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e irrational numbers are [[algebraic number]]s, such as √<font style="text-decoration: overline">2</font>, the [[square root]] of [[two]], and <sup>3</sup>√<font style="text-decoration: overline">5</font>, the [[cube root]] of 5, and the [[golden ratio]], symbolized by the [[Greek alphabet|Greek letter]] '''<math>\varphi</math>''' ([[phi]]) or less commonly by '''<math>\tau</math>''' ([[tau]]); others are [[transcendental number]]s such as [[pi|π]] and ''[[e (mathematical constant)|e]]''. When the [[ratio]] of lengths of two line segments is irrational, the line segments are also described as being ''[[commensurability (mathematics)|incommensurable]]'', meaning they share no measure in common. A ''measure'' of a line segment ''I'' in this sense is a line segment ''J'' that "measures" ''I'' in the sense that some whole number of copies of ''J'' laid end-to-end occupy the same length as ''I''. == History == The earliest known use of irrational numbers was in the [[Indian mathematics|Indian]] [[Sulba Sutras]] composed between [[800 BC|800]]-[[500 BC]]. The first proof of irrational numbers is usually attributed to [[Pythagoras]], more specifically to the [[Pythagorean]] [[Hippasus|Hippasus of Metapontum]], who produced a (most likely geometrical) proof of the irrationality of the [[square root of two|square root of 2]]. The story goes that Hippasus discovered irrational numbers when trying to represent the square root of 2 as a fraction (proof below). However [[Pythagoras]] believed in the absoluteness of numbers, and could not accept the existence of irrational numbers. He could not disprove their existence through logic, but his beliefs would not accept the existence of irrational numbers and so he sentenced Hippasus to death by drowning. Later Greek mathematicians, such as [[Theaetetus (mathematician)|Theaetetus]] and [[Eudoxus of Cnidus|Eudoxus]] worked with other quadratic irrationalities. ''[[Euclid's Elements]]'' Book 10 is dedicated to classification of irrational magnitudes. The sixteenth century saw the final acceptance of [[negative and non-negative numbers|negative]], integral and [[fraction (mathematics)|fractional]] numbers. The seventeenth century saw decimal fractions with the modern notation quite generally used by mathematicians. The next hundred years saw the imaginary become a powerful tool in the hands of [[Abraham de Moivre]], and especially of [[Leonhard Euler]]. For the nineteenth century it remained to complete the theory of [[complex number]]s, to separate irrationals into algebraic and transcendental, to prove the existence of [[transcendental number]]s, and to make a scientific study of a subject which had remained almost dormant since [[Euclid]], the theory of irrationals. The year 1872 saw the publication of the theories of [[Karl Weierstrass]] (by his pupil [[Kossak]]), [[Heine]] (''[[Crelle]]'', 74), [[Georg Cantor]] (Annalen, 5), and [[Richard Dedekind]]. [[Méray]] had taken in 1869 the same point of departure as [[Heine]], but the theory is generally referred to the year 1872. Weierstrass's method has been completely set forth by [[Pincherle]] (1880), and Dedekind's has received additional prominence through the author's later work (1888) and the recent endorsement by [[Paul Tannery]] (1894). Weierstrass, Cantor, and Heine base their theories on infinite series, while Dedekind founds his on the idea of a [[Dedekind cut|cut (Schnitt)]] in the system of [[real number]]s, separating all [[rational number]]s into two groups having certain characteristic properties. The subject has received later contributions at the hands of Weierstrass, [[Kronecker]] (Crelle, 101), and Méray. [[Continued fraction]]s, closely related to irrational numbers (and due to Cataldi, 1613), received attention at the hands of [[Euler]], and at the opening of the nineteenth century were brought into prominence through the writings of [[Joseph Louis Lagrange]]. Other noteworthy contributions have been made by [[Druckenmüller]] (1837), [[Kunze]] (1857), [[Lemke]] (1870), and [[Günther]] (1872). [[Ramus]] (1855) first connected the subject with [[determinant]]s, resulting, with the subsequent contributions of Heine, [[August Ferdinand Möbius|Möbius]], and [[Günther]], in the theory of Kettenbruchdeterminanten. Dirichlet also added to the general theory, as have numerous contributors to the applications of the subject. [[Johann Heinrich Lambert|Lambert]] proved (1761) that π cannot be rational, and that ''e''<sup>''n''</sup> is irrational if ''n'' is rational (unless ''n'' = 0), a proof, however, which left much to be desired. [[Legendre]] (1794) completed Lambert's proof, and showed that π is not the square root of a rational number. [[Paolo Ruffini]] (1799) first proof, (largly ignored) of [[Abel–Ruffini theorem]] that the general [[Quintic equation|quintic]] or higher equations cannot be solved by a general formula involving only arithmetical operations and roots. [[Évariste Galois]] (1831) sends a memoir to the French Academy of Science: ''On the condition of solvability of equations by radicals'', later developed into [[Galois theory]] which has been central to the proof that π and ''e'' are transcendental. [[Joseph Liouville]] (1840) showed that neither ''e'' nor ''e''<sup>2</sup> can be a root of an integral [[quadratic equation]]. [[Niels Henrik Abel]] (1842) partially proves the Abel–Ruffini theorem. The existence of transcendental numbers was first established by Liouville (1844, 1851), the proof being subsequently displaced by Georg Cantor (1873). [[Charles Hermite]] (1873) first proved <math>e</math> transcendental, and [[Ferdinand von Lindemann]] (1882), starting from Hermite's conclusions, showed the same for π. Lindemann's proof was much simplified by Weierstrass (1885), still further by [[David Hilbert]] (1893), and has finally been made elementary by [[Adolf Hurwitz]] and [[Paul Albert Gordan]]. == The square root of 2 == One proof of the irrationality of the square root of 2 is the following [[reductio ad absurdum]]. The proposition is proved by assuming the negation and showing that that leads to a contradiction, which means that the proposition must be true. # Assume that √<font style="text-decoration: overline">2</font> is a rational number. This would mean that there exist integers ''a'' and ''b'' such that ''a'' / ''b'' = √<font style="text-decoration: overline">2</font>. # Then √<font style="text-decoration: overline">2</font> can be written as an [[irreducible fraction]] (the fraction is shortened as much as possible) ''a'' / ''b'' such that ''a'' and ''b'' are [[coprime]] integers and (''a'' / ''b'')<sup>2</sup> = 2. # It follows that ''a''<sup>2</sup> / ''b''<sup>2</sup> = 2 and ''a''<sup>2</sup> = 2 ''b''<sup>2</sup>. # Therefore ''a''<sup>2</sup> is even because it is equal to 2 ''b''<sup>2</sup> which is obviously even. # It follows that ''a'' must be even. (Odd numbers have odd squares and even numbers have even squares.) # Because ''a'' is even, there exists a ''k'' that fulfills: ''a'' = 2''k''. # We insert the last equation of (3) in (6): 2''b''<sup>2</sup> = (2''k'')<sup>2</sup> is equivalent to 2''b''<sup>2</sup> = 4''k''<sup>2</sup> is equivalent to ''b''<sup>2</sup> = 2''k''<sup>2</sup>. # Because 2''k''<sup>2</sup> is even it follows that ''b''<sup>2</sup> is also even which means that ''b'' is even because only even numbers have even squares. # By (5) and (8) ''a'' and ''b'' are both even, which contradicts that ''a'' / ''b'' is irreducible as stated in (2). Since we have found a contradiction the assumption (1) that √<font style="text-decoration: overline">2</font> is a rational number must be false. The opposite is proven. √<font style="text-decoration: overline">2</font> is irrational. This proof can be generalized to show that any root of any [[natural number]] is either a natural number or irrational. === Another proof === Another reductio ad absurdum showing that √<font style="text-decoration: overline">2</font> is irrational is less well-known and has sufficient charm that it is worth including here. It proceeds by observing that if √<font style="text-decoration: overline">2</font> = ''m''/''n'' then √<font style="text-decoration: overline">2</font> = (2''n'' − ''m'')/(''m'' − ''n''), so that a fraction [[in lowest terms]] is reduced to yet lower terms. That is a contradiction if ''n'' and ''m'' are positive integers, so the assumption that √<font style="text-decoration: overline">2</font> is rational must be false. It is possible to construct from an isosceles right triangle whose leg and hypotenuse have respective lengths ''n'' and ''m'', by a classic [[ruler-and-compass construction]], a smaller isosceles right triangle whose leg and hypotenuse have respective lengths ''m'' − ''n'' and 2''n'' − ''m''. That construction proves the irrationality of √<font style="text-decoration: overline">2</font> by the kind of method that was employed by ancient Greek geometers. === The golden ratio === When a line segment is divided into two disjoint subsegments in such a way that the ratio of the whole to the longer part equals the ratio of the longer part to the shorter part, then that ratio is the [[golden ratio]], equal to :<math>\varphi
in the number of HD channels available to European viewers in many countries. Although most of these channels are pay TV, there are some free to air HD stations available([[Prosieben]] & [[Sat 1]]), as well as technical transmissions by satellite. In the United Kingdom, [[British Sky Broadcasting|Sky]] HD is set to launch around April 2006, offering 9 HDTV channels (including 2 pay-per-view movie channels). Customers will pay for the Sky HD box, for a subscription, and for an HD Ready TV. A label "[[HD-ready]]" has been created to inform consumers of the benefits of High Definition. The purpose of the label is create a single norm to simplify the purchase of a HDTV in Europe. ===Japan=== Japan had pioneered HDTV for decades with an analog implementation. The old system is not compatible with the new digital standards. Japan terrestrial broadcast of HD via [[Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting|ISDB-T]] started in December 2003. It is reported that two million HD receivers have been sold in Japan already. ===Republic of Korea=== After a long controversy between the government and broadcasters, ATSC was chosen over [[DVB-T]]. From 2005, digital services are available in all the country. It is required that at least 10 hours of HD content to be broadcast on a weekly basis during the first year of commercial digital service. ===Mexico=== Mexican television company [[Televisa]] made experimental HDTV broadcasts in the early-1990s, in collaboration with Japan's [[NHK]]. Some events are now broadcast in high definition. During the first half of 2005, at least one cable provider in [[Mexico City]] ([http://www.cablevision.net.mx Cablevision]) has begun to offer 5 HDTV channels to subscribers purchasing a digital video recorder (DVR). In 2005, TV Azteca signed a deal with Harris Corporation's broadcast communications division for digital TV transmitters and HDTV encoding equipment to bring high-definition TV to nine Mexican cities. The launch will be carried out in two phases. By the third quarter of 2006, HDTV transmissions will be available in Mexico's largest markets: Mexico City, Guadalajara and Monterrey. Phase Two of the national rollout will bring HDTV services to six cities along the Mexico-U.S. border (Matamoros, Reynosa, Nuevo Laredo, Ciudad Juarez, Mexicali and Tijuana) through the first half of 2006. This rollout takes advantage of HDTV receivers already in place thanks to an earlier HDTV rollout by stations on the American side of the border. Also, [[TV Azteca]] has planned to broadcast the Mexican football tournament in HDTV. And almost all retailers have started shipping televisions with HDTV tuners. XETV in Tijuana, Baja California - across the border from San Diego, California - is on the air in HDTV using 720p format. This affiliate of the American Fox TV Network is on UHF channel 23 broadcasting from Mt. San Antonio in Tijuana, Mexico with 403,000 watts, directed primarily northward at San Diego. In January 2006, Televisa's XEFB-TV and Multimedios' XHAW-TV in Monterrey, Nuevo Leon began HDTV transmissions on UHF channels 48 and 50, respectively. In February 2006, Televisa's XHUAA in Tijuana began its HDTV transmissions on channel 20. Unfortunately they have no HDTV programs. Channel 20 broadcasts an upconverted version of the programs of XHUAA's analog signal on channel 57. ===United States=== {{main|High-definition television in the United States}} In the [[United States]], HDTV specifications are defined by the [[ATSC]]. An HDTV-compatible TV usually uses a 16:9 [[aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]] display with an integrated ATSC tuner. Lower-resolution sources like regular DVDs may be upscaled to the native resolution of the TV. ==Recording, compression, and prerecorded media== HDTV can be recorded to [[D-VHS]] (Data-VHS), [[W-VHS]], to an HDTV-capable [[digital video recorder]] such as [[DirecTV]]'s high-definition [[TiVo]] or [[Dish Network]]'s DVR 921 or 942, or to a computer equipped with an HDTV capture card. In the U.S., the only current archival option is D-VHS. D-VHS digitally records a 28.2-Mbit stream onto a classic [[VHS]] tape, using a FireWire (IEEE 1394) digital transport to carry a compressed MPEG-2 Transport Stream from the tuning device to the recorder. However, the massive amount of data storage required to archive uncompressed streams make it unlikely that an uncompressed storage option will appear in the consumer market soon. Realtime MPEG-2 compression of an uncompressed digital HDTV signal is also prohibitively expensive for the consumer market at this time, but should become inexpensive within several years (although this is more relevant for consumer HD camcorders than recording HDTV). Analog tape recorders with bandwidth capable of recording analog HD signals such as W-VHS recorders are no longer produced for the consumer market and are both expensive and scarce in the secondary market. As part of the FCC's "plug and play" agreement, cable companies are required to provide customers that rent HD set-top boxes with a set-top box with "functional" Firewire (IEEE 1394) upon request. None of the DBS providers have offered this feature on any of their supported boxes. [[As of 2004|As of July 2004]], boxes are not included in the FCC mandate. This content is protected by encryption known as [http://www.dtcp.com/ 5C]. This encryption can prevent someone from recording content at all or simply limit the number of copies. Aside from scarce Japanese analog MUSE-encoded laser discs that are no longer produced, as of 2005 the only current available prerecorded HD media is D-Theater. Comprising less than 100 titles and utilizing a 28-Mbit/s MPEG2 stream at 720p or 1080i with either Dolby Digital 5.1 or DTS encoding, D-Theater is an encrypted D-VHS format, and only D-Theater capable D-VHS players can play back these tapes. This format is superior to broadcast HDTV due to its higher bandwidth and, of course, the ability to do non-realtime optimization of the encoding, which is not possible with broadcast HDTV. D-Theater is currently a small niche market even within the niche HDTV community, and it appears as if the final D-Theater title was published in 2004. ===Future media=== HD programming may be recorded on optical disc using [[Blu-ray]] or on [[HD DVD]]. Blu-ray technology is currently available only in Japan with a Japanese satellite/terrestrial tuner, but is expected to be released in other world markets in 2006. Blu-ray uses a blue-laser optical disc with an MPEG-2 or MPEG-4 [[codec]]. Sony will include a [[Blu-ray]] player in [[PlayStation 3]], and it will be released during 2006. It is expected to have a big impact on the HDTV market. ====Microsoft==== In an attempt to provide a bitrate-compatible high-definition format for high-definition video on standard [[DVD-ROM]]s, [[Microsoft]] introduced their Windows Media 9 Series [[codec]] with the ability to compress a high-definition bitstream into the same space as a conventional NTSC bitstream (approximately 5 to 9 megabits per second for [[720p]] and higher). Microsoft is marketing its high-definition Windows Media 9 Series codec as [[WMV HD]]. It remains to be seen if the codec will be adopted for widespread use, if only as a [[Wi-Fi]] industry standard. As of November 2003, this format required a significant amount of processing power to encode and decode and the only commercially-available movie that used the codec was the ''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day|Terminator 2]]: Extreme Edition'' DVD (see [http://www.manifest-tech.com/media_dvd/hd_dvd.htm 1]). Since then, more titles have become available in this format, such as the acclaimed surf documentary ''[[Step Into Liquid]]''. As of the start of 2005, [[Microsoft]] recommends a 3.0 GHz processor with 512 MB of RAM and a 128-MB video card for [[1080p]] playback on [[Windows XP]], though there are now commercially available DVD players, like the KiSS DP-600, that will play back WMV HD DVD ROMs in high definition on HDTV sets. The codec has been submitted to [[SMPTE]] and is in SMPTE's standardization process with an intent for it to become an official SMPTE standard known as [[VC-1]] in the near-future. ====Broadcasters==== Other codecs are in contention such as [[AVC]] ([[MPEG-4]] part 10, also known as [[H.264]], approved by the [[ITU-T]] and [[MPEG]] standards bodies in early-2003) and the [[VP6]] and now [[VP7]] codecs from [[On2 Technologies]]. H.264 as a standard has already been selected and adopted by the biggest broadcasters in the U.S. ([http://www.directv.com DirecTV], [http://www.dishnetwork.com DISH Network]) and Europe ([http://www.sky.com/hd BSkyB], [http://www.premiere.de Premiere], [http://www.canalplus.com Canal+], [http://www.tps.fr TPS], ...). H.264 was chosen for several reasons: The standard was validated as an open standard at least a year before VC-1 was seriously considered as a potential open standard, and, then, there is a lot of uncertainty on the levies Microsoft may want to impose once the algorithm is adopted. So far, only a handful of very minor broadcasters are seriously considering VC-1. It has been thought for a while that VC-1 was better adapted for the IPTV world than H.264, but press announcements have also already been made by some of the largest STB manufacturers like [http://www.aminocom.com Amino], [http://www.pacemicro.com Pace], [http://www.kreatel.com Kreatel] demonstrating solutions based on H.264 standards. The main areas of dominance of VC-1 seem currently to be in the Blu-Ray DVD (HD DVD have not yet announced support for VC-1) and, for obvious reason, the home PCs. In fact, there is some concern in the community that Microsoft may have appropriated itself the H.264 standard, modified and improved upon it and are trying to resell the solution as VC-1, without providing dues to the MPEG-LA. However, this is currently a rumor and has not yet been challen
rd Stanley and Sir William Stanley and their troops, watched the beginning of the engagement as the rest of Richard's army fought Henry's French mercenaries and loyal exiles. The Stanleys seem to have taken up a position some distance away from the two main armies. The two notorious vacillators in 1469&amp;ndash;71 were the young [[John Talbot, 3rd Earl of Shrewsbury]], and the older more experienced Lord Stanley. They acted with a circumspection that bordered on deceitfulness, consistently holding back from final commitment to either side, and always keeping on good terms with the winners. Richard had taken hostages to ensure that, even if Talbot and Stanley did not join him, they would at least remain neutral during the battle. ==The Battle== The battle lasted about two hours, and began well for the king. Unfortunately for him, Sir William Stanley chose to enter the fray on Henry's side, with Lord Thomas Stanley abstaining from the conflict all together. Richard reached [[Ambion Hill]] first and his troops were well-rested going into the battle, while Henry's men had trouble lining up on the rough ground below (it is not clear why). Richard might have charged then, possibly slaughtering the disorganised Lancastrians, but he missed his chance. When Henry finally got ready, his men used [[cannon]] and [[arrow|arrows]] to force Richard to come down from his hilltop. When Richard did, he called for Lord Northumberland, who commanded the right wing of Richard's army, to join in with fresh forces. But Northumberland refused, holding his forces back from action. Although he was captured on the day, he was soon released and confirmed in all his titles and lands by the new King Henry VII. But it was the decision of Lord Stanley, waiting nearby, that tipped the battle's outcome in favor of Henry. After Richard's commander, [[John Howard, 1st Duke of Norfolk]], was slain, and before the waiting armies of Lords Stanley and Northumberland chose sides, Richard attempted a valiant, suicidal [[Charge (warfare)|charge]] against Henry, who had stayed well clear of most of the fighting. In the attack, Richard killed Henry's standard bearer, William Brandon. But while Richard was within sight of Henry, Lord Stanley's army moved, surrounding Richard and the men of his Household. Thus was Richard cut down. He was 32 years of age. Richard of York was the second and last English king to die in battle ([[Harold II of England|Harold Godwinson]] at [[Hastings]], [[1066]], killed by the [[Normans]], was the first). He was the only king from the north, and the last of the [[Plantagenet]] kings. His body was ignominiously treated by the victors. The battle proved to be decisive in ending the long-running [[medieval]] series of [[English Civil Wars]] later be to known as the [[Wars of the Roses]], although the last battle was actually to be fought at [[Battle of Stoke Field|Stoke]] two years later ([[1487]]). ==Consequences== Henry Tudor was crowned as [[Henry VII of England|King Henry VII]], marking the beginning of the 118-year reign of the [[Tudor dynasty]] in [[England]]. He immediately sought to backdate his administration to a date prior to the battle of Bosworth Field in order to attaint for [[treason]] men who had fought for the former King Richard of York. Henry VII was in fact outlawed and barred from his own inheritance, and was under [[Attainder]] when he seized the English Throne in 1485. Henry's [[coronation]] conveniently nullified the attainder. Following this, [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] made the declaration that any who had opposed King Henry at Bosworth were to be considered traitors. Lord Northumberland was killed at one of his Yorkshire residences by a mob protesting over high taxes for the defence of [[Brittany]] against France on [[April 28]], [[1489]]. Another reason for the mob's actions was his part in the downfall and death of Richard III who remained popular in [[Yorkshire]]. ==Location== For several years after the event the battle was called the '''Battle of Redemore''' and it was some time before the more famous name was used. This has led to the theory that the battle was ''not'' fought on Ambion Hill but on a reedy moor in the same area. People have long been researching to try to discover the actual site of this battle, work which has continued in the first decade of the 21st century. ==Popular culture== The Battle is a key setting in [[William Shakespeare]]'s [[Richard III (play)|Richard III]], and much of the mythology surrounding it seems to derive from inventions of Shakespeare for [[dramatic license]], which were otherwise unrecorded in the century before the play was written. In the play, Richard is unhorsed after his charge, and cries out &quot;A horse! A horse! My kingdom for a horse!&quot;, and his [[crown]] was retrieved by Henry from a [[Crataegus|hawthorn]] [[shrub|bush]]. Richard would not have worn his crown but may have worn a [[circlet]] on his helmet, that his men may recognize him. The battle is also the setting for the first episode of the first series of [[Blackadder]], in which the comic protagonist accidentally kills Richard, saying in realization, &quot;Oh my God, it's Uncle Richard.&quot; ==Further reading== *''Bosworth 1485'', Last Charge of the Plantagenets; Christopher Gravett, Osprey Campaign Series #66, Osprey Publishing, 1999 ==External links== *[http://www.leics.gov.uk/country_parks_bosworth Bosworth Battlefield visitor info] *[http://www.r3.org/bosworth/ Richard III Society, American Branch] with maps, photos, articles presenting several competing theories situating the battle *[http://richard111.com/roll_call_of_the_battle_of_boswo.htm Bosworth Roll Call] Officers there on the day. [[Category:1485]] [[Category:Battles of the Wars of the Roses|Bosworth 1485]] [[Category:History of Leicestershire]] [[Category:Visitor attractions in Leicestershire]] [[bs:Bitka Bozvrf Polja]] [[da:Slaget ved Bosworth]] [[de:Schlacht von Bosworth Field]] [[fr:Bataille de Bosworth]] [[ja:ボズワースの戦い]] [[nl:Slag bij Bosworth]] [[no:Slaget ved Bosworth Field]] [[ru:Битва при Босворте]] [[sv:Slaget vid Bosworth Field]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Brassicaceae</title> <id>3794</id> <revision> <id>42119977</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:21:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Polymath69</username> <id>696833</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Use as food */ it's -&gt; its; precuaser -&gt; precursor (precuaser was a one-word googlewhack!)</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Brassicaceae | image = Barbarea vulgaris1.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = [[Winter Cress]] (''Barbarea vulgaris)'' | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Brassicales]] | familia = '''Brassicaceae''' | familia_authority = [[Antoine Laurent de Jussieu|Juss.]] | subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]] | subdivision = See text. }} The [[flowering plant]] [[family (biology)|family]] '''Brassicaceae''', also called '''Cruciferae''', is known as the '''mustard family''' or '''cabbage family'''. Agricultural plants in the mustard family are also known as '''cole crops'''; ''cole'' comes from the [[Latin]] word ''caulis'' (stem), as does the [[German language|German]] ''Kohl''. The family contains species of great economic importance, providing much of the world's [[winter vegetable]]s. These include [[cabbage]], [[broccoli]], [[cauliflower]], [[brussels sprout]]s, [[collard]]s, and [[kale]] (all cultivars of one species, ''[[Brassica oleracea]]''), [[Chinese kale]], [[rutabaga]] (also known as Swedish turnips or swedes), [[seakale]], [[turnip]]s, [[radish]] and [[Kohl Rabi|kohl rabi]]. Other well known members of the Brassicaceae include [[rapeseed]] ([[canola]] and others), [[mustard seed]], [[horseradish]], [[wasabi]] and [[watercress]]. The most intensely studied member of the Brassicaceae is the [[model organism]] ''[[Arabidopsis thaliana]]''. The family was formerly named '''Cruciferae''' (&quot;cross-bearing&quot;), because the four [[petal]]s of their flowers are reminiscent of crosses. Many botanists still refer to members of the family as &quot;crucifers&quot;. According to [[ICBN]] Art. 18.5 (St Louis Code) Cruciferae is to be regarded as validly published, and is thus an accepted alternate name. ==Use as food== The importance of this Family for food crops has lead to its selective breeding throughout history. Brassica oleracea, a plant of Atlantic Europe and the Mediterranean, is the precursor to Cabbage, Brussels Sprouts, Broccoli, Kohlrabi, Cauliflower, Kale, and most recently [[Broccoflower]], a hybrid of Broccoli and Cauliflower. {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; !Cultivar || Selected for... |- |Kale |loose, uncompact leaves (most closely resembles the wild plant) |- |Cabbage |enlarged terminal buds. |- |Brussels sprouts |numerous lateral buds. |- |Kohlrabi |enlarged stems. |- |Broccoli |enlarged stems and flowering structures. |- |Cauliflower |more extensive flowering structures. The whiteness is caused by the outer leaves blocking sunlight and preventing the formation of chlorophyl. &lt;ref&gt;Sauer, J.D. 1993. Historical geography of crop plants - a select roster. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida&lt;/ref&gt; |} For more on members of the family used for food, see this special section: :[[Cruciferous vegetables]] &lt;br&gt; ==Distribution and description== The mustard family is concentrated in the [[temperate]] regions and reaches maximal diversity around the [[Mediterranean]] area. It contains over 350 genera and about 3000 species. The family consists of [[herbaceous]] plants with annual, bi-annual and perennial lifespans. Members of this family often have alternate (rarely opposite) leaves. Most members share a suite of [[glucosinolate]] c
ty of most rock, in the same manner that plants utilise [[carbon dioxide]], to create the silicon/glucose analgoue from which they could derive nourishment. [[Fred Hoyle]]'s classic novel ''[[The Black Cloud]]'' features a life form consisting of a vast cloud of interstellar dust, the individual particles of which interact via electromagnetic signalling analogous to how the individual cells of multicellular Earth life interact. On a somewhat less science-fictional level, life in interstellar dust has been proposed as part of the [[panspermia]] hypothesis. The low temperatures and densities of interstellar clouds would seem to imply that life processes would operate much more slowly there than on Earth. In Forward's ''[[Rocheworld]]'' series, a relatively Earthlike biochemistry is proposed that uses a mixture of water and ammonia as its solvent. [[Robert L. Forward]]'s ''[[Camelot 30K]]'' describes an ecosystem existing on the surface of [[Kuiper belt object]]s that is based on a [[fluorocarbon]] chemistry with [[Oxygen difluoride|OF&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]] as the principal solvent instead of H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O. The organisms in this ecology keep themselves warm by secreting a pellet of [[uranium-235]] inside themselves and then moderating its nuclear fission using a [[boron]]-rich carapace around it. Kuiper belt objects are known to be rich in organic compounds such as [[tholin]]s, so some form of life existing on their surfaces is not entirely implausible - though perhaps not going so far as to develop natural internal nuclear reactors, as have Forward's. Fluorine is also of low cosmic abundance, so its use in this manner is unlikely. [[Gregory Benford]]'s ''[[Heart Of The Comet]]'' features a [[comet]] with a conventional carbon-and-water-based ecosystem that becomes active near [[perihelion]] when the Sun warms it. In ''[[Dragon's Egg]]'' and ''[[Starquake (book)|Starquake]]'', [[Robert Forward]] proposes life on the surface of a [[neutron star]] utilizing &quot;nuclear chemistry&quot; in the [[degenerate matter]] crust. Since such life utilized [[strong nuclear force]]s instead of [[electromagnetic force|electromagnetic interaction]]s, it was posited that life might function millions of times faster than typical on Earth. [[David Brin]]'s ''[[Sundiver]]'' is an example of science fiction proposing a form of life existing within the [[Plasma physics|plasma]] atmosphere of a [[star]] using complex self-sustaining [[magnetic field]]s. Similar sorts of plasmoid life have sometimes been proposed to exist in other places, such as planetary [[ionosphere]]s or [[interstellar space]], but usually only by fringe theorists (see [[ball lightning]] for some additional discussion). Gregory Benford had a form of plasma-based life exist in the [[accretion disk]] of a [[primordial black hole]] in his novel ''[[Eater (novel)|Eater]]''. [[Stephen Baxter]] has imagined perhaps some of the most unusual exotic lifeforms in his [[Xeelee]] series of novels and stories, including [[supersymmetric]] [[photino]]-based life that congregate in the gravity wells of stars, and the Qax, who thrive in any form of [[convection cell]]s, from swamp gas to the atmospheres of [[gas giants]]. In his novel ''[[Diaspora (novel)|Diaspora]]'', [[Greg Egan]] posits the existence of entire virtual universes implemented on [[Turing Machine]]s encoded by [[Wang tile|Wang Tiles]] in gargantuan [[polysaccharide]] 'carpets.' A key plot point in the [[comedy]] ''[[Evolution (film)|Evolution]]'' involves [[nitrogen]]-based life forms, and using [[selenium]]-based [[shampoo]] to poison them (with the bonus of a product placement for [[Head &amp; Shoulders]]). In ''[[Metroid Prime: Hunters]]'' [[Spire (Metroid)|Spire]] is a rock-like silicon based alien. He is the last [[Diamont]] (presumably a play on the word [[diamond]], which is [[carbon]]). In the game of ''[[Xenosaga]]'', artifical life forms known as Raelians have been created using silicon-based chemistry. They resemble humans in every aspect, however they are considered to be &quot;below&quot; humans in the social ladder. ==See also== *[[Astrobiology]] *[[Carbon based life]] *[[Extraterrestrial life]] ==References== &lt;references/&gt; ==External links== *[http://www.faqs.org/faqs/astronomy/faq/part6/section-16.html Astronomy FAQ] *[http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/A/ammonialife.html Ammonia-based life] *[http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/S/siliconlife.html Silicon-based life] [[Category:Astrobiology]] [[Category:Biochemistry]] [[Category:Extraterrestrials]] [[Category:Science fiction themes]] [[de:Kohlenstoffchauvinismus]] [[it:Sciovinismo del carbonio]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Creation Myths</title> <id>7318</id> <revision> <id>15905392</id> <timestamp>2005-05-12T04:00:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ral315</username> <id>111703</id> </contributor> <comment>Whoops...messed that up.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Origin belief]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Creation myths</title> <id>7320</id> <revision> <id>15905394</id> <timestamp>2005-05-12T10:43:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Thv</username> <id>38400</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Redir to Origin belief without s letters</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Origin belief]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Origin belief</title> <id>7322</id> <revision> <id>42133063</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:08:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>John yazzie1963</username> <id>940417</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Navajo */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">An '''origin belief''' is any story or explanation that describes the beginnings of [[first man|humanity]], [[earth]], [[life]], and the [[universe]] ([[cosmogony]]). Such beliefs can be derived from many different venues including [[scientific method|scientific investigation]], [[metaphysics|metaphysical speculation]], or [[religious belief]]. As with any set of [[belief|beliefs]], opinions regarding the validity of particular origins beliefs differ &amp;mdash;[[Point of view|points of view]] on these subjects vary widely. &lt;!-- LACKS SUBSTANCE and SPECIFICITY: While many see certain beliefs about origins to be [[proof|disproven]], [[anathema]], or [[probability|improbable]], others do not. Some argue that certain beliefs are necessarily [[mutually exclusive]] while others claim that [[synthesis]] is possible.--&gt; {{TOCleft}} ==Creation myths== [[Image:Raven-bill_reid.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Bill Reid]]'s sculpture '''The Raven and The First Men''', showing part of a [[Haida]] creation myth. The Raven represents the [[Trickster]] figure common to many [[mythologies]]. The work is in the [[University of British Columbia]] Museum of Anthropology, Vancouver.]] Origins beliefs commonly refer to '''creation myths''' &amp;mdash; [[mythology|mytho-]][[religion|religious]] stories which explain the beginnings of the universe as a deliberate act of &quot;[[creation]]&quot; by a [[supreme being]]. &quot;Origin belief&quot; may be generalized to include non-religious claims and theories based in contemporary [[science]] or [[philosophy]]&amp;mdash;the [[Big Bang]], [[origin of life]], [[panspermia]] and [[theory of evolution]] fall into this category. The term ''creation myth'' may be seen as offensive when used to describe stories which are still believed today, as the term ''[[wikt:Myth|myth]]'' may suggest ideas which are absurd or fictional. These beliefs and stories need not be a literal account of actual events, but may express what are perceived to be truths at a deeper or more symbolic level. Author [[Daniel Quinn]] notes that in this sense creation myths need not be religious in nature, and they have secular forms in modern cultures. Many accounts of creation share broadly similar themes. Common motifs include the fractionation of the things of the world from a primordial chaos; the separation of the mother and father [[god]]s; land emerging from an infinite and timeless ocean; and so on. Some religious groups assert that their accounts of creation should be considered alongside, supersede, or even replace [[science|scientific]] accounts of the development of [[life]] and the [[cosmos]]. This assertion has proven highly controversial (for one example, see [[creation-evolution controversy]]). ==Science-based beliefs== [[Science]], strictly speaking, deals only with observable phenomena. Anything that cannot be observed (either directly or indirectly) is, by definition, not a subject of scientific investigation. Scientists look for patterns among observations, which give rise to hypotheses to be tested against further observations. If a hypothesis passes these tests, it is then called a [[scientific theory]], which again is subject to amendment or rejection based on new observations. The ability of scientists to analyse unique and non-recurring events in the distant past (such as the creation of the universe) is limited, because such events cannot be directly observed and are difficult to repeat experimentally. However, science may be able to measure some of the effects of such events (for instance, via the [[cosmic microwave background radiation|microwave echo of the big bang]]) and interpret these observations within a scientific framework. By [[extrapolation|extrapolating]] the current observed state of affairs into the past, scientists seek to construct an accurate picture of the past. Those who are strict adherents to [[philosophical naturalism]] believe that such is all that is possible to know. This is not a universally accepted idea by any means, and there are many who promote other paths to knowledge which are not characte
ladies remain on the same side of their gent, normally the right hand side. The California Twirl is commonly used to turn as a couple. ; Twirl to Swap : This is a generic term for a number of dance moves which begin with a couple holding hands; they raise their joined hands, and the lady walks under them while the gent passes behind her, to trade places. There are a number of variants of this, depending on facing and on which hand is joined: * California Twirl: The lady begins on the gent's right facing in some particular direction; they have the convenient hand joined. The figure ends with them both facing in the opposite direction from their original one. * Star Through: The couple begins facing each other, with the gent's right hand and the lady's left hand joined. If the figure begins with the gent facing north and the lady south, then both will be facing east when the figure ends (with the lady on the gent's right). * Box the Gnat: The couple begins facing each other, with right hands joined. They end facing each other. * Swat the Flea: The couple begins facing each other, with left hands joined. They end facing each other. ====Basic Figures for Four or More==== ; Star : The four dancers in a minor set all join either right or left hands in the center of the set and walk around the set. A star usually turns one full time around, less commonly stars will turn 3/4 or 1 1/4 turns. There are two styles of stars, and which style of star is used generally depends upon local custom, although there are some dances that require one or the other: *''New England style'', sometimes called ''wrist-grip stars'' or ''wagon-wheel stars'': Each dancer places his or her hand on the wrist of the person in front of them as they face around the circle, forming a 'wagon-wheel' shape. *''Southern style'', sometimes called ''handshake-grip stars'', ''English-style'', or ''hands-across stars'': Each dancer joins hands with the person directly across the set (usually the person of the same gender). It generally does not matter whose hands are on top or bottom (ladies' or gents'). ; Ladies Chain : A ''half ladies chain,'' which is more common and usually what a caller means when they just say &quot;ladies chain,&quot; has the ladies joining right hands in the center and pulling past each other to the opposite gent; the gents then give the ladies a ''courtesy turn'' (see above). This causes the ladies to trade sides in the set. A ''full ladies chain'' is two half-chains in succession, with everyone winding up where they started. ; Long Lines Forward &amp; Back : All dancers face toward the dancers across the set from them, and join hands with the dancers beside them to form &quot;long lines&quot; on the sides of the set. These two lines then, in unison (ideally), take four steps together, and then four steps backward. ; Right &amp; Left Through : Both couples face each other across the set. They walk toward each other, passing through in the center such that the ladies pass left shoulders with each other and right shoulders with the opposite gent. The gents then give the ladies a ''courtesy turn'' (see above). The effect is that the couples trade sides of the set. A regional variation includes taking the right hand of the person opposite you as you pass by (followed by the left-in-left of the courtesy turn, perhaps hence &quot;''right &amp; left'' through&quot;?). ; Petronella Turn : Four dancers, equally spaced around a small ring, move into the position of the dancer on their right in four steps while rotating (spinning) individually clockwise 3/4. This movement is adapted from the eponymous dance &quot;Petronella,&quot; a traditional contra dance derived from a Scottish country dance of the same name. As a controversial embellishment, the folk process has added a &quot;clap-clap&quot; of hands on beats 3.5 and 4 of the 4-beat movement. ; Hey For Four : The dancers execute a series of passes and turns with the other dancers in their minor set, crossing to the opposite side of the set and then returning. In this version of the hey, assume that neighbors are standing next to each other on the side of the set, facing their partners: [[Image:Hey_for_four.jpg|frame|Hey For Four]] :*The ladies begin passing right shoulders in the center of the set while the men sidle to right to take the recent position of their neighbor :*Partners pass left shoulders as the gents advance to the center :*The gents then pass right shoulders in the center, while the ladies make wide looping turns on the sides to turn around :*Neighbors pass left shoulders :*This is approximately one-half of the hey. The second half essentially replicates the first half (except that the men, now facing out, loop to the left instead of sidling to the right). At the end of the hey, the dancers are restored to the starting position, with the exception that the men are facing out of the set. :Note that this figure is executed smoothly, with all dancers moving all the time, and not piece-by-piece as this description might suggest. It is strongly recommended that newcomers get a few experienced dancers to teach them this figure. ; Half Hey : Half a hey for four. Instead of crossing the set and returning, the dancers merely cross the set once. ; Figure Eight : a weaving figure in which dancers pass between two standing people and move around them in a figure 8 pattern. A full figure of 8 returns the dancer to original position; a half figure of 8 leaves the dancer on the opposite side of the set from original position. In doing this figure, the gent lets his partner pass in front of him. ; Circle Left (or) Circle Right: Four people join hands and walk around in a circle in a clockwise (or) counterclockwise direction. Circling can be 1/4 of a circle (rare), 1/2 (not common), 3/4 (frequent), once around (common),or 1-1/4 (not rare), each of these choreographing the dancers into a specific placement needed for the flow and pattern of the dance. Circling left (CW) comprises 98% of contradance circling. ; Down the Hall Four In Line: Two couples join hands so that they form a line of four, and walk down the hall, or away from the music. ; Pass Through : This figure is often used to progress (couple one to moves down the hall and couple two up). A dancer walks across the set, passing the person opposite him or her by his or her right shoulder, without use of hands. This move frequently follows either a circle or a neighbor do-si-do. ; Cross Trail : A pass through followed by the lady crossing in front of the gent to her left, turning counterclockwise from right to left. The gent follows the reverse path from left to right. They end up facing away from each other, so if starting by facing across the set, they end with one facing up the set and one down. Can be used to progress, if the lady is the neighbor of the gent in each pair doing the figure. ====Advanced Figures==== ; Turn Contra-Corners : A figure involving six dancers and taking a full 8 bars (16 beats) of music to complete. The center couple of the group of six dancers is the ''active'' couple; the other four dancers in the group are the ''corners.'' If a member of the active couple looks across the set, to the right of his partner, he sees his ''first corner''. On the other side of his partner is his ''second corner.'' Typically, one's corners are of the opposite gender to oneself. ; :The figure is danced as follows: the active couple takes right hands in the center, and ''allemande right'' until they reach their first corner. Actives drop right hands and ''allemande left'' with their first corners until they meet each other again. Actives now let go of first corners and ''allemande right'' until they reach their second corners. This final allemande is finished when the members of the active couple are facing each other again. The next move usually involves the active couple performing a figure beginning with the right hand or right shoulder, and is quite frequently a ''balance and swing.'' ; :Because moves within this figure begin and end in the middle of musical phrases, require a great deal of awareness of positioning, and is frequently unprompted by the [[caller (dance)|caller]] after the figure's start, this is a very difficult figure to those who are new to it, especially beginner dancers. ; Right Hand High, Left Hand Low : This figure begins with three dancers holding hands in a line. The middle dancer raises his/her right hand; the dancer on the left walks under the raised hand, followed by the middle dancer, while the dancer on the right walks behind. The effect is to turn the line around as a unit (preserving the order of the dancers). ; Dixie Twirl : In a line of four dancers, the center pair arches. The extreme right person leads through the arch (taking the one on their left along for the ride) while the left person walks to the right. This results in an inverted line now facing the other way. ; See Saw (left shoulder do-si-do) : Instead of starting the do-si-do with the right shoulder, the dancer starts with the left shoulder. (Two dancers begin facing each other, move so as to pass left shoulders, then back-to-back, then right shoulders, ending where they began. As an embellishment, experienced dancers will often add a spin to this move, as in a do-si-do.) ==External links== See groups at: * [http://www.cdss.org Country Dance and Song Society] * [http://www.neffa.org New England Folk Festival Association] Contra dance defined: * [http://www.sbcds.org/contradance/whatis/ Gary Shapiro's What Is Contra Dance?] * [http://www.freenet.hamilton.on.ca/link/jig/a_contra_dancers_primer.htm Hamilton Country Dancers' Contra Dance Primer] Research Resources: * [http://www.izaak.unh.edu/nhltmd/ University of New Hampshire Special Collection of Music and Dance] Find Dances at: * [http://www.contradancelinks.com Contra Dance Links] * [http://www.thedancegypsy.com The Dance Gypsy] * [http://www.tedc
ansformation into a park area, similar to that of Hyde Park in London and Central Park in New York City. ==Transport== ===To/from Cape Town=== Cape Town is the meeting point of three South African national roads: the [[N1 (South Africa)|N1]] to [[Johannesburg]] and [[Pretoria]] and ultimately the [[Zimbabwe]]an border, the [[N2 (South Africa)|N2]] to [[Durban]] and the [[N7 (South Africa)|N7]] to [[Namibia]]. All these highways are [[motorway]] standard within the built-up area. [[Shosholoza Meyl]] operates daily trains to and from [[Pretoria]] via [[Kimberley, South Africa|Kimberley]] and [[Johannesburg]], and weekly trains to and from [[Durban]] via [[Kimberley, South Africa|Kimberley]], [[Bloemfontein]] and [[Pietermaritzburg]]. These trains terminate at Cape Town Railway Station, and also stop at [[Bellville, South Africa|Bellville]]. The city has a large port located in [[Table Bay]] directly to the north of the city centre and is a hub of the shipping routes in the Southern Hemisphere. Cape Town is South Africa's second port after Durban; in 2004 it handled 3161 ships and 9.2 million tonnes of cargo. [[Cape Town International Airport]] is the second biggest airport in South Africa and a major gateway for travellers to the Cape region. It offers a number of international flights to destinations in [[Africa]], [[Europe]], [[Asia]] and [[North America]]. Nearly all commercial airports in [[South Africa]] are served from here. ===Within Cape Town=== In addition to the national roads listed above (which are also used for local traffic) the city is served by the [[M3 (Cape Town)|M3]], [[M5 (Cape Town)|M5]], [[M7 (Cape Town)|M7]] and [[R300 (Western Cape)|R300]] [[freeway]]s. There is also an extensive network of [[dual carriageway]]s and main roads. [[Metrorail (South Africa)|Metrorail]] operates a large suburban rail network consisting of 96 stations. [[Golden Arrow Bus Services]] operates a network of bus routes, and [[minibus taxi]]s operate throughout the metropolitan area. ==Further education in Cape Town== Cape Town boasts three universities and various colleges. Both the [[University of Cape Town]] and the [[University of the Western Cape]] are located within the Cape Town metropole, while [[Stellenbosch University]] is within a 50 [[kilometer|km]] reach. There is also the [[Cape Peninsula University of Technology]], formed after the merging of the Cape Technikon and the Peninsula Technikon, which deals with [[National Diploma]]s. ==External links== {{Commons|Cape Town|Cape Town}} * [http://www.capetown.gov.za/ Official Website] * [http://monolith.com.au/capetown/ Brief Historical Overview and Travel Account] by Roderick Eime * {{Wikitravel}} {{Western Cape Province}} {{South Africa Provincial Capitals}} [[Category:Cape Town| ]] [[Category:Metropolitan Municipalities of South Africa|City of Cape Town]] [[af:Kaapstad]] [[bg:Кейптаун]] [[ca:Ciutat del Cap]] [[da:Kapstaden]] [[de:Kapstadt]] [[eo:Kaburbo]] [[es:Ciudad del Cabo]] [[fi:Kapkaupunki]] [[fr:Le Cap]] [[gl:Cidade do Cabo - Cape Town]] [[he:קייפטאון]] [[hu:Fokváros]] [[id:Cape Town]] [[it:Città del Capo]] [[ja:ケープタウン]] [[ko:케이프타운]] [[lb:Kapstad]] [[lt:Keiptaunas]] [[nl:Kaapstad]] [[nn:Cape Town]] [[no:Cape Town]] [[pl:Kapsztad]] [[pt:Cidade do Cabo]] [[sl:Cape Town]] [[sv:Kapstaden]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chicago Cubs</title> <id>6654</id> <revision> <id>42093602</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:03:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>MisfitToys</username> <id>58947</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>some coypedit, needs MUCH more</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{MLB infobox Cubs}} The '''Chicago Cubs''' are a [[major league baseball]] team based in [[Chicago, Illinois]]. They are in the [[National League Central|Central Division]] of the [[National League]]. ==Franchise history== ===White Stockings=== The success and fame of the [[Cincinnati Reds|Cincinnati Red Stockings]] of [[1869]], baseball's first openly professional team, led to a minor explosion of openly professional teams in [[1870]], each with the singular goal of defeating the Red Stockings. A number of them adopted variants on the name and colors, and it happens that the Chicagos adopted white as their primary color. After a summer of individually arranged contests among the various teams, the time was right for the organization of the first professional league, the [[National Association]], in [[1871]]. The Chicago White Stockings were close contenders all summer, but disaster struck on [[October 8]] when a fire began in Mrs. O'Leary's barn on DeKoven Street on the near south side of the city. The [[Great Chicago Fire]] destroyed the club's ballpark, uniforms and other possessions. The club completed its schedule with borrowed uniforms, finishing second in the N.A. just 2 games behind, but was compelled to drop out of the league during the city's recovery period, finally being revived in [[1874]]. After the [[1875]] season, Chicago acquired several key players, including pitcher [[Albert Spalding|Al Spalding]] of the [[Atlanta Braves|Boston Red Stockings]], and first baseman [[Cap Anson]] of the [[Philadelphia Athletics]]. While this was going on, behind the scenes the club President, [[William Hulbert]], was leading the formation of a new and stronger organization, the [[National League]]. With a beefed-up squad, the White Stockings cruised through the N.L.'s inaugural season of [[1876]]. The Chicagoans went on to have some great seasons in the 1880s, starting with [[1880]] when they won 67 and lost 17, for an all-time record .798 winning percentage. Extrapolating an 84-game season onto a 162-game season is a dubious proposition, but it does provide some perspective to note that a similar winning percentage nowadays would yield 129 wins. By then, Spalding had retired to start his sporting goods company. The length of the season was such that a team could get by with two main starters, and the team had a couple of powerhouse pitchers in [[Larry Corcoran]] and [[Fred Goldsmith]]. Those two were fading by mid-decade, and were replaced by other strong pitchers, notably [[John Clarkson]]. Much has been written about [[Old Hoss Radbourn]]'s 60 victories for the [[Providence Grays]] of [[1884]], but Clarkson also had a fair year in [[1885]], winning 53 games as the Chicagos won the pennant. A second major league called the [[American Association (19th century)|American Association]] came along in [[1882]], and the Chicagos met the AA's champions three times in that era's version of the [[World Series]]. Twice they faced the [[St. Louis Cardinals|St. Louis Browns]] in lively and controversial Series action. That St. Louis franchise, which went on to join the National League in 1892 after the A.A. folded, would later be renamed the [[St. Louis Cardinals]] and continues to be a perennial rival of the Cubs. Throughout all of this, and for the better part of twenty seasons, the team was captained and managed by first baseman [[Cap Anson|Adrian &quot;Cap&quot; Anson]]. Cap Anson was one of the most famous and arguably the best player in baseball in his day. He was the first ballplayer to reach 3,000 hits. However, the [[Baseball Hall of Fame|Hall of Famer]] is chiefly remembered today for his extreme racist views (which he stated in print, in his autobiography, lest there be any doubt) and thus his prominent role in establishing baseball's color line, rather than for his great playing and managing skills. After the Chicagoans' great run during the 1880s, the on-field fortunes of Anson's Colts dwindled during the 1890s, awaiting revival under new leadership. The Cubs are the only team to play continuously in the same city since the formation of the [[National League]] in [[1876]]. ===&quot;Tinker to Evers to Chance&quot;=== [[Joe Tinker]] (SS), [[Johnny Evers]] (2B) and [[Frank Chance]] (1B) were three legendary Cubs infielders, who played together from [[1903]]-[[1910]], and sporadically over the following two years. They, along with third baseman [[Harry Steinfeldt]], formed the nucleus of one of the most dominant baseball teams of all time. After Chance took over as manager for the ailing Frank Selee in [[1905]], the Cubs won four pennants and two World Series titles over a five-year span. Their record of 116 victories in [[1906]] (in a 154-game season) has not been broken, though it was tied by the [[Seattle Mariners]] in [[2001]], in a 162-game season. As with 1880, extrapolating is statistically questionable, but the Cubs' 116-36 percentage of 1906 equates to 123 wins in 162 games. Curiously, both of those teams were so far in front that they seemingly lost their edge, and fell in the post-season. The Cubs again relied on dominant pitching during this period, featuring hurlers such as [[Mordecai Brown|Mordecai &quot;Three-Finger&quot; Brown]], [[Jack Taylor]], [[Ed Reulbach]], [[Jack Pfiester]] and [[Orval Overall]], who posted a record for lowest staff [[earned run average]] that still stands today. Reulbach threw a one-hitter in the [[1906]] [[World Series]], one of a small handful of twirlers to pitch low-hit games in the post-season (another was Claude Passeau of the Cubs' [[1945]] squad). Brown acquired his unique and indelicate nickname from having lost most of his index finger in farm machinery when he was a youngster. This gave him the ability to put a natural extra spin on his pitches, which often frustrated opposing batters. However, the infield also attained fame, after turning a critical double play against the [[New York Giants]] in a July 1910 game. The trio was immortalized in [[Franklin P. Adams]]' poem ''Baseball's Sad [[Lexicon]]'', which first appeared in the [[July 18]], [[1910]] edition of the ''[[New York Evening Mail]]'': :These are the saddest of possible words: :&quot;Tinker to Evers to Chance.&quot; :Trio of bear c
m] While no doubt shocked by the result, NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle nonetheless saw the Jets' victory as a watershed moment that would give a legitimacy to the merger. That feeling was reinforced one year later in [[Super Bowl IV]], when the AFL champion Kansas City Chiefs defeated the NFL champion [[Minnesota Vikings]], 23-7 in the last championship game to be played between the two leagues. The last contest in AFL history was the [[AFL All-Star Game]] on [[January 17]], [[1970]]. The Western All-Stars, led by Chargers quarterback [[John Hadl]], defeated the Eastern All-Stars, 26-3. Prior to the start of the [[1970 NFL season]], the merged league was split into two conferences of three divisions each. All ten AFL teams made up the bulk of the new [[American Football Conference]]. The old NFL's [[Indianapolis Colts|Baltimore Colts]], [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] and [[Cleveland Browns]] were also placed in the AFC. All the other existing NFL squads moved to the [[National Football Conference]]. Some AFL fans had wanted the AFL and the NFL to set up a joint organizational structure like [[Major League Baseball]] where one entity operates two different sports leagues. Instead, the AFL gave up its name and logo to join the older league. The AFC logo used today has some elements of the old AFL logo. However the &quot;A&quot; in the AFL logo was blue; for unknown reasons, the &quot;A&quot; in the AFC logo is red. ===Legacy=== Of all the leagues that have attempted to challenge the dominance of the [[National Football League]], the AFL was the only one to have all its teams integrated into the fabric of the NFL. This was in sharp contrast to such entities as the [[All-America Football Conference]], baseball's [[Federal League]], the [[American Basketball Association]] and the [[World Hockey Association]], all of which either folded, or only had a handful of teams join the respective post-merger entities. The NFL went on to adopt many of the innovative elements introduced by the AFL, including names on player jerseys, official scoreboard clocks and gate and revenue sharing. The AFL's challenge to the NFL also laid the groundwork for the [[Super Bowl]], which has become the standard for championship contests. Hunt's vision brought a new professional football league not only to [[California]] and [[New York State|New York]], but to [[Colorado]] and later fast-growing [[Florida]], which hosted professional sports for the first time in their histories. The AFL also returned the sport to [[New England]] for the first time in 23 years. The AFL also adopted the first-ever cooperative television plan for professional football, in which the league office negotiated an ABC-TV contract, the proceeds of which were divided equally among member clubs. Four ''NFL'' franchises were awarded as a direct result of the interest of the AFL: The [[Dallas Cowboys]] began operations months after the AFL's [[Kansas City Chiefs|Dallas Texans]] were created; the [[Minnesota Vikings]] were awarded to Max Winter in exchange for dropping his bid to join the AFL; the [[Atlanta Falcons]] franchise went to Rankin Smith to dissuade him from purchasing the AFL's [[Miami Dolphins]]; and the [[New Orleans Saints]] based on successful anti-trust legislation, championed by several [[Louisiana]] politicians, that helped the two leagues merge. Given the furious battle for playing talent, the AFL's arrival helped many [[Black players in American professional football|black players]] from small colleges helped broaden the talent base for players who subsequently contributed to the sport.{{ref|acho}}{{ref|ross}} The AFL's free agents came from several sources. Some were players who could not find success playing in the NFL, while another source was the [[Canadian Football League]]. In the late 1950s, many players released by the NFL, or un-drafted and unsigned out of college by the NFL, went North to try their luck with the CFL, and later returned to the states to play in the AFL. In the league's first years, men like the Oilers' [[George Blanda]], the Chargers/Bills' [[Jack Kemp]], the Texans' [[Len Dawson]], the Titans' [[Don Maynard]], the Raiders/Patriots/Jets' [[Babe Parilli]], the Pats' [[Bob Dee]] proved to be AFL standouts. Other players such as the Broncos' [[Frank Tripucka]], the Pats' [[Gino Cappelletti]], the Bills' [[Cookie Gilchrist]] and the Chargers' [[Tobin Rote]], [[Sam Deluca]] and [[Dave Kocourek]] also made their mark to give the fledgling league badly-needed credibility. Rounding out this mix of potential talent were the true &quot;free agents&quot;, the walk-ons and the &quot;wanna-be's&quot;, who tried out in droves for the chance to play professional football. The American Football League took advantage of the burgeoning popularity of football by locating teams in major cities that lacked NFL franchises, and by using the growing power of televised football games (bolstered with the help of major network contracts, first with [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] and later with [[NBC]]). It featured many outstanding games, such as the classic 1962 double-overtime American Football League championship game between the [[Kansas City Chiefs|Dallas Texans]] and the defending champion [[Tennessee Titans|Houston Oilers]]. At the time it was the longest [[Professional American football championship games|professional football championship game]] ever played. The AFL appealed to fans by offering a flashier alternative to the more conservative NFL. Team uniforms were bright and colorful. Long passes (&quot;bombs&quot;) were commonplace in AFL offenses, led by such talented quarterbacks as [[John Hadl]], [[Daryle Lamonica]] and [[Len Dawson]]. Another attractive feature of the American Football League was its competitive balance. In the original eight-team league, in a fourteen game schedule, each team played every other team twice. Every team had the same &quot;strength of schedule&quot;, so the division champions were clearly the best teams in each division. Further, the league championships were evenly divided: five were won by Western Division teams, five by the Eastern Division; and of the original eight teams, all but two (Denver and Boston/New England) won at least one AFL title, and only one did not make the playoffs at some time during the league's ten-year existence. Players who chose the AFL to develop their talent included [[Lance Alworth]] and [[Ron Mix]] of the [[San Diego Chargers|Chargers]], who had also been drafted by the NFL's [[San Francisco 49ers]] and [[Baltimore Colts]] respectively. Both eventually were elected to the [[Pro Football Hall of Fame]] after earning recognition during their careers as being among the best at their positions. Among specific teams, the [[1964]] [[Buffalo Bills]] stood out by holding their opponents to a pro football record 913 yards rushing on 300 attempts, while also recording fifty quarterback sacks in a fourteen-game schedule. Despite having a national television contract, the AFL often found itself trying to gain a foothold, only to come up against roadblocks. For example, CBS-TV, which broadcast NFL games, ignored results from the other league. The bidding war, which was financially draining both leagues, and the rapidly rising popularity of the AFL were factors that eventually led to the merger, leaving a merged league named the NFL. ==AFL teams== The original eight AFL teams were as follows: Eastern Division *[[New England Patriots|Boston Patriots]] (now New England Patriots) *[[Buffalo Bills]] *[[Tennessee Titans|Houston Oilers]] (now Tennessee Titans) *[[New York Jets|New York Titans]] (now New York Jets) Western Division *[[Kansas City Chiefs|Dallas Texans]] (now Kansas City Chiefs) *[[Denver Broncos]] *[[San Diego Chargers|Los Angeles Chargers]] (now San Diego Chargers) *[[Oakland Raiders]] The eight-team roster enabled the league to set a schedule where every team played every other team twice during the fourteen-game season, as the AAFC did. The league added a ninth team, the [[Miami Dolphins]], in 1966, and a tenth team, the [[Cincinnati Bengals]] in 1968. ==AFL playoffs== {{Details|AFL playoffs}} From 1960 to 1968, the AFL determined its champion via a single playoff game between the winners of its two divisions. In 1969, a four team tournament was instituted, with the second place teams in each division also participating. ===AFL Championship Games=== * 1960 - [[Houston Oilers]] 24, [[Los Angeles Chargers]] 16 * 1961 - [[Houston Oilers]] 10, [[San Diego Chargers]] 3 * 1962 - [[Kansas City Chiefs|Dallas Texans]] 20, [[Houston Oilers]] 17 (double [[overtime (sport)|OT]]) * 1963 - [[San Diego Chargers]] 51, [[Boston Patriots]] 10 * 1964 - [[Buffalo Bills]] 20, [[San Diego Chargers]] 7 * 1965 - [[Buffalo Bills]] 23, [[San Diego Chargers]] 0 * 1966 - [[Kansas City Chiefs]] 31, [[Buffalo Bills]] 7 * 1967 - [[Oakland Raiders]] 40, [[Houston Oilers]] 7 * 1968 - [[New York Jets]] 27, [[Oakland Raiders]] 23 * 1969 - [[Kansas City Chiefs]] 17, [[Oakland Raiders]] 7 ==AFL All Star games== {{Details|American Football League All-Star games}} The AFL did not play an All-Star game after its first season in 1960 but did stage All-Star games for the 1961 through 1969 seasons. All-Star teams from the Eastern and Western divisions played each other after every season except 1965. That season, the league champion [[Buffalo Bills]] played all-stars from the other teams. After the 1964 season, the AFL All-Star Game had been scheduled for early 1965 in [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]]' Tulane Stadium. After numerous black players were refused service by a number of New Orleans hotels and businesses, black and white players alike lobbied for a [[boycott]]. Under the leadership of [[Buffalo Bills]] players including [[Cookie Gilchrist|Carlton Chester &quot;Cookie&quot; Gilchrist]], the players put up a unified front, and the game was success
ical applications. [[Category:Christian denominations]] [[Category:New religious movements]] [[Category:Antitrinitarianism]] [[Category:Restoration_Movement]] [[de:Christadelphian]] [[fr:Christadelphisme]] [[no:Kristadelfianere]] [[pl:Chrystadelfianie]] [[zh:基督弟兄会]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cable television</title> <id>7587</id> <revision> <id>41765326</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:11:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>MatthewFenton</username> <id>632516</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* United Kingdom */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''[[Cable TV]] redirects here. For the Hong Kong-based cable television network, see [[Cable TV Hong Kong]].'' [[Image:RG-59.jpg|thumb|right|[[Coaxial cable]] is often used to transmit '''cable television''' into the house]] '''Cable television''' or '''Community Antenna Television''' ('''CATV''') (often shortened to '''cable''') is a system of providing [[television]], [[FM radio]] programming and other services to consumers via radio frequency signals transmitted directly to people’s televisions through fixed [[optical fiber]]s or [[coaxial cable]]s as opposed to the over-the-air method used in traditional television broadcasting (via radio waves) in which a television antenna is required. It is most commonplace in [[Canada]], the [[United States]], [[Europe]], [[Australia]] and [[East Asia]], though it is present in many other countries, mainly in [[South America]] and the [[Middle East]]. In [[Africa]], cable TV has had little success, as it is not cost-effective to lay cables in sparsely populated areas, and although so-called &quot;wireless cable&quot; or [[MMDS|microwave]]-based systems are used, &quot;direct-to-home&quot; satellite television is far more popular, especially in [[South Africa]]. Technically, both cable TV and CATV involve distributing a number of [[television]] [[Television network|channels]] collected at a central location (called a [[Cable television headend|headend]]) to [[subscriber]]s within a community by means of a network of [[optical fiber]]s and/or [[coaxial cable]]s and [[broadband]] [[amplifier]]s. As in the case of radio broadcasting, the use of different frequencies allows many channels to be distributed through the same cable, without separate wires for each. The [[tuner]] of the TV, [[VCR]] or radio selects one channel from this mixed signal. The same program is often simultaneously broadcast by radio and distributed by cable, usually at different frequencies. Other programs may be distributed by cable only; rules restricting content (e.g. regarding [[nudity]] and [[pornography]]) are often more relaxed for cable than for over-the-air TV. Traditional cable TV systems worked strictly by way of [[analog signal|analog]] signals (i.e. using standard radio waves) but many modern cable TV systems also employ the use of [[digital cable]] technology, which uses compressed digital signals, allowing them to provide many more channels than they could with analog alone. Many cable television systems were formerly known as CATV (Community Antenna Television) systems as they were originally composed simply of a shared antenna located in a high location to which multiple households could have their TVs connected via coaxial cable. This was designed to provide access to television signals in areas where reception was traditionally poor. As cable-only networks began to appear on CATV systems, picked up via satellite rather than by antenna, the use of the term CATV has largely faded and the term cable television has taken its place. == History of U.S. cable television and its regulation == During the television licensing freeze of the late [[1940s]], the demand for television increased. Since new television licenses were not being issued, the only way the demand was met was by Community Antenna Television. The first commercial CATV System was developed in [[1948]] by [[John Walson]]. He had interest in an appliance store that began to carry televisions. A major problem in selling televisions in [[Mahanoy City, Pennsylvania]] was that the stations which were available were received very poorly. Walson built an antenna on the top of a nearby mountain and strung a wire from it to his shop. A neighbor asked for the wire to be connected to his house and Walson connected it to his own house. He said he would extend the wire to anyone who would buy one of his television receivers, and in [[1949]] he started charging for the service. visit; http://www.cablecenter.org/education/library/oralHistoryDetails.cfm?id=270 Another system in Mahanoy City was founded by [[Jerrold Electronics]] Corp. which served the other side of town. Both were originally three-channel systems and were upgraded to five. Other systems were built: some conceived the idea independently, others didn't, and others laid claim to the title of first. On [[August 1]], [[1949]] [[T.J. Slowie]], a secretary of the [[Federal Communications Commission]], sent a letter to a CATV pioneer in [[Astoria, Oregon]], [[L.E. Parsons]], requesting he &quot;furnish the Commission full information with respect to the nature of the system you may have developed and may be operating.&quot; He did. This is the first known involvement of the FCC in CATV. An FCC lawyer, [[E. Stratford Smith]], determined the Commission could exercise [[common carrier]] jurisdiction over CATV. The FCC didn't act on this opinion and Smith later changed his mind after working in the cable industry for some time and testifying in [[United States Senate|Senate]] committee hearings. Senator and future Federal Communications Commissioner [[Kenneth A. Cox]] attended and participated in these hearings. He prepared a report entitled the [[Cox Report]] for the Senate Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce. This report was against CATV and supported the FCC policy of a television station in every community. In [[1959]] and [[1961]] bills were introduced in [[Congress of the United States|Congress]] that would have determined the role of the FCC in CATV policy. The 1959 bill, which actually made it to the floor of the Senate, would have limited FCC jurisdiction to CATV systems within the contours, i.e. the broadcast range, of a single station. It was defeated. The 1961 bill proposed by the FCC would have given the Commission authority over CATV as CATV, and not as a common carrier or broadcaster. The Commission could then adopt rules and regulations &quot;in the public interest&quot; to govern CATV in any area covered both by CATV and broadcast television. No action was ever taken on this bill. More important than Congressional action in determining Federal Communications Commission CATV policy were court cases and FCC hearings. ''[[Frontier Broadcasting Co. v. Collier]]'' was a hearing in which broadcasters tried to get the FCC to exercise common carrier authority over 288 CATV systems in 36 states. The broadcasters maintained that CATV went against the FCC's Sixth Report and Order, which advocated at least one television station in every community. In [[1958]], the FCC decided that CATV was not really a common carrier since the subscriber did not determine the programming. [[Carter Mountain Transmission]] Corp., a common carrier that already transmitted television signals by microwave to CATV systems in several Wyoming towns, wanted to add a second signal to two of the towns and add two signals to a previously unserved town. A television station in one town opposed this and protested to the FCC on the grounds of economic damage. A hearing examiner supported Carter Mountain but the Commission supported the television station. The case was taken to appeal, as most are, and the Federal Communications Commission won. &quot;The fact that no broadcaster has actually gone off the air due to CATV competition at the time the government moved to expand its authority (nor have any since) did not stay the momentum for the expansion of regulatory authority. That some economic impact was merely plausible sufficed as the basis for government concern and government action.&quot; The FCC overruled a hearing examiner in favor of broadcasters again in the &quot;San Diego Case&quot;. The CATV systems in [[San Diego, California]] wanted to import stations from Los Angeles, some of which could be seen in San Diego; the television stations in San Diego didn't want the signals imported. The television stations won, not allowing the signals on future cable lines in San Diego and its environs. The FCC's reasoning was to protect the present and future [[ultra high frequency]] stations in San Diego. In the First Report and Order by the Federal Communications Commission on CATV the FCC gave itself the power to regulate CATV. This Report and Order was designed to protect small town television stations. It did this by imposing two rules, which in slightly altered form still stand: one requires that a CATV system carry all local stations in which the CATV system is in the &quot;A&quot; (best reception) contour of the station. The second prohibits the importation of programs from a non-local station that duplicates programming on a local station if the duplication is shown either 15 days before or 15 days after its local airing. This [[1965]] report reasoning is as follows: 1) CATV should carry local stations because CATV supplements, not replaces, local stations and the non-carriage of local stations gives distant stations an advantage since people will not change from the cable to the antenna to see a local station; 2) non-carriage is &quot;inherently contrary to the public interest&quot;; 3) CATV duplication of local programming via distant signals is unfair since broadcasters and CATV do not compete for programs on an equal footing; the FCC recommends &quot;a reasonable measure of exclusivity&quot;. The [[1966]] Second Report and Ord
the floors of the Dalek city for their motive power. Later versions of the prop had more efficient wheels and were simply propelled by the operators' feet. Occasionaly, modified [[tricycles]] were used. Even so, they were so heavy that when going up ramps they often had to be pushed by stagehands out of camera shot. In addition, the difficulty of operating all the prop's parts at once also contributed to the occasionally jerky movements of the Dalek. The latest model of the costume still has a human operator within, but the movement of the dome and eyestalk is now remotely controlled so that the operator can concentrate on the smooth movement of the Dalek and its arms. The Dalek voice, a [[staccato]] delivery, was initially developed by voice actors [[Peter Hawkins]] (who had also provided the voice for the popular children's animated series ''[[Captain Pugwash]]'') and David Graham, who would vary the pitch and speed of the lines according to the emotion needed. Their voices were further processed electronically by Brian Hodgson at the [[BBC Radiophonic Workshop]]. Although the exact sound-processing devices used have varied over the years, the original 1963 effect used [[equalization|EQ]] to boost the mid-range of the actor's voice, then subjected it to [[ring modulation]] with a 30 Hz [[sine wave]]. The distinctive harsh grating vocal timbre this produced has remained the pattern for all Dalek voices since then. Notable voice actors for the Daleks include [[Roy Skelton]]. In the 2005 series, the Dalek voice is provided by [[Nicholas Briggs]], speaking into a microphone connected to a voice modulator. Briggs has also done Dalek and other alien voices for [[radio drama|audio plays]]. The non-humanoid shape of the Dalek, unlike anything that had been seen on television before, did much to enhance the creatures' sense of menace. With no familiar points of reference, it was a far cry from the traditional &quot;bug-eyed monster&quot; of science fiction that ''Doctor Who'' series creator [[Sydney Newman]] wanted the show to avoid. The unsettling form of the Daleks, coupled with their alien voices, also made many believe for a while that the props were wholly mechanical and operated by remote control. Manufacturing the props was also expensive. In scenes where many Daleks had to appear, some of them would be represented by wooden replicas (''[[Destiny of the Daleks]]'') or, in the early [[black and white]] episodes, life-size photographic enlargements (''[[The Power of the Daleks]]''). In stories involving armies of Daleks, the BBC effects team even turned to using commercially-available toy Daleks, manufactured by Louis Marx &amp; Co. A typical example of such use can be observed in ''[[Planet of the Daleks]]''. Judicious editing techniques also made it look like there were more Dalek props than were actually available, and continue to be used to the present day, such as using [[split screen (film)|split screen]] in ''The Parting of the Ways''. Initially there were four fully functioning props commissioned for the first serial, constructed from BBC plans by Shawcraft Models (which became known in fan circles as &quot;Mk I Daleks&quot;). Shawcraft were also commissioned to construct twenty or so Daleks for the two Dalek movies in 1965 and 1966 (see [[#Other appearances|below]]). Most of these props from the movies filtered back to the BBC and were seen in the televised serials, notably in ''[[The Chase (Doctor Who)|The Chase]]'', which was released even before the first movie's debut. The remaining props not bought by the BBC were either donated to charity or given away as prizes in competitions. Those still in BBC hands were reused several times, but eventually years of storage and repainting took their toll. By the time of the [[Sixth Doctor]]'s ''[[Revelation of the Daleks]]'', the props were manufactured out of [[fibreglass]], and were lighter and more affordable to construct than their predecessors. These Daleks were slightly bulkier in appearance around the mid-shoulder section, and also had a slightly redesigned base which was more vertical at the back. Minor changes were made to the design thanks to these new methods of construction, including alterations to the lower skirting as well as the mid-shoulder section incorporating the arm boxes, which were now one single unit, with the vertical bands encircling the casing also included in the fibreglass mould. These were repainted in grey for the [[Seventh Doctor]] serial ''Remembrance of the Daleks'' and designated as [[Dalek variants#Standard Dalek|&quot;Renegade Daleks&quot;]] while another redesign, painted in white and gold, became the [[Dalek variants#Imperial Dalek|&quot;Imperial Dalek&quot;]] faction. The new methods of construction also allowed the BBC Effects Department to build non-working &quot;dummy&quot; Daleks meant for use in scenes involving pyrotechnics. Several of these props were blown up in controlled explosions during the filming of ''Remembrance of the Daleks'', which would not have been cost-efficient with working props. ==History== ===Conceptual history=== [[Image:TheDalekChronicles-004.jpg|thumb|200px|A page from the TV 21 comic strip, featuring the creation of the Emperor Dalek.]] Terry Nation claimed that he was inspired by watching [[ballet]] dancers in long dresses glide as if on wheels. Indeed, for many of the shows, the Daleks were &quot;played&quot; by retired ballet dancers wearing black socks while sitting inside the Dalek. Raymond Cusick claims that after Nation wrote the script, he was given only an hour to come up with the design for the Daleks, and was inspired by a pepper shaker on the table in front of him to do the initial sketches (other sources state that he based it on a man seated in a chair, and only used the pepper shaker to demonstrate how it might move). Nation also claimed that the name came from a volume of a dictionary or encyclopedia, the spine of which read &quot;Dal - Lek&quot;. He later admitted that he had made this up as a reply to a question by a journalist and that anyone who checked out his story would have found him out. The name had in reality simply rolled off his typewriter. Later, Nation was pleasantly surprised to discover that in [[Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]] the word &quot;dalek&quot; means &quot;far&quot;, or &quot;distant&quot;. Other [[Slavonic languages]] have similar words for &quot;far&quot;. The [[Cyrillic]] letter '''&amp;#1044;''' = &quot;D&quot; coincidentally also resembles a Dalek. Nation grew up during [[World War II]], and remembered the fear caused by German bombings. He consciously based the Daleks on the [[Nazism|Nazis]], conceiving the species as faceless, authoritarian figures dedicated to conquest, domination, and complete conformity. The analogy is most obvious in the Dalek stories penned by Nation, in particular ''The Dalek Invasion of Earth'' and ''[[Genesis of the Daleks]]''. Prior to writing the first Dalek serial, Nation was chief scriptwriter for comedian [[Tony Hancock]]. The two fell out and Nation was fired. According to various sources, including Cliff Goodwin's biography of Hancock, the comedian claimed that during one of their last meetings he had speculated on how nuclear warfare might reduce humans to such a helpless state that they would have to be plugged into robot-like casings to stay alive. Allegedly, when Hancock saw the Daleks he shouted at the screen, &quot;That bloody Nation — he's stolen my robots!&quot; The first Dalek serial is called, variously, ''The Survivors'' (the pre-production title), ''The Mutants'' (its official title at the time of production and broadcast, later taken by a second, unrelated ''Doctor Who'' story), ''Beyond the Sun'', ''The Dead Planet'', or simply ''[[The Daleks]]''. The reason for the multiple titles is that in the show's early years each individual episode had a different name and overall story titles were used only by the production office. Subsequently, several different overall story titles were circulated by [[fandom]] without access to the correct records. See: [[Doctor Who story title controversy]]. The instant appeal of the Daleks took the BBC off guard, and transformed ''Doctor Who'' from a Saturday tea-time children's educational programme to a must-watch national phenomenon. Children were alternately frightened and fascinated by the completely alien look of the monsters, and the ''Doctor Who'' production office was inundated by letters and calls asking about the creatures. Newspaper articles focused more attention on the series and the Daleks, further enhancing their popularity. However, despite this adoration, the Daleks were forever associated with ''Doctor Who''. Nation, who jointly owned the intellectual property rights to them with the BBC, therefore had the problem of owning a money-making concept that proved nearly impossible to sell to anyone else and was dependent on the BBC wanting to produce stories featuring the creatures. Indeed, several attempts to market the Daleks outside of ''Doctor Who'' were unsuccessful. The sums of money required to pay Nation for the use of his creations also explained why their appearances in the programme were rare in later years. Since Nation's death in 1997, his share of the rights now belong to his estate and are administered by his former agent, Tim Hancock. When a new ''Doctor Who'' series was announced for 2005, many fans hoped the Daleks would return once more to the programme. After much negotiation between the BBC and the Nation estate (which at one point appeared to completely break down), an agreement was reached. According to media reports, the initial disagreement was due to the Nation estate demanding levels of creative control over the Daleks' appearances and scripts that were unacceptable to the BBC. However, talks between Tim Hancock and the BBC progressed more productively than had been expected, and on [[August 4]]
&lt;td&gt;Type-3&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[regular grammar|Regular]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Finite state automaton]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;A \rightarrow a&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;br&gt; &lt;math&gt;A \rightarrow aB&lt;/math&gt; &lt;br&gt; &lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; &lt;/center&gt; ==References== # Noam Chomsky: ''Three models for the description of language'', IRE Transactions on Information Theory, 2 (1956), pages 113-124 # Noam Chomsky: ''On certain formal properties of grammars'', Information and Control, 1 (1959), pages 91-112 ==External links== * http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/hermann.moisl/ell236/lecture5.htm {{Formal languages and grammars}} [[Category:Formal languages]] [[Category:Generative linguistics]] [[Category:Noam Chomsky]] [[bg:Йерархия на Чомски]] [[cs:Chomského hierarchie]] [[de:Chomsky-Hierarchie]] [[es:Jerarquía de Chomsky]] [[fi:Chomskyn hierarkia]] [[fr:Hiérarchie de Chomsky]] [[ja:チョムスキー階層]] [[ko:촘스키 위계]] [[pl:Hierarchia Chomsky'ego]] [[pt:Hierarquia de Chomsky]] [[sk:Chomského hierarchia]] [[zh:乔姆斯基谱系]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Churchs thesis</title> <id>6012</id> <revision> <id>24409352</id> <timestamp>2005-09-30T16:27:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Psychonaut</username> <id>28478</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Church–Turing thesis]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Church–Turing thesis]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>CRT</title> <id>6013</id> <revision> <id>39628060</id> <timestamp>2006-02-14T19:56:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rfrisbie</username> <id>896545</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>wikified link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''CRT''' can mean: * [[Cathode ray tube|Cathode Ray Tube]], in [[electronics]], a [[display device]] (such as in older [[television]] sets) * [[C Run-Time]], in [[computing]] * [[Charitable trust|Charitable Remainder Trust]], in [[Law]] * [[Chinese Remainder Theorem]], in [[mathematics]] * [[Corneal Refractive Therapy]], in [[medicine]] * [[Criterion-referenced test]], in [[United States|U.S.]] [[school]]s * [[Critical race theory]], a school of thought in [[philosophy]], [[sociology]], and legal theory * [[current reality tree (TOC)|current reality tree]] in [[Theory of Constraints]] '''Crt''' can mean: *[[Crater (constellation)]], standard astronomical abbreviation {{TLAdisambig}} [[fr:CRT]] [[it:CRT]] [[ja:CRT]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cathode ray tube</title> <id>6014</id> <revision> <id>41942495</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:02:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>NETTKNUT</username> <id>981877</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Health danger */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cathode_ray_Tube.PNG|right|thumb|300px|Cathode ray tube employing electromagnetic focus and deflection]] [[Image:CRT_color.png|right|thumb|300px|Cutaway rendering of a color CRT]] The '''cathode ray tube''' or '''CRT''', invented by [[Karl Ferdinand Braun]], is the [[display device]] that was traditionally used in most [[computer display]]s, [[video monitor]]s, [[television]]s and [[oscilloscope]]s. The CRT developed from [[Philo Farnsworth]]'s work was used in all television sets until the late [[20th century]] and the advent of [[plasma screen]]s, [[Liquid crystal display television|LCD]]s, [[DLP]], [[OLED]] displays, and other technologies. As a result of this technology, television continues to be referred to as &quot;[[The Tube (disambiguation)|The Tube]]&quot; well into the [[21st century]], even when referring to non-CRT sets. ==Apparatus description== The earliest version of the CRT was a cold-cathode diode, a modification of the [[Crookes tube]] with a phosphor-coated screen, sometimes called a [[Ferdinand Braun|Braun tube]]. The first version to use a hot cathode was developed by J. B. Johnson (who gave his name to the term [[Johnson-Nyquist noise|Johnson noise]]) and H. W. Weinhart of Western Electric and became a commercial product in 1922. [[Cathode ray]]s exist in the form of streams of high speed [[electron]]s emitted from the heating of cathode inside a [[vacuum tube]]. The released electrons form a beam within the cathode ray tube due to the voltage difference applied in the two electrodes, and the direction of this beam is then altered either by a [[magnetic field|magnetic]] or [[electric field]] to swap over the surface at the fluorescent screen ([[anode]]), covered by [[Phosphor|phosphorescent material]] (often [[transition metal]]s or [[rare earth]]s). Light is emitted at the instant that electrons hit the surface of that material. In case of a [[television]] and modern computer monitors, the entire front area of the tube is scanned in a fixed pattern called a ''raster'', and a picture is created by modulating the intensity of the electron beam according to the programme's [[video signal]]. The beam in all modern TV sets is scanned with a magnetic field applied to the neck of the tube with a &quot;magnetic yoke&quot;, a set of coils driven by electronic circuits. This usage of electromagnets to change the electron beam's original direction is known to be &quot;magnetic deflection&quot;. In case of an [[oscilloscope]], the intensity of the electron beam is kept constant, and the picture is drawn by steering the beam along an arbitrary path. Usually, the horizontal deflection is proportional to time, and the vertical deflection is proportional to the signal. The tube for this kind of use is longer and narrower, and deflection is done by applying an [[electrical field]] via deflection plates built into the tube's neck. The use of an electrical field (so-called &quot;electrostatic deflection&quot;) allows the electron beam to be steered much more rapidly than with a magnetic field, where the [[inductance]] of the electromagnets imposes relatively severe limits on the frequency range that can be accurately reproduced. The electron beam source is the [[electron gun]], producing the stream of electrons by [[thermionic emission]] and then focusing it to a thin beam. The gun was often mounted slightly off-axis, as it accelerated not only electrons but also ions resulting from [[outgassing]] of the internal tube components and from an imperfect [[vacuum]]. The ions are heavier than electrons, therefore they are less likely to be deflected by the magnetic field from the deflection coils, and in older constructions with in-axis guns they were bombarding the phosphor in the center of the screen and causing its deterioration; some very old black and white TV sets show browning of the center of the screen, known as ion burn. The combination of an off-axis mounting of electron guns and permanent magnets bending the electron beam back in the desired direction forms an [[ion trap]]; the ions were not deflected enough so they struck the neck of the tube instead of the screen and harmlessly dissipated. This system was later replaced with aluminium coating of the phosphor. The internal side of the phosphor layer is often covered with a layer of [[aluminium]]. The phosphors are usually poor electrical conductors, which leads to deposition of residual charge on the screen, effectively decreasing the energy of the impacting electrons due to electrostatic repulsion (an effect known as &quot;sticking&quot;). The aluminium layer is connected to the conductive layer inside the tube, disposing of this charge. It also reflects the phosphor light in the desired direction towards the viewer, and protects the phosphor from ion bombardment. [[Image:Egun.jpg|200px|thumb|Electron Gun]] Graphical displays for early computers used [[vector monitor]]s, a type of CRT similar to the oscilloscope. Here, the beam would trace straight lines between arbitrary points, repeatedly refreshing the display as quickly as possible. Vector monitors were used in many computer displays as well as by some late 1970s to mid 1980s arcade games such as [[Asteroids]]. Vector displays for computers did not noticeably suffer the display artifacts of [[aliasing]] and [[pixelization]], but were limited in that they could display only a shape's outline, and only a very small amount of rather largely-drawn text. (Because the speed of refresh was roughly inversely proportional to how many vectors needed to be drawn, &quot;filling&quot; an area using many individual vectors was impractical as was the display of a large amount of text.) Some vector monitors are capable of displaying several colors using either an ordinary tri-color CRT or two [[phosphor]] layers (so called &quot;penetration color&quot;). In these dual-layer tubes, by controlling the strength of the electron beam, electrons could be made to reach (and illuminate) either or both phosphor layers, typically producing green, orange, or red. Other graphical displays used [[storage tube]]s including [[Direct View Bistable Storage Tube]]s ([[DVBST]]s). These CRTs inherently stored the image and did not require periodic refreshing. Some displays for early computers (those that needed to display more text than was practical using vectors, or required high speed for photographic output) used [[Charactron]] CRTs. These used a perforated metal character mask (&quot;[[Stencil]]&quot;) to shape a wide electron beam to form a selected character shape on the screen. The electronics could quickly select a character on the mask with one set of deflection circuits, while selecting the position to display the character at with a second set of deflection circuits, and then just turn on the beam briefly to draw that character. Graphics could still be drawn by selecting the unneeded position on the mask corresponding to the code for a space (when drawing a space the beam was simply kept off), which had a small round h
can replace the normal hydrogen in water molecules to form [[heavy water]] (D&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O). Although not strictly toxic, consumption of heavy water could nevertheless pose a [[heavy water#Toxicity|health threat]]. The existence of deuterium in [[star]]s is an important datum in cosmology. Stellar fusion destroys deuterium, and there are no known natural processes, other than the [[Big Bang nucleosynthesis]], which produce deuterium. Thus it is one of the arguments in favour of the [[Big Bang]] theory over the [[steady state theory]] of the universe. The world's leading producer of deuterium is [[Canada]], in the form of heavy water as [[neutron moderator]] for the operation of the [[CANDU reactor]]. ==Applications== Deuterium is useful in [[nuclear fusion]] reactions, especially in combination with [[tritium]], because of the large reaction rate (or [[Cross section (physics)|cross section]]) and high [[energy]] yield of the D-T reaction. Unlike [[Hydrogen-1|protium]], deuterium undergoes fusion via the strong interaction, making its use for commercial power plausible. In [[chemistry]] and [[biochemistry]], deuterium is used in [[tracer]] molecules to study [[chemical reaction]]s and [[metabolic pathway]]s because chemically it behaves identically to ordinary hydrogen, but it can be distinguished from ordinary hydrogen by its mass using [[mass spectrometry]]. Deuterium is particlarly useful in hydrogen nuclear magnetic resonance (1H-[[NMR]]). Because of its different nuclear weight from the hydrogen generally connected to molecules, [[spectra]] of hydrogen are highly differentiable from that of deuterium. ==History== Deuterium was predicted in 1926 by [[Walter Russell]], using his &quot;spiral&quot; periodic table, and first detected in 1931 by [[Harold Urey]], a chemist at [[Columbia University]]. Urey earned the [[1934]] [[Nobel Prize]] in Chemistry for this work. &lt;!-- HEAVY WATER WAS MADE IN NORWAY, NOT DUTERIUM[[Gilbert Newton Lewis]] isolated the first sample of pure heavy water in 1933. During World War II, Germany was known to be conducting experiments using heavy water as moderator for a [[nuclear reactor]]. This was a source of concern because it might allow them to produce [[plutonium]] for an [[atomic bomb]]. Ultimately, it led to a seemingly important Allied operation, the [[Norwegian heavy water sabotage]], to destroy the [[Vemork]] deuterium production facility in Norway. It turned out, however, that Germany was not putting any serious efforts into the program, and only had a small experimental reactor hidden away. In reality the Germans did not even have a fifth the amount of heavy water needed to run the reactor, partially due to the [[Norwegian heavy water sabotage]] operation.--&gt; == Data == *density: 0.180 kg/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; at [[Standard conditions for temperature and pressure|STP]] (0 °C, 101.325 kPa). *atomic weight: 2.01355321270. Data at approximately 18 K for D&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ([[triple point]]): *density: :*solid: 195 kg/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; :*gas: 0.452 kg/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; *viscosity: 1.3 [[pascal second|&amp;micro;Pa&amp;middot;s]] *specific heat capacity at constant pressure ''c&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;'': :*solid: 2950 J/(kg&amp;middot;K) :*gas: 5200 J/(kg&amp;middot;K) ==Anti-deuterium== An '''antideuteron''' is the antiparticle of the nucleus of deuterium, consisting of an [[antiproton]] and an [[antineutron]]. The antideuteron was first produced at [[CERN]] and the [[Brookhaven National Laboratory]] in [[1965]]. A complete atom, with a [[positron]] orbiting the nucleus, would be called ''antideuterium'', but as of [[2005]] antideuterium has not yet been created. The symbol for antideuterium is the same as for deuterium, except with a bar over it. ==References== # {{note|IUPACelement}} {{cite journal | author=IUPAC Commission on Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry | title=Names for Muonium and Hydrogen Atoms and their Ions | journal=[[Pure and Applied Chemistry]] | year=[[2001 in science|2001]] | volume=73 | pages=377–380 | url=http://www.iupac.org/publications/pac/2001/pdf/7302x0377.pdf }} *[http://atom.kaeri.re.kr/ Nuclear Data Evaluation Lab] * {{cite journal|url=http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7315 |title=Desktop nuclear fusion demonstrated with deuterium gas|journal=New Scientist|date=27 April 2005|first=Justin|last=Mullins }} &lt;!-- {{Isotope | element=[[Hydrogen]] | lighter=[[Hydrogen-1]] | heavier=[[Hydrogen-3]] | before=None | after=Stable }} --&gt; [[Category:Isotopes of hydrogen]] [[Category:Nuclear materials]] [[Category:Environmental isotopes]] [[be:Дэўтэр]] [[ca:Deuteri]] [[cs:Deuterium]] [[da:Deuterium]] [[de:Deuterium]] [[et:Deuteerium]] [[es:Deuterio]] [[eo:Deŭterio]] [[fr:Deutérium]] [[ko:중수소]] [[id:Deuterium]] [[it:Deuterio]] [[he:דאוטריום]] [[ms:Deuterium]] [[nl:Deuterium]] [[ja:重水素]] [[no:Deuterium]] [[pl:Deuter (izotop)]] [[pt:Deutério]] [[ru:Дейтерий]] [[sk:Deutérium]] [[sl:Devterij]] [[fi:Deuterium]] [[sv:Deuterium]] [[th:ดิวเทอเรียม]] [[uk:Дейтерій]] [[zh:氘]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Digital signal processing</title> <id>8525</id> <revision> <id>42034769</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:03:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Essjay</username> <id>185818</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/210.212.145.130|210.212.145.130]] ([[User talk:210.212.145.130|talk]]) to last version by Vermolaev</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Digital signal processing''' ('''DSP''') is the study of [[Signal (information theory)|signal]]s in a [[digital]] representation and the processing methods of these signals. DSP and [[analog signal processing]] are subfields of [[signal processing]]. DSP has three major subfields: [[audio signal processing]], [[digital image processing]] and [[speech processing]]. Since the goal of DSP is usually to measure or filter continuous real-world analog signals, the first step is usually to convert the signal from an analog to a digital form, by using an [[analog to digital converter]]. Often, the required output signal is another analog output signal, which requires a [[digital to analog converter]]. The [[algorithm]]s required for DSP are sometimes performed using specialized [[computer hardware|computers]], which make use of specialized microprocessors called [[digital signal processor]]s (also abbreviated ''DSP''). These process signals in [[real time]] and are generally purpose-designed [[Application-specific_integrated_circuit|ASICs]]. == DSP domains == In DSP, engineers usually study digital signals in one of the following domains: [[time domain]] (one-dimensional signals), spatial domain (multidimensional signals), [[frequency]] domain, [[autocorrelation]] domain, and [[wavelet]] domains. They choose the domain in which to process a signal by making an educated guess (or by trying different possibilities) as to which domain best represents the essential characteristics of the signal. A sequence of samples from a measuring device produces a time or spatial domain representation, whereas a [[discrete Fourier transform]] produces the frequency domain information, that is the [[frequency spectrum]]. Autocorrelation is defined as the [[cross-correlation]] of the signal with itself over varying intervals of time or space. == Signal sampling == ''Main article: [[Sampling (signal processing)]]'' With the increasing use of [[computer]]s the usage and need of [[digital signal processing]] has increased. In order to use an analog signal on a computer it must be digitized with an [[analog to digital converter]] (ADC). Sampling is usually carried out in two stages, [[discretization]] and [[quantization]]. In the discretization stage, the space of signals is partitioned into [[equivalence class]]es and discretization is carried out by replacing the signal with representative signal of the corresponding equivalence class. In the quantization stage the representative signal values are approximated by values from a finite set. In order to properly sample an analog signal the [[Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem]] must be satisfied. In short, the [[sampling frequency]] must be greater than twice the bandwidth of the signal (provided it is filtered appropriately). A [[digital to analog converter]] (DAC) is used to convert the digital signal back to analog. The use of a digital computer is a key ingredient into [[digital control|digital control systems]]. == Time and space domains == The most common processing approach in the time or space domain is enhancement of the input signal through a method called filtering. Filtering generally consists of some transformation of a number of surrounding samples around the current sample of the input or output signal. There are various ways to characterize filters; for example: * A &quot;linear&quot; filter is a [[linear transformation]] of input samples; other filters are &quot;non-linear.&quot; Linear filters satisfy the superposition condition, i.e. if an input is a weighted linear combination of different signals, the output is an equally weighted linear combination of the corresponding output signals. * A &quot;causal&quot; filter uses only previous samples of the input or output signals; while a &quot;non-causal&quot; filter uses future input samples. A non-causal filter can be changed into a causal filter by adding a delay to it. * A &quot;time-invariant&quot; filter has constant properties over time; other filters such as [[adaptive filter]]s change in time. * Some filters are &quot;stable&quot;, others are &quot;unstable&quot;. A stable filter produces an output that converges to a constant value with time, or remains bounded within a finite interval. An unstable filter produces output which diverges. * A &quot;finite impulse response&quot; ([[Finite_impul
h a wood behind him. They were greatly outnumbered by the British rebels (who were 230,000 strong by now according to Dio Cassius) but superior Roman tactics and training won the day at the [[Battle of Watling Street]]. The [[Britons]] attempted to flee, but were impeded by the presence of their own families, whom they had stationed in a ring of wagons at the edge of the battlefield, and were slaughtered (The German king [[Ariovistus]] is reported to have made the same mistake in [[Julius Caesar]]'s ''[[Gallic Wars]]'').{{ref|Ariovistus}} Tacitus reports that &quot;according to one report almost eighty thousand Britons fell&quot; compared with only four hundred Romans. According to Tacitus, Boudica poisoned herself; Dio Cassius says she fell sick and died, and was given a lavish burial. She may well have been cremated which was the custom of many Celtic tribes at this time. This would also serve to save her body from being defiled and would explain why the remains have never been found. ===Location of her defeat=== The site of Boudica's battle is unknown. According to London legend it was at [[King's Cross, London|Kings Cross]] in London (a nearby street is named Battle Bridge Road), and that Boudica herself is buried under one of the platforms at [[Kings Cross railway station|Kings Cross Station]] (different sources list platforms eight, nine or ten as her supposed resting place) but, based on Tacitus, it is unlikely Suetonius returned to London. Most historians favour a site in the West Midlands. Kevin K. Carroll suggests a site close to [[High Cross, Leicestershire|High Cross]] in [[Leicestershire]], on the junction of Watling Street and the [[Fosse Way]], would have allowed the Legio II ''Augusta'', based at [[Exeter]], to rendezvous with the rest of Suetonius's forces.{{ref|HighCross}} [[Manduessedum]] ([[Mancetter]]), near the modern day town of [[Atherstone]] in [[Warwickshire]], has also been suggested.{{ref|Mancetter}} Postumus, on hearing of the Roman victory, fell on his sword. Catus Decianus fled to Gaul and was replaced as procurator by [[Gaius Julius Alpinus Classicianus]]. Suetonius conducted punitive operations, but criticism by Classicianus led to an investigation headed by Nero's [[freedman]] [[Polyclitus (freedman)|Polyclitus]], and Suetonius was removed as governor, to be replaced by [[Publius Petronius Turpilianus]]. The historian [[Suetonius]] tells us the crisis had almost persuaded Nero to abandon Britain.{{ref|Suetonius}} ==Historical sources== Tacitus, the most important Roman historian of this period, took a particular interest in Britain as [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola]], his father-in-law and the subject of his first book, served there three times. He was a military [[tribune]] under Suetonius Paulinus, which almost certainly gave Tacitus an eyewitness source for Boudica's revolt. Dio Cassius's sources are less certain. He is generally agreed to have based his account on that of Tacitus, but he simplifies the sequence of events and adds details, such as the calling in of loans, that Tacitus does not mention. He says of Boudica: :&quot;Boudica was tall, terrible to look on and gifted with a powerful voice. A flood of bright red hair ran down to her knees; she wore a golden necklet made up of ornate pieces, a multi-coloured robe and over it a thick cloak held together by a brooch. She took up a long spear to cause dread in all who set eyes on her.&quot; He reports that she committed all sorts of atrocities in the name of a goddess called [[Andraste]], who he claims is the British equivalent of [[Victoria (mythology)|Victoria]], the Roman goddess of victory. Boudica's own name means &quot;victory&quot;. It is generally thought that [[Gildas]], in his [[6th century]] polemic ''[[De Excidio Britanniae]]'', alludes to Boudica in his typically oblique fashion as a &quot;treacherous lioness&quot;, although his general lack of knowledge about the real history of the Roman conquest of Britain makes this far from certain.{{ref|Gildas}} ==Cultural impact== ===History and literature=== By the [[Middle Ages]] Boudicca was forgotten. She makes no appearance in [[Bede]], the ''[[Historia Brittonum]]'', the ''[[Mabinogion]]'' or [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]]'s ''[[History of the Kings of Britain]]''. But the rediscovery of the works of Tacitus and Dio Cassius during the ''[[Renaissance]]'' allowed [[Polydore Virgil]] to reintroduce her into British history in [[1534]]. However he misinterpreted the &quot;Voadicea&quot; he found in Tacitus and the &quot;Bunduica&quot; in Dio Cassius as two separate women. Boudica's story was included in [[Raphael Holinshed]]'s ''Chronicles'' and inspired [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]'s younger contemporaries [[Francis Beaumont]] and [[John Fletcher (playwright)|John Fletcher]] to write a play, ''[http://www.bibliomania.com/0/6/1/1975/frameset.html Bonduca]'', in [[1610]]. [[William Cowper]] wrote a popular poem, ''[http://www.bartleby.com/41/320.html Boadicea, an ode]'', in [[1782]]. It was in the [[Victorian era]] that Boudica's fame took on legendary proportions. [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] was seen as her &quot;namesake&quot;. Victoria's [[Poet Laureate]], [[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]], wrote a poem, ''[http://oldpoetry.com/poetry/8721/showline=1 Boadicea]''. A great bronze statue of Boudica in her war [[chariot]] (furnished with [[scythed chariot|scythes]] after [[Persian Empire|Persian]] fashion), together with her daughters, was commissioned by [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|Prince Albert]] and executed by [[Thomas Thornycroft]]. It was completed in [[1905]] and stands next to [[Westminster Bridge]] and the [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]]. Ironically, the great anti-imperialist rebel was now identified with the head of the [[British Empire]].{{ref|Webster}} ===Modern fiction=== Boudica has inspired several novels: examples include [[Rosemary Sutcliff]]'s 1978 [[historical novel]] for children, ''Song for a Dark Queen'', and [[Manda Scott]]'s series of novels, ''Dreaming the Eagle'', ''Dreaming the Bull'', ''Dreaming the Hound'' and the forthcoming ''Dreaming the Serpent Spears''. [[Joyce Doré]] wrote ''Hemlock'', (ISBN 1898030197), a fictional account of the life of Boudica published in [[2002]], in which Boudica and her two daughters are taken to Rome, before [[Nero]], who makes her drink [[hemlock]]. Doré claims to be a [[psychic]] and to have based the book on her conversations with the historical characters. The major American publisher Penguin has produced a recent book about Boudica called Warrior Queen, written by Australian novelist Alan Gold. It has been critically acclaimed. ===Films and television=== Boudica has been the subject of two feature films, [[1928]]'s ''Boadicea'', starring [[Phyllis Nielson-Terry]], and [[2003]]'s ''Boudica'', a [[television|TV]] film written by [[Andrew Davies (writer)|Andrew Davies]] and starring [[Alex Kingston]]. A new film is planned for release in [[2006]] entitled [[Warrior (2006 film)|Warrior]], written by [[Brian Klugman]] and [[Lee Sternthal]], directed by [[Gavin O'Connor]], and produced by [[Mel Gibson]].{{ref|films}} A British TV series, ''[[Warrior Queen]]'', was made by [[Thames Television]] in [[1978]] starring [[Sian Phillips]] as Boudica and [[Nigel Hawthorne]] as Catus Decianus. Boudica was also featured in the fifth episode of one hour documentary [[Warrior Women]] on the discovery channel, hosted by New Zealand actress [[Lucy Lawless]]. ===Music=== The Irish singer/songwriter [[Enya]] produced a song called &quot;Boadicea&quot; on her [[1992]] album ''[[The Celts]]''. This track was most famously sampled by the rap group [[The Fugees]] for their single &quot;Ready or Not&quot; (from [[1996]]'s ''[[The Score (album)|The Score]]''), and most recently by [[Mario Winans]] (featuring [[Puff Daddy|Sean &quot;P. Diddy&quot; Combs]]) on his song &quot;I Don't Wanna Know&quot; ([[2004]]). The track was also used in the [[soundtrack]] of the film ''[[Sleepwalkers]]''. Scottish singer/songwriter [[Steve McDonald]] composed a biographical song called &quot;Boadicea&quot; on his [[1997]] album ''Stone of Destiny'', detailing her life and tragic death.{{ref|McDonald}} British rock band [[The Libertines]] refer to &quot;Queen Boadicea&quot; in their song &quot;The Good Old Days&quot;, indicating a belief that her spirit still lives on in Britons today.{{ref|Libertines}} The British metal band [[Bal-Sagoth]] have written a song entitled &quot;Blood Slakes the Sand at the Circus Maximus&quot; (found on the band's album ''Battle Magic'') which features an Iceni Warrior of Boudica's uprising being captured and brought back to Rome. Her name (always spelled &quot;Boudicca&quot;) returns in the song &quot;When Rides the Scion of the Storms&quot; of the same album.{{ref|Bal}} [http://www.mercyground.com Faith and the Muse] produced a song, Boudiccea, in their most recent album, Burning Season. The song suggests that Boudiccea may have committed suicide by falling on her sword.{{ref|FaithAndTheMuse}} ===Other cultural references=== There have been scattered reports that the restless spirit of Boudica has been seen in the county of [[Lincolnshire]]. These reports, dating back to the mid-[[19th century]], claim Boudica rides her chariot, heading for some unknown destination, and many a traveller and motorist have claimed to have seen her. There has been some debate as to how long this has been going on. Some say that the queen's restless spirit has been appearing since her death, while other suggest that the revival of interest in Boudica's story in the 19th century might have summoned her spirit back to our world. As with all reports of ghostly activity, it is up to the individual to decide whether they are true or not.{{ref|ghost}} In [[1984]], [[Judy Grahn]], in her book ''[[Another Mother Tongue]]'', claimed that Boudica was the origin of the present day English w
be created on an IC. *More rarely, [[inductor|inductive structures]] can be simulated by [[gyrator]]s. Since a CMOS device only draws current on the ''transition'' between [[boolean algebra|logic]] [[State (computer science)|state]]s, CMOS devices consume much less current than [[bipolar transistor|bipolar]] devices. A [[RAM|memory device]] is the most regular type of integrated circuit; the highest density devices are thus memories; but even a [[microprocessor]] will have memory on the chip. (See the regular array structure at the bottom of the first image.) Although the structures are intricate &amp;ndash; with widths which have been shrinking for decades &amp;ndash; the layers remain much thinner than the device widths. The layers of material are fabricated much like a photographic process, although [[light]] [[wave]]s in the [[visible spectrum]] cannot be used to &quot;expose&quot; a layer of material, as they would be too large for the features. Thus [[photon]]s of higher frequencies (typically [[ultraviolet]]) are used to create the patterns for each layer. Because each feature is so small, [[electron microscope]]s are essential tools for a [[process]] [[engineer]] who might be [[debugging]] a fabrication process. Each device is tested before packaging. The wafer is then cut into small rectangles called ''die''. Each die is then connected into a package using aluminium (or occasionally [[gold]]) wires which are [[welding|welded]] to ''pads'', usually found around the edge of the die. After packaging, the devices go through final test on very expensive automated testers, which can account for over 25 percent of the cost of fabrication. As of [[2005]], a fabrication facility (commonly known as a ''[[semiconductor]] fab'') costs over a billion US Dollars to construct, because much of the operation is automated. The most advanced processes employ the following techniques: * The wafers are up to 300 mm in diameter (wider than a common dinner plate). * Use of 90 nanometer or smaller chip manufacturing process. [[Intel]], [[IBM]], and [[AMD]] are using 90 nanometers for their [[central processing unit|CPU]] chips, and Intel has started using a 65 nanometer process. {{citeneeded}} * [[Copper-based chips|Copper interconnects]] where copper wiring replaces aluminium for interconnects. * [[Low-K]] dielectric insulators. * [[Silicon on insulator]] (SOI) * [[Strained silicon]] in a process used by [[IBM]] known as [[Strained silicon directly on insulator]] (SSDOI) ===Packaging=== The earliest integrated circuits were packaged in ceramic flat packs, which continued to be used by the military for their reliability and small size for many years. Commercial circuit packaging quickly moved to the [[dual in-line package]] (DIP), first in ceramic and later in plastic. In the 1980s pin counts of VLSI circuits exceeded the practical limit for DIP packaging, leading to [[pin grid array]] (PGA) and [[leadless chip carrier]] (LCC) packages. [[Surface mount]] packaging appeared in the early 1980s and became popular in the late 1980s, using finer lead pitch with leads formed as either gull-wing or J-lead, as exemplified by [[Small-Outline Integrated Circuit]]. A carrier which occupies an area about 30 &amp;ndash; 50% less than an equivalent [[dual in-line package|DIP]], with a typical thickness that is 70% less. This package has &quot;gull wing&quot; leads protruding from the two long sides and a lead spacing of 0.050 inches. [[Small-Outline Integrated Circuit]] (SOIC) and [[PLCC]] packages. In the late 1990s, [[PQFP]] and [[thin small-outline package|TSOP]] packages became the most common for high pin count devices, though PGA packages are still often used for high-end [[microprocessor]]s. [[Ball grid array]] (BGA) packages have existed since the 1970s. Traces out of the die, through the package, and into the [[printed circuit board]] have very different electrical properties, compared to on-chip signals. They require special design techniques and need much more electric power than signals confined to the chip itself. When multiple die are put in one package, it is called SiP, for ''[[System In Package]]''. When multiple die are combined on a small substrate, often ceramic, it's called a MCM, or [[Multi-Chip Module]]. The boundary between a big MCM and a small printed circuit board is sometimes fuzzy. ==History, origins and generations== ===The birth of the IC=== The integrated circuit was first conceived by a radar scientist, [[Geoffrey Dummer|Geoffrey W.A. Dummer]] (born 1909), working for the Royal Radar Establishment of the British [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]], and published in [[Washington, D.C.]] on May 7, 1952. Dummer unsuccessfully attempted to build such a circuit in 1956. The first integrated circuits were manufactured independently by two scientists: [[Jack Kilby]] of [[Texas Instruments]] filed a patent for a &quot;Solid Circuit&quot; made of [[germanium]] on February 6, 1959. Kilby received patents US3138743, US3138747, US3261081, and US3434015. [[Robert Noyce]] of [[Fairchild Semiconductor]] was awarded a patent for a more complex &quot;unitary circuit&quot; made of Silicon on April 25, 1961. (See [http://www.ti.com/corp/docs/kilbyctr/jackbuilt.shtml the Chip that Jack built] for more information.) Noyce credited [[Kurt Lehovec]] of [[Sprague Electric]] for the ''principle of [[p-n junction]] isolation'' caused by the action of a biased p-n junction (the diode) as a key concept behind the IC.{{fn|Lehovec}} ===SSI, MSI, LSI=== The first integrated circuits contained only a few transistors. Called &quot;'''Small-Scale Integration'''&quot; ('''SSI'''), they used circuits containing transistors numbering in the tens. SSI circuits were crucial to early aerospace projects, and vice-versa. Both the [[Minuteman missile]] and [[Apollo program]] needed lightweight digital computers for their inertially-guided flight computers; the [[Apollo guidance computer]] led and motivated the integrated-circuit technology, while the Minuteman missile forced it into mass-production. These programs purchased almost all of the available integrated circuits from 1960 through 1963, and almost alone provided the demand that funded the production improvements to get the production costs from $1000/circuit (in 1960 dollars) to merely $25/circuit (in 1963 dollars). The next step in the development of integrated circuits, taken in the late 1960s, introduced devices which contained hundreds of transistors on each chip, called &quot;'''Medium-Scale Integration'''&quot; ('''MSI'''). They were attractive economically because while they cost little more to produce than SSI devices, they allowed more complex systems to be produced using smaller circuit boards, less assembly work (because of fewer separate components), and a number of other advantages. Further development, driven by the same economic factors, led to &quot;'''Large-Scale Integration'''&quot; ('''LSI''') in the mid 1970s, with tens of thousands of transistors per chip. LSI circuits began to be produced in large quantities around 1970, for computer main memories and pocket calculators. ===VLSI=== The final step in the development process, starting in the 1980s and continuing on, was &quot;Very Large-Scale Integration&quot; ([[VLSI]]), with hundreds of thousands of transistors, and beyond (well past several million in the latest stages). For the first time it became possible to fabricate a [[Central processing unit|CPU]] on a single integrated circuit, to create a [[microprocessor]]. In [[1986]] the first one megabit [[Random Access Memory|RAM]] chips were introduced, which contained more than one million transistors. Microprocessor chips produced in [[1994]] contained more than three million transistors. This step was largely made possible by the codification of &quot;design rules&quot; for the [[CMOS]] technology used in VLSI chips, which made production of working devices much more of a systematic endeavour. (See the 1980 landmark text by [[Carver Mead]] and [[Lynn Conway]] referenced below.) ===ULSI, WSI, SOC=== To reflect further growth of the complexity, the term '''ULSI''' that stands for &quot;'''Ultra-Large Scale Integration'''&quot; was proposed for chips of complexity more than 1 million of transistors. However there is no qualitative leap between VLSI and ULSI, hence normally in technical texts the &quot;VLSI&quot; term covers ULSI as well, and &quot;ULSI&quot; is reserved only for cases when it is necessary to emphasize the chip complexity, e.g. in marketing. The most extreme integration technique is '''wafer-scale integration''' ('''WSI'''), which uses whole uncut wafers containing entire computers (processors as well as memory). Attempts to take this step commercially in the 1980s (e.g. by [[Gene Amdahl]]) failed, mostly because of defect-free manufacturability problems, and it does not now seem to be a high priority for industry. The WSI technique failed commercially, but advances in semiconductor manufacturing allowed for another attack on the IC complexity, known as '''[[System-on-a-chip|System-on-Chip]]''' ('''SOC''') design. In this approach, components traditionally manufactured as separate chips to be wired together on a [[printed circuit board]] are designed to occupy a single chip that contains memory, microprocessor(s), peripheral interfaces, Input/Output logic control, data converters, and other components, together composing the whole electronic system. ==Other developments== In the 1980s [[programmable logic device|programmable integrated circuits]] were developed. These devices contain circuits whose logical function and connectivity can be programmed by the user, rather than being fixed by the integrated circuit manufacturer. This allows a single chip to be pro
other James, were shared by James with Nicolas S. Martin during their years as friends and roommates in Lexington, Kentucky, and San Francisco. *{{fnb|2}}Kass, Jeff (Feb. 25, 2005) [http://www.rockymountainnews.com/drmn/state/article/0,1299,DRMN_21_3575306,00.html ''Thompson 'made this choice' '']. Rocky Mountain News *{{fnb|3}}Steadman, Ralph (Feb. 2005). ''[http://www.ralphsteadman.com Hunter S. Thompson 1937-2005]''. Retrieved Mar. 19, 2005. *{{fnb|4}}Elliott, Dan &amp;mdash; Associated Press[http://www.rockymountainnews.com/drmn/state/article/0,1299,DRMN_21_3572138,00.html ''Thompson's send-off could fill skies''] ==External links== {{wikiquote}} {{wikinewspar|Author Hunter S. Thompson found dead}} *[http://www.gonzo.org The Great Thompson Hunt] *[http://hst.9pointzero.com Dr. Hunter S. Thompson Bulletin Board &amp; All Night Shooting Range] *[http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/archive?columnist=hunter_s._thompson&amp;root=page2 Thompson's ESPN column] *[http://www.westerncourier.com/media/paper650/news/2005/02/23/Opinion/A.Hero.Passes.On-873982.shtml?norewrite&amp;sourcedomain=www.westerncourier.com Thompson Tribute/Obit] *[http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/page2/story?id=1992213 Thompson's final column] on [[ESPN]] *[http://www.nationalreview.com/buckley/wfb200503011513.asp On Thompson (critical)] by [[William F. Buckley, Jr.]] of [[National Review]] *[http://www.opinionjournal.com/la/?id=110006325 Tribute to Thompson] by [[Tom Wolfe]] in the ''[[Wall Street Journal]]'' *[http://www.rawstory.com/exclusives/blyler/hst_counselor_081405.htm Hunter S.Thompson's &quot;Counselor&quot;] an explanation of Thompson's final word in ''Raw Story'' *[http://www.getunderground.com/underground/articles/article.cfm?Article_ID=1798 So Long, Mistah Thompson] by Bob Freville &amp; Jake McGee in ''Get Underground''. *[http://www.slate.com/id/2113865/ Tribute to Thompson] by [[Christopher Hitchens]] in ''Slate''. *[http://www.loudwire.net/users/mediafaction/9053.html Hunter S. Thompson: An Autopsy] a tribute by J. L. Flatley from [http://www.mediafaction.net MediaFaction.net]. *[http://www.loudwire.net/users/mediafaction/10307.html Hunter S. Thompson: Conspiracy Theories Take Root] by J. L. Flatley from [http://www.mediafaction.net MediaFaction.net]. *[http://rawstory.com/exclusives/blyler/hunter_thompson_eulogy_22105.htm Hunter's Fear: A Eulogy to Hunter S. Thompson] by [[D.A. Blyler]] in ''Raw Story''. *[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A4177280| &quot;Odi et Amo in Aspen&quot; an obituary], by Kit Boyes on [[H2G2]]. *[http://www.newsmeat.com/celebrity_political_donations/Hunter_S_Thompson.php Hunter S. Thompson's political donations] *{{imdb title|id=0081748|title=Where the Buffalo Roam}} *{{imdb title|id=0120669|title=Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas}} *{{imdb title|id=0376136|title=The Rum Diary}} *[http://technicianonline.com/story.php?id=011242 Fear and loathing on campus] *[http://books.guardian.co.uk/news/page/0,8097,1419505,00.html Coverage of Hunter S. Thompson's Death] in The Guardian *[http://www.marilynmanson.com/news.php?newsid=103 Interview on Hunter S. Thompson] with [[Marilyn Manson]] in ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' *[http://www.freezerbox.com/archive/article.php?id=287 The Hunter S. Thompson Interview] on ''[[Freezerbox]]'' *[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GSmid=38499762&amp;GRid=11188338&amp;pt=James%20Garnett%20Thompson&amp; James Garnett Thompson obituary] *[http://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/_/id/7605448/ Football Season Is Over] The Final Note and Funeral Coverage *[http://www.spikemagazine.com/0305huntersthompson.php -Tribute: Spike Magazine] *[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,7-1494489_1,00.html Fear,loathing,guns: at home with King Gonzo]-article by Marianne MacDonald *[http://music.download.com/bobwyman/3600-8951_32-100468209.html Free song download: The Ballad of Hunter Thompson by Bob Wyman] Featured on Aspen radio station KSPN *[http://media.www.dailylobo.com/media/paper344/news/2005/08/25/Culture/Impressions.Of.Dr.Gonzo-969927.shtml?sourcedomain=www.dailylobo.com&amp;MIIHost=media.collegepublisher.com Article about the funeral with photo of memorial tower] *[http://cafecancun.com/bookarts/thompson.shtml Deconstructing Hunter S. Thompson] Essay by [[Jules Siegel]] argues that Thompson was &quot;the literary equivalent of Cheech &amp; Chong.&quot; ==Online sources== *[http://www.ncteamericancollection.org/litmap/thompson_hunter_s_ky.htm American Collection] *[http://www.bookrags.com/biography-hunter-stockton-thompson/ BookRags] [[Category:1937 births|Thompson, Hunter S.]] [[Category:2005 deaths|Thompson, Hunter S.]] [[Category:American journalists|Thompson, Hunter S.]] [[Category:American novelists|Thompson, Hunter S.]] [[Category:American writers|Thompson, Hunter S.]] [[Category:Columbia alumni|Thompson, Hunter S.]] [[Category:Firearm deaths|Thompson, Hunter S.]] [[Category:Psychedelic advocates and proponents|Thompson, Hunter S.]] [[Category:Hunter S. Thompson| ]] [[Category:Louisvillians|Thompson, Hunter S.]] [[Category:People from Colorado|Thompson, Hunter S.]] [[Category:United States Air Force airmen|Thompson, Hunter S.]] [[Category:Anti-Iraq war Veterans|Thompson, Hunter S.]] [[Category:Writers who committed suicide|Thompson, Hunter S.]] [[cv:Хантер Томпсон]] [[da:Hunter S. Thompson]] [[de:Hunter S. Thompson]] [[fr:Hunter S. Thompson]] [[it:Hunter Stockton Thompson]] [[nl:Hunter S. Thompson]] [[no:Hunter S. Thompson]] [[pt:Hunter S. Thompson]] [[ru:Томпсон, Хантер]] [[simple:Hunter S. Thompson]] [[fi:Hunter S. Thompson]] [[sv:Hunter S. Thompson]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Historicism</title> <id>14329</id> <revision> <id>41318629</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T15:06:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>216.119.158.199</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Historicism''' is a term which applies to a number of theories of culture or historical development which place the greatest weight on two factors: # that there is an organic succession of developments, # that local conditions and peculiarities influence the results in a decisive way It can be contrasted with [[reductionism|reductionist]] theories which suppose that all developments are individual and ''[[ad hoc]]''. Separate from these usages is the [[#Biblical historicism|Biblical use]] of the word to denote Bible prophecy interpreted as having to do with church history, as opposed to any type of interpretation. The term has developed different and divergent, though loosely related, meanings. Elements of some appear in the extensive writings of [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|G.W.F. Hegel]], one of the most influential [[philosophy | philosopher]]s of [[Nineteenth Century | 19th-century]] [[Europe]], as well as in those of a philosopher he deeply influenced, [[Karl Marx]]. It is also associated with the empirical social sciences and the work of [[Franz Boas]]. The Austrian/English philosopher [[Karl Popper]] described what he called &quot;historicism&quot; and attacked it, and the [[determinism]] which he argued was at its root. Post-structuralism uses the term [[New Historicism]], which has some connections to both anthropology and Hegelianism, but is treated in its own separate article. == Variants of historicism == === Hegelian historicism === The historicist position proposed by [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]] suggests that any human [[society]] and all human activities such as [[science]], [[art]], or [[philosophy]], are defined by their history, so that their essence can be sought only through understanding that history. The history of any such human endeavor, moreover, not only builds upon but also reacts against what has gone before; this is the source of Hegel's famous [[dialectic]] teaching usually summed up by the slogan &quot;[[thesis]], [[antithesis]], and [[synthesis]].&quot; (Hegel did not use these terms, although [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]] did.) His famous aphorism, &quot;Philosophy is the history of philosophy,&quot; describes it bluntly. Hegel's position is perhaps best illuminated when contrasted against the atomistic and reductionist view of human societies and social activities self-defining on an ''ad hoc'' basis through the sum of dozens of interactions. Yet another contrasting model is the persistent metaphor of a [[social contract]]. Hegel sees the relationship between individuals and societies as organic, not atomic: even their social discourse is mediated by [[philosophy of language|language]], and language is rooted in [[etymology]] and unique character. It thus preserves the culture of the past in thousands of half-forgotten frozen [[metaphor]]s. To understand why a person is the way he is, you must put that person in a society: and to understand that society, you must understand its history, and the forces that shaped it. The ''[[Zeitgeist]]'', the &quot;Spirit of the Age,&quot; is the concrete embodiment of the most important factors that are acting in human history at any given time. This contrasts with teleological theories of activity, which suppose that the end is the determining factor of activity, as well as those which believe in a [[tabula rasa]], or blank slate, view, where individuals are defined by their interactions. These ideas can be taken in several directions. The [[Right Hegelians]], working from Hegel's opinions about the organicism and historically determined nature of human societies, took Hegel's historicism as a justification of the unique destiny of national groups and the importance of stability and institutions. Hegel's conception of human societies as entities greater than the individuals who constitute them influenced nineteenth century [[romantic nationalism]] and its twentieth century excesses. The [[Young Hegelians]], by contrast, took Hegel's thoughts on societies shaped by the forces of
bands who have used the Beeb for making music are [[a-ha]] and the reggae band Steel Pulse. * The BBC Micro provided in-game graphics for the BBC TV show &quot;[[The Adventure Game]]&quot;, where the BREAK key on the keyboard was covered by a plastic box to prevent accidental pressing. * The opening sequence to series 1 of the BBC spoof comedy TV show &quot;[[Look Around You]]&quot; (6 * 10 minute episodes) featured a BBC Micro, running a rudimentary [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] program. == See also == * [[Acorn Archimedes]] &amp;ndash; the next generation BBC * [[Risc PC]] &amp;ndash; the next generation Archimedes * [[:Category:BBC Micro and Acorn Electron games]] == External links == *[http://dmoz.org/Computers/Systems/Acorn/BBC/ BBC Micro page on dmoz] *[http://www.nvg.ntnu.no/bbc/history.php3 The BBC Lives!] **[http://www.nvg.org/bbc/doc/BBCUserGuide-1.00.pdf ''BBC Microcomputer System User Guide''] (PDF, 2.6 Mb) *[http://www.stairwaytohell.com/ Stairway to Hell] *[http://www.bbcmicrogames.com/ Only The Best BBC Micro Games] *[http://www.videogamejunkie.co.uk/hardware/modelb/modelb.php BBC Micro page on Videogame Junkie] {{Acorn_computers}} [[Category:Acorn Computers]] [[Category:Home computers]] [[Category:BBC]] [[de:BBC Micro]] [[es:BBC Micro]] [[it:BBC Micro]] [[nl:Acorn BBC]] [[ru:BBC Micro]] [[sv:BBC Micro]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Battle of Waterloo</title> <id>4356</id> <revision> <id>41452309</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T12:29:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Wayward</username> <id>184087</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/194.154.22.53|194.154.22.53]] ([[User talk:194.154.22.53|talk]]) to last version by Dabbler</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict |conflict=Battle of Waterloo |partof=the [[Napoleonic Wars|War of the Seventh Coalition]] |image=[[Image:Sadler,_Battle_of_Waterloo.jpg|300px]] |caption=The Battle of Waterloo by William Sadler |date=[[June 18]], [[1815]] |place=[[Waterloo, Belgium]] (''At that time located in the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'') |result=Decisive Allied victory |combatant1=[[France]] |combatant2=Anglo-Allied/[[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussian]]/ [[Netherlands|Dutch]] |commander1=[[Napoleon I of France|Napoléon Bonaparte]] |commander2=[[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Duke of Wellington]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher|Gebhard von Blücher]] |strength1=73,000 |strength2=67,000 Anglo-Dutch&lt;br/&gt;60,000 Prussian (48,000 engaged by about 18:00) |casualties1=25,000 |casualties2=22,000 }} {{Campaignbox Waterloo}} [[Image:Waterloo_campaign_map.png|thumb|300px|Map of the '''Waterloo''' campaign]] The '''Battle of Waterloo''', fought on [[June 18]], [[1815]], was [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]]'s last battle. After his exile to [[Elba]], he had reinstalled himself on the throne of [[France]] for a [[Hundred Days]]. During this time, the forces of the rest of [[Europe]] converged on him, commanded by the [[United Kingdom]]'s [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Duke of Wellington]], and [[Prussia]]'s [[Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher|Gebhard von Blücher]]. The battlefield is in present day [[Belgium]], about 12 km (7.5 miles) SSE of [[Brussels]], and 2 km (1.2 miles) from the town of [[Waterloo, Belgium|Waterloo]], at {{coor dms|50|40|45|N|4|24|25|E|}}. == Prelude == :''See main article [[Waterloo Campaign]]'' As far back as [[13 March]], six days before Napoleon reached [[Paris]], the powers at the [[Congress of Vienna]] declared him an [[outlaw]]; four days later the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]], [[Russia]], [[Austria]] and [[Prussia]] bound themselves to put 150,000 men into the field to end his rule. Napoleon knew that, once his attempts at dissuading one or more of the allies from invading France had failed, his only chance of remaining in power was to attack before the Allies put together an overwhelming force. If he could destroy the existing Allied forces in Belgium before they were reinforced, he might be able to drive the British back to the sea and knock the Prussians out of the war. [[Image:Waterloo JPG01 (9).jpg|thumb|left|150px|A fine bronze eagle statue. A commemorative monument of the Battle of Waterloo standing in front of the &quot;Bivouac de l'Empereur&quot; inn.]] Napoleon moved two armies, the Army of the North (AotN) and the Reserve Army (RA), up to the Belgium frontier without alerting the Allies. He crossed the frontier at [[Thuin]] near [[Charleroi]], engaging Prussian outposts, and split his army in two. He took the reserves and the right wing of the army and attacked the Prussians, under the command of [[Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher|General Blücher]], at the [[Battle of Ligny]] on [[June 16]] [[1815]]. The left wing of the army under [[Michel Ney|Marshal Ney]] proceeded to block the [[Nivelles]]-[[Namur (city)|Namur]] road at the crossroads of [[Quatre Bras]] so that the Anglo-Allied forces under the command of Wellington could not go to the aid of the Prussians. Ney's wing of the French army engaged Wellington's forces in the [[Battle of Quatre Bras]] on the same day as Napoleon engaged the Prussians. The outcome of the day of fighting was that, at Quatre Bras, Ney stopped any of Wellington's forces going to the aid of Blücher's Prussians and Napoleon, although unable to destroy the Prussian army, forced it to retreat in disarray. [[Image:Waterloo JPG01 (10).jpg|thumb|left|Napoléon.|175px]] This was part of Napoleon's strategy to split the much larger allied force into pieces that he could outnumber if he was allowed to attack them separately. His theory was based on the assumption that an attack through the centre of the allied forces would force the two main armies to retreat in the direction of their respective supply bases, which were in opposite directions. The general retreat of the Prussian army had taken it to the town of [[Wavre]], and this by default became the marshalling point of the army. The Prussian [[chief of staff]], General [[August von Gneisenau]], planned to further withdraw toward the [[Rhine]], away from the Anglo-Allied army. General Gneisenau believed that the British had failed in promises given to support the Prussians at the battle of Ligny. However, General Blücher arrived at Wavre - having fallen under his horse whilst leading a counter charge, and then been ridden over by French cavalry twice - and after a stormy meeting Gneisenau was persuaded to march upon Wellington's left flank at dawn with the I, II and IV Corps. The IV Corps, under the command of General [[Friedrich Wilhelm Graf Bülow von Dennewitz|Bülow von Dennewitz]], had not been present at Ligny, but arrived to reinforce the Prussian army during the night of the 17th and 18th. III Corps formed the rearguard tasked with hindering the pursuit of the Prussian army by the French. Ambiguous orders by Napoleon on the [[June 17|17th]] to his subordinate [[Marshal]] [[Emmanuel, marquis de Grouchy|Grouchy]], to pursue the Prussians with 30,000 men, contributed to Napoleon's eventual defeat. Grouchy, being a late riser, started the pursuit late on both the 17th and the 18th. On the 18th, with the right wing of the Army of the North, reinforced with a cavalry corps, he ignored [[Étienne Maurice Gérard|Gérard's]] advice to &quot;march to the sound of the guns&quot; and engaged the Prussian rearguard under the command of [[Lieutenant-General]] [[Baron]] [[Johann von Thielmann]] at the [[Battle of Wavre]]. After the Prussian defeat at Ligny, Wellington's position at Quatre Bras became untenable. During a stormy 17th, Wellington withdrew his army to the previously reconnoitered [[ridge]] at Mont St. Jean, about a mile south of his headquarters at [[Waterloo, Belgium|Waterloo]]. He was followed by the left wing of the French Army of the North under the command of [[Michel Ney|Marshal Ney]]. Napoleon joined Ney with most of the reserves which (along with the right wing of the Army of the North) had defeated the Prussians at Ligny. == Order of Battle == :''See main article [[Order of Battle of the Waterloo Campaign]]'' The battle was to involve 73,000 French soldiers; while the Allied army from Britain, [[House of Hanover|Hanover]], [[Brunswick-Lüneburg#Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel|Brunswick]], and the [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands|Netherlands]] and [[Nassau (duchy)|Nassau]] were about 67,000 men strong. (Of the 26 infantry [[brigade]]s in Wellington's army, nine were British; of the 12 cavalry brigades, 7 were British. Half the 29 [[Artillery battery|batteries]] of guns were Hanoverian or Dutch). Two and a half Prussian army corps were engaged in the battle, attacking the French right flank, bringing the number of Prussians fully engaged by about 18:00 to 48,000 men. (Two divisions under [[Friedrich Wilhelm Freiherr von Bülow|Friedrich von Bülow]], commander of the IV Corps, attacked Lobau at 16:30, [[Georg Dubislav Ludwig von Pirch|Georg von Pirch's]] II Corps and parts of [[Hans Ernst Karl, Graf von Ziethen|Graf von Ziethen's]] I Corps engaged at about 18:00.) == Battle == [[Image:Waterloo JPG01 (1).jpg|thumb|right|The famous &quot;morne plaine&quot; described by [[Victor Hugo]] and the Lions' Hillock.|300px]] At Waterloo, Wellington had the reinforced [[Hougomont]] farm, anchoring his right flank, and several other farms on his left. Napoleon faced his first major problem even before the battle began. Unsure of the Prussian Army's position since its flight from Ligny two days previously, Napoleon was all too aware of the need to begin the assault on Wellington's positions. The battle commenced at about 10:00 with an attack upon Hougoumont{{ref|start}}, but the main attack, with the most feared weapon of the era, the French [[field artillery]], was delayed for hours until the sodden ground from th
anced to the Weser in order to [[christianise]] the tribes settling here. Bremen, which may have been an older settlement, became a bishopric&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#Footnotes|2]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;; a deed claiming the town's foundation in [[788]] has now been recognised as a forgery, so the exact date is unknown. In the following centuries the bishops of Bremen were the driving force behind the [[Christianisation]] of [[Scandinavia]]. In the [[12th century]] the power of the archbishops was challenged by [[Henry the Lion]]. The duke was successful and became the factual ruler of the town. These events led to a civil government and a loss of clerical power. Bremen became a merchants' town, and its ships dominated the southern portions of the [[North Sea]]. This dominance ended when the [[Hanseatic League]], originally a trade alliance of the [[Baltic Sea]] only, expanded to the North Sea. In the early [[14th century]] ships from Bremen acted as [[pirate]]s to board hanseatic cogs. In order to avoid open war aldermen from Bremen went to the Hanseatic Council in [[Lübeck]] and agreed to becoming members of the league ([[1358]])&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#Footnotes|3]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;. Bremen remained a reluctant member of the Hanseatic League. The town demanded support for its wars against the chieftains of [[Frisia]], who ruled the region around the Weser mouth, but they seldom joined campaigns in the Baltic Sea. In [[1425]] the conflict escalated, when the citizens burnt hanseatic documents on the market place. Bremen was expelled from the league in [[1427]]. The consequences followed soon: the sudden loss of power led to territorial claims of neighbouring states (e.g. [[Oldenburg]]) and significant territorial losses. [[Image:Flag of Bremen.svg|thumb|left|Flag of Bremen, possibly inspired the [[Stars and Stripes]] ]] {| align=right |[[image:bremen.rathaus.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The town hall (Rathaus).]] |- |[[image:bremen.square.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The main square (Market Square).]] |- |[[image:bremen.cathedral.500pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The cathedral of St.Petri in Market Square.]] |- |[[image:bremen.pigs.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|252px|Swineherd and pigs sculpture in Bremen.]] |- |[[Image:weserhb.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The Weser river in Bremen]] |- |[[Image:Bremen-4muscians.jpg|250px|thumb|left|The Four musicians of Bremen]] |- |[[Image:Bremen-Roland.jpg|250px|thumb|left|The Statue of Roland]] |- |[[Image:Bremen-Becks_Brewery.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Beck &amp; Co ]] |- |[[Image:Bremen-Böttcherstraße-wall.jpg|250px|thumb|left|A wall in the Böttcherstraße Street]] |- |[[Image:Bremen_Böttcherstraße_Street_Statues.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Statues in a wall (Böttcherstraße Street)]] |- |[[Image:Bremenbank.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Bremen Bank]] |- |[[Image:Bremen Windmill.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Windmill near the Am Wall]] |- |[[Image:Bremen Townhall Whalejaws.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Jaws of a Whale inside the city town hall]] |} In [[1620]] Germany's first man-made [[Harbor|harbour]] was built at [[Bremen-Vegesack|Vegesack]]. &lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#Footnotes|6]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; On [[March 6]], [[1901]] an assassin attempted to kill [[Wilhelm II of Germany]] here. After [[World War II]], Bremen became a part of the [[Allied Occupation Zones in Germany|American occupation zone]] since the [[United States|USA]] wanted to have one port town within their zone. This prevented the inclusion of Bremen into the new Land of [[Lower Saxony]] that was formed around it within the British zone, and secured Bremen independence as a Federal State of its own right in the new [[West Germany|West German federation]]. === Historical population === :1810: 35,800 inhabitants :1830: 43,700 :1850: 55,100 :1880: 111,900 :1900: 161,200 :1925: 295,000 :1998: 550,000 &lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#Footnotes|4]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; == Sights == Many of the sights in Bremen are found in the ''Altstadt'' (Old Town), an oval area surrounded by the Weser River, on the southwest, and the ''Stadtgraben'', the former moats of the medieval city walls, on the northeast. The oldest part of the Altstadt is the southeast half, starting with the Marktplatz and ending at the Schnoor district. * The Marktplatz (Market square) is dominated by the opulent façade of the Town Hall. The building was erected between 1405 and 1410 in Gothic style, but the façade was built two centuries later (1609-12), in Renaissance style. * In front of the Town Hall stand two famous statues: one is the statue (1404) of the city's protector, [[Roland]], bearing the &quot;sword of justice&quot; and a shield decorated with an imperial eagle. The other is Gerhard Marcks's famous 1953 bronze sculpture ''Die Stadtmusikanten'' ([[Town Musicians of Bremen|Town Musicians]]) which portrays the donkey, dog, cat, and rooster of the [[Brothers_Grimm|Grimm Brothers]]' fairy tale. * Other interesting buildings in the vicinity of the Marktplatz are the ''Schütting'', a 16th-century Flemish-inspired guild hall, and the ''Stadtwaage'', the former weighing house (built in 1588), with an ornate Renaissance façade. * The impressive Cathedral St. Petri (13th century), to the east of the Marktplatz, with sculptures of [[Moses]] and [[David]], [[Saint Peter|Peter]] and [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], and Charlemagne. * The ''Liebfrauenkirche'' (Our Lady's Church) is the oldest church of the town (11th century). Its crypt features several impressive murals from the 14th century. * Off the south side of the Markplatz, the 110-metre (120 yards) Böttcherstraße was transformed in 1923-1931 by the coffee Magnate [[Ludwig Roselius]], who commissioned local artists to convert the narrow street (in medieval time, the street of the barrel makers) into an inspired mixture of [[Gothic_art|Gothic]] and [[Art Nouveau]]. Today, the street is one of Bremen's most popular attractions. * At the end of Böttcherstraße, by the Weser bank, stands the ''Martinikirche'' (St Martin's Church), a Gothic brick church built in 1229, and rebuilt in 1960 after its destruction in World War II. * Tucked away between the Cathedral and the river is the ''Schnoor'', a small, well-preserved area of crooked lanes and fishing houses from the 15th and 16th centuries, now occupied by cafés, artisan shops and art galleries. * Schlachte, the medieval harbour of Bremen (the modern port is some kilometres downstream) and today a street with one pub/bar next to the other on the one side and on the other side the river Weser. More contemporary tourist attractions include: * ''Universum Science Center'', a modern science museum * ''botanika'', an extension to a public park that attempts to the same as above ''Universum'' for biology * ''Beck's Beer Factory'', tours are available to the public which include beer tasting * The Space Center opened in [[2004]] inside the Space Park in the Gröpelingen district and closed on 2004 [[26 September]], since then a remarkable investment ruin. * The [[Kunsthalle Bremen]], an art museum with paintings from the 19th and 20th century == Constructions == * [[Mediumwave transmitter Bremen]] * [[Fallturm Bremen]] * [[Telecommunication Tower Bremen]] == Sister City == Bremen's [[Sister City|Sister Cities]] are * [[Image:Flag of Poland.svg|25px|]] [[Gdańsk]], [[Poland]] * [[Image:Flag of India.svg|25px|]] [[Pune]], [[India]] * [[Image:Flag of Latvia.svg|25px|]] [[Riga]], [[Latvia]] * [[Image:Flag of South Africa.svg|25px|]] [[Durban]], [[South Africa]] * [[Image:Flag of Turkey.svg|25px|]] [[İzmir]], [[Turkey]] == Miscellaneous == Bremen has a large and famous [[University of Bremen|university]] founded in 1971 &lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#Footnotes|5]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;, the more practice-related [[Hochschule Bremen|University of Applied Sciences]] (earliest predecessor founded in 1799) more recently the [[International University Bremen]], and several high-tech industries have settled in the city. Many of Germany's space technology exports are manufactured in [[EADS SPACE Transportation]] facilities in Bremen, such as the [[Columbus (ISS module)|Columbus]] module of the [[International Space Station]], Europe's [[Ariane 5]] rocket upper stages and the [[Automated Transfer Vehicle]]. Furthermore, Bremen is the home of the second biggest [[Airbus]] plant of Germany, producing wing equipment for the [[A300]]/[[A310]], [[A330]]/[[A340]] and [[A380]] families of aircraft. There is also a [[Mercedes-Benz]] factory in Bremen, building the [[Mercedes-Benz C-Class|C]], [[Mercedes-Benz CLK-Class|CLK]], [[Mercedes-Benz SL-Class|SL]], and [[Mercedes-Benz SLK-Class|SLK]] series of cars. [[Beck's]] beer is brewed in Bremen. Bremen has an [[Bremen Airport|international airport]] situated in the south of the city ([[ICAO]] code: EDDW / [[IATA]] code: BRE). It is home of the [[soccer]] team SV [[Werder Bremen]] which won the German Football Championship for the fourth and the German Football Cup for the fifth time in 2004, making SV Werder Bremen just the fourth team in German football history to win the double. Bremen is famous for a fairy tale by the [[Brothers Grimm]], the [[Town Musicians of Bremen]], although they never actually reach Bremen in the tale. Every year since 1036 in the last two weeks of October Bremen hosts [[Freimarkt]] (&quot;Free market&quot;), one of the world's oldest and in Germany one of today's biggest continuously celebrated fairground festival. Bremen is also host to one of the four big annual [[Techno music|Techno]] parades, the [[Vision Parade]], and also the birthplace of the American comedic [[industrial music|industrial]] musician [[Kompressor]]. In October-November 2005, Bremen hosted the 14th [[ACM]] Conference on Information and Knowledge Management ([[CIKM]][http://www.tzi.de/CIKM2005/]) == See also == * [[List of Mayors of Bremen]] == External links == {{commons|Bremen}} * [http://www.bremen.de/ Official city website] * [http://
d. [[1447]]) *[[1705]] - [[David Hartley (philosopher)|David Hartley]], English philosopher (d. [[1757]]) *[[1720]] - [[Samuel Whitbread (brewer)|Samuel Whitbread]], English brewer and politician (d. [[1796]]) *[[1748]] - [[Jacques-Louis David]], French painter (d. [[1825]]) *[[1797]] - [[Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley]], English writer (d. [[1851]]) *[[1839]] - [[Gulstan Ropert]], French Catholic prelate (d. [[1903]]) *[[1848]])- [[Andrew Onderdonk]], Railway Contractor. *[[1852]] - [[Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff]], Dutch chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1911]]) *[[1856]] - [[Carle David Tolmé Runge]], German physicist (d. [[1927]]) *[[1871]] - [[Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson]], New Zealand physicist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] (d. [[1937]]) *[[1884]] - [[Theodor Svedberg]], Swedish chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1971]]) *[[1893]] - [[Huey Long]], American politician (d. [[1935]]) *[[1896]] - [[Raymond Massey]], Canadian actor (d. [[1983]]) *[[1898]] - [[Shirley Booth]], American actress (d. [[1992]]) *[[1901]] - [[Roy Wilkins]], American civil rights leader ([[1981]]) *[[1906]] - [[Joan Blondell]], American actress (d. [[1979]]) *[[1908]] - [[Fred MacMurray]], American actor (d. [[1991]]) *[[1912]] - [[Edward Mills Purcell]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1997]]) *[[1913]] - [[Richard Stone]], British economist, [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (d. [[1991]]) *[[1918]] - [[Ted Williams]], baseball player (d. [[2002]]) *[[1919]] - [[Kitty Wells]], American singer *[[1922]] - [[Lionel Keith Murphy|Lionel Murphy]], Australian politician and judge *[[1925]] - [[Laurent de Brunhoff]], French writer and illustrator *[[1927]] - [[Geoffrey Beene]], American fashion designer *[[1930]] - [[Warren Buffett]], American entrepreneur * 1930 - [[Jerry Tarkanian]], American basketball coach *[[1935]] - [[John Phillips (musician)|John Phillips]], American singer (The [[Mamas and the Papas]]) (d. [[2001]]) *[[1939]] - [[John Peel]], English radio disc jockey (d. [[2004]]) *[[1941]] - [[Ben Jones (US)|Ben Jones]], American actor and politician *[[1943]] - [[R. Crumb]], American cartoonist *1943 - [[Jean-Claude Killy]], French skier *[[1944]] - [[Molly Ivins]], American political humorist *[[1947]] - [[Peggy Lipton]], American actress *[[1948]] - [[Lewis Black]], American comedian *[[1949]] - [[Peter Maffay]], German Rock Musician *[[1951]] - [[Timothy Bottoms]], American actor *[[1951]] - [[Dana (singer)]], Irish singer and politician *[[1954]] - [[Alexander Lukashenko]], President of Belarus *[[1959]] - [[Mark 'Jacko' Jackson]], Australian footballer and actor *[[1963]] - [[Paul Oakenfold]], British disc jockey *[[1971]] - [[Lars Frederiksen]], American Guitarist ([[Rancid]]/[[UK Subs]]) *[[1972]] - [[Cameron Diaz]], American actress * 1972 - [[Pavel Nedved]], Czech footballer *[[1974]] - [[Aaron Barrett]], American guitarist and singer ([[Reel Big Fish]]) *[[1975]] - [[Radhi Jaidi]], Tunisian footballer *[[1982]] - [[Andy Roddick]], American tennis player ==Deaths== *[[1158]] - King [[Sancho III of Castile]] (b. [[1134]]) *[[1428]] - [[Emperor Shoko of Japan]] (b. [[1401]]) *[[1483]] - King [[Louis XI of France]] (b. [[1423]]) *[[1580]] - [[Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy]] (b. [[1528]]) *[[1617]] - [[Rose of Lima]], Peruvian saint (b. [[1586]]) *[[1619]] - [[Shimazu Yoshihiro]], Japanese samurai and warlord (b. [[1535]]) *[[1751]] - [[Christopher Polhem]], Swedish scientist and inventor (b. [[1661]]) *[[1856]] - [[Gilbert Abbott à Beckett]], English writer (b. [[1811]]) *[[1879]] - [[John Bell Hood]], American Confederate general (b. [[1831]]) *[[1896]] - [[Alexei Lobanov-Rostovsky]], Russian statesman (b. [[1824]]) *[[1907]] - [[Richard Mansfield]], American actor and manager (b. [[1857]]) *[[1928]] - [[Wilhelm Wien]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1864]]) *[[1935]] - [[Henri Barbusse]], French novelist and journalist (b. [[1873]]) *[[1940]] - [[J.J. Thomson]], English physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1856]]) *[[1941]] - [[Peder Oluf Pedersen]], Danish engineer and physicist (b. [[1874]]) *[[1943]] - [[Father Eustaquio van Lieshout]], Dutch Catholic priest (b. [[1890]]) *[[1949]] - [[Arthur Fielder]], English cricketer (b. [[1877]]) *[[1961]] - [[Charles Coburn]], American actor (b. [[1877]]) *[[1981]] - [[Vera-Ellen]], American actress (b. [[1921]]) *[[1985]] - [[Taylor Caldwell]], English-born author (b. [[1900]]) *[[1991]] - [[Jean Tinguely]], Swiss painter and sculptor (b. [[1925]]) *[[1994]] - [[Lindsay Anderson]], English film director (b. [[1923]]) *[[1995]] - [[Sterling Morrison]], American guitarist ([[The Velvet Underground]]) (b. [[1942]]) *[[1999]] - [[Raymond Poïvet]], French comics artist, creator of ''[[Les Pionniers de l'Espérance]]'' (b. [[1910]]) *[[2003]] - [[Charles Bronson]], American actor (b. [[1921]]) *[[2003]] - [[Donald Davidson (philosopher)|Donald Davidson]], American philosopher (b. [[1917]]) *[[2004]] - [[Fred Lawrence Whipple]], American astronomer (b. [[1906]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[List of public holidays in Peru|Peru]] - [[Saint Rose of Lima]]'s Day *[[Turkey]] - [[Victory Day (Turkey)|Victory Day]] (to commemorate the [[Battle of Dumlupinar]] in [[1922]]) *[[International Day of the Disappeared]] ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/30 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050831.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day] * [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Aug&amp;day=30 On This Day in Canada] ---- [[August 29]] - [[August 31]] - [[July 30]] - [[September 30]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:30 Augustus]] [[ar:30 أغسطس]] [[an:30 d'agosto]] [[ast:30 d'agostu]] [[bg:30 август]] [[be:30 жніўня]] [[bs:30. avgust]] [[ca:30 d'agost]] [[ceb:Agosto 30]] [[cv:Çурла, 30]] [[co:30 d'aostu]] [[cs:30. srpen]] [[cy:30 Awst]] [[da:30. august]] [[de:30. August]] [[et:30. august]] [[el:30 Αυγούστου]] [[es:30 de agosto]] [[eo:30-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 30]] [[fo:30. august]] [[fr:30 août]] [[fy:30 augustus]] [[ga:30 Lúnasa]] [[gl:30 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 30일]] [[hr:30. kolovoza]] [[io:30 di agosto]] [[id:30 Agustus]] [[ia:30 de augusto]] [[ie:30 august]] [[is:30. ágúst]] [[it:30 agosto]] [[he:30 באוגוסט]] [[jv:30 Agustus]] [[ka:30 აგვისტო]] [[csb:30 zélnika]] [[ku:30'ê gelawêjê]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 30]] [[lb:30. August]] [[hu:Augusztus 30]] [[mk:30 август]] [[ms:30 Ogos]] [[nap:30 'e aùsto]] [[nl:30 augustus]] [[ja:8月30日]] [[no:30. august]] [[nn:30. august]] [[oc:30 d'agost]] [[pl:30 sierpnia]] [[pt:30 de Agosto]] [[ro:30 august]] [[ru:30 августа]] [[sco:30 August]] [[sq:30 Gusht]] [[scn:30 di austu]] [[simple:August 30]] [[sk:30. august]] [[sl:30. avgust]] [[sr:30. август]] [[fi:30. elokuuta]] [[sv:30 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 30]] [[tt:30. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 30]] [[th:30 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:30 tháng 8]] [[tr:30 Ağustos]] [[uk:30 серпня]] [[wa:30 d' awousse]] [[war:Agosto 30]] [[zh:8月30日]] [[pam:Agostu 30]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Acre</title> <id>1797</id> <revision> <id>41487937</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T18:22:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kbh3rd</username> <id>88976</id> </contributor> <comment>revert: &quot;pole&quot; is a linear measure, not area.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the unit of measure known as the ''acre''. For other definitions, see [[Acre (disambiguation)]].'' An '''acre''' is an [[English unit]] of area, which is also frequently used in the United States and some [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries. It is most often used to describe areas of land. == UK definition == The UK has a definition in the system of [[Imperial unit]]s of the acre in [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm The Units of Measurement Regulations 1995] as 4,046.8564224 [[metre|m²]]. This is equivalent to 43,560&amp;nbsp;square feet using the definition of foot in the same source. == U.S. customary units == The [[U.S. customary units]] definition of the acre in [http://ts.nist.gov/ts/htdocs/230/235/appxc/appxc.htm NIST Handbook 44] is 43,560.0 [[square foot|square feet]]. However, the U.S. has two definitions of foot (''international foot'' and ''survey foot'') and thus two definitions of acre: * The ''international acre'' is 4,046.8564224 m². This is based on ''international foot'' of 0.3048 m. * The U.S. ''survey acre'' is 4,046.87261 m². This is based on the U.S. ''survey foot'' of &lt;sup&gt;1200&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;frasl;&lt;sub&gt;3937&lt;/sub&gt; m. ==Related linear measurements== Two obsolete, but related, measurements are the acre's length and the acre's breadth. *1 acre's length = 1 [[furlong]], 40 [[pole (length)|poles]], or 220 yards *1 acre's breadth = 1 [[chain (unit)|chain]], 4 poles, or 22 yards == Conversion == An international acre may be [[Conversion of units|converted]] to other units because it is equivalent to exactly: * 4,046.8564224 [[metre|m²]] (SI unit) * 40.468564224 [[Are|a]], * 0.40468564224 [[hectare|ha]], * 43,560 square feet, * 4,840 square [[yard]]s, * 160 square [[rod (unit)|rod]]s, * 4 [[rood]], * 1/640 [[square mile]], * a 10:1 rectangle of 1 [[furlong]] by 1 [[chain (length)|chain]]. * 10 square chains. An acre is equivalent to approximately: * a square of side 208.71 [[feet]] (63.61 [[metre]]s). One [[square mile]] is 640 acres. A square parcel of land ¼ mile wide is 40 acres. A square parcel of land ½ mile on a side is 160 acres, the usual land tract under the [[Homestead Act]] in the [[United States]]. This results in common field lengths of ½ mile, with every [[rod (unit)|rod]] in width equal to one acre. One acre is slightly les
]] :&quot;marked the end of the true feudal age and began paving the way for strong monarchies, nation states, and national wars of the sixteenth century. Much fourteenth century feudalism had become artificial and self-conscious. Already men were finding it a little curious. It was acquiring an antiquarian interest and losing its usefulness. It was ceasing to belong to the real world of practical living.&quot; ==Questioning feudalism== ===Did feudalism exist?=== The following are historic examples that call into question the traditional use of the term feudalism. Extant sources reveal that the early [[Carolingians]] had vassals, as did other leading men in the kingdom. This relationship did become more and more standardized over the next two centuries, but there were differences in function and practice in different locations. For example, in the German kingdoms that replaced the kingdom of [[Eastern Francia]], as well as in some [[Slavic]] kingdoms, the feudal relationship was arguably more closely tied to the rise of [[Serfdom]], a system that tied peasants to the land (for more on this see the works of [[Leonard Blum]] on the history of serfdom). Moreover, the evolution of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] greatly affected the history of the feudal relationship in central Europe. If one follows long-accepted feudalism models, one might believe that there was a clear hierarchy from Emperor to lesser rulers, be they kings, dukes, princes, or margraves. These models are patently untrue: the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] was elected by a group of seven magnates, three of whom were princes of the church, who in theory could not swear allegiance to any secular lord. The French kingdoms also seem to provide clear proof that the models are accurate, until we take into consideration the fact that, when Hrolf or [[Rollo of Normandy|Rollo the Ganger]] kneeled to pay homage to [[Charles the Simple]] in return for the Duchy of [[Normandy]], accounts tell us that he knocked the king on his rump as he rose, demonstrating his view that the bond was only as strong as the lord - in this case, not strong at all. Clearly, it was possible for 'vassals' to openly disparage feudal relationships. The autonomy with which the Normans ruled their duchy supports the view that, despite any legal &quot;feudal&quot; relationship, the Normans did as they pleased. In the case of their own leadership, however, the Normans utilized the feudal relationship to bind their followers to them. It was the influence of the Norman invaders which strengthened and to some extent institutionalized the feudal relationship in England after the [[Norman Conquest]]. Since we do not use the medieval term vassalage how are we to use the term feudalism? Though it is sometimes used indiscriminately to encompass all reciprocal obligations of support and loyalty in the place of unconditional tenure of position, jurisdiction or land, the term is restricted by most historians to the exchange of specifically voluntary and personal undertakings, to the exclusion of involuntary obligations attached to tenure of &quot;unfree&quot; land: the latter are considered to be rather an aspect of [[Manorialism]], an element of feudal society but not of feudalism proper. ===Cautions on use of term &quot;feudalism&quot;=== &quot;Feudalism&quot; and related terms should be approached and used with considerable caution owing to the range of meanings associated with the term. A cautious historian like [[Fernand Braudel]] sets &quot;feudalism&quot; in quotes in applying it in wider social and economic contexts, such as &quot;the seventeenth century, when much of America was being 'feudalized' as the great ''[[hacienda]]s'' appeared&quot; (''The Perspective of the World,'' 1984, p. 403). Medieval societies never described themselves as &quot;feudal&quot;. Though used in popular parlance to represent all voluntary or customary bonds in medieval society, or a social order in which civil and military power is exercised under private contractual arrangements, the term is best considered appropriate only to the voluntary, personal undertakings binding lords and free men to protection in return for support which characterised the administrative and military order. ===Other feudal-like systems=== {{main|Feudalism (examples)}} Other feudal-like land tenure systems have existed, and continue to exist, in different parts of the world. ==Notes== *{{fnb|1}}Philip Daileader (2001). &quot;Feudalism&quot;. ''The High Middle Ages''. [[The Teaching Company]]. ISBN 1565858271 ==External links== *Paul Halsall, [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook1i.html &quot;Feudalism?&quot;] from the [[Internet Medieval Sourcebook]], history of the term. ==Bibliography== *Marc Bloch, ''Feudal Society.'' Tr. L.A. Manyon. Two volumes. Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1961 ISBN 0226059790 *Francois-Lois Ganshof, ''Feudalism.'' Tr Philip Grierson. New York: Harper and Row, 1964. *Jean-Pierre Poly and Eric Bournazel, ''The Feudal Transformation, 900-1200.'', Tr. Caroline Higgitt. New York and London: Holmes and Meier, 1991. * Susan Reynolds, ''Fiefs and Vassals: The Medieval Evidence Reinterpreted.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994 ISBN 0198206488 * Normon E. Cantor. ''Inventing the Middle Ages: The Lives, Works, and Ideas of the Great Medievalists of the Twentieth century.'' Quill, 1991. == See also == * [[Bastard feudalism]] * [[Overlord]] * [[Vassal]] * [[Pikeman]] * [[Chivalry]] * [[Knights]] * [[Majorat]] * [[Indian feudalism]] &lt;!-- interwiki --&gt; [[Category:Economic history]] [[Category:Middle Ages]] [[Category:Feudalism]] [[af:Feodalisme]] [[bg:Феодализъм]] [[ca:Feudalisme]] [[da:Feudalisme]] [[de:Feudalismus]] [[es:Feudalismo]] [[eo:Feŭdismo]] [[fr:Féodalité]] [[hr:Feudalizam]] [[hu:Feudalizmus]] [[ko:봉건제도]] [[is:Lénsskipulag]] [[it:Feudalesimo]] [[ja:封建制]] [[nl:Feodalisme]] [[no:Føydalisme]] [[pl:Feudalizm]] [[pt:Feudalismo]] [[ru:Феодализм]] [[sl:Fevdalizem]] [[fi:Feodalismi]] [[sv:Feodalism]] [[tr:Feodalizm]] [[wa:Fî]] [[zh:封建制度]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fox</title> <id>11299</id> <revision> <id>42057690</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:40:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>69.142.116.122</ip> </contributor> <comment>threw out incorrect spelling fix (was in URL)</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} [[Image:Vulpes vulpes laying in snow.jpg|thumb|A Red Fox (''Vulpes vulpes'')]] A '''fox''' is a member of any of 27 [[species]] of small [[omnivore|omnivorous]] [[canid]]s. The animal most commonly called a ''fox'' in the Western world is the [[Red Fox]] (''Vulpes vulpes''), although different species of foxes can be found on almost every [[continent]]. The presence of foxes all over the globe has led to their appearance in the [[popular culture]] and [[folklore]] of many [[nation]]s, [[tribe]]s, and other cultural groups. Fox terminology is different from that used for most canids. Male foxes are known as ''dogs'', ''tods'' or ''[[reynard]]'', females are referred to as ''vixens'', and their young are called ''kits'' or ''cubs'', as well as ''pups''. A group of foxes is a ''skulk''. ==General characteristics== With most species roughly the size of a [[domestic cat]], foxes are smaller than other members of the family ''[[Canidae]]'', such as [[wolf|wolves]], [[jackal]]s, and domestic [[dog]]s. Recognizable characteristics also include pointed muzzles and bushy tails. Other physical characteristics vary according to their habitat. For example, the Desert Fox has large ears and short fur, whereas the Arctic Fox has small ears and thick, insulating fur. Unlike many canids, foxes are not pack animals. They are solitary, opportunistic feeders that hunt live prey (especially [[rodent]]s). Using a pouncing technique practiced from an early age, they are usually able to kill their prey quickly. Foxes also gather a wide variety of other foods ranging from [[grasshopper]]s to [[fruit]] and [[berry|berries]]. Foxes are nearly always extremely wary of humans, and are not kept as pets, but the [[Tame Silver Fox|Silver Fox]] was successfully [[domesticated]] in Russia after a 45 year selective breeding program. ==Classification== {| cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;float: right&quot; |- | [[Image:Rød ræv (Vulpes vulpes).jpg|thumb|right|[[Red Fox]]]] |- | [[Image:Desert fox with mouth open.jpg|thumb|right|[[Desert Kit Fox]]]] |- | [[Image:Black fox in den.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Black Fox]] |- | &lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Fox_face_close_up!.jpg|thumb|right|[[Red Fox]]]] --&gt; |- |} Foxes include members of the following genera: * ''[[Alopex]]'' ([[Arctic Fox]]) * ''[[Cerdocyon]]'' ([[Crab-eating Fox]]) * ''[[Dusicyon]]'' ([[Falkland Island Fox]]) * ''[[Fennecus]]'' ([[Fennec]], or [[Desert Fox]]) * ''[[Lycalopex]]'' ([[Hoary Fox]]) * ''[[Otocyon]]'' ([[Bat-eared Fox]]) * ''[[Pseudalopex]]'' (four [[South America]]n species, including the [[Culpeo]]) * ''[[Urocyon]]'' ([[Gray Fox]] and [[Island Fox]]) * ''[[Vulpes]]'' (the ten species of &quot;true&quot; foxes, including the [[Red Fox]] (vulpes vulpes) ==Vocalisation== Foxes do not come together in chorus like wolves or coyotes do. Fox families, however, keep in contact with a wide array of different sounds. These sounds grade into one another and span five octaves; each fox has its own characteristically individual voice. Fox noises can be divided, with a few exceptions, into two different groups: contact sounds and interaction sounds. The former is used by foxes communicating over long distances, the latter in close quarters. ; &quot;Wow-wow-wow&quot; : The most well-known vulpine noise is a sort of barking that spans three to five syllables. &quot;Conversations&quot; made up of these noises often occur between widely spaced foxes. As their distance decreases, the sound becomes qu
;Bunk&quot;]] (1879-1949), American &lt;!-- jazz --&gt; musician *[[William H. Johnson|Johnson, William H.]] (fl. 1860s), American barber &lt;!-- President Abraham Lincoln's barber and valet [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=9475088]--&gt; *[[William Henry Johnson|Johnson, William Henry]] (1890-1945), English soldier *[[Zip Johnson|Johnson, William Henry &quot;Zip&quot;]], circus entertainer *[[Judy Johnson|Johnson, William Julius &quot;Judy&quot;]] (1899-1989), American baseball player *[[William R. Johnson|Johnson, William R.]] (fl. 1990s), American business manager *[[William Samuel Johnson|Johnson, William Samuel]], (1727-1819), American politician &lt;!-- founding father, Senator for Connecticut --&gt; *[[Sir William Johnson, 1st Baronet|Johnson, William, Sir]], (1715-1774), British pioneer and soldier *[[William Summer Johnson|Johnson, William Summer]], (1913-1995), American chemist, steroid researcher *[[Blind Willie Johnson|Johnson, Willie, &quot;Blind&quot;]], (c. 1902-1947), musician ==== Johnst ==== *[[Albert Sidney Johnston|Johnston, Albert Sidney]], (1803-1862), Confederate general *[[Bruce Johnston|Johnston, Bruce]], (born 1944) musician *[[Daniel Johnston|Johnston, Daniel]], musician *[[David L. Johnston|Johnston, David L.]], (b. 1940 or 1941), Canadian jurist &amp; academic administrator *[[Don Johnston|Johnston, Donald]], (b. 1936), Canadian politician *[[Gabriel Johnston|Johnston, Gabriel]], (1699-1752), British governor of colonial North Carolina *[[George Johnston|Johnston, George]], novelist *[[Harry Johnston|Johnston, Harry]], (1858-1927), British explorer of Africa *[[Jennifer Johnston|Johnston, Jennifer]], member of [[Aosdána]] *[[John W. Johnston|Johnston, John W.]], (1818-1889), American lawyer, U.S. Senator for Virginia *[[Lynn Johnston|Johnston, Lynn]], cartoonist *[[Mary Johnston|Johnston, Mary]], American novelist *[[Paul W. Johnston|Johnston, Paul W.]], president of the [[Erie Railroad]] [[1949]]&amp;ndash;[[1956]] *[[Rienzi Melville Johnston|Johnston, Rienzi M.]], (1849-1926), American news publisher, U.S. Senator from Texas *[[Rita Johnston|Johnston, Rita]] *[[Samuel Johnston|Johnston, Samuel]], (1733-1816), U.S. Senator, Governor of North Carolina *[[Stevie Johnston|Johnston, Stevie]], world champion boxer *[[Thomas Johnston|Johnston, Tom]], aka Tam Johnston, post WW2 Secretary of State for Scotland *[[Tracy Johnston|Johnston, Tracy]], owner of [[splanic.com]] *[[Wayne A. Johnston|Johnston, Wayne A.]], (1897-1967), American railroad executive *[[John Johnstone|Johnstone, John]], a mayor of New York City *[[Paul Neil Milne Johnstone|Johnstone, Paul Neil Milne]] (-2004), poet == Johs == *[[Hanns Johst|Johst, Hanns]] (1890-1978), German Nazi playwright [[de:Liste der Biographien/Jo]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>List of people by name: K</title> <id>3900</id> <revision> <id>31159684</id> <timestamp>2005-12-13T06:04:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>FlaBot</username> <id>228773</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: simple</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{List of people K}} {{Index only| a person}} &lt;!-- This comment exists to keep this permanently short page (like others that should never include names, within the tree whose root is List of people by name ) from appearing on the shortest-articles page: otherwise these pages would obscure the pages there that probably can be expanded soon or deleted. This comment can be removed, if the design of this page ever changes to result in a sufficient length of source text. --&gt; [[de:Liste der Biografien/K]] [[es:Lista de biografías (K)]] [[eo:Listo de biografioj - K]] [[nl:Biografielijst K]] [[pl:Noty biograficzne - K]] [[pt:Biografias: K]] [[simple:List of people by name: K]] [[sv:Lista över personer efter namn: K]] [[zh:人名表/K]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>List of people by name: L</title> <id>3901</id> <revision> <id>22190933</id> <timestamp>2005-08-30T18:28:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>LeonardoRob0t</username> <id>389639</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Modifying: de</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{List of people L}} {{Index only| a person}} &lt;!-- This comment exists to keep this permanently short page (like others that should never include names, within the tree whose root is List of people by name ) from appearing on the shortest-articles page: otherwise these pages would obscure the pages there that probably can be expanded soon or deleted. This comment can be removed, if the design of this page ever changes to result in a sufficient length of source text. --&gt; [[de:Liste der Biografien/L]] [[es:Lista de biografías (L)]] [[eo:Listo de biografioj - L]] [[nl:Biografielijst L]] [[pl:Noty biograficzne - L]] [[pt:Biografias: L]] [[sv:Lista över personer efter namn: L]] [[zh:人名表/L]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>List of people by name: M</title> <id>3902</id> <revision> <id>22191604</id> <timestamp>2005-08-30T18:40:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>LeonardoRob0t</username> <id>389639</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Modifying: de</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{List of people M}} {{Index only| a person}} &lt;!-- This comment exists to keep this permanently short page (like others that should never include names, within the tree whose root is List of people by name ) from appearing on the shortest-articles page: otherwise these pages would obscure the pages there that probably can be expanded soon or deleted. This comment can be removed, if the design of this page ever changes to result in a sufficient length of source text. --&gt; [[de:Liste der Biografien/M]] [[es:Lista de biografías (M)]] [[eo:Listo de biografioj - M]] [[nl:Biografielijst M]] [[pl:Noty biograficzne - M]] [[pt:Biografias: M]] [[sv:Lista över personer efter namn: M]] [[zh:人名表/M]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>List of people by name: N</title> <id>3903</id> <revision> <id>33005218</id> <timestamp>2005-12-28T15:47:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>FlaBot</username> <id>228773</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: simple</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{List of people N}} {{Index only| a person}} &lt;!-- This comment exists to keep this permanently short page (like others that should never include names, within the tree whose root is List of people by name ) from appearing on the shortest-articles page: otherwise these pages would obscure the pages there that probably can be expanded soon or deleted. This comment can be removed, if the design of this page ever changes to result in a sufficient length of source text. --&gt; [[de:Liste der Biografien/N]] [[es:Lista de biografías (N)]] [[eo:Listo de biografioj - N]] [[nl:Biografielijst N]] [[pl:Noty biograficzne - N]] [[pt:Biografias: N]] [[simple:List of people by name: N]] [[sv:Lista över personer efter namn: N]] [[zh:人名表/N]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>List of people by name: Oa-Ok</title> <id>3904</id> <revision> <id>41879281</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T08:49:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dale Arnett</username> <id>25667</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Oco - Oct */ + Paul O'Connell</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{List of people O}} ==Oa== *[[Jack Oakie|Oakie, Jack]], (1903-1978), actor *[[Annie Oakley|Oakley, Annie]], (1860-1926), US sharpshooter *[[Berry Oakley|Oakley, Berry]], (1948-1972), American musician *[[John Oates|Oates, John]], (born 1949), musician (&quot;[[Hall and Oates]]&quot;) *[[Johnny Oates|Oates, Johnny]], (1946-2004), US baseball catcher and manager *[[Joyce Carol Oates|Oates, Joyce Carol]], (born 1938), US author, novelist *[[Mary Ann Oates (1844-1851)|Oates, Mary Ann]] (1844-1851), young slavery victim *[[Olive Oates|Oates, Olive]], (1838-1903), US survivor of Indian abuses *[[Titus Oates|Oates, Titus]], (died 1706), British Protestant agitator ==Ob== ===Oba - Obo=== *[[Olusegun Obasanjo|Obasanjo, Olusegun]], (born 1937); President of [[Nigeria]] (1976-1979; 1999-present) *[[Fulgencio Obelmejias|Obelmejias, Fulgencio]], (born 1953), Venezuelan world boxing champion *[[Christina Obergföll|Obergföll, Christina]], (born 1981), German athlete *[[Josef Oberhauser|Oberhauser, Josef]], commander of the [[Belzec]] [[Extermination camp]] *[[Herta Oberheuser|Oberheuser, Herta]], (1911-1978), doctor, dubious experimenter *[[Sheldon Oberman|Oberman, Sheldon]], Canadian writer *[[Gerlinde Obermeier|Obermeier, Gerlinde]], dramatist, author *[[Ryan Obermeyer|Obermeyer, Ryan]] (born 1981), American digital artist *[[Mohan Singh Oberoi|Oberoi, Mohan Singh]], (died 2002), hotelier, founder of the Oberoi chain of hotels *[[Vivek Oberoi|Oberoi, Vivek]], Indian actor *[[Merle Oberon|Oberon, Merle]], (1911-1979), actor *[[Hermann Oberth|Oberth, Hermann]], (1894-1989), German physicist *[[Brane Oblak|Oblak, Brane]], football player *[[Milton Obote|Obote, Milton]], twice [[Uganda]]n dictator === Obr === *[[Dositej Obradovic|Obradovic, Dositej]], [[Serbs|Serb]] *[[Graeme Obree|Obree, Graeme]], broke world hour record (on a home-made bike) *[[Alexander Obrenovic|Obrenovic, Alexander]], (1889-1903), king of [[Serbia]] *[[Mihailo Obrenovic|Obrenovic, Mihailo]], Serbian monarch, son of [[Milosh Obrenovic|Obrenovic, Milosh]] *[[Milosh Obrenovic|Obrenovic, Milosh]], (1815-1839, 1858-1860), Serbian monarch *[[Murchadh O'Brian of the Isle of Man|O'Brian, Murchadh of the Isle]], (1115-1137), king *[[Patrick O'Brian|O'Brian, Patrick]], (1914-2000), UK author *[[Edna O'Brien|O'Brien, Edna]], [[nov
n Small-Town America]]'' ([[1989]]) *''[[Neither Here Nor There: Travels in Europe]]'' ([[1991]]) *''[[Notes from a Small Island]]'' ([[1995]]) (travels in the United Kingdom, his farewell to the country he was temporarily leaving; adapted for television by [[Carlton Television]] in [[1998]]) *''[[A Walk in the Woods]]: Rediscovering America on the Appalachian Trail'' ([[1998]]) (co-stars Stephen Katz) *''[[I'm a Stranger Here Myself: Notes on Returning to America After Twenty Years Away]]'' (US Edition) / ''[[Notes From a Big Country]]'' (UK Edition) ([[1998]], columns about moving back to the USA) *''[[In a Sunburned Country]]'' (US edition) / ''[[Down Under (disambiguation)|Down Under]]'' (UK edition) ([[2000]]) (travels in [[Australia]]) *''[[Bill Bryson's African Diary]]'' ([[2002]]) (travels in [[Africa]]) === Books on language === *''[[The Mother Tongue (book)|The Mother Tongue: English and How it Got That Way]]'' ([[1990]]) *''[[Made In America|Made in America: An Informal History of the English Language in the United States]]'' ([[1994]]) *''[[Bryson's Dictionary of Troublesome Words]]'' ([[2002]]) === Books on science === *''[[A Short History of Nearly Everything]]'' ([[2003]]) ===Memoir=== *''[[The Life and Times of the Thunderbolt Kid]]'' ([[2006]]) ==External links== {{wikiquote}} *[http://www.randomhouse.com/features/billbryson/home.html Official Bill Bryson Web site] *[http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/page.asp?id=2983 Bill Bryson - A short history of nearly everything presentation] at the [[Royal Society]] {| border=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|Preceded by:&lt;br /&gt;'''[[Peter Ustinov|Sir Peter Ustinov]]''' |width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''[[Durham University|Chancellor of Durham University]]'''&lt;br /&gt;2005&amp;ndash; |width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|Followed by:&lt;br /&gt;'''Current incumbent''' |} [[Category:1951 births|Bryson, Bill]] [[Category:Living people|Bryson, Bill]] [[Category:Science writers|Bryson, Bill]] [[Category:American travel writers|Bryson, Bill]] [[Category:Non-fiction outdoors writers|Bryson, Bill]] [[Category:People from Iowa|Bryson, Bill]] [[Category:Travel writers|Bryson, Bill]] [[Category:American_humorists|Bryson, Bill]] [[de:Bill Bryson]] [[eo:Bill BRYSON]] [[nl:Bill Bryson]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Big Audio Dynamite</title> <id>5051</id> <revision> <id>41824958</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:04:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DantheCowMan</username> <id>685387</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Members */ link [[Dan Donovan]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{unreferenced}}[[Image:ThisisBAD.jpg|frame|''This is Big Audio Dynamite'' album cover.]]'''Big Audio Dynamite''' was the primary musical outlet of [[Mick Jones (The Clash)|Mick Jones]], formerly of punk pioneers [[The Clash]]. Big Audio Dynamite ('''BAD''', for short) was founded in [[1984 in music|1984]] with film director Don Letts (''[[The Punk Rock Movie]]'', various Clash videos, and later the Clash documentary ''[[Westway to the World]]''). The first BAD album, ''This Is Big Audio Dynamite'', was released a year later. The single &quot;E=MC&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&quot; was in heavy [[rotation]] in [[dance club]]s at the time. [[1986 in music|1986]]'s ''No. 10, Upping St.'' reunited Jones for one album with former Clash-mate [[Joe Strummer]] who co-produced the album and co-wrote a number of songs, but that reacquaintance soon ended. BAD opened for [[U2]] on their [[1987 in music|1987]] world tour, then followed with 1988's ''Tighten Up, Vol. '88'' and [[1989 in music|1989]]/[[1990s in music|1990s]] ''Megatop Phoenix''. After a complete reworking of the lineup that left Jones as the sole remaining original member, BAD then released the critically acclaimed, limited edition mini-album ''Kool-Aid'' - a prelude to [[1991 in music|1991]]'s ''The Globe'', which produced the band's most commercially successful single, &quot;Rush&quot;. After signing with [[Gary Kurfirst]]'s [[Radioactive Records]] in [[1995 in music|1995]], and releasing a rather tepid album, ''F-Punk'', BAD found its proposed next album ''Entering a New Ride,'' in limbo -- the record company apparently refused to release it. Coincidentally, the new line-up featured the inclusion of vocalist [[Rankin' Roger]] ([[The Beat (band)|The Beat]], [[General Public]]). In [[1998 in music|1998]], the band launched a new web site, primarily as a means to distribute songs from the ''Entering a New Ride'' album to the group's fans. Jones has shuffled the line up of the group several times, and even renamed them '''[[Big Audio Dynamite II]]''' (in 1991) and '''Big Audio''' ([[1994 in music|1994]]), but critics argue that the band never really captured the cutting-edge promise of their debut album, with the possible exception of the 1989 release. [[As of 2005]], Jones is working on a project with [[Tony James]] (ex. of GenX and [[Sigue Sigue Sputnik]]) called [[Carbon/Silicon]]. == Members == ==== Big Audio Dynamite (1984 - 1990) ==== *Mick Jones - guitars &amp; vocals *[[Dan Donovan]] - keyboards *Don Letts - sound effects &amp; vocals *Greg Roberts - drums &amp; background vocals *Leo Williams - bass ==== Big Audio Dynamite II/Big Audio (1990 - 1998) ==== *Mick Jones - guitars &amp; vocals *Darryl Fulstow - bass (1995 - 1998) *Nick Hawkins - guitar *Chris Kavanagh - drums (1990 - 1995) *Andre Shapps - keyboards *Gary Stonadge - bass (1990 - 1995) *Bob Wond - drums (1995 - 1998) == Discography == === Albums === {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; !align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;40&quot;|Year !align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Album !align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;40&quot;|[[UK Albums Chart|UK]] !align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;40&quot;|[[Billboard 200|US]] !align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Additional information |- |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[1985 in music|1985]] |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''[[This is Big Audio Dynamite]]'' |align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|27 |align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|103 |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|as &quot;Big Audio Dynamite&quot; |- |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[1986 in music|1986]] |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''[[No. 10 Upping St.]]'' |align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|11 |align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|135 |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|as &quot;Big Audio Dynamite&quot; |- |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[1988 in music|1988]] |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''[[Tighten Up, Vol. 88]]'' |align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|33 |align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|102 |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|as &quot;Big Audio Dynamite&quot; |- |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[1989 in music|1989]] |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''[[Megatop Phoenix]]'' |align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|26 |align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|85 |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|as &quot;Big Audio Dynamite&quot; |- |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[1990 in music|1990]] |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''[[Kool-Aid (album)|Kool-Aid]]'' |align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|- |align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|- |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|as &quot;Big Audio Dynamite II&quot; |- |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[1991 in music|1991]] |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''[[The Globe (album)|The Globe]]'' |align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|- |align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|76 |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|as &quot;Big Audio Dynamite II&quot;, [[Gold album|Gold]] Certified |- |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1991 |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''[[Ally Pally Paradiso]]'' |align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|- |align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|- |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|The &quot;Live Official Bootleg&quot;, as &quot;Big Audio Dynamite II&quot; |- |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[1993 in music|1993]] |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''[[The Lost Treasures of Big Audio Dynamite I &amp; II]]'' |align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|- |align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|- |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|hits compilation album |- |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[1994 in music|1994]] |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''[[Higher Power (album)|Higher Power]]'' |align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|- |align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|- |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|as &quot;Big Audio&quot; |- |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[1995 in music|1995]] |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''[[Planet B.A.D.]]'' |align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|- |align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|- |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|general &quot;best of&quot; compilation for all B.A.D. variants |- |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1995 |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''[[F-Punk]]'' |align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|- |align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|- |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|as &quot;Big Audio Dynamite&quot; |- |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[1999 in music|1999]] |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''Super Hits'' |align=&quot;cente
o=7835|name=Lothair}}) *''[[Endymion (novel)|Endymion]]'' (1880; {{gutenberg|no=7926|name=Endymion}}) *''[[Falconet (book)]]'' (unfinished 1881) ====Non-fiction==== *''[[An Inquiry into the Plans, Progress, and Policy of the American Mining Companies]]'' (1825) *''[[Lawyers and Legislators]]: or, Notes, on the American Mining Companies'' (1825) *''[[The present state of Mexico]]'' (1825) *''England and France, or a Cure for the Ministerial [[Gallomania]]'' (1832) *''[[What Is He?]]'' (1833) *''[[The Letters of Runnymede]]'' (1836) *''[[Lord George Bentinck (book)|Lord George Bentinck]]'' (1852) [[Image:Benjamin-Disraeli-arms.PNG|thumb|right|150px|Arms of Benjamin Disraeli]] ==Biographies of Disraeli== *[[Robert Blake, Baron Blake|Robert Blake]], ''Disraeli'' (1966) *Sarah Bradford, ''Disraeli'' ([[1982 in literature|1982]]) *Christopher Hibbert, ''Disraeli and His World'' ([[1978 in literature|1978]]) *Christopher Hibbert, ''Disraeli, a Personal History'' ([[2004 in literature|2004]]) *[[André Maurois]], ''Disraeli'' ([[1927 in literature|1927]]) *[[Hesketh Pearson]], ''Dizzy'' ([[1951 in literature|1951]]) *Jane Ridley, ''Young Disraeli, 1804-1846'' ([[1995 in literature|1995]]) *Stanley Weintraub, ''Disraeli'' ([[1993 in literature|1993]]) ==References in Modern Culture== *The episode of the animated television show ''[[Family Guy]]'' entitled &quot;One If By Clam, Two If By Sea&quot; features Disraeli. Lois tells Peter that all British men are charming, to which Peter responds: &quot;That's what they said about Benjamin Disraeli.&quot; The scene then cuts to Disraeli sitting at a desk writing with a quill; he looks at the camera and says, &quot;You don't even know who I am.&quot; *The 1967 [[Cream (band)|Cream]] album [[Disraeli Gears]] takes its name from a roadie's confusion between the name D'Israeli and the [[derailleur]] gears of a bicycle. *Disraeli Street in Epsom, Auckland is in an affluent, desirable residential area. He was not given the honour of a town or another major placemark namesake in [[New Zealand]], like earlier Prime Ministers such as Palmerston ([[Palmerston North]]) or Pitt ([[Pitt Island]]). ==Films about Disraeli== *''[[Disraeli (movie)|Disraeli]]'' ([[1929 in film|1929]]) [[George Arliss]] ([[Academy Award for Best Actor|Best Actor Oscar]]), [[Joan Bennett]] *''[[The Mudlark]]'' ([[1950 in film|1950]]) [[Alec Guinness]] *''[[Disraeli (movie)|Disraeli]]'' ([[1978 in film|1978]]) [[Ian McShane]], [[Mary Peach]] (''[[Masterpiece Theatre]]'' four-part series) *''[[Mrs. Brown]]'' ([[1997 in film|1997]])[[Sir Antony Sher]] ==Notes== &lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt; #{{note|blake.disraeli.84-86}} Robert Blake, ''Disraeli'', (New York, 1966), 84-86. #{{note|blake.disraeli.87}} ''Ibid'', 87 #{{note|blake.disraeli.301-305}} ''Ibid'', 301-305. #{{note|second.reform.opportunistic}} Sean Lang, ''Parliamentary Reform, 1785-1928'', (Routledge, 1999), ''passim''. #{{note|blake.disraeli.485-487}} Blake, ''Disraeli'', 485-487. #{{note|blake.disraeli.487-489}} ''Ibid'', 487-489. #{{note|blake.disraeli.496-502}} ''Ibid'', 496-502. &lt;/div&gt; ==References== &lt;!--Please note that in the real world references means those works used in creating the article, NOT random snippets of popular culture --the Mgmt --&gt; * {{DisraeliRef}} * Jerman, B. R. ''The Young Disraeli''. [[1960 in literature|1960]]. ==See also== *[[History of the Jews in England]] ==External links== {{wikiquote}} {{wikisource author|Benjamin Disraeli}} *{{gutenberg author | id=Benjamin+Disraeli | name=Benjamin Disraeli}} *[http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/005/198cdapm.asp Disraeli as the inventor of modern conservatism] at ''[[The Weekly Standard]]'' &lt;br&gt; {{start box}} {{succession box | title=[[Leaders of the Conservative Party|Conservative Leader in the Commons]] | before=[[Charles Manners, 6th Duke of Rutland|Marquess of Granby]] | years=1849&amp;ndash;1876&lt;br&gt;with '''[[Charles Manners, 6th Duke of Rutland|Marquess of Granby]]'''&lt;br&gt;and '''[[John Charles Herries]]''' to 1851 | after=[[Stafford Northcote, 1st Earl of Iddesleigh|Sir Stafford Northcote, Bt]]}} {{succession box | title=[[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] | before=[[Charles Wood, 1st Viscount Halifax|Sir Charles Wood]] | after=[[William Ewart Gladstone]] | years=1852}} {{succession box | title=[[Leader of the House of Commons]] | before=[[John Russell, 1st Earl Russell|The Lord John Russell]] | after=[[John Russell, 1st Earl Russell|The Lord John Russell]] | years=1852}} {{succession box | title=[[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] | before=[[George Cornewall Lewis|Sir George Lewis, Bt]] | after=[[William Ewart Gladstone]] | years=1858&amp;ndash;1859}} {{succession box | title=[[Leader of the House of Commons]] | before=[[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|The Viscount Palmerston]] | after=[[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|The Viscount Palmerston]] | years=1858&amp;ndash;1859}} {{succession box two by four to three | title1=[[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] | before1=[[William Ewart Gladstone]] | after1=[[George Ward Hunt]] | years1=1866&amp;ndash;1868 | title2=[[Leader of the House of Commons]] | after2=[[William Ewart Gladstone]] | years2=1866&amp;ndash;1868 | before2=[[Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby|The Earl of Derby]] | title3=[[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] | title4=[[Leaders of the Conservative Party|Leader of the British Conservative Party]] | after3=[[Stafford Henry Northcote, 1st Earl of Iddesleigh|Sir Stafford Northcote, Bt]]&lt;br&gt;'''and '''[[Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury|The Marquess of Salisbury]] | years3=1868 | years4=1868&amp;ndash;1881}} {{succession box one to two | title1=[[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] | before=[[William Ewart Gladstone]] | after1=[[William Ewart Gladstone]] | years1=1874&amp;ndash;1880 | title2=[[Leader of the House of Commons]] | after2=[[Stafford Northcote, 1st Earl of Iddesleigh|Sir Stafford Northcote, Bt]] | years2=1874&amp;ndash;1876}} {{succession box | title=[[Lord Privy Seal]] | before=[[James Howard Harris, 3rd Earl of Malmesbury|The Earl of Malmesbury]] | after=[[Algernon Percy, 6th Duke of Northumberland|The Duke of Northumberland]] | years=1876&amp;ndash;1878}} {{succession box one to two | title1=[[Leader of the House of Lords]] | title2=[[Leaders of the Conservative Party|Conservative Leader in the Lords]] | before=[[Charles Gordon-Lennox, 6th Duke of Richmond|The Duke of Richmond]] | after1=[[Granville George Leveson-Gower, 2nd Earl Granville|The Earl Granville]] | after2=[[Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury|The Marquess of Salisbury]] | years1=1876&amp;ndash;1880 | years2=1876&amp;ndash;1881}} {{end box}} {{start box}} {{succession box | title=[[Maidstone and The Weald (UK Parliament constituency)|Member for Maidstone]] | before=[[Abraham Robarts]] | after=[[Alexander Beresford-Hope]]&lt;br&gt;[[George Dodd]] | years=1837&amp;ndash;1841}} {{succession box | title=[[Shrewsbury and Atcham (UK Parliament constituency)|Member for Shrewsbury]] | before=[[Richard Jenkins (UK politician|Richard Jenkins]]&lt;br&gt;[[Robert Slaney]] | after=[[Edward Baldock]]&lt;br&gt;[[Robert Slaney]] | years=1841&amp;ndash;1847}} {{succession box | title=[[Buckinghamshire (UK Parliament constituency)|Member for Buckinghamshire]] | before=[[William Fitzmaurice]]&lt;br&gt;[[Christopher Tower]] | after=[[Thomas Fremantle, 2nd Baron Cottesloe|Thomas Fremantle]] | years=1847&amp;ndash;1876}} {{end box}} {{start box}} {{succession box | before=New creation | title=[[Earl of Beaconsfield]] | after=Title extinct | years=1876&amp;ndash;1881}} {{end box}} {{UKPrimeMinisters}} {{Chancellor of the Exchequer}} {{ConservativePartyLeader}} [[Category:1804 births|Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of]] [[Category:1881 deaths|Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of]] [[Category:British MPs|Disraeli, Benjamin]] [[Category:Chancellors of the Exchequer|Disraeli, Benjamin]] [[Category:Earls in the Peerage of the United Kingdom|Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of]] [[Category:Anglicans|Disraeli, Benjamin]] [[Category:Jewish-English people|Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of]] [[Category:Knights of the Garter|Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of]] [[Category:Leaders of the British Conservative Party|Disraeli, Benjamin]] [[Category:Londoners|Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of]] [[Category:Lords Privy Seal|Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of]] [[Category:People of Buckinghamshire|Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of]] [[Category:Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom|Disraeli, Benjamin]] [[Category:English novelists|Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of]] [[Category:English biographers|Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of]] [[Category:English non-fiction writers|Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of]] [[bg:Бенджамин Дизраели]] [[da:Benjamin Disraeli]] [[de:Benjamin Disraeli]] [[es:Benjamin Disraeli]] [[fr:Benjamin Disraeli]] [[gl:Benjamin Disraeli]] [[id:Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield]] [[it:Benjamin Disraeli]] [[he:בנימין ד'יזראלי]] [[nl:Benjamin Disraeli]] [[ja:ベンジャミン・ディズレーリ]] [[nn:Benjamin Disraeli]] [[pl:Benjamin Disraeli]] [[pt:Benjamin Disraeli]] [[ru:Дизраэли, Бенджамин]] [[fi:Benjamin Disraeli]] [[sv:Benjamin Disraeli]] [[uk:Дізраелі Бенджамін]] [[zh:本杰明·迪斯雷利 (比肯斯菲尔德伯爵)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Binomial distribution</title> <id>3876</id> <revision> <id>39656025</id> <timestamp>2006-02-14T23:41:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Linas</username> <id>159886</id> </contributor> <comment>ad cat [[Category:Factorial and binomial topics]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- EDITORS! Please see [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Probability#Standards]] for
s and black turbans or caps with a red piece of garment on it. [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] sultans were similarly diligent and inventive in regulating the clothings of their non-Muslim subjects. In 1577, [[Murad III]] issued a [[firman]] forbidding Jews and Christians to wear dress, turbans, and sandals. In 1580, he changed his mind restricting the previous prohibition to turbans and requiring dhimmis to wear black shoes; Jews and Christians also had to wear red and black hats, respectively. Observing in 1730 that some Muslims took a habit of wearing caps similar to those of the Jews, [[Mahmud I]] ordered to hang the perpetrators. [[Mustafa III]] personally helped to enforce his decrees regarding clothes. In 1758, he was walking incognito in [[Istanbul]] and ordered to behead a Jew and an [[Armenians|Armenian]] seen in forbidden attire. The last Ottoman decree affirming the distinctive clothing for dhimmis was issued in 1837 by [[Mahmud II]]. Discriminatory clothing did not exist only in those Ottoman provinces where Christians were in majority, e.g. in Greece and the Balkans. {{ref|cloth}}&lt;!--In Persia, Zoroastrians were obliged to wear torn caps.--&gt; ====Riding==== Dhimmis were forbidden to ride horses or camels; they were only allowed to ride donkeys and only on packsaddles. The initiation of this prohibition is attributed alternatively to caliph Umar II or [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]]. In 18th century, Damanhuri, rector of [[Al-Azhar University]], summed up the consensus of Islamic jurists: “Neither Jew, nor Christian should ride a horse, with or without saddle. They may ride asses with a packsaddle.” European travelers passing through the Middle East in 18th and 19th centuries left ample evidence of careful enforcement of prohibitions on horseback riding. [[Carsten Niebuhr]] wrote in 1761 that in Egypt Jews and Christians were forced to alight before the houses of notable Muslims and when meeting such notables in the street.{{ref|ride}} ====Marriage==== Islamic jurists reject the possibility that a dhimmi man may marry a Muslim woman. As some scholars put it, marriage is like enslavement with a husband being the master and a wife being the slave. As dhimmis are prohibited from having Muslim slaves, so dhimmi men are not allowed to have Muslim wives. Following the same logic, Muslim men were allowed to marry dhimmi women because enslavement of non-Muslims by Muslims is allowed.{{ref|marry}} ===Personal freedom === An exception to the right for personal freedom guaranteed by ''dhimma'' was the practice of enslavement of young non-Muslim boys for the ruler’s slave army. The practice goes back to Abbasids, who recruited such slave warriors mainly from non-Muslim [[Turkic]] populations; descendants of those slaves later formed the [[Mamluk]] dynasties. The Ottoman Empire practiced a similar system known as [[devshirmeh]] by annually enslaving young boys from the Christian population of its [[Balkan]] provinces to muster [[Janissary]] troops. ==Consequences of ''dhimma''== Over the course of many centuries, ''dhimma'' gradually led to the conversion of most Zoroastians and Christianians to Islam, but had an only a limited impact on the Jews. Zoroastism was the first to crumble after the Muslim conquest of [[Persia]]. Closely associated with the power structures of the Persian Empire, Zoroastrian clergy quickly declined after it was deprived of the state support. For Christians, the process of conversion was slower, but no less inexorable. The switch from a dominant to the inferior position proved too difficult for many Christians, and they converted to Islam in large numbers to avoid oppression. Christianity disappeared altogether in the [[Central Asia]], [[Yemen]], and Maghreb, where it was subjected to the persecutions of Almohads. In [[Syria]], [[Iraq]], and [[Egypt]], Christians fared better, but their numbers were still reduced from the overwhelming majority to a tiny minority. Bernard Lewis argues that the relative resiliency of Christians in those countries stemmed from their subordinated position in the Byzantine Empire, which made them more amenable to accept Muslim supremacy and that many of them felt better under the early Muslim rule than under the Byzantines. Jews, on the other hand, were the least affected. Accustomed to survival in the adverse circumstances after many centuries of Roman and Byzantine persecutions, Jews saw the Islamic conquests as a yet another changes of rulers; this time, not necessarily for the worse. Voluntary conversions among Jews were rare, they managed to preserve their religion all over the Muslim lands.{{ref|conseqlewis}} ==See also== *[[Bat Ye'or]] *[[Blood money]] laws *[[Devshirme]] *[[Dhimmi Watch]] *[[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain]] *[[History of Christianity]] *[[Jewish history ]] *[[Islamism]] *[[Jizyah]] *[[Kafir]] *[[Kharaj]] *[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman Millet system]] *[[Minority religion]] *[[Mutaween]] *[[People of the Book]] *[[Second-class citizen]] *[[Sharia]] *[[Yellow badge]] ==Notes== #{{note|khayblewis}} Lewis (1984), pp. 10&amp;ndash;11 #{{note|byzsource}} Bat Ye’or (2003), pp. 111&amp;ndash;113 #{{note|inf}} Lewis (1984), p. 16 #{{note|lewis}} Lewis (1984), p. 4 #{{note|exalted}} Friedmann (2003), p. 35 #{{note|bosw}} Bosworth (1982), p. 232 #{{note|tritton}} Tritton (1970), p. 49 #{{note|zarfati}} Lewis (1984), p. 136 #{{note|rleaders}} Stillman (1979), pp. 37&amp;ndash;39 #{{note|lewismaj}} Lewis (1984), p. 17 #{{note|almohad}} Lewis (1984), p. 52 #{{note|maimon}} Lewis (1984), p. 100 #{{note|maimonnoconvert}} Kantor (1989), p. 150 #{{note|maimonnoconvert2}} Husik (1946), p. 238 #{{note|conv}} Bat Ye’or (2003), p. 88 #{{note|meshed}} Lewis (1984), p. 168 #{{note|transl}} An alternative translation of this phrase is “The bell is the musical instrument of the Satan.”[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muslim/024.smt.html#024.5279] #{{note|plworsh}} Bat Ye’or (2003), pp. 83&amp;ndash;85 #{{note|kharaj}} Lewis (2002), p. 81 #{{note|jizyazakat}} Lewis (1984), pp. 14&amp;ndash;15 #{{note|burden}} Stillman (1979), p. 26 #{{note|tax}} Bat Ye’or (2003), pp. 69&amp;ndash;71 #{{note|abuyusuf}} Abu Yusuf, ''Kitab al-Kharaj'', quoted in Lewis (1984), p. 15 #{{note|test}} Friedmann (2003), pp. 35&amp;ndash;36 #{{note|court}} Bat Ye’or (2003), p. 74 #{{note|humillewis}} Lewis (1984), p. 14 #{{note|dsent}} Bat Ye’or (2003), p. 75 #{{note|yemen}} Bat Ye’or (2003), p. 79 #{{note|bath}} Al-Nawawi, ''Minhadj'', quoted in Bat Ye’or (2003), p. 91 #{{note|cloth}} Bat Ye’or (2003), pp. 91&amp;ndash;96 #{{note|ride}} Bat Ye’or (2003), pp. 97&amp;ndash;98 #{{note|marry}} Friedmann (2003), pp. 161&amp;ndash;163 #{{note|conseqlewis}} Lewis (1984), pp. 17&amp;ndash;18 == References == * {{cite book | author=Bat Ye'or | title=The Dhimmi | publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press | location=Madison/Teaneck, NJ | year=1985 | id=ISBN 0838632629}} * {{cite book | author=Bat Ye'or | title=Islam and Dhimmitude. Where Civilizations Collide | publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press/Associated University Presses | location=Madison/Teaneck, NJ | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0838639437}} * {{cite book | author=Bat Ye'or | title=The Decline of Eastern Christianity under Islam. From Jihad to Dhimmitude. Seventh-Twentieth Century | publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press/Associated University Presses | location=Madison/Teaneck, NJ | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0838636888}} * {{cite book | first=Andrew | last=Bostom | title=The Legacy of Jihad: Islamic Holy War and the Fate of Non-Muslims | publisher=Prometeus Books | year=2005 | id=ISBN 1591023076}} * Bosworth, C. E. (1982). ''The Concept of Dhimma in Early Islam'' In Benjamin Braude and B. Lewis, eds., ''Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire: The Functioning of a Plural Society'' 2 vols., New York: Holmes &amp; Meier Publishing. ISBN 0841905207 * {{cite book | first=Jamsheed | last=Choksy | title=Conflict and Cooperation: Zoroastrian Subalterns and Muslim Elites in Medieval Iranian Society | location=New York | year=1997}} * {{cite book | first=Yohanan | last=Friedmann | title=Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0521827035}} * {{cite book | first=Isaac | last=Husik | title=A History of Mediaeval Jewish Philosophy | publisher=Jewish Publication Society of America | location=Philadelphia | year=1946 | id=ASIN B0007DFH4E}} * {{cite book | first=Mattis | last=Kantor | title=The Jewish Timeline Encyclopedia | publisher=Aronson | location=Northvale, NJ | year=1989 | id=ISBN 0-87668-229-8}} * {{cite book | first=Louis | last=Gardet | title=La Cite Musulmane: Vie sociale et politique | publisher= Etudes musulmanes | location=Paris | year= 1954}} * {{cite book | first=Bernard | last=Lewis | title=The Jews of Islam | publisher=Princeton University Press | location=Princeton | year=1984 | id=ISBN 0691008078}} * {{cite book | first=Bernard | last=Lewis | title=The Arabs in History | publisher=Oxford University Press| location=Oxford | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0192803107}} * {{cite book | first=Norman | last=Stillman | title=The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book | publisher=Jewish Publication Society of America | location=Philadelphia | year=1979}} * {{cite book | author=Tritton, A. S. | title=The Caliphs and their non-Muslim Subjects: a Critical Study of the Covenant of Umar | publisher=Frank Cass Publisher | location=London | year=1970 | id=ISBN 0714619965}} * &lt;!--article?--&gt;''Encyclopedia Judaica'', Keter Publishing == External links == * [http://libro.uca.edu/ics/ics5.htm Islamic and Christian Spain in the early Middle Ages. Thomas F. Glick: Chapter 5: Ethnic relations] * [http://www.iis.ac.uk/research/academic_papers/pluralism_egypt/pluralism_egypt.htm The Ahl al-Kitab in Early Fatimid Times] * [http://www.dhimmi.com Dhimmi: The Victims of Muslim Religious Apartheid] * [ht
been a net importer of foreign workers, mainly from neighbouring [[Albania]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Eastern Europe]], since the early 1990s. Today the country is dealing with various challenges, including the reduction of [[unemployment]] which currently stands at slightly below 10%, the reform of the social security system, the privatization (at least in part) of the [[public sector]], the overhauling of the tax system and the further reduction of certain bureaucratic inefficiencies. Forecasts predict that [[2006]] will be yet another year of substantial economic growth, estimated to reach 3.7%, well above the European Union's average. The reduction of the [[fiscal deficit]] to the Eurozone target of 3% of [[gross domestic product|GDP]] has also become a key issue. Shortly after its election, the new conservative [[New Democracy]] government revealed to the [[Eurostat]] agency that the previous figures supplied to it by the [[PASOK]] government as the basis of the Greek entry into the Eurozone were [[Greek Financial Audit, 2004|not correct]] (although even according to the &quot;corrected&quot; numbers, when calculated with the methodology still in force at the time of the Greek application for entry, the country had actually met the criteria for entry into the the Eurozone). Under a negotiated agreement, the EU gave Greece a two year deadline (budgets of 2005 and 2006) in order to bring the deficit in line with the criteria of the [[European]] [[stability pact]]. Indeed, in 2005, the government managed to reduce the fiscal deficit by almost two percentage points and the goal of reaching the 3% target by the end of 2006 seems realistic. The [[Bank of Greece]], now a subsidiary of the [[European Central Bank]], functions as the nation's central bank. This bank is not the same as the &quot;[[National Bank of Greece]]&quot;, a commercial bank. On the 2006 agenda for the Greek government is the privatization of several state owned companies as well as that creation of a new National Airline to replace Olympic Airlines. == Tourism == {{main|Tourism in Greece}} Greece has traditionally been one of the most popular tourist destinations on a global basis and each year, particularly in the summer months, the nation's numerous cosmopolitan islands are packed with millions of international visitors. Unparalleled natural beauties, golden beaches, idyllic sunsets, a legendary nightlife and the world famous Greek cuisine combined with a unique hospitality and an impressively developing tourist infrastracture make Greece an irresistible hotspot for many. The spectacular success of the [[2004 Olympic Games]] boosted the country's international prestige even further and reaffirmed its status as one of the safest places to be. In [[2004]], Greece ranked 12th in terms of international tourist arrivals when more than 14.2 million visitors came to the country, many of which combining both vacations and attendance of Olympic athletic events. In [[2005]], however, those numbers increased by 14%, surpassing 16.1 million arrivals. In [[2006]], those figures are only expected to grow bigger. The [[New Democracy]] government, that took power in March 2004, established a brand new Ministry of Tourism headed by Mr. [[Dimitris Avramopoulos]]. Mr Avramopoulos proved to be a particularly competent man, determined to massively promote the nation to new, emerging markets in addition to the traditional ones, through various means of communication. For instance and among other initiatives, [[Helena Paparizou]], the winner of the [[2005 Eurovision Song Contest]] was recently designated as the official ambassador of the [http://www.gnto.gr Hellenic Tourism Organization]. An interesting fact that is attributed in all those efforts is that according to a survey conducted in [[China]] in 2005, Greece was voted as Chinese' people number one choice. On [[February 14]], [[2006]], Ms Fani Palli- Petralia was appointed as the new minister of Tourism as a result of an extensive cabinet reshufle. Mr. Avramopoulos was appointed as the new Health Minister. Overall, this year the Greek Ministry of Tourism plans to invest more than 30 billion euros in the tourism industry, one of the most essential sectors of the Greek economy. That is 4 times more than the amount spent in 2002 by the previous government. What is more, the government intends to promote winter tourism in Greece, something that could potentially double international arrivals. Apart from [[Athens]], other top ranking tourist destinations include the islands of [[Mykonos]], [[Santorini]], [[Rhodes]], [[Crete]], [[Corfu]], [[Paros]], [[Ios]], [[Kos]], [[Kefallonia]], [[Zakynthos]] and [[Hydra]] as well as the northern [[Halkidiki]] peninsula. == Demographics == {{main|Demographics of Greece}} The population of Greece is (officially) 98% Greek [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gr.html#People] although Greece has various linguistic and cultural minorities. A non-comprehensive list of these would include [[Turkish people|Turks]], [[Macedonians (ethnic group)|Macedonian]] Slavs, [[Pomaks]], and various [[Roma (people)|Roma]] groups. A number of religious minorities exist, including the [[Greek Muslim minority|Muslim minority]] in [[Western Thrace|western Thrace]], which makes up about a third of that region's population. About 60-65% of Greek immigrants have come from [[Albania]] (following the fall of communism) although some 200.000 have been documented as ethnic [[Greeks]] or ''homogeneis''. The other principal [[nationalities]] are, according to residence permit data, [[Bulgarians]], [[Armenians]], [[Romanians]], [[Ukrainians]], [[Pakistanis]] and [[Georgians]]; overall, over 180 different nationalities have been recorded. The legal status of immigrants has been very tenuous since the 1990s (as throughout [[the European Union]]), with high levels of illegality. Since 1997 three legalization programmes were enacted by the Greek state [a fourth went through in 2005]. Several prominent Greek sportsmen migrated to Greece as ethnic Greeks from [[Albania]] and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] in the 1990s, including legendary [[weightlifter]]s [[Pyrros Dimas]] and [[Kakhi Kakhiashvili]]. === Religion === The majority of Greeks (95-98%) have at least nominal membership in the Eastern Orthodox Church. Greek [[Muslim]]s make up about 1.3% of the population, and live primarily in [[Western Thrace|Thrace]]. Greece also has some [[Roman Catholic]]s, mainly in the city of [[Patras]], [[Corfu]], and the [[Cyclades]] islands of [[Syros]], [[Paros]], [[Tinos]], and [[Naxos, Greece|Naxos]]; some [[Protestant]]s and some [[Jew]]s, mainly in [[Thessaloniki]] (which was once a major Jewish city until the [[Holocaust]]). Some groups in Greece have started an attempt to reconstruct [[Hellenic polytheism]], the ancient Greek [[paganism|pagan]] religion. See also: [[Greek Orthodox Church]]. Prior to Ottoman rule, Greece was part of the [[Byzantine Empire]]. The civil and religious capital of the Empire was moved to [[Constantinople]] (modern day [[Istanbul]]) by [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]]. Since Constantine’s time the Orthodox Christian faith has flourished and spread throughout Eastern Europe. Even under [[Ottoman Empire|Turkish]] rule and repeated attempts at prosletization - firstly by the [[Jesuits]] and then by the Protestants - [[Orthodox Christianity]] survived and flourished. The role of the [[Church of Greece|Orthodox Church]] in maintaining Greek ethnic and cultural identity during the 400 years of Ottoman rule, strengthened the bond between religion and the state. Most Greeks, even many non-practicing Christians, revere and respect the Orthodox Christian faith; even the majority of non-beliving, secular Greeks feel culturally attached to their Church. Most Greeks attend Church during the Major Feast days, and are emotionally attached to [[Orthodox Christianity]] as their 'national' religion. The [[Constitution of Greece|Greek Constitution]] reflects this relationship by guaranteeing absolute freedom of religion while still defining the &quot;prevailing religion&quot; of Greece as the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] of Christ. In practice, the [[Church of Greece|Orthodox Church]] and the secular state are intimately involved with one another in certain areas. Joint approval is needed for the building of churches and the Church has even blocked the building of places of worship for other religions in [[Athens]]. Priests receive state salaries. The President of the Republic takes an oath on the [[Bible]] and [[Orthodox Christianity]] is given privileged place in religious studies in primary education. Non Greek Orthodox members of parliament are sworn in accordance to their own faith. The Church has also been allowed to keep its large portfolio of financial assets exempt from taxation and fiscal auditing. Starting in January 2005, a series of highly publicised corruption scandals involving high rank church officials have led to many calls by secular Greeks for the complete separation of Church and State and greater control of Church assets. One small part of Greece, [[Mount Athos]], is recognised by the Greek constitution as an autonomous monastic republic, although foreign relations remain the prerogative of the Greek state. Spiritually, Mount Athos is under the Patriarchate of Constantinople and is therefore in communion with all the monasteries on Mount Athos and with the Orthodox Church based in various countries. One monastery has recently broken away and has formed a completely independent schism on the Holy Mountain -- [[Esphygmenou Monastery]]. Esphygmenou is composed of 117 [[Zealot]] monks who stubbornly oppose the head of the Church and do not commemorate him any more. They believe that they are the last remaining true Christians in the world and that Orthodoxy has been corrupted by having dialogue with other faiths. They also object to the lifting of t
s in over 210 films, including bit parts in many monster movies (''[[The Howling]]'', ''[[Return of the Living Dead|Return of the Living Dead Part II]]''), more traditional &quot;imagi-movies&quot; (''[[The Power]]'', ''[[The Time Traveller (fanzine)|The Time Travelers]]''), and spoofs (''[[Amazon Women on the Moon]]'', ''[[Attack of the 60 Foot Centerfold]]''). ==Works== === Pseudonyms === Weaver Wright, Spencer Strong, Walter Chinwell, Allis Villette, Alus Kerlay, Laurajean Ermayne, Alden Lorraine, J. Forrester Eckman, Fisher Trentworth, SF Balboa, Hubert G. Wells, Jacues De Forest Erman, Jone Lee Heard === Non-fiction === * ''A Reference Guide to American Science Fiction Films'' * ''The Frankenscience Monster'' * ''Forrest J Ackerman's Worlds of Science Fiction'' * ''Famous Forrie Fotos: Over 70 Years of Ackermemories'' * ''Mr. Monster's Movie Gold, A Treasure-Trove Of Imagi-Movies'' * ''Worlds of Tomorrow: the Amazing Universe of Science Fiction Art'' * ''Lon of 1000 Faces'' * ''Famous Monster of Filmland #1: An encyclopedia of the first 50 issues'' * ''Famous Monster of Filmland #2: An encyclopedia of issue 50-100'' * ''Metropolis by Thea von Harbou - intro and &quot;stillustration&quot; by FJ Ackerman'' === Anthologies === * ''Rainbow Fantasia: 35 Spectrumatic Tales of Wonder'' * ''Science Fiction Worlds of Forrest J. Ackerman'' * ''Best Science Fiction for 1973'' * ''The Gernsback Awards Vol. 1, 1926'' * ''Gosh! Wow! (Sense of Wonder) Science Fiction'&quot; * ''Reel futures '' * ''I, Vampire: Interviews with the Undead '' * ''Ackermanthology: Millennium Edition: 65 Astonishing Rediscovered Sci-Fi Shorts '' * ''Ackerwomanthology'' * ''Martianthology'' * ''Film Futures '' ===Short stories=== * ''Nyusa, Nymph of Darkness '' * ''The Shortest Story Ever Told '' * ''A Martian Oddity'' * ''Earth's Lucky Day '' * ''The Record '' * ''Micro Man '' * ''Tarzan and the Golden Loin '' * ''Dhactwhu!-Remember? '' * ''Kiki'' * ''The Mute Question'' * ''Atoms and Stars'' * ''The Lady Takes a Powder'' * ''Sabina of the White Cylinder'' * ''What an Idea!'' * ''Death Rides the Spaceways'' * ''Dwellers in the Dust'' * ''Burn Witch, Burn'' * ''Yvala'' * ''The Girl Who Wasn't There'' * ''Count Down to Doom '' * ''Time to Change '' * ''And Then the Cover Was Bare'' * ''The Atomic Monument'' * ''Letter to an Angel'' * ''The Man Who Was Thirsty '' * ''The Radclyffe Effect'' * ''Cosmic Report Card: Earth'' * ''Great Gog's Grave'' * ''The Naughty Venuzian'' ==External links== * [http://4forry.best.vwh.net/bio.htm 4e's Foyer: biography] * [http://www.sfsite.com/gary/acke01.htm SFSite: Gary Westfahl's Biographical Encylopedia] * [http://www.dragoncon.org/people/ackermf.html DragonCon 2005: bio of guest Forrest J. Ackerman] * {{imdb name|id=0009969|name=Forrest J Ackerman}} [[Category:1916 births|Ackerman, Forrest J.]] [[Category:Living people|Ackerman, Forrest J.]] [[Category:American science fiction writers|Ackerman, Forrest J.]] [[Category:Science fiction fans|Ackerman, Forrest J.]] [[Category:California writers|Ackerman, Forrest J.]] [[Category:Return of the Living Dead actors|Ackerman, Forrest J.]] [[de:Forrest J. Ackerman]] [[sv:Forrest J. Ackerman]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fantasy film</title> <id>11741</id> <revision> <id>42044413</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:17:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>81.175.89.70</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Additional examples */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Fantasy}} In theory '''fantasy films''' are films with [[fantasy fiction|fantastic]] themes, usually involving magic or exotic fantasy worlds, as distinct from [[science fiction film|science fiction films]] or [[horror film|horror films]]. The category has as much to do with approach as with context and there is often a good deal of overlap between the [[genre]]s. For example, much about the ''[[Star Wars]]'' saga suggests fantasy, yet it feels like science fiction, while much about ''[[Time Bandits]]'' suggests science fiction, yet it feels like fantasy. [[Superhero films]] also seem to fufil the requirements of the fantasy or science fiction genres, but they are usually considered to be a genre all their own. Animated films are not always classified as fantasy, nor are talking non-human animals. ''[[Bambi]]'', for example, is not fantasy, nor is [[Toy Story]], though the latter is closer to fantasy than the former. ''[[The Secret of NIMH]]'', however, is a fantasy film, not because it features talking non-human animals, but because there is actual magic involved. Films that are technically fantasy, but that involve some gimmick such as mother and daughter switching bodies or a man turning into a dog, are usually considered to be in a genre of their own. [[Surrealist film]] also describes the fantastic, but it dispenses with genre narrative conventions, and commercial and financial aims, and is usually considered a separate category. Most fantasy movies are released during the winter season, particularly in [[November]] and [[December]], in stark contrast with the summer, which releases mostly [[Action movie|action]] and [[sci-fi]] movies. As a cinematic genre, fantasy isn't as highly regarded as it's close neighbour [[science-fiction]], the reason for this is until very recently, fantasy films were made of low or inferior production values, over-the-top acting and decidedly poor special effects. While [[Raiders of the Lost Ark]] did much to improve the genre's reputation in public as well critical circles, it's decidely comic-book like approach still prevented it from being taken too seriously. The genre in recent times however has had a renaissance. This is largely indebted to the highly successful adaptations of [[J.R.R. Tolkien]]'s [[The Lord of the Rings]] and [[J.K. Rowling]]'s [[Harry Potter]] series. [[The Lord of the Rings trilogy]] is particularly notable due to it's markedly serious approach to the material as well as it's phenomenal commercial and critical success. The [[The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King|third installment]] of the trilogy became the first fantasy film to ever win [[Best Picture]]. Following the success of the trilogy, Hollywood studios are greenlighting newer ventures into the genre, including a succesful adaptation of the first book of the [[The Chronicles of Narnia]] and an upcoming adaptation of cult novel [[Eragon]]. ==Sub-Genres== There are many sub-categories of fantasy films that can be identified. The most prevalent of these are '''[[High Fantasy]]''' and '''[[Sword and sorcery]]'''. These are films with quasi-medieval settings, wizards, magical creatures and the like. '''High Fantasy''' tends to have a complex fantasy world and hero of humble origins, while '''Sword and sorcery''' tends to pit a barbarian against a wizard. '''High Fantasy''' is indebted to the work of [[J.R.R. Tolkien]] and his ''[[Lord of the Rings]]'' books, while '''sword and sorcery''' is equally indebted to the work of [[Robert E. Howard]] and his [[Conan the Barbarian]]. Another important sub-genre of fantasy films, more popular in recent years, is '''[[Contemporary fantasy]]'''. Such films feature magic (often figured as the supernatural) in the real world. The most prominent example in the early [[Twenty-first Century]] is the ''[[Harry Potter]]'' series while most [[superhero]] films are a form of [[science fantasy]] typically set in contemporary times. Finally, we have the [[fairy tale]] genre, which many people consider separate from the rest of fantasy. We leave consideration of such major films as ''[[Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)|Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs]]'' to the fairy tale genre. ==History== Fantasy as a genre in film has existed since the beginning of films, although the offerings were sporadic until the 1980's, which saw a flourishing of the genre. In the era of [[silent film]] the outstanding fantasy films were [[Douglas Fairbanks]]' ''[[The Thief of Bagdad (1924)|The Thief of Bagdad]]'' (1924) and [[Fritz Lang]]'s ''[[Die Nibelungin]]'' (1925). In 1939, audiences embraced what is surely the best loved fantasy film of all time, ''[[The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)|The Wizard of Oz]]''. The 1940s saw the full color fantasy films produced by Alexander Korda, ''[[The Thief of Bagdad (1940 film)|The Thief of Bagdad]]'' and ''[[Jungle Book (1942 film)|Jungle Book]]'' (1942), and Jean Cocteau's classic ''[[Beauty and the Beast]]'', too good to be relegated to the [[fairy tale]] genre. [[Douglas Fairbanks, Jr.]] in ''[[Sinbad the Sailor]]'' feels like a fantasy film, though it does not actually have any fantastic elements. In the 1950's there were only two major fantasy films, ''[[The 5000 Fingers of Dr. T]]'' and ''[[Darby O'Gill and the Little People]]''. There were also several low budget fantasies, based on Greek or Arabian legend, by [[Ray Harryhausen]]. The 1960s were almost devoid of fantasy. The film ''[[Camelot (musical)|Camelot]]'' removed most of the fantasy elements from [[T. H. White]]'s classic ''[[The Once and Future King]]'', on which it was based. The only true fantasy film in the 1970s was ''[[The Seven Faces of Dr. Lao]]''. With ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'', in 1981, a fantasy explosion began which continues into the [[Twenty-first Century]]''. ===1980s=== :''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'' :''[[Dragonslayer]]'' :''[[Poltergeist]]'' :''[[The Dark Crystal]]'' :''[[Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom]]'' :''[[Legend (film)|Legend]]'' :''[[Ladyhawke]]'' :''[[Highlander]]'' :''[[Labyrinth (film)|Labyrinth]]'' :''[[Conan the Barbarian]]'' :''[[Conan the Destroyer]]'' :''[[The Princess Bride (film)|The Princess Bride]]'' :''[[Willow (film)|Willow]]'' :''[[The Neverending Story]]'' :''[[Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade]]'' ===1990s=== :''[[Ghost (film)|Ghost]]'' :''[[Groundhog Day (film)|Groundhog Day]]'' :''[[The Indian in the Cupboar
eath (possibly on the orders of the Duke of Albany) of his elder son, David, Duke of Rothesay in [[1406]], Robert III sent his son James (the future [[James I of Scotland|James I]]) to France for safety. Unfortunately the English captured him ''en route'' and he spent the next 18 years as a prisoner held for ransom. As a result, after the death of Robert III, regents ruled Scotland: firstly, the Duke of Albany; and later his son, during whose office the country fell into near anarchy. When Scotland finally paid the ransom in [[1424]], James returned at the age of 32, with his English bride. He determined to restore justice and the rule of law and to deal with his enemies. He set about this immediately and ruthlessly, using military measures, reforming the parliamentary and court systems, and killing anyone who threatened his authority, including his cousin Albany. This resulted in a much greater amount of power in the hands of the Scottish government than at any time preceding, but the process led to great unpopularity for James and finally to his assassination in [[1437]]. His son [[James II of Scotland| James II]] (reigned 1437&amp;ndash;1460), when he came of age in [[1449]], continued his father's policy of weakening the great noble families, most notably taking on the great [[House of Douglas]] that had come to prominence at the time of the Bruce. Scotland advanced markedly in educational terms during the [[fifteenth century]] with the founding of the [[University of St Andrews]] in [[1413]], the [[University of Glasgow]] in [[1450]] and the [[University of Aberdeen]] in [[1494]], and with the passing of the [[Education Act 1496]]. In [[1468]] the last great acquisition of Scottish territory occurred when [[James III of Scotland|James III]] married [[Margaret of Denmark]], receiving the [[Orkney Islands]] and the [[Shetland Islands]] in payment of her dowry. After the death of James III (1488), again by assassination, his successor [[James IV of Scotland|James IV]] successfully ended the quasi-independent rule of the [[Lord of the Isles]], bringing the Western Isles under effective Royal control for the first time. In [[1503]], he married [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII's]] daughter, [[Margaret Tudor]], thus laying the foundation for the [[17th century]] [[Union of the Crowns]]. James IV's reign is often considered to be a period of cultural flourishing, and it was around this period that the European [[Renaissance]] began to infiltrate Scotland. James IV was the last known Scottish king known to be able to speak [[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]], although some suggest his son could also. In [[1512]] under a treaty extending the Auld Alliance, all nationals of Scotland and France also became nationals of each other's countries, a status not repealed in France until [[1903]] and which may never have been repealed in Scotland. However a year later, the Auld Alliance had more disastrous effects when James IV was required to launch an invasion of England to support the French when they were attacked by the English under [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]. The invasion was stopped decisively at the [[battle of Flodden Field]] during which the King, many of his nobles, and over 10,000 troops &amp;mdash; ''The Flowers of the Forest'' &amp;mdash; were killed. The extent of the disaster impacted throughout Scotland because of the large numbers killed, and once again Scotland's government lay in the hands of regents. The song ''[[Flowers of the Forest|The Flooers o' the Forest]]'' commemorated this, an echo of the poem ''[[Gododdin|Y Gododdin]]'' on a similar tragedy in about [[600]]. When [[James V of Scotland|James V]] finally managed to escape from the custody of the regents with the aid of his redoubtable mother in [[1528]], he once again set about subduing the rebellious Highlands, Western and Northern isles, as his father had had to do. He married the French noblewoman [[Marie de Guise]]. His reign was fairly successful, until another disastrous campaign against England led to defeat at the [[battle of Solway Moss]]([[1542]]). James returned, broken, to die a short time later. The day before his death, he was brought news of the birth of an heir: a daughter, who became [[Mary I of Scotland]] (or 'Mary, Queen of Scots'). James is supposed to have remarked that it ''&quot;came with a lass, it will go with a lass&quot;''- referring to the House of Stewart which began with Walter Stewart's marriage to the daughter of Robert the Bruce. Once again, Scotland was in the hands of a regent, James Hamilton, Earl of Arran. ==Mary, Queen of Scots== Within two years, the ''[[Rough Wooing]]'', Henry VIII's military attempt to force a marriage between Mary and his son, Edward, had begun. This took the form of border skirmishing and it was at this time that the town of [[Berwick-upon-Tweed]] was finally taken by the English. To avoid the &quot;wooing&quot;, Mary was sent to France at the age of five, as the intended bride of the heir to the French throne. Her mother stayed in Scotland to look after the interests of Mary &amp;mdash; and of France &amp;mdash; although the [[James Hamilton, 2nd Earl of Arran|Earl of Arran]] acted officially as regent. In [[1547]], after the death of Henry VIII, forces under the English regent [[Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset]] were victorious at the [[Battle of Pinkie Cleugh]], the climax of the ''Rough Wooing'' and followed up by occupying Edinburgh. However it was to no avail since Queen Mary was in France and Marie de Guise called on French reinforcements who helped stiffen resistance to the English occupation. By [[1550]], after a change of regent in England, the English withdrew from Scotland completely. From [[1554]], Mary's mother, Marie, took over the regency and continued to advance French interests in Scotland. French cultural influence resulted in a large influx of French vocabulary into [[Scots language|Scots]], for example. But anti-French sentiment also grew, particularly among Protestants, who saw the English as their natural allies. In [[1560]] Marie died, and with her death the Auld Alliance also died at the [[Treaty of Edinburgh]]. Mary, now nineteen and recently widowed, returned to take up the government of Scotland in a hostile environment. She did not do well and after only seven turbulent years, at the end of which Protestants had gained complete control of Scotland, she had perforce to abdicate and flee to England, leaving her young son, [[James VI of Scotland|James VI]], in the hands of regents. ==Protestant Reformation== [[Image:John Knox.jpg|framed|right|In 1559 [[John Knox]] returned from ministering in [[Geneva]] to lead the [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] reformation in Scotland]] During the [[16th century]], Scotland underwent a [[Protestant Reformation]]. In the earlier part of the century, the teachings of first [[Martin Luther]] and then [[John Calvin]] began to influence Scotland. The execution of a number of Protestant preachers, most notably the Lutheran influenced [[Patrick Hamilton (martyr)|Patrick Hamilton]] in [[1527]] and later the Calvinist [[George Wishart]] in [[1546]] who were burnt at the stake in St Andrews by [[Cardinal Beaton]] for heresy, did nothing to stem the growth of these ideas. Beaton was assassinated shortly after the execution of George Wishart. The eventual Reformation of the Scottish Church, was carried out by Parliament from [[1560]] (during the minority of [[Mary Queen of Scots]]). The most influential figure was that of [[John Knox]], who had been a disciple of both John Calvin and George Wishart. [[Roman Catholicism]] was not totally eliminated, and remained strong particularly in parts of the highlands. The Reformation remained somewhat precarious through the reign of Queen Mary, who remained Roman Catholic, her son [[James VI]], however, was raised as a Protestant. In [[1603]], following the death of the childless Queen [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]], the crown of [[England]] passed to James. He took the title [[James I of England]], thus unifying these two countries under his personal rule. For a time, this remained the sole connection between two independent nations, but it foreshadowed the eventual 1707 union of Scotland and England under the banner of the United Kingdom of [[Great Britain]]. One of the primary differences between the two countries was religious. While both had national churches that were Protestant, they were quite distinct. The [[Church of England]] had broken with the Roman [[Pope|Pontiff]] but had not adopted [[Calvinism]] as the Scots. England retained her [[Episcopal]] form of Church government, whilst Scots, for the greater part, favoured [[Presbyterian]]. Subsequent Stuart monarchs tried to enforce bishops upon the Scottish Church, but with limited success. ==Wars of the Three Kingdoms and the Puritan Commonwealth== [[Image:Oliver Cromwell.jpg|thumb|right|180px|The Parliamentarian armies of [[Oliver Cromwell]] briefly integrated Scotland into the Commonwealth]] See Also [[Wars of the Three Kingdoms]], [[Scottish Civil War]] ===Bishops Wars=== Shortly after his reign began, an attempt by [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] to impose English-style prayer books on the Scottish church resulted in anger and widespread rioting. (The story goes that it was initiated by a certain [[Jenny Geddes]] who threw a stool in [[St Giles Cathedral]].) Representatives of various sections of Scottish society drew up the [[National Covenant]], asserting Presbyterian practice. Charles gathered a military force, but lost his nerve on the eve of his invasion, settling for negotiations. When the Scots notables held their ground, he again sought a military solution, but his troops were turned back after inconclusive fighting. As a result of these &quot;[[Bishops' Wars]]&quot; Charles tried to raise an army of Irish Catholics, but was forced to back down after a storm of protest in Scotland a
ohedron.wrl hexagonal trapezohedron] face-uniform *# [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/pentagonal_cupola_(J5).wrl Pentagonal cupola] regular faces * [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ElongatedDodecahedron.html Elongated Dodecahedron] [[Category:Platonic solids]] [[Category:Polyhedra]] &lt;!----&gt; [[ca:Dodecàedre]] [[da:Dodekaeder]] [[de:Dodekaeder]] [[es:Dodecaedro]] [[fr:Dodécaèdre]] [[ko:정십이면체]] [[it:Dodecaedro]] [[he:דודקהדרון]] [[nl:Dodecaëder]] [[ja:正十二面体]] [[pl:Dwunastościan foremny]] [[pt:Dodecaedro]] [[ru:Додекаэдр]] [[fi:Dodekaedri]] [[sv:Dodekaeder]] [[zh:正十二面體]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Darwin, Northern Territory</title> <id>8408</id> <revision> <id>41743496</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T12:36:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>203.173.9.107</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Culture */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Australian City| name = Darwin | image_map = Darwin locator-MJC.png | name = Darwin | latd=12|latm=27|latNS=S|longd=130|longm=50|longEW=E| jurisdiction = [[Northern Territory]] | area = 112.01 | time_zone= [[UTC9:30|ACST]] | utc_offset= +9:30 | time_zone_DST= ''not observed'' | utc_offset_DST= | population_estimate_year = 2004 | population_estimate = 109,478 | population_estimate_rank = 17th | population_density = 35.1 | }} '''Darwin''' is the [[List of Australian capital cities|territorial capital]] and most populous city of the [[Northern Territory]]. It is a city of 109,478 (est. June 2004) people on [[Australia|Australia's]] far north-western [[coastline]]. Darwin has a [[tropical]] [[climate]], and is subjected to tropical [[thunderstorm]]s and [[cyclone]]s; the first recorded cyclone to hit Darwin was the [[1867 cyclone]], and much of the city was destroyed by [[Cyclone Tracy]] in [[1974]]. It is also the only Australian capital city to have come under substantial attack during any war: on [[February 19]], [[1942]], Japanese planes made [[Air raids on Darwin, February 19, 1942|two major air raids]] on Darwin, the first of 63 air attacks experienced by the city during [[World War II]]. &lt;!--Darwin is also reputed to suffer more [[lightning]]-strikes than any other inhabited place in the world.(needs ref)--&gt; Darwin has the largest proportional population of [[Australian Aborigine|Indigenous Australian]]s of any Australian [[capital city]], and a significant percentage of its residents are recent [[immigrant]]s from [[South Asia|South]] and [[East Asia]]. As such, Darwin is often called the &quot;multicultural capital of Australia&quot;. Due to its proximity to [[Asia]], Darwin is an important [[port]], particularly for the [[live export]] of [[domestic sheep|sheep]] and [[cattle]], and of [[mineral]]s. It is also the site of a large [[Australian Army]] base and a naval facility supporting patrol boat activity off Australia's northern coastline. ==History== {{main|History of Darwin}} [[Image:Darwin Palmerstone Town Hall DSC03578.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Palmerston Town Hall]] Darwin's harbour was first sighted in [[1839]] by [[John Lort Stokes]] of [[HMS Beagle|HMS ''Beagle'']]. The ship's captain, [[John Clements Wickham]], named the port after [[Charles Darwin]], the British naturalist, who had sailed with him on an earlier [[the Voyage of the Beagle|expedition of ''Beagle'']]. The Northern Territory was initially settled and administered by [[South Australia]], until its transfer to the [[Australia|Commonwealth]] in [[1911]]. On [[5 February]] [[1869]], [[George Goyder]], the Surveyor-General of South Australia, established a small settlement of 135 men and women at [[Port Darwin]]. Goyder named the settlement [[Palmerston, Northern Territory|Palmerston]], after the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]] [[Henry Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]]. In [[1870]], the first poles for the [[Overland Telegraph]] were erected in Darwin connecting Australia to the rest of the World. The discovery of gold at [[Pine Creek, Northern Territory|Pine Creek]] in the [[1880s]] further boosted the young colony's development. Upon Commonwealth administration in 1911, Darwin became the city's official name. On [[19 February]] [[1942]], during the [[Pacific War]], 242 [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] warplanes attacked Darwin in two waves. It was the same fleet that had bombed Pearl Harbour, though a considerably larger number of bombs were dropped on Darwin, than on Pearl Harbour. This aspect of Darwin's history is often overlooked when discussing [[World War II]]. The attack killed at least 243 people and caused immense damage to the town. These were by far the most serious attacks on Australia in time of war, in terms of fatalities and damage. They were the first of many raids on Darwin. On [[Australia Day]] , [[26 January]], [[1959]], Darwin was granted city status.[http://www.australiadaynt.com.au/fun/quiz/quiz2004.html] &lt;!-- The statement about Sydney and Newcastle was wrong; there were about 100 air raids, including one on Broome which killed more than 80 people. --&gt; Darwin was largely destroyed on [[25 December]] [[1974]] by [[Cyclone Tracy]], which killed 50 people and destroyed over 70% of the town's buildings, including many old stone buildings such as the Palmerston Town Hall, which could not withstand the lateral forces generated by the strong winds. After the disaster, an airlift evacuated 30,000 people. The town was subsequently rebuilt with newer materials and techniques during the late [[1970s]] by the Darwin Reconstruction Commission. A satellite city of [[Palmerston, Northern Territory|Palmerston]] was built 20 km south of Darwin in the early [[1980s]]. On [[17 September]] [[2003]], the [[Adelaide-Darwin Railway]] was completed. ==Geography and climate== Darwin is situated in the Northern Territory, on the coast of the [[Timor Sea]] at [[geographic coordinates]] {{coor dm|12|27|S|130|50|E|region:AU-NT_type:city(109,419)}}. Darwin is closer to the capitals of three other countries than to the capital of Australia: Darwin is 3144 km away from [[Canberra]]. [[Dili]] ([[East Timor]]) is 656 km from Darwin, [[Port Moresby]] ([[Papua New Guinea]]) is 1818 km, and [[Jakarta]] ([[Indonesia]]) is 2735 km from Darwin. Even [[Singapore]] is only slightly further away at 3360 km, and so is [[Manila]] ([[Philippines]]) at 3206 km. Darwin has a [[Tropics|tropical]] climate with distinct wet and dry seasons. The dry season runs from May to September and nearly every day is Sunny and daytime humidity is low 10-50%. In the coolest months of June and July, daily temperature range is 15 to 35&amp;deg;C. The Wet season is associated with [[tropical cyclone]]s and monsoon rains. The majority of rainfall occurs between December and March when [[thunderstorm]]s are common and humidity is regularly over 70 per cent. It does not rain every day but most days are very hot and cloud cover is plentiful. Some of its climatic averages: {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;width: 75%; margin: 0 auto 0 auto;&quot; |+ '''Climate Table''' |- ! ! Jan ! Feb ! Mar ! Apr ! May ! Jun ! Jul ! Aug ! Sep ! Oct ! Nov ! Dec !Year |- ! Mean daily maximum temperature ([[Celsius|°C]]) |32.4 |32.2 |32.7 |33.5 |32.6 |31.2 |30.6 |31.7 |33.0 |34.0 |34.2 |33.6 |32.7 |- ! Mean daily minimum temperature ([[Celsius|°C]]) |25.2 |25.0 |25.0 |24.4 |22.6 |20.8 |19.8 |20.9 |23.3 |25.1 |25.5 |25.6 |23.6 |- ! Mean total rainfall ([[Millimetre|mm]]) |393.2 |329.7 |258.3 |102.6 |14.3 |3.0 |1.3 |1.6 |12.8 |52.1 |124.0 |241.8 |1534.7 |- ! Mean number of rain days |18.5 |17.8 |16.1 |7.3 |1.4 |0.6 |0.2 |0.3 |1.7 |5.0 |10.0 |14.5 |93.3 |- | colspan=&quot;15&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;'''Source:''' [http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_014016.shtml Bureau of Meteorology]&lt;/small&gt; |} ==Government== [[Image:Darwin Legislative Assembly DSC03592.jpg|170px|thumb|Legislative Assembly of the Northern Territory]] Darwin has been administered by the Darwin City Council since [[1957]]. The Darwin City Council consists of the [[Lord Mayor]] and 12 [[aldermen]], 3 from each of the four electoral wards, Chan, Lyons, Richardson, and Waters. The current Lord Mayor is [[Peter Adamson (Australian politician)|Peter Adamson]]. The [[Northern Territory Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly of the Northern Territory]] convenes in Darwin in a spectacular, colonial-inspired building. ==Economy== [[Image:Darwin_CBD-2005.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Darwin CBD ([[Central Business District]]), 2005]] The two largest economic sectors are [[mining]] and [[tourism]]. The mining and energy industry production exceeds $2.8 billion per annum. The most important mineral resources are gold and [[bauxite]], along with [[manganese]] and many others. The energy production is mostly off shore with oil and [[natural gas]] from the Timor Sea, although there are significant [[uranium]] deposits near Darwin. Tourism employs 8% of Darwin residents, and is expected to grow as domestic and international tourists are now spending time in Darwin during the [[wet season|Wet]] and [[dry season|Dry]] seasons. Federal spending is a major contributor to the local economy as well. A good example of this is the significant military presence that that is maintained both within Darwin, and the wider Northern Territory. This is both a substantial source of employment and an avenue for federal investment of infrastructure. The continued involvement of [[Australian Army]] in the stabilisation of [[East Timor]] has swelled the military population of Darwin to over 11,000 individual as of [[2001]]. There is also a substantial United Nations' presence in Darwin since Darwin serves as the staging center for U.N. workers and contractors en route to nearby East Timor. Darwin's importance as a port is forecasted to grow in the future, due in part t
valign=&quot;top&quot; | &lt;br&gt; | align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#99ff99&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Psalms of Solomon]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|6]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | colspan=&quot;3&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''[[Major prophet|Major prophets]]'' |- | align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] | align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] | align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] |- | align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; | [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] | align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; | [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] | align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; | [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] |- | align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; | [[Book of Lamentations|Lamentations]] | align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; | [[Book of Lamentations|Lamentations]] | align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; | [[Book of Lamentations|Lamentations]] |- | &lt;br&gt; | align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; | [[Book of Baruch|Baruch]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]],[[#Notes|3]]&lt;/sup&gt; | align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; | [[Book of Baruch|Baruch]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]],[[#Notes|3]]&lt;/sup&gt; |- | colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | &lt;br&gt; | align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; | [[Letter of Jeremiah]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]],[[#Notes|8]]&lt;/sup&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; | [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; | [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; | [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; | [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; | [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|4]]&lt;/sup&gt; | bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|4]]&lt;/sup&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | colspan=&quot;3&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''[[Minor prophet|Minor prophets]]'' |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; rowspan=&quot;12&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot; | [[Minor prophet|The Twelve Prophets]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]] |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Joel|Joel]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Joel|Joel]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Joel|Joel]] |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Amos|Amos]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Amos|Amos]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Amos|Amos]] |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Obadiah|Obadiah]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Obadiah|Obadiah]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Obadiah|Obadiah]] |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]] |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Micah|Micah]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Micah|Micah]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Micah|Micah]] |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Nahum|Nahum]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Nahum|Nahum]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Nahum|Nahum]] |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]] |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah]] |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Haggai|Haggai]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Haggai|Haggai]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Haggai|Haggai]] |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]] |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Malachi|Malachi]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Malachi|Malachi]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Malachi|Malachi]] |- align=&quot;center&quot; | colspan=&quot;4&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; | ''[[Ketuvim]] or Writings''&lt;sup&gt;[[Books of the Bible#Notes|10]]&lt;/sup&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ff6666&quot; | [[Psalms]] | colspan=&quot;3&quot; rowspan=&quot;12&quot; | &lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ff6666&quot; | [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]] |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ff6666&quot; | [[Book of Job|Job]] |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ff6666&quot; | [[Song of Songs]] |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ff6666&quot; | [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]] |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ff6666&quot; | [[Book of Lamentations|Lamentations]] |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ff6666&quot; | [[Ecclesiastes]] |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ff6666&quot; | [[Book of Esther|Esther]] |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ff6666&quot; | [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ff6666&quot; | [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]]/[[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]] |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ff6666&quot; | [[Books of Chronicles|Chronicles]] |} (*) These books are present in a different order. == New Testament books shared by many modern Christian groups == {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;2&quot; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | valign=&quot;top&quot; | ''The [[Gospels]]''&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ff9900&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]]&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ff9900&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]]&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ff9900&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]]&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ff9900&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Gospel of John|John]]&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | valign=&quot;top&quot; | ''The History'' |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#0099FF&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]]&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | valign=&quot;top&quot; | ''The Letters of [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]''&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ffff33&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]]&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ffff33&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1 Corinthians]]&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ffff33&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[2 Corinthians]]&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ffff33&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Galatians]]&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ffff33&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Epistle to Ephesians|Ephesians]]&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ffff33&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Philippians]]&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ffff33&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Colossians]]&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ffff33&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1 Thessalonians]]&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ffff33&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[2 Thessalonians]]&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ffff33&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1 Timothy]]&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ffff33&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[2 Timothy]]&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ffff33&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Epistle to Titus|Titus]]&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#ffff33&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Epistle to Philemon|Philemon]]&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | valign=&quot;top&quot; | ''The General Letters''&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#669966&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|11]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#669966&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Epistle of James|James]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|11]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#669966&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1 Peter]]&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#669966&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[2 Peter]]&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#669966&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1 John]]&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#669966&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[2 John]]&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#669966&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[3 John]]&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#669966&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Epistle of Jude|Jude]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|11]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | valign=&quot;top&quot; | ''Apocalypse''&lt;br&gt; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;#FF33FF&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Book of Revelation|Revelation of Christ to John]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|11]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt; |} The [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church]] has a few additional books in its canon: [[J
y a {{ArabDIN|fatḥa}}: {{Ar|قَلْبْ}}, The ''{{ArabDIN|[[Qur’an]]}}'' is traditionaly written in full vocalization. Outside of the ''{{ArabDIN|[[Qur’an]]}}'', putting a ''{{ArabDIN|sukūn}}'' above a ''{{ArabDIN|yāʼ}}'' which indicates {{IPA|[i:]}}, or above a ''{{ArabDIN|wāw}}'' which stands for {{IPA|[u:]}} is extremely rare, to the point that ''{{ArabDIN|yāʼ}}'' with sukūn will be unambiguously read as the diphthong {{IPA|[ai]}}, and ''{{ArabDIN|wāw}}'' with ''{{ArabDIN|sukūn}}'' will be read {{IPA|[au]}}. The letters ''{{ArabDIN|m-w-s-y-q-ā}}'' ({{Ar|موسيقى}} with an ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif maqṣūra}}'' at the end of the word) will be read most naturally as the word ''{{ArabDIN|mūsīqā}}'' (“music”). If you were to write ''{{ArabDIN|sukūns}}'' above the ''{{ArabDIN|wāw}}'', ''{{ArabDIN|yāʼ}}'' and ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}'', you’d get {{Ar|وْسيْقىْ}}, which would be read as ''{{ArabDIN|*mawsaykāy}}'' (note however that the final ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif maqṣūra}}'' is an ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}'' and never takes ''{{ArabDIN|sukūn}}''). The word, entirely vocalised, would be written {{Ar|مُوْسِيْقَى}} in the ''{{ArabDIN|[[Qur’an]]}}'' (if it happened to appear there!), or {{Ar|مُوسِيقَى}} elsewhere. (The Quranic spelling would have no ''{{ArabDIN|sukūn}}'' sign above the final ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif maqṣūra}}'', but instead a miniature ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}'' above the preceding ''{{ArabDIN|qaf}}'' consonant, which is a valid [[Unicode]] character but most Arabic computer fonts cannot in fact display this miniature ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}'' as of 2006.) A ''{{ArabDIN|sukūn}}'' is not placed on word-final consonants, even if no vowel is pronounced, because fully vocalised texts are always written as if the ''[[i`rab]]'' vowels were in fact pronounced. For example, ''{{ArabDIN|ʼaḥmad zawǧ šarr}}'', meaning “Ahmed is a bad husband”, for the purposes of Arabic grammar and orthography, is treated as if it was still pronounced with full ''i`rab'', i.e. ''{{ArabDIN|ʼaḥmadu zawǧun šarrun}}'' with the complete [[desinence]]s. {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- !General&lt;br /&gt;Unicode !Name !Translit. !Phonetic Value (IPA) |-align=&quot;center&quot; |style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0652&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0652;}}&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small style=&quot;color:#CCCCCC&quot;&gt;&amp;#x25CC;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt; |{{ArabDIN|[[sukūn]]}} |(no vowel with this consonnant letter or&lt;br /&gt;diphtong with this long vowel letter) |{{IPA|[]}} / {{IPA|[a&amp;#x0361;-]}} |-align=&quot;center&quot; |style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0670&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0670;}}&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small style=&quot;color:#CCCCCC&quot;&gt;&amp;#x25CC;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt; |{{ArabDIN|[[ʼalif]] above}} |(no vowel with next final consonnant letter or&lt;br /&gt;diphtong with next final long vowel letter) |{{IPA|[]}} / {{IPA|[a&amp;#x0361;-]}} |} ====Vowels==== {{main|Harakat}} Arabic short vowels are generally ''not'' written, except sometimes in sacred texts (such as the Qurʼan) and didactics, which are known as vocalised texts. Occasionally short vowels are marked where the word would otherwise be ambiguous and cannot be resolved simply from context. Short vowels may be written with [[diacritic|diacritics]] placed above or below the consonant that precedes them in the syllable. (All Arabic vowels, long and short, follow a consonant; contrary to appearances: there ''is'' a consonant at the start of a name like Ali — in Arabic ''{{ArabDIN|ʻAliyy}}'' — or a word like ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}''.) Note that when the acute-shaped {{ArabDIN|fatḥa}} which denotes a short a is added on top of a geminated consonnant (i.e. after a {{ArabDIN|šadda}}), the fatha accent takes a vertical shape to make the composition more distinctable from the tanwiin vowel sign {{ArabDIN|fatḥatan}} (which marks a /-an/ ending with indeterminate nunation in fully vocalized texts, see below). For an example, see the encoded ligature for ''ʻAllah'' above. {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- !Short vowels&lt;br /&gt;(fully vocalized text) !Name !Trans. !Value |-align=&quot;center&quot; |style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;064E&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x064E;}}&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small style=&quot;color:#CCCCCC&quot;&gt;&amp;#x25CC;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt; |{{ArabDIN|fatḥa}} |{{ArabDIN|a}} |{{IPA|[ɛ&amp;#x308;]}} |-align=&quot;center&quot; |style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;064F&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x064F;}}&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small style=&quot;color:#CCCCCC&quot;&gt;&amp;#x25CC;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt; |{{ArabDIN|ḍamma}} |{{ArabDIN|u}} |{{IPA|[ʊ]}} |-align=&quot;center&quot; |style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0650&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0650;}}&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small style=&quot;color:#CCCCCC&quot;&gt;&amp;#x25CC;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt; |{{ArabDIN|kasra}} |{{ArabDIN|i}} |{{IPA|[ɪ]}} |} Long &quot;a&quot; following a consonant other than hamzah is written with a short-&quot;a&quot; mark on the consonant plus an alif after it (''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}''). Long &quot;i&quot; is a mark for short &quot;i&quot; plus a yaa ''yāʼ'', and long u is mark for short u plus waaw, so aā = ā, iy = ī and uw = ū); long &quot;a&quot; following a hamzah sound may be represented by an alif-madda or by a floating hamzah followed by an alif. In the table below, vowels will be placed above or below a dotted circle replacing a primary consonnant letter or shadda. Please note, that most consonnants (except 6 of them) do join to the left with ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}'', ''{{ArabDIN|wāw}}'' and ''{{ArabDIN|yāʼ}}'' written then with their medial or final form. Additionally, the ''{{ArabDIN|yāʼ}}'' letter in the last row may connect to the letter on its left, and then will use a medial or initial form. For clarity in the table below, the primary letter on the left used to mark these long vowels are shown only in their isolated form. Use the tableof primary letters to look at their actual glyph and joining types. {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- !Long vowels&lt;br /&gt;(fully vocalized text) !Name !Trans. !Value |-align=&quot;center&quot; |style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;064E 0627&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x064E;&amp;#x0627;}}&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small style=&quot;color:#CCCCCC&quot;&gt;&amp;#x25CC;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt; |{{ArabDIN|fatḥa ʼalif}} |{{ArabDIN|ā}} |{{IPA|[æː]}} |-align=&quot;center&quot; |style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;064E 0649&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x064E;&amp;#x0649;}}&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small style=&quot;color:#CCCCCC&quot;&gt;&amp;#x25CC;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt; |{{ArabDIN|fatḥa ʼalif maqṣūra (Arabic)}} |{{ArabDIN|ā}} / {{ArabDIN|aỳ}} |{{IPA|[ɛ&amp;#x308;]}} |-align=&quot;center&quot; |style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;064E 06CC&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x064E;&amp;#x06CC;}}&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small style=&quot;color:#CCCCCC&quot;&gt;&amp;#x25CC;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt; |{{ArabDIN|fatḥa yeh (Farsi, Urdu)}} |{{ArabDIN|ā}} / {{ArabDIN|aỳ}} |{{IPA|[ɛ&amp;#x308;]}} |-align=&quot;center&quot; |style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;064F 0648&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x064F;&amp;#x0648;}}&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small style=&quot;color:#CCCCCC&quot;&gt;&amp;#x25CC;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt; |{{ArabDIN|ḍamma wāw}} |{{ArabDIN|ū}} / {{ArabDIN|uw}} |[uː] |-align=&quot;center&quot; |style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0650 064A&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0650;&amp;#x064A;}}&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small style=&quot;color:#CCCCCC&quot;&gt;&amp;#x25CC;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt; |{{ArabDIN|kasra yāʼ}} |{{ArabDIN|ī}} / {{ArabDIN|iy}} |[iː] |} In an un-vocalised text (one in which the short vowels are not marked), the long vowels are represented by the consonnant in question : {{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}, {{ArabDIN|ʼalif maqṣūra}} (or {{ArabDIN|yeh}}), {{ArabDIN|wāw}}, {{ArabDIN|yāʼ}}. Long vowels written in the middle of a word of un-vocalized text are treated like consonants taking ''sukūn'' (see below) in a text that has full diacritics. Here also, the table shows long vowel letters only in isolated form for clarity. {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- !Long vowels&lt;br /&gt;(un-vocalized text) !Name !Trans. !Value |-align=&quot;center&quot; |style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0627&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0627;}}&lt;/font&gt; |{{ArabDIN|(implied fatḥa) ʼalif}} |{{ArabDIN|ā}} |{{IPA|[æː]}} |-align=&quot;center&quot; |style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0649&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0649;}}&lt;/font&gt; |{{ArabDIN|(implied fatḥa) ʼalif maqṣūra (Arabic)}} |{{ArabDIN|ā}} / {{ArabDIN|aỳ}} |{{IPA|[ɛ&amp;#x308;]}} |-align=&quot;center&quot; |style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;06CC&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x06CC;}}&lt;/font&gt; |{{ArabDIN|(implied fatḥa) yeh (Farsi, Urdu)}} |{{ArabDIN|ā}} / {{ArabDIN|aỳ}} |{{IPA|[ɛ&amp;#x308;]}} |-align=&quot;center&quot; |style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0648&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0648;}}&lt;/font&gt; |{{ArabDIN|(implied ḍamma) wāw}} |{{ArabDIN|ū}} / {{ArabDIN|uw}} |[uː] |-align=&quot;center&quot; |style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&qu
clan. Pronounced &quot;ee&quot;. * ''Ní'': This is used in the Irish Language instead of ''O'' before a surname and comes a shortened form of the Irish word for a daughter, e.g. ''Máire Ní Bhriain'' (&quot;Mary O'Brien&quot;). * ''Nic'': Compressed form of ''iníon mhic'' (&quot;daughter of Mac...&quot;), e.g. ''Máire Nic Charthaigh'' (&quot;Mary, daughter of McCarthy&quot;). * ''Bean'': &quot;Wife&quot;, pronounced as ''ban''. ==Italy== ''See also: [[:Category:Italian surnames|Italian surnames category]].'' [[Italy|Italian]] names are mostly derived from Latin, but since Italy has been often ruled by foreigners, many surnames are of Spanish, French, German, Norman or Swiss origin (and thus often [[Romance language]] names). Beginning in the 14th century, it became necessary to add a [[second name]] to distinguish between individuals with the same surname. Italian surnames are especially easy to recognize because most end in a vowel, like nearly all words in [[Standard Italian]], and many of them have been derived from descriptive nicknames. Italian surnames developed from four major sources: patronym (e.g. ''Francesco di Marco'', &quot;Francis, son of Mark&quot;), occupation (e.g. ''Giovanni Fabbri'', &quot;John the Smith&quot;), personal characteristic (e.g. nicknames or pet names like ''Dario Forte'', &quot;Darius the Strong&quot;), and geographic origin (e.g. ''Elisabetta Romano'', &quot;Elisabeth from Rome&quot;). Few family names are still in the original Latin, and usually they indicate from or with pretensions to antiquity, e.g. ''de Judicibus'' or ''de Laurentis''. If the family was noble, the ''de'' has lowercase ''d'', otherwise it is uppercase. ==Greece== Greek surnames usually describe occupation or characteristics. Some are prefixed with ''papa-'', indicating ancestry from a priest. Common patronymic suffixes are ''-poulos'' ([[Peloponessus]]), ''-idis'', ''-iadis'' ([[Pontus]]), ''-akis'' ([[Crete]]), ''-atos'' ([[Ionian sea]]), ''-ellis'' ([[Lesbos_Island|Lesvos Island]]). The suffix ''-idis'' survives from the ancient times (''-ides'') for patronymic epithets. [[Zeus]], for example was also referred to as ''[[Cronides]]'' (&quot;son of [[Cronus]]&quot;). ==Pakistan== [[Pakistan]]i surnames are basically divided in two categories: tribal names and ancestral names. Muslim surnames include those of [[Arab]] heritage, e.g. ''[[Shaikh]]'', ''[[Siddiqui]]'', ''[[Abbasi]]'', ''[[Syed]]'', ''[[Farooqi]]'', ''[[Osmani]]'', ''[[Alavi]]'', ''[[Hassani]]'', ''[[Hussaini]]'', and ''Suhrawardi''. ''[[Khan]]'' is the most common surname in [[Pakistan]] and [[Afghanistan]] indicating [[Turkic peoples|Turkish]], [[Mongol]] and [[Central Asia]]n ancestory. Other family names indicating [[Turkic peoples|Turkish]] heritage include ''[[Mughal]]'', ''Mirza'', ''Baig'' or ''Beg'', ''[[Pasha]]'', and ''[[Barlas]]''. People claiming [[Iran]]ian ancestry include those with family names ''Agha'', ''Firdausi'', ''Ghazali'', ''Hamadani'', ''Isfahani'', ''Kashani'', ''Kermani'', ''Khorasani'', ''Mir'', ''Montazeri'', ''Nishapuri'', ''Noorani'', ''[[Qizilbash]]'', ''Saadi'', ''Sabzvari'', ''Shirazi'', ''Sistani'', ''Yazdani'', ''Zahedi'', and ''Zand''. Tribal names include ''Afaqi'', ''Afridi'', ''Amini'', ''Ashrafkhel'', ''Awan'', ''Bajwa'', ''Baloch'', ''Barakzai'', ''Baranzai'', ''Bhatti'', ''Bhutto'', ''Bijarani'', ''Bizenjo'', ''Brohi'', ''Bugti'', ''Butt'', ''Ghaznavi'', ''Ghilzai'', ''Gikchi'', ''Jakhrani'', ''Jamali'', ''Jamote'', ''Janjua'', ''Jatoi'', ''Joyo'', ''Junejo'', ''Karmazkhel'', ''Kayani'', ''Khar'', ''Khuhro'', ''Lakhani'', ''Leghari'', ''Lodhi'', ''Magsi'', ''Malik'', ''Mandokhel'', ''Mengal'', ''Palijo'', ''Panhwar'', ''Popalzai'', ''Rabbani'', ''Raisani'', ''Rakhshani'', ''Rathore'', ''Soomro'', ''Sulaimankhel'', ''Talpur'', ''Thebo'', and ''Zamani''. ==Portugal and Brazil== {{details|Iberian naming customs}} The [[Portugal|Portuguese]] order of surnames is the reverse of the Spanish one. Each person has at least two family names: the first is the maternal family name; the last is the paternal family name. A person can have up to six names (two first names and four surnames &amp;mdash; he or she may have two names from the mother and two from the father). In [[Brazil]] the rule is the same except that it is now very common for a person to have only one family name, the paternal one. In the ancient ages the patronymicum was commonly used &amp;mdash; surnames like ''Gonçalves'' (&quot;son of ''Gonçalo''&quot;), ''Fernandes'' (&quot;son of ''Fernando''&quot;), ''Nunes'' (&quot;son of Nuno&quot;) and many more are used today as usual family names. Brazilians usually call people only by their given names, omitting family names, even in many formal situations. When formality or a prefix requires a family name, the given name usually precedes the surname, e.g. ''João Santos'' (&quot;John Saints&quot;), or ''Sr. João Santos'' (&quot;Mr. John Saints&quot;). ==Spain and Hispanic areas== {{details|Iberian naming customs}} In medieval times, a patronymic system similar to the one still used in Iceland emerged. For example, ''Álvaro'', the son of ''Rodrigo'' would be named ''Álvaro Rodríguez''. His son, ''Juan'', would not be named ''Juan Rodríguez'', but ''Juan Álvarez''. Over time, many of these patronymics became family names and are some of the most common names in the Spanish-speaking world. Other sources of surnames are personal appearance or habit, e.g. ''Delgado'' (&quot;thin&quot;) and ''Moreno'' (&quot;dark&quot;); occupations, e.g. ''Molinero'' (&quot;miller&quot;) and ''Guerrero'' (&quot;warrior&quot;); and geographic location or ethnicity, e.g. ''Alemán'' (&quot;German&quot;). However, nowadays in Spain and in some countries of Hispanic culture (former Spanish colonies, e.g. México, Colombia, Venezuela), most people have two surnames, although in some situations only the first is used. The first surname is the paternal one, inherited from the father's paternal surname. The second surname is the maternal one, inherited from the mother's paternal surname. Since both surnames come from the paternal surnames of the previous generation, their transmission can be seen as a [[patriarchal]] feature of the Hispanic society. Depending on the country, the surnames may or may not be linked by the conjunction ''y'' (&quot;and&quot;), ''i'' (&quot;and&quot;, in [[Catalonia]]), ''de'' (&quot;of&quot;) and ''de la'' (&quot;of the&quot;, when the following word is feminine). However, in many South American countries people have now adopted the English-speaking custom, thus having a single surname (e.g. in [[Argentina]]). Sometimes a new father transmits his complete surname by creating a new one, combining his two surnames, e.g. the paternal surname of the son of ''Javier'' (given name) ''Reyes'' (paternal surname) ''de la Barrera'' (maternal surname) may become the new paternal surname ''Reyes de la Barrera''. At present day in Spain, women upon marrying keep their two family names intact. In certain situations she may be addressed as if her maternal surname were substituted with her husbands paternal surname often linked with ''de''. For example, a woman named ''Ana García Díaz'', upon marrying ''Juan Guerrero Macías'', could be called ''Ana García de Guerrero''. This custom, begun in medieval times, is decaying and only has legal validity in [[Ecuador]]. In Ecuador, a couple can choose the order of their children's surnames. Most choose the traditional order (e.g. ''Guerrero García'' in the example above), but some invert the order, putting the mother's paternal surname first and the father's paternal surname last (e.g. ''García Guerrero'' from the example above). Such inversion, if chosen, must be maintained for all the children. ==The Philippines== Until the middle of the 19th century, there was no standardization of surnames in the [[Philippines]]. There were native Filipinos without surnames, others whose surnames deliberately did not match that of their families, as well as those who took certain surnames simply because they had a certain prestige, usually ones dealing with the Roman Catholic religion, such as ''de los Santos'' and ''de la Cruz''. In 1849, the Spanish governor [[Spanish Governor - Captain General of the Philippines|Narciso Clavería y Zaldúa]] decreed an end to these arbitrary practices, the result of which was the ''[[Catálogo Alfabético de Apellidos]]'' (&quot;Alphabetic Catalog of Surnames&quot;). The book contained many words coming from Spanish and the Philippine languages such as [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]. The actual application of this decree varied from municipality to municipality. Some municipalities received only surnames starting with a particular letter. For example, the majority of residents of the island of [[Banton]] in [[Romblon|Romblon province]] have surnames starting with ''F'' such as ''Fabicon'', ''Fallarme'', ''Fadrilan'', and ''Ferran''. Thus, although there perhaps a majority of Filipinos have Spanish surnames, such a surname does not imply Spanish ancestry. There are other sources for surnames. For example, in Muslim-dominated areas of the southern Philippines, surnames are usually of Arabic origin such as Hassan and Haradji. Many Filipinos also have Chinese surnames which yield clues as to when their Chinese ancestor immigrated to the Philippines. For example, a hispanicized Chinese surname like ''Cojuangco'' suggests an 18th-century immigration while a Chinese surname like ''Lim'' suggests a relatively recent immigration. Some Chinese surnames like ''Tiu-Laurel'' are composed of the immigrant Chinese ancestor's surname as well as the name of that ancestor's godparent. There are also Filipinos, particularly from rural tribes, who have no surnames at all. The vast majority of Filipinos follow a naming system which is the reverse of the Spanish one. Children take the mother's surname as their [[middle name]], followed by their father
rength was in the Chinese-dominated trade unions, particularly in Singapore, and in the Chinese schools, where the teachers, mostly born in China, saw the [[Communist Party of China]] as the leader of China&amp;#8217;s national revival. In March [[1947]], reflecting the international Communist movement&amp;#8217;s &amp;#8220;turn to left&amp;#8221; as the [[Cold War]] set in, the MCP leader [[Lai Tek]] was purged and replaced by the veteran MPAJA guerilla leader [[Chin Peng]], who turned the party increasingly to direct action. In July, following a string of assassinations of plantation managers, the colonial government struck back, declaring a State of Emergency, banning the MCP and arresting hundreds of its militants. The Party retreated to the jungle and formed the [[Malayan Peoples&amp;#8217; Liberation Army]], with about 3,000 men under arms, almost all Chinese. The [[Malayan Emergency]] involved six years of bitter fighting across the Malayan Peninsula. The British strategy, which proved ultimately successful, was to isolate the MCP from its support base by a combination of economic and political concessions to the Chinese and the resettlement of Chinese squatters into &amp;#8220;New Villages&amp;#8221; in &amp;#8220;white areas&amp;#8221; free of MCP influence. The effective mobilisation of the Malays against the MCP was also an important part the British strategy. From [[1949]] the MCP campaign lost momentum and the number of recruits fell sharply. Although the MCP succeeded in assassinating the British High Commissioner, Sir [[Henry Gurney]], in October [[1951]], this turn to &amp;#8220;terrorist&amp;#8221; tactics alienated many moderate Chinese from the Party. The arrival of Lt-Gen Sir [[Gerald Templer]] as British commander in [[1952]] was the beginning of the end of the Emergency. Templer invented the techniques of [[counter-insurgency]] warfare in Malaya and applied them ruthlessly. ==Towards Malaysia== [[image:350px-Merdeka1.jpg|thumb|350px|Merdeka Square (Dataran Merdeka) in Kuala Lumpur, where Malaysians celebrate Independence Day on 31 August each year]] Chinese reaction against the MCP was shown by the formation of the [[Malaysian Chinese Association |Malayan Chinese Association]] (MCA) in [[1949]] as a vehicle for moderate Chinese political opinion. Its leader, [[Tan Cheng Lock]], favoured a policy of collaboration with UMNO to win Malayan independence on a policy of equal citizenship, but with sufficient concessions to Malay sensitivities to ease nationalist fears. Tan formed a close collaboration with Tunku (Prince) [[Tunku Abdul Rahman|Abdul Rahman]], the Chief Minister of Kedah and from [[1951]] successor to Datuk Onn as leader of UMNO. Since the British had announced in [[1949]] that Malaya would soon become independent whether the Malayans liked it or not, both leaders were determined to forge an agreement their communities could live with as a basis for a stable independent state. The UMNO-MCA Alliance (which was later joined by the [[Malaysian Indian Congress|Malayan Indian Congress]] (MIC)), won convincing victories in local and state elections in both Malay and Chinese areas between [[1952]] and [[1955]]. The introduction of elected local government was another important step in defeating the Communists. After [[Joseph Stalin]]&amp;#8217;s death in [[1953]], there was a split in the MCP leadership over the wisdom of continuing the armed struggle. Many MCP militants lost heart and went home, and by the time Templer left Malaya in [[1954]] the Emergency was over, although Chin Peng led a diehard group that lurked in the inaccessible country along the Thai border for many years. The Emergency left a lasting legacy of bitterness between Malays and Chinese. During [[1955]] and [[1956]] UMNO, the MCA and the British hammered out a constitutional settlement for an independent Malaya. UMNO conceded the principle of equal citizenship for all races. In exchange, the MCA agreed that [[Yang di-Pertuan Agong|Malaya&amp;#8217;s head of state]] would be drawn from the ranks of the Malay Sultans, that Malay would be the official language, and that Malay education and economic development would be promoted and subsidised. In effect this meant that Malaya would be run by the Malays, particularly since they continued to dominate the civil service, the army and the police, but that the Chinese and Indians would have proportionate representation in the Cabinet and the parliament, would run those states where they were the majority, and would have their economic position protected. The difficult issue of who would control the education system was deferred until after independence. This came on [[August 31]], [[1957]], when Tunku Abdul Rahman became the first Prime Minister of independent Malaya. This left the unfinished business of the other British-ruled territories in the region. After the Japanese surrender the [[White Rajahs|Brooke family]] and the British North Borneo Company gave up their control of Sarawak and Sabah respectively, and these became British Crown Colonies. They were much less economically developed than Malaya, and their local political leaderships (who were mainly Christian) were too weak to demand independence, despite the considerable cultural differences between the two territories and Malaya. Singapore, with its large Chinese majority, achieved autonomy in [[1955]], and in [[1959]] the young socialist leader [[Lee Kuan Yew]] became Prime Minister. The Sultan of Brunei remained as a British client in his oil-rich enclave. Between [[1959]] and [[1962]] the British government orchestrated complex negotiations between these local leaders and the Malayan government. In 1961, the Tunku mooted the idea of forming &quot;Malaysia&quot;, which would consist of [[Singapore]], [[Sabah]], [[Sarawak]] and [[Brunei]], all of which were then British colonies. The reasoning behind this was that this would allow the central government to control and combat communist activities, especially in Singapore. It was also feared that if Singapore achieved independence, it would become a base for Chinese chauvinists to threaten Malayan sovereignty. To balance out the ethnic composition of the new nation, the other states, whose Malay and indigenous populations would balance out the Singaporean Chinese majority, were also included. &lt;ref&gt;Shuid, Mahdi &amp; Yunus, Mohd. Fauzi (2001). ''Malaysian Studies'', p. 29. Longman. ISBN 983-74-2024-3.&lt;/ref&gt; Although Singaporean Chief Minister [[Lee Kuan Yew]] supported the proposal, his opponents from the Singaporean Socialist Front resisted, arguing that this was a ploy for the British to continue controlling the region. Most political parties in Sarawak were also against the merger, and in Sabah, where there were no political parties, community representatives also stated their opposition. Although the [[Sultan of Brunei]] supported the merger, the ''Parti Rakyat Brunei'' opposed it as well. At the [[Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting]] in 1961, the Tunku explained his proposal further to its opponents. In October, he obtained agreement from the British government to the plan, provided that feedback be obtained from the communities involved in the merger. The [[Cobbold Commission]], named after its head, Lord Cobbold, conducted a study in the [[Borneo]] territories and approved a merger with Sabah and Sarawak; however, it was found that a substantial number of Bruneians opposed merger. A [[referendum]] was conducted in Singapore to gauge opinion, and 70% supported merger with substantial autonomy given to the state government. &lt;ref&gt;Shuid &amp; Yunus, pp. 30&amp;ndash;31.&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;Adam, Ramlah binti, Samuri, Abdul Hakim bin &amp; Fadzil, Muslimin bin (2004). ''Sejarah Tingkatan 3'', p. 207. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. ISBN 983-62-8285-8.&lt;/ref&gt; After reviewing the Cobbold Commission's findings, the British government appointed the [[Landsdowne Commission]] to draft a constitution for Malaysia. The eventual constitution was essentially the same, albeit with some rewording. For instance, the Malay privileges were now made available to all &quot;[[Bumiputra]]&quot;, a group comprising the Malays and other indigenous peoples of Malaysia. The new states were also granted some autonomy unavailable to the original nine states of Malaya. After negotiations in July 1963, it was agreed that Malaysia would come into being on [[August 31]] [[1963]], consisting of Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak. Brunei pulled out after ''Parti Rakyat Brunei'' staged an armed revolt, which, though it was put down, was viewed as potentially destabilising to the new nation. &lt;ref&gt;Shuid &amp; Yunus, p. 31.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Philippines]] and [[Indonesia]] strenously objected to this development, with Indonesia claiming Malaysia represented a form of [[neocolonialism]] and the Philippines claiming Sabah as its territory. Indonesian President [[Sukarno]], backed by the powerful [[Communist Party of Indonesia]] (PKI), chose to regard Malaysia as a [[neo-colonialism|neo-colonialist]] plot against his country, and backed a Communist insurgency in Sarawak, mainly involving elements of the local Chinese community. Indonesian irregular forces were infiltrated into Sarawak, where they were contained by Malaysian and [[Commonwealth of Nations]] forces. This period of &amp;#8220;[[Confrontation]]&amp;#8221; lasted until [[1965]], when the army coup in Jakarta ended Sukarno&amp;#8217;s rule and destroyed the PKI. Under Sukarno&amp;#8217;s successor, [[Suharto]], Indonesian-Malaysian relations improved. At the same time Filipino President [[Diosdado Macapagal]] revived the long-dormant Filipino claim to Sabah, once part of the Sultanate of Sulu. This claim was mostly to do with Filipino domestic politics. In [[1966]] the new president, [[Ferdinand Marcos]], dropped the claim and recognized Malaysia. ==Problems of independence== [[Image:FedOfMalaya1stCabi
After Holt's disappearance in December 1967, the Liberal Party began to succumb to internal dissent. They first elected [[John Gorton]] as leader, then dumped him in favour of [[William McMahon]]. Whitlam quickly established an ascendancy, particularly over short-statured McMahon, who was well past his political prime, and who lacked the on-screen charisma that Whitlam so obviously possessed. Outside parliament, Whitlam concentrated on party reform and on developing new policies. He advocated the abolition of conscription and Australian withdrawal from the [[Vietnam War]], and in 1971 visited the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC), promising to establish diplomatic relations&amp;#8212;much to the chagrin of McMahon, who attacked Whitlam for this policy, only to discover that President [[Richard Nixon]] was himself working toward recognising the PRC. On [[2 December]] [[1972]], Whitlam led the ALP to its first electoral victory since 1946. ==Prime Minister== Custom dictated that Whitlam should have waited until the process of vote counting was complete, and then called a Caucus meeting to elect his Ministers ready to be sworn in by the [[Governor-General of Australia|Governor-General]]. Meanwhile, the outgoing Prime Minister would remain in office as a [[caretaker]]. (As a matter of longstanding party policy, ALP Ministers are elected by the entire Parliamentary Party&amp;#8212;the 'Caucus'&amp;#8212;with the Prime Minister only having the power to assign portfolios. Liberal Prime Ministers, in contrast, have traditionally had the power to nominate their own Ministry.) Unwilling to wait, Whitlam, as soon as the overall result was beyond doubt, had himself and Deputy Leader [[Lance Barnard]] sworn in as a two-man government, holding all the portfolios between them (see [[First Whitlam Ministry]]). Whitlam later said: &quot;The Caucus I joined in 1952 had as many [[Second Boer War|Boer War]] veterans as men who had seen active service in [[World War II]], three from each. The Ministry appointed on [[5 December]] [[1972]] was composed entirely of ex-servicemen: Lance Barnard and me.&quot; Although Labor had a comfortable working majority in the House, Whitlam faced a hostile [[Australian Senate|Senate]], making it impossible for him to pass legislation without the support of at least one of the other parties&amp;#8212;Liberal, Country, or DLP. (Senate elections at that time were not synchronised with House of Representatives elections: at the time Whitlam took office, half the Senate had been elected two years previously, the other half five years earlier.) After 23 years of continuous conservative rule, the bureaucracy was unhelpful, and the conservative state governments were implacably opposed to reform. Nevertheless, Whitlam embarked on a massive legislative reform program. In the space of a little less than three years, the Whitlam Government: * established formal diplomatic relations with the [[People's Republic of China]]; * took responsibility for tertiary education over from the states and abolished tertiary fees; * cut tariffs across the board by 25% and abolished the Tariff Board; * established the Schools Commission to distribute Federal funds to assist non-government schools on a needs basis; * introduced a supporting benefit for single-parent families; * abolished the death penalty for Federal crimes; * reduced the voting age to 18 years; * abolished the last vestiges of the [[White Australia Policy]]; * introduced language programs for non-English speaking Australians; * mandated equal opportunities for women in Federal Government employment; * appointed women to judicial and administrative positions; * set up the National Aboriginal Consultative Committee; * amalgamated the five separate defence departments; * instituted direct federal grants to local governments; and * established the [[Order of Australia]], Australia's own honours system. The Senate resolutely opposed six key bills and twice rejected them. These were designed to: * Institute a universal, free health insurance system to be known as [[Medicare| Medibank]]. * Provide citizens of the [[Australian Capital Territory]] and the [[Northern Territory]] with Senate representation for the first time. * Regulate the size of House of Representatives electorates to ensure [[one vote one value]]. * Institute government overseeing of exploitation of minerals and oil. The repeated rejection of these bills provided a [[Constitution of Australia|constitutional]] trigger for a [[Australian electoral system|double dissolution]] (a simultaneous election for all members in both houses), but Whitlam did not decide to call such an election until May 1974. Instead he expected to hold an election for half the Senate. To improve his chances of winning control of the Senate, Whitlam offered the former DLP Leader, Senator [[Vince Gair]], the post of Ambassador to [[Ireland]], thus creating an extra Senate vacancy in Queensland which Whitlam hoped Labor could win. This manoeuvre backfired, however, when the Queensland Premier, [[Joh Bjelke-Petersen]], learned of the appointment before it was announced, and had the [[Governor of Queensland]] issue the writs for the Queensland Senate election before Gair's resignation from the Senate took effect. This &quot;Gair affair&quot; so outraged opponents of the Whitlam government that the Opposition Leader [[Billy Snedden]] threatened to block supply in the Senate, although he took no actual steps to do so. Whitlam, however, believing Snedden was unpopular with the electorate, immediately went to the [[Governor-General of Australia|Governor-General]], [[Paul Hasluck|Sir Paul Hasluck]], and obtained a double dissolution of both Houses for [[18 May]]. Whitlam went to the polls asking for a mandate to &quot;finish the job&quot;, and the ALP campaigned on the slogan &quot;Give Gough a Go&quot;. At the election the Whitlam government was re-elected, though with a reduced majority. The DLP lost all its seats, but Labor failed to win a majority in the Senate. The balance of power in the Senate was now held by two independent Senators. In the short term, this led to the historic [[Joint Sitting, Australian parliament, 1974|joint sitting]] of both houses, at which the six bills were passed. In the longer term, it contained the seeds of Whitlam's downfall. In its second term, the Whitlam Government continued with its legislative reform program, but became embroiled in a series of controversies and scandals, including secret attempts to borrow large amounts of money from Middle Eastern governments, by-passing the Treasury and correct constitutional procedures (the &quot;[[Loans Affair]]&quot;). Whitlam was forced to dismiss Treasurer [[Jim Cairns]] and another senior minister, [[Rex Connor]], for misleading Parliament. Emboldened by these scandals, a weak economy, and a massive swing to them in a mid-1975 by-election for the [[Tasmania]]n seat of Bass, the Liberal-Country Opposition, led by [[Malcolm Fraser]], argued that the Government's behaviour in breaching constitutional conventions required that it in turn attempt to breach one of the most fundamental, that the Senate would not block [[Loss of Supply|Supply]] (that is, cut off supply of Treasury funds). ==The Dismissal== :''Main article: [[Australian constitutional crisis of 1975]]'' The Opposition would not have been able to follow this course if the Senate elected in 1974 had remained intact. Although one of the two independents joined the Liberal Party, the other, [[Steele Hall]], was opposed to blocking supply, and this would have been sufficient to prevent such a course being followed. The change in the composition of the Senate which made the constitutional crisis of 1975 possible was brought about by two appointments to fill vacancies in the Senate, which under the Australian Constitution are made by the State Parliaments. Since the introduction of [[proportional representation]] for Senate elections in 1949, there had been a convention that Senators who died or resigned should be replaced by a Senator of their own party, and all state governments had adhered to this convention. In February 1975 the [[Premier of New South Wales]], [[Tom Lewis (Australian politician)|Tom Lewis]], broke the convention by appointing an independent Senator, [[Cleaver Bunton]], to replace the Attorney-General, Senator [[Lionel Murphy]], who had been appointed to the [[High Court of Australia]]. This appointment made no difference to the political situation, because it turned out that Bunton was opposed to blocking supply, but it provided a precedent for the Queensland [[National Party of Australia|National Party]] Premier, [[Joh Bjelke-Petersen]], when a Queensland ALP Senator, [[Bert Milliner]], died on [[30 June]]. Bjelke-Petersen refused to appoint the ALP's chosen replacement, Dr [[Mal Colston]], and asked Labor for three alternative nominations. Bjelke-Petersen said he had concerns over Colston's integrity, but Labor maintained that his real intention was to appoint a Senator who would support the blocking of supply and thus help bring down the Whitlam government. &lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:kerrproclamationbysecretary.jpg|thumb|left|240px|Whitlam (left) looks on as Kerr's secretary [[David Smith (Australian public servant)|David Smith]] announces the dissolution of parliament]] --&gt; When Labor insisted on nominating Colston, Bjelke-Petersen nominated [[Albert Field]], president of the Federated Furnishing Trades Union and an ALP member of thirty-eight years standing. Bjelke-Petersen maintained that he was therefore not breaking the convention. Under ALP rules, however, Field ceased to be an ALP member as soon as he accepted nomination against an endorsed Labor candidate. Field said that he was opposed to Whitlam's behaviour in office and that he had approached Bjelke-Petersen asking to be nominated to the vacancy. Labor maintained that in these circumst
im dead. The plan goes off without a hitch when the boys' bodies are discovered and the two school football stars are &quot;revealed&quot; to be gay lovers. (In one of the more memorable moments of the film, a redneck father is seen at a funeral with a football in his hand crying out &quot;I love my dead gay son!&quot;) Suddenly Veronica is sucked into a world that she never intended to be a part of. Although the people they are killing were not particularly good or nice, she feels guilt for their murders. Additionally, because they were popular, other students are mimicking their behavior and attempting suicides. Most notably, obese student Martha &quot;Dumptruck&quot; Dunnstock ([[Carrie Lynn]]) pins a suicide note to her chest and walks into traffic. (She is not killed; instead she is horribly wounded and wheelchair bound.) Veronica realizes she has to stop participating in these crimes with J.D., but when she tells him, he goes nuts. He reveals his plan to kill Heather Duke next, and hints that he might try to kill Veronica. Veronica, expecting him to find her and kill her, rigs a harness in her room to make it look like she has [[hanging|hanged]] herself. J.D. discovers her &quot;body&quot; and leaves, heartbroken. (Veronica's mother ([[Jennifer Rhodes]]) also discovers her just before she unties herself, getting quite a scare.) Before J.D. leaves, however, he reveals that he intends to blow up the entire school during a pep rally. A petition he has been circulating to get the band &quot;Big Fun&quot; to play was actually a cleverly disguised suicide note that almost the entire school has signed. Veronica heads to school the next day and confronts J.D. in the boiler rooms where he is rigging dynamite to go off. They get into a gunfight where Veronica shoots off J.D.'s middle finger, and finally she forces him to disable the bomb. However, she is unable to save J.D., who later meets her outside and detonates a bomb that is strapped around his chest. Thus Veronica has literally saved the entire school without anyone knowing it. The final shot of the film is of Veronica, ash laden and bleeding, walking through the halls of the school. She confronts Heather Duke and rips a red bow from her hair (the bow which Heather Chandler is known to wear, which J.D. had given Heather Duke) and then starts up a friendly discussion with Martha Dunnstock. [[Image:heathers.jpg|thumb|300px|The Heathers: Heather Duke, Heather McNamara, Heather Chandler, and Veronica]] ==Alternate ending== On the special editon DVD of ''Heathers'', the &quot;special features&quot; section contains the script for an alternate ending which was considered too dark for teen audiences and nixed by New World Pictures, the distributor. In the alternate ending, J.D. dies in the boiler room, and Veronica is shown walking through the school, though only from the back. This is interrupted by shots of the bomb counting down, showing that Veronica had not shut it off. When she reaches the front of the school, Veronica turns around, allowing the viewer to see that the bomb was strapped to her chest. It hits zero, the screen turns black, and Veronica says, &quot;Boom.&quot; Then black letters tell the viewer that this is the prom. A banner hangs, saying &quot;WHAT A WASTE, OH THE HUMANITY&quot;. The students begin to dance, at first sticking with those of the same or similar social cliques. Then, when it is time for prom pictures, people from different cliques are couples. A geek and a stoner pose together, then Pauline Fleming ([[Penelope Milford]]) and Principal Gowan ([[John Ingle]]). Kurt, now alive, has his picture taken with the cow he had tipped. Mismatched couples continue to appear, and dead characters make their own appearances. J.D. plays a &quot;smoking hot&quot; guitar solo, then rushes to the dance floor to dance with Heather Duke, Kurt, and finally Heather Chandler. The Heathers do a ring-around-the-rosy. The camera is moved up to reveal Martha Dunnstock, wailing beautifully. The viewpoint is then lifted even higher to show a smiling Veronica in a &quot;striking pose.&quot; Those who have not seen the movie or who did not pay attention will not understand the implications of this ending. In order for the scene to be understood, one must remember that J.D. tells Veronica, in defense of his actions, that &quot;the only place different social types can genuinely get along is in Heaven.&quot; Through this quote, it becomes clear that the people of Westerburg High had all died. This explains the mingling of social groups, as well as the reappearance of those who died at prom. Despite the change of the endings, the movie failed to be a big hit. Instead it has increased in popularity over time, developing into a [[cult movie]]. ==Trivia== *The fictional Westerberg High School is named for musician [[Paul Westerberg]]. *Daniel Waters wrote the film for [[Stanley Kubrick]], but struggled greatly to get the script sent to him. *In [[2000]], readers of ''[[Total Film]]'' magazine voted ''Heathers'' the 32nd greatest comedy film of all time. *Screamo band [[From First to Last]] took the title of their album ''[[Dear Diary, My Teen Angst Has a Body Count]]'' from a quote by Veronica in ''Heathers'' (&quot;Dear diary, my teen-angst bullshit now has a body count.&quot;). *Veronica and her not-so-popular friend have combination first and last names that go together (Betty and Veronica, from [[Archie Comics]], and Sawyer and Finn, from [[Tom Sawyer]]) ==External links== {{wikiquote}} *{{imdb title|id=0097493|title=Heathers}} *[http://www.soundtrackcollector.com/catalog/soundtrackdetail.php?movieid=1806 Heathers on SoundtrackCollector] [[Category:1989 films]] [[Category:Comedy-drama films]] [[Category:Coming-of-age films]] [[Category:Cult films]] [[Category:Independent films]] [[Category:Teen films]] [[de:Heathers]] [[sv:Häxor, läxor och dödliga lektioner]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Federation of Expellees</title> <id>13902</id> <revision> <id>39746164</id> <timestamp>2006-02-15T15:59:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>AnonMoos</username> <id>21047</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Recent developments */ punct</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}} The '''Bund der Vertriebenen''' ''(BdV)'' ([[German language|German]] for &quot;Federation of Expellees&quot;) is a [[non-profit organization]] formed to represent the interests of Germans displaced from their homes in [[Historical Eastern Germany]] and other parts of Eastern Europe by the [[expulsion of Germans after World War II]]. (''&quot;Heimatvertriebene&quot;: &quot;Homeland expellees&quot;''). It represents the [[diaspora]] of, today, approximately 15 million German citizens, that after World War II were transferred from [[Poland]] and the [[Soviet Union]] and former German territories, [[ethnic German]]s who were [[population transfer|transferred]] from [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Hungary]], [[Romania]], [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] and other countries, it also includes people who were part of colonisation effort by German Reich or who migrated into Nazi occupied territories during the war. The federation is currently headed by the [[Christian Democratic Union of Germany|CDU]] politician [[Erika Steinbach]]. == German laws concerning the Expellees == Between [[1953]] and [[1991]] the [[West Germany|West German]] government passed several laws dealing with expelled civilians. Most notable of these laws is the &quot;[[Right_of_Return#Germany|Law of Return]]&quot; which granted West German [[citizenship]] to any [[ethnic German]]. Several additions were made to these laws. The centerpiece of the ethnic German expellee law is the inheritability of the refugee status. According to Bundesvertriebenengesetz [http://bundesrecht.juris.de/bundesrecht/bvfg/index.html] Par. 7/2, &quot;the spouse and the descendants&quot; of an expellee are to be treated as if they were expellees themselves, regardless whether they have been personally displaced. Although there never were refugee camps set up in Germany, this legal status is only paralleled by the situation of Palestinian refugees in [[UNRWA]] camps. The Federation of Expellees has however steadily lobbied to preserve the inheritability clause, as a change might deeply effect its ability to recruit from the post-WWII generations. Expellee status also includes Germans settled in Nazi occupied territories as well as those who moved with the military occupation. == Recent developments == Under previous governments, especially those led by the [[Christian-Democratic Union of Germany|CDU]], the West German government had shown more rhetorical support for the refugeed and expelled Germans. [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democratic]] governments have traditionally been less supportive &amp;mdash; and it was under [[Willy Brandt]] that [[West Germany]] recognized the [[Oder-Neisse line]] as part of his [[Ostpolitik]]. In the early 1990s the German political establishment realised that they had an opportunity to remove the division between West Germany and East Germany. However it was believed that if this historic opportunity was to be realised it had to be done quickly. One of the potential complications were the lands of historical eastern Germany, because unless these were renounced, some foreign powers might not agree to German unification. The German political establishment agreed to the [[Treaty on the Final Settlement With Respect to Germany]] (Two Plus Four Agreement) which officially reestablished the sovereignty of both German states, one condition of which, was that Germany accept the post World War II frontiers. In 1991 to facilitate [[German re-unification]] and to reassure other countries, the FRG made some changes to the &quot;[[Basic Law for the Federal Repu
r war crimes are living in surrounding African countries which refuse extradition. Prosecution of a US national would not lead to the obligation of the US to cooperate or assist the court in any way and would therefore not create any 'obligation for a non-State party'. Supporters of the Court further argue that under international law states have the right to try foreign nationals for crimes committed on their territory under the legal concept of Universal jurisdiction. Providing the ICC with jurisdiction over U.S. nationals in this case would not interfere with U.S. sovereignty, say ICC proponents. Some have, however, argued that their territorial jurisdiction is non-delegable [&lt;small&gt;''see'' Madeline Morris, ''High crimes and misconceptions: the ICC and non-party states, Law and Contemporary Problems'', Winter 2001 vol. 64 no. 1 p. 13ff&lt;/small&gt;]. [http://www.law.duke.edu/journals/lcp/articles/lcp64dWinter2001p13.htm] &lt;h5&gt; ICC violates US Constitution &lt;h5&gt; Another argument is that the ICC is a violation of the US constitution by creating a court of appeals which is higher than the US Supreme Court. Because ICC takes cases where it deems the host nation not willing to do enough to prosecute a crime, it is theoretically possible for someone to appeal to the ICC after losing a case before the Supreme Court. &lt;h4&gt; U.S. measures against the ICC &lt;h4&gt; When it became clear in 2002 that the treaty creating the ICC would receive the requisite number of ratifications to enter into force, the United States began to undertake a number of measures to exempt U.S. nationals from the Court's jurisdiction. Sceptics say there may be other reasons, than those advanced by the [[Bush administration]], for frustrating the International Criminal Court.[http://www.crimesofwar.org/icc_magazine/icc-kahn.html] One might think of the role the [[Opposition to U.S. foreign policy|U.S. administration]] or U.S. subjects have played in conflicts around the world in the past, i.e. [[Gulf of Tonkin Incident]], [[My Lai Massacre]], aid to [[Operation Condor]] through the [[Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation|School of the Americas]].[http://www.zmag.org/CrisesCurEvts/interventions.htm] Continuing these policies today, under the [[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court|ICC Statute]], could be grounds for prosecution. In addition, they point to the possible legal challenges[http://alternet.org/rights/30758/] as a result of the &quot;[[war on terror]]&quot; regarding the memos refuting the [[Geneva Convention]],[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB127/][http://msnbc.msn.com/id/4999734/][http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20050718&amp;s=holtzman][http://www.ccr-ny.org/v2/reports/report.asp?ObjID=ci38xk7IHk&amp;Content=509] the use of [[unlawful combatant]] status, [[extraordinary rendition]] and the invasion of [[2003 Invasion of Iraq|Iraq]].[http://www.wagingpeace.org/articles/2005/06/27_jury-of-conscience-declaration.htm] They all could be seen as [[war crimes]].[http://www.counterpunch.org/lindorff02092006.html][http://www.counterpunch.org/boyle12222005.html][http://www.truthout.org/docs_05/011905A.shtml][http://www.laprensa-sandiego.org/archieve/november19-04/quaint.htm][http://www.counterpunch.org/brecher12062005.html][http://www.truthout.org/docs_2005/120905M.shtml] &lt;h5&gt; American Servicemembers Protection Act &lt;h5&gt; In 2002, the U.S. Congress passed the [[American Servicemembers' Protection Act]] (ASPA), which contained a number of provisions, including prohibitions on the U.S. providing military aid to countries which had ratified the treaty establishing the court; however, there were a number of exceptions to this, including [[NATO]] members, [[major non-NATO ally]], and countries which entered into an agreement with the United States not to hand over U.S. nationals to the Court (see &quot;Article 98&quot; agreements below). ASPA also excluded any military aid that the U.S. President certified to be in the U.S. national interest. In addition, ASPA contained provisions prohibiting U.S. co-operation with the Court, and permitting the President to authorize military force to free any U.S. military personnel held by the court, leading opponents to dub it &quot;[[The Hague Invasion Act]].&quot; The act was later modified to permit U.S. cooperation with the ICC when dealing with U.S. enemies. In addition, the Nethercutt Amendment to the Foreign Appropriations Bill suspends Economic Support Fund assistance to ICC States Parties who have not signed bilateral immunity agreements (BIAs) with the US. The funds affected support initiatives including peacekeeping, anti-terrorism measures, democracy-building and drug interdiction. The omnibus appropriations bill containing the controversial amendment was signed by President Bush on December 7, 2004. &lt;h5&gt; United Nations Security Council Resolutions &lt;h5&gt; In July 2002, the United States threatened to use its Security Council veto to block renewal of the mandates of several United Nations peacekeeping operations, unless the Security Council agreed to permanently exempt U.S. nationals from the Court's jurisdiction. Initially, the U.S. had sought to prevent personnel on UN missions being tried by any country except that of their nationality. When the other members of the Security Council rejected that approach, the United States then sought to make use of a provision of the Rome Statute, which permits the Security Council to request the ICC not to exercise its jurisdiction over a certain matter for up to one year at a time. The United States sought the Security Council to convey such a request to the ICC concerning personnel on United Nations peacekeeping and enforcement operations, and to have that request renewed automatically each year. (If it was renewed automatically each year, then another Security Council resolution would be required to cease the request, which the U.S. could then veto—which would effectively make the request permanent.) Court supporters argued that the Rome Statute requires the request to be valid to be voted upon anew each year in the Security Council, and hence that an automatically renewing request would violate the Statute. Other members of the Security Council opposed this United States request also. However, they were increasingly concerned about the future of peacekeeping operations. The United Kingdom eventually negotiated a compromise, whereby the U.S. would be granted its request, but only for a period of one year, and a new Security Council vote would be required in July each year for the exclusion of peacekeepers from ICC jurisdiction to be continued. All members of the Security Council endorsed this resolution, although many did so reluctantly. The result was [[UN Security Council Resolution 1422]]. NGO supporters of the Court, along with several countries not on the Security Council (including Canada and New Zealand), protested the legality of the resolution. The resolution was made under Chapter VII of the UN Charter, which requires a &quot;threat to international peace or security&quot; for the Security Council to act; ICC supporters have argued that a U.S. threat to veto peacekeeping operations does not constitute a threat to international peace or security. A resolution to exempt citizens of the U.S. from jurisdiction of the court was renewed in 2003 by Resolution 1487, but after the [[Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse|abuse of prisoners in Iraq]] it became clear that there was no majority for it, the U.S. withdrew its second proposed renewal of the resolution. &lt;h5&gt; &quot;Article 98&quot; agreements &lt;h5&gt; [[Image:Axis_Of_Impunity_2005.PNG|thumb|right|400px|Map of countries which have signed Article 98 agreements with the US]] As part of the U.S. campaign to exclude its citizens and military personnel from the jurisdiction of the ICC, the U.S. Bush administration has been approaching countries around the world seeking to conclude Bilateral Immunity Agreements, or so-called “Article 98” agreements. These agreements prohibit the surrender to the ICC of a broad scope of persons including current or former government officials, military personnel, and U.S. employees (including non-national contractors) and nationals. These agreements, which in some cases are reciprocal, do not always include an obligation by the United States to subject those suspected persons to investigation and/or prosecution. The U.S. has attempted to pressure states into signing these bilateral agreements with it by adopting legislation requiring the suspension of military assistance and U.S. Economic Support Fund (ESF) aid to those States Parties which do not sign these agreements. ESF funding entails a wide range of governance programs including international counter-terrorism efforts, peace process programs, anti-drug trafficking initiatives, truth and reconciliation commissions, wheelchair distribution and HIV/AIDS education, among others. In 2003 the U.S. stopped military aid for 35 countries (among them nine European countries). U.S. law requires the cessation of such aid payments if a state is unwilling to sign the bilateral agreement (there are exceptions for [[NATO]]-members and allies such as Israel, Egypt, Australia and South Korea). Article 98 of the Rome Statute provides that a country need not hand over a foreign national to the Court if it is prohibited from doing so by an agreement with that national's country. The U.S. has used this measure in an attempt to exempt its nationals from the Court's jurisdiction, by negotiating agreements with State Parties making use of Article 98. [[Amnesty International]] and the [[European Commission]] Legal Service, along with several other groups supporting the ICC, have claimed that these agreements the U.S. is attempting to negotiate are not valid under Article 98. They argue that the language in Article 98 is normally used in in
to simulate the behavior of fluid, reducing time and expense spent on wind-tunnel testing. Additionally, aerospace engineering addresses the integration of all components that constitute an aerospace vehicle (subsystems including power, communications, thermal control, life support, etc.) and its life cycle (design, temperature, pressure, radiation, velocity, life time), leading to extraordinary challenges and solutions specific to the domain of aerospace systems engineering. See [[List of aerospace engineering topics]]. ==Popular culture== Popular culture has not been unaffected by this branch of engineering. The term &quot;rocket scientist&quot; is at times used to describe a person of remarkable or in the considered context higher than average inteligence. Aerospace engineering has also been represented as the more &quot;glittery&quot; pinnacle of engineering. The movie [[Apollo 13]] depicts the ground team as group of heros in a Hollywood fashion glorifying the inteligence and competence of ''white shirt and tie'' proffesionals as a sharp contrast to pop culture trends. This was later extended in more detail in the spin-off series [[From the Earth to the Moon]]. ==Aerospace engineering degrees== Aerospace (or aeronautical) engineering can be studied at the [[bachelor's degree|bachelors]], [[master's degree|masters]], and [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] levels in aerospace engineering departments at many universities, and in mechanical engineering departments at others. At least the following institutions offer aerospace engineering education (school names followed by accredation where applicable): * [[Australia]] **[[Australian Defence Force Academy]] ** [[University of New South Wales]] ** [[University of Sydney]] ** [[Monash University]] **[[RMIT University]] * [[Brazil]] ** [[Aeronautics Technological Institute|Instituto Tecnológico de Aeronáutica]] * [[Canada]] ** [[Carleton University]] ** [[Ryerson University]] ** [[University of Toronto]] * [[France]] ** [[École Nationale Supérieure de l'Aéronautique et de l'Espace]] * [[Germany]] ** [[University of Stuttgart]] * [[India]] ** [[Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay]] ** [[Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur]] ** [[Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur]] ** [[Indian Institute of Technology, Madras]] * [[Italy]] ** [[University of Bologna]] ** [[Politecnico di Milano]] ** [[Politecnico di Torino]] ** [[University of Pisa]] * [[Netherlands]] ** [[Delft University of Technology]] (ABET) * [[Portugal]] ** [[Instituto Superior Técnico]] ** [[Universidade da Beira Interior, Covilhã]] * [[Sweden]] ** [[Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan, Stockholm]] * [[United Kingdom]] ** [[University of Bristol]] ** [[University of Liverpool]] ** [[University of Southampton]] ** [[University of Sheffield]] (MEng) ** [[Cranfield University]] ** [[Imperial College London]], [[University of London]] (MEng) * [[United States]] ** [[Air Force Institute of Technology]] ([[Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology]] (ABET)) ** [[University of Alabama in Huntsville]] (ABET) ** [[University of Alabama]] (ABET) ** [[Arizona State University]] (ABET) ** [[University of Arizona]] (ABET) ** [[Auburn University]] (ABET) ** [[Boston University]] (ABET) ** [[California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo]] (ABET) ** [[California State Polytechnic University, Pomona]] (ABET) ** [[California State University, Long Beach]] (ABET) ** [[University of California, Davis]] (ABET) ** [[University of California, Irvine]] (ABET) ** [[University of California, Los Angeles]] (ABET) ** [[University of California, San Diego]] (ABET) ** [[Case Western Reserve University]] (ABET) ** [[University of Central Florida]] (ABET) ** [[University of Cincinnati]] (ABET) ** [[Clarkson University]] (ABET) ** [[University of Colorado at Boulder]] (ABET) ** [[Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University]] *** Daytona Beach campus (ABET) *** Prescott campus (ABET) ** [[Florida Institute of Technology]] (ABET) ** [[University of Florida]] (ABET) ** [[Georgia Institute of Technology]] (ABET) ** [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]] (ABET) ** [[Illinois Institute of Technology]] (ABET) ** [[Iowa State University]] (ABET) ** [[University of Kansas]] (ABET) ** [[University of Maryland, College Park]] (ABET) ** [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] (ABET) ** [[University of Michigan]] (ABET) ** [[University of Minnesota]] (ABET) ** [[Mississippi State University]] (ABET) ** [[University of Missouri-Rolla]] (ABET) ** [[Naval Postgraduate School]] (ABET) ** [[University at Buffalo]] (ABET) ** [[North Carolina State University]] (ABET) ** [[University of Notre Dame]] (ABET) ** [[Ohio State University]] (ABET) ** [[Oklahoma State University]] (ABET) ** [[University of Oklahoma]] (ABET) ** [[Pennsylvania State University]] (ABET) ** [[Princeton University]] (ABET) ** [[Purdue University]] (ABET) ** [[Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (ABET) ** [[Saint Louis University]] (ABET) ** [[San Diego State University]] (ABET) ** [[San Jose State University]] (ABET) ** [[University of Southern California]] (ABET) ** [[Syracuse University]] (ABET) ** [[University of Tennessee at Knoxville]] (ABET) ** [[Texas A &amp; M University]] (ABET) ** [[University of Texas at Arlington]] (ABET) ** [[University of Texas at Austin]] (ABET) ** [[Tuskegee University]] (ABET) ** [[United States Air Force Academy]] (ABET) ** [[United States Naval Academy]] (ABET) ** [[Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University]] (ABET) ** [[University of Virginia]] (ABET) ** [[University of Washington]] (ABET) ** [[West Virginia University]] (ABET) ** [[Western Michigan University]] (ABET) ** [[Wichita State University]] (ABET) == See also == * [[Aerospace]] * [[List of aerospace engineering topics]] * [[List of aerospace engineers]] * [[Schlieren photography]] * [[Helicopter noise reduction]] * [[Atmospheric reentry]] === Challenging aerospace engineering competitions === * [[Centennial Challenges]] - NASA prize contests === National aerospace agencies === * [[Canadian Space Agency]] (CSA) * [[European Space Agency]] (ESA) * [[Russian Space Agency]] (RKA) * [[NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] (NASA) === Aerospace engineering societies === * [[American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics]] (AIAA) === Major aerospace corporations === * [[Boeing]] * [[Bombardier]] * [[Airbus]] ([[EADS]]) * [[United Technologies Corporation]] * [[General Dynamics]] * [[Lockheed Martin]] * [[Northrop Grumman]] * [[Raytheon]] * [[Honeywell]] ==External links== * [http://www.ari.ac.ir Aerospace Research Institute,IRAN], Persian Language [پژوهشگاه هوافضا] * [http://aerospace-news.persianblog.com Space Science], Persian Language [دانش فضايي] {{Technology-footer}} [[Category:Aerospace engineering|*]] [[Category:Technology]] [[cs:Aerokosmická technologie]] [[es:Ingeniería aeronáutica]] [[fa:مهندسی هوافضا]] [[fr:Aérospatiale]] [[he:הנדסת חלל]] [[it:Ingegneria aerospaziale]] [[ja:航空工学]] [[nl:Luchtvaarttechniek]] [[pl:Astronautyka]] [[sr:Космичко-ваздухопловна индустрија]] [[th:วิศวกรรมอวกาศยาน]] [[zh:航空工程]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Delian League</title> <id>2037</id> <revision> <id>41992458</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:19:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Flauto Dolce</username> <id>30706</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Disambiguate [[Samos]] to [[Samos Island]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Athenian_empire_450.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Delian League (Athenian Empire), at its height in 450 B.C.]] The '''Delian League''' was an association of [[Greece|Greek]] [[city-state]]s in the [[5th century BC]]. It was led by [[Athens]]. Because many of the league's [[Polis]]' were too poor to contribute ships to the collective navy, they paid taxes to Athens so that there would be enough money to build the expensive [[trireme]]s. In [[478 BC]], following the defeat of [[Xerxes I|Xerxes]]' invasion of Greece, [[Pausanias (general)|Pausanias]] the [[Sparta]]n led Hellenic forces against the [[Iran|Persia]]ns. He was an unpopular commander (who may have conspired with the Persians), and Sparta was eager to stop prosecuting the war. They surrendered the leadership of the ongoing campaign to [[Athens]], which was eager to accept it. The Delian League was inaugurated in [[477 BC]] as an offensive and defensive alliance against Persia. The principal cities in the League were [[Athens]], [[Chios]], [[Samos Island|Samos]], and [[Lesbos Island|Lesbos]], but many of the principal islands and [[Ionia]]n cities joined the league. [[Athens]] led the Delian League from the beginning, though at its founding the [[treasury]] was located on the island of [[Delos]], and each state in the league had an equal vote. The assessment due from each state was assigned by [[Aristides the Just]], leader of the Athenians; some members were assessed ships, others troops, others weapons, and others money. A council of all the cities met at Delos regularly, probably when bringing their assessment to the island. The first action of the Delian League, under the command of [[Cimon]], was the capture of [[Eion]], a Persian fortification that guarded a river crossing on the way to [[Asia]]; following this victory, the League acted against several [[pirate]] islands in the [[Aegean Sea]], most notably against [[Scyros]] where they turned the [[Dolopian]] inhabitants into slaves, and [[Athens]] set up a settler-colony (known as a [[cleruchy]]). A few years later they sailed against [[Caria]] and [[Lycia]], defeating both the Persian army and navy in the [[battle of the Eurymedon]]. These actions were most likely very popular with the League's members. However, the League, particularly the [[Athenians]], were willing to force cities to join or stay in the League. [[Carystus]], a city on th
Accounting Standards]] originating in [[International Accounting Standards Board]] headquartered in [[London]] and bearing more resemblance to UK than current [[US GAAP|US practices]] is often advocated by those who note the relative stability of the U.K. accounting system (which reformed itself after scandals in the late 1980s and early 1990s). [[Accounting reform]] of a far more comprehensive sort is advocated by those who see issues with [[capitalism]] or [[economics]], and seek ecological or social accountability. ==Topics in accounting== See [[list of accounting topics]] for complete listing. ===Auditing=== *[[Assurance services]] *[[Audit]] *[[Information technology audit]] ===Types of accountancy=== *[[Cost accounting]] *[[Cash-basis versus accrual-basis accounting| Cash-basis and accrual-basis]] *[[Financial accountancy]] *[[Internal accountancy|internal]] and [[external accountancy]] *[[Management accounting]] *[[Project accounting]] *[[Positive accounting]] *[[Environmental accounting]] social Responsibility Accounting ===Accountancy Principles=== Accounting principles, rules of conduct and action are described by various terms such as concepts, conventions, tenets, assumption, axioms, postulates. ==Accounting concepts== * Entity concept *Dual aspect concept *[[Going concern]] concept *Accounting period concept *Money measurement concept *Historical Cost concept *Periodic matching of cost and revenue concept *Verifiable objective evidence concept *Realization concept *Accrual concept == Accounting conventions== *convention of disclosure *convention of materiality *convention of consistency *convention of conservatism ===Use of computers in accountancy=== *[[Accounting software]] *[[Database]]s *[[Spreadsheet|spreadsheet programs]] ===Accounting standards=== *[[United States]] [[US generally accepted accounting principles|generally accepted accounting principles]] *[[United Kingdom]] [[UK generally accepted accounting principles|generally accepted accounting principles]] *[[International Accounting Standards]] ===Agencies=== *[[United States]] **[[Federal Reserve]] (for banks) **[[U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission]] (for [[public company|public companies]]) *[[European Union]] **[[European Central Bank]] ===Accounting standard-setting bodies=== *[[United States]] **[[American Institute of Certified Public Accountants]] **[[Financial Accounting Standards Board]] **[[Governmental Accounting Standards Board]] **[[Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board]] **[[U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission]] *[[United Kingdom]] **[[Institute of Chartered Accountants in England &amp; Wales]] (ICAEW) **[[Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland]] (ICAS) **[[Association of Chartered Certified Accountants]] (ACCA) **[[Chartered Institute of Management Accountants]] (CIMA) **[[Chartered Institute of Public Finance Accountants]] (CIPFA) **[[Association of International Accountants]] (AIA), a UK Registered Auditor is being consulted for Standard setting. **[[Association of Accounting Technicians]] (AAT) *[[Republic of Ireland]] **[[Institute of Chartered Accountants in Ireland]] *[[Canada]] **[[Accounting Standards Board &quot;AcSB&quot;]] *[[South Africa]] **[[South African Institute of Chartered Accountants]] (SAICA) *International **[[International Accounting Standards Board]] **[[International Federation of Accountants]] ===Auditing standards-setting bodies=== *[[United States]] **[[Public Company Accounting Oversight Board]] - public companies **[[American Institute of Certified Public Accountants]] - general **[[Government Accountability Office]] - recipients of federal grants *[[South Africa]] **[[Public Accountants and Auditors Board]] - public companies ==See also== *[[Accounting reform]] *[[Bank|Banking]] *[[Cultural references to accountants]] *[[Economics]] *[[Finance]] *[[Fiscal year]] *[[Luca Pacioli]] *[[Standard accounting practices]] *[[Tax]] *[[Critical accounting policy]] *[[Timeline of management techniques]] *[[Invoice]] ==Finding related topics== *[[List of accounting topics]] *[[List of finance topics]] *[[List of management topics]] *[[List of human resource management topics]] *[[List of marketing topics]] *[[List of economics topics]] *[[List of production topics]] *[[List of information technology management topics]] *[[List of business law topics]] *[[List of business ethics, political economy, and philosophy of business topics]] *[[List of business theorists]] *[[List of economists]] *[[List of corporate leaders]] *[[List of companies]] ==External links== *{{wikicities|accounting|Accounting}} *{{dmoz|Computers/Software/Accounting/|{{PAGENAME}}}} *[http://www.accountingcoach.com Accounting Coach] *[http://business.fullerton.edu/centers/ccrg The Center for Corporate Reporting &amp;amp; Governance at California State University, Fullerton] *[http://www.spicyedition.com/archive/accounting/ Accounting Police: Do They Exist?] article written by John Day *[http://www.hkicpa.org.hk Hong Kong Institute of Certified Public Accountants (formerly Hong Kong Society of Accountants)] [[Category:Professions|Accountant]] [[ar:محاسبة]] [[cs:%C3%9A%C4%8Detnictv%C3%AD]] [[de:Rechnungswesen]] [[es:contabilidad]] [[fa:حسابداری]] [[fi:Kirjanpito]] [[fr:Comptabilit&amp;#233;]] [[he:&amp;#1512;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1514; &amp;#1495;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1503;]] [[id:Akuntansi]] [[ja:&amp;#20250;&amp;#35336;]] [[nl:Boekhouding]] [[pl:Rachunkowo&amp;#347;&amp;#263;]] [[pt:Contabilidade]] [[ro:Contabilitate]] [[ru:&amp;#1041;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1093;&amp;#1075;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1081; &amp;#1091;&amp;#1095;&amp;#1105;&amp;#1090;]] [[sv:Redovisning]] [[tr:Muhasebe]] [[zh:&amp;#20250;&amp;#35745;&amp;#23398;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ant</title> <id>2594</id> <revision> <id>42097658</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:36:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>217.162.108.122</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}} {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Ants | image = Fire_ants02.jpg | image_width = 200px | image_caption = [[Red imported fire ant]]s, ''Solenopsis invicta'' | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Arthropod]]a | classis = [[Insect]]a | ordo = [[Hymenoptera]] | subordo = [[Apocrita]] | superfamilia = [[Vespoidea]] | familia = '''Formicidae''' | familia_authority = [[Pierre André Latreille|Latreille]], 1802 | subdivision_ranks = Subfamilies | subdivision = [[Dorylomorph subfamilies]] *[[Apomyrminae]] *[[Cerapachyinae]] *[[Dorylinae]] *[[Ecitoninae]] [[Formicomorph subfamilies]]: *[[Aneuretinae]] *[[Dolichoderinae]] *[[Formicinae]] - e.g. ''[[Formica]]'' [[Leptanillomorph subfamilies]]: *[[Leptanillinae]] *[[Leptanilloidinae]] [[Myrmeciomorph subfamilies]]: *[[Myrmeciinae]] eg. ''[[Myrmecia]]'' *[[Pseudomyrmecinae]] [[Myrmicomorph subfamilies]]: *[[Agroecomyrmecinae]] *[[Myrmicinae]]- e.g. ''[[Pheidole]]'', ''[[Atta]]'' [[Poneromorph subfamilies]]: *[[Amblyoponinae]] *[[Ectatomminae]] *[[Heteroponerinae]] *[[Paraponerinae]] *[[Ponerinae]] *[[Proceratiinae]] [[Extinct subfamilies]]: *[[Armaniinae]] *[[Brownimeciinae]] *[[Formiciinae]] *[[Sphecomyrminae]] [[Incertae Sedis]] Subfamily: *[[Paleosminthurinae]] }} '''Ants''' are one of the most successful groups of [[insect]]s in the [[animal kingdom]] and are of particular interest because they are a [[Eusociality|social insect]] and form highly organized [[ant colony|colonies]] or nests, sometimes consisting of millions of individuals. Colonies of invasive ant species will sometimes work together and form supercolonies, spanning a very wide area of land. Ant colonies are sometimes described as [[superorganism]]s because they appear to operate as a single entity. Ants have colonized almost every landmass on [[Earth]] and can constitute up to 15% of the total animal [[biomass]] of a [[tropical rainforest]]. [[As of 2006]], there are 11,844 known ant species, most of which reside in hot climates. ==Ancestry== Ants are classified as a family, [[Formicidae]], belonging to the order [[Hymenoptera]] which also includes [[sawflies]], [[bees]] and [[wasp]]s. Ants are a lineage derived from within the [[Vespoidea|vespoid]] [[wasp]]s. Estimates of the age of the ants derived from genetic data indicate that ants evolved from other groups of wasps in the [[Cretaceous]] period about 120 to 140 million years ago. Several fossils from the Cretaceous are intermediate in form between wasps and ants, further confirming the wasp ancestry of ants. Like other Hymenoptera, the genetic system employed by ants is [[Haplodiploidy]]. {{Sectstub}} == Morphology == Ants are distinguished from other insects by the combination of elbowed [[antenna (biology)|antennae]], a strongly constricted second [[abdominal]] segment forming a distinct node-like [[petiole]], a wingless worker caste, and the presence of a [[metapleural gland]]. They can sense with [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s located on the antennae, which can detect [[pheromones]] (single compounds) and hydrocarbons on the outer layer of the body (a set of different compounds). The latter is highly important for the recognition of nestmates from non-nestmates. Also, they communicate with sound in the form of vibrations moving through the ground Most [[Queen (insect)|queens]] and male ants have [[wing]]s, which they eat after [[nuptial flight]]; however wingless queens (ergatoids) and males can occur. ==Development== &lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Ants evacuating larvae.jpg|thumb|left|Ants recovering larvae after a disturbance of the nest]] --&gt; Ants are [[Holometabolism|holometabolous]], and develop by complete [[metamorphosis (biology)|metamorphosis]], passing through [[larva|larval]] and [[pupa|pupal]] stages before they become adults. The larval s
it travels out of bounds forfeits possession. The ball-handler may not move both feet without dribbling, known as ''travelling'', nor may he dribble with both hands or catch the ball in between dribbles, a violation called ''double-dribbling''. A player's hand must remain on top of the ball while dribbling, failure to do so is known as ''carrying'' the ball. A team, once having established ball control in the front half of the court, may not return the ball to the backcourt. The ball may not be kicked nor struck with the fist. A violation of these rules results in loss of possession, or, if committed by the defense, a reset of the [[shot clock]]. There are limits imposed on the time taken before progressing the ball past halfway (8 seconds in international and NBA), before attempting a shot (24 seconds), holding the ball while closely guarded (5 seconds), and remaining in the restricted area (3 seconds). These rules are designed to reward good defense. No player may interfere with the basket or ball on its downward flight to the basket, or while it is on the ring (or, in the NBA, while it is directly above the basket), a violation known as ''goaltending.'' If a defensive player goaltends, the attempted shot is considered to have been successful. If a teammate of the shooter or dribbler goaltends, the basket is cancelled and the team loses possession. ===Fouls=== &lt;!-- Please be careful not to include too much detail when editing this section; see talk page for more info. --&gt; :''Main articles: [[Personal foul]], [[Technical foul]]'' An attempt to unfairly disadvantage an opponent through personal contact is illegal and is called a foul. These are most commonly committed by defensive players; however, they can be committed by offensive players as well. Players who are fouled either receive the ball to pass inbounds again, or receive one or more [[free throw]]s if they are fouled in the act of shooting, depending on whether the shot was successful. One point is awarded for making a free throw, which is attempted from a line 4.5 metres (15 feet) from the basket. There is some discretion with the referee when calling a foul &amp;mdash; they consider if there was unfair advantage gained, for example, a player gained possession unfairly. This makes fouls sometimes controversial calls. Contact in basketball is unavoidable, and the calling of a foul can vary between games, leagues and even between referees. A player or coach who shows poor sportsmanship, for instance, by arguing with a referee or by fighting with another player, can be charged with a [[technical foul]]. The penalty involves free throws and varies between leagues; repeated incidents can result in [[ejection (sports)|disqualification]]. Blatant fouls with excessive contact or that are not an attempt to play the ball are called unsportsmanlike fouls (or flagrant fouls in the NBA) and incur a harsher penalty; in some rare cases a disqualifying foul will require the player to leave the playing area. If a team surpasses a preset limit of team fouls in a given period (quarter or half) – four for international and NBA games – the opposing team is awarded one or two free throws on all subsequent fouls for that period, depending on the league. A player who commits five fouls, including technical fouls, in one game (six in some professional leagues, including the NBA) is not allowed to participate for the rest of the game, and is described as having &quot;fouled out&quot;. ==Common techniques and practices== ===Positions and structures=== [[Image:Basketball positions.png|thumb|250px|Basketball positions]] Although the rules do not specify any [[basketball position|positions]] whatsoever, they have evolved as part of basketball. During the first five decades of basketball's evolution, two guards, two forwards, and one center were used. Since the 1980s, more specific positions have evolved, namely [[point guard]], [[shooting guard]], [[small forward]], [[Power forward (basketball)|power forward]] and [[Center (basketball)|center]]. On some occasions, teams will choose to use a ''three guard offense'', replacing one of the forwards or the center with a third guard. Two main defense concepts are used: ''zone defense'' and ''man-to-man defense''. [[Zone defense]] involves players in defensive positions, guarding whichever opponent is in their zone. In [[man-to-man defense]], each defensive player guards and follows a specific opponent and tries to prevent him from taking action. Variations of these two main structures are used. Offensive plays are more varied, normally involving planned passes and movement by players without the ball. A quick movement by an offensive player without the ball to gain an advantageous position is a ''cut''. A legal attempt by an offensive player to stop an opponent marking a teammate, by standing in the defender's way such that the teammate cuts next to him, is a ''screen'' or ''pick''. The two plays are combined in the ''pick and roll'', in which a player sets a pick and then &quot;rolls&quot; away from the pick towards the basket. Screens and cuts are very important in offensive plays; these allow the quick passes and teamwork which can lead to a successful basket. Teams almost always have several offensive plays planned to ensure their movement is not predictable. On court, the point guard is generally responsible for indicating which play will occur. Defensive and offensive structures, and positions, are more emphasised in higher levels in basketball; it is these that a coach normally requests a time-out to discuss. ===Shooting=== [[Image:Basketball shot.jpg|thumb|200px|Player releases a short jump shot, while her defender is either knocked down, or trying to &quot;take a charge.&quot;]] Shooting is the act of attempting to score points by throwing the ball through the basket. While methods can vary with players and situations, the most common technique can be outlined here. The player should be positioned facing the basket with feet about shoulder-width apart, knees slightly bent, and back straight. The player holds the ball to rest in the dominant hand's fingertips (the shooting arm) slightly above the head, with the other hand on the side of the ball. To aim the ball, the player's elbow should be aligned in the direction of the basket. The ball is shot by bending and extending the knees and extending the shooting arm to become straight; the ball rolls off the finger tips while the wrist completes a full downward flex motion. Generally, the non-shooting arm is only used to guide the shot, not to power it. Players often try to put a steady backspin on the ball to deaden its impact with the rim. The ideal trajectory of the shot is somewhat arguable, but generally coaches will profess proper arch. Most players shoot directly into the basket, but in certain situations the shooter may use the backboard to redirect the ball into the basket. The two most common shots that use the above described set up are the ''set shot'' and the ''[[jump shot]]''. The set shot is taken from a standing position, with neither foot leaving the floor, typically used for free throws. The jump shot is taken while in mid-air, near the top of the jump. This provides much greater power and range, and it also allows the player to elevate over the defender. Another common shot, called the ''[[layup]]'', involves a different set up. This type of shot requires the player to be in motion toward the basket. The best shooters have good coordination, balance, courage and are well practiced. Realizing a shooting opportunity and using it is as important as basic technique; top players at the professional level rarely miss when given an unguarded look at the basket. ===Passing=== [[Image:172808 480 art R0.jpg|thumb|left|220px|[[Carlos Arroyo]] shown here with the [[Utah Jazz]], left, passes to a teammate.]] A pass is a method of moving the ball between players. Most passes are accompanied by a step forward to increase power and are followed through with the hands to ensure accuracy. One of the most basic passes is the ''chest pass''. The ball is passed directly from the passer's chest to the receiver's chest. This has the advantage that it takes the least time to complete, as the passer tries to pass as directly straight as possible. Another type of pass is the ''bounce pass''. In this pass, the ball bounces about two-thirds of the way from the passer. Like the chest pass, it is passed from the passer's chest to the receiver's chest, and it is passed as directly as possible, for example, there should be no downward motion of the ball between the bounce and the time the receiver catches it. In this way, it is completed in the smallest amount of time possible for this pass. It does take longer to complete than the chest pass, but it is more difficult for the opposing team to intercept (kicking the ball deliberately is a violation). Thus, in crowded moments, or to pass the ball around a defender, this pass is often used. The ''overhead pass'' is used to pass the ball over a defender. The ball is passed from behind the passer's head, coming over it and aiming for around the chin of the receiver. This pass is also a fairly direct pass and can cover more distance than a chest pass. A pass is not necessarily between two players a distance from each other; sometimes a clever cut by a teammate can mean that a pass is to a directly adjacent teammate who is in motion, where either player's hands remain on the ball for the duration of the pass. The most important aspect of a good pass is that it is difficult for the defense to intercept. For this reason, large arc-shaped passes are almost always avoided and cross-court passes, called ''skip passes'', are only used in certain situations. ===Dribbling=== [[Image:Basketball game.jpg|thumb|right|210px|U.S. Naval Academy (&quot;Navy&quot;) player, left, attempts to dribble past U
ingua italiana'') is a [[Romance languages|Romance language]] spoken by about 70 million people primarily in [[Italy]]. Standard Italian is based on [[Tuscany|Tuscan]] [[dialect|dialects]] and is somewhat intermediate between the languages of [[Mezzogiorno|Southern Italy]] and the Gallo-Romance languages of the North. Like many languages written using the [[Latin alphabet]], Italian has double consonants. However, contrary to, for example, [[French language|French]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]], double [[consonant]]s are pronounced as long ([[gemination|geminated]]) in Italian. As in most [[Romance languages]] (with the notable exception of French), [[stress (linguistics)|stress]] is distinctive. Out of the Romance languages, Italian is generally considered to be the one most closely resembling [[Latin]] in terms of [[vocabulary]], though [[Romanian language|Romanian]] most closely preserves the grammar of Classical [[Latin]] while [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]] is the most conservative in terms of phonology. ==History== The history of the Italian language is quite complex but the modern standard of the language was largely shaped by relatively recent events. The earliest surviving texts which can definitely be called Italian (as opposed to its predecessor [[Vulgar Latin]]) are legal formulae from the region of Benevento dating from A.D. 960-963. Italian was first formalized in the first years of the [[14th century]] through the works of [[Dante Alighieri]], who mixed southern Italian dialects, especially [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]], with his native Tuscan in his epic poems known collectively as the ''[[Divine Comedy|Commedia]],'' to which [[Boccaccio]] later affixed the title ''Divina''. Dante's much-loved works were read throughout Italy and his written dialect became the canonical standard that others could all understand. Dante is still credited with standardizing the Italian language. Italian has always had a distinctive dialect for each city, since the cities were up until recently [[city-state]]s. A well-known Italian dictum has it that the best spoken Italian is ''lingua toscana in bocca romana'' - 'the Tuscan tongue, in a Roman mouth' (Tuscan dialects spoken with Roman inflection). The Romans are known for speaking clearly and distinctly, while the Tuscan dialect (supposedly influenced by [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]] and [[Oscan language|Oscan]]), is the closest existing dialect to Dante's now-standard Italian. In contrast to the dialects of northern Italy, the older southern Italian dialects were largely untouched by the Franco-[[Occitan language|Occitan]] influences introduced to Italy, mainly by [[bard]]s from [[France]], during the middle ages. (See [[La Spezia-Rimini Line]].) The economic might and relative advanced development of [[Tuscany]] at the time (late middle ages), gave its dialect weight, though Venetian remained widespread in medieval Italian commercial life. Also, the increasing cultural relevance of [[Florence, Italy|Florence]] during the periods of '[[Umanesimo]]' and [[Renaissance|Rinascimento (Renaissance)]] made its ''vulgare'' (dialect) a standard in the arts. ==Classification== Italian is most closely related to the other two [[Italo-Dalmatian languages]], [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]] and the extinct [[Dalmatian language|Dalmatian]]. The three are part of the [[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]] grouping of the [[Romance languages]], which are a subgroup of the [[Italic languages|Italic]] branch of [[Indo-European language family|Indo-European]]. ==Geographic distribution== Italian is the official language of [[Italy]] and [[San Marino]], and is an official language in [[Canton Ticino|Ticino]] and [[Graubünden|Grigioni]] cantons of [[Switzerland]]. It is also the second official language in [[Vatican City]] and in some areas of [[Istria]] in [[Slovenia]] and [[Croatia]] with an Italian minority. It is also widely known and taught in [[Monaco]] and in the nearby island of [[Malta]]; it served as an official language of the country until English was enshrined in the [[1934]] Constitution. It is widely used also in [[France]] ([[Corsica]] and [[Nice]]) and in [[Albania]]. It is widely used by immigrant groups in [[Luxembourg]], [[Germany]], [[Belgium]], the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Venezuela]], [[Brazil]], [[El Salvador]], [[Argentina]], and [[Australia]], and is also spoken in nearby [[Albania]]. It is spoken, to a much lesser extent, in parts of [[Africa]] formerly under Italian rule such as [[Somalia]], [[Libya]] and [[Eritrea]]. Italian is widely taught in many schools around the world, but rarely as the first non-native language of pupils. In anglophone parts of [[Canada]], Italian is, after [[French language|French]], the second most taught language. In the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]], Italian ranks fourth (after [[Spanish language|Spanish]]-French-[[German language|German]] and French-German-Spanish respectively). Throughout the world, Italian is the fifth most taught non-native language, after [[English language|English]], French, Spanish and German. ===Official status=== Italian is an official language of [[Italy]], the [[European Union]], [[San Marino]] and [[Switzerland]]. It is also an official language in the [[Istria County]] ([[Croatia]]) and municipalities of [[Koper]], [[Piran]] and [[Izola]] ([[Slovenia]]). It is a co-official language in [[Vatican City]] alongside [[Latin]], where it is usually used by the hierarchy of the [[Catholic Church]] as a [[lingua franca]] for internal communication. ===Dialects and regional languages of Italy=== :''See [[Italian dialects]]'' The dialects of Italian identified by the [[Ethnologue]] are [[Tuscan language|Tuscan]], Abruzzese, Pugliese (Apulian), Umbrian, Laziale, Central Marchigiano, Cicolano-Reatino-Aquilano, and Molisan. On the contrary [[Ethnologue]] and the ''Red book on endangered languages'' of [[UNESCO]] consider [[Piemontese language|Piemontese]], [[Lombard language|Lombard]], [[Ligurian language (Romance)|Ligurian]], [[Emiliano-Romagnolo]], [[Venetian language|Venetian]], [[Friulian language|Friulian]], Neapolitan-Calabrian or Tricalabrian (a range including [[Neapolitan language|Neapolitan]], [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]] and [[Calabrian language|Calabrian]]) and [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]] as regional minority languages, structurally separated from Italian. Most Italians, however, refer to these simply as &quot;dialect&quot;, with the exception of Sardinian and Friulian, which are usually recognized language status in the regions of [[Sardinia]] and [[Friuli-Venezia Giulia]]. Also the [[Corsican language]] has strong similarities to Italian and most linguists consider it as a Tuscany dialect, the closest to modern Italian. Many of the so-called dialects of Italian spoken around the country are different enough from standard Italian to be considered separate [[language]]s by most [[linguist]]s and some speakers themselves. Thus a distinction can be made between &quot;dialects of (standard) Italian&quot; and &quot;dialects (or languages) of Italy&quot;. A link to an Italian site with translation features between Italian dialects and Italian: [http://www.dialettando.com] ====Cultural acceptance of dialects==== The dialect of [[Tuscany]] became the basis for what would become the official language of Italy, by way of the famous Tuscan author Dante Alighieri. Dante and other Tuscan poets were inspired by the Sicilian [[koine]] wanted by the [[Sicilian School]] under the Holy Roman Emperor [[Frederick II]]. His project (in which [[Giacomo da Lentini]] invented the [[sonnet]]) was accomplished by enriching the [[Sicilian language]] with new words adapted from French, Latin, and Apulian. The Sicilians produced a collection of love-poems which can be considered the first standard Italian ever produced, though it was only used for literary purposes until [[Guittone d'Arezzo]]. When the Svevs dynasty ended the Tuscans and Dante re-discovered it (see ''De Vulgari Eloquentia'' and ''Vita Nova'')and integrated the Sicilians into Florence's linguistic heritage. The ''[[dolce stil novo]],'' the platonic school of courtly love, can be considered the link between the old southern school and Tuscan poetry which aimed to express the new intellectual sensibility and fervor of the newly-born city-states, as Florence. Dante's work, ''Divina Commedia'' was the first of its kind to be written in a dialect (though sensibly enriched compared with its spoken counterpart), as opposed to the traditional Latin. The success of his work spread the Florentine dialect, and gave it prestige and acceptance. For this he is referred to as the father of the Italian Language. By the time Italy was unified [[1861]], the Italian standard had further been influenced by Florentine through the work of the [[Accademia della Crusca]] (Cardinal [[Pietro Bembo]] and followers). Bembo laid the foundation for what is today's modern standard. But Bembo was a purist and had accepted no other influence than that from Dante, Petrarca and Boccaccio. As time went on, the language was losing touch with linguistic change, and could not put up with technology and science. The much-needed update would have to wait a little longer until, in what is commonly regarded as the first modern novel of the Italian literature, [[The Betrothed|''I Promessi Sposi'']] (The Betrothed), [[Alessandro Manzoni]] further refined his widely read novel by &quot;rinsing&quot; it in the waters of the [[Arno]] ([[Florence]]'s river), as he states in his 1840 Preface. However, Manzoni refused the Crusca's purist, written Florentine-only attitude and admitted a certain influence from other dialects, though he reduced it as compared to the first edition of ([[1821]]). After unification the huge number of civil servants and soldiers recruited from all over the country introduced many more words and idioms from their
la fide]] (faith alone). Most denominations of Christianity today consider this book to be a canonical epistle of the New Testament. See [[Biblical canon]]. ==Contents== The epistle was addressed to the [[Judaism|Jews]] of the dispersion, &quot;the twelve tribes scattered abroad.&quot; The object of the writer was to enforce the practical duties of the [[Christianity|Christian]] life. The vices against which he warns them are: formalism, which made the service of God consist in washings and outward ceremonies, whereas he reminds them (1:27) that it consists rather in active love and purity; fanaticism, which, under the cloak of religious zeal, was tearing Jerusalem in pieces (1:20); fatalism, which threw its sins on God (1:13); meanness, which crouched before the rich (2:2); falsehood, which had made words and oaths play-things (3:2-12); partisanship (3:14); evil speaking (4:11); boasting (4:16); oppression (5:4). The great lesson which he teaches them as Christians is patience, patience in trial (1:2), patience in good works (1:22-25), patience under provocation (3:17), patience under oppression (5:7), patience under persecution (5:10); and the ground of their patience is that the coming of the Lord draweth nigh, which is to right all wrong (5:8). &quot;Justification by works,&quot; which James contends for, may be contrasted with the doctrine of &quot;[[justification by faith]]&quot;, which [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] contends for in his own New Testament epistles. One way that Christians reconcile these perspectives by viewing that of James as a justification before others, that is to say the justification of a Christian's profession of faith by a consistent life; while Paul's emphasis was a justification before God, being regarded and accepted as just by virtue of the righteousness of Christ, which is received by faith. Another way that some Church fathers reconciled the two was to view true saving faith as faith that is energized by love, and that therefore is accompanied by good works, as opposed to a faith that is only intellectual assent to a set of beliefs. An interesting cross-reference is [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 26:20, where Paul says that he has been preaching &quot;that they should repent and turn to God, ''performing deeds appropriate to repentance''&quot; (NASB, emphasis added). Some use this passage as evidence that Paul agreed with James that all true (or &quot;living&quot;) faith is accompanied by works. With this in mind, James should be considered didactic (teaching morality) rather than [[kerugmatic]] (preaching the gospel). The writer does not attempt to present the Gospel kernel (I Corinthians 15:3-8, Acts 10:38-43), but rather a system of ethics, affirmatives and negatives. Other early parallels that illustrate this dualistic paradigm (the two ways, light &amp; darkness, right &amp; wrong) appear in the teachings of Jesus, the Qumran documents, and the first part of the [[Didache]]. This observation places the audience, and this epistle, within an early Jewish context, before 70 A.D. The meeting place is still the ''Synagogue'' (2:2). James' epistle is also the chief biblical text for [[Anointing of the Sick]] (sometimes, misleadingly, called &quot;Last Rites&quot;). James writes, ''&quot;Are any among you sick? They should call for the elders of the church and have them pray over them, anointing them with oil in the name of the Lord. And their prayer offered in faith will heal the sick, and the Lord will make them well. And anyone who has committed sins will be forgiven.&quot;'' (5:14,15). == External links == Online translation of the [[Epistle of James]]: * {{biblegateway||James}} * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08275b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article] &lt;center&gt; &lt;br&gt; {| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot; |- bgcolor=&quot;darkgray&quot; |colspan=3|&lt;center&gt;'''Books of the Bible''' |- bgcolor=&quot;gainsboro&quot; |&lt;Center&gt;Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]] |'''[[Epistles]]''' |&lt;Center&gt;Followed by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[First Epistle of Peter|1 Peter]] |} &lt;/center&gt; [[category:New Testament books|James]] [[de:Brief des Jakobus]] [[es:Epístola de Santiago]] [[fr:Épître de Jacques]] [[ko:야고보의 편지]] [[id:Surat Yakobus]] [[it:Lettera di Giacomo]] [[jv:Yakobus]] [[nl:Brief van Jakobus]] [[ja:ヤコブの手紙]] [[pt:Epístola de Tiago]] [[fi:Jaakobin kirje]] [[sv:Jakobsbrevet]] [[zh:雅各書]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Epistle of Jude</title> <id>9689</id> <revision> <id>39932928</id> <timestamp>2006-02-16T22:39:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>66.92.67.96</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}} The brief '''Epistle of Jude''' is a book in the Christian [[New Testament]] [[Biblical canon|canon]]. == Author and date == The [[epistle]] is titled as written by ''&quot;Jude, a servant of [[Jesus]] Christ and a brother of James&quot;'' ([[NIV]]), although that authorship is doubted by many scholars. As opinions and traditions within the Christian community still differ as to the identity of Jude or Judas, the brother of Jesus and James, the issues of the apostle's identity are discussed at [[Jude Thomas]]. Norman Perrin writes (''The New Testament: An Introduction'', p. 260), &quot;The letter is pseudonymous, as is all the literature of emergent catholicism in the New Testament.&quot; Though the text claims to come from Jude, who is called also &quot;Lebbaeus&quot; ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 10:3) and &quot;[[Thaddaeus]]&quot; ([[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 3:18), its real authorship was called into question when [[Origen]] first spoke of the doubts held by some&amp;mdash;albeit not him. [[Eusebius]] classified it with the &quot;disputed writings, the ''[[antilegomena]],'' and though it was eventually accepted within the canon (as early as the [[Muratorian fragment|Muratorian canon]]), later writers largely objected to its citations of [[apocrypha]]l literature, unusual in New Testament books. Then, as now, the main thing that renders this short letter so controversial is the fact that it includes a direct quote from the [[Book of Enoch]]. This latter book, purporting to be the first book ever written, is known to have been in regular use by Jewish and Christian groups alike, until ca. 90 AD when the Pharisee Sanhedrin at Yavneh declared it to be &quot;no longer scriptural&quot; and began its systematic suppression, practically erasing it from history. Were it not for the Epistle of Jude, the Dead Sea Scrolls, and the Ethiopian Bible, never affected by Yavneh, Enoch would be unknown today. Doubts regarding Jude's authenticity were revived at the time of the [[Reformation]]. The debate has continued over the author's identity as the apostle, the brother of Jesus, both, or neither. Since at least the beginning of the [[20th century]] the ''Epistle of Jude'' has been considered an anonymous work composed as late as the first quarter of the [[2nd century]]. Based on the nature of the allusions to the [[Septuagint]] translation of the [[Old Testament]], citations of rabbinical works like the ''[[Book of Enoch]]'' and the ''[[Apocalypse of Moses]]'', the earliest apostolic followers seen by this author from some distance in time, and the appropriation of the authority of the historical Jude, current belief places its composition in [[Judea]], in the first quarter of the 2nd century. ==Style== The ''Epistle of Jude'' is a brief book of only a single chapter with 25 verses. It was composed as an ''[[encyclical]] letter''&amp;mdash;that is, one not directed to the members of one church in particular, but intended rather to be circulated and read in all churches. The form, as opposed to the earlier letters of Paul, suggests that the author knew Paul's ''[[Epistle to the Ephesians]]'' or even that the Pauline epistles had already been collected and were circulating when the text was written. The fluent Greek style is idiomatic and cultured. The epistle is addressed to Christians in general (1:1), and it seeks to put them on their guard against the misleading efforts of certain teachers of error to whom they were being exposed. Examples of heterodox opinions that were circulating in the early 2nd century include [[Docetism]], [[Marcionism]], and [[Gnosticism]]. The epistle's style is combative, impassioned, and rushed. Many examples of evildoers and warnings about their fates are given in rapid succession. The epithets used against unorthodox teachers are some of the strongest and most vitriolic in the New Testament. The doxology with which the epistle concludes is regarded as one of the finest in the New Testament. The striking resemblance this epistle bears to ''[[2 Peter|Second Epistle of Peter]]'' suggests that the author of one was familiar with the other. Because this epistle is much shorter than 2 Peter, and due to various stylistic details, the scholarly consensus is that Jude was the source for the similar passages of 2 Peter. ==External links== Online translations of the [[Epistle of Jude]]: * [http://www.o-bible.com/cgibin/ob.cgi?chapter=1&amp;book=jue&amp;version=hb5&amp;version=kjv&amp;version=bbe Jude in KJV BBE CUV] * [http://www.biblegateway.com/cgi-bin/bible?language=english&amp;version=NIV&amp;passage=Jude Jude at Bible Gateway] (various versions) * [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/jude.html Early Christian writings:] ''Epistle of Jude:'' comparable translations and interpretations Related article: * [http://www.site-berea.com/dicionarios.html ''Easton's Bible Dictionary'', (1897)] * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08542b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia] &lt;center&gt; &lt;br&gt; {| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot; |- bgcolor=&quot;darkgray&quot; |colspan=3|&lt;center&gt;'''Books of the Bible''' |- bgcolor=&quot;gainsboro&
r&gt;&lt;td&gt; {| |-align=center |bgcolor=#ffaaaa width=30 height=60|initial||bgcolor=#aaffaa width=30|medial |} &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; {| |-align=center |bgcolor=#ffaaaa width=60 height=30|initial |-align=center |bgcolor=#aaffaa height=30|medial |} &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; {| |-align=center |bgcolor=#ffaaaa width=30 height=30|beginning||bgcolor=#aaffaa width=30 rowspan=2|2nd med. |-align=center |bgcolor=#aaffaa height=30|1st med. |} &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; In the case of a final sound, it is placed on the bottom as follows. &lt;table cellpadding=5&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; {| |-align=center |bgcolor=#ffaaaa width=30 height=40|initial||bgcolor=#aaffaa width=30|medial |-align=center |bgcolor=#aaaaff height=20 colspan=2|final |} &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; {| |-align=center |bgcolor=#ffaaaa width=60 height=20|initial |-align=center |bgcolor=#aaffaa height=20|medial |-align=center |bgcolor=#aaaaff height=20|final |} &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; {| |-align=center |bgcolor=#ffaaaa width=60 height=20|initial||bgcolor=#aaffaa width=60 rowspan=2|2nd med. |-align=center |bgcolor=#aaffaa height=20|1st med. |-align=center |bgcolor=#aaaaff height=20 colspan=2|final |} &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; Each jamo in its position in a syllabic block may be referred to as jaso. ===''Jamo'' design=== Hangul is ''[[List of writing systems#Featural linear alphabets|featural]]''. Scripts may indicate [[morpheme]]s (so called [[logogram]]s like ''[[hanja]]''), [[syllable]]s (like ''[[kana]]''), or segments (an [[alphabet]] of consonants and/or vowels, like the one you're reading here). Hangul goes further than this, in indicating individual distinctive [[phonetics|phonetic]] features such as [[place of articulation]] ([[labial consonant|labial]], [[coronal consonant|coronal]], [[velar consonant|velar]], [[glottal consonant|glottal]]) and [[manner of articulation]] ([[plosive]], [[nasal consonant|nasal]], [[sibilant consonant|sibilant]], [[aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]) for consonant ''jamo'', and iotation (a preceding ''i-'' sound), [[Vowel harmony|harmonic class]], and [[umlaut]] for vowel ''jamo''. For instance, the ''jamo'' ㅌ ''t'' is composed of three strokes, each one meaningful: the top stroke indicates it is a plosive, like ㆆ ’, ㄱ ''g'', ㄷ ''d'', ㅂ ''b'', ㅈ ''j'', which have the same stroke (the last is an [[Affricate consonant|affricate]], a plosive-fricative sequence); the middle stroke indicates that it is aspirated, like ㅎ ''h'', ㅋ ''k'', ㅍ ''p'', ㅊ ''ch'', which also have this stroke; and the curved bottom stroke indicates that it's coronal, like ㄴ ''n'', ㄷ ''d'', ㄹ ''l''. Two consonants, ᇰ and ᇢ, have dual pronunciations, and may be composed of two elements to represent these ({{IPA|[ŋ]}}/silent and {{IPA|[m]}}/{{IPA|[w]}}, respectively). With vowel ''jamo'', what was originally a dot (now a short connected line) indicates that it ''may'' be iotated; this dot is then doubled to indicate actual iotation (''i-''). The position of the dot indicates which harmonic class the vowel belongs to ([[yin and yang|&quot;light&quot;]] or [[yin and yang|&quot;dark&quot;]]). In the modern ''jamo'', an additional vertical stroke indicates [[umlaut]], deriving ㅐ {{IPA|[ε]}}, ㅔ {{IPA|[e]}}, ㅚ {{IPA|[ø]}}, ㅟ {{IPA|[y]}} from ㅏ {{IPA|[a]}}, ㅓ {{IPA|[ʌ]}}, ㅗ {{IPA|[o]}}, ㅜ {{IPA|[u]}}. However, this is not part of the intentional design of the script, but rather a natural development from what were originally [[diphthong]]s ending in the vowel ㅣ. (e.g. ㅐ ''{{IPA|*[εj]}}'', ㅚ ''{{IPA|*[oj]}}'', etc.) Indeed, in many [[Dialects of Korean|Korean dialects]], including the standard [[Seoul Dialect|dialect of Seoul]], some of these may still be diphthongs. Although the design of the script may be featural, for all practical purposes it behaves as an alphabet. The ''jamo'' ㅌ isn't read as three letters ''coronal plosive aspirated'', for instance, but as a single consonant ''t''. Likewise, the former diphthong ㅔ is read as an independent vowel ''e''. Beside the ''jamo'', Hangul originally employed [[diacritic mark]]s to indicate [[pitch accent]]. A syllable with a high pitch was marked with a dot (·) to the left of it (when writing vertically); a syllable with a rising pitch was marked with a double dot, like a colon (:). These are no longer used. However, although [[vowel length]] is phonemic in Korean, it was never indicated in Hangul, except that syllables with rising pitch necessarily have long vowels. Although some aspects of Hangul are shared with [[Mongolian alphabet|Phagspa]] (and thus [[Brahmic family|Indic]] [[phonology]]), such as the relationships among the [[wiktionary:homorganic|homorganic]] jamo and the [[alphabet|alphabetic principle]] itself, other aspects are shared with [[Chinese writing]], such as syllablic blocks and the basic consonants. [[tenuis consonant|Tenuis]] (non-voiced, non-aspirated) plosives, ''g'' for ㄱ {{IPA|[k]}}, ''d'' for ㄷ {{IPA|[t]}}, and ''b'' for ㅂ {{IPA|[p]}} were considered basic in Chinese, but not Indic languages; as well as the sibilant ''s'' for ㅈ {{IPA|[ts]}} and the liquid ''l'' for ㄹ {{IPA|[l]}}. (Korean ㅈ was pronounced {{IPA|[ts]}} in the 15&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century.) The ''Hunmin Jeong-eum Haerye'' explains the designs and derivations of the consonants according to [[articulatory phonetics]]; and the vowels according to the principles of [[yin and yang|''yin'' and ''yang'']] and [[vowel harmony]]. ====Consonant ''jamo'' design==== The letters for the consonants fall into five [[wiktionary:homorganic|homorganic]] groups, each with a basic shape, and one or more letters derived from this shape by means of additional strokes. The basic shapes model the articulation the [[tongue]], [[palate]], [[teeth]], and [[throat]] take when making these sounds. The Korean names for the groups are the traditional [[Sino-Korean]] phonetic terminology. *[[Velar consonant]]s (아음, 牙音 ''a-eum'': &quot;molar sounds&quot;): ** ㄱ ''g'' {{IPA|[k]}}, ㅋ ''k'' {{IPA|[kʰ]}} ** Basic shape: ㄱ is a side view of the back of the tongue raised toward the velum (soft palate). (For illustration, access the external link below.) The ㅋ is derived from ㄱ, with an extra stroke for the burst of aspiration. *[[Coronal consonant]]s (설음, 舌音 ''seol-eum'': &quot;lingual sounds&quot;): ** ㄴ ''n'' {{IPA|[n]}}, ㄷ ''d'' {{IPA|[t]}}, ㅌ ''t'' {{IPA|[tʰ]}}, ㄹ ''r''/''l'' ** Basic shape: ㄴ is a side view of the tip of the tongue raised toward the [[alveolar ridge]] (gum ridge). The letters derived from ㄴ are pronounced with the same basic articulation. The line topping ㄷ represents firm contact with the roof of the mouth. The middle stroke of ㅌ represents the burst of aspiration. The top of ㄹ represents a [[flap consonant|flap]] of the tongue. *[[Bilabial consonant]]s (순음, 唇音 ''sun-eum'': &quot;labial sounds&quot;): ** ㅁ ''m'' {{IPA|[m]}}, ㅂ ''b'' {{IPA|[p]}}, ㅍ ''p'' {{IPA|[pʰ]}} ** Basic shape: ㅁ represents the outline of the lips in contact with each other. The top of ㅂ represents the release burst of the ''b''. The top stroke of ㅍ is for the burst of aspiration. *[[Sibilant]]s (치음, 齒音 ''chieum'': &quot;dental sounds&quot;): ** ㅅ s {{IPA|[s̬]}}, ㅈ j {{IPA|[c]}}, ㅊ ch {{IPA|[cʰ]}} ** Basic shape: ㅅ was originally shaped like a wedge ʌ, without the [[serif]] on top. It represents a side view of the teeth. The line topping ㅈ represents firm contact with the roof of the mouth. The stroke topping ㅊ represents an additional burst of aspiration. *[[Glottal consonant]]s (후음, 喉音 ''hueum'': &quot;throat sounds&quot;): ** ㅇ ''ng'' {{IPA|[ʔ, ŋ]}}, ㅎ ''h'' {{IPA|[h]}} ** Basic shape: ㅇ is an outline of the throat. Originally ㅇ was two letters, a simple circle for silence (null consonant), and a circle topped by a verticle line, ㆁ, for the nasal ''ng''. A now obsolete letter, ㆆ, represented a glottal stop, which is pronounced in the throat and had closure represented by the top line, like ㄱㄷㅈ. Derived from ㆆ is ㅎ, in which the extra stroke represents a burst of aspiration. The phonetic theory inherent in the derivation of glottal stop ㆆ and aspirate ㅎ from the null ㅇis more accurate than modern [[International phonetic alphabet|IPA]] usage. In the IPA, the glottal consonants are posited as having a specific &quot;glottal&quot; place of articulation. However, recent phonetic theory has come to view the glottal stop and [h] to be isolated features of 'stop' and 'aspiration' without a true place of articulation, just as their hangul representations based on the null symbol assume. ====Vowel ''jamo'' design==== Vowel letters are based on three elements: * A horizontal line representing the flat Earth, the essence of ''[[yin and yang|yin]]''. * A point for the Sun in the heavens, the essence of ''[[yin and yang|yang]]''. (This becomes a short stroke when written with a brush.) * A vertical line for the upright Human, the neutral mediator between the two. Dots (now short lines) are added to these three basic elements to derive the other simple vowel ''jamo''. * Simple vowels ** Horizontal letters: these are mid-high back vowels. *** ㅗ ''o'' *** ㅜ ''u'' *** ㅡ ''eu'' (''ŭ'') ** Vertical letters: these were once low or front vowels. (ㅓ ''eo'' has since migrated to the back of the mouth.) *** ㅏ ''a'' *** ㅓ ''eo'' (''ŏ'') *** ㅣ ''i'' * Compound ''jamo''. Hangul never had a ''w'', except for [[Sino-Korean]] [[etymology]]. Since an ''o'' or ''u'' before an ''a'' or ''eo'' became a {{IPA|[w]}} sound, which occurred nowhere else, {{IPA|[w]}} could always be analyzed as a [[phoneme|phonemic]] ''o'' or ''u'', and no letter for {{IPA|[w]}} was needed. However, vowel harmony must be observed: ''yin'' ㅜ with ''yin'' ㅓ; ''yang'' ㅏ with ''yang'' ㅗ. The compound ''jamo'' ending in ㅣ ''i'', on the other hand, were originally [[diphthong]]s. However, several have since evolved into pure vowels. ** ㅐ = ㅏ + ㅣ ** ㅔ = ㅓ + ㅣ ** ㅘ = ㅗ + ㅏ ** ㅙ = ㅗ + ㅏ + ㅣ ** ㅚ = ㅗ + ㅣ ** ㅝ = ㅜ + ㅓ ** ㅞ = ㅜ + ㅓ + ㅣ ** ㅟ = ㅜ + ㅣ ** ㅢ = ㅡ + ㅣ * Iotized vowels: Ther
d violated his oath. When asked if the army would forcibly prevent an election being held, O'Connor stated: &quot;It will have the power to do so.&quot; He went on to say that &quot;the holding of the Convention means that we repudiate the Dáil … We will set up an Executive which will issue orders to the IRA all over the country.&quot; In reply to the question on whether it can be taken that we are going to have a military dictatorship, O’Connor said: &quot;You can take it that way if you like.&quot; On [[23 March]], Richard Mulcahy (Minister of Defence), in a letter to General O'Duffy, orders the suspension of any officer or man who takes part in the &quot;sectional&quot; Convention. On [[26 March]], a Convention of (predominantly) anti-Treaty delegates met in the [[Mansion House]], Dublin with between 220 and 223 delegates present. The convention passed a resolution saying that the Army &quot;shall be maintained as the Army of the Irish Republic under an Executive appointed by the Convention&quot;. A temporary Executive of 16 members was elected headed by Liam Lynch and including Rory O’Connor, Liam Mellows and [[Ernie O'Malley]]. The convention adjourns until [[9 April]]. On [[28 March]], the (anti-Treaty) IRA Executive issued statement stating that Minister of Defence (Mulcahy) and the Chief-of-Staff (O’Duffy) no longer exercised any control over the IRA. In addition, it ordered an end to the recruitment to the new military and police forces of the Provisional Government. Furthermore, it instructed all IRA units to reaffirm their allegiance to the Irish Republic on [[2 April]]. On [[9 April]], the (anti-Treaty) Army Convention reconvened in Dublin. It adopted a new constitution and elected a new 16-member Executive composed the following members: Liam Lynch (Cork), [[Frank Barrett]] (Clare), [[Liam Deasy]] (Cork), [[Tom Hales]] (Cork), [[Tom Maguire]] (Mayo), Joseph McKelvey (Tyrone), Liam Mellows (Galway), Rory O'Connor (Dublin?), [[Peadar O'Donnell]] (Donegal), [[Florrie O'Donoghue]] (Cork), [[Sean O'Hegarty]] (Cork), [[Ernie O'Malley]] (Dublin), [[Seamus Robinson]] (Tipperary), [[Joe O'Connor]] (?), [[Sean Moylan]] (Cork), and [[P.J. Ruttledge]] (Mayo). When the Executive met, it elected Liam Lynch as new IRA chief of staff, Ernie O'Malley as assistant chief of staff, and appointed a seven-member [[IRA Army Council|Army Council]]. Barry's Hotel in Gardiner Row was made (anti-Treaty) IRA headquarters. {{main|Irish Civil War}} The pro-treaty IRA soon became the nucleus of the new (regular) Irish National Army created by Collins and Richard Mulcahy. British pressure, and tensions between the pro- and anti-Treaty factions of the IRA, led to a bloody [[Irish civil war|civil war]], ending in the defeat of the anti-Treaty faction. On [[May 24]], 1923 [[Frank Aiken]], the (anti-treaty) IRA chief-of-staff, called a cease-fire. Many left political activity altogether, but a minority continued to insist that the new [[Irish Free State]], created by the &quot;illegitimate&quot; Treaty, was an illegitimate state. They asserted that their &quot;IRA Army Executive&quot; was the real government of a still-existing Irish Republic. Subsequent organisations that have used the name claim lineage from that group, which is covered in full at [[Irish Republican Army (1922-1969)]]. ''For information on later organisations using the name Irish Republican Army, see the table below. For a genealogy of organisations using the name ''IRA'' after 1922, see [[List of IRAs]]'' {{IRAs}} &lt;!-- THIS ARTICLE IS NOT ABOUT THE PROVISIONAL IRA. Please do not add material about them in this article. Please go to the relevant article --&gt; ==Footnotes== #{{Note|Lyons}} Tom Garvin, ''1922: The Birth of Irish Democracy'' (Gill and Macmillan, 2005 edition) p.12. F.S.L Lyons, ''Ireland Since the Famine'' pp.370-1. #{{Note|mac1}} Dorothy MacCardle, ''The Irish Republic'' (Corgi, 1968) p.267. #{{Note|Mac2}} [[ibid]] p.269. #{{Note|Mac2}} ibid p.269. #{{Note|Mac4}} ibid p.282. #{{note|Munster}} ibid. p.293. #{{note|Loyalists}}The Church of Ireland Gazette recorded numerous instances of Unionists and Loyalists being shot, burnt or forced from their homes during the early 1920s. In Co Cork between 1920 and 1923 the IRA shot over 200 civilians of whom over 70 (or 36%) were Protestants: five times the percentage of Protestants in the civilian population. This was due to the historical inclination of Protestants towards loyalty to [[Britain]]. A convention of Irish Protestant Churches in Dublin in May 1922 signed a resolution placing &quot;on record&quot; that &quot;hostility to Protestants by reason of their religion has been almost, if not wholly, unknown in the twenty-six counties in which Protestants are in the minority.&quot; #{{note|Patterson}}&quot;The Politics of Illusion: Republicanism and Socialism in Modern Ireland&quot;, Henry Patterson, Hutchinson Radius, 1989: pp. 14-15 ISBN 0091741394 #{{note|Milotte}} ''Communism in Modern Ireland: The Pursuit of the Workers' Republic since 1916'', Mike Milotte, Dublin, 1984, pp. 56-57 #{{note|smuts}}Jan Smuts was one of the best Boer commanders of the [[Second Boer War]]. In [[1914]] at the start of [[World War I]] the Boer &quot;bitter enders&quot; rose against the government in the [[Boer Revolt]] and allied themselves with their old supporter Germany. General Smuts played an important part in crushing the rebellion. The South African establishment, of which Smuts was a part, in contrast to the British establishment in 1916, was lenient to the leaders of the revolt, who were fined and spent two years in prison. After this revolt and lenient treatment the &quot;bitter enders&quot; contented themselves with working within the system. It was his experience of the Boer British rapprochement which he was able to bring to the attention of the British government as an alternative to confrontation. ==Sources== * [[Tim Pat Coogan]], ''Michael Collins'' (Hutchinson, 1990) ISBN 0091741068 * Tim Pat Coogan, ''The Troubles'' (Arrow, 1995, 1996) ISBN 1357108642 * F.S.L. Lyons, ''Ireland Since the Famine'' * Dorothy MacCardle, ''The Irish Republic'' (Corgi, 1968) ISBN 55207862X * Aengus Ó Snodaigh, [http://republican-news.org/archive/2000/[[May 11]]/11hist.html IRA Convention meets], An Phoblacht/Republican News, [[11 May]] [[2000]]. * Seamus Fox, [http://webpages.dcu.ie/~foxs/irhist/index.htm Chronology of Irish History 1919-1923]. * Brian Dooley, ''Black and Green. The Fight for Civil Rights in Northern Ireland and Black America'' (London Press, 1988) * Michael Hopkinson, ''The Irish War of Independence'', * Ernie O'Malley, ''On Another Man's Wound'' * ME Collins, ''Ireland 1868-1966'' * Meda Ryan, ''Liam Lynch, The Real Chief'' *Tom Barry, ''Guerrilla Days in Ireland'' *T. Ryle Dwyer, ''The Squad and the intelligence operations of Michael Collins'' ==See also== *[[Clan na Gael]] ==External links== *[http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/mil/html/mh_025100_irishrepubli.htm Reader's Companion to Military History - Irish Republican Army (IRA)] [[Category:Irish Republican Army|*]] [[Category:National liberation movements]] [[Category:Anglo-Irish War (1919-1921)]] [[cs:Irská republikánská armáda]] [[da:IRA]] [[de:Irish Republican Army]] [[es:IRA]] [[eo:IRA (Irlando)]] [[fr:Armée républicaine irlandaise]] [[ga:IRA]] [[he:IRA]] [[nl:IRA]] [[ja:IRA]] [[no:IRA]] [[nn:IRA]] [[pl:Irlandzka Armia Republikańska]] [[pt:Exército Republicano Irlandês]] [[ru:Ирландская республиканская армия]] [[sk:Írska republikánska armáda]] [[sl:Irska republikanska armada]] [[fi:IRA]] [[sv:Irish Republican Army]] [[uk:Ірландська Республіканська Армія]] [[zh:爱尔兰共和军]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Italian Rap</title> <id>14733</id> <revision> <id>15912269</id> <timestamp>2003-01-19T09:34:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Lorenzarius</username> <id>4308</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fixed double redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Italian hip hop]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Iron</title> <id>14734</id> <revision> <id>41688009</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:48:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Keenan Pepper</username> <id>124371</id> </contributor> <comment>rv unsourced claim</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} {{Elementbox_header | number=26 | symbol=Fe | name=iron | left=[[manganese]] | right=[[cobalt]] | above=- | below=[[ruthenium|Ru]] | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_series | [[transition metal]]s }} {{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=8 | period=4 | block=d }} {{Elementbox_appearance_img | Fe,26| lustrous metallic&lt;br /&gt;with a grayish tinge }} {{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-26 kg|55.845]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(2)]] }} {{Elementbox_econfig | &amp;#91;[[argon|Ar]]&amp;#93; 3d&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; 4s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; }} {{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 14, 2 }} {{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }} {{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 7.86 }} {{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 6.98 }} {{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=1811 | c=1538 | f=2800 }} {{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=3134 | c=2861 | f=5182 }} {{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 13.81 }} {{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 340 }} {{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 25.10 }} {{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 1728 | 1890 | 2091 | 2346 | 2679 | 3132 | comment= }} {{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_crystalstruct | [[cubic body centered]] }} {{Elementbox_oxistates | 2, '''3''', 4, 6&lt;br /&gt;([[amphoteric]] oxide) }} {{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 1.83 }} {{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 762.5 | 1561.9 | 2957 }} {{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|140]] }} {{Elementbox_ato
only. There are special rules for the opening. * '''Ninuki-renju''' or '''Wu''' is a variant which adds capturing to the game; it was published in the USA in a slightly simplified form under the name [[Pente]]. * [[mnk-games|''m'',''n'',''k''-games]] are a [[generalized game|generalization]] of gomoku to a board with ''m''×''n'' intersections, and ''k'' in a row needed to win. * Connect(''m'',''n'',''k'',''p'',''q'') games are another [[generalized game|generalization]] of gomoku to a board with ''m''×''n'' intersections, ''k'' in a row needed to win, ''p'' stones for each player to place, and ''q'' stones for the first player to place for the first move only. Among these games, Connect(''m'',''n'',6,2,1) is the most interesting one, and is called [[Connect6]]. ==Analysis== Computer search by [[L. Victor Allis]] has shown that on a 15x15 board, black wins with [[perfect play]]. This applies regardless of whether overlines are considered as wins, but it assumes that the rule of three and three is not used. It seems very likely that black wins on larger boards too. [[Generalized game|Generalized]] gomoku is [[PSPACE-complete]]. ==See also== * [[Solved board games]] * [[Go (board game)|Go]] *[[Connect6]], can be called a revised version of Gomoku, with no &quot;no 3-3's&quot; rule, etc * [[Pente]] == External links == * [http://www.littlegolem.net/ LittleGolem] - Website for playing turnbased Gomoku * [http://www.bartow.ys.pl/gomoku/english/ Gomoku website] - Site about game Gomoku * [http://gomoku.ys.pl/ Gomoku] * [http://www.gomoku.boo.pl/ Gomoku website] - Polish site about game Gomoku * [http://www.renju.nu/ Renju International Federation website] * [http://www.itsyourturn.com/ ItsYourTurn.com] - Another website for playing turnbased Gomoku * [http://www.flyordie.com/board-games/go-moku.html Multiplayer Gomoku Game] ==References== * [[L. Victor Allis]], Searching for Solutions in Games and Artificial Intelligence, Ph.D. thesis, University of Limburg, The Netherlands, 1994 (ISBN 90-9007488-0) [http://www.cs.unimaas.nl/~uiterwijk/AllisPhD.htm]. * [[L. Victor Allis]], H. J. van den Herik, M. P. H. Huntjens, Go-Moku and Threat-Space Search [http://www.renju.nu/proof/Go-Moku.pdf]. * Stefan Reisch, Gobang ist PSPACE-vollständig (Gomoku is PSPACE-complete). Acta Informatica, 13:5966, 1980. [[Category:Abstract strategy games]] [[Category:Japanese games]] [[Category:Paper and pencil games]] [[de:Fünf in eine Reihe]] [[es:Go-moku]] [[it:Gomoku]] [[ja:五目並べ]] [[pl:Gomoku]] [[ru:Рэндзю]] [[sv:Luffarschack]] [[zh:五子棋]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gegenschein</title> <id>12903</id> <revision> <id>36447924</id> <timestamp>2006-01-24T02:43:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Zzzzzzzzzzz</username> <id>830021</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gegenschein''' ([[German language|German]] for ''counterglow'') is a faint brightening of the night sky in the region of the [[zodiac]] directly opposite the [[Sun]] caused by reflection of sunlight by small [[Cosmic_dust|dust]] particles released both by [[asteroid]]s during their mutual collisions, and by [[comet]]s during the development of their dust tails. Due to complex interactions between the dust particles and [[solar radiation]], this dust collapses towards the Sun, building up an ellipsoidal cloud of dust particles centered on our star, where the density of particles increases towards the Sun. The gegenschein is a subtle visual and geometrical effect caused by the light ''we see'' reflecting off of the dust particles better in the backwards direction than in other directions. Therefore, the gegenschein appears as a softly glowing oval region a few degrees wide and 10-15° in length, oriented along the plane of the [[ecliptic]]. It is so faint that it cannot be seen if there is any [[Moon|moonlight]] or if it falls in the vicinity of the [[Milky Way]]. The gegenschein was discovered in [[1854]] by the Danish astronomer [[Theodor Brorsen]]. The gegenschein is one of several skyglows that also include the [[zodiacal light]] and the [[zodiacal band]]. ==See also== * [[Optical phenomenon]] ==External links== *[http://www.swisseduc.ch/stromboli/volcano/photoastro/gegenschein-en.html Astrophotographs of the gegenschein] [[Category:Optical phenomena]] [[Category:Solar System]] [[Category:Unclassified nebulae]] [[Category:German loanwords]] [[fi:Gegenschein]] [[fr:Gegenschein]] [[it:Gegenschein]] [[zh:&amp;#23545;&amp;#26085;&amp;#29031;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Glyph</title> <id>12904</id> <revision> <id>41750592</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:57:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sectryan</username> <id>494530</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fixed redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{unreferenced}} [[Image:Astrological Glyphs.jpg|thumb|right|These are the [[astrological]] [[glyph]]s as most commonly used in [[Western astrology|Western Astrology]]]] A '''glyph''' is a carved figure or character, incised or in relief; a carved pictograph; hence, a pictograph representing a form originally adopted for sculpture, whether carved or painted. Augustan English scholars of the early 18th century, imitating French antiquaries, adopted ''glyph'' from the Greek word meaning a &quot;carving.&quot; Compare the carved and incised &quot;sacred glyphs&quot; [[Egyptian hieroglyph|hieroglyph]]s, which have had a longer history in English dating from the first Elizabethan translation of Plutarch (who adapted &quot;hieroglyphic&quot; as a Latin adjective). But &quot;glyph&quot; first came to widespread European attention with the engravings and lithographs from [[Frederick Catherwood]]'s drawings of undeciphered glyphs of the [[Maya civilization]] in the early [[1840]]s. &quot;Glyphs&quot; still bring connotations of Maya glyphs to mind. In [[typography]], a '''glyph''' is an [[allograph (handwriting)|allograph]]: a particular graphical representation of a [[grapheme]], or sometimes several graphemes in combination, or only a part of a grapheme. In [[computing]] as well as typography, the term ''[[character (computing)|character]]'' refers to a grapheme or grapheme-like unit of text, as found in [[natural language]] [[writing system]]s (''scripts''). A character or grapheme is a unit of [[text]], whereas a glyph is a [[graphics|graphical]] unit. For example, the sequence ''ffi'' contains three characters, but will be represented by ''one glyph'' in [[TeX]], since the three characters will be combined into a single [[ligature (typography)|ligature]]. Conversely, some [[typewriter]]s require the use of multiple glyphs to depict a single character (for example, two [[hyphen]]s in place of a [[dash]], or an overstruck [[apostrophe]] and [[full stop|period]] in place of an [[exclamation mark]]). Most glyphs in typography originate from the carved and cast characters of a ''[[typeface]]'', also called a ''font''. In computing, ''font'' refers to a typeface manifesting as an indexed collection of glyphs or glyph-rendering instructions, and associated information that facilitates rendering mapping characters to glyphs and for rendering glyphs in different sizes. For a given typeface or font, each character typically corresponds to a single glyph. However, this is not always the case, especially in a font used for a language with a large alphabet or complex writing system, where one character may correspond to several glyphs, or several characters to one glyph. In [[graphonomics]], the term '''glyph''' is used for a non-character, i.e., either a sub-character or multi-character pattern. == See also == * [[Typeface]] [[Category:Infographics]] [[Category:Symbols]] [[Category:Typography]] [[de:Glyphe]] [[es:Glifo]] [[fr:Glyphe]] [[sv:Glyf]] [[zh:&amp;#23383;&amp;#24418;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Goth</title> <id>12905</id> <revision> <id>42162339</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:53:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>TKE</username> <id>531146</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert to revision 42149679 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gothic_girl.jpg|thumb|200px|Gothic woman, traditional style, with [[big hair]], spikes and piercings]] :''This article is about the contemporary goth/gothic [[subculture]]. For the [[Germanic tribes]] of the same name, see the [[Goths]].'' '''Goth''' is a modern [[subculture]] that first became popular during the early 1980s within the [[gothic rock]] scene, an offshoot of [[post-punk]]. It is associated with characteristically &quot;gothic&quot; tastes in music and [[Gothic fashion|clothing]]. Styles of dress range from [[death rock]], [[punk fashion|punk]], [[Victorian fashion|Victorian]], [[androgyny]], some [[Renaissance]] style clothes, a combination of the above, and/or lots of [[black]] attire, and makeup. ==English usage== The word &quot;goth&quot; can be used as a noun, e.g. &quot;my best friend is a goth.&quot; Plurally, an S is added, e.g. &quot;at the club there were many goths.&quot; &quot;Gothic&quot; and &quot;goth&quot; can also be used interchangeably as adjectives, e.g. &quot;she was wearing a gothic necklace&quot; or &quot;he is goth&quot;. The word &quot;gothic&quot; is sometimes used as a noun in non-English speaking countries, as in &quot;I saw a gothic&quot;; this is comparatively rare and grammatically incorrect in English. &quot;Goth&quot; cannot be used as a singular name for a group of people or the subculture in general. &quot;A member of goth&quot;, for example, is incorrect because &quot;goth&quot; is not the name of an organized group. To refer correctly to the entire group of people, one says &quot;goths&quot;, &quot;the goth subculture&quot;, or possibly &
aimed at sustainable utilization and conservation of tropical forests and their genetic resources. ''opened for signature -'' [[November 18]] [[1983]] ''entered into force -'' [[April 1]] [[1985]]; this agreement expired when the [[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994]], went into force. ''parties -'' (54) [[Australia]], [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]], [[Burma]], [[Cameroon]], [[Canada]], [[People's Republic of China]], [[Colombia]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Denmark]], [[Ecuador]], [[Egypt]], [[European Union]], [[Fiji]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Gabon]], [[Germany]], [[Ghana]], [[Greece]], [[Guyana]], [[Honduras]], [[India]], [[Indonesia]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Japan]], [[South Korea]], [[Liberia]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Malaysia]], [[Nepal]], [[Netherlands]], [[New Zealand]], [[Norway]], [[Panama]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Peru]], [[Philippines]], [[Portugal]], [[Russia]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[Thailand]], [[Togo]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[United Kingdom]], [[United States]], [[Venezuela]] ==References== {{CIA_WFB_2003}} [[Category:Treaties on the environment]] [[Category:1985 in law]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994</title> <id>14964</id> <revision> <id>32690500</id> <timestamp>2005-12-25T16:51:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bryan Derksen</username> <id>66</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>[[Category:1997 in law]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994''' also known as '''Tropical Timber 94''' was drafted to ensure that by the year [[2000]] exports of tropical [[timber]] originated from sustainably managed sources and to establish a fund to assist tropical timber producers in obtaining the resources necessary to reach this objective. The agreement was opened for signature on [[January 26]] [[1994]] and entered into force on [[January 1]] [[1997]]. ''parties'' - (58) [[Australia]], [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]], [[Burma]], [[Cambodia]], [[Cameroon]], [[Canada]], [[Central African Republic]], [[People's Republic of China]], [[Colombia]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Denmark]], [[Ecuador]], [[Egypt]], [[European Union]], [[Fiji]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Gabon]], [[Germany]], [[Ghana]], [[Greece]], [[Guyana]], [[Honduras]], [[India]], [[Indonesia]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Japan]], [[South Korea]], [[Liberia]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Malaysia]], [[Nepal]], [[Netherlands]], [[New Zealand]], [[Norway]], [[Panama]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Peru]], [[Philippines]], [[Portugal]], [[Spain]], [[Suriname]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[Thailand]], [[Togo]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[United Kingdom]], [[United States]], [[Uruguay]], [[Vanuatu]], [[Venezuela]] ==References== {{CIA_WFB_2003}} [[Category:Treaties on the environment]] [[Category:1997 in law]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ica</title> <id>14966</id> <revision> <id>37070051</id> <timestamp>2006-01-28T11:39:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Randwicked</username> <id>73688</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">* [[Ica (city)|Ica]], a city in [[Peru]] * The [[Ica Region]], also in Peru * [[Içá]] - a river, [[tributary]] of [[Amazon River]] * The [[Ica (language)|Ica language]], a Magdalenic [[Chibchan]] language spoken in [[Colombia]] * [[Independent component analysis]] (mathematics) * [[ICA]], a [[TLA|three-letter acronym]] with several possible meanings {{disambig}} [[de:Ica]] [[es:Ica]] [[sv:Ica]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Instrumental</title> <id>14967</id> <revision> <id>38594364</id> <timestamp>2006-02-07T09:35:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Anthony Appleyard</username> <id>119438</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the linguistic declension case, see [[Instrumental case]].'' An '''instrumental''' is, in contrast to a [[song]], a [[musical composition]] or piece without [[lyrics]] or any other sort of [[vocal music]]; all of the [[music]] is produced by [[musical instrument]]s. These instruments include anything in the range of [[string instrument|strings]], [[woodwind|woodwinds]], [[brass instrument|brass]], and [[percussion instrument|percussion]]. Specifically, this term is used when referring to [[popular music]]; some [[musical genre]]s make little use of the [[human voice]], such as [[jazz]], [[electronic music]], [[classical music era|classical]], and large amounts of [[Western classical music]] (although in electronic music, the voice can be sampled just like anything else). In commercial music, some tracks or songs on a [[compact disc]] include instrumental tracks. These tracks are exact copies of the corresponding song, but do not have vocals. == A Cappella == [[A cappella]] singing may be considered the opposite of instrumental music: all sounds are produced by the human body without the use of additional instruments. Several genres of [[performance|performances]] may be considered a cappella, like [[opera]]. Sometimes, though, even operas are not completely a cappella. ==See also== *[[Instrumental rock]] *[[List of Rock Instrumentals]] *[[Brass instrument]] *[[Percussion instrument]] *[[woodwind|Woodwind instrument]] *[[A capella]] [[Category:Instrumentals|*]] [[fi:Instrumentaalimusiikki]] [[nl:instrumentale muziek]] [[pt:Instrumental]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Icosahedron</title> <id>14968</id> <revision> <id>42163346</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T06:04:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tomruen</username> <id>63601</id> </contributor> <comment>Reg polyhedra db</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Reg polyhedra db|Platonic polyhedron stat table|I}} An '''icosahedron''' [&amp;#716;a&amp;#305;k&amp;#601;s&amp;#601;'hi&amp;#720;dr&amp;#601;n] ''noun'' (plural: -drons, -dra [-dr&amp;#601;]) is a [[polyhedron]] having 20 faces, but usually a '''regular icosahedron''' is meant, which has faces which are equilateral [[triangle (geometry)|triangle]]s. [''Etymology'': 16th Century: from Greek eikosaedron, from eikosi twenty + -edron -hedron], &quot;icosa'hedral ''adjective'' __TOC__ [[image:icosahedron flat.png]] In [[geometry]], the regular icosahedron is one of the five [[Platonic solid]]s. It is a [[convex]] regular [[polyhedron]] composed of [[twenty]] [[triangle (geometry)|triangular]] faces, with [[five]] meeting at each of the [[twelve]] vertices. It has 30 edges. Its [[dual polyhedron]] is the [[dodecahedron]]. == Area and volume == The surface area ''A'' and the [[volume]] ''V'' of a regular icosahedron of edge length ''a'' are: :&lt;math&gt;A=5\sqrt3a^2&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt;V=\begin{matrix}{5\over12}\end{matrix}(3+\sqrt5)a^3&lt;/math&gt; &lt;div style=&quot;float:left;margin-right:0.5em;&quot;&gt;[[image:Icosahedron-golden-rectangles.png|Golden rectangles in an icosahedron]]&lt;/div&gt; ==Cartesian coordinates == The following [[Cartesian coordinates]] define the vertices of an icosahedron centered at the origin: : (0, ±1, ±&amp;phi;) : (±1, ±&amp;phi;, 0) : (±&amp;phi;, 0, ±1) where &amp;phi; = (1+&amp;radic;5)/2 is the [[golden ratio]] (also written &amp;tau;). Note that these vertices form sets of three mutually [[orthogonal]] [[golden rectangle]]s. The 12 edges of an [[octahedron]] can be partitioned in the golden ratio so that the resulting vertices define a regular icosahedron. This is done by first placing vectors along the octahedron's edges such that each face is bounded by a cycle, then similarly partitioning each edge into the golden mean along the direction of its vector. The five octahedra defining any given icosahedron form a regular [[polyhedral compound]]. == Geometric relations == There are distortions of the icosahedron that, while no longer regular, are nevertheless vertex-uniform. These are [[invariant (mathematics)|invariant]] under the same [[rotation]]s as the [[tetrahedron]], and are somewhat analogous to the [[snub cube]] and [[snub dodecahedron]], including some forms which are [[chirality (mathematics)|chiral]] and some with T&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt;-symmetry, i.e. have different planes of symmetry than the tetrahedron. The icosahedron has a large number of [[stellation]]s, including one of the [[Kepler-Poinsot solid]]s and some of the regular compounds, which could be discussed here. The icosahedron is unique among the Platonic solids in possessing a dihedral angle not less than 120°. Thus, just as hexagons have angles not less than 120° and cannot be used as the faces of a convex regular polyhedron because such a construction would not meet the requirement that at least three faces meet at a vertex and leave a positive [[defect (geometry)|defect]] for folding in three dimensions, icosahedra cannot be used as the [[cell (mathematics)|cells]] of a convex regular [[polychoron]] because, similarly, at least three cells must meet at an edge and leave a positive defect for folding in four dimensions (in general for a convex [[polytope]] in ''n'' dimensions, at least three [[facet (mathematics)|facets]] must meet at a [[ridge (mathematics)|ridge]] and leave a positive defect for folding in ''n''-space). However, when combined with suitable cells having smaller dihedral angles, icosahedra can be used as cells in semi-regular polychora (for example the [[snub 24-cell]]), just as hexagons can be used as faces in semi-regular polyhedra (for example the [[truncated icosahedron]]). Finally, non-convex polytopes do not carry the same strict requirements as convex
or copying [[byte]]s. This must be done with the looping construct and arithmetical operators. Moving a byte is simple enough; moving the value of [0] to [1] can be done as follows: [-&gt;+&lt;] However, this resets the value of [0] to 0. We can restore the value of [0] after copying by taking advantage of the ability to copy a value to two places at once. To copy the value of [0] to both [1] and [2] is simple: [-&gt;+&gt;+&lt;&lt;] We can take advantage of this to restore the value of [0]. Therefore, we can nondestructively copy [0] to [1] (using [2] as scratch space) as follows: [-&gt;+&gt;+&lt;&lt;]&gt;&gt;[-&lt;&lt;+&gt;&gt;]&lt;&lt; ===Non-trivial=== ==== Addition ==== &lt;nowiki&gt;,&gt;++++++[&lt;--------&gt;-],[&lt;+&gt;-],&lt;.&gt;.&lt;/nowiki&gt; This program adds two single-digit numbers and displays the result correctly if it too has only one digit: 43 7 The first number is input in [0], and 48 is subtracted from it to correct it (the ASCII codes for the digits 0-9 are 48-57). This is done by putting a 6 in [1] and using a loop to subtract 8 from [0] that many times. (This is a common method of adding or subtracting large numbers.) Next, the second number is input in [1]. The next loop &lt;code&gt;[&lt;+&gt;-]&lt;/code&gt; does the real work, moving the second number onto the first, adding them together and zeroing [1]. Each time through, it adds one to [0] and subtracts one from [1]; so by the time [1] is zeroed, as many have been added to [0] as have been removed from [1]. Now a return is input in [1]. (We're not error-checking the input at all.) Then the pointer is moved back to the [0], which is then output. ([0] is now a + (b + 48), since we didn't correct b; which is identical to (a + b) + 48, which is what we want.) Now the pointer is moved to [1], which holds the return that was input; it is now output, and we're done. Apparently, some implementation (presumably broken) prefers this variant which does not use linefeeds at all: &lt;nowiki&gt;,&gt;------[&lt;++++++++&gt;+],[&lt;+&gt;-]&lt;.&lt;/nowiki&gt; ==== Multiplication ==== &lt;nowiki&gt;,&gt;,&gt;++++++++[&lt;------&lt;------&gt;&gt;-]&lt;/nowiki&gt; &lt;&lt;[&gt;[&gt;+&gt;+&lt;&lt;-]&gt;&gt;[&lt;&lt;+&gt;&gt;-]&lt;&lt;&lt;-] &gt;&gt;&gt;++++++[&lt;++++++++&gt;-],&lt;.&gt;. Like the previous, but does multiplication, not addition. The first number is input in [0], the second number is input in [1], and both numbers are corrected by having 48 subtracted. Now we enter the main multiplication loop. The basic idea is that each time through it we subtract one from [0] and add [1] to the running total kept in [2]. In particular: the first inner loop moves [1] onto both [2] and [3], while zeroing [1]. (This is the basic way to duplicate a number.) The next inner loop moves [3] back into [1], zeroing [3]. Then one is subtracted from [0], and the outer loop is ended. On exiting this loop, [0] is zero, [1] still has the second number in it, and [2] has the product of the two numbers. (Had we cared about keeping the first number, we could have added one to [4] each time through the outer loop, then moved the value from [4] back to [0] afterward.) Now we add 48 to the product, input a return in [3], output the ASCIIfied product, and then output the return we just stored. ==== Division ==== &lt;nowiki&gt;,&gt;,&gt;++++++[-&lt;--------&lt;--------&gt;&gt;] store 2 numbers from kb in [0] and [1], and subtract 48 from each &lt;&lt;[ loop until the dividend is zero &gt;[-&gt;+&gt;+&lt;&lt;] move the divisor in [1] to [2] and [3], setting [1] to zero &gt;[-&lt;&lt;- subtract 1 from both the dividend[0] and the divisor[2] until [2] is zero [&gt;]&gt;&gt;&gt;[&lt;[&gt;&gt;&gt;-&lt;&lt;&lt;[-]]&gt;&gt;]&lt;&lt;] if the dividend is zero, exit the loop &gt;&gt;&gt;+ add one to the quotient in [5] &lt;&lt;[-&lt;&lt;+&gt;&gt;] move the saved divisor in [3] to [2] &lt;&lt;&lt;] move ptr to [0] and repeat loop &gt;[-]&gt;&gt;&gt;&gt;[-&lt;&lt;&lt;&lt;&lt;+&gt;&gt;&gt;&gt;&gt;] move the quotient in [5] to [0] &lt;&lt;&lt;&lt;++++++[-&lt;++++++++&gt;]&lt;. add 48 and print result&lt;/nowiki&gt; When the user enters two numbers from the keyboard, this code divides the two numbers, ignoring the remainder, and prints the quotient to the screen. ==Portability issues== Partly because Urban M&amp;uuml;ller did not write a thorough language specification, the many subsequent brainfuck interpreters and compilers have come to use slightly different dialects of brainfuck. ===Cell size=== In [http://wuarchive.wustl.edu/pub/aminet/dev/lang/brainfuck-2.lha the classic distribution], the cells are 8-bit bytes, and this is still the most common size. However, to read non-textual data, a brainfuck program may need to distinguish an [[end-of-file]] condition from any possible byte value; thus 16-bit cells have also been used. Some implementations have used 32-bit cells, 64-bit cells, or [[bignum]] cells with practically unlimited range, but programs that use this extra range are likely to be slow, since storing or using cell values generally takes time proportional to the values stored or used. In all these variants, the &lt;code&gt;,&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;.&lt;/code&gt; commands still read and write data in bytes. In most of them, the cells wrap around, i.e. incrementing a cell which holds its maximal value (with the &lt;code&gt;+&lt;/code&gt; command) will bring it to its minimal value and vice versa. The exceptions are implementations which are distant from the underlying hardware, implementations that use bignums, and implementations that try to enforce portability. Fortunately, it is usually easy to write brainfuck programs that do not ever cause integer wraparound or overflow. Such programs thus do not depend heavily on cell size. Generally this means avoiding increment of +255 (unsigned char wraparound); or avoiding the overstepping the boundaries of [-128, +127] inclusive (signed char wraparound). For more details on integer wraparound, see the [[Integer overflow]] article. ===Array size=== In the classic distribution, the array has 30,000 cells, and the pointer begins at the leftmost cell. Any brainfuck implementation should thus provide at least that many cells, but surprisingly many implementations provide fewer. Even more cells are needed to store things like the millionth [[Fibonacci number]], and the easiest way to make the language Turing-complete is to make the array unlimited on the right. A few implementations extend the array to the left as well; this is an uncommon feature, and therefore portable brainfuck programs do not depend on it. When the pointer moves outside the bounds of the array, some implementations will give an error message, some will try to extend the array dynamically, some will not notice and will produce unpredictable behavior, and a few will move the pointer to the opposite end of the array. Some tradeoffs are involved: expanding the array dynamically to the right is the most user-friendly approach and is good for memory-hungry programs, but it carries a speed penalty. If a fixed-size array is used it is helpful to make it very large, or better yet let the user set the size. Giving an error message for bounds violations is very useful for debugging but even that carries a speed penalty unless it can be handled by the operating system's memory protections. ===End-of-line code=== Different operating systems (and sometimes different programming environments) use subtly different versions of ASCII. The most important difference is in the code used for the end of a line of text. MS-DOS and Microsoft Windows use a [[Newline#CR.2BLF|CRLF]], i.e. a 13 followed by a 10, in most contexts. UNIX and its descendants, including Linux and Mac OS X, use just 10, and older Macs use just 13. It would be unfortunate if brainfuck programs had to be rewritten for different operating systems. Happily, a unified standard is easy to find. Urban M&amp;uuml;ller's compiler and his example programs use 10, on both input and output; so do a large majority of existing brainfuck programs; and 10 is also more convenient to use than CRLF. Thus, brainfuck implementations should make sure that brainfuck programs that assume newline=10 will run properly; many do so, but some do not. This assumption is also consistent with most of the world's sample code for [[C programming language|C]] and other languages, in that they use '\n', or 10, for their newlines. ===End-of-file behavior=== The behavior of the &lt;code&gt;,&lt;/code&gt; command when an [[end-of-file]] condition has been encountered varies. Some implementations set the cell at the pointer to 0, some set it to the C constant EOF (in practice this is usually -1), some leave the cell's value unchanged. There is no real consensus; arguments for the three behaviors are as follows. Setting the cell to 0 avoids the use of negative numbers, and makes it marginally more concise to write a loop that reads characters until EOF occurs. This is a language extension devised by Panu Kalliokoski. Setting the cell to -1 allows EOF to be distinguished from any byte value (if the cells are larger than bytes), which is necessary for reading non-textual data; also, it is the behavior of the C translation of &lt;code&gt;,&lt;/code&gt; given in M&amp;uuml;ller's readme file. However, it is not obvious that those C translations are to be taken as normative. Leaving the cell's value unchanged is the behavior of Urban M&amp;uuml;ller's brainfuck compiler. This behavior can easily coexist with either of the others; for instance, a program that assumes EOF=0 can set the cell to 0 before each &lt;code&gt;,&lt;/code&gt; command, and will then work correctly on implementations that do either EOF=0 or EOF=&quot;no change&quot;. It is so easy to accommodate the &quot;no change&quot; behavior that any brainfuck programmer interested in portability should do so. ===Miscellaneous dialect
e February 2005 when Luis FISHMAN resigned); note - president is both the chief of state and head of government **Cabinet: Cabinet selected by the president **Election results: First round: (40%+ required to be elected) [[Abel Pacheco|Abel PACHECO]] (PUSC), 39%. Rolando ARAYA (PLN), 31%. [[Ottón Solís|Ottón SOLÍS]] (PAC), 26%. [[Otto Guevara|Otto GUEVARA]] (PML), 2%. Runoff election: [[Abel Pacheco|Abel PACHECO]] elected president; percent of vote - [[Abel Pacheco|Abel PACHECO]] (PUSC) 58%, Rolando ARAYA (PLN) 42% *Legislative branch: unicameral [[Legislative Assembly of Costa Rica|Legislative Assembly]] or ''Asamblea Legislativa'' (57 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve four-year terms. Uses [[proportional representation]].) **elections:last held [[2 February]] [[2002]] (next to be held February [[2006]]) **election results: percent of vote by party - PUSC 30%, PLN 27%, PAC 22%, PML 9%, others 12%; seats by party - PUSC 19, PLN 17, PAC 8 (originally elected 14), Unión Patriótica 3 (UP, former members of PAC), PML 5 (originally elected 6), others 5 (including 3 former members of PAC and one former member of ML). *Judicial branch: Supreme Court (Corte Suprema), justices are elected for eight-year terms by the Legislative Assembly **President of the Supreme Court: [[Luis Paulino Mora]] *Political pressure groups and leaders: Authentic Confederation of Democratic Workers or CATD (Communist Party affiliate); Chamber of Coffee Growers; Confederated Union of Workers or CUT (Communist Party affiliate); Costa Rican Confederation of Democratic Workers or CCTD (Liberation Party affiliate); Federation of Public Service Workers or FTSP; [[Free Costa Rica Movement]] or MCRL (rightwing militants); National Association for Economic Development or ANFE; National Association of Educators or ANDE *International organization participation: BCIE, CACM, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, [[Interpol]], IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, LAES, LAIA (observer), NAM (observer), [[Organization of American States|OAS]], OPANAL, OPCW, [[United Nations|UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], UNIDO, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, [[WIPO]], WMO, WToO, WTrO *Flag description: five horizontal bands of blue (top), white, red (double width), white, and blue, with the coat of arms in a white disk on the hoist side of the red band ==External links== * http://www.kostaryka.org/2001/famous62.htm (Famous people of Costa Rica) ==See also== *[[Costa Rica]] ==Footnotes== *&lt;cite id=&quot;fn_1&quot;&gt;[[#fn 1 back|Note 1:]] &lt;/cite&gt; ''Costa Rica: Isle Of Tranquillity In an Angry Sea'', U.S. News &amp; World Report September 17, 1984, Pg. 40 [[Category:Politics of Costa Rica| ]] [[es:Gobierno y política de Costa Rica]] [[fr:Politique du Costa Rica]] [[pt:Política da Costa Rica]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Economy of Costa Rica</title> <id>5556</id> <revision> <id>37665765</id> <timestamp>2006-02-01T12:23:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>CalJW</username> <id>233571</id> </contributor> <comment>moved to head of cat</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}} [[Costa Rica]]'s basically stable economy depends on [[tourism]], [[agriculture]], and [[electronics]] exports. It has the second biggest GDP per capita of Latin America. Poverty has been substantially reduced over the past 15 years, and a strong social safety net has been put into place. Economic growth has rebounded from -0.9% in [[1996]] to 4% in [[1997]], 6% in [[1998]], and 7% in [[1999]]. Inflation rose to 22.5% in [[1995]], dropped to 11.1% in 1997, 12% in 1998, and 11% in 1999. Large government deficits--fueled by interest payments on the massive internal debt--have undermined efforts to maintain the quality of social services. Curbing [[inflation]], reducing the deficit, and improving public sector efficiency remain key challenges to the government. Political resistance to [[privatization]] has stalled liberalization efforts. Costa Rica has sought to widen its economic and trade ties, both within and outside the region. Costa Rica signed a bilateral trade agreement with Mexico in 1994, which was later amended to cover a wider range of products. Costa Rica joined other Central American countries, plus the Dominican Republic, in establishing a Trade and Investment Council with the United States in March 1998. Costa Rica is negotiating or seeking ratification of trade agreements with [[Chile]], the [[Dominican Republic]], [[Panama]], and [[Trinidad and Tobago]]. It lobbied aggressively for enhancement of the U.S. Government's Caribbean Basin Initiative and has made clear its interest in joining the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA) or signing a similar treaty with the U.S. Costa Rica is an active participant in the negotiation of the hemispheric Free Trade Area of the Americas, a process that the Costa Rican Government chaired in preparation for the April 1998 Summit of the Americas in [[Santiago, Chile]]. It also is a member of the so-called [[Cairns Group]] which is pursuing global agricultural trade liberalization in the World Trade Organization. Costa Rica's economy emerged from recession in 1997 and has shown strong aggregate growth since then. After 6.2% growth in 1998, GDP grew a substantial 8.3% in 1999, led by exports of the country's free trade zones and the tourism sector. The Central Bank attributes almost half of 1999 growth to the production of [[Intel]] Corporation's microprocessor assembly and testing plant. The strength in the nontraditional export and tourism sector is masking a relatively lackluster performance by traditional sectors, including agriculture. Inflation, as measured by the Consumer Price Index, was 10.1% in 1999, down from 11.2% the year before. The central government deficit decreased to 3.2% of GDP in 1999, down from 3.3% from the year before. On a consolidated basis, including Central Bank losses and parastatal enterprise profits, the public sector deficit was 2.3% of GDP. Controlling the budget deficit remains the single biggest challenge for the country's economic policymakers, as interest costs on the accumulated central government consumes the equivalent of 30% of the government's total revenues. This limits the resources available for investments in the country's deteriorated public infrastructure. ==Resources== Costa Rica's major economic resources are its fertile land and frequent rainfall, its well-educated population, and its location in the Central American isthmus, which provides easy access to North and South American markets and direct ocean access to the European and Asian Continents. Costa Rica has 2 seasons, both of which have their own agricultural benefits. The seasons are the basic, wet and dry, tropical typed seasons. One-fourth of Costa Rica's land is dedicated to national forests, often adjoining picturesque beaches, which has made the country a popular destination for affluent retirees and [[Ecotourism | ecotourists]]. ==Exports and jobs== Costa Rica used to be known principally as a producer of [[banana]]s and [[coffee]]. (Its principal exports are still listed as coffee, bananas, [[cocoa]], [[sugar]], [[lumber]] and [[wood]] products and beef.) In recent years, Costa Rica has successfully attracted important investments by such companies as Intel Corporation, which employs nearly 2,000 people at its $300 million microprocessor plant; [[Procter &amp; Gamble]], which is establishing its administrative center for the Western Hemisphere; and Abbott Laboratories and Baxter Healthcare from the health care products industry. Manufacturing and industry's contribution to GDP overtook agriculture over the course of the [[1990s]], led by foreign investment in Costa Rica's free trade zone. Well over half of that investment has come from the U.S. Tourism also is booming, with the number of visitors up from 780,000 in 1996 to more than 1 million in 1999. Tourism now earns more foreign exchange than bananas and coffee combined. The country has not discovered sources of fossil fuels--apart from minor [[coal]] deposits-- but its mountainous terrain and abundant rainfall have permitted the construction of a dozen [[hydroelectric power]] plants, making it self-sufficient in all energy needs, except oil for transportation. Costa Rica exports electricity to Central America and has the potential to become a major electricity exporter if plans for new generating plants and a regional distribution grid are realized. Mild climate and trade winds make neither heating nor cooling necessary, particularly in the highland cities and towns where some 90% of the population lives. ==Infrastructure== Costa Rica's infrastructure has suffered from a lack of maintenance and new investment. The country has an extensive road system of more than 30,000 kilometers, although much of it is in disrepair. Most parts of the country are accessible by road. The main highland cities in the country's Central Valley are connected by paved all-weather roads with the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and by the [[Pan American Highway]] with Nicaragua and Panama, the neighboring countries to the North and the South. Costa Rica's ports are struggling to keep pace with growing trade. They have insufficient capacity, and their equipment is in poor condition. The railroad didn't function for several years, until recent government effort to reactivate it for city transportation. The government hopes to bring foreign investment, technology, and management into the telecommunications and electrical power sectors, which are monopolies of the state. However, political opposition to opening these sectors to private participation has stalled the government's efforts. The poor state of public finances will continue to limit the state's ability to t
ntermediary, when both [[Oliver North]] and Ghorbanifar created a 370% markup (WALSH, Lawrence E. &quot;Firewall&quot;). The arms were eventually sold - in February, 1000 TOW (Tube-launched, Optically tracked, Wire-guided) [[missile|missles]] were shipped to [[Iran]]. From May to November 1986, there were additional shipments of miscellaneous weapons and parts. The U.S. diverted these proceeds to the [[Contras]], right wing [[guerrillas]] engaged in an [[insurgency]] against the [[socialist]] [[Sandinista National Liberation Front|Sandinista]] government of [[Nicaragua]]. Both the sale of weapons to [[Iran]] and the funding of the [[Contras]] violated stated administration policy and legislation passed by the [[Congress of the United States|Congress]]. [[Hezbollah]] proceeded to take more [[hostages]] after they had released old ones, and failing to produce any meaningful results, the arms-for-hostages program was cancelled later that same year. ==Funding the Contras== The Reagan administration had been providing covert assistance to the [[Contras]] since November [[1981]], out of a conviction that all of [[Latin America]] was in great peril due to the actions of [[populist]] local political movements. The [[1982]] [[Boland Amendment]] blocked further military aid when it was discovered that the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] had supervised acts of sabotage and ''de facto'' terrorism in [[Nicaragua]] without notifying Congress. The amendment, effective December [[1983]] to September [[1985]], prohibited the CIA, [[United States Department of Defense|Defense Department]] and any other government agency from providing any further covert military assistance. The Reagan administration circumvented this ban by using the [[United States National Security Council|National Security Council]], which was not explicitly covered by the law, to supervise covert support. The NSC proceeded to raise private and foreign funds for the Contras. In addition, proceeds from the arms sales to Iran were used to purchase arms for the Contras in an arrangement instituted by Colonel [[Oliver North]], aide to [[United States National Security Advisor|National Security Advisor]] [[John Poindexter]]. ==Discovery and scandal== While not accomplishing the intended purpose of releasing the [[hostages]] in [[Lebanon]], the aborted deal caused political strife in the [[United States]] when the details became public knowledge. The [[Lebanon | Lebanese]] magazine ''[[Ash-Shiraa]]'' exposed the arrangement on [[3 November]] [[1986]]. This was the first public reporting of the weapons-for-hostages deal. The operation was discovered only after an [[Eugene Hasenfus|airlift of guns was downed over Nicaragua]]. The scandal was compounded when on [[November 21]], [[Oliver North]] and his secretary [[Fawn Hall]] shredded pertinent documents. [[United States Attorney General|US Attorney General]] [[Edwin Meese]] on [[November 25]] admitted that profits from weapons sales to Iran were made available to assist the Contra rebels in [[Nicaragua]]. On [[November 26]] President Reagan, faced with mounting pressure from Congressional Democrats and the media, announced that as of [[December 1]] former Senator [[John Tower]], former Secretary of State [[Edmund Muskie]], and former National Security Adviser [[Brent Scowcroft]] would serve as members of a Special Review Board looking into the matter; this [[Presidential Commission (United States)|Presidential Commission]] became known as the [[Tower Commission]]. At this point, President Reagan said he had not been informed of the operation. The Tower Commission implicated North, Poindexter, and Weinberger amongst others. It did not determine that the President had knowledge, although it argued that the President ought to have had better control of the National Security Council staff. The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] issued its final report on [[18 November]], [[1987]], which stated that the President bore &quot;ultimate responsibility&quot; for wrongdoing by his aides and his administration exhibited &quot;secrecy, deception and disdain for the law.&quot; [[Oliver North]] and [[John Poindexter]] were [[indicted]] on multiple charges on [[March 16]], [[1988]]. North, indicted on nine counts, was initially convicted of three minor counts, although the conviction was later vacated upon appeal on the grounds that North's [[Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fifth Amendment]] rights may have been violated. The violation was said to be the indirect use of his testimony to Congress which had been given under a grant of immunity. Poindexter was convicted on several [[felony]] counts of lying to Congress, obstruction of justice, conspiracy, and altering and destroying documents pertinent to the investigation. His convictions were also overturned on appeal on similar grounds as North's. The [[Independent Counsel]] chose not to re-try North or Poindexter. ==Public Admission== Faced with [[undeniable]] [[evidence]] of his involvement in the scandal, Reagan expressed regret regarding the situation on national television. In his speech, Reagan stated that his previous assertions that the US did not trade arms for hostages were incorrect. However, he added that believed what he did was right, and understood how the American people might not think the same way. Reagan survived the scandal, and would see his approval ratings return to previous levels. ==Contra-drug links== Sen. [[John Kerry]]'s [[1988]] [[U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations]] report on Contra-drug links concluded that &quot;senior U.S. policy makers were not immune to the idea that drug money was a perfect solution to the Contras' funding problems.&quot; [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB113/index.htm] Kerry was suspicious of North's connection with Manuel Noriega. According to the [[National Security Archive]], [[Oliver North]] had been in contact with [[Manuel Noriega]], [[Panama]]'s drug-baron, whom he personally met. In [[August]] of [[1996]], the ''[[San Jose Mercury News]]'' published [[Gary Webb]]'s &quot;Dark Alliance&quot;, a 20,000 word, three-part investigative series which alleged that Nicaraguan drug traffickers had sold and distributed [[crack]] cocaine in [[Los Angeles]] during the 1980s, and that drug profits were used to fund the CIA-supported Nicaraguan [[Contras]]. Webb never asserted that the [[CIA]] directly aided drug dealers to raise money for the Contras, but he did imply that the CIA were aware of the transactions (Webb's 1999 book, ''Dark Alliance'', substantiated these allegations with copious references). On December 10, 2004, [[Gary Webb]] was found dead. While acknowledging that the two fatal shots that had entered through the back of his head was unusual, [[coroner]] Robert Lyons determined that it was [[suicide]]. It subsequently became known that Webb had been suffering from [[clinical depression]] for many years, though this information was ascertained only after the fact. ==Significance: The separation of powers== The Iran-Contra Affair is significant because it brought many questions into public view that continue to resonate today: *Does the President have unconditional authority to conduct [[foreign policy]] over the objection [[Congress of the United States|Congress]] and the [[law|laws]] it passes *Can the [[President]] approve selling arms to a foreign nation without [[Congress of the United States|congressional]] approval *What information does the President have to provide to [[Congress of the United States|Congress]] and when should that information be supplied *What information does the Pesident have to provide the [[American people]] *Can the President present factually incorrect information to the [[American people]] about key foreign policy initiatives if he believes his motives are just *What authority does the [[Congress of the United States|Congress]] have to oversee functions of the executive branch *Does funding for foreign policy initiatives have to be approved by the [[Congress of the United States|Congress]] *Who defines the entire spending budget and who regulates it *Is the provision of the [[Ethics in Government Act of 1978|1978 Ethics in Government Act]] that creates the position of independent counsel answering to the Attorney General, constitutional *What role does the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] have in deciding conflicts between the [[legislative branch]] and [[executive branch]] *How much support is America entitled to provide to armed opposition forces seeking to replace governments with ones more sympathetic to the United States Most, if not all, of the constitutional and ethical questions are still unresolved. On one view, it appears that if the legislative and executive branches do not wish to work together, there are no legal remedies. These unresolved issues were again in the public eye during the Presidency of [[George W. Bush]], who selected some individuals implicated in the Iran-Contra scandal for high-level posts. These include: *[[Elliott Abrams]] (under Bush the Special Assistant to the President and Senior Director on the National Security Council for Near East and North African Affairs; in Iran Contra, found guilty on two counts of unlawfully withholding information) *[[Otto Reich]] *[[John Negroponte]] *Admiral [[John Poindexter]] (under Bush Director of the [[Information Awareness Office#Public criticism of the Information Awareness Office|Information Awareness Office]]; in Iran Contra found guilty of multiple [[felony]] counts for [[conspiracy]], [[obstruction of justice]], lying to Congress, defrauding the government, and the alteration and destruction of evidence) &lt;!-- There's more to add here, particularly on the political impact of the matter on Reagan's presidency. --&gt; == See also == *[[Gary Webb]] *Swedish Prime Minister [[Olof Palme]]'s 1986 murder *&quot;
ompletely rule out the possibility that Saddam still had Weapons of Mass Destruction. The [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]] charged that Iraq was hiding Weapons and opposed the team's requests for more time to further investigate the matter, claiming that such investigations had gone on for years without success. [[UN Security Council Resolution 1441|Resolution 1441]] was passed unanimously by the [[UN Security Council]] on November 8, 2002, offering Iraq &quot;a final opportunity to comply with its disarmament obligations&quot; that had been set out in several previous UN resolutions, threatening &quot;serious consequences&quot; if the obligations were not fulfilled. The UN Security Council did not issue a resolution authorizing the use of force against Iraq. In March [[2003]] the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]], with military aid from other nations, invaded Iraq. == Coalition occupation of Iraq == [[image:saddamcapture.jpg|thumb|left|222px|''Saddām Husayn with a long beard shortly after capture''.]] In 2003, after the American and British invasion, Iraq was [[2003 occupation of Iraq| occupied]] by Coalition forces. On [[23 May]] [[2003]], the UN Security Council unanimously approved a resolution lifting all economic sanctions against Iraq. As the country struggled to rebuild after 3 wars and a decade of sanctions, it was racked by violence between a growing insurgency [[Iraqi insurgency]] and occupation forces. Saddām Husayn, who vanished in April was captured on [[13 December]] [[2003]]. The initial US interim civil administrator, [[Jay Garner]], was replaced in May 2003 by [[L. Paul Bremer]], who was himself replaced by [[John Negroponte]] in [[19 April]] [[2004]] who left Iraq in [[2005]]. Negroponte was the last US interim administrator. Terrorism emerged as a threat to Iraq's people not long after the invasion of 2003. Al Qaeda now has a presence in the country, in the form of several terrorist groups led by Abu Musab Al Zarqawi. Many foreign fighters and former Ba`th Party officials have also joined the insurgency, which is mainly aimed at attacking American forces and Iraqis who work with them. The most dangerous insurgent area is the [[Sunni Triangle]], a mostly Sunni-Muslim area just north of Baghdad. === Coalition withdrawal === ''Main article'': [[Iraq after Saddam Hussein|Iraq after Saddām Husayn]] A few days after the [[11 March 2004 Madrid attacks]], the pro-war government of [[Spain]] was voted out of office. The War had been deeply unpopular and the incoming [[Socialist]] government followed through on its [[manifesto]] commitment to withdraw troops from [[Iraq]]. Following on the heels of this, several other nations that once formed the [[Coalition of the Willing]] began to reconsider their role. The [[Netherlands|Dutch]] refused a US offer to commit their troops to Iraq past [[30 June]]. [[South Korea]] kept its troops deployed. Soon after the decisions to withdrawal in the Spring of 2004, the [[Dominican Republic]], [[Honduras|Honduran]], [[Guatemala]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Singapore]], [[Thailand]], [[Portugal]], [[Philippines]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Nicaragua]] and [[Italy]] left or are planning to leave as well. Other nations (such as [[Australia]], [[Denmark]] and [[Poland]]) continue commitment in Iraq. On [[28 June]] [[2004]], the occupation was formally ended by the U.S.-led coalition, which transferred power to an interim Iraqi government led by Prime Minister [[Iyad Allawi|Iyyād `Alāwī]]. On [[16 July]] [[2004]], the [[Philippines]] ordered the withdrawal of all of its troops in Iraq in order to comply with the demands of terrorists holding Filipino citizen [[Angelo de la Cruz]] as a hostage. Many nations that have announced withdrawal plans or are considering them have stated that they may reconsider if there is a new UN resolution that grants the UN more authority in Iraq. On [[January 30]], [[2005]]. the [[Iraqi National Assembly election, 2005|transitional parliamentary elections]] took place. ''See:'' '''[[Iraqi legislative election, January 2005]].''' == References == 1. {{note|ref1}} SIMONS, Geoff: Iraq: ''From Summer to Sudan'', St. Martins Press, London, 1994, p 179 2. {{note|ref2}} The US [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] reported that that the attack was carried out by Iran, a version of events supported by the [[CIA]] during the early 1990s [http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/ops/war/docs/3203/appb.pdf]. See also an opinion piece by CIA analyst Stephen C Pelletiere, in which he conlcudes that there is no basis for a judgement as to whether Iran or Iraq was responsible for the attack [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60816FC3D5C0C728FDDA80894DB404482]. 3. http://middleeastreference.org.uk/llb020916a.html 4. http://www.mideastweb.org/687.htm 5. {{note|ref3}} Richard BUTLER, ''Saddam Defiant'', Weidenfeld &amp; Nicolson, London, 2000, p. 224 == See also == * [[Iraq]] * [[Reconstruction of Iraq]] * [[President of Iraq]] * [[Prime Minister of Iraq]] * [[Christoph Marcinkowski]] * [[Kurdistan]] * [[History of the Kurds]] * [[Yazidism]] * [[Mesopotamia]] * [[Mesopotamian mythology]] ==External links== * [http://www.countryreports.org/history/iraqhist.htm history of Iraq] * [http://iwa.univie.ac.at The 2003- Iraq War &amp; Archaeology] [[Category:History of Iraq| ]] [[Category:History of the Middle East|Iraq, History of]] [[ar:تاريخ العراق]] [[de:Geschichte Iraks]] [[es:Historia de Iraq]] [[ia:Historia de Iraq]] [[it:Storia dell'Iraq]] [[nl:Geschiedenis van Irak]] [[pt:História do Iraque]] [[sv:Iraks historia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geography of Iraq</title> <id>14665</id> <revision> <id>42032225</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:28:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Classic 971</username> <id>704231</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{update}} [[Image:Iraq_map.png|right|frame|Iraq Map]] [[Image:LittleIraq.png|right|]] [[Iraq]] is bordered by [[Kuwait]], [[Iran]], [[Turkey]], [[Syria]], [[Jordan]], and [[Saudi Arabia]]. The country slopes from mountains over 3,000 [[meter]]s (10,000&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) above sea level along the border with Iran and Turkey to the remnants of sea-level, reedy marshes in the southeast. Much of the land is desert or wasteland. The mountains in the northeast are an extension of the alpine system that runs eastward from the Balkans into southern [[Turkey]], northern Iraq, [[Iran]], and [[Afghanistan]], terminating in the Himalayas. Average temperatures range from higher than 48 &amp;deg;C (120&amp;nbsp;[[Fahrenheit|&amp;deg;F]]) in July and August to below freezing in January. Most of the rainfall occurs from December through April and averages between 100 and 180 [[millimeter]]s (4 to 7 [[inch|in]]) annually. The mountainous region of northern Iraq receives appreciably more precipitation than the central or southern desert region. '''[[Geographic coordinates]]:''' {{coor dm|33|00|N|44|00|E|type:country}} ==Boundaries== The border with Iran has been a continuing source of conflict and was partially responsible for the outbreak in 1980 of the present war. The terms of a treaty negotiated in 1937 under British auspices provided that in one area of the Shatt al Arab the boundary would be at the low water mark on the Iranian side. Iran subsequently insisted that the 1937 treaty was imposed on it by &quot;British imperialist pressures,&quot; and that the proper boundary throughout the Shatt was the thalweg. The matter came to a head in 1969 when Iraq, in effect, told the Iranian government that the Shatt was an integral part of Iraqi territory and that the waterway might be closed to Iranian shipping. Through Algerian mediation, Iran and Iraq agreed in March 1975 to normalize their relations, and three months later they signed a treaty known as the Algiers Accord. The document defined the common border all along the Shatt estuary as the thalweg. To compensate Iraq for the loss of what formerly had been regarded as its territory, pockets of territory along the mountain border in the central sector of its common boundary with Iran were assigned to it. Nonetheless, in September 1980 Iraq went to war with Iran, citing among other complaints the fact that Iran had not turned over to it the land specified in the Algiers Accord. This problem has subsequently proved to be a stumbling block to a negotiated settlement of the ongoing conflict. In 1988 the boundary with Kuwait was another outstanding problem. It was fixed in a 1913 treaty between the Ottoman Empire and British officials acting on behalf of Kuwait's ruling family, which in 1899 had ceded control over foreign affairs to Britain. The boundary was accepted by Iraq when it became independent in 1932, but in the 1960s and again in the mid-1970s, the Iraqi government advanced a claim to parts of Kuwait. Kuwait made several representations to the Iraqis during the war to fix the border once and for all but Baghdad has repeatedly demurred, claiming that the issue is a potentially divisive one that could enflame nationalist sentiment inside Iraq. Hence in 1988 it was likely that a solution would have to wait until the war ended. In 1922 British officials concluded the Treaty of Mohammara with Abd al Aziz ibn Abd ar Rahman Al Saud, who in 1932 formed the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The treaty provided the basic agreement for the boundary between the eventually independent nations. Also in 1922 the two parties agreed to the creation of the diamond-shaped Neutral Zone of approximately 7,500 [[square kilometer]]s (2,900&amp;nbsp;[[square miles|mi²]]) adjacent to the western tip of Kuwait in which neither Iraq nor Saudi Arabia would build permanent dwellings or installations. Beduins from either country could utilize the limited water and seasonal grazing resources of the zone. In April 1975, an agreement signed in Baghdad fixed the borders
time digital control system for analog synthesis, eventually to be used extensively by composers [[Laurie Spiegel]] and [[Emmanuel Ghent]] in the 1970s. In 1979, Sequential Circuits company introduced the Prophet, the first synthesizer to use microprocessor control. ===Mini-Moog=== In 1970, Charles Wuorinen composed Times Encomium, the first Pulitzer Prize winner for an entirely electronic composition. Also in the 1970s, the [[Minimoog|Mini-Moog]] was created. This was a small, integrated synthesizer that made analog synthesis easily available and affordable, along with newcomers [[ARP]] and [[Oberheim]]. This paralleled the development of real-time digital synthesis. Charles Dodge composed ''Speech Songs'' (1972) based on early speech synthesis research. ===Synclavier=== Jon Appleton (with Jones and Alonso) invented the Dartmouth Digital Synthesizer, later to become the New England Digital Copt's [[Synclavier]]. Barry Vercoe wrote Music 11, a next-generation music synthesis program (later evolving into [[csound]], which is still widely used). IRCAM (Paris) became a major center for computer music research and realization and development of the [[4X]] computer system, featuring then revolutionary real-time digital signal processing. [[Pierre Boulez]]'s ''Repons'' (1981) for 24 musicians and 6 soloists used the 4X to transform and route soloists to a loudspeaker system. &quot;Under the general direction of Pierre Boulez and funded by the French government, IRCAM is a large and active research organization devoted to the scientific study of musical phenomena and to bringing together scientists and musicians to work on common interests.&quot; [48] In the mid to late 1970s, the British band [[Throbbing Gristle]] spawned an entire sub-genre dubbed [[industrial music]]. [[Electroacoustic music]] and experimental electronic music thus became a widespread musical &quot;underground&quot; outside of academe thanks in part to &quot;taper culture&quot;—a sort of western [[samizdat]] in which musicians and composers traded and distributed their works on cassette tapes (much cheaper and more accessible that vinyl). The most respected (and popular) practitioners of &quot;industrial music&quot; were and continue to be knowledgeable of academic composers in the oeuvre and informed by their theoretical works. These would include groups such as the [[Hafler Trio]], [[Jim O'Rourke (musician)|Jim O'Rourke]], [[Organum]], [[Sonic Youth]], and [[Illusion of Safety]]. ===MIDI=== In 1980, a group of musicians and music merchants met to standardize an interface by which new instruments could communicate control instructions with other instruments and the prevalent microcomputer. This standard was dubbed MIDI ([[Musical Instrument Digital Interface]]). A paper was authored by [[Dave Smith]] of [[Sequential Circuits]] and proposed to the [[Audio Engineering Society]] in 1981. Then, in August 1983, the MIDI Specification 1.0 was finalized. The advent of MIDI technology allows a single keystroke, control wheel motion, pedal movement, or command from a microcomputer (e.g., an [[Apple Macintosh]]) to activate every device in the studio remotely and in synchrony, with each device responding according to conditions predetermined by the composer. MIDI instruments and software made powerful control of sophisticated instruments easily affordable by many studios and individuals. Acoustic sounds became reintegrated into studios via [[Sampling (music)|sampling]] and sampled-ROM-based instruments. [[Miller Puckette]] developed graphic signal-processing software for 4X called [[MAX]] (after [[Max Mathews]]) and later ports it to [[Macintosh]] (with [[Dave Zicarelli]] extending it for [[Opcode]]) for real-time MIDI control, bringing algorithmic composition availability to most composers with modest computer programming background. At the same time, Sequential Circuits introduced the Prophet 600—the first [[MIDI keyboard]]. Soon thereafter, in 1983, [[Yamaha]] introduced the first stand-alone digital synthesizer, the [[DX-7]]. It used frequency modulation synthesis (FM synthesis), first experimented with by [[John Chowning]] at Stanford during the late '60s, &quot;turning FM synthesis from a software algorithm that ran on mainframes into chips that powered a commercial synthesizer took seven years.&quot; [50] In 1985, the final MIDI specification was published by the MIDI Manufacturers Association. Also in 1985, Digidesign released Sound Designer software for the Macintosh, this being the first consumer-level hard disk recording and editing software. David Jaffe, Julius Smith and Perry Cook (CCRMA studios of Stanford University) prototype physical ing, a method of synthesis in which physical properties of existing instruments are represented as computer algorithms which can then be manipulated and extended. Barry Vercoe describes one of his experiences with early computer sounds: :At IRCAM in Paris in 1982, flutist Larry Beauregard had connected his flute to DiGiugno's 4X audio processor, enabling real-time pitch-following. On [[Guggenheim]] at the time, I extended this concept to real-time score-following with automatic synchronized accompaniment, and over the next two years Larry and I gave numerous demonstrations of the computer as a Chamber musician, playing [[Handel]] flute sonatas, [[Boulez]]'s ''Sonatine for flute and piano'' and by 1984 my own ''Synapse II for flute and computer'' the first piece ever composed expressly for such a setup. A major challenge was finding the right software constructs to support highly sensitive and responsive accompaniment. All of this was pre-MIDI, but the results were impressive even though heavy doses of tempo rubato would continually surprise my Synthetic Performer. In 1985 we solved the tempo rubato problem by incorporating learning from rehearsals (each time you played this way the machine would get better). We were also now tracking violin, since our brilliant young flutist had contracted a cancer. Moreover, this version used a new standard called MIDI, and here I was ably assisted by former student Miller Puckette, whose initial concepts for this task he later expanded into a program called MAX. [51] The last decade brought a flurry of new activity. In the 1990s, interactive computer-assisted performance started to become popular. A description of a new real-time development follows: :Automated Harmonization of Melody in Real Time: An interactive computer system, developed in collaboration with flutist/composer [[Pedro Eustache]], for realtime melodic analysis and harmonic accompaniment. Based on a novel scheme of harmonization devised by Eustache, the software analyzes the tonal melodic function of incoming notes, and instantaneously performs an orchestrated harmonization of the melody. The software was originally designed for performance by Eustache on Yamaha WX7 wind controller, and was used in his composition ''Tetelestai'', premiered in [[Irvine, California]] in March 1999. [52] [[Tod Machover]] (MIT and IRCAM) composed ''Begin Again Again'' for &quot;hyper[[cello]],&quot; an interactive system of sensors measuring physical movements of the cellist. This piece was premiered by [[Yo-Yo Ma]]. Max Mathews perfected ''Radio Baton'' to compliment his Conductor program for real-time tempo, dynamic and timbre control of a pre-input electronic score. Morton Subotnick released a multimedia CD-ROM ''All My Hummingbirds Have Alibis''. Many used MIDI technology to compose works that included acoustic instruments (such as [[James Mobberley]]'s ''Caution to the Winds'' for piano and tape) pioneered by Mario Davidovsky's ''Synchronisms'' series several decades earlier. Electronic art music has had a significant influence on [[mass culture]], from the aforementioned Beatles to [[Michael Jackson]], who used his [[synclavier]] to realize timbres conceived in his head. Due to technological advancements made over the past century, [[timbre composition]] allows for just as much creative freedom as any other art form. The precise modulation of numerous parameters of sound allows composers to satisfactorily express themselves not only with melodies, harmonies, and rhythms, but with [[timbre]]s as well. ==Footnotes== See Bibliography. [17] Patricia Spencer, interview with author. [18] Elizabeth McNutt, interview with author. [19] [[Mario Davidovsky]], interview with Bruce Duffie. [20] Herbert Russcol, The Liberation of Sound (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1972), 67. [21] Russcol, 67. [22] Ferruccio Busoni, ''Sketch of a New Aesthetic of Music'' (New York: Dover Publications, 1962). Quoted in Russcol, 34-36. [23] Russcol, 36. [24] Russcol, 35-36. [25] Russcol, 40. [26] Rosscol, 68. [27] Russcol, 68. [28] Russcol, 70. [29] Jeff Snyder, ''Pierre Schaeffer: Inventor of Musique Concrete, &lt;http:csunix1.lvc.edu/~snyder/em/schaef.html&gt;, May 2002. [30] Russcol, 92. [31] Ibid. [32] Ibid. [33] Otto Luening, ''An Unfinished History of Electronic Music'', Music Educators Journal (1968):1. [34] Russcol, 94. [35] Ibid. [36] Russcol, 94-95. [37] Otto Luening, &quot;Some Random Remarks About Electronic Music&quot;, ''Journal of Music Theory'' 8 (1964): 89. [38] Ibid. [39] Russcol, 96-97. [40] Michael Kurtz, Stockhausen: A Biography (London: Faber and Faber, 1994): 75-76. [41] Ibid. [42] From the liner notes of ''The Varese Album'', Columbia Records, NY. [43] Elliott Schwartz, ''Electronic Music'' (New York: Praeger, 1975): 347. [44] Dunn, David, ''A History of Electronic Music Pioneers,'' Ars Electronica (1992) &lt;http: artscilab.org/~david/writings/pioneers.pdf&gt;. 2001. [45] Kurtz, 1. [46] Schwartz, 124. [47] Richard Bayly, Ussachevsky on Varese: An Interview,&quot; ''Perspectives of New Music (1983): 149. [48] Morgan, 477. [49] Schwartz, 359. [50] Johnstone, 58. [51] [[Barry Vercoe|Vercoe, Barry]], ''History of cSound'', &lt;http://www.csounds.com/cshistory/&gt;, 2002. [52]
of [[ecoregion]]s identified by the [[World Wildlife Fund]] (WWF) as priorities for conservation. This classification gives the following terrestrial biomes : *[[Tundra]] (arctic, humid) *[[Taiga|Boreal forests/taiga]] (subarctic, humid) *[[Temperate coniferous forests]] (temperate cold, humid to semi-humid) *[[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests]] (temperate, humid) *[[Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands]] (temperate, semi-arid) *[[Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and shrub]] (temperate warm, semi-humid to semi-arid with winter rainfall) *[[Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests]] (tropical and subtropical, semi-humid) *[[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests]] (tropical and subtropical, humid) *[[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests]] (tropical and subtropical, semi-humid) *[[Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands]] (tropical and subtropical, semi-arid) *[[Deserts and xeric shrublands]] (temperate to tropical, arid) *[[Mangrove]] (subtropical and tropical, salt and brackish water inundated) *[[Flooded grasslands and savannas]] (temperate to tropical, fresh water inundated) *[[Montane grasslands and shrublands]] (temperate to tropical, high altitude) ==Other biomes == The [[Endolith]]ic biome, consisting entirely of microscopic life in rock [[pore]]s and cracks, [[kilometer]]s beneath the surface, has only recently been discovered and does not fit well into most classification schemes. ==See also== *[[Ecoregion]] *[[Ecotope]] *[[Ecozone]] *[[Habitat (ecology)|Habitat]] ==External link== [http://mbgnet.mobot.org Biomes of the world (Missouri Botanic Garden)] [http://www.aresearchguide.com/biomes.html Biomes and Ecozones] [[Category:Biogeography]] [[Category:Ecology]] [[Category:Biomes]] [[ca:Bioma]] [[cs:Biom]] [[da:Biom]] [[de:Biom]] [[es:Bioma]] [[fr:Biome]] [[id:Bioma]] [[it:Bioma]] [[la:Biotopus]] [[nl:Bioom]] [[no:Biom]] [[oc:Biòma]] [[pl:Biom]] [[pt:Bioma]] [[ru:Биом]] [[sk:Bióm]] [[fi:Biomi]] [[sv:Biom]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Behavior</title> <id>4805</id> <revision> <id>41663720</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T22:43:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>201.133.192.83</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* See also */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Behavior''' (or '''behaviour''' in [[Commonwealth English]]) refers to the [[action (philosophy)|action]]s or [[reaction]]s of an [[object (philosophy)|object]] or [[organism]], usually in [[relation]] to the [[natural environment|environment]]. Behavior can be [[conscious]] or [[unconscious]], [[overt]] or [[covert]], and [[voluntary]] or involuntary. Behavior is controlled by the [[endocrine system]], and the [[nervous system]]. The complexity of the behavior of an organism is related to the complexity of its nervous system. Generally, organisms with complex nervous systems have a greater capacity to learn new responses and thus adjust their behavior. of [[person|people]] (and other [[organism]]s or even mechanisms) falls within a [[range]] with some behaviors being common, some unusual, some acceptable, and some [[deviance|outside acceptable limits]]. The [[taboo|acceptablity]] of behavior is evaluated relative to [[social norm]]s and regulated by various [[mean]]s of [[social control]]. For behavior of people see [[human behavior]]. In [[sociology]], behavior is considered as having no meaning, being not directed at other people and thus is the most basic human [[Action (philosophy)|action]]. Behavior should not be mistaken with [[social behavior]], which is more advanced action, as social behavior is behavior specifically directed at other people. Animal behavior is studied in [[comparative psychology]], [[ethology]], [[behavioral ecology]] and [[sociobiology]]. ==See also== *[[Ethology]] (animal behavior) *[[Behaviorism]] *[[Behavioral economics]] *[[Behavior-based robotics]] *[[Chaining]] *[[Deviant behavior]] *[[Eccentricity (behavior)]] *[[Forms of activity and interpersonal relations]] *[[Human behavior]] *[[Instinct]] *[[Normal (behavior)]] *[[Reasoning]] *[[Taboo]] *[[Work behavior]] *[[Theories of Political Behavior]] ==External links== *[http://www.colorado.edu/epob/epob3730rlynch/01introduction.html Brain and behavior &amp;ndash; (EPOB 3730) - University of Colorado] [[Category:Behavior|*]] [[ca:Conducta]] [[da:Adfærd]] [[de:Verhalten (Biologie)]] [[es:Comportamiento]] [[eo:Konduto]] [[gl:Comportamento]] [[is:Hegðun]] [[he:התנהגות]] [[hu:Viselkedés]] [[nl:Gedrag]] [[pl:Zachowanie]] [[pt:Comportamento]] [[ru:Поведение]] [[sv:Beteende]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Battle of Marathon</title> <id>4806</id> <revision> <id>42124258</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:56:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Flauto Dolce</username> <id>30706</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Disambiguate [[Samos]] to [[Samos Island]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict |conflict=Battle of Marathon |partof=the [[Persian Wars]] |image=[[Image:ac.marathon.jpg|300px]]|caption=The plain of Marathon today. |date=September, [[490 BC]] |place=[[Marathon, Greece]] |result=[[History of Athens#Classical Athens|Athenian]] victory |combatant1=[[History of Athens#Classical Athens|Athens]] |combatant2=[[Persian Empire|Persia]] |commander1=[[Miltiades]], [[Callimachus (polemarch)|Callimachus]] |commander2=[[Darius I of Persia]], [[Artaphernes]] |strength1=About 10,000 |strength2=No more than 20,000 (26,000 according to Herodotus) |casualties1=192 dead |casualties2=About 6,400 dead }} {{Campaignbox Greco-Persian Wars}} The '''Battle of Marathon''' ([[490 BC]]) was the culmination of King [[Darius I of Persia]]'s first major attempt to conquer the remainder of the [[Greece|Greeks]] and add them to the [[Persian Empire]], thereby securing the weakest portion of his Western border. ==Background== [[Hippias (son of Pisistratus)|Hippias]], [[tyrant]] of [[Athens]], had been expelled in [[510 BC]] by his people, with the assistance of [[Cleomenes I]], King of [[Sparta]]. He fled to the court of Darius to seek assistance. With the failure of the [[Ionian Revolt]] ([[499 BC]] - [[494 BC]]), Darius was intent on subjugating the Greeks and punishing them for their part in the revolt. In [[492 BC]] Darius dispatched an army under his son-in-law, [[Mardonius]]. This army reduced [[Thrace]] and compelled [[Alexander I of Macedon]] to submit again to [[Iran|Persia]]. However, in attempting to advance into Greece much of the fleet was wrecked in a storm and Mardonius was forced to retreat to Asia. Darius learned through Hippias that the [[Alcmaeonidae]], a powerful Athenian family, were opposed to [[Miltiades]] and ready to help reinstate Hippias. They were also ready to bow to Persian demands in exchange for being excused for their role in the Ionian Revolt. Darius wished to take advantage of this situation to take Athens, which would isolate Sparta and hand him the remainder of the Greeks. In order for the Athenians to revolt, two things would need to happen: the populace would need encouragement to revolt, and the Athenian army would have to leave Athens. In order to accomplish the first, Darius planned to take [[Eretria]], which would offer little resistance, and whose fall would terrify the Athenians. To accomplish the second, Darius's army, now led by [[Artaphernes]], son of a satrap of [[Sardis]], and [[Datis]], a [[Medes|Median]] admiral (Mardonius had been injured in the prior attack), was dispatched in early September [[490 BC]] to land at the [[Bay of Marathon]] and threaten an overland attack towards Athens. This army probably numbered at most 25,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry, since it was transported entirely by sea. The Persian transports, escorted by the fleet, sailed from [[Samos Island|Samos]] to [[Naxos, Greece|Naxos]] and reached [[Carystus]] on the south coast of [[Euboea]]. From there they sailed up the Euboean channel to [[Eretria]], where their aims became clear to the Greeks. The Eretrians sent an urgent message to Athens for help. The Athenians agreed, but realized they needed more help. They sent the courier [[Pheidippides]] to the Spartans and probably a messenger to the [[Plataea]]ns. Pheidippides arrived in Sparta on the next day, the 9th of the month. The Spartans agreed to help, but pointed out that they could not go to war until the [[Carneian festival]] ended on the full moon ([[September 9]]). Artaphernes took part of the Persian army and laid siege to Eretria. The remainder of the army crossed with Datis and landed in the [[Bay of Marathon]]. The Athenian army, numbering 9,000-10,000, under [[Callimachus (polemarch)|Callimachus]] the [[polemarch]] and accompanied by his ten tribal generals marched north from Athens. When Callimachus heard that the Persians had landed in the Bay of Marathon, he wheeled right and reached the valley of Avlona and encamped his army at the shrine of Heracles, where he blocked the way to Athens in an easily defendable position. One thousand Plataeans joined him there. Since it was obvious from the Persians' disposition that they did not intend to move, the Athenians waited for the Spartans. For eight days the armies peacefully confronted each other. ==Battle== [[Image:Battle of Marathon Initial Situation.png|thumb|300px|right|The initial positions of the troops before the clash. The Greeks (blue) have pulled up their wings to bolster the corners of their significantly smaller centre in a &lt;nowiki&gt;]]&lt;/nowiki&gt; shape. The Persian fleet (red) waits some way off to the east. This great distance to the ships played a crucial role in the later stages of the battle.]] [[Image:Battle of Marathon Greek Double Envelopment.png|thumb|300px|right|The Greek wings (blue) envelop the Persian wings (red
oid '''Red Martians ''' who are organized into a system of major city-state empires such as '''Helium''' and '''Ptarth''' which control the planet-wide canals, as well as other, more isolated city-states in the hinterlands. Some of these are effectively lost cities, permitting Burroughs to utilize Barsoom as a stage for the same kind of [[Lost World (genre)|lost race]] yarns he favored in earthly settings. The Red people are the interbred descendants of the ancient '''White Martians''', '''Yellow Martians''' and '''Black Martians''', remnants of which continue to persist in isolated areas of the planet, particularly its poles. All of these races resemble ''[[human|Homo sapiens]]'' in almost every respect except that they reproduce [[Egg (biology)|oviparous]]ly. The humanoid Martians are harrassed and preyed upon by the semi-nomadic '''Green Martians''', a separate species with four arms and tusks who stand approximately four meters tall. The Green Martians are organized into loose hordes ranging over the dead sea bottoms, each horde taking its name from that of a dead city in its territory, such as '''Thark''' and '''Warhoon'''. Barsoomians generally display warlike and honor-bound characteristics. The technology of the tales runs the gamut from dueling sabers to &quot;radium pistols&quot; and aircraft, with the discovery of powerful ancient devices or research into the development of new ones often forming plot devices. The natives also eschew clothing other than jewelry, providing a stimulating subject for illustrators of the stories. ===Fauna=== Animal life is more varied than on Earth; [[arthropods]] (including both [[spiders]] and [[insects]]), [[fish]], [[reptiles]] (including both [[lizards]] and [[snakes]]), and [[birds]] are known, but most are rare and poorly described. It should not be assumed that these creatures are precisely equivalent to their terrestrial analogs; Barsoomian &quot;spiders,&quot; for instance, while web-spinning arthropods, have twelve legs, which grow out of their backs. The intelligent, [[crustacean]]-like '''Kaldanes''' are presumably related. Representatives of other terrestrial-type animals can be briefly enumerated. The '''Sith''' is a giant, venomous hornet-like insect endemic to the Kaolian Forest. Reptiles are described as repulsive and usually poisonous, and include the '''Darseen''', a chameleon-like reptile, the '''Silian''', an Antarctic sea-monster found in the Lost Sea of Korus, and a kind of giant lizard able to consume a human being in one bite. Birds are said to be brilliantly plumed, but the only species described is the enormous '''Malagor''', endemic to the Great Toonolian Marshes. More common are the many-legged species of large animals unique to Barsoom, some of which sport fur or tufts of hair, making them apparently analogous to Earth [[mammals]]. A few are fully analogous, bearing only four limbs; these include the '''Apt''', a large white-furred [[arctic]] creature with a hippopotomus-like head, walrus-like tusks, and faceted, insect-like eyes, the '''Plant Men''', blue-skinned, one-eyed monsters found in the [[Antarctic]] Valley of Dor, the '''Rykors''', headless but otherwise human-like creatures bred by the Kaldanes, and of course all the human races of Barsoom. There is also a group of six-limbed creatures, consisting of the '''Sorak''', the Barsoomian &quot;[[cat]],&quot; a small, domesticated animal, the '''White Ape''', huge and ferocious, semi-intelligent [[gorilla]]-like creatures whose middle limbs, like those of the Green Martians, can be used as either arms or legs, and of course the Green Martians themselves. Eight-limbed beasts include the herbivourous '''Thoat''', or Barsoomian &quot;[[horse]].&quot; The Greater Thoat is used as a mount by the Green Martians and stands about ten feet at the shoulder; the Lesser Thoat bred by the Red Martians is the size of a large horse. The Thoat is described as a slate-colored animal, with a white underside and yellow lower legs and feet. The huge '''Zitidar''', used as a draft animal, is possibly a larger relative of the Thoat, but is not well enough decribed in the literature to be certain. Ten Limbed animals include (possibly) the '''Ulsio''' or Barsoomian &quot;[[rat]],&quot; described as a &quot;many-legged,&quot; dog-sized burrower; the '''Calot''', or Barsoomian &quot;[[dog]],&quot; a large beast with a frog-like mouth and three rows of teeth (easily the most famous of which was John Carter's own Calot, Woola), and the '''Banth''', or Barsoomian &quot;[[lion]],&quot; which has a hairless, yellow hide, a maned neck, and many rows of teeth in a wide mouth. Some Martian creatures are difficult to classify based on the available descriptions; in addition to the Zitidar and the Ulsio these would include the '''Orluk''', an arctic predator with a black and yellow striped coat, whose legs are not enumerated. ==The series== *''[[A Princess of Mars]]'' ([[1917]]) *''[[The Gods of Mars]]'' ([[1918]]) *''[[The Warlord of Mars]]'' ([[1919]]) *''[[Thuvia, Maid of Mars]]'' ([[1920]]) *''[[The Chessmen of Mars]]'' ([[1922]]) *''[[The Master Mind of Mars]]'' ([[1928]]) *''[[A Fighting Man of Mars]]'' ([[1931]]) *''[[Swords of Mars]]'' ([[1936]]) *''[[Synthetic Men of Mars]]'' ([[1940]]) *''[[Llana of Gathol]]'' ([[1948]]) *''[[John Carter of Mars (novel)|John Carter of Mars]]'' ([[1964]]) ==The comic strip== With the [[Tarzan]] [[comic strip]] a popular success, newspapers began a comic strip adaptation of ''A Princess of Mars'' drawn by Edgar Rice Burroughs' son, [[John Coleman Burroughs]]. Never as popular as Tarzan, it ran in only four Sunday newspapers, from [[December 7]] [[1941]] to [[April 4]] [[1943]]. John Carter appeared in one of the last Sunday Tarzan comic strip stories, drawn by [[Gray Morrow]]. ==The comic books== The [[comic book]] ''[[The Funnies]]'' included a John Carter serial drawn by John Coleman Burroughs, which ran for 23 issues. Then, in 1952, [[Dell Comics]] published three John Carter comic books, adapting the first three books, drawn by [[Jesse Marsh]], who was the Dell Tarzan artist at the time. They were numbered [[Four Color Comics]] 357, 437, and 488. They were later reprinted by the successor of Dell, [[Gold Key Comics]] as ''John Carter of Mars'' #1-3. [[DC Comics]] published John Carter as a backup feature in its ''Tarzan'' series, issues 207 — 209, after which it was moved to ''[[Weird Worlds]]'', sharing main feature status alongside an adaptation of Burroughs' &quot;[[Pellucidar]]&quot; stories in issues 1 — 7; it again became a backup feature in ''[[Tarzan Family]]'' 62 — 64. (A non-John Carter Barsoom story also appeared in ''Tarzan Family'' issue 60.) [[Marvel Comics]] began a John Carter series in 1977, which lasted for 27 issues (and saw three annuals published). In the [[Tarzan]] [[comic strip]], in 1995, writer [[Don Kraar]] set a story on [[Barsoom]] featuring Tarzan, David Innes, and John Carter. John Carter also made a notable cameo in the second [[League of Extraordinary Gentlemen]] series written by [[Alan Moore]] and published by [[DC comics]]. ==The movie== The [[film]], ''[[John Carter of Mars (film)|John Carter of Mars]]'', is in pre-production by [[Paramount Pictures]]. It is tentatively scheduled for release in [[2006 in film|2006]]. [[Jon Favreau]] has been signed to direct this movie, taking over from [[Kerry Conran]]. The original script by Mark Protosevich was re-written by Ehren Kruger. Reportedly, however, Favreau is selecting a new writer to bring the script back closer to the original work. For multiple decades, one movie-maker after another (including [[Bob Clampett]], [[Ray Harryhausen]] and [[The Walt Disney Company]]) has attempted to bring Burroughs' Mars to the screen. So far, none has been successful. ==Legacy== The tales seem somewhat dated today, but they showed great innovation for the time of writing, and the exciting stories caught the interest of many readers, helping to inspire serious interest in Mars and in space exploration. ''[[A Princess of Mars]]'' was possibly the first fiction of the [[20th century]] to feature a [[constructed language]]; although &quot;Barsoomian&quot; was not particularly developed, it did add verisimilitude to the narrative. Many later science fiction works, from the [[Flash Gordon]] and [[Buck Rogers]] [[serial|films]] of the [[1930s]], to [[Ray Bradbury]]'s ''[[The Martian Chronicles]]'', to the ''[[Star Wars]]'' films, to the [[Mars trilogy]] of [[Kim Stanley Robinson]], also offer nods in Burroughs's direction. [[Robert A. Heinlein]]'s novel ''[[The Number of the Beast (novel)|The Number of the Beast]]'' and [[Alan Moore]]'s graphic novels of ''[[The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen]]'' directly reference Barsoom. [[DC Comics]] character [[Adam Strange]]'s method of transportation, the Zeta Beam, recalls the way Carter is transported to Mars. In [[L. Sprague de Camp|L. Sprague de Camp's]] story &quot;Sir Harold of Zodanga&quot; Barsoom is recast as a [[Parallel universe|parallel world]] visited by his dimension-hopping hero [[Harold Shea (fictional series)|Harold Shea]]. De Camp accounts for Burrough's departures from physics or logic by portraying both Burroughs and Carter as having a tendency to exaggerate in their storytelling, and Barsoomian technology as less advanced than usually presented. Many believe that Burroughs was influenced to write his Martian stories by [[Edwin L. Arnold]]'s Gulliver of Mars. This has been disputed but what is not in dispute is the number of series and novels inspired by Burroughs' Mars books: the Radio Planet trilogy by [[Ralph Milne Farley]], the Mars and Venus novels by [[Otis Adelbert Kline]], ''Almuric'' by [[Robert E Howard]], ''Warrior of Llarn'' and ''Thief of Llarn'' by [[Gardner Fox]], ''Tarzan on Mars'', ''Go-Man'' and ''Thundar, Man of Two Worlds'' by [[John Bloodstone]], the Michael Kane trilogy by [[Michael Moorcock]], the [[Gor]] se
of Science, Technology and Innovation of Denmark|Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation]] (~13 billion DKK). This list lists the complete expenditures for the Danish [[Ministry of Defence of Denmark|Ministry of Defence]]. The Danish defence, counting all branches and all departments, itself has an income equal to about 1-5% of its expenditures, depending on the year. They are not deducted in this listing. Approximately 95% of the budget goes directly to running the Danish military including the Home guard. Depending on year, 50-53% accounts for payment to personnel, roughly 14-21% on acquiring new material, 2-8% for larger ships, building projects or infrastructure and about 24-27% for others, under here purchasing of goods, renting, maintenance, services and taxes. The remaining 5% is special expenditures to NATO, branch shared expenditures, special services and civil structures, here in including running the [[Farvandsvæsen]], [[Danish national rescue preparedness]] and the [[Militærnægteradministrationen]]. {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; !width = &quot;50&quot;|Year !width = &quot;150&quot;|Percentage of [[Measures_of_national_income_and_output#Gross_National_Product|GNP]] !width = &quot;180&quot;|Complete expenditures&lt;br&gt;([[Ministry of Defence]])&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;in millions of [[Danish krone|DKK]]&lt;/small&gt; !width = &quot;50&quot;|Year !width = &quot;150&quot;|Percentage of [[Measures_of_national_income_and_output#Gross_National_Product|GNP]] !width = &quot;180&quot;|Complete expenditures&lt;br&gt;([[Ministry of Defence]])&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;in millions of [[Danish krone|DKK]]&lt;/small&gt; |- valign=top | 1970 || ? || ? || 1990 || ? || ? |- | 1971 || ? || ? || 1991 || ? || ? |- | 1972 || ? || ? || 1992 || ? || ? |- | 1973 || ? || ? || 1993 || ? || ? |- | 1974 || ? || ? || 1994 || ? || ? |- | 1975 || ? || ? || 1995 || ? || ? |- | 1976 || 2,2% || 5.910 || 1996 || 1.7% || 17.012,6 |- | 1977 || 2,3% || 6.390 || 1997 || 1,7% || 17.615,1 |- | 1978 || 2,3% || 7.082 || 1998 || 1,6% || 18.221,4 |- | 1979 || 2,2% || 7.525 || 1999 || 1.4% || 17.384,9 |- | 1980 || 2,6% || 9.545 || 2000 || 1,4% || 17.496,5 |- | 1981 || 2,6% || 10.612 || 2001 || 1,4% || 18.310,4 |- | 1982 || 2,5% || 11.836 || 2002 || 1,4% || 18.665,9 |- | 1983 || 2,5% || 12.783 || 2003 || 1.4% || 18.857,9 |- | 1984 || 2,3% || 13.163 || 2004 || 1,4% || 19.841,3 |- | 1985 || 2,2% || 13.355 || 2005 || 1,3% (expected) || 19.156,9 (expected) |- | 1986 || 2,0% || 13.142 || 2006 || na || 20.372,7 (expected) |- | 1987 || 2,1% || 14.443 || 2007 || na || 19.723,4 (expected) |- | 1988 || 2,2% || 15.800 || 2008 || na || 19.613,1 (expected) |- | 1989 || 2,1% || 15.767 || 2009 || na || 19.086,1 (expected) |} Source * [[Danish Agency for Governmental Management]] (&quot;''Økonomi-styrelsen''&quot;) [http://www.oes.dk/ ] (Finance law 1996 to 2006) [http://www.oes-cs.dk/bevillingslove/ ] * [[Danmarks Statistik]] (1976-1989) == Branches == * [[Royal Danish Army|Danish Royal Army]] * [[Royal Danish Navy|Danish Royal Navy]] * [[Danish Air Force|Danish Royal Air Force]] * [[Danish Home Guard|Danish Home Guard]]&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;The Danish Home Guard is not under the ''Defence Command'' during peacetime, but directly under the ''Ministry of Defence'', only in times of tension and war will the ''Defence Command'' assume command over the Home Guard.&lt;/small&gt; == Structure == * [[Ministry of Defence (Denmark)|Ministry of Defence]] ('''FMN''') ** [[Defence Command (Denmark)|Defence Command]] ('''FKO''') *** [[Army Operational Command (Denmark)|Army Operational Command]] ('''HOK''') *** [[Navy Operational Command (Denmark)|Navy Operational Command]] ('''SOK''') *** [[Tactical Air Command (Denmark)|Tactical Air Command]] ('''FTK''') *** [[Defence Materiel Service (Denmark)|Defence Materiel Service]] ('''FMT''') (''under implantation'') *** [[Army Materiel Command (Denmark)|Army Materiel Command]] ('''HMAK''') (''to be disbanded'') *** [[Navy Materiel Command (Denmark)|Navy Materiel Command]] ('''SMK''') (''to be disbanded'') *** [[Air Materiel Command (Denmark)|Air Materiel Command]] ('''FMK''') (''to be disbanded'') *** [[Greenland Command (Denmark)|Greenland Command]] ('''GLK''') *** [[Faroe Islands Command (Denmark)|Faroe Islands Command]] ('''FRK''') *** [[Royal Danish Defence College|Royal Danish Defence College]] ('''FAK''') *** [[Defence Health Service (Denmark)|Defence Health Service]] ('''FSU''') ** [[Home Guard Command (Denmark)|Home Guard Command]] ('''HJK''') ** [[Defence Intelligence (Denmark)|Defence Intelligence]] ('''FE''') ** [[Defence Judge Advocate Corps (Denmark)|Defence Judge Advocate Corps]] ('''FAUK''') ** [[Defence Information &amp; Welfare Service (Denmark)|Defence Information &amp; Welfare Service]] ('''FOV''') ** [[Defence Construction Service (Denmark)|Defence Construction Service]] ('''FBT''') ** [[Defence Internal Revision (Denmark)|Defence Internal Revision]] == See also == * [[Military of Greenland]] * [[NATO]] * [[Scandinavian defense union]] == External links == * [http://forsvaret.dk/fko/ The Danish Defence] * [http://forsvaret.dk/hok/ Army Operative Command] * [http://forsvaret.dk/hmak/ Army Materiel Command] * [http://www.kamouflage.net/camouflage/00131/en_index.php kamouflage.net &amp;gt; Europe &amp;gt; Denmark (Kingdom of Denmark) &amp;gt; index] {{NATO}} [[Category:Military of Denmark| ]] [[da:Danmarks militær]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Foreign relations of Denmark</title> <id>8039</id> <revision> <id>40397032</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T06:55:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>A2Kafir</username> <id>114074</id> </contributor> <comment>/* See also */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Danish foreign policy''' is founded upon four cornerstones: the [[United Nations]], [[NATO]], the [[EU]], and [[Nordic countries|Nordic]] cooperation. Denmark also is a member of the [[World Bank]] and the [[International Monetary Fund]]; the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO); the [[Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe]] (OSCE); the [[Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD); the [[Council of Europe]]; the [[Nordic Council]]; the [[Baltic Council]]; and the [[Barents Council]]. Denmark emphasizes its relations with developing nations and is one of the few countries to exceed the UN goal of contributing 1% of GNP to development assistance. In the wake of the [[Cold War]], Denmark has been active in international efforts to integrate the countries of Central and Eastern Europe into the West. It has played a leadership role in coordinating Western assistance to the Baltic states ([[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], and [[Lithuania]]). The country is a strong supporter of international peacekeeping. Danish forces were heavily engaged in the former Yugoslavia in the UN Protection Force ([[UNPROFOR]]), with [[IFOR]], and now [[SFOR]]. Following [[World War II]], Denmark ended its two-hundred year long policy of neutrality. Denmark has been a member of NATO since its founding in 1949, and membership in NATO remains highly popular. There were several serious confrontations between the U.S. and Denmark on security policy in the so-called &quot;footnote era&quot; (1982-88), when a hostile parliamentary majority forced the government to adopt specific national positions on nuclear and arms control issues. With the end of the Cold War, however, Denmark has been supportive of U.S. policy objectives in the Alliance. Denmark is not a member of the [[Western European Union]] but does hold observer status. Danes have enjoyed a reputation as &quot;reluctant&quot; Europeans. When they rejected ratification of the [[Maastricht Treaty]] on June 2, 1992, they put the EC's plans for the European Union on hold. In December 1992, the rest of the EC agreed to exempt Denmark from certain aspects of the European Union, including a common defense, a common currency, EU citizenship, and certain aspects of legal cooperation. The [[Amsterdam Treaty]] was approved in the referendum of May 28, 1998. In the autumn of 2000, Danish citizens rejected membership of the [[Euro]] currency group in a referendum. == Disputes - international: == *''[[Rockall]]''. A continental shelf dispute involving [[Iceland]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], and the [[United Kingdom|UK]] (Ireland and the UK have signed a boundary agreement in the Rockall area) *''[[Hans Island]]''. An island located between [[Greenland]] and Canadian Arctic islands. Unresolved boundary disputed between [[Canada]] and Denmark (Denmark controls Greenland's foreign relations). This dispute flared up again in July 2005 following the visit of a Canadian minister to the disputed island. *''[[North Pole]]''. Denmark is trying to prove that the [[North Pole]] is geographically connected to Greenland. If such proof is established, Denmark will claim the North Pole. *''Maritime border with Poland''. [[Denmark]] and [[Poland]] have still not agreed on the location of the maritime border between the two countries. Denmark supports a border half-way between the two countries; Poland wants to be awarded an even greater share of the Baltic Sea, since Poland has a much longer coast-line than the Danish island of [[Bornholm]]. == See also == *[[Denmark]] *[[Scandinavian defense union]] == External link == *[http://www.um.dk/en Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Denmark] [[category:Foreign relations of Denmark| ]] [[Category:Foreign relations by country|Denmark, Foreign affairs of]] [[da:Danmarks udenrigsforhold]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Djibouti</title> <id>8040</id> <revision> <id>42140247</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:11:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>MJCdetroit</username> <id>627347</id> </contributor> <comment>Reformat of infobox to
Children of God]], encourages suicide despite its official rejection of actions like [[euthanasia]]. However the [[Beliefs of the Children of God]] emphasizes an imminent [[Second Coming]] and some deem this a negative sign with regards to suicidal behavior. Also the religion recently gained renewed attention due to the murder-suicide of [[Ricky Rodriguez]]. Mr. Rodriguez was a former member, but this event gained notice as he was the biological son of current leader [[Karen Zerby]] and the adopted son of the group's founder. It revived allegations that the group is abusive and inciting of suicidal ideation. Thus his death was widely called &quot;the suicide of a cult member&quot; or in a sense a &quot;cult suicide&quot;, but this view was far from universal. This case, arguably and in an exaggerated way, made it to popular culture in an oblique reference in one of the last episodes of the [[NBC]] show [[Third Watch]]. Defense of their group indicate Mr. Rodriguez was an aberrant former member and that his behavior is not typical of the group. Added to this tFI/CoG discourages suicide. Other defences state that there is no evidence to confirm the suspicion their members are unusually suicidal. === Falun Gong === [[Xinhua News Agency]] has alleged several times that practitioners of [[Falun Gong]] engage in &quot;cult suicide&quot;. The most noteworthy allegations came in January 2001 when the Chinese government claimed that at least six Falun Gong practitioners immolated themselves on the [[Tiananmen square]]. Falun Gong practitioners have disputed this and insist that the practice teaches against suicide. They believe that the self-immolators were never practitioners, or possibly were killed by the authorities. The United Nations' International Education Development (IED) at the UN Human Rights Commission in August 2001 has verified these allegations and stated: &quot;We have obtained a video of that incident that in our view proves that this event was staged by the government.&quot; A documentary film entitled &quot;False Fire&quot; has been released to question the official claims of the Chinese Communist Party.[http://www.faluninfo.net/tiananmen/immolation.asp] Outside observers tend to side with Falun Gong practitioners and reject the idea that the group engages in cult suicide, and have instead criticized the Chinese government for its crackdown of the Falun Gong movement. == Martyrdom == Some argue that [[martyrdom]], as found in religions such as [[Christianity]] or [[Buddhism]] or [[Islam]], is tantamount to suicide. This argument states that by accepting or even inviting their own death the martyr is committing something like [[assisted suicide]]. This theory is not in itself new. [[Richard Marius]]'s unflattering biography of [[Thomas More]] indicated More felt hesitant about accepting martyrdom too easily for fear that would be too similar to suicide. Although it has gained more currency in modern times. In any event most mainstream religions traditionally forbid members to take their own lives. Martyrdom generally involves losing one's life, usually passively, at the hands of non-believers because of one's religious beliefs or practices. The [[Roman Catholic Church]] considers life to be a gift whose sole &quot;owner&quot; would be [[God]], who is consequently the only individual who may legitimately decide when to interrupt it. Special cases exist, such as the giving of one's own life to save that of another, but most cultures do not consider such acts to be true suicides. Islam arguably has the harshest view of suicide of any major religion. Therefore some of the lowest suicide rates are found in Muslim nations like [[Jordan]] or [[Egypt]]. [http://www.who.int/mental_health/prevention/suicide/charts/en/index.html] Still the extreme [[Islamist]] movement has strongly encouraged many [[Muslim]]s to accept a theology in which becoming a [[suicide bomber]] is not considered suicide. Instead it is what's the extremists deem a &quot;martyrdom operation&quot; the purpose of which is to kill the enemies and in consequence yourself. Dozens of Muslims, primarily Palestinians and [[Saudi Arabia]]ns, have died in the act of killing both military personnel and civilians in this fashion over the last decade, mostly in the [[Middle East]]. Recently 19 died in such a way in the [[United States]] (see ''[[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack]]''). Still a word of caution should be mentioned here as in many dispute the goal is primarily religious, especially in the case of Palestinians. Outside of Western religion the [[Tamil Tigers]] are known to have engaged in suicide bombing. At times Western observers have deemed [[Velupillai Prabhakaran]] to be a cult-like [[Hindu]] figure who encourages suicide. Therefore they deem the [[LTTE]], rightly or wrongly, as like a cult-suicide group. Even if again the goal is largely political and destructive of others rather than self. Related to this some would indicate that if &quot;martyrdom&quot; is ever directly self-inflicted it becomes cult-suicide. This line of thought leads to debates about whether the [[self-immolation]] of [[Buddhist monk]]s in [[Vietnam War|Vietnam]] was cult suicide. One camp believes that in a sense it was cult suicide, but the other dispute this as it was ultimately a political action rather than a religious one. This argument could also apply to suicide bombers as that action is generally political. However added to this the self-immolation was of an individual rather than condoned by the leadership of a group. No recognized [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] [[organization]] is known to have requested that [[Thích Quảng Ðức]], for example, immolate himself. Mass suicide can also occur as a means of escape when a religious group perceives itself to be hopelessly besieged by its enemies or other adverse external pressure. These external foes may be real or imagined (see ''[[Masada]]''). The legend of Masada, and similar examples, are sometimes explicitly used by cult-suicides as a self-justification. They may feel that like Masada they are in danger from what they perceive as an evil empire, even if that evil empire is seen as imaginary by the vast majority of non-members. That death is therefore preferrable to surrender. Hence criticisms have arisen over the occasional glorification of Masada. It should also be mentioned that most of the larger &quot;cults&quot;, such as the Mormons, the Unification Church, and the Seventh Day Adventists, have rates of suicide far lower than that of the population as a whole, which is about 5 per 100,000 per year in the USA. == See also == * [[Destructive cult]] * [[List of convicted or indicted religious leaders]] * [[List of purported cults]] * [[Mass suicide]] * [[Victims of poisoning]] == References == * [http://www.factnet.org/headlines/student_suicide.html?FACTNet FACTNet.org] - MIT student raised in Scientology commits suicide&lt;br&gt; * http://www.whyaretheydead.net/ - Scientology suicides and other deaths {{cults}} [[Category:Cults]] [[Category:Suicide]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Controversial books</title> <id>7748</id> <revision> <id>15905802</id> <timestamp>2005-05-02T21:11:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>81.154.41.89</ip> </contributor> <comment>Changed REDIRECT to List of controversial non-fiction books</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of controversial non-fiction books]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Co-NP-Complete</title> <id>7750</id> <revision> <id>15905803</id> <timestamp>2002-06-02T11:45:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>LC</username> <id>39</id> </contributor> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Co-NP-complete]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>CPSU (disambiguation)</title> <id>7751</id> <revision> <id>30406048</id> <timestamp>2005-12-06T23:40:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ixfd64</username> <id>6284</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>[[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|Popups]]-assisted redirection bypass from [[San Luis Obispo]] to [[San Luis Obispo, California]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''CPSU''' can refer to: *[[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] *[[Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1992)]], *[[Community and Public Sector Union]] in [[Australia]] *[[Cal Poly San Luis Obispo | California Polytechnic State University]] in [[San Luis Obispo, California|San Luis Obispo]], [[California]], [[United States|USA]] {{4LA}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Controversial book</title> <id>7752</id> <revision> <id>15905805</id> <timestamp>2005-04-15T23:05:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>217.42.83.139</ip> </contributor> <comment>Copy &amp; Pasted everything to list of controversial non-fiction books</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of controversial non-fiction books]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Coup</title> <id>7753</id> <revision> <id>15905806</id> <timestamp>2003-11-24T07:33:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Menchi</username> <id>6153</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Coup d'état]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Coup d'état]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Coup d'état</title> <id>7754</id> <revision> <id>42109362</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:02:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Header - references plural</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Redirect|Coup
eam as an entity. The singular form is usually used in American. For example, British &quot;the team are worried&quot;; American &quot;the team is worried&quot;. Americans may use the plural form when the individual membership is clear, for example, &quot;the team take their seats&quot; (not &quot;the team takes its seat(s)&quot;), although it is often rephrased to avoid the singular/plural decision, as in &quot;the team members take their seats&quot;. The difference occurs for all collective nouns, both general terms such as ''team'' and ''company'' and [[proper noun]]s (for example, where a place name is used to refer to a sports team). Proper nouns which are plural in form take a plural verb in both American and British English. Examples: ** British English: &quot;The Clash are a well-known band.&quot; American English: &quot;The Clash is a well-known band.&quot; Both: &quot;The Beatles are a well-known band.&quot; ** British English: &quot;New England are the champions.&quot; American English: &quot;New England is the champion.&quot; Both: &quot;The [[New England Patriots|Patriots]] are the champions&quot;. * Differences in which nouns are the same in both their plural and singular forms, such as the word ''sheep''. In American English, ''shrimp'' is such a word, but in British English the plural of ''shrimp'' is ''shrimps''. (''Shrimps'' is occasionally heard in the southern U.S., but is otherwise rare, apart from its colloquial use as a pejorative term for small people). An unusual example is ''[[innings]]'', which is both singular and plural in British English, but for which a separate singular form (''inning'') exists in American English. ===Use of tenses=== * British English uses the [[grammatical tense|present perfect tense]] to talk about an event in the recent past and with the words ''already'', ''just'' and ''yet.'' In American usage, these meanings can be expressed with the present perfect or the simple past. ** &quot;Have you cleaned your teeth?&quot; / &quot;Did you clean your teeth?&quot; ** &quot;Have you done your homework yet?&quot; / &quot;Did you do your homework yet?&quot; ** &quot;I've just got home.&quot; / &quot;I just got home.&quot; ** &quot;I've already eaten.&quot; / &quot;I already ate.&quot; * Similarly, the [[pluperfect tense|pluperfect]] is occasionally replaced by the [[preterite]] in the USA; this is generally regarded as sloppy usage by those Americans who consider themselves careful users of the language. * In British English, ''have got'' or ''have'' can be used for possession and ''have got to'' and ''have to'' can be used for the modal of necessity. The forms which include ''got'' are usually used in informal contexts and the forms without ''got'' in more formal contexts. In American speech the form without ''got'' is used more than in the UK. American also informally uses ''got'' as a verb for these meanings, ''e.g.'' &quot;I got two cars,&quot; &quot;I got to go&quot;; but these are nonstandard and will be considered sloppy usage by many American speakers. * The [[subjunctive mood]] is more common in American English in expressions such as: &quot;They suggested that he apply for the job&quot;. British English would have &quot;They suggested that he should apply for the job&quot; (or even &quot;They suggested that he applied for the job&quot;). However, the British usage (&quot;should apply&quot;) is also heard in the United States. ===Verb morphology=== : ''See also: [[wiktionary:Wiktionary_Appendix:Irregular_Verbs|the list of irregular verbs]]'' * Verb past tenses with ''-ed'': Americans tend to use ''dreamed'', ''leaped'', ''learned'', ''spelled''; Commonwealth more commonly uses ''dreamt'', ''leapt'', ''learnt'', ''spelt'', particularly if the speaker uses [[Received Pronunciation]]. As with the &quot;tre&quot; words, the ''t'' endings are often found in older American texts. The forms with ''-ed'' are also common in Commonwealth usage, and preferred by many careful writers of English since they are [[weak verb|regular verbs]]. (Note that the two-syllable form ''learnèd'' {{IPA|/'l&amp;#604;&amp;#720;n&amp;#618;d/}}, usually written simply as ''learned'', is still used as an adjective to mean &quot;educated&quot;, or to refer to academic institutions, in both British English and American English.) * Other verb past tense forms: Americans more frequently use the irregular forms ''fit'', ''forecast'', ''knit'', ''lit'', ''wed''; the weak forms ''fitted'', ''forecasted'', ''knitted'', ''lighted'', ''wedded'' are more common in Commonwealth use. The distinction is, however, not rigorous as the Commonwealth forms are also found in American, and both ''lit'' and ''forecast'' are not only found in Commonwealth English, but are generally considered standard usage. * Also, the past participle ''gotten'' is rarely used in modern British English (although it is used in some dialects), which generally uses ''got'' (as do some Americans), except in old expressions such as ''ill-gotten gains''. Commonwealth usage retains the form ''forgotten'', though. Furthermore, according to the Compact Oxford English Dictionary, &quot;The form ''gotten'' is not used in British English but is very common in North American English, though even there it is often regarded as non-standard.&quot; In North America, most people who use ''gotten'' also use ''got'', with ''gotten'' emphasizing the action of acquiring, and ''got'' tending to indicate simple possession (''Have you gotten it?'', as an example). * The past participle ''proven'' is frequently used in American English, although some speakers avoid it, and it remains ''proved'' in British English (except in adjectival use; and usage is different in [[Scots law]]). * American English further allows other irregular verbs, such as &lt;!--''thrive'' (''throve''&amp;ndash;''thriven'') or --&gt;''dive'' (''dove'') or ''sneak'' (''snuck''), which remain regular in Commonwealth English, and often mixes the preterite and past participle forms (''spring''&amp;ndash;''sprang'' (U.S. also ''sprung'')&amp;ndash;''sprung''), sometimes forcing verbs such as ''shrink'' (''shrank''&amp;ndash;''shrunk'') to have a further form, thus ''shrunk''&amp;ndash;''shrunken''. (These uses are often considered nonstandard; the [[Associated Press Stylebook]] in American English treats some irregular verbs as colloquialisms, insisting on the regular forms for the past tense of ''dive'', ''plead'' and ''sneak''.) ===Presence or absence of syntactic elements=== * Where a statement of intention involves two separate activities, it is acceptable for speakers of American English to use ''to go'' plus bare infinitive. Speakers of British English would instead use ''to go '''and''''' plus bare infinitive: thus where a speaker of American English might say &quot;I'll go take a bath&quot;, British English speakers would say &quot;I'll go ''and'' have a bath&quot;. (Both can also use the form &quot;to go to&quot; instead to suggest that the action may fail, as in &quot;He went to take/have a bath, but the bath was full of children.&quot;) Similarly, ''to come'' plus bare infinitive is acceptable to speakers of American English, where speakers of British English would instead use ''to come '''and''''' plus bare infinitive: thus where a speaker of American English might say ''Come see what I bought'', British English speakers would say, ''Come and see what I've bought'' (notice the addition of &quot;have&quot;: a common British preference). * Use of prepositions before days denoted by a single word. Where [[British]] people would say &quot;She resigned on Thursday&quot;, Americans often say &quot;She resigned Thursday&quot;, but both forms are common in American usage. Occasionally, the preposition is also absent when referring to months: &quot;I'll be here December&quot; (although this usage is generally limited to colloquial speech). * In the UK, ''from'' is used with single dates and times more often than in the United States. Where British speakers and writers may say &quot;the new museum will be open from Tuesday,&quot; Americans always say &quot;the new museum will be open starting Tuesday&quot;, and would probably be confused by the British saying. (This difference does not apply to phrases of the pattern ''from A to B'', which are used in both British and American English.) A variation or alternative of this is the American &quot;the play opens Tuesday&quot; and the British &quot;the play opens on Tuesday&quot;. * Where an American will ''meet with'' someone, a British person can ''meet'' someone. To a British person, the use of ''with'' seems to reinforce a notion of mutuality (in this case, the usage is similar to ''to have a meeting with someone''). * The verb ''visit'' is often used intransitively in American English, with possibly the additional meaning of &quot;to have a conversation&quot; (as in &quot;to visit with a friend&quot;, a construction that often sounds strange to British ears). * In British English, the indirect object of the verb &quot;to write&quot; usually requires the preposition &quot;to&quot;, e.g. &quot;I'll write '''to''' my MP&quot; or &quot;I'll write '''to''' her&quot; (although it is not required in some situations, for example when an indirect object pronoun comes before a direct object noun, e.g. &quot;I'll write '''her''' a letter&quot;). In American English, the &quot;to&quot; can be omitted in many circumstances, e.g. &quot;I'll write my congressman&quot; or &quot;I'll write him&quot;. * Intransitive verbs often become transitive in American English; for example, British English: &quot;The workers protested against the decision.&quot; American English: &quot;The workers protested the decision.&quot; * A few 'institutional' nouns take no [[definite article]] when a certain role is implied: for example, &quot;at sea&quot; (as a sailor), &quot;in prison&quot; (as a convict), and &quot;at university&quot; (for British studen
odn.ne.jp/yoko-tower/list1-e.htm] * [[Zendstation Zwollerkerspel]] - 90 m high radio tower remembering to Eiffel Tower * [[Tour métallique de Fourvière]], [[Lyon]], [[France]] - 85.7 m [[lattice tower]] built from 1892 to 1894. Used until 1953 as an observation tower, but is now a TV Tower closed to visitors. * [[Torre del Reformador]], [[Guatemala City]], [[Guatemala]] - 75 m. * [[Transmitter Brookmans Park]] - two 60.96 metre high lattice towers, insulated against ground * [[Petrinska rozhledna]], [[Prague]], [[Czech Republic]] - 60 m, built in [[1891]]. * [[Watkins' Tower]], [[Wembley Park]], [[London]], [[England]] - never completed, demolished in 1907. * [[Joseph's Cross]], [[Stollberg]]/[[Harz]], [[Germany]] - 38 m observation tower in form of a double-cross, resembling the Eiffel Tower. * [[Lemberg Tower]], Lemberg Mountain, [[Germany]] - 33 m observatio tower of lattice steel, built in [[1899]] * [[Tour du Belvédère]] - a small observation tower in Mulhouse, Alsace, France resembling to Eiffel Tower. * [[Woodwards Building]], [[Vancouver]], [[Canada]] - A small reproduction on the [[roof]] of the building is topped by a signature neon &quot;W&quot;. This building is now being converted into social housing. [http://www.downtowneastside.ca/images/woody/wo08.jpg] === Reproductions (to scale) === In order of decreasing height: * In front of the [[Paris Las Vegas]] hotel/casino on the [[Las Vegas Strip]], [[Paradise, Nevada]], near [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]], [[United States|USA]] - 165 m (540 ft, scale 1:2). [http://www.timshell.com/pics/lasvegas/EiffelTower2.jpg] * [[Shenzhen]], [[China]] - ~100 m (~328 ft, scale 1:3) * [[Paramount's Kings Island]], [[Ohio]], [[United States|USA]] - ~100 m (~328 ft, scale 1:3) * [[Paramount's Kings Dominion]], [[Virginia]], [[United States|USA]] - 84 m (275 ft, scale 1:3.59) * [[Slobozia]], [[Romania]] - 54 m (177 ft) * In Parizh, [[Chelyabinsk Oblast]], [[Nagaybaksky District]], [[Chelyabinsk Oblast]], Russia. Built by South Ural Cell Telephone company, used as a cell phone tower. - 50 m (164 ft) * [[Walt Disney World]]'s [[Epcot]] [[theme park]] in [[Lake Buena Vista, Florida|Lake Buena Vista]], [[Florida]], [[United States|USA]] (at the France Pavilion in [[World Showcase]]) - 23 m (76 ft, scale 1:13) [http://www.disneyworldtrivia.com/trivia/epcot/worldshowcase/france.php (information)] * [[Paris, Texas]] - 20 m (65 ft) * As a [[Meccano]] model, housed at the Technology Museum of Georgia ([[Atlanta, Georgia]]). - 11m (36 ft) [http://www.dalefield.com/mwes/history/eiffel_tower.html] * On a roof of an industrial building in [[Satteldorf]], [[Germany]] -(height unknown) * Centerpiece of the [[Falconcity of Wonders]], a planned new development project in [[Dubai]]. [[United Arab Emirates|UAE]], featuring seven modern [[wonders of the world]] (planned). [http://www.falconcity.com/] * Model of the Eiffel Tower in [[Paris, Tennessee]], about 25 feet (7.6 m) tall. * Model on the roof of the Rue De Paris cafe in [[Brisbane, Australia]] - (roughly 12m tall) ===Scale Models=== The [http://www.heller.fr Heller] company sells an unassembled 1:650 scale plastic model of the Tower under reference 81201; it is about 49 cm (19 inches) tall when assembled. [http://www.paperlandmarks.com/eiffel-tower.htm Paper scale model by Paperlandmarks] is 36 cm (14 inches) tall when assembled. == Access == *[[Paris Metro|Metro]]: [[Trocadéro (Paris Metro)|Trocadéro]] (9) or [[Bir-Hakeim (Paris Metro)|Bir-Hakeim]] (6) *[[RER]]: [[Champ de Mars - Tour Eiffel (Paris Metro)|Champs-de-Mars - Tour-Eiffel]] (C) ==References== * [[Dominique Frémy|Frémy, Dominique]], ''Quid de la Tour Eiffel,'' Robert Lafont, Paris (1989) - ''out of print'' ==External links== {{commons|Eiffel Tower}} * [http://www.tour-eiffel.fr/ Official website of the Eiffel Tower] - [http://www.tour-eiffel.fr/teiffel/uk/ English version] * [http://www.paris-france-vacation.com/eiffel-tower-information.html Eiffel Tower Travel Information] * [http://en.structurae.de/structures/data/index.cfm?id=s0000021 Structurae: Eiffel Tower] * [http://www.cbsforum.com/cgi-bin/articles/partners/cbs/search.cgi?template=display&amp;dbname=cbsarticles&amp;key2=eiffel&amp;action=searchdbdisplay The story of Eiffel Tower] - by [http://www.cbsforum.com/ CBS Forum] * [http://www.abcparislive.com 3 Live Webcams of the Eiffel Tower] * [http://www.insecula.com/musee/M0054.html/ Eiffel Tower at insecula.com] (site in French) * [http://www.discoverfrance.net/France/Paris/Monuments-Paris/Eiffel.shtml Discover France - Eiffel Tower] * [http://www.panoramas.dk/fullscreen/fullscreen32.html Panoramic photo of the Eiffel Tower] in [[QuickTime]] VR format * [http://www.photoglobe.info/spc_eiffel_tower.html Eiffel Tower from Space] * [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=48.858197,2.294490&amp;spn=0.005412,0.005759&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Satellite view of the Eiffel Tower] (Google Maps) * [http://bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/showthreaded.php/Cat/0/Number/268868/an/0/page/3#268868 3D render of the Eiffel Tower for use in Google Earth] * [http://www.frommers.com/destinations/paris/A25288.html Frommer's Review of the Eiffel Tower] * [http://www.city-photos.digitalphoto.pl/Paris/photos/Eiffel_Tower/ Free photo gallery of the Eiffel Tower] * [http://www.tolomeus.net/parigi/trocadero.html France, Paris, Trocadero] Panorama from Trocadero with map and compass effect by Tolomeus * [http://www.landscape-photo.net/Monuments/France-Paris-Eiffel_Tower/ Wallpapers gallery of the Eiffel Tower] {{Supertall}} [[Category:Buildings and structures in Paris]] [[Category:Tourism in Paris]] [[Category:Towers in France]] [[Category:Landmarks]] [[Category:Historic civil engineering landmarks]] [[als:Eiffelturm]] [[ar:برج إيفل]] [[bg:Айфелова кула]] [[ca:Torre Eiffel]] [[cs:Eiffelova věž]] [[da:Eiffeltårnet]] [[de:Eiffelturm]] [[es:Torre Eiffel]] [[eo:Eiffel-Turo]] [[eu:Eiffel Dorre]] [[fr:Tour Eiffel]] [[gl:Torre Eiffel]] [[id:Menara Eiffel]] [[it:Torre Eiffel]] [[he:מגדל אייפל]] [[hr:Eiffelov toranj]] [[ku:Qûleya Eyfelê]] [[lv:Eifeļa tornis]] [[lt:Eifelio bokštas]] [[hu:Eiffel-torony]] [[nl:Eiffeltoren]] [[ja:エッフェル塔]] [[no:Eiffeltårnet]] [[pl:Wieża Eiffla]] [[pt:Torre Eiffel]] [[ro:Turnul Eiffel]] [[ru:Эйфелева башня]] [[simple:Eiffel Tower]] [[sl:Eifflov stolp]] [[sr:Ајфелова кула]] [[fi:Eiffelin torni]] [[sv:Eiffeltornet]] [[ta:ஈபெல் கோபுரம்]] [[th:หอไอเฟล]] [[uk:Ейфелева вежа]] [[vi:Tháp Eiffel]] [[zh:埃菲尔铁塔]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>East Germany</title> <id>9233</id> <revision> <id>42074022</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:19:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Horses In The Sky</username> <id>684672</id> </contributor> <comment>Reverted edits</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; |+&lt;big&gt;'''Deutsche Demokratische Republik'''&lt;/big&gt; | align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;| {| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 style=&quot;background:#f9f9f9; text-align:center;&quot; | width=&quot;130px&quot;| [[Image:Flag of East Germany.svg|125px|Flag of East Germany]] || align=center width=130px| [[Image:East Germany-coat of arms-transparent.png|100px|East Germany: Coat of Arms]] |- | width=&quot;130px&quot;| ([[Flag of East Germany|In detail]]) || align=center width=130px| ([[Coat of Arms of East Germany|In Detail]]) |} |- | align=center colspan=2 | &lt;small&gt;''National [[motto]]: none&lt;/small&gt; |- | align=center colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#f9f9f9;&quot; | [[Image:LocationEastGermany.png|Location of East Germany]] |- |'''[[Official language]]s''' || [[German language|German]] |- |'''[[Capital]]''' || [[East Berlin]] |- |'''Largest city || [[East Berlin]] |- |'''[[Area]]''' &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water |[[List of countries by area|Ranked 106th]] &lt;br&gt;[[1 E11 m²|108,333 km&amp;sup2;]] &lt;br&gt;Negligible |- |'''[[Independence|Creation]]'''&lt;br&gt;-[[German reunification|Abolition]] |[[7 October]] [[1949]]&lt;br&gt;[[3 October]] [[1990]] |- |'''[[Currency]]''' || [[East German mark]] |- | '''[[Time zone]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; in [[daylight saving time|summer]] | [[Central European Time|CET]] ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+1)&lt;br/&gt;[[Central European Summer Time|CEST]] ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+2) |- | '''[[National anthem]]''' || [[Auferstanden aus Ruinen]] |- | '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]''' || [[.dd]] (never used) |- | '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling code]]''' || +37 |- | colspan=2 align=right style=&quot;padding: 0 5px 0 5px&quot; | &lt;small&gt;{{edit|East Germany|}}&lt;/small&gt; |} {{this article is about|a historical state. For the historical eastern German provinces, see [[Historical Eastern Germany]].}} The '''German Democratic Republic''' ('''GDR''') [[German language|German]]: ''Deutsche Demokratische Republik'' (''DDR''), informally known in English as '''East Germany''', was a [[Communist state]] that existed from [[1949]] to [[1990]] in the former [[USSR|Soviet]] occupation zone of [[Germany]]. The German Democratic Republic was proclaimed in [[East Berlin]] on [[October 7]], [[1949]], five weeks after the [[Federal Republic of Germany]] in western Germany. It was declared fully sovereign in [[1954]]. Soviet troops remained based on the four-power [[Potsdam Conference|Potsdam agreement]], largely to counterbalance the [[United States|U.S.]] presence in [[West Germany]] during the [[Cold War]]. East Germany was a member of the [[Warsaw Pact]]. In the first and last free elections of the GDR on [[March 18]], [[1990]], the leading communist party ([[Socialist Unity Party of Germany|SED]]) lost the majority in the [[Volkskammer]] (the parliament of the GDR), which they had been guaranteed in the prev
00&amp;MAPROJ=Gnomonic&amp;SFACTR=Default&amp;ISCALN=Log%2810%29&amp;GRIDDD=No&amp;COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is an open cluster. *'''[[NGC 1850]]''' (RA 05h 08m 44s Dec -68&amp;deg; 45.7&amp;prime;) [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&amp;VCOORD=ngc+1850&amp;NWINDOW=on&amp;SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&amp;SCOORD=Equatorial&amp;EQUINX=2000&amp;MAPROJ=Gnomonic&amp;SFACTR=Default&amp;ISCALN=Log%2810%29&amp;GRIDDD=No&amp;COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is a globular cluster. *'''[[NGC 1854]]''' (RA 05h 09m 19s Dec -68&amp;deg; 50.8&amp;prime;) [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&amp;VCOORD=ngc+1854&amp;NWINDOW=on&amp;SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&amp;SCOORD=Equatorial&amp;EQUINX=2000&amp;MAPROJ=Gnomonic&amp;SFACTR=Default&amp;ISCALN=Log%2810%29&amp;GRIDDD=No&amp;COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is a globular cluster. *'''[[NGC 1869]]''' (RA 05h 13m 56s Dec -67&amp;deg; 22.8&amp;prime;) [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&amp;VCOORD=ngc+1869&amp;NWINDOW=on&amp;SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&amp;SCOORD=Equatorial&amp;EQUINX=2000&amp;MAPROJ=Gnomonic&amp;SFACTR=Default&amp;ISCALN=Log%2810%29&amp;GRIDDD=No&amp;COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is an open cluster. &lt;!-- Please verify this - BDM--&gt; *'''[[NGC 1901]]''' (RA 05h 18m 15s Dec -68&amp;deg; 26.2&amp;prime;) [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&amp;VCOORD=ngc+1901&amp;NWINDOW=on&amp;SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&amp;SCOORD=Equatorial&amp;EQUINX=2000&amp;MAPROJ=Gnomonic&amp;SFACTR=Default&amp;ISCALN=Log%2810%29&amp;GRIDDD=No&amp;COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is an open cluster. &lt;!-- Please verify this - BDM--&gt; *'''[[NGC 1910]]''' (RA 05h 18m 43s Dec -69&amp;deg; 13.9&amp;prime;) [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&amp;VCOORD=ngc+1910&amp;NWINDOW=on&amp;SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&amp;SCOORD=Equatorial&amp;EQUINX=2000&amp;MAPROJ=Gnomonic&amp;SFACTR=Default&amp;ISCALN=Log%2810%29&amp;GRIDDD=No&amp;COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is an open cluster. &lt;!-- Please verify this - BDM--&gt; *'''[[NGC 1936]]''' (RA 05h 22m 14s Dec -67&amp;deg; 58.7&amp;prime;) [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&amp;VCOORD=ngc+1936&amp;NWINDOW=on&amp;SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&amp;SCOORD=Equatorial&amp;EQUINX=2000&amp;MAPROJ=Gnomonic&amp;SFACTR=Default&amp;ISCALN=Log%2810%29&amp;GRIDDD=No&amp;COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is a bright nebula and is one of four NGC objects in close proximity, the others being NGC 1929, NGC 1934 and NGC 1935. &lt;!-- Please verify this - BDM--&gt; *'''[[NGC 1978]]''' (RA 05h 28m 36s Dec -66&amp;deg; 14.0&amp;prime;) [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&amp;VCOORD=ngc+1978&amp;NWINDOW=on&amp;SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&amp;SCOORD=Equatorial&amp;EQUINX=2000&amp;MAPROJ=Gnomonic&amp;SFACTR=Default&amp;ISCALN=Log%2810%29&amp;GRIDDD=No&amp;COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is an open cluster. *'''[[NGC 2002]]''' (RA 05h 30m 17s Dec -66&amp;deg; 53.1&amp;prime;) [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&amp;VCOORD=ngc+2002&amp;NWINDOW=on&amp;SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&amp;SCOORD=Equatorial&amp;EQUINX=2000&amp;MAPROJ=Gnomonic&amp;SFACTR=Default&amp;ISCALN=Log%2810%29&amp;GRIDDD=No&amp;COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is an open cluster. *'''[[NGC 2027]]''' (RA 05h 35m 00s Dec -66&amp;deg; 55.0&amp;prime;) [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&amp;VCOORD=ngc+2027&amp;NWINDOW=on&amp;SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&amp;SCOORD=Equatorial&amp;EQUINX=2000&amp;MAPROJ=Gnomonic&amp;SFACTR=Default&amp;ISCALN=Log%2810%29&amp;GRIDDD=No&amp;COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is an open cluster. &lt;!-- Please verify this - BDM--&gt; *'''[[NGC 2032]]''' (RA 05h 35m 21s Dec -67&amp;deg; 34.1&amp;prime;) (''Seagull Nebula'') [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&amp;VCOORD=ngc+2032&amp;NWINDOW=on&amp;SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&amp;SCOORD=Equatorial&amp;EQUINX=2000&amp;MAPROJ=Gnomonic&amp;SFACTR=Default&amp;ISCALN=Log%2810%29&amp;GRIDDD=No&amp;COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is a nebula complex that contains four separate NGC designations: NGC 2029, NGC 2032, NGC 2035 and NGC 2040. &lt;!-- Please verify this - BDM--&gt; *'''[[NGC 2070]]''' (RA 05h 38m 37s Dec -69&amp;deg; 05.7&amp;prime;) is better known as the '''[[Tarantula Nebula]]'''. &lt;!-- *'''[[NGC 2157]]''' (RA 05h 57m 35s Dec -69&amp;deg; 11.8&amp;prime;) [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&amp;VCOORD=ngc+2157&amp;NWINDOW=on&amp;SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&amp;SCOORD=Equatorial&amp;EQUINX=2000&amp;MAPROJ=Gnomonic&amp;SFACTR=Default&amp;ISCALN=Log%2810%29&amp;GRIDDD=No&amp;COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is an open cluster. Commented out because the nature of object is unverified. The Skyview image looks like a globular cluster and Google shows conflicting information about this object - BDM --&gt; *'''[[NGC 2164]]''' (RA 05h 58m 53s Dec -68&amp;deg; 30.9&amp;prime;) [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&amp;VCOORD=ngc+2164&amp;NWINDOW=on&amp;SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&amp;SCOORD=Equatorial&amp;EQUINX=2000&amp;MAPROJ=Gnomonic&amp;SFACTR=Default&amp;ISCALN=Log%2810%29&amp;GRIDDD=No&amp;COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is a globular cluster. ==See also== {{ConstellationsByBayer}} {{ConstellationList}} == References == *The above deep sky objects appear in ''Norton's Star Atlas'', 1973 edition. *Co-ordinates are obtained from [http://www.fortunecity.com/roswell/borley/49/chartidx.htm Uranometria Chart Index] and [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/titlepage.pl Skyview]. * Images of the deep sky objects described herein may be viewed at [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/titlepage.pl Skyview]. == External links == *[http://www.astronomical.org/portal/modules/wfsection/article.php?articleid=33 Peoria Astronomical Society - Dorado] {{Commons|Dorado}} [[Category:Dorado constellation| ]] [[ca:Orada (constel·lació)]] [[cs:Mečoun (souhvězdí)]] [[da:Guldfisken]] [[de:Schwertfisch (Sternbild)]] [[es:Dorado (constelación)]] [[fr:Dorade (constellation)]] [[ko:황새치자리]] [[it:Dorado]] [[la:Dorado (sidus)]] [[lt:Aukso Žuvis]] [[hu:Aranyhal (csillagkép)]] [[nl:Goudvis (sterrenbeeld)]] [[ja:かじき座]] [[nn:Gullfisken]] [[pl:Złota Ryba (gwiazdozbiór)]] [[pt:Dorado]] [[ru:Золотая Рыба (созвездие)]] [[sk:Súhvezdie Mečiar]] [[fi:Kultakala (tähdistö)]] [[sv:Svärdfisken]] [[th:กลุ่มดาวปลากระโทงแทง]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Draco</title> <id>8467</id> <revision> <id>40624083</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T22:25:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Primetime</username> <id>457099</id> </contributor> <comment>Reverting edits by [[user talk:69.158.54.210|69.158.54.210]] to last version by 206.211.223.52</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|Draconian}} :''This article is about Draco, the Greek lawgiver from Athens. For other uses of Draco see [[Draco (disambiguation)]]. '''Draco''' ([[Wikipedia:Manual of Style (pronunciation)/IPA vs. other pronunciation symbols|World Book]] ''«DRAY koh»'') was the first law scribe of ancient [[Athens]], [[Greece]]. The [[law]]s, transcribed in [[621 BC]] when he was [[Archons of Athens|archon eponymous]], were particularly harsh: the [[death penalty]] was the [[punishment]] for even minor [[offense]]s. Any debtor whose status was lower than that of his creditor was forced into slavery. The punishment was more lenient for those who owed their debt to a member of a lower class. The stringency of these laws gave rise to expressions such as &quot;draconian punishment&quot;, &quot;draconian laws&quot;, and more generally, the far-reaching &quot;draconian measures&quot;. Draco was the first to codify Athenian law; contrary to popular belief, however, he was not the creator of those laws. Draco's code of law was superseded by that of [[Solon]] in the early [[6th century BC]]. In 621 B.C., a man named Draco was appointed to transcribe the oral laws of the city of Athens. Possessing no official copy of the law was threatening to cause the downfall of the city. Draco’s attempt to improve the situation of the Greek polis horrified its citizens. The most popular punishment for any crime, no matter the severity, was death; and the laws did not treat all classes equally. Because of the cruelty during his time as archon, there are many terms associated with Draco’s name, such as draconian, which means excessively harsh or severe. In Athens at the time, there was pandemonium. The trouble was coming from the law not being recorded. Finally, when it became enough of a threat, the leaders were forced to do something about it. The noblemen acted as much for their own benefit as for the poor and slaves. The lower classes were weary of being taken advantage of, and were no longer willing to accept what they were told orally by the thesmothetai (lawmakers) and judges. So the enforcers chose an archon, or scribe of the law. Predictably, the man who was appointed to transcribe these laws was a eupatrid, or nobleman. Draco was the first to write the Athenian laws down, but he did not create all of the laws. However, it is made obvious in ancient texts that he did help suggest the punishments. Draco was a man who believed there was no greater punishment than death. The offense could be the robbing of a cabbage, and still the penalty remained the same: death. It seemed like a relief when the death sentence was used only for criminal offenses such as theft. Yet the more civil penalty of enslavement for debt favored the higher class. The only law of Draco’s that was somewhat humane was that concerning homicide. All homicide cases could be justified or categorized, and always required a trial. This was the only concept that wasn’t changed by his successor, [[Solon]], w
r /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abandonment]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abandonment of an easement</title> <id>2650</id> <revision> <id>15901045</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abandonment]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abandonment of railways</title> <id>2651</id> <revision> <id>15901046</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abandonment]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abatement of a nuisance</title> <id>2652</id> <revision> <id>15901047</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abatement]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abatement of freehold</title> <id>2653</id> <revision> <id>15901048</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abatement]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abatement of debts and legacies</title> <id>2654</id> <revision> <id>38477941</id> <timestamp>2006-02-06T16:34:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Cburnett</username> <id>140084</id> </contributor> <comment>Removed semi-colons; removed { for (; linked [[intestate property]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Wills&amp;Trusts}} '''Abatement of debts and legacies''' is a [[common law]] doctrine of [[will (law)|wills]] that holds that when the equitable [[assets]] of a deceased person are not sufficient to satisfy fully all the creditors, their debts must abate proportionately, and they must accept a [[dividend]]. In the case of legacies when the funds or assets out of which they are payable are not sufficient to pay them in full, the legacies abate in proportion, unless there is a priority given specially to any particular legacy. Annuities are also subject to the same rule as general legacies. The order of abatement usually goes as follows: #[[Intestate property]] (proprty not disposed of in the will itself) will abate first #The [[residuary estate]] will abate next #General devises (gifts of cash) will abate next #Demonstrative devises (gifts of stock, or orders to sell property and give the proceeds to the beneficiary) will abate next #Specific divises (gifts of tangible property) will abate last {{law-stub}} [[Category:Wills and trusts]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abatement in litigation</title> <id>2655</id> <revision> <id>15901050</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abatement]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abatement of false lights</title> <id>2656</id> <revision> <id>15901051</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abatement]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abatement in commerce</title> <id>2657</id> <revision> <id>15901052</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abatement]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abatement in heraldry</title> <id>2658</id> <revision> <id>15901053</id> <timestamp>2004-04-23T12:52:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pcb21</username> <id>7320</id> </contributor> <comment>typo</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abatement (heraldry)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>American war of independence</title> <id>2659</id> <revision> <id>15901054</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[American Revolutionary War]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Affection</title> <id>2661</id> <revision> <id>39686899</id> <timestamp>2006-02-15T04:06:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pfctdayelise</username> <id>234641</id> </contributor> <comment>+ image</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}} [[Image:Smooches (baby and child kiss).jpg|thumb|A kiss can express affection.]] '''Affection''' (from latin ''ad'', and ''facere'', meaning &quot;to do something to&quot;) is an [[emotion]] that derives from the recognition of one's own values in the character of another. == Popular usage == It is popularly used to denote a feeling or type of [[personal relationship]] amounting to more than goodwill or [[friendship]]. By ethical writers the word has been used generally of distinct states of feeling, both lasting and spasmodic; some contrast it with ''[[passion (emotion)|passion]]'' as being free from the distinctively sensual element. More specifically the word has been restricted to [[emotion]]al states which are in relation to persons. In the former sense, it is the Greek pathos, and as such it appears in the writings of French philosopher René Descartes, Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza and most of the writings of early British ethicists. On various grounds, however---e.g. that it does not involve anxiety or excitement, that it is comparatively inert and compatible with the entire absence of the sensuous element--At is generally and usefully distinguished from passion. In this narrower sense the word has played a great part in ethical systems, which have spoken of the social or parental ''affections'' as in some sense a part of moral obligation. For a consideration of these and similar problems, which depend ultimately on the degree in which the affections are regarded as voluntary, see [[H]]. Sidgwick, ''Methods of [[Ethics]],'' pp. 345-349. == Psychology == In psychology the terms ''affection'' and ''affective'' are of great importance. As all intellectual phenomena have by experimentalists been reduced to sensation, so all emotion has been and is regarded as reducible to simple mental affection, the element of which all emotional manifestations are ultimately composed. The nature of this element is a problem which has been provisionally, but not conclusively, solved by many psychologists; the method is necessarily experimental, and all experiments on feeling are peculiarly difficult. The solutions proposed are two. In the first, all affection phenomena are primarily divisible into those which are pleasurable and those which are the reverse. The main objections to this are that it does not explain the infinite variety of phenomena, and that it disregards the distinction which most philosophers admit between higher and lower pleasures. The second solution is that every sensation has its specific affective quality, though by reason of the poverty of language many of these have no name. W. Wundt, ''Outlines of [[Psychology]]'' (trans. C. H. Judd, [[Leipzig]], [[1897]]), maintains that we may group under three main affective directions, each with its negative, all the infinite varieties in question; these are (a) [[pleasure]], or rather pleasantness, and the reverse, (b) tension and relaxation, (c) excitement and depression. These two views are antithetic and no solution has been discovered. Two obvious methods of experiment have been tried: # The first, introduced by A. Mosso, the [[Italy|Italian]] psychologist, consists in recording the physical phenomena which are observed to accompany modifications of the affective consciousness. Thus it is found that the action of the [[heart]] is accelerated by pleasant, and retarded by unpleasant, stimuli; again, changes of weight and volume are found to accompany modifications of affection--and so on. Apart altogether from the facts that this investigation is still in its infancy and that the conditions of experiment are insufficiently understood, its ultimate success is rendered highly problematical by the essential fact that real scientific results can be achieved only by data recorded in connection with a perfectly normal subject; a conscious or interested subject introduces variable factors which are probably incalculable. # The second is [[Fechner]]'s method; it consists of recording the changes in feeling-tone produced in a subject by bringing him in contact with a series of conditions, objects or stimuli graduated according to a scientific plan and presented singly in pairs or in groups. The result is a comparative table of likes and dislikes. Mention should also be made of a third method which has hardly yet been tried, namely, that of endeavouring to isolate one of the three ''directions'' by the method of suggestion or even hypno
ng lists such as [[Bugtraq]] and full disclosure by other means. === Various interpretations === Even among those who believe in disclosure there are differing policies about when, to whom, and how much to disclose. Some believe that in the absence of any public [[exploit (computer science)|exploit]]s for the problem, ''full and public disclosure'' should be preceded by disclosure of the vulnerability to the vendors or authors of the system. This private advance disclosure allows the vendor time to produce a fix or workaround. This philosophy is sometimes called &quot;[[responsible disclosure]]&quot;. In the case that a vendor is notified and a fix is not produced within a reasonable time, disclosure is generally made to the public. Opinions differ on what constitutes a reasonable time. Thirty days is typical, although the period could be a matter of hours. [[Internet Security Systems]] were widely criticised for allowing less than eight hours before disclosing details of a vulnerability in the [[Apache HTTP Server]]. [[Limited disclosure]], with full details going to a restricted community of developers and vendors, and only the existence of the problem being released to the public, is another possible approach. Advocates of this approach also claim the term &quot;[[responsible disclosure]]&quot;. To address the controversy of disclosing harmful information to the general Internet community, including [[blackhat]]s, [[Rain Forest Puppy]] developed the [[RFPolicy]], which is an attempt to create a proper way to alert vendors to security problems in their products, and establish guidelines on what to do if the vendor fails to respond. == History == The issue of full disclosure was first raised in the context of [[locksmithing]], in a [[19th century]] controversy regarding whether weaknesses in lock systems should be kept secret in the locksmithing community, or revealed to the public. According to [[A. C. Hobbs]]: :A commercial, and in some respects a social doubt has been started within the last year or two, whether it is right to discuss so openly the security or insecurity of locks. Many well-meaning persons suppose that the discussion respecting the means for baffling the supposed safety of locks offers a premium for dishonesty, by showing others how to be dishonest. This is a fallacy. Rogues are very keen in their profession, and know already much more than we can teach them respecting their several kinds of roguery. :Rogues knew a good deal about lock-picking long before locksmiths discussed it among themselves, as they have lately done. If a lock, let it have been made in whatever country, or by whatever maker, is not so inviolable as it has hitherto been deemed to be, surely it is to the interest of honest persons to know this fact, because the dishonest are tolerably certain to apply the knowledge practically; and the spread of the knowledge is necessary to give fair play to those who might suffer by ignorance. :It cannot be too earnestly urged that an acquaintance with real facts will, in the end, be better for all parties. Some time ago, when the reading public was alarmed at being told how London milk is adulterated, timid persons deprecated the exposure, on the plea that it would give instructions in the art of adulterating milk; a vain fear, milkmen knew all about it before, whether they practiced it or not; and the exposure only taught purchasers the necessity of a little scrutiny and caution, leaving them to obey this necessity or not, as they pleased. ::-- From A. C. Hobbs (Charles Tomlinson, ed.), ''Locks and Safes: The Construction of Locks.'' Published by Virtue &amp; Co., London, 1853 (revised 1868). The full disclosure debate came back to life through dissatisfaction at the methods employed by the Internet security infrastructure in the early [[1990s]]. Software security vulnerabilities were reported to [[CERT]], which would then inform the vendor of that software. Public disclosure of the hole would not take place until the vendor had readied a patch to fix it. However, since the disclosures were private, some vendors took years to produce a fix, or never produced a fix at all. In the meantime, the vulnerabilities were actively exploited by [[black hat|cracker]]s. The tendency by software companies to ignore warnings and rely on crackers' ignorance of the problem became known as [[security through obscurity]]. Since [[CERT]] and the vendors were aware of the holes, but attempted to keep them secret even to the administrators of machines being cracked in the field, it was felt that [[CERT]]'s policies were a manifestation of an impractical, &quot;ivory tower&quot; attitude. In response to this, mailing lists and other avenues for full disclosure were established, notably the [[Bugtraq]] mailing list. == Controversy == '''Full disclosure''' can be controversial, as often these disclosures include code or executable tools to exploit the vulnerability. The argument against disclosure is that providing complete details or tools to malicious attackers, such as [[blackhat]]s and [[script kiddie]]s, allows them to take advantage of vulnerabilities more quickly and makes attacks more widespread. However, this argument assumes that without disclosure such tools and attacks would not have occurred. The advantage of disclosure is that [[whitehat]]s will obtain the information, and that the vulnerability will be detected and patched more quickly. ==See also== *[[Security engineering]] *[[Kerckhoffs' law]] *[[Defensive programming]] *[[Cracking]] *[[hack (technology slang)|Hacking]] ==External links== *[http://www.wildernesscoast.org/bib/disclosure-by-date.html Full Disclosure Debate Bibliography, by date] *[http://www.schneier.com/crypto-gram-0009.html#1 Full Disclosure and the Window of Exposure] from [[Bruce Schneier]]'s [[Cryptogram|Crypto-Gram]], September 2000 *[http://www.schneier.com/crypto-gram-0111.html#1 Full Disclosure] from Bruce Schneier's Crypto-Gram, November 2001 *[http://www.schneier.com/crypto-gram-0002.html#PublicizingVulnerabilities Publicizing Vulnerabilities], from Bruce Schneier's Crypto-Gram, February 15 2000 *[http://lists.grok.org.uk/mailman/listinfo/full-disclosure Full-Disclosure mailing list] *Matt Blaze, [http://www.crypto.com/hobbs.html Is it harmful to discuss security vulnerabilities?], downloaded October 2005. *Matt Mecham: [http://ips2.blogs.com/matts_blog/2004/09/why_full_disclo.html Why full disclosure is bad] *[http://www.spirit.com/Network/net0800.html#section-1.1. A history of the CERT Advisory CA-93:15 case, which spawned the movement in the first place] [[Category:Computer security]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Feminist theology</title> <id>11587</id> <revision> <id>35537294</id> <timestamp>2006-01-17T13:35:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kaihsu</username> <id>10059</id> </contributor> <comment>/* See also */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Feminist theology''' is a movement, generally in the Western religious traditions (mostly [[Christianity]] and [[Judaism]]), to reconsider the traditions, practices, scriptures, and theologies of those religions from a [[feminism|feminist]] perspective. Some of the goals of feminist theology include increasing the role of women among the clergy and religious authorities, reinterpreting male-dominated imagery and language about [[God]], and studying images of women in the religion's [[sacred texts]]. [[Feminism]] has had a great impact on many aspects of religious practice. In the liberal branches of [[Protestant]] Christianity, women are now ordained as [[clergy]]. In [[Reform Judaism|Reform]], [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]] and [[Reconstructionist Judaism|Reconstructionist]] [[Judaism]], women are now ordained as [[rabbi]]s and [[cantor]]s. Within these Christian and Jewish groups, women's perspectives are now sought out in developing new statements of belief. Feminism has impacted other religious groups differently. [[Orthodox Judaism]], the [[Roman Catholic Church]], the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], conservative Protestant denominations such as the [[Southern Baptist]]s and the [[Confessional Lutheran]]s (for example [[Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod|Missouri Synod Lutherans]]) do not ordain women as clergy. Although [[Islam]] allows women to become [[imam]]s, they may not lead men in prayer and are rare in most parts of the world. Although placing women in roles of religious leadership is an important issue to many, feminist theology attempts to consider every aspect of religious practice and thought. Some of the questions feminist theolgians ask are: * How do we do [[theology]]? The basic question of how theologians may go about creating systems of thought is being reinterpreted by feminist theologians. Many feminist theologians assert that personal experience can be an important component of insight into the divine, along with the more traditional sources of holy books or received tradition. (The relevance of personal experience to the policies of groups of people is a familiar notion to veterans of the [[feminist movement]].) * Who is God? Feminist theologians have pioneered the use of non- or multi-[[gender]]ed language for God, holding that language powerfully impacts belief about the behavior and essence of God. * Where are women in religious history? Feminist historical theologians study the roles of women in periods throughout history that have impacted religion: the Biblical period, the early Christian era, medieval Europe, and any period of import to a particular religion. They study individual women who influenced their religion or whose religious faith led them to impact their culture. The work of these scholars has helped feminist theologians claim historical figures as their predecessors in feminist theology. For example, [[Sojourner Truth]]'s &q
d destructive when left alone. Basenjis are also expert climbers, and have been known to scale chain-link fences as much as eight feet high. Extremely quick and fast on their feet, Basenjis love to run and chase, so much so that they are sometimes competitively raced in lure courses. There are few creatures the Basenji is likely to encounter (including its owner!) that it does not believe it can either outwit or outrun. This, combined with a virtually fearless approach to the world, make it a good idea not to allow a Basenji to run free in an unconfined area or where it may get into trouble. Basenjis can be very good with children if raised around them, but may not have much patience for them otherwise. == History == [[Image:Congo1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Tri-colored Brindle]] The Basenji is one of the most [[ancient dog breeds]]. Originating on the continent of [[Africa]], it has been venerated by humans for thousands of years. Basenjis can be seen on [[Stele|steles]] in the tombs of [[Ancient Egyptian|Egyptian]] [[pharaohs]], sitting at the feet of their masters, looking just as they do today, with prick ears and tightly curled tail. The Basenji had almost totally disappeared from the West when Europeans came across it in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]] in [[1895]]. There, the Basenji was prized by locals for its intelligence, courage, speed, and silence. They were assistants to the hunt, chasing wild game into nets for their masters. The [[Azande]] and [[Mangbetu]] tribes from the northeastern Congo region describe Basenjis, in the local [[Lingala language]], as &quot;embwa na bwasenji&quot;. Translated, this means &quot;dogs from when we were wild&quot; or &quot;dogs from long ago&quot;. In [[Kiswahili]], an East African language closely related to Lingala, &quot;Mbwa shenzi&quot; translates to &quot;Wild Dog&quot;. Another local name is &quot;M'bwa m'kube M'bwa wamwitu&quot;, or &quot;jumping up and down dog&quot;, a reference to their tendency to jump straight up to spot their quarry. Several attempts were made to bring the breed to [[England]], but the earliest imports succumbed to disease. It was not until the 1930s that foundation stock was successfully established in England, and thence to the [[United States]]. So it is that nearly all the Basenjis in the western world are descended from these original imports. The breed was officially accepted into the AKC in 1943. For a fascinating account of the importation of the Basenji from Africa, read The History of the Breed[http://www.basenji.org/african/jone8908.htm], a letter to the AKC in support of opening the [[stud book]] to admit new African imports. The AKC stud book was reopened to several new imports in 1990, at the request of the Basenji Club of America. == Health == [[Image:Basenjipuppy.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Basenji puppy]] Some Basenjis are prone to an inheritable kidney disorder called [[Fanconi syndrome]] [http://www.basenji.org/healthfanconi.htm (basenji.org)]. A Basenji with Fanconi syndrome usually begins to display symptoms after reaching the age of four. Owners can test for Fanconi syndrome by checking for sugar in the urine. Basenjis, along with certain other breeds of dog have been known to be carriers of a simple recessive gene which, when homozygous for the defect, causes [[hemolysis|genetic Hemolytic Anemia]] [http://www.basenji.org/healthha.htm (basenji.org)]. Most Basenjis today are descended from ancestors that have been tested clear. When lineage from a fully tested line (set of ancestors) cannot be completely verified, the dog should be tested before breeding. As this is a non-invasive DNA test, a Basenji can be tested for HA at any time. As with other breeds of dog, Basenjis sometimes suffer from [[hip dysplasia]], resulting in loss of mobility and arthritis-like symptoms. [[Malabsorption]], or immunoproliferative enteropathy, is an autoimmune intestinal disease that leads to [[anorexia]], chronic [[diarrhea]], and even death. Special diet can improve the quality of life for afflicted dogs. The breed can also fall victim to [[progressive retinal atrophy]] (a degeneration of the retina causing blindness), and several less serious hereditary eye problems such as [[coloboma]], (a hole in the eye structure), and [[persistent pupillary membrane]] (tiny threads across the pupil). == External links == *[http://www.basenjiclub.com/ Basenji Club of America (BCOA)] *[http://www.bcosw.org/ Basenji Club of Southeastern Wisconsin] *[http://www.basenjiclub.com/learn Learn about Basenjis] *[http://www.basenjirescue.org/ Basenji Rescue &amp; Transport (BRAT)] &lt;!--- en:Basenji ---&gt; [[Category:Dog breeds]] [[Category:Sight hounds]] [[ast:Basenji]] [[da:Basenji]] [[de:Basenji]] [[fr:Basenji]] [[it:Basenji]] [[no:Basenji]] [[pl:Basenji]] [[fi:Basenji]] [[sv:Basenji]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Brit milah</title> <id>4768</id> <revision> <id>40763233</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T21:35:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Cmdrjameson</username> <id>101935</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Wikipedia URL→wikilink; wikilink with unneeded pipe</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Brit milah''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: ברית מילה literally: &quot;covenant [of] circumcision&quot;), also '''bris milah''' ([[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazi]] pronunciation) is a religious [[ceremony]] within [[Judaism]] that welcomes infant [[Jew]]ish [[boy]]s into a [[covenant]] between [[Names of God in Judaism|God]] and the [[Children of Israel]] through ritual [[circumcision]] performed by a ''[[mohel]]'' (&quot;circumcisor&quot;) in the presence of family and friends, followed by a celebratory meal (''[[seudat mitzvah]]''). [[Image:Göttingen-Beschneidungswerkzeuge.02.JPG|thumb|right|150px|Set of implements used in the performance of ''brit milah'', displayed in the [[Göttingen]] city museum]] ==Biblical origin== {{main|Circumcision in the Bible}} According to the [[Hebrew Bible]], in the [[Book of Genesis]] 17:1-14, circumcision was enjoined when [[Names of God in Judaism|God]] says &quot;Walk before Me and be perfect&quot; to the Biblical patriarch [[Abraham]] to be followed by his descendants as &quot;a token of the covenant&quot; concluded with him by God for all generations. It is also when his name is changed from &quot;Abram&quot; to &quot;Abraham&quot; by God: :'' 'Abram was 99 years old. God appeared to him and said, 'I am God Almighty. Walk before Me and be perfect. I will make a covenant between Me and you, and I will increase your numbers very much.' Abram fell on his face. God spoke to him [again], saying, 'As far as I am concerned, here is My covenant with you: You shall be the father of a horde of nations. No longer shall you be called Abram. Your name shall become Abraham, for I have set you up as the father of a horde of nations. I will increase your numbers very, very much, and I will make you into nations - kings will be your descendants. I will sustain My covenant between Me and between you and your descendants after you throughout their generations, an eternal covenant; I will be a God to you and to your offspring after you. To you and your offspring I will give the land where you are now living as a foreigner. The whole land of Canaan shall be [your] eternal heritage, and I will be a God to [your descendants].' God [then] said to Abraham, 'As far as you are concerned, you must keep My covenant - you and your offspring throughout their generations. This is My covenant between Me, and between you and your offspring that you must keep: You must circumcise every male. You shall be circumcised through the flesh of your foreskin. This shall be the mark of the covenant between Me and you. 'Throughout all generations, every male shall be circumcised when he is eight days old. [This shall include] those born in your house, as well as [slaves] bought with cash from an outsider, who is not your descendant. [All slaves,] both houseborn and purchased with your money must be circumcised. This shall be My covenant in your flesh, an eternal covenant. The uncircumcised male whose foreskin has not been circumcised, shall have his soul cut off from his people; he has broken My covenant.' '' Genesis 17:1-14[http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&amp;BOOK=1&amp;CHAPTER=17] As well as in [[Leviticus]] 12:3: :''On the eighth day, [the child's] foreskin shall be circumcised.'' [http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&amp;BOOK=3&amp;CHAPTER=12] The penalty of non-observance was ''karet'', &quot;excision&quot; from the people as noted in Genesis 17:14. Conversion to Judaism for non-Israelites in Biblical times necessitated circumcision otherwise one could not partake in the [[Passover]] offering ([[Exodus]] 12:48) or marry into a Jewish family (Genesis 34:14-16). ==History== The original form of circumcision practiced by Jews has traditionally existed since the time of [[Abraham]]. The rite of ''milah'', initially consisted of cutting off only the tip of the foreskin, the part that extends past the [[glans]] in the normal male infant. A more extensive form, involving ''periah'' (clearing the glans) was commenced after the giving of the Torah at Mount Sinai. Two thousand years ago, Jewish hellenists, wanting to assimilate into Greek society, obliterated the sign of their circumcisions by finding ways to lengthen them, to make it look as if they had not been circumcised at all. This practice was unacceptable to the Jewish community at large. ==Reason== As with many commandments, the Torah gives no specific reason why the covenant had to be remembered through circumcision. The [[1st century]] Jewish philosopher [[Philo]] stated that circumcision &quot;represents the excision of the pleasure of sex, which bewitches the mind&quot;. A similar view is voiced by the [[12th century]] Jewis
ment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{House of Hohenzollern-Prussia}} '''Frederick William I of Prussia''' (in [[German language|German]]: '''Friedrich Wilhelm I'''), of the House of [[Hohenzollern]], ([[August 14]], [[1688]] &amp;ndash; [[May 31]], [[1740]]), often known as 'the Soldier-King' reigned as [[King in Prussia]] (1713 - 1740). His father, [[Friedrich I of Prussia| Frederick I of Prussia]], had successfully acquired the title '''King''' for the [[margrave]]s of [[Brandenburg]]. Frederick William's contributions to the state of Prussia primarily consisted of civil service reforms, developing the (well-deserved) international reputation of the Prussian military, and increasing the overall efficiency and discipline of his military, which in turn placed Prussia as an entity on a par with France, Britain, and other politically dominant states in Europe during the 18th century. During his reign, Frederick William I did much to centralize and improve Prussia. He replaced mandatory military service among the middle class with an annual tax, established primary schools, and resettled East Prussia (which had been devastated by the [[Black Death|plague]] in 1709). [[Image:Frederick William I the Soldier-King.jpg|left]] Frederick William was an extremely able administrator. He opposed all superfluous spending, so long as it did not concern his army. Frederick William paid the consumer tax he himself had imposed, and no candles were left burning at court. He lived frugally and worked hard and tirelessly for the welfare of his people. He encouraged farming, reclaimed marshes, stored grain in good times and sold it in bad times. He dictated the manual of Regulations for State Officials, containing 35 chapters and 297 paragraphs in which every public servant in Prussia could find his duties precisely set out. A minister or councillor failing to attend a committee meeting would lose six months' pay. If he absented himself a second time, he would be discharged from the Royal service. In short, Frederick William was extremely concerned by every little aspect of his country so that it suited the needs of his army. His rule was absolutist and he was a firm autocrat. He practiced rigid economy, and at his death there was a large surplus in the treasury. The Prussian army was made an efficient instrument of war. Although Frederick William built up one of the most powerful armies in Europe and loved military pomp, he was essentially a peaceful man. He intervened briefly in the [[Great Northern War]], but gained little territory. Though he was peaceful, he was by no means gentle. His eldest surviving son was [[Friedrich II of Prussia|Fritz]], born in [[1712]]. Frederick William wanted him to become a fine soldier. As a little child Fritz was awakened each morning by the firing of a cannon. At the age of 6 he was given his own regiment of children to drill as cadets and a year later he was given a miniature arsenal. Fritz was beaten for being thrown off a bolting horse and for wearing gloves in cold weather. Frederick William would frequently mistreat Fritz (he preferred his younger sibling August William), executing one of his closest friends, [[Hans Hermann von Katte]], and almost disinheriting him. He acquired a reputation for his fondness for military display - leading to his special efforts to hire the tallest men he could find in all of [[Europe]] for a special regiment nicknamed [[Potsdam Giants]]. Frederick William and his wife [[Sophia Dorothea of Hanover]] (his first cousin and the daughter of King [[George I of Great Britain]]) had eight surviving children: * [[Wilhelmine of Bayreuth]] (1709 - 1758) * [[Friedrich II of Prussia]] (1712-1786) * Friederike Luise (1714-1784) * Philippine Charlotte (1716-1801), married [[Charles I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg]] * Sophie Dorothee Marie (1719-1765) * [[Luise Ulrike of Sweden]] (1720-1782) * [[Augustus William, Prince of Prussia]] (1722-1758) * [[Anna Amalia Princess of Prussia]] (1723-1787) * [[Prinz Heinrich]] (1726-1802) * August Ferdinand (1730-1813) ==External links== * [http://www.xs4all.nl/~kvenjb/madmonarchs/fredwil1/fredwil1_bio.htm Biography of Frederick William I] {{start box}} {{succession box|title=[[List of Kings of Prussia|King of Prussia]]|before=[[Frederick I of Prussia|Frederick I]]|after=[[Frederick II of Prussia|Frederick II]]|years=[[1713]]&amp;ndash;[[1740]]}} {{end box}} [[Category:1688 births|Frederick William I of Prussia]] [[Category:1740 deaths|Frederick William I of Prussia]] [[Category:Kings of Prussia]] [[Category:House of Hohenzollern]] [[bg:Фридрих Вилхелм I]] [[cs:Fridrich Vilém I.]] [[da:Frederik Vilhelm 1. af Preussen]] [[de:Friedrich Wilhelm I. (Preußen)]] [[es:Federico Guillermo I de Prusia]] [[fr:Frédéric-Guillaume Ier de Prusse]] [[it:Federico Guglielmo I di Prussia]] [[lt:Frydrichas Vilhelmas I]] [[nl:Frederik Willem I van Pruisen]] [[ja:フリードリヒ・ヴィルヘルム1世 (プロイセン王)]] [[no:Fredrik Vilhelm I av Preussen]] [[pl:Fryderyk Wilhelm I Hohenzollern]] [[pt:Frederico Guilherme I da Prússia]] [[sv:Fredrik Vilhelm I av Preussen]] [[uk:Фрідріх Вільгельм I]] [[zh:腓特烈·威廉一世]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Felsic</title> <id>11795</id> <revision> <id>38575897</id> <timestamp>2006-02-07T05:17:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rolinator</username> <id>685714</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Felsic''' is a term used in [[geology]] to refer to [[silicate minerals]], [[magma|magmas]], and [[rock (geology)|rocks]] which are enriched in the lighter elements such as [[silica]], [[oxygen]], [[aluminium]], [[sodium]], and [[potassium]]. The term combines the words &quot;[[feldspar]]&quot; and &quot;[[silica]].&quot; Felsic minerals are usually light in color and have [[specific gravity|specific gravities]] less than 3. Common felsic minerals include [[quartz]], [[biotite]], [[muscovite]], [[hornblende]], [[orthoclase]], and the sodium rich [[plagioclase]] [[feldspar|feldspars]]. The most common felsic rock is [[granite]]. On the opposite side of rock spectrum are the [[iron]] and [[magnesium]] rich ''[[mafic]]'' and ''[[ultramafic]]'' minerals and rocks. The term ''acid rock'', although sometimes used as a synonym, in current usage refers to a high silica content (greater than 63% SiO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; by weight) [[volcanic rock]] such as rhyolite. The term was used more broadly in older geologic literature. It is considered archaic as the terms ''acidic'' and ''basic rock'' were based on an incorrect idea dating from the 1800's that [[silicic acid]] was the chief form of silicon occuring in rocks. ==Classification of felsic rocks== In order for a felsic rock to be classified as such it generally needs to contain &gt;75% felsic minerals; namely quartz, orthoclase and plagioclase. Rocks wih greater than 90% felsic minerals can also be called ''leucocratic'', meaning 'light-coloured'. ''[[Felsite]]''' is a [[petrology|petrologic]] field term used to refer to very fine grained or [[aphanitic]], light colored [[volcanic]] rocks that may be later reclassified after a more detailed microscopic or chemical analysis. In some cases, felsic volcanic rocks may contain [[phenocryst]]s of [[mafic]] minerals, usually [[hornblende]] or [[biotite]], or a feldspar mineral, and may need to be named after their phenocryst mineral, such as 'hornblende-bearing felsite'. The chemical name of a felsic rock is given according to the [[TAS diagram]] of Le Maitre (1975). However, this only applies to volcanic rocks. If the rock is analyzed and found to be felsic but is [[metamorphic]] and has no definite volcanic [[protolith]] it may be sufficient to simply call it a 'felsic schist'. There are examples known of highly [[geological shear|sheared]] granites which can be mistaken for rhyolites. For phaneritic felsic rocks, the [[QAPF diagram]] should be used, and a name given according to the [[granite]] nomenclature. Often the species of mafic minerals is included in the name, for instance ''hornblende-bearing granite'', ''[[pyroxene]] [[tonalite]]'' or ''[[augite]] megacrystic [[monzonite]]'' as the term granite already assumes feldspar and quartz. The rock texture thus determines the basic name of a felsic rock. &lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Rock Texture'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Name of Felsic Rock'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Pegmatitic]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Granite]] [[pegmatite]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Coarse grained ([[phaneritic]])&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Granite]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Coarse grained and [[porphyritic]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Porphyritic [[granite]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Fine grained ([[aphanitic]])&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Rhyolite]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Fine grained and porphyritic&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Porphyritic [[rhyolite]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Pyroclastic]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Rhyolitic [[tuff]] or [[breccia]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Vesicular texture|Vesicular]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Pumice]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Amygdaloidal]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;None&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Glassy texture|Glassy]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Obsidian]] or porcellanite&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; ==Reference== * Le Maitre, L.E., ed. 2002. ''Igneous Rocks: A Classification and Glossary of Terms'' 2nd edition, Cambridge. ==See also== *[[QAPF diagram]] *[[List of minerals]] *[[List of rocks]] *[[Granite]] [[Category:Petrology]] [[Category:Mineralogy]] [[de:Felsit]] [[ja:&amp;#28961;&amp;#33394;&amp;#37489;&amp;#29289;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Frisians</title> <id>11797</id> <revision> <id>41533049</id> <timestamp>2006-02-
ood. After a few minutes the excess liquid can be wiped up with a cloth or paper towel and the stain will be gone. ====Storage==== Household hydrogen peroxide solutions are commonly found in concentrations of 3% solution. Because hydrogen peroxide decomposes in the presence of light, it should be stored in a cool environment out of direct sunlight. It should also be stored out of reach of children in a well-marked bottle, as ingestion of large amounts can cause gastrointestinal problems including burns, pain and vomiting. Hydrogen peroxide decomposes naturally into oxygen and water. This property means that caution must be taken when opening a bottle that has been stored for a long period of time. Be sure not to open an old bottle near a flame or spark. Stronger solutions such as a 35% solution have been responsible for at least one death when ingested undiluted. Hydrogen peroxide or its derivatives are also increasingly being used as a substitute for [[chlorine]]-based chemicals in household cleaners, laundry and dishwash detergents. ===Industrial applications=== About 50% of the world's production of hydrogen peroxide in 1994 was used for pulp- and paper-bleaching. Other bleaching applications are becoming more important as hydrogen peroxide is seen as a more environmentally-benign alternative to [[chlorine]] based bleaches. Other major industrial applications for hydrogen peroxide include the manufacture of [[sodium percarbonate]] and [[sodium perborate]], used as mild bleaches in [[laundry]] [[detergent]]s. In addition it is used in the production of certain [[organic peroxide]]s such as [[dibenzoyl peroxide]], used as [[free radical]] [[initiator]]s in [[Radical polymerization|polymerisation]] and other chemical processes. Hydrogen peroxide is also used in the production of [[epoxide]]s such as [[propylene oxide]]. Reaction with [[carboxylic acid]]s produces a corresponding &quot;per-acid&quot;; for industrial use [[peracetic acid]] is prepared in this way from [[acetic acid]]. [[Meta-Chloroperoxybenzoic acid|MCPBA]], used extensively in the laboratory, is likewise prepared from ''meta''-chlorobenzoic acid. ===Use as propellant=== The use of H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; as a propellant takes advantage of the decomposition of 70-98+% concentration hydrogen peroxide into steam and oxygen. The propellant is pumped into a reaction chamber where usually a metal (esp. silver or platinum) catalyst triggers decomposition, and the oxygen/steam that is produced is hot enough (&gt;600 °C) either to be used directly or to combust a fuel. As a [[monopropellant]] (not mixed with fuel), it produces a maximum [[specific impulse]] (''I''&lt;sub&gt;sp&lt;/sub&gt;) of 161 s (1.6 [[newton|kN]]·s/kg), which makes it a low-performance monopropellant. The famous Bell [[rocket pack]] used hydrogen peroxide monopropellant. When decomposed to burn a fuel as an oxidizer, specific impulses as high as 350 s (3.5 kN·s/kg) can be achieved, depending on the fuel. Peroxide was used very successfully as an oxidizer for the low-cost British launchers, [[Black Knight (rocket)|Black Knight]] and [[Black Arrow]]. Compared to [[hydrazine]], peroxide is much less toxic, but it is also much less powerful. Peroxide gives a slightly lower ''I''&lt;sub&gt;sp&lt;/sub&gt; than liquid oxygen, but is dense, storable, noncryogenic and can be more easily used to drive gas turbines to give high pressures. It also can be used for regenerative cooling of rocket engines. In the 1940s and 1950s, the [[Hellmuth Walter|Walter]] [[gas turbine|turbine]] used hydrogen peroxide for use in [[submarine]]s while submerged; it was found to be too noisy and maintenance-demanding compared to the conventional [[diesel-electric]] power system. Some [[torpedo]]es used hydrogen peroxide as oxidizer or propellant, but this use has been discontinued by most [[navy|navies]] for safety reasons. Hydrogen peroxide leaks were blamed for the sinkings of [[HMS Sidon (P259)|HMS ''Sidon'']] and the [[Russian submarine Kursk]]. It was discovered, for example, by the Japanese Navy in torpedo trials, that the concentration of H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; in right-angle bends in HTP pipework can often lead to explosions in submarines and torpedoes. While its application as a monopropellant for large engines has waned, small thrusters for [[attitude control]] that run on hydrogen peroxide are still in use on some satellites, and provide benefits on the spacecraft, making it easier to throttle and safer loading and handling of fuel before launch (as compared to hydrazine monopropellant). However, hydrazine is a more popular monopropellent in spacecraft because of its higher [[specific impulse]] and lower rate of decomposition. ===Therapeutic use=== Hydrogen peroxide has been used as an [[antiseptic]] and anti-bacterial agent for many years. While its use has decreased in recent years due to the popularity of better-smelling and more readily-available over the counter products, it is still used by many hospitals, doctors and dentists in sterilising, cleaning and treating everything from floors to [[root-canal]] procedures. Thirty-five percent food-grade hydrogen peroxide has been marketed under names such as ''Oxywater'' and ''H2O2'', with claims of medicinal or therapeutic value as &quot;hydrogen peroxide therapy.&quot; Advocates of the product claim that it can be diluted and used for &quot;hyper-oxygenation therapy&quot; to treat [[AIDS]], [[cancer]], and many other conditions; some also claim that information about these beneficial uses of peroxide have been suppressed by the medical and scientific communities. Recently, alternative medical practitioners have advocated administering doses of hydrogen peroxide intravenously in extremely low (less than one percent) concentrations for ''hydrogen peroxide therapy'' &amp;mdash; a controversial alternative medical treatment for cancer. However, according to the [[American Cancer Society]], &quot;there is no scientific evidence that hydrogen peroxide is a safe, effective or useful cancer treatment.&quot; They advise cancer patients to &quot;remain in the care of qualified doctors who use proven methods of treatment and approved clinical trials of promising new treatments.&quot; {{an|cancer}} Another therapeutic use of hydrogen peroxide is to cure colds and flus. Some [[alternative medicine]] practitioners recommend inserting a few drops into each ear at the first sign of a cold. According to their claims, for most people, this will eliminate the cold virus at first attempt within a few hours, with stated 80% success rate. However the medical evidence of its efficacy is lacking. Hydrogen Peroxide is GRAS (Generally Recognised As Safe) as an antimicrobial agent, an oxidizing agent and more by the US [[FDA]] [http://a257.g.akamaitech.net/7/257/2422/04nov20031500/edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2001/aprqtr/21cfr184.1366.htm]. Hydrogen Peroxide can also be used as a toothpaste when mixed with correct quantities of Baking Soda and Salt [http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/CONSUMER/CON00065.html]. == Physical properties == [[Image:H2O2_structure.png|500px|Structure of hydrogen peroxide]] Hydrogen peroxide adopts a &quot;skewed&quot; shape, due to repulsion between the [[lone pair]]s on the oxygen atoms. Despite the fact that the O-O bond is a single bond, the molecule has a remarkably high barrier to complete rotation of 29.45 [[Kilojoule|kJ]]/[[Mole_(chemistry)|mol]]; this is also caused by the lone-pair repulsion. The [[Molecular geometry|bond angle]]s are affected greatly by [[hydrogen bonding]], which explains the difference between gaseous and crystalline forms; indeed a wide range of values is seen in crystals containing molecular H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. == Chemical properties == Hydrogen peroxide can decompose spontaneously into water and oxygen. It usually acts as an [[Redox|oxidizing agent]], but there are many reactions where it acts as a [[Redox|reducing agent]], releasing oxygen as a by-product. It also readily forms both inorganic and organic [[peroxide]]s. ===Decomposition=== Hydrogen peroxide often decomposes [[exothermic reaction|exothermic]]ally into [[water_(molecule)|water]] and [[oxygen]] gas [[Spontaneous_process | spontaneously]]: :2 H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; 2 H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + Energy This process is very favorable; it has a [[Standard enthalpy change of reaction|&amp;Delta;''H''&lt;sup&gt;&lt;s&gt;o&lt;/s&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;]] of &amp;minus;98.2 [[Kilojoule|kJ]]/[[Mole_(chemistry)|mol]] and a [[Gibbs free energy|&amp;Delta;''G''&lt;sup&gt;&lt;s&gt;o&lt;/s&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;]] of &amp;minus;119.2 kJ/mol. The rate of decomposition is dependent on the temperature and concentration of the peroxide, as well as the [[pH]] and the presence of impurities and stabilizers. Hydrogen peroxide is incompatible with many substances that [[catalyse]] its decomposition, including most of the [[transition metals]] and their compounds. Common catalysts include [[manganese dioxide]], [[potassium permanganate]], and [[silver]]. The same reaction is catalysed by the [[enzyme]] [[catalase]], found in the [[liver]], whose main function in the body is the removal of toxic byproducts of [[metabolism]] and the reduction of [[oxidative stress]]. The decomposition occurs more rapidly in [[alkali]], so [[acid]] is often added as a stabilizer. Spilling high concentration peroxide on a flammable substance can cause an immediate fire fueled by the oxygen released by the decomposing hydrogen peroxide. High-strength peroxide (also called high-test peroxide, or HTP) must be stored in a vented container to prevent the buildup of oxygen gas, which would otherwise lead to the eventual rupture of the container. Any container must be made of a [[:Wiktionary:compatible|compatible]] material such as [[PT
f] Traditionally, Jews are grouped into: * [[Ashkenazi]]m - Jews whose ancestors lived in from Germany, France, and Eastern Europe. Most Jewish immigrants to Israel from Russia, Poland, Romania, Hungary, North America, South Africa and Australia are Ashkenazim. * [[Sephardi]]m - Jews whose ancestors lived in Spain and Portugal. Most Jewish immigrants to Israel from Morocco, Turkey, and many from other North African and Mediterranean areas are Sephardim. In modern Israeli Hebrew usage, this category often includes [[Mizrahi Jews|Mizrahim]] (see next group). * [[Mizrahi Jews|Mizrahim]] - Jews whose [[Jewish exodus from Arab lands|ancestors lived in Arab or Muslim lands]], but did not live in Spain or Portugal. Most Jewish immigrants to Israel from Iran, Iraq, Yemen, and Syria are considered Mizrahim. Note: In Israel, Jews with origins in Western (Christian) countries are called [[Ashkenazi]] though many are not. The Jews of Italy are [[Italkim|Bené Roma]]; the Georgian are [[Gruzim]]; the Greek are [[Romaniotes]]; and many of the Bulgarian and Latin American are [[Sephardic]]. These groups claim distinct cultures and histories. Those with origins in Muslim and Arab lands are commonly called [[Sephardi]] though many are not. The [[Persian Jews|Jews of Iran]] and Iraq are [[Mizrahi]] and the Yemenite and Omani are [[Temani]]. None of these groups include the [[Beta Israel|Beta Israel of Ethiopia]] who were brought to Israel during [[Operation Solomon]] and [[Operation Moses]], as well as other groups. For a complete list and thorough discussion of Jewish ethnic groups, see '''[[Jewish ethnic divisions]]'''. However, this grouping is becoming used less due to cultural assimilation and intermarriage. ==Religions== According to Israel's Central Bureau of Statistics, at the end of 2004, 76.2% of Israelis were [[Judaism|Jews]] by religion. [[Muslims]] made up 16.1% of Israelis, 2.1% were [[Christian]], 1.6% were [[Druze]] and the remaining 3.9% (including [[Russians|Russian]] immigrants and some [[Jews]]) were not classified by religion.[http://www1.cbs.gov.il/shnaton56/st02_01.pdf] Official figures do not exist as to the number of atheists or otherwise non-affiliated individuals, who may comprise up to a quarter of the population referred to as Jewish. According to one study, 6% of Israeli Jews define themselves as ''[[haredi]]m'' (or Ultra-Orthodox); an additional 9% are &quot;religious&quot; (predominantly orthodox, also known in Israel as: Zionist-religious, national-religious and Kepot Srogot); 34% consider themselves &quot;traditionalists&quot; (not strictly adhering to Jewish [[Halakha]]); and 51% are &quot;secular&quot;. Among the seculars, 53% say they believe in God. [http://www.geocities.com/demokratya/dat/shavit.htm] ==Languages== [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] (official), [[English language|English]] most commonly used foreign language ==Literacy== (2003 est.) definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 95.4% male: 97.3% female: 93.6% Education between ages 5 and 16 is free and compulsory. The school system is organized into kindergartens, 6-year primary schools, and either 6-year secondary schools or 3-year junior secondary schools + 3-year senior secondary schools (depending on region), after which a comprehensive examination is offered for university admissions. There are seven university-level institutions in Israel. ==See also== *[[Jew]] *[[Jewish ethnic divisions]] *[[Israeli Arab]] *[[Religion in Israel]] *[[Languages of Israel]] *[[Population groups in Israel]] [[Category:Israeli society]] [[Category:Demographics by country|Israel]] [[es:Demografía de Israel]] [[fr:Démographie d'Israël]] [[he:דמוגרפיה של ישראל]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Israel/Government</title> <id>14689</id> <revision> <id>15912225</id> <timestamp>2002-08-29T12:52:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>-- April</username> <id>166</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Israel]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Economy of Israel</title> <id>14690</id> <revision> <id>35721116</id> <timestamp>2006-01-18T20:46:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Altmany</username> <id>86995</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Statistics */ 2005 exports/imports</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Israelis}} [[Israel]] has a diversified modern [[economic system|economy]] with substantial government ownership and a rapidly developing high-tech sector. Poor in [[Natural resource|natural resources]], Israel depends on imports of [[petroleum]], [[coal]], food, uncut [[diamond|diamonds]], other production inputs, and military equipment. It also has received substantial direct economic aid from the [[United States]], including approximately $1.2 billion per year since the mid-1970's, although that regular annual amount has been being tapered off by $120 million per year beginning in 1998. Israel's [[gross domestic product|GDP]] in [[2004]] reached $145 billion, about $20 thousand per person. The major industrial sectors include metal products, electronic and biomedical equipment, processed foods, chemicals, and transport equipment. Israel possesses a substantial service sector and is one of the world's centers for diamond cutting and polishing. It is also a world leader in software development and is a major [[tourist destination]]. Israel's strong commitment to economic development and its talented work force led to economic growth rates during the nation's first two decades that frequently exceeded 10% annually. The years after the [[1973]] [[Yom Kippur War]] were a lost decade economically, as growth stalled and [[inflation]] reached triple-digit levels. The successful economic stabilization plan implemented in [[1985]] and the subsequent introduction of market-oriented structural reforms reinvigorated the economy and paved the way for its rapid growth in the [[1990s]]. Two developments have helped to transform Israel's economy since the beginning of the decade. The first is waves of [[Aliyah|Jewish immigration]], predominantly from the countries of the former [[Soviet Union|USSR]], that has brought over one million of new citizens to Israel. These new immigrants, many of them highly educated, now constitute some 16% of Israel's 6.5 million population. Their successful absorption into Israeli society and its labor force forms a remarkable chapter in Israeli history. The skills brought by the new immigrants and their added demand as consumers have given the Israeli economy a strong upward push. The second development benefiting the Israeli economy is the [[Peace process in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict|peace process]] begun at the [[Madrid Conference of 1991|Madrid conference]] of October [[1991]], which led to the signing of accords between Israel and the [[Palestinians]] (1993) and a peace treaty between Israel and [[Jordan]] (1994). The peace process has helped to ease Israel's economic isolation from its neighbors and has begun a process of regional economic integration that may help to stabilize the region. It has also opened up new markets to Israeli exporters farther afield, such as in the rapidly growing countries of [[East Asia]]. The peace process has stimulated an unprecedented inflow of [[Foreign direct investment|foreign investment]] in Israel, as companies that formerly shunned the Israeli market now see its potential contribution to their global strategies. Israeli companies, particularly in the high-tech area, have recently enjoyed considerable success raising money on [[Wall Street]] and other world financial markets; Israel now ranks second among foreign countries in the number of its companies listed on U.S. stock exchanges. The [[United States]] is Israel's largest trading partner; two-way trade totaled some $12.6 billion in 1997. The principal U.S. exports to Israel include [[Computer|computers]], integrated circuits, aircraft parts and other defense equipment, wheat, and automobiles. Israel's chief exports to the U.S. include cut diamonds, jewelry, [[Integrated circuit|integrated circuits]], printing machinery, and telecommunications equipment. The two countries signed a [[free trade]] agreement (FTA) in 1985 that progressively eliminated [[Tariff|tariffs]] on most goods traded between the two countries over the following ten years. An agricultural trade accord was signed in November 1996, which addressed the remaining goods not covered in the FTA. Some non-tariff barriers and tariffs on goods remain, however. Israel also has trade and cooperation agreements in place with the [[European Union]] and [[Canada]], and is seeking to conclude such agreements with a number of other countries, including [[Turkey]], [[Jordan]] and several countries in [[Eastern Europe]]. Until the last decade, Israel's trade with the Arab world was minimal due to the [[Arab League boycott]]. Beginning in 1945, Arab nations not only refused to have direct trade with Israel (the primary boycott), but they also refused to do business with any corporation that operated in Israel, or any corporation that did business with a corporation that did business with Israel (the secondary and tertiary boycotts). Israel is one of the world's major exporters of military equipment, accounting for 10% of the world total in 2003. ==Statistics== '''GDP:''' purchasing power parity - $129 billion (2004 est.) '''GDP - real growth rate:''' 3.9% (2004 est.) '''GDP - per capita:''' purchasing power parity - $20,800 (2004 est.) '''GDP - composition by sector:''' ''agriculture:'' 2.8% ''industry:'' 37.7% ''services:'' 59.5% (2003 est.) '''Investment (gross fixed):''' 17.2% of GDP (2003) '''Population below poverty line:''
t=307 'Ideas Lab'] which discusses possible uses of Bluetooth. ==Qualification== Next to the development of the technology itself, the qualification process is one of the most important aspects of the SIG's work. It is the means by which members ensure that Bluetooth devices meet the technical and performance specifications and in so doing ensure that Bluetooth-enabled devices perform as consumers expect. The Bluetooth Qualification Review Board sets the qualification policies, but the SIG is responsible for determining if and when a particular device has met the requirements. The SIG delegates this authority to a number of Bluetooth Qualification Bodies (BQBs). These are individuals who are either members of the SIG in their own right or are employees of a corporate member. The BQBs are not necessarily linked to any particular manufacturer or qualification-testing facility. There are three categories of test a device must pass before being qualified: A, B and C. (Additionally, the manufacturer must be a member of the SIG.) A number of different tests are defined in each category, and a device must pass them all to qualify. There is a fourth category, D, but tests in this category are not fully developed and are informative in nature; they are not a requirement for qualification. Category C tests are carried out by the manufacturer themselves, and they have simply to declare to a Bluetooth Qualification Body that their device passes these tests; there is no requirement for evidence. The device then progresses to the Category B tests which are again carried out by the manufacturer (or a competent third party). These tests formally examine the device's conformance to the specifications and interoperability requirements and are specified in detail. The manufacturer must report the results of these tests to a BQB. If they do not follow the specification of a particular test, the manufacturer must also report the detail of what they did instead. If these tests are all passed, the device progresses to the Category A tests. These must be carried out at recognised Bluetooth Qualification Test Facilities, of which there are currently only 23 in the world. As of 2005, this testing process costs $10 000 for [[#Adopter members|Adopter members]] and $5 000 for [[#Associate members|Associate members]] and [[#Promoter members|Promoter members]]. These test facilities use equipment developed specifically for the purpose, and are approved on behalf of the Qualifications Review Board by a Bluetooth Technical Assessor (BTA). These assessors are individuals who are experienced with such laboratory assessment procedures and who can demonstrate their understanding of the technical requirements of Bluetooth. The SIG currently contracts with accreditation organizations to carry out the process of selecting and training Assessors, with the Qualifications Review Board giving the eventual formal approval. Once a device has passed all the Category A, B and C tests to the satisfaction of a BQB, it is allowed to be marketed as a Bluetooth device using the Bluetooth trademarks. ==See also== *[[Bluetooth]] *[[IEEE 802.15.1]] ==Reference== *[http://qualweb.bluetooth.org/Content2/DownloadExecute.cfm?RevisionHistoryID=692&amp;FileName=PRD_10_And_Addendum_1.zip The Bluetooth Qualification Program Reference Document] ([[ZIP (file format)|.zip]] file) ==External links== *[http://www.bluetooth.org The Official Bluetooth Membership Site] *[http://www.bluetooth.com The Official Bluetooth Wireless Info Site] [[Category:Bluetooth]] [[Category:Standards organizations]] [[de:Bluetooth Special Interest Group]] [[sl:Bluetooth Special Interest Group]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Boney M</title> <id>3744</id> <revision> <id>41291133</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T08:57:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pwt898</username> <id>433983</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Boney M.jpg|right|thumb|Boney M]] '''Boney M''' is a [[Eurodance]], Pop, and [[disco]] group, which was phenomenally successful during the [[70s]]. ==History== [[Image:BoneyM.jpg|thumb|right|200px]] The group was created by producer [[Frank Farian]] in [[1975]] and was composed of four [[British West Indies|West Indian]] artists working in [[London]], [[Germany]] and [[Netherlands]]: singers [[Marcia Barrett]] and [[Liz Mitchell]], model [[Maizie Williams]] and DJ [[Bobby Farrell]]. Boney M is noted for the mix of white and black music&amp;mdash;the producer Farian is white and the singers are black; significantly many songs are black (freedom) songs, for example &quot;No More Chain Gang&quot; in the album ''[[Oceans Of Fantasy]]''. Farian first released the single &quot;Baby Do You Wanna Bump?&quot; in [[1975]], under the name Boney M. He performed the sparse vocals of the song himself. The song went on to become a hit and it was then that Farian decided to hire a team of [[dancer]]s and [[vocalist]]s to 'front' the group. The line-up of the group went through numerous changes, Maizie Williams being the only original member that remained. Not satisfied with merely miming to Farian's songs, one of the members, [[Claudja Barry]], left on short notice in [[February]] [[1976]] - days before the group was scheduled to appear on a local television gig in [[Saarbrücken]]. Liz Mitchell, then an unemployed singer and formerly a member of the [[Les Humphries Singers]], was brought in as a temporary replacement for the gig under the recommendation of Marcia Barrett. Farian was impressed with her performance, and she went on to record Boney M's first LP, ''Take The Heat Off Me''. Farian had previously recorded some songs with Marcia Barrett, the other vocalist of the group. A couple of the songs, &quot;Lovin' Or Leavin'&quot; and &quot;Daddy Cool&quot; were included on ''Take The Heat Off Me''. The commercial response to the album was lukewarm. However, the group rigorously toured discos, clubs and even country fairs to earn a reputation for themselves. The group's big break came when, at the end of that summer, music-TV-producer Michael 'Mike' Leckebusch of [[Radio Bremen]], requested the group for his show &quot;Musikladen&quot;. Boney M appeared on the live music show on [[18 September]] [[1976]], after 10pm, in their now trademark daring costumes. By the end of the following week, &quot;Daddy Cool&quot; became Germany's #1 single in the charts. The album was to follow the success of the single. Despite his success with Boney M, controversy followed the group's founder, Frank Farian, in what was to later shadow his involvement with [[Milli Vanilli]]. Bobby Farrell – the male face of the group – and Maisie/MaiZie (?) Williams made very little, if any, vocal contribution to the music. Almost all of the male vocals, along with some of the choir sections in songs such as &quot;Dancing in the Streets&quot; and &quot;Bye Bye Bluebird&quot;, were performed by Farian himself. Farrell, as Farian finally had admitted on German television in [[2003]], had been chosen for his personality and innovative dancing. ==Success== &quot;[[Rivers of Babylon]]&quot;, with lyrics partially based on [[Psalm]] 137, became the second highest selling single of all time in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] in 1978. After [[Rivers of Babylon]] slipped back down the chart, the [[B-side]] &quot;[[Brown Girl in the Ring]]&quot; was given extensive airplay on [[radio]] and the single climbed back up the chart to #2. It eventually sold 500 copies short of 2 million. The group also achieved a second UK million seller with their version of the [[calypso music|calypso]] classic &quot;Mary's Boy Child/O My Lord&quot; which was previously a million seller for [[Harry Belafonte]]. On a list of the [[List_of_best_selling_singles_(UK)|best selling singles in the United Kingdom]], issued in [[2001]], Boney M appear fifth and tenth places respectively, with the two above singles. They are the only act to appear twice in the Top 10; a feat not even [[the Beatles]] were able to achieve. Boney M, with their sensuous tunes and catchy rhythms, became one of the few western bands at that time which became well-known outside of Europe and the USA, including Africa, India, Sri Lanka and South-East Asia. To this day, along with [[ABBA]], they are among the most widely known 70's western music acts in these regions. ==Discography == ===Albums=== * ''Take The Heat Off Me'' (1976) * ''Love For Sale'' (1977) * ''Nightflight To [[Venus]]'' (1978) * ''Oceans Of Fantasy'' (1979) * ''Magic Of Boney M'' (1980) * ''Boonoonoonoos'' (1981) * ''Christmas Album'' (1981) * ''Ten Thousand Lightyears'' (1984) * ''Kalimba De Luna'' (1984) * ''Eye Dance'' (1985) * ''The Best Of 10 Years'' (1986) * ''20 Greatest Christmas Songs'' (1986) * ''Greatest Hits Of All Times - Remix'' (1988) * ''Greatest Hits Of All Time - Remix Vol 2'' (1989) * ''Gold'' (1992) * ''The Most Beautiful Christmas Songs Of The World'' (1992) * ''More Gold'' (1993) * ''20th Century Hits'' (1999) * ''Their Most Beautiful Ballards'' (2000) ===Singles=== * &quot;Baby Do You Wanna Bump?&quot; * &quot;[[Daddy Cool]]&quot; * &quot;Sunny&quot; * &quot;[[Ma Baker]]&quot; * &quot;[[Belfast]]&quot; * &quot;[[Rivers of Babylon]]&quot; / &quot;Brown Girl in the Ring&quot; (double A-side) * &quot;[[Rasputin (song)|Rasputin]]&quot; * &quot;[[Mary's Boy Child]]&quot; * &quot;Painter Man&quot; (about [[Andy Warhol]]) * &quot;Hooray Hooray It's A Holi-Holiday&quot; * &quot;El Lute&quot;, about the Spanish outlaw [[Eleuterio Sánchez]] / &quot;Gotta Go Home&quot; (double A-side) * &quot;I'm Born Again&quot; * &quot;I See a Boat on the River&quot; (except [[United Kingdom]] and [[Scandinavia]]) * &quot;My Friend Jack&quot; (this was the [[B_side|flip]] of &quot;I See a Boat on the River&quot; - but was released as the A-side in [[United Kingdom]] and [[Scandinavia]]) * &quot;Children Of Pa
ion. This was assumed to be a result of the phosphate mining method of digging trenches. [[Image:Clippertonisland.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Coconut palms on Clipperton Island]] [[Image:Clipperton_island_1957.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Map of Clipperton Island]] ==History== Clipperton Island was originally discovered by [[Ferdinand Magellan]] in [[1521]], but was later named after [[John Clipperton]], an [[England|English]] [[pirate]] and [[privateer]] who fought the [[Spain|Spanish]] during the early eighteenth century and who used the island as hidden base for his raids on shipping. In 1708, two French ships, 'La Princesse' and 'La Découverte', reached the island, named it 'Île de la Passion', and annexed it for the crown to France. The first scientific expedition took place in 1725 by the Frenchman M. Bocage, who lived on the island for several months. In April 1831, [[John Fitzgerald (sailor)|John Fitzgerald]] on his way to [[San Blas]] from [[Callao]] discovered an island at {{coor dm|18|30|N|114|33|W|}} not shown on any chart. The [[American Guano Mining Company]], under the [[Guano Islands Act]] of [[1856]], claimed the island for the [[United States|United States of America]], with earlier claim disputes to island guano by the [[Oceanic Phosphate Company]] with Mexico in 1848-49. On [[17 November]] [[1858]], under Emperor [[Napoleon III]] Bonaparte, the French annexed Clipperton as part of their South Sea colony [[Tahiti]]. [[Mexico]] reasserted its claim over the island in 1897 and established a military outpost on the island. The US again held it briefly during the [[Spanish American War]] of 1898. In [[1906]], the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Pacific Island Company]] acquired the rights to Clipperton's guano deposits and, in conjunction with the Mexican government, built a mining settlement. That same year, a lighthouse was erected under the orders of [[List of Presidents of Mexico|President]] [[Porfirio Díaz]], and a military garrison under Captain Ramón Arnaud of the Mexican army was sent to the island. By 1914, about 100 people &amp;ndash; men, women, and children &amp;ndash; were living on the island. Every two months, a ship from [[Acapulco]] sailed to the island with provisions. However, with the escalation of fighting in the [[Mexican Revolution]], the atoll was no longer reachable by ship, and the island's inhabitants were left to their own devices. By [[1915]], most of the inhabitants had died, and the last settlers wanted to leave on the [[United States Navy|US Navy]] warship 'Lexington' which had reached the atoll in late 1915. However, the Mexican military governor declared that evacuation was not necessary. By [[1917]], most of the men had died, some in a failed attempt to sail to the mainland and fetch help. The lighthouse keeper, Victoriano Álvarez, found himself the last man on the island, along with 15 women and children. Álvarez promptly proclaimed himself King and began a rampage of rape and murder, before being killed by one of the recipients of his attentions. On [[18 July]] [[1917]], almost immediately following Álvarez's death, four women and six children, the last survivors, were picked up by the US Navy gunship ''[[USS Yorktown]]''. Ownership of Clipperton was then disputed between [[France]] and [[Mexico]]. France approached the [[Holy See|Vatican]] for a decision on ownership and, in [[1930]], the Vatican assigned the task to the King of Italy, [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|Victor Emmanuel]], who declared one year later that Clipperton was a French possession. The French rebuilt the [[lighthouse]] and settled a military outpost on the island, which remained for seven years before being abandoned. In 1935 France takes possession; it has since been administered by the French colonial High Commissioner for French Polynesia. In the late 1930s, Clipperton was visited twice by President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] who wanted it to become a US possession for use as an airbase for [[Pacific Ocean]] operations and, in [[1944]], he ordered the navy to occupy the island in one of the most secret US operations of [[World War II]]. [[Richard E. Byrd|Rear Admiral Byrd]] undertook several expeditions to the island to assess its potential as an airbase. In [[1962]], the independence of Algeria threatened further French nuclear testing at [[Algeria]]n sites. The French Ministry of Defence considered Clipperton as a possible replacement test site; however, due to the island's hostile climate and remote location, this was eventually ruled out. During the 1970s the French explored reopening the lagoon and developing a harbour for trade and tourism. In [[1981]], the Academy of Sciences for Overseas Territories recommended that the island should have its own economic infrastructure, with an airstrip and a fishing port in the [[lagoon]]. This meant opening up the lagoon by creating a passage in the atoll rim. For this purpose, an agreement whereby the island became State property was signed with the French State, represented by the High Commissioner for French Polynesia. On [[October 13]] [[1986]], a meeting took place regarding the establishment of a permanent base for fishing on or near Clipperton, between the High-Commissioner for the Republic in [[French Polynesia]], representing the State, and the Survey firm for the development and exploitation of the small island Clipperton (SEDEIC). Taking into account the economic constraints, the distance and the small size of the atoll, no plan, apart from studies, was undertaken to carry out this project. In conclusion, plans for development of Clipperton were abandoned. [[Image:Clipperton Island.png|thumb|300px|Clipperton Island - NASA NLT Landsat 7 (Visible Color) Satellite Image]] The island has been abandoned since [[World War II|WW II]]; since then it has only been visited by sport fishermen, regularly scheduled patrols by the French Navy, and Mexican [[tuna]] and [[shark]] fishermen. There have been infrequent scientific and [[amateur radio]] expeditions, and, on one occasion, [[Jacques-Yves Cousteau]] visited with his team of divers and a survivor from the [[1917]] evacuation. In 2003 [[Lance Milbrand]] stayed on the island for 41 days on a [[National Geographic Society]] expedition, recording his adventure in video, photos, and a written diary. In [[2005]], Clipperton's [[ecosystem]] was extensively studied for four months by a scientific mission organised by [[Jean-Louis Étienne]], which was to make a complete inventory of mineral, plant and animal species found on the atoll, study algae as deep as 100m beneath sea level, study pollution, etc. Clipperton is often used by the [[France|French]] as a self-deprecating ironic reference to the importance of the French oversea possessions. See also: [[Islands controlled by France in the Indian and Pacific oceans]] ==Sources and External links== * {{fr icon}} [http://www.outre-mer.gouv.fr/outremer/front?id=outremer/decouvrir_outre_mer/clipperton_1049905838308 Official site] * {{fr icon}} [http://www.clipperton.fr Unofficial site] * {{fr icon}} [http://www.jeanlouisetienne.com/clipperton/default.cfm Site of Jean-Louis Étienne's expedition] *[http://www.infoplease.com/spot/desertisland3.html Clipperton Island at Infoplease] *[http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Fr_minor.html WorldStatesmen- France- Minor possessions] ==References== *Edwin D. Dickinson, ''The Clipperton Island Case''. American Journal of International Law, Vol. 27, No. 1., pp. 130-133. *Allen, G. R. and D. R. Robertson. 1996. ''An annotated checklist of the fishes of Clipperton Atoll, tropical eastern Pacific''. Retrieved (2001) from: &lt;http://www.ots.ac.cr/rbt/revistas/45-2/allen.htm&gt;. *IFRECOR. 1998. Clipperton. Retrieved (2001) from: &lt;http://www.reefbase.org/Summaries/pdf/Clipperton1998.pdf&gt;. *Pitman, R. L. and Jehl, J. R. 1998. ''Geographic variation and reassessment of species limits in the &quot;masked&quot; boobies of the eastern Pacific Ocean''. Wilson Bulletin 110:155-170. *Sachet, M. H. 1962. ''Flora and vegetation of Clipperton Island''. Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences. 4th ser., v.31, no.10. The Academy, San Francisco. * Skaggs, Jimmy. 1989. Clipperton. ''A History of the Island the World Forgot''. Walker and Company. New York. *Snodgrass, R. E. and E. Heller. 1902. ''The birds of Clipperton and Cocos Islands; Papers from the Hopkins Stanford Galapagos expedition 1898-1899''. The Academy, Washington, DC. *UNEP/IUCN. 1988. ''Coral Reefs of the World''. Volume 3: Central and Western Pacific. UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN/UNEP, Gland, Switzerland, Cambridge, UK, and Nairobi, Kenya. [[Category:French overseas departments, territories and collectivities]] [[Category:Islands]] [[Category:Neotropic]] [[Category:Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands]] [[cs:Clippertonův ostrov]] [[de:Clipperton-Insel]] [[es:Isla Clipperton]] [[eo:Klipertono]] [[fr:Clipperton]] [[it:Isola Clipperton]] [[nl:Clipperton]] [[ja:クリッパートン島]] [[pl:Wyspa Clipperton]] [[pt:Ilha de Clipperton]] [[sk:Clipperton]] [[fi:Clippertoninsaari]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Clipperton Island/History</title> <id>5511</id> <revision> <id>15903717</id> <timestamp>2002-08-30T20:09:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The Epopt</username> <id>30</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Clipperton Island]] -- This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] report</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Clipperton Island]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Clipperton Island/Geography</title> <id>5512</id> <revision> <id>15903718</id> <timestamp>2002-08-30T20:09:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The Epopt</username> <id>30</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Clipperton Island]] -- merged</comm
nent. Com eventually settled in Asia, where Gardner stayed for a large portion of his young-adult life. Beginning in [[1908]] he was a [[rubber]] planter, first in [[Borneo]] and then in [[Malaya]]. After [[1923]] he held civil service posts as a government inspector in [[Malaya]]. In [[1936]], at the age of 52, he retired to [[England]]. He published an authoritative text, ''[[Keris and other Malay Weapons]]'' (1936), based on his field research into southeast [[Asia]]n weapons and [[magic (paranormal)|magical]] practices. Apparently on medical advice, he took up [[nudism|naturism]] on his return to England, and also pursued his interest in the [[occult]]. Gardner published two works of fiction, ''[[A Goddess Arrives]]'' (1939) and ''[[High Magic's Aid]]'' ([[1949]]). These were followed by his purportedly-factual works, ''[[Witchcraft Today]]'' ([[1954]]) and ''[[The Meaning of Witchcraft]]'' ([[1959]]). In [[1964]], after suffering a heart attack, Gardner died at sea on a ship returning from [[Lebanon]]. He was buried on the shore of [[Tunisia]]. == Wicca == Gardner claimed to have been initiated in 1939 into a tradition of religious witchcraft that he believed to be a continuation of European [[Paganism]]. [[Doreen Valiente]], one of Gardner's priestesses, later identified the woman who initiated Garder as [[Dorothy Clutterbuck]] in a book &lt;!-- Which one again? --&gt; published by [[Janet Farrar|Janet]] and [[Stewart Farrar]]. This identification was based on references Valiente remembered Gardner making to a woman he called &quot;Old Dorothy&quot;. Scholar [[Ronald Hutton]] instead argues in his ''Triumph of the Moon'' that Gardner's witchcraft tradition was largely the inspiration of members of the [[Rosicrucian Order Crotona Fellowship]] and especially a woman known by the &quot;magical name&quot; of [[Dafo]]. Dr [[Leo Ruickbie]] in his ''Witchcraft Out of the Shadows'' analysed the documentary evidence and concluded that [[Aleister Crowley]] played a cruicial role in inspiring Gardner to establish a new pagan religion. Ruickbie, Hutton, and others, further argue that much of what has been published of [[Gardnerian Wicca]], as Gardner's practice came to be known by, was written by [[Doreen Valiente]], [[Aleister Crowley]] and also contains borrowings from other identifiable sources. === Etymology === Gardner, in his two books on the subject, referred to religious witchcraft as &quot;[[Wica]]&quot;, or &quot;The Craft&quot;. Gardner's spelling was quickly replaced by usage of &quot;Wicca&quot;. In Old English, a &quot;Wicca&quot; is a male necromancer, &quot;Wicce&quot; a female one, and &quot;Wiccae&quot;, is the plural form, &quot;necromancers&quot; {{ref|etym}}. Historical use of the word &quot;Wicca&quot; as any sort of religion is unsupported by etymology. The verb form, &quot;wiccian&quot;, which means &quot;to practice witchcraft&quot;, does not appear in Gardner's written material, and is not commonly used in literature about the religious movement. ==Bibliography== *1936: ''Keris and Other Malay Weapons'' *1939: ''A Goddess Arrives'' (fiction) *1949: ''High Magic's Aid'' (fiction) *1954: ''Witchcraft Today'' *1959: ''The Meaning of Witchcraft'' ==Notes and references== #{{note|mystica}} http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/g/gardner_gerald_b.html #{{note|etym}} http://www.etymonline.com ==External links== *[http://www.geraldgardner.com/ GeraldGardner.com] an online reference resource *[http://www.controverscial.com/Gerald%20Brosseau%20Gardner.htm Biography at Controverscial.com] *[http://paganwiccan.about.com/cs/authors/a/aagardner.htm Biography at About.com] [[Category:1884 births|Gardner, Gerald]] [[Category:1964 deaths|Gardner, Gerald]] [[Category:British novelists|Gardner, Gerald]] [[Category:British occultists|Gardner, Gerald]] [[Category:British religious writers|Gardner, Gerald]] [[Category:Wiccan people|Gardner, Gerald]] [[de:Gerald Brousseau Gardner]] [[pt:Gerald Gardner]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Genocidal organization</title> <id>12790</id> <revision> <id>15910447</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Genocide]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Goto (command)</title> <id>12791</id> <revision> <id>29140536</id> <timestamp>2005-11-24T15:45:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sikon</username> <id>293268</id> </contributor> <comment>#redirect [[GOTO]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[GOTO]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gavin MacLeod</title> <id>12792</id> <revision> <id>41924262</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:31:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>84.96.81.228</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Filmography */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gavin MacLeod''' (born [[February 28]], [[1930]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[actor]], notable for playing Murray Slaughter on ''[[The Mary Tyler Moore Show]]'' and Captain Merrill Stubing on ''[[The Love Boat]]''. Born '''Allan See''' in [[Mount Kisco, New York]], he grew up in [[Pleasantville, New York|Pleasantville]] and studied acting at [[Ithaca College]], graduating in [[1952]]. His father, a gas station attendant, was a [[Ojibwa|Chippewa (Ojibwa)]] Indian. After serving in the [[United States Air Force|Air Force]], he moved to [[New York City]] and worked at [[Radio City Music Hall]] while looking for acting work. At about this time he changed his name, drawing &quot;Gavin&quot; from a [[cerebral palsy]] victim in a TV drama, and &quot;MacLeod&quot; from his Ithaca drama coach, Beatrice MacLeod. His first movie appearance was in [[I Want To Live!]], a 1958 prison drama starring the late [[Susan Hayward]] who won an Oscar for her performance. He also appeared as the villain on TV shows of the late 1950s and early 1960s. His first regular TV role came in [[1962]] as Joseph &quot;Happy&quot; Haines on [[McHale's Navy]]. MacLeod's role as &quot;Murray Slaughter&quot; on [[The Mary Tyler Moore Show]] won him lasting fame, and two [[Golden Globe]] nominations, followed by another three nominations for his ''Love Boat'' work. Along with his wife Patti, an evangelical Christian, {{fact}} he wrote about struggles with [[divorce]] and [[alcoholism]] in ''Back On Course: The Remarkable Story of a Divorce That Ended in Remarriage''. For a brief time the MacLeods hosted a show on [[Trinity Broadcasting Network]] with the same name. ==Filmography== * ''[[I Want To Live!]]'' * ''[[Compulsion]]'' * ''[[Pork Chop Hill]]'' * ''[[Operation Petticoat]]'' * ''[[The Gene Krupa Story]]'' * ''[[Twelve Hours to Kill]]'' * ''[[High Time (film)|High Time]]'' * ''[[Kelly's Hero's (1970)]]'' * ''[[The Crimebusters]]'' * ''[[McHale's Navy Joins the Air Force]]'' * ''[[Time Changer (2002)]]'' * ''[[The Sand Pebbles]]'' ==Television== * ''[[Mr. Lucky]]'' * ''[[The Untouchables]]'' * ''[[Perry Mason]]'' * ''[[Dr. Kildare]]'' * ''[[The Dick Van Dyke Show]]'' * ''[[The Munsters]]'' * ''[[Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C.]]'' * ''[[The Andy Griffith Show]]'' * ''[[The Man from U.N.C.L.E.]]'' * ''[[Hogan's Heroes]]'' * ''[[The Rat Patrol]]'' * ''[[Combat! (television)|Combat!]]'' * ''[[The Big Valley]]'' * ''[[It Takes a Thief]]'' * ''[[Hawaii Five-O]]'' * ''[[Mary Tyler Moore (TV series)|Mary Tyler Moore]]'' * ''[[The Love Boat]]'' ==External links== *{{imdb name|id=0533891|name=Gavin MacLeod}} [[Category:1930 births|MacLeod, Gavin]] [[Category:Living people|MacLeod, Gavin]] [[Category:American television actors|MacLeod, Gavin]] [[Category:Native American actors|MacLeod, Gavin]] [[Category:United States Air Force airmen|MacLeod, Gavin]] [[Category:Ojibwa tribe|MacLeod, Gavin]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gopher protocol</title> <id>12794</id> <revision> <id>41577000</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T06:40:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kimchi.sg</username> <id>295955</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Gopher characteristics */ fix alignment</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gopher''' is a [[Distributed computing|distributed]] [[document]] search and retrieval [[network protocol]] designed for the [[Internet]]. Its goal was similar to that of the [[World Wide Web]], and it has been almost completely displaced by the Web. The Gopher protocol offers some features not natively supported by the Web and imposes a much stronger hierarchy on information stored in it. Its text menu interface is well-suited to computing environments that rely heavily on remote [[computer terminal]]s, common in universities at the time of its creation. Some consider it to be the superior protocol for storing and searching large repositories of information. ==History== ===Origins=== The original Gopher system was released in late spring of [[1991]] by [[Mark McCahill]], Farhad Anklesaria, [[Paul Lindner]], Dan Torrey, and Bob Alberti of the [[University of Minnesota]]. Its central goals were: * A file-like hierarchical arrangement that would be familiar to users * A simple syntax * A system that can be created quickly and inexpensively * Extending the file system metaphor to include things like searches The source of the name &quot;Gopher&quot; is claimed to be three-fold: # Users instruct it to &quot;go for&quot; information # It does so through a web of menu items analogous to [[Gopher (animal)|gopher]] holes # The sports team of the University of Minnesota is the [[Golden Gophers]] Gopher combines document hierarchies with collections of services, including [[Wide area information server|WAIS]], the [[Archie search engine|Archie]] and [[Veronica (compu
lic Church. * It can mean the one Church founded by Christ through [[Apostle Peter|Peter the Apostle]], according to Matthew 16:18-19: &quot;And I tell you, you are ''Cephas'' (which means rock), and on this rock I will build my Church, and the powers of death shall not prevail against it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven.’&quot; In Roman Catholic theology, this is understood to mean specifically the Roman Catholic Church. *Some use the term ''Catholic'' to distinguish their own position from a [[Calvinist]] or [[Puritan]] form of Reformed-[[Protestantism]]. These include [[High Church]] [[Anglican]]s, known also as &quot;[[Anglo-Catholicism|Anglo-Catholics]],&quot; High Church [[Lutheran]]s, known also as [[Neo-Lutheranism|Neo-Lutherans]], and others. [[Methodist]]s and [[Presbyterian]]s believe their denominations owe their origins to the Apostles and the early Church, but do not claim descent from ancient Church structures such as the episcopate. Neither of these Churches, however, denies that they are a part of the catholic (meaning universal) Church. == History of usage == Early [[Christianity|Christians]], such as Saint [[Ignatius of Antioch]] (who was martyred in about [[110]]), used the term to describe the whole [[Church]] - the word's literal meaning is ''universal'' or ''whole'' - as opposed to the local Church, and excluding adherents of [[sects]] or [[heresy|heretical]] groups. A letter that Saint Ignatius wrote to Christians in Smyrna in about 107 is the earliest surviving witness to the use of the term &quot;catholic Church&quot; (Smyrnaeans, 8).[1] By it Saint Ignatius designated the Christian Church in its universal aspect, excluding heretics, such as those who disavow &quot;the Eucharist to be the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ, which suffered for our sins, and which the Father, of His goodness, raised up again&quot; (Smyrnaeans, 7).[2] He called such people &quot;beasts in the shape of men, whom you must not only not receive, but, if it be possible, not even meet with&quot; (Smyrnaeans, 4).[3] The use of the term &quot;Catholic&quot; to distinguish the &quot;true&quot; Church from heretical groups is found also in [[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]], who wrote: :&quot;In the Catholic Church, there are many other things which most justly keep me in her bosom. The consent of peoples and nations keeps me in the Church; so does her authority, inaugurated by miracles, nourished by hope, enlarged by love, established by age. The succession of priests keeps me, beginning from the very seat of the [[Apostle Peter]], to whom the Lord, after His resurrection, gave it in charge to feed His sheep (Jn 21:15-19), down to the present episcopate. :&quot;And so, lastly, does the very name of Catholic, which, not without reason, amid so many heresies, the Church has thus retained; so that, though all heretics wish to be called Catholics, yet when a stranger asks where the Catholic Church meets, no heretic will venture to point to his own chapel or house. :&quot;Such then in number and importance are the precious ties belonging to the Christian name which keep a believer in the Catholic Church, as it is right they should ... With you, where there is none of these things to attract or keep me... No one shall move me from the faith which binds my mind with ties so many and so strong to the Christian religion... For my part, I should not believe the gospel except as moved by the authority of the Catholic Church.&quot; : &amp;mdash; St. Augustine (354&amp;ndash;430): ''Against the Epistle of Manichaeus called Fundamental'', chapter 4: Proofs of the Catholic Faith[http://www.ccel.org/pager.cgi?&amp;file=fathers/NPNF1-04/augustine/bk_fundamental/bk1.html&amp;from=CHAP4&amp;up=] Earlier still, [[Cyril of Jerusalem|St Cyril of Jerusalem]] (circa 315-386) urged those he was instructing in the Christian faith: &quot;If ever thou art sojourning in cities, inquire not simply where the Lord's House is (for the other sects of the profane also attempt to call their own dens houses of the Lord), nor merely where the Church is, but where is the Catholic Church. For this is the peculiar name of this Holy Church, the mother of us all, which is the spouse of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Only-begotten Son of God&quot; (Catechetical Lectures, XVIII, 26).[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/310118.htm] A contemporary of Augustine, [[St. Vincent of Lerins]], wrote in 434 under the pseudonym Peregrinus a work known as the ''Commonitoria'' (&quot;Memoranda&quot;). While insisting that, like the human body, Church doctrine develops while truly keeping its identity (sections 54-59, chapter XXIII), he stated: &quot;[I]n the Catholic Church itself, all possible care must be taken, that we hold that faith which has been believed everywhere, always, by all. For that is truly and in the strictest sense 'Catholic,' which, as the name itself and the reason of the thing declare, comprehends all universally. This rule we shall observe if we follow universality, antiquity, consent. We shall follow universality if we confess that one faith to be true, which the whole Church throughout the world confesses; antiquity, if we in no wise depart from those interpretations which it is manifest were notoriously held by our holy ancestors and fathers; consent, in like manner, if in antiquity itself we adhere to the consentient definitions and determinations of all, or at the least of almost all priests and doctors&quot; (section 6, end of chapter II). ==Present-day usage== While other Christian denominations also lay claim to the description &quot;catholic&quot;, including the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and those [[Protestantism|Protestant]] Churches possessing the [[historic episcopate]] (bishops), the term &quot;Catholic Church&quot; is usually associated with the Church that is also called the [[Roman Catholic Church]], and whose over one billion adherents are about half of the estimated 2.1 billion Christians. In countries that have been traditionally Protestant, ''Catholic'' will often be included in the official name of a particular [[parish]] church, school, [[hospice]] or other institution belonging to the Roman Catholic Church, to distinguish it from those of other [[Christianity:_Denominations|denominations]]. For example, the name &quot;St. Mark's ''Catholic'' Church&quot; seeks to make clear that it is not an [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] or [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] church. Those who apply the term &quot;Catholic Church&quot; to all Christians indiscriminately find it objectionable that a term that they see as designating the ''whole'' Church as an invisible entity should be used to refer to one communion only. However, the Roman Catholic Church, which holds that there can be no such thing as the Church as an &quot;invisible entity&quot; &lt;u&gt;only&lt;/u&gt;, or grouping of separated Communions, normally refers to itself simply as the Catholic Church, as shown in its publication of a &quot;[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]&quot;. It claims that it can basically be traced historically to the original Catholic or universal Church, from which various groups broke away over the centuries. The [[Assyrian Church of the East]], [[Oriental Orthodoxy]] and the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] all make the same claim in their own favour Though normally referring to itself simply as the Catholic Church, the Roman Catholic Church accepts the latter description in its relations with other Churches. There are some instances of its application to itself, in internal documents, of the adjective &quot;Roman&quot;, to indicate the central position for it of the see of Rome. An example is its self-description as the &quot;Holy, Catholic, Apostolic and Roman Church&quot;[http://www.ewtn.com/library/COUNCILS/V1.HTM#4] in the [[24 April]] [[1870]] Dogmatic Constitution on the Catholic Faith of the [[First Vatican Council]], a document in which it also refers to itself five times as simply the Catholic Church. This practice of calling itself simply the Catholic Church is in application of the belief that those who break off cease to be part of the Catholic Church - a belief that goes back, as mentioned above, even to Saint Ignatius of Antioch, the earliest known writer to use the term ''Catholic Church'' - combined with the belief that all who are not in full [[Communion (Christianity)|communion]] with the [[Pope|See of Rome]] have &quot;broken off.&quot; == Divergent usages == As noted, in addition to the [[Roman Catholic Church]], the [[Eastern Orthodox]] Churches, the [[Oriental Orthodox|Oriental Orthodox Churches]], and the [[Assyrian Church of the East]] all see themselves as the &quot;[[one holy catholic and apostolic Church]]&quot; of the [[Nicene Creed]]. [[Anglicanism|Anglicans]] and [[Old Catholic Church|Old-Catholics]] each see themselves as a Communion within that one Church, and [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]] see themselves as &quot;a reform movement within the greater Church catholic.&quot; The Orthodox do not recognize the universal primacy of the Bishop of Rome (i.e., the [[Pope]]), but do rank him as ''[[primus inter pares]]'' (&quot;first among equals&quot;) among the five major ancient Christian Patriarchates (super-metropolitical archiepiscopal Sees) of Constantinople, Alexandria, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Rome. Anglicans and Old-Catholics accept that the Bishop of Rome is ''primus inter pares'' among all [[primates]], but they embrace [[Conciliarism]] as a necessary check on what they consider to be the &quot;excesses&quot; of Roman [[Ultramontanism]]. The Catholic Church's view of the Bishop of Rome is that he is not only ''primus inter pares,'' but that he is also given a special charism as the &quot;Successor of Peter&quot; to serve as universal pastor to the entire Church. The Catholic Church summariz
ISBN 0816510067 *Oppenheim, A. Leo (and Reiner, Erica as editor). (1964). ''Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization''. Revised edition (September 15, 1977). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226631877 *Pennington, Kenneth. (1993). ''The Prince and the Law, 1200–1600: Sovereignty and Rights in the Western Legal Tradition''. Berkeley: University of California Press. *Polinsky, A. Mitchell. (1980). &quot;Private versus Public Enforcement of Fines&quot;. ''The Journal of Legal Studies'', Vol. IX, No. 1, (January), pp105-127. *Polinsky, A. Mitchell &amp; Shavell, Steven. (1997). &quot;On the Disutility and Discounting of Imprisonment and the Theory of Deterrence,&quot; NBER Working Papers 6259, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [http://ideas.repec.org/p/nbr/nberwo/6259.html] *Skaist, Aaron Jacob. (1994). ''The Old Babylonian Loan Contract: Its History and Geography''. Ramat Gan, Israel: Bar-Ilan University Press. ISBN 9652261610 *Tierney, Brian. (1979). ''Church Law and Constitutional Thought in the Middle Ages''. London: Variorum Reprints. ISBN 0860780368 *Tierney, Brian. (1964). ''The Crisis of Church and State, 1050–1300''. Reprint edition (1988). Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0802067018 *Vinogradoff, Paul. (1909). ''Roman Law in Medieval Europe''. Reprint edition (2004). Kessinger Publishing Co. ISBN 1417949090 [[Category:Crime|*]] [[Category:Criminal law]] [[Category:Criminology]] [[af:Misdaad]] [[bg:Престъпление]] [[da:Kriminalitet]] [[de:Verbrechen]] [[eo:krimo]] [[es:Crimen]] [[et:Kuritegu]] [[fi:Rikos]] [[fr:Délit]] [[he:עבירה]] [[io:Krimino]] [[ja:犯罪]] [[lb:Kriminalitéit]] [[nl:Misdaad]] [[pl:Przestepstwo]] [[pt:Crime]] [[ru:Преступление]] [[simple:Crime]] [[tr:Suç]] [[zh:犯罪]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>California Institute of Technology</title> <id>5786</id> <revision> <id>41951329</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:08:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>209.56.200.145</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* See also */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_University |name = California Institute of Technology |image = [[Image:CaltechLogo.png|Caltech Seal]] |motto = The truth shall make you free. |established = [[1891]] |type = [[Private university|Private]] |president= [[David Baltimore]] (departing) |city = [[Pasadena, California|Pasadena]] |state = [[California|CA]] |country = [[United States|USA]] |undergrad = 896 |postgrad = 1,275 |staff= 386 |campus = [[Urban_area|Urban]], 124 acres (0.5&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2;) |endowment= US$1.4 billion |mascot = Beaver |website= [http://www.caltech.edu/ www.caltech.edu] }} The '''California Institute of Technology''' (commonly referred to as '''Caltech''') is a [[private school| private]], [[coeducation]]al university located in [[Pasadena, California|Pasadena]], [[California]], in the [[United States of America|United States]]. One of the world's premier [[research]] universities, Caltech maintains a strong emphasis on the [[natural sciences]] and [[engineering]]. Caltech also owns and manages the [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] (JPL), an autonomous-space-flight complex that oversees the design and operation of most of [[NASA]]'s space-probes. ==History== Modern Caltech grew from a [[vocational school]] founded in Pasadena in 1891 by local businessman and politician [[Amos G. Throop]]. The school was known successively as ''Throop University'', ''Throop Polytechnic Institute'', and ''Throop College of Technology'', before acquiring its current name in 1920. Caltech and [[Polytechnic School]] were part of the same institution till 1907. Polytechnic School is now a private college preparatory school across the street from Caltech. The driving force behind the transformation of Caltech from a school of [[arts and crafts]] to a world-class scientific center was the vision of astronomer [[George Ellery Hale]]. Hale had joined Throop's board of trustees after coming to Pasadena in [[1907]] as the first director of the [[Mount Wilson Observatory]]. At a time when scientific research in the United States was still in its infancy, Hale saw an opportunity to create in Pasadena an institution for serious research and education in engineering and the natural sciences. Hale succeeded in attracting private gifts of land and money that allowed him to endow the school with well-equipped, modern [[laboratory]] facilities. He then convinced two of the leading American scientists of the time, [[physical chemistry|physical chemist]] [[Arthur Amos Noyes]] and experimental [[physics|physicist]] [[Robert Andrews Millikan]], to join Caltech's [[Faculty (university)|faculty]] and contribute to the project of establishing it as a center for [[science]] and [[technology]]. In 1917 Hale hired architect [[Bertram Goodhue]] to produce a master plan for the 22 acre (89,000 m&amp;sup2;) campus. Goodhue conceived of the overall layout of the campus and designed the Physics Building, Dabney Hall, and several other structures, in which he sought to be consistent with the local climate, the character of the school, and Hale's educational philosophy. Goodhue's designs for Caltech were also influenced by the traditional Spanish [[Architecture of the California Missions|mission architecture]] of Southern California. [[Image:Millikan Library, Caltech.jpg|thumb|Millikan Library, the tallest building on campus]] Under the leadership of Hale, Noyes, and Millikan (and aided by the booming economy of [[Southern California]]), Caltech grew very significantly in prestige in the 1920s. In 1923, Millikan was awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] for physics. In [[1925]] the school established a department of [[geology]] and hired [[William Bennett Munro]], then chairman of the division of History, Government, and Economics at [[Harvard University]], to create a division of [[humanities]] and [[social sciences]] at Caltech. In 1928 a division of [[biology]] was established under the leadership of [[Thomas Hunt Morgan]], the most distinguished biologist in the United States and a discoverer of the role of genes and the [[chromosome]] in heredity. In 1926 a graduate school of [[aeronautics]] was created which eventually attracted [[Theodore von Kármán]], who later contributed to the creation of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and who established Caltech as one of the foremost centers for [[rocket|rocket-science]]. In 1928 construction began on the [[Palomar Observatory]]. Millikan served as &quot;chairman of the executive council&quot; (effectively Caltech's president) from 1921 to 1945, and his influence was such that the Institute was occasionally referred to as &quot;Millikan's School.&quot; In the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, Caltech was known as the home of arguably the two greatest theoretical [[elementary particle|particle physicists]] working at the time: [[Murray Gell-Mann]] and [[Richard Feynman]]. Both Gell-Mann and Feynman received Nobel Prizes for their work, which was central to the establishment of the so-called &quot;[[Standard Model]]&quot; of particle physics. Feynman was also widely known outside the physics community as an exceptional teacher and a colorful, unconventional character. Caltech remains, to this day, a relatively small university, with approximately 900 [[undergraduate]]s, 1300 [[graduate student]]s, and 900 faculty members (including 378 [[professor]]s, 54 permanent research faculty, and 545 [[postdoctoral researcher]]s.) It is a private institution, governed by its [[Caltech Trustees|Board of Trustees]]. As of [[2005]], Caltech claims 31 [[Nobel Prize|Nobel laureates]] to its name. This figure includes 17 alumni, 14 non-alumni professors, and 4 professors who were also alumni ([[Carl D. Anderson]], [[Linus Pauling]], [[William A. Fowler]], and [[Edward B. Lewis]]). The number of awards is 32, because Pauling received the prize in both [[chemistry]] and [[peace]]. With fewer than 25,000 alumni in total, nearly one in a thousand Techers have received the Nobel Prize &amp;mdash; a ratio unmatched by any other university. Five faculty and alumni have received a [[Crafoord Prize]] from the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]], while 47 have been awarded the U.S. [[National Medal of Science]], and 10 have received the [[National Medal of Technology]] [http://www.caltech.edu/at-a-glance/]. Other distinguished researchers have been affiliated with Caltech as postdoctoral scholars (e.g., [[Barbara McClintock]], [[James D. Watson]], and [[Sheldon Glashow]]) or visiting professors (e.g. [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Edward Witten]]). The movie comedy ''[[Real Genius (movie)|Real Genius]]'' and the CBS crime drama ''[[Numb3rs]]'' are loosely based on events at Caltech. [http://alumnus.caltech.edu/~erich/real_genius_refs.html] Caltech is ranked the seventh best university in the nation by U.S. News and World Report, and is tied for this spot with the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]. The Spitzer Science Center (SSC), located on the Caltech campus, is the data analysis and community support center for [[NASA]]'s [[Spitzer Space Telescope]]. The SSC is part of the [[Infrared Processing and Analysis Center (IPAC)]] and works in collaboration with the [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] (JPL). ==Academics== Academics at Caltech are famously hard, and the analogy of drinking water from a firehose is often applied. Life is sometimes described by the aphorism, &quot;Work, sleep, social life: pick two,&quot; pointing to the great amount of academic work. While Caltech is most famous for its physics department, it has strived particularly to improve its facilities in the life sciences. Caltech is also known for interdisciplinary programs such as the Computation and Neural Systems (CNS) program. ===Academic departments=== Caltech is divided into six d
threatened the [[cherry]] industry with legal measures unless it stops mentioning health benefits. [http://www.wjla.com/news/stories/1005/272655.html] [http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/chrylist.html] The FDA has sent letters to cherry distributors saying that when health benefits are mentioned, the cherries then become &quot;drugs&quot; that are subject to seizure. [http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~acrobat/chrltr11.pdf] ([http://www.lef.org/magazine/mag2006/mar2006_awsi_01.htm ''FDA Threatens to Raid Cherry Orchards''], William Faloon, Life Extension Magazine, March 2006) ====Medicines==== The FDA censors health claims for medicines, including over-the-counter remedies. For instance, The FDA prohibits asprin packages from containing the research-backed information that taking an asprin every day reduces the risk of heart attack. Some argue that the restrictions save consumers from having bad information, but the counter argument is that they are also prohibited from having good information. Some medicine manufactures have proposed a compromise, where the FDA could say what they want on the label of a medicine while the manufacturer could say what they want as well. However, this proposal has been rejected by the FDA. [http://www.uncommonknowledge.org/99winter/324.html] == External links == * http://www.fda.gov/ Official FDA website * http://www.fdareview.org/ ''Is the FDA Safe and Effective?'' * [http://www.independent.org/newsroom/article.asp?id=403 The FDA Needs a Big Dose of Economics] by Alexander Tabarrok &amp; Daniel B. Klein * [http://www-hoover.stanford.edu/pubaffairs/we/2004/henderson02.html ''End the FDA's Monopoly'' by David R. Henderson] &quot;Pare back the FDA's powers to that of an information agency&quot; * [http://www.stopfda.org/ Consumers Against High Drug Prices] - an organization blames the FDA for High Drug Prices * [http://www.lef.org/magazine/mag2005/mar2005_awsi_01.htm ''Death By Regulation''] Asserts that the FDA regulations defrauding Americans out of health and money * [http://www.phrma.org''The Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America (PhRMA)''] represents the leading research-based pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies in the United States * [http://64.233.161.104/search?q=cache:yVvp4VM2UGkJ:www.ita.doc.gov/td/chemicals/drugpricingstudy.pdf Pharmaceutical ''Price Controls in OECD Countries Implications for U.S. Consumers, Pricing, Research and Development, and Innovation''] by U.S. Department of Commerce * [http://www.lewrockwell.com/paul/paul288.html ''Free Speech and Dietary Supplements''] A speech given before the U.S. House of Representatives by [[Ron Paul]] on Nov 10, 2005, introducing the Health Freedom Protection Act (H.R. 4282) and criticizing the FDA for censoring consumer information * [http://www.vrp.com/pdf/Emord-Editorial.pdf ''FDA and FTC Censorship of Health Information Must End''] by Jonathan W. Emord (pdf) * [http://www.emrworld.net/emr-research/articles/fda.ppt EMR FDA] - provides guidance for industry computerized systems used in FDA clinical trials. * [http://www.fda.gov/oc/history/makinghistory/100yearsofbiologics.html] - A brief description of events leading to the first federal regulation of biologics ===Articles=== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4024195.stm US drug safety checks 'slack'] ==References== # {{note|CHI}} [http://www.worldpharmacongress.com CHI World Pharmaceutical Congress 2005 Website] and final agenda in print form. Verified 03-07-2005. # {{note|petitionform}} [http://www.fda.gov/ora/fed_state/Small_business/sb_guide/petit.html How to Petition the FDA]. Retrieved 2005-03-20. # {{note|Review}} [http://www.fdareview.org/ FDAReview.org] # {{note|Friedman}} Friedman, Milton &amp; Rose (1979). &lt;i&gt;Free to Choose&lt;/i&gt;. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. ISBN 0-15-133481-1. [[Category:Nutrition]] [[Category:Pharmacology]] [[Category:clinical research]] [[Category:United States Department of Health and Human Services]] [[de:Food and Drug Administration]] [[fr:Food and Drug Administration]] [[he:FDA]] [[ja:アメリカ食品医薬品局]] [[nl:Food and Drug Administration]] [[sv:Food and Drug Administration]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Field extension</title> <id>11634</id> <revision> <id>41184080</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T16:51:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>62.253.16.11</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Algebraic and transcendental elements */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[abstract algebra]], ''K'' is a '''field extension''' of ''F'' if &lt;math&gt;F \subseteq K&lt;/math&gt;, where ''K'' and ''F'' are both [[field (mathematics)|fields]]. This is often denoted as ''K''/''F''. The generalization to [[ring (mathematics)|ring]]s is called [[ring extension]]s. For example, '''C''' (the field of [[complex number|complex numbers]]) is an extension of '''R''' (the field of [[real number|real numbers]]), and '''R''' is itself an extension of '''Q''' (the field of [[rational number|rational numbers]]). == Formal definition == Suppose ''K'' and ''F'' are fields. ''K'' is a field extension of ''F'' if ''K'' contains a [[subfield]] ''G'' that is [[isomorphism|isomorphic]] to ''F''. In the simple case that &lt;math&gt;F \subseteq K&lt;/math&gt;, we can choose the subfield ''G'' to be ''F'' itself and ''G'' and ''F'' are trivially isomorphic (the isomorphism maps every element to itself). However, in this more general definition, we do not require the elements of ''F'' to be inside ''K'', only that the structure of ''F'' is somehow think of ''K'' present in ''K'' (recall that isomorphisms preserve structure). Since ''F'' and ''G'' have the same structure, we usually imagine ''F'' being inside ''K'', even if this is not actually true. Hence, in most literature (and in the introduction and subsequent sections of this article), the existence of ''G'' is implicit whenever ''F'' is not a subfield of ''K''. == Field extensions as vector spaces == A field extension ''K''/''F'' can also be considered as a [[vector space]] over ''F''. The elements of ''K'' are &quot;vectors&quot; and the elements of ''F'' are the &quot;scalars&quot;. We add the vectors just like we add elements in ''K'', and scalar multiplication is multiplication of elements from ''F'' by elements from ''K''. The [[dimension (vector space)|dimension]] of this vector space is called the '''degree''' of the extension, and is denoted [''K''&amp;nbsp;:&amp;nbsp;''F'']. The extension is called a '''finite extension''' or '''infinite extension''' depending on whether the degree is finite or infinite. Examples: * ['''C'''&amp;nbsp;:&amp;nbsp;'''R'''] = 2, so this extension is finite. * ['''R'''&amp;nbsp;:&amp;nbsp;'''Q'''] = ''c'' (the [[cardinality of the continuum]]), so this extension is infinite. If ''L'' is an extension of ''K'' which is an extension of ''F'', then it can be shown that : &lt;math&gt;[L : F] = [L : K]\cdot[K : F]&lt;/math&gt; == Algebraic and transcendental elements == If ''K'' is an extension of ''F'', then an element of ''K'' which is a root of a nonzero [[polynomial]] over ''F'' is said to be '''algebraic''' over ''F''. If it is not algebraic then it is said to be '''transcendental'''. As an example: * In '''C'''/'''R''', ''i'' is algebraic because it is a root of x²+1. * In '''R'''/'''Q''', &lt;math&gt;(\sqrt{2}+\sqrt{3})&lt;/math&gt; is algebraic, because it is a root of &lt;math&gt;x^4-10x^2+2&lt;/math&gt; * In '''R'''/'''Q''', ''e'' is transcendental because there is no polynomial with rational coefficients that has ''e'' as a root (see [[transcendental number]]) * In '''C'''/'''R''', ''e'' is algebraic because it is the root of x-''e'' The special case of '''C'''/'''Q''' is especially important, and the names [[algebraic number]] and [[transcendental number]] are used to describe the complex numbers. If every element of ''K'' is algebraic over ''F'', then the extension ''K''/''F'' is said to be an '''[[algebraic extension]]'''; otherwise it is said to be '''transcendental'''. If every element of ''K'' except those in ''F'' is transcendental over ''F'', then the extension is said to be '''pure transcendental'''. It can be shown that an extension is algebraic if and only if it is the union of its finite subextensions. In particular, every finite extension is algebraic. For example, * '''C'''/'''R''', being finite, is algebraic. * '''R'''/'''Q''' is transcendental, although not pure transcendental. == Generating fields == If ''K''/''F'' is a field extension and ''V'' is a subset of ''K'', then the field ''F''(''V'') is defined to be the smallest subfield of ''K'' which contains ''F'' and ''V''. It consists of all those elements of ''K'' that can be gotten using a finite number of field operations +, -, *, / applied to elements from ''F'' and ''V''. If ''K'' = ''F''(''V''), then we say that ''K'' is '''generated''' by ''V''. A field extension generated by a single element is called a '''simple''' extension. A simple extension is finite if generated by an algebraic element, and pure transcendental if generated by a transcendental element. For example, * '''C''' is a simple extension of '''R''', as it is generated by ''i'' (the square root of minus one). * '''R'''/'''Q''' is not simple, as it is neither finite nor pure transcendental. A field extension which has a [[Galois group]] is called a [[Galois extension]]. If the Galois group is Abelian, then the extension is called an '''Abelian extension'''. For example, * '''C'''/'''R''' is a Abelian extension, its Galois group being of order 2. * '''R'''/'''Q''' is not a Galois extension, since, for example, the polynomial ''x''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;minus; 2, while having a root in '''R''', does not [[splitting field|split]] over '''R'''. [[Category:Field theory]] [[de:Körpererweiterung]] [[es:Extensión de cuerpo]] [[fr:Extension de corps]] [[he:הרחבה של שדות]]</text> </revision> </page> <page>
g's strategy was to accumulate munitions for future civil war rather than fight the Japanese, but Stilwell was unable to convince [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] of this and precious [[Lend-Lease]] armaments continued to be allocated to the Kuomintang. Chiang was recognized as one of the &quot;Big Four&quot; Allied leaders along with Roosevelt, [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]], and [[Josef Stalin|Stalin]] and travelled to attend the [[Cairo Conference]] in November [[1943]]. His wife acted as his translator and adviser. ==&quot;Losing China&quot;== [[Image:1945 chiang-mao.jpg|thumb|250px|Chiang and Mao met in the wartime capital of Chongqing to toast to the Chinese victory over Japan, but their shaky alliance was short-lived.]] Following the World War, the United States encouraged peace talks between Chiang and Communist leader [[Mao Zedong]] in Chongqing, but each side, both distrustful of each other and the United States' professed neutrality, soon resorted to [[Chinese Civil War|all-out war]]. The U.S. suspended aid to Chiang Kai-shek for much of the period of 1946 to 1948, in the midst of fighting against the [[People's Liberation Army]] led by [[Mao Zedong]]. Though Chiang achieved great status internationally, his government was deteriorating with corruption and inflation. The war had severely weakened the Nationalists both in terms of resources and popularity while the Communists were strengthened by aid from [[Stalin]], and guerrilla organizations extending throughout rural areas. The Nationalists initially had superiority in arms and men, but their lack of popularity and morale, and apparent disorganization soon allowed the Communists to gain the upper hand. Meanwhile a new [[Constitution of the Republic of China|Constitution]] promulgated in [[1947]], and Chiang was elected by the [[National Assembly of the Republic of China|National Assembly]] to be President. This marked the beginning of the democratic constitutional government period in KMT political orthodoxy, but the Communists refused to recognize the new Constitution and its government as legitimate. Chiang resigned as President on [[January 21]], [[1949]], as KMT forces suffered massive losses against the communists. Vice President [[Li Tsung-jen]] took over as Acting President, but his relationship with Chiang soon deteriorated, as Chiang still acted as if he were in power, and Li was forced into exile in the United States under a medical excuse (under Chiang's direction, Li was later formally impeached by the [[Control Yuan]]). In the early morning of [[December 10]], [[1949]], Communist troops laid siege to [[Chengdu]], the last KMT occupied city in [[mainland China]], where Chiang Kai-shek and his son Chiang Ching-kuo directed the defense at the [[Chengdu Central Military Academy]]. The [[aircraft]] ''May-ling'' evacuated them to Taiwan on the same day, forever removing them from the Chinese mainland. ==Presidency in Taiwan== Chiang moved his government to [[Taipei]], [[Taiwan]], where he formally resumed his duties as president on [[March 1]], [[1950]]. Chiang was reelected by the National Assembly to be the President of the ROC on [[May 20]], [[1954]] and later on in [[1960]], [[1966]], and [[1972]]. In this position he continued to claim sovereignty over all of [[China]]. In the context of the [[Cold War]], most of the [[Western world]] recognized this position and the ROC represented [[China in the United Nations]] and other [[international organization]]s until the [[1970s]]. Despite the democratic constitution, the government under Chiang was a [[political repression|repressive]] and [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] [[single-party state]] consisting almost completely of non-Taiwanese [[mainlander]]s; the &quot;Temporary Provisions Effective During the Period of Communist Rebellion&quot; greatly enhanced executive power and the goal of &quot;retaking the mainland&quot; allowed the KMT to maintain its monopoly on power and to outlaw opposition parties. The government's official line for these provisions stemmed from the claim that emergency provisions were necessary, since the Communists and KMT were still technically under a state of war, without any cease-fire signed, after Chiang retreated to Taiwan. His government sought to impose [[Chinese nationalism]] and repressed the local culture, such as by forbidding the use of [[Taiwanese (linguistics)|Taiwanese]] in mass media broadcasts or in schools. The government permitted free debate within the confines of the legislature, but jailed dissidents who were either labelled as supporters of [[Communist Party of China|Chinese communism]] or [[Taiwan independence]]. His son [[Chiang Ching-kuo]] and Chiang Ching-kuo's successor [[Lee Teng-hui]] would in the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]] increase native Taiwanese representation in the government and loosen the many authoritarian controls of the Chiang Kai-shek era. Since new elections could not be held in their Communist-occupied constituencies, the members of the KMT-dominated National Assembly, [[Legislative Yuan]], and [[Control Yuan]] held their posts indefinitely. It was under the Temporary Provisions that Chiang was able to bypass term limits to remain as president. He was reelected (unopposed) by the National Assembly as president four times in [[1954]], [[1960]], [[1966]], and [[1972]]. Defeated by the Communists, Chiang [[purge]]d members of the KMT previously accused of corruption, and major figures in the previous mainland government such as [[H.H. Kung]] and [[T.V. Soong]] exiled themselves to the United States. Though the government was politically authoritarian and controlled key industries, it encouraged economic development, especially in the export sector. A sweeping Land Reform Act, as well as American [[foreign aid]] during the 1950's laid the foundation for Taiwan's economic success, becoming one of the [[East Asian Tigers]]. During this time Chiang received an honorary degree from [[Bob Jones University]]. When the uniform numbers of the [[National Identification Cards of the Republic of China]] ([[:zh:中華民國國民身分證|中華民國國民身分證]]) started to be coded in 1965, the bearer of the number 1 ID Card was Chiang Kai-shek, coded Y10000001. ==Death and legacy== [[Image:Cihu Chiang Kai-shek tomb (left).JPG|300px|left|thumb|Chiang's body was not buried in the traditional Chinese manner but entombed in his former residence in [[Cihhu]] in respect for his wish to be buried in his native Fenghua.]] In [[1975]], 26 years after Chiang fled to Taiwan, he died in [[Taipei]] at the age of 87. He had suffered a major [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]] and [[pneumonia]] in the months before and died from [[renal failure]] aggravated with advanced cardiac malfunction at 11 p.m. on [[April 5]]. A month of mourning was declared during which the Taiwanese people were asked to put on black armbands. Televisions ran in black-and-white while all banquets or celebrations were forbidden. On the mainland, however, Chiang's death was met with little apparent mourning and news papers gave the brief headline &quot;Chiang Kai-shek has died.&quot; Chiang's corpse was put in a copper coffin and temporarily interred at his favorite residence in [[Cihhu]], [[Dasi, Taiwan|Dasi]], [[Taoyuan County (Taiwan)|Taoyuan County]]. When his son [[Chiang Ching-kuo]] died in 1988, he was also entombed in a separate [[mausoleum]] in nearby [[Touliao]]. The hope was to have both buried at their birthplace in Fenghua once the mainland was recovered. In [[2004]], [[Chiang Fang-liang]], the widow of Chiang Ching-kuo, asked that both father and son be buried at [[Wuchih Mountain Military Cemetery]] in [[Sijhih]], [[Taipei County]]. The state funeral ceremony is planned for late [[2005]]. Chiang Fang-liang and Soong May-ling had agreed in 1997 that the former leaders be first buried but still be moved to mainland China in the event of reunification. [[Image:CKS Memorial Hall.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall in Taipei]] [[Image:ChiangKai-shek MemorialHall MainChamber.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The [[Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall]] was opened in 1980 on the fifth anniversary of Chiang's death.]] Chiang was succeeded as President by Vice President [[Yen Chia-kan]] and as KMT party leader by his son [[Chiang Ching-kuo]], who retired Chiang Kai-shek's title of Director-General and instead assumed the position of Chairman.Yen Chia-kan's presidency was mainly symbolic, with real power held by [[Premier of the Republic of China|Premier]] Chiang Ching-kuo, who became President after Yen's term ended three years later. Though one of the major figures in Chinese history, Chiang Kai-shek failed to cultivate in the Chinese people the affection of Sun Yat-sen or the regard of Mao Zedong. As Mao's number-one nemesis, he was vilified in mainland China as &quot;China's number one fascist&quot;: a leader who did not serve China's best national interest in not putting an all-out effort against Japan and in trying to crack down on the Communists. Although numbers are uncertain, many estimates place the number of deaths during Chiang Kai-shek's rule on the mainland at around ten million (the lowest estimates provide a figure of about four million, while higher figures suggest as many as 18 million). Many deaths were the result of war and famine, but according to the controversial historian [[R.J. Rummel]] approximately four million were killed directly. According to Rummel, even the lower figures would suggest that Chiang Kai-shek has been responsible for more deaths than all but a handful of [[20th century|20th-century]] dictators. Chiang Kai-shek's current popularity in Taiwan is sharply divided among political lines, enjoying greater support among KMT voters and the mainlander population. However, he is largely unpopular among DPP supporters and voters. Since the democratization of the [[1990s]], his picture began to be removed from public buildings and the currency, while
ty : ; matter or property : : energy : . space : ' time === Classes === The following are the main classes of CC, with some subclasses, the main method used to sort the subclass using the PMEST scheme and examples showing application of PMEST. :A Generalia :1 Universe of Knowledge :2 Library Science :3 Book Science :4 Journalism :B Mathematics ::B1 Arithmetic :::B13 Theory of Numbers ::B2 Algebra :::B23 Algebraic Equations :::B25 Higher Algebra ::B3 Analysis :::B33 Differential Equations ''[equation] , [degree] , [order] : [problem] ::::B331,1,2:1 Numerical solutions ('':1'') of ordered (33''1'') linear ('',1'') second order ('',2'') differential equations :::B37 Real Variables :::B38 Complex Variables ::B4 Other Methods ::B6 Geometry ::B7 Mechanics ::B8 Physico-Mathematics ::B9 Astronomical Mathematics :C Physics ::C1 Fundamentals of Physics ::C2 Properties of Matter ::C3 Sound ::C4 Heat ::C5 Light and Radiation ::C6 Electricity ::C7 Magnetism ::C8 Cosmic Hypothesis :D Engineering :E Chemistry :F Technology :G Biology :H Geology ::HX Mining :I Botany :J Agriculture :L Medicine ::LZ3 Pharmacology ::LZ5 Pharmacopoeia :M Useful arts :Ð Spiritual experience and mysticism :N Fine arts ::NA Architecture ''[style] , [utility] , [part] : [technique]'' ::ND Sculpture ''[style] , [figure] ; [material] : [technique]'' ::NN Engraving ::NQ Painting ''[style] , [figure] ; [material] : [technique]'' ::NR Music ''[style] , [music] ; [instrument] : [technique]'' :O Literature :P Linguistics :Q Religion :R Philosophy :S Psychology :T Education :U Geography :V History :W Political science :X Economics :Y Sociology :Z Law ==See also== *[[Bliss bibliographic classification]] *[[Universal Decimal Classification]] [[de:Colon-Klassifikation]] [[it:Classificazione Colon]] [[Category:Knowledge representation]] [[Category:Library and information science]] ==External links== * [http://www.iskoi.org/doc/colon.htm More Detail about the Colon Classification at ISKO Italia] {{Standard-stub}} [[Category:Classification systems]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Census</title> <id>6889</id> <revision> <id>41878391</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T08:36:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pepith</username> <id>693210</id> </contributor> <comment>Corrected Statistics New Zealands Maori title</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:1870 census Lindauer Weber 01.gif|thumb|1870 US Census for New York City]] A '''census''' is the process of obtaining information about every member of a [[population]] (not necessarily a [[human]] population). It can be contrasted with [[sampling (statistics)|sampling]] in which information is only obtained from a subset of a population. As such it is a method used for accumulating [[statistics|statistical]] data, and it is also vital to [[democracy]] ([[voting]]). Census data is also commonly used for research, business [[marketing]], and planning purposes. ==Ancient and medieval censuses== [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] conducted censuses to determine [[tax|taxes]] (''see [[Censor (ancient Rome)|Censor]]''). The [[Bible]] relates stories of several censuses. The [[Book of Numbers]] describes a divinely-mandated census that occurred when [[Moses]] led the [[Israelite|Israelites]] from [[Egypt]]. A later census called by King [[David]] of [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]], referred to as the &quot;[[numbering of the people]],&quot; incited divine retribution (for being militarily motivated or perhaps displaying lack of faith in God). A [[Roman census]] is also mentioned in one of the best known passages of the Bible in the [[Gospel of Luke]]. The world's oldest extant census comes from [[China]] during the [[Han Dynasty]]. Taken in the fall of 2 AD, it is considered by scholars to be quite accurate. At that time there were 57.5 million living in Han China, the world's largest population. The second oldest preserved census is also from the Han, dating back to 140 AD, when only a bit more than 48 million people were recorded. Mass migrations into what is today southern China are believed to be behind this massive demographic decline. In the [[Middle Ages]], the most famous census is the [[Domesday Book]], undertaken in 1086 by [[William I of England]] &quot;to find out ... what or how much each landholder had in land and livestock, and what it was worth,&quot; so that he could properly tax the land he had recently conquered. In 1183, a census was taken of the [[crusade]]r [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]], to ascertain the number of men and amount of money that could possibly be raised against an invasion by [[Saladin]], sultan of [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]]. ==Modern censuses== ===Australia=== The [[Australia]]n census is run by the [[Australian Bureau of Statistics]]. It is carried out every five years, the last one being on [[August 7]], [[2001]] and the next planned census is [[August 8]], [[2006]]. Past Australian censuses were conducted in 1901, 1921, 1933, 1947, 1954, 1961, 1966, 1971, 1976, 1981, 1986, 1991, 1996, and 2001. ===Brazil=== The [[Brazil|Brazilian]] census is carried out by [[IBGE]], the [[Brazil|Brazilian]] Institute of Geography and Statistics, every 10 years. The last one was in 2000. ===Canada=== The [[Canada|Canadian]] census is run by [[Statistics Canada]]. The [[1666 census of New France|first census conducted in Canada]] was conducted in 1666, by [[France|French]] [[intendant of New France|intendant]] [[Jean Talon]], when he took a census to ascertain the number of people living in [[New France]]. In 1871, Canada's first formal census was conducted, which counted the population of [[Nova Scotia]], [[Ontario]], [[New Brunswick]], and [[Quebec]]. In 1918, the [[Dominion Bureau of Statistics]] was formed, and replaced by Statistics Canada in 1971. Censuses in Canada are conducted in five-year intervals. The last census was conducted in 2001 and the next planned census is 2006. Censuses taken in mid-decade (1976, 1986, 1996, etc.) are referred to as [[quinquennial]] censuses. Others are referred to as [[decennial]] censuses. The first quinquennial census was conducted in 1956. For the 2006 Census of Canada, respondents will be able to choose to complete their census questionnaire online. See also: [[Canada 2001 Census]] ===Costa Rica=== [[Costa Rica]] carried out its [[Costa Rica 2000 Census|9th population census]] in 2000. [[INEC]], ''National Institute of Statistics and Census'' is in charge of conduct these census. Past Costa Rican censuses were realized in 1864, 1883, 1892, 1927, 1950, 1963, 1973 and 1984. ===Denmark=== The first [[Denmark|Danish]] census was in 1700-1701, and contained statistical information about adult men. Only about half of it still exists. A census of school children was taken during the 1730s. Following these early undertakings, the first census to attempt completely covering all citizens (including women and children who had previously been listed only as numbers) of [[Denmark-Norway]] was taken in 1769 [http://www.rhd.uit.no/census/ft1769.html]. At that point there were 797 584 citizens in the kingdom. [[Georg Christian Oeder]] took a statistical census in 1771 which covered [[Copenhagen]], [[Sjælland]], [[Møn]], and [[Bornholm]]. After that, censuses followed somewhat regularly in 1787, 1801, and 1834, and between 1840 and 1860, the censuses were taken every five years, and then every ten years until 1890. Special censuses for Copenhagen were taken in 1885 and 1895. In the 20th century, censuses were taken every five years from 1901 to 1921, and then every ten years from 1930. The last census was taken in 1950. Currently, [[Det Centrale Personregister]] is doing the censuses using their register of Danish citizens. It is possible to search a portion of the Danish censuses online at [http://ddd.dda.dk/ Dansk Demografisk Database], and also view scanned versions at [http://www.arkivalieronline.dk/ Arkivalier Online]. ===France=== [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] began the census in France as a means of determining the number of potential soldiers under his rule. Today, the census in [[France]] is carried out by [[INSEE]]. Since 2004, a partial census is carried out every year, and the results published as averages over 5 years. ===Germany=== The first large-scale census in the German Empire took place in [[German census of 1895|1895]]. Attempts at introducing a census in [[Germany]] sparked strong popular resentment in the 1980s since many quite personal questions were asked. Some campaigned for a boycott. In the end the Constitutional Court stopped the census in 1980 and 1983. The last census was in 1987. Germany has since used population samples in combination with statistical methods, in place of a full census. ===Greece=== Census takes place every 10 years and is carried out by the National Statistical Service of Greece [http://www.statistics.gr]. Last census was in 2001. ===India=== The decennial census of [[India]] is the primary source of information about the demographic characteristics of the [[population of India]] which is the second biggest country of the world in terms of population. The first census in India is dated [[1872]]. It started as far back as in [[1860]] and was finished in [[1871]]. Starting from there, a population census has been carried out every 10 years, latest being the fourteenth in February - March [[2001]]. Census is carried out by the office of the [[Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India]], [[Delhi]] under the Census of India Act, 1948. The act gives Central Government many powers like to notify a date for Census, power to ask for the services of any citizen for census work. The law makes it compulsory for every citizen to answer the census questions truthfully. The Act provides penalties for giving false answer or not giving answers at all to the census questionnaire. One of the most important provisions of law is th
CI]], [[Duke Energy International]], [[Archer Daniels Midland]], [[Texaco]], and [[Esso]]. [[Tourism]] attracts the most foreign direct investment although significant U.S. investment also is found in the energy, telecommunications, and agricultural sectors. A combination of natural factors--climate, the longest barrier [[reef]] in the [[Western Hemisphere]], numerous islands, excellent [[fishing]], safe waters for boating, [[Jungle (terrain)|jungle]] wildlife, and [[Maya civilization|Maya]] ruins--support the thriving tourist industry. Development costs are high, but the Government of Belize has designated [[tourism]] as its second development priority after [[agriculture]]. In [[2000]], tourist arrivals totaled 189,634 (more than 110,000 from the U.S.) and tourist receipts amounted to $113.3 million. Belize's investment policy is codified in the Belize Investment Guide, which sets out the development priorities for the country. The &quot;Country Commercial Guide&quot;. ==Infrastructure== [[Image:Belize farming gm.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Agriculture is a key part of the economy.]] A major constraint on the economic development of Belize continues to be the scarcity of infrastructure investments. Although [[electricity]], [[telephone]], and [[water]] utilities are all relatively good, Belize has the most expensive electricity in the region. Large tracts of land which would be suitable for development are inaccessible due to lack of roads. Some roads, including sections of major highways, are subject to damage or closure during the rainy season. Ports in [[Belize City]], [[Dangriga]], and [[Big Creek, Belize|Big Creek]] handle regularly scheduled shipping from the U.S. and the [[United Kingdom]] although draft is limited to a maximum of 10 feet in Belize City and 15 feet in southern ports. International air service is provided by [[American Airlines]], [[Continental Airlines]], and [[TACA]] to gateways in [[Dallas, Texas]], [[Houston, Texas]], [[Miami, Florida]], and [[San Salvador]]. Several capital projects are either currently underway or are programmed to start in fiscal year [[2001]]/[[2002]]. The largest of these is a $15 million rural electrification program to be jointly implemented by the government and Belize Electricity Limited (BEL). In addition, the government will continue to implement an [[Inter-American Development Bank]] Emergency Reconstruction Fund of $20 million aimed at restoring essential services such as health and education facilities and transportation networks to communities which were severely damaged by [[Hurricane Keith]]. The government will also invest close to $4.2 million in projects targeted at poverty alleviation across Belize. Initiated in [[1999]], the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, through the Belize Agricultural Health Authority, will continue to implement the IDB-funded &quot;Modernization of Agricultural Health Project.&quot; This $2.5 million project seeks to improve the competitiveness of Belize's agricultural products and thus enhance the ability of Belizean farmers and processors to maintain and expand the sale of their high-quality products to foreign markets. A $5 million [[soybean]] project, funded by the Brazilian Government, is scheduled to begin in 2001 and is intended to assist northern Belize farmers to diversify away from sugarcane cultivation. The government also plans to invest $9.85 million to complete the rehabilitation of the [[Hummingbird Highway]], as well as investing $9.5 million in its health-sector reform program. Another $9 million will be invested under the IDB-funded &quot;Land Management Project&quot; over the next 2 years. The Ministry of Tourism is confident that another IDB-funded project, the &quot;Tourism Development Project,&quot; will make Belize the Mundo Maya centerpiece for travelers to [[Central America]]. The government will spend close to $1.4 million in improving access to the Maya archaeological sites in Belize, especially [[Caracol, Belize|Caracol]]. Using a generous soft loan from [[Republic of China|Taiwan]], the government is funneling $50 million toward the construction of low-cost housing. ===Trade=== Belize's economic performance is highly susceptible to external market changes. Although moderate growth has been achieved in recent years, the achievements are vulnerable to world commodity price fluctuations and continuation of preferential trading agreements, especially with the U.S. (cane [[sugar]]) and U.K. ([[banana]]s). Belize continues to rely heavily on foreign trade with the United States as its number one trading partner. Total imports in 2000 totaled $446 million while total exports were only $228.6 million. In 2000, the U.S. accounted for 48.5% of Belize's total exports and provided 49.7% of all Belizean imports. Other major trading partners include the [[United Kingdom|U.K.]], [[European Union]], [[Canada]], [[Mexico]], and [[Caribbean Community]] (CARICOM) member states. Belize aims to stimulate the growth of commercial agriculture through CARICOM. However, Belizean trade with the rest of the Caribbean is small compared to that with the United States and [[Europe]]. The country is a beneficiary of the Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI), a U.S. Government program to stimulate investment in [[Caribbean]] nations by providing [[duty-free]] access to the U.S. market for most Caribbean products. Significant U.S. private investments in citrus and shrimp farms have been made in Belize under CBI. U.S. trade preferences allowing for duty-free re-import of finished apparel cut from U.S. textiles have significantly expanded the apparel industry. EU and U.K. preferences also have been vital for the expansion and prosperity of the sugar and banana industries. ===Economy - overview:=== The small, essentially private enterprise economy is based primarily on agriculture, agro-based industry, and merchandising, with tourism and construction assuming greater importance. [[Sugar]], the chief crop, accounts for nearly half of exports, while the [[banana]] industry is the country's largest employer. The government's tough austerity program in [[1997]] resulted in an economic slowdown that continued in [[1998]]. The trade deficit has been growing, mostly as a result of low export prices for sugar and bananas. The new government faces important challenges to economic stability. Rapid action to improve tax collection has been promised, but a lack of progress in reining in spending could bring the exchange rate under pressure. The tourist and construction sectors strengthened in early 1999, leading to a preliminary estimate of revived growth at 4%. The Belize Dollar is fixed to the [[U.S. dollar]] at a rate of 2:1. ==See also== * [[Belize]] ==References== *[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/bh.html CIA Factbook Belize] *[http://www.state.gov/www/about_state/business/com_guides/2001/wha/index.html] {{WTO}} [[Category:Economy of CARICOM|Belize]] [[Category:Economy of Belize|*]] [[Category:Economies by country|Belize]] [[fr:Économie du Belize]] [[pt:Economia do Belize]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Belize/Communications</title> <id>3557</id> <revision> <id>15901878</id> <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:47:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellmist</username> <id>2214</id> </contributor> <comment>move to Communications in Belize</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Belize]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Belize/Transportation</title> <id>3558</id> <revision> <id>36641521</id> <timestamp>2006-01-25T13:59:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RussBot</username> <id>279219</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;Transport in Belize&quot; +&quot;Transportation in Belize&quot;</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transportation in Belize]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Belize/Military</title> <id>3559</id> <revision> <id>15901880</id> <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:48:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellmist</username> <id>2214</id> </contributor> <comment>move to Military of Belize</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Military of Belize]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Transnational issues of Belize</title> <id>3560</id> <revision> <id>15901881</id> <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:49:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellmist</username> <id>2214</id> </contributor> <comment>move to Foreign relations of Belize</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Belize]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Benin/History</title> <id>3561</id> <revision> <id>15901882</id> <timestamp>2002-03-01T16:26:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>LA2</username> <id>445</id> </contributor> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Benin]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Benin/Geography</title> <id>3562</id> <revision> <id>15901883</id> <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:50:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellmist</username> <id>2214</id> </contributor> <comment>move to Geography of Benin</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Benin]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Benin/People</title> <id>3563</id> <revision> <id>15901884</id> <timestamp>2002-08-20T15:36:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username> <id>90</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIREC
nigg]]''' |- |} {{Foreign Ministers of Austria}} [[Category:1892 births|Dollfuss, Engelbert]] [[Category:1934 deaths|Dollfuss, Engelbert]] [[Category:Chancellors of Austria|Dollfuss, Engelbert]] [[Category:Fascists|Dolfuss, Engelbert]] [[Category:Firearm deaths|Dolfuss, Engelbert]] [[Category:Foreign ministers of Austria|Dolfuss, Engelbert]] [[Category:Murdered politicians|Dolfuss, Engelbert]] [[cs:Engelbert Dollfuss]] [[de:Engelbert Dollfuß]] [[es:Engelbert Dollfuss]] [[fr:Engelbert Dollfuss]] [[he:אנגלברט דולפוס]] [[nl:Engelbert Dollfuss]] [[ja:エンゲルベルト・ドルフース]] [[no:Engelbert Dollfuß]] [[pl:Engelbert Dollfuss]] [[fi:Engelbert Dollfuss]] [[sv:Engelbert Dollfuß]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>E.T.A. Hoffmann</title> <id>10151</id> <revision> <id>40600412</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T19:14:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Palica</username> <id>188933</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: sk</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:eta-hoffman.jpg|right|framed| ETA Hoffman]] '''Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann''' ([[January 24]], [[1776]] - [[June 25]], [[1822]]), was a German romantic and [[Fantasy|fantasy]] author and composer. Hoffmann's stories were tremendously influential in the [[19th century]], and he is one of the key authors of [[Romanticism | the Romantic movement]]. ==Life== Hoffmann was born in [[1776]] in [[Kaliningrad|Königsberg]], [[Prussia]]. Hoffmann's father was a lawyer. Ernst Hoffmann studied at the [[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]] in Königsberg. He then worked as a Referendar in [[Głogów|Glogau]], [[Silesia]] and in [[Berlin]] in [[Brandenburg]] and next in Prussian provinces in the area of [[Greater Poland]] and [[Mazovia]]: [[Poznań|Posen]] in [[South Prussia]] and later on to [[Plock]] in [[New East Prussia]]. One of his tasks was to invent names for [[Jew]]s. He found some poetic ones like Goldbaum or Apfelbaum. He changed his third name from ''Wilhelm'' to Amadeus in 1813 in homage to the composer [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]] (1756-1791). Hoffmann assimilated well in Polish society; the years spent in Poland he recognized as the happiest in his life. Unfortunately, after he was accused of spying for the Prussian king, social [[ostracism]] followed. In [[1805]] he moved again to Berlin, where he could further his talent as an artist and writer. Since [[1814]] he held a position at the Kammergericht, the chamber court. [[Image:Grave of ETA Hoffmann.jpg|thumb|right|Grave of E.T.A. Hoffmann]] Hoffmann died in [[Berlin]] in [[1822]] at the age of 46, and is buried near the [[Hallesches Tor]], in the [[Jerusalem and New Churches Community Cemetery]] (his gravestone has his original initials). ==Work== Hoffmann wrote novels and short stories, and he composed music, including an [[opera]], [[Undine (opera by Hoffmann)|Undine]]. However, when reading the original text of E.T.A. Hoffmann's stories, one soon realizes that these stories were conceived and written at a politically very sensitive time. Comparable messages were expressed in earlier animal stories such as Reinicke Fuchs or Aesop's Fables. His most familiar story is &quot;The Nutcracker and the Mouse King&quot;, which inspired the ballet by [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]]. His story &quot;[[Der Sandmann|The Sandman]]&quot; similarly inspired Delibes's ballet [[Coppelia]]. The [[Nutcracker]] story is full of charming mimed phantasies with Marie (Clara in the ballet), Fritz and Pate Drosselmayr, the mean Mouse King and the popular [[Nutcracker]]. Many children's version books of the Nutcracker have been published. ''Nutcracker'' performances have become a yearly feature in many cities around Christmas time. Yet these stories, as with the majority of his literary work, point beyond themselves in philosophical terms; Hoffmann invariably moves into territory where an exploration of the nature of Selfhood, Art and value-judgements are required in order for the reader to enjoy Hoffmann's writings more fully. Stories are, in their various media, the ultimate form of self-definition and world-interpretation; it is through stories that Hoffmann expresses his aesthetic, ethical and political concerns. ==Assessment== Hoffmann is one of the best-known representatives of [[German Romanticism]], and a pioneer of the [[fantasy]] genre, with a taste for the [[macabre]] combined with [[realism (arts)|realism]] that influenced such authors as [[Franz Kafka]], [[Edgar Allan Poe]], [[Charles Dickens]], and [[Nikolai Gogol]]. Hoffmann's work illuminates the darker side of the human spirit found behind the hypocritical harmony of [[bourgeois]] life, yet his wide-ranging influence upon and creative significance within the later German romantic period is frequently underestimated. [[Jacques Offenbach]]'s masterwork, the opera ''[[Les contes d'Hoffmann|Tales of Hoffmann]]'', takes some cues from ''The Devil's Elixir'' and [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]]'s ballet ''Nutcracker'' is based on a story by Hoffmann. Hoffmann also influenced 19th-century musical taste directly through his music criticism. His reviews of Beethoven's fifth symphony and other important works set new literary standards for writing about music, and encouraged later writers to see music as &quot;the most Romantic of all the arts.&quot; Hoffmann's reviews have been collected for modern readers by Andrew Crumey, in ''E.T.A. Hoffmann's Writings on Music, Collected in a Single Volume'' (2004). Hoffmann strove for artistic polymathy. He created far more in his works than mere political commentary achieved through satire. His masterpiece (it is generally agreed) is ''Kater Murr'' (see bibliographical references below). This novel deals with such issues as the aesthetic status of 'true' artistry, and the modes of self-transcendence that accompany any genuine endeavour to create. Hoffmann's portrayal of the character Kreisler (a genius musician) is wittily counterpointed with the character of the tomcat Murr — a virtuoso illustration of artistic pretentiousness that many of Hoffmann's contemporaries found offensive and subvertive of Romantic ideals. Hoffmann's literature points to the failings of many so-called 'artists' to differentiate between the superficial and the authentic aspects of such Romantic ideals. The ''self-conscious'' effort to impress must, according to Hoffmann, be divorced from the ''self-aware'' effort to create. This essential duality in ''Kater Murr'' is structurally conveyed through a discursive 'splicing together' of two biographical narratives. Such a framework warrants an extensive exploration of its philosophical implications. ==Bibliography== *''Der goldene Topf'' (''The Golden Pot,'' a fable, 1814) *''Die Elixiere des Teufels'' (''The Devil's Elixir,'' 2 volumes, 1815/16) *''Fantasiestücke in Callot's Manier'' (''Fantastic pieces in the manner of Callot'' 4 volumes, 1814/15; with a commendatory preface by [[Jean Paul]]) *''Nachtstücke'' (''Night Pieces'', 2 volumes, 1816/17) *''Das [[Fräulein]] von Scuderi'' (''Mademoiselle Scudéry'', a short story considered his masterpiece, 1819) *''Die Serapions-Brüder'' (''The Serapion Band'', 4 volumes, 1819-21) (After which the [[Serapion Fraternity]] of writers in early 20th Century Russia was to name itself.) *''Die Lebensansichten des Katers Murr'' (two-volume fragment, 1819-21) *''Seltsame Leiden eines Theaterdirektors'' *''Klein Zaches genannt Zinnober'' *''Die Irrungen'' *''Die Geheimnisse'' *''[[Der Sandmann]]'' == External links == * {{gutenberg author| id=E.+T.+A.+Hoffmann | name=E.T.A. Hoffmann}} [[Category:1776 births|Hoffmann, E.T.A.]] [[Category:1822 deaths|Hoffmann, E.T.A.]] [[Category:German writers|Hoffmann, E.T.A.]] [[Category:Romanticism|Hoffmann, E.T.A.]] [[de:E. T. A. Hoffmann]] [[es:E. T. A. Hoffmann]] [[eo:E. T. A. HOFFMANN]] [[fr:Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann]] [[it:Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann]] [[nl:E.T.A. Hoffmann]] [[ja:E.T.A.ホフマン]] [[pt:Ernst Theodor Amadeus Wilhelm Hoffmann]] [[ru:Гофман, Эрнст Теодор Амадей]] [[sk:Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann]] [[sl:E.T.A. Hoffmann]] [[fi:E. T. A. Hoffmann]] [[sv:E.T.A. Hoffmann]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Erasmus</title> <id>10152</id> <revision> <id>42156037</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:43:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Prosfilaes</username> <id>49272</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Legacy */ not the place or the style for the comment</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article deals with Erasmus, the theologian. For other meanings, see [[Erasmus (disambiguation)]].'' [[Image:Holbein-erasmus.jpg|thumb|270px|Desiderius Erasmus in [[1523]] ]] '''Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus''' (also '''Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam''') ([[October 27]], probably [[1466]] &amp;ndash; [[July 12]], [[1536]]) was a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[humanism|humanist]] and [[theology|theologian]]. Erasmus was the most important humanist who wrote in a &quot;pure&quot; Latin style. He was influential on Martin Luther who admired him and desired his friendship. He remained, however, a faithful Roman Catholic and harshly criticised what he considered Luther's excesses. He prepared new Latin and Greek editions of the New Testament. Erasmus wrote ''[[The Praise of Folly]]'', ''Handbook of a Christian Knight'', and ''On Civility in Children.'' ==Biography== Erasmus was born with the name '''Gerrit Gerritszoon''' ([[Dutch language|Dutch]] for Gerhard Gerhardson), probably in [[Rotterdam]], although recent discoveries suggest he was actually born in [[Gouda]], the [[Netherlands]]. Although much associated with this city, he lived there for only four years, never to return. Information on his family and early life comes mainly from vague references in his writings. He was almost certainly [[illegitimacy|illegitimate]]. His father later became a priest named Ro
vate conversations with them. [[Camp Iguana]] is a low-security detention center once used for juvenile detainees, now used for some of the 38 deemed non-illegal combatants while they await transfer to a permanent home abroad. ==Camp Iguana== {{main|Camp Iguana}} Camp Iguana was a separate, smaller compound, over a kilometer distant from the main prison compound, used to house the most privileged prisoners. In 2002 and 2003 it housed three of the youngest detainees who were under age 16. The Iguana compound was closed when the three juveniles were flown home in [[January 2004]]. At least ten more minors were detained with the adult prisoners in Camp Delta {{ref|CliveStaffordSmith}}. The compound was reopened in mid-2005, when the [[Combatant Status Review Tribunal]]s had determined that 38 detainees were not &quot;illegal combatants&quot;. Some of these 38 detainees who could not safely be repatriated to their home country were moved to Camp Iguana. According to an article in the London [[The Sunday Times (UK)|Sunday Times]] on [[June 26]] [[2003]], the living quarters are air-conditioned and consist of &quot;a bedroom with twin beds, a small living room with two armchairs, sofa and television, and a bathroom and kitchenette&quot;, with an oven present for aesthetic reasons, and a refrigerator whose fruit and dessert contents are reportedly handled as part of a reward system. A line of black tape on the floor separates the living room and kitchen areas while privacy in the bathroom is handled by a blue curtain. ==Camp X-Ray (closed April 2002)== [[Image:camp_xray.jpg|thumb|300px|Camp X-Ray, shown here under construction, was a temporary holding facility for detainees held at U.S. Naval Base Guantánamo Bay, Cuba.]] '''Camp X-Ray''' was a temporary detention facility located at the [[Joint Task Force Guantánamo]] on the [[United States Navy|U.S. Naval Base]] in Guantánamo Bay, [[Cuba]]. It was named ''Camp X-Ray'' because various temporary camps in the station were named sequentially from the beginning and then from the end of the [[NATO phonetic alphabet]]. The legal status of [[detainee|detainees]] at the camp has been a significant source of [[controversy]], ultimately reaching the [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]]. As of [[April 29]], [[2002]], the official Camp X-Ray was closed and all prisoners were transferred to [[Camp Delta]]. However, the term &quot;Camp X-Ray&quot; is sometimes still used as synonym for the entire facility where suspected Al Qaeda and Taliban illegal combatants are detained. Care of the detainees at Camp X-Ray was handled by Joint Task Force 160 (JTF-160), while interrogations were conducted by Joint Task Force 170 (JTF-170). JTF-160 was under the command of [[United States Marines|Marine]] [[Brigadier General]] [[Michael Lehnert]] until [[March 2002]], when he was replaced by Brigadier General [[Rick Baccus]]. In [[November 2002]], Baccus was replaced as commander by [[Major General]] [[Geoffrey Miller (MG)|Geoffrey Miller]]. He was in turn replaced by Brigadier General Jay Hood in March 2004 while Miller was sent to deal with the [[Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse]] in [[Iraq]]. [[U.S. Army]] [[Lieutenant Colonel]] Bill Cline serves as the commander for security forces. Since Camp X-Ray's closure and the subsequent opening of Camp Delta, JTF-160 and 170 have been combined into Joint Task Force Guantánamo (JTF-GTMO). The U.S. government has classified the detainees in Camp X-Ray as &quot;[[illegal combatant]]s,&quot; rather than [[POW|prisoners of war]] (POWs), which they claim means that they do not have to be conferred the rights granted to POWs under the [[Geneva Conventions]]. The U.S. government justifies this designation by claiming that they do not have the status of either regular [[soldier]]s nor that of [[guerrilla warfare|guerrillas]], and they are not part of a regular [[army]] or [[militia]]. In [[July 2003]], about 680 alleged [[Taliban]] members and suspected [[Al-Qaeda]] [[terrorism|terrorists]] from 42 different countries were housed there. None have been allowed to meet with [[attorney]]s. The [[human rights]] organization [[Human Rights Watch]] has criticized the [[George W. Bush|Bush administration]] over this designation in its 2003 world report, stating: &quot;Washington has ignored [[human rights|human rights standards]] in its own treatment of terrorist suspects. It has refused to apply the Geneva Conventions to prisoners of war from [[Afghanistan]], and has misused the designation of 'illegal combatant' to apply to [[crime|criminal]] suspects on U.S. soil.&quot; On [[April 23]], [[2003]], the U.S. military reported that three of the [[Afghanistan|Afghan]] war prisoners held at Camp Delta had been identified as juveniles, were separated from the adult prisoners, and moved to markedly better conditions at Camp Iguana. On [[July 23]], [[2003]], U.S. Major General [[Geoffrey Miller]] said that three-quarters of the roughly 660 detainees had confessed to some involvement in terrorism. Many have informed about friends and colleagues. According to Miller, the confessions were acquired through rewards that included extended recreation time, extra food rations to keep in their cells, or a move to the prison's medium-security facility. However, some have questioned the value of the confessions, given the conditions under which they were obtained. Similarly, the general's statement, if true, could be construed to mean that a quarter of the detainees have admitted no guilt to the charges that they are terrorists or were involved in terrorism, and therefore may be unjustly incarcerated. As of [[August 2003]], at least 29 inmates of Camp Delta had attempted [[suicide]] in protest. The U.S. officials would not say why they had not previously reported the incident [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4204027.stm]. After this event [[the Pentagon]] reclassified suicides as &quot;[[manipulative self-injurious behavior]]s&quot; because it is alleged by camp physicians that detainees do not genuinely wish to end their lives. The prisoners supposedly feel that they may be able to get better treatment or release with suicide attempts. [[Daryl Matthews]], a professor of forensic psychiatry at the [[University of Hawaii]] who examined the prisoners, stated that given the cultural differences between interrogators and prisoners, such a classification was difficult if not impossible. Depression is common in Guantánamo, with 1/5 of all prisoners taking [[antidepressants]] such as [[prozac]].[http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article5405.htm] In late [[January 2004]], U.S. officials released three children aged 13 to 15 and returned them to [[Afghanistan]]. Prison officials say these three were the only detainees below the age of 16. In [[March 2004]], twenty-three adult prisoners were released to [[Afghanistan]], five were released to the [[United Kingdom]] (the final four British detainees were released in [[January 2005]]), and three were sent to [[Pakistan]]. On [[August 4]], [[2004]], the three ex-detainees who were returned to the U.K. (who were freed by the British authorities within 24 hours of their return home), filed a report in the U.S. claiming persistent severe abuse at the Camp, of themselves and others (See [http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,,1275478,00.html]''The Guardian'' newspaper article). They claimed that false confessions were extracted from them under duress, in conditions which amounted to torture. They alleged that conditions deteriorated when Major General Geoffrey Miller took charge of the camp, including increased periods of solitary confinement for the detainees. They claimed that the abuse took place with the knowledge of the intelligence forces. Their claims are currently being investigated by the British Government. There are five British residents remaining: [[Bisher Amin Khalil Al-Rawi]], [[Jamil al Banna]], [[Shaker Aamer|Shaker Abdur-Raheem Aamer]], [[Jamal Abdullah]] and [[Omar Deghayes]]. All these men have close family members who are British citizens and have themselves lived in the UK for many years: [https://www4.indymedia.org.uk/en/2005/04/308380.html Moazzam Begg Speaks about his experience at Guantánamo]. In addition there are 'ghost prisoners' undeclared by the State, some of whom may be British or British resident. Many of the released prisoners have complained of enduring beatings, [[sleep deprivation]], prolonged constraint in uncomfortable positions, prolonged [[hood (headgear)|hooding]], sexual and cultural humiliation, forced injections, and other physical and psychological mistreatment during their detention in Camp Delta. The U.S. government has denied all of the above charges, but on [[May 9]], the ''[[Washington Post]]'' obtained classified documents that showed Pentagon approval of using sleep deprivation, exposure to hot and cold, bright lights, and loud music during interrogations at Guantánamo [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A11017-2004May8.html]. [[Sean Baker]], a soldier posing as a prisoner during training exercises at the camp, was beaten so severely that he suffered a brain injury and seizures. [http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/national/apus_story.asp?category=1110&amp;slug=Soldier%20Guantanamo] In June 2004 the ''[[New York Times]]'' reported that of the nearly 600 detainees not much more than two dozens were closely linked to Al-Qaeda and that only very limited information could have been gotten from questionings. The only top terrorist is reportedly [[Mohamed al-Kahtani]] from [[Saudi Arabia]], who is believed to have planned to participate in the [[September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks]]. [http://www.nytimes.com/2004/06/21/politics/21GITM.html?hp=&amp;pagewanted=print&amp;position=] The [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] inspected the camp in June 2004. In a confidential report issued in July 2004 and leaked to t
mage with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Hills_Colombia.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Cerros de Mavecuri]] --&gt; The eastern part of Colombia, comprising more than half its territory, is plain and composed by [[savanna]] and [[rainforest]], crossed by rivers belonging to the [[Amazon River|Amazon]] and [[Orinoco]] [[River basin|basins]]. The northern part, called &quot;Los Llanos&quot; is a savanna region, mostly in the Orinoco basin (therefore called also Orinoquía). The southern part, usually called Amazonía, is covered by the Amazon rain forest and belongs mostly to the Amazon basin. At the north and west of the Andes there are coastal plains, the Caribbean plains to the north and the Pacific plains to the west. The five traditional natural regions are therefore: the [[Andean Region (Colombia)|Andean Region]], the [[Caribbean Region (Colombia)|Caribbean Region]], the [[Pacific Region (Colombia)|Pacific Region]], the [[Orinoquia Region (Colombia)|Orinoquia Region]] and the [[Amazonia Region (Colombia)|Amazonia Region]]. Some people also include an [[Insular Region (Colombia)|Insular Region]], separated from the coastal regions. == Departments == :''Main article:'' [[Departments of Colombia]] {| style=&quot;background-color: transparent;&quot; | valign=top | * [[Amazonas Department, Colombia|Amazonas]] ([[Leticia]]) * [[Antioquia Department|Antioquia]] ([[Medellín]]) * [[Arauca Department|Arauca]] ([[Arauca, Arauca|Arauca]]) * [[Atlántico Department|Atlántico]] ([[Barranquilla]]) * [[Bolívar Department|Bolívar]] ([[Cartagena, Colombia|Cartagena]]) * [[Boyacá Department|Boyacá]] ([[Tunja]]) * [[Caldas Department|Caldas]] ([[Manizales]]) * [[Caquetá Department|Caquetá]] ([[Florencia]]) * [[Casanare Department|Casanare]] ([[Yopal]]) * [[Cauca Department|Cauca]] ([[Popayán]]) * [[Cesar Department|Cesar]] ([[Valledupar]]) * [[Chocó Department|Chocó]] ([[Quibdó]]) * [[Córdoba Department|Córdoba]] ([[Montería]]) * [[Cundinamarca]] ([[Bogotá]]) * [[Guainía Department|Guainía]] ([[Puerto Inírida]]) * [[Guajira Department|Guajira]] ([[Riohacha]]) * [[Guaviare Department|Guaviare]] ([[San José del Guaviare]]) | valign=top | * [[Huila Department|Huila]] ([[Neiva]]) * [[Magdalena Department|Magdalena]] ([[Santa Marta]]) * [[Meta Department|Meta]] ([[Villavicencio]]) * [[Nariño Department|Nariño]] ([[Pasto]]) * [[Norte de Santander]] ([[Cúcuta]]) * [[Putumayo Department|Putumayo]] ([[Mocoa]]) * [[Quindío Department|Quindío]] ([[Armenia, Colombia|Armenia]]) * [[Risaralda Department|Risaralda]] ([[Pereira, Colombia|Pereira]]) * [[San Andrés and Providencia]] ([[San Andrés, Colombia|San Andrés]]) * [[Santander Department|Santander]] ([[Bucaramanga]]) * [[Sucre Department|Sucre]] ([[Sincelejo]]) * [[Tolima Department|Tolima]] ([[Ibagué]]) * [[Valle del Cauca]] ([[Cali]]) * [[Vaupés Department|Vaupés]] ([[Mitú]]) * [[Vichada Department|Vichada]] ([[Puerto Carreño]]) |} Additionally, there is one capital district (''distrito capital''), [[Bogotá|Bogotá D.C.]] == Most Important Cities Of Colombia == The most important cities of Colombia are those that have the most important politic, economy, industrial, Urban and cultural development. A friendly rivality between some cities like Medellín, Cali, Pereira and Manizales exists because they claim to be the best in their area, but the order of the cities is organized by which city has the best develoment in all aspects (economy, industry, culture, education) for that reason the most importants cities of the country (13 cities) are classified this way: # [[Bogotá]] (''2600 metros más cerca de las estrellas'' – 2600 m Closer To The Stars) # [[Medellín]] (''La ciudad de la eterna primavera'' – The City Of Eternal Spring) # [[Cali]] (''La sucursal del cielo'' – Heaven's Branch) # [[Barranquilla]] (''La puerta de oro de colombia'' – Colombias' Golden Gate) # [[Cartagena, Colombia|Cartagena]] (''La heroica'' – The Heroic (City)) # [[Pereira]] (''La querendona, trasnochadora y morena'' – The Lovely Sleepless Brunette) # [[Bucaramanga]] (''La ciudad bonita'' – The Beautiful City) # [[Manizales]] (''La ciudad de las puertas abiertas'' – The City Of Open Gates) # [[Ibagué]] (''La capital musical de Colombia'' – Musical Capital Of Colombia) # [[Cúcuta]] # [[Pasto]] (''Ciudad Sorpresa'' – The Surprise City) # [[Armenia, Colombia|Armenia]] (''La Ciudad Milagro'' – The Miracle City) # [[Villavicencio]] # [[Valledupar]] (''Capital mundial del vallenato'' – World's Vallenato Capital) == Economy == [[Image:2000-PesosUnd500Pesos-CC-Attribution.jpg|thumb|right|2.000 Pesos bill and 500 Pesos coin]] :''Main article:'' [[Economy of Colombia]] After experiencing decades of steady growth (average GDP growth exceeded 4% in the 1970-1998 period), Colombia entered into a recession in 1999, and the recovery from that recession was long and painful. Colombia's economy suffers from weak domestic and foreign demand, austere government budgets, and serious internal armed conflicts. The IMF Economic Indicators published on [[September 21]], [[2005]], forecast the Colombian GDP to reach [[US$]]112,300,000,000 in 2005. Inflation has been below 6% for 2004 and 2005, and is expected to remain below 5% during 2006. Colombia's main exports include manufactures (41.62 of exports), [[petroleum]] (26.52%), coal (12.11%), [[cocaine]] (9.34%) and [[Federación Nacional de Cafeteros de Colombia|coffee]] (6.10%), New oil exploration is needed to offset declining oil production. All imports, exports, and the general trade balance are in record levels, and the inflow of export dollars has resulted in substantial revaluation of the [[Colombian peso]], trading slightly below 2300 pesos for US$1 by September 2005. The problems facing the country range from reforming the [[pension]] system to reducing high unemployment. Several international financial institutions have praised the economic reforms introduced by current President [[Alvaro Uribe]], which include measures designed to reduce the public-sector deficit below 2.5% of Gross domestic product (GDP) in [[2004]]. The government's economic policy and its controversial [[democratic security strategy]] have engendered a growing sense of confidence in the economy, usually within the business sector, and GDP growth in [[2003]] which was among the highest in Latin America. In 2005, the value of Colombia's exports are expected to total US$25 billion. == Demographics == :''Main article:'' [[Demographics of Colombia]] Colombia has a diverse population that reflects its colourful history and the peoples that have populated her from ancient, to colonial and modern times. The historic amalgam of three main groups are the basis of Colombia's current demographics: indigenous [[Amerindian]]s, immigrant [[European]]s (primarliy [[Spain|Spanish]] colonists), and imported [[Africa]]n slaves. Other smaller immigrant flows include Middle Easterners, particularly Arabs. This [[miscegenation]] has created a racial and ethnic continuum; an order characterized by fluidity and ambiguity in which any claims of inclusion within the categories of [[Amerindian]], [[Afro-Latin American|Afro-Colombian]], [[mestizo]], [[mulatto]], [[zambo]] or [[white]] is far from being evident. Colombia is the third most populous country in [[Latin America]], after [[Brazil]] and [[Mexico]]. == Religion == 90% of the population practices [[Roman Catholicism]]. The other 10% is divided mainly among several [[Protestant]] groups with a minority of [[Jewish]], [[Muslim]] and other indigenous religions. ==Culture== :''Main article:'' [[Culture of Colombia]] * [[Cinema of Colombia]] * [[Colombian cuisine]] * [[List of Colombians]] * [[List of people on stamps of Colombia]] * [[List of universities in Colombia]] * [[Music of Colombia]] * [[Carnival in Colombia]] * [[Festivals in Colombia]] == Miscellaneous topics == * [[Communications in Colombia]] * [[Foreign relations of Colombia]] * [[List of cities in Colombia]] * [[Military of Colombia]] * [[Palenquero]] * [[Transportation in Colombia]] * [[Colombian Armed Conflict]] == External links == {{sisterlinks|Colombia}} '''Government''' * [http://www.presidencia.gov.co/Ingles/news/news.htm Presidencia de la República de Colombia] - President (In English) * [http://www.armada.mil.co/english/ Armada Nacional de Colombia] - Navy (In English) * [http://www.ejercito.mil.co/english/ Ejército Nacional de Colombia] - Army (In English) * [http://www.banrep.gov.co/engroot/home4.htm Banco de la República] - Central Bank (In English) '''Directories''' * [http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/Colombia Open Directory Project - ''Colombia''] - directory category (In English) * [http://dmoz.org/World/Espa%c3%b1ol/Regional/Am%c3%a9rica/Colombia Open Directory Project - ''Colombia''] - directory category (In Spanish) '''News''' * [http://www.periodicos-colombia.sitioco.com/ Journals of Colombia ] (In Spanish) * [http://www.eltiempo.terra.com.co/ El Tiempo] (In Spanish) * [http://elpais-cali.terra.com.co/paisonline/ El Pais] (In Spanish) * [http://about.reuters.com/dynamic/countrypages/colombia/ Reuters] (In Spanish) '''Travel''' * {{Wikitravel}} * [http://www.mincomercio.gov.co/VBeContent/home.asp Mincomercio] - official ministry (In Spanish) '''Images''' * [http://www.uniandes.edu.co/Colombia/Fotos/fotos.html Bank of images] (In Spanish) '''Other''' * [http://www.latinbusinesschronicle.com/colombia Latin Business Chronicle: Colombia Business Reports, Statistics and Links] {{South America}} [[Category:Colombia| ]] [[Category:South American countries]] [[af:Kolombië]] [[ar:كولومبيا]] [[an:Colombia]] [[ast:Colombia]] [[zh-min-nan:Colombia]] [[bn:কলম্বিয়া]] [[ca:Colòmbia]] [[cs:Kolumbie]] [[cy:Colombia]] [[da:Colombia]] [[de:Kolumbien]] [[et:Colombia]] [[es:Colombia]] [[eo:Kolombio]] [[fr:Colombie]] [[gl:Colombia]] [[ko:콜롬비아]] [[hr:Kolumbija]] [[io:Kolumbia]] [[id:Kolombia]] [[ia:Colombia]] [[is:Kólumbía]] [[it:Colombia]] [[he:קולומביה]] [[la:Columbia]]
at the Vicarage]]'' * 1987 ''[[Sleeping Murder]]'' * 1987 ''[[At Bertram's Hotel]]'' * 1987 ''[[Nemesis (Christie)|Nemesis]]'' * 1987 ''[[4.50 From Paddington]]'' * 1989 ''[[The Man In The Brown Suit]]'' * 1989 ''[[Agatha Christie's Poirot]] * 1989 ''[[A Caribbean Mystery]]'' * 1990 ''[[Peril at End House]]'' * 1990 ''[[The Mysterious Affair at Styles]]'' * 1991 ''[[They Do It With Mirrors]]'' * 1992 ''[[The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side]]'' * 1994 ''[[Hercule Poirot's Christmas]]'' * 1995 ''[[Murder on the Links]]'' * 1995 ''[[Hickory Dickory Dock]]'' * 1996 ''[[Dumb Witness]]'' * 1997 ''[[The Pale Horse]]'' * 2000 ''[[The Murder of Rodger Ackroyd]]'' * 2000 ''[[Lord Edgware Dies]]'' * 2001 ''[[Evil Under The Sun]]'' * 2001 ''[[Murder on the Orient Express]]'' * 2001 ''[[Murder in Mesopotamia]]'' * 2003 ''[[Sparkling Cyanide]]'' * 2004 ''[[Five Little Pigs]]'' * 2004 ''[[Death On The Nile]]'' * 2004 ''[[Sad Cypress]]'' * 2004 ''[[The Hollow]]'' * 2004 ''[[Marple]]'' * 2004 ''[[The Body in the Library]]'' * 2004 ''[[Murder at the Vicarage]]'' * 2004 ''[[Appointment with Death]]'' * 2005 ''[[A Murder is Announced]]'' * 2005 ''[[The Mystery of the Blue Train]]'' * 2005 ''[[Cards on the Table]]'' * 2005 ''[[Sleeping Murder]]'' * 2005 ''[[Taken at the Flood]]'' * 2006 ''[[After the Funeral]]'' * 2006 ''[[The Moving Finger]]'' * 2006 ''[[By the Pricking of my Thumbs]]'' * 2006 ''[[The Sittaford Mystery]]'' * 2007 ''[[Hercule Poirot's Christmas]]'' (A french film adaption) ==Video Games== * 2005 ''[[And Then There Were None]]'' ==Agatha Christie in fiction== Dame Agatha appears as one of the title characters, with [[Dorothy L. Sayers]], in the fictional murder mystery ''[[Dorothy and Agatha]]'' by [[Gaylord Larsen]]. ''[[The Poisoned Chocolates Case]]'' by [[Anthony Berkeley]] contains characters based on Christie, Sayers, [[John Dickson Carr|Carr]], and [[Chesterton]]. The movie [[Agatha]]; which was released in 1979, was about a fictional solution to the real mystery of Agatha Christie's disappearance in 1926. Her chracter was played by [[Vanessa Redgrave]]. Other cast members included [[Dustin Hoffman]] and [[Timothy Dalton]]. ==External links== {{wikiquote}} * [http://www.agathachristie.com/ Official Agatha Christie site] * [http://www.classiccrimefiction.com/christiebib.htm Agatha Christie Bibliography ] first editions - illustrated *[http://librivox.org/the-mysterious-affair-at-styles-by-agatha-christie/ Free Audiobook] of '' The Mysterious Affair at Styles'' at [http://librivox.org/ LibriVox] * {{gutenberg author| id=Agatha+Christie | name=Agatha Christie}} * [http://samvak.tripod.com/christie.html Historical and cultural background to Christie's mystery novels] [[Category:1890 births|Christie, Agatha]] [[Category:1976 deaths|Christie, Agatha]] [[Category:Natives of Devon|Christie, Agatha]] [[Category:Autodidacts|Christie, Agatha]] [[Category:British crime writers|Christie, Agatha]] [[Category:English mystery writers|Christie, Agatha]] [[Category:English dramatists and playwrights|Christie, Agatha]] [[Category:English short story writers|Christie, Agatha]] [[Category:Dames Commander of the British Empire|Christie, Agatha]] [[Category:Agatha Christie|*]] [[ar:أجاثا كريستي]] [[bg:Агата Кристи]] [[cs:Agatha Christie]] [[cy:Agatha Christie]] [[da:Agatha Christie]] [[de:Agatha Christie]] [[es:Agatha Christie]] [[eo:Agatha CHRISTIE]] [[fr:Agatha Christie]] [[fy:Agatha Christie]] [[hr:Agatha Christie]] [[id:Agatha Christie]] [[it:Agatha Christie]] [[la:Agatha Christie]] [[he:אגאתה כריסטי]] [[hu:Agatha Christie]] [[nl:Agatha Christie]] [[ja:アガサ・クリスティ]] [[no:Agatha Christie]] [[pl:Agatha Christie]] [[pt:Agatha Christie]] [[ru:Кристи, Агата]] [[sq:Agatha Christie]] [[sk:Agatha Christie]] [[sr:Агата Кристи]] [[fi:Agatha Christie]] [[sv:Agatha Christie]] [[zh:阿加莎·克里斯蒂]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Albert Camus/The Outsider</title> <id>985</id> <revision> <id>15899495</id> <timestamp>2004-04-15T23:31:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>LarryGilbert</username> <id>47080</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Stranger (novel)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>The Plague</title> <id>986</id> <revision> <id>41590765</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T09:53:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>That Guy, From That Show!</username> <id>419920</id> </contributor> <comment>Reverted edits by [[User:195.188.51.100|195.188.51.100]] ([[User talk:195.188.51.100|t]]) ([[Special:Contributions/195.188.51.100|c]]) to last version by That Guy, From That Show!</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Plague|Plague (disambiguation)]].'' '''''The Plague''''' (''[[French language|fr]].'' '''''La Peste''''') is a [[novel]] by [[Albert Camus]], published in [[1947]], that tells the story of medical workers finding solidarity in their labor as the [[Algeria|Algerian]] city of [[Oran]] is swept by a [[pandemic|plague]]. It asks a number of questions relating to the nature of destiny and the human condition. The characters in the book, ranging from doctors to vacationers to fugitives, all help to show the effects the plague has on a populace. {{spoiler}} Generally taken as a metaphoric treatment of the [[French resistance]] to [[Nazi]] occupation during [[World War II]], ''The Plague'' is interpreted to mean much more. Camus uses extreme hardships (e.g., pain, suffering, and death) to represent our human world. The story is told through the narrative of the main character, Dr. Rieux, whose decidedly existential account of events in the story is not only helpful in exploring the philosophy of existentialism, but also in making this a metaphor of the nature of life and suffering. Although his approach in the book is severe, he emphasizes the ideas that we ultimately have no control, irrationality of life is inevitable, and he further illustrates the human reaction towards the ‘absurd’. ''The Plague'' represents how the world deals with the philosophical notion of the [[Absurdism|Absurd]], a theory which Camus himself helped to define. ==Main Characters== *Dr. Bernard Rieux *Jean Tarrou -- a man vacationing in Oran *Raymond Rambert -- visiting journalist *Cottard -- a fugitive *Joseph Grand -- municipal worker who desires to be an author *Father Paneloux -- a priest ==Minor Characters== *Brakeley *Castel *Mme. Rieux *M. Othon and his family *The old man (Cat-spitting guy) *Asthma patient *Gonzalas *Richard *Prefect *Marcel and Louis [[Category:Existentialism|Plague, The]] [[Category:French novels|Plague, The]] [[Category:1947 books|Plague, The]] {{philos-novel-stub}} [[de:Die Pest]] [[es:La peste (novela)]] [[fr:La Peste]] [[he:הדבר]] [[pl:Dżuma (powieść)]] [[fi:Rutto (romaani)]] [[vi:Dịch hạch (truyện)]] [[uk:Чума (роман)]] [[zh:鼠疫 (小说)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Applied ethics</title> <id>988</id> <revision> <id>40026706</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T16:22:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Phil Boswell</username> <id>24373</id> </contributor> <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Applied ethics''' takes a theory of [[ethics]], such as [[utilitarianism]], [[social contract theory]], or [[deontology]], and applies its major principles to a particular set of circumstances and practices. Typical examples include applied fields such as [[medical ethics]], [[legal ethics]], [[environmental ethics]], [[computer ethics]], [[corporate social responsibility]], or [[business ethics]]. Many considerations of applied ethics also come into play in [[human rights]] discussions. The chief difficulty with formal, applied ethics is the potential for disagreement over what constitutes the proper theory or principles to apply, which is bound to result in solutions to specific problems that are not universally acceptable to all participants. For example, a strict deontological approach would never permit us to deceive a patient about his condition, whereas a utilitarian approach would have us consider the consequences of doing so. A deontologist will often come up with a very different solution than would a utilitarian, given the same facts. One modern approach attempting to address this is [[casuistry]]. Casuistry attempts to establish a plan of action to respond to particular facts - a form of [[case-based reasoning]]. By doing so in advance of actual investigation of the facts, it can reduce influence of interest groups. By focusing on action and not the rationale, it increases the possibility of agreement between prior bodies of precedent and explicit moral codes. ==List of subfields of applied ethics== * [[Medical ethics]] / [[bioethics]] * [[Business ethics]] * [[Environmental ethics]] (e.g. [[global warming]]) * [[Human rights]] issues (e.g. [[gender ethics]] / [[sexism]], [[racism]], [[death penalty]]) * [[Animal rights]] issues * [[Legal ethics]] * [[Computer ethics]] * [[Media ethics]] / [[journalism ethics]] * [[Research ethics]] * Education ethics * Sports ethics * Military ethics * International ethics (e.g. [[world hunger]]) ==See also== *[[Ethics]] *[[Ethical code]]s *[[List of ethics topics]] ==Bibliography== &lt;!-- Useful templates {{cite book | first= | last= | year= | title= | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher= | id= | url= | authorlink= }} {{Journal reference | Author= | Title= (required) | Journal= | Year= | Volume= | Issue= | Pages= &amp;ndash; | URL= }} {{News reference |firstname= |lastname= |pages= |title= |date= |org= |url= }} --&gt; * {{cite book | first=R.F. | last=Chadwick | year=1997 | title=Encyclopedia of Applied Ethics | chapter= | editor= | other
[[Thales]] and [[Pythagoras]] brought knowledge of [[Egyptian mathematics|Egyptian]] and [[Babylonian mathematics]] to [[Greece]]. Thales used [[geometry]] to solve problems such as calculating the height of pyramids and the distance of ships from the shore. [[Pythagoras]] stated the [[Pythagorean theorem]] and constructed [[Pythagorean triples]] algebraically, according to [[Proclus]]' commentary on [[Euclid]]. Greek mathematics is characterized by originality, depth, abstraction and reliance on logic. Greek and Hellenistic mathematicians were the first to give a proof for [[irrational number]]s (due to the [[Pythagoreans]]), and the first to discover [[Eudoxus]]'s [[method of exhaustion]], and the [[Sieve of Eratosthenes]] for discovering prime numbers. They took the ad hoc methods of constructing a circle or an [[ellipse]] and developed a comprehensive theory of [[conics]]; they took many various formulas for areas and volumes and deduced methods to separate the correct from the incorrect and generate general formulas. The first recorded abstract proofs are in Greek, and all extant studies of logic proceed from the methods set down by [[Aristotle]]. [[Euclid]], in the ''[[Euclid's Elements|Elements]]'', wrote a book that would be used as a mathematics textbook throughout [[Europe]], the [[Near East]] and [[North Africa]] for almost two thousand years. In addition to the familiar theorems of geometry, such as the [[Pythagorean theorem]], ''The Elements'' includes a proof that the square root of two is irrational and that there are infinitely many prime numbers. Some say the greatest of Greek mathematicians was [[Archimedes]] [[287 BC]] - [[212 BC]] of [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]]. At the age of 75, while drawing mathematical formulas in the dust, he was run through with a spear by a [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] soldier. The Romans had absolutely no interest in [[pure mathematics]]. ==Chinese mathematics (200 BC - AD 1200)== {{main|Chinese mathematics}} In [[China]], in [[212 BC]], the Emperor [[Qin Shi Huang]] (Shi Huang-ti) commanded that all [[book]]s be burned. While this order was not universally obeyed, it means that little is known with certainty about ancient Chinese mathematics. Another problem is that the Chinese wrote on bamboo, a perishable medium. Dating from the Shang period ([[1500 BC]] - [[1027 BC]]), the earliest extant Chinese mathematics consists of numbers scratched on tortoise shell. These numbers use a decimal system, so that the number 123 is written (from top to bottom) as the symbol for 1 followed by the symbol for a hundred, then the symbol for 2 followed by the symbol for ten, then the symbol for 3. This was the most advanced number system in the world at the time and allowed calculations to be carried out on the ''[[suanpan|suan pan]]'' or [[Chinese abacus]]. The date of the invention of the suan pan is not certain, but the earliest written reference was in [[190|AD 190]] in the ''Supplementary Notes on the Art of Figures'' written by Xu Yue. The suan pan was most likely in use earlier than this date. From the [[12th century BC]], the oldest mathematical work to survive the [[book burning]] is the [[I Ching]], which uses the 64 permutations of a solid or broken line for philosophical or mystical purposes. After the book burning, the [[Han dynasty]] (206 BC - AD 221) produced works of mathematics which presumably expand on works that are now lost. The most important of these is ''[[The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art]]''. It consists of 246 word problems, involving agriculture, business and engineering and includes material on [[right triangle]]s and [[π]]. [[Zu Chongzhi]] ([[5th century]]) of the [[Southern and Northern Dynasties]] computed the value of π to seven decimal places, which remained the most accurate value of π for almost 1000 years. In the thousand years following the Han dynasty, starting in the [[Tang dynasty]] and ending in the [[Sung dynasty]], Chinese mathematics thrived at a time when European mathematics did not exist. Discoveries first made in China, and only much later known in the [[Western world|West]], include [[negative number]]s, the [[binomial theorem]], [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrix]] methods for solving systems of [[linear equation]]s and the [[Chinese remainder theorem]]. The Chinese also discovered [[Pascal's triangle]] and the [[rule of three (mathematics)|rule of three]] long before known in Europe. Even after European mathematics began to flourish during the [[Renaissance]], European and Chinese mathematics were separate traditions, with Chinese mathematics in decline, until the [[Jesuit]] missionaries in the [[18th century]] carried mathematical ideas back and forth between the two cultures. ==Classical Indian mathematics (200 BC - AD 1600)== {{Main|Indian mathematics}} From [[200 BC]], mathematicians in [[History of India|India]] began studying mathematics for the sole purpose of science, starting with [[Indian mathematics#Jaina Mathematics .28400 BC - 200 CE.29|Jaina mathematicians]] between [[200 BC]] and [[200|AD 200]]. They discovered [[transfinite numbers]], [[set theory]], [[logarithms]], fundamental laws of [[indices]], [[cubic equation]]s, [[quartic equation]]s, [[sequences]] and progressions, [[permutations and combinations]], squaring and extracting [[square root]]s, and finite and [[infinite]] [[Exponentiation|powers]]. Discoveries written in the ''Bakshali Manuscript'' include solutions of [[linear equation]]s with upto five unknowns, the solution of the [[quadratic equation]], arithmetic and geometric progressions, compound series, quadratic indeterminate equations, [[simultaneous equation]]s, and the use of [[0 (number)|zero]] and [[negative numbers]]. Accurate computations for irrational numbers could be found, which includes computing square roots of numbers as large as a million to at least 11 decimal places. [[Aryabhata]] in AD [[499]] introduced a number of [[trigonometric functions]] and [[trigonometry|trigonometric]] tables, techniques and [[algorithm]]s of [[algebra]] and obtained whole number solutions to linear equations by a method equivalent to the modern method, along with [[astronomy|astronomical]] calculations based on a [[heliocentrism|heliocentric]] system of [[gravity|gravitation]]. An [[Arabic]] translation of his ''Aryabhatiya'' was available by the [[10th century]]. He also computed the value of [[π]] to the fourth decimal place as 3.1416. [[Madhava of Sangamagrama|Madhava]] later in the [[14th century]] computed the value of π to the eleventh decimal place as 3.14159265359. In the [[7th century]], [[Brahmagupta]] discovered the [[Brahmagupta theorem]], [[Brahmagupta's identity]] and [[Brahmagupta's formula]], and for the first time, in [[Brahmasphutasiddhanta|Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta]], he lucidly explained the use of [[0 (number)|zero]] as both a [[placeholder]] and [[decimal digit]] and explained the [[Hindu-Arabic numeral system]]. It was from a translation of this Indian text on mathematics (around [[770]]) that [[Islam]]ic mathematicians were introduced to this numeral system, which they adapted as [[Arabic numerals]]. Islamic scholars carried knowledge of this number system to [[Europe]] by the [[12th century]], and it has now displaced all older number systems throughout the world. From the [[12th century]], [[Bhaskara]], [[Madhava of Sangamagrama|Madhava]] and a number of [[Kerala School]] mathematicians, first conceived [[differential calculus]], [[mathematical analysis]], [[floating point]] numbers and concepts fundamental to the overall development of [[calculus]], including [[Rolle's theorem]], term by term [[integration]], tests of [[convergence]], [[iterative methods]] for solutions of [[non-linear]] equations, the relationship between [[integral]]s, the area under a curve and a number of [[infinite series]] and [[trigonometric]] series. In the [[16th century]], [[Jyeshtadeva]] consolidated many of the Kerala School's discoveries in the ''Yuktibhasa'', the world's first differential calculus text, which also introduced concepts of [[integral calculus]]. Mathematical progress in India became stagnant from the late [[16th century]] onwards due to subsequent political turmoil. ==Persian and Islamic mathematics (650 - 1500)== {{main|Islamic mathematics}} The [[Islam]]ic [[Caliph]]ate ([[Islamic Empire]]) established across the [[Middle East]], [[North Africa]], [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]], and in parts of [[History of India|India]] (in [[Pakistan]]) in the [[8th century]] preserved and translated much of the Hellenistic mathematics (from [[Greek language|Greek]] to [[Arabic]]) that was largely forgotten in [[Europe]] at the time. Arabic translations of various texts on Indian mathematics had a major impact on Islamic mathematics, including the introduction of [[Hindu-Arabic numerals]] when the works of [[Brahmagupta]] were translated into Arabic circa [[766]]. These Indian and Hellenistic works laid the foundations for the important Islamic contributions to mathematics that followed. Like the Indian mathematicians at the time, Islamic mathematicians were especially interested in [[astronomy]]. Although most Islamic texts on mathematics were written in Arabic, they were not all written by [[Arab]]s, since much like the status of Greek in the Hellenistic world, Arabic was used as the written language of non-Arab scholars throughout the Islamic world at the time. Some of the most important Islamic mathematicians were [[Persian people|Persian]]. [[Al-Khwarizmi]], the [[9th century]] [[Iran|Persian]] astronomer of the [[Caliph of Baghdad]], wrote several important books, on the Hindu-Arabic numerals and on methods for solving equations. The word ''[[algorithm]]'' is derived from his name, and the word ''[[algebra]]'' from the title of one of his works, ''[[Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah]]''. Al-Khwarizmi is often considered to be the father of modern algebra and modern algorithms. Further deve
suppressed due to social taboo. Other scenarios may include: *Not associating their attractions as pedosexual in nature due to cultural differences. *[[Age of consent]] laws were raised in their jurisdiction but mainstream views toward sex with that age group remained the same, were acted upon, then they were charged with a crime. *The person's passive interest in children is manifested temporarily upon the consumption of alcohol and acted upon while inhibitions were low. Some view regressed offenders as people who are unable to maintain adult sexual relationships and so the offender substitutes an adult with a child. This appears to be a flawed concept since it would suggest the offender was primarily pedosexual and they would thus fit into the fixated category. ====Fixated offenders==== Fixated offenders are most often adult [[pedophilia|pedophiles]] who are [[maladaptive]] to accepted social norms. They develop compatibility and self-esteem issues, stunting their social growth. This is commonly characterized amongst psychologists as a &quot;lack of maturity&quot;. &quot;This offender ''identifies'' with children, in other words considers him or herself to be like a child and thus seeks sexual relationships with what the offender perceives to be ''other'' children&quot;.&lt;sup&gt;[http://www.csom.org/train/supervision/medium/01_02_04.html]&lt;/sup&gt; Such offenders often resort to collecting personal articles related to minors (clothing, children's books) as an outlet for their repressed desires. Most fixated offenders prefer members of the same sex. There is a difference of opinion as to whether this may be classified as [[homosexuality]] due to the nature of the individual's attractions. The sexual acts are typically preconceived and are not alcohol or drug related. ====Sadistic offenders==== Sadistic offenders are very rare and inherently violent criminals. They primarily use sexuality as a tool of [[Sadism|sadistic]] suppression and not for sexual satisfaction. For this reason they do not fit within the classification of [[pedophilia]]. ===Categorization=== The great majority of offenders fit into the regressed category. Only between 2-10% percent of all offenders are fixated. These categories, (primarily the first two), are based on the assumption that the offender suffers from an irreversible mental illness. A few have noted that the primary division between &quot;regressed&quot; or &quot;fixated&quot; offenders seems to rest on two criteria: the offending person's ability to successfully live a socially acceptable lifestyle before committing the crime and the person's primary sexual preference. These categorizations also assume the act is a crime in the jurisdiction they reside in. These terms generally do not encompass the full range of possible scenarios and merely attempt to label easily identifiable situations. A growing number of [[pedosexuals]] feel that the two main classifications are a direct result from the lack of understanding and/or bias in the mainstream regarding pedosexuality in [[western society]] and thus are categorically flawed. ==== &quot;Children who molest&quot; ==== Some [[Therapy|therapists]] noticed that many [[adult]] sex offenders already showed what they considered deviant sexual behavior during childhood. So they promoted early treatment of deviant minors as a preventive measure. However there is still little known about normal as opposed to deviant [[child sexuality]]. It is also unknown whether so called deviant minors have a higher risk of becoming an adult sex offenders than anybody else. The US started to focus on juvenile sex offenders or even children for therapy or detention perhaps in the early [[1990s]]. The label &quot;juvenile sex offender&quot; is controversial because it is not only used to describe acts of violence, but also consensual acts that violate statutory rape laws; critics of this trend view many such children as simply engaging in sexual [[experimentation]]. They also criticize the law for forcing arbitrary classification of such pairs of offenders into victim and perpetrator. Therapies used on children have included controversial methods historically used in the &quot;treatment&quot; of homosexuals such as [[aversion therapy]], where children are, for example, forced to smell ammonia while looking at nude pictures or to listen to audio tapes describing sexual situations. In order to measure sexual response, devices like [[penile plethysmograph]]s and [[vaginal photoplethysmograph]]s are sometimes used on these children. ===Variation in cultural practices, norms and research findings=== Between [[cultural relativism|cultural relativists]] and cultural universalists there is no [[consensus]] whether and which among different past or present cultural practices in Western or non-Western societies can be defined as abusing either general universalistic human rights or special universalistic rights of children due to which there is no generally accepted definition which of them can be listed as CSA. In different cultures the practices sanctioned by cultural norms involve for example cutting and bleeding of the genitals, [[female circumcision]], [[circumcision]] (of males), [[castration]], [[infibulation]], sexual relationships between adolescent boys and adult men sanctioned by the state and sanctified by religion in ancient [[Greece]] and feudal [[Japan]], child prostitution tolerated in some societies as a way for children to support their families, [[groping]] of schoolgirls in Japanese trains, in the Western societies now abolished remedies against masturbation (once named 'self-abuse'), and nudity in public baths and [[nudism|nudistic]] settings etc. In some [[Oceania|South Pacific]] island cultures, such as the Sambia of [[Papua New Guinea]], one of the primary rituals of initiation for boys involves having them ingest [[semen]], which they consider to be the literal essence of manhood. The boys obtain semen by [[Fellatio|fellating]] older boys who have already passed through the initiation. Upon initiation into higher stages, the roles are reversed, making the fellator the fellated. Ritual fellatio is somewhat common throughout southeastern Papua New Guinea but has been studied the most in the Sambia (Herdt 1982). [http://www2.rz.hu-berlin.de/sexology/GESUND/ARCHIV/GUS/NEWGUINEA.HTM] [http://www.glbtq.com/arts/pac_art.html] [http://www.globalgayz.com/papua-news.html] Because of the lack of the universal definition the research on CSA is open both to personal biases of the researchers and of their critics. ===Epidemiology=== Goldman ([[2000]]) notes that &quot;the absolute number of children being sexually abused each year has been almost impossible to ascertain&quot; and that &quot;there does not seem to be agreement on the rate of children being sexually abused&quot;. A meta-analytic study by Rind, Tromovitch, and Bauserman ([[1998]]) found that reported prevalence of abuse for males ranged from 3% to 37%, and for females from 8% to 71% with mean rates of 17% and 28% respectively. A study by Fromuth and Burkhart ([[1987]]) found that depending upon the definition of CSA used, prevalence among men varied from 4% to 24%. ==Sexual abuse, consent, minors, age gap and culture== The simple definition of '''child sexual abuse''' is when an adult forces or coerces sex on a prepubescent minor. There is an ongoing controversy surrounding this definition. The controversy lies within the argument as to whether children can or cannot give [[cognition|cognitive]] consent. The mainstream opinion in countries such as the U.S. and U.K. is that any [[minor]] under the legal [[age of consent]] is deemed mentally incapable of consenting to sexual activity with people older than they are, thus any and all contact is automatically considered abuse. Also, in cases of multi-generational relationships where both parties are legal adults, such relationships are still often widely considered immoral and taboo, even though legal. Such relationships often result in humorous anecdotes or parodies, and in some more severe cases, social abolishment. In most cases involving minors, the combination of these two elements results in the passing of laws which prohibit minors from giving legal [[informed consent]], even if they are indeed a willing partner to the best of their own knowledge. Thus, if such acts are discovered, the adult may be charged with a [[crime|criminal offense]]. ===Definition based on moral objection; relativity=== The mainstream view is that any and all contact between minors and adults is immoral and automatically abuse in all cases. In more severe opinions it is considered inherently [[evil]], and in their own words, &quot;the '''perpetrators''' must be held liable to the utmost extent of the law.&quot; ====Innocence of children==== On one hand, moral opponents also strive to maintain preservation of the perceived [[innocence]] in children. On the other hand, proponents claim this argument based on innocence is inherently flawed in that it is ignorance, not innocence, which is wrought by not allowing children to be exposed to sex at an earlier age. This debate is a separate one in and of itself, and lends to ideals which both sides of the argument deem worthy enough for strong objection. Both sides routinely refer to the &quot;preponderance&quot; of psychological, sociological, and historical evidence to back their claims. Both sides agree that genuine cases of force and coercion are indeed true abuse. ====Objection to homosexuality==== In cases of same-sex relations between adults and minors in western civilisation, there is also the stigma based on the [[homosexual]] nature of the actions. There are other societies, however, in which adult/adult homosexuality is considered criminally and morally offensive behavior, but child/adult heterosexual relations are viewed as acceptable. ====Criticism of the definitions==== Views
;sup2; (366/mi&amp;sup2;). There are 21,283 housing units at an average density of 57/km&amp;sup2; (148/mi&amp;sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 85.30% [[Race (U.S. census)|White]], 1.80% [[Race (U.S. census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. census)|African American]], 2.40% [[Race (U.S. census)|Native American]], 1.77% [[Race (U.S. census)|Asian]], 0.14% [[Race (U.S. census)|Pacific Islander]], 6.46% from [[race (U.S. census)|other races]], and 2.12% from two or more races. 14.23% of the population are [[Race (U.S. census)|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. census)|Latino]] of any race. There are 20,171 households, out of which 29.80% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.00% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 11.00% have a female householder with no husband present, and 34.30% are non-families. 27.80% of all households are made up of individuals and 11.00% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.44 and the average family size is 2.97. The city's age distribution is: 23.40% under the age of 18, 7.90% from 18 to 24, 28.90% from 25 to 44, 24.90% from 45 to 64, and 14.90% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 39 years. For every 100 females there are 106.90 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 108.20 males. The median income for a household in the city is $41,809, and the median income for a family is $49,570. Males have a median income of $35,296 versus $27,418 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $20,943. 10.00% of the population and 6.90% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 13.70% of those under the age of 18 and 5.80% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line. ==Culture== *[[Nevada State Museum ]] *[[Nevada State Railroad Museum]] == External links == *[http://www.carson-city.nv.us City of Carson City] - official site. *[http://www.carson-city.org Carson City Convention and Visitors Bureau] {{Mapit-US-cityscale|39.160949|-119.753877}} {{Nevada}} {{United_States_state_capitals}} [[Category:Cities in Nevada]] [[Category:Great Basin]] [[Category:Independent cities in the United States]] [[Category:State capitals in the United States]] [[bg:Карсън Сити]] [[da:Carson City]] [[de:Carson City (Nevada)]] [[es:Carson City]] [[eo:Carson City (Nevado)]] [[fr:Carson City]] [[he:קרסון סיטי]] [[nl:Carson City]] [[ja:カーソンシティ (ネバダ州)]] [[pl:Carson City (Nevada)]] [[pt:Carson City]] [[sv:Carson City]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Clark Kent</title> <id>7442</id> <revision> <id>41497038</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T19:39:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>82.10.101.241</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Superman_296.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Superman]] and his secret identity Clark Kent being portrayed as distinct individuals. From ''Superman'' (volume 1) #296, February 1976. Art by [[Curt Swan]].]] '''Clark Joseph Kent''', or '''Clark Jerome Kent''',{{ref|jerome}} is a fictional character created by [[Joe Shuster]] and [[Jerry Siegel]] as civilian [[secret identity]] of the [[superhero]] [[Superman]]. Through the popularity of his Superman [[alter ego]], the personality, concept, and name of Clark Kent have become ingrained in popular culture as well, becoming synonymous with secret identities and innocuous fronts for ulterior motives and activities. As first written in the earliest ''Superman'' comics, Clark Kent's primary purpose was to fulfill the perceived dramatic requirement that a costumed [[superhero]] cannot stay on-duty twenty-four hours a day, or throughout the entirety of a comic book series. As such, Kent acted as little more than a front for Superman's activities. Although his name and history were taken from his early life with his adoptive Earth parents, everything about Kent was staged for the benefit of his alternate identity&amp;mdash;he acquired a job as a reporter for the ''[[Daily Planet]]'' for the convenience of receiving late-breaking news before the general public, providing an excuse for being present at crime scenes and having an occupation where his whereabouts do not have to be strictly accounted for as long as he makes his story deadlines. However, in order to draw attention away from the correlation between Kent and Superman, Clark Kent adopted a largely passive and introverted personality, applying conservative mannerisms, a higher-pitched voice, and a slight slouch. This personality is typically described as &quot;mild-mannered,&quot; perhaps most famously by the opening narration of [[Max Fleischer]]'s [[Superman (1940s cartoons)|''Superman'' animated theatrical shorts]]. These traits extended into Kent's wardrobe, typically consisting of a blue business suit, a red necktie, black-rimmed glasses, and combed-back hair. Kent wears his Superman costume underneath his street clothes, which lends itself to easy transferrence between the two personalities. However, the purpose of this convention outside of fiction is largely dramatic, allowing Kent to rip open his shirt and reveal the familiar &quot;S&quot; insignia when called into action. When in action, Superman usually stores his Clark Kent clothing inside a secret pouch hidden inside of his cape, though some stories have shown him leaving his clothes in some covert location(usually bizarre places like phone booths) for later retrieval. In the wake of John Byrne's ''[[The Man of Steel]]'' reboot of Superman continuity, many traditional aspects of Clark Kent were dropped in favor of giving him a more aggressive and extroverted personality, including such aspects as making Kent a top [[American football|football]] player in high school, along with being a successful author. Recently, some aspects of this change have been dropped, in favor of bringing back elements of the earlier, &quot;mild-mannered&quot; version of Kent. In Metropolis, Superman (as Clark Kent) works as a reporter at the Planet, &quot;a great metropolitan newspaper&quot; which allows him to keep track of ongoing events where he might be of help. Largely working on his own, his identity is easily kept secret. Fellow reporter [[Lois Lane]] became the object of Clark's/Superman's romantic affection. Lois's affection for Superman and her rejection of Clark's clumsy advances have been a recurring theme in Superman comics, television, and movies. Various reasons over the decades have been offered for why people haven't suspected Superman and Clark Kent of being one and the same. In the 1970s, one such suggestion was that the lenses of Clark Kent's glasses (made of Kryptonian materials) constantly amplified a low-level super-[[hypnosis]] power, thereby creating the illusion of others viewing Clark Kent as a weak and frailer being; however, this reason was abandoned almost as quickly as it was introduced, since it had various flaws (such as stories where [[Batman]] would disguise himself as Clark Kent, among others). Another reason given in the late 1980s was that Superman would vibrate his face slightly so that photographs would only show his features as a blur, thus preventing the danger of photographs of both identities being reliably compared. However, more recent stories showing Superman being photographed have tended to ignore this factor. &lt;!-- Some redundancy in this section --&gt; The main means by which Superman protects his secret identity is by accentuating the physical distinctions between Superman and Clark Kent: Clark Kent is usually shown as wearing conservative clothing, slightly slouching, and speaking in a higher-pitched voice, along with adopting more introverted mannerisms than his heroic alter-ego. Traditionally, Lois Lane and others would often suspect Superman of truly being Clark Kent (and vice-versa), though more recent comics often feature the general public assuming that Superman doesn't have a secret identity (since he doesn't wear a mask, the assumption is that he has nothing to hide); in ''Superman'' (volume 2) #2 (1987), for example, a super-computer constructed by Lex Luthor calculated Superman's true identity, but Lex dismissed the idea because he could not believe that someone so powerful would want another identity. In modern comic continuity, Lois Lane never suspected the dual identity before Clark revealed it to her (except for one time when she visited the Kent farm, where she was told that Superman was &quot;brought up&quot; alongside Clark like a brother). Some fans have noted that in order for the disguise to be credible, Clark has to be at least as skilled an actor as [[Christopher Reeve]]. The actor's portrayal of Clark in the feature film series was praised for making the disguise's effectiveness credible to audiences (though not all fans embraced it as warmly). According to the 2004 limited series ''[[Superman: Birthright]]'' (which retells Superman's origin), young Clark Kent studies the [[Meisner technique]] so that he can seamlessly move between his Clark and Superman personas. When crises arise, Clark quickly changes into Superman. In the Fleischer animated series of theatrical cartoons, he often ducked into a telephone booth to make the transformation. In the comic books he rarely does so, favoring the Daily Planet's storeroom. As a dramatic plot device, Clark often has to quickly improvise in order to find a way to change unnoticed. For example in the first Christopher Reeve Superman movie, Kent is comically unable to use a newer, open-kiosk pay phone, so he enters a revolving door and changes clothes while spinning within it at superspeed. Thus made invisible, he appeared to enter the building as Kent and exit seconds later as Superman. ==In other media== [[Image:1Clark_Season_5_Opening_Credits.jpg |thumb|200px|right|[[Tom Welling]] as Clark Kent in the 2000s television series ''[[Smallville (TV series)|Smallville]]''.]] Clark Kent's character is gi
d [[Lou Costello]], debuts on American television. * [[1955]] - The [[American Federation of Labor]] and the [[Congress of Industrial Organizations]] merge and form the [[AFL-CIO]]. * [[1958]] - [[subscriber trunk dialling|Subscriber Trunk Dialling (STD)]] is inaugurated in the [[UK]] by [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] when she speaks to the [[Lord Provost]] in a call from [[Bristol]] to [[Edinburgh]]. * 1958 - The [[Preston]] bypass, the [[United Kingdom|UK]]'s first stretch of [[motorway]] opens to traffic for the first time, now part of the [[M6 motorway|M6]] and [[M55 motorway]]s. * [[1964]] - [[Vietnam War]]: For his heroism in battle earlier in the year, Captain [[Roger Donlon]] of [[Saugerties, New York]] is awarded the first [[Medal of Honor]] of the war. * [[1974]] - ''Party Political Broadcast'', the final episode of [[Monty Python's Flying Circus]], is broadcast on [[BBC 2]]. * [[1976]] - [[United Nations General Assembly]] adopts [[Pakistan]] resolution on security of non-Nuclear States. * [[1977]] - [[Egypt]] breaks diplomatic relations with [[Syria]], [[Libya]], [[Algeria]], [[Iraq]] and South [[Yemen]]. The move is in retaliation to the Declaration of Tripoli against Egypt. * [[1978]] - The [[Soviet Union]] signs a 'friendship treaty' with the [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]]. * [[1979]] - [[Sonia Johnson]] is formally [[excommunication | excommunicated]] by [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] for her outspoken criticism of the church concerning the proposed [[Equal Rights Amendment]] to the [[Constitution of the United States]]. * [[1992]] - [[Kent Conrad]] of [[North Dakota]] resigns his seat in the [[United States Senate]] and is sworn into the other seat from North Dakota, becoming the only US Senator ever to have held two seats on the same day. * [[2004]] - [[BJP]] dissidents in the [[India]]n state of [[West Bengal]] launch the [[Dr. Syamaprasad Jana Jagaran Manch]] forum. * [[2005]] - The [[2005 Southeast Asian Games]] end in [[Manila]]. * 2005 - The [[2005 Lake Tanganyika earthquake|Lake Tanganyika earthquake]] causes significant damage, mostly in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]. * 2005 - The [[Civil Partnership Act]] comes into effect in the [[United Kingdom]], and the first [[Civil partnerships in the United Kingdom|civil partnership]] is registered there. ==Births== *[[1377]] - [[Jianwen Emperor]] of China (d. [[1402]]) *[[1443]] - [[Pope Julius II]] (d. [[1513]]) *[[1495]] - [[Nicolas Cleynaerts]], Flemish grammarian (d. [[1542]]) *[[1537]] - [[Ashikaga Yoshiaki]], Japanese shogun (d. [[1597]]) *[[1539]] - [[Fausto Paolo Sozzini]], Italian theologian (d. [[1604]]) *[[1547]] - [[Ubbo Emmius]], Dutch historian and geographer (d. [[1625]]) *[[1595]] - [[Henry Lawes]], English composer (d. [[1662]]) *[[1661]] - [[Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Mortimer]], English statesman (d. [[1724]]) *[[1687]] - [[Francesco Geminiani]], Italian violinist and composer (d. [[1762]]) *[[1782]] - [[Martin Van Buren]], 8th [[President of the United States]] (d. [[1862]]) *[[1803]] - [[Fyodor Ivanovich Tyutchev]], Russian poet (d. [[1873]]) *[[1820]] - [[Afanasy Fet]], Russian poet (d. [[1892]]) *[[1822]] - [[Elizabeth Cary Agassiz]], American college president (d. [[1907]]) *[[1830]] - [[Christina Rossetti]], British poet (d. [[1894]]) *[[1839]] - [[George Armstrong Custer]], American general (d. [[1876]]) *[[1841]] - [[Marcus Daly]], American mining tycoon (d. [[1900]]) *[[1855]] - [[Clinton Hart Merriam]], American ornithologist (d. [[1942]]) *[[1859]] - [[John Jellicoe, 1st Earl Jellicoe|John Jellicoe]], British admiral (d. [[1935]]) *[[1867]] - [[Józef Piłsudski]], Polish revolutionary and statesman (d. [[1935]]) *[[1868]] - [[Arnold Sommerfeld]], German physicist (d. [[1951]]) *[[1869]] - [[Ellis Parker Butler]], American author (d. [[1937]]) *[[1870]] - [[Vítězslav Novák]], Czech composer (d. [[1949]]) *[[1871]] - [[Bill Pickett]], American rodeo performer (d. [[1932]]) *[[1872]] - [[Harry Nelson Pillsbury]], American chess player (d. [[1906]]) *[[1875]] - Sir [[Arthur Currie]], Canadian soldier (d. [[1933]]) *[[1879]] - [[Clyde Cessna]], American airplane manufacturer (d. [[1954]]) *[[1886]] - [[Rose Wilder Lane]], American writer and reporter (d. [[1968]]) *[[1890]] - [[David Bomberg]], British painter (d. [[1957]]) *1890 - [[Fritz Lang]], Austrian-born film director (d. [[1976]]) *[[1895]] - [[Elbert Frank Cox]], American mathematician *[[1896]] - [[Carl Ferdinand Cori]], Austrian-born biochemist, [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1984]]) *[[1898]] - [[Grace Moore]], American soprano (d. [[1947]]} *[[1901]] - [[Walt Disney]], American animated film producer (d. [[1966]]) *1901 - [[Milton H. Erickson]], American psychiatrist (d. [[1980]]) *1901 - [[Werner Heisenberg]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1976]]) *[[1902]] - [[Strom Thurmond]], American politician (d. [[2003]]) *[[1903]] - [[Johannes Heesters]], Dutch singer and actor *1903 - [[Cecil Frank Powell]], British physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1969]]) *[[1906]] - [[Otto Preminger]], Austrian-born director, producer, and actor (d. [[1986]]) *[[1907]] - [[Giuseppe Occhialini]], Italian physicist (d. [[1993]]) *[[1911]] - [[Władysław Szpilman]], Polish pianist (d. [[2000]]) *[[1914]] - [[Hans Hellmut Kirst]], German author (d. [[1989]]) *[[1927]] - [[Bhumibol Adulyadej]], [[King of Thailand]] *[[1932]] - [[Sheldon Lee Glashow]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate *1932 - [[Little Richard]] (Richard Wayne Penniman), American singer and pianist *[[1934]] - [[Joan Didion]], American writer *[[1935]] - [[Calvin Trillin]], American writer *[[1940]] - [[Peter Pohl]], Swedish writer *[[1943]] - [[Eva Joly]], Norwegian-born French magistrate *[[1944]] - [[Jeroen Krabbé]], Dutch actor *[[1946]] - [[José Carreras]], Spanish tenor *[[1947]] - [[Jim Messina]], American musician ([[Buffalo Springfield]]) *1947 - [[Jim Plunkett]], American football player *[[1949]] - [[Ray Comfort]], New Zealand evangelist *[[1950]] - [[Camarón de la Isla]], Spanish flamenco singer (d. [[1992]]) *1950 - [[Osvaldo Golijov]], Argentine-born composer *[[1953]] - [[Larry Zbyszko]], American professional wrestler *[[1956]] - [[Brian Backer]], American actor *1956 - [[Krystian Zimerman]], Polish pianist *[[1957]] - [[Art Monk]], American football player *[[1958]] - [[Dean Erickson]], American actor *[[1960]] - [[Jack Russell]], American singer ([[Great White|Great White (band)]]) *[[1962]] - [[José Cura]], Argentine tenor *[[1963]] - [[Eddie 'the Eagle' Edwards]], British skier *[[1965]] - [[Johnny Rzeznik]] American singer ([[Goo Goo Dolls]]) *[[1967]] - [[Gary Allan]], American singer *[[1968]] - [[Margaret Cho]], American comedian and actress *1968 - [[Lisa Marie]], American model and actress *1969 - Karen Lynne Youds, Minerva Training Manager *[[1973]] - [[Luboš Motl]], Czech physicist *[[1975]] - [[Ronnie O'Sullivan]], British snooker player *[[1979]] - [[Matteo Ferrari]], Italy footballer *1979 - [[Niklas Hagman]], [[Finland|Finnish]] hockey player *[[1982]] - [[Eddy Curry]], American basketball player *[[1985]] - [[Josh Smith]], American basketball player *1985 - [[Frankie Muniz]], American actor *[[1988]] - [[Ross Bagley]], American actor ==Deaths== *[[749]] - Saint [[John of Damascus]], theologian *[[1082]] - [[Ramon Berenguer II, Count of Barcelona]] *[[1355]] - [[John III, Duke of Brabant]] (b. [[1300]]) *[[1560]] - King [[Francis II of France]] (b. [[1544]]) *[[1624]] - [[Gaspard Bauhin]], Swiss botanist (b. [[1560]]) *[[1654]] - [[Jean François Sarrazin]], French writer *[[1663]] - [[Severo Bonini]], Italian composer (b. [[1582]]) *[[1749]] - [[Pierre Gaultier de Varennes et de la Vérendrye]], [[New France|New French]] explorer and trader (b. [[1685]]) *[[1758]] - [[Johann Friedrich Fasch]], German composer (b. [[1688]]) *[[1770]] - [[James Stirling (mathematician)|James Stirling]], Scottish mathematician (b. [[1692]]) *[[1784]] - [[Phillis Wheatley]], British poet (b. [[1753]]) *[[1791]] - [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]], Austrian composer (b. [[1756]]) *[[1819]] - [[Friedrich Leopold Graf zu Stolberg]], German poet (b. [[1750]]) *[[1870]] - [[Alexandre Dumas|Alexandre Dumas père]], French writer (b. [[1802]]) *[[1887]] - [[Eliza Roxcy Snow]], American poet (b. [[1804]]) *[[1891]] - Emperor [[Pedro II of Brazil]] (b. [[1825]]) *[[1925]] - [[Władysław Reymont]], Polish writer and [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1867]]) *[[1926]] - [[Claude Monet]], French impressionist painter (b. [[1840]]) *[[1931]] - [[Vachel Lindsay]], American poet (b. [[1879]]) *[[1940]] - [[Jan Kubelík]], Austro-Hungarian-born Czechoslovak violinist (b. [[1880]]) *[[1950]] - [[Shri Aurobindo]], Indian guru (b. [[1872]]) *[[1951]] - [[Shoeless Joe Jackson]], American baseball player (b. [[1889]]) *1951 - [[Abanindranath Tagore]], Indian writer (b. [[1871]]) *[[1963]] - [[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy]], Prime Minister [[Pakistan]] (b. [[1892]]) *1963 - [[Karl Amadeus Hartmann]], German composer (b. [[1905]]) *1963 - [[Sri Deep Narayan Mahaprabhuji]], Indian Hindu mystic *[[1965]] - [[Joseph Erlanger]], American physiologist and [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1874]]) *[[1989]] - Sir [[John Pritchard]], British conductor (b. [[1921]]) *[[1991]] - [[Richard Speck]], American mass murderer (b. [[1941]]) *[[1993]] - [[Doug Hopkins]], American guitarist and songwriter ([[Gin Blossoms]]) (b. [[1961]]) *[[2001]] - [[Franco Rasetti]], Italian physicist (b. [[1901]]) *[[2002]] - [[Roone Arledge]], American sports broadcasting pioneer (b. [[1931]]) *2002 - [[Ne Win]], Burmese leader (b. [[1911]]) *[[2005]] - [[Frits Philips]], Dutch industrialist and businessman from multinational Philips Electronic
937). *Hubble E.P., ''The Realm of the Nebulae'' (New Haven, 1936). ==External links== *[http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/hubble.html Time 100 Profile] *[http://www.astro.louisville.edu/education/hubble_in_louisville/nahs/ Astronomy at the University of Louisville] - Photographs of Edwin Hubble at [[New Albany High School (Indiana)|New Albany High School]]. *[http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/diamond_jubilee/1996/sandage_hubble.html Edwin Hubble bio] - Written by [[Allan Sandage]] [[Category:1889 births|Hubble, Edwin]] [[Category:1953 deaths|Hubble, Edwin]] [[Category:American astronomers|Hubble, Edwin]] [[Category:Cosmologists|Hubble, Edwin]] [[Category:United States Rhodes scholars|Hubble, Edwin]] [[Category:Asteroid discoverers|Hubble, Edwin]] [[ar:ادون هابل]] [[bg:Едуин Хъбъл]] [[ca:Edwin Hubble]] [[cs:Edwin Hubble]] [[da:Edwin Hubble]] [[de:Edwin Hubble]] [[es:Edwin Hubble]] [[eo:Edwin HUBBLE]] [[fa:ادوین هابل]] [[fr:Edwin Hubble]] [[io:Edwin Hubble]] [[it:Edwin Hubble]] [[he:אדווין האבל]] [[ka:ჰაბლი, ედუინ]] [[nl:Edwin Hubble]] [[ja:エドウィン・ハッブル]] [[no:Edwin Hubble]] [[pl:Edwin Hubble]] [[pt:Edwin Powell Hubble]] [[ru:Хаббл, Эдвин Пауэлл]] [[sk:Edwin Powell Hubble]] [[sl:Edwin Powell Hubble]] [[fi:Edwin Hubble]] [[sv:Edwin Hubble]] [[th:เอ็ดวิน ฮับเบิล]] [[zh:愛德文·哈勃]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Emperor Nimmyo</title> <id>10490</id> <revision> <id>31358533</id> <timestamp>2005-12-14T19:05:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>69.196.4.226</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Nimmyō''' (仁明天皇 ''Ninmyō Tennō'') ([[810]]&amp;ndash; [[March 21]], [[850]]) was the 54th [[Emperor of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He reigned from [[833]] to [[March 21]], [[850]]. His birth in name was '''Prince Masara''' (正良親王, ''Masara-shinnō''). He was the second son of [[Emperor Saga]] by the Empress [[Tachibana no Kachiko]]. He ascended to the throne following the abdication of his uncle, [[Emperor Junna]]. First he made a son of Junna the crown prince. Nine years later in [[842]] after a coup d'état that crown prince was replaced with Ninmyō's first son, Prince Michiyasu later [[Emperor Montoku]] whose mother was the Empress Fujiwara no Junshi, a daughter of [[Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu]]. It is supposed there was a political intrigue planned by Nimmyō and [[Fujiwara no Yoshifusa]], the second son of Fuyutsugu and uncle of the new crown prince. In [[850]] he abdicated in favor of the Crown Prince Michiyasu who is known as [[Emperor Montoku]]. The successor of Montoku was the third son of Emperor Nimmyō, [[Emperor Koko|Prince Tokiyasu]]. {{japan-bio-stub}} {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Emperor Junna]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | after=[[Emperor Montoku]] | years=833-850}} {{end box}} [[Category:810 births|Nimmyo]] [[Category:850 deaths|Nimmyo]] [[Category:Japanese emperors|Nimmyo]] [[de:Nimmy&amp;#333;]] [[it:Nimmyo imperatore del Giappone]] [[ja:&amp;#20161;&amp;#26126;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]] [[zh:仁明天皇]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Emperor Montoku</title> <id>10491</id> <revision> <id>31358655</id> <timestamp>2005-12-14T19:06:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>69.196.4.226</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Montoku''' (文徳天皇 ''Montoku Tennō'') ([[827]]-[[858]]) was the 55th [[Emperor of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He reigned from [[850]] to [[858]] and was succeeded by his son [[Emperor Seiwa]]. {{japan-bio-stub}} {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Emperor Nimmyo|Emperor Nimmyō]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | after=[[Emperor Seiwa]] | years=850-858}} {{end box}} [[Category:827 births|Montoku]] [[Category:858 deaths|Montoku]] [[Category:Japanese emperors|Montoku]] [[de:Montoku]] [[it:Montoku imperatore del Giappone]] [[ja:文徳天皇]] [[zh:文德天皇]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Emperor Seiwa</title> <id>10492</id> <revision> <id>31358803</id> <timestamp>2005-12-14T19:07:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>69.196.4.226</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Seiwa''' (清和天皇 ''Seiwa Tennō'') (Third month, 25th day, [[850]] - Twelfth month, 4th day, [[880]]) was the 56th [[Emperor of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He reigned from the eleventh month, 7th day, [[858]] until the eleventh month, 29th day, [[876]]. His birth name was '''Korehito''' (惟仁). == Genealogy == He was the fourth son of [[Emperor Montoku]]. His mother was a court lady named Meishi or Akirakeiko (明子), the daughter of [[Fujiwara no Yoshifusa]] (藤原良房). He was the younger half-brother of Imperial Prince Koretaka (惟喬親王) (lived [[844]]-[[897]]) *[[868]]-[[949]] Imperial Prince Sadaakira (惟喬親王) ([[Emperor Yozei|Emperor Yōzei]]) *[[870]]-[[924]] Imperial Prince Sadayasu (貞明親王) *???-[[930]] Imperial Princess Atsuko? (敦子内親王) *???-[[930]] Imperial Prince Sadamoto (貞固親王) *[[873]]-[[916]] Imperial Prince Sadasumi (貞純親王) - father of Minamoto no Tsunemoto (源経基), founder of the Seiwa [[Minamoto|Genji]], from whom the [[Kamakura shogunate]] and the [[Ashikaga shogunate]] were both descended, as well as from whom the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] claimed descent *[[874]]-[[906]] Imperial Princess Shikiko (識子内親王) &lt;i&gt;saigū&lt;/i&gt; (Imperial Princess serving at [[Ise Shrine]]) *[[874]]-[[929]] Imperial Prince Sadatoki (貞辰親王) *[[875]]-[[916]] Imperial Prince Sadakazu (貞数親王) *[[876]]-[[922]] Imperial Prince Sadayori (貞頼親王) *[[876]]-[[932]] Imperial Prince Sada?? (貞真親王) Many other children, most of whom descended to subject status as members of the Minamoto Clan (Seiwa Genji, specifically) ==Life== Originally under the guardianship of his maternal grandfather [[Fujiwara]] no Yoshifusa, he displaced Imperial Prince Koretaka (惟喬親王) as [[Crown Prince]]. Upon the death of his father in [[858]], Emperor Montoku, he became Emperor at the age of 8, but the real power was held by his grandfather, Yoshifusa. *[[850]] Birth. In the same year, investure as Crown Prince *[[858]] Enthronement *[[876]] Abdicates suddenly, enters Buddhist monastery *[[880]] Dies ==Names== From the site of his tomb, he was also referred to as Mizunoo (水尾) (see also [[Emperor Go-Mizunoo]]) ==[[Japanese era name|Eras]] of his reign== *[[Tennan]] *[[Jogan|Jōgan]] {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Emperor Montoku]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | after=[[Emperor Yozei| Emperor Yōzei]] | years=858-876}} {{end box}} [[Category:850 births|Seiwa]] [[Category:880 deaths|Seiwa]] [[Category:Japanese emperors|Seiwa]] [[de:Seiwa]] [[it:Seiwa_imperatore_del_Giappone]] [[ja:清和天皇]] [[zh:清和天皇]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Emperor Yozei</title> <id>10493</id> <revision> <id>39044510</id> <timestamp>2006-02-10T09:05:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>83.208.12.217</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hyakuninisshu 013.jpg|thumb|{{PAGENAME}} (From Ogura Hyakunin Isshu)]] [[Image:Tomb of Emperor Yosei.jpg|right|thumbnail|Tomb of Emperor Yōzei, Kyoto]] '''Emperor Yōzei''' (陽成天皇 ''Yōzei Tennō'') ([[869]]-[[949]]) was the 57th [[Emperor of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He took the throne in [[876]] following his father's abdication and reigned until being deposed in [[884]]. He was succeeded by his father's uncle, [[Emperor Koko|Emperor Kōkō]]. According to very scanty information from the Imperial archives, including sources such as Rikkokushi, and Nihon Sandai Jitsuroku, Emperor Yozei committed murder by killing one of his retainers, an action that caused massive scandal in the Heian court. Japanese society during the Heian era was very sensitive to issues of &quot;pollution&quot;, both spirtual and personal. Deaths (especially killing animals or people) were the worst acts of pollution possible, and warranted days of seclusion in order to purify oneself. Since the Emperor was seen as a divine figure and linked to the deities, pollution of such extreme degree committed by the highest source was seen as extremely ruinous. Because many of the high court officials saw Emperor Yozei's actions as exceeding the bounds of acceptable behavior, he was forcibly deposed, and retired from the throne. {{japan-bio-stub}} {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Emperor Seiwa]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | after=[[Emperor Koko|Emperor Kōkō]] | years=876-884}} {{end box}} [[Category:869 births|Yozei]] [[Category:949 deaths|Yozei]] [[Category:Japanese emperors|Yozei]] [[cs:Józei]] [[de:Yōzei]] [[ja:陽成天皇]] [[zh:陽成天皇]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Emperor Koko</title> <id>10494</id> <revision> <id>33593563</id> <timestamp>2006-01-02T13:05:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Wames</username> <id>351549</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hyakuninisshu 015.jpg|thumb|{{PAGENAME}} (From Ogura Hyakunin Isshu)]] '''Emperor Kōkō''' (光孝天皇 ''Kōkō Tennō'') ([[830]]-[[887]]) was the 58th [[Emperor of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He reigned from [[884]] to [[887]]. The first [[kampaku]] [[Fujiwara no Mototsune]] served him. He was succeeded by his son, [[Emperor Uda]]. {{japan-bio-stub}} {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Emperor Yozei|Emperor Yōzei]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | after=[[Emperor Uda]] | years=[[884]]-[[887]]}} {{end box}} [[Category:830 births|Koko]] [[Category:887 deaths|Koko]] [[Category:Japanese em
ntains great quantities of elements such as [[carbon]], [[nitrogen]] and [[oxygen]]. Other elements, such as [[phosphorus]], [[calcium]], and [[potassium]], are also essential to [[life]], yet are present in smaller amounts. At the ecosystem and biosphere levels, there is a continual recycling of all these elements, which alternate between the mineral and organic states. While there is a slight input of geothermal energy, the bulk of the functioning of the ecosystem is based on the input of [[solar energy]]. Plants and photosynthetic microorganisms convert [[light]] into chemical energy by the process of [[photosynthesis]], which creates [[glucose]] (a simple sugar) and releases free [[oxygen]]. Glucose thus becomes the secondary energy source which drives the ecosystem. Some of this glucose is used directly by other organisms for energy. Other sugar molecules can be converted to other molecules such as [[amino acid]]s. Plants use some of this sugar, concentrated in [[nectar (plant)|nectar]] to entice pollinators to aid them in reproduction. [[Cellular respiration]] is the process by which organisms (like [[mammal]]s) break the glucose back down into its constituents, [[water]] and [[carbon dioxide]], thus regaining the stored energy the sun originally gave to the plants. The proportion of photosynthetic activity of plants and other photosynthesizers to the respiration of other organisms determines the specific composition of the Earth's atmosphere, particularly its oxygen level. [[airstream|Global air currents]] mix the atmosphere and maintain nearly the same balance of elements in areas of intense biological activity and areas of slight biological activity. Water is also exchanged between the hydrosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere and biosphere in regular [[cycles]]. The oceans are large tanks, which store water, ensure thermal and climatic stability, as well as the transport of chemical elements thanks to large [[oceanic current]]s. For a better understanding of how the biosphere works, and various dysfunctions related to human activity, American scientists simulated the biosphere in a small-scale model, called [[Biosphere II]]. === The ecosystem concept === : ''Main article:'' [[Ecosystem]] The first principle of ecology is that each living organism has an ongoing and continual relationship with every other element that makes up its environment. An [[ecosystem]] can be defined as any situation where there is interaction between organisms and their environment. The ecosystem is composed of two entities, the entirety of life, the [[biocoenosis]] and the medium that life exists in the [[biotope]]. Within the ecosystem, species are connected and dependent upon one another in the [[food chain]], and exchange [[energy]] and [[matter]] between themselves and with their environment. The concept of an ecosystem can apply to units of variable size, such as a [[pond]], a field, or a piece of deadwood. A unit of smaller size is called a ''[[microecosystem]]''. For example, an ecosystem can be a stone and all the life under it. A ''mesoecosystem'' could be a [[forest]], and a ''macroecosystem'' a whole [[ecoregion]], with its [[watershed]]. The main questions when studying an ecosystem are: * Whether could the colonization of a barren area be carried out * Investigation the ecosystem's dynamics and changes * The methods of which an ecosystem interacts at local, regional and global scale * Whether the current state is stable * Investigating the value of an ecosystem and the ways and means that interaction of ecological systems provide benefit to humans, especially in the provision of healthy water? Ecosystems are often classified by reference to the biotopes concerned. The following ecosystems may be defined: * As [[continental ecosystem]]s, such as [[forest ecosystem]]s, [[meadow ecosystem]]s such as [[steppe]]s or [[savanna]]s), or [[Agroecology|agro-ecosystem]]s * As ecosystems of inland waters, such as [[lentic ecosystem]]s such as [[lake]]s or [[pond]]s; or [[lotic ecosystem]]s such as [[river]]s * As [[oceanic ecosystem]]s. Another classification can be done by reference to its communities, such as in the case of an [[human ecosystem]]. === Dynamics and stability === : ''Main articles:'' [[biogeochemistry]], [[Homeostasis]], [[Population dynamics]] '''Ecological factors''' which can affect dynamic change in a [[population]] or [[species]] in a given ecology or [[natural environment|environment]] are usually divided into two groups: abiotic and biotic. '''Abiotic factors''' are geological, geographical, [[ecohydrology|hydrological]] and climatological parameters. A '''biotope''' is an environmentally uniform region characterized by a particular set of abiotic ecological factors. Specific abiotic factors include: * [[Water]], which is at the same time an essential element to life and a [[natural environment|milieu]] * [[Earth's atmosphere|Air]], which provides oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide to living species and allows the dissemination of [[pollen]] and [[spore]]s * [[Soil]], at the same time source of nutriment and physical support ** Soil [[PH|pH]], [[Salinity in Australia|salinity]], nitrogen and phosphorus content, ability to retain water, and density are all influential * [[Temperature]], which should not exceed certain extremes, even if tolerance to heat is significant for some species * [[Light]], which provides energy to the ecosystem through [[photosynthesis]] * [[Natural disaster]]s can also be considered abiotic '''Biocenose''', or community, is a group of populations of plants, animals, micro-organisms. Each population is the result of [[procreation]]s between individuals of same species and [[cohabitation]] in a given place and for a given time. When a population consists of an insufficient number of individuals, that population is threatened with extinction; the extinction of a species can approach when all biocenoses composed of individuals of the species are in decline. In small populations, [[inbreeding|consanguinity (inbreeding)]] can result in reduced [[genetic diversity]] that can further weaken the biocenose. '''Biotic ecological factors''' also influence biocenose viability; these factors are considered as either intraspecific and interspecific relations. : '''Intraspecific relations''' are those which are established between individuals of the same species, forming a population. They are relations of [[co-operation]] or [[competition]], with division of the territory, and sometimes organization in hierarchical societies. : '''Interspecific relations'''&amp;mdash;[[biological interaction|interactions]] between different species&amp;mdash;are numerous, and usually described according to their beneficial, detrimental or neutral effect (for example, [[mutualism]] (relation ++) or [[competition]] (relation --). The most significant relation is the relation of [[predator|predation]] (to eat or to be eaten), which leads to the essential concepts in ecology of [[food chain]]s (for example, the grass is consumed by the herbivore, itself consumed by a carnivore, itself consumed by a carnivore of larger size). A high predator to prey ratio can have a negative influence on both the predator and prey biocenoses in that low availability of food and high death rate prior to sexual maturity can decrease (or prevent the increase of) populations of each, respectively. Selective hunting of species by humans which leads to population decline is one example of a high predator to prey ratio in action. Other interspecific relations include [[parasitism]], [[infectious disease]] and competition for limiting resources, which can occur when two species share the same [[ecological niche]]. The existing interactions between the various living beings go along with a permanent mixing of mineral and organic substances, absorbed by organisms for their growth, their maintenance and their reproduction, to be finally rejected as waste. These permanent recyclings of the elements (in particular [[carbon]], [[oxygen]] and [[nitrogen]]) as well as the [[water]] are called [[biogeochemical cycle]]s. They guarantee a durable stability of the biosphere (at least when unchecked human influence and [[extreme weather]] or geological phenomena are left aside). This self-regulation, supported by negative [[feedback]] controls, ensures the perenniality of the ecosystems. It is shown by the very stable concentrations of most elements of each compartment. This is referred to as [[homeostasis]]. The ecosystem also tends to evolve to a state of ideal balance, reached after a [[ecological succession|succession]] of events, the [[climax (biology)|climax]] (for example a pond can become a [[peat bog]]). === Spatial relationships and subdivisions of land === : ''Main articles:'' [[Biome]], [[ecozone]] Ecosystems are not isolated from each other, but are interrelated. For example, [[water]] may circulate between ecosystems by the means of a [[river]] or [[ocean current]]. Water itself, as a liquid medium, even defines ecosystems. Some species, such as [[salmon]] or freshwater [[eel]]s move between marine systems and fresh-water systems. These relationships between the ecosystems lead to the concept of a ''biome''. A [[biome]] is a homogeneous ecological formation that exists over a vast region, such as [[tundra]] or [[steppe]]s. The [[biosphere]] comprises all of the Earth's biomes -- the entirety of places where life is possible -- from the highest mountains to the depths of the oceans. Biomes correspond rather well to subdivisions distributed along the latitudes, from the [[equator]] towards the [[geographical pole|pole]]s, with differences based on to the physical environment (for example, oceans or mountain ranges) and to the [[climate]]. Their variation is generally related to the distribution of species according to their ability to tolerate temperature and/or dryness. For example, o
serve">[[Image:HMS Hood and HMS Barham.JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[HMS Hood (51)|HMS ''Hood'']] (left) and [[HMS Barham (1914)|HMS ''Barham'']] (right), in Malta, 1937. ''Hood'' was the largest battlecruiser ever built.]] '''Battlecruisers''' were large [[warships]] of the first half of the [[20th century]]. They evolved from [[armored cruiser]]s and in terms of ship classification they occupy a grey area between [[cruiser]]s and [[battleship]]s. Generally, battlecruisers were similar in layout and armament to battleships but with significantly less armour allowing for gains in speed. However, different nations built to widely different designs. Some battlecruisers were smaller than battleships while others were larger than contemporaneous battleships. The chief similarity was the role specification. They were designed to hunt down and outgun smaller warships (or merchant ships in the case of the [[pocket battleship]]s), and outrun larger warships that they could not outgun. Battlecruisers became obsolete in World War 2 as advances in design and technology allowed ''fast battleships'' to be developed, which combined or even exceeded the best features of World War 1 ''battlecruisers'' and ''slow battleships''. Originally, to achieve this, they deviated from the standard practice of providing a ship with sufficient armour to protect against its own guns. The weight saving from the reduced armour allowed more powerful engines to be fitted. This idea was mainly conceived by British [[Admiral]] [[John Fisher, 1st Baron Fisher|Jackie Fisher]] who believed &quot;speed is the best protection&quot;. Fisher's idea centred on battlecruisers operating with the fleet, the intention being that they would hunt down enemy cruiser squadrons and evade the battleships. However, as technology developed, design philosophy changed and led to the upgrade or creation of a more heavily armoured class with less powerful guns. They were given different labels, but essentially performed the same task. ==First battlecruisers== [[Image:Inv.jpg|thumb|250px|[[HMS Invincible (1908)|HMS ''Invincible'']], one of Britain's first battlecruisers]] The first battlecruisers came from the [[Royal Navy]]. The same committee, instigated by Jackie Fisher, that produced the ''Dreadnought'' had been charged with the design of a new armoured cruiser. Compared to the most recent of the RN's cruisers they were quite different. They had 12 inch guns instead of 9.2, a displacement similar to ''Dreadnought'' but twice the power to give 25 knots. These were [[HMS Inflexible (1908)|''Inflexible'']], [[HMS Invincible (1908)|''Invincible'']] and [[HMS Indomitable (1907)|''Indomitable'']], all completed in [[1908]]. They achieved speed at the expense of protection. They had armour 6 or 7 inches (150 to 180 mm) thick along the side of the hull and over the gunhouses, whereas a comparable battleship of the period had armour 11 or 12 inches (280 to 300 mm) thick. Originally thought of as simply a new type of [[armored cruiser]] (their armour was the same as that of the older armoured cruisers'), they were then designated &quot;dreadnought cruisers&quot;. A tendency to think of them as somehow partially equal to a battleship led to the unofficial title &quot;battleship cruisers&quot; which led to ''battlecruisers'' in 1912. These early ships had a top speed of 26 knots (48 km/h) compared to 20 to 21 knots (37 to 39&amp;nbsp;km/h) for contemporary battleships. They were armed with 11&amp;nbsp;in (German) or 12 in (British) (281 or 305 mm) guns, just like battleships. Soon after the British, the Germans started building their own battlecruisers, starting with [[SMS Von der Tann|''Von der Tann'']] of [[1911]]. ''Von der Tann'' and most later German battlecruisers had 280 mm (11 in) guns, which were reckoned to be the equivlent to the British 12-inchers. They benefitted from the wider dockyards that they were built in. This allowed them to be built with a broader beam than the British ships giving rise to better protection in terms of both armour and internal layout than the British battlecruisers. During the course of the First World War Fisher had a plan for operations in the [[Baltic Sea]] which required another radically different cruiser. These became known as &quot;large light cruisers&quot; - big ships (22,000 tons and some 750 ft long) with even less protection than the battlecruisers but carrying a few battleship calibre guns. One of the these was to carry 18-inch guns; albeit only two singly in turrets fore and aft. In the event, the planned Baltic operations never materialised and the three &quot;large light cruisers&quot; laid down [[HMS Furious (1916)|HMS ''Furious'']] [[HMS_Glorious_%2877%29|''Glorious'']] and [[HMS_Courageous_%2850%29|''Courageous'']] would find use elsewhere. ==First World War== ===Battle of Heligoland Bight=== {{main|Battle of Heligoland Bight}} A force of British light cruisers and destroyers entered the Heligoland Bight to attack German shipping during [[World War I]]. When they met opposition from German cruisers, [[David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty|Admiral Beatty]] took his squadron of four battlecruisers into the bight and turned the battle, ultimately sinking three German light cruisers and killing the German commander, Rear Admiral [[Leberecht Maass]]. ===Battle of the Falklands=== {{main|Battle of the Falkland Islands}} The original battlecruiser concept proved successful at the Battle of the Falkland Islands when the British battlecruisers [[HMS Inflexible (1907)|''Inflexible'']] and [[HMS Invincible (1907)|''Invincible'']] did precisely the job they were intended for when they annihilated a [[Germany|German]] cruiser squadron commanded by Admiral [[Maximilian von Spee|Maximilian Graf Von Spee]] in the South Atlantic Ocean. ===Battle of Dogger Bank=== [[Image:SMS Seydlitz.jpg|thumb|250px|[[SMS Seydlitz|SMS ''Seydlitz'']] was heavily damaged in the [[battle of Jutland]].]] {{main|Battle of Dogger Bank (1915)}} The vulnerability of the battlecruiser began to become apparent at the Battle of Dogger Bank, during which the German flagship [[SMS Seydlitz|''Seydlitz'']] escaped destruction only by emergency flooding of her after magazines. The Germans learned from the near-disaster and instituted improved protection. The British remained unaware of the weakness, to their great misfortune at the Battle of Jutland. ===Battle of Jutland=== {{main|Battle of Jutland}} At the Battle of Jutland 18 months later, both British and German battlecruisers were employed as fleet units. The British battlecruisers became engaged with both their German counterparts, the battlecruisers, and then German battleships before the arrival of the battleships of the [[British Grand Fleet]]. The result was a disaster for the Royal Navy's battlecruiser squadrons: [[HMS Invincible (1907)|''Invincible'']], [[HMS Queen Mary|''Queen Mary'']] and [[HMS Indefatigable (1909)|''Indefatigable'']] exploded with the loss of all but a handful of their crews. The better armoured German battlecruisers fared better in part due to poor performance of British shells although [[SMS Lützow|''Lützow'']] was damaged and had to be scuttled, and [[SMS Seydlitz|''Seydlitz'']] was heavily damaged. No British or German battleship was sunk during the battle with the exception of the old German [[pre-dreadnought]] ''Pommern''. ==Inter-war years== ===Post-war developments=== Following the end of World War I many navies re-evaluated their ship designs. This led to a number of changes as many nations chose to reduce their battlecruiser fleet following the [[Washington Naval Treaty|Washington Naval Arms Limitation Treaty]] rather than scrap valuable battleships. ====British designs==== The British had planned 4 fast battleships, the [[G3 battlecruiser]]s, which were cancelled by the Washington treaty after the war. They would have been superior to any World War One battleship and the battlecruiser name came from their high speed and armour relative to the planned [[N3 battleship]]s they would serve alongside. The [[Royal Navy]] de-emphasized battlecruisers in the original sense of the word and all but three were scrapped by the mid-1930s. In the Royal Navy, the term was applied to ships with heavy armour, but that were still capable of speeds in excess of 25 knots. [[HMS Hood (51)|HMS ''Hood'']], launched in [[1918]], was the last British battlecruiser to be completed, her three sisters of the [[Admiral class battlecruiser|Admiral class]] were cancelled. However, ''Hood'' was completed with armour that was thought to be capable of resisting her own weapons, the classic measure of a &quot;balanced&quot; battleship and her armour weaknesses were recognised and tackled to some extent during refits - the onset of the [[Second World War]] preventing her last planned rebuild. The other two battlecruisers retained, [[HMS Renown (1916)|HMS ''Renown'']] and ''Repulse'' were modernised significantly in a series of refits between 1920 and 1939. Of the three specialist battlecruisers, &quot;large light cruisers&quot; in the Royal Navy's terms, ships of stubstantial size but with only the armour of light cruisers intended to be armed with a few battleship calibre guns for operations in the Baltic [[HMS Furious (1916)|''Furious'']] had already been converted to an aircraft carrier during the war. [[HMS_Glorious_%2877%29|''Glorious'']] and [[HMS_Courageous_%2850%29|''Courageous'']] too big and too heavily armed to fir in with the treaty definition of cruisers, followed rather than being scrapped. ====Japanese Designs==== [[Image:Japanese battleship Kongo.jpg|thumb|250px|Japanese battlecruiser [[Japanese battleship Kongo|''Kongo'']] in [[World War I]], before conversion to a &quot;fast battleship&quot;.]] * The [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] improved the four battlecruisers of the [[Japanese battleship Kongo|''Kongo'' class]] by increasing the elevation of the guns to 40 degrees, adding anti-torpedo b
}} ===Early education=== At a young age, Gaudí entered a [[nursery school]] (''parvulari'') under the instruction of Francesc Berenguer, and his imaginative qualities began to manifest themselves: when Berenguer lectured the child on how wings let birds fly, Gaudí observed that chickens do not fly. He concluded that their wings must help them run faster.{{ref|chickens}} When the time came for his formal education, Gaudí enrolled in the Collegi de les Escoles Píes de Reus, where he soon became fast friends with Eduard Toda and Josep Ribera. It was perhaps their insatiable curiosity that drove them to learn all they could about the intricacies of nature.{{ref|school-1}} During his time at Les Escoles, Gaudí did not make the best of grades, though he proved to be an abstract thinker. He did, however, see remarkable improvement in the area of [[geometry]], a subject which fascinated him. This fascination would carry through with him until his death. Its first major effect on his life was his choice of career. ===Higher education=== As an [[architecture]] student at the Escola Tècnica Superior d'Arquitectura in [[Barcelona]] from [[1873]] to [[1877]], Gaudí continued to achieve mediocre grades but did well in the &quot;Trial drawings and Projects&quot; course. {{ref|arch-grades}} He would remain affiliated with the Escola Tècnica Superior d'Arquitectura his entire life. Awarded the title of Architect by the school in [[1878]], Gaudí immediately began to plan and design. When Elies Rogent signed the title, he declared, &quot;I have either found a lunatic or a genius.&quot;{{ref|lunatic}} ===Interests=== Gaudí, throughout his life, was fascinated by nature. He studied nature's angles and curves and incorporated them into his designs. Instead of relying on geometric shapes, he mimicked the way trees and humans grow and stand upright. The [[hyperboloid|hyperboloids]] and [[paraboloid|paraboloids]] he borrowed from nature were easily reinforced by steel rods. He didn't limit his use of natural structures to support, however, and most of his designs resemble elements from the environment. Because of his rheumatism, the artist observed a strict vegetarian diet, used [[homeopathy|homeopathic]] drug therapy, underwent water therapy, and hiked regularly. Long walks, besides suppressing his rheumatism, further allowed him to experience nature. &lt;!-- To be finished before published: ===Early career=== The first of Gaudí's major successes was, ironically, a failure in the his eyes. He was commissioned to design and build housing for the workers of La Cooperativa Mataronense, a factory in Barcelona. Although he only completed a single section of the factory, along with a kiosk, his work was recognized at the World Fair in Paris, giving him a name in the architecture world. It was at the World Fair that he first met Eusebi Güell.{{ref|met-Guell}} WHEN UNCOMMENTED, ADD TO NOTES, IN ORDER: # {{note|met-Guell}} [http://www.gaudiclub.com/ingles/i_vida/i_vida4.asp Biography at Gaudí and Barcelona Club, page 4] ==Prime== // better title? --&gt; ===Later years=== [[Image:Casamila.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Casa Milà]], in the [[Eixample]], [[Barcelona]].]] Gaudí was an ardent Catholic and a fervent [[Catalan nationalism|Catalan nationalist]]. (He was once arrested for speaking in Catalan in a situation deemed illegal by authorities.) In his later years, he abandoned secular work and devoted his life to Catholicism and his ''[[Sagrada Família]]''. In the early twentieth century, Gaudí's closest family and friends began to die; his works slowed to a halt; and his attitude changed. Perhaps one of his closest family members – his niece Rosa Egea – passed away in [[1912]], only to be followed by a &quot;faithful collaborator, Francesc Berenguer Mestres&quot; two years later. After both tragedies, Barcelona fell on hard times, economically. The construction of ''La Sagrada Família'' slowed; the construction of ''La Colonia Güell'' ceased altogether. Four years later, Eusebi Güell died.{{ref|slowdown}} Perhaps it was because of this unfortunate sequence of events that Gaudí changed. He became reluctant to talk with reporters or have his picture taken and solely concentrated on his masterpiece, ''La Sagrada Familia''.{{ref|focus-sagrada}} On [[June 7]] [[1926]], Antoni Gaudí was run over by a [[tram]]. Because of his ragged attire and empty pockets, multiple cab drivers refused to pick him up for fear that he would be unable to pay the fare. He was eventually taken to a pauper's hospital in Barcelona. Nobody recognized the injured Gaudí until some friends found him at the poor hospital the next day. When they tried to move him into a nicer hospital, Gaudí refused, reportedly saying &quot;I belong here among the ghetto.&quot; He died two days later, half of Barcelona mourning his death. It was, perhaps, fitting that he was buried in the midst of his unfinished masterpiece, ''La Sagrada Família''.{{ref|death}} ==Artistic style== [[Image:Sagradafamilia-overview.jpg|thumb|right|Gaudí's unfinished masterpiece, ''[[La Sagrada Familia|Sagrada Família]]'']] Gaudí's first works were designed in the style of [[gothic architecture|gothic]] and traditional Catalan architectural modes, but he soon developed his own distinct sculptural style. French architect [[Eugene Viollet-le-Duc]], who promoted an evolved form of gothic architecture, proved a major influence on Gaudí. But the student surpassed the master architect and contrived highly original designs – irregular and fantastically intricate. Some of his greatest works, most notably ''La Sagrada Família'', have an almost hallucinatory power. He integrated the [[parabolic arch]], nature's organic shapes, and the fluidity of water into his architecture. While designing buildings, he observed the forces of [[gravity]] and related [[catenary]] principles. (He designed many of his arches upside down by hanging various weights on interconnected strings, using gravity to calculate catenaries for a natural curved arch.) Using the Catalan ''[[trencadís]]'' technique, Gaudí often decorated surfaces with broken tiles. The architect's work has been categorized as [[Art Nouveau]] architecture, a precursor to [[modern architecture]]. But his adoption of biomorphic shapes rather than orthogonal lines put him in a category unto himself (in Latin, ''[[sui generis]]''). His style was later echoed by that of Austrian architect [[Friedensreich Hundertwasser]] (1928&amp;ndash;2000). Though hailed as a genius, some hypothesize that Gaudí was [[color blindness|color blind]] and that it was only in collaboration with [[Josep Maria Jujol]] – an architect twenty seven years his junior whom he acknowledged as a genius in his own right – that he produced his greatest works. ==Popularity== Gaudí's originality was at first ridiculed by his peers. Indeed, he was first only supported by the rich industrialist [[Eusebi Güell]]. His fellow citizens referred to the ''Casa Milà'' as ''La Pedrera'' (&quot;the quarry&quot;), and [[George Orwell]], who stayed at Barcelona during the [[Spanish Civil War]], admittedly loathed his work. As time passed, though, his work became more famous, up to the point that he is now considered one of [[List of Catalan people|Catalonia's best and brightest]]. ==Social and political influences== The opportunities afforded by Catalonia's socioeconomic and political environments were endless. Catalonians such as Antonio Gaudí often showcased the region's diverse art techniques in their works. By mimicking nature, such artists symbolically pushed back the province's ever-increasing industrial society. Gaudí, among others, promoted the Catalan nationalist movement by incorporating elements of Catalan culture in his designs. ==Major works== [[Image:Parcguell.jpg|thumb|right|View of the [[Park Guell|Park Güell]], [[El Carmel]], [[Barcelona]].]] * ''[[Casa Vicens]]'' (1878-1880) * ''[[Palau Güell]]'' (1885-1889) * ''[[College of the Teresianas]]'' (1888-1890) * ''Crypt of the [[Church of Colònia Güell]]'' (1898-1916) * ''[[Casa Calvet|Casa Calvet]]'' (1899-1904) * ''[[Casa Batlló]]'' (1905-1907) * ''[[Casa Milà]]'' (''La Pedrera'') (1905-1907) * ''[[Park Guell|Park Güell]]'' (1900-1914) * ''[[Sagrada Familia|Sagrada Família]]'' (1884-1926) Many of these works can be found in the [[Eixample]] district of Barcelona. Eight are [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites]]. Park Güell, Palau Güell, and Casa Milà have been heritage sites since 1984. The other five &amp;ndash; the façade of the Nativity, the crypt of ''La Sagrada Família'', ''La Casa Vicens'', ''La Casa Batlló'' and the crypt of the Church of Colònia Güell &amp;ndash; became so labeled by UNESCO in 2005. ==Influence== *Gaudí's abandoned plans for a [[New York]] [[skyscraper]] [[hotel]] influenced the redesign of the [[World Trade Center]] after [[September 11, 2001]]. *In [[1992]], five artists founded La Asociación pro Beatificación de Antonio Gaudí. The secular association has since pushed for the [[Catholic church]] to [[beatification|declare Gaudí blessed]].{{ref|beatify}} *Gaudí's life and work inspired [[The Alan Parsons Project]] to create the [[1987]] album ''[[Gaudi (album)|Gaudí]]''. *Gaudi's work recently inspired a shop owner in [[Muswell Hill]] London to build a shopfront in the style of [[Casa Batlló]]. ==Notes== # {{note|birth}} [http://www.gaudiclub.com/ingles/i_vida/i_vida.asp Biography at Gaudí and Barcelona Club, page 1]. Retrieved [[9 November]] [[2005]]. # {{note|rheumatism}} Biography at Gaudí and Barcelona Club, page 1. Retrieved [[9 November]] [[2005]]. #{{note|observe-nature}} [http://www.artehistoria.com/frames.htm?http://www.artehistoria.com/historia/personajes/6764.htm Biography at ArteHistoria] (in Spanish). Retrieved [[9 November]] [[2005]]. #{{note|chickens}} [http://www.gaudiclub.com/ingles/i_vida/i_vida2.asp Biography at Gaudí and Barcelona
tria]] and reorganizing [[Germany]] under a Napoleonic imprint. In [[1809]], Francis attacked France again, hoping to take advantage of the conflict embroiling Napoleon in Spain. He was again defeated, and this time forced to ally himself with Napoleon, ceding territory to the Empire, joining the [[Continental System]], and wedding his daughter [[Marie Louise of Austria | Marie-Louise]] to the Emperor. Francis essentially became a vassal of the Emperor of France. The [[Napoleonic wars]] drastically weakened Austria and reduced its prestige, which would lead to [[Prussia]]'s acquiring the edge in the contest for dominance of Germany. In [[1813]], for the fourth and final time, Austria turned against France and joined [[England]], [[Russia]], and [[Prussia]] in their war against Napoleon. Austria played a major role in the final defeat of France&amp;mdash;in recognition of this, Francis, represented by [[Clemens von Metternich]], presided over the [[Congress of Vienna]], helping to form the [[Concert of Europe]] and the [[Holy Alliance]], ushering in an era of [[conservatism]] and [[reactionism]] in Europe. He married four times: First, on [[January 6]], [[1788]], to Elisabeth of [[Württemberg]] ([[April 21]], [[1767]] &amp;ndash; [[February 18]], [[1790]]), who died bearing a short-lived daughter, Ludovika ([[1790]]-[[1791]]) Secondly, on [[August 15]], [[1790]], to his first cousin Maria Theresa of the [[Two Sicilies]] ([[June 6]], [[1772]] &amp;ndash; [[April 13]], [[1807]]), daughter of King [[Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies]], with whom he had twelve children, but only seven reached adulthood: *[[Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria|Marie-Louise]], wife of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]]. *[[Ferdinand I of Austria|Ferdinand I]], his successor. *[[Maria Leopoldina, Archduchess of Austria|Maria Leopoldina]], who married [[Pedro I of Brazil]]. *Maria Clementina (1798-1881), who married her uncle Prince Leopoldo of the Two Sicilies (son of King [[Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies]]). *Marie Caroline (1801-1832), who married King [[Frederick Augustus II of Saxony|Friedrich August II of Saxony]]. *[[Archduke Franz Karl of Austria|Franz Karl]], whose son became Emperor [[Franz Joseph I of Austria]]. *Maria Anna (1804-1858). [[Image:Francis II.jpg|thumb|left|Francis II]] Thirdly, on [[January 6]], [[1808]], he married again to another first cousin, Maria Ludovika of Austria-Este ([[December 14]], [[1787]] &amp;ndash; [[April 7]], [[1816]]) with no issue. She was the daughter of [[Archduke Ferdinand Karl Anton Joseph Johann Stanislaus of Austria-Este|Archduke Ferdinand Karl of Austria]] and Maria Beatrice d'[[Este]], Princess of [[Modena]]. And lastly, on [[October 29]], [[1816]], to Karoline Charlotte Auguste of [[Bavaria]] ([[February 8]], [[1792]] &amp;ndash; [[February 9]], [[1873]]) with no issue. She was daughter of [[Maximilian I of Bavaria]] and had been previously married to [[William I of Württemberg]]. He is buried in tomb number 57 in the [[Imperial Crypt]] in Vienna, surrounded by his four wives. After [[1806]] he used the titles: &quot;We, Francis the First, [[by the grace of God]] Emperor of Austria; [[Kings of Jerusalem|King of Jerusalem]], [[Hungary]], [[Bohemia]], [[Dalmatia]], [[Croatia]], [[Slavonia]], [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]], and [[Lodomeria]]; Archduke of [[Austria]]; Duke of [[Lorraine (province)|Lorraine]], [[Salzburg]], [[Würzburg]], [[Franconia]], [[Styria (duchy)|Styria]], [[Carinthia (duchy)|Carinthia]], and [[Carniola]]; Grand Duke of [[Kraków]]; Prince of [[Transylvania]]; Margrave of [[Moravia]]; Duke of [[Sandomir]], [[Masovia]], [[Lublin]], Upper and Lower [[Silesia]], [[Oswiecim|Auschwitz]] and [[Zator]], [[Teschen]], and [[Friuli-Venezia Giulia|Friule]]; Prince of [[Berchtesgaden]] and [[Mergentheim]]; Princely Count of Habsburg, [[Gorizia]], and [[Gradisca]] and of the [[Tyrol]]; and Margrave of Upper and Lower [[Lusatia]] and [[Istria]]&quot;. Names in other languages: German: ''Franz II/I'', Czech: ''František I'', Slovak: ''František I'', Hungarian: ''I. Ferenc'', Italian: ''Francesco II/I'', Slovenian ''Franc''. {{start box}} |width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;4&quot;|Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;'''[[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold II]]''' |width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''[[Holy Roman Emperor]]&lt;br&gt;Also [[King of Germany]]'''&lt;br&gt;[[1792]]-[[1806]] |width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|Succeeded by:&lt;br&gt;'''Holy Roman Empire ends''' - replaced by [[Emperor of Austria]] |- |width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''[[List of rulers of Austria|Archduke of Austria]]'''&lt;br&gt;[[1792]]-[[1804]] |- |width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''[[King of Hungary]]'''&lt;br&gt;1792-1835 |width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|Succeeded by:&lt;br&gt;'''[[Ferdinand I of Austria|Ferdinand I]]''' |- |width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''[[King of Bohemia]]'''&lt;br&gt;[[1792]]-[[1835]] |- |width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''&amp;mdash;''' |width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''[[List of rulers of Austria|Emperor of Austria]]'''&lt;br&gt;[[1804]]-[[1835]] {{end box}} == External links == {{commons|Franz II.|Emperor Franz I. of Austria}} {{Wikiquote|de:Franz I. von Österreich|Emperor Franz I. of Austria)}} {{Wikisource|de:Franz II. (HRR)|Emperor Franz I. of Austria}} [[Category:Holy Roman emperors]] [[Category:German Kings]] [[Category:Emperors of Austria]] [[Category:Hungarian monarchs]] [[Category:Bohemian monarchs]] [[Category:Dukes of Milan]] [[Category:Knights of the Garter]] [[Category:1768 births|Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Category:1835 deaths|Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor]] [[cs:František I.]] [[da:Frans 2. (Tysk-romerske rige)]] [[de:Franz II. (HRR)]] [[et:Franz II Joseph Karl (Saksa-Rooma keiser)]] [[es:Francisco I de Austria]] [[eo:Francisko la 2-a Jozefo Karlo]] [[fr:François Ier d'Autriche]] [[it:Francesco II del Sacro Romano Impero]] [[hu:I. Ferenc]] [[nl:Frans II van het Heilige Roomse Rijk]] [[ja:フランツ2世 (神聖ローマ皇帝)]] [[no:Frans II av det tysk-romerske rike]] [[pl:Franciszek II Habsburg]] [[ru:Франц II]] [[fi:Frans II (keisari)]] [[zh:弗朗茨二世 (神圣罗马帝国)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Frederick Augustus Abel</title> <id>11552</id> <revision> <id>35455549</id> <timestamp>2006-01-16T22:09:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jcbarr</username> <id>482173</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Frederick Augustus Abel.jpg|right|250px|Frederick Augustus Abel]] '''Sir Frederick Augustus Abel, 1st Baronet''' ([[17 July]] [[1827]]&amp;ndash;[[6 September]] [[1902]]) was an [[England|English]] [[chemist]]. Born in [[London]], Abel studied chemistry for six years under [[A. W. von Hofmann]] at the [[Royal College of Chemistry]], then became professor of chemistry at the [[Royal Military Academy]] in [[1851]], and three years later was appointed chemist to the [[War Department (UK)|War Department]] and chemical referee to the government. During his tenure of this office, which lasted until [[1888]], he carried out a large amount of work in connection with the chemistry of [[explosive]]s. One of the most important of his investigations had to do with the manufacture of [[guncotton]], and he developed a process, consisting essentially of reducing the nitrated cotton to fine pulp, which enabled it to be safely manufactured and at the same time yielded the product in a form that increased its usefulness. This work to an important extent prepared the way for the &quot;[[smokeless powder]]s&quot; which came into general use towards the end of the [[19th century]]; [[cordite]], the type adopted by the British government in [[1891]], was invented jointly by him and Sir [[James Dewar]]. He and Dewar were unsuccessfully sued by [[Alfred Nobel]] over infringement of Nobel's [[patent]] for a similar explosive called [[ballistite]], the case finally being resolved in the [[House of Lords]] in [[1895]]. He also extensively researched the behaviour of [[black powder]] when ignited, with the [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[physicist]] Sir [[Andrew Noble]]. At the request of the [[British government]], he devised the [[Abel test]], a means of determining the [[flash point]] of [[petroleum]] products. His first instrument, the open-test apparatus, was specified in an [[Act of Parliament]] in [[1868]] for officially specifying [[petroleum]] products. It was superseded in August [[1879]] by the much more reliable Abel close-test instrument. In [[electricity]] Abel studied the construction of electrical [[Fuse (electrical)|fuse]]s and other applications of electricity to warlike purposes, and his work on problems of [[steel]] manufacture won him in [[1897]] the [[Bessemer medal]] of the [[Iron and Steel Institute]], of which from 1891 to [[1893]] he was president. He was president of the [[Institution of Electrical Engineers]] (then the Society of Telegraph Engineers) in 1877. He became a member of the [[Royal Society]] in [[1860]], and received a royal medal in [[1887]]. He took an important part in the work of the Inventions Exhibition (London) in 1885, and in 1887 became organizing secretary and first director of the [[Imperial College London|Imperial Institute]], a position he held till his death in 1902. He was knighted in 1891, and created a [[baronet]] in [[1893]]. == Books == * ''Handbook of Chemistry'' (with C. L. Bloxam) * ''Modern History of Gunpowder'' ([[1866]]) * ''Gun-cotton'' (1866) * ''On Explosive Agents'' ([[1872]]) * ''Researches in Explosives'' ([[1875]]) * ''Electricity applied to Explosive Purposes'' ([[1884]]) He also wrote several import
such tradition sometimes outlives the political power of the throne. In [[East Asia]], each emperor's reign may be subdivided into several reign periods, each being treated as a new era. The name of each was a motto or slogan chosen by the emperor. Different East Asian countries utilized slightly different systems, notably: *[[Chinese era name|Chinese Eras]] *[[Japanese era name|Japanese Eras]] *[[Korean era name|Korean Eras]] *[[Vietnamese era name|Vietnamese Eras]] A similar practice survived in the [[United Kingdom]] until quite recently, but only for formal official writings: in daily life the ordinary year A.D. was used since long, but [[Acts of Parliament]] used to be dated according to the years of the reign of the current [[Monarch of the United Kingdom|Monarch]], so that &quot;61 &amp; 62 Vict c. 37&quot; refers to the [[Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898]] passed in the session of [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] in the 61st/62nd year of the reign of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom| Queen Victoria]]. In common speech and various contexts, the term era is also used, by extension, for any (as a rule relatively long) period in history with a name, often relating to common characteristic(s), even if this is not the normal way to organize time. The most relevant type are politic periods, for example: the Roman era, the [[Elizabethan era]], the [[Victorian era]] (dynastic criteria, only formally correct within the British realm/empire/Commonwealth) and the [[Soviet era]], or comparable literary notions like the Biblical era. The word Era is also popularly used to denote the passing of &amp;mdash; often shorter &amp;mdash; periods that are only defined in terms of a specific discipline of sphere of life, such as the prominence of an artistic style, or more specificly in [[music]], see '''[[:Category:Musical eras|musical eras]]''', described in [[History of music]], such as the [[Big Band|Big Band era]], [[Disco era]]. Something like the death of [[Frank Sinatra]] is poetically called ''the end of an era''. * In natural science, there is need for another time perspective, independent from human activity, and indeed spanning a far longer period (mainly prehistoric), as in [[Geology]] where ''[[Era (geology)|era]]'' refers to four well defined time spans covering the enire existence of the planet [[Earth]]: from oldest to youngest, these are the [[Precambrian|Proterozoic]], [[Palaeozoic|Paleozoic]], [[Mesozoic]], and [[Cenozoic]] eras, each subdivided in shorter periods; see [[Geologic timescale]] for a slightly different interpretation and details. In astronomy the periods are even longer, to cover the entire existence of the universe (in the order of 13.7 billion years), but usually just denoted in numerical units, as there is no significant link to any earthly reality, our planet being astronomically insignificant (except as the only known observation point). ==External links== {{wiktionary|era}} *[http://homepage1.nifty.com/history/history.html Comparative timeline of Chinese, Japanese and Korean historical events] [[Category:Units of time]] [[cs:Letopo&amp;#269;et]] [[da:Æra]] [[ja:&amp;#32000;&amp;#20803;]] [[pl:Era]] [[sl:Era]] [[sv:Era]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Eschatology</title> <id>9760</id> <revision> <id>41980917</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:49:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>JW1805</username> <id>104381</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Christianity */ +pic</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the book by Pope Benedict XVI, see [[Eschatology (book)]]. For other theories about the end of the world, see [[End of the world]].'' [[Image:Duerer-apocalypse.png|256px|right|thumb|[[Albrecht Dürer]] - ''[[Four horsemen of the Apocalypse]]'']] {{wiktionarypar|eschatology}} '''Eschatology''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''έσχατος'' meaning &quot;last&quot; + ''[[-logy]]'') is a part of [[theology]] ([[End Times]]) and [[philosophy]] concerned with the final events in the [[history of the world]] or the ultimate [[destiny]] of [[human kind]], commonly phrased as the '''end of the world'''. In many [[religion]]s, the end of the world is a future event [[prophecy|prophesied]] in [[sacred text]]s or [[folklore]]. More broadly, eschatology may encompass related concepts such as the [[Messiah]] or [[Messianic Age]], the [[afterlife]], and the [[soul]]. The [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''αιών'' means &quot;age&quot;; some translations may read &quot;end of the age&quot; instead of &quot;end of the world&quot;. The distinction also has theological significance, for the &quot;end times&quot; in many religions may involve the destruction of the planet (or of all living things), but with the human race surviving in some new form, ending the current &quot;age&quot; of existence and beginning a new one. Most Western monotheistic religions have doctrines claiming that 'chosen' or 'worthy' members of the one true faith will be &quot;spared&quot; or &quot;delivered&quot; from the coming judgement and wrath of God. They will be ushered into [[paradise]] either before, during, or after it depending upon the end-time scenario to which they hold. As well as the wrath of God at the end of the age there is the wrath of man. ==Buddhism== {{main|Buddhist eschatology}} [[Buddha]] predicted that his teachings would disappear after 500 years. According to the [[Sutta Pitaka]], the &quot;ten moral courses of conduct&quot; will disappear and people will follow the ten amoral concepts of [[theft]], [[violence]], [[murder]], [[lying]], evil speaking, [[adultery]], abusive and idle talk, covetousness and ill will, wanton [[Greed (emotion)|greed]], and perverted [[lust]] resulting in skyrocketing [[poverty]] and the end of the worldly laws of true [[dharma]]. During the [[Middle Ages]], the span of time was expanded to 5,000 years. Commentators like [[Buddhaghosa]] predicted a step-by-step disappearance of the Buddha's teachings. During the first stage, [[arahat]]s would no longer appear in the world. Later, the content of the Buddha's true teachings would vanish, and only their form would be preserved. Finally, even the form of the Dharma would be forgotten. During the final stage, the memory of the Buddha himself would be forgotten, and the last of his relics would be gathered together in [[Bodh Gaya]] and cremated. Some time following this development a new [[Buddha]] named [[Maitreya]] will arise to renew the teachings of Buddhism and rediscover the path to [[Nirvana]]. Maitreya is believed to currently reside in the [[Tusita]] heaven, where he is awaiting his final rebirth in the world. The decline of Buddhism in the world, and its eventual re-establishment by Maitreya, are in keeping with the general shape of [[Buddhist cosmology]]. Like Hindus, Buddhists generally believe in a cycle of creation and destruction, of which the current epoch represents only the latest step. The historical Buddha Shakyamuni is only the latest in a series of Buddhas that stretches back into the past. ==Christianity== {{main articles|[[Christian eschatology]] and [[Timeline of unfulfilled Christian Prophecy]] and [[Armageddon]] and [[Apocalypticism]] and [[End times]]}} [[Image:Michelangelo - Fresco of the Last Judgement.jpg|right|thumb|The Last Judgement - Fresco in the [[Sistine Chapel]] by [[Michelangelo]].]] [[Christian]]s in the [[1st century]] AD believed the end of the world would come during their lifetime. [[Jesus]] in [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 13:8 compared the end of the world with a mother's birth pain, and the image implied the world was already pregnant with its own destruction, but no one but God knows when it will happen. When the converts of Paul in [[Thessalonica]] were persecuted by the [[Roman Empire]], they believed the end was upon them. However, doubt rose when as early as the [[90s]] Christians said, &quot;We have heard these things [of the end of the world] even in the days of our fathers, and look, we have grown old and none of them has happened to us&quot;. In the [[130s]] [[Justin Martyr]] declared God was delaying the end of the world because he wished for [[Christianity]] to become a [[Major world religions|world religion]]. In the [[250s]] [[Cyprian]] wrote that Christian [[Sin#Christian views of sin|sins]] of that time were a prelude and proof that the end was near. However, by the [[3rd century]] most Christians believed the End was beyond their own lifetime; Jesus, it was believed, had denounced attempts to divine the future, to know the &quot;times and seasons&quot;, and such attempts to predict the future were discouraged; yet the End was given a date with the help of [[Halakha|Jewish traditions]] in the [[Six Ages of the World]]. Using this system, the End was fixed at [[202]], but when the date passed, the date was changed to AD [[500]]. After AD 500 the importance of the End as a part of Christianity was marginalized, though it continues to be stressed during the season of [[Advent]]. Some current Christians place the end of the world within their lifetime or shortly thereafter. As evidence to support these ideas, many point to the prolific news coverage of tragedies around the world, sometimes &quot;Biblical&quot; in proportion, and offer interpretations of various passages from the [[Bible]]. Also, some Catholics believed that [[Third Secret of Fatima|the third part of the Fatima message]], which was to be disclosed by the Vatican in 1960 but finally was published under the pontificate of [[John Paul II]], was a prophetic message from the Blessed Mother about the end times, but it turned to be a symbolic message closely related to the assassination attempt of the late Pope. The issue of whether the true believers will see the end causes division in [[evangelical]] circles. == Hinduism == {{main|Hindu eschatology}} [[Hinduism|Hindu]] tr
most likely extinct. * [[Imperial Woodpecker]], ''Campephilus imperialis'' (Mexico, late [[20th century]]) :This 60-centimeter-long woodpecker is officially listed as [[endangered species|critically endangered]] and is believed to now be extinct. Occasional unconfirmed reports come up, the most recent in late [[2005]]. * [[Javan Buff-rumped Woodpecker]], ''Meiglyptes tristis tristis'' (Java, Indonesia, c.[[1920]]) :The nominate subspecies of the [[Buff-rumped Woodpecker]] became rare during the [[19th century]] due to destruction of habitat. The last confirmed record was in [[1880]], and it obviously became extinct in the early [[20th century]]. * The [[Ivory-billed Woodpecker]], ''Campephilus principalis'', was believed to be extinct since 1987, when the last positive sighting was made in [[Cuba]]. However, at least one living male was apparently rediscovered in [[Arkansas]] in [[2004]] and [[2005]]. ===[[Passerine]]s=== * [[Stephens Island Wren]], ''Xenicus lyalli'' (New Zealand, [[1894]]) * [[Bush Wren]], ''Xenicus longipes'' (New Zealand, [[1972]]) :3 subspecies: ''X. l. stokesi'' - North Island, extinct [[1955]]; ''X. l. longipes'' - South Island, extinct [[1968]]; ''X. l. variabilis'' - Stewart Island, extinct [[1972]]. * [[North Island Piopio]], ''Turnagra tanagra'' (North Island, New Zealand, [[1955]]) * [[South Island Piopio]], ''Turnagra capensis'' (South Island, New Zealand, [[1963]]) * [[Kioea]], ''Chaetoptila angustipluma'' * [[Hawaiʻi ʻOʻo]], ''Moho nobilis'' (Big Island, Hawaiʻian Islands) * [[Oʻahu ʻOʻo]], ''Moho apicalis'' (Oʻahu, Hawaiʻian Islands) * [[Molokaʻi ʻOʻo]], ''Moho bishopi'' (Molokaʻi and probably Maui, Hawaiʻian Islands) * [[Kauai Oo|Kauaʻi ʻOʻo]], ''Moho braccatus'' (Kauaʻi, Hawaiʻian Islands, [[1987]]) * [[Lord Howe Gerygone]], ''Gerygone insularis'' * [[Huia]], ''Heteralocha acutirostris'' (North Island, New Zealand, [[1907]]) * [[Maupiti Monarch]], ''Pomarea pomerea'' (Maupiti, Society Islands, [[1850]]) * [[Guam Flycatcher]], ''Myiagra freycineti'' (Guam, Marianas) * [[Bonin Islands Thrush]], ''Zoothera terrestris'' * [[Grand Cayman Thrush]], ''Turdus ravidus'' * [[Bay Thrush]], ''&quot;Turdus&quot; ulietensis'' (Raiatea, Society Islands, between [[1774]] and [[1850]]) :A completely mysterious bird from [[Raiatea]], now only known from a painting and some descriptions of a (now lost) specimen. Its [[Taxonomy|taxonomic]] position is unresolvable, although for [[Biogeography|biogeographic]] reasons and because of the surviving description, it has been suggested to have been a [[honeyeater]]. However, with the discovery of fossils of the prehistorically extinct [[starling]] ''[[Aplonis diluvialis]]'' on neighboring [[Huahine]], it seems more likely that this bird also belonged into this genus. * [[Kosrae Island Starling]], ''Aplonis corvina'' (Kosrae, Carolines) * [[Mysterious Starling]], ''Aplonis mavornata'' (Mauke, Cook Islands) * [[Norfolk and Lord Howe Starling]], ''Aplonis fusca'' (Norfolk Island and Lord Howe Island, Southwest Pacific) * [[Bourbon Crested Starling]], ''Fregilupus varius'' (Réunion, Mascarenes) * [[Rodrigues Starling]], ''Necropsar rodericanus'' (Rodrigues, Mascarenes) :The bird variously described as ''Testudophaga bicolor'', ''Necropsar leguati'' or ''Orphanopsar leguati'' which was considered to be identical with ''N. rodericanus'' (which is only known from fossils) was finally resolved to be based on a misidentified partially [[albinism|albinistic]] specimen of the [[Martinique Trembler]] (''Cinclocerthia gutturalis'') (Olson ''et al.'', Bull. B.O.C. '''125''':31). * [[Lord Howe Island White-eye]], ''Zosterops strenua'' * [[Aldabran Brush Warbler]], ''Nesillas aldabranus'' * [[Chatham Islands Fernbird]], ''Bowdleria rufescens'' * [[Eastern Canary Islands Chiffchaff]], ''Phylloscopus canariensis exsul'' (Lanzarote and possibly Fuerteventura, Canary Islands, [[1986]]) :A subspecies of the [[Canary Islands Chiffchaff]]. * [[Bonin Islands Grosbeak]], ''Chaunoproctus ferreorostris'' * [[Hawaiian honeycreeper|Akialoa]],''Hemignathus obscurus'' * [[Hawaiian honeycreeper|Ula-ʻai-hawane]], ''Ciridops anna'' * [[Hawaiian honeycreeper|Black Mamo]], ''Drepanis funerea'' * [[Hawaiian honeycreeper|Hawaii Mamo]], ''Drepanis pacifica'' * [[Hawaiian honeycreeper|Kakawahie]], ''Paroreomyza flammea'' * [[Hawaiian honeycreeper|Kona Grosbeak]], ''Psittirostra kona'' * [[Hawaiian honeycreeper|Lesser Koa-finch]], ''Rhodacanthus flaviceps'' * [[Hawaiian honeycreeper|Greater Koa-finch]], ''Rhodacanthus palmeri'' * [[Hawaiian honeycreeper|Greater Amakihi]], ''Viridonia sagittirostris'' * [[Po'o-uli|Poʻo-uli]], ''Melamprosops phaeosoma'' (Maui, Hawaiʻian Islands) :The most recent extinction on this list. What was most likely the last known bird has died in captivity on [[28 November]] [[2004]]. * [[Slender-billed Grackle]], ''Quiscalus palustris'' (Mexico, [[1910]]) * [[Bachman's Warbler]], ''Vermivora bachmanii'' ==See also== * [[List of extinct animals]] * [[Prehistoric bird]]s ==External links and references== * [http://www.redlist.org/ The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species] * [http://www.stockpix.com/stock/animals/birds/extinctbirds/ Extinct Birds Stock Photography] * [http://www.abirdshome.com/Audubon/extinct.html Extinct Birds from John James Audubon's Birds of America] * [http://www.nrm.se/jourhavande_biolog/sida15.html Utrotade faaglar] (in Swedish) * [http://www.kcc.org.nz/birds/extinct/list.asp New Zealand Extinct Birds List] * [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/extinctbirds/ Extinct bird forum] * [http://extinct.petermaas.nl The Extinction Website] List adapted from that in ''Extinct Birds'', Fuller, ISBN 0-19-850837-9 (Extinct Birds is an absorbing study of the world's recently extinct bird species, the first complete survey since [[Walter Rothschild]]'s classic work of 1907) [[Category:Extinct birds|*]] [[Category:Ornithology]] [[de:Ausgestorbene Vögel]] [[fr:Liste des espèces d'oiseaux disparues]] [[pt:Aves extintas]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Eli Whitney</title> <id>9732</id> <revision> <id>42076150</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:36:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Hansnesse</username> <id>247414</id> </contributor> <comment>rv/v to last edit by Hansnesse</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Whitney-Eli-LOC.jpg|thumb|Eli Whitney]] '''Eli Whitney''' ([[December 8]], [[1765]] - [[January 8]], [[1825]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[inventor]] and manufacturer. ==Biography== Born on December 8,1765 in [[Westborough, Massachusetts|Westborough]], [[Massachusetts]], the son of a farmer, Whitney graduated from [[Yale University|Yale]] College in [[1792]], where he was elected to [[Phi Beta Kappa]]. On [[January 6]], [[1817]] he married Henrietta Edwards and they had four children. ==Invention and innovation== [[Image:Cotton-gin.jpg|left|thumb|Cotton gin]] ===Cotton gin=== Whitney is credited with creating the first and the only [[cotton gin]] in [[1793]], a mechanical device which removed the seeds from [[cotton]], a process which until that time had been extremely labor-intensive. This contributed to the economic development of the [[Southern states]] of the United States, a prime cotton growing area; some historians believe that this invention allowed for the African [[slavery]] system in the Southern United States to become more sustainable at a critical point in its development. While his ideas were innovative and useful, they were so easy to understand and reproduce that the concepts and designs were readily duplicated by others. Whitney's company that produced cotton gins went out of business in [[1797]]. There exists question today over whether the cotton gin, which Whitney received a [[patent]] for on [[March 14]], [[1794]], and its constituent elements should rightly be attributed to Eli Whitney; some contend that [[Catherine Littlefield Greene]] should be credited with the invention of the cotton gin, or at least its conception. It is known that she associated with Eli Whitney (along with other historical figures such as [[George Washington|George]] and [[Martha Washington]]). ===Interchangable parts=== Eli Whitney is also credited with the creation of [[interchangeable parts]] and of [[mass production]] of rifles in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The [[Eli Whitney Museum]] is now housed in his former musket factory. Whitney is remembered, and appreciated by many farmers today. ==External links== *[http://www.eliwhitney.org/ The Eli Whitney Museum] *[http://www.cottontimes.co.uk/whitneyo.htm Essay] from [http://www.cottontimes.co.uk/ Cotton Times] *[http://www.whitneygen.org/archives/biography/eli.html Eli Whitney Biography] on the [http://www.whitneygen.org/ Whitney Research Group] website. [[Category:1765 births|Whitney, Eli]] [[Category:1825 deaths|Whitney, Eli]] [[Category:American engineers|Whitney, Eli]] [[Category:American inventors|Whitney, Eli]] [[Category:Business theorists|Whitney, Eli]] [[Category:Firearm designers|Whitney, Eli]] [[Category:People from Massachusetts|Whitney, Eli]] [[Category:Yale alumni|Whitney, Eli]] [[de:Eli Whitney]] [[es:Eli Whitney]] [[fr:Éli Whitney]] [[pl:Eli Whitney]] [[pt:Eli Whitney]] [[sv:Eli Whitney]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>The American Prisoner</title> <id>9734</id> <revision> <id>32795348</id> <timestamp>2005-12-26T20:42:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>D6</username> <id>75561</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fmt</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''''The American Prisoner''''' is a [[novel]] written by [[Eden Phillpotts]], adapted into a film in [[1929]]. The story concerns an English woman who lives at [[Fox Tor]] farm, and an American captured during the [[American Revolutionary War]] and held at the prison at [[Princetown, England|Princetown]] on [[Dartmoor]
ar'' (1969) * [[Space Merchants]]: ** ''The Space Merchants'' (1953) (with [[Cyril M. Kornbluth]]) ** ''[[The Merchants War]]'' (1985) ===Novels=== * ''Search the Sky'' (1954) (with Cyril M. Kornbluth) * ''Gladiator at Law'' (1955) (with Cyril M. Kornbluth) * ''[[Slave Ship]]'' (1956) * ''Wolfbane'' (1957) (with Cyril M. Kornbluth) * ''[[Drunkard's Walk]]'' (1960) * ''[[The Age of the Pussyfoot]]'' (1965) * ''[[Man Plus]]'' (1975) (''Winner of [[Nebula award]]'') * ''[[Jem (novel)|Jem]]'' (1980) * ''[[The Cool War]]'' (1981) * ''[[Starburst (novel)|Starburst]]'' (1982) * ''[[The Years of the City]]'' (1984) * ''[[The Coming of the Quantum Cats]]'' (1986) * ''[[Chernobyl (novel)|Chernobyl]]'' (1987) * ''[[Narabedla Inc.]]'' (1988) * ''[[Homegoing]]'' (1989) * ''[[The World at the End of Time]]'' (1990) * ''[[O Pioneer!]]'' (1998) ===Collections=== * ''[[The Frederik Pohl Omnibus]]'' (1966) * ''[[Day Million]]'' (1971) * ''[[The Wonder Effect]]'' (1974) (with [[Cyril M. Kornbluth]]) * ''The Early Pohl'' (1976): ** 'Elegy for a Dead Planet: Luna,' 1937, (writing as Elton Andrews) [a poem, his first published piece] ** 'The Dweller in the Ice,' 1940, (writing as James MacCreigh) ** 'The King's Eye,' 1940, (writing as James MacCreigh) ** 'It's a Young World,' 1940, (writing as James MacCreigh) ** 'Daughters of Eternity,' 1940, (writing as James MacCreigh) ** 'Earth, Farewell!,' 1940, (writing as James MacCreigh) ** 'Conspiracy on Callisto,' 1943, (writing as James MacCreigh) ** 'Highwayman of the Void,' 1943, (writing under Dirk Wylie's name) ** 'Double-Cross,' 1943, (writing as James MacCreigh) * ''[[Survival Kit]]'' (1979) * ''[[The Man Who Ate the World]]'' (1979) * ''Planets Three'', 1982 (a collection of 3 novellas written as James MacCreigh): ** 'Figurehead' ** 'Red Moon of Danger' ** 'Donovan Had a Dream' * ''[[Platinum Pohl]]'' (2005) ===Autobiography=== ''The Way the Future Was'' (1978) ===Non-Fiction=== * ''Practical Politics 1972'' (1971) * ''Chasing Science: Science as Spectator Sport'' (2000) Frederik Pohl has won four [[Hugo Award]]s. His works include not only science fiction but articles for ''[[Playboy]]'' and ''[[Family Circle]]''. == External links == * {{isfdb name|id=Frederik_Pohl|name=Frederik Pohl}} [[Category:1919 births|Pohl, Frederik]] [[Category:Living people|Pohl, Frederik]] [[Category:American writers|Pohl, Frederik]] [[Category:Hugo Award winning authors|Pohl, Frederik]] [[Category:Nebula Grand Masters|Pohl, Frederik]] [[Category:Science fiction editors|Pohl, Frederik]] [[Category:Science fiction writers|Pohl, Frederik]] [[Category:Unitarians|Pohl, Frederik]] [[bg:Фредерик Пол]] [[cs:Frederik Pohl]] [[da:Frederik Pohl]] [[de:Frederik Pohl]] [[es:Frederik Pohl]] [[fr:Frederik Pohl]] [[it:Frederik Pohl]] [[nl:Frederik Pohl]] [[ja:フレデリック・ポール]] [[pl:Frederik Pohl]] [[sk:Frederik Pohl]] [[fi:Frederik Pohl]] [[sv:Frederik Pohl]] [[th:เฟรดเดอริก โพห์ล]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic</title> <id>11738</id> <revision> <id>15909464</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fundamental_theorem_of_arithmetic]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fermat</title> <id>11739</id> <revision> <id>15909465</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pierre_de_Fermat]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Forrest J. Ackerman</title> <id>11740</id> <revision> <id>41429761</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T06:49:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>200.249.112.130</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Forrest J Ackerman''' (born [[November 24]], [[1916]] in [[Los Angeles, California]]) is a legendary [[science fiction fandom|science fiction fan]] and collector of [[science fiction]]-related memorabilia. Ackerman, known as &quot;Forry&quot; or &quot;4e&quot; or &quot;4SJ&quot;, was influential not only in the origination, organization, and spread of science fiction fandom, but he was also a key figure in the wider cultural acceptance of science fiction as a respectable literary, art and film genre. Ackerman is also known as the editor-writer of the magazine ''[[Famous Monsters of Filmland]]'', as well as an occasional [[science fiction authors|author]], actor, producer (''[[Vampirella]]''), and literary agent. == Career == Forrest J Ackerman (no period on the middle initial) or, &quot;Mr. Science Fiction,&quot; saw his first &quot;imagi-movie&quot; in 1922 (''One Glorious Day''), purchased his first sci-fi magazine, ''[[Amazing Stories]]'', in 1926, created The Boys' Scientifiction Club in 1930 (&quot;girl-fans were as rare as unicorn's horns in those days&quot;), contributed to the first [[fanzine]], ''The Time Traveller'', in 1932, and by 1933 had 127 correspondents around the world. He attended the [[1st World Science Fiction Convention]] in [[1939]] (where he wore the first &quot;futuristicostume&quot; which sparked fan costuming) and every [[Worldcon]] but two since. Ackerman helped found the [[Los Angeles Science Fantasy Society]], a prominent regional organization in science fiction fandom, as well as the [[National Fantasy Fan Federation]] (N3F). He was personally acquainted with many mid-twentieth-century writers of science fiction. He is noted for having amassed an extremely large and complete collection of science fiction, [[fantasy]] and [[horror film]] memorabilia, which was, until 2002, maintained in a remarkable home/museum known as the 18-room &quot;Ackermansion&quot; in the [[Los Feliz, Los Angeles, California|Los Feliz]] district of Los Angeles, filled with 300,000 pieces of movie memorabilia. He has entertained approximately 50,000 fans at open houses since 1951, including 186 fans and pros in one memorable night, including astronaut [[Buzz Aldrin]]. Ackerman is a board member of the [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]] [[Science Fiction Museum and Hall of Fame]], where many items of his own collection are displayed. Ackerman received the first [[Hugo Award for Best Fan Writer]], in 1946. Ackerman is credited with nurturing and even inspiring the careers of several early contemporaries{{fact}} like [[Ray Bradbury]], [[Ray Harryhausen]], Chrles Beaumont, [[Marion Zimmer Bradley]] and [[L. Ron Hubbard]] of [[Scientology]] fame. He was [[Ed Wood, Jr.]]'s &quot;illiterary&quot; agent and represents 200 authors of science fiction and fantasy. Ackerman is also notable for having coined the term &quot;sci-fi&quot; by analogy with &quot;hi-fi&quot;. Although many serious science fiction fans hated the phrase, considering it gimmicky and disrespectful, it gained widespread usage by the early [[1960s]]. [[Harlan Ellison]] has derided it as a &quot;hideous neologism&quot; that &quot;sounds like crickets fucking,&quot; a comment to which Ackerman fans responded by producing buttons bearing the slogan, &quot;I love copulating crickets.&quot; Ackerman has had 50 stories published, including collaborations with [[A. E. van Vogt]], Francis Flagg, Robert A. W. Lowndes, Marion Zimmer Bradley, Donald Wolheim and Catherine Moore and the world's shortest — one letter of the alphabet. His stories have been translated into six languages. Ackerman is fluent in the &quot;universal language&quot; [[Esperanto]]. Ackerman named the sexy comic-book character [[Vampirella]] and wrote the origin story for the comic. Through his magazine, ''[[Famous Monsters of Filmland]]'' (1958-1983), Forrest J Ackerman introduced the history of the science fiction, fantasy and horror film genres to a generation of young readers. At a time when most movie-related publications glorified the stars in front of the camera, &quot;Uncle Forry&quot;, as he's referred to by many of his fans, promoted the behind-the-scenes artists involved in the magic of movies. In this way Ackerman provided inspiration to many who would later become successful artists, including Peter Jackson, Steven Spielberg, Tim Burton, Stephen King, Penn &amp; Teller, Billy Bob Thornton, Gene Simmons (of the band Kiss), Rick Baker, George Lucas, Danny Elfman, Frank Darabont, John Landis and countless other writers, directors, artists and craftsmen. In the 1970s, Ackerman organized the publication of an English translation in the U.S. of the German science fiction series ''[[Perry Rhodan]]'', the longest science fiction series in history. His German-speaking wife Wendayne (&quot;Wendy&quot;) did most of the translation. The American books were issued with varying frequency from one to as many as four per month. Ackerman also used the paperback series to promote science fiction short stories, including his own on occasion. The American series was never a major commercial success, and eventually lost its publishing outlets around issue #120 (the original German series continues today and passed issue #2200 in 2003). Ackerman says, &quot;I aim at hitting 100 and becoming the [[George Burns]] of science fiction&quot;. Ackerman currently lives in the new &quot;Acker-mini-mansion&quot; in Hollywood where he continues to entertain and inspire fans weekly with his amazing collection of memorabilia and priceless stories of the golden age of art, filmmaking, literature and all things fantastical. ==Appearances== Ackerman himself appeared as a character in ''The Vampire Affair'' by [[David McDaniel]], a novel in the ''[[The Man from U.N.C.L.E.|Man from U.N.C.L.E.]]'' series, as well as in [[Philip José Farmer]]'s novel ''Blown''. A life-long fan of science fiction &quot;[[B-movie]]s&quot;, Ackerman has has had cameo
The main organization that promotes, funds, and judges bodybuilding competition is the [[International Federation of BodyBuilders]]. They organise bodybuilding's most prestigious competition - [[Mr. Olympia]]. === Contest preparation === The general strategy adopted by competitive bodybuilders is to make muscle gains for most of the year (known as the &quot;off-season&quot;) and approximately 3-4 months from competition attempt to lose [[body fat]] (referred to as &quot;cutting&quot;). In doing this some muscle will be lost but the aim is to keep this to a minimum. There are many approaches used but most involve reducing calorie intake and increasing cardio, while monitoring [[body fat percentage]]. In the week leading up to a contest, bodybuilders will begin increasing their [[water]] intake so as to upregulate the systems in the body associated with water flushing. They will also increase their [[sodium]] intake. At the same time they will decrease their carbohydrate consumption in attempt to &quot;carb deplete&quot;. The goal during this week is to deplete the muscles of [[glycogen]]. Two days before the show, sodium intake is reduced by half, and then eliminated completely. The day before the show, water is removed from the diet, and [[diuretics]] may be introduced. At the same time carbohydrates are re-introduced into the diet to fill out the muscles. This is typically known as &quot;carb-loading.&quot; The end result is an ultra-lean bodybuilder with full hard muscles and a dry, vascular appearance. Right before performing on stage bodybuilders will apply various products to their skin to improve their muscle defintion - these include [[fake tan]] commonly called &quot;pro tan&quot; (to make the skin darker) and various [[Vegetable oil|oil]]s (to make the skin shiny). They will also use weights to &quot;pump up&quot; by forcing blood to their muscles to improve size and vascularity. == Strategy == In order to achieve muscle growth ([[hypertrophy]]), bodybuilders focus in three main lines of action: * Resistance [[weight training]] * Specialized [[nutrition]], incorporating extra [[protein]] and supplements where necessary * Adequate rest to facilitate growth === Resistance weight training === [[Image:Bodybuilder2.jpg|thumb|200px|German Bodybuilder [[Markus Rühl]] posing in [[Biberach an der Riß]].]] Resistance weight training causes microtears to the muscles being trained; this is generally known as [[microtrauma]]. These microtears in the muscle contribute to the soreness felt after exercise, called [[Delayed onset muscle soreness]] (DOMS). It is the repair to these microtrauma that result in muscle growth ([[anabolism]]). Normally, this soreness becomes most apparent a day or two after a workout. === Nutrition === The high levels of muscle growth and repair achieved by bodybuilders require a very specialised diet. Generally speaking, bodybuilders require anything between 500-1000 [[calorie]]s (2000 to 4000 [[joule|kilojoules]]) above their maintenance level of [[food energy]] while attempting to increase lean body mass. A sub-maintenance level of food energy is combined with cardiovascular exercise to lose body fat in preparation for a contest. The ratios of food energy from carbohydrates, proteins, and fats vary depending on the goals of the bodybuilder. Bodybuilders usually split their food intake for the day into 5 to 7 meals of roughly equal nutritional content and attempt to eat at regular intervals (normally between 2 and 3 hours). This is thought to allow greater absorption of nutrients and increase [[basal metabolic rate]]. The process is also used by people trying to lose weight. ==== Carbohydrates ==== Having a large proportion of the diet come from [[carbohydrate]]s gives the body enough energy to deal with the rigours of training and recovery. Bodybuilders require [[polysaccharide]]s, which release energy more slowly than simple sugars. This is important as simple sugars cause an [[insulin]] response, which places the body in a state where it is likely to store additional food energy as fat rather than muscle, and which can waste energy that should be going towards muscle growth. However bodybuilders do ingest some simple sugars (often in form of pure [[glucose]] or [[maltodextrin]]) post-workout to replenish [[glycogen]] stores within the muscle. ==== Protein ==== It is recommended that bodybuilders receive 1 to 2 grams of protein per pound of lean body weight (2 to 5 g/kg) to help the body recover and build. It is a widely debated topic, with many arguing that 1 gram of protein per pound of body weight is ideal, and others recommending 1.5 or 2. There is much debate concerning the best type of protein to take. Meat, fish, eggs and dairy foods are high in protein. Casein or [[whey protein|whey]] are often used to supplement the diet with additional protein. It is believed that protein needs to be consumed frequently throughout the day, however the most imporant times for bodybuilders to intake protein is within 45 minutes of a workout and before going to sleep. ==== Vitamins &amp; minerals ==== Bodybuilders almost universally take a multi-vitamin each day. [[Essential fatty acids]] (including omega-3s), which the body can not synthesize, are also consumed. Since [[anaerobic exercise]] is a very [[oxidizing]] process, most supplement with [[antioxidant]] vitamins such as; [[vitamin C]], [[vitamin E]], [[vitamin B]] and [[selenium]]. Since joint problems can cripple a bodybuilder's career, [[glucosamine]], MSM ([[methylsulfonylmethane]]), and [[chondroitin]] are taken to help promote strong joints. Research has also shown [[inositol]]'s positive effect on joint health and as an [[anti-inflammatory]]. As with all supplements, it is preferable to get the vitamin and mineral requirement from whole foods, though this is not always convenient. ==== Supplements ==== {{main|Bodybuilding supplements}} Supplements can help muscle gain, although some are unproven and many are ineffective. One supplement which has been proven to help bodybuilders gain and maintain size (without unhealthy short term side effects) is [[creatine]]. Like all supplements, these only help if used in conjunction with a solid nutritional base and [[weight training]] program. Some bodybuilders may use drugs to gain an advantage over results due to natural [[hypertrophy]], especially in professional competitions. Although many of these substances are illegal in many countries, in professional bodybuilding the use of [[anabolic steroid]]s and precursor substances such as [[prohormone]]s are used in high level competitions. Most steroids allow the human body to be in a more [[anabolic]] state. Some negative side-effects accompany steroid abuse, such as [[liver]] damage and a decline in the body's own testosterone production, which can cause [[Testicle|testicular]] [[atrophy]] and possible [[infertility]]. [[Growth Hormone]] (GH) and [[insulin]] are also used by some of the larger bodybuilders. GH is incredibly expensive compared to steroids while insulin is very readily available yet fatal if misused. See [[Growth hormone treatment for bodybuilding]]. ==== Overtraining ==== {{main|Overtraining}} Overtraining is generally regarded as one of the biggest and most common problems bodybuilders face. It refers to when a bodybuilder has trained to the point where his workload exceeds his recovery capacity. There are many reasons that overtraining occurs, including lack of adequate nutrition, lack of recovery time between workous, insufficient sleep, and training at a high intensity for too long (a lack of periodization). Training at a high intensity too frequently also stimulates tthe [[central nervous system]] (CNS) too frequently, and can result in a hyper-adrenergic state that interferes with sleep patterns. To avoid overtraining, intense frequent training must be met with at least an equal amount of purposeful recovery. Timely provision of [[carbohydrates]], [[proteins]], and various micronutrients such as [[vitamins]], [[minerals]], phytochemicals, even nutritional supplements are acutely critical. It has been argued that overtraining can be beneficial. One article published by [[Muscle and Fitness|Muscle and Fitness Magazine]] stated that you can &quot;Overtrain for Big Gains&quot;. It suggested that if one is planning a restful holiday and they do not wish to inhibit their bodybuilding lifestyle too much, they should overtrain before taking the holiday, so the body can rest easily and recuperate and grow. More commonly however, overtraining can be used advantageously, as when a bodybuilder is purposely overtrained for a brief period of time to super compensate during a regeneration phase. These are known as &quot;shock microcycles&quot; and were a key training technique used by Soviet athletes. The vast amount of overtraining that occurs in average bodybuilders however, is gernally unplanned and completely unnecessary. === Rest === Related to overtraining is rest. Without adequate rest and [[sleep]], muscles do not have an opportunity to recover and build. About eight hours of sleep a night is desirable for the bodybuilder to be refreshed and ready for the next session, although this varies from person to person. Additionally, many athletes find a daytime nap further increases their body's ability to build muscle. == See also == {{Wiktionarycat|type=used in bodybuilding|category=Bodybuilding}} {{wikibooks}} * [[Health and fitness magazine]] * [[List of professional bodybuilders]] * [[:Category:Bodybuilders]] *[[Physical culture]] *[[Body image]] *[[Amazon Feminism]] *[[Striation]] *[[Muscle dysmorphia]] ==External links== &lt;!-- --&gt; &lt;!-- ATTENTION! DO NOT ADD LINKS WITHOUT DISCUSSION AND --&gt; &lt;!-- CONSENSUS ON THE TALK PAGE. OTHERWISE THEY WILL BE REMOVED. --&gt; &lt;!--
utational Intelligence]] (CI). Conventional AI mostly involves methods now classified as [[machine learning]], characterized by [[formalism]] and [[statistical analysis]]. This is also known as [[symbolic]] AI, [[logical]] AI, [[Neats|neat AI]] and [[GOFAI|Good Old Fashioned Artificial Intelligence (GOFAI)]]. (Also see [[semantics]].) Methods include: *[[Expert system]]s: apply reasoning capabilities to reach a conclusion. An expert system can process large amounts of known information and provide conclusions based on them. *[[Case based reasoning]] *[[Bayesian network]]s *[[Behavior based AI]]: a modular method of building AI systems by hand. Computational Intelligence involves [[iterative]] development or learning (e.g. parameter tuning e.g. in [[connectionist]] systems). Learning is based on [[empirical]] data and is associated with non-symbolic AI, [[Scruffies|scruffy AI]] and [[soft computing]]. Methods mainly include: *[[Neural network]]s: systems with very strong [[pattern recognition]] capabilities. *[[Fuzzy system]]s: techniques for [[reasoning under uncertainty]], has been widely used in modern industrial and consumer product control systems. *[[Evolutionary computation]]: applies biologically inspired concepts such as [[population]]s, [[mutation]] and [[survival of the fittest]] to generate increasingly better solutions to the problem. These methods most notably divide into [[evolutionary algorithm]]s (e.g. [[genetic algorithm]]s) and [[swarm intelligence]] (e.g. [[ant colony optimization|ant algorithm]]s). With [[hybrid intelligent system]]s attempts are made to combine these two groups. Expert inference rules can be generated through neural network or [[production rule]]s from statistical learning such as in [[ACT-R]]. ==History== {{main|History of artificial intelligence}} Early in the 17th century, [[René Descartes]] proposed that bodies of animals are nothing more than complex machines. [[Blaise Pascal]] created the first mechanical digital calculating machine in [[1642]]. In the 19th century, [[Charles Babbage]] and [[Ada Lovelace]] worked on programmable mechanical calculating machines. [[Bertrand Russell]] and [[Alfred North Whitehead]] published ''[[Principia Mathematica]]'', which revolutionized formal logic. [[Warren McCulloch]] and [[Walter Pitts]] published &quot;A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity&quot; in [[1943]] laying foundations for [[neural network]]s. The 1950s were a period of active efforts in AI. The first working AI programs were written in 1951 to run on the Ferranti Mark I machine of the University of Manchester (UK): a draughts-playing program written by Christopher Strachey and a chess-playing program written by Dietrich Prinz. [[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|John McCarthy]] coined the term &quot;artificial intelligence&quot; in the first conference devoted to the subject, in 1956. He also invented the [[Lisp programming language]]. [[Alan Turing]] introduced the &quot;[[Turing test]]&quot; as a way of operationalizing a test of intelligent behavior. [[Joseph Weizenbaum]] built [[ELIZA]], a [[chatterbot]] implementing [[Rogerian psychotherapy]]. During the 1960s and 1970s, [[Joel Moses]] demonstrated the power of symbolic reasoning for integration problems in the Macsyma program, the first successful knowledge-based program in mathematics. [[Marvin Minsky]] and [[Seymour Papert]] publish ''Perceptrons'', demonstrating limits of simple neural nets and [[Alain Colmerauer]] developed the [[Prolog]] computer language. [[Ted Shortliffe]] demonstrated the power of rule-based systems for [[knowledge representation]] and inference in medical diagnosis and therapy in what is sometimes called the first expert system. [[Hans Moravec]] developed the first computer-controlled vehicle to [[autonomous vehicle|autonomously]] negotiate cluttered obstacle courses. In the 1980s, neural networks became widely used with the [[backpropagation]] algorithm, first described by [[Paul John Werbos]] in [[1974]]. The 1990s marked major achievements in many areas of AI and demonstrations of various applications. Most notably [[Deep Blue]], a chess-playing computer, beat [[Garry Kasparov]] in a famous six-game match in 1997. [[Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency|DARPA]] stated that the costs saved by implementing AI methods for scheduling units in the first [[Gulf War]] have repaid the US government's entire investment in AI research since the 1950s. ==Philosophy== {{portalpar|Mind and Brain}} ''Main article: [[Philosophy of artificial intelligence]]'' The [[strong AI]] vs. weak AI debate is still a hot topic amongst AI [[philosopher]]s. This involves [[philosophy of mind]] and the [[mind-body problem]]. Most notably [[Roger Penrose]] in his book ''[[The Emperor's New Mind]]'' and [[John Searle]] with his &quot;[[Chinese room]]&quot; [[thought experiment]] argue that true [[consciousness]] can not be achieved by [[formal logic]] systems, while [[Douglas Hofstadter]] in ''[[Gödel, Escher, Bach]]'' and [[Daniel Dennett]] in ''[[Consciousness Explained]]'' argue in favour of [[Functionalism (philosophy of mind)|Functionalism]]. In many strong AI supporters’ opinion, [[artificial consciousness]] is considered as the [[list of holy grails|holy grail]] of artificial intelligence. ==Science fiction== In [[science fiction]] AI is commonly portrayed as an upcoming power trying to overthrow human authority as in [[HAL 9000]], [[Skynet]], [[Colossus: The Forbin Project|Colossus]] and [[The Matrix]] or as service [[humanoid]]s like [[C-3PO]], [[Data (Star Trek)|Data]], the [[Bicentennial Man]], the ''Mechas'' in [[A.I. (film)|A.I.]] or Sonny in [[I, Robot (film)|I, Robot]]. &lt;!--this is not a list of your favorite sci-fi AI, keep it short and use only famous and clear examples--&gt; The inevitability of AI world domination, sometimes called &quot;[[Technological singularity|the Singularity]]&quot;, is also argued by some science writers like [[Isaac Asimov]], [[Vernor Vinge]] and [[Kevin Warwick]]. In works such as the Japanese [[manga]] ''[[Ghost in the Shell (manga)|Ghost in the Shell]]'', the existence of intelligent machines questions the definition of life as organisms rather than a broader category of autonomous entities, establishing a notional concept of systemic intelligence. ''See [[list of fictional computers]] and [[list of fictional robots and androids]].'' ==See also== {{wikibookspar||Artificial Intelligence}} *[[Philosophy of artificial intelligence]] *[[Strong Artificial Intelligence]] *[[Functionalism]] - a philosophical theory of mind which allows for artificial intelligence Typical problems to which AI methods are applied: *[[Pattern recognition]] **[[Optical character recognition]] **[[Handwriting recognition]] **[[Speech recognition]] **[[Facial recognition system|Face recognition]] *[[Natural language processing]], [[Translation]] and [[Chatterbot]]s *[[Non-linear control]] and [[Robotics]] *[[Computer vision]], [[Virtual reality]] and [[Image processing]] *[[Game theory]] and [[Strategic planning]] *[[Game AI]] and [[Computer game bot]] *[[Artificial Creativity]] Other fields in which AI methods are implemented: *[[Automation]] *[[Bio-inspired computing]] *[[Cybernetics]] *[[Hybrid intelligent system]] *[[Intelligent agent]] *[[Intelligent control]] *[[Automated reasoning]] *[[Data mining]] *[[Behavior-based robotics]] *[[Cognitive robotics]] *[[Developmental robotics]] *[[Evolutionary robotics]] *[[Chatbot]] *[[Knowledge Representation]] == Links to researchers, projects &amp; institutions == *[[:Category:Artificial intelligence researchers|List of AI researchers]] *[[List of Artificial Intelligence projects|List of AI projects]] *[[List of important publications in computer science#Artificial intelligence|List of important AI publications]] == External links== *[http://www.aaai.org/ American Association for Artificial Intelligence] *[http://agiri.org/ AGIRI - Artificial General Intelligence Research Institute] *[http://www.eccai.org/ European Coordinating Committee for Artificial Intelligence] *[http://www.dfki.de/ German Research Center for Artificial Intelligence, DFKI] *[http://www.cild.iastate.edu/ Center for Computational Intelligence, Learning, and Discovery @ Iowa State University] *[http://ai-news.elzemozgurce.net/ Artificial Intelligence News] *[http://www.auai.org/ Association for Uncertainty in Artificial Intelligence] *[http://www.singinst.org Singularity Institute for Artificial Intelligence] *[http://www.aisb.org.uk/ The Society for the Study of AI and Simulation of Behaviour] *[http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~russell/ai.html University of California at Berkeley AI Resources] links to 868 AI resource pages *[http://www.loebner.net/Prizef/loebner-prize.html Loebner Prize website]. *[http://commonsense.media.mit.edu/cgi-bin/search.cgi/ OpenMind CommonSense] *[http://sourceforge.net/softwaremap/trove_list.php?form_cat=133 SourceForge Open Source AI projects] - 1139 projects *[http://www.aaai.org/AITopics/html/ethics.html Ethical and Social Implications of AI en Computerization] *[http://www.geocities.com/fhzeya20042000/lisp.htm A tutorial on AI programming language LISP] *[http://web.media.mit.edu/~minsky/ Marvin Minsky's Homepage] *[http://www.csail.mit.edu/ MIT's Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Lab] *[http://www.isi.edu/divisions/div3/ AI research group at Information Sciences Institute] *[http://www.alanturing.net/turing_archive/pages/Reference%20Articles/What%20is%20AI.html What is Artificial Intelligence?] *[http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/cs.AI/0601052 Artificial and biological intelligence] *[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ai/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Logic and Artificial Intelligence] *[http://www.ai-junkie.com/ AI-Junkie: Genetic Algorithm and Neural Network tutorials] *[http://www-ai.cs.uni-dortmund.de/ Artificial Intelligence Group] @ University of Dortmund, Germany &l
nol's dehydration to form either [[diethyl ether]] or [[ethylene]]: : 2 CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH &amp;rarr; [[diethyl ether|CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OCH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]] + [[water|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]] : CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH &amp;rarr; [[ethylene|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]] + [[water|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]] Which product, diethyl ether or ethylene, predominates depends on the precise reaction conditions. ; Oxidation Ethanol can be oxidized to [[acetaldehyde]], and further oxidized to [[acetic acid]]. In the human body, these oxidation reactions are catalysed by [[enzyme]]s. In the laboratory, aqueous soluations of strong oxidizing agents, such as [[chromic acid]] or [[potassium permanganate]], oxidize ethanol to acetic acid, and it is difficult to stop the reaction at acetaldehyde at high yield. Ethanol can be oxidized to acetaldehyde, without overoxidation to acetic acid, by [[pyridinium chromic chloride]]. == Production == [[Image:Ethanol Flasche.jpg|thumb|left|94% denatured ethanol sold in a secure bottle for household use]] Ethanol is produced both as a [[petrochemical]], through the hydration of [[ethylene]], and biologically, by [[fermentation|fermenting]] sugars with [[yeast]]. === Ethylene hydration === Ethanol for use as industrial feedstock is most often made from [[petrochemical]] feedstocks, typically by the [[acid]]-[[catalysis|catalyzed]] hydration of ethylene, represented by the [[chemical equation]] : [[ethylene|C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]] + [[water|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]] &amp;rarr; CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH The catalyst is most commonly [[phosphoric acid]], [[adsorption|absorbed]] onto a porous support such as [[diatomaceous earth]] or [[charcoal]]; this catalyst was first used for large-scale ethanol production by the [[Shell Oil Company]] in 1947.{{inote|ECT4, p. 820}} Solid catalysts, mostly various metal oxides, have also been mentioned in the chemical literature. In an older process, first practised on the industrial scale in 1930 by [[Union Carbide]]{{inote|ECT4, p. 817}}, but now almost entirely obsolete, ethene was hydrated indirectly by reacting it with concentrated [[sulfuric acid]] to product [[ethyl sulfate]], which was then [[hydrolysis|hydrolysed]] to yield ethanol and regenerate the sulphuric acid: : [[ethylene|C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]] + [[sulfuric acid|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]] &amp;rarr; [[ethyl sulfate|CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]] : [[ethyl sulfate|CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]] + [[water|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]] &amp;rarr; CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH + [[sulfuric acid|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]] === Fermentation === Ethanol for use in alcoholic beverages, and the vast majority of ethanol for use as fuel, is produced by fermentation: when certain species of yeast (most importantly, ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'') [[metabolism|metabolize]] [[saccharide|sugar]] in the absence of [[oxygen]], they produce ethanol and [[carbon dioxide]]. The overall chemical reaction conducted by the yeast may be represented by the chemical equation : [[glucose|C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;]] &amp;rarr; 2 CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH + 2 [[carbon dioxide|CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]] The process of culturing yeast under conditions to produce alcohol is referred to as [[brewing]]. Brewing can only produce relatively dilute concentrations of ethanol in water; concentrated ethanol solutions are toxic to yeast. The most ethanol-tolerant strains of yeast can survive in up to about 20% ethanol (by volume). In order to produce ethanol from starchy materials such as [[cereal grain]]s, the starch must first be broken down into sugars. In brewing [[beer]], this has traditionally been accomplished allowing the grain to germinate, or [[malt]]. In the process of germination, the seed produces [[enzyme]]s that can break its starches into sugars. For fuel ethanol, this hydrolysis of starch into glucose is accomplished more rapidly by treatment with dilute sulfuric acid, [[fungus|fungal]] [[amylase]] enzymes, or some combination of the two. At petroleum prices like those that prevailed through much of the 1990s, ethylene hydration was a decidedly more economical process than fermentation for producing purified ethanol. Recent increases in petroleum prices, coupled with perennial uncertainty in agricultural prices, make forecasting the relative production costs of fermented versus petrochemical ethanol difficult at the present time. === Purification === The product of either ethylene hydration or brewing is an ethanol-water mixture. For most industrial and fuel uses, the ethanol must be purified. [[Fractional distillation]] can concentrate ethanol to 96% volume; the mixture of 96% ethanol and 4% water is an [[azeotrope]] with a boiling point of 78.2 &amp;deg;C, and cannot be further purified by distillation. Therefore, 95% ethanol in water is a fairly common solvent. Several approaches are used to produce absolute ethanol. The ethanol-water azeotrope can be broken by the addition of a small quantity of [[benzene]]. Benzene, ethanol, and water form a ternary azeotrope with a boiling point of 64.9 &amp;deg;C. Since this azeotrope is more volatile than the ethanol-water azeotrope, it can be fractionally distilled out of the ethanol-water mixture, extracting essentially all of the water in the process. The bottoms from such a distillation is anhydrous ethanol, with several [[parts per million]] residual benzene. Benzene is toxic to humans, and [[cyclohexane]] has largely supplanted benzene in its role as the entrainer in this process. Alternatively, a [[molecular sieve]] can be used to selectively absorb the water from the 96% ethanol solution. Synthetic [[zeolite]] in pellet form can be used, as well as a variety of plant-derived absorbents, including [[cornmeal]], [[straw]], and [[sawdust]]. The zeolite bed can be regenerated essentially an unlimited number of times by drying it with a blast of hot carbon dioxide. Cornmeal and other plant-derived absorbents cannot readily be regenerated, but where ethanol is made from grain, they are often available at low cost. Absolute ethanol produced this way has no residual benzene, and can be used as fuel, or, when diluted, can even be used to fortify port and sherry in traditional winery operations. At pressures less than atmospheric pressure, the composition of the ethanol-water azeotrope shifts to more ethanol-rich mixtures, and at pressures less than 70 [[torr]], there is no azeotrope, and it is possible to distill absolute ethanol from an ethanol-water mixture. While vacuum distillation of ethanol is not presently economical, pressure-swing distillation is a topic of current research. In this technique, a reduced-pressure distillation first yields an ethanol-water mixture of more than 96% ethanol. Then, fractional distillation of this mixture at atmospheric pressure distills off the 96% azeotrope, leaving anhydrous ethanol at the bottoms. === Prospective technologies === Glucose for fermentation into ethanol can also be obtained from [[cellulose]]. Until recently, however, the cost of the [[cellulase]] enzymes that could hydrolyse cellulose has been prohibitive. The [[Canada|Canadian]] firm [[Iogen]] brought the first cellulose-based ethanol plant on-stream in 2004.{{inote|Ritter (2004)}} The primary consumer thus far has been the Canadian government, which, along with the United States government (particularly the Department of Energy's National Renewable Energy Laboratory), has invested millions of dollars into assisting the commercialization of cellulosic ethanol. Realization of this technology would turn a number of cellulose-containing agricultural byproducts, such as [[corncob]]s, [[straw]], and [[sawdust]], into renewable energy resources. Cellulosic materials typically contain, in addition to cellulose, other [[polysaccharide]]s including [[hemicellulose]]. When hydrolysed, hemicellulose breaks down into mostly five-carbon sugars such as [[xylose]]. ''S. cerevisiae'', the yeast most commonly used for ethanol production, cannot metabolize xylose. Other yeasts ([http://www.lub.lu.se/cgi-bin/show_diss.pl?db=global&amp;fname=tec_748.html for example]) and bacteria ([http://www.metabolicengineering.gov/me2001/2001Kompala.pdf for example]) are under investigation to metabolize xylose and so improve the ethanol yield from cellulosic material. The [[anaerobic bacteria|anaerobic bacterium]] ''Clostridium ljungdahlii'', recently discovered in commercial chicken wastes, can produce ethanol from single-carbon sources including [[carbon monoxide]] and a mixture of hydrogen and carbon dioxide. Use of these bacteria to produce ethanol from [[synthesis gas]] has progresed to the pilot plant stage at the [http://www.brienergy.com/ BRI Energy, LLC] facility in Fayetteville, Arkansas. Synthesis gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen that can be generated from the partial combustion of either fossil fuels or biomass; the heat released by gasification can be used to co-produce electricity with ethanol in the BRI process. == Denatured alcohol == ''Main article: [[Denatured alcohol]]'' In most jurisdictions, the sale of ethanol, as a pure substance or in the form of alcoholic beverages, is heavily taxed. In order to relieve non-beverage industries of this tax burden, governments specify formulations for denatured alcohol, ethanol blended with various additives to render it unfit for human consumption. Th
are preferable to on-grid systems. ===Control=== ''Main article [[Control engineering]]'' [[Image:Shuttle.jpg|right|150 px]] [[Control engineering]] focuses on the [[mathematical model|modelling]] of a diverse range of [[dynamic system|dynamic systems]] and the design of [[controller (control theory)|controllers]] that will cause these systems to behave in the desired manner. To implement such controllers electrical engineers may use [[electrical circuit|electrical circuits]], [[digital signal processing|digital signal processors]] and [[microcontroller|microcontrollers]]. [[Control engineering]] has a wide range of applications from the flight and propulsion systems of [[Airliner|commercial airliners]] to the [[cruise control]] present in many modern [[automobile|automobiles]]. It also plays an important role in [[industrial automation]]. Control engineers often utilize [[feedback]] when designing [[Control system|control systems]]. For example, in an [[automobile]] with [[cruise control]] the vehicle's [[speed]] is continuously monitored and fed back to the system which adjusts the [[motor|motor's]] [[speed]] accordingly. Where there is regular feedback, [[control theory]] can be used to determine how the system responds to such feedback. ===Electronics=== ''Main article [[Electronics engineering]]'' [[Image:PExdcr01CJC.jpg|right|150 px]] [[Electronics engineering]] involves the design and testing of [[electrical network|electronic circuits]] that use the properties of [[electrical element|components]] such as [[resistor]]s, [[capacitor]]s, [[inductor]]s, [[diode]]s and [[transistor]]s to achieve a particular functionality. The [[tuned circuit]], which allows the user of a [[radio]] to [[filter]] out all but a single station, is just one example of such a circuit. Another example (of a pneumatic signal conditioner) is shown in the adjacent photograph. Prior to the second world war, the subject was commonly known as ''radio engineering'' and basically was restricted to aspects of communications and [[radar]], [[radio|commercial radio]] and [[television|early television]]. Later, in post war years, as consumer devices began to be developed, the field grew to include modern television, audio systems, [[computer]]s and [[microprocessors]]. In the mid to late 1950s, the term ''radio engineering'' gradually gave way to the name ''electronics engineering''. Before the invention of the [[integrated circuit]] in 1959, electronic circuits were constructed from discrete components that could be manipulated by humans. These discrete circuits consumed much space and [[electric power|power]] and were limited in speed although they are still common in some applications. By contrast, [[integrated circuit]]s packed a large number&amp;mdash;often millions&amp;mdash;of tiny electrical components, mainly [[transistor]]s, into a small chip around the size of a [[coin]]. This allowed for the powerful [[computer]]s and other electronic devices we see today. ===Microelectronics=== ''Main article [[Microelectronics]]'' [[Image:SEM integrated circuit (400x).jpg|right|150 px]] [[Microelectronics]] engineering deals with the design of very small electronic components for use in an [[Integrated circuit]] or sometimes for use on their own as a general electronic component. The most common microelectronic components are [[semiconductor]] [[transistors]], although all main electronic components ([[resistors]], [[capacitors]], [[inductors]]) can be created at a microscopic level. Most components are designed by determining processes to mix silicon with other [[atoms]] to create a desired [[electromagnetic]] effect. For this reason microelectronics involves a significant amount of [[quantum mechanics]] and [[chemistry]]. ===Signal processing=== ''Main article [[Signal processing]]'' [[Image:iPod 4G.jpg|right|150 px]] [[Signal processing]] deals with the analysis and manipulation of [[signal (information theory)|signals]]. Signals can be either [[analog signal|analog]], in which case the signal varies continuously according to the information, or [[digital signal|digital]], in which case the signal varies according to a series of discrete values representing the information. For analog signals, signal processing may involve the [[amplifier|amplification]] and [[filtering]] of audio signals for audio equipment or the [[modulation]] and [[demodulation]] of signals for [[telecommunication]]s. For digital signals, signal processing may involve the [[compression]], [[error checking]] and [[error detection]] of digital signals. ===Telecommunications=== ''Main article [[Telecommunications engineering]]'' [[Image:Milstar.jpg|right|150 px]] [[Telecommunications|Telecommunications engineering]] focuses on the [[transmission (telecommunications)|transmission]] of [[information]] across a [[channel (communications)|channel]] such as a [[coax cable]], [[optical fiber|optical fibre]] or [[free space]]. Transmissions across free space require information to be encoded in a [[carrier wave]] in order to shift the information to a [[carrier frequency]] suitable for transmission, this is known as [[modulation]]. Popular analog modulation techniques include [[amplitude modulation]] and [[frequency modulation]]. The choice of modulation affects the cost and performance of a system and these two factors must be balanced carefully by the engineer. Once the transmission characteristics of a system are determined, telecommunication engineers design the [[transmitter|transmitters]] and [[receiver (radio)|receivers]] needed for such systems. These two are sometimes combined to form a two-way communication device known as a [[transceiver]]. A key consideration in the design of transmitters is their [[power consumption]] as this is closely related to their [[signal strength]]. If the signal strength of a transmitter is insufficient the signal's information will be corrupted by [[signal noise|noise]]. ===Instrumentation engineering=== ''Main article [[Instrumentation engineering]]'' [[Image:radar gun.jpg|right|150 px]] [[Instrumentation engineering]] deals with the design of devices to measure physical quantities such as [[pressure]], [[flow]] and [[temperature]]. The design of such instrumentation requires a good understanding of [[physics]] that often extends beyond [[electromagnetism|electromagnetic theory]]. For example, [[radar gun]]s use the [[Doppler effect]] to measure the speed of oncoming vehicles. Similarly, [[thermocouple]]s use the [[Peltier-Seebeck effect]] to measure the temperature difference between two points. Often instrumentation is not used by itself, but instead as the [[sensor]]s of larger electrical systems. For example, a thermocouple might be used to help ensure a furnace's temperature remains constant. For this reason, instrumentation engineering is often viewed as the counterpart of control engineering. ===Computers=== ''Main article [[Computer engineering]]'' [[Image:PDA.jpg|right|150 px]] [[Computer engineering]] deals with the design of [[computer]]s and [[computer system]]s. This may involve the design of new [[hardware]], the design of [[personal digital assistant|PDAs]] or the use of computers to control an [[manufacturing|industrial plant]]. Computer engineers may also work on a system's [[software]]. However, the design of complex software systems is often the domain of [[software engineering]], which is usually considered a separate discipline. [[Desktop computer]]s represent a tiny fraction of the devices a computer engineer might work on, as computer-like architectures are now found in a range of devices including [[video game console]]s and [[DVD player]]s. == Related disciplines == [[Mechatronics]] is an engineering discipline which deals with the convergence of electrical and [[machine|mechanical]] systems. Such combined systems are known as [[electromechanical]] systems and have widespread adoption. Examples include [[automation|automated manufacturing systems]], [[HVAC|heating, ventilation and air-conditioning systems]] and various subsystems of [[aircraft]]s and [[automobile]]s. The term ''mechatronics'' is typically used to refer to [[macroscopic]] systems but [[futurism|futurists]] have predicted the emergence of very small electromechanical devices. Already such small devices, known as [[MEMS|micro electromechanical systems]] (MEMS), are used in automobiles to tell [[airbag]]s when to deploy, in [[digital projector]]s to create sharper images and in [[inkjet printer]]s to create [[nozzle]]s for high-definition printing. In the future it is hoped the devices will help build tiny implantable medical devices and improve [[optical communication]].{{ref|mems}} [[Biomedical engineering]] is another related discipline, concerned with the design of [[medical equipment]]. This includes fixed equipment such as [[ventilator]]s, [[MRI|MRI scanners]] and [[electrocardiograph|electrocardiograph monitors]] as well as mobile equipment such as [[cochlear implant]]s, [[artificial pacemaker]]s and [[artificial heart]]s. == See also == *[[Electronic design automation]] *[[List of electrical engineering topics (alphabetical)|List of electrical engineering topics]] (alphabetical) *[[List of electrical engineering topics]] (thematic) *[[List of electrical engineers]] == References == &lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt; '''Notes''' :&lt;cite id=&quot;usage&quot;&gt;[[#usage back|Note I]]&lt;/cite&gt; - Whether or not electronics engineering is distinguished from electrical engineering must be interpreted from the context in which the term is used. Some have suggested that in places such as the United States the distinction is less common than in places such as the United Kingdom. However both usages can be found throughout the world. For example, the [[Institute of Electrical Engineers]] (which also includes electronics engineers) is a U.K. based organization but the [[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
_Manet|name= Édouard Manet}} [[Category:Édouard Manet| Manet, Édouard]] [[Category:1832 births|Manet,]] [[Category:1883 deaths|Manet, Édouard]] [[Category:French painters|Manet, Édouard]] [[Category:Realism painters|Manet, Édouard]] [[Category:Impressionist painters|Manet, Édouard]] [[Category:Legion of Honor recipients|Manet, Édouard]] {{Link FA|nl}} {{Link FA|fr}} [[bg:Едуард Мане]] [[da:Édouard Manet]] [[de:Édouard Manet]] [[es:Édouard Manet]] [[eo:Édouard Manet]] [[fr:Édouard Manet]] [[fy:Edouard Manet]] [[gl:Édouard Manet]] [[ko:에두아르 마네]] [[hr:Édouard Manet]] [[it:Edouard Manet]] [[he:אדוארד מאנה]] [[nl:Édouard Manet]] [[ja:エドゥアール・マネ]] [[no:Édouard Manet]] [[pl:Édouard Manet]] [[pt:Édouard Manet]] [[ro:Édouard Manet]] [[ru:Мане, Эдуар]] [[sr:Едуар Мане]] [[sv:Édouard Manet]] [[uk:Мане Едвард]] [[zh:愛德華·馬內]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Evolutionarily stable strategy</title> <id>9616</id> <revision> <id>40147862</id> <timestamp>2006-02-18T14:29:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>219.102.37.181</ip> </contributor> <comment>+ja</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox equilibrium| name=Evolutionarily stable strategy| subsetof=[[Nash equilibrium]]| intersectwith=[[Subgame perfect equilibrium]], [[Trembling hand perfect equilibrium]], [[Perfect Bayesian equilibrium]]| discoverer=[[John Maynard Smith]] and [[George R. Price]]| example=[[Hawk-dove]] (aka [[Game of chicken]]| usedfor=[[Biology|Biological modeling]] and [[Evolutionary game theory]]}} In [[game theory]], an '''evolutionarily stable strategy''' (or ESS; also evolutionary stable strategy) is a [[strategy (game theory)|strategy]] which if adopted by a [[population genetics|population]] cannot be invaded by any competing alternative strategy. The concept is an [[equilibrium refinement]] to a [[Nash equilibrium]]. The difference between a Nash equilibrium and an ESS is that a Nash equilibrium may sometimes exist due to the assumption that [[Homo economicus|rational foresight]] prevents players from playing an alternative strategy with no short term cost, but which will eventually be beaten by a third strategy. An ESS is defined to exclude such equilibria, and assumes only that [[natural selection]] prevent players from using strategies which lead to lower payoffs. The definition of an ESS was introduced by [[John Maynard Smith]] and [[George R. Price]] in 1973 (a full account is given by Maynard Smith's 1982 book ''[[Evolution and the Theory of Games]]'') based on [[W.D. Hamilton]]'s (1967) concept of an [[unbeatable strategy]] in [[sex ratio]]s. The idea can be traced back to [[Ronald Fisher]] (1930) and [[Charles Darwin]] (1859), (see Edwards, 1998). == Nash equilibria and ESS == A [[Nash equilibrium]] is a strategy in a game such that if all players adopt it, no player will benefit by switching to play any alternative strategy. If a player choosing strategy ''J'' in a population where all other players play strategy ''I'' recieves a payoff of E(''J'',''I''), then strategy ''I'' is a Nash equilibrium if, :E(''I'',''I'') &amp;ge; E(''J'',''I'') This equilibrium definition allows for the possibility that strategy ''J'' is a neutral alternative to ''I'' (it scores equally, but not better). A Nash equilibrium is presumed to be stable even if ''J'' scores equally, on the assumption that players do not play ''J'' [[John Maynard Smith|Maynard Smith]] and [[George R. Price|Price]] specify (Maynard Smith &amp; Price, 1973; [[Evolution and the Theory of Games|Maynard Smith 1982]]) two conditions for a strategy ''I'' to be an ESS. Either # E(''I'',''I'') &gt; E(''J'',''I''), or # E(''I'',''I'') = E(''J'',''I'') and E(''I'',''J'') &gt; E(''J'',''J'') must be true for all ''I'' &amp;ne; ''J'', where E(''I'',''J'') is the expected payoff to strategy ''I'' when playing against strategy ''J''. The first condition is sometimes called a 'strict Nash' equilibrium (Harsanyi, 1973), the second is sometimes referred to as 'Maynard Smith's second condition'. There is also an alternate definition of ESS which, though it maintains functional equivalence, places a different emphasis on the role of the Nash equilibrium concept in the ESS concept. Following the terminology given in the first definition above, we have (adapted from Thomas, 1985): # E(''I'',''I'') &amp;ge; E(''J'',''I''), and # E(''I'',''J'') &gt; E(''J'',''J'') In this formulation, the first condition specifies that the strategy be a Nash equilibrium, and the second specifies that Maynard Smith's second condition be met. Note that despite the difference in formulation, the two definitions are actually equivalent. One advantage to this change is that the role of the Nash equilibrium in the ESS is more clearly highlighted. It also allows for a natural definition of other concepts like a [[weak ESS]] or an [[evolutionarily stable set]] (Thomas, 1985). === An example === Consider the following [[payoff matrix]], describing a coordination game such as the [[Stag hunt]], or [[Battle of the sexes (game theory)|Battle of the sexes]]: {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; |- | ! A ! B |- ! A | 1, 1 | 0, 0 |- ! B | 0, 0 | 1, 1 |} Both strategies A and B are ESS, since a B player cannot invade a population of A players nor can an A player invade a population of B players. Here the two pure strategy Nash equilibria correspond to the two ESS. In this second game, which also has two pure strategy Nash equilibria, only one corresponds to an ESS: {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; |- | ! C ! D |- ! C | 1, 1 | 0, 0 |- ! D | 0, 0 | 0, 0 |} Here (D, D) is a Nash equilibrium (since neither player will do better by unilaterally deviating), but it is not an ESS. Consider a C player introduced into a population of D players. The C player does equally well against the population (she scores 0), however the C player does better against herself (she scores 1) than the population does against the C player. Thus, the C player can invade the population of D players. Even if a game has pure strategy Nash equilibria, it might be the case that none of the strategies are ESS. Consider the following example (known as [[Game of chicken|Chicken]]): {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; |- | ! E ! F |- ! E | 0, 0 | -1, +1 |- ! F | +1, -1 | -20, -20 |} There are two pure strategy Nash equilibria in this game (E, F) and (F, E). However, in the absence of an [[uncorrelated asymmetry]]), neither F nor E are ESSes. A third Nash equilibrium exists, a mixed strategy, which is an ESS for this game (see [[Hawk-dove game]] and [[Best response]] for explanation). == ESS vs. Evolutionarily Stable State == :An '''ESS''' or '''evolutionarily stable strategy''' is a strategy such that, if all the members of a population adopt it, no mutant strategy can invade. --[[John Maynard Smith|Maynard Smith]] (1982). :A population is said to be in an '''evolutionarily stable state''' if its genetic composition is restored by selection after a disturbance, provided the disturbance is not too large. Such a population can be genetically monomorphic or polymorphic. --[[John Maynard Smith|Maynard Smith]] (1982). An ESS is a strategy with the property that, once virtually all members of the population use it, then no 'rational' alternative exists. An [[evolutionarily stable state]] is a dynamical property of a population to return to using a strategy, or mix of strategies, if it is perturbed from that strategy, or mix of strategies. The former concept fits within classical [[game theory]], whereas the latter is a [[population genetics]], [[dynamical system]], or [[evolutionary game theory]] concept. == Prisoner's dilemma and ESS == Consider a large population of people who, in the iterated [[prisoner's dilemma]], always play [[Tit for Tat]] in transactions with each other. (Since almost any transaction requires trust, most transactions can be modelled with the ''prisoner's dilemma''.) If the entire population plays the ''Tit-for-Tat'' strategy, and a group of newcomers enter the population who prefer the ''Always Defect'' strategy (i.e. they try to cheat everyone they meet), the ''Tit-for-Tat'' strategy will prove more successful, and the ''defectors'' will be converted or lose out. ''Tit for Tat'' is therefore an ESS, ''with respect to these two strategies''. On the other hand, an island of ''Always Defect'' players will be stable against the invasion of a few ''Tit-for-Tat'' players, but not against a large number of them. (see [[Robert Axelrod]]'s [[The Evolution of Cooperation]], or more briefly [http://www.urticator.net/essay/2/217.html here]). == ESS and human behavior == The recent, controversial sciences of [[sociobiology]] and now [[evolutionary psychology]] attempt to explain animal and human behavior and social structures, largely in terms of evolutionarily stable strategies. For example, in one [http://www.bbsonline.org/Preprints/OldArchive/bbs.mealey.html well-known 1995 paper] by Linda Mealey, [[sociopathy]] (chronic antisocial/criminal behavior) is explained as a combination of two such strategies. Although ESS were originally considered as stable states for biological evolution, it need not be limited to such contexts. In fact, ESS are stable states for a large class of [[adaptive dynamics]]. As a result ESS are used to explain human behavior without presuming that the behavior is necessarily determined by [[gene]]s. == References == * [[Charles Darwin]] (1859). ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' * [[Ronald Fisher]] ''[[The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection]]''. Clarendon Press, Oxford. * [[W.D. Hamilton]] (1967) &quot;Extraordinary sex ratios.&quot; ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' * [[John Harsanyi|Harsanyi, J]] (1973) &quot;Oddness of the number of equilibrium points: a new proof&quot;. Int. J. Ga
]], and [[amoeba]], clinging to tiny sheltered habitats.'' ''But the seeds of Life grew, and strengthened, and spread, and diversified, and prospered, and soon every continent and [[climate]] teemed with Life.'' ''And with Life came instinct, and specialization, natural selection, [[Reptiles]], [[Dinosaurs]], and [[Mammals]] and finally there evolved a species known as [[Man]] and there appeared the first faint glimmers of [[Intelligence]].'' ''The fruits of intelligence were many: [[fire]], [[tools]], and [[weapons]], the hunt, [[farming]], and the sharing of [[food]], the [[family]], the [[village]], and the [[tribe]]. Now it required but one more ingredient: a great [[Leader]] to unite the quarreling tribes to harness the power of the land to build a legacy that would stand the test of time:'' ''a [[Civilization|CIVILIZATION]]!'' ==Platforms== [[Image:Civ1_Amiga.jpg|right|thumb|240px|''Civilization'' on the [[Amiga]] took advantage of the computer's superior graphics abilities.]] ''Civilization'' was originally developed for [[MS-DOS|DOS]] running on a [[IBM PC compatible|PC]]. It has undergone numerous revisions for various platforms (including [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]], [[Commodore Amiga]], [[Atari ST]], [[PlayStation]] and [[Super Nintendo]]) and now exists in several versions. ''[[Civilization III]]'' is available on Windows, Macintosh, and Linux. The latest version, ''[[Civilization IV]]'', was released on October 25, 2005 by [[2k Games]]. ''[[Civilization IV]]'' currently runs only on computers with Windows XP/Windows 2000 and video cards with hardware transform and lighting. A Macintosh version of ''[[Civilization IV]]'' is to be released in early 2006. ==Points of controversy== While a lot less amenable to the same type of criticism as the sister-game ''Colonization'', there are some elements of ''Civilization'' that are considered controversial because they lack neutrality: the choice of leaders of the civilizations (which have also been changed in the various versions), the fact that some civilizations are left out of the game altogether, and the choices for Wonder of the World (e.g. replacing [[Hoover Dam]] with [[Three Gorges Dam]] in ''Civilization IV''). Another topic of critique is the trivialization of historically important, but sensitive, topics such as [[religion]] and [[slavery]]. The games have managed to handle these aspects in a relatively generic manner. The assignment of 'traits' to particular leaders has been a source of some criticism. Some have questioned whether the game is simply trying to ''re-create'' history instead of allowing a player to imprint their own traits onto the developing game. Others have considered such trait assignments racist, since some of these traits are perceived to be applied to a general group of people instead of specific leaders. There is also considerable discussion over the [[artificial intelligence|AI]] used in the game. In order to compensate for its limitations and provide a decent challenge to the human player, it is known that computer players (often referred to collectively as the 'AI') are favoured with an in-game set of advantages. In particularly glaring undocumented occurrences of these advantages being revealed, players often find themselves in the odd position of playing a game where ''they don't know the rules''. With the most recent addition to the series, ''[[Civilization IV]]'', some concern has arisen that the game has acquired some qualities of [[bloatware]] and [[creeping featurism]], for example emphasizing high detail graphics instead of concentrating on memory management or the intracies of game balance. The most contentious aspect of the game occurs in combat when a modern unit is fighting an obseleate or ancient unit. That ancient unit can sometimes win what most players consider to be an impossible battle. The most notorious of this is the infamous &quot;spearman defeats tank&quot; phenomena. However, in ''[[Civilization IV]]'', the most recent iteration of the game, this has been made a lot less likely (if it's possible that is). ==Criticism== The historian and anthropologist [[Matthew Kapell]] has published an essay critical of the [[Civilization]] series. It suggests that the game uses unique American [[myths]] of [[progress]] and the [[frontier]] in culturally elitist fashion. It can be found here: “Civilization and its Discontents: American Monomythic Structure as Historical Simulacrum.” ''Popular Culture Review'' Vol. XIII, No. 2 (Summer): 129-136. ==Trivia== *Sid Meier was the third major designer to plan a computer version of ''Civilization'', but the first to actually carry out that plan. *[[Danielle Bunten Berry]] planned to start work on the game in 1985, after completing ''The [[Seven Cities of Gold]]'' at [[Electronic Arts]]. The success of ''Seven Cities'', however, led Bunten and producer [[Joe Ybarra]] to instead opt for a sequel, [[Heart of Africa]]. Bunten never returned to the idea of Civilization. Ironically, Meier's designs of ''[[Pirates]]'' and ''[[Colonization]]'' both contain elements of Bunen's ''The Seven Cities of Gold.'' *[[Don Daglow]], designer of [[Utopia (video game)|Utopia]], the first [[sim game]], began work programming a version of ''Civilization'' in 1987. He dropped the project, however, when he was offered an executive position at [[Broderbund]], and never returned to the game. *While it can be difficult to obtain a copy of the original game, one can download a demo [http://www.abandonia.com/games/14/download/Civilization1.htm here]. ==External links== {{wikibookspar||Civilization}} * [http://www.2kgames.com/civ4/home.htm The Official Take2 ''Civilization IV website] * [http://www.civ3.com/ The Official Firaxis ''Civilization III'' website] * [http://www.apolyton.net/ Apolyton]: site about most games in the ''Civilization'' genre * [http://www.civfanatics.com/ Civfanatics]: site covering ''Civ I'', ''Civ II'', ''Civ III'', and ''Civ IV''. * [http://planetcivilization.gamespy.com/ Planet Civilization] * [http://www.CivGuide.com/ CivGuide]: Strategy and more for Civilization IV' * [http://www.civ.org.pl/ civ.org.pl]: a bilingual site (English and Polish) covering the majority of ''civilization-style'' games * [http://www.lilback.com/civilization/mp/civfaq1.html Civilization FAQ] * {{moby game|id=_group/sheet/gameGroupId,22/|name=The ''Civilization'' series}} {{Civilization}} [[Category:1991 computer and video games]] [[Category:Civilization franchise]] [[Category:DOS games]] [[Category:Amiga games]] [[Category:Apple Macintosh games]] [[Category:Windows games]] [[Category:Super NES games]] [[Category:PlayStation games]] [[Category:N-Gage games]] [[Category:Atari ST games]] [[Category:Origins award winners]] [[Category:Economic simulation games]] [[Category:Fictional civilizations]] [[be:Civilization (гульня)]] [[da:Civilization]] [[de:Civilization (Computerspiel)]] [[es:Civilization]] [[fr:Civilization]] [[is:Civilization (tölvuleikur)]] [[he:Civilization]] [[nl:Civilization]] [[ja:シヴィライゼーション]] [[no:Civilization]] [[pl:Civilization]] [[pt:Civilization]] [[ru:Civilization]] [[sq:Civilization]] [[fi:Civilization]] [[sv:Civilization]] [[uk:Civilization (гра)]] [[zh:文明 (游戏)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Claude Debussy</title> <id>6260</id> <revision> <id>42108511</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:56:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Qmwne235</username> <id>732701</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Piano */ petite suite</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ClaudeDebussyC.jpg|right|framed|Claude Debussy]] '''Achille-Claude Debussy''' ({{IPA|/ˌdɛ.buː.ˈsiː/}}) ([[August 22]], [[1862]] &amp;ndash; [[March 25]], [[1918]]) was a [[composer]] of [[European classical music]]. He developed the style commonly referred to as [[impressionist music]], a term which he dismissed. Debussy was not only one of the most important French composers but was also one of the most important figures in music at the turn of the last century; his music represents the transition from late-[[romantic music]] to 20th century [[Modernism (music)|modernist music]]. ==Life and Work== ===Early life and studies=== [[Image:Debussy 1885.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Debussy at the Villa Médici in Rome, 1885. The composer is in the centre, wearing a white jacket]] Debussy began music instruction when he was nine years old, but his talents soon became evident and at age ten Debussy entered the [[Paris Conservatoire]]. Debussy studied with [[Ernest Guiraud]], [[Cesar Franck]] and others at the Paris Conservatoire ([[1872]]-84). As the winner of the [[Prix de Rome]], he received a scholarship by the ''Académie des Beaux-Arts'', which included a four-year residence at the [[Villa Medici]], the [[French Academy in Rome]] to further his studies ([[1885]]-7). According to letters from this period, Debussy often was depressed and unable to compose, but he also met [[Franz Liszt]], and finally composed four pieces, which were sent to the Academy; the symphonic ode ''Zuleima'' (after a text by [[Heinrich Heine]]), the orchestral piece ''Printemps'', and the [[cantata]] ''La damoiselle élue'' (1887-88), which was criticized by the Academy as &quot;bizarre&quot; and in which some stylistic features of Debussy's later style emerged for the first time. The fourth piece was the ''Fantaisie'' for piano and orchestra, which was still indebted to Cesar Franck's music and withdrawn by the composer himself. With his visits to [[Bayreuth]] ([[1888]], [[1889]]) Debussy was exposed to [[Wagner]]ian opera, which was to have a lasting impact on his work. Later, in [[Paris]], during the [[Exposition Universelle (1889)]] Debussy heard [[Java (island)|Java]]nese music. Wagner's influence is evident in the ''La damoiselle élue'' and the ''Cinq poèmes de [[Baudelaire]]'' (1889) but other songs of the period, notab
[Istanbul]] by a discharged diplomat and his family, who had to shoot dead the co-pilot (who happened to be the head of Bulgaria's civil aviation) and the radio operator in order to escape to the Free World. On [[September 12]] [[1948]] a [[Greece|Greek]] [[Olympic Airways|T.A.E Airlines]] plane was successfully hijacked by 6 pro-communist students who wanted passage to [[Yugoslavia]]. The plane landed near [[Skopje]] and returned to [[Thessaloniki]] later that evening. Since 1947, 60% of hijackings have been refugee escapes. In 1968-69 there was a massive rise in the number of hijackings. In 1968 there were 27 hijackings and attempted hijackings to Cuba. In 1969 there were 82 recorded hijack attempts worldwide, more than twice the total attempts for the whole period 1947-67. Most were [[Palestinian]]s using hijacks as a political weapon to publicise their cause and to force the Israeli government to release Palestinian prisoners from jail. Airliner hijackings have declined since the peak of 385 incidents between 1967-76. In 1977-86 the total had dropped to 300 incidents and in 1987-96 this figure was reduced to 212. == Partial list of hijackings == *[[1958]]: First Cuba-to-U.S. hijacking *[[1960]]: The first US-to-Cuba hijacking *[[1968]]: The first Arab-Israeli hijacking, as three members of [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]] (PFLP) hijack an [[El Al]] plane to [[Rome]]. Diverting to Algiers the negotiations extend over forty days. Both the hijackers and the hostages go free. This was the first and the only successful hijacking of an El Al flight. *[[1970]] [[May 15]]: [[Dymshits-Kuznetsov hijacking affair]], a group of Soviet [[refusenik]]s attempt to hijack aircraft *[[1970]], September: As part of the [[Dawson's Field hijackings]], PFLP members attempt to hijack four aircraft simultaneously. They succeed on three and force the planes to fly to the [[Jordan]]ian desert, where the hijackers blow up the aircraft after releasing most of the hostages. The final hostages are freed in exchange for seven Palestinian prisoners. The fourth attack on an [[El Al]] plane by two people including [[Leila Khalid]] is foiled by armed guards aboard. *[[1971]]: [[D. B. Cooper]] hijacks [[Northwest Orient Airlines]] flight 305 and obtains $200,000 ransom for the release of the plane's passengers. Cooper proceeds to [[parachute]] from the rear of the [[Boeing 727]] and is never found. *[[1974]] [[February 22]]: [[Samuel Byck]] shot and killed Maryland Aviation Administration Police Officer Neal Ramsburg at BWI before storming aboard [[Delta Air Lines]] flight 523 to Atlanta. He gained access to the cockpit while the plane was on the ground, intending to assassinate [[President Nixon]] by flying the [[DC-9]] into the [[White House]]. He shot both the pilot and the copilot before he was shot through the aircraft window by another officer. *[[1976]]: The Palestinian hijack of [[Air France]] [[Air France Flight 193|Flight 193]] airliner is brought to an end at [[Entebbe]] [[Airport]], [[Uganda]] by [[Operation Entebbe]]: Israeli commandos assault the building holding the hijackers and hostages; they kill all the Palestinian hijackers and free 105 mostly Israeli hostages; three passengers and one commando are killed. *[[1977]]: A Palestinian hijack of a [[Lufthansa]] airliner ''[[Landshut (hijacking)|Landshut]]'' during its flight from [[Palma de Mallorca]] to [[Frankfurt]] is ended in [[Mogadishu, Somalia|Mogadishu]] when [[Germany|German]] commandos storm the plane. Three hijackers are killed and 86 hostages are freed. The hand of German [[Red Army Faction]] is suspected. The pilot is killed. *[[1978]]: Two Arab guerrillas seized a plane in [[Cyprus]]. Egyptian commandos flew in uninvited to try to take the plane. Cypriot troops resisted and 15 Egyptians died in a 45-minute battle. *[[1979]]: Two East Germans hijacked an airplane to [[West Berlin]]; see [[Judgment in Berlin]]. *[[1981]]: A [[Pakistan International Airlines]] jet is hijacked and taken to [[Kabul]], where one passenger is killed before the plane flies on to [[Damascus]]; the hostages are finally released after 13 days when the Pakistani Government agrees to free fifty political prisoners. *[[1981]] [[September 29]]: An [[Indian Airlines]] plane carrying 111 passengers and a crew of six was hijacked by five Sikh militants carrying knives and swords. The airplane was taken to Lahore, Pakistan where Pakistani commandos overpowered the hijackers and rescued the passengers. It was related to the secessionist struggle in the Indian state of Punjab. *[[1982]] [[July 1]]: A Sri Lankan man, identified as Sepala Ekanayaka, who is 33 years old, hijacked an Alitalia jumbo jet. Ordeal ended after 32 hours, in which he had threatened to blow up the jetliner. With hands in the air, the hijacker and more than 100 hostages walked off the plane without an incident. *[[1982]] [[August 22]]: A lone Sikh militant, armed with a pistol and a hand grenade, hijacked a Boeing 737 on a scheduled flight from Bombay to New Delhi carrying 69 persons. Indian security forces killed the hijacker and rescued all passengers. *[[1983]]: [[Tbilisi hijacking incident]] *[[1984]] [[August 24]]: Seven young Sikh hijackers demanded an Indian Airlines jetliner on a domestic flight be flown to the United States. The plane was taken to UAE where the defense minister of UAE negotiated the release of the passengers. It was related to the Sikh secessionist struggle in the Indian state of Punjab. *[[1984]]: Lebanese Shi'a hijackers divert a [[Kuwait Airways]] flight to [[Tehran]]. The plane is taken by Iranian security forces. *[[1985]]: Lebanese Shi'a hijackers divert [[TWA Flight 847]] from [[Athens]] to [[Beirut]] with 153 people on board. The stand-off ends after [[Israel]] frees 31 Lebanese prisoners. *[[1985]]: Palestinians take over [[EgyptAir Flight 648]] and fly it to [[Malta]]. All together, 60 people died, most of them when Egyptian commandos stormed the aircraft. *[[1986]]: 22 people are killed when Pakistani security forces storm [[Pan Am Flight 73]] at [[Karachi]], carrying 400 passengers and crew after a 16-hour siege. *[[1990]]: Hijackers seized a plane from the [[People's Republic of China]] which later crashed as it tried to land in [[Guangzhou|Canton]], killing 128 people. *[[1991]]: 26 March 1991, [[Singapore Airlines Flight 117]] hijacked by hijackers claiming to be members of the [[Pakistan People's Party]]. Elite [[Singapore Special Operations Force]] members stormed the plane, killing all four hijackers and freeing all 118 passengers and 9 crew in an operation lasting just 30 seconds. None of the passengers and crew were hurt. *[[1994]]: [[FedEx Corporation|FedEx]] [[FedEx Flight 705|Flight 705]] hijacked by disgruntled employee [[Auburn Calloway]] as it left [[Memphis, Tennessee]], with the intention of using it as a cruise missile against FedEx HQ. He was subdued by the flight crew before an emergency landing back at Memphis. *[[1994]]: Frank Eugene 38, a drunk pilot crashed a [[Cessna]] into the [[White House]]. *[[1995]]: Iranian defector and flight attendant [[Rida Garari]] hijacked [[Kish Air]] flight 707, which landed in Israel. No casualties. *[[1996]]: [[Ethiopian Airlines]] [[Ethiopian Airlines Flight 961|Flight 961]] crashed into the [[Indian Ocean]] near a beach in the [[Comoros Islands]] after hijackers refused to allow the pilot to land and refuel the plane. 125 passengers die and 50 survive. This is only the third incident in which there were survivors of a passenger jet that intentionally ditched into water. *[[1997]]: [[Air Malta]] Two men who hijacked an Air Malta airplane en route from Malta to Turkey on June 9, 1997 surrendered to police at Cologne's airport early on the same day and freed without incident about 80 crew members and passengers on board. *[[1999]]: [[All Nippon Airways Flight 61]] is hijacked by a lone man. He kills the pilot before he is subdued. *[[1999]]-[[2000]]: [[Kashmir]]i militants hijack [[Indian Airlines Flight 814]] and divert it to [[Kandahar]]. After a week-long stand-off India agrees to release three jailed Kashmiri militants in exchange for the hostages. 1 hostage was stabbed to death and his body thrown on the tarmac as a &quot;warning attack&quot; *[[2001]]: [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11 attacks]], eastern [[United States|USA]]: 19 terrorists hijack four planes ([[American Airlines]] [[American Airlines Flight 11|Flight 11]], [[American Airlines Flight 77]], [[United Airlines]] [[United Airlines Flight 93|Flight 93]], and [[United Airlines Flight 175]]; two of the planes, [[United Airlines Flight 175]] and [[American Airlines Flight 11|Flight 11]], are used as missiles and deliberately flown into each of New York City's Twin Towers, while [[American Airlines Flight 77]] is used in a similar fashion at the Pentagon, in [[Washington, D.C.]]. They are the three most deadly of all aircraft hijackings. In the fourth case the intention is likely the same but the passengers, learning of the fate of the other three planes, attacked the cockpit, causing the hijackers to crash the plane in rural Pennsylvania, killing all on board. By official count, 2,752 people died at the World Trade Center, 189 died in Washington, D.C., and 44 died in Pennsylvania. ==Prevention== There has been talk of fortifying [[cockpit]] doors to prevent would-be hijackers from entering and gaining control of the aircraft. In the [[United States]] and [[Australia]], [[air Marshal (civil aviation)|air marshal]]s have also been added to some flights to deter and thwart hijackers. In addition, some have proposed remote control systems for aircraft whereby no one on board would have control over the plane's flight. In the case of a serious risk that an aircraft will be used for flying into a target, it may have to be shot down, killing all passengers and crew, to prevent worse. United States commercial aircraft pilots now hav
<id>15911711</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Humanism]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Henry Purcell</title> <id>14135</id> <revision> <id>41343639</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T18:58:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Discospinster</username> <id>82432</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rv</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Henry-purcell.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Henry Purcell]] '''Henry Purcell''' ([[September 10]], [[1659]] - [[November 21]], [[1695]]), a Baroque composer, is generally considered to be one of England's greatest composers &amp;mdash; indeed, he has often been called England's finest native composer. Purcell incorporated Italian and French stylistic elements but devised a peculiarly English style of [[Baroque music]]. ==Biography== Purcell was born in St Ann's Lane, Old Pye Street, [[Westminster]]. His father, Henry Purcell (pronounced Pursell with the accent on the first syllable, or in [[ipa]] &lt;nowiki&gt;[pur'ːsəl]&lt;/nowiki&gt;), was a gentleman of the [[Chapel Royal]], and sang at the coronation of King [[Charles II of England]]. Henry the elder had three sons, Edward, Henry, and Daniel. [[Daniel Purcell]] (d. [[1717]]), the youngest of the brothers, was also a prolific composer. After his father's death in 1664, young Henry Purcell was placed under the guardianship of his uncle, [[Thomas Purcell]] (d. 1682), who showed him great affection and kindness. Thomas was himself a gentleman of His Majesty's chapel, and arranged for Henry to be admitted as a chorister. Henry studied first under Captain [[Henry Cooke]] (d. 1672), master of the children, and afterwards under [[Pelham Humfrey]] (d. 1674), Cooke's successor. Purcell is said to have been composing at nine years old; but the earliest work that can be certainly identified as his is an ode for the King's birthday, written in 1670. (The dates for his compositions are often uncertain, despite considerable research). After Humfrey's death, Purcell continued his studies under Dr [[John Blow]]. He attended [[Westminster School]] and in 1676 he was appointed [[organ (music)|organist]], at [[Westminster Abbey]] and in the same year he composed the music to [[John Dryden]]'s ''[[Aureng-Zebe]]'', and [[Thomas Shadwell]]'s ''Epsom Wells'' and ''The Libertine''. These were followed in 1677 by the music to [[Aphra Behn]]'s tragedy, ''[[Abdelazar]],'' and in 1678 by an overture and masque for Shadwell's new version of [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Timon of Athens]]''. The chorus &quot;In these delightful pleasant groves&quot; from ''The Libertine'' is still performed. In 1679, he wrote some songs for [[John Playford]]'s ''Choice Ayres, Songs and Dialogues'', and also an [[anthem]], the name of which is not known, for the Chapel-Royal. From a letter written by Thomas Purcell, and still extant, we learn that this anthem was composed for the exceptionally fine voice of the Rev. [[John Gostling]], then at [[Canterbury,_Kent|Canterbury]], but afterwards a gentleman of His Majesty's chapel. Purcell wrote several anthems at different times for this extraordinary voice, a [[basso profundo]], which is known to have had a range of at least two full [[octave|octaves]], from D below the stave to D above it. The dates of very few of these sacred compositions are known; perhaps the most notable example is the anthem ''They that go down to the sea in ships''. In thankfulness for a providential escape of the King from shipwreck, Gostling, who had been of the royal party, put together some verses from the Psalms in the form of an anthem, and requested Purcell to set them to music. The work is a very difficult one, including a passage which traverses the full extent of Gostling's voice, beginning on the upper D and descending two octaves to the lower. [[Image:Henry Purcell 001.jpg|thumb|right|Another portrait of Henry Purcell]] In 1680, Blow, who had been appointed organist of [[Westminster Abbey]] in 1669, resigned his office in favour of his pupil, who was still only twenty-two. Purcell now devoted himself almost entirely to the composition of sacred music, and for six years severed his connection with the theatre. However, during the early part of the year, probably before taking up his new office, he had produced two important works for the stage, the music for [[Nathaniel Lee]]'s ''Theodosius'' and [[Thomas D'Urfey]]'s ''Virtuous Wife''. The composition of his opera ''[[Dido and Aeneas]]'', which forms a very important landmark in the history of English dramatic music, has been attributed to this period, though its earliest production has been shown by [[W. Barclay Squire]] to have been between 1688 and 1690. It was written to a libretto furnished by [[Nahum Tate]], at the request of [[Josiah Priest]], a professor of dancing, who also kept a boarding-school for young gentlewomen, first in [[Leicester Fields]] and afterwards at [[Chelsea, London|Chelsea]], where it is thought the opera had its premier. It is considered the first genuine English [[opera]]. Although it owes much to earlier [[semi-opera]]s and [[masque]]s, especially Blow's [[Venus and Adonis (opera)|Venus and Adonis]], there is no spoken dialogue, but instead the action progresses in [[recitative]]s. Dido and Aeneas never found its way to the theatre, though it appears to have been very popular among private circles. It is believed to have been extensively copied, but only one song was printed by Purcell's widow in ''Orpheus Britannicus'', and the complete work remained in manuscript until 1840, when it was printed by the [[Musical Antiquarian Society]], under the editorship of Sir [[George Macfarren]]. Soon after Purcell's marriage, in 1682, on the death of [[Edmund Lowe]], he was appointed organist of the Chapel-Royal, an office which he was able to hold simultaneously with his position at [[Westminster Abbey]]. His eldest son was born in this same year. His first printed composition, ''Twelve [[sonata (music)|Sonatas]]'', was published in [[1683]]. For some years after this he was busy in the production of sacred music, odes addressed to the king and royal family, and other similar works. In 1685 he wrote two of his finest anthems, &quot;I was glad&quot; and &quot;My heart is inditing&quot;, for the coronation of King [[James_II_of_England|James II]]. In 1687, he resumed his connection with the theatre by furnishing the music for [[John Dryden|Dryden]]'s tragedy, ''[[Tyrannick Love]]''. In this year also Purcell composed a march and quick-step, which became so popular that [[Lord Wharton]] adapted the latter to the fatal verses of ''[[Lillibullero]]''; and in or before January 1688 he composed his anthem ''Blessed are they that fear the Lord'', by express command of the King. A few months later he wrote the music for D'Urfey's play, ''The Fool's Preferment''. In [[1690]] he wrote the songs for [[The Tempest (Dryden)|Dryden's version]] of Shakespeare's ''[[The Tempest (play)|The Tempest]]'', including ''Full fathom five'' and ''Come unto these yellow sands'', and the music for [[Thomas Betterton|Betterton]]'s adaptation of [[John Fletcher (playwright)|Fletcher]] and [[Massinger]]'s ''Prophetess'' (afterwards called [[Dioclesian]]) and Dryden's [[Amphitryon]]. In [[1691]] he produced his dramatic masterpiece, [[King Arthur (opera)|King Arthur]], also written by Dryden, and first published by the Musical Antiquarian Society in 1843. In 1692, he composed songs and music for ''[[The Fairy-Queen]]'' (an adaptation of Shakespeare's ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]''), the score of which was rediscovered in 1901 and published by the [[Purcell Society]]. Purcell's ''[[Te Deum and Jubilate]]'' was written for [[Saint Cecilia]]'s Day, 1693, the first English ''[[Te Deum]]'' ever composed with orchestral accompaniment. This work was annually performed at [[St Paul's Cathedral]] until [[1712]], after which it was performed alternately with [[Handel]]'s ''[[Utrecht Te Deum and Jubilate]]'' until 1743, when both works were replaced by Handel's ''[[Dettingen Te Deum]]''. He composed an anthem and two elegies for [[Mary II of England|Queen Mary]]'s funeral. Besides the [[opera]]s already mentioned, Purcell wrote ''Don Quixote'', ''Boudicca'', ''The Indian Queen'' and others, a vast quantity of sacred music, and numerous [[ode|odes]], [[cantata|cantatas]] and other miscellaneous pieces. He died at his house in Dean's Yard, Westminster, in 1695, at the height of his powers; he was only in his mid-thirties. His wife and three of his six children survived him. His widow died in [[1706]], having published a number of his works, including the now famous collection called ''Orpheus Britannicus'', in two volumes, printed in 1698 and 1702 respectively. The cause of Purcell's death is unclear: one theory is that he caught a chill after returning late from the theatre one night to find that his wife had locked him out; another is that he succumbed to chocolate poisoning; perhaps the most likely is that he died of [[tuberculosis]]. The beginning of Purcell's will reads: :''In the name of God Amen. I, Henry Purcell, of the City of Westminster, gentleman, being dangerously ill as to the constitution of my body, but in good and perfect mind and memory (thanks be to God) do by these presents publish and declare this to be my last Will and Testament. And I do hereby give and bequeath unto my loving wife, Frances Purcell, all my estate both real and personal of what nature and kind soever...'' Purcell is buried adjacent to the organ in Westminster Abbey. His epitaph reads, &quot;Here lyes Henry Purcell Esq., who left this life and is gone to that blessed place where only his ha
AU WGAS Sub-group on Numerical Standards&quot;. In ''Highlights of Astronomy'', I. Appenzeller, ed. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1995. ''(Complete report available online: [http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/iau-comm4/iausgnsrpt.ps PostScript]. Tables from the report also available: [http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/astro_constants.html Astrodynamic Constants and Parameters])'' * D. D. McCarthy ed., IERS Conventions (1996), IERS Technical Note 21, Observatoire de Paris, July 1996 == External links == * [http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/outside.html Units outside the SI] ''(at the [[NIST]] web site)'' * [http://www.iau.org/IAU/Activities/nomenclature/units.html Recommendations concerning Units] ''(at the [[International Astronomical Union|IAU]] web site)'' * [http://home.comcast.net/~pdnoerd/SMassLoss.html Solar Mass Loss, the Astronomical Unit, and the Scale of the Solar System] ''(a discussion of the relation between the AU and other quantities)'' [[Category:Celestial mechanics]] [[Category:Astronomical units of length]] [[bg:Астрономическа единица]] [[be:Астранамічная адзінка]] [[ca:Unitat astronòmica]] [[cs:Astronomická jednotka]] [[cy:Uned seryddol]] [[da:Astronomisk enhed]] [[de:Astronomische Einheit]] [[et:Astronoomiline ühik]] [[el:Αστρονομική μονάδα]] [[es:Unidad astronómica]] [[eo:Astronomia unuo]] [[eu:Unitate astronomiko]] [[fr:Unité astronomique]] [[gl:Unidade astronómica]] [[ko:천문 단위]] [[hr:Astronomska jedinica]] [[io:Astronomiala unajo]] [[id:Unit astronomi]] [[it:Unità Astronomica]] [[he:יחידה אסטרונומית]] [[lt:Astronominis vienetas]] [[lb:Astronomesch Eenheet]] [[hu:Csillagászati egység]] [[nl:Astronomische eenheid]] [[ja:天文単位]] [[no:Astronomisk enhet]] [[nn:Astronomisk eining]] [[pl:Jednostka astronomiczna]] [[pt:Unidade astronômica]] [[ro:Unitatea astronomică]] [[ru:Астрономическая единица]] [[scn:Unità astrunomica]] [[sk:Astronomická jednotka]] [[sl:Astronomska enota]] [[sr:Астрономска јединица]] [[fi:Astronominen yksikkö]] [[sv:Astronomisk enhet]] [[th:หน่วยดาราศาสตร์]] [[vi:Đơn vị thiên văn]] [[zh:天文單位]] [[zh-min-nan:Thian-bûn tan-ūi]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Artist</title> <id>1212</id> <revision> <id>41253429</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T02:12:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dianawild</username> <id>992393</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}} {{wikiquote}} '''Artist''' is a descriptive term applied to a person who engages in an activity deemed to be an [[art]]. It is also used in a qualitative sense of a person [[creativity|creative]] in, [[innovation|innovative]] in, or adept at, an artistic practice. Most often, the term describes those who create within a context of 'high culture', activities such as [[drawing and painting]], [[sculpture]], [[acting]], [[dancing]], [[writing]], [[filmmaking]] and [[music]] &amp;mdash; people who use imagination, and talent or skill, to create works that can be judged to have an [[aesthetic]] value. [[Art history|Art historians]] and [[Art critic| critics]] will define as artists those who produce [[art]] within a recognised or recognisable discipline. The term is also used to denote highly skilled people in non-&quot;arts&quot; activities, as well &amp;mdash; crafts, medicine, alchemy, mechanics, mathematics, defense (martial arts) and architecture, for example. The designation is applied to illegal activities, like a &quot;scam artist&quot;. The term 'artist' could also refer to a con artist. There is no consensus about what constitutes &quot;art&quot; or who is, or is not, an &quot;artist&quot;. Often, discussions on the subject focus on the differences between &quot;artist&quot; and &quot;[[Technician|technician]]&quot; or &quot;[[Entertainer|entertainer]],&quot; or &quot;[[Artisan|artisan]],&quot; &quot;[[fine arts|fine art]]&quot; and &quot;[[Applied art|applied art]],&quot; or what constitutes art and what does not. In addition, the [[French language|French]] word '''artiste''' (which in French, simply means &quot;artist&quot;) has been imported into the [[English language]]; in English-usage it has connotations (some of them derogatory) which differ somewhat from the English term [[artist]]. The Oxford English dictionary, cites broad meanings of the term &quot;artist,&quot; :* A learned person or Master of Arts. :* One who pursues a practical science, traditionally medicine, astrology, alchemy, chemistry. :* A follower of a pursuit in which skill comes by study or practice - the opposite of a theorist. :* A follower of a manual art, such as a mechanic. :* One who makes their [[craft]] a fine art. :* One who cultivates one of the fine arts - traditionally the arts presided over by the [[muses]]. (referenced from: {{cite book | author=C. T. Onions | title=The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary | publisher=Clarendon Press Oxford | year=1991 | id=ISBN 0-19-861126-9}}) In Greek the word &quot;techn&amp;#283;&quot; is often mistranslated into &quot;art.&quot; In actuality, &quot;techn&amp;#283;&quot; implies mastery of a craft (any craft.) The Latin-derived form of the word is &quot;tecnicus&quot;, from which the English words [[technique]], [[technology]], [[technical]] are derived. Our word art is derived from the Latin &quot;ars&quot;, which, though literally defined means &quot;skill method&quot; or &quot;technique&quot;, holds a connotation of [[beauty]]. Many contemporary definitions of &quot;artist&quot; and &quot;art&quot; are highly contingent on [[culture]], resisting aesthetic prescription, in much the same way that the features constituting [[beauty]] and the beautiful cannot be easily standardized without corruption into [[kitsch]]. == Examples of art and artist == *[[Actor]]: [[Laurence Olivier]] *[[Architect]]: [[Antoni Gaudí]] *[[Ballet]]: [[Vaslav Nijinsky]] *[[Calligraphy]]: [[Hokusai]] *[[Choreographer]]: [[Martha Graham]] *[[Composer]]: [[Giuseppe Fortunino Francesco Verdi]] *[[Conceptual Art]]: [[Vanessa Beecroft]] *[[Dancer]]: [[Isadora Duncan]] *[[Entertainer]]: [[PT Barnum]] *[[Fashion designer]]: [[Pierre Cardin]] *[[Figure Skating|Figure Skater]]:[[Michelle Kwan]] *[[Game designer]]: [[Shigeru Miyamoto]] *[[Horticulture]]: [[André le Nôtre]] *[[Illusionist]]: [[Houdini]] *[[Industrial designer]]: [[Pininfarina]] *[[Jeweller]]: [[Fabergé]] *[[Movie director]]: [[Sergei Eisenstein]] *[[Muralist]]: [[Diego Rivera]] *[[Musician]]: [[Niccolo Paganini]] *[[Novelist]]: [[Dostoevsky]] *[[Musical instrument|Musical instrument maker]]: [[Stradivari]] *[[Orator]]: [[Cicero]] *[[Painter]]: [[Pablo Ruiz Picasso]] *[[Photographer]]: [[Robert Mapplethorpe]] *[[Pianist]]: [[Glenn Gould]] *[[Playwright]]: [[Harold Pinter]] *[[Poet]]: [[William Shakespeare]] *[[Potter]]: [[Peter Voulkos]] *[[Singer]]: [[Nico]] *[[Sculpture|Sculptor]]: [[Michelangelo Buonarotti]] *[[Storyteller]]: [[1001_Arabian_Nights|el-Gahshigar]] [[Category:Artists| ]] [[Category:Art and design workers]] [[Category:Aesthetics]] [[cs:Umělec]] [[cy:Arlunydd]] [[de:Künstler]] [[eo:Artisto]] [[fr:Artiste]] [[ko:미술가]] [[id:Artis]] [[iu:ᑕᑯᒥᓇᖅᓕᐅᖅᑎᑦ]] [[he:אמן]] [[lt:Artistas]] [[mi:Kaitito]] [[ms:Artis]] [[nl:Artiest]] [[ja:美術家]] [[sq:Artisti]] [[fi:Taiteilija]] [[sv:Konstnär]] [[uk:Художник]] [[zh:艺术家]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Actaeon</title> <id>1213</id> <revision> <id>41064001</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T20:51:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Unyoyega</username> <id>460372</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fixing interwikis +: lb</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Aktation, Nordisk familjebok.png|thumb|Actaeon and his dogs]] In [[Greek mythology]], '''Actaeon''' (or '''Aktaion'''), son of [[Aristaeus]] and [[Autonoe]] in [[Boeotia]], was a hunter who suffered the wrath of [[Artemis]]. Artemis was bathing in the woods near Boeotian [[Orchomenus (town)|Orchomenos]] when the hunter Actaeon stumbled across her, thus seeing her naked. He stopped and stared, amazed at her ravishing beauty. When she saw him, Artemis punished him by declaring that he must never speak again — if he tried to speak, he would be changed into a [[Deer (mythology)|stag]] — for his unlucky profanation of her virgin's mysteries. Upon hearing his hunting group calling to him, he cried out to them and immediately was changed into a stag. His own hounds turned upon him instantly and killed him. He was torn apart. The hounds were so upset with their master's death, that [[Chiron]] made a statue so lifelike that the hounds thought it was Actaeon. There are various other versions: [[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Apollodorus]] states that his offence was that he was a rival of [[Zeus]] for [[Semele]] (who was also his aunt), while in [[Euripedes]] ''Bacchae'' he boasts that he is better hunter than Artemis. &lt;table&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; :ὁρᾷς τὸν Ἀκτέωνος ἄθλιον μόρον, :ὃν ὠμόσιτοι σκύλακες ἃς ἐθρέψατο :διεσπάσαντο, κρείσσον' ἐν κυναγίαις :Ἀρτέμιδος εἶναι κομπάσαντ', ἐν ὀργάσιν. &lt;td&gt; :Look at Actaeon's wretched fate :who by the man-eating hounds he had raised, :was torn apart, better at hunting :than Artemis he had boasted to be, in the meadows. &lt;/table&gt; [[Diodorus Siculus]] has it that Actaeon wanted to marry Artemis. Other authors say the hounds were Artemis' own. == Actaeon in art == {{Commonscat|Actaeon}} Actaeon torn by his hounds is a common theme in [[5th century BC]] Greek art: in some [[red-figure pottery|vase painting]]s he is shown wearing a deerskin, in others antlers sprout from his head. Pictures of Artemis surprised by Actaeon while bathing are found among [[Pompeii|Pompeian]] wall paintings. &lt;!--[[Image:Tizian 001.jpg|thumb|Titian: ''Diana suprised by Actaeon while bathing'']]--&gt; The theme was one of many revived in the [[Renaissance]]. See for example: *[http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/cgi-bin/WebObjects.dll/Collec
division rival [[Tennessee Titans]] at home 35-3 to remain undefeated, becoming the first team to qualify for the playoffs. The next week they swept the [[Jacksonville Jaguars]], another division rival, to clinch the division and the No. 1 playoff seed in the AFC, which ensured the Colts' home-field advantage. This also marked the first time since the 1998 [[Denver Broncos]] and the fourth time in NFL history a team went 13-0. On Sunday, December 18, the [[San Diego Chargers]] defeated the Colts 26-17, ending their bid to replace the [[1972 in sports|1972]] [[Miami Dolphins]] as the most recent team in the NFL to play an undefeated season. In week 16, the Colts were forced to play without their coach, Tony Dungy, who took the week off to mourn the death of his son James, presumed to have commited suicide earlier in the week. With the team resting most of their key and injured players, the Colts lost their second-straight game 28-13 to the surging [[Seattle Seahawks]]. In their last regular season home game of the year, the Colts again played mostly with their back-ups and won against the [[Arizona Cardinals]] 17-13. More importantly, this game marked the return of Coach Dungy. The team's final record of 14-2 marks the best 16-game season in the franchise's history. On [[January 15]], [[2006]], the Colts were eliminated from the playoffs in a divisional playoff matchup against the year's Super Bowl champion [[Pittsburgh Steelers]]. They were down 21-3 and staged a comeback, but came up short 21-18, as [[Mike Vanderjagt]]'s 46-yard field goal attempt sailed wide-right. This makes the Colts only the 2nd team to start 10-0 and not make it to the Super Bowl. The other being the 1990 San Fransisco 49ers. After the upset loss, Tony Dungy had several people wondering if he would be back for the 2006 season. A few days later, he stated that he would return, saying he forgot to mention that in the conference. The Colts then secured [[Reggie Wayne]] with a 6-year, $40 Million dollar contract. However, it is doubtful to see [[Edgerrin James]] returning to Indianapolis for the 2006 season. ===Season-by-season records=== {{Start NFL SBS}} |- | colspan=&quot;6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Baltimore Colts''' |- |1953 || 3 || 9 || 0 || 5th NFL West || -- |- |1954 || 3 || 9 || 0 || 6th NFL West || -- |- |1955 || 5 || 6 || 1 || 4th NFL West || -- |- |1956 || 5 || 7 || 0 || 4th NFL West || -- |- |1957 || 7 || 5 || 0 || 3rd NFL West || -- |- |1958 || 9 || 3 || 0 || 1st NFL West || '''Won NFL Championship''' |- |1959 || 9 || 3 || 0 || 1st NFL West || '''Won NFL Championship''' |- |1960 || 6 || 6 || 0 || 4th NFL West || -- |- |1961 || 8 || 8 || 0 || T-3rd NFL West || -- |- |1962 || 7 || 7 || 0 || 4th NFL West || -- |- |1963 || 8 || 6 || 0 || 3rd NFL West || -- |- |1964 || 12 || 2 || 0 || 1st NFL West || Lost NFL Championship ([[Cleveland Browns|Browns]]) |- |1965 || 10 || 3 || 1 || 2nd NFL West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1965|Western Conference Playoff]] ([[Green Bay Packers|Packers]]) |- |1966 || 9 || 5 || 0 || 2nd NFL West || -- |- |1967 || 11 || 1 || 2 || 2nd NFL Coastal || -- |- |1968 || 13 || 1 || 0 || 1st NFL Coastal || '''Won NFL Championship''' &lt;br&gt;Lost [[Super Bowl III]] ([[New York Jets|Jets]]) |- |1969 || 8 || 5 || 1 || 2nd NFL Coastal || -- |- |1970 || 11 || 2 || 1 || 1st AFC East || '''Won NFL Championship''' &lt;br&gt;'''Won [[Super Bowl V]]''' |- |1971 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 2nd AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1971-72|Conference Championship]] ([[Miami Dolphins|Dolphins]]) |- |1972 || 5 || 9 || 0 || 3rd AFC East || -- |- |1973 || 4 || 10 || 0 || 5th AFC East || -- |- |1974 || 2 || 12 || 0 || 5th AFC East || -- |- |1975 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 1st AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1975-76|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]]) |- |1976 || 11 || 3 || 0 || 1st AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1976-77|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]]) |- |1977 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 1st AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1977-78|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Oakland Raiders|Raiders]]) |- |1978 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 5th AFC East || -- |- |1979 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 5th AFC East || -- |- |1980 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th AFC East || -- |- |1981 || 2 || 14 || 0 || 4th AFC East || -- |- |1982 || 0 || 8 || 1 || 14th AFC Conf. || -- |- |1983 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th AFC East || -- |- | colspan=&quot;6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Indianapolis Colts''' |- |1984 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 4th AFC East || -- |- |1985 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th AFC East || -- |- |1986 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 5th AFC East || - |- |1987 || 9 || 6 || 0 || 1st AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1987-88|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Cleveland Browns|Browns]]) |- |1988 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 2nd AFC East || -- |- |1989 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 2nd AFC East || -- |- |1990 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 3rd AFC East || -- |- |1991 || 1 || 15 || 0 || 5th AFC East || -- |- |1992 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 3rd AFC East || -- |- |1993 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 5th AFC East || -- |- |1994 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 3rd AFC East || -- |- |1995 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 2nd AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1995-96|Conference Championship]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]]) |- |1996 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 3rd AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1996-97|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]]) |- |1997 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 5th AFC East || -- |- |1998 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 5th AFC East || -- |- |1999 || 13 || 3 || 0 || 1st AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1999-2000|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Tennessee Titans|Titans]]) |- |2000 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 2nd AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2000-01|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Miami Dolphins|Dolphins]]) |- |2001 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 4th AFC East || -- |- |2002 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 2nd AFC South || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2002-03|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[New York Jets|Jets]]) |- |2003 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st AFC South || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2003-04|Conference Championship]] ([[New England Patriots|Patriots]]) |- |2004 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st AFC South || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2004-05|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[New England Patriots|Patriots]]) |- |2005 || 14 || 2 || 0 || 1st AFC South || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2005-06|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]]) {{end box}} ^At the end of the [[2005 NFL season]], the Colts All-Time Record is 403-393-7 (including playoffs). == Players of note == ===Current players=== {{Indianapolis Colts roster}} ===[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]rs=== ====Baltimore Colts==== * 82 [[Raymond Berry]] * 70 [[Art Donovan]] * 83 [[Ted Hendricks]] * 88 [[John Mackey (athlete)|John Mackey]] * 89 [[Gino Marchetti]] * 24 [[Lenny Moore]] * 77 [[Jim Parker]] * 19 [[Johnny Unitas]] * [[Weeb Ewbank]], the only head coach to win championships in both the NFL and the AFL * [[Don Shula]] ====Indianapolis Colts==== * 29 [[Eric Dickerson]] ===Retired numbers=== ====Baltimore Colts==== *19 [[Johnny Unitas]] *22 [[Buddy Young]] *24 [[Lenny Moore]] *70 [[Art Donovan]] *77 [[Jim Parker]] *82 [[Raymond Berry]] *89 [[Gino Marchetti]] ====Indianapolis Colts==== None as of the 2005 season. The Colts do, however, have a Ring of Honor at the RCA Dome, which includes the following: * 4 Jim Harbaugh, QB * 75 Chris Hinton, OT * 80 Bill Brooks, WR * [[Bob Irsay]], owner who moved the team from Baltimore to Indianapolis ===Not to be forgotten=== ====Baltimore Colts==== *[[Alan Ameche]] *[[Norm Bulaich]] *[[Mike Curtis (football player)|Mike Curtis]] *[[Bert Jones]] *[[Bruce Laird (football player)|Bruce Laird]] *[[Lenny Lyles]] *[[Tom Matte]] *[[Don McCauley]] *[[Lou Michaels]] *[[Lydell Mitchell]] *[[Earl Morrall]] *[[Steve Myhra]] *[[Buzz Nutter]] *[[R.C. Owens]] *[[Bill Pellington]] *[[Bert Rechichar]] *[[Bubba Smith]] *[[Joe Washington]] *[[Ted Marchibroda]], head coach *[[Carroll Rosenbloom]], owner ====Indianapolis Colts==== *[[Raul Allegre]] *[[Chip Banks]] *[[Dean Biasucci]] *[[Duane Bickett]] *[[Eugene Daniel]] *[[Marshall Faulk]] *[[Jeff George]] *[[Jim Harbaugh]] *[[Robert Irsay]], owner *[[Ted Marchibroda]], head coach and (later) radio analyst *[[Marcus Pollard]] *[[Tony Siragusa]] ==Head Coaches== *[[Keith Molesworth]] (1953) *[[Weeb Ewbank]] (1954-1962) *[[Don Shula]] (1963-1969) *[[Don McCafferty]] (1970-1972) *[[John Sandusky]] (interim) (1972) *[[Howard Schnellenberger]] (1973-1974) *[[Joe Thomas (football coach)|Joe Thomas]] (interim) (1974) *[[Ted Marchibroda]] (1975-1979) *[[Mike McCormack]] (1980-1981) *[[Frank Kush]] (1982-1984) *[[Rod Dowhower]] (1985-1986) *[[Ron Meyer]] (1986-1991) *[[Rick Venturi]] (interim) (1991) *[[Ted Marchibroda]] (1992-1995) *[[Lindy Infante]] (1996-1997) *[[Jim E. Mora|Jim Mora]] (1998-2001) *[[Tony Dungy]] (2002-present) ===Current Staff=== *Head Coach - [[Tony Dungy]] *Offensive Coordinator - [[Tom Moore (football coach)|Tom Moore]] *Defensive Coordinator - [[Ron Meeks]] *Special Teams Coach - [[Russ Purnell]] *Quarterbacks Coach - [[Jim Caldwell (football coach)|Jim Caldwell]] *Running Backs Coach - [[Gene Huey]] *Wide Receivers Coach - [[Clyde Christiansen]] *Tight Ends Coach - [[Ricky Thomas]] *Offensive Line Coach - [[Howard Mudd]] *Defensive Line Coach - [[John Teerlinck]] *Linebackers Coach - [[Mike Murphy (football coach)|Mike Murphy]] *Defensive Backs Coach - [[Alan Williams (football coach)|Alan Williams]] *Defensive Assistant - [[Leslie Frazier]] *Strength and Conditioning - [[Jon Torine]] ==Notes== *{{fnb|1}} Nash, Bruce, and Allen Zullo (1986). ''The Football Hall of Shame'', 92, Pocket Books. ISBN 0671745514. *{{fnb|2}} [http://www2.indystar.com/library/factfiles/sports/football-pro/indpls_colts/history/colts.html History of the Indianapolis Colts] from indystar.com (Last Accessed January 17, 2006) ==External links== *[http://www.colts.com/ Indianapolis Colts official web site] *[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/indy/icolts.html Sports E-Cyclopedia.com] *[http://members.aol.com/rich953908/colts.html Most frequently updated Baltimore Colts Site] {{NFL}} [[Category:Indianapolis Colts| ]] [[Category:National Fo
es seemed mentally beaten, and they lost the last 3 games of the series. Ruth had a respectable series, going 5 for 16 with a .316 average, drove in 5 runs and hit his first World Series home run, but he struck out 8 times. The Giants had a measure of revenge on the Yankees, who were also using the [[Polo Grounds]] as their home and had been embarassed by the Yankees by being outdrawn in attendance. ==Troubled season== The [[1921 World Series]] appearance would indirectly lead to problems for Ruth. Seeking to avoid diminishing the meaning of the fall classic, organized baseball instituted a rule in 1911 that prohibited World Series players from playing in exhibition games during the off-season. Ruth, typically, decided this rule did not apply to him, and even though [[Baseball Commissioner]] [[Kenesaw Mountain Landis]] had warned Ruth about the trip, Ruth went ahead and embarked on his usual lucrative [[barnstorming]] tour with two teammates. Landis came down hard on the recalcitrant players, and he suspended Ruth and teammate [[Bob Meusel]] for the first six weeks of what was to be a turbulent 1922 season for Ruth. When he returned to the Yankees on [[May 20]], Yankee management named Ruth their first on-field captain, but just five days after his return, he was ejected for arguing an [[umpire]]'s call at third, and exacerbated the situation by climbing into the seats to confront a heckling [[fan (aficionado)|fan]]. The captaincy was stripped, and Ruth's temper would see him suspended three more times in 1922 for arguing with umpires. [[Image:RuthMcgraw1922.jpg|thumb|220px|left|Ruth and Giants manager John McGraw prior to the 1922 World Series. When Ruth was still a pitcher, McGraw once commented on him, &quot;If he plays every day, the bum will hit into a hundred double plays a season.&quot;]] While Ruth suffered his first professional setback, his personal life was in a worse state. His wife Helen disliked the celebrity lifestyle to which the Babe was drawn, and she lived on their farm near Boston with their adopted [[daughter]], Dorothy. Free from the eyes of his wife, Ruth embraced the lifestyle even more fully. His love of fine food, undiminished over the years, was matched only by his appetites for [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]], the nightlife, and casual sex. Helen and Babe's marital problems compromised Helen's delicate health. She was frequently ill with numerous ailments, which reportedly included several [[nervous breakdown]]s. The suspension at the beginning of the season affected Ruth at the plate. He struggled all year, and his batting, on-base and slugging averages fell dramatically (.315/.434/.672). He hit 35 home runs with 99 runs batted in, but the suspensions and some injuries limited his playing time to just 110 games. All the time he missed on the field hurt the Yankees, but they had barely enough to get past the .420-hitting [[George Sisler]] and the rest of the heavy-hitting [[St. Louis Browns]] for the pennant. Ruth's struggles during the season continued into the [[World Series]]. Giants manager [[John McGraw (baseball)|John McGraw]] had instructed his pitchers to throw Ruth nothing but curve balls, and Ruth never adjusted. He went just 2 for 17--a .118 average, and the Yankees were defeated by the [[New York Giants]] for the second straight year, 4&amp;ndash;0, with one tie. Compared to his first two incredible seasons as a Yankee, the 1922 season was a major disappointment for Ruth. ==&quot;The House That Ruth Built&quot;== Ruth regrouped from his troubled 1922 season. He worked out hard in the off-season. He came into the 1923 season in good shape, and it showed in his play. He batted .393, which would be the highest of his career, although he lost the batting title to [[Harry Heilmann]], who hit .403. His home run total of 41, a modest total for him, led the majors. Ruth also led the A.L. in walks (170), a single-season record not broken until [[Barry Bonds]] walked 177 times in 2001; runs (131), RBIs (151), extra-base hits (99), and slugging average (.764). He also missed only two games, compared to over 40 games the previous season. Ruth had returned to his dominant form, and the Yankees easily returned to the [[World Series]]. [[Image:Yankeestad2.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The opening of Yankee Stadium, April 18, 1923.]] The 1923 season also saw the opening of [[Yankee Stadium]]. The Yankees had been sharing the [[Polo Grounds]] with the Giants since 1913, but since Ruth arrived, the Yankees had been significantly outdrawing the Giants. With the increased revenue and team success, as well as a threat of eviction from the Polo Grounds by the Giants, the Yankees needed a new home. In 1921, Yankee owner [[Jacob Ruppert]] bought a small piece of land in the [[Bronx]] for $600,000 from the [[Astor]] estate. After a year of construction and a cost of $2.5 million (a huge sum at the time), the 62,000-seat Yankee Stadium opened on [[April 18]], 1923. In the first game played there, Ruth, fittingly, hit the stadium's first home run, and sportswriter Fred Lieb soon nicknamed Yankee Stadium &quot;The House That Ruth Built.&quot; Detractors of the stadium would call it &quot;The House Built for Ruth&quot;, and &quot;Ruthville&quot;, as the short 295-foot distance to right field seemed tailor-made for some &quot;cheap&quot; home runs for the [[left-handed]], pull-hitting Ruth. In time, this argument would have little statistical support. From 1923 to 1932, in his prime home-run-hitting years, Ruth hit more home runs on the road, and in his 60 home run season of 1927, he hit 32 of those on the road. For the third straight year the Yankees faced the Giants in the [[World Series]]. Injured during the 1921 World Series, and completely ineffective in the 1922 series, Ruth was the best player on the field in the 1923 World Series. He went 7 for 19, a .368 average, slugged 1.000, walked 8 times, scored 8 runs, hit 3 home runs, and led the Yankees to a 4&amp;ndash;2 series victory. The Yankees had their first World Series title, and the start of what became the most successful major sports team in [[North America]]. From 1923 to the present, the Yankees have appeared in 37 World Series, winning 26 of those series. ==&quot;The Bellyache Heard Around the World&quot;== [[Image:3BRuth1925.jpg|thumb|225px|right|A hospitalized Ruth in 1925.]] During [[spring training]] in 1925, Ruth began suffering severe [[stomach]] cramps and a [[fever]]. His condition gradually became worse, and on [[April 7]] while the Yankees were staying in [[Asheville]], [[North Carolina]], a weakened Ruth completely collapsed in a bathroom. It was agreed Ruth needed to return to [[New York]] to recover, and he was accompanied by Paul Krichell, a noted Yankees [[scout]]. Ruth's collapse was not newsworthy until one [[London]] newspaper ran a headline that Ruth was dead, a story Krichell quickly quelled when Ruth's train reached [[Washington, D.C]]. By the time their train reached [[Pennsylvania Station (New York)|Pennsylvania Station]] in New York, Ruth was wrapped in blankets and [[unconscious]], and his body had to be lifted out of a train window. During the wait for an ambulance, Ruth briefly opened his [[eye]]s and saw his wife Helen and [[Ed Barrow]], his former Red Sox manager and now the Yankees general manager. Shortly thereafter, Ruth became delirious and flailed his arms and legs uncontrollably, and needed to be held down by those around him. On the ambulance ride to St. Vincent's hospital, Ruth again suffered a couple more convulsive attacks that were so violent it took six assistants to hold him down. He was given a [[sedative]], and by the time the ambulance reached the hospital Ruth was calm. Examined by Dr. Edward King, Ruth's personal physician, Dr. King diagnosed Ruth as having a touch of the [[flu]] and an [[intestinal]] attack. Dr. King agreed to let Ruth rejoin the team, but after another week, Ruth's fever became worse, and after another examination, Dr. King now diagnosed Ruth as having an &quot;[[intestinal]] [[abscess]],&quot; and he would need surgery. The surgery, performed on [[April 17]], took only 20 minutes and was called a complete success. Dr. King stated Ruth's [[diet (nutrition)|diet]] was the problem, as Ruth had not watched how much he ate and drank. Ruth's [[weight]] was high at this time, up to about 256 pounds. It was writer W.O. McGeehan who invented the story that Ruth's collapse was caused by overindulging on hot dogs and soda pop before a game, a fanciful story which led to Ruth's illness being dubbed &quot;the bellyache heard around the world.&quot; This story was not that far-fetched, as Ruth, noted for episodes of [[gluttony]], frequently did eat hot dogs before games, and he would wash them down with [[bicarbonate of soda]] to keep from feeling bloated. Some newspaper reporters whispered that Ruth actually had a bad case of [[gonorrhea]], but no one seemed to be willing to put this assertion in print. An old teammate of Ruth's vouched for the [[venereal disease]] story, saying it was the entire reason for Ruth's problems. A case of [[gonorrhea]] would have not been out of the question for the promiscuous Ruth, and some of his symptoms of [[chills]], [[fever]], and general pain are associated with some more complicated symptoms of gonorrhea. Still, [[abdominal]] surgery is a very unusual treatment for venereal disease, even during this medical age, and Ruth did have a clear visible [[scar]] running from just under his [[rib cage]] to his left lower [[abdomen]]. Evidence would suggest Ruth's illness was what physicians had stated, but it is possible Ruth may have had both problems, with physicians intentionally not mentioning the venereal problems. After six weeks of recovery, Ruth rejoined the Yankees on [[May 26]]. He had lost 30 pounds (14 kg), was weak and out of condition, but he was insistent on being back i
lus|Islamic Spain]] as south as [[Barcelona]] ([[801]]), and subjugating [[Lower Saxony]] ([[804]]) after prolonged campaigning. In recognition of his successes and his political support for the [[Papacy]], Charlemagne was in [[800]] crowned Emperor of the Romans, or Roman Emperor in the West, by [[Pope Leo III]]: on the death of his son [[Louis the Pious|Louis I]] (emperor [[814]]-[[840]]), however, the empire was divided among Louis's three sons ([[Treaty of Verdun]], [[843]]). After a last brief reunification ([[884]]-[[887]]), the imperial title ceased to be held in the western part which was to form the basis of the future French kingdom. See also: * [[List of Frankish Kings]] * [[Merovingian]]s * [[Carolingian]]s * [[Carolingian Empire]] === France in the Middle Ages === From the ninth to the fifteenth century. {{main|France in the Middle Ages}} See also: * [[Capetian Dynasty]] * [[Valois Dynasty]] * [[Hundred Years War]] === Early Modern France === [[Image:France 1552 to 1798-en.png|thumb|250px|right]] From the fifteenth century to 1789. {{main|Early Modern France}} The Early Modern period in French history spans the following reigns: * [[Valois Dynasty]] ** [[Louis XI of France|Louis XI]] ** [[Charles VIII of France|Charles VIII]] ** [[Louis XII of France|Louis XII]] ** [[Francis I of France|Francis I]] ** [[Henry II of France|Henry II]] and [[Catherine de Medici]] ** [[Francis II of France|Francis II]] ** [[Charles IX of France|Charles IX]] ** [[Henry III of France|Henry III]] * [[House of Bourbon]] ** [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]] ** the Regency of [[Marie de Medici]] ** [[Louis XIII of France|Louis XIII]] and his minister [[Cardinal Richelieu]] ** the Regency of [[Anne of Austria]] and her minister [[Mazarin|Cardinal Mazarin]] ** [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] ** the [[Régence]] of [[Philip II, Duke of Orléans|Philip II of Orleans]] ** [[Louis XV of France|Louis XV]] ** [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]] See also: * [[French Renaissance]] * [[Wars of Religion]] * [[Ancien Régime]] * [[Louis XIV of France]] * [[Age of Enlightenment]] === France in the Nineteenth Century === From the Revolution to World War I. {{main|France in the nineteenth century}} See also: * [[French Revolution]] **[[Causes of the French Revolution]] **[[Estates-General of 1789]] **[[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]] **[[Storming of the Bastille]] **National Constituent Assembly ***[[National Constituent Assembly]] ***[[French Revolution from the abolition of feudalism to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy]] ***[[French Revolution from the summer of 1790 to the establishment of the Legislative Assembly]]) **[[Legislative Assembly (France)|Legislative Assembly]] **[[The Legislative Assembly and the fall of the French monarchy]] **[[National Convention|National Convention]] **[[Reign of Terror|Reign of Terror]] **[[French Directory|Directory]] **[[French Consulate|Consulate]] **[[Glossary of the French Revolution|Glossary]] **[[Timeline of the French Revolution|Timeline]] **[[French Revolutionary Wars|Wars]] **[[List of people associated with the French Revolution]] **[[List of historians of the French Revolution]] * [[First French Empire|First Empire]] of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]], [[Napoleonic Wars]], [[Continental System]] * [[French Restoration|Restoration]] of [[Louis XVIII of France|Louis XVIII]] and [[Charles X of France|Charles X]] * [[July Revolution]] (1830) and the [[July Monarchy]] of [[Louis-Philippe of France|Louis-Philippe]] (often treated as a continuation of the Restoration) * [[1848 Revolution]] * [[French Second Republic]] * [[Second French Empire|Second Empire]] of [[Napoleon III]] * [[Franco-Prussian War]], [[Paris Commune]] * [[French Third Republic]] === France In Modern Times === From World War I to today. {{main|France in modern times}} See also: * [[French Third Republic]] * [[Vichy France]] * [[French Fourth Republic]] * [[French Fifth Republic]] created by [[Charles de Gaulle]] ==See also== * [[List of French monarchs]] * [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon Dynasty]] * [[Kings of France family tree]] * List of every [[President of France]] * [[French colonization of the Americas]] * [[Timeline of French history]] == Further reading == * André Maurois, ''A History of France'' [[Category:History of Europe|France]] [[Category:History of France|*]] {{Link FA|he}} [[bg:История на Франция]] [[cs:Dějiny Francie]] [[cy:Hanes Ffrainc]] [[da:Frankrigs historie]] [[de:Geschichte Frankreichs]] [[es:Historia de Francia]] [[eo:Historio de Francio]] [[fa:تاریخ فرانسه]] [[fr:Histoire de France]] [[ko:프랑스의 역사]] [[io:Historio di Francia]] [[it:Storia della Francia]] [[he:היסטוריה של צרפת]] [[la:Historia Gallorum]] [[lt:Prancūzijos istorija]] [[hu:Franciaország története]] [[nl:Geschiedenis van Frankrijk]] [[ja:フランスの歴史]] [[no:Frankrikes historie]]{{Link FA|no}} [[pl:Historia Francji]] [[pt:História da França]] [[ru:История Франции]] [[sl:Zgodovina Francije]] [[fi:Ranskan historia]] [[sv:Frankrikes historia]] [[th:ประวัติศาสตร์ฝรั่งเศส]] [[zh:法國歷史]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Halloween</title> <id>13855</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>41058678</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T20:12:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>80.223.53.215</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} {{Infobox Holiday | |holiday_name=Halloween |image=Jack-o'-Lantern_2003-10-31.jpg |caption=A [[jack-o'-lantern]] |color1=#FA4900 |color2=#FA4900 |color3=#FA4900|nickname=Hallow Eve, All Saints' Eve |observedby=Many Western nations, including the [[United States of America|USA]], [[Ireland]], the [[United Kingdom]], and [[Canada]] |date=[[October 31]] |celebrations=[[Trick-or-treat|Trick-or-treating]], [[Bobbing for apples]], [[Costume party|Costume parties]], Carving [[jack-o'-lantern]]s |type=Religious, Cultural |significance=There are many sources of the significance of Halloween }} '''Halloween''' is an observance celebrated on the night of [[October 31]], most notably by children dressing in costumes and going door-to-door collecting sweets or money. It is celebrated in much of the [[Western world]], though most common in the [[United States]], [[Puerto Rico]], [[Ireland]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Canada]] and most places in [[Australia]]. [[Ireland|Irish]], [[Scotland|Scots]] and other immigrants brought older versions of the tradition to North America in the 19th century. Most other Western countries have embraced Halloween as a part of American [[pop culture]] in the late 20th century. The term '''Halloween''' comes from ''hallow'' and ''eve'', as it is the evening before [[All Saints|&quot;All Hallows Day&quot;]]. In [[Ireland]], the name was '''Hallow Eve''' and this name is still used by some older people. Halloween was also sometimes called '''All Saints' Eve'''. The holiday was a day of religious festivities in various northern [[Europe|European]] [[Paganism|pagan]] traditions, until it was appropriated by [[Christian]] missionaries and given a Christian interpretation. In [[Mexico]], [[Belgium]], and [[Italy]], November 2nd, the day after All Hallows Day, is the [[Day of the Dead]]. Halloween is also called ''Pooky Night'' in some parts of Ireland, presumably named after the [[púca]], a mischievous spirit. In [[Great Britain]] and [[Ireland]] in particular, the pagan [[Celt]]s celebrated the Day of the Dead on All Hallows Day (1st November). The spirits supposedly rose from the dead and, in order to attract them, food was left on the doors. To scare off the evil spirits, the [[Celts]] wore masks. When the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] invaded Britain, they embellished the tradition with their own, which is both a celebration of the harvest and of honoring the dead. Very much later, these traditions were transported to the [[United States]] and [[Canada]] and other places in the [[New World]]. Halloween is sometimes associated with the [[occult]]. Many European cultural traditions hold that Halloween is one of the &quot;liminal&quot; times of the year when the spirit world can make contact with the natural world and when [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] is most potent (e.g. [[Catalan mythology about witches]]). [[Anoka, Minnesota]], USA, the self-proclaimed &quot;Halloween Capital of the World,&quot; celebrates with a large civic [[parade]]. [[Salem, Massachusetts]], USA, also has laid claim to the title &quot;Halloween Capital of the World,&quot; though Salem has tried to separate itself from its history in the subject of [[witchcraft]]. Despite that, the city does see a great deal of tourism surrounding the [[Salem witch trials]], especially around Halloween. ==Symbols== [[image:jackolantern.JPG|thumb|right|Jack-o'-lanterns may be carved with funny faces.]] Halloween's theme is spooky or scary things particularly involving death, magic, or mythical [[monster]]s. Commonly-associated Halloween characters include [[ghost]]s, [[ghoul]]s, [[witch]]es, [[bat]]s, [[black cat]]s, [[owl]]s, [[spider]]s, [[goblin]]s, [[zombie]]s, [[skeleton]]s and [[demon]]s, as well as certain fictional figures like [[Dracula]] and [[Frankenstein's monster]]. Homes are often decorated with these symbols around Halloween. [[Black]] and [[orange (colour)|orange]] are the traditional colors of Halloween. In modern Halloween images and products, [[purple]], [[green]], and [[red]] are also prominent. Elements of the [[autumn]] season, such as [[pumpkin]]s and [[scarecrow]]s, are also reflected in symbols of Halloween. The [[jack-o'-lantern]], a carved vegetable lit by a candle inside, is one of Halloween's most prominent symbols. In Britain and Ireland, a [[Rutabaga|turnip]] was and sometimes still is used, but immigrants to America quickly adopted the [[pumpkin]] because it was more readily available; additionally, it is much larger and easier to carve. Many families that celebrate Halloween carve a pu
the turning point of the Pacific War. The I.J.N. planned to resume the initiative with operations (FS) aimed at eventually taking Samoa and Fiji to cut the Australian life-line to the United States. This was expected to short-circuit the threat posed by General [[Douglas MacArthur]] and his American and Australian forces in New Guinea. To this end, development of the airfield on Guadalcanal continued and attracted the baleful eye of Yamamoto's opposite number, [[Admiral King]]. King ramrodded the American invasion of Guadalcanal and beat the Japanese to the punch, descending on the island in August 1942 and precipitating a bitter struggle that lasted until February 1943 and commenced a battle of attrition Japan could ill-afford. Admiral Yamamoto remained in command, retained at least partly to avoid diminishing the morale of the Combined Fleet. However, he had lost face in the Midway defeat and the Naval General Staff were disinclined to indulge further gambles. This reduced Yamamoto to pursuing the classic defensive Decisive Battle strategy he had attempted to overturn. Guadalcanal caught the Japanese over-extended and attempting to support fighting in New Guinea while guarding the Central Pacific and preparing to conduct the FS Operation. The FS Operation was abandoned and the Japanese attempted to fight in both New Guinea and Guadalcanal at the same time. Already overextended, they perpetually fell short of success for lack of shipping, lack of troops, and a disastrous inability to coordinate Army and Navy activities. Yamamoto committed Combined Fleet units to a series of small attrition actions that stung the Americans, but suffered loses he could ill-afford in return. Three major efforts to carry the island precipitated a pair of carrier battles that Yamamoto commanded personally at the Eastern Solomons and [[Santa Cruz Islands]] in September and October, and finally a wild pair of surface engagements in November, all timed to coincide with Japanese Army pushes. The timing of each major battle was successively deranged when the Army could not hold up its end of the operation. Yamamoto's forces caused considerable loss and damage, but he could never draw the Americans into a decisive fleet action. As a result, the Japanese Navy's strength began to bleed off. Particularly harmful were the severe losses of carrier dive-bomber and torpedo-bomber crews in the carrier battles that emasculated the carrier air groups. With Guadalcanal lost in February 1943, there was no further attempt to seek a major battle in the Solomon Islands although smaller attrition battles continued. Yamamoto shifted the load of the air battle from the depleted carriers to the land-based naval air forces. Some of these units were positioned at forward bases in the Solomon Islands, and while on an inspection trip to these positions on [[18 April]] [[1943]], Yamamoto once more fell victim -- this time personally -- to American code-breaking. A squadron of American [[P-38]] fighters ambushed his plane and its escorts. :''References: Dull (1978).'' ==Yamamoto's death== To boost morale following Guadalcanal, Yamamoto decided to make an inspection tour throughout the South Pacific. On [[14 April]] [[1943]], the US naval intelligence effort, code-named &quot;[[Magic (cryptography)|Magic]]&quot;, intercepted and decrypted reports of the tour. The original message NTF131755, addressed to the commanders of Base Unit No. 1, the 11th Air Flotilla and the 26th Air Flotilla, was encoded in the Japanese Naval Cipher JN-25D (Naval Operations Code Book of the third version of RO), and was picked up by three stations of the &quot;Magic&quot; apparatus, including Fleet Radio Unit Pacific Fleet. The message contained specific details regarding Yamamoto's arrival and departure times and locations, as well as the number and types of planes that would transport and accompany him on the journey. Yamamoto, the itinerary revealed, would be flying from Rabaul to Ballale Airfield, on an island near [[Bougainville]] in the [[Solomon Islands]], on [[18 April]]. He and his staff would be flying in two medium bombers ([[G4M]] Bettys of the 205th Kokutai Naval Air unit), escorted by six fighters ([[A6M]] [[Mitsubishi Zero]]s of the 204th Kokutai NAU), to depart Rabaul at 0600 and arrive at Ballale at 0800, Tokyo time. Admiral Nimitz consulted Adm. [[William F. Halsey, Jr.]], Commander, South Pacific, then authorized the mission on [[17 April]]. ===The Interception Mission=== To avoid detection by radar and Japanese [[coast-watchers]], the mission entailed an over-water flight south of the Solomons, a distance of 430 miles. This was beyond the range of the [[F4F Wildcat]] and [[F4U Corsair]] fighters then available to Navy and Marine squadrons of [[Guadalcanal (Pacific Ocean island)|Guadalcanal's]] [[Cactus Air Force]]. The mission was then given to the [[339th Fighter Squadron]] of the [[347th Fighter Group]], [[13th Air Force]], whose [[P-38 Lightning]] aircraft, equipped with [[drop tanks]], would have the range to intercept and engage. Planning for this mission was begun by Fighter Command's deputy, Marine LtCol. Luther S. Moore, who had the P-38s fitted with a navy ship's compass at the request of Major John W Mitchell, commanding officer of the 339th. These fighters each carried a 20&amp;nbsp;mm cannon and 4 × 50-calibre (12.7&amp;nbsp;mm) machine guns and normally carried two 165-gallon (625&amp;nbsp;L) drop tanks under their wings. For this raid a limited supply of 310-gallon (1136&amp;nbsp;L) tanks were flown up from New Guinea, sufficient to provide each Lightning with one of the larger tanks. Despite the differences in size, the tanks were located close enough to the aircraft's center of gravity to negate any performance problems. Eighteen P-38s were tasked for the mission. One flight of four was designated as the &quot;killer&quot; flight while the remainder, which included two spares, would climb to 18,000 feet to act as &quot;top cover&quot; for the expected reaction by fighters based at Kahili. A flight plan was prepared by the Command Operations Officer, Marine Major John Condon, but was discarded for one prepared by Mitchell. He calculated an intercept time of 0935, based on the itinerary, to catch the bombers descending to land over Bougainville, ten minutes out from Ballale airfield. He worked backwards from that time and drew four precisely-calculated legs, with a fifth leg added if Yamamoto took other than the directmost route. In addition to heading out over the [[Coral Sea]], the 339th would &quot;wave-hop&quot; all the way to Bougainville at altitudes no greater than 50 feet (15&amp;nbsp;m), maintaining radio silence en route. Although the 339th Fighter Squadron officially flew the mission, ten of the eighteen pilots were drawn from the other two squadrons of the 347th Group. A thorough, detailed briefing included a cover story for the source of the intelligence stating that a coast-watcher had spotted an important high officer boarding an aircraft at Rabaul, but the pilots were aware that their target was Admiral Yamamoto. The specially-fitted P-38s took off from Guadalcanal's Fighter Two airstrip beginning at 0725. The date, [[April 18]], had the significance of being the one-year anniversary of the [[Doolittle Raid]] as well as being [[Easter Sunday]]. Two of the Lightnings assigned to the killer flight dropped out of the mission at the start, one with a tire flattened during takeoff, and the second when his drop tanks would not feed fuel to the engines. In Rabaul, despite urgings by local commanders to cancel the trip for fear of ambush, Yamamoto's planes took off as scheduled for the 315-mile trip. They climbed to 6,500 feet, with their fighter escort behind and 1,500 feet higher, split into two V-formations of three planes. Mitchell's flight of four led the squadron &quot;on the deck&quot; with the killer flight, consisting of Capt. Thomas G. Lanphier, Jr., 1st Lt. Rex T. Barber, and the spares, Lt. Besby F. Holmes and Lt. Raymond K. Hine, immediately behind, fighting off drowsiness, navigating by flight plan and [[dead-reckoning]]. This proved to be the longest fighter-intercept mission of the war, and was so skillfully executed by Major Mitchell that his force arrived at the intercept point one minute early, at 0934, just as the ever-punctual Yamamoto's aircraft descended into view in a light haze. Mitchell ordered his planes to drop tanks, turned to the right to parallel the bombers, and began a full power climb. Lt. Holmes was unable to drop his tanks and turned back to sea, followed by his wingman, Lt. Hine. Mitchell radioed Lanphier and Barber to engage and they turned to climb toward the eight aircraft. The closest escort fighters dropped their own tanks and began to dive toward the pair of P-38s. Lanphier, in a sound tactical move, immediately turned head-on and climbed towards the escorts while Barber chased the diving bomber transports. Barber banked steeply to turn in behind the bombers and momentarily lost sight of them, but when he regained contact he was immediately behind one, and began firing into its right engine, rear [[fuselage]], and [[empennage]]. Barber hit its left engine, it began to trail heavy black smoke, and the Betty rolled violently to the left, Barber narrowly avoiding a collision. Looking back he saw a column of black smoke and assumed it had crashed into the jungle. Barber headed towards the coast at treetop level, searching for the second bomber, not knowing which bomber carried Yamamoto. Barber spotted the second bomber low over the water off Moila Point just as Holmes (whose wing tanks had finally come off) and Hine attacked it. Holmes damaged the right engine of the Betty, which began emitting a white vapor trail, then he and Hine flew over the damaged bomber, carrying Chief of Staff Vice Admiral [[Matome Ugaki]] and part of Yamamoto's staff. Barber next attacked the stricken bombe
the notion of rhetoric as magic{{fact}}. As a person he was somewhat arrogant, dressing himself in purple and claiming that by the virtue of the knowledge he possessed he had become divine and could perform miracles{{fact}}. Yet his actions and teaching betrayed an [[egalitarian]] streak, he fought to preserve Greek [[democracy]] and allowed that through his teaching others could also become divine{{fact}}. He even went so far to suggest that all living things were on the same spiritual plane, indicating he was influenced by [[Pythagoras|Pythagorean]] spirituality{{fact}}. Like Pythagoras, he believed in the [[reincarnation|transmigration of souls]] between humans and animals and followed a [[vegetarian]] lifestyle. Empedocles is considered the last Greek philosopher to write in verse and the surviving fragments of his teaching are from his two poems, ''Purifications'' and ''On Nature''. ==Death and literary treatments== Empedocles' life was recorded by [[Diogenes Laertius]]. The legend goes that he died by throwing himself into an active volcano ([[Mount Etna]] in Sicily), so that people would believe his body had vanished and he had turned into an immortal god; however, the volcano threw back one of his bronze sandals, revealing the deceit. There is, however, some evidence that he actually died in Greece{{fact}}. In ''Icaro-Menippus'', a comedic dialogue written by the second century satirist [[Lucian of Samosata]], Empedocles’ final fate is re-evaluated. Rather than being incinerated in the fires of Mount Etna, he was carried up into the heavens by a volcanic eruption. Although a bit singed by the ordeal, Empedocles survives and continues his life on the moon, surviving by feeding on dew. Empedocles' death has inspired two major modern literary treatments. Empedocles' death is the subject of [[Friedrich Hölderlin]]'s play ''Tod des Empedokles'' (''Death of Empedocles''), two versions of which were written between the years 1798 and 1800. A third version was made public in 1826. In [[Matthew Arnold]]'s poem ''Empedocles on Etna'', a narrative of the philosopher's last hours before he jumps to his death in the crater first published in 1852, Empedocles predicts: :To the elements it came from :Everything will return. :Our bodies to earth, :Our blood to water, :Heat to fire, :Breath to air. ==Further reading== * M R Wright, ''Empedocles: The Extant Fragments'', 1995 * Peter Kingsley, ''Ancient Philosophy, Mystery and Magic: Empedocles and Pythagorean Tradition'', 1986 * Anthony Gottlieb, ''The Dream of Reason: A History of Philosophy from the Greeks to the Renaissance '', 2001 * Kirk, Raven, and Schofield, ''The Presocratic Philosophers'', 1983 * A. A. Long, ''The Cambridge Companion to Early Greek Philosophy'', 1999 * Bertrand Russell, ''The History of Western Philosophy'', 1945 ==External links== {{wikisource|Empedocles on Etna}} *[http://www.philosophypages.com/dy/e5.htm#empe Empedocles at Philosophical Dictionary] *[http://history.hanover.edu/texts/presoc/emp.htm Empedocles Fragments and Commentary] *[http://www.iep.utm.edu/e/empedocl.htm Empedocles (of Acragas) at Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy] * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/empedocles/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry] *[http://www.classicpersuasion.org/pw/empedocles/ Empedocles of Agrigentum at Peith&amp;ocirc;'s Web] {{Presocratics}} [[Category:490 BC births]] [[Category:430 BC deaths]] [[Category:Presocratic philosophers]] [[Category:Sicilian Greeks]] [[bg:Емпедокъл]] [[bn:এমপেডোক্লিস]] [[bs:Empedoklo]] [[ca:Empèdocles]] [[cs:Empedoklés]] [[da:Empedokles]] [[de:Empedokles]] [[el:Εμπεδοκλής]] [[eo:Empedoklo]] [[es:Empédocles]] [[et:Empedokles]] [[eu:Empedokles]] [[fa:امپدوکل]] [[fi:Empedokles]] [[fr:Empédocle d'Agrigente]] [[gl:Empédocles]] [[he:אמפדוקלס]] [[hr:Empedoklo]] [[hu:Empedoklész]] [[id:Empedokles]] [[it:Empedocle]] [[ja:&amp;#12456;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12506;&amp;#12489;&amp;#12463;&amp;#12524;&amp;#12473;]] [[la:Empedocles]] [[nl:Empedocles]] [[nn:Empedokles]] [[no:Empedokles]] [[pl:Empedokles]] [[pt:Empédocles]] [[ro:Empedocles]] [[ru:Эмпедокл из Агригента]] [[scn:Empedocli]] [[sk:Empedokles]] [[sl:Empedoklej]] [[sv:Empedokles]] [[tr:Empedokles]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Estrus</title> <id>9554</id> <revision> <id>15907432</id> <timestamp>2005-06-27T02:54:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Icarus3</username> <id>282222</id> </contributor> <comment>Merged with &quot;Estrus Cycle&quot;</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[estrus cycle]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ericaceae</title> <id>9555</id> <revision> <id>37289957</id> <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:13:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gdrbot</username> <id>263608</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Ericaceae | image = Erica arborea.JPG | image_width = 250px | image_caption = ''[[Tree heath|Erica arborea]]'' | regnum = [[Plantae]] | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Ericales]] | familia = '''Ericaceae''' | familia_authority = [[Antoine Laurent de Jussieu|Juss.]] | subdivision_ranks = Genera | subdivision = See text. }} The [[plant]] [[family (biology)|family]] '''Ericaceae''' (also called the ''heath family'' or ''ericaceous plants'') are mostly [[calcium oxide|lime]]-hating or [[calcifuge]] plants that thrive in [[acid]] [[soil]]s. The family Ericaceae includes numerous plants from mostly temperate climates: [[cranberry]], [[blueberry]], [[heath]], [[Calluna vulgaris|heather]], [[huckleberry]], [[azalea]] and [[rhododendron]] are well-known examples. Recent genetic research by the [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]] has resulted in the inclusion of the formerly recognised families Empetraceae, Epacridaceae, [[Monotropaceae]], Prionotaceae and [[Pyrolaceae]] into Ericaceae. == Genera == {| |- valign=top | *''[[Acrostemon]]'' *''[[Acrotriche]]'' *''[[Agapetes]]'' *''[[Agarista]]'' *''[[Allotropa]]'' *''[[Andersonia]]'' *''[[Bog-rosemary|Andromeda]]'' *''[[Anomalanthus]]'' *''[[Anthopteropsis]]'' *''[[Anthopterus]]'' *''[[Arachnocalyx]]'' *''[[Arbutus]]'' *''[[Arctostaphylos]]'' *''[[Astroloma]]'' *''[[Bejaria]]'' *''[[Brachyloma]]'' *''[[Bruckenthalia]]'' *''[[Bryanthus]]'' *''[[Calluna]]'' *''[[Calopteryx]]'' *''[[Cassiope]]'' *''[[Cavendishia]]'' *''[[Ceratiola]]'' *''[[Ceratostema]]'' *''[[Chamaedaphne]]'' *''[[Chimaphila]]'' *''[[Coccosperma]]'' *''[[Coilostigma]]'' *''[[Comarostaphylis]]'' *''[[Conostephium]]'' *''[[Corema]]'' *''[[Costera]]'' | *''[[Craibiodendron]]'' *''[[Cyathodes]]'' *''[[Daboecia]]'' *''[[Demosthenesia]]'' *''[[Didonica]]'' *''[[Dimorphanthera]]'' *''[[Diogenesia]]'' *''[[Diplarche]]'' *''[[Diplycosia]]'' *''[[Disterigma]]'' *''[[Dracophyllum]]'' *''[[Crowberry|Empetrum]]'' *''[[Epacris]]'' *''[[Epigaea]]'' *''[[Eremia]]'' *''[[Eremiella]]'' *''[[Erica]]'' *''[[Findlaya]]'' *''[[Gaultheria]]'' *''[[Gaylussacia]]'' *''[[Gonocalyx]]'' *''[[Grisebachia]]'' *''[[Harrimanella]]'' *''[[Hemitomes]]'' *''[[Kalmia]]'' *''[[Kalmiopsis]]'' *''[[Killipiella]]'' *''[[Lateropora]]'' *''[[Ledothamnus]]'' *''[[Ledum]]'' *''[[Leiophyllum]]'' *''[[Leucopogon]]'' | *''[[Leucothoe (plant)|Leucothoe]]'' *''[[Loiseleuria]]'' *''[[Lyonia]]'' *''[[Macleana]]'' *''[[Macnabia]]'' *''[[Malea (genus)|Malea]]'' *''[[Menziesia]]'' *''[[Mitrastylus]]'' *''[[Moneses]]'' *''[[Monotropa]]'' *''[[Monotropsis]]'' *''[[Mycerinus]]'' *''[[Nagelocarpus]]'' *''[[Notopora]]'' *''[[Oreanthes]]'' *''[[Ornithostaphylos]]'' *''[[Orthaea]]'' *''[[Orthilia]]'' *''[[Sourwood|Oxydendrum]]'' *''[[Pellegrinia]]'' *''[[Pentachondra]]'' *''[[Pernettyopsis]]'' *''[[Phyllodoce]]'' *''[[Pieris (plant)|Pieris]]'' *''[[Pityopus]]'' *''[[Platycalyx]]'' *''[[Pleuricospora]]'' *''[[Plutarchia]]'' *''[[Polyclita]]'' *''[[Prionotes]]'' *''[[Psammisia]]'' *''[[Pinedrops|Pterospora]]'' | *''[[Pyrola]]'' *''[[Rhododendron]]'' *''[[Rhodothamnus]]'' *''[[Richea]]'' *''[[Rusbya]]'' *''[[Salaxis]]'' *''[[Sarcodes]]'' *''[[Satyria]]'' *''[[Scyphogyne]]'' *''[[Semiramisia]]'' *''[[Simocheilus]]'' *''[[Siphonandra]]'' *''[[Sphyrospermum]]'' *''[[Stokoeanthus]]'' *''[[Styphelia]]'' *''[[Sympieza]]'' *''[[Syndsmanthus]]'' *''[[Tepuia]]'' *''[[Thamnus]]'' *''[[Themistoclesia]]'' *''[[Therorhodion]]'' *''[[Thibaudia]]'' *''[[Thoracosperma]]'' *''[[Trochocarpa]]'' *''[[Tsusiophyllum]]'' *''[[Utleya]]'' *''[[Vaccinium]]'' *''[[Xylococcus]]'' *''[[Zenobia (plant)|Zenobia]]'' |} == External Reference == * [http://delta-intkey.com/angio/www/ericacea.htm Ericaceae] in [http://delta-intkey.com/angio/ L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards). The families of flowering plants.] [[Category:Plant families]] [[Category:Ericales]] [[Category:Ericaceae|*]] [[da:Lyng-familien]] [[de:Heidekrautgewächse]] [[es:Ericaceae]] [[eo:Erikacoj]] [[fr:Ericaceae]] [[ko:진달랫과]] [[it:Ericaceae]] [[la:Ericaceae]] [[lt:Erikiniai augalai]] [[nl:Heifamilie]] [[ja:ツツジ科]] [[no:Lyngfamilien]] [[pl:Wrzosowate]] [[ru:Вересковые]] [[fi:Kanervakasvit]] [[sv:Ljungväxter]] [[zh:杜鹃花科]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Endangered species</title> <id>9556</id> <revision> <id>42104345</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:27:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>NickelShoe</username> <id>418205</id> </contributor> <comment>Is that better? It's not the indiv organism, it's the group, right?</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[endangered species (disambiguation)]].'' [[Image:sea otter.jpg|thumb|right|310px|The endangered Sea Otter]] An '''endangered species''' is a population of organisms (frequently but not always a taxonomic [[species]]) which is either (a) s
while running on tyres (partially separate tracks) * [[Nantes]], since [[1985]] * [[Orléans]], since [[2000]] * [[Rouen]], since [[1994]] * [[Saint-Etienne]] * [[Strasbourg]], since [[1994]] Under construction: * [[Mulhouse]] * [[Nice]] * [[Valenciennes]] * [[Paris]], T3 around the city Planned: * [[Angers]] * [[Brest, France|Brest]] * [[Le Mans]] * [[Toulon]] Closed: * [[Paris]], since March [[1937]] * [[Caen]], [[1935]] === Rail links with adjacent countries === * [[Transportation in Andorra|Andorra]] &amp;mdash; no * [[Transportation in Belgium|Belgium]] &amp;mdash; yes * [[Transportation in Germany|Germany]] &amp;mdash; yes * [[Transportation in Italy|Italy]] &amp;mdash; yes * [[Transportation in Luxembourg|Luxembourg]] &amp;mdash; yes * [[Transportation in Monaco|Monaco]] &amp;mdash; yes * [[Transportation in Spain|Spain]] &amp;mdash; yes &amp;mdash; [[break-of-gauge]] 1435mm/1676mm * [[Transportation in Switzerland|Switzerland]] &amp;mdash; yes * [[Transportation in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]] &amp;mdash; yes; see [[Eurostar]] == [[Road]]s == ''Total:'' 893,300 km (including 10,300 km of [[Motorway]]s) (1998 est.). Most motorways in France are toll and operated by private companies (such as the [[SAPN]]). All french roads have tarmac surfacing. === Specific motorways === * [[A1 autoroute (France)]], from [[Paris]] to the Belgian border * [[A6 autoroute]] * [[A75 autoroute]], from [[Clermont-Ferrand]] to [[Béziers]] * [[List of motorways in France]] * [[Peripherique|Paris ring road ''Périphérique'']] == [[Waterway]]s / canals == 14,932 km; 6,969 km heavily traveled == [[Pipeline]]s == Crude [[Petroleum|oil]] 3,059 km; petroleum products 4,487 km; natural [[gas]] 24,746 km == [[Seaport]]s and [[harbour]]s == [[Bordeaux]], [[Boulogne-sur-Mer]],[[Calais]], [[Cherbourg]], [[Dijon]], [[Dunkerque]], [[La Pallice]], [[Le Havre]], [[Lyon]], [[Marseille]], [[Mulhouse]], [[Nantes]], [[Paris]], [[Rouen]], [[Saint-Nazaire]], [[Saint Malo]], [[Strasbourg]], [[Gennevilliers]]. ==Merchant marine== &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 55 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,155,286 GRT/1,693,030 DWT &lt;br&gt;''ships by type:'' Bulk 3, cargo 5, chemical tanker 6, combination bulk 1, container 5, liquefied gas 4, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger 3, petroleum tanker 16, roll-on/roll-off 6, short-sea passenger 4, specialized tanker 1 (1999 est.) &lt;br&gt;''note:'' [[France]] also maintains a captive register for French-owned ships in [[Iles Kerguelen]] ([[French Southern and Antarctic Lands]]) (1998 est.) ==Air travel in France== There are ~478 airports in France (1999 est.) (see [[List of French Airports]]). Among the airspace governance authorities active in France, one is [[Aéroports de Paris]] (see http://www.aeroportsdeparis.fr/ADP/en-GB/Passagers/ homepage]), which has authority over the Parisian region, managing 14 airports including [[Charles De Gaulle International Airport]] and [[Orly Airport]].{{ref|ParisianAirspaceAuthority}} The former, located in [[Roissy|Roissy en France]] near [[Paris]], is one of [[Europe]]'s principal aviation centers and is also France's main international airport. ==[[Airport]]s &amp;mdash; with paved runways== &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 267 &lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:'' 14 &lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 30 &lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 92 &lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:'' 74 &lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:'' 57 (1999 est.) === Airports &amp;mdash; with unpaved runways === &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 207 &lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 4 &lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:'' 76 &lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:'' 127 (1999 est.) === National [[airline]] === *[[Air France]] *[[AOL]] *[[Air Inter]] === [[Heliport]]s === 3 (1999 est.) == History == France naturally has a system of large, navigable rivers, such as the [[Loire]], [[Seine|la Seine]] and [[Rhone River|le Rhône]] that criss cross the country and have long been essential for trade and travel. The first important human improvements were the [[Roman road]]s linking major settlements and providing quick passage for marching armies. These routes these roads followed are copied today by many 'N' class roads. Throughout the [[middle ages]] improvements were sparse and mediocre and transport became slow and cumbersome. The early modern period saw great improvements. There was a proliferation of [[canal]]s connecting rivers (like the [[Canal du Midi]]). It also saw great changes in oceanic shipping. Rather than expensive [[galley]]s, wind powered ships that were far faster and had far more cargo space became popular on the coastal trade. Transatlantic shipping with the [[New World]] turned cities such as [[Nantes]], [[Bordeaux]], [[Cherbourg]] and [[Le Havre]] into major ports of international importance. == Railways == ''(see also [[French railway history]])'' Even in France, where, because of water transport, railways were of lesser importance than in other nations, railways were still an extremely important area of economic development. Despite already having a well developed water transport system, by [[1875]] railways were carrying four times as much cargo as canals and rivers combined. French railways started later, and developed more slowly than those in other nations. While the first railway built in France was in operation in [[1832]], not long after the first line had opened in [[United Kingdom|Britain]], French progress failed to keep pace over the next decade. After the war of [[1870]] the French rail system was overhauled and made far more efficient. By [[1914]] the French rail system was a match for Germany's and played a crucial part in France's victory in the [[World War I|First World War]]. In the [[1930s]] [[Léon Blum]]'s socialist government nationalised the French rail system, along with many other industries, and the transport system was successful in [[World War II]]. After the war the French train system began a slow movement to electric trains. Eventually [[TGV]] [[high speed train]]s were introduced providing extremely quick links been France's urban centers. == See also == *[[France]] *[http://www.sncf.com/ SNCF web site] *[http://www.sncf.co.uk/ SNCF UK web site] == Notes and References == # {{note|ParisianAirspaceAuthority}} {{Citenews | title=Laurine Feinberg appointed to guide the Parisian airports towards the ISO 14001 certification (Press Release) | date=February 16, 2005 | org=Aéroports de Paris | url=http://www.aeroportsdeparis.fr/ADP/en-GB/Groupe/Press/Communiques/January-March+2005/LaurineFeinbergappointed.htm?}} [[Category:Transportation in France|*]] [[fr:Transport en France]] [[it:Trasporti in Francia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Military of France</title> <id>10724</id> <revision> <id>39254633</id> <timestamp>2006-02-11T22:04:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>12.29.79.146</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Military | color=#8888ff | age=17 years of age with consent for voluntary military service (2001) | availability=13,676,509 (2005 est.) | service=11,262,661 (2005 est.) | reaching age=389,204 (2005 est.) | active=259,050 ([[List of countries by number of active troops|ranked 20th]]) | amount= $45 billion (2005) | percent GDP= 2.6% (2005) }} ==Organisation== The titular head of the French armed forces is the [[President of France|President of the Republic]], in his role as ''Chef des Armées'' &amp;mdash; the President is thus [[Commander-in-Chief]] of French Forces. However, the Constitution puts civil and military government forces at the disposal of the ''gouvernement'' (the executive cabinet of ministers, who are not necessarily of the same political side as the president). The [[Minister of Defence (France)|Minister of Defence]] ([[as of 2005]], [[Michèle Alliot-Marie]]) oversees the military's funding, procurement and operations. The [[France|French]] [[armed forces]] are divided into four branches: * [[French Army|Army]] (''Armée de Terre''), including ** [[Chasseurs Alpins]] ** [[French Foreign Legion|Foreign Legion]] (''Légion étrangère'') ** [[French Marines|Marine]] troops ** light aviation (ALAT - ''Aviation Légére de l'Armée de Terre'') ** engineers (''Génie'') *** including [[Paris Fire Brigade]] * [[French Navy|Navy]] (''Marine Nationale''), including ** [[Aviation Navale|Naval Air]] ** [[naval fusiliers (France)|naval fusiliers]] and [[naval commandos (France)|naval commandos]] ** Including [[Marseille]] Fire Battalion * [[French Air Force|Air Force]] (''Armée de l'Air'') including ** territorial [[Air Defence]] ** air [[fusilier]]s * [[French Gendarmerie|Gendarmerie]] (''Gendarmerie Nationale''), a military police force which serves for the most part as a rural and general purpose police force. [[Image:French military on Champs Elysees DSC00768.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Every year on [[Bastille Day]], a large military parade is staged before the [[President of France|President of the Republic]] (here, soldiers preparing themselves).]] They also include the following services: * [[Délégation Générale pour l'Armement|General delegation to weaponry]] (defence procurement agency), military/civilian service, including ** formerly, the Direction of Naval Constructions ** supervision of some engineering schools (including [[École Polytechnique]], [[École Nationale Supérieure de Techniques Avancées]] and [[SUPAERO]]) * Health service of the armies, which operates [[:Category:Military hospitals in France|a number of military hospitals]] * Service of fuels. ==Manpower== The total number of military personnel is approximately 300,000. However, 100,000 of these are in the Gendarmerie, and thus a vast majority of these 100,000 are used in everyday law enforcement operations inside France and are not fit for external operations. Elements of the Gendarmerie are however present in all French external operations, providing troops specialised in order enforcement