliament on [[December 6]], [[1917]]. According to the Bolshevists' declared adherence to the principle of self-determination, Finland's independence could be expected to be accepted by Russia's revolutionary government, but almost a month passed before independence was acknowledged by Russia (on [[January 4]], [[1918]]). [[Germany]] and the [[Scandinavia]]n countries followed without delay.
In [[1918]], Finland experienced the brief but bitter [[Civil War of Finland]] that colored domestic politics and the [[foreign relations of Finland]] for many years. Finland's government defeated a socialist rebellion that had proclaimed the [[Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic]]. The defeat of the socialist rebellion was achieved with support from [[Imperial Germany]]; and only Germany's defeat in [[World War I]] saved Finland from becoming a German [[satellite state]]. The neighbor-country Sweden was in the midst of her own process of democratization, with socialists in government for the first time. For many decades, Finns on both sides remained bitter over Sweden's reluctance to become involved in the Civil War.
During the Civil War, the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] was signed between the [[Central Powers]] and [[Bolshevist Russia]], stating regarding Finland:
:''Germany and Austria-Hungary purpose to determine the future status of these territories in agreement with their population.''
:''Finland and the Åland Islands will immediately be cleared of Russian troops and the Russian Red Guard, and the Finnish ports of the Russian fleet and of the Russian naval forces. So long as the ice prevents the transfer of warships into Russian ports, only limited forces will remain on board the warships. Russia is to put an end to all agitation or propaganda against the Government or the public institutions of Finland.''
:''The fortresses built on the Åland Islands are to be removed as soon as possible. As regards the permanent non-fortification of these islands as well as their further treatment in respect to military technical navigation matters, a special agreement is to be concluded between Germany, Finland, Russia, and Sweden; there exists an understanding to the effect that, upon Germany's desire, still other countries bordering upon the Baltic Sea would be consulted in this matter.''
==Finland in the inter-war era==
Despite the Declaration of Independence calling Finland a Republic, initially Finland was to be a [[constitutional monarchy]]. [[Frederick Charles of Hesse]], a German prince, was elected King, putatively with the name [[Väinö I of Finland]], with [[Pehr Evind Svinhufvud]] and [[Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim|General Mannerheim]] serving as Regents. However, Germany's defeat in World War I meant that the idea was abandoned. Finland instead became a [[republic]], with [[Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg]] elected as its first President in [[1919]].
The new republic faced a dispute over the [[Åland]] Islands, which were overwhelmingly Swedish-speaking and sought retrocession to [[Sweden]]. However, as Finland was not willing to cede the islands, they were offered an autonomous status. Nevertheless, the residents did not approve the offer, and the dispute over the islands was submitted to the [[League of Nations]]. The League decided that Finland should retain sovereignty over the Åland Islands, but they should be made an autonomous province. Thus Finland was under an obligation to ensure the residents of the Åland Islands a right to maintain the [[Swedish language]], as well as their own culture and local traditions. At the same time, an international treaty was concluded on the neutral status of Åland, under which it was prohibited to place military headquarters or forces on the islands.
Directly after the Civil War there were many incidents along the border between Finland and Soviet Russia, such as the [[Aunus expedition]] and the [[Pork mutiny]]. Relations with the Soviets were improved after the [[Treaty of Tartu]] in [[1920]], in which Finland gained [[Petsamo]], but gave up claims on [[East Karelia]].
Nationalist sentiment remaining from the Civil War developed into the proto-Fascist [[Lapua Movement]] in 1929. Initially the movement gained widespread support among anti-Communist Finns, but following a failed [[Mäntsälä Rebellion|coup attempt]] in 1932 it was banned and its leaders imprisoned.
==Finland in World War II==
{{main|[[Military history of Finland during World War II]]}}
During [[World War II]], Finland fought the [[Soviet Union]] twice: she defended herself against the Soviet Union in the [[Winter War]] of [[1939]]-[[1940]] (with limited but crucial [[Sweden and the Winter War|support from Sweden]]), resulting in the loss of [[Finnish Karelia]], and invaded the Soviet Union herself in the [[Continuation War]] of [[1941]]-[[1944]] (with considerable support from [[Nazi Germany]]), leading also to the loss of Finland's only ice-free winter harbour [[Petsamo]]. This was followed by the [[Lapland War]] of [[1944]]-[[1945]], when Finland fought against the Germans to force them to withdraw their forces from northern Finland.
Finland managed to maintain its independence and democratic constitution, contrary to most other countries proximate to the Soviet Union, but was punished far more than other German allies and [[co-belligerence|cobelligerents]], having to pay enormous [[war reparations|reparations]], resettle an eighth of its population, and lose an eighth of its territory, including its industrial heartland and the second city [[Vyborg]]/''Viipuri.'' After the war, the Soviet Union settled these gained territories with people from many different regions, for instance from [[Ukraine]].
[[Anti-communism|Anti-Communist]] sentiments had, following the [[Civil War in Finland|Civil War]], been even more pronounced in Finland than in most other [[West Europe]]an societies. The propaganda war between [[Bolshevist Russia]]/the [[Soviet Union]] and her western [[border states|border state]] neighbours had been harsh and intense. The Finns were also better informed of the [[Great Purge]] than more distant nations. Hence, at the eve of the World War, the Finns had very concrete fears for their survival as a people & |
ould not have had the energy to react or that have such low energies that they probably would have taken a long time to react are able to react in the presence of a catalyst. Thus, more molecules that need to gain less energy to react will go through the chemical reaction.
Catalysts cannot make energetically unfavorable reactions possible &mdash; they have no effect on the chemical equilibrium of a reaction because the rate of both the forward and the reverse reaction are equally affected.
== Types of catalysts ==
Catalysts can be either [[heterogeneous]] or [[homogeneous]]. Heterogeneous catalysts are present in different phases from the reactants (e.g. a solid catalyst in a liquid reaction mixture), whereas homogeneous catalysts are in the same phase (e.g. a dissolved catalyst in a liquid reaction mixture). A simple model for heterogeneous catalysis involves the catalyst providing a surface on which the reactants (or [[substrate (biochemistry)|substrate]]s) temporarily become adsorbed. Bonds in the substrate become weakened sufficiently for new bonds to be created. The bonds between the products and the catalyst are weaker, so the products are released.
For example, in the Haber process to manufacture ammonia, finely divided iron acts as a heterogenous catalyst. The metal uses active sites to allow partial weak bonding to the reactant gases, which are adsorbed onto the metal surface. As a result, the bond within the molecule of a reactant is weakened and the reactant molecules are held in close proximity to each other. In this way the particularly strong triple bond in nitrogen is weakened and the hydrogen and nitrogen molecules are brought closer together than would be the case in the gas phase, so the rate of reaction increases.
Other heterogenous catalysts include vanadium V oxide in the Contact process, nickel in the manufacture of margarine, alumina and silica in the cracking of alkanes and platinum rhodium palladium in catalytic converters.
In car engines, incomplete combustion of the fuel produces carbon monoxide, which is toxic. The electric spark and high temperatures also allow the oxygen and nitrogen to react to form nitrogen monoxide, which is acidic. Catalytic converters reduce such emissions by adsorbing CO and NO onto the catalytic surface, where the gases undergo a redox reaction. Carbon dioxide and nitrogen are desorbed from the surface and emitted as relatively harmless gases:
2CO + 2NO → 2CO(2) + N(2)
Example of homogeneous catalysts are H+(aq) which acts as a catalyst in esterification and chlorine free radicals in the break down of ozone. Chlorine free radicals are formed by the action of ultraviolet radiation on chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). They react with ozone forming oxygen molecules and regenerating chlorine free radicals:
Cl(.) + O(3) → ClO(.) + O(2)
ClO(.) + O → Cl(.) + O(2)
N.B. Full stops in brackets denote free radicals that should be superscripted.
Numbers in brackets should be subscripted
Homogeneous catalysts generally react with one or more reactants to form a chemical intermediate that subsequently reacts to form the final reaction product, in the process regenerating the catalyst. The following is a typical reaction scheme, where C represents the catalyst:
:A + C &rarr; AC (1)
:B + AC &rarr; AB + C (2)
Although the catalyst (C) is consumed by reaction 1, it is subsequently produced by reaction 2, so for the overall reaction:
:A + B + C &rarr; AB + C
the catalyst is neither consumed nor produced. [[Enzyme]]s are biocatalysts.
Use of "catalyst" in a broader cultural sense is in rough analogy to the sense described here. Other biocatalysts are [[ribozyme]]s and [[deoxyribozyme]]s.
== Poisoning a Catalyst==
A catalyst can be poisoned if another compound reacts with it and bonds chemically, but does not release. This effectively destroys the usefulness of the catalyst, as it cannot participate in the reaction with which it was supposed to catalyse, just like [[Raney nickel]] catalyst has reduced activity when it is in combination with mild steel. The loss in activity of catalyst can be overcome by having a lining of epoxy or other substances .
== Commonly used catalysts ==
Estimates are that 60% of all commerically produced chemical products involve catalysts at some stage in the process of their manufacture.{{ref|catalystindustry}} Some of the most famous catalysts ever developed are the [[Ziegler-Natta catalyst]]s used to mass produce [[polyethylene]] and [[polypropylene]]. Probably the best-known catalytic reaction is the [[Haber process]] for [[ammonia]] synthesis, where ordinary [[iron]] is used as a catalyst. [[Catalytic converter]]s made from [[platinum]] and [[rhodium]] break down some of the more harmful byproducts of automobile exhaust. The most effective catalysts are usually [[transition element]]s.
==See also==
* [[Catalytic converter]]
* [[Coordination catalyst]]s
* [[Enzyme]]s and [[Ribozyme]]s - biocatalysts
* [[Nanomaterial based catalyst]]s
==References==
# "Recognizing the Best in Innovation: Breakthrough Catalyst". ''R&D Magazine'', September 2005, pg 20.
[[Category:Catalysts| ]]
[[ca:Catalitzador]]
[[cs:Katalyzátor]]
[[da:Katalysator]]
[[de:Katalysator]]
[[et:Katalüsaator]]
[[es:Catalizador]]
[[fr:Catalyseur]]
[[ko:촉매]]
[[io:Katalizo]]
[[id:Katalis]]
[[it:Catalizzatore]]
[[he:זרז]]
[[lt:Katalizatorius]]
[[mk:Катализатор]]
[[nl:Katalysator]]
[[ja:触媒]]
[[nn:Katalysator]]
[[pl:Katalizator]]
[[pt:Catalisador]]
[[ru:Катализатор]]
[[sk:Katalyzátor (chémia)]]
[[sr:Катализатор]]
[[su:Katalis]]
[[fi:Katalyytti]]
[[sv:Katalysator (kemi)]]
[[ta:வினைவேக மாற்றி]]
[[zh:催化剂]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Circumference</title>
<id>5916</id>
<revision>
<id>40361398</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:34:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''circumference''' is the distance around a closed curve. Circumference is a kind of [[perimeter]].
===Circle===
The circumference of a [[circle]] can be calculated from its [[diameter]] using the formula:
<math>c = \pi d</math>
Or, substituting the radius for the diameter:
<math>c = 2r\pi</math>
Where ''r'' is the [[radius]] and ''d'' is the diameter of the circle, and &pi; (the Greek letter [[pi]]) is the [[mathematical constant|constant]] 3.141 592 653 589 793...
=== Ellipse ===
The circumference of an [[ellipse]] is more problematical, as the exact solution requires finding the [[Elliptic_integral#Complete_elliptic_integral_of_the_second_kind|complete elliptic integral of the second kind]]. This can be achieved either via [[numerical integration]] (the best type being [[Gaussian quadrature]]) or by one of many [[binomial series]] expansions.
Where <math>a,b</math> are the ellipse's [[semi-major axis|semi-major]] and [[semi-minor axis|semi-minor]] axes, respectively, and <math>e\,\!</math> is the ellipse's [[eccentricity (mathematics)|eccentricity]],
<math>O\!\!E = \arcsin\!\left\{e\right\}=\arccos\!\left\{\frac{b}{a}\right\}\quad (\mbox{the }\ modular\ angle\mbox{ or }\ angular\ eccentricity\ );\,\!</math>
<math>\operatorname{E2}\left[0,90^\circ\right]= \mbox{Integral}'s\mbox{ divided difference};</math>
:&nbsp;&nbsp;<math>Pr=a\times\operatorname{E2}\left[0,90^\circ\right] \quad(\mbox{perimetric radius});\,\!</math>
::<math>c=2\pi\times Pr.\,\!</math>
There are many different [[approximation|approximations]] for <math>\operatorname{E2}\left[0,90^\circ\right]</math>, with varying degrees of sophistication and corresponding accuracy.
In comparing the different approximations, the <math>tan\!\left\{\frac{O\!\!E}{2}\right\}^2\,\!</math> based series expansion is used to find the actual value:
{|
|-
|<math>\operatorname{E2}\left[0,90^\circ\right]</math>
|<math>=cos\!\left\{\frac{O\!\!E}{2}\right\}^2 \frac{1}{UT}\sum_{TN=1}^{UT=\infty}
{.5\choose TN}^2
tan\!\left\{\frac{O\!\!E}{2}\right\}^{4TN},\,\!</math>
|-
|
|<math>\quad = cos\!\left\{\frac{O\!\!E}{2}\right\}^2\left[
1+\frac{1}{4}tan\!\left\{\frac{O\!\!E}{2}\right\}^4
+\frac{1}{64}tan\!\left\{\frac{O\!\!E}{2}\right\}^8
+\frac{1}{256}tan\!\left\{\frac{O\!\!E}{2}\right\}^{12}+...
\right];\,\!</math>
|}
==== Muir-1883 ====
:Probably the most accurate to its given simplicity is [[Thomas Muir (mathematician)|Thomas Muir's]]:
::<math>Pr \approx \left[\frac{a^{1.5}+b^{1.5}}{2}\right]^\frac{1}{1.5} =a\left[\frac{1+\cos\!\left\{O\!\!E\right\}^{1.5}}{2}\right]^\frac{1}{1.5},\,\!</math>
::::<math>\approx a\times cos\!\left\{\frac{O\!\!E}{2}\right\}^2\left[1+\frac{1}{4}tan\!\left\{\frac{O\!\!E}{2}\right\}^4\right];\,\!</math>
==== Ramanujan-1914 (#1,#2) ====
:[[Srinivasa Ramanujan]] introduced ''two'' different approximations, both from 1914:
::&nbsp;&nbsp;<math>1.\ Pr \approx \frac{1}{2}\left[3(a+b) - \sqrt{(3a+b)(a+3b)}\right];\,\!</math>
::::<math>=\frac{1}{2}a\left[6\cos\!\left\{\frac{O\!\!E}{2}\right\}^2 sqrt{(3+\cos\!\left\{O\!\!E\right\})(1+3\cos\!\left\{O\!\!E\right\})}\right];\,\!</math>
::&nbsp;&nbsp;<math>2.\ Pr \approx\frac{1}{2}\left[a+b\right]\left[1+\frac{3\left[\frac{a-b}{a+b}\right]^2}{10+\sqrt{4-3\left[\frac{a-b}{a+b}\right]^2}}\right];\,\!</math>
:::&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<math>=a\times
cos\!\left\{\frac{O\!\!E}{2}\right\}^2\left[1+\frac{3\tan\!\left\{\frac{O\!\!E}{2}\right\}^4}
{10+\sqrt{4-3\tan\!\left\{\frac{O\!\!E}{2}\right\}^4}}\right];\,\!</math>
:The second equation is by far the better of the two, and may be the most accurate approximation known.
Letting <i> |
Montella]]|pos=FW|other=vice-captain}}
{{Football squad player|no=10|nat=ITA|name=[[Francesco Totti]]|pos=FW|other=captain}}
{{Football squad player|no=11|nat=BRA|name=[[Rodrigo Taddei]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=13|nat=ROU|name=[[Cristian Chivu]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=14|nat=MAR|name=[[Houssine Kharja]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=15|nat=FRA|name=[[Olivier Dacourt]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=16|nat=ITA|name=[[Daniele De Rossi]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad mid}}
{{Football squad player|no=17|nat=ITA|name=[[Damiano Tommasi]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=20|nat=ITA|name=[[Simone Perrotta]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=21|nat=GRC|name=[[Dimitrios Eleftheropoulos]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=22|nat=ITA|name=[[Pietro Pipolo]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=24|nat=ITA|name=[[Luigi Sartor]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=25|nat=ARG|name=[[Leandro Damian Cufrè]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=26|nat=ITA|name=[[Alessio Cerci]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=28|nat=ITA|name=[[Aleandro Rosi]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=29|nat=ITA|name=[[Leandro Greco]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=30|nat=BRA|name=[[Alessandro Faiolhe Amantino Mancini|Mancini]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=32|nat=BRA|name=[[Donieber Alexander Marangon|Doni]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=35|nat=ITA|name=[[Stefano Okaka Chuka]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=40|nat=COD|name=[[Shabani Nonda]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad end}}
==Team honors==
[[Image:0001romaparmasaltomontella.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Vincenzo Montella]] celebrating the 2-0 goal in 2000/01 Roma-Parma 3-1 league match, which marked the winning of the league title.]]
*Italian [[Serie A|League Champions]] (''Scudetti'') '''3''' 1941-42 1982-83 2000-01
*Italian [[Coppa Italia|Cup]] '''7''' 1963-64 1968-69 1979-80 1980-81 1983-84 1985-86 1990-91
*Italian SuperCup '''1''' 2000-01
*[[Fairs Cup]] '''1''' 1960-61
*[[Anglo-Italian Cup]] '''1''' 1971-72
==Notable players==
* {{flagicon|BRA}} [[Aldair]] (1990-2003)
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Amadeo Amadei]]
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Francesco Antonioli]] (1999-2003)
* {{flagicon|BRA}} [[Marcos Assunção]] (1999-2002)
* {{flagicon|ARG}} [[Abel Balbo]] (1993-98, 2000-02)
* {{flagicon|ARG}} [[Gabriel Batistuta]] (2000-2002)
* {{flagicon|BRA}} [[Cafu]] (1997-2003)
* {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Vincent Candela]] (1996-2005)
* {{flagicon|Norway}} [[John Carew]] (2003-2004)
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Antonio Cassano]] (2001-2006)
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Bruno Conti]] (1973-1990)
* {{flagicon|BRA}} [[Dino Da Costa]]
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Marco Delvecchio]] (1995-2005)
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Luigi Di Biagio]] (1995-1999)
* {{flagicon|BRA}} [[Emerson Ferreira da Rosa|Emerson]] (2000-2004)
* {{flagicon|BRA}} [[Paulo Roberto Falcão]]
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Giuseppe Giannini]] (1981-1996)
* {{flagicon|GER}} [[Thomas Häßler]] (1991-1994)
* {{flagicon|BRA}} [[Alessandro Faiolhe Amantino Mancini|Mancini]]
* {{flagicon|ARG}} [[Pedro Manfredini]]
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Vincenzo Montella]]
* {{flagicon|JPN}} [[Hidetoshi Nakata]] (2000-2001)
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Roberto Pruzzo]]
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Claudio Ranieri]] (1972-1974)
* {{flagicon|ARG}} [[Walter Samuel]] (2000-2004)
* {{flagicon|ARG}} [[Angelo Sormani]]
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Francesco Totti]]
* {{flagicon|GER}} [[Rudi Völler]] (1987-1992)
* {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Jonathan Zebina]] (2000-2004)
==Coaches==
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Luciano Spalletti]] (2005-)
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Bruno Conti]] (2005, caretaker)
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Luigi Del Neri]] (2004-2005)
* {{flagicon|GER}} [[Rudi Völler]] (2004)
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Cesare Prandelli]] (Summer 2004)
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Fabio Capello]] (2000-2004)
* {{flagicon|CZE}} [[Zdenek Zeman]] (1997-1999)
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Ezio Sella]] (1996-1997)
* {{flagicon|SWE}} [[Nils Liedholm]] (1996-1997)
* {{flagicon|ARG}} [[Carlos Bianchi]] (1996-1997)
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Carlo Mazzone]] (1993-1996)
* {{flagicon|YUG}} [[Vujadin Boskov]] (1992-1993)
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Ottavio Bianchi]] (1990-1992)
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Gigi Radice]] (1989-1990)
* {{flagicon|SWE}} [[Nils Liedholm]] (1988-1989)
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Luciano Spinosi]] (1988-1989)
* {{flagicon|BRA}} [[Angelo Benedicto Sormani]] (1986-1987)
* {{flagicon|SWE}} [[Sven-Göran Eriksson]] (1984-1987)
* {{flagicon|SWE}} [[Nils Liedholm]] (1980-1984)
* {{flagicon|HUN}} [[Lajos Kovacs]] (1933-1934)
* {{flagicon|Austria}} [[Giovanni Baar]] (1932-1933)
* {{flagicon|ENG}} [[Francis Burgess]] (1930-1932)
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Guido Baccani]] (1929-1930)
* {{flagicon|ENG}} [[Willy Garbutt]] (1927-1929)
==Retired numbers==
*6 {{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Aldair]], [[defender (football)|centre back]], 1990-2003
==External links==
*{{it icon}} [http://www.asromacalcio.it Official Site in Italian]
*{{zh icon}} [http://www.asroma.com.cn Official Site in Chinese]
*[http://www.romacaputmundi.com Roma Caput Mundi] (news site)
* {{it icon}} [http://www.asromaultras.it/ ASRoma Ultras] (fans site)
*[http://www.fcitalia.com/roma/news/newsroma.htm AS Roma News] (news Italia)
*[http://www.asroma-addict.com/en/index.htm AS Roma Addict] (fans site)
*[http://www.roma-revolution.com AS Roma Revolution] (fans site & News Site)
*[http://www.resultsfromfootball.com/seriea-team/asroma.html AS Roma statistics]
{{Serie A}}
{{UEFA Cup 2005/06}}
[[Category:Italian football clubs|Roma]]
[[Category:Rome]]
[[cs:AS Roma]]
[[da:AS Roma]]
[[de:AS Rom]]
[[es:Associazione Sportiva Roma]]
[[fr:AS Rome]]
[[id:AS Roma]]
[[it:Associazione Sportiva Roma]]
[[he:רומא (כדורגל)]]
[[nl:AS Roma]]
[[ja:ASローマ]]
[[no:A.S. Roma]]
[[pl:AS Roma]]
[[pt:AS Roma]]
[[ru:АС Рома (футбольный клуб)]]
[[sv:AS Roma]]
[[zh:羅馬足球俱樂部]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Torino Calcio</title>
<id>2359</id>
<revision>
<id>26695870</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-28T10:27:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CapPixel</username>
<id>396007</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Torino F.C.]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Fatah - the Revolutionary Council</title>
<id>2360</id>
<revision>
<id>39828601</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T03:30:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Descendall</username>
<id>195820</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Formation & background */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Fatah - Revolutionary Council''' (better known as the '''Abu Nidal Organization''', after its founder [[Abu Nidal]]) was an international [[terrorism|terrorist]] organization created by a split from [[Fatah]] in [[1974]].
The group is also known as the Arab Revolutionary Brigades, Black June (not to be confused with [[Black September (group)|Black September]]) and the Revolutionary Organization of Socialist Muslims.
== Formation & background ==
Fatah-RC originally formed as a result of the 1974 [[Rejectionist Front]] split in the PLO, after the [[Arafat]]'s Fatah had pushed through amendments of the [[Palestinian Liberation Organization]]'s (PLO) goals, that were seen as a step towards compromise with [[Israel]]. Abu Nidal then moved to [[Ba'th]]-ruled [[Iraq]] where he set up the Fatah-RC, which soon began a vicious string of terrorist attacks.
It has not clearly defined its ideological position, but was clearly opposed to any form of compromise or negotiation with Israel. It is known as one of the most uncompromisingly militant Palestinian groups ever. It had an estimated membership of several hundred, but its strength today is not known.
== Fatah-RC attacks ==
During its history, Fatah-RC has carried out attacks in 20 countries, killing or injuring almost 900 persons. Targets include the [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], [[Israel]], moderate [[Palestinian]]s, the [[PLO]], and various [[Arab]] and [[Europe]]an countries. The group has not attacked Western targets since the late 1980s.
Major attacks included the [[Rome and Vienna Airport Attacks]] in December [[1985]], the [[Neve Shalom synagogue]] in [[Istanbul]] and the [[Pan Am]] [[Pan Am Flight 73|Flight 73]] hijacking in [[Karachi]] in September [[1986]], and the City of [[Poros]] day-excursion ship attack in [[Greece]] in July [[1988]].
Fatah-RC has been especially noted for its uncompromising stance on negotiation with Israel, treating anything less than all-out military struggle against Israel as treachery. This led the group to perform numerous attacks against the PLO, which had made clear it accepted a negotiated solution to the conflict. Fatah-RC is believed to have assassinated PLO deputy chief [[Abu Iyad]] and PLO security chief [[Abu Hul]] in [[Tunis]] in January [[1991]]. It assassinated a [[Jordan]]ian diplomat in [[Lebanon]] in January [[1994]] and has been linked to the killing of the PLO representative there. Noted PLO moderate [[Issam Sartawi]] was killed by the Fatah-RC in [[1983]]. In the late 1970s, Fatah-RC also made failed assassination attempt on the present Palestinian [[President of the Palestinian National Authority|president]] and PLO chairman, [[Mahmoud Abbas]]. These attacks, and numerous others, led to the PLO issuing a death sentence ''in absentia'' against Abu Nidal. In the early 1990s, it made an attempt to gain control of a refugee camp in [[Lebanon]], but this was thwarted by PLO organizations.
== Support ==
The group has at various stages received funding from [[Iraq]], [[Libya]], and (until [[1987]]) [[Syria]]. Initially, Fatah-RC was closest to the Iraqi regime, but near the end of the 1970s, it moved closer to Libya. From the early 1980s, some viewed it as a Libyan proxy. As [[Muammar al-Qadhafi|al-Qadhafi]] came under increasing pressure from Western governments for his involvement in international terrorism, Libyan backing dwindled, and the group seems to have been forced by the authorities to remain |
orced anti-Jewish provisions. These restrictions began as early as 305, when, in Elvira, (now [[Granada]]), a Spanish town in [[Andalusia]], the first known laws of any church council against Jews appeared. Christian women were forbidden to marry Jews unless the Jew first converted to Catholicism. Jews were forbidden to extend hospitality to Catholics. Jews could not keep Catholic Christian [[concubine]]s and were forbidden to bless the fields of Catholics. In 589, in Catholic Spain, the Third Council of Toledo ordered that children born of marriage between Jews and Catholic be baptized by force. By the Twelfth Council of Toledo (681) a policy of forced conversion of all Jews was initiated (Liber Judicum, II.2 as given in Roth). Thousands fled, and thousands of others converted to Roman Catholicism.
=== Anti-Semitism in the Middle Ages ===
[[Image:Talmudtrial.jpg|thumb|250px|1239. In the course of a [[disputation]], [[Pope Gregory IX]] ordered the [[Talmud]] burned (note a non-[[heretic]]al book floating above the fire). A 15th century painting by [[Pedro Berruguete]].]]
In the [[Middle Ages]] a main justification of prejudice against Jews in Europe was religious. Though not part of [[Catholic]] [[dogma]], many Christians, including members of the clergy, have held the Jewish people collectively responsible for killing Jesus (see [[Deicide]]), a practice originated by [[Melito of Sardis]]. As stated in the Boston College Guide to Passion Plays, "Over the course of time, Christians began to accept... that the Jewish people as a whole were responsible for killing Jesus. According to this interpretation, both the Jews present at Jesus’ death and the Jewish people collectively and for all time, have committed the sin of deicide, or God-killing. For 1900 years of Christian-Jewish history, the charge of deicide has led to hatred, violence against and murder of Jews in Europe and America."[http://moses.creighton.edu/JRS/pdf/ViewersGuide.pdf] This accusation was repudiated in 1964, when the Catholic Church under [[Pope Paul VI]] issued the document [[Nostra Aetate]] as a part of [[Vatican II]].
As the [[Black Death]] [[epidemics]] devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, rumors spread that Jews caused it by deliberately [[well poisoning|poisoning wells]]. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed by violence.
"Never mind that Jews were not immune from the ravages of the [[bubonic plague|plague]]; they were tortured until they "confessed" to crimes that they could not possibly have committed. In one such case, a man named Agimet was ... coerced to say that Rabbi Peyret of Chambery (near [[Geneva]]) had ordered him to poison the wells in [[Venice]], [[Toulouse]], and elsewhere. In the aftermath of Agimet’s "confession," the Jews of [[Strasbourg]] were burned alive on February 14, 1349. (Source: ''Jews: The Essence and Character of a People'' by Arthur Hertzberg and Aron Hirt-Manheimer, p.84)
Among socio-economic factors were restrictions by the authorities, local rulers and frequently church officials who closed many professions to the Jews, pushing them into marginal occupations considered socially inferior, such as local tax and rent collecting or moneylending, a necessary evil due to the increasing population and urbanization during the High Middle Ages. Catholic doctrine of the time held that moneylending for interest was a [[sin]], and as such Jews tended to dominate this business. This provided support for claims that Jews are insolent, greedy, engaged in [[usury]], and in itself contributed to a negative image. Natural tensions between creditors (typically Jews) and debtors (typically Christians) were added to social, political, religious and economic strains. Peasants who were forced to pay their taxes to Jews could personify them as the people taking their earnings while remaining loyal to the lords on whose behalf the Jews worked.
==== The demonizing of the Jews ====
From around the 12th century through the [[19th century|19th]] there were Christians who believed that some (or all) Jews possessed magical powers; some believed that they had gained these magical powers from making a deal with the [[devil]]. See also [[Judensau]], [[Judeophobia]].
==== Blood libels ====
''Main articles: [[blood libel]], [[list of blood libels against Jews]]''
On many occasions, Jews were accused of a [[blood libel]], the supposed drinking of blood of Christian children in mockery of the Christian [[Eucharist]]. According to the authors of these blood libels, the 'procedure' for the alleged sacrifice was something like this: a child who had not yet reached puberty was kidnapped and taken to a hidden place. The child would be tortured by Jews, and a crowd would gather at the place of execution (in some accounts the synagogue itself) and engage in a mock tribunal to try the child. The child would be presented to the tribunal naked and tied and eventually be condemned to death. In the end, the child would be crowned with thorns and tied or nailed to a wooden cross. The cross would be raised, and the blood dripping from the child's wounds would be caught in bowls or glasses. Finally, the child would be killed with a thrust through the heart from a spear, sword, or dagger. Its dead body would be removed from the cross and concealed or disposed of, but in some instances rituals of black magic would be performed on it. This method, with some variations, can be found in all the alleged Christian descriptions of ritual murder by Jews.
The story of [[William of Norwich]] (d. 1144) is the first known case of ritual murder being alleged by a Christian monk while the story of [[Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln]] (d. 1255) said that after the boy was dead, his body was removed from the cross and laid on a table. His belly was cut open and his entrails removed for some occult purpose, such as a [[haruspex|divination ritual]]. The story of [[Simon of Trent]] (d. 1475) emphasized how the boy was held over a large bowl so all his blood could be collected. Simon was regarded as a saint, and was canonized by [[Pope Sixtus V]] in 1588. The cult of Simon was disbanded in 1965 by [[Pope Paul VI]], and the shrine erected to him was dismantled. He was removed from the calendar, and his future veneration was forbidden, though a handful of extremists still promote the narrative as a fact. In the 20th century, the [[Menahem Mendel Beilis|Beilis Trial]] in Russia and the [[Kielce pogrom]] represented incidents of blood libel in Europe, while more recently blood libel stories have appeared a number of times in the state-sponsored media of a number of Arab nations, in Arab television shows, and on websites.
==== Host desecration ====
[[Image:Descreationofhost.gif|thumb|right|150px|A 15th century German woodcut showing an alleged host desecration. In the first panel the hosts are stolen, in the second the hosts bleed when pierced by a Jew, in the third the Jews are arrested, and in the fourth they are burned alive.]]
Jews were falsely accused of torturing consecrated host wafers in a reenactment of the [[Crucifixion]]; this accusation was known as ''[[host desecration]]''.
=== Disabilities and Restrictions ===
[[Image:BritLibCottonNeroD1Fol183vPersecutedJews.jpg|thumb|left|The yellow badge Jews were forced to wear can be seen in this marginal illustration from an English manuscript.]]
Jews were subject to a wide range of legal restrictions throughout the Middle Ages, some of which lasted until the end of the 19th century. Jews were excluded from many trades, the list of excluded occupations varying in different communities, and being determined largely by the political influence of various non-Jewish competing interests. Frequently all occupations were barred against Jews, except money-lending and peddling—even these at times being prohibited. The number of Jews or Jewish families permitted to reside in different places was limited; they were concentrated in [[ghettos]], and were not allowed to own land; and they were subjected to discriminatory taxes on entering cities or districts other than their own, forced to swear special [[Oath More Judaico|Jewish Oaths]], and a variety of other measures, including restrictions on dress.
====Clothing====
''Main article: [[yellow badge]], [[Judenhut]]''
The [[Fourth Lateran Council]] in 1215 was the first to proclaim the requirement for Jews to wear something that distinguished them as Jews. It could be a colored piece of cloth in the shape of a star or circle or square, a hat ([[Judenhut]]), or a robe. In many localities, members of the medieval society wore badges to distinguish their social status. Some badges (such as [[guild]] members) were prestigious, while others ostracized outcasts such as [[leper]]s, reformed [[heretic]]s and [[prostitute]]s. Jews sought to evade the [[Jewish badge|badges]] by paying what amounted to bribes in the form of temporary "exemptions" to kings, which were revoked and re-paid whenever the king needed to raise funds.
=== The Crusades ===
The '''[[Crusade]]s''' were a series of several military campaigns sanctioned by the [[Papacy]] that took place during the [[11th century|11th]] through [[13th century|13th centuries]]. They began as [[Catholic]] endeavors to capture [[Jerusalem]] from the [[Islam|Muslims]] but developed into territorial wars.
The mobs accompanying the first three Crusades attacked the Jewish communities in Germany, France, and England, and put many Jews to death. Entire communities, like those of Treves, Speyer, Worms, Mayence, and Cologne, were slain during the first Crusade by a mob army. About 12,000 Jews are said to have perished in the Rhenish cities alone between May and July, 1096. Before the Crusades the Jews had practically a monopoly of trade in Eastern products, but the closer connection between Europe and the East brought about by the Crusades raised up a class of merchant traders among |
').
This branch of [[mathematics]] deals with the long-term qualitative behavior of dynamical systems. Here, the focus is not on finding precise solutions to the equations defining the dynamical system (which is often hopeless), but rather to answer questions like "Will the system settle down to a steady state in the long term, and if so, what are the possible [[attractor|attractors]]?" or "Does the long-term behavior of the system depend on its initial condition?"
Note that the chaotic behavior of complicated systems is not the issue. [[Meteorology]] has been known for years to involve complicated&mdash;even chaotic&mdash;behavior. Chaos theory has been so surprising because chaos can be found within almost trivial systems. The [[logistic map]] is only a second-degree polynomial; the [[horseshoe map]] is piecewise linear.
== Formal definition ==
There are two formal definitions for a dynamical system: one is motivated by ordinary differential equations and is geometrical in flavor; and the other is motivated by ergodic theory and is measure theoretical in flavor. The measure theoretical definitions assumes the existence of a measure-preserving transformation. This appears to exclude dissipative systems, as in a dissipative system a small region of phase space shrinks under time evolution. A simple construction (sometimes called the [[N. S. Krylov|Krylov]]-[[Nikolai Bogoliubov|Bogoliubov]] theorem) shows that it is always possible to construct a measure so as to make the evolution rule of the dynamical system a measure-preserving transformation. In the construction a given measure of the state space is summed for all future points of a trajectory, assuring the invariance.
Many different invariant measures can be associated to any one evolution rule. In ergodic theory the choice is assumed made, but if the dynamical system is given by a system of differential equations the appropriate measure must be determined. Some systems have a natural measure, such as the [[Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)|Liouville measure]] in [[Hamiltonian system]]s, chosen over other invariant measures, such as the measures supported on periodic orbits of the Hamiltonian system. For many dissipative chaotic systems the choice of invariant measure is technically more challenging. The measure needs to be supported on the attractor, but attractors have zero [[Lebesgue measure]] and the invariant measures must be singular with respect to the Lebesgue measure.
For hyperbolic dynamical systems, the [[Sinai-Ruelle-Bowen measure|SRB measures]] appear to be the natural choice. They are constructed on the geometrical structure of stable and unstable manifolds of the dynamical system; they behave physically under small perturbations; and they explain many of the observed statistics of hyperbolic systems.
The difficulty in constructing the natural measure for a dynamical system makes it difficult to develop ergodic theory starting from differential equations, so it becomes convenient to have a dynamical systems-motivated definition within ergodic theory that side-steps the choice of measure.
=== Geometrical definition ===
A dynamical system is the tuple <math> \langle \mathcal{M}, f , \mathcal{T}\rangle </math>, with <math>\mathcal{M}</math> a manifold (locally a Banach space or Euclidean space), <math>\mathcal{T}</math> the domain for time (non-negative reals, the integers, ...) and an evolution rule ''f<sup>&nbsp;t</sup>'' (with <math>t\in\mathcal{T}</math>) a diffeomorphism of the manifold to itself.
=== Measure theoretical definition ===
:''See main article [[measure-preserving dynamical system]].''
A dynamical system may be defined formally, as a measure-preserving transformation of a [[sigma-algebra]], the quadruplet <math>(X,\Sigma,\mu,\tau)</math>. Here, ''X'' is a [[set (mathematics)|set]], and &Sigma; is a [[topology]] on ''X'', so that <math>(X, \Sigma)</math> is a sigma-algebra. For every element <math>\sigma \in \Sigma</math>, &mu; is its finite [[measure (mathematics)|measure]], so that the triplet <math>(X,\Sigma,\mu)</math> is a [[measure space|probability space]]. A map <math>\tau:X\to X</math> is said to be [[measureable function|&Sigma;-measurable]] if and only if, for every <math>\sigma \in \Sigma</math>, one has <math>\tau^{-1}\sigma \in \Sigma</math>. A map &tau; is said to '''preserve the measure''' if and only if, for every <math>\sigma \in \Sigma</math>, one has <math>\mu(\tau^{-1}\sigma ) = \mu(\sigma)</math>. Combining the above, a map &tau; is said to be a '''measure-preserving transformation of ''X'' ''', if it is a map from ''X'' to itself, it is &Sigma;-measurable, and is measure-preserving. The quadruple <math>(X,\Sigma,\mu,\tau)</math>, for such a &tau;, is then defined to be a '''dynamical system'''.
The map &tau; embodies the time evolution of the dynamical system. Thus, for discrete dynamical systems the [[iterated function|iterates]] <math>\tau^n=\tau \circ \tau \circ \ldots\circ\tau</math> for integer ''n'' are studied. For continuous dynamical systems, the map &tau; is understood to be finite time evolution map and the construction is more complicated.
== Examples of dynamical systems ==
* [[Logistic map]]
* [[Double pendulum]]
* [[Horseshoe map]]
* [[Baker's map]] is an example of a chaotic [[piecewise linear]] map
* [[Dynamical billiards|Billiards]] and [[Dynamical outer billiards|Outer Billiards]]
* [[Henon map]]
* [[Lorenz attractor|Lorenz system]]
* [[Circle map]]
* [[Rossler map]]
* [[List of chaotic maps]]
* [http://www.drchaos.net/drchaos/Sam/sam.html Swinging Atwood's Machine (SAM)]
* [http://www.drchaos.net/drchaos/bb.html Bouncing Ball]
* [http://www.drchaos.net/drchaos/string_web_page/index.html Mechanical Strings]
== See also ==
* [[Systems theory]]
* [[System dynamics]]
* [[List of dynamical system topics]]
* [[Oscillation]]
* [[Sarkovskii's theorem]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.math.sunysb.edu/dynamics/ Dynamical systems at SUNY] has a large and active group in dynamical systems. Lists of conferences, researchers, and some open problems.
* [http://www.dynamical-systems.org Oliver Knill] has a series of examples of dynamical systems with explanations and interactive controls.
* [http://www.arxiv.org/list/math.DS/recent Arxiv preprint server] has daily submissions of (non-refereed) manuscripts in dynamical systems.
* [http://www-chaos.umd.edu/ Chaos @ UMD] concentrates on the applications of dynamical systems.
== References ==
Works providing a broad coverage:
* {{cite book | author=Ralph Abraham and Jerrold E. Marsden | title= Foundations of mechanics | publisher= Benjamin-Cummings | year= 1978 | id=ISBN 080530102X}} (available as a reprint: ISBN 0201408406)
* ''[[User:XaosBits/EMP |Encyclopaedia of Mathematical Sciences]]'' (ISSN: 0938-0396) has a sub-series on dynamical systems with reviews of current research.
* {{cite book | author=Anatole Katok and Boris Hasselblatt | title= Introduction to the modern theory of dynamical systems | publisher= Cambridge | year= 1996 | id=ISBN 0521575575}}
Introductory texts with a unique perspective:
* {{cite book | author=V. I. Arnold | title=Mathematical methods of classical mechanics | publisher=Springer-Verlag | year=1982 | id=ISBN 0387968903}}
* {{cite book | author=Jacob Palis and Wellington de Melo | title=Geometric theory of dynamical systems: an introduction | publisher=Springer-Verlag | year=1982 | id=ISBN 0387906681}}
* {{cite book | author=David Ruelle | title=Elements of Differentiable Dynamics and Bifurcation Theory | publisher=Academic Press | year=1989 | id=ISBN 0126017107}}
* {{cite book | author=Tim Bedford, Michael Keane and Caroline Series, ''eds.'' | title= Ergodic theory, symbolic dynamics and hyperbolic spaces | publisher= Oxford University Press | year= 1991 | id= ISBN 0-19-853390-X }}
* {{cite book | author=Tufillaro, Abbott, Reilly | title=An experimental approach to nonlinear dynamics and chaos | publisher=Addison-Wesley New York | year=1992 | id=ISBN 0201554410}}
Popularizations:
* {{cite book | author=Florin Diacu and Philip Holmes | title= Celestial Encounters | publisher= Princeton | year= 1996 | id= ISBN 0691027439}}
* {{cite book | author=James Gleick | title= Chaos: Making a New Science | publisher= Penguin | year= 1988 | id= ISBN 0140092501}}
Online books or lecture notes:
* [http://arxiv.org/pdf/math.HO/0111177 Geometrical theory of dynamical systems]. Nils Berglund's lecture notes for a course at [[ETH]] at the advanced undergraduate level.
* [http://www.ams.org/online_bks/coll9/ Dynamical systems]. George D. Birkhoff's 1927 book already takes a modern approach to dynamical systems.
* [http://alf.nbi.dk/ChaosBook/ Chaos: classical and quantum]. An introduction to dynamical systems from the periodic orbit point of view.
[[Category:Dynamical systems| ]]
[[de:Dynamisches System]]
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<title>Dynamic system</title>
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<title>Dhimmi</title>
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<i |
and architect (b. [[1599]])
*[[1712]] - [[Joshua Barnes]], English scholar (b. [[1654]])
*[[1720]] - [[Anthonie Heinsius]], Dutch statesman (b. [[1641]])
*[[1721]] - [[Grinling Gibbons]], Dutch-born woodcarver (b. [[1648]])
*[[1761]] - [[Johann Matthias Gesner]], German classical scholar (b. [[1691]])
*[[1773]] - [[Stanisław Konarski]], Polish writer (b. [[1700]])
*[[1780]] - [[Étienne Bonnot de Condillac]], French philosopher (b. [[1715]])
*[[1792]] - [[Richard Arkwright]], English industrialist and inventor (b. [[1732]])
*[[1797]] - [[Jeffrey Amherst]], British military commander (b. [[1717]])
*[[1805]] - [[Christopher Anstey]], English writer (b. [[1724]])
*[[1857]] - [[Eugène Sue]], French novelist (b. [[1804]])
*[[1867]] - [[Philipp August Böckh]], German scholar and antiquarian (b. [[1785]])
*[[1877]] - [[William Butler Ogden]], first Mayor of Chicago (b.[[1805]])
*[[1879]] - [[Joseph Severn]], English painter (b. [[1793]])
*[[1916]] - Sir [[Roger Casement]], Irish rebel (hanged) (b. [[1864]])
*[[1924]] - [[Joseph Conrad]], Polish-born writer (b. [[1857]])
*[[1929]] - [[Emil Berliner]], German-born telephone and recording pioneer (b. [[1851]])
*1929 - [[Thorstein Veblen]], American economist (b. [[1857]])
*[[1942]] - [[Richard Willstätter]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1872]])
*[[1954]] - [[Colette]], French writer (b. [[1873]])
*[[1964]] - [[Flannery O'Connor]], American writer (b. [[1925]])
*[[1966]] - [[Lenny Bruce]], American comedian (b. [[1925]])
*[[1973]] - [[Richard Marshall]], U.S. Army general (b. [[1895]])
*[[1977]] - [[Alfred Lunt]], American actor (b. [[1892]])
*1977 - Archbishop [[Makarios]] of Cyprus (b. [[1913]])
*[[1979]] - [[Bertil Ohlin]], Swedish economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1899]])
*[[1983]] - [[Carolyn Jones]], American actress (b. [[1929]])
*[[1995]] - [[Ida Lupino]], English actress and director (b. [[1914]])
*1995 - [[Edward Whittemore]], American writer (b. [[1933]])
*[[1998]] - [[Alfred Schnittke]], Russian composer (b. [[1934]])
*[[2001]] - [[Christopher Hewett]], British actor (b. [[1922]])
*[[2002]] - [[Carmen Silvera]], British actress (b. [[1922]])
*[[2003]] - [[Roger Voudouris]], American singer and songwriter (b. [[1954]])
*[[2004]] - [[Henri Cartier-Bresson]], French photographer (b. [[1908]])
*[[2005]] - [[Françoise d'Eaubonne]], French feminist (b. [[1920]])
*2005 - [[Steven Vincent]], American journalist (b. [[1955]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Equatorial Guinea]] - [[Armed Forces Day]]
*[[Niger]] - [[Independence Day]]
== External links ==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/3 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050803.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
----
[[August 2]] - [[August 4]] - [[July 3]] - [[September 3]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[ilo:Agosto 3]]
[[af:3 Augustus]]
[[ar:3 أغسطس]]
[[an:3 d'agosto]]
[[ast:3 d'agostu]]
[[bg:3 август]]
[[be:3 жніўня]]
[[bs:3. avgust]]
[[ca:3 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 3]]
[[cv:Çурла, 3]]
[[co:3 d'aostu]]
[[cs:3. srpen]]
[[cy:3 Awst]]
[[da:3. august]]
[[de:3. August]]
[[et:3. august]]
[[el:3 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:3 de agosto]]
[[eo:3-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 3]]
[[fo:3. august]]
[[fr:3 août]]
[[fy:3 augustus]]
[[ga:3 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:3 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 3일]]
[[hr:3. kolovoza]]
[[io:3 di agosto]]
[[id:3 Agustus]]
[[ia:3 de augusto]]
[[ie:3 august]]
[[is:3. ágúst]]
[[it:3 agosto]]
[[he:3 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:3 Agustus]]
[[ka:3 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:3 zélnika]]
[[ku:3'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 3]]
[[lb:3. August]]
[[li:3 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 3]]
[[mk:3 август]]
[[ms:3 Ogos]]
[[nap:3 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:3 augustus]]
[[ja:8月3日]]
[[no:3. august]]
[[nn:3. august]]
[[oc:3 d'agost]]
[[pl:3 sierpnia]]
[[pt:3 de Agosto]]
[[ro:3 august]]
[[ru:3 августа]]
[[sco:3 August]]
[[sq:3 Gusht]]
[[scn:3 di austu]]
[[simple:August 3]]
[[sk:3. august]]
[[sl:3. avgust]]
[[sr:3. август]]
[[fi:3. elokuuta]]
[[sv:3 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 3]]
[[tt:3. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 3]]
[[th:3 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:3 tháng 8]]
[[tr:3 Ağustos]]
[[uk:3 серпня]]
[[wa:3 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 3]]
[[zh:8月3日]]
[[pam:Agostu 3]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Advanced Encryption Standard</title>
<id>1260</id>
<revision>
<id>41635903</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T18:12:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ciphergoth</username>
<id>9493</id>
</contributor>
<comment>express that differently - move AddRoundKey to the front</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Block Ciphers|
fullName = AES |
image = AES-SubBytes.png |
caption = The <tt>SubBytes</tt> step, one of four stages in a round of AES.|
yearPublished = [[1998]] |
derivedFrom = [[Square (cipher)]] |
derivedTo = [[Crypton (cypher)]], [[Anubis (cipher)]], [[GRAND CRU]] |
designers = [[Vincent Rijmen]] and [[Joan Daemen]] |
blockSize = 128 bits [[Advanced_Encryption_Standard#blocksize|note]]|
keySize = 128, 192 or 256 bits [[Advanced_Encryption_Standard#keysize|note]]|
cipherStructure = [[Substitution-permutation network]] |
rounds = 10, 12 and 14 (for the respective key sizes) |
cryptanalysis = A [[related-key attack]] can break up to 9 rounds of 256-bit AES. A [[chosen-plaintext attack]] can break 8 rounds of 192- and 256-bit AES, and 7 rounds of 128-bit AES. (Ferguson et al, 2000). |
|}}
In [[cryptography]], the '''Advanced Encryption Standard''' ('''AES'''), also known as '''Rijndael''', is a [[block cipher]] adopted as an [[encryption]] standard by the [[United States|US]] government. It is expected to be used worldwide and analysed extensively, as was the case with its predecessor, the [[Data Encryption Standard]] (DES). AES was adopted by [[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] (NIST) as US [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS]] PUB 197 in [[November]] [[2001]] after a 5-year standardisation process (see [[Advanced Encryption Standard process]] for more details).
The cipher was developed by two [[Belgium|Belgian]] cryptographers, [[Joan Daemen]] and [[Vincent Rijmen]], and submitted to the AES selection process under the name "Rijndael", a [[portmanteau]] comprising the names of the inventors. Rijndael can be pronounced "Rhine dahl", a long "[[i]]" and a silent "[[e]]" ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|[&#633;aindal]}}). In the sound file linked below, it is pronounced {{IPA|[r&#688;aindau]}}.
==Development==
Rijndael was a refinement of an earlier design by Daemen and Rijmen, [[Square (cipher)|Square]]; Square was a development from [[Shark (cipher)|Shark]].
Unlike its predecessor DES, Rijndael is a [[substitution-permutation network]], not a [[Feistel network]]. AES is fast in both [[computer software|software]] and [[hardware]], is relatively easy to implement, and requires little [[computer memory|memory]]. As a new encryption standard, it is currently being deployed on a large scale.
<br clear="all">
==Description of the cipher==
{| align="right" style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em;" width="325px"
| [[Image:AES-AddRoundKey.png|right|320px|thumbnail|In the <tt>AddRoundKey</tt> step, each byte of the state is combined with a byte of the round subkey using the [[XOR]] operation (&oplus;).]]
|-
| [[Image:AES-SubBytes.png|right|320px|thumbnail|In the <tt>SubBytes</tt> step, each byte in the state is replaced with its entry in a fixed 8-bit lookup table, ''S''; ''b<sub>ij</sub>'' = ''S(a<sub>ij</sub>)''.]]
|-
| [[Image:AES-ShiftRows.png|right|320px|thumbnail|In the <tt>ShiftRows</tt> step, bytes in each row of the state are shifted cyclically to the left. The number of places each byte is shifted differs for each row.]]
|-
| [[Image:AES-MixColumns.png|right|320px|thumbnail|In the <tt>MixColumns</tt> step, each column of the state is multiplied with a fixed polynomial ''c(x)''.]]
|-
|}
Strictly speaking, AES is not precisely Rijndael (although in practice they are used interchangeably) as Rijndael supports a larger range of [[block size (cryptography)|block]] and [[key size]]s; AES has a fixed block size of 128 [[bit]]s and a key size of 128, 192 or 256 bits, whereas Rijndael can be specified with key and block sizes in any multiple of 32 bits, with a minimum of 128 bits and a maximum of 256 bits.
The key is expanded using [[Rijndael key schedule|Rijndael's key schedule]].
Most of AES calculations are done in a special [[Finite field arithmetic|finite field]].
AES operates on a 4&times;4 array of [[byte]]s, termed the ''state'' (versions of Rijndael with a larger block size have additional columns in the state). For encryption, each round of AES (except the last round) consists of four stages:
# <tt>AddRoundKey</tt> &mdash; each byte of the state is combined with the round key; each round key is derived from the cipher key using a [[key schedule]].
# <tt>SubBytes</tt> &mdash; a non-linear substitution step where each byte is replaced with another according to a [[Rijndael S-box|lookup table]].
# <tt>ShiftRows</tt> &mdash; a transposition step where each row of the state is shifted cyclically a certain number of steps.
# <tt>MixColumns</tt> &mdash; a mixing operation which operates on the columns of the state, combining the four bytes in each column using a linear transformation.
The final round replaces the <tt>MixColumns</tt> stage with another instance of <tt>AddRoundKey</tt>.
===The <tt>AddRoundKey</tt> step===
In the <tt>AddRoundKey</tt> step, the subkey is combined with the state. For each round, a subkey is derived from the main |
e capacitor.
===Hydraulic model===
As electrical circuitry can be modeled by fluid flow, a capacitor can be modeled as a chamber with a flexible diaphragm separating the input from the output. As can be determined intuitively as well as mathematically, this provides the correct characteristics: the pressure across the unit is proportional to the integral of the current, a steady-state current cannot pass through it but a pulse or alternating current can be transmitted, the capacitance of units connected in parallel is equivalent to the sum of their individual capacitances; etc.
== In electric circuits ==
=== Circuits with DC sources ===
Electrons cannot directly pass across the dielectric from one plate of the capacitor to the other. When there is a current through a capacitor, electrons accumulate on one plate and electrons are removed from the other plate. This process is commonly called 'charging' the capacitor even though the capacitor is at all times electrically neutral. In fact, the current through the capacitor results in the separation rather than the accumulation of electric charge. This separation of charge causes an electric field to develop between the plates of the capacitor giving rise to voltage across the plates. This voltage V is directly proportional to the amount of charge separated Q. But Q is just the time integral of the current I through the capacitor. This is expressed mathematically as:
:<math>I = \frac{dQ}{dt} = C\frac{dV}{dt}</math>
where
:I is the current flowing in the conventional direction, measured in [[ampere]]s
:dV/dt is the time [[derivative]] of voltage, measured in [[volt]]s / [[second]].
:C is the capacitance in farads
For circuits with a constant (DC) voltage source, the voltage across the capacitor cannot exceed the voltage of the source. Thus, an equilibrium is reached where the voltage across the capacitor is constant and the current through the capacitor is zero. For this reason, it is commonly said that capacitors block DC current.
=== Circuits with AC sources ===
The capacitor current due to an [[Alternating current|AC]] voltage or current source reverses direction periodically. That is, the AC current alternately charges the plates in one direction and then the other. With the exception of the instant that the current changes direction, the capacitor current is non-zero at all times during a cycle. For this reason, it is commonly said that capacitors 'pass' AC current. However, at no time do electrons actually cross between the plates.
Since the voltage across a capacitor is the integral of the current, as shown above, with sine waves in AC or signal circuits this results in a phase difference of 90 degrees, the current leading the voltage phase angle. It can be shown that the AC voltage across the capacitor is in [[quadrature]] with the AC current through the capacitor. That is, the voltage and current are 'out-of-phase' by a quarter cycle. The amplitude of the voltage depends on the amplitude of the current divided by the product of the frequency of the current with the capacitance, C. The ratio of the voltage [[amplitude]] to the current amplitude is called the [[reactance]] of the capacitor. This '''capacitive reactance''' is given by:
:<math>X_C = -\frac{1}{2 \pi f C} = -\frac{1}{\omega C}</math>
where
:''<math>\omega = 2 \pi f</math>'', the angular frequency measured in radians per second
:''X<sub>C</sub>'' = capacitive reactance, measured in ohms
:''f'' = [[frequency]] of AC in [[hertz]]
:''C'' = capacitance in farads
and is analogous to the [[Electrical resistance|resistance]] of a [[resistor]]. Clearly, the reactance is [[inversely proportional]] to the frequency. That is, for very high-frequency alternating currents the reactance approaches zero so that a capacitor is nearly a short circuit to a very high frequency AC source. Conversely, for very low frequency alternating currents, the reactance increases without bound so that a capacitor is nearly an open circuit to a very low frequency AC source. This frequency dependent behaviour accounts for most uses of the capacitor (see [[#Applications|"Applications"]], below).
Reactance is so called because the capacitor doesn't dissipate power, but merely stores energy. In electrical circuits, as in mechanics, there are two types of load, resistive and reactive. Resistive loads (analogous to an object sliding on a rough surface) dissipate the energy delivered by the circuit, ultimately by [[electromagnetic]] emission (see [[Black body radiation]]), while reactive loads (analogous to a spring or frictionless moving object) store this energy, ultimately delivering the energy back to the circuit.
The ratio of the [[Phasor (electronics) | phasor]] voltage to the phasor current is called the [[impedance]] of a capacitor and is given by:
:<math>Z_C = \frac{1}{j2 \pi f C} = \frac{-j}{2 \pi f C}</math>
where <math>j=\sqrt{-1}</math> and is the [[imaginary unit]].
Hence, capacitive reactance is the negative imaginary component of impedance. The negative sign indicates that the current leads the voltage by 90° for a sinusoidal signal, as opposed to the inductor, where the current lags the voltage by 90°.
Also significant is that the impedance is inversely proportional to the capacitance, unlike resistors and inductors for which impedances are linearly proportional to resistance and inductance respectively. This is why the series and shunt impedance formulae (given below) are the inverse of the resistive case. In series, impedances sum. In shunt, conductances sum.
For an ideal capacitor, the capacitor [[Current_%28electricity%29|current]] is proportional to the time rate of change of the [[voltage]] across the capacitor where the constant of proportionality is the [[capacitance]], C:
:<math>i(t) = C \frac{dv(t)}{dt}</math>
In the frequency domain, this equation becomes:
:<math>I(j \omega) = j \omega C V(j \omega) \,</math>
The ratio of the voltage and current in the frequency domain is then:
:<math>Z(j \omega) = \frac{V(j \omega)}{I(j \omega)} = \frac{1}{j \omega C} = \frac{1}{j 2 \pi f C} = - j X_C </math>
It should be noted that while this relation (between the ''frequency domain'' voltage and current associated with a capacitor) is always true, the ratio of the ''time domain'' voltage and current ''amplitudes'' is equal to <math>X_C</math> only for sinusoidal (AC) circuits in steady state.
When using the [[Laplace transform]] in circuit analysis, the capacitive impedance is represented in the ''s'' domain by:
:<math>Z(s)=\frac{1}{sC}</math>
===Capacitors and displacement current===
The physicist [[James Clerk Maxwell]] invented the concept of [[displacement current]], d'''D'''/dt, to make [[Ampere's law]] consistent with conservation of charge in cases where charge is accumulating as in a capacitor. He interpreted this as a real motion of charges, even in vacuum, where he supposed that it corresponded to motion of [[dipole]] charges in the [[luminiferous aether|ether]]. Although this interpretation has been abandoned, Maxwell's correction to Ampere's law remains valid.
=== Capacitor networks ===
A capacitor can be used to block the DC Current flowing within the circuit and therefore have important applications in coupling of ac signals between amplifier stages, whilst preventing dc from passing.
==== Series or parallel arrangements ====
{{main|Series and parallel circuits}}
Capacitors in a [[Series_and_parallel_circuits|parallel]] configuration each have the same potential difference (voltage). Their total capacitance (''C<sub>eq</sub>'') is given by:
:[[image:capacitorsparallel.png|A diagram of several capacitors, side by side, both leads of each connected to the same wires]]
:<math> C_{eq} = C_1 + C_2 + \cdots + C_n \,</math>
The reason for putting capacitors in parallel is to increase the total amount of charge stored. In other words, increasing the capacitance we also increase the amount of energy that can be stored as its expression is
:<math> E_\mathrm{stored} = {1 \over 2} C V^2 .</math>
The current through capacitors in [[Series_and_parallel_circuits|series]] stays the same, but the voltage across each capacitor can be different. The sum of the potential differences (voltage) is equal to the total voltage. Their total capacitance is given by:
:[[image:capacitorsseries.png|A diagram of several capacitors, connected end to end, with the same amount of current going through each]]
:<math> \frac{1}{C_{eq}} = \frac{1}{C_1} + \frac{1}{C_2} + \cdots + \frac{1}{C_n}</math>
In parallel, the total charge stored is the sum of the charge in each capacitor. While in series, the charge on each capacitor is the same.
What is the reason to put capacitors in series?. We get less capacitance and less charge storage than with either alone (the total voltage is divided between the number of capacitors). It is sometimes done in electronics practice because capacitors have maximum working voltages, and with two "600 volt maximum" capacitors in series, you can increase the working voltage to 1200 volts. Thus, onne possible reason to connect capacitors in series is to increase the overall voltage rating.
Also, a very large [[resistor]] might be connected across each capacitor to ensure that the total voltage is divided appropriately for the individual ratings, rather than by minute differences in the capacitance values. Another application is for use of polarized capacitors in alternating current circuits; the capacitors are connected in series, in reverse polarity, so that at any given time one of the capacitors is not conducting.
=== Capacitor/inductor duality ===
In mathematical terms, the ideal capacitor can be considered as an inverse of the ideal [[i |
own candidate, but rather for whoever is most likely to defeat the BNP. Where the BNP has still proved successful, the mainstream parties have usually been quick to blame each other for the BNP's success. At the 2003 Conservative Party Conference, [[Trevor Phillips]], Chairman of the [[Commission for Racial Equality]] (and former Labour Party candidate), said that the BNP's success was partly due to lacklustre election campaigns by the Tories. He asked local Conservative branches to "raise their game when it comes to electioneering." This request was subsequently ignored when a local Conservative branch in Halifax refused to stand a candidate against the BNP in an election which they, themselves, had no chance of winning. This was in spite of their own Conservative Central Office's ordering them to do so.
According to the BNP, an increasing number of former Conservative supporters are also turning to the party. It is thought that their strong [[Euroscepticism|anti-EU]] policies strike a chord with many disenchanted Conservative voters; however, in the run up to the 2004 European elections this position was taken by the right-wing [[UKIP]] (UK Independence Party), resulting in them receiving the majority of the anti-Europe "protest vote", rather than the more hardline BNP.
Because of its lack of substantial electoral support across the country, but despite their high media profile, the BNP is still widely considered to be at the fringes of British politics. However, media comment on some issues such as asylum-seekers is often very close to the BNP's position, and the party's chairman, Nick Griffin, has described the [[tabloid]]s as "one of the BNPs best recruiting agents" in the past.
Amongst the most visible and vocal opponents of the BNP and other right-wing groups at the present time are [[Unite Against Fascism]] and [[Searchlight magazine|Searchlight]]. Unite Against Fascism, which aims to unite the broadest possible spectrum to oppose the BNP and the far-right, includes the [[Anti-Nazi League]] (ANL) The [[National Assembly Against Racism]] (NAAR) The [[Student Assembly Against Racism]] (SAAR) as well as faith and community leaders and politicians from all major British political parties including the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]], [[The Conservative Party]] (Including current party leader [[David Cameron]], The [[Liberal Democrats]], [[Green Party]], and [[UKIP]]. The ANL, along with [[Rock Against Racism]] (RAR) originated during the late [[1970s]] by the [[Socialist Workers Party (UK)|Socialist Workers Party]]. The ANL disappeared during the 1980s and was revived in the 1990s, again by members of the SWP. During the late 1970s, the more radical and revolutionary "[[Red Action]]" camp broke away from the rest of the ANL due to ideological differences and formed the AFA.
[[Searchlight magazine]], edited by [[Gerry Gable]], has monitored the activities of the BNP and its members for many years, and has published many articles highly critical of them and other organisations of the right, including [[UKIP]] and the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]]'s "[[Monday Club]]". One of the more effective campaigning resources available to anti-fascists has been Searchlight's "election special" tabloids - free eight-page newspapers written in the style of a red-top tabloid but with national and local stories critical of the BNP.
The UAF and Searchlight both obtain a large amount of income from trade union donations. There are also many local anti-fascist groups which draw on the resources of one or both of these organisations.
A great deal of controversy has taken place regarding the values of [[free speech]] as opposed to [[hate speech]] in regard to the BNP. Griffin and the BNP have called for more open debate on racial/immigration issues within the public sphere.
Anti-fascist groups like the ANL call for no positive coverage to be given to groups or individuals enunciating what they describe as "[[hate speech]]". Such a tactic states that the BNP and similar parties should be ignored by both rival politicians and the media. The policy is most commonly associated with university student unions and debating societies, but has also resulted in BNP candidates being banned from speaking at various Hustings meetings around the country.
Examples of the "no platform" policy being operated include:
* Complaints directed at the [[Leeds Student]] newspaper after it published a full-page article/interview with Nick Griffin. The Leeds Unite Against Fascism (LUAF) group accused the publication of breaching Leeds University Students' Union 'No Platform' policy, whereby extremist organisations are prohibited from expressing their views on campus. [http://www.leedstoday.net/ViewArticle2.aspx?SectionID=39&ArticleID=971585]
* An invitation to Nick Griffin by the University of St Andrews Union Debating Society to participate in a debate on multiculturalism was condemned [http://news.scotsman.com/latest.cfm?id=4085642], then withdrawn after protests and threats against the organisers [http://thescotsman.scotsman.com/education.cfm?id=136502005].
Examples of more direct action against the BNP include obstruction of BNP activists who set up stalls in shopping centres. For example, members of the [[Scottish Socialist Party]] in [[Edinburgh]] blockaded and forced a BNP publicity stall to close. [http://news.scotsman.com/politics.cfm?id=332032005]
Such cases are often used by the BNP to push their messages against "so-called political correctness", in their supposed support of "freedom of speech, and democracy".[http://www.bnp.org.uk/news_detail.php?newsId=164]
Due to campaigning from anti-fascist groups, the BNP has encountered difficulties finding a company prepared to print their monthly publication ''The Voice of Freedom'' [http://www.bnp.org.uk/freedom/]. At one point they had to resort to using a Saudi Arabian-owned firm which mainly employs Asians and Muslims [http://www.printweek.com/news/index.cfm?fuseaction=article&UID=d2c6dc67-7c8c-4686-956f-439289db19f3].
The Party subsequently acquired a printing press in the run up to the 2005 general election, thereby removing its dependency on external printing houses. In September 2005, 60,000 copies of Voice of Freedom, which had been printed in [[Slovakia]], were seized by British police at Dover.
A teacher who stood for the BNP in the 2004 European Elections was suspended. A Leeds careworker who stood for them in the 2005 General Election was sacked. Also dismissed was a disabled persons bus driver, elected as a BNP councillor in Bradford. The police have issued a directive banning BNP members and this policy has been discussed in the fire brigades and Civil Service.
The BNP argue that the 2005 European Elections were gerrymandered to keep them out and were rigged, and claim that they should have won the 2000 Stoke Mayoral Election, accusing the Returning Officer of refusing to count preference votes.
==BNP front groups==
The BNP has used various [[front organization]]s to give the impression of wider support for its activities, and in an attempt to access potential supporters. By their very nature, front groups are usually denied as such by both the organizations behind them and the groups themselves, so any attempt to identify them is a matter of judgement. Nevertheless, there is evidence (usually in the form of common organizers) that the following operate as BNP fronts:
* [[Solidarity – The Union for British Workers]] (denied to be a front by both the BNP and Solidarity's president, [[Patrick Harrington]]; see article for details)
* [[Civil Liberty (UK)]]
* The "Christian Council of Britain", whose support during the Griffin/Collett trial was [http://www.bnp.org.uk/news_detail.php?newsId=732 cited] by the BNP alongside that of Civil Liberty. There seems to be no evidence for the existence of this group outside discussions of the demonstrations during the trial, many of which speculate that it is a BNP front. It may be named to echo/oppose the [[Muslim Council of Britain]], an idea floated on 'patriotic' bulletin boards as far back as 2004.[http://www.crossofstgeorge.net/forum/viewtopic.php?t=7555&start=0&sid=03fe8564d02824b3ee9b778aea49e840]
[[Great White Records]], a "patriotic record label" launched in January 2006, is not a BNP front, as it acknowleges its connection to the party.[http://greatwhiterecords.com/statement.html]
==Affiliated parties==
The BNP and the French ''[[National Front (France)|Front National]]'' have co-operated on numerous occasions. [[Jean-Marie Le Pen]] visited the UK in [[2004]] to assist launching the BNP's European Parliament campaign [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3654941.stm], and Nick Griffin repaid the favour by sending a delegation of BNP officials to the FN's annual 'First of May Joan of Arc parade' in Paris last year [http://www.bnp.org.uk/news_detail.php?newsId=288].
The BNP also has links with [[Sweden|Sweden's]] [[National Democrats (Sweden)|National Democrat Party]] (''Nationaldemokraterna''). In the run-up to the [[European Parliament election, 2004 (Sweden)|2004 European Parliament election campaign]], Nick Griffin visited Sweden to give that party his endorsement. Members of the Swedish National Democrats were present at the BNP's ''Red White and Blue'' rally which took place over the weekend of 20-21 [[August 2005]].[http://www.bnp.org.uk/news_detail.php?newsId=478]
==Previous British National Parties==
The current use of the name British National Party is its third appearance in British politics. The original BNP emerged after the [[World War II|Second World War]] when a handful of former members of the [[British Union of Fascists]] took on the name. This party was absorbed quite quickly into the [[Union Movement]].
A second [[British National |
07:53:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>62.253.64.7</ip>
</contributor>
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<comment>redir</comment>
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<title>Cuba/Government</title>
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<timestamp>2002-08-27T20:30:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>-- April</username>
<id>166</id>
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<comment>fix redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Cuba]]</text>
</revision>
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<title>Cuba/People</title>
<id>5587</id>
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<timestamp>2002-08-20T15:23:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Cuba]]</text>
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<title>Economy of Cuba</title>
<id>5588</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-01T09:53:18Z</timestamp>
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<username>Tabletop</username>
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The [[Cuba]]n Government adheres to [[communist]] principles in organizing its [[state]]-controlled economy. Most of the [[means of production]] are owned and run by the government and about 75 percent of the [[labour (economics)|labour force]] is employed by the state. The state plays the primary role in the domestic economy and controls practically all foreign [[trade]].
==Special Period==
The Cuban economy is still recovering from a decline in [[gross domestic product]] of at least 35 percent between [[1989]] and [[1993]] due to the loss of [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[subsidies]]. This era became known as the special period. The government has undertaken several reforms in recent years to stem excess [[liquidity]], increase labour incentives, and alleviate serious shortages of food, [[consumer good]]s, and services. To alleviate the economic crisis, the government introduced a few [[market economy|market]]-oriented reforms including opening to [[tourism]], allowing [[Foreign Direct Investment|foreign investment]], legalizing the [[U.S. dollar]] (since delegalized, but other hard currencies remain legal), and authorizing self-employment for some 150 [[occupation]]s. These measures resulted in modest [[economic growth]]; the official statistics, however, are deficient and as a result provide an incomplete measure of Cuba's real economic situation. The [[free market|liberalized]] [[agriculture|agricultural]] markets introduced in October [[1994]], at which state and private farmers sell above-quota production at [[free market]] prices, have broadened legal consumption alternatives and reduced [[black market]] prices.
Government efforts to lower subsidies to unprofitable enterprises and to shrink the money supply caused the semi-official [[exchange rate]] for the [[Cuban peso]] to move from a peak of 120 to the dollar in the summer of 1994 to 21 to the dollar by yearend [[1999]]. [[Living conditions]] in 1999 remained well below the 1989 level. New [[taxation|taxes]] introduced in 1996 have helped drive down the number of [[self-employment|self-employed]] workers from 208,000 in January 1996.
Havana announced in 1995 that GDP declined by 35% during 1989-93, the result of lost Soviet aid and domestic inefficiencies. The drop in GDP apparently halted in 1994, when Cuba reported 0.7% growth, followed by increases of 2.5% in [[1995]] and 7.8% in 1996. Growth slowed again in [[1997]] and 1998 to 2.5% and 1.2% respectively. Growth recovered again in 1999 with a 6.2% increase in GDP, due to the continued growth of tourism. Central control is complicated by the existence of the [[informal economy]]. Growth in recent years has picked up significantly, with a growth in GDP of 11.8 % in 2005 alone. Cuba is currently undergoing an "Energy Revolution", with increased emphasis on efficient use of electrical energy and the innovative use of more efficient small-power generators linked in a synchronized network. There is talk of increasing the implementation of solar- and wind-powered generators.
Cuba's precarious economic position is complicated by the high price it must pay for [[foreign financing]]. The Cuban Government defaulted on most of its [[international debt]] in [[1986]], which means Havana must rely heavily on [[short-term loans]] to finance imports, chiefly food and fuel.
[[image:cuba_casa_particular.jpg|thumb|300px|View from a 'casa particular'; a Cuban homestay type of lodging <br><br>Photograph by Dirk van der Made]]
==Tourism==
In the mid 1990s tourism surpassed [[sugar]], long the mainstay of the Cuban economy, as the primary source of foreign exchange. Tourism figures prominently in the Cuban Government's plans for development, and a top official cast it as the "heart of the economy". Havana devotes significant resources to building new tourist facilities and renovating historic structures for use in the tourism sector. Cuban officials estimate roughly 1.6 million tourists visited Cuba in 1999 with about $1.9 [[billion]] in gross revenues. The official projections for [[2000]] are only slightly higher than in 1999. Independent analysts and journalists partially attributed low numbers in January to Y2K concerns.
==Agriculture==
Sugar remains an important part of the Cuban economy with large amounts of [[land (economics)|land]], labour, and other resources dedicated to the industry. Sugar production in 1989 was over 8 million tons, but fell to about 3.5 million tons in the 1994-95 harvest, one of the lowest on record. With increased [[fertilizer]]s and management attention, subsequent harvests have improved but remain well below the 1989 level. Prospects for regaining that level of output are poor unless the Cuban Government undertakes substantial reform of the sugar industry, something it has been reluctant to do, since it has become government policy to substantially and deliberately phase out the sugar industry.
More recently Cuba's world-class biotechnology and pharmaceutical industry is gaining in its importance to the economy. It has been claimed that soon it will become Cuba's main source of foreign exchange. Among the products sold internationally are vaccines against various viral and bacterial pathogens, and promising anti-cancer vaccines are undergoing exhaustive clinical trials. Some Cuban scientists, like V. Verez-Bencomo, have been awarded international prizes for their contributions in biotechnology. Cuban vaccines are sold, among other countries,in Russia, China, India, Pakistan, and several Latin American countries.
== Foreign Investment ==
To help keep the economy afloat, Havana actively courts foreign investment, which often takes the form of joint ventures with the Cuban Government holding half of the equity, management contracts for tourism facilities, or financing for the sugar harvest. Cuban officials said in early [[1998]] that there were a total of 332 [[joint venture]]s. Many of these are loans or contracts for management, supplies, or services normally not considered equity investment in Western economies. Investors are constrained by the U.S.-Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity Act which provides sanctions for those who "traffic" in property expropriated from U.S. citizens. As of March 1998, 15 executives of three foreign companies have been excluded from entry into the United States. Over a dozen companies have pulled out of Cuba or altered their plans to invest there due to the threat of action under the Libertad Act.
'''US Dollar'''
In [[1993]] the Cuban Government made it legal for its people to possess and use the U.S. dollar, nicknamed ''fula''. From then until [[2004]], the dollar became a major currency in use. To capture the hard currency flowing into the island through tourism and [[remittances]] - estimated at $500-800 million annually - the government set up state-run "dollar stores" throughout Cuba that sold 'luxury' food, household, and clothing items, compared with basic necessities, which were bought using the [[Cuban peso]]. As such, a gap in the standard of living developed between those with access to dollars and those without. Jobs that could earn dollar salaries or tips from foreign businesses and tourists became highly desirable. It was common to meet [[physician|doctors]], [[engineer]]s, [[scientist]]s, and other [[professional]]s working in [[restaurant]]s or as [[taxi driver]]s.
However, in response to stricter [[U.S. embargo against Cuba|economic sanctions by the US]], and because the authorities were pleased with Cuba's economic recovery, the Cuban government decided in [[October]] [[2004]] to remove the American dollar from circulation. In its place, the [[Cuban convertible peso]] is now used, which although not internationally traded, has a value pegged to that of the dollar. A 10% surcharge is levied for conversions from US dollars to the convertible peso, to discourage the entry of dollars into the country; this surcharge does not apply to other currencies, so it acts as an encouragement to tourists to bring currencies like [[Euro]]s, [[pound sterling|pounds sterling]] or [[Canadian dollar]]s into Cuba. Indeed, an increasing number of areas rich in tourism now also accept Euros directly for many transactions.
==Self-Employment==
To provide jobs for workers laid off due to the economic crisis, furnish services the government was having difficulty providing, and to try to bri |
], in the [[States of Germany|federal state]] of [[Bavaria]]. Located at {{coor dm|48|15|N|11|27|E|region:DE_type:city(40,000)}}, just 20 km away from [[Munich]], it has become a popular housing area for people working in Munich, and now has roughly 40,000 inhabitants. The town has a historic city center, with a castle built in the [[18th century]].
Dachau was founded in the [[8th century]], and was the home of many artists during the late [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th centuries]]. The writer [[Ludwig Thoma]] was born there.
Dachau is best known for the proximity of the relatively well-preserved site of the infamous [[Dachau concentration camp]], the first large-scale [[concentration camp]] in Germany, converted from an old gunpowder factory by the Nazi regime in [[1933]].
[[Category:Towns in Bavaria]]
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<title>Drosophila</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = ''Drosophila''
| image = Drosm3.gif
| image_caption = Male ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]''
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Arthropod]]a
| classis = [[Insect]]a
| ordo = [[Diptera]]
| familia = [[Drosophilidae]]
| subfamilia = [[Drosophilinae]]
| genus = '''''Drosophila'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carl Frederick Fallén|Fallén]], 1823
| type_species = ''[[Musca funebris]]''
| type_species_authority = [[Johan Christian Fabricius|Fabricius]], 1787
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
Many; see text.
}}
'''''Drosophila''''' is a [[genus]] of small [[fly|flies]] whose members are often called small [[Drosophilidae|fruit flies]], or more appropriately [[vinegar]] flies, [[wine]] flies, [[pomace]] flies, [[grape]] flies, and picked fruit-flies. The genus contains about 2,600 species. One species in particular, ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]'', has been heavily used in research in [[genetics]] and is a common [[model organism]] in [[developmental biology]]. Indeed, the terms "fruit fly" and "''Drosophila''" are often used synonymously with ''D. melanogaster'' in modern biological literature. This article however deals with the whole genus.
== Name ==
The term "Drosophila" is a modern scientific [[Latin]] adaptation from [[Greek language|Greek]] &#948;&#961;&#972;&#963;&#959;&#962;, ''drósos'', "[[dew]]", + &#966;&#943;&#955;&#959;&#962;, ''phílos'', "loving" + Latin feminine suffix ''-a''.
==Physique==
[[Image:FFEYE2.jpg|thumb|left|[[SEM]] image of a Drosophila compound eye]]
[[Image:SEMFF.jpg|right|thumb|[[SEM]] of Drosophilia.]]
Typically, the small, two-winged flies of the genus ''Drosophila'' differ between pale yellow and dark brown, while size varies largely. Most species have red eyes. The feathered [[arista]] is characteristic of the family.
[[Image:55542main maflies med.jpg|thumb|Male (left) and female fruit flies.]]
''Drosophila'' is part of the phylum [[Arthropod]]a, a phylum of segmented animals with paired, jointed appendages and a hard exoskeleton made of [[chitin]]. They have an [[Circulatory system#Open circulatory system|open circulatory system]] with a [[dorsal]] heart, with [[Circulatory system#Open circulatory system|hemocoel]] occupying most of the body cavity, and a reduced [[body cavity| coelom]].
The insect respires by means of air-filled internal tubes, the [[trachea]]. This [[germ layer|ectoderm]]-derived organ forms a highly branched tubular network which provides the organs with oxygen.
The eye of the Drosophila consists of compound eyes and hairs which clean the eye then fall off, since it has no eye lids.
==Lifecycle and ecology==
===Habitat===
''Drosophila'''s are found all around the world, with relative more species in the tropical regions. They can be found in [[deserts]], [[tropical rainforest]], [[cities]], [[swamp]]s, [[alpine zone]]s etc. Species in northern areas [[hibernation|hibernate]]. Suitable breeding substrates varies largely between decaying [[fruit]]s, plant material, [[mushroom]]s, [[slime flux]]es, [[flower]]s and a whole range of more exotic substrates (“[[leaf miner]]s, [[parasite]]s, or predators." (Swan, 1972)). Males of many species congregate at patches of suitable breeding substrate to compete for the females.
==== Human environment ====
:They appear on over-ripe fruit in kitchens, they swarm in thousands about the residue produced by the pressing of grapes or apples for wine. They nibble on marmalade and other preserves, and wherever vinegar is standing open, they are there.
===Reproduction===
[[Image:Drosophila egg.png|frame|''Drosophila melanogaster'' egg]]
"The female fruit fly lays batches of between 15 and 20 white eggs each day." (Burton) Female of some species (for example ''[[D. melanogaster]]'') lays up to 2000 pearly white eggs, each with a pair of &#8220;wings&#8221; or respiratory &#8220;horns&#8221; near the anterior end; the eggs of all known ''Drosophila'' have one or more of these horns, the tips of which extend above the surface of the moist media in which the eggs develop. Females lay their eggs on or close to the breeding substrate mostly in small clumps. Larvae eat the [[yeast]]s and [[microorganism]]s present on the decaying breeding substrate. Development time varies largely between species (between 7 and more than 50 days) and depends on the environmental factors such as [[temperature]], breeding substrate and crowding.
===Predators===
One predator is the nymph of the orchid [[mantis]] which feeds on free living insects, primarily fruit flies.
== Phylogeny ==
The [[genus]] ''[[Drosophila]]'' is highly [[paraphyletic]] with currently nine [[subgenera]]. The majority of the [[species]] are member of three subgenera: ''[[Drosophila (subgenus) | Drosophila]]'' (~675 species), ''[[Idiomyia]]'' (Hawaiian ''Drosophila''; ~375 species) and ''[[Sophophora]]'' (including ''[[Drosophila melanogaster|D. (S.) melanogaster]]''; ~325 species). Of the remaining [[subgenera]] (each with less than 10 species), only one species of the subgenus ''Dorsilopha'', ''D. (D.) busckii'', is regularly studied by researchers.
The evidence in the scientific literature suggest that the folowing genera are located within the genus ''Drosophila''.
<P>Within [[subgenus]] ''[[Drosophila (subgenus) | Drosophila]]'':
:Hirtodrosophila <small>Duda, 1923</small>
:Mycodrosophila <small>Oldenburg, 1914</small>
:Zaprionus <small>Coquillett, 1901</small>
:Samoaia <small>Malloch, 1934</small>
:Liodrosophila <small>Duda, 1922</small>
:Dichaetophora <small>Duda, 1940</small>
:Scaptomyza <small>Hardy, 1849</small>
:subgenus ''[[Idiomyia]]''
<P>Within subgenus ''[[Sophophora]]'':
:Lordiphosa <small>Basden, 1961</small>
==Species==
The genus contains about 2,600 described species, including:
* [[Drosophila funebris]] <small>([[Johan Christian Fabricius|Fabricius]], 1787)</small>; Type specimen of the genus and originally placed in the genus ''[[Musca (genus)|Musca]]''
* [[Drosophila melanogaster]] <small>Meigen, 1830</small>
* [[Drosophila simulans]] <small>Sturtevant, 1919</small>
For other species, see for now [http://taxodros.unizh.ch/ Taxodros].
==External links==
*[http://www.nasa.gov/vision/earth/livingthings/03feb_fruitfly.html Fruit Flies in Space] NASA-supported researchers are going to send fruit flies to the International Space Station to learn what space travel does to the genes of astronauts
*[http://flybase.bio.indiana.edu/ Fly Base] FlyBase is a comprehensive database for information on the genetics and molecular biology of Drosophila. It includes data from the Drosophila Genome Projects and data curated from the literature. FlyBase is a joint project with the [http://www.fruitfly.org/ Berkeley Drosophila Genome Project].
*[http://rana.lbl.gov/drosophila/ AAA]Assembly, Alignment and Annotation of 12 Drosophila species
*[http://taxodros.unizh.ch/ TaxoDros:] The database on Taxonomy of Drosophilidae
*[http://www.pbase.com/holopain/image/50253175 Image]
==References==
#Burton, Maurice. "Fruit Fly." ''International Wildlife Encyclopedia''. 2002 ed.
#Freeman, Scott. ''Biological Science''. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 2002.
#"Pomace Flies". ''Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia'', First Edition, 1969.
#Swan, Lester A., and Charles S.Papp. 1972. ''The Common Insects of North America'': Fitzhenry & Whiteside Limited, Toronto. pp. 629
#Weigmann, K., Klapper, R., Strasser, T., Rickert, C., Teachnau, G.M., Jackle, H., Janning, W. and Klambt, C. (2003). ''FlyMove- A new way to look at development of ''Drosophila. pp. 19,310-311.
{{Model Organisms}}
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[[Category:Flies]]
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"Death of God" theologian [[Thomas Altizer]], and novelists [[Nikos Kazantzakis]], [[Mikhail Artsybashev]], and [[Lu Xun]], and [[literary criticism|literary critic]] [[Harold Bloom]].
== Works ==
''For a complete bibliography, see [[List of works by Friedrich Nietzsche]]''
===Selected Works===
* ''[[The Birth of Tragedy]]'', 1872
* ''[[Human, All Too Human]]'', 1878
* ''[[The Dawn (book)|The Dawn]]'', 1881
* ''[[The Gay Science]]'', 1882/1887
* ''[[Thus Spoke Zarathustra]]'', 1883-5
* ''[[Beyond Good and Evil]]'', 1886
* ''[[On the Genealogy of Morals]]'', 1887
* ''[[The Twilight of the Idols]]'', 1888
* ''[[The Antichrist]]'', 1888
* ''[[Ecce Homo (Nietzsche)|Ecce Homo]]'', 1888
== Note ==
*{{note|Montinari}}{{note label|Montinari|1|a}}{{note label|Montinari|1|b}}See [[Mazzino Montinari]] and [[Paolo d'Iorio]]'s comments about the edition of 'The Will to Power', in "'The Will to Power' does not exist" [http://www.amazon.fr/exec/obidos/ASIN/2841620123/403-3466854-4982803 Sigrid Oloff-Montinari original italian edition];[http://www.centronietzsche.net/montinari_biografia.html Centro Montinari (Italian)]; the definite proof of the inexistence of a work by Nietzsche called ''The Will to Power'' was edited in French under the title ''Edition critique des Oeuvres philosophiques complètes établie d'après les manuscrits originaux de l'auter et comprenant une part de textes inédits'' ("Critical edition of the complete philosophical Opus established according to the original manuscrits and containing a part of previously unpublished texts"), by [[:de:Giorgio Colli|Giorgio Colli]] and Mazzino Montinari, Gallimard, Paris, 1967.
*{{note|Klossowski}} See [[Pierre Klossowski]], ''Nietzsche and the Vicious Circle'' (1969)
*{{note|Stiegler}} See [[Barbara Stiegler]], ''Nietzsche et la biologie'' [[PUF]], 2001 ISBN 2130507425
==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}
*''[[God is dead]]''
*[[Goodness and value theory]]
*[[Nietzsche and Kierkegaard comparisons]]
*[[Søren Kierkegaard]]
*[[Arthur Schopenhauer]]
*[[Emil Cioran]]
*[[Franz Kafka]]
{{col-3}}
*[[Gilles Deleuze]]
*[[Heraclitus]]
*[[Jacques Derrida]]
*[[Jean-Paul Sartre]]
*[[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]
*[[Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach]]
*[[Martin Heidegger]]
{{col-3}}
*[[Max Stirner]]
*[[Michel Foucault]]
*[[Philipp Mainländer]]
*[[Richard Wagner]]
*[[Socrates]]
*[[Walter Kaufmann]]
*[[Menno ter Braak]]
{{col-end}}
== References==
# {{note|Laska}} Laska, Bernd A., ''Ein dauerhafter Dissident: 150 Jahre Stirners "Einziger": eine kurze Wirkungsgeschichte'', LSR-Verlag (1996)
# {{note|Brobjer}} Brobjer, Thomas H., ''Philologica: A Possible Solution to the Stirner-Nietzsche Question'', The Journal of Nietzsche Studies - Issue 25, Spring 2003, pp. 109-114 (Penn State University Press, 2003).
*''Kierkegaard and Nietzsche'' by J. Kellenberger (St. Martin's Press Inc, 1997).
*''Nietzsche in German politics and society, 1890-1918'' by Richard Hinton Thomas (Manchester University Press, 1983).
*''Nietzsche on Truth and Philosophy'' by Maudemarie Clark (Cambirdge University Press, 1990).
*''Nietzsche's System'' by John Richardson (Oxford University Press, 1996).
*''Nietzsche on Morality'' by Brian Leiter (Routledge, 2002).
*''Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist'' by [[Walter Kaufmann]] ([[Princeton University]] Press, 1974, ISBN 0691019835).
*''Nietzsche: Life as Literature'' by [[Alexander Nehamas]] ([[Harvard University]] Press, 1985, ISBN 0674624351)
*''Nietzsche Humanist'' by Claude Pavur (Marquette University Press, 1998, ISBN 0874626145)
*''Nietzsche: Volumes One and Two'' by [[Martin Heidegger]] ([[HarperSanFrancisco]], Harper edition, 1991, ISBN 0060638419).
*''Nietzsche: Volumes Three and Four'' by [[Martin Heidegger]] ([[HarperSanFrancisco]], 1991, ISBN 0060637943)
*''The Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche'' by [[H. L. Mencken]] ([[See Sharp Press]], 2003, ISBN 1884365310).
*''Nietzsche: A Critical Life.'' by Ronald Hayman ([[Oxford University Press]], 1980, ISBN 019520204X).
*''Friedrich Nietzsche. Biographie.'' by Curt Paul Janz ([[Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag]], 1993, ISBN 3423043830).
*''To Nietzsche: Dionysus, I Love You! Ariadne'' by Claudia Crawford (State University of New York Press, 1994, ISBN 0791421503).
*''Notes and Discussions: Nietzsche's Knowledge of Kierkegaard'' by Thomas H. Brobjer. Journal of the History of Philosophy - Volume 41, Number 2, April 2003, pp. 251-263
*''Reason and Existenz'' by [[Karl Jaspers]] (Marquette University Press, 1996, ISBN 0874626110).
==External links==
{{wikisource author}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche}}
'''Full texts of Nietzsche's works:'''
*{{gutenberg author | id=Friedrich_Nietzsche | name=Friedrich Nietzsche}}
* [http://www.fns.org.uk/ac.htm The Antichrist] (English translation by [[H. L. Mencken]])
* [http://www.videolexikon.com/skriptfachgebiet_Geschichte.htm Der Antichrist] (German text)
'''Other links:'''
* [[Open Directory Project]]: [http://dmoz.org/Society/Philosophy/Philosophers/N/Nietzsche,_Friedrich/ Friedrich Nietzsche]
* [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]: [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nietzsche/ Friedrich Nietzsche]
* [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]: [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nietzsche-moral-political/ Nietzsche's Moral and Political Philosophy]
* [http://www.dartmouth.edu/~fnchron/index.html Nietzsche Chronicle] (Detailed Chronology and Biography)
*[http://www.catholiceducation.org/articles/civilization/cc0009.html Nietzsche and the Pillars of Unbelief]
*[http://www.nietzschecircle.com/ The Nietzsche Circle]
* [http://www.fns.org.uk/ Friedrich Nietzsche Society]
* [http://www.agellus.org/nietzsche Accueil] (French translations of several works)
* [http://www.philosophicalsociety.com/Archives/Santayana's%20Criticism%20of%20Nietzsche.htm "Santayana's Criticism of Nietzsche."]
[[Category:1844 births|Nietzsche, Friedrich]]
[[Category:1900 deaths|Nietzsche, Friedrich]]
[[Category:19th century philosophers|Nietzsche, Friedrich]]
[[Category:Natives of Saxony-Anhalt|Nietzsche, Friedrich]]
[[Category:Atheist philosophers|Nietzsche, Friedrich]]
[[Category:Continental philosophers|Nietzsche, Friedrich]]
[[Category:German philosophers|Nietzsche, Friedrich]]
[[Category:Existentialists|Nietzsche, Friedrich]]
[[Category:Wagnerites|Nietzsche, Friedrich]]
[[Category:Anti-Wagnerites|Nietzsche, Friedrich]]
[[Category:Stateless people|Nietzsche, Friedrich]]
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<text xml:space="preserve">{| class="infobox" width="300" align="right" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="float:right; margin: 0em 0em 0em 0.5em; width:300px;"
|-
! align="center" colspan="2" style="background:#efefef;" | <big>Frank Zappa</big>
|-
| align="center" colspan="2"| [[Image:zappa1.jpg|none]] American composer
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" style="background:#dadada;" | [[Wikiquote:{{PAGENAME}}|"A composer is a guy who goes around forcing his will on unsuspecting air molecules, often with the assistance of unsuspecting musicians."]]
|-
! '''Born''' || [[December 21]], [[1940]]
Baltimore, Maryland, USA
|-
! '''Died''' || [[December 4]], [[1993]]
Laurel Canyon, California, USA
|-
|}
'''Frank Vincent Zappa''' ([[December 21]], [[1940]] &ndash; [[December 4]], [[1993]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[composer]], [[guitarist]], [[singer]] and [[satirist]]. In his 33-year musical career, Zappa proved to be one of the most prolific musician-composers of his era, releasing over 60 albums during his lifetime, almost all of which consisted of original compositions. He was also a renowned [[electric guitar]]ist and a gifted producer-engineer who self-produced almost every recording he made after his 1966 debut.
His work spanned virtually every contemporary musical genre (including [[avant-garde]], [[Rock (music)|rock]], [[doo-wop]], [[jazz]], [[jazz fusion]] and [[contemporary classical]]), and was often noted for its blend of high art, [[rock opera]], absurdity, scatological [[humor]], and for its hilariously caustic social [[satire]]. He was also noted as |
nt's, Vice-president's, & Treasurer's offices moved from [[ISU notables#Office Building|Office Building]] to [[ISU notables#Beardshear Hall|Beardshear Hall]]
|-
| 1920 || [[ISU notables#Edgar W. Stanton|Edgar W. Stanton]] dies and 26 bells are added to the [[carillon]] in the [[ISU notables#Campanile|Campanile]] (36 bells total)
|-
| 1922 || [[VEISHEA]] was established
|-
| 1928 || The marching band competes in a band contest held in conjunction with the Drake Relays in Des Moines
|-
| 1929 || Construction of the [[ISU notables#Memorial Union|Memorial Union]] finished
|-
| 1938 || [[ISU notables#Central Building|Central Building]] renamed to [[ISU notables#Beardshear Hall|Beardshear Hall]]
|-
| 1939 || The [[Atanasoff Berry Computer]] is first demonstrated
|-
| 1940 || English department moves into [[ISU notables#Office Building|Office Building]] and is renamed to [[ISU notables#English Office Building|English Office Building]]
|-
| 1941 || The [[ISU notables#Fountain of Four Seasons|Fountain of Four Seasons]] is sculpted by [[ISU notables#Petersen|Christian Petersen]].
|-
| 1954 || 13 more bells were added to the [[carillon]] in the [[ISU notables#Campanile|Campanile]] (49 bells total)
|-
| 1959 || Renamed the Iowa State University of Science and Technology
|-
| 1967 || [[ISU notables#Bessey Hall|Bessey Hall]] opens for use
|-
| 1967 || 1 more bell was added to the [[carillon]] in the [[ISU notables#Campanile|Campanile]] (50 bells total)
|-
| 1969 || Construction of [[ISU notables#Stephens Auditorium|Stephens Auditorium]] finished
|-
| 1973 || English and speech departments relocate from [[ISU notables#English Office Building|English Office Building]] to [[ISU notables#Ross Hall|Ross Hall]] & [[ISU notables#Pearson Hall|Pearson Hall]], respectively.
|-
| 1978 || [[ISU notables#Alumni Hall|Alumni Hall]] placed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]]
|-
| 1978 || The [[ISU notables#marston Water Tower|Marston Water Tower]] is disconnected from use.
|-
| 1982 || The [[ISU notables#Marston Water Tower|Marston Water Tower]] is added to the [[National Register of Historic Places]]
|-
| 1983 || [[ISU notables#Marston Hall|Marston Hall]] placed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]]
|-
| 1984 || Library named the W. Robert and Ellen Sorge Parks Library
|-
| 1988 || First [[VEISHEA]] riot
|-
| 1992 || Second [[VEISHEA]] riot
|-
| 1996 || [[ISU notables#Morrill Hall|Morrill Hall]] determined unsafe for occupancy
|-
| 1997 || Restoration of the [[ISU notables#Marston Water Tower|Marston Water Tower]]
|-
| 1999 || [[ISU notables#Central Campus|Central Campus]] is listed as a "medallion site" by the [[American Society of Landscape Architects]]
|-
| 2003 || Control of the [[ISU notables#Memorial Union|Memorial Union]] was transferred to ISU
|-
| 2004 || [[VEISHEA]] riot; resulted in VEISHEA for 2005 being cancelled
|-
| 2004 || [[ISU notables#English Office Building|English Office Building]] demolished. The Gerdin Business Building, a new high-tech 111,000 square foot (10,000 m&sup2;) building equipped with the latest state-of-the-art technology, opens to replace the old business building in Carver Hall.
|-
| 2005 || Two of the Towers residence halls, Knapp and Storms, demolished by implosion
|-
| 2008 || [[Sesquicentennial]] of Iowa State
|}
==See also==
*[[Atanasoff Berry Computer]]
*[[Buildings of Iowa State University]]
*[[ISU notables]]
*[[ISUCF"V"MB]]
*[[Land-grant university]]
*[[Reiman Gardens]]
==External links==
*[http://www.iastate.edu/ Official site]
*[http://www.cyclones.com/ Athletics site]
*[http://www.collegefair.tv/ia_iowa_state_university.html Iowa State University admissions video on CollegeFair.tv]
*[http://www.iowastatedaily.com/ Iowa State Daily] (student newspaper)
*[http://iowa.stateuniversity.com/ Iowa State Information] (Unofficial)
*[http://www.ratemyprofessors.com/SelectTeacher.jsp?sid=452 Information from RateMyProfessors.com]
*[http://www.rofflehaus.com/wiki/Main_Page Student-run wiki for Iowa State University] (Unofficial)
*[http://www.veishea.iastate.edu/index.php?page=history The History of VEISHEA]
{{Big 12 Conference}}
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[[Category:Iowa State University]][[Category:Universities and colleges in Iowa]]
[[fr:Université d'Iowa]]
[[ja:アイオワ州立大学]]
[[zh:&#29233;&#33655;&#21326;&#24030;&#31435;&#22823;&#23398;]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>IMDb</title>
<id>14876</id>
<revision>
<id>25064308</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-08T15:51:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Thorpe</username>
<id>164156</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Internet Movie Database]] {{r_from_abbreviation}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Induction</title>
<id>14877</id>
<revision>
<id>39026362</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T05:09:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mike Serfas</username>
<id>362180</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Induction by morphogens (developmental biology)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The term '''induction''' has more than one meaning in the English language. Please see:
* [[Induction (philosophy)|Induction]] in the fields of [[philosophy]] and [[logic]], and used in [[science]] and the [[scientific method]].
* [[Mathematical induction]] is a method of proof in the field of [[mathematics]].
** [[Strong induction]], or Complete induction, is a variant of mathematical induction.
** [[Transfinite induction]] is a kind of mathematical induction.
*** [[∈-induction]] is a kind of transfinite induction.
** [[Structural induction]] is a generalization of mathematical induction.
** Statistical induction is the same as [[inferential statistics]].
* [[Inductive reasoning aptitude]].
* [[Induction heating]].
* [[Electromagnetic induction]] in [[physics]] and engineering (see also: [[radio frequency induction]], [[Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect]]).
* [[Electrostatic induction]].
* [[induction (birth)|Induction]] of [[childbirth]].
* [[Atkins Nutritional Approach|Induction]] period related to the [[Atkins Nutritional Approach|Atkins diet]].
* [[Backward induction]] in [[game theory]] and [[economics]].
* Induction can refer to an [[initiation rite]], at times in the form of [[hazing]].
* [[Rhetorical induction]].
* In [[theatre]], Induction is the use of rumors to twist and complicate the plot of a play or to narrate in a way that does not have to state truth nor fact within the play.
* In [[enzymology]] and [[molecular biology]], the mechanism of appearance of a gene product; see [[Regulation of gene expression]].
* In [[developmental biology]], the development of a feature from part of a formerly homogenous field of cells in response to a [[morphogen]] whose source determines the feature's position and extent.
{{disambig}}
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[[ru:Индукция]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>International Astronomical Union</title>
<id>14878</id>
<revision>
<id>40710139</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T13:51:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Palica</username>
<id>188933</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: sk</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:IAU_logo.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Logo of the IAU]]
The '''International Astronomical Union''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Union astronomique internationale'') unites national [[astronomy|astronomical]] societies from around the world. It is a member of the [[International Council for Science]] (ICSU). It is internationally recognized as the authority responsible for naming stars, planets, asteroids, and other celestial bodies and phenomena in the scientific community.
Working groups include the Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN), which maintains the [[astronomical naming conventions]] and [[planetary nomenclature]] for planetary bodies. The IAU is also responsible for the system of [[Astronomical Telegrams]] which are produced and distributed on its behalf by the [[Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams]]. The [[Minor Planet Center]] (MPC), a clearinghouse for all non-planetary or non-moon bodies in the [[solar system]], also operates under the IAU.
The IAU was founded in [[1919]], as a merger of various international projects including the ''[[Carte du Ciel]]'', the [[Solar Union]] and the [[International Time Bureau]] (''Bureau International de l'Heure''). The first president was [[Benjamin Baillaud]]. [[Pieter Johannes van Rhijn]] served as president from [[1932]] to [[1958]].
The IAU currently has 9040 individual members - i.e., professional astronomers - (mainly) at the [[PhD]] level; and 63 national members, i.e., countries that are affiliated with the IAU. 87 percent of all members are male; 13 percent are female. The current president is [[Ronald D. Ekers]].
The '''[http://www.astronomy2006.com XXVIth General Assembly]''' of the International Astronomical Union (August 2006) will be held in [[Prague]], [[Czech Republic]].
==Pop culture==
* In the song "[[Planet X]]" by [[Christine Lavin]], there are lyrics referring to both the IAU and WGPSN.
* In the movie ''[[Deep Impact (film)|Deep Impact]]'', the actual scientific group to which the amateur would report the finding of a new asteroid would be the [[Minor Planet Center|MPC]].
==See also==
* [[Astronomical naming conventions]]
* [[Planetary nomenclature]]
==External links==
*[http://www.iau.org/ Website of the International Astronomical Union]
*[http://www.astronomy2006.com XXVIth General Assembly 2006]
[[Category:Standards organizations]]
[[Category:Astronomy organizations]]
[[bg:Международен а |
f the Bluetooth name is changed. Pairs can be deleted at any time by either device. Devices will generally require pairing or will prompt the owner before it allows a remote device to use any or most of its services. Some devices such as [[Sony Ericsson]] phones will usually accept OBEX business cards and notes without any pairing or prompts.
Certain printers and access points will allow any device to use its services by default much like unsecured [[Wi-Fi]] networks.
=== Air interface ===
The [[protocol (computing)|protocol]] operates in the license-free [[ISM band]] at 2.45 [[GHz]]. In order to avoid interfering with other protocols which use the 2.45 GHz band, the Bluetooth protocol divides the band into 79 channels (each 1 MHz wide) and changes channels up to 1600 times per second. Implementations with versions 1.1 and 1.2 reach speeds of 723.1 [[kilobit per second|kbit/s]]. Version 2.0 implementations feature ''Bluetooth Enhanced Data Rate (EDR)'', and thus reach 2.1 Mbit/s. Technically version 2.0 devices have a higher power consumption, but the three times faster rate reduces the transmission times, effectively reducing consumption to half that of 1.x devices (assuming equal traffic load).
Bluetooth differs from [[Wi-Fi]] in that the latter provides higher throughput and covers greater distances but requires more expensive hardware and higher power consumption. They use the same [[frequency range]], but employ different multiplexing schemes. While Bluetooth is a cable replacement for a variety of applications, Wi-Fi is a cable replacement only for [[local area network]] access. A glib summary is that Bluetooth is wireless [[USB]] (although [[Wireless USB]] is really wireless [[USB]]), whereas Wi-Fi is wireless [[Ethernet]], both operating at much lower bandwidth than the cable systems they are trying to replace.
Many USB Bluetooth [[adapter]]s are available, some of which also include an [[IrDA]] adapter.
== Security ==
=== Security measures ===
Bluetooth uses the [[SAFER|SAFER+]] algorithm for [[authentication]] and [[key (cryptography)|key]] generation. The [[E0 (cipher)|E0]] stream cipher is used for encrypting packets. This makes eavesdropping on Bluetooth-enabled devices more difficult.
=== Security concerns ===
'''2003''': <br>
In November [[2003]], Ben and Adam Laurie from [http://www.thebunker.net/index.html A.L. Digital Ltd.] discovered that serious flaws in Bluetooth security may lead to disclosure of personal data (see [http://bluestumbler.org http://bluestumbler.org]). It should be noted however that the reported security problems concerned some poor implementations of Bluetooth, rather than the protocol itself.
In a subsequent experiment, Martin Herfurt from the [http://trifinite.org/trifinite_group.html trifinite.group] was able to do a field-trial at the [[CeBIT]] fairgrounds showing the importance of the problem to the world. A new attack called [http://trifinite.org/trifinite_stuff_bluebug.html BlueBug] was used for this experiment.
'''2004''': <br>
In April [[2004]], security consultants [http://www.atstake.com @Stake] revealed a security flaw that makes it possible to [[security cracking|crack]] into conversations on Bluetooth based wireless headsets by [[reverse engineering]] the [[Personal identification number|PIN]].
This is one of a number of concerns that have been raised over the security of Bluetooth communications. In 2004 the first '''purported''' [[computer virus|virus]] using Bluetooth to spread itself among mobile phones [http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/06/15/symbian_virus/ appeared] for the [[Symbian OS]]. The virus was first described by [[Kaspersky|Kaspersky Lab]] and requires users to confirm the installation of unknown software before it can propagate. <br>
: '''Note''': the virus was written as a proof-of-concept by a group of virus writers known as 29a and sent to anti-virus groups. Thus it should be regarded as a '''potential''' (but NOT real) security threat of Bluetooth or [[Symbian OS]] as the virus has never spread in the wild.
In August 2004, a [http://trifinite.org/trifinite_stuff_lds.html world-record-setting experiment] (see also [[Bluetooth sniping]]) showed that the range of class 2 Bluetooth radios could be extended to 1.78 km (1.08 [[mile]]) with directional antennas. This poses a potential security threat as it enables attackers to access vulnerable Bluetooth-devices from a distance beyond expectation. However such experiments will not work using signal amplifiers as the attacker must also be able to receive information from its victim in order to set up a connection. No attack can be made against a Bluetooth device unless the attacker knows its Bluetooth address and which channels to transmit on.
'''2005''': <br>
In June 2005 Yaniv Shaked and Avishai Wool published the paper [http://www.eng.tau.ac.il/~yash/shaked-wool-mobisys05/index.html "Cracking the Bluetooth PIN1"], which shows both passive and active methods for obtaining the PIN for a Bluetooth Link. The passive attack would allow a suitably equipped attacker to eavesdrop on communications and spoof if they were present at the time of initial pairing. The active method makes use of a specially constructed message that must be inserted at a specific point in the protocol, to make the master and slave repeat the pairing process. After that the first method may be used to crack the PIN. This attack's major weakness is that it requires the user of the devices under attack to re-enter their PIN during the attack when their device prompts them to. Also, this active attack will most likely require custom hardware, as most commercially available Bluetooth Devices are not capable of the timing necessary.
In August 2005, police in [[Cambridgeshire]], England, [http://www.cambridge-news.co.uk/news/region_wide/2005/08/17/06967453-8002-45f8-b520-66b9bed6f29f.lpf issued warnings] about thieves using Bluetooth-enabled phones to track other devices left in cars. Police are advising users to ensure any mobile networking connections are de-activated if laptops and other devices are left in this way. However the best way is to not leave any valuable devices in cars.
== Bluetooth profiles ==
In order to use Bluetooth, a device must be able to interpret certain Bluetooth profiles. These define the possible applications. The following profiles are defined and adopted by the Bluetooth SIG:
; Advanced Audio Distribution Profile (A2DP) : Also referred to as the AV profile, it is designed to transfer a stereo audio stream like music from an [[Digital audio player |MP3 player]] to a headset or car radio. This profile relies on GAVDP. It includes mandatory support for low complexity subband codec (SBC) and supports optionally: [[MPEG-1]],2 Audio, [[MPEG-2]],4 [[Advanced Audio Coding |AAC]] and [[ATRAC]]. Bluetake's I-Phono Hi-Fi Sport Headphones are an example of this profile being employed. Most bluetooth stacks implement the SCMS-T copyright protection. In these cases it is not possible to connect the A2DP headphones for high quality audio. E.g. the Motorola HT820 can be used for high quality audio only with certain versions of the Toshiba bluetooth stack.
; Audio/Video Remote Control Profile (AVRCP) : This profile is designed to provide a standard interface to control TVs, Hi-fi equipment, etc. to allow a single remote control (or other device) to control all of the A/V equipment that a user has access to. It may be used in concert with A2DP or VDP.
It has the possibility for vendor-dependent extensions. The '''Generic Media Control Profile''' (GMCP) is proposed to be an open standard for transfer of media content related information using those extensions.
; Basic Imaging Profile (BIP) : This profile is designed for sending images between devices and includes the ability to resize, and convert images to make them suitable for the receiving device. It may be broken down into smaller pieces:
:; Image Push : Allows the sending of images from a device the user controls.
:; Image Pull : Allows the browsing and retrieval of images from a remote device.
:; Advanced Image Printing : print images with advanced options using the [[DPOF]] format developed by [[Canon Inc.| Canon]], [[Kodak]], [[Fujifilm]], and [[Matsushita]]
:; Automatic Archive : Allows the automatic backup of all the new images from a target device. For example, a laptop could download all of the new pictures from a camera whenever it is within range.
:; Remote Camera : Allows the initiator to remotely use a [[digital camera]]. For example, a user could place a camera on a tripod for a group photo, use their phone handset to check that everyone is in frame, and activate the shutter with the user in the photo.
:; Remote Display : Allows the initiator to push images to be displayed on another device. For example, a user could give a presentation by sending the slides to a [[digital projector]].
; Basic Printing Profile (BPP) : This allows devices to send text, e-mails, vCards, or other items to [[printers]] based on print jobs. It differs from HCRP in that it needs no printer-specific drivers. This makes it more suitable for embedded devices such as mobile phones and [[digital cameras]] which cannot easily be updated with drivers dependent upon printer vendors.
; Common ISDN Access Profile (CIP) : This provides unrestricted access to the services, data and signalling that [[Integrated Services Digital Network |ISDN]] offers.
; Cordless Telephony Profile (CTP) : This is designed for [[Cordless telephone|cordless phones]] to work using Bluetooth. It is hoped that mobile phones could use a Bluetooth CTP gateway connected to a [[landline]] when within the home, and the mobile phone network when out of range. It is central to the Bluetooth SIG's '3-in-1 phone' use case.
; Dial-up Networking Profile (DUN) : This profile provides a standard to access the Internet and other dial-up services over Bluetooth. The mos |
es is unequal and prevents the majority from realising the dream, some of them will turn to illegitimate means (crime) in order to realise it. Others will retreat or drop out into deviant subcultures ("hobos": urban homeless drunks and drug abusers).
===[[Symbolic interactionism]]===
Drawing on the phenomenology of [[Edmund Husserl]] and [[George Herbert Mead]], [[subcultural theory]] and [[conflict theory]], this school of thought focused on the relationship between the powerful state, media and conservative ruling elite on the one hand, and the less powerful groups on the other. The powerful groups had the ability to become the 'significant other' in the less powerful groups' processes of generating meaning. The former could to some extent impose their meanings on the latter, and therefore they were able to 'label' minor delinquent youngsters as criminal. These youngsters would often take on board the label, indulge in crime more readily and become actors in the 'self-fulfilling prophecy' of the powerful groups. Later developments in this set of theories were by [[Howard Becker]] and [[Edwin Lemert]], in the mid 20th century; also by [[Stanley Cohen]] who developed the concept of "[[moral panic]]" (describing societal reaction to spectacular, alarming social phenomena such as post-World War Two youth cultures (e.g. the ''[[Mods and Rockers]]'' in the UK in 1964), AIDS and football hooliganism.
===British and American subcultural theory===
Following on from the [[Chicago school (sociology)|Chicago School]] and Strain Theory, and also drawing on [[Edwin Sutherland|Edwin H. Sutherland]]'s idea of [[differential association]], subcultural theorists focused on small cultural groups fragmenting away from the mainstream to form their own values and meanings about life. Some of these groups, especially from poorer areas where opportunities were scarce, might adopt criminal values and meanings. British subcultural theorists focused more heavily on the issue of class, where some criminal activities were seen as 'imaginary solutions' to the problem of belonging to a subordinate class.
==Types and definitions of crime==
Both the Positivist and Classical Schools take a consensus view of crime &ndash; that a crime is an act that violates the basic values and beliefs of society. Those values and beliefs are manifested as laws that society agrees upon. However, there are two types of laws:
* Natural laws are rooted in core values shared by many cultures. Natural laws protect against harm to persons (e.g. murder, rape, assault) or property (theft, larceny, robbery), and form the basis of [[common law]] systems.
* [[Statutory law|Statutes]] are enacted by [[legislature]]s and reflect current cultural [[mores]], albeit that some laws may be controversial, e.g. laws that prohibit [[cannabis|marijuana]] use and [[gambling]]. [[Marxist criminology|Marxist Criminology]], [[Conflict criminology|Conflict Criminology]] and Critical Criminology claim that most relationships between [[State]] and [[citizen]] are non-consensual and, as such, [[criminal law]] is not necessarily representative of public beliefs and wishes: it is exercised in the interests of the ruling or dominant class. The more right wing criminologies tend to posit that there is a consensual [[social contract]] between State and citizen.
Therefore, definitions of crimes will vary from place to place, in accordance to the cultural [[norm (sociology)|norms]] and mores, but may be broadly classified as:
*[[blue-collar crime]];
*[[corporate crime]];
*[[organised crime]];
*[[political crime]];
*[[public order crime]];
*[[state crime]];
*[[state-corporate crime]];
*[[white-collar crime]].
==Educational programs==
There is now a huge number of undergraduate and postgraduate criminology degrees available around the world. The present popularity of such degrees may in part be due to criminal and police television dramas that capture people's imaginations, but could also be because of growing awareness as to the continuing importance of issues relating to law, rules, compliance, politics, terrorism, security, forensic science, the media, deviance, and punishment.
Criminology is an multi-disciplinary field; [[criminologists]] may have degrees in criminology, [[law]], [[sociology]], [[psychology]], [[social policy]], [[political science]], [[anthropology]], or other subjects. Criminology may involve [[crime statistics]], [[criminal psychology]], [[forensics|forensic science]], [[law enforcement]], and [[detective|investigative]] methods; academically, these areas are somewhat marginal to criminology.
==See also==
*[[List of criminology topics]]
*[[Victimology]]
*[[Penology]]
*[[Crime fiction]]
*[[Crime prevention through environmental design]] ([[CPTED]])
==External links==
{{Wikibooks|Social Deviance}}
*British Society of Criminology. ''Criminology Benchmarks (including Police Studies and Criminal Justice Studies)'' [http://www.c-sap.bham.ac.uk/subject_areas/criminology/Criminology_Benchmarks.doc]
*[http://www.newcriminologist.co.uk/ The New Criminologist journal]
*[http://www.asc41.com/ American Society of Criminology]
*[http://faculty.ncwc.edu/toconnor/criminology.htm Criminology Mega-Site] &mdash; Dr. Tom O'Connor (Associate Professor of Justice Studies, North Carolina Wesleyan College)
*[http://www.ncjrs.org/ National Criminal Justice Reference Service] (NCJRS)
*[http://www.aic.gov.au/ Australian Institute of Criminology] (AIC)
[[Category:Criminology|*]]
[[Category:Sociology]]
[[bg:Криминология]]
[[ca:Criminologia]]
[[da:Kriminologi]]
[[de:Kriminologie]]
[[es:Criminología]]
[[eo:Kriminologio]]
[[fr:Criminologie]]
[[he:קרימינולוגיה]]
[[lb:Kriminologie]]
[[nl:Criminologie]]
[[ja:犯罪学]]
[[pl:Kryminologia]]
[[pt:Criminologia]]
[[fi:Kriminologia]]
[[sv:Kriminologi]]
[[tr:Kriminoloji]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Clock</title>
<id>6449</id>
<revision>
<id>41808778</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T22:08:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>199.126.39.190</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Digital clocks */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Wall_clock.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A wall clock]]
A '''clock''' (from the [[Latin]] ''cloca'', "[[bell (instrument) |bell]]") is an instrument for measuring [[time]]. (Usually, for measuring time of intervals less than a day--as opposed to a calendar.) Those used for technical purposes, of very high accuracy, are sometimes called [[chronometer]]s. A portable clock is called a [[watch]]. The clock in its most common modern form (in use since at least the [[14th century]]) displays the hours, minutes, and sometimes seconds that pass over a twelve or twenty-four-hour period.
==History==
[[Image:IncenseAlarmClock.JPG|222px|thumbnail|left||A replica of an ancient Chinese [[incense clock]]]]
The clock is one of the oldest human inventions. In principle, it requires no more than some physical process which will proceed at a known rate, and a way to gauge how long that process has been continuing. As the seasons and the phases of the moon can be used to measure the passage of longer periods of time, shorter processes could be used to measure off hours and minutes. The [[sundial]], which measures the time of day by the direction of shadows cast by the sun, was widely known in ancient times. Candles and sticks of incense which burn down at approximately predictable speeds have also been used as clocks. In an [[hourglass]] fine [[sand]] pours through a tiny hole at a predictable rate.
The historian [[Vitruvius]] reported that the [[ancient Egyptian]]s also used a [[Water clock|clepsydra]], a time mechanism run by flowing water. Historians disagree over the [[Antikythera mechanism]] but this is largely thought to be an early mechanical clock. By the [[9th century AD]] a [[clockwork|mechanical timekeeper]] had been developed that lacked only an [[escapement]] mechanism. There is a record that in [[1176]] [[Sens Cathedral]] installed a &lsquo;horologe&rsquo;&mdash;the word still used in French for large clocks. (from Greek ''hora'', hour, and ''legein'', to tell). This word has led scholars to believe that these tower clocks did not employ hands or dials, but “told” the time with audible signals such as bells.
A variety of mechanical clocks were produced by Spanish Muslim engineers, both large and small, and this knowledge was transmitted to Europe through Latin translations of Islamic books on mechanics. These clocks were weight-driven. Designs and illustrations of epi-cyclic and segmental gears were provided. One such clock included a mercury escapement. The latter type was directly copied by Europeans during the 15th century. In addition, during the 9th century, Ibn Firnas of Islamic Spain, according to Will Durant, invented a watch-like device which kept accurate time. The [[Muslims]] also constructed a variety of highly accurate astronomical clocks for use in their observatories.
The earliest reasonably accurate clocks are the [[13th century]] tower clocks probably developed for (and perhaps by) monks in Northern Italy. These were used to announce the [[canonical hours]] or intervals between set times of prayer. [[Canonical hours]] differ in length, and varied as the times of sunrise and sunset shifted.
The world's first self-striking clock was said to be invented by Chang Yeong-Sil, a chief enginner of Korea, in Korea during the [[Joseon Dynasty]]. It was called ''Chagyongru'', which means "self-striking clock" in Korean. [http://www.maxmon.com/1434ad.htm] [http://www.indiana.edu/~easc/resources/korea_slides/science/9-1.htm]
The earliest table clocks that survive in any quantity are mid-[[16th century]] ones from the metalworking towns of [[Nuremberg]] and [[Augsburg]]. These clocks have only one hand. The dial between the hour markers is divided into four equal parts making the c |
ns do arise which require careful interpretation of the rules. The playing time for each individual game is short, so it is often played in matches, for example the first to five points. ''Game'' and ''match'' are used in Backgammon to refer to these distinct elements, as in, "I won two games in a row, but then she won three in a row and I lost the match, three points to two."
In short, players are trying to get all of their pieces past their opponent's pieces. This is difficult because the pieces are scattered at first, and may be blocked or captured by the opponent's pieces.
Each side of the board has a track of twelve adjacent spaces, called ''points'' and usually represented by long triangles of alternating (but meaningless) color. The tracks are imagined to be connected across the break in the middle and on just one edge of the board, making a continuous line (but not a circle) of twenty-four points. The points are numbered from 1 to 24, with checkers always moving from higher-numbered points to lower-numbered points. The two players move their checkers in opposite directions, so the 1-point for one player is the 24-point for the other. Some recorded games, however, keep the numbering of the points constant from the perspective of one player.
Each player begins with two checkers on his 24-point, three checkers on his 8-point, and five checkers each on his 13-point and his 6-point.
<center>[[image:bg_sg_start.png]]</center>
Note that the board as shown can be flipped horizontally, with starting positions and direction of play likewise flipped but with no changes to the mechanics of gameplay. The two orientations are equally common and game boards are all designed to be played both ways.
Points one to six, where the player wants to get his pieces to, are called the ''home board'' or ''inner board''. A player may not bear off any checkers unless all of his checkers are in his home board. Points seven to twelve are called the ''outer board'', points thirteen to eighteen are the opponent's outer board, and points nineteen to twenty-four are the opponent's home board. The 7-point is often referred to as the ''bar point'' and the 13-point as the ''mid point''.
At the start of the game, each player rolls one die. Whoever rolls higher starts his first turn using the numbers on the already-rolled dice. In case of a tie, the players roll again. The players alternate turns and roll two dice at the beginning of each turn after the first.
After rolling the dice a player must, if possible, move checkers the number of points showing on each die. For example, if he rolls a 6 and a 3, he must move one checker six points forward and another one three points forward. The dice may be played in either order. The same checker may be moved twice as long as the two moves are distinct: six and then three, or three and then six, but not nine all at once.
If a player has no legal moves after rolling the dice, because all of the points to which he might move are occupied by two or more enemy checkers, he forfeits his turn. However, a player must play both dice if it is possible. If he has a legal move for one die only, he must make that move and then forfeit the use of the other die. (If he has a legal move for either die, but not both, he must play the higher number.)
If a player rolls two of the same number (''doubles'') he must play each die twice. For example, upon rolling a 5 and a 5, he must play four checkers forward five spaces each. As before, a checker may be moved multiple times as long as the moves are distinct.
A checker may land on any point occupied by no checkers or by friendly checkers. Also it may land on a point occupied by exactly one enemy checker (a lone piece is called a ''blot''). In the latter case the blot has been ''hit'', and is temporarily placed in the middle of the board on the ''bar'', i.e., the divider between the home boards and the outfields. A checker may never land on a point occupied by two or more enemy checkers. Thus no point is ever occupied by checkers from both players at the same time.
Checkers on the bar re-enter the game through the opponent's home field. A roll of 1 allows the checker to enter on the 24-point, a roll of 2 on the 23-point, etc. A player with one or more checkers on the bar may not move any other checkers until all of the checkers on the bar have re-entered the opponent's home field.
When all of a player's checkers are in his home board, he may remove them from the board, or ''bear them off''. A roll of 1&nbsp;may be used to bear off a checker from the 1-point, a 2 from the 2-point, etc. A number may not be used to bear off checkers from a lower point unless there are no checkers on any higher points. For example, a 4&nbsp;may be used to bear off a checker from the 3-point only if there are no checkers on the 4-, 5-, and 6-points.
A checker borne off from a lower point than indicated on the die still counts as the full die. For instance, suppose a player has only one checker on his 2-point and two checkers on his 1-point. Then on rolling 1-2, he may move the checker from the 2-point to the 1-point (using the 1 rolled), and then bear off from the 1-point (using the 2 rolled). He is not required to maximize the use of his rolled 2 by bearing off from the 2-point.
If one player has not borne off any checkers by the time his opponent has borne off all fifteen, he has lost a ''gammon'', which counts for twice a normal loss. If a player has not borne off any checkers, and still has checkers on the bar and/or in his opponent's home board by the time his opponent has borne off all fifteen, he has lost a ''backgammon'', which counts for triple a normal loss. Sometimes a distinction is made between pieces in the opponent's home board (triple loss) and pieces on the bar (quadruple loss).
===The doubling cube===
To speed up match play and to increase the intensity of play and the need for strategy, a ''doubling cube'' is usually used. A doubling cube is a 6 sided die that instead of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 on it, has the numbers 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 on it. If a player believes his position to be superior he may, before rolling the dice on his turn, ''double'', i.e., demand that the game be played for twice the current stakes. The doubling cube is placed with the 2 side face up to show that the game's value has been doubled. His opponent must either accept the challenge or resign the game on the spot. Thereafter the right to ''redouble'' (double again) belongs exclusively to the player who last accepted a double. If this occurs, the cube is placed with the face of the next power of 2 showing.
The game rarely is redoubled beyond 4 times the original stake, but there is no theoretical limit on the number of doubles. Even though 64 is the highest number on the doubling cube, the stakes may rise to 128, 256, 512 and so on.
====Beavers====
A common rule allows ''beavers'' - the right for a player to immediately redouble when offered the doubling cube, while retaining the cube instead of giving it back up. (The redouble must be called before the originally doubling player rolls the dice.) In this way, the stakes of the game can rise dramatically.
Beavers are commonly allowed when backgammon is played for money game by game, and usually not allowed in matches.
====Jacoby Rule====
The Jacoby Rule makes gammons and backgammons count for their respective double and triple points only if there has been at least one use of the doubling cube in the game. This encourages a player with a large lead in a game to double, and thus likely end the game, rather than see the game out to its conclusion in hopes of a gammon or backgammon. The Jacoby Rule is widely used in money play, but is not used in match play.
====Crawford Rule====
The Crawford Rule makes match play much more fair for the player in the lead. If a player is one point away from winning a match, his opponent has no reason ''not'' to double; after all, a win in the game by the player in the lead would cause him to win the match regardless of the doubled stakes, while a win by the opponent would benefit twice as much if the stakes are double. Thus there is no advantage towards winning the match to being one point shy of winning, if one's opponent is two points shy!
To remedy this situation, the Crawford Rule requires that when a player becomes one single point short of winning the match, neither player may use the doubling cube for a single game, called the ''Crawford Game''. As soon as the Crawford Game is over, any further games use the doubling cube normally.
Not quite as universal as the Jacoby Rule, the Crawford Rule is widely used and generally assumed to be in effect for match play.
====Automatic Doubles====
When Automatic Doubles are used, any re-rolls that players must make at the very start of a game (when each player rolls one die) have the side-effect of causing a double. Thus, a 3-3 roll, followed by a re-roll of 5-5, followed by a re-roll of 1-4 that begins the game in earnest, will cause the game to be played from the start with 4-times normal stakes. The doubling cube stays in the middle, with both players having access to it.
The Jacoby Rule is still in effect.
Automatic Doubles are common in money games (upon agreement). They are never used in match play.
==Three Basic Strategies==
In very general terms, there are 3 basic strategies employed. You need to be able to switch strategies instantly as the course of the game unfolds.
'''The Blockade'''
This involves building a 6-thick wall of checkers, or at least as thick as you can manage, to block in the opponent's checkers that are on your 1-point. This is considered to be the most suitable strategy at the start of the game. You can build the wall anywhere between your 11-point and your 2-point and then shuffle it into your home board as the game progresses.
'''The Blitz'''
Thi |
s. 2. bis 4. Jh. u. Z. IV. Von Ammianus Marcellinus bis Zosimos. 4. und 5. Jh. u. Z. Berlin: Akademie Verlag 1988 -1992. I: 657 pp. ISBN 3-05-000348-0. II: 291 pp. ISBN 3-05-000349-9. III: 723 pp. ISBN 3-05-000571-8. IV: 656 pp. ISBN 3-05-000591-2.
*Pohl, Walter. ''Die Germanen. Enzyklopädie deutscher Geschichte'' 57. München: Oldenbourg 2004. X + 156 pp. ISBN 3-486-56755-1.
*Pohl, Walter. ''Die Voelkerwanderung. Eroberung und Integration.'' Stuttgart: Kohlhammer 2002. 266 pp. ISBN 3-170-15566-0. Monograph, German.
* Todd, Malcolm. ''The Early Germans.'' Oxford: Blackwell 2004. Xii + 266 pp. ISBN 0-631-16397-2.
*Wolfram, Herwig. ''History of the Goths.'' Berkeley: University of California Press 1988. Xii + 613 pp. ISBN 0-520-6983-8.
*Wolfram, Herwig. ''The Roman Empire and its Germanic peoples.'' Berkeley: University of California Press 1997. XX + 361 pp. ISBN 0-520-08511-6.
==External links==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/programmes/bloodofthevikings/genetics_results_01.shtml Germanic Roots of Great Britain], A Genetic Study
*[http://www.geocities.com/reginheim/countries.html Present Day Germanic Distribution]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Ganges River</title>
<id>12448</id>
<revision>
<id>41903092</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T14:21:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Seemagoel</username>
<id>348377</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Adding text from www.exoticindiaart.com, written by Sri Nitin Kumar, released to Wikipedia with permission</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Ganga}}
{{Infobox_river | river_name = Ganges (Ganga)
| image_name = River Ganges and tributaries.png
| caption = Labelled satellite image of Ganges, [[Himalayas]]
| origin = [[Gangotri Glacier]]
| mouth = [[Bay of Bengal]]
| basin_countries = [[India]], [[Bangladesh]]
| length = 2,510 km (1,560 mi)
| elevation = 7,756 m
| discharge = 14,270 m&sup3;/s (275,496 ft&sup3;/s)
| watershed = 907,000 km&sup2; (354,300 mi&sup2;)
}}
The '''Ganges River''' ('''Ganga''' in Indian languages; ''Ganges'' is the Latin form) ([[Devanagari]] &#2327;&#2306;&#2327;&#2366;) is the major [[river]] in northern [[India]] and [[Bangladesh]]. The river has a long history of reverence in India and is often called the 'holy Ganga'. It originates as the [[Bhagirathi]] from the [[Gangotri Glacier]] in the [[Uttaranchal]] [[Himalaya|Himalayas]] and joins the [[Alaknanda]] near Deoprayag to form the Ganga. Then on, the Ganga flows across the large plains of North India (called the [[Gangetic Plains]]) and empties into the [[Bay of Bengal]] after dividing up into many [[distributary|distributaries]]. One of them is the [[Hoogli River]] near [[Kolkata]], another major distributary being the [[Padma River]] that enters [[Bangladesh]] and merges with [[Jamuna River]], a branch of the [[Brahmaputra River]].
[[Image:Ganges River Delta, Bangladesh, India.jpg|thumb|left|Ganges [[river delta]], Bangladesh and India]]
The total length of the river is about 2,510 km (1,560 mi). One of the densest human population belts on earth is built around the Ganga.
The region encompassing the [[river delta|delta]] near the Bay of Bengal [[coast]] is known as [[The Sundarbans]] (''Beautiful Forests'') &mdash; a region of thick [[mangrove]] [[forest]]s, and one of the major [[habitat (ecology)|habitats]] of the [[tiger|Royal Bengal tiger]].
The Ganges Basin is incredibly fertile and, at present, about one in every 12 people in the world (8.5%) live in its catchment area. However, due to this incredible concentration of population, pollution and destruction of habitats is increasing at an alarming rate in the region.
The [[Yamuna River]] &mdash; a major river in its own right, and nearly as sacred &mdash; is a [[tributary]] of the Ganga, and their confluence is near what is the site of the traditional holy [[Hindu]] city of [[Prayag]], now known as [[Allahabad]].
Two [[species]] of [[dolphin]] can be found in the Ganges, the [[Ganges River Dolphin]] and the [[Irrawaddy Dolphin]]. The Ganges is also notable in that it contains a rare species of [[River_shark|freshwater shark]], [[Glyphis gangeticus]] about which little is known.
==The Ganga in Hinduism==
[[Image:Ganga Mahabalipuram.jpg|thumb|230px|right|"Descent of the Ganga", Relief at [[Mahabalipuram]] ]]
The Ganga is personified in [[Hinduism]] as a [[goddess]]: Maa Ganga (Mother Ganga). Hindu legend makes her the foster-mother of [[Karttikeya]], who was actually a son of [[Shiva]] and [[Parvati]]
Several places sacred to Hindus lie along the banks of the river Ganga, including [[Haridwar]] and [[Varanasi]]. It is believed that taking a dip in the river will wash away one's [[sin]]s, and that having [[cremation|one's ashes disposed]] of in the Ganga after [[death]] may improve one's [[reincarnation|next life]] or even allow [[Moksha]] to be attained sooner. Devout Hindus make [[pilgrimage]]s to [[bath]]e in the Ganga and to [[meditate]] on its banks.
According to [[mythological]] legend, [[Brahma (god)|Brahma]] collected the sweat of [[Vishnu]]'s feet and created Ganga. Being touched by two members of the [[Trimurti]], Ganga became very holy .
[[Image:Early morning on the Ganges.jpg|thumb|230px|left|Early morning on the Ganges]]
Several years later, a [[Monarch|king]] named Sagara magically acquired sixty thousand sons. One day, King Sagara performed a [[ritual]] of [[worship]] for the good of the [[monarchy|kingdom]]. One of the integral parts of the ritual was a [[horse]], which was stolen by the jealous [[Indra]]. Sagara sent all his sons all over the [[earth]] to search for the horse. They found it in the nether-world (or [[Underworld]]) next to a penitent sage [[Kapila]]. Believing that the sage had stolen the horse, they hurled insults at him and caused his penance to be disturbed. The sage opened his eyes for the first time in several years, and looked at the sons of Sagara. With this glance, all sixty thousand were burnt to death.
The [[soul]]s of the sons of Sagara wandered as [[ghost]]s since their final rites had not been performed. When [[Bhagiratha]], one of the descendants of Sagara, son of Dilip, learnt of this fate, he vowed to bring Ganga down to Earth so that her waters could cleanse their souls and release them to heaven.
[[Image:Mahakumbh.jpg|thumb|225 px|The largest religious gathering on Earth. Around 70 million [[Hindus]] from around the world participated in [[Kumbh Mela]] at one of the Hindu Holy city [[Prayaga]] (also known as Allahabad) on the banks of river Ganga.]]
Bhagiratha prayed to Brahma that Ganga come down to Earth. Brahma agreed, and he ordered Ganga to go down to the Earth and then on to the nether regions so that the souls of Bhagiratha's ancestors would be able to go to [[heaven]]. The vain Ganga felt that this was insulting and decided to sweep the whole earth away as she fell from the heavens. Alarmed, Bhagiratha prayed to [[Shiva]] that he break up Ganga's descent.
Ganga arrogantly fell on Shiva's head. But Shiva calmly trapped her in his hair and let her out in small streams. The touch of Shiva further sanctified Ganga. As Ganga travelled to the nether-worlds, she created a different stream to remain on Earth to help purify unfortunate souls there.
Because of Bhagiratha's efforts Ganga descended on to earth and hence the river is also known as Bhagirathi, and the term "Bhagirath prayatna" is used to describe valiant efforts or difficult achievements.
Another name that Ganga is known by is Jahnavi. Story has it that once Ganga came down to earth, on her way to Bhagiratha, her rushing waters created turbulence and destroyed the fields and the [[sadhana]] of a sage called [[Rishi Jahnu|Jahnu]]. He was angered by this and drank up all of Ganga's waters. Upon this, the Gods prayed to Jahnu to release Ganga so that she could proceed on her mission. Pleased with their prayers, Jahnu released Ganga (her waters) from his ears. Hence the name "Jahnavi" (daughter of Jahnu) for Ganga.
It is sometime believed that the river will finally dry up at the end of Kali Yug (the era of darkness, the current era) just as with river [[Saraswati]], and this era will end. Next in (cyclic) order will be the SatYug or the era of Truth.
==Iconography of Ganga the Goddess==
In the cannons of [[Indian art]], Ganga is visualized as voluptuous and beautiful, carrying an overflowing pot in her hand. The vessel conveys the idea of abundant life and fertility, which nourishes and sustains the universe.
The second distinguishing aspect of Ganga's iconography is her animal mount, which is often shown serving as a pedestal for her. This is the [[makara]], a hybrid creature having the body of a crocodile and the tail of a fish. The makara in [[Hindu]] thought corresponds to the star sign of [[Capricorn]] in western astrology.
The makara is also the vehicle of the [[Vedic]] god of waters, [[Varuna]], thus establishing firmly Goddess Ganga's Vedic roots.
==Recent Pollution==
The Ganges collects large amounts of human [[pollution|pollutants]] as it flows through highly populous areas. These populous areas, and other people down stream, are then exposed to these potentially hazardous accumulations. While proposals have been made f |
anti-chemical and anti-pesticide movements during the [[1960s]]. In fact, Carson devoted a page of the book to thoughtful consideration of the relationship between DDT and malarial mosquitoes, but with cognizance of the phenomenon of development of resistance in the mosquito, concluding:
<blockquote>It is more sensible in some cases to take a small amount of damage in preference to having none for a time but paying for it in the long run by losing the very means of fighting [is the advice given in Holland by Dr Briejer in his capacity as director of the Plant Protection Service]. Practical advice should be 'Spray as little as you possibly can' rather than 'Spray to the limit of your capacity'.</blockquote>
Charles Wurster, the chief scientist for the Environmental Defense Fund, was quoted in the Seattle Times of [[5 October]] [[1969]], as saying: "If the environmentalists win on DDT, they will achieve a level of authority they have never had before. In a sense, much more is at stake than DDT." (Tren & Bate, 2004). However, as pesticide research was still immature when it was written, many of the claims made in ''Silent Spring'' were ultimately scientifically inaccurate.
During the late 1960's, pressure grew within the United States for a ban on DDT. In January 1971, the US District Court of Appeals ordered Ruckelshaus to begin the deregistration procedure for DDT. Initially, after a six-month review process, the [[Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]]'s first Administrator [[William Ruckelshaus]] rejected an outright ban, citing studies from the EPA's internal staff that stated that DDT was not an imminent danger to human health and wildlife. However, the findings of these staff members were criticized, as they were performed mostly by economic entomologists inherited from the [[United States Department of Agriculture]], whom many environmentalists felt were biased towards agribusiness and tended to minimize concerns about human health and wildlife. The decision not to ban thus created public controversy.
The [[Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]] held seven months of hearings in 1971-1972, with scientists giving evidence both for and against the use of DDT. In the summer of 1972, Ruckelshaus announced a ban on virtually all uses of DDT in the U.S., where it was classified in EPA Toxicity Class II.
This decision has been vigorously criticized by pro-DDT advocates, including [[Steven Milloy]], [[Roger Bate]] and [[Richard Tren]], whose critiques draw on the work of entomologist [[J. Gordon Edwards]], a pro-DDT witness at the hearings. They report that, at the end of the hearings, the hearing examiner, Edmund Sweeney, ruled that the scientific evidence provided no basis for banning DDT. In the summer of 1972 Ruckelshaus reviewed evidence collected during the agency's hearings as well as reports prepared by two DDT study groups (the [[Hilton Commission|Hilton]] and [[Mark Commission]]s) that had both come to the opposite conclusion. He did not actually attend any of the EPA commission's hearings however, and according to his aides did not read any transcripts of it. Ruckelshaus overturned Sweeny's ruling. Ruckelshaus argued that the pesticide was "a warning that man may be exposing himself to a substance that may ultimately have a serious effect on his health." (Tren & Bate, 2004) (Milloy, 1999).
The [[1970s]] ban in the U.S. took place amid a climate of public mistrust of the scientific and industrial community, following such fiascoes as [[Agent Orange]] and use of the hormone [[diethylstilbestrol]] (DES). In addition, the fact that the [[bald eagle]] was placed on the endangered species list in large part because of the overuse of DDT was also a strong factor leading to its banning in the United States.
=== International regulation of DDT ===
As of [[2006]], DDT continues to be used in other (primarily tropical) countries where mosquito-borne malaria and typhus are greater health problems than DDT's potential toxicity. Use of DDT in public health to control mosquitoes is primarily done inside buildings and through inclusion in household products and selective spraying; this greatly reduces environmental impact compared to the earlier widespread use of DDT in agriculture. It also reduces the risk of resistance to DDT. A FAQ on how DDT is currently used against malaria is available at [http://www.malaria.org/DDTcosts.html]. This use only requires a small fraction of that previously used in agriculture; for the whole country of Guyana, covering an area of 215,000 km², the required amount is roughly equal to the amount of DDT that might previously be used to spray only 4 km² of cotton during a single growing season [http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol3no3/roberts.htm].
The [[Stockholm Convention]], ratified in [[2001]] and effective as of [[17 May]] [[2004]], calls for the elimination of DDT and other persistent organic pollutants, barring health crises. The Convention was signed by 98 countries and is endorsed by most environmental groups. However a total elimination of DDT use in many malaria-prone countries is currently unfeasible because there are few affordable or effective alternatives, so public health use of DDT is exempt from the ban until alternatives are developed. Malaria Foundation International states:
:''The outcome of the treaty is arguably better than the status quo going into the negotiations over two years ago. For the first time, there is now an insecticide which is restricted to vector control only, meaning that the selection of resistant mosquitoes will be slower than before.[http://www.malaria.org/DDTpage.html]''
== DDT and malaria ==
Malaria infects between 300 million and 500 million people every year. The World Health Organization estimates that around 1 million people die from malaria every year. Most of those deaths (90%) occur in Africa and mostly in children under the age of 5. The economic impact includes costs of health care, working days lost to sickness, days lost in education, decreased productivity due to brain damage from cerebral malaria, and loss of investment and tourism (Tren & Bate, 2004).
Most of the prior use of DDT was in agriculture. Current use for disease control requires only a small fraction of the amounts used previously and is much less likely to cause environmental problems. Residual house spraying involves the treating of all interior walls and ceilings with an insecticide, and is effective against mosquitoes that favour indoor resting before or after feeding. Advocated as the mainstay of malaria eradication programmes in the late 1950s and 1960s, it remains a major component of control programmes in southern African states, though many countries have abandoned or curtailed their spraying activities due to disillusionment over the failure to achieve eradication, concerns over the safety and environmental impact, and administrative, managerial and financial constraints on implementation. Such limited use of DDT has not become ineffective due to resistance in areas where it is used inside homes. [[Swaziland]], [[Mozambique]] and [[Ecuador]] are examples of countries that have very successfully reduced malaria incidence with DDT.
There are insecticide alternatives to DDT, and [[Vietnam]] is often mentioned as a country that has seen a continued decline in malaria cases after involuntarily switching from DDT in 1991. However [[Thailand]], another South East Asian nation, has continued to use DDT and has a much smaller malaria rate despite similar conditions. The insecticide alternatives are generally more expensive, which limits their use in poor nations and in situations where anti-malarial efforts are already underfunded. It is doubtful that they are more environmentally friendly or as efficient, easy to use and safe for humans as DDT.
However, in some areas DDT has lost much of its effectiveness, especially where outdoor transmission is predominant form, like in India. "The declining effectiveness of DDT is a result of several factors which frequently operate in tandem. The first and the most important factor is vector resistance to DDT. All populations of the main vector, ''An. culicifacies'' have become resistant to DDT. The excito-repellent effect of DDT, often reported useful in other countries, actually promotes outdoor transmission" (Current Science 85 1532-1537[http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/dec102003/1532.pdf]) (pdf file)
In the period from 1934-1955 there were 1.5 million cases of malaria in [[Sri Lanka]] resulting in 80,000 deaths. After an extensive anti-mosquito program with DDT there were only 17 cases reported in 1963 and the program was halted. Malaria later rebounded to 600,000 cases in 1968 and the first quarter of 1969. Some proponents of DDT consider this an example of environmentalism trumping public well-being even though the use of DDT was ended more due to the lack of continuing need than due to environmental concerns. Spraying with DDT was resumed but many of the local mosquitoes had acquired resistance to DDT in the interim, presumably because of the continued use of DDT for crop protection, and so it was not nearly as effective as it had been previously. Switching to the more-expensive [[malathion]] in 1977 reduced the malaria infection rate to 3,000 by 2004. A recent study notes, "DDT and Malathion are no longer recommended since ''An. culicifacies'' and ''An. subpictus'' has been found resistant." (Malaria Journal 2005 4:8[http://www.malariajournal.com/content/4/1/8])
In many African nations, the problems resulting from malaria are viewed as greater than the potential dangers of DDT. After [[South Africa]] stopped using DDT in 1996, the number of malaria cases in [[KwaZulu Natal]] province rose from 8,000 to 42,000 cases. By 2000, there had been an approximate 400 percent increase in malaria deaths. Today, thanks to DDT, the number of deaths from mala |
ts starting with an [[extra-cellular signal]] and ultimately leading to the increase or decrease in the [[protein activity|activity]] of one or more protein molecules. Bioinformatics techniques have been applied to explore various steps in this process. For example, [[promoter analysis]] involves the elucidation and study of [[sequence motif]]s in the genomic region surround the coding region of a gene. These motifs influence the extent to which that region is transcribed into mRNA. Expression data can be used to infer gene regulation: one might compare [[microarray]] data from a wide variety of states of an organism to form hypotheses about the genes involved in each state. In a single-cell organism, one might compare stages of the [[cell cycle]], along with various stress conditions (heat shock, starvation, etc.). One can then apply [[cluster analysis|clustering algorithms]] to that expression data to determine which genes are co-expressed. Further analysis could take a variety of directions: one 2004 study analyzed the [[promoter]] sequences of co-expressed (clustered together) genes to find common [[regulatory elements]] and used [[machine learning]] techniques to identify the promoter elements involved in regulating each cluster{{ref|Beer_2004}}.
===Protein expression analysis===
Protein [[microarray]]s and high throughput (HT) [[mass spectrometry]] (MS) can provide a snapshot of the proteins present in a biological sample. Bioinformatics is very much involved in making sense of protein microarray and HT MS data; the former involves a number of the same problems involve in examining microarrays targeted at mRNA, the latter involves the problem of matching large amounts of mass data against predicted masses from protein sequence databases, and the complicated statistical analysis of samples where multiple, but incomplete, peptides from each protein are detected.
===Analysis of mutations in cancer===
Massive sequencing efforts are currently underway to identify [[point mutation]]s in a variety of [[gene]]s in [[cancer]]. The sheer volume of data produced requires automated systems to read sequence data, and to compare the sequencing results to the known sequence of the [[human genome]], including known [[germline]] polymorphisms.
[[Oligonucleotide]] microarrays, including [[comparative genomic hybridization]] and [[single nucleotide polymorphism]] arrays, able to probe simultaneously up to several hundred thousand sites throughout the genome are being used to identify chromosomal gains and losses in cancer. [[Hidden Markov model]] and [[change-point analysis]] methods are being developed to infer real copy number changes from often noisy data. Further informatics approaches are being developed to understand the implications of lesions found to be recurrent across many tumors.
Some modern tools (e.g. [http://www.q-pharm.com/home/contents/drug_d/soft Quantum 3.1] ) provide tool for changing the protein sequence at specific sites through alterations to its amino acids and predict changes in the bioactivity after mutations.
===Structure prediction===
''Main article:'' [[Protein structure prediction]]
Protein structure prediction is another important application of bioinformatics. The [[amino acid]] sequence of a protein, the so-called ''primary structure'', can be easily determined from the sequence on the gene that codes for it. In the vast majority of cases, this primary structure uniquely determine a structure in its native environment. (Of course, there are exceptions, such as the [[bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] - aka [[Mad Cow Disease]] - [[prion]].) Knowledge of this structure is vital in understanding the function of the protein. For lack of better terms, structural information are usually classified as one of ''[[secondary structure|secondary]]'', ''[[tertiary structure|tertiary]]'' and ''[[quaternary structure|quaternary]]'' structures. A viable general solution to such predictions remains an open problem. As of now, most efforts have been directed towards heuristics that work most of the time.
One of the key ideas in bioinformatics research is the notion of [[homology (biology)|homology]]. In the genomic branch of bioinformatics, homology is used to predict the function of a gene: if the sequence of gene ''A'', whose function is known, is homologous to the sequence of gene ''B,'' whose function is unknown, one could infer that B may share A's function. In the structural branch of bioinformatics homology is used to determine which parts of the protein are important in structure formation and interaction with other proteins. In a technique called homology modelling, this information is used to predict the structure of a protein once the structure of a homologous protein is known. This currently remains the only way to predict protein structures reliably.
One example of this is the similar protein homology between hemoglobin in humans and the hemoglobin in legumes ([[leghemoglobin]]). Both serve the same purpose of transporting oxygen in both organisms. Though both of these proteins have completely different amino acid sequences, their protein structures are virtually identical, which reflects their near identical purposes.
Other techniques for predicting protein structure include protein threading and ''de novo'' (from scratch) physics-based modeling.
See also [[structural motif]] and [[structural domain]].
=== Comparative genomics ===
The core of comparative genome analysis is the establishment of the correspondence between [[genes]] (orthology analysis) or other genomic features in different organisms. It is these intergenomic maps that make it possible to trace the evolutionary processes responsible for the divergence of two genomes. A multitude of evolutionary events acting at various organizational levels shape genome evolution. At the lowest level, point mutations affect individual nucleotides. At a higher level, large chromosomal segments undergo duplication, lateral transfer, inversion, transposition, deletion and insertion. Ultimately, whole genomes are involved in processes of hybridization, polyploidization and [[endosymbiosis]], often leading to rapid speciation. The complexity of genome evolution poses many exciting challenges to developers of mathematical models and algorithms, who have recourse to a spectra of algorithmic, statistical and mathematical techniques, ranging from exact, [[heuristics]], fixed parameter and [[approximation algorithms]] for problems based on parsimony models to [[Markov Chain Monte Carlo]] algorithms for [[Bayesian analysis]] of problems based on probabilistic models.
Many of these studies are based on the [[homology]] detection and protein families computation.
See also [[comparative genomics]], [[bayesian network]] and [[protein family]].
===Modeling biological systems===
''Main article:'' [[Systems biology]]
Systems biology involves the use of [[computer simulation]]s of [[cell (biology)|cellular]] subsystems (such as the [[metabolic network|networks of metabolites]] and [[enzyme]]s which comprise [[metabolism]], [[signal transduction]] pathways and [[gene regulatory network]]s) to both analyze and visualize the complex connections of these cellular processes. [[Artificial life]] or virtual evolution attempts to understand evolutionary processes via the computer simulation of simple (artificial) life forms.
===High-throughput image analysis===
Computational technologies are also used to accelerate or fully automate the processing, quantification and analysis of large amounts of high-information-content [[Biomedical imagery]]. Modern image analysis systems augment the observers ability to make measurements from a large or complex set of images, by improving [[accuracy]], [[objectivity]], or speed. A fully developed analysis system may completely replace the observer. While these systems are not unique to biology related imagery, their application to biologic problems continue to provide unique challenges and solutions, placing several imagery application under the umbrella of Bioinformatics. These systems are in the process of becoming more important for both [[diagnostics]] and research. Some examples:
* high-throughput and high-fidelity quantification and sub-cellular localization ([[high-content screening]], [[cytohistopathology]])
* [[morphometrics]] are used to analyze pictures of [[embryo]]s to track and to predict the fate of cell clusters during [[morphogenesis]]
* clinical image analysis and visualization
* determine the real-time air-flow patterns in breathing lungs of living individuals before and during challenge
* quantify occlusion size in real-time imagery from the development of and recovery during arterial injury
* making behavioural observations from extended video recordings of laboratory animals
* infrared measurements for metabolic activity determination
==Software tools==
The computational biology tool best-known among biologists is probably [[BLAST]], an algorithm for searching large sequence (protein, DNA) databases. [[NCBI]] provides a popular implementation that searches their massive sequence databases.
Bioinformatic meta search engines ([[Entrez]], [[Bioinformatic Harvester]]) help finding relevant information from several databases. There are also free Web-based software designed for [[structural bioinformatics]] such as [http://www.cbi.cnptia.embrapa.br/SMS/] [[STING]].
Computer scripting languages such as [[Perl]] and [[Python programming language|Python]] are often used to interface with [[biological databases]] and [[parse]] output from bioinformatics programs.
Communities of bioinformatics programmers have set up [[open source|free/open source]] projects such as [[EMBOSS]], [[Bioconductor]], [[BioPerl]], [[BioLinux]], [[BioPython]], [[BioRuby]], and [[BioJava]] which develop and distribute shared programming tools and objects (as program modules) that make bioinformatics easier.
An int |
x marriage]] legalization, child adoption by same-sex couples, and anti-gay hate crimes are often accused of homophobia for not supporting this legislation.
The [[Concerned Women for America]], a [[conservative]] lobby group, issued a press release following the [[Rick Santorum]] affair because they claimed that
:"The Rick Santorum controversy has illuminated a serious problem in the Republican Party: Its leaders seem woefully ill-prepared to defend the pro-family position on homosexuality."
in their advice to "fellow Republicans," they issued several points, including #3...
:"expose the deceptive terms, such as "sexual orientation," diversity and "homophobia," which are used by pro-"gay" proponents to confuse the issue and control the debate. This requires nothing but making them define their terms at the start of argument, then focusing the debate on clarifying the definitions and exposing their illogic and hypocrisy. "
The press release goes on to say ...
:"Ask them to identify some examples of non-homophobic opposition to homosexuality. They can't do it because they define all opposition as "homophobic." Do they really believe that disapproval of [[sodomy]]/[[rimming]]/[[fisting]]/[[sadism]] is irrational bigotry? You get the idea. You'll find that this technique derails virtually every pro-"gay" argument because each one relies on deceptive rhetoric. " {{ref|santorum}}
Senator [[Rick Santorum]] was accused of homophobia by the [[Gay and Lesbian Medical Association]] {{ref|glma}}, <!-- which ones? --> for making a declaration that he believed consenting adults do not have a constitutional right to privacy with respect to sexual acts. Santorum described the ability to regulate homosexual acts as comparable to the states' ability to regulate other sexual behaviors. (See [[Santorum controversy]])
Alan Keyes was accused of homophobia by [[Washington Blade]] correspondent [[Steve Koval]] in reference to Keyes' comments about Vice President [[Dick Cheney|Cheney]]'s lesbian daughter when Keyes was running for the U.S. Senate. {{ref|keyes}}
==Excerpts from discussions of the term==
Gay rights supporter [[Scott Bidstrup]], in a personal essay titled ''Homophobia: The Fear Behind The Hatred'', emphasizes the association between prejudice and fear:
:If you look up ''homophobia'' in the dictionary, it will probably tell you that it is the fear of homosexuals. While many would take issue with that definition, it is nevertheless true that in many ways, it really is a fear of homosexuality or at least homosexuals.{{ref|bidstrup}}
[[Niclas Berggren]], writing in the ''Independent Gay Forum'', argues that "homophobic" opinions are irrational:
:It is usually not the case, for homophobic persons, that the basis of their attitudes towards homosexuality is rational reasoning, or intellectual argumentation. Such endeavors have, as a rule, been added afterwards, to try to give the homophobia a nicer and more respectable framing. However, these attempts to argue intellectually against homosexuality are utter failures. {{ref|berggren}}
Christian commentator [[Gregory Koukl]], in a personal essay titled ''[[Heterosexism]]'', objects to the medicalization of a moral position:
:The word homophobia has come to describe any kind of opposition to homosexuality of any sort, but its interesting that part of their ([[homosexuality|homosexuals]]') goal was to shift the emphasis from what many perceived to be a homosexual problem, away from the homosexual activity itself, and towards the attitude people have about homosexuality... They purposely did this to change the focus of the discussion from the morality of their activity and the social appropriateness of their lifestyle to the attitudinal bias of those who would judge them. {{ref|koukl}}
==Homophobia in popular culture==
* [[Eminem]] garnered a lot of controversy as he rose to success, because of what were seen as highly homophobic lyrics, which ultimately led to [[GLAAD]] actively receiving hate-mail from his fans. This led to a number of reactions against him, in the forms of public manifestations and even a commercial specifically filmed for the night he played at the 2001 Grammys, with the mother of a homosexual teenager, [[Matthew Shepard]], who was beaten to death, speaking out to the general public as to the use of homophobic terms. Ironically, Eminem performed with openly gay artist [[Elton John]] that very night.
* In 2004 the reggae artist [[Sizzla]] cancelled his tours of the [[United Kingdom]] and [[France]] after protests over his anti-gay lyrics (popularly referred to as "homophobic"), and at one point the [[British government]] considered banning him from entry into the country. {{ref|sizzla}}
* In 2001 the Russian pop-band ''Chugunnyi Skorokhod'' (Russian "Чугунный Скороход") (literally, "The fast-walker of pig-iron") released a song ''Pidory idut!'' (Russian "Пидоры идут"!) ("Fags are marching!"). The song is about how it is hard for a straight man to live in a world where gays rule (particularly, in fields of TV, show business, etc.). It contains lines like "You were born a man - you're trapped! There's no way if you are straight!" "Any hairdresser or stylist must be a homosexual! How can a straight man work, if gays want him immediately?" The reaction in the Russian society was mixed: while some gay magazines and web sites accused the authors of fascism, many people accepted it quite warmly.
==References==
#{{note|dictionary}} Merriam-Webster's 11th Collegiate Dictionary, 2005, American Heritage Dictionary.
#{{note|weinberg}} [http://www.pflagdetroit.org/george_weinberg.htm "George Weinberg: Love is Conspiratorial, Deviant & Magical"]
#{{note|phobia}} [http://www.planetout.com/news/article-print.html?2002/06/13/3 Study: Homophobia is not a phobia], Gay.com U.K., June, 2002.
#{{note|journal}} [http://uk.gay.com/headlines/8588 Study in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology]
#{{note|arousal}} "Is Homophobia Associated With Homosexual Arousal?" by Henry E. Adams, Ph.D., Lester W. Wright, Jr., Ph.D. and Bethany A. Lohr, University of Georgia (Athens), Department of Psychology. ''Journal of Abnormal Psychology'', Vol. 105, No. 3, pp 440-445. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=8772014 Abstract] at [[PubMed]]. Summarized in an [[American Psychological Association]] press release, August 1996: "[http://web.archive.org/web/20040202035152/www.apa.org/releases/homophob.html New Study Links Homophobia with Homosexual Arousal]".
#{{note|index}} Index of Homophobia: W. W. Hudson and W. A. Ricketts, 1980.
#{{note|idaho}} [http://ilga.org/news_results_b.asp?FileID=329http://ilga.org/news_results_b.asp?FileID=329 "Towards an international Day against Homophobia"], [[April 10]], [[2004]]
#{{note|idaho2}} [http://www.emediawire.com/releases/2005/5/emw239185.htm "1st Annual International Day Against Homophobia to be Celebrated in over 40 Countries on May 17"], [[May 12]], [[2005]]
#{{note|blumenfield}} Blumenfield, Warren J., "''Homophobia: How we all pay the price''" (1992).
#{{note|santorum}} [http://www.cwfa.org/articles/3880/CFI/cfreport/ "Santorum Crisis Exposes Republican Weakness"], Scott Lively, [[April 30]], [[2003]]
#{{note|glma}} [http://www.sodomylaws.org/santorum/snnews030.htm "GLMA Joins LGBT Civil Rights Groups in Condemning Homophobic Remarks by Santorum"], Gay and Lesbian Medical Association, [[April 22]], [[2003]]
#{{note|keyes}} [http://www.washblade.com/blog/index.cfm?blog_id=369 "Blade outs Maya Keyes"]
#{{note|bidstrup}} Bidstrup, Scott, "''[http://www.bidstrup.com/phobia.htm Homophobia: The Fear Behind The Hatred]''". An essay on the origin and nature of homophobia.
#{{note|berggren}} Berggren, Niclas, "''[http://www.indegayforum.org/articles/berggren41.html Independent Gay Forum]''".
#{{note|koukl}} Koukl, Gregory,"Stand to Reason" (radio program); [http://www.str.org/free/commentaries/homosexuality/heterose.htm "Heterosexism"].
#{{note|sizzla}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/3977791.stm "Ban threat aborts Sizzla UK tour"], Bishop, Tom, [[November 4]], [[2004]]
==See also==
{{gay rights}}
*[[Allophilia]]
*[[Anti-gay slogans]]
*[[Critiques of sexual behavior]]
*[[Heterophobia]]
*[[Heterosexism]]
*[[Homophobic hate speech]]
*[[List of sexual slurs]]
*[[National Day Against Homophobia]] (Canada)
*[[Religion and homosexuality]]
*[[Sexualism]]
*[[Violence against gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and the transgendered]]
== External links ==
* [http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Homophobia Wikiquote - Quotes about Homophobia]
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/hom_phob.htm Meanings of the word Homophobia]
* [http://www.glaad.org/media/archive_detail.php?id=142 GLAAD site: Nationwide Responses to Senator Lott's Homophobic Remarks]
* [http://rci.rutgers.edu/~lcrew/pubd/homophobicimagination.html The Homophobic Imagination]
[[Category:Discrimination]]
[[Category:Neologisms]]
[[Category:Pejorative political terms]]
[[Category:Phobias]]
[[Category:Prejudices]]
[[Category:Sexual orientation and society]]
[[ar:هوموفوبيا]]
[[bg:Хомофобия]]
[[da:Homofobi]]
[[de:Heterosexismus]]
[[es:Homofobia]]
[[fi:Homofobia]]
[[fr:Homophobie]]
[[he:הומופוביה]]
[[it:Omofobia]]
[[ka:ჰომოფობია]]
[[nl:Homofobie]]
[[no:Homofobi]]
[[pl:Homofobia]]
[[pt:Homofobia]]
[[ru:Гомофобия]]
[[sv:Homofobi]]
[[tr:Homofobi]]
[[zh:同性恋恐惧症]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>High anxiety</title>
<id>13477</id>
<revision>
<id>15911083</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-14T23:51:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellsworth</username>
<id>63 |
cdot(\varphi \mathbf{F})
= (\nabla\varphi) \cdot \mathbf{F}
+ \varphi \;(\nabla\cdot\mathbf{F}). </math>
Another product rule for the [[cross product]] of two vector fields '''F''' and '''G''' in three dimensions involves the [[curl]] and reads as follows:
:<math>\operatorname{div}(\mathbf{F}\times\mathbf{G})
= \operatorname{curl}(\mathbf{F})\cdot\mathbf{G}
\;-\; \mathbf{F} \cdot \operatorname{curl}(\mathbf{G}),</math>
or
:<math>\nabla\cdot(\mathbf{F}\times\mathbf{G})
= (\nabla\times\mathbf{F})\cdot\mathbf{G}
- \mathbf{F}\cdot(\nabla\times\mathbf{G}).</math>
The [[Laplacian]] of a [[scalar field]] is the divergence of the field's gradient.
The divergence of the curl of any vector field (in three dimensions) is constant and equal to zero. Conversely, if you have a vector field '''F''' with zero divergence defined on a ball in '''R'''<sup>3</sup>, say, then there exists some vector field '''G''' on the ball with '''F''' = curl('''G'''). For regions in '''R'''<sup>3</sup> more complicated than balls, this latter statement might not be true anymore. Indeed, the degree of ''failure'' of the truth of the statement, measured by the [[homology (mathematics)|homology]] of the [[chain complex]]
:<math> \{\mbox{scalar fields on }U\} \;</math>
::<math> \to\{\mbox{vector fields on }U\} \;</math>
:::<math> \to\{\mbox{vector fields on }U\} \;</math>
::::<math> \to\{\mbox{scalar fields on }U\} \;</math>
(where the first map is the gradient, the second is the curl, the third is the divergence) serves as a nice quantification of the complicatedness of the underlying region ''U''. These are the beginnings and main motivations of [[de Rham cohomology]].
==Generalizations==
The divergence of a vector field can be defined in any number of dimensions. If
:<math>\mathbf{F}=(F_1, F_2, \dots, F_n),</math>
define
:<math>\operatorname{div}\,\mathbf{F} = \nabla\cdot\mathbf{F}
=\frac{\partial F_1}{\partial x_1}
+\frac{\partial F_2}{\partial x_2}+\cdots
+\frac{\partial F_n}{\partial x_n}. </math>
For any ''n'', the divergence is a linear operator, and it satisfies the "product rule"
:<math>\nabla\cdot(\varphi \mathbf{F})
= (\nabla\varphi) \cdot \mathbf{F}
+ \varphi \;(\nabla\cdot\mathbf{F}). </math>
for any scalar-valued function &phi;.
==See also ==
* [[Gradient]]
* [[Curl]]
* [[Vector calculus]]
* [[Nabla in cylindrical and spherical coordinates]]
* [[Divergence theorem]]
* [[Non-orthogonal analysis]]
[[Category:Vector calculus]]
[[ca:Divergència]]
[[de:Divergenz (Mathematik)]]
[[ko:다이버전스]]
[[it:Divergenza]]
[[hu:Divergencia]]
[[nl:Divergentie (wiskunde)]]
[[ja:発散]]
[[pl:Dywergencja]]
[[ru:Дивергенция]]
[[sv:Divergens]]
[[tr:Diverjans]]
[[zh:散度]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Drug/Narcotics</title>
<id>8330</id>
<revision>
<id>15906336</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moved to [[narcotic]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Narcotic]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Drug Mix</title>
<id>8331</id>
<revision>
<id>36637007</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-25T13:05:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.197.249.61</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT: [[Poly drug use]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Induhvidual</title>
<id>8332</id>
<revision>
<id>15906338</id>
<timestamp>2003-11-06T04:50:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Angela</username>
<id>8551</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[Dilbert]] (info merged there)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Dilbert]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>December 18</title>
<id>8334</id>
<revision>
<id>41153180</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T11:00:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rasmus Faber</username>
<id>32292</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Births */ rm redlinks</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 18]]''' is the 352nd day of the year (353rd in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 13 days remaining.
{{DecemberCalendar}}
==Events==
<!-- Please don't Wikify years that have already been linked (that means you, Skoglund) -->
*[[218 BC]] - [[Second Punic War]]: [[Battle of the Trebia]] - [[Hannibal]]'s [[Carthaginian]] forces defeat those of the [[Roman Republic]].
*[[1352]] - [[Pope Innocent VI|Innocent VI]] is elected [[Pope]].
*[[1787]] - [[New Jersey]] becomes the third state to ratify the [[United States Constitution]]
*[[1865]] - [[History of slavery in the United States]]: [[William Henry Seward]] proclaims that the [[United States Constitution/Amendment Thirteen|13th Amendment]] to the [[United States Constitution]] has been ratified by the legislatures of 27 of the then 36 states.
*[[1892]] - The first performance of [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky|Tchaikovsky]]'s ballet ''[[The Nutcracker]]'' is held at the [[Mariinsky Theatre]] in [[St. Petersburg]].
*[[1926]] - The first performance of [[Leoš Janáček]]'s opera ''[[The Makropulos Affair]]'' is held in [[Brno]], [[Czechoslovakia]].
*[[1935]] - The [[Lanka Sama Samaja Party]] is founded in [[Sri Lanka]].
*[[1961]] - [[Indonesia]] invades [[Netherlands New Guinea]].
*[[1966]] - [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]]'s moon [[Epimetheus (moon)|Epimetheus]] is discovered by Richard L. Walker.
*[[1969]] - [[Capital punishment in the United Kingdom]]: [[Home Secretary]] [[James Callaghan]]'s motion to remove the limit on the ''Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act'', which suspended the [[death penalty]] in [[England]], [[Wales]] and [[Scotland]] for all crimes, except [[treason]], [[piracy]] with violence, and certain crimes under the jurisdiction of the armed forces for a period of five years, is carried by both the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]] and the [[House of Lords]].
*[[1973]] - [[Soyuz programme]]: ''[[Soyuz 13]]'', crewed by [[cosmonauts]] [[Valentin Lebedev]] and [[Pyotr Klimuk]], is launched from [[Baikonur]] in the [[Soviet Union]].
*[[1996]] - The [[Oakland, California]] [[school board]] passes a resolution officially declaring "[[Ebonics]]" a language or dialect.
*[[1997]] - [[HTML|HTML 4.0]] is published by the [[World Wide Web Consortium]].
*[[2001]] - The [[Cathedral of Saint John the Divine]] in [[Manhattan]], [[New York City]], is damaged by fire.
*[[2002]] - The film ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (film)|The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers]]'' is released worldwide.
*2002 - [[2003 California recall]]: [[Governor of California]] [[Gray Davis]] announces that the state would face a record [[budget deficit]] of $35 billion, roughly double the figure reported during his reelection campaign one month earlier.
*[[2005]] - [[Sao Paulo Futebol Clube]] win the [[FIFA World Club Championship]]
==Births==
<!-- Please don't Wikify years that have already been linked (that means you, Skoglund) -->
*[[1507]] - [[Ouchi Yoshitaka]], Japanese warlord (d. [[1551]])
*[[1602]] - [[Simonds d'Ewes]], English antiquarian and politician (d. [[1650]])
*[[1610]] - [[Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange]], French philologist (d. [[1688]])
*[[1620]] - [[Heinrich Roth]], German Sanskrit scholar (d. [[1668]])
*[[1626]] - Queen [[Christina of Sweden]] (d. [[1689]])
*[[1661]] - [[Christopher Polhem]], Swedish scientist and inventor (d. [[1751]])
*[[1662]] - [[James Douglas, 2nd Duke of Queensberry]], Scottish politician (d. [[1711]])
*[[1724]] - [[Louise of Great Britain]], Queen of [[Frederick V of Denmark]] (d. [[1751]])
*[[1725]] - [[Johann Salomo Semler]], German historian and Bible commentator (d. [[1791]])
*[[1835]] - [[Lyman Abbott]], American author (d. [[1922]])
*[[1847]] - [[Augusta Holmès]], French composer (d. [[1903]])
*[[1856]] - Sir [[J.J. Thomson]], British physicist and [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1940]])
*[[1863]] - [[Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria]] (d. [[1914]])
*[[1870]] - [[Saki]] (Hector Hugh Munro), British writer (d. [[1916]])
*[[1873]] - [[Francis Burton Harrison]], American political figure (d. [[1957]])
*[[1878]] - [[Josef Stalin]] (Ioseb Jughashvili), leader of the Soviet Union (d. [[1953]])
*[[1879]] - [[Paul Klee]], Swiss-born painter and graphic artist (d. [[1940]])
*[[1886]] - [[Ty Cobb]] (Tyrus Raymond Cobb), American baseball player (d. [[1961]])
*[[1888]] - [[Robert Moses]], American public works official (d. [[1981]])
*1888 - Dame [[Gladys Cooper]], British actress (d. [[1971]])
*[[1890]] - [[Edwin Armstrong]], American inventor (d. [[1954]])
*[[1897]] - [[Fletcher Henderson]], American pianist, bandleader, arranger and composer (d. [[1952]])
*[[1904]] - [[George Stevens]], American film director, producer, writer and cinematographer (d. [[1975]])
*[[1907]] - [[Bill Holland]], American auto racer (d. [[1984]])
*[[1912]] - [[Benjamin O. Davis Jr.]], American General (d. [[2002]])
*[[1913]] - [[Alfred Bester (author)|Alfred Bester]], American author (d. [[1987]])
*1913 - [[Willy Brandt]], [[Chancellor of Germany]] and [[Nobel Peace Prize|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1992]])
*1913 - [[Ray Meyer]], former head coach of [[DePaul University]] men's basketball team
*[[1916]] - [[Betty Grable]], American actress (d. [[1973]])
*1916 - [[Douglas Fraser]], British-born trade unionist
*[[1917]] - [[Ossie Davis]], American actor (d. [[2005]])
*[[1927]] - [[Ramsey Clark]], U.S. Attorney General
*1927 - [[Romeo LeBlanc]], 25th [[Governor General of Canada]]
*[[1928]] - [[Józef Glemp]], Polish cardinal
*[[1930]] - [[Moose Skowron]], major league baseball player
*[[1931]] |
trengthening and prolonging the life of the "dynamos" that generate Earth's [[magnetosphere|magnetic field]]. The possession of a strong magnetic field has helped prevent atmospheric damage from [[solar wind]] and shielded life on Earth from [[gene]]-damaging high-energy solar radiation.
* The placement of [[Jupiter]] in our solar system acts as a gravitational "broom", sweeping up debris in the inner solar system, and reducing the frequency of [[impact event]]s on the Earth. Such an advantageous placement of a "protector planet" is probably uncommon.
Critics of the ''Rare Earth hypothesis'' admit that the probability of the ''specific'' conditions on Earth being widely replicated is low. However they point out that complex life may not require exclusively Earth-like conditions in order to evolve (see ''[[Evolving the Alien: The Science of Extraterrestrial Life]]'' and [[Alternative biochemistry]]). There may be other, more probable and wide-spread, conditions which will allow the development of other types of intelligent life.
==== Pro: The anthropic principle ====
Various formulations of the [[anthropic principle]] have been applied to speculation about the probability of the existence of alien civilizations.
The Anthropic Principle notes that the universe seems uniquely suited to the development of human intelligence, i.e. that any variation in any one of a myriad of universal constants would make the development of intelligent life more difficult. Thus, human intelligence has a "privileged" position in the universe.
Various formulations of the principle disagree on whether this principle is descriptive (if a condition must exist in the universe for human life to arise, then the universe ''must'' already meet that condition, as we are here), or [[teleological]] (the universe ''has'' to be this way, or it was ''designed'' to be this way, for the express ''purpose'' of creating human intelligence).
Ironically, the Anthropic Principle can be &mdash; and has been &mdash; used by both opponents and proponents of the idea of the existence of extraterrestrial intelligent life.
Opponents of the idea point out that the universe seems ideally suited for ''human'' life. Other, alien, forms of life would not have the same unique advantages as humans, and therefore the probability that they exist is low. The conditions required for ''human'' life are rare (see the [[#Con: The 'Rare Earth' hypothesis|Rare Earth hypothesis]]), and the likelihood of ''other'' forms of life are low.
Proponents of the idea state that the universe is ideally suited for ''intelligent'', not just ''human'' life, and as such, we can expect to see many forms of intelligent life in the universe.
There are those on both sides of the debate that deny that the Anthropic Principle is a meaningful argument at all.
==== Con: The lack of extraterrestrial colonization evidence ====
Adherents to the Fermi principle argue that from what we know about life's ability to overcome scarcity and colonize new habitats on our own planet, we can reasonably assume that life elsewhere will follow similar principles. Thus, they reason that any advanced civilization will almost certainly try to seek out new resources and colonize first their solar system, and then surrounding solar systems. Several writers have tried to estimate how fast an alien civilization might spread through the galaxy. There have been estimates of anywhere from 5 million to 50 million years to colonize the ''entire'' galaxy; a relatively small amount of time on a [[geological time|geological scale]], let alone a [[Timeline of the Big Bang|cosmological one]]. The very fact that we see no evidence on Earth, or anywhere else in the solar system of attempted alien colonization is presented as an argument for the rarity of intelligent life in our galaxy.
Even if ''colonization'' is impractical or undesirable to an alien civilization, large scale exploration of the galaxy is still possible with minor investment in energy and resources. An alien civilization might dispatch a small fleet of self-replicating [[Von Neumann probe]]s to explore the galaxy (or a malevolent civilization might dispatch a fleet of Berserker probes, after [[Fred Saberhagen]]'s ''[[Berserker (Saberhagen)|Berserker]]'' novels). Given the age of the universe, if intelligent life is common, it seems likely that there would be at least ''one'' civilization which would have dispatched such a machine. Given that it is estimated that such machines could spread through the ''entire'' galaxy in as little as half a million years, it seems likely that we should have been visited by such a craft in the past, or see evidence of them today.
Proponents of the existence of extraterrestrial life counter that it is quite possible that we ''have'' been visited by such a machine, or there ''is'' evidence out there that such machines exist; we simply have not seen it yet. [[Arthur C. Clarke]]'s story [[The Sentinel (short story)|"The Sentinel"]] and [[David Brin]]'s story "[http://www.davidbrin.com/lungfish1.html Lungfish]" explore such possible scenarios. Another possibility is that we have only recently become detectable to a [[Bracewell probe]] (through our radio transmissions), should any have been launched by an alien civilization, and perhaps too little time has elapsed since then for contact to have been established.
=== How common is it?: the Drake equation ===
In an attempt to find a ''systematic'' means to estimate the number of extraterrestrial civilizations that we might reasonably come in contact with, Dr. [[Frank Drake]] formulated The [[Drake equation]]. While it was formulated ''after'' the objections raised by [[Enrico Fermi]], Drake's equation has become a common and respected means of estimating the frequency of occurrence of interstellar civilizations.
The values assigned to the various "factors" of the equation are only estimates or educated guesses, however the range of "reasonable" estimates seems to imply that contact with extraterrestrial life might not be impossible. Several scientists have published different estimated values for the Drake equation's factors, with quite varied results. The estimates published by Dr. [[Carl Sagan]], for example, imply that intelligent life should be common in the Universe, and thus easy to detect. Other sets of estimates have placed the probability of the existence of other civilizations in our galaxy close to zero.
Critics of the Drake equation claim that since we cannot yet determine the variables of the equation with any real confidence, we cannot determine the number of extraterrestrial civilizations based on it. Instead, we must rely on empirical data, which we are only now beginning to collect and analyze in a significant manner; only with further observation can we hope to derive ''meaningful'' values for the Drake equation factors.
== Trying to resolve the paradox empirically: What we look for, and how we look ==
One obvious way to resolve the Fermi paradox would be to find conclusive evidence of extraterrestrial intelligence. Various efforts to find such evidence have been made since 1960, and several are ongoing. There has also been a lot of conjecture and theorizing about the best ways to conduct such searches.
=== The limits of searching ===
It must be remembered that as we do not have interstellar travel capability, such searches are being carried out at ''great distances'' and rely on careful analysis of very subtle evidence. We are therefore limited to detecting civilizations which alter their environment in a detectable way, or produce effects that are detectable at a distance &mdash; such as radio emissions. Non-technological civilizations are very unlikely to be detectable by us in the near future.
=== The dangers of anthropomorphism ===
One of the difficulties with the search for extraterrestrial intelligence is avoiding an overly [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] viewpoint. Our first inclination as humans is to look for evidence of the type of activities that ''humans'' have performed, or likely would perform if we had more advanced technology. In fact, we cannot know with certainty how intelligent aliens might think or behave. Thus aliens may be broadcasting evidence of their existence that we are not looking for, or they may '''not''' do things that we would expect any technological civilization to do and thus not broadcast the types of evidence we expect. We can speculate on possible differences between ourselves and alien species, and try to take these into consideration, but all such efforts may be flawed.
=== What we might look for ===
==== Radio emissions ====
[[Image:Arecibo.arp.750pix.jpg|250px|thumb|The [[Arecibo Observatory]]: a [[radio telescope]] which has played a key a role in attempts to resolve the Fermi paradox]]
Since the development of radio technology, we have been broadcasting signals into space, both accidentally and deliberately. To a nearby observer &mdash; or one with sufficiently sensitive equipment &mdash; our solar system would appear to have unusually intense [[radio]] wave emissions for an otherwise unremarkable [[main sequence]] star. The increased intensity is caused by [[broadcasting|broadcasters]] using this part of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]] for television and other telecommunication. Our solar system would appear unusual to an alien civilization &mdash; a star system emitting anomalous radio energy with no apparent natural cause &mdash; and would likely draw the attention of any alien civilization that detected it.
Keeping in mind the warning above about anthropomorphism, it would seem that radio technology is a simple and natural technology for any technological species to develop. Because it creates effects that can theoretically be detected over interstellar distances, a search for alien radio |
itor of the Etz Hayim Humash
*[[Isaac Klein]] Rabbi, expert in Jewish law, early member of the [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]]
*[[Saul Lieberman]] Talmud scholar at JTS
*[[Joel Roth]] JTS Talmud scholar, member of the [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]]
*[[Solomon Schechter]] - Researcher, early leader of JTS, creator of the [[United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism]]
*[[Mathilde Roth Schechter]] - Founder of the Women's League of Conservative Judaism and of Hadassah
*[[Ismar Schorsch]] - Chancellor of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America
*[[Gordon Tucker]] - Former Dean of Jewish Theological Seminary rabbinical school, part-time faculty member at JTS and member of [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]], Senior Rabbi of Temple Israel Center in White Plains, NY
*[[David Wolpe]] Rabbi -- author, public speaker and rabbi in Los Angeles, California.
== External links ==
* [http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/rl/jcu-index.html Additional reading]
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/cjews/ CJews: Conservative Judaism open discussion forum]
* [http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/02-03.html An intro to Conservative Judaism]
* [http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/ The Rabbinical Assembly]
* [http://www.uscj.org/ The United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism]
* [http://www.jtsa.edu/ The Jewish Theological Seminary of America]
* [http://www.uj.edu/ University of Judaism]
* [http://www.masorti.org/ The Masorti Movement]
* [http://www.uscj.org/intmar/ A Conservative Jewish view on Intermarriage]
* [http://members.tripod.com/~ramotzion/principles.html Principles of Masorti Judaism]
* [http://www.jtsa.edu/about/cj/sacredcluster.shtml The Core Principles of Conservative Judaism]
* [http://www.masorti.org.uk/whatsmas.htm What is Masorti Judaism?]
* [http://www.uscj.org/scripts/uscj/paper/Article.asp?ArticleID=435 Formulating Jewish Law For Our Time]
* [http://learn.jtsa.edu/topics/diduknow/jrpguide/ A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice - Official work on Jewish law]
* [http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/08-02.html The role of women in Conservative Judaism]
== References ==
* ''Conservative Judaism: Our Ancestors To Our Descendants'' (Revised Edition), Elliot N. Dorff, United Synagogue New York, 1996
* ''The Conservative Movement in Judaism: Dilemmas and Opportunities'', Daniel J. Elazar, Rela Mintz Geffen, SUNY Press, 2000
* ''Conservative Judaism: The New Century'', Neil Gillman, Behrman House 1993
* ''Halakha For Our Time: A Conservative Approach To Jewish Law'', David Golinkin, United Synagogue, 1991
* ''A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice'' Isaac Klein, JTS Press, New York, 1992
* ''Conservative Judaism in America: A Biographical Dictionary and Sourcebook'' Pamela S. Nadell, Greenwood Press, NY 1988
* ''Emet Ve-Emunah: Statement of Principles of Conservative Judaism'', Ed. Robert Gordis, JTS, New York, 1988
* ''Etz Hayim: A Torah Commentary'', Ed. David Lieber, [[Chaim Potok]] and [[Harold Kushner]], The Jewish Publication Society, NY, 2001
=== Traditional-Egalitarian Judaism ===
* [http://www.kehilathadar.org/Aboutus/jpost02-11-05.html Beyond Dogma, Jerusalem Post Magazine]
* [http://www.jewishjournal.com/home/preview.php?id=14761 Can anyone save Conservative Judaism from itself? The Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles]
=== Observance of Conservative Jews ===
* [http://www.forward.com/issues/2002/02.03.01/news6.html Conservative Leader Takes Heat for Standards Stance, Forward, March 2002]
* ''Eight Up: The College Years,'' Survey of Conservative Jewish youth from middle school to college. Ariela Keysar and Barry Kosmin
* [http://www.uscj.org/intmar/trends.html Encouraging Trends Among Conservative Synagogue Members, Alan Silverstein, USCJ]
[[Category:Conservative Judaism|*]]
[[ar:يهودية محافظة]]
[[de:Konservatives Judentum]]
[[fr:Mouvement Massorti]]
[[he:יהדות קונסרבטיבית]]
[[nn:Konservativ jødedom]]
[[sv:Konservativ judendom]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Confererations of Germanic tribes</title>
<id>6624</id>
<revision>
<id>38349502</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T19:50:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Khoikhoi</username>
<id>657950</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Confederations of Germanic tribes]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Catholcism</title>
<id>6625</id>
<revision>
<id>15904751</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Catholicism]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CDE</title>
<id>6626</id>
<revision>
<id>39244434</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T20:32:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Redquark</username>
<id>104872</id>
</contributor>
<comment>nothing to disambiguate</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Common Desktop Environment]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Common Desktop Environment</title>
<id>6627</id>
<revision>
<id>39286834</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T02:37:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.160.28.101</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Solaris8-cde.png|thumb|right|200px|CDE on Unix (Solaris 8)]]
[[Image:DECwindows-openvms-v7.3-1.png|thumb|right|200px|DECwindows CDE on OpenVMS 7.3-1]]
The '''Common Desktop Environment''' ('''CDE''') is a [[Proprietary software|proprietary]] [[desktop environment]] for [[Unix|UNIX]], based on the [[Motif (widget toolkit)|Motif]] [[widget toolkit]]. It is also the standard desktop environment on [[Hewlett-Packard|HP]] [[OpenVMS]].
CDE was jointly developed by [[Hewlett-Packard]], [[IBM]], [[Novell]] and [[Sun Microsystems]] in [[The Open Group]]. It was based on HP's [[VUE]] (Visual User Environment).
Until about [[2000]], CDE was considered the [[de facto]] standard for UNIX desktops, but at that time, [[free software]] desktop environments such as [[KDE]] and [[GNOME]] were quickly becoming mature, and became almost universal on the [[Linux]] platform, which already had a larger user base than most commercial Unixes in total.
In [[2001]], commercial Unix vendors [[Hewlett-Packard]] ([[HP-UX]]) and [[Sun Microsystems]] ([[Solaris Operating Environment|Solaris]]) announced that they would phase out CDE as the standard desktop on their workstations, in favor of [[GNOME]]. However, in April [[2003]], HP reportedly opted to return to CDE, as [[GNOME]] had not stabilised sufficiently for their preference. It has been suggested that the non-frozen [[application programming interface|API]]s were the main complaint.
As of early 2006, [[Solaris 10]], from Sun, includes both CDE and the GNOME-based [[Java Desktop System]]. Sun has gone on record stating that CDE will not be part of [[OpenSolaris]][http://www.opensolaris.org/os/downloads/]
==External links==
*[[Linux]] - [http://www.xig.com/Pages/DeXtop/CDE-GUI.html CDE]
*[[AIX operating system|AIX]] - [http://www-1.ibm.com/servers/aix/cde/ CDE]
*[[HP-UX]] - [http://docs.hp.com/en/B1171-90103/index.html CDE]
*[[Solaris Operating Environment|Solaris]] - [http://wwws.sun.com/software/solaris/cde/ CDE]
*[http://www.cs.cf.ac.uk/Dave/C/node2.html Tutorial for the CDE]
*[http://www.opengroup.org/cde/ Open Group - CDE]
[[Category:Desktop environments]]
[[Category:X Window System]]
[[Category:OpenVMS]]
[[de:Common Desktop Environment]]
[[es:CDE]]
[[it:Common Desktop Environment]]
[[ru:CDE]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Children of Dune</title>
<id>6628</id>
<revision>
<id>40576237</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T15:38:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>207.101.98.232</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Synopsis */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{DuneSeries}}
[[Image:ChildrenofDune.jpg|thumbnail|200px|Children of Dune]]
'''''Children of Dune''''' is a [[science fiction]] novel by [[Frank Herbert]], third in a series of six novels set in the [[Dune universe]]. It was originally serialized in [[Astounding Magazine|Analog Science Fact and Fiction]] in [[1976]], and was the last ''Dune'' novel to be serialized before book publication. The novels [[Dune Messiah]] and Children of Dune were adapted in 2003 into a well-received mini-series entitled [[Children of Dune (TV miniseries)|Children of Dune]] by the [[Sci-Fi Channel]].
[[Paul Atreides]] had two children, [[Leto Atreides II|Leto]] and [[Ghanima]]. At the end of ''[[Dune Messiah]]'', Paul walked into the desert, a blind man, leaving the children in the care of the [[Fremen]] while their aunt [[Alia Atreides|Alia]] rules the universe as regent. Awoken in the womb by the spice, the children are the heirs to Paul's [[Prescience|prescient]] vision of the fate of the universe, a role that Alia desperately craves. [[House Corrino]], the previous imperial house, schemes to return to the throne, while the [[Bene Gesserit]] make common cause with the [[Bene Tleilaxu]] and [[Spacing Guild]] to gain control of [[melange|the spice]] and the children of Paul Atreides.
{{spoiler}}
==Synopsis==
It is nine years since the Emperor Paul Muad'dib walked into the desert blind. The ecological transformation of [[Arrakis|Dune]] continues apace and some of the [[Fremen]] are even doing without stillsuits in the less arid climate. Fremen have started to move out of the Sietches and into the villages and cities. Millions of Fremen now, thanks to the Jihad, have experience of life off planet or out of the desert opening their minds to new possibilities, yet also causing them to forget the old ways. It is a time of great social change and economic growth on the new capital planet of the Imperium, as more and more pilgrims arrive each day to experienc |
ys later, [[Fort Lee, New Jersey|Fort Lee]], across the [[Hudson River]] from Fort Washington, was also taken.
[[Image:Washington Crossing the Delaware.png|thumb|right|300px|[[Emanuel Leutze]]'s 1851 painting ''[[Washington Crossing the Delaware]]'' is an [[icon]]ic image of [[American history]].]]
[[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|General Lord Cornwallis]] continued to chase Washington's army through [[New Jersey]], until the Revolutionaries withdrew across the [[Delaware River]] into [[Pennsylvania]] in early December. With the campaign at an apparent conclusion for the season, the British entered winter quarters. Although Howe had missed several opportunities to crush the diminishing rebel army, he had killed or captured over 5,000 Americans. He controlled much of New York and New Jersey, and was in a good position to resume operations in the spring, with the rebel capital of [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]] in striking distance.
The outlook of the Continental Army—and thus the revolution itself—was bleak. "These are the times that try men's souls," wrote [[Thomas Paine]], who was with the army on the retreat. The army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men fit for duty, and would be reduced to 1,400 after enlistments expired at the end of the year. Spirits were low, popular support was wavering, and Congress had abandoned Philadelphia in despair.
Washington reacted by taking the offensive, stealthily [[Battle of Trenton|crossing the Delaware]] on [[Christmas]] night and capturing nearly 1,000 Hessians at the [[Battle of Trenton]] on [[December 26]], [[1776]]. Cornwallis marched to retake Trenton, but was outmaneuvered by Washington, who successfully [[Battle of Princeton|attacked the British rearguard]] at [[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]] on [[January 3]], [[1777]]. Washington then entered winter quarters at [[Morristown, New Jersey]], having retaken much of New Jersey, and having secured two bold, morale-boosting victories in quick succession to reinvigorate the flagging revolution.
=== Saratoga Campaign, 1777 ===
In the summer of [[1777]], the British launched [[Saratoga Campaign|a new expedition]] from Canada. Led by General Burgoyne, the intention was to seize the Lake Champlain and Hudson River corridor, effectively isolating [[New England]] from the rest of the American colonies. Burgoyne's invasion had two components: he would lead about 10,000 men along Lake Champlain towards [[Albany, New York]], while a second column of about 2,000 men, led by [[Barry St. Leger]], would move down the [[Mohawk River]] valley and link up with Burgoyne in Albany.
Burgoyne set off in early July, [[Battle of Ticonderoga (1777)|recapturing Fort Ticonderoga]] from the retreating Revolutionaries without firing a shot. He then proceeded overland towards Albany, but Revolutionaries slowed his progress through the wilderness by destroying bridges and felling trees in his path. Running short on supplies, in August Burgoyne sent a detachment to raid nearby [[Bennington (town), Vermont|Bennington, Vermont]]. The raiders were [[Battle of Bennington|decisively defeated]] by local militia, depriving Burgoyne of nearly 1,000 men and the much-needed supplies.
[[Image:Joseph Brant painting by George Romney 1776.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Mohawk nation|Mohawk]] leader [[Joseph Brant]] commanded both American Indians and [[whites|white]] [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalists]] during the American Revolutionary War.]]
Meanwhile, St. Leger—half of his force American Indians led by [[Joseph Brant]]—had laid siege to [[Fort Stanwix]] on the Mohawk River. About 800 Revolutionary militiamen and their Indian allies marched to relieve the siege, but were ambushed and scattered by British and Indians on [[August 6]] at the [[Battle of Oriskany]]. [[Iroquois]] warriors fought on both sides of the battle, marking the beginning of a civil war within the Six Nations. When a second relief expedition approached, this time led by [[Benedict Arnold]], the siege was lifted, and St. Leger's expedition returned to Canada. Burgoyne was on his own.
Burgoyne pushed on towards Albany, his forces now reduced to about 6,000 men. A Revolutionary army of about 8,000 men, commanded by the newly arrived General [[Horatio Gates]], had entrenched about 10 miles (16 km) south of [[Saratoga, New York]]. Burgoyne sent 2,000 men to outflank the Revolutionary position, but was checked by Generals Benedict Arnold and [[Daniel Morgan]] in the [[Battle of Freeman's Farm|first battle of Saratoga]] on [[September 19]], [[1777]]. After the battle, the two armies dug in.
Burgoyne was in trouble now, but he hoped that help from the south might be on the way. All along, Burgoyne had suggested that his invasion from Canada might be supported by a British offensive up the Hudson River from Howe's location in New York City. However, [[George Germain, 1st Viscount Sackville|British war planners]] did not coordinate their efforts. General Howe had instead sailed away from New York on an expedition to capture Philadelphia (see next section). British General Henry Clinton, left in command at New York, did indeed sail up the Hudson in October, capturing several forts and burning [[Kingston (city), New York|Kingston]] (then the rebel capital of New York), but his efforts were not enough to affect the events at Saratoga.
Revolutionary militiamen, many of them outraged by the reported murder of [[Jane McCrae|an American woman]] at the hands of Burgoyne's Indian allies, flocked to Gates's army, swelling his force to 11,000 by the beginning of October. Burgoyne, his position becoming desperate, launched a new offensive, the [[Battle of Bemis Heights|second battle of Saratoga]] on October 7. The attack was repelled, and General Arnold, though relieved of command by Gates, rushed to the battle and led a decisive counterattack. Badly beaten, Burgoyne surrendered on October 17.
Saratoga is often regarded as the turning point of the war. Revolutionary confidence and determination, suffering from Howe's successful occupation of Philadelphia, was renewed. Even more importantly, the victory encouraged France to enter the war against Great Britain. Spain and the Netherlands soon did the same. For the British, the war had now become much more complicated.
=== Philadelphia campaign, 1777 to 1778 ===
Having secured New York City in his 1776 campaign, in 1777 General Howe concentrated on capturing Philadelphia, the seat of the Revolutionary government. He moved slowly, landing 15,000 troops in late August at the northern end of [[Chesapeake Bay]], about 55 miles (90 km) southwest of Philadelphia. Washington positioned his 11,000 men between Howe and Philadelphia, but was outflanked and driven back at the [[Battle of Brandywine]] on [[September 11]], [[1777]]. The Continental Congress once again abandoned the city. British and Revolutionary forces maneuvered around each other for the next several days, clashing in minor encounters such as the so-called "[[Paoli Massacre]]." On September 26, Howe finally outmaneuvered Washington and marched into Philadelphia unopposed.
After taking the city, the British [[garrison]]ed about 9,000 troops in [[Germantown, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Germantown]], five miles (8 km) above Philadelphia. Washington [[Battle of Germantown| unsuccessfully attacked Germantown]] in early October, and then retreated to watch and wait. Meanwhile, the British secured the Delaware River by taking (with difficulty) forts [[Fort Mifflin|Mifflin]] and [[Fort Mercer|Mercer]] in November.
General Washington's problems at this time were not just with the British. In the so-called [[Conway Cabal]], some politicians and officers unhappy with Washington's recent performance as commander-in-chief secretively discussed his removal. Washington, offended by the behind-the-scenes maneuvering, laid the whole matter openly before Congress. His supporters rallied behind him, and the episode abated.
Washington and his army encamped at [[Valley Forge]] in December 1777, about 20 miles (32 km) from Philadelphia, where they would stay for the next six months. Over the winter, 2,500 men (out of 10,000) died from disease and exposure. However, the army eventually emerged from Valley Forge in good order, thanks in part to a training program supervised by [[Baron von Steuben]].
Meanwhile, there was a shakeup in the British command, with General Clinton replacing Howe as commander-in-chief. French entry into the war had changed British war strategy, and Clinton was ordered by the government to abandon Philadelphia and defend New York City, now vulnerable to French naval power.
Washington's army shadowed Clinton on his withdrawal, and forced a [[Battle of Monmouth|battle at Monmouth]] on [[June 28]], [[1778]], the last major battle in the North. Washington's second-in-command, General [[Charles Lee (general)|Charles Lee]], ordered a controversial retreat during the battle, allowing Clinton's army to escape. By July, Clinton was in New York City, and Washington was again at White Plains. Both armies were back where they had been two years earlier. With the exception of scattered minor actions in the North, like the [[Battle of Stony Point]], the focus of the war now shifted elsewhere.
== War in the West ==
''Main article: [[Frontier warfare during the American Revolution]]''
[[Image:Ftsackville.gif|thumb|250px|left|[[George Rogers Clark]]'s 180 mile (290 km) trek in the dead of winter led to the capture of General [[Henry Hamilton]], Lieutenant-Governor of [[Canada]].]]
West of the [[Appalachian Mountains]], the American Revolutionary War was an "[[Indian Wars|Indian War]]." The British and the Continental Congress both courted [[Native Americans in the United States|American Indians]] as allies (or urged them to remain neutral), and many Native American communities became divided over what path to take. Like the [[Iroquois]] Confederacy, tr |
tics]] to induce water-weight loss and [[stimulants]] (such as [[ephedrine]]) to increase heart rate and reduce appetite. Both classes of drugs can cause kidney and liver damage, and stimulants can cause sudden heart attacks and [[addiction]].
===Yo-yo dieting===
[[Yo-yo dieting]] is defined by alternating periods of feast and famine (that the dieter deliberately undertakes). It is a particularly ineffective method of sustaining weight loss.
The human body responds to starvation by decreasing metabolism. When food is again available, it is stored immediately as fat. This survival mechanism, while a useful response to genuine food scarcity, leaves the yo-yo dieter feeling lethargic and fatigued (and defeated).
Metabolism can be restored to a higher level with exercise and a sensible weight-loss diet. This diet is defined by the minimum safe daily caloric intake of 75 percent of the basal metabolic rate or 4200 kilojoules (1000 Calories), whichever is greater. (Those eating less should do so only under medical supervision. Parents and guardians should consult medical professionals before placing their children on any type of diet.)
Once an ideal weight is attained, a weight-maintenance diet is essential. This requires limiting excess caloric intake and making small changes in caloric intake in response to physical observations (of one's weight and appearance).
===Scientific analysis of the dangers of fasting (and discussion of partial fasting with protein supplementation)===
While anyone can lose weight by [[fasting]] (temporarily stopping one's food intake), it is a dangerous practice. When [[concentration camp]] survivors, who involuntarily suffered famine as a result of horrendous living conditions, were examined by doctors, what little weight they had was mostly fat, with practically no muscle.
The muscle loss is partly due to the fact that the brain cannot rely completely on fat for fuel. The brain can use [[ketones]] (from fat) for some purposes, but it must get at least 15 percent of its energy from [[glucose]], and it takes a much greater percentage than this early in a fast. Glucose can only be synthesized from proteins and carbohydrates.
The body stores carbohydrates as glycogen in the muscles and the liver; glycogen is used to make glucose. Glycogen stores (from carbohydrates) can only last for 2 weeks (during starvation). (In fact, [[marathon (sport)|marathon]] runners experience a shortage of easily-available glycogen after only 2 hours: they speak of "hitting the wall".)
Because fasts, very low calorie diets (VLCD), and low-carbohydrate diets restrict the intake of carbohydrates, glucose must be obtained from protein. If dietary protein is insufficient, internal sources will be obtained: [[autolysis]] and muscle wasting occurs. (The conversion of amino acids to glucose is called [[gluconeogenesis]].)
A very low calorie diet that restricts all carbohydrates and non-essential fats, while providing just enough dietary protein to prevent muscle loss, is termed a "protein sparing modified fast" (PSMF).
After experimentation, it was found that a protein intake of 1 to 1.5 grams of protein per kilogram of ideal bodyweight (lean body mass or LBM) prevented the loss of body protein. A somewhat "safer" intake of .8 to 1.2 grams of protein per pound of LBM is often recommended. (More active persons and those taking less protein must compensate by consuming at least some carbohydrates.)
Thus, PSMF allows for rapid fat loss due to the severe caloric deficit that is created when nearly all carbohydrates and fats are removed from the diet. This extreme dieting technique has many potential hazards, such as hormonal changes and rapid metabolic slowdown. PSMF is sometimes used by [[bodybuilder|bodybuilders]] to "get cut" (lose fat to expose muscle) just before competitions.
===Side effects===
Dieting, especially extreme food-intake reduction, can have the following side effects:
*[[hunger|Prolonged hunger]]
*[[Depression (mood)|Depression]]
*[[sex drive|Reduced sex drive]]
*[[Fatigue (physical)|Fatigue]]
*[[Irritable|Irritability]]
*[[Fainting]]
*[[sinus|Sinus problems (especially post-nasal drip)]]
*[[muscle|Muscle loss]]
*[[Rash|Rashes]]
*[[Acidosis]]
*[[Bloodshot eyes]]
==See also==
*[[Appetite suppressant]]
*[[Food faddism]]
*[[Body image]]
*[[Body fat percentage]]
*[[List of diets]]
*[[National Weight Control Registry]]
*[[Underweight]]
*[[Vegetarianism]]
==External links==
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*[http://dmoz.org/Home/Cooking/Special_Diets/ Directory of diet info]
*[http://www.healthierus.gov/ U.S. government site on dieting]
*[http://www.eatwell.gov.uk/healthydiet/ U.K. government site on dieting]
*[http://cluster3.biosci.utexas.edu/courses/herpetology/ryan/thermoreg.html Michael Ryan] - Thermoregulation
*[http://www4.nationalacademies.org/news.nsf/isbn/0309085373?OpenDocument National Academy of Sciences] - Dietary Reference Intakes
*[http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=11234 American Heart Association] - High-Protein Diets
==Sources==
*Dansinger, M.L., Gleason, J. L., Griffith, J.L., et al., "One Year Effectiveness of the Atkins, Ornish, Weight Watchers, and Zone Diets in Decreasing Body Weight and Heart Disease Risk", Presented at the American Heart Association Scientific Sessions [[November 12]], [[2003]] in Orlando, Florida.)
*American Dietetic Association. 2003. Position paper on vegetarian diets. J Am Diet Assoc. 103:748-765.
*Davis, B. and Melina, V. 2000. ''Becoming Vegan.'' pg. 22.
[[Category:Diets]]
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<page>
<title>Diet</title>
<id>8461</id>
<revision>
<id>40105635</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T04:15:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jpgordon</username>
<id>96897</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/59.95.7.150|59.95.7.150]] ([[User talk:59.95.7.150|talk]]) to last version by Longhair</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Diet''' may mean:
In '''nutrition''':
* [[Diet (nutrition)]], the sum of the food consumed by an organism or group.
* [[Dieting]], the deliberate selection of food to control body weight or nutrient intake.
* [[Diet food]], those foods that aid in [[Dieting]], e.g. [[Diet Coke]]
'''Other uses''':
* [[Diet (assembly)]], formal deliberative assembly
* [[Dietsch]], distinguishes the southern dialects in the [[Middle Dutch language]]
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<page>
<title>Dubnium</title>
<id>8463</id>
<revision>
<id>40013746</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T14:25:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chobot</username>
<id>259798</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: ko</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=105 | symbol=Db | name=dubnium | left=[[rutherfordium]] | right=[[seaborgium]] | above=[[tantalum|Ta]] | below=(Upp) | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[transition metal]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=5 | period=7 | block=d }}
{{Elementbox_appearance | unknown, probably silvery<br />white or metallic gray }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|(262)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | perhaps &#91;[[radon|Rn]]&#93; 5f<sup>14</sup> 6d<sup>3</sup> 7s<sup>2</sup><br />(guess based on [[tantalum]]) }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 11, 2 }}
{{Elementbox_phase | presumably a [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 53850-35-4 }}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
'''Dubnium''' (formerly also called ''Eka-Tantalum'', ''Hahnium'' and ''Unnilpentium'') is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol Db and [[atomic number]] 105.
This is a highly [[radioactive]] [[synthetic element]] whose most stable [[isotope]] has a [[half life]] of [[1 E4 s|16 hours]] (dubnium-268). This relatively high stability compared to the surrounding elements on the periodic table gives evidence that by manipulating the number of neutrons in a nucleus, one can alter the stabilities of such nuclei.
== History ==
Dubnium (named after [[Dubna]], [[Russia]]) was reportedly [[discovery of the chemical elements|first synthesized]] in [[1967]] at the [[Joint Institute for Nuclear Research]] in [[Dubna]], [[Russia]] (reportedly producing element 105-260 and element 105-261 by bombarding [[americium]]-243 with [[neon]]-22). In late April [[1970]] researchers led by [[Albert Ghiorso]] working at the [[University of California, Berkeley]] had positively identified element 105.
The [[United States|American]] team synthesized the element by bombarding a target [[californium]]-249 with a beam of 84 MeV [[nitrogen]] nuclei in the [[Heavy Ion Linear Accelerator]] (a [[particle accelerator]]), which produced element 105-260 with a [[half-life]] of 1.6 seconds. [[Atom]]s of element 105 were detected conclusively on [[March 5]], [[1970]] but there is evidence that this element had already been formed at Berkeley a year earlier using the same method.
The Berkeley scientists later tried to confirm the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] findings using more sophisticated methods but were not successful. They proposed that the new element should be named hahnium (symbol Ha) in honor of the late [[Germany|Ge |
in Romania)
* [[Clement Pansaers]] - Belgium
* [[Francis Picabia]] - Switzerland, United States and France
* [[Man Ray]] - United States and France
* [[Hans Richter (artist)|Hans Richter]] - Germany, Switzerland and United States
* [[Kurt Schwitters]] - Germany
* [[Sophie Taeuber-Arp|Sophie Täuber]] - Switzerland
* [[Tristan Tzara]] - Switzerland and France (born in Romania)
* [[Beatrice Wood]] - United States and France
==See also==
* [[Wikisource:Dada Manifesto (1916, Hugo Ball)|Text of Hugo Ball's 1916 ''Dada Manifesto'']]
* [[Wikisource:Dada Manifesto (1918, Tristan Tzara)|Text of Tristan Tzara's 1918 ''Dada Manifesto'']]
* [[expressionism (film)|Expressionism in film]] is seen as having its beginnings in Dada.
* [[futurism (art)|Futurism]] positivistic predecessor to Dada.
* [[List of dadaistic pieces|List of Dada pieces]]
* [[Modernism]]
* [[Surrealism]], emerged from Dada.
==External links==
* [http://www.english.upenn.edu/~jenglish/English104/tzara.html Excerpts of Tristan Tzara's ''Dada Manifesto'' (1918) and ''Lecture on Dada'' (1922)]
* [http://www.ralphmag.org/AR/dada.html ''Dada Manifesto'' (1921)]
* The [http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/dada/index.html International Dada Archive] includes scans of many Dada publications.
* [http://www.391.org 391.org] Contemporary Dada magazine and network continuing Francis Picabia's publication 391
* [http://www.nwlink.com/~phoenix/dada-manifesto-2001.htm Dada Manifesto 2001]
* [http://www.peak.org/~dadaist/ Dada Online]
** [http://www.peak.org/~dadaist/Art/index.html Dada art] (Dada Online) includes images showing the characteristics of Dada.
* [http://trace.ntu.ac.uk/Process/index.cfm?article=89 Dada2Data] Short essay looking at Dada in digital art
==References==
*[http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/dadainfo.shtm National Gallery of Art, Dada]
* Richard Huelsenbeck, ''Memoirs of a Dada Drummer'', (University of California Press) <!--which UCal?--> (paperback)
* Irene Hoffman, [http://www.artic.edu/reynolds/essays/hofmann.php ''Documents of Dada and Surrealism: Dada and Surrealist Journals in the Mary Reynolds Collection''], Ryerson and Burnham Libraries, The Art Institute of Chicago.
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</page>
<page>
<title>Debian GNU/Linux</title>
<id>8241</id>
<revision>
<id>15906253</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-29T07:06:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andre Engels</username>
<id>300</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>remove text from redirect page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Debian]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Debian</title>
<id>8242</id>
<revision>
<id>42128823</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:31:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AThing</username>
<id>751678</id>
</contributor>
<comment>It says GNU/Linux on the front page of debian.org.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_OS|
name = Debian
|logo = [[Image:Openlogo-nd-100.png|108px|The Debian logo is a red swirl.]]
|screenshot = |
|caption = |
|developer = Debian Project
|family = [[Linux]]
|source_model = [[Free Software]] (similar to [[Open source]])
|latest_release_version = 3.1 r1 ''alias'' sarge
|latest_release_date = [[December 20]], [[2005]]
|working_state = Current
|kernel_type = [[Kernel (computer science)#Monolithic_kernels|Monolithic kernel]]
|ui = text ([[Bash]])/ Graphical ([[X Window System|X]])
|license = Free licenses, such as [[GNU General Public License|GPL]], that conform to the [[Debian Free Software Guidelines]]
|website = [http://www.debian.org/ www.debian.org]
}}
'''Debian''', organized by the '''Debian Project''', is a widely used [[Linux distribution|distribution]] of [[free software]] developed through the collaboration of volunteers from around the world. Since its inception, the released system, '''Debian [[GNU/Linux]]''', has been based on the [[Linux kernel]], with many basic tools of the [[operating system]] from the [[GNU]] project.
Debian is known for its adherence to the [[Unix philosophy|Unix]] and [[free software]] philosophies, and for its abundance of options &mdash;the current release includes over fifteen thousand [[software package]]s for eleven [[computer architecture]]s, ranging from the [[ARM architecture]] commonly found in [[embedded system]]s and the [[IBM]] [[s390]] [[Mainframe computer|mainframe]] architecture to the more common [[x86]] and [[PowerPC]] architectures found in modern [[personal computer]]s. Debian Linux is the basis for several other distributions, including [[Knoppix]] and [[Ubuntu Linux|Ubuntu]].
Debian is also known for its [[package management system]], especially APT, the [[Advanced Packaging Tool]], for its strict policies regarding the quality of its packages and releases, and for its open development and testing process. These practices afford easy upgrades between releases without rebooting and easy automated installation and removal of packages.
Debian is supported by donations through [[Software in the Public Interest]], a [[non-profit organization|non-profit]] [[umbrella organization]] for free software projects.
[[Image:debianaptget.jpg|right|150px|thumb|APT shown on Debian Sarge.]]
==History==
:''See ''[http://www.debian.org/doc/manuals/project-history/ A Brief History of Debian]'' for a more comprehensive history.''
The Debian distribution was first announced on [[August 16]], [[1993]] by [[Ian Murdock]], then a student at [[Purdue University]]. Murdock initially called his system the "Debian Linux Release".{{ref|1993-announcement}} In the ''[[Debian Manifesto]]'' he had called for the creation of a Linux distribution to be maintained in an open manner, in the spirit of Linux and GNU. He chose the name by combining the first name of his then-girlfriend (now wife) Debra with his own first name. The combination formed the [[portmanteau]] "Debian", pronounced as the corresponding syllables of these names are in [[American English]]: {{IPA|/d&#603;b&#712;i&#720;j&#601;n/}}.
The Debian Project grew slowly at first and released its first 0.9x versions in 1994 and 1995. The first ports to other architectures were begun in 1995, and the first 1.x version of Debian was released in 1996. In 1996, [[Bruce Perens]] replaced Ian Murdock as the project leader. At the suggestion of fellow developer [[Ean Schuessler]], he guided the editing process of the [[Debian Social Contract]] and the [[Debian Free Software Guidelines]], defining fundamental commitments for the development of the distribution. He also initiated the creation of the legal [[umbrella organization]] [[Software in the Public Interest]].
Bruce Perens left in 1998 before the release of the first [[glibc]]-based Debian, 2.0. The Project proceeded to elect new leaders and made two more 2.x releases, each including more ports and more packages. [[Advanced Packaging Tool|APT]] was deployed during this time and the first port to a non-Linux kernel, [[Debian GNU/Hurd]], was started as well. The first [[Linux distribution]]s based on Debian, [[Corel Linux]] and [[Stormix]]'s Storm Linux, were started in 1999. Though no longer developed, these distributions were the first of many [[#Distributions based on Debian|distributions based on Debian]].
In late 2000, the Project made major changes to archive and release management, reorganizing software archive processes with new "package pools" and creating a ''testing'' branch as an ongoing, relatively stable staging area for the next release. In 2001, developers began holding an annual conference called ''[[Debconf]]'' with talks and workshops for developers and technical users.
==Debian releases==
The latest released version of Debian is called ''stable''. [[As of 2005]], the latest stable release is version 3.1, also called ''sarge''.
In addition, a stable release gets minor updates (called ''point releases'') marked, for example, like 3.0r1.
The list of Debian releases, their [[code name]]s and release dates includes:
* 3.1 &ndash; [[sarge]], [[6 June]] [[2005]]
* 3.0 &ndash; [[woody (Debian)|woody]], [[19 July]] [[2002]]
* 2.2 &ndash; [[potato (Debian)|potato]], [[15 August]] [[2000]]
* 2.1 &ndash; [[slink (Debian)|slink]], [[9 March]] [[1999]]
* 2.0 &ndash; [[hamm (Debian)|hamm]], [[24 July]] [[1998]]
* 1.3 &ndash; [[bo (Debian)|bo]], [[2 June]] [[1997]]
* 1.2 &ndash; [[rex (Debian)|rex]], [[12 December]] [[1996]]
* 1.1 &ndash; [[buzz (Debian)|buzz]], [[17 June]] [[1996]]
Because a CD vendor made an unofficial, broken release labeled "1.0", an official "1.0" release was never made. The release after 3.1 is codenamed ''etch''.
The [[code name]]s of Debian releases are names of characters from the movie ''[[Toy Story]]''.
:''See ''http://debian.semistable.com/releases.gif'' for a graph of release dates, updates, and security support.''
==Ports to various kernels==
The Project describes itself as creating a "Universal Operating System" and several [[porting|ports]] of all [[userland]] software to various operating system [[Kernel (computer science)|kernels]] are under development:
*''Debian Linux'', on [[Linux kernel|Linux]] &mdash; the original, officially released port
*''[[Debian GNU/Hurd]]'', on [[GNU Hurd]]
*''[[Debian GN |
with a ''Member of the Board of Directors'' who is also referred to as a ''Director''
* [[Foreman]]
* [[General manager]] or GM
* [[Manager]]
* [[Owner]]
* [[Partner]]
* [[President]] - legally recognized highest corporate officer; generally works for the Board of Directors but is not expected to handle daily operations, which is the responsibility of the CEO. Often, the title of ''President'' is held concurrently by the ''Chairman'', the ''CEO'', or the ''COO''. The ''President'' is usually a member of the Board of Directors. Somtimes a ''President'' will represent only one division within a corporation, such as the President of Sales.
* [[Secretary]] - legally recognized corporate officer who reports to the Board of Directors and is responsible for keeping the records of the Board and the company. This title is often concurrently held by the ''treasurer'' in a dual position called ''secretary-treasurer''; both positions may be concurrently held by the ''CFO''. Note, however, that the ''Secretary'' has a reporting line to the Board of Directors, regardless of any other reporting lines conferred by concurrent titles.
* [[Secretary-Treasurer]] - in many cases, the offices of ''Secretary'' and ''Treasurer'' are held by the same person. In this case, the position is commonly referred to by the combined title ''Secretary-Treasurer''
* [[Statuatory agent]]
* [[Superintendent]]
* [[Supervisor]]
* [[Treasurer]] - legally recognized corporate officer entrusted with the fiduciary responsibility of caring for company funds. Often this title is held concurrently with that of ''Secretary'' in a dual role called ''secretary-treasurer''. It can also be held concurrently with the title of ''CFO''. Note, however, that the ''Treasurer'' has a reporting line to the Board of Directors, regardless of any other reporting lines conferred by concurrent titles.
* Vice Chair or [[Vice Chairman]] - officer of the Board of Directors who stands in for the ''Chairman'' in his/her absence, or who supervises a particular activity of the Board or company. A ''Vice Chairman'' might also concurrently hold other corporate titles, or might be an ''outside director''.
* [[Vice President]] - Middle or upper manager in a corporation. Depending on the corporate structure ''Vice Presidents'' report to the ''President'', who will in turn report to the ''Director'', who then reports to the Chief Officer of their respective division, who will then report to the CEO. They often appear in various hierarchical layers such as ''Executive Vice President'', ''Senior Vice President'', ''Associate Vice President'', or ''Assistant Vice President''. Many times, corporate officers such as the ''CFO'', ''COO'', ''CIO'', ''CTO'', ''Secretary'', or ''Treasurer'' will concurrently hold ''Vice President'' titles. Vice Presidents in small companies are also referred to as chiefs of a certain division, such as VP of Finance, or VP of Administration. These titles are the same as CFO and such titles.
Other [[Corporation | corporate]] employee classifications include:
*[[Exempt Employee | Exempt]] - Meaning that they're exempt from the [[Fair Labor Standards Act | FLSA]]. In a corporation, this generally applies to salaried professional staff, and executives, earning in excess of $23,660 annually.
*[[Non Exempt Employee | Non-exempt]] - Generally an employee paid by the hour who is entitled to a minimum wage, overtime pay at the rate of time and one-half the regular rate for all hours worked in excess of 40 hours per week, as well as other protections under child labor and equal pay laws.
Most modern corporations also have [[Non Employee]] workers. These are usually [[Temps]] or [[Consultants]] who, depending on the project and their experience, might be brought on to lead a task for which the skill-set did not exist within the company, or in the case of a temp, in the vernacular sense, to perform busy-work or an otherwise low-skilled repetative task for which an employee is deemed too valuable to perform.
[[Non Employees]] generally are employed by outside agencies or firms, but perform their duties within a corporation or similar entity. They do not have the same benefits as employees of that company, such as pay-grades, health insurance, or sick days. Some high-skilled consultants, however, may garner some benefits such as a bonus, sick leave, or food and travel expenses, since they usually charge a high flat-fee for their services, or otherwise garner high hourly wages.
An example of high-skilled consultants include [[Lawyers]] and [[Accountants]] who may not be employed by a corporation, but have their own firms or practices. Most [[Temps]], however, are compensated strictly for the hours they work, and are generally [[Non Exempt Employee | Non-exempt]].
Corporate titles are sometimes given more for honor than out of any differentiation in job function. For example, the COO title is often given to a manager who really only runs a certain division of a company, but is set to be in line to be the CEO. The titles "President" and "Vice President" are sometimes given in the same way.
[[Category:Management]]
[[category:Organizational studies and human resource management]]
[[Category:Corporate governance]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CeBIT</title>
<id>5682</id>
<revision>
<id>34672004</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-10T22:43:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Aapo Laitinen</username>
<id>222734</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv linkspam - [[WP:WPSPAM|you can help!]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CeBIT 2000 exhibition hall.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A crowded exhibition hall during CeBIT 2000.]]
'''CeBIT''' is the world's biggest, and one of the world's most important, [[computer expo|computer expos]]. It is held in [[Hanover]], [[Germany]], each spring and is a barometer of [[information technology]]. With an exhibition area of 400,000 m&sup2; and 700,000 visitors, it is bigger than [[COMDEX]].
The name CeBIT stands for ''Centrum der Büro- und Informationstechnik'' (Center for office and information technology) and was traditionally the CeBIT part of the [[Hanover Fair]], a big industry trade show held every year. However, in the 1980s the information technology and telecommunications part had grown so big that it was given a separate trade show starting [[1986]], held four weeks earlier than the Hanover Fair.
As the CeBIT continued to grow quickly and was becoming too big on its own, it was decided to concentrate on the professional market, while the home and entertainment market was given a separate show, the ''CeBIT home'', planned to be biennial. However, after being held twice (in [[1996]] and [[1998]]), it was discontinued.
==World Wide CeBIT Shows==
Since [[1999]] the CeBIT sponsor ''Deutsche Messe AG'' has organized trade shows outside of Germany bearing the CeBIT name
* [http://www.cebitbilisim.com Cebit Eurasia] at [[İstanbul]]
* [http://www.cebit.com.au/ CeBIT Australia] at [[Sydney]]
* [http://www.cebit-asia.com/ CeBIT Asia] at [[Shanghai]]
* '''CeBIT America/USA''' was cancelled in [[2005]]. It was held in [[2003]] and [[2004]].
http://www.worldwidecebitevents.com/
==External links==
* [http://www.cebit.de/ Official website]
* [http://cebit.150.dk/ CeBIT 2005 video coverage]
[[Category:Computer-related events and awards]]
[[Category:Trade shows]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Computer expo</title>
<id>5683</id>
<revision>
<id>40831823</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T07:48:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sirtwist</username>
<id>249972</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''computer expo''' is a [[trade fair]] or exposition for computers and electronics. Expos usually include company or organization booths where products and technologies are demonstrated; talks and lectures; and general mixing of people with common interests.
*[[CeBIT]]
*[[COMDEX]]
*[[Computex]]
*[[Computer World Expo]]
*[[HostingCon]]
*[[Interop]]
*[[LinuxTag]]
{{compu-stub}}
[[Category:Computer conferences|*]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Computer virus</title>
<id>5684</id>
<revision>
<id>42122178</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:39:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RainR</username>
<id>226845</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer security]] technology, a '''virus''' is a self-replicating/self-reproducing-automation [[computer program|program]] that spreads by inserting copies of itself into other [[executable]] code or documents. A computer virus behaves in a way similar to a [[Virus|biological virus]], which spreads by inserting itself into living cells. Extending the analogy, the insertion of a virus into the program is termed as an "infection", and the infected file (or executable code that is not part of a file) is called a "host". Viruses are one of the several types of malicious software or [[malware]]. In a common parlance, the term ''virus'' is often extended to refer to [[computer worm|worms]], [[Trojan horse (computing)|trojan horses]] and other sorts of malware; however, this can confuse computer users, since viruses in the narrow sense of the word are less common than they used to be, compared to other forms of malware. This confusion can have serious consequences, because it may lead to a focus on preventing one genre of malware over another, potentially leaving computers vulnerable to future damage. However, a basic rule is |
[[physician]]. In this atmosphere, Christine was able to pursue her intellectual interests. She successfully educated herself by immersing herself in languages, the rediscovered classics and humanism of the early Renaissance, and within Charles V’s royal archive that housed a vast amount of manuscripts. However, de Pizan did not assert her intellectual abilities, or establish her authority as a writer until she was widowed at the age of twenty-four. (Redfern 76).
Christine married Etienne du Castel, a royal secretary to the court, at the age of fifteen. She bore three children, a daughter Marie, a son Jean, and another child who died in childhood (Willard 35). However, de Pizan’s familial life was threatened in 1390 when Christine’s husband, while in [[Beauvais]] on a mission with the king, suddenly died in an epidemic (Willard 39). Following du Castel’s death, Christine was burdened by economic disasters. When she tried to collect money due to her husband’s estate, she faced complicated lawsuits regarding the recovery of salary due to her husband (Willard 39). In order to support herself and her family, Christine established literary contacts within the court. By 1393, Christine was writing love [[ballads]], which caught the attention of wealthy patrons within the court (Redfern 77). However, de Pizan’s participation in the first literary quarrel, in 1401-1402, allowed her to move beyond the courtly circles, and to ultimately establish her status as a woman writer.
==Establishing her literary reputation==
[[Image:Christine de Pisan and her son.jpg|thumb|left|Christine de Pizan instructs her son.]]
Early in her literary career, de Pizan involved herself in a renowned literary debate, the “Querelle du Roman de la Rose,” which took place between 1401 and 1402 (Willard 73). Pizan help to instigate this particular debate when she began to question the literary merits of [[Jean de Meun]]’s the ''[[Roman de la Rose|Romance of the Rose]]''. Written in the thirteenth century, the ''Romance of the Rose'' satirizes the conventions of courtly love while also critically depicting women as nothing more than seducers. De Pizan specifically objected to the use of vulgar terms within Jean de Meun’s allegorical poem. She argued that these vulgar terms denigrated the proper and natural function of sexuality, and that such language was inappropriate for female characters such as [[Reason|Lady Reason]]. According to de Pizan, noble women did not use such language (Quilligan 40). Her critique primarily stems from believing that Jean de Meun was purposely slandering women through the debated text.
The debate itself is quite extensive. However by the end of this drawn out occurrence, the principle issue was no longer Jean de Meun’s literary capabilities. Instead, due to the participation of Christine in the debate, the focus had ultimately shifted to the unjust slander of women within literary texts. This dispute then, helped to establish Christine’s reputation as a female intellectual who could assert herself effectively and defend her claims in the male-dominated literary realm. Her intellectual abilities however, did not cease following this literary debate. Instead, Christine continued to refute abusive literary treatments of women as an authoritative rhetorician. With her own established voice, de Pizan confidently began to counteract traditional, patriarchal, literary discourses.
==Making her mark: de Pizan's literary works==
[[image:Meister der 'Cité des Dames' 002.jpg|thumb|right|Picture from ''The Book of the City of Ladies'']]
By [[1405]], Christine had completed her most successfully literary works, ''[[The Book of the City of Ladies]]'' and ''[[The Treasure of the City of Ladies|The Treasure of the City of Ladies or The Book of the Three Virtues]]''. The first of these proves to show the importance of women’s past contributions to society, and the second strives to teach women of all estates how to cultivate useful qualities in order to counteract the growth of misogyny (Willard 135).
Christine’s final work was a poem eulogizing [[Joan of Arc]], the peasant girl who took a very public role in organizing French military resistance to English domination in the early fifteenth century. Written in 1429, ''The Tale of Joan of Arc'' celebrates the appearance of a woman military leader who according to Christine, vindicated and rewarded all women’s efforts to defend their own sex (Willard 205-205). After completing this particular poem, it seems that Christine, at the age of sixty-five, decided to end her literary career (Willard, 207). The exact date of her death is unknown. However, her death did not indicate a ceased appreciation for her renowned literary works. Instead, her legacy continued on because of the voice she created and established as an authoritative rhetorician.
==De Pizan: an authoritative rhetorician==
[[image:Christine de Pisan - cathedra.jpg|thumb|left|Christine de Pizan lecturing to a group of men.]]
During the “Querelle du Roman de la Rose,” de Pizan responded to Jean de Montreuil, who had written her a treatise defending the misogynist sentiments within the ''Romance of the Rose''. She begins by claiming that her opponent was an “expert in rhetoric” as compared to herself “a woman ignorant of subtle understanding and agile sentiment.” In this particular apologetic response, Christine belittles her own style. She is employing a rhetorical strategy by writing against the grain of her meaning, also known as antiphrasis (Redfern 80). Her ability to employ rhetorical strategies continued when Christine began to compose literary texts following the “Querelle du Roman de la Rose.”
Within ''The Book of the City of Ladies'' Christine creates a symbolic city in which women are appreciated and defended. Christine, having no female literary tradition to call upon, constructs three allegorical foremothers: Reason, Justice, and Rectitude. She enters into a dialogue, a movement between question and answer, with these allegorical figures that is from a completely female perspective (Cambell 6). These constructed women lift Christine up from her despair over the misogyny prevalent in her time. Together, they create a forum to speak on issues of consequence to all women. Only female voices, examples and opinions provide evidence within this text. Christine, through Lady Reason in particular, argues that stereotypes of woman can be sustained only if women are prevented from entering the, dominant male-oriented, conversation (Campbell 7). Overall, Christine hoped to establish truths about women that contradicted the negative stereotypes that she had identified in previous literature. She did this successfully by creating literary foremothers that helped her to formulate a female dialogue that celebrated women and their accomplishments.
In ''The Treasure of the City of Ladies'' Christine highlights the persuasive effect of women’s speech and actions in everyday life. In this particular text, Christine argues that women must recognize and promote their ability to make peace. This ability will allow women to mediate between husband and subjects. She also claims that slanderous speech erodes one’s honour and threatens the sisterly bond among women. Christine then, argued that "skill in discourse should be a part of every woman’s moral repertoire" (Redfern 87). Christine realized that a women’s influence is realized when their speech equates chastity, virtue and restraint. Christine proved that speech, rhetoric, is a powerful tool that women could employ to settle differences and to assert themselves. Overall, Christine presented a concrete strategy that allowed all women, regardless of their status, to undermine the dominant, patriarchal, discourse.
It is evident then, that Christine de Pizan contributed to the rhetorical tradition as a woman counteracting the dominant discourse of the time. Rhetorical scholars have extensively studied her persuasive strategies. It has been concluded that de Pizan successfully forged a rhetorical identity for herself, and also encouraged all women to embrace this identity by counteracting misogynist thinking through the powerful tool of persuasive dialogue.
==References==
*Campbell, Karlyn K.''Three Tall Women: Radical Challenges to Criticism, Pedagogy, and Theory.'' The Carroll C. Arnold Distinguished Lecture National Communication Association November 2001 Boston: Pearson Education Inc, 2003
*Redfern, Jenny ''Christine de Pisan and The Treasure of the City of Ladies: A Medieval Rhetorician and Her Rhetoric'' in Lunsford, Andrea A, ed. Reclaiming Rhetorica: Women and in the Rhetorical Tradition.Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1995.
*Quilligan, Maureen.The Allegory of Female Authority: Christine de Pizan's ''Cité des Dames.'' New York: Cornell University Press, 1991.
*Willard, Charity C. Christine de Pizan: Her Life and Works. New York: Persea Books, 1984.
==Contemporary scholarship==
*The standard translation of ''The Book of the City of Ladies'' is by Earl Jeffrey Richards, (1982). The first English translation of Christine de Pizan’s ''The Treasure of the City of Ladies:'' or ''The Book of the Three Virtues'' is Sarah Lawson’s (1985).
*The standard biography about Christine de Pizan is Charity Cannon Willard’s ''Christine de Pizan: Her Life and Works'' (1984). Willard’s biography also provides a comprehensive overview of the “Querelle du Roman de la Rose.” Kevin Brownlee also discusses this particular debate in detail in his article ''Widowhood, Sexuality and Gender in Christine de Pizan'' (in The Romantic Review, 1995)
*For a more detailed account of de Pizan’s rhetorical strategies refer to Jenny R. Redfern’s excerpt ''Christine de Pizan and The Treasure of the City of Ladies: A Medieval Rhetorician and Her Rhetoric'' (in Reclaiming Rhetorica, ed. Andrea A. Lunsford, 1995).
*M. Bell Mirabella discusses de Pizan’s ability to refute the patriarchal di |
st survived up to a certain historical point in four seats of Apostolic authority: Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, and Rome. The Roman Catholic church believes that it maintains this [[apostolic succession]]; the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox Church]] makes the same claim. Both agree that apostolic succession means not only historical continuity, but that the church today preserves the same doctrines and practices that were taught by the original twelve apostles, who received them from Jesus Christ.
Constantine moved the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Constantinople, following the conquest of [[Licinius]] in [[324]]. The seat of the Roman civilized world shifted to Greece and [[New Rome]] ([[Byzantium]]). Along with this shift, the effective administration of the Church also shifted. It was this practical eminence in the East that was acknowledged, first by the Council of Constantinople [[381]], and then ecumenically by the Council of Chalcedon in [[451]], so that the Patriarch (pre-eminent father) of the church under New Rome's domain was for all practical purposes the Bishop of Constantinople. Beginning with [[John the Faster]], the Bishop of Constantinople adopted the title [[Ecumenical patriarch]] (pre-eminent father for the whole civilized world), to which the other Patriarchates assented, with the exception of one. This Patriarchate of Rome, by virtue of its succession from the Apostles [[Saint Peter|Peter]] and [[Paul of Tarsus]] and although the city was ruined, distant from the seat of secular power, and constantly harassed by invaders, claimed primacy for itself, and the title of "Apostolic See" - the last court of episcopal appeal in very serious matters.
Thus, two ideas of episcopalian succession competed, between Rome and Byzantium. In the East, the Apostolic authority speaking unitedly in episcopal council is primary; and through such a council the Bishop of Byzantium was granted primacy on par with Rome (which placed entire emphasis on episcopal succession from the Apostles). The differences, although subtle, produced a rift between the Bishop of Rome and the rest of Christendom, which continued with some occasional relief throughout much of the history of the Church until it finally ruptured with semi-finality in the [[Great Schism]] (marked by two dates: 16 July, [[1054]], and the [[Council of Florence]] in [[1439]]). The conciliar idea of episcopal government continues in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]].
Today, the Roman Catholic Church sees the Roman [[Pope]] as the vicar of Christ on Earth and each bishop as the vicar of Christ for his [[particular church]]. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the sixteen or so [[autocephaly|autocephalous]] [[primate (religion)|primates]] are seen as collectively gathering around Christ, with other archbishops and bishops gathering around them, and so forth, in a model called "conciliar hierarchy". This is based in part on the vision in the [[book of Revelation]] of the 24 elders gathered around the throne of Christ, who are believed to represent the 12 patriarchs of Israel and the 12 apostles of Jesus Christ. There is no single patriarch with exclusive authority comparable to the Pope of Rome.
==Protestant episcopalian government==
Among Protestant churches, the [[Anglican Communion]] is the most prominent church which lays claim to [[historic episcopate|episcopal succession]] in terms comparable to the Catholic system. The [[Church of Sweden]] and [[Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland]] also claim Apostolic Succession, never having abandoned their lines of succession during the Reformation.
Anglicans claim unbroken episcopal succession in and through the [[Church of England]] back to [[Augustine of Canterbury|Saint Augustine]] and to first century Britain. The church's exact origins are a matter of debate, but the faith clearly was planted in the British Isles independent of Rome and prior to St. Augustine.
For more than five hundred years since the rejection of the primacy of Rome, the Anglican succession has given rise to episcopal churches around the world. Longstanding Catholic criticism of alleged irregularities in episcopal consecrations in England during the religious turmoil of the [[16th century]] has led to the current state of non-recognition of parity of Anglican orders. However, rapprochements between the Anglican Communion, the Orthodox Churches and Roman Catholicism have given impetus to mutual discussions of the obstacle posed by differing interpretations of episcopal succession. The [[Scottish Episcopal Church]], the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]], and some of their offshoots, are part of the [[Anglican Communion]] and use their names both to show their form of government and to distinguish themselves from other local churches.
Other Protestant churches have adopted an episcopal form of government for practical, rather than historical, reasons. These include the [[Methodism|Methodist]] church and some of its offshoots, where the powers of the episcopacy can be rather strong and wide-reaching. For example, in the [[United Methodist Church]] Bishops are appointed for life, can serve up to two terms in a specific conference (three if special permission is given), are responsible for ordaining and appointing clergy to pastor churches, perform many administrative duties, preside at the annual sessions of the regional Conferences and at the quadrennial meeting of the world-wide General Conference, have authority for teaching and leading the church on matters of social and doctrinal import, and serve to represent the denomination in ecumenical gatherings. United Methodist bishops in the United States serve in their appointed conferences until their mandated retirement at the end of the quadrenium following their sixty-sixth birthday.[http://www.umc.org/interior.asp?ptid=21&mid=5860]
The Reformed Church of France, and the Reformed Church of Hungary, and the [[Lutheran church]]es on the continent may sometimes be called "episcopalian", but the more proper term is ''Synodical'' (see [[Synod]]). In these latter cases, the form of government is not radically different from the [[presbyterian]] form, except that their councils of bishops have hierarchical jurisdiction over the local ruling bodies to a greater extent than in most Presbyterian and other Reformed churches. Old World Lutheranism, for historical reasons, has tended to adopt [[Erastian]] theories of episcopal authority (by which church authority is to a limited extent sanctioned by secular government), but church government is a matter without doctrinal significance. In America, the Lutheran churches tend to adopt a form of government more comparable to [[congregationalism]].
==See also==
[[Bishop]], [[Episcopal]], [[Presbyterian church governance]], [[Congregationalist church governance]], [[Autocephaly]]
[[Category:Anglicanism]]
[[Category:Christian group structuring]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodoxy]]
[[Category:Oriental Orthodoxy]]
[[Category:Episcopacy in Catholicism]]
[[Category:Methodism]]
[[ja:監督制]]</text>
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<title>Episcopal</title>
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<comment>another accent</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The word '''''episcopal''''' is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''επίσκοπος'', transliterated ''epískopos'', which literally means "overseer"; the word, however, is used in religious contexts to refer to a [[bishop]].
==Episcopal churches==
Episcopal churches are churches that use an [[episcopalian church governance]], i.e. that use [[bishop]]s generally regarded as being in [[Apostolic succession]]. More specifically, the term "episcopal" is applied to those churches historically based within [[Anglicanism]] including those still in communion with the [[Church of England]]. It is also commonly used to distinguish between the various organizational structures of [[Protestant]] churches; for instance the word "[[presbyterianism|presbyterian]]" (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''πρεσβύτης'') is used to describe churches governed by elected [[Elder (religious)|elders]], while "episcopal" is used to describe churches governed by bishops (Greek ''επίσκοπος''). Self-governed Protestant churches, governed neither by elders nor bishops, are usually referred to as "[[congregational]]".
Examples of specific episcopal churches include:
* The [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]] (ECUSA)
* The [[Scottish Episcopal Church]]
* Any of several churches listed in the article titled [[Episcopal churches]]
* The [[Charismatic Episcopal Church]] (no relation to the Church of England or the Anglican Communion)
However, other churches overseen by bishops and with a connection to the Church of England are '''not''' members of the Anglican Communion. The [[United Methodist Church]] is one example. All [[Methodism|Methodist]] churches have their roots in Anglicanism because their founder, [[John Wesley]], was an Anglican priest in England in the 1700s. Methodists, however, do not look to the Archbishop of Canterbury for leadership as Anglicans do, nor to the Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church (ECUSA) in America. Further, Methodist bishops are not in Apostolic Succession. Wesley held that bishops are merely [[Elder (religious)|presbyters (elders)]] who have been chosen for a supervisory position by the Church, and that there is, therefore, no necessity of them receiving a laying on of hands of prior bishops whose "orders" are allegedly traceable in unbroken succession to the [[Twelve Apostles|Apostle]]s.
Churches that are members of the [[Anglican Commu |
my, giving military geography and geopolitics classes. In addition to this, he was active as editor of the institutional magazine ''Cien Águilas'' ("One Hundred Eagles").
At the beginning of 1953, with the rank of major, he was sent for two years to the "Rancagua" Regiment in [[Arica, Chile|Arica]]. While there, he was appointed professor of the War Academy, and he returned to [[Santiago, Chile|Santiago]] to take up his new position. He also obtained a [[baccalaureate]], and with this degree, he entered the University of Chile's Law School.
[[Image:Allende-Pinochet.jpg|thumb|right|Pinochet (left) and Allende in 1973]]
In 1956, Pinochet was chosen, together with a group of other young officers, to form a military mission that would collaborate in the organization of the War Academy of [[Ecuador]] in [[Quito]], which forced him to suspend his law studies. He remained with the Quito mission for three-and-a-half years, during which time he dedicated himself to the study of [[geopolitics]], [[military geography]] and intelligence.
At the end of 1959, he returned to Chile and was sent to General Headquarters of the I Army Division, based in [[Antofagasta, Chile|Antofagasta]]. The following year, he was appointed Commander of the "Esmeralda" Regiment. Due to his success in this position, he was appointed Sub-director of the War Academy in 1963.
In 1968, he was named Chief of Staff of the II Army Division, based in [[Santiago, Chile|Santiago]], and at the end of that year, he was promoted to Brigadier General and Commander in Chief of the VI Division, garrisoned in [[Iquique]]. In his new function, he was also appointed Intendant of the [[Tarapacá]] Province.
In January 1971, he rose to Division General, and was named General Commander of the Santiago Army Garrison. At the beginning of 1972, he was appointed General Chief of Staff of the Army. With rising domestic strife in Chile, Pinochet was appointed Army Commander in Chief on [[August 23]], [[1973]] by President [[Salvador Allende]].
==Military coup of 1973==
''Main article: [[Chilean coup of 1973]].''
[[Image:Pinochetjunta.jpg|thumb|Pinochet (sitting) as head of the newly established military junta.]]
General Pinochet came to power in a [[coup d'état]] on [[September 11]], [[1973]], in which the rebelling Chilean Air Force bombed the [[Palacio de La Moneda|Presidential Palace]] while it was being stormed by Army troops. President [[Salvador Allende|Allende]] died during the capture of the palace. The exact circumstances of his death are disputed. According to the junta's official version, he committed suicide with a machine gun [http://www.presidencia.gob.cl/view/viewGaleriaPresidentes.asp?id=31&seccion=Presidencia%20por%20Dentro&interfazseccion=Galeria%20Presidentes#a31] which bore a golden plate engraved ''"To my good friend Salvador Allende from [[Fidel Castro]]."'' At the time and for many years after, his supporters nearly uniformly presumed that he was killed by the forces staging the coup. Another version says that Allende was killed in combat on the steps outside the Presidential Palace. An autopsy in 1990 found that Allende's wounds were consistent with the suicide account.
The new junta was made up of Pinochet representing the Army, Admiral [[José Toribio Merino]] representing the Navy, General [[Gustavo Leigh]] representing the Air Force, and [[César Mendoza]] representing the ''[[carabineros]]'' (the uniformed police). Since Pinochet was the chief of the oldest branch of the military forces (the Army), he was made the head of the victorious [[military dictatorship|junta]] — this position was originally to be rotated among the four branches, but was later made permanent. The [[military dictatorship|junta]] immediately moved to crush their left-wing opposition, arresting hundreds of people and killing many of them. Thousands more were arrested and tortured over the next three years, and a total of more than 3,000 were killed. Internationally, the Pinochet government became known for severe [[human rights abuse]]s, including
many "[[disappear]]ances".
In his [[memoir]]s, Pinochet affirms that he was the leading plotter of the coup, and used his position as Commander of the Army to coordinate a far-reaching scheme with the other two branches of the military and the national police. In recent years, however, high military officials from the time have said that Pinochet reluctantly got involved in the coup only a few days before it was scheduled to occur and followed the lead of other branches (especially the Navy) as they triggered the coup.
Once the Junta was in power, Pinochet soon consolidated his control, first retaining sole chairmanship of the [[military dictatorship|junta]], and then being proclaimed President on [[June 27]], [[1974]]. He was also promoted to the supreme army rank of ''Capitán General'' (literally Captain General), previously borne by colonial governors and by [[Bernardo O'Higgins]], a hero of Chile's war of independence, and first head of state.
General Leigh of the Air Force became increasingly opposed to Pinochet's policies, and he was kicked out of the junta on [[July 24]], [[1978]]. He was replaced by General [[Fernando Matthei]].
During 1977 and 1978, Chile was on the brink of war with Argentina (also ruled by a military government) over a disagreement regarding the ownership of the strategic [[Picton, Lennox and Nueva]] islands at the southern tip of South America. [[Antonio Samoré]], a representative of [[Pope John Paul II]], successfully prevented full-scale war. The conflict was finally resolved on 1984, with the Treaty of Peace and Friendship (''Tratado de Paz y Amistad''). Chilean sovereignty over the islands is now undisputed.
==Pinochet's economic policy==
[[Image:Augusto Pinochet with presidential band.jpg|thumb|Pinochet as self-proclaimed President]]
Once in power, Pinochet immediately set about making market-oriented economic reforms. He declared that he wanted "to make Chile not a nation of proletarians, but a nation of proprietors". This was a play on words using the Spanish, "propietarios", i.e. owners or business proprietors which rhymes with "proletarios", i.e. proletarians. To formulate his economic policy, Pinochet relied on the so-called [[Chicago Boys]], who were economists trained at the [[University of Chicago]] and heavily influenced by the monetarist policies of [[Milton Friedman]].
Pinochet launched an era of economic [[deregulation]] and [[privatization]]. To accomplish his objectives, he abolished the [[minimum wage]], rescinded [[trade union]] rights, privatized the [[pension]] system, state [[industry|industries]], and [[bank]]s, and lowered [[tax]]es on [[wealth]] and [[profit]]s. Supporters of these policies (most notably Milton Friedman himself) have dubbed them "[[Miracle of Chile|The Miracle of Chile]]", due to the 35% increase in real per capita GDP from 1960 to 1980 (later, from 1980 to 2000, it increased by 94%, but Pinochet was no longer in power after 1990). There is much disagreement amongst economists regarding the accuracy of such statistics, with both sides normally selectively choosing those that better reflect their argument. However, Pinochet did manage to address part of these problems during his final years as President, since unemployment was down to 7.8% in 1990. The shortage problems during the final years of Allende's administration were also remedied.
President Allende's economic policy had involved nationalizations of many key companies, notably U.S.-owned copper mines. This had been a significant reason behind the external Western opposition to Allende's Marxist government, in addition to his friendliness with [[Cuba]] and the [[Soviet Union]]. Much of the internal opposition to Allende's policies was from business sectors, and recently-released U.S. government documents confirm that the U.S. funded the lorry drivers' strike, [http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,3604,260382,00.html] that had exacerbated the already chaotic economic situation prior to the coup.
==Suppression of opposition==
[[Image:Chilean 1973 Junta.jpg|thumb|220px|Chile's military junta of 1973]]
After the military's seizure of power, Pinochet engaged in brutal political repression, aiming to destroy all remaining support for the defeated [[Unidad Popular|Popular Unity]] (PU) government. In [[October 1973]], at least 70 people were killed by the [[Caravan of Death]]. Almost immediately, the junta banned all the leftist parties that had constituted Allende's UP coalition. Much of the regime's violence was directed toward those it viewed as socialist or Marxist sympathizers, though dissidents who spoke out against the government were also persecuted. Those murdered during Pinochet's 17 years in power are said to have "[[Forced disappearance|been disappeared]]." It is not known exactly how many people were killed by government and military forces during the 17 years that he was in power, but the [[Rettig Report|Rettig Commission]] listed 2,095 deaths on both sides and 1,102 "disappearances." [[Torture]] was also commonly used against dissidents. Thousands of Chileans fled the country to escape the regime. In 2004, the National Commission on Political Prisoners and Torture produced the [[Valech Report]] after interviewing an estimated 35,000 people who claimed to have been abused by the regime. About 28,000 of those testimonies were regarded as legitimate. According to the Commission, more than half of the arrests occurred in the months immediately following the coup (approximately 18,000 of those testifying claimed they were detained between September and December of 1973).
Pinochet's presidency was frequently made unstable by riots and isolated violent attacks. Assassination attempts were common, which increased government paranoia and contributed to the |
he winning run scored in the final inning of play. The Tigers dropped three in a row to the Blue Jays before winning a dramatic extra-inning showdown. After a series against the [[Baltimore Orioles]], the Tigers returned home to sweep the Blue Jays. The Tigers clinched the division in a 1-0 Sunday Afternoon win, pitched by [[Frank Tanana]] and won on a home run by outfielder [[Larry Herndon]]. Unfortunately, they lost the [[1987 American League Championship Series|ALCS]] to the underdog (but eventual world-champion) [[Minnesota Twins]] in five games.
===Tigers declawed - the Randy Smith era===
The Tigers last winning season came in [[1993]], and only twice since then have they even finished within 5 games of .500 ([[1997]] and [[2000]]). In [[1996]], the Tigers lost a then-team record 109 games. In [[2003]], the Tigers shattered that mark of futility, by losing a remarkable '''119''' games, eclipsing the previous [[American League]] record of 116 losses. They avoided tying the [[1962]] expansion [[New York Mets]]' modern record for losses in one season (120) by winning five of their last six games of the season. They did this when they faced the Minnesota Twins in their final series, as the Twins had already clinched the Central Division and were resting their starters.
The man whom many Detroiters blame for the performance of the recent Tigers is former General Manager [[Randy Smith]]. Under Smith, the Tigers squandered numerous high draft picks on toolsy, but unskilled players. Smith amassed a dismal trading record, trading quality players such as [[Luis Gonzalez (baseball outfielder)|Luis Gonzalez]] and [[Phil Nevin]] for spare parts. Smith's most controversial move as GM backfired heavily; in an effort to lure a big-name player, he sent [[Frank Catalanotto]], one time All-Star [[Justin Thompson]], top prospect [[Gabe Kapler]] and future relief ace [[Francisco Cordero]] to the [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]] for disgruntled and injury-prone outfielder [[Juan Gonzalez]], plus two role players. Gonzalez played only 115 games in a Tigers uniform before suffering a season-ending injury, and he left the team as a [[free agent]] in the [[offseason]]. Smith had previous ties to the [[Houston Astros]] and [[San Diego Padres]], with whom there were a number of questionable trades. (In Smith's defense, though Cordero is the Rangers' closer, Catalanotto was only a "platoon player" with the Rangers before signing with the [[Toronto Blue Jays]] as a free agent, Kapler (the planned cornerstone of the trade for the Rangers) was mediocre at best before being traded to the [[Boston Red Sox]], while Thompson continues to struggle with injuries and has never reached the Rangers' major league roster.)
Furthermore, Smith hamstrung the franchise by signing mediocre players to lucrative long-term contracts, forcing the team to devote a significant portion of their payroll to players who had long outlived their usefulness. Examples of such long-term signings include [[Dean Palmer]], [[Damion Easley]], and [[Bobby Higginson]].
After the Tigers began 0-6, Ilitch fired Smith in early [[2002]]. [[Dave Dombrowski]], the GM whose [[Florida Marlins]] won the [[1997 World Series]] was hired to right the ship. In [[July 2005]], ESPN.com listed Randy Smith as "The most hated man" among Tigers fans.
===Stabilization and recovery===
In [[2000]], the team left legendary Tiger Stadium, then tied with [[Fenway Park]] as the oldest active baseball stadium, in favor of the new [[Comerica Park]]. The argument over Tiger Stadium lasted over a decade, with team management reportedly reviewing options to move to the Detroit [[suburb|suburbs]]. This speculation was quieted by the purchase of the team to [[Mike Ilitch]], owner of the Detroit Red Wings and the [[Little Caesars]] [[pizza]] franchise. Many longtime fans complained that the "CoPa" lacked the charm of its predecessor, while others saw it as a necessary replacement of an aging facility.
Under Dombrowski, the Tigers have shown a willingness to go and try to be a player on the free agent market. In [[2004 in baseball|2004]], the team signed or traded for several talented but high-risk veterans, such as [[Iván Rodríguez]], [[Ugueth Urbina]], [[Rondell White]], and [[Carlos Guillén]], and the gamble paid off. The '04 Tigers had a 29-game improvement over the previous season, one of the greatest improvements in baseball history. In fact, it was the biggest turnaround in the AL since Baltimore's 33-game improvement from 1988 to 1989. However, it was not enough to avoid an 11th consecutive losing season. On [[August 30]], [[2003]], the Tigers lost to the [[Chicago White Sox]], putting them with the 1962 New York Mets as the only modern MLB teams to lose 100 games before September.
In 2005, the Tigers spent a large sum for two prized free agents, [[Magglio Ordóñez]] and [[Troy Percival]]. Recently the Tigers traded pitcher Ugueth Urbina and [[Ramon Martinez]] to the [[Philadelphia Phillies]] for [[Plácido Polanco]] (and signed him for 4 years). The Tigers stayed on the fringes of contention for the American League wild card for the first four months of the season, but injuries and a lack of player unity doomed them to another losing record and cost Trammell his job.
On [[October 3]], 2005, the Tigers fired Trammell after three seasons in which he failed to maintain continuous improvement, despite numerous free agent acquisitions. The 2005 Tigers ended the season in a tail spin and finished 71-91. The MVP of Detroit's 1984 World Series team had one year left on his contract. Detroit lost an AL-record 119 games in his first season as manager in 2003, then improved to 72-90 in 2004 following a wave of free agent acquisitions during the off-season. [http://sports.yahoo.com/mlb/news?slug=ap-tigers-trammellfired&prov=ap&type=lgns] On [[October 4]], [[Jim Leyland]] replaced Trammell as the Tigers manager.
==Quick facts==
:'''Founded:''' [[1893]], in the minor Western League. In [[1900]] that league was renamed the [[American League]], and it became a major league in [[1901]]. Detroit is the only charter member of the Western League to have remained in its original city.
:'''Home ballpark:''' [[Comerica Park]]
:'''Former ballparks:''' [[Tiger Stadium]], [[Bennett Park]]
:'''Mascot''': Paws
:'''Uniform colors:''' Home: Navy Blue Old English "D" on white uniform. Navy is used as an accent color. Road: Detroit script in navy blue outlined in orange and white on a gray background. Navy, orange and white are used as accent colors.
:'''Logo design:''' An Old English font "D" with a roaring tiger walking through it, but that logo has been seen less in recent years. The Old English "D" without the Tiger appears on the home jersey while another version of the Old English "D" is present on the home cap (white "D" on navy blue) and road cap (orange "D" on navy blue).
:'''Playoff appearances''' (11): [[1907]], [[1908]], [[1909]], [[1934]], [[1935]], [[1940]], [[1945]], [[1968]], [[1972]], [[1984]], [[1987]]
In a season that began with so much promise for the Tigers, injuries to key players and a lack of consistency resulted in a fourth-place finish for a club that expected to contend for the American League Central title. It also led to the dismissal of former Tigers All-Star Alan Trammell as the team's skipper.
Dmitri Young got the year started off in impressive fashion, homering three times in an Opening Day blowout of the Royals. But the Tigers suffered a tough blow when slugger Magglio Ordonez, signed to a five-year, $75 million deal in the offseason, suffered a hernia in April that would keep him out until July. Injuries took their toll throughout the season as closer Troy Percival, shortstop Carlos Guillen and outfielder Rondell White also missed significant amounts of time. Catcher Ivan Rodriguez played valiantly though injuries, but he wasn't able to replicate his numbers from 2004.
Among the bright spots were Chris Shelton, who hit .299 with 18 homers after being called up, and Curtis Granderson, who took over the center field job with his strong defensive play and timely hitting. Newcomer Placido Polanco enjoyed a solid season and was named Tiger of the Year for his efforts, and Carlos Pena rebounded from a demotion in a big way. Craig Monroe (team-leading 89 RBIs) and Nook Logan (23 steals) also made big contributions, while Jeremy Bonderman showed in the first half why he's the Tigers' ace and Mike Maroth posted a 14-win season two years after losing 21 games.
Jim Leyland replaced Trammell as manager in October, two months before closer Todd Jones, who spent five seasons in Detroit from 1997-2001, signed a two-year deal with the Tigers. Veteran left-hander Kenny Rogers also joined the Tigers in late 2005, bringing 190 career wins and a 4.21 lifetime ERA to the club's 2006 rotation.
==[[Baseball Hall of Fame]]rs==
{|
|valign='top'|
Elected at least in part on basis of performance with Tigers
*[[Sparky Anderson]], MGR, 1979-1995
*[[Jim Bunning]], P, 1955-1963
*[[Ty Cobb]], P, 1905-1926
*[[Mickey Cochrane]], C, 1934-1937; MGR, 1934-1938
*[[Sam Crawford]], OF, 1903-1917
*[[Charlie Gehringer]], 2B, 1924-1942
*[[Goose Goslin]], OF, 1934-1937
*[[Hank Greenberg]], 1B, 1930-1946
*[[Harry Heilmann]], OF, 1914-1929
*[[Hughie Jennings]], MGR, 1907-1920
*[[Al Kaline]], OF, 1953-1974
*[[George Kell]], 3B, 1946-1952
*[[Heinie Manush]], OF, 1923-1927
*[[Hal Newhouser]], P, 1939-1953
|width="100"|&nbsp;
|valign="top"|
Other Hall-of-Famers associated with Tigers
*[[Earl Averill]], OF, 1939-1940
*[[Ed Barrow]], MGR, 1903-1904
*[[Larry Doby]], OF, 1959
*[[Bucky Harris]], MGR, 1929-1933
*[[Waite Hoyt]], P, 1930-1931
*[[Eddie Mathews]], 3B, 1967-1968
*[[Al Simmons]], OF, 1936
*[[Sam Thompson]], OF, 1906
|}
==Retired Numbers==
* [[Ty Cobb]], OF, 1905-26; man |
reportedly being considered to become a member of the [[Harvard Corporation]] after [[Conrad Harper]].
==Political views==
A moderate [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]], Powell is well known for his willingness to support [[liberalism|liberal]] or [[centrist]] causes. He is [[pro-choice]] regarding [[abortion]], [http://aad.english.ucsb.edu/docs/epowell.html] in support of [[affirmative action]], and in favor of "reasonable" [[gun control]]. However, Powell is opposed to allowing gays to serve openly in the military and played a crucial role in derailing President Clinton's 1993 plans on that matter.
Powell was the subject of controversy in 2004 when, in a conversation with British [[Foreign Secretary]], [[Jack Straw]], he referred to [[neocons]] within the Bush administration (Cheney, Rumsfeld and others) as "fucking crazies"[http://www.guardian.co.uk/usa/story/0,12271,1353796,00.html]. In addition to being reported in the press (though generally, the expletive was censored in the US press), the quote was used by [[James Naughtie]] in his book, "The Accidental American: Tony Blair and the Presidency"
==Civilian awards==
[[Image:Colin_Powell_COA 1.png|thumb|200px|right|Personal Coat of Arms of Colin Powell]]
Powell's civilian awards include two [[Presidential Medal of Freedom|Presidential Medals of Freedom]], the President's [[Presidential Citizens Medal|Citizens Medal]], the [[Congressional Gold Medal]], the Secretary of State Distinguished Service Medal, and the Secretary of Energy Distinguished Service Medal. Several schools and other institutions have been named in his honor and he holds honorary degrees from universities and colleges across the country.
On [[December 15]], [[1993]], Colin Powell was made an honorary Knight Commander of the [[Order of the Bath]] by Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom]].
The Coat of Arms of Colin Powell was granted by the [[Lord Lyon]] in [[Edinburgh]] on [[February 4]], [[2004]]. Technically the grant was to Powell's father (a British subject) to be passed on by descent. [[Scotland]]'s [[King of Arms]] was asked to make the grant as the family of Colin Powell's mother is from [[Aberdeenshire (traditional)|Aberdeenshire]]. Blazoned as:
''Azure, two swords in saltire points downwards between four mullets Argent, on a chief of the Second a lion passant Gules.
On a wreath of the Liveries is set for Crest the head of an American bald-headed eagle erased Proper. And in an escrol over the same this motto, "DEVOTED TO PUBLIC SERVICE."''
The swords and stars refer to the former general's career, as does the crest, which is the badge of the 101st Airborne (which he served as a brigade commander in the mid-1970's). The lion may be an allusion to Scotland. The shield can be shown surrounded by the insignia of an honorary Knight Commander of the Most Honourable [[Order of the Bath]] (KCB), an award the General received after the first Gulf War.
In 2005 Powell received the [[Bishop John T. Walker Distinguished Humanitarian Service Award]] for his contributions to [[Africa]].
Powell is a recipient of the [[Silver Buffalo Award]], the highest adult award given by the [[Boy Scouts of America]].
==Related information==
The character of General Casey, played by [[Paul Winfield]], in the 1996 film ''[[Mars Attacks!]]'' is widely regarded to have been based on Colin Powell.[http://www.chicagoreader.com/movies/archives/1296/12136.html] <!-- Flirting With Disaster by Jonathan Rosenbaum --> [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F04EEDA173EF930A25751C1A960958260] <!-- The Moral: Be Careful of Aliens by JANET MASLIN -->
Powell underwent surgery in 2003 for [[prostate cancer]] and made a full recovery.
[[Burke's Peerage]] speculated that General Colin Powell's great-great-great-grandmother was an illegitimate child of Sir [[Eyre Coote]] — the Lieutenant [[Governor of Jamaica]] — and an African slave. This would mean that he is descended from [[Edward I of England]], and thus is a distant relative of [[George W. Bush]].
==See also==
* [[Pottery Barn rule]]
* [[Plame affair]]
==Further reading==
* Powell, Colin A. and Joseph Persico, ''[[My American Journey]]'', ISBN 0345407288
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource|Author:Colin L. Powell}}
{{commons|Colin Powell}}
* [http://www.state.gov/secretary/former/powell/remarks/2003/17300.htm Remarks to the United Nations Security Council], [[February 5]], [[2003]]
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,3604,1471879,00.html The good soldier's revenge], [[Sidney Blumenthal]], [[The Guardian]], [[28 April]] [[2005]]
* [http://www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/pow0int-1 Exclusive interview with online video from Achievement.org]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/2246150.stm BBC News profile of Colin Powell]
* [http://www.newsmeat.com/washington_political_donations/Colin_Powell.php Colin Powell's political donations]
* [http://www.state.gov/secretary/former/powell/remarks/2001/933.htm Press Remarks with Foreign Minister of Egypt Amre Moussa]; U.S. Department of State; [[February 24]], [[2001]]. Powell says sanctions against Iraq have prevented development of any significant capability with respect to using weapons of mass destruction against its neighbors.
{{start box}}
{{succession box| before=[[Frank Carlucci]]| title=[[United States National Security Advisor|National Security Advisor]]| years=1987–1989| after=[[Brent Scowcroft]]}}
{{succession box| before=[[William J. Crowe]]| title=[[Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff]]| years=1989–1993| after=[[David E. Jeremiah]] (''acting Chairman'')}}
{{succession box| before=[[Madeleine Albright]]| title=[[United States Secretary of State]]| years=[[January 20]], [[2001]]–[[January 26]], [[2005]]| after=[[Condoleezza Rice]]}}
{{end box}}
{{USSecState}}
{{JCS}}
{{NSAA}}
[[Category:1937 births|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:African American intellectuals|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:African American politicians|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Bronxites|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Caribbean-Americans|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Chairmen of the Joint Chiefs of Staff|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Council on Foreign Relations member|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Colin Powell|*]]
[[Category:Episcopalians|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:George Washington University alumni|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the Bath|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Living people|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:People of Jamaican heritage|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Plame affair|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Pro-choice politicians|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Legion of Merit|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Purple Heart medal|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Silver Buffalo awardees|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Soldier's Medal recipients|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Spingarn Medal winners|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:United States Army generals|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:United States National Security Advisors|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:United States Secretaries of State|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Vietnam War veterans|Powell, Colin]]
[[da:Colin Powell]]
[[de:Colin Powell]]
[[es:Colin Powell]]
[[eo:Colin POWELL]]
[[fr:Colin Powell]]
[[id:Colin Powell]]
[[nl:Colin Powell]]
[[ja:コリン・パウエル]]
[[no:Colin Powell]]
[[pl:Colin Powell]]
[[pt:Colin Powell]]
[[ru:Пауэлл, Колин Лютер]]
[[sk:Colin Powell]]
[[sv:Colin Powell]]
[[zh:克林·鲍威尔]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chlorophyll</title>
<id>6985</id>
<revision>
<id>42137310</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:45:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.61.110.85</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Chlorophyll and photosynthesis */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Chlorophyll''' is a green [[photosynthetic pigment]] found in [[plant]]s, [[alga]]e, and [[cyanobacteria]]. Its name is derived from ancient [[Greek language|Greek]]: ''chloros'' = [[green]] and ''phyllon'' = [[leaf]]. Chlorophyll absorbs mostly in the blue and to a lesser extent red portions of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]], hence its intense green color.
==Chlorophyll and photosynthesis==
In plant [[photosynthesis]], incoming light is absorbed by chlorophyll and other accessory pigments in the [[antenna complex]]es of [[photosystem I]] and [[photosystem II]]. The antenna pigments are predominantly '''chlorophyll ''α''''', '''chlorophyll ''b''''' and [[carotenoid]]s; their [[absorption spectrum]]s are non-overlapping, to broaden the range of light that can be absorbed for photosynthesis. The carotenoids have another role as an [[antioxidant]], to prevent [[photo-oxidation|photo-oxidative]] damage to the chlorophyll molecules.
Each antenna complex has between 250 and 400 pigment molecules, and the energy they absorb is shuttled by [[resonance energy transfer]] to a specialized chlorophyll ''α'' at the reaction center of each [[photosystem]]. When either of the two chorophyll ''α'' molecules at the reaction center absorb energy, an electron is excited and transferred to an electron-acceptor molecule, leaving an electron hole in the donor chlorophyll. In a poorly-understood reaction, electrons from water are [[oxidized]], the hole is filled, and diatomic oxygen is produced. The resulting chemical energy is then captured in the form of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] and [[NADPH]], and is ultimately used to convert [[carbon dioxide]] ({{carbon}}{{oxygen}}{{sub|2}}) to [[carbohydrate]]s. This CO{{sub|2}} fixation process results in the [[energy conversion|conversion]] of 3% to 6% of total solar radiation, with a theoretical maximum efficiency of 11%.
[http://www.fao.org/docrep/w7241e/w7241e05.htm]
The photosystem reaction centers consist of a pair of chlorophyll ''α'' molecules that are characterised by their specific absorption maximum. The chorophyll ''α'' of photosystem I is designat |
enian king Erechtheus, whom [[Poseidon]] killed for choosing [[Athena]] over him as the city's patron god. When the Athenians worshiped Erechtheus on the [[Acropolis, Athens|Acropolis]], they invoked him as ''Poseidon Erechtheus''.
==Later European history==
The classic hero often came with what [[Lord Raglan (author)|Lord Raglan]] (a descendant of the [[FitzRoy Somerset, 1st Baron Raglan|FitzRoy Somerset, Lord Raglan]]) termed a "potted biography" made up of some two dozen common traditions that ignored the line between historical fact and mythology. For example, the circumstances of the hero's conception are unusual; an attempt is made by a powerful male at his birth to kill him; he is spirited away; reared by foster-parents in a far country. Routinely the hero meets with a mysterious death, often at the top of a hill; his body is not buried; he leaves no successors; he has one or more holy sepulchres.
Most European indigenous religions feature heroes in some form. [[Germanic tribes|Germanic]], [[Hellene]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] heroes, along with their [[attribute]]s and forms of worship have been largely absorbed by the [[Orthodox]] and [[Catholic]] denominations of Christianity, forming the basis of modern day revering of [[Saint]]s.
== The validity of the "hero" in historical studies ==
{{See|Philosophy of history}}
Philosopher [[Hegel]] gave a central role to the "hero", personalized by [[Napoleon]], as the incarnation of a particular culture's ''[[Volkgeist]]'', and thus of the general ''[[Zeitgeist]]''. [[Thomas Carlyle]]'s 1841 ''On Heroes And Hero Worship And The Heroic In History'' also accorded a key function to heroes and great men in history. Carlyle centered history on the [[biography]] of a few central individuals such as [[Oliver Cromwell]] or [[Frederick the Great]]. His heroes were political and military figures, the founders or topplers of states. His history of great men, of geniuses good and evil, sought to organize change in the advent of greatness.
Explicit defenses of Carlyle's position were rare in the second part of the 20th century. Most philosophers of history contend that the motive forces in history can best be described only with a wider lens than the one he used for his portraits. For example, [[Karl Marx]] argued that history was determined by the massive social forces at play in "[[class struggle]]s", not by the individuals by whom these forces are played out. After Marx, [[Herbert Spencer]] wrote at the end of the 19th century: "You must admit that the genesis of the great man depends on the long series of complex influences which has produced the [[race]] in which he appears, and the social state into which that race has slowly grown....Before he can remake his society, his society must make him."
Thus, as [[Foucault]] pointed out in his analysis of the [[Philosophy of history#Michel Foucault's analysis of historical and political discourse|historical and political discourse]], history was mainly the science of the [[sovereign]], until its reversion by the "historical and political popular discourse".
The [[Annales School]], led by [[Lucien Febvre]], [[Marc Bloch]] and [[Fernand Braudel]] would contest the exaggeration of the role of individual [[subject (philosophy)|subjects]] in history. Indeed, Braudel distinguished various time-scales, one accorded to the life of an individual, another accorded to the life of a few human generations, and the last one to [[civilizations]], by which [[geography]], [[economics]] and [[demography]] play a role considerably more decisive than that of individual subjects. Foucault's conception of an "archeology" or [[Althusser]]'s work were attempts at thinking together these various heterogenous layers composing history.
==Operatic hero==
In [[opera]] and [[musical theatre]], the hero/heroine is often played by a [[tenor]]/[[soprano]] (more vulnerable characters are played by [[vocal weight|lyric]] voices while stronger characters are portrayed by [[vocal weight|spinto]] or [[vocal weight|dramatic]] voices.)
==The modern fictional hero==
In modern [[film|movies]], the hero is often simply an ordinary person in extraordinary circumstances, who, despite the odds being stacked against him or her, typically prevails in the end. In some movies (especially [[action movie|action movies]]), the hero may exhibit characteristics such as superhuman [[strength]] and [[endurance]] (even the point of being seen as being nearly unkillable, despite whatever damage is done to them). Often a hero in these situations has a foil, the villain, typically a charismatic evildoer who represents, leads, or himself embodies the struggle the hero is up against.
==See also==
{{wiktionarypar|hero}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* [[List of fictional heroes]]
* [[Anti-hero]]
* [[Reluctant hero]]
* [[Tragic hero]]
* [[Culture hero]]
* [[Hero City]]
* [[Hero-Fortress]]
* [[Superhero]]
* [[Xia (philosophy)]]
* [[Action hero]]
* [[Byronic hero]]
==Further reading==
* {{cite book
| last = Rohde | first = Erwin
| authorlink = Erwin Rohde
| year = 1924
| title = Psyche
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Carlyle | first = Thomas
| year = 1985
| title = On Heroes, Hero Worship and the Heroic in History
| location = Oxford | publisher = Oxford University Press
| id = ISBN 0192500627
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Burkert | first = Walter
| authorlink = Walter Burkert
| chapter = The dead, heroes and chthonic gods
| title = Greek Religion
| location = [[Cambridge, Massachusetts | Cambridge]]
| publisher = [[Harvard University Press]]
| year = [[1985]]
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Campbell | first = Joseph
| authorlink = Joseph Campbell
| title = [[The Hero with a Thousand Faces]]
| location = [[Princeton, New Jersey | Princeton]]
| publisher = [[Princeton University Press]]
| year = [[1949]] }}
* {{cite book
| last = Dundes | first = Alan | coauthors = Otto Rank, and Lord Raglan
| year = [[1990]]
| title = In Quest of the Hero
| location = [[Princeton, New Jersey | Princeton]]
| publisher = [[Princeton University Press]]
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Hadas | first = Moses | coauthors = Morton Smith
| authorlink =
| year = [[1965]]
| title = Heroes and Gods
| publisher = [[HarperCollins | Harper & Row]]
}}
* Hein, David. "The Death of Heroes, the Recovery of the Heroic." ''Christian Century'' 110 (1993): 1298-1303. http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1058/is_n37_v110/ai_14739320 '''''or''''' http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5000242002
* {{cite book
| last = Kerenyi | first = Karl
| authorlink = Karl Kerenyi
| year = [[1959]]
| title = The Heroes of the Greeks
| location = [[London]]
| publisher = [[Thames & Hudson]]
}}
* {{cite book
| author = Lord Raglan
| authorlink = Lord Raglan (author)
| year = 1936/2003
| title = The Hero: A Study in Tradition, Myth and Drama
| location = Mineola, NY
| publisher = Dover Publications
}}
* [[Henry Liddel]] and [[Robert Scott]]. ''[[A Greek-English Lexicon]]'' http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057
==External links==
*[http://www.ericdigests.org/2004-1/heroes.htm Exploring the Function of Heroes and Heroines in Children's Literature from around the World]
*[http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tours/heroes/tour1.html ''The British Hero''] - online exhibition from [[screenonline]], a website of the [[British Film Institute]], looking at British heroes of film and television.
[[Category:Greek mythology]]
[[Category:Lists of fictional characters]]
[[Category:Stock characters]]
[[de:Held]]
[[el:Ήρωας]]
[[eo:Heroo]]
[[es:Héroe]]
[[fi:Sankari]]
[[fr:Héros]]
[[gd:Gaisgeach]]
[[hu:Hős]]
[[it:Eroe]]
[[ja:ヒーロー]]
[[nl:Held]]
[[pl:Bohater]]
[[pt:Herói]]
[[sv:Hjälte]]
[[zh:英雄]]
[[ru:Герой]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hilberts eighth problem</title>
<id>13708</id>
<revision>
<id>15911301</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Riemann hypothesis]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hilberts fifth problem</title>
<id>13709</id>
<revision>
<id>15911302</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Lie group]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hydroxide</title>
<id>13711</id>
<revision>
<id>36431078</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-24T00:18:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.231.194.11</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hydroxide''' is a [[polyatomic ion]] consisting of [[oxygen]] and [[hydrogen]]:
:OH<sup>&minus;</sup>
It has a charge of &minus;1. Hydroxide is one of the simplest of the polyatomic ions.
A group of [[base (chemistry)|bases]] containing hydroxide are called hydroxide bases. Hydroxide bases will dissociate into a cation and one or more hydroxide ions in water, making the solution basic. This makes hydroxides [[alkali]]s, which may undergo [[neutralisation reactions]] with [[acids]]. In general [[acid-alkali reactions]] can be simplified to
:OH<sup>&minus;</sup>(aq) + [[Hydronium|H<sup>+</sup>(aq)]] &rarr; [[water (molecule)|H<sub>2</sub>O]]
by omitting [[spectator ions]].
Hydroxides and hydroxide ions are relatively common. Many useful chemicals and chemical processes involve hydroxides or hydroxide ions, such as [[sodium hydroxide]] (lye) is used in industry as a strong [[Base_%28chemistry%29|base]], [[potassium hydroxide]] is used in agriculture. [[Iron hydroxide]] min |
ttp://www.wellingtonhamsters.co.uk/ Wellington Hamsters]
*[http://www.rainbowhamstery.co.uk/ Rainbow Hamstery]
*[http://www.ukbreeders.co.uk/ Surrey Hamsters]
*[http://www.hammysworld.com/ Hammy's World]
[[Category:Animals kept as pets]]
[[Category:Muroid rodents]]
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[[Category:German loanwords]]
[[da:Hamster]]
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[[es:Hámster]]
[[eo:Hamstro]]
[[fr:Hamster]]
[[gl:Hamster]]
[[ko:햄스터]]
[[io:Hamstro]]
[[it:Criceto]]
[[he:אוגר זהוב]]
[[nl:Hamsters]]
[[ja:ハムスター]]
[[no:Hamster]]
[[pl:Chomik]]
[[pt:Hamster]]
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[[sv:Hamstrar]]
[[yi:האַמסטער]]
[[zh:仓鼠]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of Finland</title>
<id>14378</id>
<revision>
<id>42017618</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T06:20:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.20.248.193</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The area that now is [[Finland]] was settled soon after the [[Ice Age]], beginning from around [[8500 BC]]. Finland was part of the [[Sweden|Swedish Empire]] from about 1200 to 1809, when Russia conquered the country from Sweden and a personal union between the two countries was established. In 1917 Finland declared its independence. A [[Finnish Civil War|civil war]] ensued between the socialist "Reds" (supported by Bolshevik Russia) and conservative "Whites" (supported by Imperial [[Germany]]). The Whites, after winning the war, established a constitutional democracy. During the [[Second World War]] Finland was attacked twice by the [[Soviet Union]] but remained an independent [[democracy]], except for [[Karelia]] which was lost to the [[Soviet Union]]. During the [[Cold War]] Finland's politics were influenced by the Soviet Union (see: [[finlandization]]) but the country never became a [[satellite state]]. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Finland has moved towards closer integration with Western Europe, joining the [[European Union]] in 1995.
<!--This lead section needs massive expansion and sharpening...-->
==Earliest origins of the Finns==
Finnish and [[Sami language|Sami]] &mdash; the language of [[Lapland]]'s small [[indigenous people|indigenous]] minority &mdash; are both [[Finno-Ugric language]]s and are in the [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] rather than the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] family. The closest related language to the Finnish with an official status is [[Estonian language|Estonian]]. Both Finnish and Estonian are [[Baltic Finnish]] or [[Finnic]] languages, while other Finno-Ugric languages are more distant.
The origins of the Finnish people and their language are a matter of reinvigorated controversy. In the 19th century the Finnish researcher [[Matthias Castren|Castrén]] prevailed with the theory that "their original home" was in west-central [[Siberia]]. Later, a theory of an ancient homeland of all Finno-Ugric peoples situated in the Volga and Kama rivers region in the European part of Russia appeared more credibile. Until the 1970s most linguists believed Finns to have arrived in Finland as late as the first centuries AD. In the 1980s these ideas drastically changed. The old theory got a concurrent version of a wide-ranged "homeland" between the Volga river and Scandinavia. In the light of new archaeological findings, it was concluded that the ancestors of the Finns arrived at their present territory thousands of years ago, perhaps in many successive waves of immigration. During this the possible linguistic and cultural ancestors of the [[hunter-gatherer|hunting-gathering]] [[Sami people|Sami]] were pushed into the more remote northern regions.
The newest theory formulated during the 1990´s says that during the [[Ice Age]] the ancestors of the Finns lived at one of the three habitable areas of southern Europe, so called ''refugia''. The two other habitable areas were home for the [[Indo-European]] and [[Basque language]]s. According to this theory the Finno-Ugrics spread to the north as ice melted. They populated central and northern Europe, while [[Basque people|Basques]] populated western Europe. Later the Indo-European language speakers presented agriculture to their neighboring hunter-gatherers. While the Finno-Ugric and Basque hunter-gatherers learned how to cultivate land they also learned the culture and the language of cultivators, so they ''became'' [[Indo-European]]s. Soon these new Indo-Europeans had population growth caused by agriculture, and they moved to new areas and Indoeuropeanized the local hunter-gatherers, and so on. This is how Celtic, Germanic, Slavic and Baltic languages were born; however the Finns were not Indo-Europeanized because of their isolated location. This explains why although their languages are not related, the genetic material of Finns and Indo-Europeans of central Europe are closely related. However, this theory is not accepted by the majority of linguists and archaeologists.
The genetic research points out that the Finns are genetically not more related with their linguistic relatives than with the Germanic language speaking populations of Northern Europe. According to a wide genetic research, the closest group to the Finns are surprisingly the Germanic [[Flemings]] of [[Belgium]] (Estonians were not included in the research). It is also remarkable that the similarity is in genes that are inherited only from female to female. This suggests that they had a common ancestress, probably in the same late [[Ice Age]] ''refugia''. However, the genetic similarity does not necessarily prove that a common language ever existed, or that the common language would have been a Finno-Ugric one. The Finno-Ugrian language may have developed and spread also after the Ice Age.
:''See also [[Finnish people]]''
==Pre-history==
The archaeological evidence of the Paleolithic, pre-[[Ice Age]] settlement in Finland is a debated issue. After the Ice Age, the archaeological evidence for the first settlers of Finland, coming from the south and east, can be traced back to around 8500 BC. The Mesolithic [[hunter-gatherer]] settlement is known as the "Suomusjärvi culture". Around 5300 BC the "Comb ceramic cultures", known for their pottery, took over. This marks the beginning of the [[neolithic]] for Finland, although the subsistence was still based on hunting and fishing. Extensive networks of exchange existed in Finland and Northeastern Europe during 5th millennium B.C. Great amounts of flint and amber were imported to Finland. Rock paintings, apparently related to shamanistic and totemistic belief systems, exist especially in Eastern Finland.
It is believed that the proto-[[Finnish language]] spread to Finland at this time, if not before.
After 3200 BC immigrants or strong cultural influence from south of the Gulf of Finland settled in southern Finland. This culture was a part of the European Battle Axe cultures, which have often been associated with the movement of [[Indo-European]] speakers. The Battle-Axe or Cord Ceramic culture seem to have practiced [[agriculture]] and [[animal husbandry]] in Finland as well. Further inland the societies were less advanced. The Finnish language got an influx from the Indo-European [[Baltic languages]] (and vice versa) approximately in the period 3500-1000 BC[http://victorian.fortunecity.com/christy/32/ak2e.html], and the Sami languages diverged from standard Finnish.
The Bronze Age began some time after 1500 BC, this time spreading from the west. The coastal regions of Finland were a part of the Nordic Bronze Culture, whereas in the inland regions the influences came from the bronze-using cultures of Northern Russia. After 500 BC the Iron Age began. Findings of imported iron blades and local iron working appears at about the same time.
During the 1st century AD trade and exchange with Scandinavia increased and some Roman artifacts from this period have been found. During the first millennium AD, the population groups of Finland exchanged their products (mostly furs) with Scandinavian traders. Influences came from the south and east as well. The society was stratified: the existence of richly furnished burials, usually with weapons, suggest that a chiefly elite existed from the 3rd century AD onwards. However, a centralized society did not evolve in Finland, not even during the Viking Age.
During this time the population in Finland can be discerned into different groups: (proper-)Finns, [[Tavastians]], [[Karelians]] and [[Sami people|Sami]]. Åland was possibly Swedified during this time, if not before (although many Finnish-related placenames indicate a large Finnish population). These terms are used in linguistic sense, not to suggest that the Iron Age people would have used or understood modern ethnonyms.
==The Middle Ages==
Contact between Sweden and what is now Finland was remarkable even during pre-Christian times &mdash; the [[Varangian|Vikings]] were known to Finns both due to their participation in commerce and plundering. However, there is no evidence of Scandinavian settlement in Finland during the Viking Age, with the exception of the Åland Islands.
According to the archaeological finds, [[Christianity]] gained a foothold in Finland during the 11th century AD. According to later sources, [[Saint Henry]], possibly an Englishman, arrived in Finland around [[1155]], apparently to organize the church and ecclesiastical taxes. Probably he was backed by the Swedish king. Henry was martyred soon after his arrival, but a significant cult grew around his memory.
According to the very few written documents that have survived, the Church in Finland was in a chaotic state during the later part of the 12th century. In the early 13th century, the missionary bishop Thomas apparently managed to bring some stability and order. At the same time, there were several secular powers who aimed to bring the Finns und |
ert that anarcho-capitalism will degenerate into [[plutocracy]] or [[feudalism]] in practice. They argue that it is a rational economic decision for organizations with the ability to exert coercion (private police, security and military forces) to exploit groups with less power. In this kind of environment, [[piracy]], military [[imperialism]], and [[slavery]] can be very profitable. Taken to its logical extreme, this argument assumes that allowing such "security" organizations to exert coercive power will inevitably lead to their becoming a ''de facto'' state.
The anarcho-capitalist would respond that in the absence of what they call "victim disarmament" ([[gun control]]), such domination would be expensive even for the most powerful, who would instead prefer peaceful trade with all. Skeptics often feel that anarcho-capitalists rely on "market solutions" to the point of ridiculousness.<ref>Chisari, Michael - "Anarchy List" [[5 October]] [[1999]]</ref>
[[Image:Battle strike 1934.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Violence on a picket line. Critics of anarcho-capitalism argue that private ownership of capital and the pursuit of profit are exploitative, leading to class divisions and conflict.]]
[[Minarchism|Minarchist]] and [[statism|statist]] critics often argue that the [[free rider problem]] makes anarcho-capitalism (and, by extension, any anti-statist political system) fundamentally unworkable in modern societies. They typically argue that there are some vital goods or services — such as civil or military defense, management of common environmental resources, or the provision of [[public good]]s such as roads or lighthouses — that cannot be effectively delivered without the backing of a government exercising effective territorial control, and so that abolishing the state as anarcho-capitalists demand will either lead to catastrophe or to the eventual re-establishment of monopoly governments as a necessary means to solving the [[coordination problem]]s that the abolition of the state created. One counterargument by free market economists, such as [[Alex Tabarrok]], emphasizes the private use of [[assurance contracts|dominant assurance contracts]]. Some anarcho-capitalists also contend that the "problem" of "public goods" is illusory and its invocation merely misunderstands the potential individual production of such goods. Others, such as David Friedman, point out that problems of market failure are the exception in private markets but the norm in the [http://www.daviddfriedman.com/Academic/mps_iceland_talk/Iceland%20MP%20talk.htm political markets] that control state action.
[[Robert Nozick]] argued in ''Anarchy, State and Utopia'' that anarcho-capitalism would inevitably transform into a minarchist state, even without violating any of its own nonaggression principles, through the eventual emergence of a single locally dominant private defense and judicial agency that it is in everyone's interests to align with, because other agencies are unable to effectively compete against the advantages of the agency with majority coverage. Therefore, he felt that, even to the extent that the anarcho-capitalist theory is correct, it results in an unstable system that would not endure in the real world.
===Moral questions===
Anarcho-capitalists consider a choice or action to be "voluntary", in a moral sense, so long as that choice or action is not influenced by coercion or fraud perpetrated by another individual. They also believe that maintaining private property claims is always defensive so long as that property was obtained in a way they believe to be legitimate. Thus, so long as an employee and employer agree to terms, employment is regarded as voluntary regardless of the circumstances of property restriction surrounding it. Some critics say this ignores constraints on action due to both human and nonhuman factors, such as the need for food and shelter, and active restriction of both used and unused resources by those enforcing property claims. Thus, if a person requires employment in order to feed and house himself, it is said that the employer-employee relationship cannot be voluntary, because the employer restricts the use of resources from the employee in such a way that he cannot meet his needs. This is essentially a semantic argument over the term "voluntary". Anarcho-capitalists simply do not use the term in that latter sense in their philosophy, believing that sense to be morally irrelevant. Other critics argue that employment is involuntary because the distributions of wealth that make it necessary for some individuals to serve others by way of contract are supported by the enforcement of coercive private property systems. This is a deeper argument relating to [[distributive justice]]. Some of these critics appeal to an end-state theory of justice, while anarcho-capitalists (and [[propertarian]]s in general) appeal to an entitlement theory. Other critics regard private property itself to either be an aggressive institution or a potentially aggressive one, rather than necessarily a defensive one, and thus reject claims that relationships based on unequal private property relations could be "voluntary".
Critics also point out that anarcho-capitalist ethics do not entail any positive moral obligation to help others in need (see ''[[altruism]]'', the ethical doctrine). Like other [[right libertarianism|right libertarians]], anarcho-capitalists may argue that no such moral obligation exists or argue that if a moral obligation to help others does exist that there is an overarching moral obligation to refrain from initiating coercion on individuals to enforce it. Anarcho-capitalists believe that helping others should be a matter of free personal choice, and do not recognize any form of social obligation arising from an individual's presence in a society. They, like all right libertarians, believe in a distinction between negative and positive rights in which [[negative rights]] should be recognized as being legitimate, and [[positive rights]] rejected. Critics often dismiss this stance as being unethical or selfish, or reject the legitimacy of the distinction between positive and negative rights. (Critics thereby redefine selfish to not include forcing other people to do what you want and disregarding the wishes of others.)
[[Property]] ownership rights and their extent are a source of contention among different philosophies. Most see the rights as less absolute than anarcho-capitalists do. The main issues are what kinds of things are valid property, and what constitutes abandonment of property. The first is contentious even among anarcho-capitalists: there is disagreement over the validity of intellectual property<ref>McElroy, Wendy (1995) [http://www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/libhe/libhe014.htm Intellectual Property:The Late Nineteenth Century Libertarian Debate] Libertarian Heritage No. 14 ISBN 1856372812 Retrieved [[24 June]] [[2005]]</ref> — intangible goods that are not economically scarce. Some supporters of private property but critics of anarcho-capitalism may question whether unused land is valid property ([[Agorism]], [[Georgism]], [[geolibertarianism]], [[individualist anarchism]]). The second issue is a common objection among socialists who do not believe in absentee ownership. Anarcho-capitalists have strong abandonment criteria — one maintains ownership (more or less) until one agrees to trade or gift it. The critics of this view tend to have weaker abandonment criteria; for example, one loses ownership (more or less) when one stops personally using it. Also, the idea of original appropriation is anathema to most types of [[socialism]], as well as any philosophy that takes common ownership of land and [[natural resources]] as a premise. There are also philosophies that view any ownership claims on land and natural resources as immoral and illegitimate, thus rejecting anarcho-capitalism as a philosophy that takes private ownership of land as a premise.
[[Utilitarianism|Utilitarian]] critics simply argue that anarcho-capitalism does not maximize utility, contending that it would fall far short of that goal. This kind of criticism comes from a variety of different political views and ideologies, and different critics have different views on which other system does or would do a better job of bringing the greatest benefits to the greatest number of people. Anarcho-capitalists consider the nonaggression axiom to be a "side-constraint" on civilized human action<ref name=Nozick-1973/>, or a necessary condition for human society to be beneficial ([[Herbert Spencer]], Murray Rothbard), and thus should not be used as a trade-off for vague utilitarian values. Another response, implied by [[Austrian economics]], is to argue that personal utility is not an [[additive]] quantity, therefore concluding that all utilitarian arguments, which invariably rely on aggregation of personal utilities, are logically and mathematically invalid.
==Anarcho-capitalist literature==
{{main|Anarcho-capitalist literature}}
===Nonfiction===
The following is a partial list of notable nonfiction works discussing anarcho-capitalism.
*[[Murray Rothbard]] Father of modern anarcho-capitalism:
**''[http://www.mises.org/rothbard/mes.asp Man, Economy, and State]'' The ultimate Austrian economics book,
**''[http://www.mises.org/rothbard/mes.asp Power and Market]'' Classification of State economic interventions,
**''[http://www.mises.org/rothbard/ethics/ethics.asp The Ethics of Liberty]'' Moral justification of a free society
*[[Frederic Bastiat]], ''[http://www.ozarkia.net/bill/anarchism/library/thelaw.html The Law]'' Radical classical liberalism
*Davidson & Rees-Mogg, ''The Sovereign Individual'' Historians look at technology & implications
*[[David Friedman]], ''[[The Machinery |
ars – we think! Conditions and nutrition are better in the USA, Australia, New Zealand and Europe than in South America, so animals live longer and are healthier. One of the oldest alpacas in New Zealand (fondly known as Vomiting Violet) died at the end of 2005 at the ripe old age of 29.
== History of the scientific name ==
In [[1758]] the four South American camelid species were assigned scientific names. At that time, the alpaca was assumed to be descended from the [[Lama glama|llama]], ignoring similarities in size, fleece and dentition between the alpaca and the [[Vicugna vicugna|vicu&ntilde;a]]. Classification was complicated by the fact that all four species of South American camelid can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. It was not until the advent of DNA technology that a more accurate classification was possible.
Miss Great Aunt Edds started the first out of continent farm. She established the first Canadian Alpaca farm outside of Kingston Ontario. Originally started with only 4 alpacas, the farm grew to no less than 24 alpacas by 2005. The alpacas, originally raised for their fleece, now also serve the local restaurant industry, providing them with delicious alpaca steaks.
In 2001 the alpaca genus classification changed from <i>Lama pacos</i> to <i>Vicugna pacos</i> following the presentation of a paper [http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/app/home/contribution.asp?wasp=bf588d8be995486f872cd4a9008b9f35&referrer=parent&backto=issue,12,18;journal,94,201;linkingpublicationresults,1:102024,1 Genetic analysis reveals the wild ancestors of the llama and the alpaca] on work by [[Dr Jane Wheeler]] et al on alpaca DNA to the [[Royal Society]] showing that the alpaca is descended from the vicuña, not the guanaco.
The relationship between alpacas and vicuñas was disputed for many years, but Wheeler's DNA work proved it. However many academic sites have not caught up with this, so it is something well known to alpaca breeders who have read Dr Hoffman's book, and to Royal Society members who have access to the current classification data, but not more widely known.
== Fiber ==
[[image:Alpaca_cuzco_peru.jpg|thumb|left|Alpaca]]
Alpaca fiber is warmer than sheeps' wool and lighter in weight. It is soft and luxurious and lacks the "prickle" factor. However, as with all fleece producing animals, quality varies from animal to animal, and some alpaca produce fibre which is less than ideal.
Alpaca have been bred in South America for hundreds of years (mainly Peru, but also Chile and Bolivia), but in recent years have been exported to other countries. In countries such as the USA, Australia and New Zealand breeders shear their animals annually, weigh the fleeces and test them for fineness. With the resulting knowledge they are able to breed heavier fleeced animals with finer fibre. Fleece weights vary, with the top stud males reaching annual shear weights up to 6kg.
Two types of fleece are produced: huacaya and suri. It has been proposed that in fact these are two different breeds of animal, and that camelids come in five types - guanaco, vicuna, llama, huacaya (alpaca) and suri. This view is not commonly accepted however.
In physical structure, alpaca is somewhat akin to (human?) hair, being very glossy, but its softness and fineness enable the [[spinning|spinner]] to produce satisfactory [[yarn]] with comparative ease.
[[image:alpaca.png|180px|thumb|right|Alpaca]]
==Alpaca fiber industry==
=== History ===
The history of the manufacture of this fiber into cloth is one of the romances of commerce. The Indians of [[Peru]] used this fibre in the manufacture of many styles of fabrics for centuries before its introduction into Europe as a commercial product. The first European importations were into [[Spain]]. [[Spain]] transferred the fibre to [[Germany]] and [[France]]. Apparently alpaca yarn was spun in [[England]] for the first time about the year [[1808]]. It does not appear to have made any headway, however, and alpaca fiber was condemned as an unworkable material. In [[1830]] Benjamin Outram, of Greetland, near Halifax, appears to have reattempted the spinning of this fibre, and, for the second time, alpaca was condemned. These two attempts to use alpaca were failures owing to the style of fabric into which the yarn was woven &mdash; a species of [[camlet]]. It was not until the introduction of cotton warps into the [[Bradford, England|Bradford]] trade about [[1836]] that the true qualities of alpaca could be developed in the fabric. Where the [[cotton warp]] and [[mohair]] or alpaca weft plain-cloth came from is not known, but it was this simple yet ingenious structure which enabled [[Titus Salt]], then a young Bradford manufacturer, to use alpaca successfully. Bradford is still the great spinning and manufacturing centre for alpaca, large quantities of yarns and cloths being exported annually to the continent and to the [[United States]], although the quantities naturally vary in accordance with the fashions in vogue, the typical "alpaca-fabric" being a very characteristic "[[dress-fabric]]."
[[Image:Alpaca_MidSomerset_210805.jpg|thumb|200px|right| Alpacas on show in the [[United Kingdom|UK]]]]
Owing to the success in the manufacture of the various styles of alpaca cloths attained by Sir Titus Salt and other Bradford manufacturers, a great demand for alpaca wool arose, and this demand could not be met by the native product, for there seems to never have been any appreciable increase in the number of alpacas available. Unsuccessful attempts were made to acclimatize the alpaca in England, on the European continent and in Australia, and even to cross certain English breeds of [[domestic sheep|sheep]] with the alpaca. There is, however, a cross between the alpaca and the llama &mdash; a true [[hybrid]] in every sense &mdash; producing a material placed upon the Liverpool market under the name "Huarizo". Crosses between the alpaca and vicuña have not proved satisfactory. Current attempts to cross these two breeds are underway at farms in the United States. According to the Alpaca Owners and Breeders Association, alpacas are now being bred in the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, UK, and numerous other places.
The preparing, combing, spinning, weaving and finishing process of alpaca and mohair are similar to that of [[wool]].
Farmers commonly quote the alpaca with the phrase 'love is in the fleece', which describes their love for the animal.
=== Prices ===
The price for alpacas can range from $200 to $360,000, depending on breeding history, sex, and color. One can raise up to 10 alpacas on one [[acre]] (4,047 m&sup2;) as they have a designated area for waste products and keep their eating area away from their waste area to avoid diseases. To get an idea of alpaca prices around the world see [http://www.alpacaseller.com AlpacaSeller]
==Trivia==
*Major league baseball player [[Billy Wagner]] owns 38 Alpacas. [http://www.nydailynews.com/sports/baseball/mets/story/370266p-314976c.html]
*An Alpaca has three stomaches.
==References==
*{{1911}}
*[http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/app/home/contribution.asp?wasp=bf588d8be995486f872cd4a9008b9f35&referrer=parent&backto=issue,12,18;journal,94,201;linkingpublicationresults,1:102024,1 Genetic analysis reveals the wild ancestors of the llama and the alpaca] paper by Dr Jane Wheeler presented to the [[Royal Society]] in 2001.
*<i>The Complete Alpaca Book</i>, Dr Eric Hoffman, Bonny Doon Press, California, 2003
==External links==
*[http://www.elevage-de-garenne.com/ Elevage de Garenne : breeding of Alpacas Huacaya and Suri in France]
*[http://www.alpacainfo.com/ The Alpaca Owners and Breeders Association]
*http://www.surifarm.de
{{Commons|Lama pacos|Alpaca}}
*[http://www.alpacas.com/AlpacaLibrary/ Alpaca Library]
{{Camelids}}
[[Category:Fauna of Chile]]
[[Category:Camelids]]
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[[ar:ألبكة]]
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[[eo:Alpako]]
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[[it:Lama pacos]]
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<page>
<title>Army</title>
<id>1376</id>
<revision>
<id>42071921</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:01:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.4.80.129</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Army''' (from [[French language|French]] ''armée'') can, in some countries, refer to any [[armed force]]. More commonly, however, it is only used specifically to refer to a land force of the [[military]].
Within a national army, an '''army''' can also refer to a large [[formation (military)|formation]], usually comprising one or more [[corps]].
'''Army''' is also often used in the description or title of military or [[paramilitary]] organisations which are not part of a country's official armed forces (and may well be illegal), such as the [[Irish Republican Army]], and also in some non-military organisations organised on a quasi-military basis, such as the [[Salvation Army]] and the [[Church Army]].
==Field Army==
A Field Army is composed of a headquarters, army troops, a variable number of corps, and a variable number of divisions. A battle is influenced at the Field Army level by transferring divisions and reinforcements from one corps to another to increase the pressure on the enemy at a critical point.
== National land forces ==
A national army is usually the arm of the military service which conducts land-based warfare (for example, the [[United States Army]], or the [[France|French]] [[Armée de Terre]]).
Most ar |
alumni|Leary, Denis]]
[[Category:Emerson College faculty|Leary, Denis]]
[[Category:Irish-American actors|Leary, Denis]]
[[Category:People from Massachusetts|Leary, Denis]]
[[Category:Famous members of Red Sox Nation|Leary, Denis]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Leary, Denis]]
[[Category:Libertarians|Leary, Denis]]
[[de:Denis Leary]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Off-label use of dextromethorphan</title>
<id>8879</id>
<revision>
<id>19913286</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-30T10:21:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tarnas</username>
<id>206560</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Non-medical use of dextromethorphan]]</text>
</revision>
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<page>
<title>Dryope</title>
<id>8880</id>
<revision>
<id>40871961</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T15:52:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>212.11.21.151</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>+ fr:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[Greek mythology]], '''Dryope''' was the daughter of [[Dryops]] or of [[Eurytus]] (and hence half-sister to [[Iole]]). She was sometimes thought of as one of the [[Pleiades (mythology)|Pleiades]]. There are two stories of her [[transmogrification|metamorphosis]] into a black [[poplar]]. According to the first, [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]] seduced her by a trick. Dryope had been accustomed to play with the [[nymph]]s of the woods. Apollo chased her, and in order to win her favours turned himself into a [[tortoise]], of which the girls made a pet. When Dryope had the tortoise on her lap, he turned into a snake. She tried to flee, but he coiled around her legs and held her arms tightly against her sides as he raped her. The nymphs then abandoned her, and she eventually gave birth to her son [[Amphissus]]. She married [[Andraemon]]. Amphissus eventually built a temple to his father Apollo in the city that he founded, [[Aphissa]]. Here the nymphs came to converse with Dryope, but one day Apollo again returned in the form of a serpent and coiled around her while she stood by a spring. This time Dryope was turned into a poplar tree.
In [[Ovid]]'s version of the story, Dryope was wandering by a lake, suckling her baby Amphissus, when she saw the bright [[red]] [[flower]]s of the [[nelumbo|lotus]] tree, formerly the nymph [[Lotis]] who, when fleeing from [[Priapus]], had been changed into a tree. Dryope wanted to give the blossoms to her baby to play with, but when she picked one the tree started to tremble and bleed. She tried to run away, but the blood of the tree had touched her skin and she found her feet rooted to the spot. She slowly began to turn into a black poplar, the bark spreading up her legs from the earth, but just before the woody stiffness finally reached her throat and as her arms began sprouting twigs her husband Andraemon heard her cries and came to her. She had just enough time to warn her husband to take care of their child and make sure that he did not pick flowers.
In Virgil's Aeneid, Aeneas kills mercilessly a man called Tarquitus who is said to be the son of [[Faunus]] the god of the woods and Dryope.
[[Category:Greek mythological people]]
[[Category:Shapeshifting]]
[[de:Dryope]]
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[[hu:Drüopé]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Doctor (title)</title>
<id>8881</id>
<revision>
<id>41040362</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T17:45:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dvavasour</username>
<id>55791</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>spelling - foreign</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the use and history of doctor as a title, for other uses see [[Doctor (disambiguation)]].''
'''Doctor''' means ''teacher'' in [[Latin]]. It has been used continuously as an honored academic title for over a [[millennium]] in [[Europe]], where it dates back to the rise of the [[university]]. This use spread to [[the Americas]], former European [[colony|colonies]], and is now prevalent in most of the world. As a prefix &mdash; abbreviated "Dr." &mdash; its primary designation is a person who has obtained a [[doctorate]] (that is, a doctoral degree), which is the highest rank of [[academic degree]]. Doctoral degrees may be "research doctorates," awarded on the basis of competency in research, or "taught doctorates" (also called "professional doctorates," because they are invariably awarded in professional subjects), awarded on the basis of coursework and adjunct requirements (if any) successfully completed by the conferree.
From the nineteenth century onward, "doctor" has been popularly used as a synonym for "[[physician]]" in [[English language|Anglophone]] and many other countries; this term is commonly used as a title of address for physicians, whether or not they hold a doctorate. The primary medical qualification in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] and in many [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries is the '[[Bachelors of Medicine and Surgery]]' degree (MB BS, MB ChB, BM BCh or MB BChir, depending on the University granting the award). After qualification, medical practitioners may read for the postgraduate research degree of '[[Doctor of Medicine]]'. In the United States, however, the degree ''Medicis Doctor'' (Latin, "Doctor of Medicine") is the qualifying degree. There is no prefatory undergraduate medical degree, but students theoretically may enter an M.D. programme with a [[baccalaureate]] in any subject. Practically, however, most "Pre-Med" students take their undergraduate degrees with a major/minor concentration in biology and/or chemistry. Few or no American medical schools formally require a baccalaureate degree for admission to an M.D. programme and some state medical schools allow entrance for a select few before a baccalaureate degree is completed.
It should also be noted that a [[Dentist]] (in the US) is a Doctor qualified in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases, injuries, and malformations of the teeth, jaws, and mouth, a professional licensed practitioner of [[Dental Surgery]].
==The Noun "Doctor" in the Medical Profession==
In [[United States|American]] and [[Canada|Canadian]] parlance, "doctor" is most often used for all types of [[physician]]s and [[surgery|surgeon]]s, including [[internal medicine|internist]]s, [[pediatrics|pediatrician]]s, [[gynecology|gynecologists]], and all other surgical and nonsurgical specialists who hold [[Doctor of Medicine|M.D. degrees]]. The term also applies to physicians from other fields of medicine, to which the degree 'M.D.' is inapplicable, including [[osteopathy|doctors of Osteopathy]] (D.O.), doctors of [[Podiatric Medicine]] (D.P.M.), doctors of [[Optometry]] (O.D.), and so on. There are many other countries, such as [[France]], where ''doctor'' is nearly always synonymous with "physician."
A quick note on genres of medicine is appropriate at this juncture. The degree [[Doctor of Medicine|Medicis Doctor or M.D.]] is historically associated with analgesic medicine &mdash; that is, the field of medical enquiry based upon drug therapy, which evolved from alchemy and the use of potions and other types of herbology and pharmacology. Probably because this genre of medicine benefitted directly from the incredible advances in chemical science in the seventeenth through twentieth centuries, analgesic medicine eventually became the largest generic field of medicine.
Otherwise, each genre of medicine had as its founding principle the notion that all of the body's various ills orginated in one aspect of the body and that treatment of that one aspect would cure the illness. In earlier times, analgesic medicine theories explained illness through an imbalance of "humours" or something wrong with the blood, hence the use of potions, blood-letting, etc. to restore the body's chemical balance. Podiatry, by contrast, cured the ills of the body by curing the ills of the feet. Likewise, osteopathy originally sourced all health problems to the bones and skeleton; chiropracty, to the joints and cartilage; optometry, to problems with the eyes and sight; and so on. That is why each genre of medicine evolved to have its own medical degree, with analgesic medicine &mdash; the broadest field of medical enquiry &mdash; having sub-fields, each based upon drug therapy, that correspond to almost every sister genre of medicine (eg., ophthalmology is analgesic medicine's equivalent to optometry).
==Other Doctoral Degrees==
As higher education has evolved in Anglophone societies, the doctorate has become the highest degree awarded in any academic discipline. Historically, academic degrees were parallel and equal to one another. The baccalaureate indicated a general education in the standard subjects of the era. The master's degree indicated mastery of a particular subject in practical terms; in a sense, the Master of Arts was the first professional degree. The degree "doctor," by contrast, was oriented toward teaching qualifications. The baccalaureate was subordinated quickly to the master's and doctoral degrees. It was not until well after [[World War II]], however, that the master's degree became universally subordinated to the doctorate. The process had begun sometime earlier, but it was not until the professional doctorate was distinguished from the research doctorate in the mid-twentieth century that the path was cleared for the research-oriented master's degree to emerge from the professionally-oriented master's degree. Once there were both research and professional master's degrees that could lead on to either research or professional doctorates, the doctoral degree was firmly established as the highest degree &mdash |
dust, and a Navy surplus submarine, the "fearsome foursome" intends to take over the world, and Batman and Robin must stop them.
==Cast==
* [[Adam West]] - Batman/Bruce Wayne
* [[Burt Ward]] - Robin/Dick Grayson
* [[Cesar Romero]] - Joker
* [[Frank Gorshin]] - The Riddler
* [[Burgess Meredith]] - The Penguin
* [[Lee Meriwether]] - Catwoman/Miss Kitka
* [[Alan Napier]] - Alfred
* [[Neil Hamilton (actor)|Neil Hamilton]] - Commissioner Gordon
* [[Stafford Repp]] - Chief O'Hara
* [[Madge Blake]] - Aunt Harriet
* [[Reginald Denny (actor)|Reginald Denny]] - Commodore Schmidlapp
* [[Milton Frome]] - Admiral Schmidlapp
* [[Gil Perkins]] - Bluebeard
* [[Dick Crockett]] - Morgan
* [[George Sawaya]] - Quetch
*[[William Dozier]] - Desmond Doomsday the Narrator
==Credits==
* A [[William Dozier]] Production
* Music by [[Nelson Riddle]]
* Associate Producer Charles B. FitzSimons
* Director of Photography: Howard Schwartz, A.S.C.
* Art Directors: Jack Martin Smith, Serge Krizman
* Set Decoration: Walter M. Scott, Chester L. Bayhi
* Unit Production Manager: Sam Strangis
* Assistant Directors: William Derwin, David Whorf
* Film Editor: [[Harry Gerstad]], A.C.E.
* Special Photographic Effects: L.B. Abbott
* Sound: Roy Meadows, Harry M. Leonard
* Makeup by Ben Nye, Bryce Hutchinson
* Hair Styles Supervised by Margaret Donovan
* Batman Theme by [[Neal Hefti]]
* Orchestration by Gil Grau
* Second Unit Director: Ray Kellogg
* Second Unit Photography: Jack Marta
* Aerial Photography: Nelson Tyler
* Batboat: [[Glastron]]
* Main Title by Richard Kuhn and National Screen Service
* Color by [[DeLuxe]]
* Written by [[Lorenzo Semple Jr.]] - Based upoon the characters created by Bob Kane
appearing in [[Batman]] and [[Detective Comics]] Magazine published by National
Periodical Publications, Inc.
* Produced by [[William Dozier]]
* Directed by Leslie H. Martinson
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{imdb title|id=0060153|title=Batman (1966)}}
* [http://www.batmanytb.com/movies/60/index.php Batman The Movie @ BYTB: Batman Yesterday, Today and Beyond]
{{Batmanmovies}}
[[Category:1966 films]]
[[Category:Batman films]]
[[Category:Cult films]]
[[Category:Films based on television series]]
[[Category:20th Century Fox films]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Batman Returns</title>
<id>4728</id>
<revision>
<id>42088676</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:25:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.105.3.161</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
name =Batman Returns |
image = batman_returns_ver3.jpg|
producer =[[Tim Burton]]<br>[[Denise Di Novi]] |
writer = [[Daniel Waters (writer)|Daniel Waters]] (screenwriter)<br>[[Daniel Waters (writer)|Daniel Waters]] (story)<br>[[Sam Hamm]] (story)<br>[[Bob Kane]] (comic book)<br> |
starring = [[Michael Keaton]]<br>[[Danny DeVito]]<br>[[Michelle Pfeiffer]]<br>[[Christopher Walken]] |
director = [[Tim Burton]]|
distributor =[[Warner Bros.]] |
released =[[June 16]], [[1992]] |
runtime = 126 min. |
language = English |
music = |
awards = |
budget = $80,000,000 |
imdb_id = 0103776 |
}}
'''''Batman Returns''''' is both the second [[Tim Burton]] [[Batman]] movie and the second Batman film starring [[Michael Keaton]] as the title character. This time, Batman meets [[Penguin (comics)|The Penguin]] ([[Danny DeVito]]), [[Catwoman]] ([[Michelle Pfeiffer]]) and [[Max Shreck]] ([[Christopher Walken]]). It was released in theaters on [[June 19]], [[1992]]. The score by [[Danny Elfman]] creates a [[gothic horror|gothic]] atmosphere by combining strings and children's choruses. The film is considered the darkest installment in the franchise and contains most of the artistic, theatrical, and fantastic elements often attributed to Tim Burton.
In 1992, as part of the publicity campaign to promote the movie, [[Warner Bros.]] produced the [[animated series]] ''[[Batman: The Animated Series]]''. This movie, as its predecessor, was a huge success, although some fans complained it was "too weird". Film critic [[Leonard Maltin]] accused ''Batman Returns'' of being a "nasty, [[Nihilism|nihilistic]], [[nightmare]] movie" with a dark, mean-spirited, and often incoherent screenplay. Today, however, a significant portion of the Batman movie fanbase regards this as one of the best films of the [[Tim Burton]]/[[Joel Schumacher]] Batman franchise precisely because of the very qualities for which Maltin criticized it. A sequel, ''[[Batman Forever]]'' was produced in [[1995]].
==Synopsis==
{{spoiler}}
It is [[Christmas]] in [[Gotham City]]. A twisted penguin-man, the heir of the [[aristocrat]]ic Cobblepot family, abandoned to the sewers by his parents shortly after birth, is determined to regain his birthright.
:"I was their number [[1 (number)|1]] son, but they treated me like [[feces|number 2]]." -''The Penguin, after visiting his parents' graves''.
Max Shreck, a corrupt millionaire, wants to build a giant energy-stockpiling capacitor (disguised as a new power plant) for Gotham City as a legacy for his son to inherit, but is stymied in his goals by [[Bruce Wayne]] and the Mayor of Gotham City.
[[Image:keaton.jpg|thumb|250px|left|[[Michael Keaton]] as [[Bruce Wayne]] in ''Batman Returns'']]
Abducted by the Penguin's '''Red Triangle Circus''' gang, Shreck agrees to help the Penguin re-enter normal society and ease his acceptance by the surface world. Once the Penguin's tragic story wins over Gotham City, Shreck encourages him to run for Mayor, confident that he can be more easily manipulated than the current Mayor to approve his "power plant."
In order to replace the current Mayor, the people of Gotham must lose faith in his ability to keep order. The Penguin's '''Red Triangle Circus''' provides the necessary emergency, with the help of Selina Kyle, Shreck's harassed secretary - nearly killed by her boss when she uncovered his plans for the capacitor and revived as Catwoman, a sexy [[vinyl]]-costumed criminal. She also has a love/hate relationship with Bruce Wayne as Selina, her only real grip on her sanity, and the Batman as Catwoman. As the film progresses Selina/Catwoman's sanity and mental stability deteriorates, symbolically reflected in her costume: the costume represents an outer body or shell that protects her inner body and represents her unleashed power, with her inner body representing her mind; as her skin tight black costume continues to rip and tear from abuse, more of her svelte but fragile inner body is exposed, and the exposure of her "damaged" body metaphorically refers to the exposure of her damaged mind. It is left up to Batman, who has won the favor of the police and of the City since defeating the [[Joker (comics)|Joker]] three years ago, to stop the riots, expose Shreck's schemes, and save Selina from herself, ultimately her own worst enemy. He must also contend with the Penguin's horrific true motivations for returning to the surface world.
==Cast==
*''Batman / Bruce Wayne'': Michael Keaton
*''The Penguin / Oswald Cobblepot'': Danny DeVito
*''Catwoman / Selina Kyle'': Michelle Pfeiffer
*''Max Shreck'': Christopher Walken
*''[[Alfred Pennyworth]]'': [[Michael Gough]]
*''Ice Princess'': [[Cristi Conaway]]
*''[[James Gordon (comics)|Commissioner Gordon]]'': [[Pat Hingle]]
*''Mayor'': [[Michael Murphy (actor)|Michael Murphy]]
*''Organ Grinder'': [[Vincent Schiavelli]]
==Box office and reaction==
This $80 million movie earned nearly $163 million domestically and $104 million abroad. Although it earned less than the original, it was nevertheless the most successful movie of summer 1992 and third-best of the year (next to ''[[Aladdin (1992 film)|Aladdin]]'' and ''[[Home Alone 2: Lost in New York]]''). The overall critical reaction was mixed, but many consider it to be the best of the ''Batman'' films. [[Danny Elfman]]'s music still obtained a favorable reception and Michael Keaton was well-received once again for his melancholic, brooding, semi-psychotic take on Batman and Bruce Wayne. Danny DeVito and Michelle Pfeiffer caught the audience's attention with their enjoyably grotesque portrayals of the Penguin and Catwoman, and the movie's production design and special effects also made a positive contribution. But parents were still concerned with the movie's nearly black-and-white atmosphere, which was even more solemn and morbid than the 1989 original. Moreover, comic fans were upset by the significant deviations in character that Burton projected onto the movie. While Batman had been seen killing criminals on occasion in the 1989 original, ''Batman Returns'' showed him using lethal force regularly against his foes, a clear departure from the "modern" version of the character. Similarly, the transformation of the Penguin from an urbane, pragmatic thief into a disturbed, homicidal maniac upset many fans.
Alternatively, however, ''Batman Returns'' is hailed by many as a rich, modern [[Expressionist]] motion picture, which disguises a rich character study of Batman, reflected in his foes and his environment. And the lethal force and much darker Batman perfectly reflects Bob Kane's original 1939 treatment of the character, who was quite lethal, and very dark. Since the release of the 2005 special edition DVDs of the Burton Batman films, it has been revealed that the original 1939 comics were used by Burton as his basis, which explains Batman being far darker and more lethal to his foes than the "modern" (and more preferred) interpretation.
==On DVD==
[[Image:returns2disc.jpg|right|thumb|128px||Cover of the 2-disc Special Edition DVD]]
''Batman Returns'' was given a "bare bones" [[DVD]] release when the medium was introduced in [[ |
n. Regardless, this is not a complete solution to buffer overflows, as sensitive data other than the return address may still be overwritten.
===Executable space protection===
{{Main|Executable space protection}}
Some operating systems now include features to prevent execution of code on the stack. These include Windows' [[Data Execution Prevention|Data Execution Prevention]], [[OpenBSD]]'s [[W^X]] and the [[PaX]] and [[Exec Shield]] patches for [[Linux]].
===Address space layout randomization===
{{Main|Address space layout randomization}}
Randomization of the [[virtual memory]] addresses at which functions and variables can be found can make exploitation of a buffer overflow more difficult, but not impossible. It also forces the attacker to tailor the exploitation attempt to the individual system, which foils the attempts of [[internet worm]]s. A similar but less effective method is to [[Rebasing|rebase]] processes and libraries in the virtual address space.
===Deep Packet Inspection===
The use of [[Deep packet inspection|Deep Packet Inspection]] (DPI) can detect, at the network perimeter, remote attempts to exploit buffer overflows by use of attack signatures and [[heuristics]]. These are able to block packets which have the signature of a known attack, or if a long series of No-Operation (NOP) instructions (known as a nop-sled) is detected, these are often used when the location of the exploit's [[payload]] is slightly variable.
Packet scanning is not an effective method since it can only prevent known attacks and there are many ways that a 'nop-sled' can be encoded. Attackers have begun to use [[alphanumeric code|alphanumeric]], [[metamorphic code|metamorphic]], and [[self-modifying code|self-modifying]] [[shellcode]]s to avoid detection by heuristic packet scans also.
==History==
In [[1988]], the [[Morris worm]] used a buffer overflow in a [[Unix]] program called [[finger protocol|fingerd]] to propagate itself over the [[Internet]].
Later, in [[1995]], Thomas Lopatic independently rediscovered the buffer overflow and published his findings on the [[Bugtraq]] security mailing list [http://www.security-express.com/archives/bugtraq/1995_1/0403.html], which caused a wave of new security relevant buffer overflows to be found. In [[1996]], [[Elias Levy]] (aka Aleph One) published in ''[[Phrack]]'' magazine the paper "Smashing the Stack for Fun and Profit"[http://doc.bughunter.net/buffer-overflow/smash-stack.html], a step-by-step introduction to exploiting stack-based buffer overflow vulnerabilities, which caused a wave of new buffer overflow exploits to be written {{fact}}.
Then, in [[2001]], the [[Code Red worm]] sent specially crafted packets to machines executing Microsoft [[Internet Information Services]] (IIS) 5.0[http://www.eeye.com/html/Research/Advisories/AL20010717.html], triggering a buffer overflow and yielding full administrative privileges to the worm. ([[HTTP]] servers typically must have administrative privileges to use the standard [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]] port 80; IIS5 did not drop its administrative privileges after using them.) Following in [[2003]], the [[SQLSlammer]] worm compromised machines running [[Microsoft SQL Server 2000]] by sending specially crafted packets to those machines and allowing execution of [[arbitrary code]] [http://www.microsoft.com/technet/security/bulletin/ms02-039.mspx].
==See also==
* [[Computer security]]
* [[Computer insecurity]]
* [[Security focused operating systems]]
* [[Static code analysis]]
* [[Heap overflow]]
* [[Return-to-libc attack]]
* [[Self-modifying code]]
* [[Shellcode]]
==External links==
*[http://doc.bughunter.net/buffer-overflow/smash-stack.html Smashing The Stack For Fun And Profit] by Aleph One
*[http://www.sans.org/rr/paper.php?id=386 SANS: inside the buffer overflow attack]
*(PDF) [https://www.usenix.org/publications/library/proceedings/sec98/full_papers/cowan/cowan.pdf StackGuard: Automatic Adaptive Detection and Prevention of Buffer-Overflow Attacks] by Cowan et al.
*[http://doc.bughunter.net/buffer-overflow/ More Security Whitepapers about Buffer Overflows]
*(PDF) [http://www.syngress.com/book_catalog/327_SSPC/sample.pdf Chapter 12: Writing Exploits III] from ''Sockets, Shellcode, Porting & Coding: Reverse Engineering Exploits and Tool Coding for Security Professionals'' by James C. Foster (ISBN 1597490059). Detailed explanation of how to use Metasploit to develop a buffer overflow exploit from scratch.
[[Category:Programming bugs]]
[[Category:Security exploits]]
[[de:Pufferüberlauf]]
[[es:Desbordamiento de búfer]]
[[fi:Puskurin ylivuotovirhe]]
[[fr:Dépassement de tampon]]
[[it:Buffer overflow]]
[[nl:Bufferoverloop]]
[[ja:バッファオーバーラン]]
[[pl:Przepełnienie bufora]]
[[ru:Переполнение буфера]]
[[tr:Arabellek aşımı]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bug</title>
<id>4374</id>
<revision>
<id>40060916</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T21:18:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joeyramoney</username>
<id>727159</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>added album names</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''If you want to report a bug with the MediaWiki software which runs Wikipedia, go to [http://bugzilla.wikipedia.org/ MediaZilla]''.
{{wiktionarypar|bug}}__NOTOC__
'''Bug''' can mean many things:
== Zoology ==
* "True bug" in entomology, the order [[Hemiptera]]
* Bug, informally can mean any "creepy-crawly", [[insect]], other [[arthropod]], [[snail]], or [[slug]]
* Edible crustacean; the [[Moreton Bay bug]] and [[Balmain bug]] in Australia, the common [[lobster]] in New England
* [[Pathogen]], or the [[disease]] caused by one
* [[Bug (dog breed)]], crossbreed of Pug and Boston Terrier
==Technology==
* A software defect: [[Software bug]]
* [[Covert listening device]] or device for [[telephone tapping]]
* [[Integrated circuit]] chip, for its buglike appearance
* Manually positioned marker in [[flight instruments]]
* A semi-automated [[telegraph key]]
* [[Volkswagen Beetle]]
==TV and Movie==
* ''[[Bug (2006 film)]]'', (2006) psychological thriller, directed by William Friedkin.
* [[Bug (film)|''Bug'' (film)]], directed by Jeannot Szwarc in 1975
* [[Bug (Starship Troopers)]], a fictional alien race from the novel and movie ''Starship Troopers''.
* TV broadcaster's logo superimposed on the screen; see [[Digital On-screen Graphic]]
==Gambling==
* [[Bug (poker)]], a restricted wild card
* A card cheat's bug is a [[holdout]] device
==public Media==
* [[BUG computer magazine]], of Croatia
* ''[[Bug!]]'' and ''[[Bug Too!]]'' video games
==Geography==
* Bug rivers: [[Western Bug]] in Ukraine, Poland, and Belarus, and [[Southern Buh]] in Ukraine
==Other==
* [[Obsession]] ("to catch the skiing bug")
* To bug someone is to be an [[annoyance]]
* [[Buginese language]] (ISO 639 code bug)
* [[Bug (Dinosaur Jr. album)|Bug]] a 1988 album by Dinosaur Jr.
* [[Bug (Dave Davies album)|Bug]] a 2002 album by [[Dave Davies|Dave Davies]]
{{disambig}}
[[de:Bug]]
[[da:Bug]]
[[fr:Bug]]
[[fi:Bugi]]
[[sv:Bug]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Barry Bonds</title>
<id>4375</id>
<revision>
<id>42130229</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:43:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.6.182.50</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Resurgence */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox MLB player|
bgcolor1=#fd5a1e|
bgcolor2=black|
textcolor1=white|
textcolor2=white|
name=Barry Bonds|
image=Beiserebatedor.jpg|
position=Left field|
team=San Francisco Giants|
number=25|
bats=Left|
throws=Left|
debutdate=May 30|
debutyear=1986|
debutteam=Pittsburgh Pirates|
statyear=2005|
stat1label=[[Home run]]s|
stat1value=708|
stat2label=[[Stolen base]]s|
stat2value=506|
stat3label=[[Slugging average]]|
stat3value=.611|
formerteams=<nowiki></nowiki>
*[[Pittsburgh Pirates]] ([[1986 in baseball|1986]]-[[1992 in baseball|1992]])
}}
'''Barry Lamar Bonds''' (born [[July 24]] [[1964]] in [[Riverside, California|Riverside]], [[California]]) is a [[left fielder]] in [[Major League Baseball]] for the [[San Francisco Giants]]; he is most famous for his [[home run]] hitting. He holds the record for most homers in a season with 73 and is [[Top 500 home run hitters of all time|third on the career list]] with 708. He is generally considered among the greatest players of all time, and has won a record seven [[MLB Most Valuable Player Award|MVP awards]]; for those who view baseball through the prism of [[sabermetrics]], he, [[Babe Ruth]], and [[Ted Williams]] are the top three hitters. He is the only player in history to have hit at least 400 home runs and [[stolen base|stolen]] at least 400 bases, as well as the only player in history to hit 500 home runs and steal 500 bases. He has won eight [[Gold Glove Award]]s for defensive excellence. However, he is the focus of a raging debate in the baseball world, centering on two questions: has he had help in the form of illegal performance-improving drugs, and if so, to what degree, if any, does the use of these drugs account for his accomplishments? This debate has been further fueled by reports of testimony given in the investigation of the [[Bay Area Laboratory Co-operative]] scandal.
==Background==
The son of former [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star]] [[Bobby Bonds]], Barry Bonds graduated in 3333 from [[Junipero Serra High School]] ([[San Mateo, California|San Mateo, Calif.]]), excelling in baseball, [[basketball]] and [[American football|football]]. Although Bobby was immediately drafted by the [[San Francisco Giants]], Bonds chose to go to college first, playing baseball and earning a degree at [[Arizona State University]] in [[Criminology]]. He began his major league career in [[1986 in baseball|1986]] with the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]]. In [[1993 in baseball|1993]], he left the Pirates to sign as a [[free agen |
sub>1</sub>''y''<sub>1</sub>,...,''x''<sub>''n''</sub>''y''<sub>''n''</sub>).
* The [[quaternion]]s form a 4-dimensional real Banach algebra, with the norm being given by the absolute value of quaternions.
* The algebra of all bounded real- or complex-valued functions defined on some set (with pointwise multiplication and the [[supremum]] norm) is a unital Banach algebra.
* The algebra of all bounded [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] real- or complex-valued functions on some [[locally compact space]] (again with pointwise operations and supremum norm) is a Banach algebra. The algebra is unital if and only if the original space is compact. Also, since every continuous function on a compact space is automatically bounded, we do not need to assume the boundedness of the functions in this case.
* Any [[C*-algebra]] is a Banach algebra.
* The algebra of all [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] [[linear transformation|linear]] operators on a Banach space E (with functional composition as multiplication and the [[operator norm]] as norm) is a unital Banach algebra. The set of all compact operators on E is a closed ideal in this algebra.
* The continuous linear operators on a [[Hilbert space]] form a [[C*-algebra|C-star-algebra]] and therefore a Banach algebra.
* If ''G'' is a [[locally compact]] [[Hausdorff space|Hausdorff]] [[topological group]] and &mu; its [[Haar measure]], then the Banach space L<sup>1</sup>(''G'') of all &mu;-integrable functions on ''G'' becomes a Banach algebra under the [[convolution]] ''xy''(''g'') = &int; ''x''(''h'') ''y''(''h''<sup>-1</sup>''g'') d&mu;(''h'') for ''x'', ''y'' in L<sup>1</sup>(''G'').
== Properties ==
Several [[list of functions|elementary functions]] which are defined via [[power series]] may be defined in any unital Banach algebra; examples include the [[exponential function]] and the [[trigonometric function|trigonometric functions]]. The formula for the [[geometric series]] and the [[binomial theorem]] also remain valid in general unital Banach algebras.
The set of [[invertible element]]s in any unital Banach algebra is an [[open set]], and the inversion operation on this set is continuous, so that it forms a [[topological group]] under multiplication.
Unital Banach algebras provide a natural setting to study general spectral theory. The ''spectrum'' of an element ''x'' consists of all those [[scalar]]s &lambda; such that ''x'' -&lambda;1 is not invertible. (In the Banach algebra of all ''n''-by-''n'' matrices mentioned above, the spectrum of a matrix coincides with the set of all its [[eigenvalue]]s.) The spectrum of any element is [[compact]]. If the base field is the field of [[complex number]]s, then the spectrum of any element is [[non-empty]].
The various algebras of functions given in the examples above have very different properties from standard examples of algebras such as the reals. For example:
* Every real Banach algebra which is a [[division algebra]] is isomorphic to the reals, the complexes, or the quaternions.
* Every unital real Banach algebra with no [[zero divisor]]s, and in which every [[principal ideal]] is [[closed set|closed]], is isomorphic to the reals, the complexes, or the quaternions.
* Every commutative real unital [[noetherian ring|noetherian]] Banach algebra with no zero divisors is isomorphic to the real or complex numbers.
* Every commutative real unital noetherian Banach algebra (possibly having zero divisors) is finite-dimensional.
* Permanently singular elements in Banach algebras are [[topological divisior of zero|topological divisors of zero]], i.e. considering extensions ''B'' of Banach algebras ''A'' some elements that are singular in the given algebra A have an multiplicative inverse element in a Banach algebra extension ''B''. Topological divisors of zero in ''A'' are permanently singular in all Banach extension ''B'' of ''A''.
[[Category:Banach algebras|*]]
[[Category:Topological rings]]
[[de:Banachalgebra]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>B*-algebra</title>
<id>4666</id>
<revision>
<id>36280621</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-22T23:33:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gauge</username>
<id>90336</id>
</contributor>
<comment>remove restatements of the formulas, add missing criterion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''B*-algebras''' are [[mathematics|mathematical]] structures studied in [[functional analysis]]. A B*-algebra ''A'' is a [[Banach algebra]] over the field of [[complex number|complex numbers]], together with a map * : ''A'' &rarr; ''A'' called ''involution'' which has the following properties:
# (''x'' + ''y'')* = ''x''* + ''y''* for all ''x'', ''y'' in ''A''.
# (&lambda; ''x'')* = &lambda;* ''x''* for every &lambda; in '''C''' and every ''x'' in ''A''; here, &lambda;* stands for the complex conjugation of &lambda;.
# (''xy'')* = ''y''* ''x''* for all ''x'', ''y'' in ''A''.
# (''x''*)* = ''x'' for all ''x'' in ''A''.
# ||''x''*|| = ||''x''||, ''i.e.'', the involution is compatible with the norm.
B* algebras are really a special case of [[Star-algebra|* algebras]]; a succinct definition is that a B*-algebra is a *-algebra that is also a Banach algebra.
If the following property is also true, the algebra is actually a [[C*-algebra|'''C*-algebra''']]:
* ||''x x*''|| = ||''x''||<sup>2</sup> for all ''x'' in ''A''.
See also: [[Algebra over a field|algebra]], [[associative algebra]], [[Star-algebra|* algebra]].
[[Category:Banach algebras]]
[[Category:C*-algebras]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Boris Pasternak</title>
<id>4667</id>
<revision>
<id>40227978</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T02:29:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GrinBot</username>
<id>411872</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: hu</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Pasternak.jpg|thumb|200px|Boris Pasternak (1890-1960).]]
'''Boris Leonidovich Pasternak''' (''Борис Леонидович Пастернак'') ([[February 10]], [[1890]] &ndash; [[May 30]], [[1960]]) was a [[Russia]]n [[poet]] and [[writer]] best known in the West for his monumental tragic novel on [[Soviet Union|Soviet Russia]], ''[[Doctor Zhivago]]'' (1957). It is as a poet, however, that he is most celebrated in Russia. ''My Sister Life'', written by Pasternak in [[1917]], is arguably the most influential collection of poetry published in [[Russian language|Russian]] in the [[20th century]].
==Early life==
Pasternak was born in [[Moscow]] on [[February 10]] (Gregorian), [[1890]] (Julian January 29). His parents were a prominent [[Jew]]ish painter [[Leonid Pasternak]], professor at the [[Moscow School of Painting]], who converted to [[Orthodox Christianity]], and Rosa Kaufman, a popular concert [[pianist]]. Pasternak was brought up in a cosmopolitan atmosphere, his father's home being visited by [[Sergei Rachmaninoff]], [[Rainer Maria Rilke]], and [[Leo Tolstoy]]. His father's conversion would naturally impact his future, and many of his later poems have overtly Christian themes.
Inspired by his neighbour [[Alexander Scriabin]], Pasternak resolved to become a composer and entered the [[Moscow Conservatory]]. In [[1910]], he abruptly left the conservatory for the [[University of Marburg]], where he studied under [[Neo-Kantian]] philosophers [[Hermann Cohen]] and [[Nicolai Hartmann]]. Although invited to become a scholar, he decided against philosophy as a profession and returned to Moscow in [[1914]]. His first collection of poetry, influenced by [[Alexander Blok]] and the [[Futurists]], was published later that year.
Pasternak's early verse cleverly dissimulates his preoccupation with [[Kant]]'s ideas. Its fabric includes striking alliterations, wild rhythmic combinations, day-to-day vocabulary, and hidden allusions to his favourite poets - [[Lermontov]] and German Romantics.
During [[World War I]] he taught and worked at a chemical factory in the [[Urals]]; this undoubtedly provided him with material for ''Dr.&nbsp;Zhivago'' many years later. Unlike his relatives and many of his friends, Pasternak didn't leave Russia after the revolution. He was fascinated with the new ideas and possibilities the revolution had brought to life.
=="My Sister Life"==
Pasternak spent the summer of [[1917]] living in steppe near [[Saratov]], where he fell in love with a Jewish girl. These passions resulted in the collection ''My Sister Life'', which he wrote for three months and was embarrassed to publish for 4 years. When it finally appeared in [[1921]], the book had revolutionary impact upon Russian poetry. It made Pasternak the model of imitation for younger poets, and decisively changed the poetic manners of [[Osip Mandelshtam]] and [[Marina Tsvetayeva]], to name only a few.
Following ''My Sister Life'', Pasternak produced some hermetic pieces of uneven quality, including his masterpiece, a lyric cycle entitled ''Rupture'' (1921). Such various authors as [[Vladimir Mayakovsky]], [[Andrey Bely]], and [[Vladimir Nabokov]] applauded Pasternak's poems as the works of pure, unbridled inspiration. In the later 1920s, he also participated in the [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/5268 celebrated tripartite correspondence] with [[Rilke]] and [[Tsvetayeva]].
By the end of the 1920s, Pasternak increasingly felt that his colourful modernist style was at variance with the doctrine of [[Socialist Realism]] approved by the Communist party. He attempted to make his poetry much more comprehensible to mass reader by reworking his earlier pieces and starting two lengthy poems on the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]]. He also turned to prose and wrote several autobiographic stories, notably "The Childhood of Luvers" and " |
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