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r in this place nor before the door of the citizen's house did she appear as a lunar goddess.''
:''We may also ask, why should a divinity who was sometimes regarded as the moon, but had many other and even more important connexions, be given three forms to mark the three phases of the moon, and why should Greek sculpture have been in this solitary instance guilty of a frigid astronomical symbolism, while [[Selene]], who was obviously the moon and nothing else, was never treated in this way? With as much taste and propriety [[Helios]] might have been given twelve heads.''
Despite this, [[neopaganism]] still often includes Hecate among the lunar goddesses {{fact}}.
==Festivals==
Hecate was worshipped by both the Greeks and the Romans who had their own festivals dedicated to her. According to Ruickbie (2004:19) the Greeks observed two days sacred to Hecate, one on the 13th of August and one on the 30th of November, whilst the Romans observed the 29th of every month as her sacred day.
==Cross-cultural parallels==
The figure of Hecate can often be associated with the figure of [[Isis]] in Egyptian myth, mainly due to her role as sorceress. In Hebrew myth she is often compared to the figure of [[Lilith]] and the [[Whore of Babylon]] in later Christian tradition. Both were symbols of [[liminal]] points, and [[Lilith]] also has a role in sorcery. Some scholars ultimately compare her to the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]].
Before she became associated with Greek mythology, she had many similarities with [[Artemis]] (wilderness, and watching over wedding ceremonies) and [[Hera]] (child rearing and the protection of young men or heroes, and watching over wedding ceremonies).
==Hecate in literature==
[[Image:Hecate-blake.jpg|thumb|right|Depiction of Hecate by [[Blake]].]]
Hecate is a character in [[William Shakespeare]]'s tragedy ''[[Macbeth]]'', which was first played circa 1605; she is represented as a goddess or demon who commands the three witches. There is some evidence to suggest that the character and the scenes or portions thereof in which she appears (Act III, Scene v, and a portion of Act IV, Scene i) were not written by Shakespeare, but was added during a revision by [[Thomas Middleton]], who used material from his own play ''[[The Witch]]'', which was produced in [[1615]]. Most modern texts of ''Macbeth'' indicate the interpolations.
Hecate is used by [[William Blake]] in a number of his paintings and poems.
==Hecate in popular culture==
More recently, Hecate has appeared in [[Mike Mignola]]'s [[Hellboy]] comics.
She is also heavily mentioned in the popular TV series [[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]] by [[wiccans]] and other characters casting spells.
[[Hecate Enthroned]] are an English [[black metal]] band.
Hecate is also the name taken by one of the Twenty Titans in Legends of Dune by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson.
In Charmed, Hecate appears as a demon who comes to earth every two hundred years to seduce a mortal man and with him have a child, then kill him and raise the baby to become a demon. She is thought to be the mother of Cole Turner (Belthazor).
== Hecate in modern magic ==
In modern times, she has become popular in [[Paganism]] and [[Wicca]], largely due to her association as the goddess of sorcery.
In modern Paganism Hecate can take numerous roles. Modern [[neopaganism|Neopagans]], particularly ''Hellenistic'' [[sect]]s in the [[United States]], often view Hecate as a goddess of magic. Hecate is not seen as a necessarily benevolent goddess, and her favor is often seen as fickle. Hecate is thought to grant magical power to those who please her and sometimes punish those who displease her. Examples of punishment may include inflicting madness in some cases, or sickness, posion, and disease in others. However Hecate is not thought to be malevolent, and to those who gain her favor she is thought to grant boons, including relief from pain, ease in childbirth, and the curing of disease and physical ailments.
Worship of Hecate can take many forms. In some cases [[animal sacrifice]]s have been alleged. Most modern pagans actively discourage the practice of animal sacrifice, in part due to fear of being associated with [[Satanism]] and in part due to concerns for the humane treatment of animals.
Hecate is thought to favor those who show conviction, commitment, and adoration for her, which leads many to conduct chanting and prostration in the hope of gaining favor and magical power. The most common forms of worship include prostration, chanting adoration for Hecate, fasting, the collecting of lanterns, the burning of oils and incense, and the burning and bread and other foods as sacrifices. According to some pagan websites Hecate is worshipped by both men and women evenly.
Many groups worship [[Artemis]] instead due to Hecate's supposedly fickle nature and lack of benevolence. Other gods commonly worshipped by such groups are [[Theia]] and [[Hyperion (mythology)|Hyperion]].
In modern some modern pagan beliefs, wild animals are sacred to Hecate. However, creatures of darkness — such as [[raven]]s, [[owl]]s, and [[snake]]s — are most commonly used. [[Dragon]]s have been included in this list more recently, but are not a traditional Greek association with this goddess. Several images of Hecate show her holding a snake. Snakes have long been connected with [[chthonic]] powers and the powers of life, death, and rebirth (see [[Serpent (symbolism)|Serpent]]).
== Queen of ghosts ==
'''Queen of Ghosts''' a title associated with [[Hecate]] due to the belief that she can both prevent harm from leaving, but also allow harm to enter from the spirit world.
Hecate thus has a role and special power in graveyards.
This association also played a large part in the idea of [[Hecate]] as a [[lunar goddess]].
==References==
===Notes===
<references/>
===Primary sources===
* [[Hesiod]], ''Theogony, Works and Days''. An English translation is [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/hesiod/theogony.htm available online]
* [[Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece''.
* [[Strabo]], ''Geography''
===Secondary sources===
* Burkert, Walter. ''Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical'', (1987). Oxford, Blackwell. ISBN 0631156240.
* Lewis Richard Farnell, (1896). "Hecate in Art", ''The Cults of the Greek States''. [[Oxford University Press]], [[Oxford]].
*Johnston, Sarah Iles, (1990). ''Hekate Soteira: A Study of Hekate's Role in the Chaldean Oracles and Related Literature''.
*Johnston, Sarah Iles, (1991). ''Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece''. ISBN 0520217071
* Mallarmé, Stephane, (1880). ''Les Dieux Antiques, nouvelle mythologie illustrée''.
==Bibliography==
*[[Walter Burkert|Burkert, Walter]], 1985. ''Greek Religion'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press)
*[[Johnston, Sarah Iles]]. ''Hekate Soteira: A Study of Hekate's Role in the Chaldean Oracles and Related Literature''. 1990.
*[[Johnston, Sarah Iles]]. ''Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece''. 1991.
*[[Karl Kerenyi|Kerenyi, Karl]]. ''The Gods of the Greeks''. 1951.
*[[Rabinowitz,Jacob]]. ''The Rotting Goddess''. 1990. A work which views studies Hekate from the perspective of [[Mircea Eliade]]'s archetypes]], and substantiates its claims through cross-cultural comparisons. The work has been sharply criticized by Classics scholars, some dismissing Rabinowitz as [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr/1998/98.5.11.html a neo-pagan].
*[[Ruickbie, Leo]]. ''Witchcraft Out of the Shadows: A Complete History''. Robert Hale, 2004.
== External links ==
*[http://www.hekate.nu Frequently Asked Questions about Hekate]
*[http://21.1911encyclopedia.org/H/HE/HECATE.htm ''Encyclopaedia Britanica'' 1911:] "Hecate"
*[http://www.goddessmystic.com/CoreCurriculum/Goddesses/Hekate/index.shtml Hekate: Guardian at the Gate]
*[http://www.theoi.com/Ouranos/Hekate.html Theoi article on Hecate]
*[http://www.islandnet.com/~hornowl.html Hecate in Early Greek Religion]
*[http://www.granta.demon.co.uk/arsm/jg/hekate.html Hekate in Greek esotericism]: Ptolemaic and Gnostic transformations of Hecate
*[http://www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/CGPrograms/Cast/image/D083.jpg cast of the Crannon statue], at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.
----
{{Commonscat|Hecate}}
* '''[[100 Hekate]]''' is an [[asteroid]].
* [[Hecate (artist)|Hecate]] is also the stage name of [[breakcore]] artist Rachael Kozak
[[Category:Greek goddesses]]
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<page>
<title>Haematopoietic stem cell</title>
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<comment>#Redirect [[Pluripotential hemopoietic stem cell]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Pluripotential hemopoietic stem cell]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Haematopoiesis</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-21T09:51:14Z</timestamp>
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<comment>robot Modifying: cs</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Haematopoiesis''' is the formation of [[blood]] cellular components. This can occur in [[myeloid]] tissue, which is found in the [[bone marrow]] and [[lymphatic]] tissue, such as [[lymph nodes]] or the [[spleen]]. All of the cellular components of the blood are derived from [[plurip |
uch as the American [[Food and Drug Administration]]) and the agencies' adherence to experimental evaluation methods. They claim that this impedes those seeking to bring useful and effective treatments and approaches to the public, and protest that their contributions and discoveries are unfairly dismissed, overlooked or suppressed. Alternative medicine providers often argue that health fraud should be dealt with appropriately when it occurs.
==Contemporary use of alternative medicine==
[[Edzard Ernst]] wrote in the [[Medical Journal of Australia]] that "''about half the general population in developed countries use complementary and alternative medicine (CAM)''" (Ernst 2003). A [http://nccam.nih.gov/news/2004/052704.htm survey] (Barnes et al 2004) released in May 2004 by the [[National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine]], part of the [[National Institutes of Health]] in the United States, found that in 2002, 36% of Americans used some form of alternative therapy in the past 12 months &mdash; a category that included yoga, meditation, herbal treatments and the [[Atkins diet]]. If [[prayer]] was counted as an alternative therapy, the figure rose to 62.1%. Another study by Astin et al (1998) suggests a similar figure of 40%. A British telephone survey by the BBC of 1209 adults in 1998 shows that around 20% of adults in Britain had used alternative medicine in the past 12 months (Ernst & White 1999)
The use of alternative medicine appears to be increasing. Eisenburg et al carried out a study in 1998 which showed that use of alternative medicine had risen from 33.8% in 1990 to 42.1% in 1997. In the United Kingdom, a [[2000]] report ordered by the [[House of Lords]] suggested that "limited data seem to support the idea that CAM use in the United Kingdom is high and is increasing"[http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/ld199900/ldselect/ldsctech/123/12301.htm].
===Medical education===
Increasing numbers of medical colleges have begun offering courses in alternative medicine. For example, the [[University of Arizona]] College of Medicine offers a program in [[Integrative Medicine]] under the leadership of [[Andrew Weil|Dr. Andrew Weil]] which trains physicians in various branches of alternative medicine which "''neither rejects conventional medicine, nor embraces alternative practices uncritically.''" [http://www.ahsc.arizona.edu/opa/horizons/1997/integrate.htm] In three separate research surveys that surveyed the 125 medical schools offering a MD degree, the 19 medical schools offering a DO degree, and 585 schools of nursing in the United States: 60 percent of U.S. medical schools offering a MD degree teach CAM, 95% of Osteopathic medical school teach CAM, and 84.8% of US schools of nursing teach CAM. (Wetzel et al 1998, Saxon et al 2004, Fenton & Morris 2003)
In the UK, no medical schools offer courses that teach the clinical practise of alternative medicine. However, alternative medicine is taught in several schools as part of the curriculum. Teaching is based mostly on theory and understanding alternative medicine, with emphasis on being able to communicate with alternative medicine specialists. To obtain competence in practising clinical alternative medicine, qualifications must be obtained from individual medical societies. The student must have graduated and be a qualified doctor. The [http://www.medical-acupuncture.co.uk British Medical Acupuncture Society], which offers medical acupuncture certificates to doctors, is one such example.
== Support for alternative medicine ==
Advocates of alternative medicine hold that alternative therapies often provide the public with services not available from conventional medicine. This argument covers a range of areas, such as [[patient empowerment]], alternative methods of [[pain management]], treatment methods that support the [[biopsychosocial model]] of health, stress reduction services, other preventive health services that are not typically a part of conventional medicine, and of course complementary medicine's [[palliative care]] which is practiced by such world renowned cancer centers such as [[Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center|Memorial Sloan-Kettering]] (see Vickers 2004).
===Efficacy===
Advocates of alternative medicine hold that the various alternative treatment methods are effective in treating a wide range of major and minor medical conditions, and contend that recently published research (such as Michalsen 2003, Gonsalkorale 2003, and Berga 2003) proves the effectiveness of specific alternative treatments. They assert that a PubMed search revealed over 370,000 research papers classified as alternative medicine published in Medline-recognized journals since 1966 in the National Library of Medicine database (such as Kleijnen 1991, Linde 1997, Michalsen 2003, Gonsalkorale 2003, and Berga 2003).
Advocates of alternative medicine hold that alternative medicine may provide health benefits through [[patient empowerment]], by offering more choices to the public, including treatments that are simply not available in conventional medicine.
''"Most Americans who consult alternative providers would probably jump at the chance to consult a physician who is well trained in scientifically based medicine and who is also open-minded and knowledgeable about the body's innate mechanisms of healing, the role of lifestyle factors in influencing health, and the appropriate uses of dietary supplements, herbs, and other forms of treatment, from osteopathic manipulation to Chinese and Ayurvedic medicine. In other words, they want competent help in navigating the confusing maze of therapeutic options that are available today, especially in those cases in which conventional approaches are relatively ineffective or harmful."'' (Snyderman, Weil 2002)
Some physicians are willing to embrace some aspects of alternative medicine.
Although advocates of alternative medicine acknowledge that the [[placebo effect]] may play a role in the benefits that some receive from alternative therapies, they point out that this does not diminish their validity. Skeptics are confounded by this view and claim that it is acknowledgement of the inefficacy of alternative treatments.
===Danger reduced when used as a complement to conventional medicine===
A major objection to alternative medicine is that it may be done in place of conventional medical treatments. As long as alternative treatments are used alongside standard conventional medical treatments, most medical doctors find most forms of complementary medicine acceptable (Vickers 2004). Consistent with previous studies, the CDC recently reported that the majority of individuals in the United States (i.e., 54.9%) used CAM in conjunction with conventional medicine. (CDC Advance Data Report #343, 2002)
Patients should however always inform their medical doctor they are using alternative medicine. Some patients do not tell their medical doctors since they fear it will hurt their patient-doctor relationship. However some alternative treatments may interact with orthodox medical treatments.
The issue of alternative medicine interfering with conventional medical practices is minimized when it is only turned to after the conventional medicine path has been exhausted. Many patients believe alternative medicine can help in coping with chronic illnesses for which conventional medicine offers no cure and only management. It is becoming more common for a patient's own MD to suggest alternatives when they cannot offer a treatment.
== Criticism of alternative medicine ==
Due to the wide range of therapies that are considered to be "alternative medicine" few criticisms apply across the board. For more information about a particular therapy or branch of alternative medicine, including specific criticism, please refer to the following link: [[List of branches of alternative medicine]].
Criticisms directed at specific branches of alternative medicine range from the fairly minor (conventional treament is believed to be more effective in a particular area) to incompatibility with the known laws of physics (for example, in [[homeopathy]]).
Proponents of the various forms of alternative medicine reject criticism as being founded in prejudice, financial self-interest, or ignorance.
===Efficacy===
====Lack of proper testing====
Despite the large number of studies regarding alternative therapies, critics contend that there are no statistics on exactly how many of these studies were controlled, double-blind peer-reviewed experiments or how many produced results supporting alternative medicine or parts thereof. They contend that many forms of alternative medicine are rejected by conventional medicine because the efficacy of the treatments has not been demonstrated through double-blind [[randomized controlled trial]]s. Some skeptics of alternative practices point out that a person may attribute symptomatic relief to an otherwise ineffective therapy due to the natural recovery from or the cyclical nature of an illness, the [[placebo effect]], or the possibility that the person never originally had a true illness [http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/altpsych.html].
====Problems with known tests and studies====
Critics contend that observer bias and poor study design invalidate the results of many studies carried out by alternative medicine promoters.
A review of the effectiveness of certain alternative medicine techniques for cancer treatment (Vickers 2004), while finding that most of these treatments are not merely "unproven" but are proven not to work, notes that several studies have found evidence that the [[psychosocial treatment]] of patients by [[psychologist]]s is linked to survival advantages (although it comments that these results are not consistently replicated). The same review, while specifically noting that "comple |
lars see evidence that the biblical account, like other ancient religious views, presumes pre-existence of some kind of raw material, albeit without form: "Now the earth was formless and void, darkness was over the face of the deep, and the spirit of God hovered over the waters." God then fashions the disordered material, to create the world.
[[Joseph Campbell]] wrote extensively on the subject and considered creative mythology a means to reconcile the waking consciousness to the ''mysterium tremendum et fascinans'' of this universe ''as it is''. In his book ''The Masks of God: Creative Mythology'' he explains that the retelling of the creation myth would render an interpretive total image of creation to be known to contemporary culture. Renewing the act of the experience of creation the existence of adventure is renewed, “at once shattering and reintergrating the fixed already known, in the sacrificial creative fire of the becoming thing that is no thing at all but life, not as it ''will be'' or as it ''should be'', as it ''was'' or as it ''never will be'', but as it ''is'', in depth, in process, ''here and now'', inside and out.”
==Limits to the ontology of creation==
While many scenarios are proposed by religion and science to identify 'first cause' and the origin of creation ([[ontology]]), there are some fundamental limits to the knowledge of humankind that present a barrier to finding any definitive answer.
[[Post-modern]] philosophy currently holds that there is nothing that one can know for certain. [[Immanuel Kant]]'s philosophy can be seen as a forerunner of this idea — that because we view the universe through the lens of the mind, which is 'shaped' by space, time, and the things embedded in space and time, it is not possible to see things-in-themselves ([[noumena]]) - the real objects that lie behind the subjective objects ([[phenomenon|phenomena]]) we recognise. If true, it is beyond the mind of humankind to perceive a condition that has no space or time. Many other philosophers, most recently [[Karl Popper|Popper]] have all shown that there is precious little one can be sure of that would provide a starting point to determine the 'first cause' that led to creation.
Modern [[physics]] is an [[natural science|empirical science]] based on [[experiment]] and [[observation]] that characterizes how things happen through [[scientific theories]] and [[physical laws]], but ultimately does not answer the question of 'why' things happen at the foundational (ontological) level. For example, the existence of the [[Big Bang]] is not predicated on a reason for its occurrence. What's more, the modern physics breaks down at the [[Planck time]]/[[Planck length]], where both the influences of [[quantum mechanics]] and [[gravity]] are required to be combined in order to characterize the interactions that occur. As such, there is no [[theory of everything|model]] available that has been tested at this level, and so any attempt to theoretically probe beyond this regime in search of a more fundamental appreciation of the nature of the universe is hampered.
Religion has philosophy and oral testimony available to it to demonstrate a God or a separate "first cause" that called the universe into existence. As such it is dependent on faith in God or the specific "first cause" to which it ascribes.
==Creation within various belief systems==
Some creation beliefs are part of a named system of beliefs and are labeled as such below. Some creation beliefs seem to be better characterized according to time and/or place as they are part of a human culture in a time/place.
===Babylonian===
The Babylonian creation myth is described in [[Enûma Elish]]. It existed in various versions and copies, the oldest dating to at least 1700 B.C.E.
In the poem, the god [[Marduk]] arms himself and sets out to challenge the monster [[Tiamat]]. Marduk destroys Tiamat, cutting her into two halves which become the Earth and the sky. Later on, he also destroys Tiamat's husband, [[Kingu]], and uses his blood to create mankind. (Reference: A. Leo Oppenheim, ''Ancient Mesopotamia''.)
===Buddhist===
Buddhism generally ignores the question regarding the origin of life. The [[Buddha]] regarding the origin of life has said "Conjecture about [the origin, etc., of] the world is an unconjecturable that is not to be conjectured about, that would bring madness & vexation to anyone who conjectured about it." [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/canon/sutta/anguttara/an04-077.html AN IV.77], and in regard to ignoring the question of the origin of life the Buddha has said "And why are they undeclared by me? Because they are not connected with the goal, are not fundamental to the holy life. They do not lead to [[disenchantment]], [[dispassion]], [[cessation]], calming, direct knowledge, self-awakening, Unbinding. That's why they are undeclared by me." [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/canon/sutta/majjhima/mn-063-tb0.html MN 63].
===Chinese===
There are five major views of creation in China:
* The first, and most consistent historically, is that no myth exists. This is not to say there were none existing at all, only that there is no evidence showing an attempt to explain the world's origin.
* The second view is very indirect. It is merely based on a question of a dialog in an earlier reference. The idea in the question implies that the heavens and the earth separated from one another.
* The third view is the one perpetuated by Taoism by the nature of its philosophy. It appears "relatively" late in Chinese history. In it, [[taoism|Tao]] is described as the ultimate force behind the creation. With tao, nothingness gave rise to existence, existence gave rise to [[yin and yang]], and yin and yang gave rise to everything. Due to the ambiguous nature of this myth, it could be compatible with the first myth (and therefore say nothing). But it could, like its antithesis, be explained in a way to better fit the modern scientific view of the creation of universe.
* The fourth view is the relatively late myth of [[Pangu]]. This was an explanation offered by [[Taoist]] [[monk]]s hundreds of years after [[Laozi]]; probably around [[200 CE]]. In this story, the universe begins as a [[world egg|cosmic egg]]. A god named [[Pangu]], born inside the egg, broke it into two halves: The upper half became the sky, the lower half became the earth. As the god grew taller, the sky and the earth grew thicker and were separated further. Finally the god died and his body parts became different parts of the earth.
* The fifth view would be tribal accounts that vary widely and not necessarily connect to a system of belief.
===Christian===
{{main articles|[[Creation (theology)]], [[Creation according to Genesis]], and [[Creationism]]}}
According to the book of Genesis, God eternally pre-existed the created order. As Genesis' first recorded act in reference to the world we know today, "God created" (Gen. 1:1). All the created order, from the luminaries of the sky to the fish of the sea, to the mingling of dust and divine breath that is humankind (Heb. ''adam'', covering both male and female humankind), were created by God to embrace and enjoy the optimal living environment that is earth. Man and woman were made to reflect God's authority, love and good government into the world as stewards, and to offer up the praises of creation back to God.
Unique in all the created order, humanity, male and female, are the sole bearers of the ''imago Dei'', the image (Heb. ''tselem'' - as in ''a child in the image of a parent'') of God among animate and inanimate creation. As image-bearers, human beings have a mandate to walk in community with God, community and care for one another, and as caretakers of this good world. Resisting the invitation to the "We" of community with God and one another, human beings chose to live in the "I" of individualism and self-actualization.
At this point in the Genesis origins narrative, human beings became, as Francis Shaeffer put it, "indisputably bent." This self-made isolation moves the human soul toward self-preservation and self-absorption. This "falling into shadow," has unleashed destructive patterns within and without the human race, and the need for a redemptive ''adam'' to choose to live a human life in community with God, thereby reversing the effects of the fall, was exposed.
In Christian belief, Jesus, the Christ of God, was the new ''adam'' sent to us "at the fullness of time." Humanity's search to return to the Eden of our origin will culminate in a new and amplified Eden in the age to come, manifest in a new heaven and a new earth.
'''On First Cause'''
References to God in the [[New Testament]] vary, however, overall they demonstrate an incorporation of the first cause. It should be noted, however, that the Chrisitian conception of God, the holy [[trinity]], is more complex. The following examples illustrate this:
''Revelation 1:8 - I am the Alpha and the Omega, the beginning and the end... that which is, which has been, and that which is yet to come, Almighty God''.
''John 1:1-4 - In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. The same was in the beginning with God. All things were made by him; and without him was not any thing made that was made. In him was life; and the life was the light of men''.
===The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints===
Followers of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints believe that physical reality (space, matter and/or energy) is [[eternal]], and therefore does not have an absolute origin. The Creator is an architect and organizer of pre-mortal matter and energy, who constructed the present universe out of the raw material.
===Creek===
The Creek believe that the world was originally entirely underwater. The only land was a |
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row<br>
row-level locking<br>
Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University<br>
RPC '''DONE'''<br>
RPG<br>
RPI<br>
RPL<br>
RPL-1<br>
RPM '''DONE'''<br>
rpm '''DONE'''<br>
RPN<br>
Répondez s'il vous plait<br>
RPT<br>
RRL<br>
RRS<br>
RS<br>
RS-232 '''DONE'''<br>
RS-232C<br>
RS-232D<br>
RS-422<br>
RS-423<br>
RS-449<br>
RS-485<br>
RS6000 '''DONE'''<br>
RS/6000 '''DONE'''<br>
RS6K '''DONE'''<br>
RSA<br>
RSA Data Security, Inc.<br>
RSA encryption '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
RSCS<br>
Réseaux Associés pour la Recherche Européenne<br>
Réseaux IP Européens<br>
RS flip-flop<br>
rsh<br>
RSI<br>
RSL<br>
RSN<br>
rstat<br>
RSTS/E<br>
RSVP<br>
RTBM<br>
RTC++<br>
RT-CDL<br>
RTEE<br>
RTF '''DONE'''<br>
RTFAQ<br>
RTFB<br>
RTFM '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
RTFS<br>
RTI<br>
RTL<br>
RTL/1<br>
RTL/2<br>
RTM<br>
RTMP '''DONE'''<br>
RTOS<br>
RT-PC<br>
RTS<br>
RTSA<br>
RTSP '''DONE'''<br>
RTT<br>
RTTI<br>
ru<br>
rubi '''DONE'''<br>
Ruby '''DONE'''<br>
rude<br>
RUFL<br>
run<br>
RUNCIBLE<br>
runes '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
runic '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
run-length encoding '''DONE'''<br>
run time<br>
run-time environment<br>
run-time error<br>
run-time library<br>
run-time support<br>
run-time system<br>
Run-Time Type Information<br>
ruptime<br>
RUSH<br>
Russell<br>
Russell, Bertrand<br>
Russell's Attic<br>
Russell's Paradox<br>
rusty iron<br>
rusty memory<br>
RUTH<br>
rw<br>
rwho<br>
RWP<br>
Rx<br>
S<br>
s///<br>
S3<br>
SA<br>
sa '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
SA-110<br>
SAA<br>
Saber-C<br>
Saber-C++<br>
SAC<br>
SAC-1<br>
SAC2<br>
sacadm<br>
sacred '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
SAD<br>
SAD SAM<br>
SADT<br>
SAFARI<br>
safe<br>
safety<br>
safety-critical system<br>
saga<br>
sagan<br>
[[SAGE]] '''DONE'''<br>
SAIC<br>
SAID<br>
SAIL<br>
SAINT<br>
Saint Andrews Static Language<br>
SAL<br>
SALEM<br>
Sales Automation<br>
salescritter<br>
Sales Force Automation<br>
S-ALGOL<br>
SALT<br>
salt<br>
salt mines<br>
salt substrate<br>
SAM<br>
sam<br>
SAM76<br>
Samba '''DONE'''<br>
SAME<br>
same-day service<br>
SAMeDL<br>
samizdat '''DONE'''<br>
Sammet, Jean E.<br>
sample '''DONE'''<br>
sample rate '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
sampling '''DONE'''<br>
sampling frequency '''DONE'''<br>
samurai<br>
sandbender<br>
sandbox<br>
Sandman<br>
San Francisco<br>
sanity check<br>
Santa Cruz Operation '''DONE'''<br>
SAP '''DONE'''<br>
SAP AG '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
SAPI<br>
SAR<br>
SAS<br>
SASD<br>
SASE<br>
SASI<br>
SASL<br>
SASL+LV<br>
SASL-YACC<br>
SAS System<br>
SATAN<br>
Sather<br>
Sather-K<br>
satisfiability problem<br>
Saturday-night special<br>
SAVE<br>
say<br>
sb<br>
SB AWE32<br>
SBCS<br>
SBD<br>
SBM<br>
SB-Prolog<br>
SBus<br>
SC<br>
sc<br>
SCA<br>
SCADA<br>
scag<br>
scalability<br>
Scalable Coherent Interface<br>
Scalable Processor ARChitecture<br>
Scalable Vector Graphics<br>
scalar<br>
SCALLOP<br>
SCAN<br>
scan<br>
scan design<br>
SCANDISK<br>
Scan-EDF<br>
scanf<br>
Scan-In, Scan-Out<br>
scan line<br>
scanner<br>
scanno<br>
scan path<br>
scan register<br>
SCC<br>
SCCS<br>
SCEPTRE<br>
scheduler '''DONE'''<br>
[[scheduling]] '''DONE'''<br>
Scheduling API<br>
Scheduling Application Programming Interface<br>
Schelog<br>
Schema Definition Set<br>
Schema Representation language<br>
schematic capture<br>
schematic type variable<br>
Schematik<br>
Scheme<br>
Scheme84<br>
Scheme88<br>
Scheme-&gt<br>C<br>
Scheme Library<br>
Scheme-Linda<br>
Scheme Object System<br>
Scheme Repository<br>
Scheme-to-C<br>
Schlaer-Mellor<br>
Schoonschip<br>
schroedinbug<br>
SCI<br>
Science and Engineering Research Council<br>
science-fiction fandom<br>
Scientific Data Systems<br>
SCL<br>
SCM<br>
SC/MP<br>
SCO<br>
Scode<br>
SCOOP<br>
SCOOPS<br>
SCOPE<br>
scope<br>
Scorpion<br>
Scott-closed<br>
Scott domain<br>
SCPI<br>
SCPI Consortium<br>
scram switch<br>
SCRAP<br>
scratch<br>
scratch disk<br>
scratch monkey<br>
Scratchpad I<br>
Scratchpad II<br>
scream and die<br>
Screamer<br>
screaming tty<br>
screen blanker<br>
Screen Peace<br>
screen reader<br>
screen refresh<br>
screen saver<br>
screen scraper<br>
screen sharing<br>
Screenwrite<br>
screw<br>
screwage<br>
scribble<br>
Scribe<br>
SCRIPT<br>
script<br>
Scriptics<br>
scripting language<br>
scrog<br>
SCROLL<br>
scroll<br>
scrollable list<br>
scroll bar<br>
scrolling<br>
scrool<br>
scrozzle<br>
scruffies<br>
SCSI<br>
SCSI-1<br>
SCSI-2<br>
SCSI-3<br>
SCSI adaptor<br>
SCSI controller<br>
SCSI ID<br>
SCSI initiator<br>
SCSI interface<br>
SCSI reconnect<br>
SCSI target<br>
ScumOS<br>
scuzzy<br>
SD<br>
sd<br>
SDDI<br>
SDE<br>
SDF<br>
SDH<br>
SDI<br>
SDK<br>
SDL<br>
SDL 92<br>
SDLC<br>
SDM<br>
SDMS<br>
SDRAM<br>
SDRC<br>
SDR-RAM<br>
SDR-SDRAM<br>
SDS<br>
SDS 92<br>
SDS 940<br>
SDSL<br>
SE<br>
se<br>
SEA<br>
Seagate Technology<br>
SEAL<br>
search-and-destroy mode<br>
search engine<br>
search problem<br>
search term<br>
SEC<br>
SECC<br>
SECD machine<br>
secondary cache<br>
secondary damage<br>
secondary key<br>
secondary storage<br>
second generation computer<br>
second generation language<br>
second level cache<br>
second normal form<br>
Second-Order Lambda-calculus<br>
second-system effect<br>
sector interleave<br>
sector interleaving<br>
sector map<br>
sector mapping<br>
Secure Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions<br>
Secure Shell -- '''DONE'''<br>
Secure Sockets Layer<br>
Security Administrator's Integrated Network Tool<br>
Security Association<br>
Security Association ID<br>
security through obscurity '''DONE'''<br>
SED<br>
Sed<br>
SEE<br>
seek<br>
seeking<br>
seek time<br>
SEESAW<br>
see u see me<b |
rine organ. Blood is then sampled to assess the changes of the relevant hormones or metabolites. An endocrinologist needs extensive knowledge of [[clinical chemistry]] and [[biochemistry]] to understand the uses and limitations of the investigations.
A second important aspect of the practice of endocrinology is distinguishing human variation from disease. Atypical patterns of physical development and abnormal test results must be assessed as indicative of disease or not. [[Diagnostic imaging]] of endocrine organs may reveal "spots," termed [[incidentaloma]]s, which do not represent disease.
Endocrinology involves caring for the person as well as the disease. Most endocrine disorders are [[chronic disease]]s that need life-long care. The most common of these is [[diabetes mellitus]]. Care of diabetes and other chronic diseases necessitates understanding the patient at the personal and social level as well as the molecular, and the physician-patient relationship can be an important therapeutic process.
Apart from managing patients, many endocrinologists are involved in [[clinical science]] and [[medical research]], [[teaching]] and [[hospital management]].
==Training==
Endocrinologists are specialists of [[internal medicine]] or [[pediatrics]]. Reproductive endocrinologists primarily deal with problems of [[fertility]] and menstrual function. Most qualify as an [[internist]], [[pediatrician]], or [[gynecologist]] for a few years before specialising, depending on the local training system. In the U.S. and Canada, training for board certification in internal medicine, [[pediatrics]], or [[gynecology]] after medical school is referred to as residency. Further formal training to subspecialize in adult, [[pediatric endocrinology|pediatric]], or reproductive endocrinology is referred to as a 'fellowship'. Typical training for a North American endocrinologist involves 4 years of college, 4 years of medical school, 3 years of residency, and 3 years of fellowship.
==Diseases==
Among the hundreds of endocrinological diseases are :
* [[Adrenal]] disorders:
** [[Adrenal insufficiency]]
*** [[Addison's disease]]
*** [[Congenital adrenal hyperplasia]] (adrenogenital syndrome)
*** [[Mineralocorticoid deficiency]]
** [[Conn's syndrome]]
** [[Cushing's syndrome]]
** [[Pheochromocytoma]]
** [[Adrenocortical carcinoma]]
* [[Glucose]] homeostasis disorders:
** [[Diabetes mellitus]]
** [[Hypoglycemia]]
*** [[Idiopathic hypoglycemia]]
*** [[Insulinoma]]
* Metabolic [[bone]] disease:
** [[Osteoporosis]]
** [[Osteitis deformans]] (Paget's disease of bone)
** [[Rickets]] and [[osteomalacia]]
* [[Pituitary gland]] disorders:
** [[Diabetes insipidus]]
** [[Hypopituitarism]] (or [[hypopituitarism|Panhypopituitarism]])
** [[Pituitary tumour]]s
*** [[Pituitary adenoma]]s
*** [[Prolactinoma]] (or [[Hyperprolactinaemia]])
*** [[Acromegaly]], [[gigantism]]
*** [[Cushing's disease]]
* [[Parathyroid gland]] disorders:
** [[Primary hyperparathyroidism]]
** [[Secondary hyperparathyroidism]]
** [[Tertiary hyperparathyroidism]]
** [[Hypoparathyroidism]]
*** [[Pseudohypoparathyroidism]]
* Sex hormone disorders:
** [[Disorders of sexual differentiation]] or intersex disorders
*** [[Hermaphroditism]]
*** [[Gonadal dysgenesis]]
*** [[Androgen insensitivity syndrome]]s
** [[Hypogonadism]]
*** [[Gonadotropin deficiency]]
*** [[Kallmann syndrome]]
*** [[Klinefelter syndrome]]
*** [[Ovarian failure]]
*** [[Testicular failure]]
*** [[Turner syndrome]]
** Disorders of [[Gender]]
*** [[Gender identity disorder]]
** Disorders of Puberty
*** [[Delayed puberty]]
*** [[Precocious puberty]]
** Menstrual function or fertility disorders
*** [[Amenorrhoea]]
*** [[Polycystic ovary syndrome]]
* [[Thyroid]] disorders:
** [[Hyperthyroidism]] and [[Graves-Basedow disease]]
** [[Hypothyroidism]]
** [[Thyroiditis]]
** [[Thyroid cancer]]
* Tumors of the endocrine glands not mentioned elsewhere
** [[Multiple endocrine neoplasia]]
*** [[Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1|MEN type 1]]
*** [[Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2a|MEN type 2a]]
*** [[Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2b|MEN type 2b]].
** See also separate organs
* [[Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome]]s
* [[Incidentaloma]] - an unexpected finding on diagnostic imaging, often of endocrine glands
==See also==
*[[Pediatric endocrinology]]
*[[Neuroendocrinology]]
*[[Health science]]
==References==
* Griffin JE, Ojeda SR. ''Textbook of Endocrine Physiology'' 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.
* Hadley ME. ''Endocrinology 5th ed.'' London: Prentice –Hall International (UK) Ltd, 2000.
* Chester-Jones I, Ingleton PM, Phillips JG. ''Fundamentals of Comparative Vertebrate Endocrinology'' New York: Plenum Press, 1987.
* Berthold AA. ''Transplantation der Hoden ''Arch. Anat. Phsiol. Wiss. Med.'' 1849;16:42-6.
* David K, Dingemanse E, Freud J ''et al''. ''Uber krystallinisches mannliches Hormon aus Hoden (Testosteron) wirksamer als aus harn oder aus Cholesterin bereitetes Androsteron. ''Hoppe Seylers Z Physiol Chem'' 1935;233:281.
* Freeman ER, Bloom DA, McGuire JE. ''A Brief History of Testosterone''. J Urol 2001;165:371-373.
* Bayliss WM, Starling EH. ''The mechanism of pancreatic secretion.'' J Physiol 1902;28:325–352.
* Nussey S, Whitehead S. ''Endocrinology: An integrated approach''. Oxford: BIOS Scientific Publishers Ltd., 2001.
* Laylock J, Wise P. ''Essential Endocrinology'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
* Baulieu EE. ''Hormones: From molecules to disease'' Baulieu, E-E. and Kelly, P.A., (eds) Paris: Hermann, 1990.
==External links==
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&rid=endocrin.TOC&depth=1 Endocrinology] (British online textbook)
* [http://www.endotext.org Endotext] (American online textbook)
===Societies and associations===
*[http://www.endo-society.org/ Endocrine Society]
*[http://www.aace.com American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists]
*[http://www.diabetes.org American Diabetes Association]
*[http://www.lwpes.org Lawson Wilkins Pediatric Endocrine Society]
*[http://www.endocrinology.org/default.htm Society for Endocrinology]
*[http://www.sbn.org Society for Behavioral Neuroendocrinology]
{{Medicine}}
{{endocrine_system}}
[[Category:Endocrine system]]
[[Category:Endocrinology| ]]
[[de:Endokrinologie]]
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[[is:Innkirtlafræði]]
[[he:אנדוקרינולוגיה]]
[[nl:Endocrinologie]]
[[ja:内分泌学]]
[[pl:Endokrynologia]]
[[pt:Endocrinologia]]
[[ru:Эндокринология]]
[[sv:Endokrinologi]]
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[[uk:Ендокринологія]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Endocrine system</title>
<id>9312</id>
<revision>
<id>41840638</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T02:12:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>129.123.104.6</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Physiology */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Illu endocrine system.png|right|thumb|227px|Major endocrine glands. ([[Male]] left, [[female]] on the right.) '''1.''' [[Pineal gland]] '''2.''' [[Pituitary gland]] '''3.''' [[Thyroid gland]] '''4.''' [[Thymus]] '''5.''' [[Adrenal gland]] '''6.''' [[Pancreas]] '''7.''' [[Ovary]] '''8.''' [[Testis]] ]]
The '''endocrine system''' is a control system of ductless [[gland]]s that secrete chemical messengers called [[hormone]]s that circulate within the body via the [[blood]]stream to affect distant [[organ (anatomy)|organs]]. Hormones act as "messengers", and are carried by the bloodstream to different cells in the body, which interpret these messages and act on them. The endocrine system does not include [[exocrine gland]]s such as [[salivary gland]]s, [[sweat gland]]s and glands within the [[gastrointestinal tract]].
The field of [[medicine]] that deals with disorders of endocrine glands is '''[[endocrinology]]''', a branch of the wider field of [[internal medicine]].
==Physiology==
The endocrine system links the brain to the organs that control body [[metabolism]], [[morphogenesis|growth and development]], and [[sexual reproduction|reproduction]].
Signal transduction of some hormones with steroid structure involves nuclear hormone receptor proteins that are a class of [[ligand]] activated proteins that, when bound to specific sequences of DNA serve as on-off switches for transcription within the cell nucleus. These switches control the development and differentiation of skin, bone and behavioral centers in the brain, as well as the continual regulation of reproductive tissues.
The endocrine system regulates its hormones through negative feedback. Increases in hormone activity decrease the production of that hormone. The immune system and other factors contribute as control factors also, altogether maintaining constant levels of hormones.
== Table of endocrine glands and the hormones secreted ==
=== In both sexes: ===
(starting from the head and going downwards)
*'''[[Hypothalamus]]'''
**[[Thyrotropin-releasing hormone]] (TRH)
**[[Gonadotropin-releasing hormone]] (GnRH)
**[[Growth hormone-releasing hormone]] (GHRH)
**[[Corticotropin-releasing hormone]] (CRH)
**[[Somatostatin]]
**[[Dopamine]]
*'''[[Pituitary gland]]'''
**'''Anterior lobe ([[adenohypophysis]])'''
***GH ([[human growth hormone]])
***PRL ([[prolactin]])
***ACTH ([[adrenocorticotropic hormone]])
***TSH ([[thyroid-stimulating hormone]])
***FSH ([[follicle-stimulating hormone]])
***LH ([[luteinizing hormone]])
**'''Posterior lobe ([[neurohypophysis]])'''
***[[Oxytocin]]
***ADH ([[antidiuretic hormone]])
*'''[[Pineal gland]]'''
**[[Melatonin]]
*'''[[Thyroid gland]]'''
**Thyroxine (T4), a form of [[thyroid hormone]]
**Triiodothyronine (T3), a form of [[thyroid hormone]]
**[[Calcitonin]]
*'''[[Parathyroid gland]]'''
**[[Parathyroid hormone]] (PTH)
*'''[[Heart]]'''
**[[Atrial-natriuretic peptide]] (ANP)
*'''[[Stomach]] and [[intestines]]'''
**[[Gastrin]]
**[[Secretin]]
**[[Cholecystokinin]] (CCK)
**[[Somatostatin]]
**[[Neuropeptide Y]]
*'''[[Liver]]'''
**[[Insulin-like growth factor] |
Germany]] in the early [[1920s]] when the rate of inflation hit 3.25 million percent per month (prices double every 49 hours) and [[Greece]] during its occupation by [[Germany|German]] troops (1941-1944) with 8.55 billion percent per month (prices double every 28 hours). The most severe known incident of inflation was in [[Hungary]] after the end of [[World War II]] at 41.9 [[Names of large numbers|quadrillion]] ({{sn|4.19|16}}) percent per month (prices double every 15 hours). More recently, [[Yugoslavia]] between [[October 1]], [[1993]] and [[January 24]], [[1994]] with 5 quadrillion percent during this period. Other more moderate examples include other [[Eastern Europe|Eastern European]] countries such as [[Ukraine]] in the period of economic transition in the early [[1990s]], in [[Latin American]] countries such as [[Bolivia]] and [[Peru]] in [[1985]] and [[1988]]-[[1990]], in [[Mexico]] from [[1982]] to [[1988]], in [[Argentina]] in the aftermath of the [[1982]] Falklands-Malvinas War, and in [[Brazil]] in the early 1990s. Hyperinflation in Mexico eventually forced prices so high that in 1993 [[Carlos Salinas de Gortari]] had to replace the [[peso]] ($) with the [[nuevo peso]] (N$). The parity was N$1 for $1000; in short, he stripped three zeroes from the peso.
==Root causes of hyperinflation==
Hyperinflation is generally associated with [[paper money]] because the means to increasing the money supply with paper money is the simplest: add more zeroes to the plates and print, or even stamp old notes with new numbers. It also is the most dramatic. There have been numerous episodes of hyperinflation, followed by a return to "hard money". Older economies would revert to [[hard currency]] and [[barter]] when the circulating medium became excessively devalued, generally following a "run" on the store of value.
Unlike inflation, which some economists feel can be a justifiable policy choice, hyperinflation is always regarded as destructive: it effectively wipes out the purchasing power of savings held as paper assets of the country afflicted with it; distorts the economy in favor of extreme consumption and hoarding of real assets; causes the monetary base, whether specie or hard currency, to flee the country; and makes the afflicted area anathema to investment. Hyperinflation is met with drastic remedies, whether [[shock therapy (economics)|shock therapy]] of slashing government expenditures or altering the currency basis. An example of the latter is placing the nation in question under a [[currency board]] as [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]] has now in 2005, which allows the central bank to print only as much money as it has in foreign reserves. Another example is [[dollarization]] as [[Ecuador]] officially initiated in September 2000 in response to a massive 75% loss of value of the Sucre currency in early January 2000. [[Dollarization]] is the use of a foreign currency (not necessarily the U.S. dollar) as a national unit of currency.
The aftermath of hyperinflation is equally complex. As hyperinflation has always been a traumatic experience for the area which suffers it, the next policy regime almost always enacts policies to prevent its recurrence. Often this means making the central bank very aggressive about maintaining price stability as is the case with the German [[Bundesbank]], or the move to some hard basis of currency for example a currency board. Many governments have enacted extremely stiff wage and price controls in the wake of hyperinflation, which is, in effect, a form of forced savings: goods become unavailable, and hence people hoard cash, as was the case in the People's Republic of China under "Great Leap Forward" and "Cultural Revolution".
[[Image:500000000000 dinars.jpg|frame|thumb|right|200px|A 500,000,000,000 (500 [[billion]]) [[Yugoslavia dinar]] [[banknote]] circa [[1993]], the largest [[nominal value]] ever officially printed in [[Yugoslavia]], the final result of hyperinflation. Photo courtesy of [[National Bank of Serbia]] ([http://www.nbs.yu www.nbs.yu])]]
For a variety of reasons, governments have occasionally resorted to literally printing money to meet their expenses. Hyperinflation can be sarcastically defined as the point in time when a monetary authority can't even do that: theories of hyperinflation generally look for a relationship between [[seignorage]] and the [[inflation tax]]. Seignorage is the profit made from coining money, named because it was one of the rights of nobility. The "inflation tax" is the amount of improvement in a government's position from its own inflationary actions — since governments are almost always net debtors, reducing the value of previous borrowing reduces their debt load as percentage of revenues, and, in effect, reduces the amount of time it will take the government to pay those debts.
Those holding government debt, directly or indirectly, have less buying power. Governments also owe money to other people, and must maintain control, or [[Fiat currency|fiat]], over their territory. The root causes of hyperinflation, whether in Cagan's model or in the neo-classical models, focus on the point in time when the increase in money supply, or drop in basic money stock, make it impossible for a government to improve its position by seignorage and the inflation tax. That is, when government obligations, which are not denominated as money, have a cost which, when [[fiat money]] is printed, increase in cost by more than the gain for printing the money.
From this, it might be wondered why any state would engage in actions that cause, or continue, hyperinflation. One reason is that often the alternative to hyperinflation is depression. In late 2001, the [[Argentina|Argentine]] peso collapsed in value. Rather than printing sufficient money for people to withdraw from banks, which they feared would start a run on the banks, the government took the peso off of its dollar peg. Many international economists predicted that they would have to either get a new loan from the [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] and institute [[Shock therapy (economics)|shock therapy]], or else hyperinflate. Currency controls were imposed, tariffs instituted, and the economy was allowed to fall into a severe recession: unemployment hit 25%; homelessness and crime spiraled upwards, and the poverty rate peaked at over 50%.
It has been argued that the hyperinflation of [[1920s]] [[Germany]] was fostered by the government in order to wipe out domestic debt accrued during the [[First World War]], citing the apparent ease with which the currency was changed.
In general, hyperinflation is associated with [[fiat money]] and/or very rapid [[debasement]] of currency, such as the 1834-1839 debasement of the [[akçe]], the standard silver coin of the [[Ottoman Empire]], which saw its value drop by fivefold, increasing the nominal amount of circulating medium. Episodes of hyperinflation produce staggering increases in price — and bank notes denominated in millions, billions, and trillions, coins denominated in the millions, or withdrawn from circulation altogether. The vicious cycle of borrowing to meet all expenses begins, and the monetary authority does not act to contain the cycle and may indeed accommodate it. Hyperinflation is often the result of governments using unbacked currency during war time to pay the expenses of the conflict, such as the [[United States]] in the 1770s and the [[Republic of China]] in the 1940s.
The root cause is a matter of more dispute. For both economists of the [[classical economics|classical school]] as well as [[monetarism|monetarist]]s, it is always the result of the monetary authority's irresponsibility (or stupidity), "running the printing presses." These models focus on the unrestrained [[seignorage]] of the monetary authority, and the gains from the [[inflation tax]]. For [[neoliberalism|neo-liberal]] economists, hyperinflation is considered to be the result of a crisis of confidence, where the monetary base of the country flees, producing widespread fear that individuals will not be able to convert local currency to some more transportable form — for example gold, or an internationally recognized [[hard currency]] such as the [[US dollar]]. [[#Money matters|See below]] for more discussion. These models are based on the [[neo-classical economics|neo-classical synthesis]] and chart the drop in the country's [[money stock]] against hyperinflation.
Inflation can also occur in the absence of a central bank. One case is when there is "free banking" but banks are allowed suspend convertibility in violation of their contracts with their customers. These episodes are often brief, as there is then a run on banks, a panic, and a collapse in the money supply leading to a depression and deflation.
Less commonly, hyperinflation may occur when there is [[debasement]] of the coinage — wherein coins are consistently shaved of some of their silver and gold, increasing the circulating medium and reducing the value of the currency. The "shaved" specie is then often restruck into coins with lower weight of gold or silver. Historical examples include Ancient Rome and China during the Song Dynasty.
One common cause of hyperinflation is warfare, civil war, or intense internal conflict of other kinds: governments needing to do whatever is necessary to continue fighting, since the alternative is defeat. They cannot cut outlays, because the main outlay is for armaments to fight the war itself. Further, a civil war may make it difficult to raise taxes or to collect the existing taxes. In normal times, a deficit is financed by borrowing, that is selling government bonds. But under conditions of war or civil war, it is typically difficult and expensive to borrow, especially if the war is going poorly for the government in question. The banking authorities, whether central or not, "monetize |
intervention ==
The government has chosen to intervene in 22 percent of the cases it has reviewed. The Government has 60 days from the time the sealed complaint is filed to decide whether or not to intervene. However, the Government may obtain an extension for "good cause shown." In almost all cases the government will ask for an additional 60 days to investigate the complaint. In that 120 day period, Justice Department, FBI, Office of Inspector General (OIG), and HHS resources may be employed to interview the relator and her counsel, review the relator's complaint and supporting documents, wiretap, inspect the medical provider's documents at their place of business, and review the medical provider's filings with Medicare and Medicaid.
If the case is strong and the potential recovery is high enough, the government will probably intervene.
Government intervention is generally good for the relator. The prospective defendant is apt to be intimidated by the government's massive effort. However, when the Government intervenes, the relator, though still a party to the action, loses control of the proceedings and the relator's reward is limited to between 15 and 25 percent of the government's total recovery plus reasonable attorney's fees and expenses. One Assistant [[United States Attorney]] made clear the effect of government intervention when he stated "if we intervene, [the relator and her counsel] will not be active participants. When we take the case over, we do take it over." This leaves the government free to negotiate with the defendant as long as the resulting settlement is "fair, adequate, and reasonable."
Even when the government initially declines to intervene, it retains intervention rights throughout the subsequent proceedings. Furthermore, when a relator settles a case 31 U.S.C. § 3730(b)(1) provides that "the action may be dismissed only if the court and the Attorney General give written consent to the dismissal and their reasons for consenting." Despite this wording, some courts have held that if the government declines to intervene, either while the case is under seal or during the course of the action, then it loses standing to object to voluntary dismissal of the action or to object to the settlement terms between the defendant and the relator. Finally, when the government declines to intervene the relator's share of the award increases to between 25 and 30 percent of the recovery plus reasonable attorney's fees and expenses.
== Jurisdiction and venue ==
A ''qui tam'' action may be brought in any judicial district in which the defendant(s) can be found, resides, transacts business, or in which the false claim occurred. Under § 3732(a), the Federal Courts may also have jurisdiction over state whistleblower claims if they arose from the same transaction or occurrence that triggered the Federal ''qui tam'' action. This is important in states such as Ohio, Florida, and California that have their own whistleblower statutes.
== Statute of limitations ==
The [[statute of limitations]] is defined under § 3731(b). A claim must be brought within six years from the date on which the violations of § 3729 were committed or three years after the date when facts material to the right of action are known or reasonably should have been known by the United States official charged with the responsibility to act in the circumstances, but not more than ten years after the date of the violation, whichever occurs last. A relator is not required to file suit as soon as he or she uncovers the false claims. However, the reward may be reduced by the Court if the relator unreasonably delays bringing the action.
== Standing ==
Under 31 U.S.C. § 3730(a), the U.S. Attorney General is empowered to institute a civil action against persons that submit claims in violation of 31 U.S.C. § 3729. Section 3730(b) contains the ''qui tam'' provision which provides for "a person" to bring a civil action on the government's behalf for violations of § 3729.
To have standing under Article III of the Constitution the relator must show actual or threatened injury. In several cases, defendants have unsuccessfully attempted to challenge the relator's standing. United States ex rel. Truong v. [[Northrop Corporation]] was the clearest opinion rejecting such challenges. In that case, the court found that the relator's standing stemmed from the injury to the Federal Government in whose name the suit was brought. The relator's standing is not an issue when the U.S. government intervenes or when the relator has suffered actual damages due to actions taken by his or her employer.
== Relator and subject matter jurisdiction ==
Unless the relator bringing the qui tam lawsuit is the "original source" of the information, the court will lack subject matter jurisdiction. To be an original source the relator must have "direct and independent knowledge of the information on which the allegations are based." Furthermore, the relator must have "voluntarily provided the information to the Government before filing the action...."
The [[United States court of appeals|Federal courts of appeal]] are divided on their interpretations of "public disclosure," and "original source." For example, the [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit|D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals]] held that a ''qui tam'' claim is barred only if it is based on publicly disclosed "allegations or transactions" but not if it is based on mere "information" that does not clearly expose the fraud. The [[United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit|First Circuit Court of Appeals]] has been the most liberal in its interpretation of original source. It simply held that a ''qui tam'' claim "that has not yet been the subject of a claim by the government... will be allowed to go forward." However, the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit|Second Circuit Court of Appeals]] is more restrictive. It held that "public disclosure of the allegations divests district courts of jurisdiction over qui tam suits."
The Sixth Circuit seems to follow a middle course. In U.S., ex rel. Pogue v. American Healthcorp., Inc., the court held that "Congress sought to prohibit qui tam actions only when either the allegation of fraud or the critical elements of the fraudulent transactions themselves were in the public domain." In that case, the court found that business prospectuses, one annual report, and three independent newspaper reports contained "language too general to put the reader on the trail of the alleged illegal referral scheme." The court cited the D.C. Circuit Court's opinion in U.S. ex rel. Findley v. FPC-Boron Employees' Club which held that a relator's claim will not be invalidated unless the public disclosures "specifically identify the nature of the fraud."
== Scienter ==
The scienter or knowledge requirement under the FCA is less than the elements of common law fraud. As noted above, the plaintiff must prove either 1) actual knowledge of the falsity of the information submitted to the government; 2) deliberate ignorance of the truth or falsity of the information; or 3) a reckless disregard of the truth or falsity of the information. Thus, only the defendant's negligence or innocent mistake will go unpunished.
== Particularity ==
There are some differences among the [[United States federal judicial circuit|circuit courts]] regarding Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 9(b)'s requirement that fraud be pleaded with particularity. Rule 9(b) requires that "in all averments of fraud or mistake, the circumstances constituting fraud or mistake shall be stated with particularity. Malice, intent, knowledge, and other condition of mind of a person may be averred generally." The [[United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit|sixth circuit]] has construed Rule 9(b), as requiring a plaintiff to allege, at minimum, "the time, place, and content" of the alleged misrepresentation constituting fraud. However, in the Sixth Circuit, Rule 9(b) is modified by Rule 8 which calls for simple, concise and direct allegations in pleading. For example, in Pogue the court held that, even though the plaintiff gave no specific dates nor identified any particular employees, his general reference to a time frame of 12 years and his identification of the corporation's involved met the particularity requirement. Furthermore, an Illinois District Court, in U.S. ex rel. Robinson v. Northrop Corp., held that "pleadings cannot generally be based on information and belief unless the factual information is 'peculiarly within the defendant's knowledge or control.'" Thus, there are alternative means to satisfy Rule 9(b) requirements as long as the defendant is provided with "fair notice of the claims against him." Despite these possibilities, plaintiffs should do their best to meet the time, place, and content requirements to avoid defendant motions to dismiss and to better sell their cases to the U.S. Attorneys reviewing the complaints.
== Double jeopardy considerations ==
Under § 3731(d), the civil case is stayed during the defendant's criminal trial. Once the defendant is either convicted, pleads nolo contendere, or pleads guilty, the defendant is estopped "from denying the essential elements of the offense in any action which involves the same transaction as the criminal proceeding." Thus, the civil trial is carried out only to determine damages. As can be seen in the above listing of damages and penalties, the qui tam penalties can be great.
In December 1997, the Supreme Court, in Hudson v. U.S., overturned U.S. v. Halper and held that civil penalties plus criminal fines do not v |
on, the resulting equation will still be true, but it may be less useful. Formally, one has an [[Logical conditional|implication]], not an [[Logical biconditional|equivalence]], so the solution set may get larger. The functions implied in properties (1), (2), and (4) are always injective, as is (3) if we do not multiply by [[0 (number)|zero]]. Some generalized [[Product (mathematics)|products]], such as a [[dot product]], are never injective.
== See also ==
*[[Inequation]]
*[[Inequality]]
*[[Linear equation]]
*[[Quadratic equation]]
*[[Cubic equation]]
*[[Quartic equation]]
*[[Quintic equation]]
*[[Differential equation]]
*[[Integral equation]]
*[[Functional equation]]
*[[Diophantine equation]]
*[[List of equations]]
*[[Theory of equations]]
== External links ==
* Free Online Equation Interpreter and Plotter: [http://www.wessa.net/math.wasp ''Mathematical Equation Plotter'']. Plots 2D mathematical equations, computes integrals, and finds solutions.
* Solve 2D equations graphically and numerically: [http://deadline.3x.ro ''DeadLine'']. Free Windows software.
* [http://eqworld.ipmnet.ru/en/solutions/ae.htm Algebraic Equations and Systems of Algebraic Equations] at EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations.
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<page>
<title>Ethical naturalism</title>
<id>9285</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-26T18:26:40Z</timestamp>
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<comment>/* Examination of definition */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Naturalism''', sometimes also called '''definism''', is a theory in [[meta-ethics]] that holds that ethical terms can be [[definition|defined]]; the meaning of [[ethics|ethical]] sentences can be given in totally non-ethical terms. So to the question, "Can the meaning of ethical sentences be restated in other words that do not use [[norm (philosophy)|normative]] concepts like 'good' and 'right'?" the naturalist answers, "Definitely." On the naturalist's view, ultimately, [[goodness and value theory|goodness]] and right are ''natural properties''--they are ultimately [[properties]] of things that can be located in the [[natural]] [[world]]. The opposite view, [[ethical non-naturalism]], was famously defended by [[G. E. Moore]].
We might give a more detailed definition, in terms of [[proposition]]s and [[reduction]], that, in generalities, expresses the general understanding of the term:
:''Naturalism'' is the view that ethical sentences express propositions and that they can be reduced to nonethical sentences.
==Examination of definition==
The first part of the defintion, "that ethical sentences express propositions" expresses a view called [[Cognitivism (ethics)|cognitivism]].
ethical naturalism combines cognitivism with [[moral reductionism]]&mdash;the idea that ethical sentences "can be reduced to nonethical sentences". Thus, this theory holds that the meaning of ethical statements can be expressed without using ethical terms such as "good" and "right". In this way, ethical statements become a kind of shorthand, or useful abbreviation, for claims about what are ultimately nonethical facts about human needs or desires.
==Theory of value==
The [[value theory|theory of value]] &mdash; an important branch of [[ethics]] &mdash; contains a number of theories of what "good" means or, construed differently, what general sorts of things are good. One could look at the theory of value as a way of determining how to reduce goodness to nonethical properties, for there are many examples of such reductions in value theory. [[Hedonism]], for example, is the view that goodness is ultimately just [[pleasure]]. It should be noted, however, that not all philosophers working on value theory would view their theories as ''reductions''.
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<page>
<title>Ethical non-naturalism</title>
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<comment>disambiguation from [[Faculty]] to [[Ability]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{attention}}
<!-- ''The following started as a portion of [[User:Larry Sanger/Larry's Text|Larry's Text]], which consists of lectures given by Wikipedia co-founder [[Larry Sanger]] in courses that he taught at [[Ohio State University]]. Wikification and NPOVing are invited.'' -->
'''Ethical non-naturalism''' is a [[philosophy|philosophical]] position that asserts that [[ethics|ethical]] statements express [[proposition]]s that cannot be reduced to non-ethical statements.
==Definitions and examples==
[[Ethical naturalism]] and non-naturalism are subcategories of [[Cognitivism (ethics)|cognitivism]], which holds that ethical statements express propositions. Naturalism is the view that such statements can be further [[reduction|reduced]] to non-ethical statements; non-naturalism is the view that they cannot.
According to [[G. E. Moore]], "[[goodness and value theory|Goodness]] is a simple, undefinable, non-natural [[property (philosophy)|property]]." To call goodness "non-natural" does not mean that it is [[supernatural]] or [[God|divine]]. It does mean, however, that goodness cannot be reduced to natural properties such as needs, wants or pleasures. Moore also stated that a reduction of ethical properties to a divine command would be the same as stating their naturalness. This would be an example of what he referred to as "the [[naturalistic fallacy]]."
Moore claimed that goodness is "[[definition|indefinable]]," i.e., it cannot be defined in any other terms. This is the central claim of non-naturalism. Thus, the meaning of sentences containing the word "good" cannot be explained entirely in terms of sentences not containing the word "good." One cannot substitute words referring to [[pleasure]], needs or anything else in place of "good."
Some properties, such as hardness, roundness and dampness, are clearly natural properties. We encounter them in the real world and can [[perception|perceive]] them. On the other hand, other properties, such as being good and being right, are not so obvious. A great novel is considered to be a good thing; goodness may be said to be a property of that novel. Paying one's debts and telling the truth are generally held to be right things to do; rightness may be said to be a property of certain human [[action theory|action]]s.
However, these two types of property are quite different. Those natural properties, such as hardness and roundness, can be perceived and encountered in the real world. On the other hand, it is not immediately clear how to physically see, touch or measure the goodness of a novel or the rightness of an action.
==A difficult question==
Moore did not consider goodness and rightness to be natural properties, i.e., they cannot be defined in terms of any natural properties. How, then, can we know that anything is good and how can we distinguish good from bad?
Moral epistemology, the part of epistemology (and/or ethics) that studies how we know moral facts and how moral beliefs are justified, has proposed an answer. British epistemologists, following Moore, suggested that humans have a special [[Ability|faculty]], a faculty of moral [[intuition]], which tells us what is good and bad, right and wrong.
Moral [[intuitionism|intuitionists]] assert that, if we see a good person or a right action, and our faculty of moral intuition is sufficiently developed and unimpaired, we simply intuit that the person is good or that the action is right. Moral intuition is supposed to be a mental process different from other, more familiar faculties like sense-perception, and that moral judgments are its outputs. When someone judges something to be good, or some action to be right, then the person is using the faculty of moral intuition. The faculty is attuned to those non-natural properties. Perhaps the best ordinary notion that approximates moral intuition would be the idea of a [[conscience]].
==Another argument for non-naturalism==
Moore also introduced what is called the [[open question argument]], a position he later rejected.
Suppose a definition of "good" is "pleasure-causing." In other words, if something is good, it causes pleasure; if it causes pleasure, then it is, by definition, good. Moore asserted, however, that we could always ask, "But are pleasure-causing things good?" This would always be an [[open question]]. There is no foregone conclusion that, indeed, pleasure-causing things are good.
In his initial argument, Moore concluded that any similar definition of goodness could be criticized in the same way.
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<title>Elvis Presley</title>
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<comment>/* Voice characteristics */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:<span class="d |
he foreign words, effectively translate it in place. While rare now, some late [[19th century|19th]] - early [[20th century]] authors used kanji as furigana for [[loanword]]s written in katakana. This usage is called ''furikanji'' (振り漢字) in Japanese, since ''furigana'' implies the use of ''[[kana]]''.
==External links==
*[http://www.honco.net/japanese/04/index.html Pictures of various types of furigana] from [[Dai Nippon Printing]].
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<title>Fiscal calendar</title>
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<title>Faeces</title>
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<title>Feces</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''This biological article about feces refers to animals in general. For feces derived from the human body, see '''[[human feces]]'''.''
[[Image:rabbitpoop.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Rabbit feces are usually 8-10 mm in diameter and dry to the touch.]]
'''Feces''' ([[American English]]) or '''fæces/faeces''' ([[Commonwealth English]]) are semi-solid waste products from an [[animal]] [[gastrointestinal tract|digestive tract]] expelled through the [[anus]] (or [[cloaca]]) during ''[[defecation]]''. In humans, defecation may occur (depending on the individual and the circumstances) from once every two or three days to many times a day. Hardening of the feces may cause prolonged interruption in the usual routine and is called [[constipation]].
The word ''faeces'' is the plural of the [[Latin]] word ''faex'' meaning "dregs". There is no singular form in the English language [http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=3400].
The distinctive odor of feces is due to [[bacterial]] action. Bacteria produce compounds such as [[indole]], [[skatole]], and [[thiol]]s ([[sulfur]] containing compounds), as well as the inorganic gas [[hydrogen sulfide]]. These are the same compounds that are responsible for the odor of [[flatus]].
For scientists, feces can provide insight to an animal's diet. By carefully analyzing the consistency and odors of the feces, the scientist can understand the contents that comprise the scat. Then, a careful analysis can be conducted which reveals the creature's eating habits.
Feces are generally a [[taboo]] subject (see [[toilet humour]]). Scientists have long noted that many species hide or bury their feces, because the odor can attract predators and they are a likely means of transmitting parasites to genetic relatives, and these species often exhibit anxious behavior when their feces cannot be concealed. In humans, this phenomenon manifests itself in a stigma on feces.
The feces of animals is often used as [[fertilizer]]; see [[manure]].
==Related terminology==
[[Image:birdfecescar.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Pigeon feces can be messy and troublesome in urban communities.]]
Feces are also known as scat and [[scatology]] is the study of feces. Informally, the word "excrement" has become synonymous with feces; a usage based upon the incorrect belief that feces are a product of [[excretion]]. The word ''[[shit]]'' is a vulgar term for feces in [[English language|English]].
Scat can be used to determine more than just diet in animals. DNA from sluffed off intestinal cells and metabolites from various hormones can be used to identify genetic differences and stress respectively.
[[Coprophagia]] is the practice of eating feces. This is unusual, but some [[herbivore|herbivores]] with a high-fiber/low-protein diet (such as [[rabbit]]s) eat their own feces as a normal part of [[metabolism]]. Plant matter the animal consumes is digested in two passes, with the product of the first pass being re-ingested directly from the anus. After the material is re-digested, the indigestible waste that remains is excreted and left alone.
[[Coprophilia]], also known as ''[[fecophilia]]'', is a [[sexual]] attraction to fecal matter.
[[Coprophobia]], also known as ''[[fecophobia]]'', is a strong fear of feces or human excrement in general.
Fossilized feces are known as [[coprolite]]s, and form an important class of objects studied in the field of [[paleontology]].
<br clear="both">
== Fecal contamination ==
[[Image:Dogs excrements can (prague).jpg|thumb|Container for dog excrement]]
A quick test for fecal contamination of water sources or soil is a check for the presence of ''[[E. coli]]'' [[bacteria]] performed with the help of [[McConkey agar]] plates or [[Petri dish]]es. ''E. coli'' bacteria uniquely develop red colonies at temperature of approximately 43 °C (110 °F) overnight.
While nearly all strains of ''E. coli'' are harmless, their presence is indicative of fecal contamination, and hence a high possibility of other, more dangerous organisms like [[hepatitis]].
==Human feces==
''Main article: [[Human feces]]''
[[Human]] fecal matter varies significantly in appearance, depending on [[diet (nutrition)|diet]] and [[health]]. Normally it is semisolid, with a [[mucus]] coating. Its brown colouration comes from a combination of [[bile]] and dead [[red blood cells]]. In newborn babies, fecal matter is initially yellow/green after the [[meconium]]. This colouration comes from the presence of bile alone. In time, as the body starts expelling excess dead red blood cells, it acquires its familiar brown appearance, unless the baby is breast feeding, in which case it remains soft, pale yellowish, and not-unpleasantly scented until the baby begins to eat significant amounts of other food. Throughout the life of an ordinary human, one may experience many types of feces. A "green" and sometimes "clay-like" appearance to the feces is a result in a lack of blood cells expelled. Bile overload is very rare, and not a health threat. Problems as simple as serious [[diarrhea]] can cause blood in one's stool, turning it black. Food may sometimes make an appearance in the feces. Common undigested foods found in human feces are seeds, nuts, corn, and beans, mainly because of their high fiber content.
==See also==
* [[Intestinal parasite]]
* [[A1 broth]]
* [[Manure]]
* [[Scatology]]
* [[Guano]]
* [[Shit]]
== External links and references ==
* [http://www.umanitoba.ca/faculties/medicine/units/biochem/coursenotes/blanchaer_tutorials/Frank_II/urobilinogen.html Short but detailed biological explanation of why feces are brown]
* [http://www.mcevoy.demon.co.uk/Medicine/Pathology/Biochem/Liver/Biochem.html Liver biochemistry]
* ''History of Shit'' by Dominique Laporte. ISBN 0262621606
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<title>Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Francis I.jpg|thumb|250px|Francis I in Austrian coronation regalia, 1832]]
'''Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor''' ([[German language|German]]: Franz II, Heiliger Roemischer Kaiser) also referred to as '''Francis von Habsburg''' or Emperor '''Franz I of Austria''' ([[February 12]], [[1768]] &ndash; [[March 2]], [[1835]]) was the last [[Holy Roman Empire|Holy Roman]] [[Emperor]], ruling from [[1792]] until [[August 6]], [[1806]], when the Empire was disbanded. He then became Francis I, first [[Emperor]] of [[Austria]] (ruling from [[1804]] to [[1835]]).
He was a son of [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold II of Austria]] (1747 &ndash; 1792) and his wife Maria Luisa of [[Spain]] (1745 &ndash; 1792).
As the leader of a large multi-ethnic empire, Francis felt threatened by [[Napoleon]]'s call for liberty and equality in [[Europe]]. Francis had a rocky relationship with [[France]]. His aunt [[Marie Antoinette]] died under the [[guillotine]] at the beginning of his reign. Later, he led Austria into the [[French Revolutionary Wars]] and was defeated by Napoleon. By the [[Treaty of Campo Formio]], he ceded the left bank of the [[Rhine]] to [[France]] in exchange for [[Venice]] and [[Dalmatia]]. He again fought against France during the [[Second Coalition]], and, after meeting crushing defeat at [[Battle of Austerlitz|Austerlitz]], agreed to the [[Treaty of Lunéville]], which dissolved the [[Holy Roman Empire]], weakening [[Aus |
r to the ''[[Scotland on Sunday]]'' newspaper.
**[[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]] [[Home Affairs]] spokesman [[Mark Oaten]] resigns after it is revealed by the ''[[News of the World]]'' that he paid [[rentboy]]s to perform sexual activities on him.
**[[Tessa Jowell]], [[Labour]] cabinet minister, is [[as of 2006]] embroiled in a scandal over her alleged involvement in dealings that her husband is involved in concerning an Italian investigation into some of [[Silvio Berlusconi]]s affairs. The Labour government passed documents that were requested by the Italian prosecuting authorities to the Italian government (headed by the defendant in the Italian case), as opposed to the requesting independent investigatory authorities. ([[2006]])
==See also==
*[[List of British political defections]]
[[Category:British political scandals|*]]</text>
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</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bombardier</title>
<id>4635</id>
<revision>
<id>39787071</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T21:43:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Peter Horn</username>
<id>897817</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the manufacturing company. For the military rank, see [[Bombardier (rank)]]. For the crew member of a bomber airplane, see [[Bombardier (air force)]]''
{{Infobox_Company |
company_name = Bombardier Inc. |
company_logo = [[Image:Bombardier1.jpg|center|150px|]] |
company_type = [[Public company]] |
foundation = [[Valcourt, Québec]] ([[1942]]) |
location = [[Montreal|Montréal, Québec]], [[Canada]] |
key_people = [[Joseph-Armand Bombardier]], founder |
industry = [[Aerospace engineering|Aerospace]] / [[Railway]]s |
products = [[Bombardier Challenger|Challenger]], [[Lear Jet|Learjet]], [[water bomber]]s, [[train]]s, [[tram]]s |
revenue = [[Image:green up.png]] $15.8 billion [[United States Dollar|USD]] ([[2005]]) |
num_employees = 59,550 ([[2005]]) |
homepage = http://www.bombardier.com/
}}
'''Bombardier Inc.''' ([[IPA]] /b&#596;&#771;ba&#641;dje/) {{tsx|BBD.SV.B}} {{tsx|BBD.MV.A}}, a [[Canadian companies|Canadian company]], was founded by [[Joseph-Armand Bombardier]] as '''L'Auto-Neige Bombardier Limitée''' in [[1942]], at [[Valcourt]] in the [[Eastern Townships]], [[Québec]]. It is a large manufacturer of regional aircraft, business jets, and railway cars. Its headquarters are in [[Montréal]], [[Québec]], [[Canada]].
'''Corporate Headquarters'''
: 800 boulevard René-Lévesque ouest
: [[Montréal]], [[Québec]]
: [[Canada]]
'''Fields of Activity'''
* Rail transportation equipment
* Regional and business aircraft
* Financial services
* Heavy and light recreational equipments
<b>Number of employees</b> (as of January 31, [[as of 2005|2005]])
{|-
| Transportation: || 31,570
|-
| Aerospace: || 27,100
|-
| Bombardier Capital: || 630
|-
| Other: || 250
|-
| TOTAL: || 59,550
|}
== History ==
<!-- Most of the next few grafs belongs in the biographical article on J.-A. Bombardier and not in the history of the company. I wonder if this is copyvio material; it certainly has the feel of something inexpertly translated from French and pasted from somewhere else. -->
Joseph-Armand Bombardier was a shy, determined mechanic who dreamed of building a vehicle that could 'float on snow'. In 1937, the first [[snowmobile]] rolled out of his small repair shop in Valcourt, Quebec. Over the years, Bombardier continued to perfect his dream and found that winter-bound Canadians were eager to come along for the ride. Bombardier changed the way we travel over snow and he established a Canadian manufacturing giant along the way.
Born in 1907, Joseph-Armand Bombardier showed a genius for tinkering early in life. He was only 10 years old when he took a cigar box and a broken alarm clock and made a working model of a tractor. As he grew older, Armand dreamt of building a vehicle that could glide over snow&mdash;a fitting goal for a boy growing up in rural Valcourt. At 15, Armand designed and built his first snow vehicle which was basically a large sleigh powered by a Ford Model T engine with a wooden airplane propeller at the back. He and his brother drove the noisy contraption through Valcourt before their father ordered them to stop. Undeterred, Armand kept working on his idea while he earned a living as an auto mechanic. His big breakthrough came in the mid-1930s when he developed a drive system that would revolutionise travel in snow and swamp. In 1937, Armand sold 12 snowmobiles&mdash;named the B7&mdash;and opened the company l'Auto-Neige Bombardier Limitée five years later.
J. Armand Bombardier never intended his snowmobile invention to be fun. The first snowmobiles were large, multi-passenger vehicles designed to help people get around during the long winter months. Snowmobiles are used in rural Quebec to take children to school, to carry freight, to deliver mail, and as ambulances. His invention served a very real necessity and soon business was booming. In [[1941]], Armand opened a large new factory in Valcourt. Then a major setback hit the growing business: the [[World War II|Second World War]] was well underway and the Canadian government issued wartime rationing regulations. Suddenly, Bombardier customers had to prove that snowmobiles were essential to their livelihood in order to buy one. To keep his business going, Armand switched gears and developed vehicles for the military. After the war, Armand experienced another setback in his snowmobile business. In 1948 the Quebec government passed a law requiring all highways and local roads to be cleared of snow; Bombardier's sales fell by nearly half in one year. Armand decided to diversify his business and make all-terrain vehicles for the mining, oil, and forestry industries.
Bombardier was an inventor who never rested. By the late 1940s, the quiet French Canadian had survived several setbacks and had a modestly successful small business centred in Québec. But Armand was not satisfied with the status quo and dreamt of developing a fast, lightweight snowmobile (the Ski-doo) that could carry one or two people. He worked tirelessly on his idea but always found the engine too heavy for the vehicle. In the early 1950s, Armand set aside his dream to focus on developing his company's other tracked vehicles. But by the end of the decade, smaller, more efficient engines had been developed and were starting to come on the market. Armand resumed his efforts to build a 'miniature' snowmobile. He worked alongside his eldest son Germain, who shared his father's mechanical talents. Armand and Germain developed several prototypes of the lightweight snowmobile and finally the first Ski-Doo went on sale in 1959.
The Ski-Doo became an instant hit but not for the reasons imagined by J. Armand Bombardier. The Ski-Doo was originally called the Ski-Dog because Bombardier meant it to be a practical vehicle to replace the dogsled for hunters and trappers. But the public soon discovered the speedy vehicles that can zoom over snow were a lot of fun. Suddenly a new winter sport was born, centred in Quebec. In the first year, Bombardier sold 225 Ski-Doos; four years later, 8,210 were sold. But Armand was reluctant to focus too much on the Ski-Doo and move resources away from his all-terrain vehicles. He vividly remembered his earlier business setbacks that forced him to diversify. Armand slowed down promotion of Ski-Doo to prevent it from dominating the other products.
On [[February 18]], [[1964]], J. Armand Bombardier died of cancer at age 56. He left behind a thriving business, but also one that had been focused on one person. Armand dominated his company, overseeing all areas of operation. He controlled the small research department, making all the drawings himself. Now the younger generation took over and was led by Armand's sons and sons-in-law. The young team reorganized and decentralized the company, adopting modern business tactics. The company adopted the latest technological innovation&mdash;the computer&mdash;to handle inventory, accounts, and billing. Distribution networks were improved and increased, and an incentive program was developed for sales staff.
Joseph had the ability to overcome great odds in his life to develop a company that laid a solid foundation for the creation of a transportation giant. He had a unique ability for an inventor which was to parlay his inventions into a successful business. By the time of his death sales of the company had reached [[Canadian dollar|C$]]20 [[million]], which is the equivalent of C$160 million in 2004 dollars. During his lifetime the province of Québec had been economically dominated by the top [[anglophone]] businessmen and socially by the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic Church]], with very limited opportunities for [[francophone]] businesspeople. He was able to overcome these obstacles through sheer determination and inventiveness.
== Global expansion ==
Under the management of [[Laurent Beaudoin]], Bombardier's son-in-law, the company took over the Canadian government-owned [[Canadair]] aircraft manufacturing company in Montreal that had recorded the largest corporate loss in Canadian business history. Bombardier became a leading manufacturer of [[business jets]], [[regional aircraft]], and [[train]]s. Besides the [[Bombardier Challenger|Challenger]] and Global business jets, in [[1990]] Bombardier acquired the [[Lear Jet|Learjet]] Company |
re reverential treatments of national history.
Objections have sometimes been raised to indicate that the term is inherently partial to the role of men in history, and thus [[sexism|sexist]]. Alternate terms, such as "Framers", or "Founders" may be used to be more inclusive of female participation. There is, of course, the counter-argument that [[patriarchy|patriarchal]] dominance in history has been the rule and that the term is thus more descriptive of an era (or of most eras) than it is truly sexist.
Alternate terms such as these may also be used to indicate a more neutral attitude to the individuals in question, as while anyone may be a founder of a nation, the implication of familial relationship is likely to be something more personal. An [[United States|American]], for instance, might be less likely to refer to the "Founding Fathers" of [[Canada]], and vice versa--the term itself is generally particular to one's own country, and may be more often used in reference to American history than to that of other nations.
==Examples==
* '''Australia''': The leaders of the [[Constitutional history of Australia|Australian federalist movement]] in the [[1890s]] might be described as Founding Fathers.
* '''Canada''': [[Canada]] has its Fathers of Confederation&mdash;see [[Canadian Confederation]].
* '''Europe''': [[Robert Schuman]], [[Jean Monnet]], [[Konrad Adenauer]], [[Alcide De Gasperi]], [[Paul-Henri Spaak]] and [[Altiero Spinelli]] have been referred to as the founding fathers of the [[European Union]].
*'''Germany''': [[Otto von Bismarck]], the "Iron Chancellor", engineered the unification of the numerous states of [[Germany]]. Modern, democratic Germany was decisively shaped by the "Fathers of the [[Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany|Basic Law]]" in the 1948 Constitutional Convention at [[Herrenchiemsee]] and by the first [[Chancellor of Germany|Federal Chancellor]], [[Konrad Adenauer]].
* '''Italy''': [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]], [[Victor Emmanuel II]], [[Count Cavour]], [[Giuseppe Mazzini]] have been referred to as the founding fathers of the [[Kingdom of Italy]].
* '''South America''': [[Simon Bolivar]], [[Jose Antonio Paez]], [[General Rafael Urdaneta]], [[Francisco de Paula Santander]] have been referred to as the founding fathers of the northern countries of South America (Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Panama, Ecuador, Bolivia).
* '''Switzerland''': Both the anonymous ''[[Eidgenossen]]'' who drew up the [[Federal Charter of 1291]], or the liberal statesmen who helped found the modern [[Swiss Confederation]] in 1848 can be considered the founding fathers of [[Switzerland]]. Among the latter, those who became the first members of the [[Swiss Federal Council]] were perhaps the most notable: [[Ulrich Ochsenbein]], [[Jakob Stämpfli]], [[Jonas Furrer]], [[Martin J. Munzinger]], [[Daniel-Henri Druey]], [[Friedrich Frey-Herosé]], [[Wilhelm Matthias Naeff]] and [[Stefano Franscini]].
* '''United States of America''': The creators and early developers of the [[United States|United States of America]], such as the signers of its [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]] and the framers of its [[United States Constitution|Constitution]]&mdash;see [[Founding Fathers of the United States]].
==See also==
* [[Founding Fathers of the United States]]
* [[Father of the Nation]]
[[Category:Politics]]
[[de:Gründerväter]]
[[it:Padri fondatori]]
[[pl:Ojcowie-założyciele]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FAT</title>
<id>11172</id>
<revision>
<id>41688414</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T01:52:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ceyockey</username>
<id>150564</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Reverting to edit version 40205840 to remove derogatory passage added by 170.158.18.97</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''FAT''' may mean:
* Factory acceptance test (see [[Acceptance test]]), a software engineering concept
* [[Far Eastern Air Transport]], a Chinese airline
* [[File Allocation Table]], a file system format used by Microsoft operating systems
* [[Forces Armées Tchadiennes]], the Chad armed forces of the government of [[President of Chad|President]] [[Félix Malloum]]
* [[Authentic Labor Front|Frente Auténtico del Trabajo]], a Mexican [[Labour economics|labor]] confederation
* [[Fresno Yosemite International Airport]] (IATA airport code FAT)
==See also==
* [[Fat]], a generic term for a class of lipids in biochemistry
** [[Fat tissue]] or adipose tissue
** [[Fatness]] or obesity
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:FAT]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Freedom (political)</title>
<id>11175</id>
<revision>
<id>41868956</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T06:34:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>150.201.115.135</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Liberalism}}
'''Political freedom''' is the [[right]], or the capacity, of self-determination
as an expression of the individual will.
==Philosophy of political freedom==
[[Philosophers]] have identified a positive and negative aspect to the concept of "freedom". "Positive freedom" may generally be defined as the ability of an individual to act to fulfill their potential (see [[positive liberty]]). "Negative freedom" may generally be defined as the absence of constraint upon an individual (see [[negative liberty]]).
For example, according to [[Thomas Hobbes]] an individual is free to act when the [[law]] does not prohibit an act or is otherwise silent on the matter. [[Isaiah Berlin]] and others examined the difference between the positive and negative views of freedom in his [[1958]] essay ''[[Two Concepts of Liberty]]''.
One of the most notable contributors to the modern concept of political freedom was the [[Victorian era|Victorian]] philosopher [[John Stuart Mill]] who, in his magnus opus ''[[On Liberty]]'', outlined several freedoms that were not recognized during the Victorian period in [[United Kingdom|Britain]]. He largely based his political philosophy on the [[harm principle]], which essentially posits that people should be allowed to do as they wish provided others are not harmed.
Following from this distinction, when an individual is free from social and political ills they may enjoy [[safety]] or [[security]], while an individual who is free to act generally enjoys [[liberty]].
==Types of freedom==
The concept of political freedom is closely allied with the concepts of [[civil liberties]] and [[human rights]], and the fundamental idea of positive and negative freedom corresponds with the concept of [[negative and positive rights]].
Most [[democracy|democratic]] societies are characterised by various freedoms which are afforded the legal protection of the [[state]]. Some of these freedoms include (in alphabetical order):
*[[Freedom of assembly]]
*[[Freedom of association]]
*Freedom from [[discrimination#Government sanctioned discrimination|government sanctioned discrimination]]
*[[Freedom of movement]] (or travel)
*[[Freedom of the press]]
*[[Freedom of religion]] (or belief)
*[[Freedom of speech]]
*[[Freedom of thought]] (or conscience)
The [[constitution]]s of many nations specifically codify some of these freedoms in a [[bill of rights]].
==Different views on political freedom==
Various groups along the [[political spectrum]] naturally differ on what they believe constitutes "true" political freedom; in fact the debate has been demonstrated by the ever-changing content of this article. Germane to the debate are [[Friedrich Hayek]]'s comments [[wikiquote:Friedrich Hayek|on the meaning of words]]. It is interesting that, following those comments in his book, he wrote that the most abused words have been "liberty" and "freedom".
In [[libertarianism]], freedom is defined in terms of lack of government interference in the individual pursuit of happiness, as long as others' freedom is not thereby harmed; for example, [[capitalist]]s place a high value on freedom from government interference in the economy. This kind of freedom may be referred to as a kind of [[negative liberty]].
On the other hand, those on the [[Left-wing politics|political left]] place more emphasis on freedom as the ability of the individual to realize one's own potential and pursue happiness. Freedom in this sense may include freedom from want, poverty, deprivation, or oppression. These kinds of freedom may be referred to as [[positive liberty]].
Many [[anarchism|anarchists]] (but not [[anarcho-capitalism|anarcho-capitalists]]) see negative and positive liberty as complementary concepts of freedom.
Some treat freedom as if it were almost synomymous with [[democracy]], while other see conflicts or even opposition between the two concepts.
[[Environmentalist]]s often argue that political freedoms should include some social constraint on use of [[ecosystem]]s. They maintain there is no such thing, for instance, as "freedom to pollute" or "freedom to deforest" given the [[downstream consequences]]. The popularity of [[SUV]]s, [[golf]], and [[urban sprawl]] has been used as evidence that some ideas of freedom and [[ecological conservation]] can clash. This leads at times to serious confrontations and clashes of [[values]] reflected in advertising campaigns, e.g. that of [[PETA]] regarding [[fur]].
In [[jurisprudence]], freedom is the [[right]] to autonomously determine one's own actions; generally it is granted in those fields in which the subject has no [[obligation]]s to fulfill or [[law]]s to obey, according to the interpretation that the hypothetical natural unlimited freedom is limited by the law for some matters.
==Recent trends in political freedom around the world==
In modern times the expansion of "freedom" around the world is considered by some to be s |
processed [[shellfish]], [[beef]], [[lamb]]
'''Exports - partners:'''
UK
'''Imports:'''
$NA
'''Imports - commodities:'''
[[timber]], [[fertilizer]]s, [[fish]]
'''Imports - partners:'''
UK
'''Debt - external:'''
$NA
'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$NA
'''[[Currency]]:'''
1 [[Isle of Man pound]] = 100 pence
'''Exchange rates:'''
Manx pounds per US$1 - 0.6092 (January 2000), 0.6180 (1999), 0.6037 (1998), 0.6106 (1997), 0.6403 (1996), 0.6335 (1995); the Manx pound is at par with the British pound
'''Fiscal year:'''
[[1 April]]&ndash;[[31 March]]
==See also==
*[[Isle of Man]]
*[[Economy of the United Kingdom]]
*[[Economy of Europe]]
[[Category:Isle of Man]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Isle of Man]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications on the Isle of Man</title>
<id>14768</id>
<revision>
<id>41799652</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:58:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>12.37.144.130</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Broadcasting */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">==Telecommunications==
'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
51,000 (1999)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
NA
'''Telephone system:'''
<br>''domestic:''
landline, [[fax|telefax]] mobile cellular telephone system
<br>''international:''
[[fiber-optic cable]], [[microwave]] [[radio]] relay, [[satellite]] earth station, submarine cable
'''[[Country calling code]]''': 44 1624 (landlines); 44 7624 (mobiles)
* [http://www.manx-telecom.com/ Manx Telecom]
==Broadcasting==
* [http://www.manxradio.com/ Manx Radio]
* [http://www.energyfm.net/ Energy FM]
* [http://www.three.fm/ 3 FM]
Establishment of a local TV service is under consideration. Although residents pay the [[UK]] [[television licence fee]], the [[BBC]] does not provide any local services on radio, TV, or online. The Isle of Man is covered by the BBC North West region, which occasionally features local news items, as does [[Border Television]], whose [[ITV]] franchise covers the Island. The national public service commercial radio station for the island is [[Manx Radio]].
'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
MW 1, FM 1, shortwave 0 (1998), a [[longwave]](LW) station is planned ([[Musicmann279]])
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
0 (receives broadcasts from the [[United Kingdom]] and satellite) (1999)
'''[[Television]]s:''' 27,490 (1999)
==Post==
The [[Isle of Man Post Office]] issues its own stamps for use within the island and for sending post off-island. Only Manx stamps are valid for sending mail using the postal system. The Isle of Man adopted [[postcodes]] in the [[1990s]] using the prefix IM to fit in with the already established [[United Kingdom|UK]] [[UK postcodes|postcode]] system.
==See also==
* [[List of postal codes in the Isle of Man]]
* [[Manx Radio]]
==External links==
* [http://www.gov.im/government/boards/cc.xml Communications Commission]
* [http://www.gov.im/isleofman/communication.xml Communications summary]
[[Category:Isle of Man]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport on the Isle of Man</title>
<id>14769</id>
<revision>
<id>39288673</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T02:54:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bbean</username>
<id>917490</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Railways */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">==Roads==
The island has a total of 800 km of public roads, all of which are paved. (''Source: CIA World Factbook, 2002'')
There is a comprehensive bus network, operated by '''Isle of Man Transport''', a department of the Isle of Man government.
Among the roads is the <u>A1 road</u>.
Many of the roads on the island have no speed limit.
==Railways==
The island has a total of 68.5 km of railway, of which 43.5 km is electrified. (''Source: CIA World Factbook, 2002'')
There are six separate rail systems on the island:
*[[Isle of Man Steam Railway]] - operated by '''Isle of Man Transport'''
*[[Manx Electric Railway]] - operated by '''Isle of Man Transport'''
*[[Snaefell Mountain Railway]] - operated by '''Isle of Man Transport'''
*[[Douglas Horse Tram]] - operated by the Douglas Borough Council
*[[Groudle Glen Railway]]
*[[Great Laxey Mine Railway ]]
==Airports==
The only airport on the island is the [[Isle of Man Airport]] at Ronaldsway.
Scheduled services operate to and from various cities in [[Britain]] and [[Ireland]], operated by several different airlines.
==Ports and harbours==
Ports are located at [[Castletown]], [[Douglas, Isle of Man|Douglas]], [[Peel, Isle of Man|Peel]] and [[Ramsey, Isle of Man|Ramsey]].
The Isle of Man is served by frequent ferries to and from [[Britain]] and [[Ireland]]. The principal operator is the '''Isle of Man Steam Packet Company'''.
==Merchant marine==
The Isle of Man register comprises 226 ships of 1,000 GRT or over, totaling 6,055,436 GRT or 9,972,459 DWT. This figure includes some foreign-owned ships registered here as a flag of convenience: Australia 3, Cyprus 4, Denmark 30, Estonia 3, France 1, Germany 57, Greece 8, Hong Kong 11, Iceland 1, Italy 6, Monaco 4, Netherlands 2, New Zealand 1, Norway 10, Singapore 2, Sweden 3, United Kingdom 80, United States 1.
A breakdown of ships by type: bulk 25, cargo 40, chemical tanker 25, combination bulk 2, container 19, liquefied gas 31, multi-functional large load carrier 1, petroleum tanker 59, refrigerated cargo 1, roll on/roll off 17, specialized tanker 1, vehicle carrier 5.
(''Source: CIA World Factbook, 2004'')
==See also==
*[[Isle of Man]]
*[[Isle of Man Steam Packet]]
==External links==
*[http://www.iombusandrail.info/ Isle of Man Transport]
*[http://www.steam-packet.com/ Isle of Man Steam Packet Company]
*[http://www.iom-airport.com/ Isle of Man Airport]
*[http://www.iomguide.com/timetables/ Searchable Isle of Man Bus/Railway Timetables]
[[Category:Isle of Man]]
[[Category:Transport in British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of the Isle of Man</title>
<id>14770</id>
<revision>
<id>15912305</id>
<timestamp>2003-08-03T17:44:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Isle of Man]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Isle of Man/Transnational issues</title>
<id>14771</id>
<revision>
<id>15912306</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-30T19:01:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Isle of Man]] -- the page had no content</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Isle of Man]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Information theory</title>
<id>14773</id>
<revision>
<id>42095207</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:16:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>130.94.162.61</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Continuous equivalents of entropy */ link to main article "differential entropy"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''The topic of this article is distinct from the topics of [[Library and information science]] and [[Information technology]].''
{{attention_see_talk}}
'''Information theory''' is a field of mathematics that considers three fundamental questions:
* [[Lossless data compression|Compression]]: How much can data be compressed (abbreviated) so that another person can recover an ''identical'' copy of the uncompressed data?
* [[Lossy data compression]]: How much can data be compressed so that another person can recover an ''approximate'' copy of the uncompressed data?
* [[Channel capacity]]: How quickly can data be communicated to someone else through a noisy medium?
These somewhat abstract questions are answered quite rigorously by using mathematics introduced by [[Claude Elwood Shannon|Claude Shannon]] in 1948. His paper spawned the field of information theory, and the results have been crucial to the success of the [[Voyager program|Voyager]] missions to deep space, the invention of the [[Compact disc|CD]], the feasibility of [[mobile phone]]s, analysis of the code used by [[DNA]], and numerous other fields.
==Overview==
Information theory is the mathematical theory of data communication and storage, generally considered to have been founded in 1948 by [[Claude E. Shannon]]. The central [[paradigm]] of classic information theory is the engineering problem of the transmission of information over a noisy channel. The most fundamental results of this theory are Shannon's [[source coding theorem]], which establishes that on average the number of ''bits'' needed to represent the result of an uncertain event is given by the ''entropy''; and Shannon's [[noisy-channel coding theorem]], which states that ''reliable'' communication is possible over ''noisy'' channels provided that the rate of communication is below a certain threshold called the channel capacity. The channel capacity is achieved with appropriate encoding and decoding systems.
Information theory is closely associated with a collection of pure and applied disciplines that have been carried out under a variety of banners in different parts of the world over the past half century or more: [[adaptive system]]s, [[anticipatory system]]s, [[artificial intelligence]], [[complex system]]s, [[complexity science]], [[cybernetics]], [[informatics]], [[machine learning]], along with [[systems science]]s of many descriptions. Information theory is a broad and deep mathematical theory, with equally broad and deep applications, chief among them [[coding theory]].
Coding theory is concerned with finding explicit methods, called ''codes'', of increasing the efficiency and fidelity of data communication over a noisy channel up near the limit that Shan |
[[City College of New York]].
*1991 - [[Sonic the Hedgehog (Game Gear)|Sonic the Hedgehog]] [[Game Gear]] version is released in [[Japan]].
*[[1995]] - [[CompuServe]] sets a precedent by blocking access to sex-oriented newsgroups after being pressured by [[Germany|German]] prosecutors.
*[[1999]] - [[Saparmurat Niyazov]] is proclaimed [[President for Life]] in [[Turkmenistan]].
*[[2000]] - [[Adrian Nastase|Adrian N&#259;stase]] becomes the [[Prime Minister of Romania|Prime Minister]] of [[Romania]].
*2000 - [[U.S.]] retail giant [[Montgomery Ward]] announces it is going out of business after 128 years.
*[[2005]] - A [[U.S.]] immigration judge orders [[John Demjanjuk]] deported to the [[Ukraine]] for crimes against humanity commited during [[World War II]].
==Births==
*[[1164]] - [[Emperor Rokujo]] of Japan (d. [[1176]])
*[[1522]] - [[Margaret of Austria (1522-1583)|Margaret of Austria]], regent of the Netherlands (d. [[1583]])
*[[1619]] - [[Antoine Furetière]], French writer (d. [[1688]])
*[[1655]] - [[Charles Cornwallis, 3rd Baron Cornwallis]], First Lord of the British Admiralty (d. [[1698]])
*[[1665]] - [[George FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Northumberland]], British general (d. [[1716]])
*[[1856]] - [[Woodrow Wilson]], 28th [[President of the United States]], recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1924]])
*[[1879]] - [[Billy Mitchell]], American military aviation pioneer (d. [[1936]])
*[[1882]] - [[Arthur Eddington]], British astronomer and physicist (d. [[1944]])
*[[1888]] - [[F. W. Murnau|Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau]], German film director (d. [[1931]])
*[[1898]] - [[Carl-Gustaf Rossby]], Swedish meteorologist (b. [[1957]])
*[[1899]] - [[Eugeniusz Bodo]], Polish actor (d. [[1943]])
*[[1902]] - [[Mortimer Adler]], American philosopher (d. [[2001]])
*1902 - [[Shen Congwen]], Chinese writer (d. [[1988]])
*[[1903]] - [[Earl Hines|Earl "Fatha" Hines]], American musician (d. [[1983]])
*1903 - [[John von Neumann]], Hungarian-born mathematician (d. [[1957]])
*[[1905]] - [[Cliff Arquette]], American actor and comedian (d. [[1974]])
*[[1908]] - [[Lew Ayres]], American actor (d. [[1996]])
*[[1922]] - [[Stan Lee]], American comic book writer
*[[1924]] - [[Milton Obote]], [[President of Uganda]] (d. [[2005]])
*[[1925]] - [[Hildegard Knef]], German actress, singer and writer (d. [[2002]])
*[[1929]] - [[Brian Redhead]], British journalist and broadcaster (d. [[1994]])
*1929 - [[Terry Sawchuk]], Canadian hockey player (d. [[1970]])
*[[1931]] - [[Guy Debord]], French writer and filmmaker (d. [[1994]])
*[[1932]] - [[Dhirubhai Ambani]], Indian businessman (d. [[2002]])
*1932 - [[Manuel Puig]], Argentine writer (d. [[1990]])
*1932 - [[Roy Hattersley]], British politician
*[[1933]] - [[Nichelle Nichols]], American actress and singer
*[[1934]] - [[Maggie Smith]], British actress
*1934 - [[Yujiro Ishihara]], Japanese actor (d. [[1987]])
*[[1938]] - [[Charles Neville]], American musician ([[Neville Brothers]])
*[[1940]] - [[Don Francisco (television host)|Don Francisco]], Chilean TV host
*[[1943]] - [[Richard Whiteley]], British television presenter (d. [[2005]])
*[[1944]] - [[Kary Mullis]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1946]] - [[Edgar Winter]], American musician
*[[1947]] - [[Aurelio Rodríguez]], Mexican baseball player (d. [[2000]])
*[[1953]] - [[Richard Clayderman]], French pianist
*[[1954]] - [[Denzel Washington]], American actor
*[[1956]] - [[Nigel Kennedy]], British violinist
*[[1960]] - [[Raymond Bourque]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1967]] - [[Chris Ware]], American cartoonist
*[[1969]] - [[Linus Torvalds]], Finnish computer programmer
*[[1971]] - [[Frank Sepe]], American bodybuilder and model
*[[1972]] - [[Patrick Rafter]], Australian tennis player
*1972 - [[Adam Vinatieri]], American Football player
*[[1978]] - [[John Legend]], American singer, songwriter, and pianist
*[[1981]] - [[Sienna Miller]], British actress
*[[1982]] - [[Cedric Benson]], American football player
*[[1989]] - [[Mackenzie Rosman]], American actress
==Deaths==
*[[1367]] - [[Ashikaga Yoshiakira]], Japanese shogun (b. [[1330]])
*[[1446]] - [[Antipope Clement VIII]]
*[[1503]] - [[Piero di Lorenzo de' Medici]], ruler of Florence (b. [[1471]])
*[[1558]] - [[Hermann Finck]], German composer (b. [[1527]])
*[[1622]] - [[Francis de Sales]], Bishop of Geneva and saint (b. [[1567]])
*[[1663]] - [[Francesco Maria Grimaldi]], Italian mathematician and physicist (b. [[1618]])
*[[1671]] - [[Johann Friedrich Gronovius]], German classical scholar (b. [[1611]])
*[[1694]] - Queen [[Mary II of England]] (b. [[1662]])
*[[1703]] - [[Mustafa II]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (b. [[1664]])
*[[1706]] - [[Pierre Bayle]], French philosopher (b. [[1647]])
*[[1708]] - [[Joseph Pitton de Tournefort]], French botanist (b. [[1656]])
*[[1715]] - [[William Carstares]], Scottish minister (b. [[1649]])
*[[1734]] - [[Robert Roy MacGregor]], Scottish folk hero (b. [[1671]])
*[[1736]] - [[Antonio Caldara]], Italian composer (b. [[1670]])
*[[1829]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]], French scientist (b. [[1744]])
*[[1859]] - [[Thomas Macaulay]], British poet, historian, and politician (b. [[1800]])
*[[1900]] - [[Alexandre Alberto da Rocha de Serpa Pinto]], Portuguese explorer (b. [[1846]])
*[[1916]] - [[Eduard Strauss]], Austrian composer (b. [[1835]])
*[[1918]] - [[Olavo Bilac]], Brazilian poet (b. [[1865]])
*[[1919]] - [[Johannes Rydberg]], Swedish physicist (b. [[1854]])
*[[1924]] - [[Léon Bakst]], Russian artist (b. [[1866]])
*[[1937]] - [[Maurice Ravel]], French composer (b. [[1875]])
*[[1938]] - [[Florence Lawrence]], American actress (b. [[1886]])
*[[1945]] - [[Theodore Dreiser]], American author (b. [[1871]])
*[[1947]] - King [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy]] (b. [[1869]])
*[[1949]] - [[Jack Lovelock]], New Zealand athlete (b. [[1910]])
*[[1952]] - [[Fletcher Henderson]], American musician (b. [[1897]])
*[[1963]] - [[Paul Hindemith]], German composer (b. [[1895]])
*[[1967]] - [[Katharine McCormick]], American women's rights activist (b. [[1875]])
*[[1976]] - [[Katharine Byron]], U.S. Congresswoman (b. [[1903]])
*[[1981]] - [[Allan Dwan]], Canadian-born film director (b. [[1885]])
*[[1983]] - [[William Demarest]], American actor (b. [[1892]])
*1983 - [[Jimmy Demaret]], American golfer (b. [[1910]])
*1983 - [[Dennis Wilson]], American musician ([[The Beach Boys]]) (b. [[1944]])
*[[1984]] - [[Sam Peckinpah]], American film director (b. [[1925]])
*[[1986]] - [[Andrei Tarkovsky]], Russian film director (b. [[1932]])
*[[1989]] - [[Hermann Oberth]], German physicist (b. [[1894]])
*[[1991]] - [[Cassandra Harris]], Australian actress (b. [[1952]])
*[[1998]] - [[Claudia Benton]], Peruvian child psychologist (b. [[1959]])
*[[1999]] - [[Clayton Moore]], American actor (b. [[1914]])
*[[2001]] - [[William X. Kienzle]], American novelist (b. [[1928]])
*[[2003]] - [[Benjamin Thurman Hacker|Benjamin Hacker]], U.S. admiral (b. [[1935]])
*2003 - [[Dinsdale Landen]], British actor (b. [[1932]])
*[[2004]] - [[Jerry Orbach]], American actor (b. [[1935]])
*2004 - [[Susan Sontag]], American writer and activist (b. [[1933]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Calendar of Saints]] - Feast of the [[Holy Innocents]], a.k.a. ''Childermas'', commemorating the [[Massacre of the Innocents]] on order of king [[Herod the Great]]. In [[Spain]] and [[Latin America]]n countries the festival is celebrated in a manner similar to [[April Fool's Day]].
* The third [[Twelve days of Christmas|day of Christmas]] in Western [[Christianity]].
*[[USA]] - Admission Day of [[Iowa]] (29th state, [[1846]])
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/28 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/12/28 Today in History: December 28]
----
[[December 27]] - [[December 29]] - [[November 28]] - [[January 28]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[ceb:Disyembre 28]]
[[nap:28 'e dicembre]]
[[war:Disyembre 28]]
[[pam:Disiembri 28]]
[[af:28 Desember]]
[[ar:28 ديسمبر]]
[[an:28 d'abiento]]
[[ast:28 d'avientu]]
[[bg:28 декември]]
[[be:28 сьнежня]]
[[bs:28. decembar]]
[[ca:28 de desembre]]
[[cv:Раштав, 28]]
[[co:28 di decembre]]
[[cs:28. prosinec]]
[[cy:28 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:28. december]]
[[de:28. Dezember]]
[[et:28. detsember]]
[[el:28 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:28 de diciembre]]
[[eo:28-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 28]]
[[fo:28. desember]]
[[fr:28 décembre]]
[[fy:28 desimber]]
[[ga:28 Nollaig]]
[[gl:28 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 28일]]
[[hr:28. prosinca]]
[[io:28 di decembro]]
[[id:28 Desember]]
[[ia:28 de decembre]]
[[is:28. desember]]
[[it:28 dicembre]]
[[he:28 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:28 Desember]]
[[ka:28 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:28 gòdnika]]
[[ku:28'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:28 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 28]]
[[lb:28. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 28]]
[[mk:28 декември]]
[[ms:28 Disember]]
[[nl:28 december]]
[[ja:12月28日]]
[[no:28. desember]]
[[nn:28. desember]]
[[oc:28 de decembre]]
[[os:28 декабры]]
[[pl:28 grudnia]]
[[pt:28 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:28 decembrie]]
[[ru:28 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 28.]]
[[sco:28 December]]
[[sq:28 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:28 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 28]]
[[sk:28. december]]
[[sl:28. december]]
[[sr:28. децембар]]
[[fi:28. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:28 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 28]]
[[tt:28. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 28]]
[[th:28 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:28 tháng 12]]
[[tr:28 Aralık]]
[[uk:28 грудня]]
[[wa:28 di decimbe]]
[[zh:12月28日]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Denis Diderot</title>
<id>8199</id>
<revision>
<id>41782396</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T18:40:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vignaux</username>
<id>615</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 40811866 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DiderotVanLoo.jpg|thumb|right|''Portrait of Diderot'' by [[Louis-Michel van Loo]], 1767]]
'''Denis Diderot''' ([[October 5]], [[1713]] &ndash; [[July 31]], [[1784]]) was a [[France|French]] [[phi |
rn times that most dictionaries of English apply the descriptive method to definitions, while additionally informing readers of attitudes which may influence their choices on words often considered vulgar, offensive, erroneous, or easily confused. ''[[Merriam-Webster]]'' is subtle, only adding italicized notations such as, ''sometimes offensive'' or ''nonstand'' (nonstandard.) [[American Heritage Dictionary|''American Heritage]]'' goes further, discussing issues separately in numerous "usage notes." [[Encarta Webster's Dictionary|''Encarta]]'' provides similar notes, but is more prescriptive, offering warnings and admonitions against the use of certain words considered by many to be offensive or illiterate, such as, "an offensive term for..." or "a taboo term meaning..."
Because of the broad use of dictionaries, and their acceptance by many as language authorities, their treatment of the language does affect usage to some degree, even the most descriptive dictionaries providing conservative continuity. In the long run, however, usage primarily determines the meanings of words in English, and the language is being changed and created every day. As [[Jorge Luis Borges]] says in the prologue to "El otro, el mismo": "''It is often forgotten that (dictionaries) are artificial repositories, put together well after the languages they define. The roots of language are irrational and of a magical nature.''"
===Other variations===
Since words and their meanings develop over time, dictionary entries are organized to reflect these changes. Dictionaries may either list meanings in the historical order in which they appeared, or may list meanings in order of popularity and most common use.
Dictionaries also differ in the degree to which they are ''encyclopedic'', providing considerable background information, illustrations, and the like, or ''linguistic'', concentrating on etymology, nuances of meaning, and quotations demonstrating usage.
Any dictionary has been designed to fulfil one or more functions. The dictionary functions chosen by the maker(s) of the dictionary provide the basis for all lexicographic decisions, from the selection of entry words, over the choice of information types, to the choice of place for the information (e.g. in an article or in an appendix). There are two main types of function. The communication-oriented functions comprise text reception (understanding), text production, text revision, and translation. The knowledge-oriented functions deal with situations where the dictionary is used for acquiring specific knowledge about a particular matter, and for acquiring general knowledge about something. The optimal dictionary is one that contains information directly relevant for the needs of the users relating to one or more of these functions. It is important that the information is presented in a way that keeps the [[lexicographic information cost]]s at a minimum.
==History==
The art and craft of writing dictionaries is called [[lexicography]].
One of the earliest dictionaries known, and which is still extant today in an abridged form, was written in [[Latin]] during the reign of the emperor [[Augustus]]. It is known by the title "De Significatu Verborum" ("On the meaning of words") and was originally compiled by [[Verrius Flaccus]]. It was twice abridged in succeeding centuries, first by [[Festus]], and then by [[Paul the Deacon]]. Verrius Flaccus' dictionary was an abridged list of difficult or antiquated words, whose usage was illustrated by quotations from early Roman authors.
''[[Shuo Wen Jie Zi]]'' (说文解字), written in the early [[2nd century]], was the first [[Chinese language]] dictionary. The author [[Xu Shen]] first organized [[Chinese characters]] by [[radical (Chinese character)|radical]].
The first true English dictionary was the ''[[Table Alphabeticall]]'' of [[1604]], although it only included 3,000 words and the definitions it contained were little more than synonyms. The first one to be at all comprehensive was [[Thomas Blount (Lexicographer)|Thomas Blount]]'s dictionary ''Glossographia'' of [[1656]]. This was followed by [[Samuel Johnson]]'s famous and more complete dictionary of [[1755]].
In [[1806]], Noah [[Webster's Dictionary|Webster's dictionary]] was published by the G&C Merriam Company of [[Springfield, Massachusetts]] which still publishes ''Merriam-Webster'' dictionaries, but the term ''Webster's'' is considered generic and can be used by any dictionary.
The most complete dictionary of the English language is the [[Oxford English Dictionary]]. The first edition was properly begun in 1860 and was completed in 1928, by which time a supplement that took an additional five years to complete was already necessary.
Also see [http://angli02.kgw.tu-berlin.de/lexicography/data/b_history.html A Brief History of English Lexicography]
ʄ
==Miscellaneous==
The Irish mathematical physicist, [[John Lighton Synge|J. L. Synge]], created a game, [[Game of Circ]], to emphasize the circular reasoning implicit in the defining process of any standard dictionary.
==List of major dictionaries==
===Arabic===
*[[Kitab al-Ayn]]
*Al Mujam al waseet
*[[Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic]]
===Breton===
* [[Geriadur Brezhoneg an Here]]
===Catalan===
*[http://www.grec.net/home/cel/dicc.htm Diccionari de l'Enciclopèdia Catalana]
*[http://pdl.iec.es/entrada/diec.asp Diccionari de l'Institut d'Estudis Catalans]
===Chinese===
*[[Shuowen Jiezi]](《说文解字》)(an dictionary of ancient Chinese)
*[[Kangxi dictionary]](《康熙字典》)(an dictionary of ancient Chinese)
*[[Rime dictionary]]
*[[Xinhua dictionary]](《新华字典》)(an dictionary of contemporary Chinese)
NOTE:All the Chinese given above are in simplified Chinese character.(in GB code,not in Unicode)
===Dutch===
*[http://www.vandale.nl Van Dale]
*[http://blackorwhite.nl/woordenboek Online Nederlands Woordenboek]
===English===
* [[Oxford English Dictionary]] (descriptive)
* [[Concise Oxford Dictionary]]
* [[New Oxford Dictionary of English]]
* [[New Oxford American Dictionary]]
* [[The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language]]
* [[Webster's New Universal Unabridged Dictionary]]
* [[Samuel Johnson]]'s [[A Dictionary of the English Language]] (prescriptive)
* [[Noah Webster]]'s ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (prescriptive)
* ''[[Webster's Dictionary|Webster's Third New International Dictionary]]'' (descriptive)
* [[The Century Dictionary]]
* The [[Macquarie Dictionary]], a dictionary of [[Australian English]]
* The [[Chambers Dictionary]]
* The [[HarperCollins|Collins]] [[COBUILD]]
* The [[HarperCollins|Collins English Dictionary]]
* [[Longman|Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English]]
* [http://lawyerintl.com/modules/dictionary/ Law Dictionary] - includes legal terms from the Bouvier Law Dictionary.
* [http://www.w3dictionary.com/ W3Dictionary] - incorporates several popular and reliable dictionaries into one online source.
* [http://deanslawdictionary.com/ Dean's Law Dictionary] - created by artificial intelligence with over 185,000 terms and 300,000 case cites.
===French===
*[[Le dictionnaire de l'Académie française]] (prescriptive)
*[[Dictionnaire alphabétique et analogique de la langue française]] ("Le Robert") (descriptive)
**[[Petit Robert]] (abridgement)
*[[Dictionnaire de la langue française (Littré)]]
===German===
*[[Duden]]
*[[Der Große Muret Sanders]] by Langenscheidt
*[[Deutsches Rechtswörterbuch]] http://www.rzuser.uni-heidelberg.de/~cd2/drw/
*[[Deutsches Wörterbuch]] by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm http://www.dwb.uni-trier.de/
*Wörterbuch der deutschen Gegenwartssprache http://www.dwds.de/?woerterbuch=1&qu=
*[[ PONS Großwörterbuch Englisch]]
===Hebrew===
*The Complete Dictionary of Ancient and Modern Hebrew
*[[Even-Shoshan Dictionary]]
===Italian===
*[http://www.demauroparavia.it De Mauro] Italian definition
*[http://www.oxfordparavia.it Oxford Paravia] Italian«--»English
*[http://www.garzantilinguistica.it Garzanti Linguistica] Italian definition, Italian«--»English, Italian«--»French (free registration is required)
*[http://www.dejudicibus.it/dizionario/ Programma Dizionario] Over 90 free dictionaries from/to Italian by ''Dictionary Team''
===Japanese===
:''Main article: [[Japanese dictionaries]]
* [[Shin Meikai kokugo jiten]] (新明解国語辞典), a medium-sized Japanese-Japanese dictionary
* [[Kojien|Kōjien]] (広辞苑), a large, often quoted Japanese-Japanese dictionary
* [[Nihon Kokugo Daijiten]] (日本国語大辞典), the largest Japanese-Japanese dictionary, in 14 volumes
* [[Shogakukan Progressive Japanese-English Dictionary]] (小学館 プログレッシブ和英中辞典), a medium-sized [[Japanese language|Japanese]]-English Dictionary
* [[Kenkyusha's New Japanese-English Dictionary]] (新和英大辞典), the largest Japanese-English Dictionary
* [[Dai Kan-Wa jiten]] (大漢和辞典), a comprehensive [[kanji]] dictionary containing about 50,000 characters.
===Norwegian===
* [[Norsk Ordbok]]
===Portuguese===
* [[Novo Dicionário da Língua Portuguesa]] (Dicionário Aurélio)
* [[Dicionário Houaiss da Língua Portuguesa]]
* [[Michaelis]]
* [[Dicionário do Português Contemporâneo]] (Lisbon Academy of Sciences)
* [[Grande Dicionário da Língua Portuguesa]] (Porto Editora)
* [http://www.priberam.pt/dlpo/dlpo.aspx Priberam]
===Romanian===
* [[Dicţionarul explicativ al limbii române]]
===Russian===
*[[Vladimir Dahl]]'s Explanatory Dictionary of the Live Great Russian language
*[[Sergei Ozhegov]]'s Dictionary of the Russian Language (''Slovar' Russkogo Yazyka'')
*Dictionary of International Words (''Slovar' Inostrannykh Slov'')
===Spanish===
* Diccionario de la [[Real Academia Española]] [http://buscon.rae.es/diccionario/drae.htm]
* Diccionario de uso del español de [[María Moliner]]
===Swedish===
*[[Svenska Akademiens Ordbok]]
*[[Svenska Akademiens Ordlista]]
===Urdu===
*[[Feroze ul Lughat]]
===Publishers===
*[[Cambridge University Press]]
*[[Chambers Harrap]]
*[[HarperCo |
can Century|Rumsfeld, Donald]]
[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois|Rumsfeld, Donald]]
[[Category:United States Secretaries of Defense|Rumsfeld, Donald]]
[[Category:White House Chiefs of Staff|Rumsfeld, Donald]]
[[Category:Worst Supporting Actor Razzie|Rumsfeld, Donald]]
[[bg:Доналд Ръмсфелд]]
[[da:Donald Rumsfeld]]
[[de:Donald Rumsfeld]]
[[eo:Donald RUMSFELD]]
[[es:Donald Rumsfeld]]
[[fi:Donald Rumsfeld]]
[[fr:Donald Rumsfeld]]
[[id:Donald Rumsfeld]]
[[it:Donald Rumsfeld]]
[[ja:ドナルド・ラムズフェルド]]
[[ms:Donald Rumsfeld]]
[[nl:Donald Rumsfeld]]
[[no:Donald Rumsfeld]]
[[pl:Donald Rumsfeld]]
[[pt:Donald Rumsfeld]]
[[sk:Donald Rumsfeld]]
[[sl:Donald Rumsfeld]]
[[sv:Donald Rumsfeld]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Diego Garcia</title>
<id>8630</id>
<revision>
<id>41382098</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T23:42:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tonster</username>
<id>909535</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Popular culture */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''This article refers to the atoll. For the musician, see [[Diego Garcia (music)]].''
{| align=right
|-
| [[Image:DiegoGarcia1.png|thumb|250px|right|Location map of Diego Garcia]]
|-
| [[Image:diegogarcia.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Overhead view of Diego Garcia]]
|-
|}
'''Diego Garcia''' ({{coor dm|7|19|S|72|25|E|type:island}}) is a 44 square kilometre (17 [[square mile]]) [[atoll]] located in the heart of the [[Indian Ocean]], some 1,600 kilometres (1,000 miles) south of [[India]]'s southern coast. It is the largest of fifty-two islands which form the [[Chagos Archipelago]]. It is a [[British overseas territory]], part of the [[British Indian Ocean Territory]] (BIOT). It is used as a military base by the [[United States]].
The atoll is now covered in luxuriant tropical vegetation, with little sign left of the copra and coconut plantations that used to cover it. The island is 60 kilometres long, with a maximum elevation of 7 metres (22 feet), and nearly encloses a lagoon some 20 kilometres long and up to 9 kilometres wide. Depths in the lagoon range from 20 to 30 metres, while numerous coral heads extend toward the surface and form hazards to navigation. Shallow reefs surround the island on the ocean side as well as within the lagoon. The channel and anchorage area are dredged, while the old turning basin can also be used if depth is sufficient for ship type. In quiet waters of the lagoon, the brilliantly coloured tropical fish can be admired.
== Climate ==
Annual [[rainfall]] averages 2600mm (102 inches) with the heaviest precipitation occurring from October to February,
though even the driest month (August) averages 105mm (4.2 inches). Temperatures are generally close to 30 &deg;C (high 80s Fahrenheit) by day, falling to the low 20s (degrees Celsius) by night. Humidity is high throughout the year. However the almost constant breezes keep conditions reasonably comfortable.
[[Image:Island couple.jpg|thumb|right|330px|Eclipse Point, Diego Garcia]]
Diego Garcia is at risk from tropical cyclones. The surrounding topography is low and does not provide an extensive wind break. However since the 1960s, the island has not been seriously affected by a severe tropical cyclone, even though it has often been threatened. The maximum sustained wind associated with a tropical cyclone in the period 1970-2000 at Diego Garcia has been approximately 40 knots (75 km/h).
The island and base were unaffected by the [[tsunami]] caused by the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]]. Service personnel on the island reported only a minor increase in wave activity. The island was protected by its favourable ocean topography. East of the atoll lies the 650-kilometre-long Chagos Trench, an underwater canyon plunging more than 5000 metres. The depth of the trench and its grade to the shore makes it difficult for tsunami to build before passing the atoll. In addition, undersea [[coral reefs]] may have dissipated much of the waves' impact[http://www.estripes.com/article.asp?section=104&article=26265].
On [[November 30]], [[1983]] a [[Moment magnitude scale|magnitude]] 7 [[earthquake]] 55 km north-west of the island spawned a small tsunami resulting in a 1.5 m rise in wave height in the Diego Garcia lagoon, jointly causing some damage to buildings, piers and the runway.
[http://asc-india.org/gq/chagos.htm].
== History ==
[[Image:DG Ariel Plantation.jpg|thumb|right|330px|Coconut Plantation, East Point]]
Portuguese explorers discovered Diego Garcia in the early 1500s. The island's name is believed to have come from either the ship's captain or the navigator on that early voyage of discovery.
The islands remained uninhabited until the 18th century when the French established [[copra]] plantations with the help of slave labor. Diego Garcia became a possession of Great Britain after the Napoleonic wars, and from 1814 to 1965 it was a dependency of [[Mauritius]].
In 1965, the Chagos Islands, which include Diego Garcia, were detached from Mauritius to form part of the British Indian Ocean Territories (BIOT). In 1966, the crown bought the islands and plantations, which had been under private ownership and which had not been profitable with the introduction of new oils and lubricants. In 1971 the plantations were closed due to the agreement between the UK/US to make Diego Garcia available to the US as a military base in exchange for a significant discount in the UK's acquisition of US nuclear 'Chevaline' warhead upgrades for Polaris missiles carried aboard nuclear submarines. This agreement also forbade any other economic activity on the island. Until 1973, Diego Garcia had a native population, known as the [[Ilois]] (or Chagossians), which was composed of the descendants of East Indian workers and African slaves who had been brought to the island in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to work on the coconut and copra plantations. The islanders were transferred off Diego Garcia to [[Seychelles]] and then [[Mauritius]]. Ever since their expulsion, the Ilois have continually asserted their right to return to Diego Garcia, winning an important legal victory in Britain's [[High Court of Justice|High Court]] in 2000. However, this judgement was overturned by [[order-in-council]] in June 2004, ending any chance of legal redress from British courts. The Ilois and their supporters are currently appealing this decision to the [[European Court of Human Rights]].
Now, Diego Garcia is home to a [[military base]] jointly operated by the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]], although in practice it is largely run as a US base, with only a small number of British forces and Royal Overseas Police Officers (ROPOs).
[http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200304/cmhansrd/cm040712/text/40712w24.htm].
The base serves as a naval refuelling and support station. It has an [[airbase]] that supports the largest of modern [[aircraft]]. [[B-52 Stratofortress|B-52]]s and other [[bomber]]s have been deployed from Diego Garcia on missions to [[Iraq]] during the [[Gulf War|1990 Gulf War]], and to [[Afghanistan]] in the [[2001 U.S. Attack on Afghanistan]]. High-tech portable shelters to support the [[B-2 Spirit|B-2]] bomber were built on the island before the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]]. The base is part of the [[U.S. Space Surveillance Network]] [http://www.stratcom.mil/fact_sheets/fact_spc.html] with a 3 telescope [[GEODSS]] station, and is a [[NASA]] [[Space Shuttle]] emergency landing site [http://www.globalsecurity.org/space/facility/sts-els.htm].
Neither the US nor the UK recognises Diego Garcia as being subject to the [[African Nuclear Weapons Free Zone Treaty]], even though the rest of the [[Chagos Archipelago]] is included, suggesting the US wishes to maintain the freedom to base [[nuclear weapon]]s there.
The agreement between the UK and US for the US to use the island as a military base was made in [[1966]]. It specifies that the lease runs until 2036, but either government can opt out of the agreement in 2016.
== Politics ==
[[Image:CIA-DG-BIOT.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Detailed map of Diego Garcia]]
In [[2000]] the [[High_Court_of_England_and_Wales|High Court]] in London granted the islanders the right to return to the Archipelago and granted them UK citizenship. In [[2002]] the islanders and their descendants, now numbering 4,500, returned to court claiming compensation, after what they said were two years of delays by the [[Foreign and Commonwealth Office|British Foreign Office]]. However, on [[10 June]][[2004]] the British government made two [[Order-in-Council|Orders-in-Council]] forever banning the islanders from returning home[http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1007029391629&a=KArticle&aid=1087553733971], reversing the [[2000]] court decision. Some of the Ilois are making return plans to turn Diego Garcia into a sugarcane and fishing enterprise as soon as the defence agreement expires (some see this as early as [[2016]]). A few dozen other Ilois are still fighting to be housed in the [[United Kingdom|UK]][http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/southern_counties/3977853.stm].
Human rights groups claim that the military base is used by the US government for [[interrogation]] of prisoners (with methods illegal in the US). The [[Secretary_of_State_for_Foreign_and_Commonwealth_Affairs|British Foreign Secretary]] [[Jack Straw (politician)|Jack Straw]] has stated in [[British_parliament|parliament]] that US authorities have repeatedly assured him that no detainees have passed in transit through Diego Garcia or have disembarked there
[http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200304/cmhansrd/vo040621/text/40621w13.htm#40621w13.html_wqn9].
==Popular culture==
In the science-fiction first person shooter video game [[Halo 2]], which takes place during the year 2552, Diego Garcia is the 'launch base' fo |
ics cards because they provide a dedicated pathway between the slot and the processor, allowing for faster communication between the two. In addition, AGP uses sideband addressing, meaning that addressing for packets is carried outside of the packet, meaning that the entire packet does not need to be read to get addressing information. In addition, to load a texture, a PCI graphics card must copy it from the system's RAM into the card's framebuffer. An AGP card is capable of reading textures directly from system RAM using the Graphics Address Remapping Table (GART). GART reapportions main memory for texture storage, allowing the graphics card to access them directly.
The two main reasons graphics cards with the PCI interface are produced is that firstly they can be used in nearly any PC, as very few modern desktop PCs do not have PCI slots - though some motherboards with built-in graphics adaptors lack an AGP slot. Secondly, a user with an appropriate [[operating system]] can use several PCI graphics cards (or several PCI graphics cards in combination with one AGP card) simultaneously - to give many different video outputs (for the use of many screens). This cannot be done with AGP cards, as very few (if any) [[motherboard|motherboards]] are equipped with more than one AGP slot.
==Use today==
Although AGP is still incorporated into many motherboards today, it is gradually being phased out by
[[PCI Express]]. PCI Express allows much faster data transfer and also supports other devices. It is expected that AGP will be gone in the next few years.
==External links==
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20040205095311/http://www.gcsextreme.com/agpfaq.htm Accelerated Graphics Port information]
* [http://www.motherboards.org/articles/tech-planations/920_4.html AGP expansion slots]
* [http://www.ertyu.org/steven_nikkel/agpcompatibility.html AGP compatibility] (with pictures)
{{FOLDOC}}
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andreas Aagesen</title>
<id>2381</id>
<revision>
<id>35802665</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-19T11:30:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FeanorStar7</username>
<id>160806</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Andreas Aagesen''' ([[1826]] &ndash; [[1879]]) was a [[Denmark|Danish]] jurist.
He was educated for the law at Christiania (now [[Oslo]]) and [[Copenhagen]], and interrupted his studies in 1848 to take part in the first [[Schleswig]] war, in which he served as the leader of a reserve battalion. In 1855 he became professor of [[jurisprudence]] at the [[University of Copenhagen]]. In 1870 he was appointed a member of the commission for drawing up a maritime and commercial code, and the navigation law of 1882 is mainly his work. In 1879 he was elected a member of the [[Landsting]] (Upper House of the Danish Parliament); but it is as a teacher at the university that he won his reputation. Among his numerous juridical works may be mentioned: ''Bidrag til Læren om Overdragelse af Ejendomsret, Bemærkinger om Rettigheder over Ting''
(Copenhagen, 1866, 1871-1872); ''Fortegnelse over Retssamlinger, Retslitteratur i Danmark, Norge, Sverige'' (Copenhagen, 1876). Aagesen was [[Carl Christian Hall]]'s successor as lecturer on [[Roman law]] at the university, and in this department his researches were epoch-making. All his pupils were profoundly impressed by his examination of the sources, his demonstration of his subject and his search after truth.
See C. F. Bricka, ''Dansk Biog. Lex.'' vol. i. (Copenhagen, [[1887]]); ''Samlede Skrifter,'' edited by F. C. Bornemann (Copenhagen, [[1883]]).
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aagensen, Andrew}}
{{1911}}
See also [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/1911_wikipedia#ANDREW_AAGESEN the 1911 wikipedia project demo article]
[[Category:1826 births|Aagesen, Andreas]]
[[Category:1887 deaths|Aagesen, Andreas]]
[[Category:Danish jurists|Aagesen, Andreas]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aalen</title>
<id>2382</id>
<revision>
<id>40461961</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T19:02:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Neddyseagoon</username>
<id>883252</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Town DE|
name = Aalen|
name_local = |
image_coa = Wappen Aalen.png|
image_map = Aalen in Germany.png|
state = [[Baden-Württemberg]] |
regbzk = [[Stuttgart (region)|Stuttgart]]|
district = [[Ostalbkreis]]|
population = 67,125 |
population_as_of = 2005|
population_ref = [http://www.statistik.baden-wuerttemberg.de source]|
pop_dens = 458|
area = 146.48|
elevation = 430|
lat_deg = 48|
lat_min = 50|
lat_hem = N|
lon_deg = 10|
lon_min = 6|
lon_hem = E|
postal_code = 73401-73434 |
area_code = 07361/-66/-67|
licence = AA|
mayor = Martin Gerlach |
website = [http://www.aalen.de/ www.aalen.de]|
}}
'''Aalen''' is a [[town]] in the [[Germany|German]] state of [[Baden-Württemberg]]. It is the seat of the [[Ostalbkreis]] district.
Aalen is [[Town twinning|twinned]] with [[Saint-Lô]], [[France]], [[Christchurch, Dorset|Christchurch]], [[England]], [[Tatabanya|Tatabánya]], [[Hungary]] and [[Antakya]], [[Turkey]].
==Geography==
Aalen is situated on the river [[Kocher]], at the foot of the [[Swabian Alb]] to the south and south east and close to the hilly landscape of the [[Ellwanger Berge]] to the north. Aalen is at about 70 kilometres east of [[Stuttgart]] and 50 kilometres north of [[Ulm]].
==History==
From about 150/160 [[Anno Domini|AD]] a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] fort housed the equestrian unit ''Ala II Flavia miliaria'' at the site of present-day Aalen. The location was strategically important at the time, in the direct vicinity of the [[Germanic Limes|Rhaetian Limes]]. It has been suggested that the name of Aalen traces back to the Roman fort, but this was disproved by later research. Today's town of Aalen did not emerge until more than a millennium later.
Aalen was probably founded in the [[13th century]], though it is not certain whether by the [[Staufian]]s or by the counts of [[Oettingen]]. It was first mentioned in written records in the 14th century when it was subject to the counts of Oettingen. Aalen was an [[Imperial City]] (often misreferred to as [[Imperial Free City]]) from [[1360]] to [[1802]], when it was annexed to [[Württemberg]]. It then became the seat of an [[Oberamt]] from which the district (''Kreis'') Aalen emerged in 1938. The latter merged with the district of [[Schwäbisch Gmünd]] to the newly formed [[Ostalbkreis]] in 1973, though Aalen remained the district seat.
==Economy and transport==
In the early [[20th century]] the population was 10,000. Woolen and linen goods were manufactured, and there were ribbon looms and tanneries in the town, and large iron works in the neighbourhood. The economy of Aalen is today dominated by metal processing. Besides machine construction, the optical sector plays an important role, as well as the textile and paper industries. There are several [[Microbrew|micro-breweries]], of which the one in Wasseralfingen is the most popular. Their beer is called ''Wasseralfinger''.
Aalen is a health resort, with hot springs and an old mine which now offers therapy for asthma illnesses. A mine railway takes visitors deep into the Braunenberg mountain, where once ore was mined for the iron works, but now is in use for the above-mentioned asthma therapy.
Aalen has several sports teams; its wrestling team is one of the top clubs in all of Germany.
Aalen is located directly on the [[Autobahn]] A7 and is also well connected to the network of federal roads (''Bundesstraßen''). It is a regional railway hub, with frequent service to [[Stuttgart]] Hbf, [[Nürnberg]] Hbf and [[Ulm]] Hbf. Interregional trains run directly as far as [[Karlsruhe]] and [[Dresden]]. The local bus system is of high quality; its [[double-decker bus|double-decker buses]] are among the few extant outside England.
==Boroughs of Aalen==
* Dewangen
* Ebnat
* Fachsenfeld
* Hofen
* Unterkochen
* Waldhausen
* Wasseralfingen.
<!-- ==External links== -->
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aalen}}
{{1911}}
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</page>
<page>
<title>Alois Alzheimer</title>
<id>2383</id>
<revision>
<id>40596803</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T18:46:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rodasmith</username>
<id>291611</id>
</contributor>
<comment>revert vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Alzheimer01.jpg|thumb|left|Alois Alzheimer]]
'''Aloysius "Alois" Alzheimer''' (b. [[June 14]] [[1864]] in [[Marktbreit]], [[Bavaria]]; d. [[December 19]] [[1915]] in Breslau, now [[Wrocław]], [[Poland]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[psychiatrist]] and [[neuropathologist]] and a colleague of [[Emil Kraepelin]] who first identified the symptoms of what is now known as [[Alzheimer's Disease]]. He observed the disease in a patient he first saw in [[1901]], and published his findings from his postmortem examination of her brain in [[1906]]. His father served in the office of notary public in the family's hometown. Alzheimer attended [[Aschaffenburg]], [[University of Tübingen|Tübingen]], [[Berlin]], |
ot.
'''[[Chlorocruorin]]''': Found in many [[annelid]]s, and is very similar to Erythrocruorin, but the heme group is significantly different in structure. Appears green when deoxygenated and red when oxygenated.
'''[[Vanabins]]''': Also known as '''[[Vanadium]] Chromagen''' are found in the blood of [[Sea squirt]] and are hypothesised to use the rare metal Vanadium as its oxygen binding prosthetic group, but this hypothesis is unconfirmed.
'''[[Erythrocruorin]]''': Found in many [[annelid]]s, including [[earthworm]]s. Giant free-floating blood protein, contains many dozens even hundreds of Iron heme containing protein subunits bound together into a single protein complex with a molecular masses greater than 3.5 million daltons.
'''[[Pinnaglobin]]''': Only seen in the [[mollusk]] ''Pinna squamosa''. Brown manganese-based porphyrin protein.
'''[[Leghemoglobin]]''': In leguminous plants, such as alfalfa or soybeans, the nitrogen fixing bacteria in the roots are protected from oxygen by this iron heme containing, oxygen binding protein.
== See also ==
* [[Hemoprotein]]
* [[Hemocyanin]]
* [[Chlorophyll]]
* [[HbA1c|Hemoglobin A1C]]
* [[sickle-cell disease|Hemoglobin S]]
* [[Hemoglobin C]]
* [[Hemoglobin F]]
* [[Hemoglobin A2]]
== References ==
* {{Harvard reference
| Author=Campbell, Mary K.
| Last=Campbell
| First=Mary K.
| Title=Biochemistry (Third Edition)
| Publisher=Harcourt College Publishers
| Year=1999
| Date=1999
| ID=ISBN 0-03024-426-9
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1=Campbell
| First1=NA
| Surname1=Reece
| First1=JB
| Title=Biology (Seventh Edition)
| Publisher=Benjamin Cummings
| Year=2005
| Date=2005
| ID=ISBN 0-8053-7171-0
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1=Di Maio
| First1=M
| Surname2=Pisano
| First2=C
| Surname3=Tambaro
| First3=R, Greggi S, Casella G, Laurelli G, Formato R, Iaffaioli RV, Perrone F & Pignata S
| Year=2006
| Title=The prognostic role of pre-chemotherapy hemoglobin level in patients with ovarian cancer
| Periodical=Front Biosci
| Volume=11:1585-90
| Date=[[May 1]], [[2006]]
}}. PMID 16368539.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1=Eshaghian
| First1=S
| Surname2=Horwich
| First2=TB
| Surname3=Fonarow
| First3=GC
| Year=2006
| Title=An unexpected inverse relationship between HbA1c levels and mortality in patients with diabetes and advanced systolic heart failure
| Periodical=Am Heart J
| Volume=151(1):91
| Date=January 2006
}}. PMID 16368297.
* {{Harvard reference
| Author=Hardison, RC
| Last=Hardison
| First=RC
| Year=1996
| Title=A brief history of hemoglobins: plant, animal, protist, and bacteria
| Periodical=Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
| Date=[[June 11]], [[1996]]
| URL=http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=8650150
}}. PMID 8650150.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1=Kneipp
| First1=J
| Surname2=Balakrishnan
| First2=G
| Surname3=Chen
| First3=R, Shen TJ, Sahu SC, Ho NT, Giovannelli JL, Simplaceanu V, Ho C, Spiro TG
| Year=2005
| Title=Dynamics of Allostery in Hemoglobin: Roles of the Penultimate Tyrosine H bonds
| Periodical=J Mol Biol
| Date=[[November 22]], [[2005]]
}}. PMID 16368110.
* {{Harvard reference
| Author=Ganong, William F.
| Last=Ganong
| First=William F.
| Title=Review of Medical Physiology (Twenty-First Edition)
| Publisher=Lange Medical Books (McGraw-Hill Medical Publishing Division)
| Year=2003
| Date=[[March 17]], [[2003]]
| ID=ISBN 0-07140-236-5
}}.
==External links==
* [http://www.ufp.pt/~pedros/anim/2frame-hben.htm Interactive models of hemoglobin] (Requires [http://www.mdl.com/products/framework/chime/ MDL Chime])
[[Category:Hematology]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>HighGerman</title>
<id>13484</id>
<revision>
<id>26881231</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-30T14:30:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>J. 'mach' wust</username>
<id>55554</id>
</contributor>
<comment>linkfix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[High Germanic languages]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of England</title>
<id>13485</id>
<revision>
<id>42090312</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:37:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wetman</username>
<id>21492</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* England during the Middle Ages */ wool trade mentioned</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{History of England}}
'''England''' is the largest and most populous of the [[constituent countries]] of the [[United Kingdom]]. The division dates from the arrival of the [[Anglo-Saxons]] in the [[5th century]]. The territory of [[England]] has been politically united since the [[10th century]]. This article concerns that territory. However, before the [[10th century]] and after the accession of [[James VI of Scotland]] to the throne of England in [[1603]], it becomes less convenient to distinguish [[History of Scotland|Scottish]] and [[History of Wales|Welsh]] from English history since the union of these nations with England.
==England before the English==
: ''Main articles: [[Prehistoric Britain]], [[Iron Age Britain]] and [[Roman Britain]]''
Archaeological evidence indicates that what is now southern England was colonised by humans long before the rest of the British Isles due to its more hospitable climate between and during the various [[ice age]]s of the distant past. The first historical mention of the region is from the [[Massaliote Periplus]], a sailing manual for merchants thought to date to the [[6th century BC]], although cultural and trade links with the continent had existed for millennia prior to this. [[Pytheas of Massilia]] wrote of his trading journey to the island around [[325 BC]]. Later writers such as [[Pliny the Elder]] (quoting [[Timaeus]]) and [[Diodorus Siculus]] (probably drawing on [[Poseidonius]]) mention the tin trade from southern England but there is little further historical detail of the people who lived there. [[Tacitus]] wrote that there was no great difference in language between the people of southern England and northern [[Gaul]] and noted that the various tribes of Britons shared physical characteristics with their continental neighbours.
[[Julius Caesar]] visited southern England in [[55 BC|55]] and [[54 BC]] and wrote in ''[[De Bello Gallico]]'' that the population of southern England was extremely large and shared much in common with the other [[Iron Age]] tribes on the continent. Coin evidence and the work of later Roman historians have provided the names of some of the rulers of the disparate tribes and their machinations in what was to become England.
Surprisingly few historical sources describe Roman England. For example, we have only one sentence describing the reasons for the construction of [[Hadrian's Wall]]. The Claudian invasion itself is well attested and Tacitus included the uprising of [[Boudica]], or "Boadicea", in [[61]] in his history. Following the end of the [[1st century]], however, Roman historians only mention tantalising fragments of information from the distant province. The Roman presence strengthened and weakened over the centuries, but by the [[5th century]] Roman influence had declined to such a point that the peoples who were to become the English were emerging.
==The Anglo-Saxon Conquest of Celtic Britain==
{{main|History of Anglo-Saxon England}}
In the wake of the Romans, who had abandoned the south of the island by [[410]] in order to concentrate on more pressing difficulties closer to home, what is now England was progressively settled by successive and often complementary waves of [[Germanic tribes]]men.
These Germanic tribes first came when they were invited by [[Vortigern]], [[King of the Britons]], as mercenaries to help the Britons during their wars against the Irish and the Picts.
The prevailing view is that waves of Germanic people, [[Jutes]] together with undoubtedly large numbers of [[Frisians]] and [[Ripuarian Franks]], [[Saxon people|Saxons]] from northern [[Germany]] and [[Angles]] from what is now [[Denmark]] - commonly known as Anglo-Saxons - who had been partly displaced on mainland [[Europe]], invaded Britain again around the middle of the [[6th century]]. They came under military leaders and settled on the eastern shore. They are believed to have fought their way westward up the River Thames, looking for more land to cultivate, taking lowland and leaving less desirable lands in the hills to the Celtic Britons.
Research suggests that Celtic Britain underwent a form of ethnic cleansing in some parts of the country by Anglo-Saxon invaders following the Roman withdrawal in the [[5th century]]. However, Professors John Davies and A.W. Wade-Evans believe that the Saxons did not sweep away the entire population of the Celtic Britons in the areas they overran, as was supposed by [[19th century]] historians. Population estimates based on the size and density of settlements put Britain's population at about 3.5 million by the time Romans invaded in A.D. 43. Many historians now believe subsequent invaders from mainland Europe had little genetic impact on the British. The notion that large-scale migrations caused drastic change in early Britain has been widely discredited, according to Simon James, an archaeologist at Leicester University, England. For the English, their defining period was the arrival of Germanic tr |
dministration. Appropriate use of the diagnostic criteria is said to require clinical training, and its contents "cannot simply be applied in a cookbook fashion" [http://www.psych.org/research/dor/dsm/dsm_faqs/faq81301.cfm]. APA notes that diagnostic labels are primarily for use as a "convenient shorthand" among professionals for the same symptoms. Further, people sharing the same diagnosis/label may not have the same [[etiology]] (cause), or require the same treatment (the DSM contains no information on treatment or cause for this reason). The range and breadth of the DSM represents an extensive scope. Impotence, premature ejaculation, jet lag, caffeine addiction, and bruxism are examples of surprising inclusions and are but only several that non-psychiatrists might not consider to be mental illnesses.
== Criticism ==
The DSM is routinely attacked for being unscientific. Columbia University acknowledges the unscientific nature of the DSM in their annual report of 2001, “Problems with the current DSM-IV categorical (present vs. absent) approach to the classification of personality disorders have long been recognized by clinicians and researchers.” Among the problems, they list “arbitrary distinction between normal personality, personality traits and personality disorder” and point out the interesting fact that the most commonly diagnosed personality disorder is 301.9, Personality Disorder not Otherwise Specified.
"The field of mental health is highly subjective, capricious, and dominated by whims, mythologies, and public relations. In many ways it is a pop culture with endless fads but with no real substance." – Dr. Walter Fisher, Assistant Superintendent, Elgin State Hospital.
==See also==
* [[International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems]]
* [[DSM-IV Codes |Complete List of DSM-IV Codes ]]
* [[Global Assessment of Functioning | GAF Scale]]
==Reference==
<sup>1</sup> Ford, M. R. & Widiger, T. A. (1989) Sex bias in the diagnosis of histrionic and antisocial personality disorder. ''Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57'', 301-305.
==External links==
*[http://www.appi.org/dsm.cfx DSM home page at APPI]
*[http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/dsm4TRclassification.htm DSM-IV-TR online]
*[http://www.sierratimes.com/06/01/06/208_143_235_3_89351.htm Doyle Mills' TeenScreen+DSM Article]
[[Category:Medical manuals]]
[[Category:Mental illness diagnosis by DSM and ISCDRHP]]
[[Category:Classification systems]]
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<page>
<title>Dar es Salaam</title>
<id>8500</id>
<revision>
<id>39657509</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T23:52:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
<id>293907</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] delete duplicate word.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
:''This article is about the city, for the region see [[Dar es Salaam (region)]]''.
{| class="toccolours" border="1" cellpadding="4" style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; width: 25em; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%; float: right; clear: right;"
|+ style="margin-left: inherit; font-size: larger;" | '''Dar es Salaam'''
|-
| align="center" cols'''Bold text'''pan="2" |
{| style="background: none;"
|-
| align="center" width="155" |
| align="center" width="135" |
|-
| align="center" width="155" | City [[flag]]
| align="center" width="135" | City [[Seal (device)|seal]]
|}
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" | ''City [[nickname]]: Dar</br>
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" | [[Image:Tanzania DaresSalaam.png|200px|Location of Dar es Salaam]]<br>Location of Dar es Salaam
|-
|'''Mayor'''
| [[Adam Kimbisa]]
|-
| style="white-space: nowrap;" | '''[[Area]]'''<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&ndash;Land<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&ndash;Water
| style="white-space: nowrap;" | [[]]<br />162.5 [[km²]]<br />0 [[km²]]
|-
| style="white-space: nowrap;" | '''[[Population]]'''<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&ndash;Total ([[as of 2005|2005]])<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&ndash;[[Population density|Density]]
| style="white-space: nowrap;" | [[Metropolitan area]]<br />2,456,100 ([[2005]]) <br />
|-
| '''[[Latitude]]'''<br />'''[[Longitude]]'''
| 6&deg;48' S<br/>39&deg;17' E
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" | '''Official website:''' []
|}
'''Dar es Salaam''' ({{lang-ar|دار السلام}} ''Dār as-Salām''), formerly '''Mzizima''', is the largest city (population 2,500,000 estimated 2003), economic centre and former capital of [[Tanzania]]. The city serves as the capital for the surrounding [[Dar es Salaam (region)|Dar es Salaam Region]] as well as, arguably, the de facto current capital of Tanzania. Though inland [[Dodoma]] is the official capital, the vast majority of federal government employees live in Dar and most major political figures maintain residences here. Located on a harbour on the [[Indian Ocean]], its main railways originate in or near the city. Local industries include trade, food products, [[textiles]], [[cement]], and [[pharmaceuticals]]. About one half of Tanzania's manufacturing employment is located here despite the fact that Dar holds only ten percent of the population. Dar es Salaam is located at 6°48' South, 39°17' East (-6.8, 39.28333). [http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/cntry_files.html]
Though the city has a low violent crime rate, this is increasing along with the already high number of instances of theft as inequality increases and the amount of money available from Tanzania's thriving aid industry increases. One common nickname of the city is "Bongo" (meaning "brain" in Swahili), essentially implying that street smarts are what is needed to survive here.
The economically important [[Tanzania-Zambia Railway Authority|Tazara]] railway runs from Dar es Salaam to [[Lusaka, Zambia]].
Administratively, Dar es Salaam is broken into 3 districts: [[Ilala]], [[Kinondoni]], and [[Temeke]].
==History==
In [[1859]], [[Albert Roscher]] of [[Hamburg]] became the first European to land in Mzizima ("healthy town"). In [[1866]] Sultan Seyyid Majid of [[Zanzibar]] gave it its present name, an [[Arabic language|Arabic]] phrase meaning ''Haven of Peace''. Dar es Salaam fell into decline after Majid's death in 1870, but was revived in 1887, when the [[German East Africa Company]] established a station there. The town's growth was facilitated by its role as the administrative and commercial centre of [[German East Africa]] and industrial expansion resulting from the construction of the Central Railway Line in the early 1900s.
German East Africa was captured by the British during [[World War I]] and from then on referred to as [[Tanganyika]]. Dar es Salaam was retained as the territory's administrative and commercial centre. Under British [[indirect rule]], separate European (e.g. [[Oyster Bay, Tanzania|Oyster Bay]]) and African (e.g. [[Kariakoo]] and [[Ilala]]) areas developed at a distance from the city center. The town's population also included a large amount of South Asians.
After [[World War II]], Dar es Salaam experienced a period of rapid growth. Political developments, including the formation and growth of the [[Tanganyika African National Union]] (TANU), led to Tanganyika attaining independence from colonial rule in December 1961. Dar es Salaam continued to serve as its capital, also when in 1964 Tanganyika and [[Zanzibar]] merged to form Tanzania. However, in 1973 provisions were made to relocate the capital to [[Dodoma]], a more centrally located city in Tanzania's interior. The relocation process has not yet been completed, and Dar es Salaam remains as Tanzania's primary city.
One of the deadly [[1998 U.S. embassy bombings]] occurred in Dar es Salaam; the other was in [[Nairobi, Kenya]].
==Culture==
[[Image:Dar-es-salaam-c1905.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Kaiserstrasse, Dar es Salaam, [[German East Africa]], c1905]]Downtown Dar es Salaam has a very Arabic and Indian flavor to it, with many small business proprieters being of those origins. Many of the buildings and general layout of the downtown area have a frenetic, claustrophic feeling that lends itself to street vendors and restauranteers doing a good business.
The areas outside the city center are of a newer construction and are more spread out and disorganized ([[sprawl|sprawling]]). There are very heavily populated by Africans, except for Oyster Bay, which still has a large "western" population. Unfortunately, though there is little in the way of open racially motivated hostility, the various ethnic communities of Dar es Salaam do not intermingle heavily. The edges of Dar es Salaam spreading are growing outward rapidly, taxing the transportation system and giving rise to fears that the city will start to suffer problems from Urban overcrowding in the near future.
A few local restaurants specialize in traditional Indian or Zanzibari cuisine, while many other establishments, such as the [[New Protein Bar]], serve traditional Tanzanian foods such as "Nyama Choma" (roasted meat) or "Mishkaki" (Shish Kabob) with salt and various hot peppers. There are also an ever-increasing number of internatio |
//www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/12/01/AR2005120101798_2.html]
== Other interests ==
Lynch has cited the [[Austrian]] [[expressionism|expressionist painter]] [[Oskar Kokoschka]] as an inspiration for his works. He described the twentieth century artist [[Francis Bacon (painter)|Francis Bacon]] as "to me, the main guy, the number one kinda hero painter"<!--Lynch on Lynch, p. 16-->. He continues to present [[installation art|art installations]] and [[stage design]]s. In his spare time, he also designs and builds [[furniture]]. Lynch was also responsible for the [[comic strip]] ''[[The Angriest Dog in the World]]''.
Lynch is a big fan of [[Bob's Big Boy]] restaurants, an [[Americana]] restaurant chain whose chief icon is a cartoon male with a tray of dinner plates. Lynch has said he got a chocolate [[milkshake]] at one restaurant near his house almost every day for seven years in a row. The director credits this restaurant for helping provide the inspiration for many of his films, as his big lunches there helped him come up with ideas.
Lynch also designed [http://www.davidlynch.com/ davidlynch.com], a site exclusive to paying members, where he posts short films, interviews and other items. The site also features a daily [[weather report]], where Lynch gives a brief description of the weather in [[Los Angeles]], where he resides.
== Filmography ==
=== As director ===
* ''[[The Short Films of David Lynch#Six Figures Getting Sick|Six Figures Getting Sick]]'' (Short film) ([[1966 in film|1966]])
* ''[[The Short Films of David Lynch#The Alphabet|The Alphabet]]'' (Short film) ([[1967 in film|1967]])
* ''[[The Short Films of David Lynch#The Grandmother|The Grandmother]]'' (Short film) ([[1970 in film|1970]])
* ''[[The Short Films of David Lynch#The Amputee|The Amputee]]'' (Short film) ([[1974 in film|1974]])
* ''[[Eraserhead]]'' ([[1978 in film|1978]])
* ''[[The Elephant Man (film)|The Elephant Man]]'' ([[1980 in film|1980]])
* ''[[Dune (film)|Dune]]'' ([[1984 in film|1984]])
* ''[[Blue Velvet]]'' ([[1986 in film|1986]])
* ''[[The Short Films of David Lynch#The Cowboy and the Frenchman|The Cowboy and the Frenchman]]'' (Short film) ([[1988 in film|1988]])
* ''[[Twin Peaks]]'' (TV series) ([[1990]]-[[1991|91]])
* ''[[Wild at Heart]]'' ([[1990 in film|1990]])
* ''[[Industrial Symphony No. 1]]: The Dream of the Broken Hearted'' (Short film) ([[1990 in film|1990]])
* ''[[On the Air]]'' (TV series) ([[1992 in film|1992]])
* ''[[Fire Walk With Me|Twin Peaks: Fire Walk With Me]]'' ([[1992 in film|1992]])
* ''[[Hotel Room]]'' (TV mini-series) ([[1993 in film|1993]])
* ''[[The Short Films of David Lynch#Lumière:Premonitions Following an Evil Deed|Lumière:Premonitions Following an Evil Deed]]'' (Short film) ([[1996 in film|1996]])
* ''[[Lost Highway]]'' ([[1997 in film|1997]])
* ''[[The Straight Story]]'' ([[1999 in film|1999]])
* ''[[Mulholland Dr.|Mulholland Drive]]'' ([[2001 in film|2001]])
* ''[[Darkened Room]]'' (Short film) ([[2002 in film|2002]])
* ''[[Rabbits (film)|Rabbits]]'' (Short film) ([[2002 in film|2002]])
* ''[[Inland Empire (film)|INLAND EMPIRE]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]])
=== As an actor ===
* ''[[The Short Films of David Lynch#The Amputee|The Amputee]]'' ([[1974 in film|1974]]) as a doctor
* ''[[Dune (film)|Dune]]'' ([[1984 in film|1984]]) as a spice miner (uncredited)
* ''[[Zelly and Me]]'' ([[1988 in film|1988]]) as Willie, [[Isabella Rossellini]]'s character's love interest
* ''[[Twin Peaks]]'' ([[1990]]) as [[Agent Cooper]]'s boss, [[FBI]] Regional Bureau Chief [[Gordon Cole]]
* ''[[Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me]]'' ([[1992 in film|1992]]) FBI Regional Bureau Chief Gordon Cole
* ''[[Nadja]]'' ([[1994 in film|1994]]) brief scene as a [[morgue]] receptionist
==See also==
* [[The Short Films of David Lynch]]
==References==
*''[[Lynch on Lynch]]'', a book of interviews with Lynch, conducted, edited, and introduced by filmmaker Chris Rodley (Faber & Faber Ltd., 1997, ISBN 0571195482; revised edition published by Farrar Straus & Giroux, 2005, ISBN 0571220185).
*''The Passion of David Lynch: Wild at Heart in Hollywood'' by Martha Nochimson (University of Texas Press, 1997, ISBN 0292755651).
*''The Complete Lynch'' by [[David Hughes]] (Virgin Virgin, 2002, ISBN 0753505983)
*''Weirdsville U.S.A.: The Obsessive Universe of David Lynch'' by Paul A. Woods (Plexus Publishing. UK, Reprint edition, 2000, ISBN 0859652912).
*''David Lynch'' (Twayne's Filmmakers Series) by Kenneth C. Kaleta (Twayne Publishers, 1992, ISBN 0805793232).
*''Pervert in the Pulpit: Morality in the Works of David Lynch'' by Jeff Johnson (McFarland & Company, 2004, ISBN 0786417536).
==External links==
{{commons|David Lynch}}
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.davidlynch.com David Lynch Homepage]
* [http://www.davidlynchfoundation.com The Official David Lynch Foundation Website]
* {{imdb name|id=0000186|name=David Lynch}}
* [http://lynch.batbad.com The Black Lodge - A Web Homage to David Lynch] : interactive journey into the worlds of David Lynch.
* [http://www.allmovie.com/cg/avg.dll?p=avg&sql=2:100454 David Lynch] at the [[All Movie Guide]]
* [http://www.egs.edu/faculty/lynch.html David Lynch Faculty Website European Graduate School]
* [http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/02/lynch.html Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database]
* [http://ask.metafilter.com/mefi/28651 What is going on with David Lynch?], December 7, 2005
* [http://www.greencine.com/article?action=view&articleID=254 GreenCine interviews David Lynch, conducted by John McMurtrie]
* [http://underwires.net Underwires Official Website] : French Band inspired by the films of David Lynch
[[Category:1946 births|Lynch, David]]
[[Category:American film directors|Lynch, David]]
[[Category:Eagle Scouts|Lynch, David]]
[[Category:Legion of Honor recipients|Lynch, David]]
[[Category:Living people|Lynch, David]]
[[Category:People from Montana|Lynch, David]]
[[Category:Twin Peaks actors|Lynch, David]]
[[ca:David Lynch]]
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[[zh:大卫·林奇]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>David Cronenberg</title>
<id>7892</id>
<revision>
<id>38767893</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T14:52:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tsca.bot</username>
<id>601940</id>
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<minor />
<comment>robot adding: pl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:David Cronenberg(CannesPhotoCall)-.jpg|thumb|200px|David Cronenberg at [[Cannes Film Festival|Cannes]] [[2002 in film|2002]]]]
'''David Paul Cronenberg''' (born [[March 15]], [[1943]] in [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]]) is a [[Canada|Canadian]] [[film director]] and occasional [[actor]]. He is one of the principal originators of what is sometimes known as the "[[body horror]]" genre, which explores people's fears of bodily transformation and [[infection]]. In his films, the psychological is typically intertwined with the physical. In the first half of his career, he explored these themes mostly through [[horror film|horror]] and [[science fiction film|science fiction]], although his work has long since moved beyond these genres.
He was born to a [[Lithuanians|Lithuanian]]-[[Jew]]ish family in [[Toronto]], Cronenberg's father was a journalist and his mother a pianist. He graduated from the [[University of Toronto]] with a degree in literature, and has cited [[William S. Burroughs]] and [[Vladimir Nabokov]] as influences.
After two short sketch films and two short art-house features (the black and white ''[[Stereo (film)|Stereo]]'' and the colour ''[[Crimes of the Future]]'') Cronenberg went into partnership with [[Ivan Reitman]]. The Canadian government provided finance for Cronenberg's films through the 1970s. Cronenberg alternated his signature "body horror" films such as ''[[Shivers (film)|Shivers]]'' with projects reflecting his interest in car racing and bike gangs. ''[[Rabid]]'' exploited the unexpected acting talents of porn queen [[Marilyn Chambers]] (Cronenberg's first choice was a young unknown called [[Sissy Spacek]]). ''Rabid'' was a breakthrough with international distributors and his next two horror features gained stronger support.
Over the arc of his career, Cronenberg's films follow a definite progression, a movement from the social world to the inner life. In his early films, scientists modify human bodies, which results in social anarchy (e.g. ''[[Shivers (film)|Shivers]]'', ''[[Rabid]]''). In his middle period, the chaos wrought by the scientist is more personal, (e.g. ''[[The Brood]]'', ''[[Scanners]]'', ''[[Videodrome]]''). In the later period, the scientist himself is altered by his experiment (e.g. Cronenberg's remake of ''[[The Fly (1986 film)|The Fly]]''). This trajectory culminates in ''[[Dead Ringers (film)|Dead Ringers]]'' - arguably his greatest achievement - in which a twin pair of [[gynecology|gynecologists]] spiral into [[codependency]] and [[drug addiction]]. Cronenberg's later films tend more to the psychological, often contrasting subjective and objective realities (''[[eXistenZ]]'', ''[[M. Butterfly (film)|M. Butterfly]]'', ''[[Spider (film)|Spider]]'').
Cronenberg has said that his films should be seen "from the point of view of the disease", and that, for example, he identifies with the characters in ''Shivers'' '''after''' they become infected with the anarchic parasites. This perspective is illustrated in ''The Fly'' when the hero discovers that he has been genetically fused with an insect. Rather than saying "My teleport machine went wrong", he says "My teleport machine turned into a gene-splicer". Disease and disas |
tus
*Biological balance ([[Homeostasis]]) within a human or other animal's body
*[[Balance (metaphysics)]], a desirable point between opposite forces
*BALANCE Act {[[H.R. 1066]]}, Benefit Authors without Limiting Advancement or Net Consumer Expectations
*[[Balance (accounting)]]
*[[Balance (band)]], a [[1980s]] [[pop/rock]] group
*[[Stereophonic sound#Balance]]
*[[Engine balance]]
*[[Balance (album)]] by Van Halen
*''[[Balance (animation)]]'', a 1989 Academy Award winning short film
Similar terms:
*[[Balanced]] signal (electronics)
*[[Rebalancing (investment)]], an action to bring investments in line with target asset allocation
==See also==
*[[Equilibrium]]
*[[Stability]]
{{disambig}}
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[[de:Waage (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[fr:Balance]]
[[he:מאזניים]]
[[is:Jafnvægi]]
[[la:Libra]]
[[nl:Weegschaal (voorwerp)]]
[[pt:Libra]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Briscoe County, Jr.</title>
<id>5012</id>
<revision>
<id>15903256</id>
<timestamp>2003-06-03T18:23:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jimregan</username>
<id>10064</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr.]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Battle of Adowa</title>
<id>5013</id>
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<id>41811613</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T22:28:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Debivort</username>
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<minor />
<comment>disambiguate wikilink</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|image=
|caption=
|campaign=
|conflict=Battle of Adowa
|partof=the [[First Italo-Abyssinian War]]
|date=[[March 1]], [[1896]]
|place=[[Adowa]], [[Ethiopia]]
|result=Ethiopian strategic and tactical victory; end of First Italo-Abyssinian war
|combatant1=[[Ethiopia]]
|combatant2=Kingdom of [[Italy]]
|commander1=[[Ras Makonnen]]
|commander2=[[Oreste Baratieri]]
|strength1=about 120,000; artillery,<br> machine guns, cavalry; 20,000 were armed only with spears
|strength2=14,527 men,<br> 56 guns
|casualties1=10,000
|casualties2=5,900
}}
The '''Battle of Adowa''' (also known as ''Adwa'' or sometimes by the Italian name ''Adua'') was fought on [[March 1]], [[1896]] between [[Ethiopia]] and [[Italy]] near the town of [[Adowa]], Ethiopia, in [[Tigray Region| Tigray]]. It was the climactic battle of the [[First Italo-Abyssinian War]].
As the twentieth century approached, [[Africa]] had been carved up between the various [[Europe]]an powers, with the exception of the tiny republic of [[Liberia]] on the west coast of the continent and the ancient, landlocked kingdom of Ethiopia, bordering the strategic [[Horn of Africa]]. Italy, a relative newcomer to the [[colonialism|colonial]] [[scramble for Africa]], having been left with only two impoverished territories on the Horn, [[Eritrea]] and [[Somaliland|Somalia]], sought to increase its influence by conquering Ethiopia and creating a land bridge between its two territories. Italy and Ethiopia faced off in First Italo-Abyssinian War, with the two armies at a standoff in Tigray.
By late February, [[1896]], supplies on both sides were running dangerously low. Succumbing to pressure from the Italian government, General [[Oreste Baratieri]] made the first move on the night of [[February 29]]. He did not calculate the rough terrain, however, and his army was divided into small pockets of troops without contact with each other. This was observed by the Ethiopian commander [[Ras Makonnen]] (father of Emperor [[Haile Selassie]]), who ordered his troops to attack. By morning, troops belonging to Emperor [[Menelik II]] and Empress [[Taytu Betul]] joined the forays.
The 14,527 Italians were heavily outnumbered by over 120,000 Ethiopians and were eventually encircled and routed. Further casualties resulted from the heavy skirmishing as the Italians retreated to their bases. The Italians took 5,900 casualties, while the Ethiopians had about 10,000.
As a direct result of the battle, Italy signed the [[Treaty of Addis Ababa]], recognizing Ethiopia as an independent state. Responsibility for the fiasco fell on Baratieri, and he was relieved of his command. The humiliation remained with Italy for almost forty years, until [[1935]], when during the [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War]] Italy commenced a short-lived conquest of Ethiopia.
The defeat of a colonial power and ensuing recognition of African sovereignty would be rallying points for later African nationalists during the struggle for decolonization.
== Bibliography ==
* David Levering Lewis, "Pawns of Pawns: Ethiopia and the Mahdiyya" in ''The Race for Fashoda''. New York: Weidenfield and Nicholson, 1987. ISBN 1555840582
* Chris Prouty, "War with Italy: Amba Alage, Meqellle, Adwa" in ''Empress Taytu and Menelik II: Ethiopia 1883–1910''. Trenton: The Red Sea Press, 1986. ISBN 0932415113
== See also ==
*[[Second Italo-Abyssinian War]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.thehistorynet.com/mh/bladowa/ Historynet: Ethiopia's Decisive Victory at Adowa]
[[Category:Battles of the Italo-Abyssinian Wars|Adowa]]
[[de:Schlacht von Adwa]]
[[fr:Bataille d'Adoua]]
[[ja:&#12450;&#12489;&#12527;&#12398;&#25126;&#12356;]]
[[pl:Bitwa pod Aduą]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Bistable</title>
<id>5014</id>
<revision>
<id>27213603</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-03T02:18:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>205.175.225.5</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For electronics, see [[Flip-flop (electronics)]], or the bistable [[multivibrator]]''.
----
Something that is '''bistable''' can be resting in two states. In physics, for an [[ensemble]] or particles, the bistability comes from the fact that its [[free energy]] has three [[critical point]]s. Two of them are [[minimum|minima]] and the last is a [[maximum]]. By mathematical arguments, the maximum must lie between the two minima. By default, the system state will be in either of the minima states, because that corresponds to the state of lowest energy. The maximum can be visualised as a barrier.
A transition between the state of minimal free energy needs some form of activation energy to penetrate the barrier (compare [[activation energy]] and [[Arrhenius equation]] for the chemical case.) After the barrier has been reached, the system will relax into the next state of lowest energy again. The time it takes is usually attributed the [[relaxation time]]. (There might be uncertainty as to which state will be the new one, but it is often well defined in the situation.)
==See also==
*[[ferroelectric]], [[ferromagnetic]], [[hysteresis]], [[bistable perception]]
*[[astable]] multivibrator, [[monostable]] multivibrator.
[[Category:Digital electronics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bjørn Lomborg</title>
<id>5015</id>
<revision>
<id>41828045</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T00:28:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.23.60.170</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Discussions in the media */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bjørn Lomborg small.JPG|thumb|Bjørn Lomborg]]
'''Bjørn Lomborg''' (born [[January 6]], [[1965]]) is a [[Denmark|Danish]] [[political science|political scientist]] and former director of the [[Environmental Assessment Institute]] in [[Copenhagen]]. He is most known for his best-selling [[controversial book]] ''[[The Skeptical Environmentalist]]'', and the allegations of scientific dishonesty that followed it. He is now an adjunct professor at the [[Copenhagen Business School]].
Lomborg is also a [[vegetarian]] (although he is not a supporter of [[animal rights]]), openly [[gay]], and known to wear [[jeans]] to formal business meetings.
According to an interview published in 2005 by the [[San Francisco Examiner]], the book he would most liked to have written is ''[[Guns, Germs, and Steel|Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Society]]'', by [[Jared Diamond]].
== Academic career ==
Bjørn Lomborg spent one year as an [[undergraduate]] at the [[University of Georgia]], earned a [[Masters]] in political science at the [[University of Aarhus]] in [[1991]], and earned a [[Ph.D.]] at the Department of Political Science, [[University of Copenhagen]], [[1994]].
He lectured in [[statistics]] in the Department of Political Science at the University of Aarhus, as an [[assistant professor]] (1994&ndash;1996) and [[associate professor]] (1997&ndash;2001). Because of this activity, he has often been described as a ''statistician'', though he is more accurately referred to as a ''political scientist'' as his education is in this field.
In 1996, Lomborg's paper, "Nucleus and Shield: Evolution of Social Structure in the Iterated Prisoner's Dilemma", was published in the [[academic journal]], ''[[American Sociological Review]]'' (vol. 61(2):278-307). This was followed by his most famous book, ''The Skeptical Environmentalist'', whose English translation was published as a peer-reviewed work in environmental economics by Cambridge University Press in 2001. He later edited ''Global Crises, Global Solutions'', which presented the first conclusions of the [[Copenhagen Consensus]], published in 2004 by the Cambridge University Press.
His professional areas of interest include the simulation of strategies in [[collective action]] [[Ethical dilemma|dilemmas]], simulation of [[political party|party]] behavior in [[Party-list proportional representation|proportional voting system]]s, use of surveys in [[public administration]], and use of statistics in the [[Environmental movement|environmental arena]].
== The Skeptical Environmentalist ==
:''Main article:'' [[The Skeptical Environmentalist]]
In [[1998]], Lomborg published four [[essay|articles]] abo |
Steinmeyer and Eduard Sievers eds., ''Die Althochdeutschen Glossen'', vol. III. Zürich: Wiedmann, 1895, 1965, pp. 390-404.
*Analecta Sanctae Hildegardis, in Analecta Sacra vol. 8 edited by Jean-Baptiste Pitra (Monte Cassino, 1882).
*[[Patrologia Latina]] vol. 197 (1855).
== Literature ==
* Joseph L. Baird (trans.), Radd K. Ehrman. ''The letters of Hildegard of Bingen''. New York : Oxford University Press, 1994. ISBN 0195089375
* Mother Columba Hart and Jane Bishop (1990). "Scivias", ''The Classics of Western Spirituality''. New York/Mahwah: Paulist Press, 1990. ISBN 0809131307
* Audrey Ekdahl Davidson, ed. (1992). ''The "Ordo virtutum" of Hildegard of Bingen : critical studies''. Kalamazoo, Mich.: Medieval Institute Publications, Western Michigan University, 1992. ISBN 1879288176
* Sabina Flanagan. ''Hildegard of Bingen, a Visionary Life''. Routledge, London, 1989. ISBN 0760713618
* Matthew Fox. ''Illuminations of Hildegard of Bingen''. Santa Fe, N.M. : Bear & Co., 1985. ISBN 1879181975
* Bruce W. Hozeski, trans. ''Hildegard of Bingen : the Book of the rewards of life (Liber vitae meritorum)''. New York : Garland Pub., 1994. ISBN 0195113713
* Barbara Newman. ''Sister of wisdom : St. Hildegard's theology of the feminine''. Berkeley : University of California Press, 1987. ISBN 0520066154
* Barbara Newman, trans. ''Symphonia: A Critical Edition of the "Symphonia armoniae celestium revelationum''. Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1988.
* Barbara Newman. ''God and the Goddesses''. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0812219112
* Ingeborg Ulrich. ''Hildegard von Bingen : Mystikerin, Heilerin, Gefahrtin der Engel''. Munich: Kosel, 1990. ISBN 3466342546
* Andrew Weeks. ''German mysticism from Hildegard of Bingen to Ludwig Wittgenstein : a literary and intellectual history''. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993. ISBN 0791414191
* Maud Burnett McInerney, ed. ''Hildegard of Bingen: A Book of Essays''. New York: Garland Pub., 1998. ISBN 0815325886
* Whitney Chadwick, ''Women, Art, and Society,'' Thames and Hudson, London, 1990. ISBN 0500203547
* Harris, Anne Sutherland and Linda Nochlin, ''Women Artists: 1550-1950'', Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Knopf, New York, 1976. ISBN 0394733266
* Anna Silvas (trans). ''Jutta and Hildegard: the Biographical Sources'' (Brepols Medieval Women Series). Penn State University Press, 1999. ISBN 0271019549
*June Boyce-Tillman. ''The Creative Spirit: Harmonious Living with Hildegard of Bingen'', Harrisburg, PA: Morehouse Publishing, 2000. ISBN 0819218820
==Related Links==
[[Women Artists]]
== External links ==
{{Commons|Hildegard von Bingen}}
* [http://www.hildegard.org/ Hildegard of Bingen] Documents, History, Sites to see today, etc..
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/hildegarde.html Source]
* [http://www.apc.net/ia/ghildgrd.htm Discography]
* [http://www.poetseers.org/spiritual_and_devotional_poets/christian/hild/ Biography and Prayers of Hildegard]
* [http://www.medieval.org/emfaq/composers/hildegard.html Another discography]
* [http://www.eibingen.de/pfarrei/hauptseite.html Church of St. Hildegard in Eibingen, Germany with Informations about Hildegard von Bingen and the Eibinger Hildegardisshrine]
{{1911}}
[[Category:1098 births]]
[[Category:1179 deaths]]
[[Category:Beatified people]]
[[Category:German writers]]
[[Category:Medieval literature]]
[[Category:Medieval composers]]
[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic nuns]]
[[Category:Women composers]]
[[Category: Polymaths]]
[[Category:Women in art|Hildegard of Bingen]]
[[Category:Women writers]]
[[bg:Хилдегард от Бинген]]
[[ca:Hildegard von Bingen]]
[[da:Hildegard af Bingen]]
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[[fr:Hildegarde von Bingen]]
[[it:Santa Ildegarda di Bingen]]
[[lb:Hildegard vu Bingen]]
[[nl:Hildegard van Bingen]]
[[nds:Hildegard von Bingen]]
[[ja:ヒルデガルト・フォン・ビンゲン]]
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[[pl:Hildegarda z Bingen]]
[[pt:Hildegarda de Bingen]]
[[sh:Hildegard od Bingena]]
[[sk:Hildegard von Bingen]]
[[sl:Hildegard von Bingen]]
[[sr:Хилдегард фон Бинген]]
[[fi:Hildegard von Bingen]]
[[sv:Hildegard av Bingen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Halting probability</title>
<id>13685</id>
<revision>
<id>15911278</id>
<timestamp>2002-11-07T00:22:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eclecticology</username>
<id>372</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chaitin's constant]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hilversum</title>
<id>13686</id>
<revision>
<id>41419687</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T04:58:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Omegatron</username>
<id>18931</id>
</contributor>
<comment>«"[[Image:Loudspeaker.png]] '''[[Media:Nl-Hilversum.ogg|Hilversum]]'''" → {{Audio|Nl-Hilversum.ogg|'''Hilversum'''}}» audio template</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Dutch municipality 5 |
name=Hilversum | province=[[North Holland]] |
map= Dutch Municipality Hilversum 2006.png | dn=52.23 | de=5.18 |
area=46.19 | land=45.98 | water=0.21 |
population=83,096 | population_year=(2005) | density=1,807 |
mayor=E.C. Bakker |
mayor_party=[[Democrats_66|D66]] |
website=www.hilversum.nl}}
{{Audio|Nl-Hilversum.ogg|'''Hilversum'''}} is a municipality and a city in the [[Netherlands]], in the province of [[North Holland]]. Located in the region called "'t Gooi", it is the largest city in that area. It is surrounded by [[heathland]], [[forest|wood]]s, [[meadow]]s, [[lake]]s, and smaller [[village]]s.
==The town Hilversum==
Hilversum lies some 30 km south-east of [[Amsterdam]] and 25 km north of [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]].
The town is often called "[[media]] [[city]]" as it is the principal centre for [[radio]] and [[television]] [[broadcasting]] in the Netherlands. [[Radio Netherlands]], heard worldwide via [[shortwave radio]] since the [[1920s]], is based here. Hilversum is home to an extensive complex of audio and television [[studio]]s belonging to the national broadcast production company NOB, as well as to the studios and offices of all the Dutch public broadcasting organizations and many commercial TV production companies too.
Hilversum is also known for its architecturally important "Raadhuis" or [[town hall]], designed by [[Willem Marinus Dudok|Willem Dudok]] ([[1884]]-[[1974]]).
Hilversum has three libraries (two of which will be closing next year), two swimming pools (Hellemond Sport and De Lieberg), a number of sporting halls and several shopping centres (such as Hilvertshof, Kerkelanden, Riebeeck-Galerij, Severijn, and Chatham). In the region the city centre is known as 'het dorp' which means 'the village'.
==History==
Hilversum started out as nothing but a big slab of land used for agriculture. Around 900 it started to form, but it wasn't until 1305 that the first official mention of Hilversum ("Hilfersheem") was made. At this point in time, it was a part of [[Naarden]], the oldest town in the Gooi area.
[[Image:Raadhuis_Hilversum2.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Hilversum Town Hall (Raadhuis)]]
Sheep farming and a some wool facturing were the means of life for the Gooi in the Middle Ages. In March 1424, Hilversum received its most coveted official independent status. This caused some growth in the town, which was still nothing but an agricultural hovel. In 1725 and 1766, big fires destroyed most of the town, levelling parts of the old townhouse and the church next to it.
Hilversum got a train station in 1874 and from that time the town started growing as the industry developed and commuters from Amsterdam moved to the town.
Hilversum became a media city when the ''Nederlandse Seintoestellen Fabriek'' company established a radio factory there in the early twenties. Radio organisations (after WWII followed by television) settled their headquarters in Hilversum. In 1964, the inhabitant count reached a record high - over 103,000 people were living there. At the moment it fluctuates around 84,000.
In 2002, controversial Dutch politician [[Pim Fortuyn]] was assassinated at Hilversum Media Park, just after having finished a radio interview.
==Local government==
The municipal council of Hilversum consists of 37 seats, which are divided as follows:
* Leefbaar Hilversum - 8 seats
* [[Christian Democratic Appeal|CDA]] - 4 seats
* [[People's Party for Freedom and Democracy|VVD]] - 6 seats
* [[GroenLinks]] - 5 seats
* [[Labour Party (Netherlands)|PvdA]] - 7 seats
* [[Democrats_66|D66]] - 4 seats
* [[ChristenUnie]]/[[Political Reformed Party|SGP]] - 1 seat
* Groep Munnik - 1 seat
==Railway connections==
Hilversum is connected to the Dutch railway network, and contains three stations: Hilversum, Hilversum Noord, and Hilversum Sportpark (hvs, hvsn, and hvsp on [[Train routes in the Netherlands|lines]] 32 and 40).
==References==
* Statistics are taken from the [http://www.sdu.nl/staatscourant/gemeentes/gem235nh.htm SDU Staatscourant]
==See also==
*[[Eurovision Song Contest 1958]]
==External links==
*[http://www.ehhv.nl/ Hilversum Airport]
*[http://www.mediapark.nl/ Hilversum Media Park]
{{North Holland Province}}
[[Category:Cities in the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Eurovision host cities]]
[[Category:North Holland]]
[[de:Hilversum]]
[[eo:Hilversum]]
[[id:Hilversum]]
[[it:Hilversum]]
[[li:Hilversum]]
[[nl:Hilversum]]
[[pl:Hilversum]]
[[ro:Hilversum]]
[[sv:Hilversum]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hound of Heaven</title>
<id>13688</id>
<revision>
<id>40364280</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:57:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
|
>#REDIRECT [[List of horse breeds]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Horse Breeds</title>
<id>14077</id>
<revision>
<id>15911655</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-29T09:43:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[list of horse breeds]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Halfbakery</title>
<id>14078</id>
<revision>
<id>42163467</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T06:06:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.2.213.16</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Halfbakery Regulars */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Halfbakery Screenshot.png|thumb|right|A screenshot of the Halfbakery homepage.]]'''The Halfbakery''' is a community-based [[web site]] that is used by people who wish to propose and develop novel, if not always serious, half-baked [[invention]]s. Among many similar such sites (e.g., ShouldExist, whynot.net, globalideasbank.org, idea-a-day.com), it has distinguished itself by minimalism, irreverence, and a cast of regulars whose takes on suggested inventions are often funnier than the original submission.
The Halfbakery can be read by anyone but only logged-in users can contribute to the site itself.
Users who have an account, for which you only need to supply a unique name and a password, are able to submit new '''ideas''' (the inventions) and add '''links''' and '''annotations''' to ideas. An account is currently
gained by e-mailing the "bakesperson", an e-mail address provided on the site.
Logged in users can also declare themselves to be '''for''' or '''against''' particular idea by voting. The results of the voting is summarised by a numerical score and icons of '''[[croissant]]s''' (for ideas people have liked) or '''fishbones''' (for ideas people dislike) shown against each idea. The maximum endorsement an idea can get is two and a half croissants, and the most disliked ideas get two and a half fish bones.
Users are able to edit and delete their ideas, links, annotations, votes, and even their whole account, if they like. A few selected users can illustrate ideas, and the illustrations are linked to on the idea's page.
It is run as a dictatorship by the bakesperson, jutta, and a small group of volunteer moderators who can contribute ideas themselves and have rights to delete ideas, annotations and links provided by other users. Moderators, however, must adhere to guidelines and are generally forbidden from deleting the links or annotations of other users. Moderators are unable to see who cast votes or alter votes other than their own.
=Site Features=
One of the Halfbakery's main features is its simplicity, whilst maintaining a great many features.
==Fonts==
The main text of the Halfbakery is in [[Trebuchet MS]], and titles are in [[Impact]]. This is explained by jutta as: "the site appears in fonts Impact and MS Trebuchet; Impact because it looks cheap and heavy, Trebuchet because it is readable and Not Arial". The site mainly sticks to black and white, with the site logo in the top-left corner and gray background being used as an indicator of more recent ideas. '''[[Bold]]''' is used to make recent ideas stand out, as well as highlighting the votes that you voted in. ''[[Italic type|Italics]]'' are not used in the site.
==Sidebar==
The Sidebar appears on the left of the page, under the site logo and changing slogan, on each page. It has three sections:
===idea===
This section is the largest. It contains 7 sections by default: new, search, overview, recent, by name, best and random. These respectively allow you to: create an idea, view an overview of recently created ideas, view recently edited or annotated ideas, view a list of all ideas by name, view the top ten ideas (by vote) and go to a random idea. When viewing an idea, annotate and link are added, which enable you to annotate (comment) on an idea, or to add a link to it. Once logged in, the user can create views, which will appear here.
===meta===
The section remains the same. It contains information relating to the site. It has 5 sections: news, help, about, links and report a problem. These respectively take you to pages about: the latest site news, help and guidelines for the site, a short summary of the site, links relating to the site and an email link to the bakesperson.
===account===
When not logged in, this section displays the words "Browse anonymously, or get an account and write" as well as 2 boxes, for a username and password. It has a small link to log in, and an email link to the bakesperson to create an account (Halfbakery accounts can only be created by the bakesperson). When logged in, the sections change to: [name of user], edit and logout. These links take you to the user page, which the user can edit and display whatever text he/she wants and logout page, which deletes the [[cookie]] and returns the browser to anonymity. When the user is in the edit section, another link appears which allows him to delete the account. Deleting the account removes all ideas, votes, links and annotations by the user.
==Ideas==
The main purpose of the Halfbakery is, of course, the creation and sharing of 'half-baked' ideas. The Halfbakery gives a variety of mechanisms for creating and discussing ideas.
===Creation===
Ideas have a number of elements before anything is added externally:
* Title - This is usually short, and often makes use of a [[pun]] or [[alliteration]]. However, sometimes idea titles are long, usually for humorous effect. An example is 'small piece of paper with 3 4-digit numbers written on it'.
* Category - There are many categories on the Halfbakery, and there is usually a category to fit every idea. Categories are created by the bakesperson, and are usually created as needed.
* Summary - Used as a subtitle, this either clarifies the title, gives a summary or a humorous line. These are rarely very long, but are still longer than the title.
* Description - This is the idea itself. It can be written as a standard idea, as a [[story]] (perhaps the story of someone making it or using it) or, more rarely, a [[poem]].
Once posted, the idea poster has control over all the above features, and can delete the idea if he so wishes.
===Comments and Voting===
Ideas, once created, can be discussed by any logged-in user. They can:
* Annotate - Users can add comments to the idea. Comments fill on the right of the idea, then continue below. The comments all end in the name of the user, followed by the date the comment was posted, and the date that the comment was changed, if applicable.
* Link - Users can also add links to the idea. If the idea is already existent (baked) users will often post a link to it, and if it is already on the Halfbakery (halfbaked), a link will be posted to the relevant idea. Links can have a title and short summary, and appear under the idea text.
* Vote - Every user has one vote, which can be positive, negative or neutral ([[Default (computer science)|default]]). There is no way to see the origin of any votes other than your own. Votes are displayed both as 'raw votes' in the form XX, -YY (where XX is positive votes and YY is negative votes) and scaled between 2.5 to -2.5 (in croissants and fishbones) above and to the right of the idea.
All user comments, links and votes can be changed or removed by the user themselves, and comments and links can also be removed by the idea creator.
=Halfbakery Culture=
==Writing Style==
The style of writing on the Halfbakery is distinctive. Close attention is paid to grammatical, semantical and spelling mistakes, in contrast to other online [[forums]]. Writing is seldom overly formal, but too much slang or contraction is frowned upon. Ideas can be either serious or satirical, but ideas written too formally are not treated so well either. Lack of paragraph breaks is a sure-fire way to get told off. A common occurrence is a user giving a negative vote, promising to retract it once the offending mistakes have been removed.
Simple faux-[[HTML]] tags are often used such as <sarcasm> or <deep voice> or as action tags such as <backs away slowly> or <looks around, sees lines of people glaring, runs off>. These are mostly used humorously.
==Jargon==
There is a lot of Halfbakery jargon, due to its communal nature. Here are a few examples:
* baked - the idea has already been built
* half-baked - the idea already exists in fiction, or in the Halfbakery itself.
* WTCTTISITMWIBNIIWR - "Wasn't that cool, that thing I saw in the movie? Wouldn't it be neat if it were real?" (And several analogous formations.) A complaint about lacking originality.
* WIBNI - Wouldn't it be nice if. Used if something is impossible.
* autoboner - a mythical user who votes against everything ("bone" is short for fishbone, the icon for a negative vote).
* MFD - [marked-for-deletion], a search tag that can lead to idea deletion after moderator review (also used as a verb, meaning 'to mark an idea for deletion).
* bone - same as fishbone, a vote against an idea (also used as a verb)
* bun or pastry - same as croissant, or a vote for an idea (also used as a verb)
* The symbols + and - used in an annotation to indicate if a user voted for or against an idea
* HB, 1/2B, .5B, 'Bakery - Acronyms or Abbreviations for Halfbakery
* Halfbaker, 'Baker - A user of the Halfbakery.
==In-jokes==
The Halfbakery has a number of in-jokes. These mostly take the form of humorous mispellings, prodigous reference to things, or reference to several of the regular users. A few in-jokes are listed here, although the only way to know all of them is to be a regular user of the Halfbakery for some time.
* elf - Used instead of self in many circumstances.
* custard - will appear in many of th |
then, while others became obsolete due to being rejected by the community.
'''See [[Wikipedia:Feature requests]] for current requests.'''
----
=== Really ambitious and fanciful feature requests ===
*For famous writers: include pages of the books they have written, taken from the Project Gutenberg Library. PG is a library of books that have fallen into the public domain. Include them as links to the specific .txt files on PG's servers, so we don't have to deal with the endless defacement of Romeo and Juliet. Imagine being able to look up Kipling, read a description of his life, and then read all of his works.
** This can't be done automatically in any easy way. It's something we're doing by hand. See [[public domain resources]].
* Make the category an article belongs to a property of the article. So one can look for all Mathematics articles, etc. This can already be done to some extent: you can always create a category page and add the article to it; but if someone forgets to do this the article will be missed. An automatically generated page could exist for each category, listing what articles belong to it; and also an automatically generated page for articles that do not belong to any category, so they can be assigned to one. '''Also:'''
* At the top of each topic page, I would like to see a link to the parent topic. [[user:chuckr30|chuckr30]]
** These aren't just software feature requests, because it's not a programming task to determine what "category an article belongs to." (What does that mean?) Please see [[Larry Sanger/Accidental linking and hard-wired category schemes|this column]]. Re: "This can already be done to some extent: you can always create a category page and add the article to it; but if someone forgets to do this the article will be missed." I reply: So? So the page will be (temporarily) imperfect. Better that than a totally controversial hard-wired category scheme of limited value. The content ''is'' the category scheme. --[[User:LMS]]
* I was just thinking about e-mail interface to Wikipedia. What for, you might ask. Sometimes it is for some people hard to get onto the Wikipedia server. I also think it would booster authors' productivity. Off the top of my head I can think of three commands that can be placed in subject line of an e-mail :
** POST
** GET - raw text of the page
** RECEIVE - formatted text of the page
* of course there should also be 'an article a day' service. POSTing should be reserved to active memebers of this mailing list. There should be some way to safeguarde against accidental overwriting of existing pages. When POSTing raw text in body before '-- ', and author's id from e-mail before '@'.
* I would like a way for the author of an article to "lock" the article. If someone wanted to add something to it, they would email the changes to the author. If the author approves, the author can post the new article. I think you will see tons of poor quality articles here eventually, because some 12-year old thinks it's cool or funny to deface articles. I think it would be wise to be able to lock the articles. [[user:chuckr30|chuckr30]]
** There is no such thing as "the author of an article" on Wikipedia, unless it's just an accident that one person has happened to work on an article so far. So this is not going to happen anytime soon. It is totally anti-wiki, for one thing. Eventually, some such solution might be necessary to make Wikipedia fully scaleable--but I doubt it. Right now it is clearly unnecessary: ''people'' are our protection against vandals. --[[User:LMS]]
** I might worry about someone creating a script that would automatically deface pages. As a long term project, consider limiting (throttling) the rate of accepted changes from any one ip address -- [[User:Pat Spinler]]
***I don't like this idea, simply because I would have been throttled myself several times already. Unless we make the limit to something not humanly possible, or at least extremely unlikely--say, 1 or 2 changes each minute for several minutes straight. And actually I've submitted more changes than that on many occasions, especially when adding CIA factbook info but also when adding country codes to the <code>*/Communications</code> pages. Also, I expect [[User:SJK|Simon J Kissane]]'s contributions would have been curbed a few times as well. --[[user:Koyaanis Qatsi|Koyaanis Qatsi]]
***I don't quite like this idea either, but it made me think of another thing: It would be nice with the possibility to roll back the latest change from the changes page. If someone defaces a page, I can just click something to get the previous version back, instead of having to edit it by hand. --[[User:Pinkunicorn|Pinkunicorn]]
***You can do that, with the View other revisions page...you just view the previous revision, click on the Edit this revision link at the bottom, then save it. It saves over later revisions. --[[User:The Cunctator]]
* The best way is to introduce a voting+visits system (like Google's PageRank) to make sure vox populi automatically kills unwanted changes. Let's say I want to navigate at 90% assurance. Let all poorly voted pages and corrections be invisible. Then I can change the assurance level and see all stuff - including kid's graffiti, [[User:Piotr Wozniak]]
** Ick. I can't imagine any better way to ensure total mediocrity. Who cares what the masses think? I want to know what the one or two real experts who cared enough about the subject to slug it out on the [[talk:Feature_requests|/Talk]] pages finally settled on. --[[user:Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
* Ability to have multiple revision branches of an article, ala CVS. That way if there is a difference of opinion on how an article should look, different authors can each work on their own branch without constantly overwriting each others work, and then we can choose which one is better to become the main article, or to integrate them.
::It sounds to me as if this would introduce very much complexity for a rather small gain. I think it's better to create Main/MyView and Main/YourView and have a short introduction to the different views on the main page. Even better would be to have both views presented on the main page (perhaps in different sections), but that can always be arranged once they are "finished"). --[[User:Pinkunicorn|Pinkunicorn]]
* Giving to the user some 'pagehits per time' information would make Wikipedia even more dynamic. It's motivating for editors when they can see that there's a lot of interest in their work. --[[User:Wolfgang Moecklin]]
* This partially related to that request for email-submission interface above: Open up the interface to the database in order to allow different front-ends. For example, if I'd want to use an interface with support for off-line working I'd have a data base front-end for that. On the other hand, if I'd want a fancy GUI I'd just write a new front-end. This naturally requires that the database interface is stable (and not continuously evolving). So, what I'd basically want is to open up the open project:) --[[User:Tbackstr]]
** You might just get that in my [[Wikipedia PHP script]]. I already thought of a TCL/TK program as a frontend to reduce the server load that is coming from page rendering. Of course, you can get an article source automatically even today by scanning the edit page of the article. I am working on something like that to copy wikipedia to MySQL format.--[[user:Magnus Manske|Magnus Manske]]
* I like [[Everything2]]'s "soft link" concept: the server monitors the pages from which visitors reach a given article, and the most common such pages are listed at the bottom of the article, to provide context. --AxelBoldt
**Though I'm not familar with Everything2, it sounds like a good idea. There should be a way to see what pages link to a particular page easily. - [[User:Eean]]
* Rendering of mathematical formulas and chemical diagrams on-the-fly using TeX, similar to [http://www.mathcircle.org/cgi-bin/mathwiki.pl Mathwiki]. The Mathwiki code is written in perl and I hear that it is not in very good shape and probably would have to be reimplemented. --AxelBoldt
*Have an wiki-code to insert the JavaScript for the "tool-tips"-like thing that [[Nupedia]] has. Then have a way to turn them off, like in Nupedia. -- [[User:Eean]]
*Add a java applet that users can specifically request when editing a page that will allow the user to create mathematical equations that the applet will parse in to MathML.
*Have the "View other revisions" link allow access to future revisions as well as past ones. This would allow wikipedians to copy text that hasn't been written yet into the current revision, taking a lot of effort out of editing. Of course, there would have to be safeguards to make sure that no paradoxes resulted; some kind of edit lock that only allows a page to be saved when it matches its next predestined revision, perhaps.
:LOL!! That would save all of us a lot of work... let me know when you get the time machine working :) [[user:Karen Johnson|KJ]]
*Have a global find-and-replace to correct spelling errors and alter ALL links to the one article at the same time rather than having to do them all individually. [[user:Karen Johnson|KJ]]
*Introduce a 'troll-proofing' scheme, where well-meaning but misguided individuals can be quietly placed under moderation to help preserve the integrity of the Wikipedia. They can make all the crackpot changes and write all the weird-and-wonderful articles they like, but the altered entries are flagged as needing approval before they are released. The moderator can say 'yes', 'no', or alter the text of each article before releasing it from the 'litterbox', rather than people having to follow the troll around with a pooperscooper to clean up their mess! [[User:Karen Johnson|KJ]]
:''See also :'' [[Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests]]</text>
</revision |
ion. Degrees, given to three decimal places, give almost as much accuracy as degrees-minutes-seconds.
===Astronomy===
Similarly to cartography above, [[astronomy]] also uses the arcminute. It is worth noting that degrees (and therefore arcminutes) are used to measure only [[declination]], or angular distance north or south of the [[celestial equator]].
[[Category:Units of angle|Arcminute]]
[[da:Bueminut]]
[[de:Bogenminute]]
[[et:Minut (geomeetria)]]
[[es:Minuto de arco]]
[[fr:Minute d'arc]]
[[ko:분 (각도)]]
[[nl:Boogminuut]]
[[ja:分 (角度)]]
[[no:Bueminutt]]
[[pt:Minuto de arco]]
[[zh:角分]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Albert Archilles</title>
<id>2432</id>
<revision>
<id>15900845</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zundark</username>
<id>70</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to Albert III, Margrave of Brandenburg</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Albert III, Margrave of Brandenburg]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alberto Giacometti</title>
<id>2433</id>
<revision>
<id>41480558</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T17:21:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lacky-fu</username>
<id>864436</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alberto Giacometti''' ([[October 10]], [[1901]] &ndash; [[January 11]], [[1966]]) was a Swiss [[Sculpture|sculptor]] and [[painter]]. Giacometti was talented in four mediums &mdash; sculpture, painting, drawing and printmaking.
==Artistic analysis==
Giacometti was a key player in the Existentialist movement. Some would describe his work as [[Formalism (art)|Formalist]], but others might argue it is [[Expressionism (art) | Expressionist]] or otherwise having to do with what [[Gilles Deleuze | Deleuze]] would call 'blocs of sensation' (as in Deleuze's analysis of [[Francis Bacon (painter) |Francis Bacon]]). Even after his excommunication from the [[surrealism|Surrealist]] group, while the intention of his sculpting was usually imitation, the end products were undoubtedly an expression, not of the physical form of the subject, but of his emotional response to it. He attempted to create renditions of his models the way he saw them, and the way he thought they ought to be seen.
"All the sculptures of today, like those of the past, will end one day in pieces... So it is important to fashion ones work carefully in its smallest recess and charge every particle of matter with life."
Giacometti Sculptures, Tudor Publishing, NY, 1964
==Biography==
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Giacometti.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Alberto Giacometti.]] -->
While having been born in Borgonovo in [[Val Bregaglia]], [[Switzerland]] near the Italian border, Alberto Giacometti spent most of his childhood in the nearby town of Stampa. His father was a Swiss Impressionist who encouraged his son's interest in sculpture.
After finishing high school, Giacometti moved to [[Geneva]] to attend the School of Fine Arts. In 1922 he moved to Paris to study at the [[Académie de la Grande Chaumière]] in [[Montparnasse]] under [[Auguste Rodin]]'s associate, the sculptor [[Antoine Bourdelle]]. It was there that Giacometti experimented with the [[cubism|cubist]] method. Drawn more to the [[surrealist]] movement, after his brother, Diego Giacometti, joined him as his assistant by 1927 Alberto displayed his first surrealist sculptures at Salon des Tuileries. Before long, he was regarded as one of the leading surrealist sculptors of the day.
[[Image:ThreeMenWalkingII.JPG|thumbnail|left|250px|''Three Men Walking II'']]
Living in the creative community of [[Montparnasse]], he associated with artists [[Joan Miró]], [[Max Ernst]] and [[Pablo Picasso]], plus writers [[Samuel Beckett]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], [[Paul Eluard]] and [[André Breton]], and wrote and drew for Breton's magazine ''[[Le Surréalisme au Service de la Révolution]]''.
From 1935 to 1940 Giacometti concentrated his sculpting on the human head, focusing on the model's gaze, followed by a unique artistic phase in which his statues became stretched out &mdash; their limbs elongated.
During [[World War II]], he lived in the safety of Geneva where he met Annette Arm. In 1946 he and Arm returned to Paris where in 1949 they married. Giacometti's most productive period followed the marriage. His wife provided him with the opportunity to constantly to be in touch with another human body, particularly a feminine one. Models who had posed for him found it a difficult job, but Arm patiently sat for him for hours until he achieved what he wanted.
He soon had an exhibition of his works at the Gallery Maeght in Paris and at the Pierre Matisse Gallery in [[New York City]] for which his friend, [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], wrote the catalogue's preface.
By the early 1950s, the use of bronze had become affordable (metals were in short supply during World War II) and Giacometti began to cast his works in [[bronze sculpture|bronze]] with the help of his brother Diego, who posed for the artist and worked as his assistant until Giacometti's death.
Obsessed with creating his sculptures exactly as he envisioned through his unique view of reality, to his own consternation and because of his drive for perfection, he carved them very small &mdash; many no larger than a pack of cigarettes and almost as thin as nails. A friend of his once said that if Giacometti decided to carve you, ''he would make your head look like the blade of a knife.'' However, after his marriage, he was able to make tiny sculptures larger. But the larger that they grew, the thinner they became. Giacometti said that was the way he wanted to represent the sensation he felt when he looked at a naked woman.
[[Image:GiacomettiRued'Alesia.jpg|thumb|none|right|250px]]
Commissioned to design a medallion depicting [[Henri Matisse]] in 1954, he created numerous masterful drawings of the great painter in the last months of Matisse's life.
1956 saw a further development in his work when he began to produce paintings of recognizable likenesses.
In 1962, he was awarded the grand prize for sculpture at the [[Venice Biennale]], and the award brought with it worldwide celebrity. Even when he had achieved popularity and his works were in demand, he still reworked models, often destroying them or setting them aside to be returned to years later.
The prints produced by Giacometti are often overlooked but the catalogue raisonné ''Giacometti - The Complete Graphics and 15 Drawings'' by Herbert Lust (Tudor 1970) comments on their impact and gives details of the number of copies of each print. Some of his most important images were in editions of only 30 and many were described as rare in 1970.
In his later years, Giacometti creations displayed at a number of large exhibitions throughout Europe. Riding a wave of international popularity, in 1965, despite being in poor health, he traveled to the [[United States]] for an exhibition of his works at the [[New York Museum of Modern Art]].
As his last work he prepared the text for the book ''Paris sans fin'', a sequence of 150 lithographs containing memories of all the places where he had lived.
Alberto Giacometti died in 1966 of heart disease and chronic bronchitis at the Kantonsspital in [[Chur]], Switzerland. His body was returned to his birthplace in Borgonovo, where he was interred close to his parents. He is featured on the one hundred Swiss Franks banknote.
In 2003 an animated short film called [http://www.eternalgaze.com/ Eternal Gaze] was made by Sam Chen in memory of Alberto Giacometti.
==Legacy==
Before 2005, a sculpture by Giacometti sold for as much as [[United States dollar|$]]14 million.
==Selected works==
===Sculptures===
* ''Spoon Woman'' - (1926)
* ''Gazing Head '' - (1928)
* ''The Cage '' - (1930)
* ''Caress (Despite Hands)'' - (1932)
* ''Woman with Her Throat Cut'' - (1932)
* ''The Palace at 4 A.M. '' - (1932)
* ''The Surrealist Table '' - (1933)
* ''Nose'' - (1947)
* ''Man Walking'' - (1947)
* ''The Chariot'' - (1950)
* ''Le Chien'' - (1951)
* ''Head of Diego on Base'' - (1953)
* ''[http://www.privateartcollection.net/pac/display/artobject.do?groupid=&grouptype=&aoid=A00000K3&artisttype=&aotype=&lang=en_EN&sort=&artistao=all&genericid=A00000L7&artistid=A00000L7&upaction=%2Fdisplay%2Fartist.do Bust of Diego]'' - ([[1954]])
* ''Grande femme IV'' - (1960)
* ''Tall Figure II and Tall Figure III '' - (1960)
===Paintings and drawings===
* ''Self-Portrait'' - ([[1921]])
* ''The Couple'' - (1926)
* ''The Artist's Mother'' - ([[1937]])
* ''Apple on the Sideboard '' - (1937)
* ''Stehende Figur'' - (1947)
* ''The Street '' - (1952)
* ''Landscape at Stampa '' - (1952)
* ''Diego in a Plaid Shirt'' - (1954)
* ''Rue D'alesia'' - (1954)
* ''Annette in the Studio'' - (1954)
==External links==
* [http://www.moma.org/exhibitions/2001/giacometti/start/goflash.html The Museum of Modern Art 2001-2002 Giacometti exhibition.] (Requires Flash.)
* [http://www.scultura-italiana.com/Galleria_Estero/Giacometti%20Alberto/index.html Virtual Gallery]
* [http://www.privateartcollection.net/pac/display/artist.do?&groupid=&grouptype=&aoid=&artisttype=&aotype=&sort=&lang=en_EN&artistao=all&genericid=A00000L7&artistid=A00000L7 Giacometti's sculptures in the Web Gallery Private Art Collection]
* [http://www.eternalgaze.com/ "Eternal Gaze" Short Film]
[[Category:1901 births|Giacometti, Alberto]]
[[Category:1966 deaths|Giacometti, Alberto]]
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[[Category:Swiss sculptors|Giacometti, Alberto]]
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|
beetle| Scolytidae]]) attack [[elm]] trees. They are important elm pests because they carry [[Dutch elm disease]] (the fungus ''Ophiostoma ulmi'') as they move from infected breeding sites to feed on healthy elm trees. The spread of the fungus by the beetle has led to the devastastation of elm trees in many parts of the Northern Hemisphere, notably North America and Europe.
* The [[death watch beetle]] (''Xestobium rufovillosum'') is of some considerable importance as a pest of wooden structures in older buildings in Britain. It attacks [[hardwood]]s such as [[oak]] and [[chestnut]], and always where some fungal decay has taken or is taking place. It is most usual for death watch beetle attacks to originate in timber of large dimensions, and it is thought that the actual introduction of the pest into buildings takes place at the time of construction.
* [[Asian long-horned beetle]]
* [[Citrus long-horned beetle]]
===Beneficial organisms===
* The larvae of [[ladybird|lady beetles]] (family Coccinellidae) are often found in [[aphid]] colonies. While both adult and larval lady beetles found on crops prefer aphids, they will, if aphids are scarce, use food from other sources, such as small [[caterpillar]]s, young plant bugs, aphid honeydew, and plant nectar.
* Large [[ground beetle]]s (family Carabidae) are predators of caterpillars and, on occasion, adult [[weevil]]s, whereas smaller species attack eggs, small caterpillars, and other pest insects.
Some farmers introduce [[beetle bank]]s to foster and provide cover for beneficial beetles.
===Scarab beetles in Egyptian culture===
[[Image:Egypt.KV6.04.jpg|thumb|300px|Ancient Egyptian scene depicting a scarab beetle]]
The [[scarab beetle]]s (family Scarabaeidae) are [[coprophagous]] beetles.
It seemed to the [[ancient Egypt]]ians that young scarab beetles emerged spontaneously from the burrow where they were born. Therefore they were worshipped as "[[Khepri]]", which means "he who came forth." This creative aspect of the scarab was associated with the creator god [[Atum]]. The ray-like antennae on the beetle's head and its practice of dung-rolling caused the beetle to also carry solar symbolism. The scarab beetle god Khepri was believed to push the setting sun along the sky in the same manner as the beetle with his ball of dung.
Many thousands of amulets and stamp seals have been excavated that depict the scarab. In many artifacts, the scarab is depicted pushing the sun along its course in the sky. During and following the [[New Kingdom]], scarab amulets were often placed over the heart of the [[mummy|mummified]] deceased. The amulets were often inscribed with a spell from the [[Book of the Dead]] which entreated the heart to, "do not stand as a witness against me."
"Le Scarabée Sacré", the opening essay in [[Jean-Henri Fabre]]'s famous ''Souvenirs Entomologiques'', deals with the insect.
===Collecting===
[[Image:Beetle collection.jpg|thumb|300px|Beetle collection at the Melbourne Museum, Australia]]
The study of beetles is called [[coleopterology]], and its practitioners [[coleopterist]]s. See the list of [[list of notable coleopterists]] for more information.
There is a thriving industry in the collection of wild caught species for amateur and professional collectors.Click here [http://www.fond4beetles.com/collections.html] for a list of major collections.
<br style="clear:both"/>
==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Anthrenus verbasci 1 (aka).jpg|''[[Anthrenus verbasci]]''
Image:Asian multicolored lady beetle.jpg|[[Lady beetle]]
Image:Cicindela sexguttata - six-spotted tiger beetle - desc-iridescent in sunlight on ground.jpg|[[Tiger beetle]]
Image:Dungbeetle.jpg|[[South African Dung Beetle]]
Image:Emerald ash beetle.jpg|[[Emerald Ash Beetle]]
Image:Aphthona flava flea beetle.jpg|[[Aphthona flava|Flea beetle]]
Image:Jbeetle.jpg|[[Japanese beetle]]
Image:Potato beetle larvae.jpg|[[Potato Beetle]] larvae
Image:Spotted flower chafer.jpg|[[Spotted Flower Chafer]]
Image:20050702 - Beetle (Cerambycidae Coleoptera) - California Prionus.JPG|[[California Prionus]]
Image:Beetle August 27-2005..png|[[Pelidnota punctata]]
Image:Beetle-Hissing.jpg|[[Passalidae|Bess Beetle]]
</gallery>
== References ==
* Poul Beckmann, ''Living Jewels: The Natural Design of Beetles'' ISBN 3791325280
* Arthur V. Evans, Charles Bellamy, and Lisa Charles Watson, ''An Inordinate Fondness for Beetles'' ISBN 0520223233
* [[Entomological Society of America]], ''Beetle Larvae of the World'' ISBN 0643055061
* David Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, ''Evolution of the Insects'' ISBN 0521821495
* [[Ross H. Arnett, Jr.]] and [[Michael C. Thomas]], ''[[American Beetles]]'' (CRC Press, 2001-2)
* K. W. Harde, ''A Field Guide in Colour to Beetles'' ISBN 0706419375 Pages 7-24
== Journals ==
*''[[The Coleopterist]]'' (UK)
==See also==
*[[Heteroptera]] - insect suborder that is superficially similar to beetles
*[[Insect]]
== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Beetle}}
{{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Coleoptera}}
* [http://www.goliathus.cz Entomology] - online insect museum, entomology, tips and tricks, how to spread and pin [[insect]], etc.
* [http://www.goliathus.com Beetle breeding] - large gallery of beetles (more than 600 photos of 120+ species) available in several versions: [http://www.goliathus.com/cn/ chinese - 甲蟲飼養] , [http://www.goliathus.com/jp/ japanese - ブリード品] , [http://www.goliathus.com/de/ deutsch - Käferzuchtseite] , [http://www.goliathus.com/cs/ czech - chov brouků].
* http://www.coleopterist.org
* http://www.koleopterologie.de/gallery - Gallery of middle-European beetles
* [http://www.goliathus.com/en/gallery.php Photogallery of beetles] Large photogallery of tropical beetles.
* [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Coleoptera&contgroup=Endopterygota Coleoptera] from the [http://tolweb.org/tree Tree of Life]
* [http://www.exopest.com.au/borers/index.htm Australian borers species]
*[http://www.zin.ru/Animalia/Coleoptera/ Superb Russian site]
* [http://bugguide.net/node/view/60 North American Beetles] from [http://bugguide.net/ BugGuide]
[[Category:Beetles|*]]
[[Category:Insects]]
[[da:Biller]]
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[[eo:Koleopteroj]]
[[fr:Coleoptera]]
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[[io:Koleoptero]]
[[it:Coleoptera]]
[[he:חיפושיות]]
[[la:Coleoptera]]
[[mg:Borera]]
[[nl:Kevers]]
[[ja:甲虫類]]
[[pl:Chrząszcze]]
[[pt:Coleoptera]]
[[fi:Kovakuoriaiset]]
[[sv:Skalbaggar]]
[[zh:鞘翅目]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Concorde</title>
<id>7045</id>
<revision>
<id>41784663</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T18:59:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>80.134.253.157</ip>
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<comment>/* Paris crash */ m</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses|a plane}}
The '''[[Aérospatiale]]-[[British Aircraft Corporation|BAC]] Concorde''' [[supersonic transport]] (SST) was one of only two models of [[supersonic]] passenger [[airliner]]s to have seen commercial service. Concorde had a cruise speed of [[Mach number|Mach]] 2.02 (around 2,170 [[km/h]] or 1,350 [[mph]]) and a maximum cruise altitude of 60,000 feet (18&nbsp;300 [[Metre | metres]]) with a [[delta wing]] configuration and a [[afterburner (engine)|reheat]]-equipped evolution of the engines originally developed for the [[Avro Vulcan]] strategic [[bomber]]. It was the first civil airliner to be equipped with an analogue [[fly-by-wire]] flight control system. Commercial flights, operated by [[British Airways]] and [[Air France]], began on [[January 21]] [[1976]] and ended on [[October 24]] [[2003]], with the last "retirement" flight on [[November 26]] that year.
[[Image:ba.concorde.g-boac.719pix.jpg|350px|thumb|British Airways Concorde (G-BOAC).]]
==Origins==
[[image:concorde.highup.arp.2.750pix.jpg|thumb|left|Concorde's final flight, from Heathrow to Bristol, on [[November 26]] [[2003]].]]
In the late 1950s the [[United Kingdom|British]], [[France|French]], [[United States|Americans]] and [[Soviet Union|Soviets]] were all interested in developing [[supersonic transport]].
Britain's [[Bristol Aeroplane Company]] and France's [[Sud Aviation]] were both working on designs, called the [[Bristol 233|Type 233]] and [[Sud Aviation Super-Caravelle|Super-Caravelle]] respectively. Both were largely funded by their respective governments as a way of gaining some foothold in the aircraft market that was until then dominated by the [[United States]].
The designs were both ready to start into prototype construction in the early 1960s, but the cost was so great that the companies (and governments) decided to join forces. The development project was negotiated as an international [[treaty]] between Britain and France rather than a commercial agreement between companies. This included a clause, originally asked for by Britain, on penalties for cancellation (it turned out that Britain was the country that tried to get out). A draft treaty was signed on [[November 28]] [[1962]]. By this time both companies had been merged into new ones, and the Concorde project was thus a part of the [[British Aerospace|British Aircraft Corporation]] and [[Aerospatiale]]. The consortium secured orders for over 100 new airliners from the leading airlines of the time. [[Pan Am]], [[BOAC]] and [[Air France]] were the launch customers with six Concordes each. Some of the airlines in the order book included: [[Japan Airlines]], [[Lufthansa]], [[American Airlines]], [[United Airlines]], [[Air Canada]], [[Braniff]], [[Iran Air]], [[Qantas]], [[CAAC]], [[Middle East Airlines]] and [[TWA]].
The aircraft was initially referred to in Britain as "Concord". In 1967 the British Government Minister for Technology, [[Tony Benn]] announced that it would change the spelling to "Concorde" to match the French spelling, much to the chagrin of [[Prime Minister]] [[Harold Wilson]]. This created a nationalistic uproar but it died down when Benn stated |
d to [[Italy]], [[Greece]] and [[Egypt]] and many of the [[Albanians]] who remained (about two-thirds of the Albanian population), submitted and converted to the [[Islam]]ic faith. Many Albanians won fame and fortune as soldiers, administrators, and merchants in far-flung parts of the empire. As the centuries passed, however, [[Ottoman]] rulers lost the capacity to command the loyalty of local [[pasha]]s, who governed districts on the empire's fringes, which threatened stability in the region. The [[Ottoman]] rulers of the nineteenth century struggled to shore up central authority, introducing reforms aimed at harnessing unruly pashas and checking the spread of nationalist ideas. [[Albania]] would be a part of the [[Ottoman Empire]] until the early [[20th century]].
== The birth of Albanian nationalism ==
''Main article: [[National awakening and the birth of Albania]]''
By the [[1870s]], the [[Sublime Porte]]'s reforms aimed at checking the Ottoman Empire's disintegration had clearly failed. The image of the "Turkish yoke" had become fixed in the nationalist mythologies and psyches of the empire's Balkan peoples, and their march toward independence quickened. The [[Albanians]], because of the preponderance of Muslims link with Islam and their internal social divisions, were the last of the Balkan peoples to develop a national consciousness, which was triggered by fears that the Ottoman Empire would lose its Albanian-populated lands to the emerging Balkan states--[[Serbia]], [[Montenegro]], [[Bulgaria]], and [[Greece]].
Albanian leaders formed the [[League of Prizren]] in [[1878]], which pressed for territorial autonomy, and after decades of unrest a major uprising exploded in the Albanian-populated Ottoman territories in [[1912]], on the eve of the [[First Balkan War]]. When Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece laid claim to Albanian lands during the war, the Albanians declared independence.
The European [[Great Powers]] endorsed an independent Albania in [[1913]], after the [[Second Balkan War]]. They were assisted by [[Aubrey Herbert]], a British [[M.P.]] who passionately advocated their cause in London. As a result, Herbert was offered the crown of Albania, but was dissuaded by the British prime minister, [[Herbert Asquith]], from accepting. Instead the offer went to [[William of Wied]], a German prince.
The young state, however, collapsed within weeks of the outbreak of [[World War I]].
==World War I and its effects on Albania==
''Main article: [[History of Albania (1919-1939)]]''
[[Albania]] achieved a degree of statehood after [[World War I]], in part because of the diplomatic intercession of the [[United States]]. The country suffered from a debilitating lack of economic and social development, however, and its first years of independence were fraught with political instability. Unable to survive in a predatory world without a foreign protector, Albania became the object of tensions between [[Italy]] and the Kingdom of the [[Serbs]], [[Croats]], and [[Slovenes]] (the later [[Yugoslavia]]), which both sought to dominate the country.
With [[Yugoslav]] military assistance, [[Zog of Albania|Ahmed Bey Zogu]], the son of a [[clan]] chieftain, emerged victorious from an internal political power struggle in late [[1924]]. Zogu, however, quickly turned his back on [[Belgrade]] and looked to [[Benito Mussolini]]'s Italy for patronage. Under him, Albania joined the the Italian coalition against Yugoslavia of [[Kingdom of Italy]], [[Hungary]], [[Romania]] and [[Bulgaria]] in [[1924]]-[[1927]]. After [[Britain]]'s and [[France]]'s political intervention in [[1927]] with the [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]], the allience crumbled. In [[1928]] Zogu coaxed the country's parliament into declaring [[Albania]] a kingdom and himself king. [[King Zogu]] remained a hidebound conservative, and [[Albania]] was the only [[Balkan]] state where the government did not introduce a comprehensive land reform between the two world wars. [[Mussolini]]'s forces overthrew Zogu when they occupied [[Albania]] in [[1939]].
==World War II and the rise of Communism, 1941-44 ==
''Main article: [[Military history of Albania during World War II]]''
Between 1941 and 1944, communist partisans fought Italian and German occupation forces as well as various nationalist Albanian groups who did not join the communists. Being communist, they had no help from the west, and only ideological help from Russia. However, they were victorious in World War II and took over the country which became communist immediately after that.
==Communist Albania==
''Main article: [[History of Albania (1945-1989)]]''
[[Enver Hoxha]] and [[Mehmet Shehu]] emerged as the dominant figures in Albania after five years of political turmoil following the end of [[World War II]]. They began to concentrate primarily on securing and maintaining their power base, and secondarily on preserving Albania's independence and reshaping the country according to the precepts of [[Stalinism]]. Throughout all rule, Hoxha engineered an elaborate [[cult of personality]] that elevated him to the status of infallible leader. When he died in [[1985]], grandiose nation-wide mourning ceremonies were organized.
Soon after Hoxha's death, the government began to seek closer ties with the West in order to improve economic conditions, and initial [[democracy|democratic]] reforms were introduced including multi-party elections in [[1991]]. Pursuant to a 1991 interim basic law, Albanians ratified a constitution in [[1998]], establishing a democratic system of government based upon the rule of law and guaranteeing the protection of fundamental [[human rights]].
In [[1992]] the [[Democratic Party of Albania|Democratic Party]] took control of the country through democratic elections. What followed were deliberate programs of economic and democratic reform, but Albanian inexperience with capitalism led to the proliferation of [[pyramid scheme|pyramid schemes]] - which were not banned due to the [[political corruption|corruption]] of the government. [[anarchy (word)|Anarchy]] in early 1997, as a result of the collapse of these pyramid schemes, alarmed the world and prompted intensive international mediation.
==Modern Albania==
{{POV-check-section}}
{{inappropriate tone}}
''Main article: [[History of Albania (1989-present)]]''
Since 1992 Albania has been oriented towards the West. In 1995, Albania was accepted in the Council of Europe and has requested membership in [[NATO]]. The workforce of Albania has continued to emigrate to Greece, Italy, Europe and North America. Corruption in the government is becoming more and more obvious. The political leadership has not fulfilled the people's hope for a short and not too painful transition.
The general elections of June 1997 brought the Socialists and their allies to power. President Berisha resigned from his post, and Socialists elected [[Rexhep Meidani]] as the President of the Republic. [[Albanian Socialist Party]] Chairman [[Fatos Nano]] was elected Prime Minister, a post which he held until October 1998, when he resigned as a result of the tense situation created in the country after the assassination of a prominent leader of the Democratic Party, [[Azem Hajdari]]. [[Pandeli Majko]] was then elected Prime Minister, and he served in this post until November [[1999]], when he was replaced by [[Ilir Meta]]. Albania approved its constitution through a popular referendum which was held in November 1998, but which was boycotted by the opposition. The general local elections of October 2000 marked the loss of control of the Democrats over the local governments and a victory for the Socialists.
Although Albania has made strides toward democratic reform and maintaining the rule of law, serious deficiencies in the electoral code remain to be addressed, as demonstrated in the June [[2001]] parliamentary elections. International observers judged the 2001 elections to be acceptable, but the [[Union for Victory Coalition]], the second-largest vote recipient, disputed the results and boycotted parliament until January 31, 2002. The Socialists re-elected Ilir Meta as Prime Minister in August 2001, a post which he held till February 2002, when he resigned due to party infighting. Pandeli Majko was re-elected Prime Minister in February [[2002]].
Aside from internationally acceptable statistics, [[Albania]] shows incredible infastructural and economic improvement. Construction is at a current boom in [[Albania]] as villas, apartment complexes, offices, restaurants, and hotels are multiplying at a frantic rate. Also, due to black market trade and through other venues, Albania currently boasts the highest percentage of [[Mercedes Benz]] automobilies of any European nation. The standard of living, partially due to a large influx of capital from illicit drug-connected activities, has been steadily increasing. Even more promising is the increase in development of manufacturing and consumer-based businesses in Albania, evidenced in companies like Olim (oil products), Deka (detergents), Glina (bottled water), Birra Tirana (brewery), and Alumil ([[Aluminum]] [[alloys]]).
Because Albania's fate is so tightly interwoven with developments in the Balkans, it is recommended that readers unfamiliar with the region first examine Barbara Jelavich's two-volume History of the Balkans, which provides an excellent overview as well as sections on Albania and the formation of the state. Robert Lee Wolff's The Balkans in Our Time is another entertaining survey of Balkan history. Edith Durham's High Albania and her other travelogues on Albania from the early twentieth century read like adventure novels and provide insight into the cultural underpinnings of the nationalism endemic to the Balkans. The best examination of the Albanian nationalist movement in the late nineteenth century and the creation of Albania itself are Stavro Skendi's The Albanian National Awakening and Joseph |
l languages. Example: "Paul is reading books" or "Paul reads books".
Closely related is the '''declarative mood''' which indicates that the statement is true, without any qualifications being made. It is in many languages equivalent to the indicative mood, although sometimes distinctions between them are drawn.
== Interrogative mood ==
The '''[[interrogative mood]]''' is used for asking questions. Most languages do not have a special mood for asking questions, but [[Nenets language|Nenets]] does.
==Jussive mood==
The [[jussive mood]] is similar to the '''cohortative mood''', in that it expresses plea, insistence, imploring, self-encouragement, wish, desire, intent, command, purpose or consequence. In some languages, the two are distinguished in that cohortative occurs in the first person and the jussive in the second or third.
== Negative mood ==
The '''negative mood''' expresses a [[negation|negated]] action. In many languages, this is not distinct mood; negativity is expressed by adding a particle before (as in [[Russian language|Russian]] or [[Esperanto]]: "Li '''ne''' iras."), after (as in archaic or dialectic [[English language|English]]: "Thou remembrest '''not'''?"), or both (as in [[French language|French]]: "Je '''ne''' sais '''pas'''.".) Standard English brings in a helper verb, ''do'' usually, and then adds ''not'' after it: "I '''did not''' go there".
In Indo-European languages, it is not customary to speak of a negative mood, since in these languages negation is originally a [[grammatical particle]] that can be applied to a verb in any of these moods. In some non-Indo-European languages, the negative mood counts as a separate mood, an example of which is [[Japanese language|Japanese]], which conjugates verbs in the negative ''after'' the suffix ''-nai'' (indicating negation) has been added, e.g. tabeta (ate) and tabe'''naka'''tta (did not eat).
It could be argued that [[Modern English]] has joined the ranks of these languages, since negation in the indicative mood requires the use of an [[auxiliary verb]] and a distinct [[syntax]] in most cases. Contrast, for instance, "He sing'''s'''" -> "He '''doesn't''' sing" (where the auxiliary ''to do'' has to be supplied, inflected to ''does'', and the clitic form of ''not'' suffixed to derive the negative from "He sings") with "Il chante" -> "Il '''ne''' chante '''pas'''"; [[French language|French]] adds the (discontinuous) negative particle ''ne...pas'', without changing the form of the verb.
== Optative mood ==
The '''optative mood''' expresses hopes, wishes or commands and has other uses that may overlap with the subjunctive mood. Few languages have an optative as a distinct mood; [[Albanian language|Albanian]], Ancient [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Sanskrit]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], and [[Finnish language|Finnish]] are some that do.
In Finnish, the mood may be called an "archaic" or "formal imperative", even if it has other uses; nevertheless, it does express formality at least. For example, 9th Article of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] begins with ''<u>Älköön</u> ketään <u>pidätettäkö</u> mielivaltaisesti'', "<u>Not</u> anyone <u>shall be arrested</u> arbitrarily", where ''älköön pidätettäkö'' "shall not be arrested" is the optative of ''ei pidätetä'' "is not arrested". (Also, using the conditional mood ''-isi-'' in conjunction with the clitic ''-pa'' yields an optative meaning, e.g. ''olisinpa'' "if I only was". Here, it is evident that the wish is not, and probably will not be fulfilled.)
In Japanese the verb inflection ''-tai'' expresses the speaker's desire, e.g. ''watashi wa asoko ni ikitai'' "I want to go there". Oddly enough, this verb form is treated as a pseudo-adjective: the auxiliary verb ''garu'' is used by dropping the end -i of an adjective to indicate the outward appearance of another's mental state, in this case the desire of a person other than the speaker (e.g. ''Jon-san wa tabetagatte imasu'' "John wants to eat").
Sometimes this is called a "desiderative mood", since it indicates desires. Occasionally distinctions are made between different optative moods, e.g. a mood to express hopes as opposed to a mood to express desires. (Desires are what we want to be the case; hope generally implies an optimism toward the chances of a desire's fulfillment. If someone desires something but is pessimistic about its chances of occurring, then one desires it but does not hope for it.)
==Potential mood==
The '''[[potential mood]]''' is a mood of probability, indicating that the action most likely, but not certainly, occurs. It is used in [[Finnish_language|Finnish]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and in [[Sanskrit|Sanskrit]]. (In Japanese it is often called something like '''tentative,''' since '''potential''' is used to refer to a [[grammatical_voice|voice]] indicating capability to perform the action.)
In Finnish, it is mostly a literary device, as it has virtually disappeared from daily spoken language in most dialects. Its suffix is ''-ne-'', as in *''men+ne+e'' &rarr; ''mennee'' "probably (s/he/it) will go". Some kinds of consonant clusters simplify to geminates. This simplification occurs progressively (*''rne &rarr; rre'') with the resonant consonants L, R, and S, and regressively with stops (*''tne &rarr; nne'') and is related to the violation of [[Phonotactics|phonotactical]] rules concerning [[sonority hierarchy]]. For example, ''korjata'' &rarr; *''korjat+ne+t'' &rarr; ''korjannet'' ("probably you will fix"), or ''tulla'' &rarr; *''tul+ne+e'' &rarr; ''tullee'' ("probably s/he/it will come"). The potential mood can be used only in present and perfect tenses. The verb ''ole-'' "be" is replaced by ''lie'', thus "probably (it) is" is ''lienee'' (not *''ollee''). Thus, in the perfect tense, which is formed with an auxiliary verb, the auxiliary verb ''lie'' is used instead of ''ole-'' as ''liene-'', e.g. ''lienet korjannut'' "you probably have fixed" (not *''ollet korjannut'').
In English, it is formed by means of the auxiliaries ''may'', ''can'', ''ought'' and ''must''.
== Presumptive mood ==
The [[presumptive mood]] is used in [[Romanian language|Romanian]] to express presupposition or hypothesis regarding the fact denoted by the verb, as well as other more or less similar attitudes: doubt, curiosity, concern, condition, indifference, inevitability. For example, "Acolo s-o fi dus." (''He might have gone there'') shows the basic presupposition use, while the following excerpt from a poem of [[Eminescu]]
: "De-o fi una, de-o fi alta... Ce e scris şi pentru noi, / Bucuroşi le-om duce toate, de e pace, de-i război."
: (''Be it one, be it the other... Whatever fate we have, / We will gladly go through all, be it peace or be it war.'')
shows the use both in a conditional clause ("de-o fi" ''suppose it is'') and in a main clause showing an attitude of submission to fate ("le-om duce" ''we would bear'').
== Subjunctive mood ==
The '''[[subjunctive mood]]''' has several uses in independent clauses. Examples include discussing hypothetical or unlikely events, expressing opinions or emotions, or making polite requests (the exact scope is language-specific). A subjunctive mood exists in English, but appears to be falling out of common use; many native English speakers do not use it. Example: "I suggested that Paul read books". Paul is not in fact reading the book. Contrast this with the sentence "Paul reads books", where the verb ''read'' has the third person singular ending. Another way, especially in [[British English]], of expressing this might be "I suggested that Paul should read books.", derived from "Paul should read books." Other uses of the subjunctive in English, as in "And '''if he be''' not able to bring a lamb, then he shall bring for his trespass..." ([[King James Version|KJV]] [[Leviticus]] 5:7) have definitely become archaic. Statements such as "I will ensure that he leave immediately" often sound archaic or overly formal, and have been almost completely supplanted by constructions like "I will ensure that he leave'''s''' immediately"; of course, one could easily argue that the subjunctive mood is not truly fading from use, but is simply becoming ''morphologically'' indistinguishible from the indicative mood while remaining ''contextually'' alive and well.
The subjunctive mood figures prominently in the grammar of the [[Romance languages]], which require this mood for certain types of dependent clauses. This point commonly causes difficulty for English speakers learning these languages.
In certain other languages, the [[dubitative mood]] is employed instead of the subjunctive in referring to doubtful or unlikely happenings and the like (see also below).
When said in other languages such as Spanish it is used as: tu pones esto alli or Uds. ponen este alli.
==External links==
SIL: ("what is...?")
* [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsDeonticModality.htm deontic modality]
** [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsVolitiveModality.htm volitive modality]: ([http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsImprecativeMood.htm imprecative mood], [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsOptativeMood.htm optative mood])
** [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsDirectiveModality.htm directive modality]: ([http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsDeliberativeMood.htm deliberative mood], [http://w |
each at [[Wittenberg]], where he lectured on [[Aristotle]] for two years. However, with a change of intellectual climate there, he was no longer welcome, and went in [[1588]] to [[Prague]], where he obtained 300 [[taler]] from [[Rudolf II]], but no teaching position. He went on to serve briefly as a professor in [[University of Helmstedt|Helmstedt]], but had to flee again when he was [[excommunication|excommunicated]] by the [[Martin Luther|Luther]]ans, continuing the pattern of Bruno's gaining favor from lay authorities before falling foul of the [[church|ecclesiastic]]s of whatever hue.
[[1591]] found him in [[Frankfurt]]. Apparently, during the [[Frankfurt Book Fair]], he received an invitation to [[Venice]] from one Zuane Mocenigo, who wished to be instructed in the art of memory, and also heard of a vacant chair in mathematics at the [[University of Padua]]. Apparently believing that the [[Inquisition]] might have lost some of its impetus, he returned to [[Italy]].
He went first to [[Padua]], where he taught briefly, but the chair he sought went instead to [[Galileo Galilei]], so he went to the [[University of Venice]]. He briefly functioned as a tutor to Mocenigo, who may have been disappointed that Bruno was merely teaching him a complex system of mnemonics rather than some form of magic. When Bruno attempted to leave [[Venice]], Mocenigo denounced him to the Inquisition. He was arrested [[May 22]], [[1592]], and given a first trial hearing before being sent for [[trial (law)|trial]] in [[Rome]] in [[1593]].
[[Image:brunostatue.jpg|thumb|right|The monument to Bruno in the place he was executed, [[Campo de' Fiori]] in Rome.]]
==Trial and death==
In Rome he was imprisoned for six years before he was tried, lastly in the [[Tower of Nona]]. He tried in vain to obtain a personal audience with [[Pope Clement VIII]], hoping to make peace with the Church through a partial recantation. His trial, when it finally occurred, was overseen by the inquisitor, Cardinal [[Bellarmine|Saint Robert Bellarmine]], who demanded a full recantation, which Bruno refused. Consequently, he was declared a [[heresy|heretic]], handed over to secular authorities on [[January 8]] [[1600]]. At his trial, he said: ''"Perhaps you, my judges, pronounce this sentence against me with greater fear than I receive it."'' A month or so later he was brought to the [[Campo de' Fiori]], a central Roman market square, his tongue in a gag, hung upside-down naked and [[burned at the stake]], on [[February 17]] [[1600]].
Since [[1889]], there has been a monument to Bruno on the site of his execution, erected by Italian [[Masonic]] circles.
Although the actual charge against Bruno was [[docetism]], (adherence to the doctrine that [[Jesus]] did not actually have a physical body and that his physical presence was an illusion), and despite the fact that his theoretical work cannot be considered scientific, some authors has long claimed Bruno as a "martyr of [[science]]". They see a parallel between his persecution and the [[Galileo affair]], asserting that even though, unlike Galileo, Bruno’s theological beliefs were a factor in his heresy trial, Bruno’s [[Copernicus|Copernicanism]] was also a factor.
But the above "connection" may be exaggerated, or even plainly false. For example: according to the ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', "(...) in 1600 there was no official Catholic position on the Copernican system, and it was certainly not a heresy. When Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) was burned at the stake as a heretic, it had nothing to do with his writings in support of Copernican cosmology."{{ref|Copernicus}} In fact, the precise charges of heresy on which Bruno was finally condemned are unknown, as the official record has long been lost. The role (if any) of his heliocentric teachings and belief in an infinite universe is not a matter that can be conclusively proved on either side.
All his works were placed on the ''[[Index Librorum Prohibitorum]]'' in [[1603]]. Four hundred years after his execution, official expression of "profound sorrow" and acknowledgement of error at Bruno's condemnation to death was made, during the papacy of [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]]. Attempts were made by a group of professors in the Catholic Theological Faculty at Naples, lead by the Nolan [[Domenico Sorrentino]] to obtain a full rehabilitation from the Catholic authorities. However, while the Church was able to express regret for the violent death of a man, it could not condone the activities of a man who was, as the London embassy period shows, not in favour of any sort of religious tolerance and brought about the deaths of Roman Catholics.
==The cosmology of Bruno's time==
In the second half of the [[16th century]], the theories of [[Copernicus]] began diffusing through Europe. Although Bruno did not wholly embrace Copernicus's preference for mathematics over speculation, he advocated the Copernican view that the [[earth]] was not the center of the [[universe]], and extrapolated some consequences which were radical departures from the cosmology of the time.
According to Bruno, Copernicus's theories contradicted the view of a [[celestial sphere]], immutable, incorruptible, and superior to the terrestrial region. Bruno went beyond the heliocentric model to envision a universe which, like that of [[Plotinus]] in the [[3rd century|third century A.D.]], or like [[Blaise Pascal]]'s nearly a century after Bruno, had its center everywhere and its circumference nowhere.
Few [[astronomy|astronomers]] of Bruno's generation accepted even Copernicus's heliocentric model. Among those who did were the [[Germany|Germans]] [[Michael Maestlin]] ([[1550]]-[[1631]]), and [[Cristoph Rothmann]] and the [[England|Englishman]] [[Thomas Digges]], author of ''[[A Perfit Description of the Caelestial Orbes]]'' (''sic''). [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] ([[1564]]-[[1642]]) and [[Johannes Kepler]] ([[1571]]-[[1630]]) were younger, so they do not figure at this time. Bruno himself was not an astronomer, but one of the first to embrace Copernicanism as a world view, rejecting [[geocentrism]]. In works published between [[1584]] and [[1591]], Bruno enthusiastically supported Copernicanism.
According to [[Aristotle]] and [[Plato]], the universe was a [[finite]] [[sphere]]. Its ultimate limit was the ''primum mobile'', whose diurnal rotation was conferred upon it by a [[transcendental]] [[God]], not part of the universe, a motionless [[prime mover]] and [[first cause]]. The fixed [[star]]s were part of this celestial sphere, all at the same fixed distance from the immobile earth at the center of the sphere. [[Ptolemy]] had numbered these at 1,022, grouped into 48 [[constellation]]s. The [[planet]]s were each fixed to a transparent sphere.
Copernicus conserved the idea of planets fixed to solid spheres, but considered the apparent motion of the stars to be an actual motion of the earth; he also preserved the notion of an immobile center, but it was the [[Sun]] rather than the Earth. He expressed no opinion as to whether the stars were at a uniform distance on a fixed sphere or scattered through an infinite universe.
==Bruno's cosmology==
Bruno believed, as is now universally accepted, that the Earth revolves and that the apparent diurnal rotation of the heavens is an illusion caused by the rotation of the Earth around its [[Axis of rotation|axis]]. He also saw no reason to believe that the [[stellar region]] was finite, or that all stars were equidistant from a single [[center of the universe]]. In these respects, his views were similar to those of Thomas Digges in his ''A Perfit Description of the Caelestial Orbes'' ([[1576]]).
However, Digges considered the infinite region beyond the stars to be the home of [[God]], the [[angel]]s, and of the [[holiness|holy]]. He conserved the Ptolemaic notion of the planetary spheres, considered Earth the only possible realm of [[life]] and [[death]], and a unique place of imperfection and change, compared against the perfect and changeless heavens.
In [[1584]], Bruno published two important philosophical dialogues, in which he argued against the planetary spheres. (Two years later, Rothmann did the same in [[1586]], as did [[Tycho Brahe]] in [[1587]].) Bruno's infinite universe was filled with a substance -- a "pure air", [[aether]], or ''spiritus'' -- that offered no resistance to the heavenly bodies which, in Bruno's view, rather than being fixed, moved under their own [[impetus]]. Most dramatically, he completely abandoned the idea of a [[hierarchy|hierarchical]] universe. The Earth was just one more heavenly body, as was the Sun. God had no particular relation to one part of the infinite universe more than any other. God, according to Bruno, was precisely as present on Earth as in the Heavens, an immanent God rather than a remote heavenly deity.
Bruno also affirmed that the universe was [[homogeneity|homogeneous]], made up everywhere of the [[four elements]] (water, earth, fire, and air), rather than having the stars be composed of a separate [[quintessence]]. Essentially, the same [[physical law]]s would operate everywhere, although the use of that term is anachronistic. [[Space]] and [[time]] were both conceived as infinite. There was no room in his stable and permanent universe for the [[Christianity|Christian]] notions of divine [[Creation (theology)|Creation]] and [[Last Judgement]].
Under this model, the Sun was simply one more star, and the stars all [[sun]]s, each with its own planets. Bruno saw a [[solar system]] of a sun/star with planets as the fundamental unit of the universe. According to Bruno, infinite God necessarily created an infinite universe, formed of an infinite number of solar systems, separated by vast regions full of Aether, because empty space could not exist. (Bruno did not arrive at the concept of a [[galaxy]].) [[Comet]]s were part of a ''syno |
ing false and untrustworthy.
Upon his return, he investigated [[transmutation of species]]. He knew that his clerical naturalist friends thought this a bestial heresy undermining miraculous justifications for the social order and knew that such revolutionary ideas were especially unwelcome at a time when the Church of England's established position was under attack from [[radicalism|radical]] [[Dissenter]]s and [[atheism|atheists]]. While secretly developing his theory of [[natural selection]], Darwin even wrote of religion as a [[Tribe|tribal]] survival strategy, though he still believed that God was the ultimate lawgiver. His belief continued to dwindle over the time, and with the death of his daughter [[Anne Darwin|Annie]] in 1851, Darwin finally lost all faith in Christianity. He continued to give support to the local church and help with parish work, but on Sundays would go for a walk while his family attended church. In later life, when asked about his religious views, he wrote that he had never been an [[atheism|atheist]] in the sense of denying the existence of a God, and that generally "an [[Agnosticism|Agnostic]] would be the more correct description of my state of mind."
Charles Darwin recounted in his biography of his grandfather [[Erasmus Darwin]] how false stories were circulated claiming that Erasmus had called for Jesus on his deathbed. Charles concluded by writing "Such was the state of Christian feeling in this country [in 1802].... We may at least hope that nothing of the kind now prevails." Despite this hope, very similar stories were circulated following Darwin's own death, most prominently the "[[Elizabeth Hope|Lady Hope Story]]", published in [[1915]] which claimed he had converted on his sickbed. Such stories have been propagated by some Christian groups, to the extent of becoming [[urban legend]]s, though the claims were refuted by Darwin's children and have been dismissed as false by historians.
<BR>
<BR>
== Legacy ==
[[Image:Charles_Darwin_1881.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Charles Darwin's contributions to evolutionary thought had an enormous effect on many fields of science.]]
Charles Darwin's theory that evolution occurred through [[natural selection]] changed the thinking of countless fields of study from [[biology]] to [[anthropology]]. His work established that "evolution" had occurred: not necessarily that it was by natural or sexual selection (this particular recognition would not become fully standard until the rediscovery of [[Gregor Mendel]]'s work in the early 20th century and the creation of the [[modern synthesis]]). Others before him had outlined the idea of natural selection: in his lifetime Darwin acknowledged the earlier writings of [[William Charles Wells]] and [[Patrick Matthew]] which he (and practically all other naturalists) had been unaware of when publishing his theory. However, it is clear that Darwin was the first to develop and publish a [[theory#Characteristics|scientific theory]] of natural selection, and that the alleged predecessors did not contribute to the development or success of natural selection as a theory in science.
Darwin's work was extremely controversial at the time he published it and many during his time did not take it seriously. Evolution by natural selection proved to be a significant blow to notions of [[creationism|divine creation]] and [[intelligent design]] prevalent in [[19th-century]] science, specifically overturning the [[Creation biology]] doctrine of "[[Created kind]]s". The idea that there was no line to be drawn between human beings and animals would forever make Darwin a symbol of iconoclasm who removed humanity's privileged place in the universe. To some of his detractors, Darwin would be "the monkey man", often depicted as part ape.
===Commemoration ===
During Darwin's lifetime many species and geographical features were given his name, including the [[Darwin Sound]] named by [[Robert FitzRoy]] after Darwin's prompt action saved them from being marooned, and the nearby [[Mount Darwin (Andes)|Mount Darwin]] in the [[Andes]] celebrating Darwin's 25th birthday. In [[Australia]]'s [[Northern Territory]], the capital city (originally Palmerston) was renamed [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]] to commemorate the ''Beagle'''s [[1839]] visit there, and the territory now also boasts [[Charles Darwin University]] and [[Charles Darwin National Park]].
The 14 species of [[Finch]]es he researched in the [[Galápagos Islands]] are affectionately named "Darwin's Finches" in honour of his legacy. In [[1964]], [[Darwin College, Cambridge]] was founded, named in honour of the Darwin family, partially because they owned some of the land it was on. In [[1992]], Darwin was ranked #16 on [[Michael H. Hart]]'s [[The 100|list of the most influential figures in history]]. Darwin was given particular recognition in [[2000]] when his image appeared on the [[Bank of England]] [[British banknotes|ten pound note]], replacing [[Charles Dickens]]. His impressive and supposedly hard-to-forge beard was reportedly a contributing factor in this choice. Darwin came fourth in the ''[[100 Greatest Britons]]'' poll sponsored by the [[BBC]] and voted for by the public.
As a humorous celebration of evolution, the annual [[Darwin Awards|Darwin Award]] is bestowed on individuals who ''"aid the process of evolution by demonstrating their unfitness"'' through fatally stupid actions.
===Eugenics ===
Following Darwin's publication of the ''Origin'' his cousin [[Francis Galton]] applied the concepts to human society, producing ideas to promote "hereditary improvement" starting in [[1865]] and elaborated at length in [[1869]]. In ''[[The Descent of Man]]'' Darwin agreed that Galton had demonstrated that "talent" and "genius" in humans were probably inherited, but thought that the social changes Galton proposed were too "utopian". Neither Galton nor Darwin supported government intervention and instead believed that, at most, heredity should be taken into consideration by people seeking potential mates. In [[1883]], after Darwin's death, Galton began calling his social philosophy ''[[Eugenics]]''. In the [[twentieth century]], eugenics movements gained popularity in a number of countries and became associated with reproduction control programmes such as [[compulsory sterilization|compulsory sterilisation]] laws, then were stigmatised after their usage in the rhetoric of [[Nazi Germany]] in its goals of genetic "purity".
===Social Darwinism ===
In [[1944]] the American historian [[Richard Hofstadter]] applied the term "[[Social Darwinism]]" to describe 19th- and 20th-century thinking developed from the ideas of [[Thomas Malthus]] and [[Herbert Spencer]], which applied ideas of evolution and "[[survival of the fittest]]" to societies or nations competing for survival in a hostile world. These ideas became discredited by association with [[racism]] and [[New Imperialism|imperialism]]. Though the term is anachronistic, in Darwin's day the difference between what was later called "Social Darwinism" and simple "Darwinism" was less clear. However, Darwin did not believe that his scientific theory mandated any particular theory of governance or social order.
The use of the phrase "Social Darwinism" to describe Malthus's ideas is particularly disingenuous, since Malthus died in [[1834]] before the [[inception of Darwin's theory]] was spurred by his reading the 6th edition of Malthus' famous ''Essay on a Principle of Population'' in [[1838]]. Spencer's evolutionary "progressivism" and his social and political ideas were largely Malthusian, and his books on economics of [[1851]] and on evolution of [[1855]] predated Darwin's publication of the ''Origin'' in [[1859]].
==Works==
Sources of free e-books online:
* Bibliography: [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin3/darwin_biblio.htm#primary Darwin Bibliography] (including alternative editions, contributions to books & periodicals, correspondence & life)
*{{gutenberg author | id=Charles_Darwin | name=Charles Darwin}}
* [http://www.darwin-literature.com Darwin Literature], Chapter-indexed, searchable versions of Darwin's works.
* [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/ Charles Darwin's Books] in an easy to read format.
*[http://manybooks.net/authors/darwinch.htm Manybooks.net] : various formats
=== Published works ===
* 1836: ''A LETTER, Containing Remarks on the Moral State of TAHITI, NEW ZEALAND, &c. &ndash; BY CAPT. R. FITZROY AND C. DARWIN, ESQ. OF H.M.S. 'Beagle.''' [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin4/tahiti.html]
* 1839: ''Journal and Remarks'' ([[The Voyage of the Beagle]])
* ''Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle'': published between [[1839]] and [[1843]] in five volumes by various authors, Edited and superintended by Charles Darwin: information on two of the volumes &ndash;
: 1840: ''Part I. Fossil Mammalia'', by [[Richard Owen]] [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin3/zoology.html (Darwin's introduction)]
: 1839: ''Part II. Mammalia'', by [[George Robert Waterhouse|George R. Waterhouse]] [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin3/zoology.html (Darwin on habits and ranges)]
* 1842: ''The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs'' [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=2690]
* 1844: ''Geological Observations of Volcanic Islands'' [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=3054], [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/observations-geologiques-sur-les-iles-volcaniques/ (French version)]
* 1846: ''Geological Observations on South America'' [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=3620]
* 1849: ''Geology'' from ''A Manual of scientific enquiry; prepared for the use of Her Majesty's Navy: and |
to a warrant.<sup>2</sup></td>
<td>Yes<sup>4</sup></td><td>Yes</td>
<td>No, for official acts. Testimony may not be compelled in any case.</td>
<td>No, for official acts. Otherwise, yes<sup>3</sup></td>
<td>No<sup>2</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Honorary consular officers</th>
<td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td>
<td>No, for official acts. Yes, in all other cases</td>
<td>No, for official acts. Otherwise, yes</td>
<td>No</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Consular employees</th>
<td>Yes<sup>2</sup></td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td>
<td>No, for official acts. Yes, in all other cases</td>
<td>No, for official acts. Otherwise, yes<sup>2</sup></td>
<td>No<sup>2</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th rowspan=3>International organization</th>
<th>International Organization Staff<sup>3</sup></th>
<td>Yes<sup>3</sup></td><td>Yes<sup>3</sup></td><td>Yes</td>
<td>No, for official acts. Yes, in all other cases</td>
<td>No, for official acts. Otherwise, yes<sup>3</sup></td>
<td>No<sup>2</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Diplomatic - level staff of missions to international organizations</th>
<td>No<sup>1</sup></td><td>No</td><td>Yes</td><td>No</td><td>No</td>
<td>Same as sponsor</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Support staff of missions to international organizations</th>
<td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td>
<td>No, for official acts. Yes, in all other cases</td>
<td>No, for official acts. Otherwise, yes</td>
<td>No</td>
</tr>
</table>
<sup>1</sup>Reasonable constraints, however,
may be applied in emergency circumstances involving self-defense,
public safety, or the prevention of serious criminal acts.
<sup>2</sup>This table presents general rules. Particularly in the cases indicated,
the employees of certain foreign countries may enjoy ''higher'' levels of privileges and immunities on the basis of special bilateral agreements.
<sup>3</sup>A small number of senior officers are entitled to be treated identically to "diplomatic agents".
<sup>4</sup>Note that consular residences are sometimes located within the official consular premises. In such cases,
''only'' the official office space is protected from police entry.
''This chart is copied from the US [[United States Department of State|State Department]]'s Bureau of Diplomatic Security Web site, http://www.state.gov/m/ds/immunities/c9127.htm.''
==See also==
*[[Diplomatic mission]]
* [[Gueorgui Makharadze]]
* [[Christopher Vangoethem]]
==External links==
* [http://www.ediplomat.com/nd/diplomatic_immunity.htm eDiplomat.com: Diplomatic Immunity ]
* [http://www.nyc.gov/html/unccp/html/home/home.shtml New York City Commission for the United Nations Consular Corp and Protocol]
* [http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mdiploimmunity.html Straight Dope Staff Report: What's the story on diplomatic immunity?]
* [http://accountability-international.blogspot.com Abuses of Diplomatic Immunity]
[[Category:Diplomacy]]
[[cs:Imunita (právo)]]
[[de:Politische Immunität]]
[[es:Inmunidad diplomática]]
[[he:חסינות דיפלומטית]]
[[pl:przywileje i immunitety dyplomatyczne]]
[[ru:Дипломатический иммунитет]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>DDR SDRAM</title>
<id>8922</id>
<revision>
<id>41012354</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T13:52:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Qviri</username>
<id>325545</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Stick/module specification */ Low-quality sticks can be overclocked too...</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
[[image:DSCF0787.JPG|thumb|250px|DDR memory (front and back shown) has 184 pins and one notch.]]
'''DDR SDRAM''' or '''double-data-rate synchronous [[dynamic random access memory]]''' is a type of memory [[integrated circuit]] used in [[computer]]s. It achieves greater [[bandwidth]] than ordinary [[SDR SDRAM|SDRAM]] by transferring data on both the rising and falling edges of the [[clock signal]] ([[double pumped]]). This effectively nearly doubles the [[transfer rate]] without increasing the frequency of the [[front side bus]]. Thus a 100&nbsp;[[Megahertz|MHz]] DDR system has an effective [[clock rate]] of 200&nbsp;MHz when compared to equivalent SDR SDRAM, the “SDR” being a retrospective designation.
With data being transferred 8 [[byte]]s at a time DDR RAM gives a transfer rate of (memory bus clock rate) × 2 (for dual rate) × 8 (number of bytes transferred). Thus with a bus frequency of 100&nbsp;MHz, DDR-SDRAM gives a max transfer rate of 1600&nbsp;[[megabyte|MB]]/[[second|s]].
[[JEDEC]] has set standards for speeds of DDR SDRAM, divided into two parts: The first specification is for memory chips and the second is for memory modules.
==Chip specification==
* DDR-200: DDR-SDRAM memory chips specified to run at 100&nbsp;MHz
* DDR-266: DDR-SDRAM memory chips specified to run at 133&nbsp;MHz
* DDR-333: DDR-SDRAM memory chips specified to run at 166&nbsp;MHz
* DDR-400: DDR-SDRAM memory chips specified to run at 200&nbsp;MHz
==Stick/module specification==
* PC-1600: DDR-SDRAM memory module specified to run at 100&nbsp;MHz using DDR-200 chips, 1.600&nbsp;[[gigabyte|GByte]]/s bandwidth per channel.
* PC-2100: DDR-SDRAM memory module specified to run at 133&nbsp;MHz using DDR-266 chips, 2.133&nbsp;GByte/s bandwidth per channel
* PC-2700: DDR-SDRAM memory module specified to run at 166&nbsp;MHz using DDR-333 chips, 2.667&nbsp;GByte/s bandwidth per channel
* PC-3200: DDR-SDRAM memory module specified to run at 200&nbsp;MHz using DDR-400 chips, 3.200&nbsp;GByte/s bandwidth per channel
'''Note:''' All RAM speeds in-between or above these listed specifications are not standardized by JEDEC — most often they are simply manufacturer optimizations using higher-tolerance chips.
The package sizes in which DDR SDRAM is manufactured are also standardised by JEDEC.
There is no architectural difference between DDR SDRAM designed for different clock frequencies, e.g. PC-1600 (designed to run at 100&nbsp;MHz) and PC-2100 (designed to run at 133&nbsp;MHz). The number simply designates the speed that the chip is guaranteed to run at. Hence you can run DDR SDRAM at lower clock speeds than it was made for ([[underclocking]]) or higher clock speeds than it was made for ([[overclocking]]). Note that overclocking should only be done by those that know what they are doing (see [[overclocking]] for details on why).
DDR SDRAM [[DIMM]]s have 184&nbsp;pins (as opposed to 168 pins on SDRAM, or, 240 pins on DDR-2), and can be differentiated from SDRAM DIMMs by the number of notches (DDR SDRAM has one, SDRAM has two). DDR operates at a voltage of 2.5&nbsp;[[Volt|V]], compared to 3.3&nbsp;V for SDRAM. This can significantly reduce power usage.
Some new chipsets use these memory types in [[dual-channel|dual]] or even quad channel configurations, which doubles or quadruples the effective bandwidth. In the dual-channel configuration it is recommended to use a ''matched pair'' of memory modules to optimize performance. The modules in a pair have the same size, speed, and latency timings, enabling the chipset to interleave accesses with maximum efficiency.
==Alternatives==
DDR is slowly being replaced by [[DDR2 SDRAM|DDR-2]], which has some modifications to allow higher clock frequency, but operates on the same principle as DDR. Competing with DDR-2 will be [[Rambus]] [[XDR-DRAM]]. It is expected that DDR-2 will become the standard, since QDR (Quad Data Rate) is too complex to implement, while XDR is lacking support.
DDR Prefetch buffer width is 2&nbsp;bits, DDR-2 uses 4&nbsp;bits.
Memory manufacturers have stated that it is impractical to mass-produce DDR-1 memory with effective clock rates in excess of 400&nbsp;MHz. DDR-2 picks up where DDR-1 leaves off, and is available at clock rates of 400&nbsp;MHz and higher.
[[RDRAM]] is an alternative to DDR SDRAM, but most manufacturers have dropped support from their chipsets.
== See also ==
* [[DDR2 SDRAM]]
* [[SDR SDRAM]]
* [[Dual channel]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.jedec.org/ Official JEDEC website]
* http://www.ddrmemoryram.com/ddrsdram_and_sdram.html
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Devanagiri</title>
<id>8924</id>
<revision>
<id>17734167</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-28T04:28:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CesarB</username>
<id>7410</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix dbl redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Devanāgarī]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Donald Duck</title>
<id>8925</id>
<revision>
<id>41742434</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T12:23:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GrinBot</username>
<id>411872</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Modifying: he</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Donald Duck suitcase small2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Donald Duck]]
'''Donald Duck''' is an |
pplication would be the use of an expert system to diagnose a data processing system comprising many separate components, some of which are optional. When that type of expert system employs a single integrated Rulebase to diagnose the minimum system configuration of the data processing system, much of the Rulebase is not required since many of the components which are optional units of the system will not be present in the system. Nevertheless, earlier expert systems require the entire Rulebase to be stored since all the Rules were, in effect, chained or linked together by
the structure of the Rulebase.
When the Rulebase is segmented, preferably into contextual segments or units, it is then possible to eliminate portions of the Rulebase containing data or knowledge that is not needed in a particular application. The segmenting of the Rulebase also allows the expert system to be run with systems or on systems having much smaller memory capacities than was possible with earlier arrangements since each segment of the Rulebase can be paged into and out of the system as needed. The segmenting of the Rulebase into contextual segments requires that the expert system manage various intersegment relationships as segments are paged into and out of memory during execution of the program. Since the system permits a Rulebase segment to be called and executed at any time during the processing of the first Rulebase, provision must be made to store the data that has been accumulated up to that point so that at some time later in the process, when the system returns to the first segment, it can proceed from the last point
or RULE node that was processed. Also, provision must be made so that data that has been collected by the system up to that point can be passed to the second segment of the Rulebase after it has been paged into the system and data collected during the processing of the second segment can be passed to the first segment when the system returns to complete processing that segment.
The [[user interface]] and the [[procedure interface]] are two important functions in the [[information collection process]].
===The user interface===
The function of the [[user interface]] is to present [[question]]s and [[information]] to the [[operator]] and supply the operator's [[response]]s to the [[inference engine]].
Any values entered by the user must be received and interpreted by the user interface. Some responses are restricted to a set of possible legal answers, others are not. The user interface checks all responses to insure that they are of the correct data type. Any responses that are restricted to a legal set of answers are compared against these legal answers. Whenever the user enters an illegal answer, the user interface informs the user that his answer was invalid and prompts him to correct it. As explained in the cross referenced application, communication between the user interface and the Inference Engine is performed through the use of a User Interface Control Block (UICB) which is passed between the two.
===Procedure node interface===
The function of the Procedure node interface is to receive information from the Procedures coordinator and create the appropriate [[procedure call]]. The ability to call a [[procedure]] and receive information from that procedure can be viewed as simply a [[generalization]] of [[input]] from the external world. While in some earlier expert systems external information has been obtained, that information was obtained only in a predetermined manner so only certain information could actually be acquired. This expert system, disclosed in the cross-referenced application, through the knowledge base, is permitted to invoke any Procedure allowed on its host system. This makes the expert system useful in a much wider class of knowledge domains than if it had no external access or only limited external access.
In the area of [[machine diagnostics]] using expert systems, particularly self-diagnostic applications, it is not possible to conclude the current state of "[[health]]" of a [[machine]] without some information. The best source of information is the machine itself, for it contains much detailed information that could not reasonably be provided by the [[operator]].
The knowledge that is represented in the system appears in the Rulebase. In the Rulebase described in the cross-referenced applications, there are basically four different types of objects, with associated information present.
:1. Classes--these are questions asked to the user.
:2. Parameters--a Parameter is a place holder for a character string which may be a variable that can be inserted into a Class question at the point in the question where the Parameter is positioned.
:3. Procedures--these are definitions of calls to external Procedures.
:4. Rule Nodes--The inferencing in the system is done by a tree structure which indicates the Rules or logic which mimics human reasoning. The nodes of these trees are called RULE nodes. There are several different types of RULE nodes.
The Rulebase comprises a forest of many trees. The top node of the tree is called the Goal node, in that it contains the conclusion. Each tree in the forest has a different Goal node. The leaves of the tree are also referred to as RULE nodes, or one of the types of RULE nodes. A leaf may be an EVIDENCE node, an EXTERNAL node, or a REFERENCE node.
An EVIDENCE node functions to obtain information from the operator by asking a specific question. In responding to a question presented by an EVIDENCE node, the operator is generally instructed to answer "yes" or "no" represented by numeric values 1 and 0 or provide a value of between 0 and 1, represented by a "maybe."
Questions which require a response from the operator other than yes or no or a value between 0 and 1 are handled in a different manner.
A leaf that is an EXTERNAL node indicates that data will be used which was obtained from a Procedure Call.
A REFERENCE node functions to refer to another tree or subtree.
A tree may also contain intermediate or minor nodes between the Goal node and the Leaf node. An intermediate node can represent logical operations like And or Or.
The [[inference logic]] has two functions. It selects a [[tree]] to trace and then it traces that tree. Once a tree has been selected, that tree is traced, depth-first, left to right.
The word "tracing" refers to the action the system takes as it traverses the tree, asking Classes (questions), calling Procedures, and calculating Confidences as it proceeds.
As explained in the cross-referenced applications, the selection of a tree depends on the ordering of the trees. The original ordering of the trees is the order in which they appear in the Rulebase. This order can be changed, however, by assigning an EVIDENCE node an attribute "initial" which is described in detail in these applications. The first action taken is to obtain values for all EVIDENCE nodes which have been assigned an "initial" attribute. Using only the answers to these initial Evidences, the Rules are ordered so that the most likely to succeed is evaluated first. The trees can be further re-ordered since they are constantly being updated as a selected tree is being traced.
It has been found that the type of information that is solicited by the system from the user by means of questions or classes should be tailored to the level of knowledge of the user. In many applications, the group of prospective uses is nicely defined and the knowledge level can be estimated so that the questions can be presented at a level which corresponds generally to the average user. However, in other applications, knowledge of the specific domain of the expert system might vary considerably among the group of prospective users.
One application where this is particularly true involves the use of an expert system, operating in a self-diagnostic mode on a personal computer to assist the operator of the personal computer to diagnose the cause of a fault or error in either the hardware or software. In general, asking the operator for information is the most straightforward way for the expert system to gather information assuming, of course, that the information is or should be within the operator's understanding. For example, in diagnosing a [[personal computer]], the expert system must know the major functional [[component]]s of the system. It could ask the operator, for instance, if the [[display]] is a monochrome or color display. The operator should, in all probability, be able to provide the correct answer 100% of the time. The expert system could, on the other hand, cause a [[test unit]] to be run to determine the type of display. The accuracy of the data collected by either approach in this instance probably would not be that
different so the [[Knowledge_engineering|knowledge engineer]] could employ either approach without affecting the accuracy of the [[diagnosis]]. However, in many instances, because of the nature of the information being solicited, it is better to obtain the information from the system rather than asking the operator, because the [[accuracy]] of the data supplied by the operator is so low that the system could not effectively process it to a meaningful [[conclusion]].
In many situations the information is already in the system, in a form of which permits the correct [[answer]] to a question to be obtained through a process of inductive or deductive reasoning. The data previously collected by the system could be answers provided by the user to less complex questions that were asked for a different reason or results returned from test units that were previously run.
==How it works==
Expert Systems consist of:
* knowledge base (facts)
* production rules ("if.., then..")
* inference engine (controls how "if.., then.." rules are applied towa |
e the right to review the content of mail that passed through their system.
Despite FidoNet's focus on Netmail, several other protocols for transferring other kinds of data were built on ''top'' of FidoNet, and are now referred to as being part of it. The most popular of these is ''Echomail'', comparable with [[Usenet]]-like newsgroups, for public and open discussions. Other systems allow for the automated distribution of files, and transmission of data for inter-BBS games. Such protocols typically work by using automated tools to package information, attach it to Netmail messages for transfer via FidoNet or put them into a filebox or some other kind of outbound directory, and unpackage the information on receipt.
===Routing of fidonet mail===
In a theoretical situation, a node would normally forward messages to a ''hub''. The hub, acting as a distribution point for mail, might then send the message to the Net Coordinator. From there it may be sent through a Regional Coordinator, or to some other system specifically set up for the function. Mail to other zones might be sent through a Zone Gate. For example, a fidonet message might follow the path:
*1:170/918.42 ''(point)'' to 1:170/918 ''(node)'' to 1:170/900 ''(hub)'' to 1:170/0 ''(net coordinator)'' to 1:19/0 ''(region coordinator)'' to 1:1/0 ''(zone coordinator)''. From there, it was distributed 'down stream' to the destination node(s).
Part of the objective behind the formation of local nets was to implement cost reduction plans by which all messages would be sent to one or more hubs or hosts in [[compression|compressed form]] (ARC was nominally standard, [[PKZIP]] currently is); one toll call could then be made during off-peak hours to exchange entire message-filled archives with an out-of-town uplink for further redistribution.
In practice, as FidoNet structure allows for any node to connect directly to any other, node operators would sometimes form their own toll-calling arrangements on an ad-hoc basis, allowing for a balance between collective cost saving and timely delivery. For instance, if one node operator in a network offered to make regular toll calls to a particular system elsewhere, other operators might arrange to forward all of their mail destined for the remote system, and those near it, to the local volunteer. Operators within individual networks would sometimes have cost-sharing arrangements, but it was also common for people to volunteer to pay for regular toll calls either out of generosity, or to build their status in the community.
This ad-hoc system was particularly popular with networks that were built on top of FidoNet. Echomail, for instance, often involved relatively large file transfers due to its popularity. If official FidoNet distrubutors refused to transfer Echomail due to additional toll charges, other node operators would sometimes volunteer. In such cases, Echomail messages would be routed to the volunteers' systems instead.
As the FidoNet system was best adapted to an environment in which local [[telephone]] service was inexpensive and long-distance calls (or intercity data transfer via [[packet-switched]] [[computer network|networks]]) costly, it fared somewhat poorly in countries such as [[Japan]], where local lines are expensive. Fidonet was only moderately successful in countries such as [[France]], where tolls on local calls and competition with [[Minitel]] or other data networks traditionally limited its growth.
===Geographic structure===
Fidonet is politically organized into a tree structure, with different parts of the tree electing their respective coordinators. The Fidonet hierarchy consists of Zones, Regions, Networks, Nodes and Points broken down more-or-less geographically.
The highest level is the Zone which is largely continent based:
* Zone 1 is [[North America]]
* Zone 2 is [[Europe]] and ex-[[USSR]] (including [[Russia]])
* Zone 3 is [[Australasia]]
* Zone 4 is [[South America]]
* Zone 5 is [[Africa]]
* Zone 6 is [[Asia]] (excluding Russia, which was listed in Zone 2)
Each zone is broken down into regions, which are broken down into nets, which consist of individual nodes. Zones 7-4095 are used for "othernets"; groupings of nodes which use Fido-compatible software to carry their own independent message areas without being in any way controlled by FidoNet's political structure. Using un-used zone numbers would ensure that each network would have a unique set of addresses, avoiding potential routing conflicts and ambiguities for systems that belonged to more than one network.
Any given node can also support ''points'', if the node operator decided to do so. A "point" is a system that has a unique address derived from its parent node, but without the point's owner being an official member of FidoNet. Thus, the sysop who provide a fidonet feed to the point operator is officially responsible for all mail originating from that point, as far as the remainder of the FidoNet network is concerned. Points were popular among users who did not operate BBS's, but wanted the independence of being able to operate their own message bases and mail reading software.
===Fidonet addresses===
Fidonet addresses explicitly consist of a Zone number, a Network number (or region number), and a Node number. The Fidonet structure also allows for semantic designation of region, host, and hub status for particular nodes, but this status is not directly indicated by the main address.
For example, consider a node located in [[Tulsa, Oklahoma]], [[United States|USA]] with an assigned node number is 918, located in Zone 1 (North America), Region 19, and Network 170. The full Fidonet address would be ''1:170/918''. The ''region'' was for administrative purposes, and was only part of the address if the node was listed directly underneath the Regional Coordinator, rather than one of the networks that were used to divide the region further. If the system supported ''points'', each point would have its number appended as a suffix, such as ''1:170/918.42''.
Fidonet policy requires that each Fidonet system maintain a ''nodelist'' of every other member system. Information on each node includes the name of the system or BBS, the name of the node operator, the geographic location, the telephone number, and software capabilities. The nodelist is updated weekly, to avoid unwanted calls to nodes that had shut down, with their phone numbers possibly having been reassigned for voice use by the respective telephone company.
To accomplish regular updates, coordinators of each network maintain the list of systems in their local areas. The lists are forwarded back to the International Coordinator via automated systems on a regular basis. The International Coordinator would then compile a new nodelist, and generate the [[diff|list of changes]] (nodediff) to be distributed for node operators to apply to their existing nodelist.
===Technical specifications===
Fidonet contained several technical specifications for compatibility between systems. The most basic of all was ''FTS-0001'', with which all fidonet systems were required to comply as a minimal requirement. FTS-0001 defined:
*Handshaking - the protocols used by mailer software to identify each other and exchange meta information about the session.
*Transfer protocol ''([[XMODEM]])'' - the protocols to be used for transferring files containing fidonet mail between systems.
*Message format - the standard format for fidonet messages during the time which they were exchanged between systems.
Other specifications that were commonly used provided for ''echomail'', different transfer protocols and handshake methods (''e.g.: Yoohoo/Yoohoo2u2, EMSI''), file compression, nodelist format, transfer over reliable connections such as the Internet ([[Binkp]]), and other aspects.
===Zone mail hour===
Since computer bulletin boards historically used the same [[telephone line]]s for transferring mail as were used for dial-in human users of the BBS, FidoNet policy dictates that at least one designated line of each FidoNet node must be available for accepting mail from other FidoNet nodes during a particular hour of each day.
"Zone Mail Hour", as it was named, varies depending on the geographic location of the node, and was designated to occur during the early morning. The exact hour varies depending on the time zone, and any node with only one telephone line is required to reject human callers. In practice, particularly in later times, most FidoNet systems tend to accept mail at any time of day when the phone line is not busy, usually during night.
==Fidonet deployments==
Although monolithic software that encompassed all required functions in one package was available, most FidoNet deployments were designed in a modular fashion. A typical deployment would involve several applications that would communicate through shared files and directories, and switch between each other through carefully designed [[shell script|scripts]] or [[batch file]]s.
'''Mailer software''' was responsible for transferring files and messages between systems, as well as passing control to other applications, such as the BBS software, at appropriate times. The mailer would initially answer the phone and, if necessary, deal with incoming mail via FidoNet transfer protocols. If the mailer answered the phone and a human caller was detected rather than other mailer software, the mailer would exit, and pass control to the BBS software, which would then initialise for interaction with the user. When outgoing mail was waiting on the local system, the mailer software would attempt to send it from time to time by dialing and connecting to other systems who would accept and route the mail further. Due to the costs of toll calls which often varied between peak and off-peak times, mailer software would usually allow its operator to configure the optimal times in which to atte |
is Ford Coppola''' (born [[April 7]], [[1939]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[film director]], [[screenwriter]], [[vintner]], [[publisher|magazine publisher]], and [[hotelier]], most renowned for directing the highly regarded ''[[The Godfather|Godfather]]'' trilogy and the [[Vietnam War]] [[Epic film|epic]] ''[[Apocalypse Now]]''.
==Life and Career (1960 to 1978)==
Coppola was born into a creative and supportive [[Italian American]] family in [[Detroit, Michigan]], but he grew up in a New York suburb. His father [[Carmine Coppola]], was a a composer and musician. His mother is alleged to have been an actress, but this is not fact. He studied theatre at [[ Hofstra University]] prior to studying film at [[UCLA]] and while there, he made numerous short films, including some soft core porn films. In the early 1960s, he started his professional career making low-budget films with [[Roger Corman]] and writing screenplays. His first notable motion picture was made for Corman, the low-budget ''[[Dementia 13]]'' (which is available on video).
[[Image:Coppola1.jpg|thumb|On the set of ''Finian's Rainbow'' with Petula Clark]]After graduating to mainstream motion pictures with ''[[You're a Big Boy Now]]'', Coppola was offered the reins of the movie version of the [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] musical ''[[Finian's Rainbow]]'', starring [[Petula Clark]], in her first American film, and veteran [[Fred Astaire]]. Producer [[Jack Warner]] was nonplussed by Coppola's shaggy-haired, bearded, "hippie" appearance and generally left him to his own devices. He took his cast to the [[Napa Valley]] for much of the outdoor shooting, but these scenes were in sharp contrast to those obviously filmed on a Hollywood soundstage, resulting in a disjointed look to the film. Dealing with outdated material at a time when the popularity of film musicals was already on the downslide, Coppola's end result was only semi-successful, but his work with Clark no doubt contributed to her [[Golden Globe Award|Golden Globe]] Best Actress nomination.
In 1971, Coppola won an [[Academy Award]] for his screenplay for ''[[Patton (film)|Patton]]''. However, his name as a filmmaker was made as the co-writer and director of ''[[The Godfather]]'' ([[1972]]) and ''[[The Godfather Part II]]'' ([[1974]]), which both won the [[Academy Award for Best Picture]] &mdash; the latter being the first sequel to do so.
In between ''The Godfather'' and ''The Godfather Part II'', Coppola directed ''[[The Conversation]]'', a story of a paranoid wiretapping and surveillance expert (played by [[Gene Hackman]]) who finds himself caught up in a possible murder plot. ''The Conversation'' was released to theaters in 1974 and was also nominated for Best Picture, resulting in Coppola being the first filmmaker to have directed two films competing for the same Best Picture Oscar since the annual number of nominees was cut down to five in 1945. (This had previously been accomplished seven times, by six different directors, between 1937 and 1943, when the Academy announced ten nominees yearly. Coppola's feat would later be matched by [[Herbert Ross]] in 1978, with ''[[The Goodbye Girl]]'' and ''[[The Turning Point]]'', and [[Steven Soderbergh]] in 2001, with ''[[Erin Brockovich]]'' and ''[[Traffic (2000 movie)|Traffic]]''.) While ''The Godfather Part II'' won the Oscar, ''The Conversation'' won the 1974 ''[[Palme d'Or]]'' at the [[Cannes Film Festival]].
During this period he also wrote the screenplay for the critically and commercially unsuccessful [[1974]] [[film adaptation|adaptation]] of [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]]'s [[novel]] ''[[The Great Gatsby]]'' (starring [[Mia Farrow]] and [[Robert Redford]]) and produced [[George Lucas]]'s breakthrough film, ''[[American Graffiti]]''.
==Career: 1979 to present==
Following the success of ''The Godfather'' and its sequel, Coppola set about filming ''[[Apocalypse Now]]'', an ambitious version of [[Joseph Conrad]]'s ''[[Heart of Darkness]]'', with the setting changed from colonial Africa to the [[Vietnam War]]. Before setting off to make the film, Coppola went to his mentor Roger Corman for advice about shooting in the Philippines, since Corman himself was familiar with shooting a film in that area. It was said that all Corman advised Coppola was "Don't go". The creation of the film was a disaster from the start, being beset by numerous problems, including [[typhoon]]s, [[nervous breakdown]]s, [[Martin Sheen]]'s heart attack, and an unprepared [[Marlon Brando]] with a bloated appearance (which Coppola attempted to hide by shooting him in the shadows). It was delayed so often it was nicknamed ''Apocalypse Whenever''. The film was equally lauded and hated by critics when it finally appeared in [[1979]], and the cost nearly bankrupted Coppola's nascent studio [[American Zoetrope]]. However, like [[Citizen Kane]], reputation has grown in time and [[Apocalypse Now]] is regarded by many as a masterpiece of the [[New Hollywood]] era. [[Roger Ebert]] considers it to be the finest film on the Vietnam war and included it on his list for the [[2002]] [[Sight and Sound]] poll for the greatest movie of all time. However to many Apocalypse Now represents Coppola's highpoint. A feat he has been unable to equal or exceed ever since. The [[1991]] [[documentary film]] ''[[Hearts of Darkness: A Filmmaker's Apocalypse]]'', directed by [[Eleanor Coppola]] (Francis's wife), [[Fax Bahr]], and [[George Hickenlooper]], chronicles the difficulties the crew went through making ''Apocalypse Now'', and features behind the scenes footage filmed by Eleanor.
[[Image:Movie_eo_lucas_jackson_coppola.jpg|left|250px|thumb|[[George Lucas]], [[Michael Jackson]] and Francis Ford Coppola filming ''[[Captain EO]]'']]Despite the setbacks and ill health Coppola suffered during the making of ''Apocalypse Now'', he kept up with film projects, presenting in [[1981]] a restoration of the [[1927]] film ''[[Napoléon (movie)|Napoléon]]'' that was edited and released in the [[United States]] by American Zoetrope. However it wasn't until the experimental musical ''[[One from the Heart]]'' ([[1982]]) that he returned to directing. Unfortunately, the film was a huge failure, although it developed a cult following in later years.
In [[1986]] Coppola, with [[George Lucas]], directed the [[Michael Jackson]] film for [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] theme parks, ''[[Captain Eo]]'', which at the time was the most expensive film per minute ever made.
In [[1990]] he completed the ''Godfather'' series with ''[[The Godfather Part III]]'' which, while not as critically acclaimed as the first two movies, was still a box office success. Some reviewers criticized the casting of Coppola's daughter [[Sofia Coppola|Sofia]], who stepped into a role abandoned by [[Winona Ryder]] just as filming began. Sofia Coppola had previously appeared in her father's films, including a memorable performance as the younger sister in [[Peggy Sue Got Married]], but her performance in ''The Godfather Part III'' was subjected to critical ridicule, much of it mean-spirited. Sofia Coppola has since gone on to become a well-respected director in her own right.
Son [[Roman Coppola]] is also a filmmaker, directing his first feature film, ''[[CQ (film)|CQ]]''.
Coppola's father [[Carmine Coppola|Carmine]] was a renowned composer and musician, and wrote the scores of many of his son's films; his nephew [[Nicolas Cage]] is an acclaimed actor.
In recent years, Coppola with his family has extended his talents to [[winemaking]] in [[California]]'s [[Napa Valley]] at the [[Niebaum-Coppola Winery]], producing a line of specialty pastas and pasta sauces, and opening resorts in [[Guatemala]] and [[Belize]], inspired by his accommodation in the [[Philippines]] during the making of ''Apocalypse Now'', with decor supervised by Eleanor Coppola.
In 1997, Coppola founded [[Zoetrope All-Story]], a flashy [[literary magazine]] that publishes [[short story|short stories]]. The magazine has published fiction by [[T.C. Boyle]] and [[Amy Bloom]] and essays by [[David Mamet]], [[Steven Spielberg]], and [[Salman Rushdie]]. Since its founding, the magazine has grown in reputation to become one of the premier American journals of [[literary fiction]]. Coppola serves as founding editor and publisher of All-Story.
The director is based in the [[San Francisco Bay Area]] where he co-owns the Rubicon restaurant alongside fellow San Franciscan [[Robin Williams]] and [[Robert De Niro]]. In addition to his restaurant, Coppola serves as the Honorary Ambassador of the Central American nation of [[Belize]] in [[San Francisco]], [[California]]. On their official roster of worldwide honorary consulates found on their official website, he is referred to as "''His Excellency Ambassador Francis Ford Coppola''," although he is not a [[Belizean]] citizen.
Recently, during November 2005, Coppola took part as a special guest in the 46th [[Thessaloniki]] Film Festival, in northern [[Greece]].
==Selected filmography==
*''[[Kinsey_(movie)|Kinsey]]'' (2005, co-producer)
*''[[Sleepy Hollow]]'' (1999, executive producer)
*''[[The Rainmaker (1997 film)|The Rainmaker]]'' (1997, director)
*''[[Jack (movie)|Jack]]'' (1996, director)
*''[[My Family, Mi Familia]]'' (1995, executive producer)
*''[[Mary Shelley's Frankenstein]]''(1994, executive producer)
*''[[The Secret Garden (film)|The Secret Garden]]'' (1993, executive producer)
*''[[Bram Stoker's Dracula]]'' (1992, director)
*''[[The Godfather: Part III]]'' (1990, director)
*''[[Tucker: The Man and His Dream]]'' (1988, director)
*''[[Gardens of Stone]]'' (1987, director)
*''[[Peggy Sue Got Married]]'' (1986, director)
*''[[Captain Eo]]'' (1986, director)
*''[[The Cotton Club]]'' (1984, director)
*''[[Rumble Fish]]'' (1983, director)
*''[[The Outsiders (film)|The Outsiders]]'' (1983, director)
*''[[One from the Heart]]'' (1982, director)
*''[[Apocalypse Now]]'' (1979, director)
*''[[The Godfather, |
Roach Studios filmmakers|Capra, Frank]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Capra, Frank]]
[[Category:Italian-Americans|Capra, Frank]]
[[Category:Natives of Sicily|Capra, Frank]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Capra, Frank]]
[[Category:National Medal of Arts recipients|Capra, Frank]]
[[Category:American film directors|Capra, Frank]]
[[de:Frank Capra]]
[[es:Frank Capra]]
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[[zh:弗兰克·卡普拉]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FIFA World Cup</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FIFA Worldcup Copy for Germany 1990.jpg|thumb|1990 copy of the World Cup Trophy awarded to West Germany.]]
The '''FIFA World Cup''' (often called '''Football World Cup''', '''The World Cup''', or simply '''World Cup''') is the most important competition in international [[football (soccer)|football]], and the world's most representative team sport event. Organised by [[FIFA|Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA)]], the sport's governing body, the World Cup is contested by the [[list of national football teams|men's national football teams]] of FIFA member nations. While the championship is awarded every four years (except in times of widespread war), it is more of an ongoing event as the qualifying rounds of the competition (which narrow the field down to the final 32 teams) take place over the three years leading up to the final rounds.
The final tournament phase (often called the "Finals") involves 32 national teams competing over a four-week period in a previously nominated host nation. These games are the most widely-viewed sporting event in the world. Only seven nations have ever won the World Cup Finals. [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]] are the current holders, as well as the most successful World Cup team, having won the tournament five times, while [[Germany national football team|Germany]] and [[Italy national football team|Italy]] follow with three titles each. The next football World Cup Finals will be held in [[Football World Cup 2006|Germany]] between [[June 9]] and [[July 9]], [[2006]].
==History==
===Previous international competitions===
The World Cup was not the first international football competition. [[Amateur]] football was introduced at the [[Olympic Games]] &mdash; an international multi-sport event &mdash; as [[Football at the 1908 Summer Olympics|part of the official programme]] in [[1908 Summer Olympics|1908]].
Sir [[Thomas Lipton]] organised the [[Sir Thomas Lipton Trophy]] tournament in [[Turin]] in 1909, which is sometimes described as ''The First World Cup''. [[Italy]], [[Germany]] and [[Switzerland]] sent their most prestigious professional club sides to the competition. However, [[The Football Association]] of [[England]] refused to be associated with it.
Not wishing to have Britain unrepresented in the competition, Lipton invited [[West Auckland FC]], an amateur side from the north-east of England and mostly made up of [[coal miner|coal miners]], to take part. West Auckland won the tournament and returned to Italy in 1911 to defend their title. In this second competition, West Auckland beat [[Juventus]] 6-1 in the final. They were given the trophy to keep forever, per the rules of the competition.
The first intercontinental football competition took place at the Olympic games of [[1924 Summer Olympics|1924]], and was won by [[Uruguay national football team|Uruguay]].<ref name="FIFA1930">[http://fifaworldcup.yahoo.com/06/en/p/pwc/1930.html Uruguay 1930] FIFA World Cup site. Retrieved on January 9, 2006.</ref> [[1928 Summer Olympics|Four years later]], they successfully defended this title. FIFA named Uruguay the host country for the first official FIFA World Cup as a result.
===The first official World Cup===
The [[1932 Summer Olympics]] held at [[Los Angeles]] in the [[United States]] was not supposed to include football as part of the programme, due to the low popularity of [[Soccer in the United States|football in the United States]]. FIFA and the [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]] also disagreed over the status of amateur players, and so football was dropped from the Games.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A565148 The Football World Cup - An Introduction], [[h2g2]]. Retrieved on March 1, 2006.</ref>
FIFA president [[Jules Rimet]] thus set about organising the [[Football World Cup 1930|inaugural World Cup tournament]] to be held in [[Uruguay]] in 1930. The national associations of selected nations were invited to send a team, but the choice of Uruguay as a venue for the competition meant a long and costly trip across the [[Atlantic Ocean]] for European sides. Until two months before the start of the competition, no European country had promised to send a team.<ref name="FIFA1930" /> Rimet eventually persuaded teams from Belgium, France, Romania, and Yugoslavia to make the trip. Eventually 13 nations took part — seven from [[South America]], four from [[Europe]] and two from [[North America]].
[[France national football team|France]] and the [[United States men's national soccer team|USA]] simultaneously won the first-ever World Cup matches, beating [[Mexico national football team|Mexico]] 4-1 and [[Belgium national football team|Belgium]] 3-0, respectively. The first goal in World Cup history was scored by [[Lucien Laurent]] of France. Not long after, the first World Cup [[hat-trick]] was accomplished by [[Bert Patenaude]] of the USA in the Americans' 3-0 win against [[Paraguay national football team|Paraguay]].
In the final, [[Uruguay national football team|Uruguay]] defeated [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] 4-2 in front of a crowd of 93,000 people in [[Montevideo]], and became the first nation to win a World Cup.<ref>[http://fifaworldcup.yahoo.com/releases/en/fwc_origin_en.pdf FIFA World Cup Origin] FIFA Media Release. Retrieved on January 9, 2006.</ref>
===Growth===
The issues facing the early World Cup tournaments were travel (for teams outside the continent of the host nations), and war, as [[World War II]] and its aftermath forced the cancellation of the 1942 and 1946 competitions.
The British teams withdrew from FIFA in 1920, partly out of unwillingness to play against the countries they had been at war with, partly out of protest against a foreign influence to football.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/sportscotland/asportingnation/article/0001/index.shtml Scotland and the 1950 World Cup], BBC. Retrieved on March 1, 2006.</ref> They entered the World Cup for the first time in [[Football World Cup 1950|1950]], following FIFA's invitation.
In the tournaments between [[Football World Cup 1934|1934]] and [[Football World Cup 1978|1978]], 16 teams qualified for the finals (except in a few cases where teams withdrew after qualifying). Most were from Europe and Latin America, with a very small minority from [[Africa]], [[Asia]] and [[Oceania]]. These teams were usually easily defeated by the European and Latin American teams (with the notable exception of [[North Korea national football team|North Korea]], who reached the [[Football World Cup 1966|1966]] quarterfinals).
The finals were expanded to 24 teams in [[Football World Cup 1982|1982]], then 32 in [[Football World Cup 1998|1998]], allowing more teams from Africa, Asia and North America to take part. In recent years, these comparatively newer participants have enjoyed more success, with [[Cameroon national football team|Cameroon]] in [[Football World Cup 1990|1990]], and [[South Korea national football team|South Korea]], [[Senegal national football team|Senegal]] and [[United States men's national soccer team|USA]] in [[Football World Cup 2002|2002]] all reaching the elimination rounds. With as many as 197 nations attempting to qualify for the 2006 edition, the World Cup is now a truly global event.
A spin-off tournament, the [[FIFA Women's World Cup]], was first held in 1991. It is similar to the men's tournament in the format, but so far not as popular.
==Trophy==
:{{main|Football World Cup Trophy}}
[[Image:Wohlfahrtsbriefmarke-fifa.jpg|right|thumb|[[Football World Cup Trophy|FIFA World Cup Trophy]] on a German [[Postage stamp|Stamp]]]]
From 1930 to 1970, the [[Jules Rimet]] Trophy was awarded to the Cup winner. It was originally simply known as the ''World Cup'' or ''Coupe du Monde'' but was renamed in 1946 after the FIFA president who organized the first tournament. In [[Football World Cup 1970|1970]], Brazil's third victory in the tournament entitled them to keep the trophy permanently. This particular trophy, however, was stolen in 1983, and has never been recovered.<ref>[http://fifaworldcup.yahoo.com/06/en/p/h/rimet.html Jules Rimet Cup], FIFA World Cup site. Retrieved on February 27, 2006.</ref>
After 1970, a new trophy, known as the ''FIFA World Cup Trophy'', was designed. This is not awarded to the winning nation permanently, no matter how many World Cups they win.<ref>[http://2002.fifaworldcup.yahoo.com/02/en/pf/h/t2.html The FIFA World Cup™ Trophy], Official Site of The 2002 FIFA World Cup. Retrieved on February 27, 2006.</ref> Argentina, Germany (both times as West Germany) and Brazil have all won the second trophy twice. It will not be retired until the name plaque has been entirely filled with the names of winning nations in [[2038]].
==Format==
===Qualification===
{{main|FIFA World Cup qualification}}
Since the second World Cup in [[Football World Cup 1934|1934]], qualify |
ise]] Moses' son, saving his life. (1-4)
The Pharaoh refuses Moses' request, and oppresses the people still further, ordering them to make [[bricks without straw]]. Moses subsequently complains to God, announces to him that he will display his power to such an extent, that the Pharaoh will be keen to send the Israelites away, even with all the jewelery of the Egyptians. The [[genealogy]] of Moses and his family appears at this point, rather than at the beginning of the story. (5-6)
God sends [[Plagues of Egypt|a series of plagues onto Egypt]], each time acting through Moses. Since each one has respite, and the Egyptian magicians are capable of duplicating some of them, the pharaoh becomes increasingly stubborn (7-10). Finally, a great plague, killing all the firstborn, occurs, passing over the houses of the Israelites, since they have completed the [[passover]] ritual, marking their houses. Pharaoh consequently relents and is only too glad to get rid of the Israelites (11-12).
===The journey through the wilderness to Mount Sinai (13-18)===
[[The Exodus]] begins after Pharaoh's consent, and the Israelites leave [[Rameses]] to go to [[Succoth]]. The nobles of Egypt object to Pharaoh's consent, and so Pharaoh gathers together a large army to chase after the Israelites, who have by this point reached the [[Red Sea]]. Fortunately for the Israelites, they are divinely guarded, and are able to [[passage of Red Sea|escape through the Red Sea]], when Moses causes the waters to part. The waters collapse once the Israelites have passed, defeating Pharaoh, and the Israelites joyfully sing the [[Song of the Sea]] (13-14).
The Israelites continue their journey into the desert, and once in the [[Wilderness of Sin]], they complain about the lack of food. Listening to their complaint, God sends them a [[Quail|shower of quail]], and subsequently provides a daily shower of [[Manna|manna from heaven]]. Once at [[Rephidim]], the thirst of the people gets to them, so [[Kadesh (South of Israel)|water is miraculously]] provided from a rock. The [[Amalekites]] perform a sneak attack on the Israelites, and although [[Joshua]] manages to lead an army to vanquish them, God still orders an eternal war against [[Amalek]] (15-17). Jethro hears of Moses' approach, and visits him, advising Moses to appoint [[judges]] (18).
===The Covenant and its Laws (19-24)===
In the third month the Israelites arrive at [[Mount Sinai]], and God announces, via Moses, that the Israelites are ''God's people'', because he has [[liberation|liberated]] them by his [[omnipotence]]. The Israelites accept this call, and so, with [[thunder]] and [[lightning]], clouds of smoke, and the noise of [[trumpet]]s, God appears to them at the top of Mount Sinai (19).
God then announces a summarised moral law, the [[Ethical Decalogue]] (20). A more detailed [[Covenant Code]] is subsequently provided, concerning both ritual and civil law, and God promises [[Canaan]] to the Israelites if they obey, but warns against the [[paganism]] of its inhabitants (21-23). God calls Moses up into the mountain to receive a set of [[Rock (geology)|stone]] [[tablet]]s containing the law, and further instructions (24).
===The Instructions for a Tabernacle, vestments, and associated ritual objects (25-31)===
Intricate instructions, forming one of the least readable portions of the Torah, are then given detailing the construction of a [[tabernacle]], so that God can dwell permanently amongst the Israelites (25-28). These directions provide for a particularly extensive construction:
*The [[Ark of the Covenant]], to contain the tablets
*A ''[[mercy seat]]'', with two [[gilt]] [[cherubim]] either side, for God to sit at
*A [[menorah]], never to be extinguished, and its oil
*A construction to contain these things, involving curtains for a roof, walls on [[silver]] feet, outer curtain, and a [[purple]] veil to separate the [[Holy of Holies]], table, and menorah, from the remainder.
*The outer court, involving [[pillars]] on bronze [[pedestal]]s, connected up by [[hook]]s and silver [[crossbar]]s.
Instructions are also given for the [[garment]]s of the priests (28):
*A shoulder-band ([[ephod]]), containing two [[onyx]] stones, each engraved with the names of six of the tribes of Israel
*A breastplate containing ''[[Urim]]'' and ''[[Thummim]]''
*[[Gold]]en chains for holding the breastplate set with twelve specific precious stones, in four rows
*A robe for the ephod, with [[bell (instrument) | bell]]s and [[pomegranate]]s around the seam
*A [[coat]]
*A [[mitre]]
*A golden [[mitre]] plate with the inscription ''Holiness to the Lord''
*A girdle
Following these instructions are details of the ritual to be used to ordain the priests, including [[robing]], [[anointing]], and seven days of sacrifices. There are also instructions for daily morning and evening offerings of a lamb (29). The specifications for construction of the tabernacle is then continued with directions for making a golden altar of [[incense]], [[laver (basin)|laver]], [[chrysm|anointing oil]], and [[perfume]] (30). [[Bezaleel]] and [[Aholiab]] are identified, by God, as the appointed craftsmen to construct these things (31).gobby is a wranger
===The golden calf, and regiving of the law (32-34)===
Whilst Moses is up the mountain, the people become impatient and urge Aaron to make them a [[golden calf]], which they worship with joy. God informs Moses that they have become [[idolatry|idolatrous]], threatening to abandon Israel, but Moses intercedes for them. However, when he comes down, he sees what they have done, and in anger smashes the two tablets of the law. After pronouncing judgment upon Aaron and the people Moses again ascends to God to implore forgiveness, and is successful (32-33). Moses consequently is commanded to make two new tablets on which God will personally write the commandments. God then gives the [[Ritual Decalogue]], writing the ''ten commandments'' onto the tablets. Moses then returns to the people, who listen to him in respectful silence (34).
===The Construction of a Tabernacle, vestments, and associated ritual objects (35-40)===
Moses collects the [[congregation (worship)|congregation]], enjoins upon them the keeping of the Sabbath, and requests gifts for the sanctuary. The entire people respond willingly, and under the direction of Bezaleel, and Aholiab, they complete all the instructions, for making the tabernacle, its contents, and the priestly robes, and the Israelites put it together on the first day of the second month (35-40). This section is almost, but not completely, a word for word copy of Chapters 25-31.
==Dating==
The time-span in this book, from the death of [[Joseph (dreamer)|Joseph]] to the erection of the [[tabernacle]] in the wilderness, covers about one hundred and forty-five years, on the supposition that one computes the four hundred and thirty years (12:40) from the time of the promises made to [[Abraham]] (Gal. 3:17).
There have been several attempts to fix the date of the events in the book to a precise point on the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. These attempts generally rest on three considerations
*Who the unnamed pharaoh was
*The dates for non-biblical accounts of large numbers of semitic people leaving Egypt
*The date that archaeology implies [[Jericho]] was destroyed
Generally, fixing the identification of the Pharaoh is considered the key, and two names are usually suggested:
*[[Amenhotep II]], around 1444 BC, favoured by religious scholars, since it precedes the destruction of Jericho, although it fails to identify the Israelites
*[[Ramses II]], around 1290 BC, favoured by a large minority of secular scholars, since it is able to identify the Israelites as the [[Hyksos]], although this contradicts some aspects of the biblical account, and occurs after Jericho was destroyed.
==Authorship==
Like the remainder of the [[Torah]], traditional and religious attitudes are that the book is the work of Moses himself. Also like the remainder of the Torah, a large majority (90%) of modern scholarship disagrees, and instead supports the [[documentary hypothesis]], which asserts that there were several, post-Moses, authors, whose stories have been intertwined by [[Torah redactor|a later redactor]]. The three main authors of the work are said, in this hypothesis, to be the [[Jahwist]], [[Elohist]], and [[Priestly source]]. In addition, the poetic [[Song of the Sea]], and the prose [[Covenant Code]], are thought to have been originally independent works which the associated author, of these three, chose to embed in their works.
Of these, in the hypothesis, the Elohist is identified as uniquely responsible for the episode of the golden calf, and the priestly source as uniquely responsible for the chiastic, and monotonous, instructions for creating the tabernacle, vestments, and ritual objects, and the account of their creation. Notable, the three main authors are also each uniquely associated with one part of the law code - the Elohist with the Covenant Code, the Priestly source with the Ethical Decalogue, and the Jahwist with the Ritual Decalogue.
The other parts of the book are believed to have been constructed by intertwining the Jahwist, Elohist, and Priestly, versions of each of the stories. Deconstructions of the stories into these sources, applying the hypothesis, identify heavy variations between stories, for example, the Priestly Source never warning Pharaoh about the plagues, but instead presenting the plagues as a test of his magicians, and always involving Aaron, whereas the Elohist always provides a warning, the Pharaoh is always described as giving in, but then hardening when Moses undoes the plague, and hardly ever includes Aaron in a positive light.
==See also==
* [[The Exodus]]
* [[Moses]]
* [[Tabernacle]]
* [[parsha|Torah portions]] in Exodus: [[Shemot (parsha)|Shemot]], [[Va'eira]], [[Bo (parsha)|Bo]], [[Beshalach]], [[Yitro (parsha)|Yitro]], [[Mishpatim]], [[Terumah ( |
MW Dixi|Dixi]], an [[Austin (car)|Austin]] [[Austin Seven|Seven]] produced under licence, began production in [[Eisenach, Germany|Eisenach]]. BMW bought the [[Automobilwerk Eisenach|Dixi Company]] the following year, and this became the company's first car, the [[BMW 3/15]]. By [[1933]] BMW were producing cars that could be called truly theirs, offering steadily more advanced [[Straight-6|I6]] [[Sports car|sports]] and saloons (sedans). The pre-war cars culminated in the [[BMW 327|327]] saloon and [[BMW 328|328]] [[roadster]], fast [[engine displacement|2.0 L]] cars, both very advanced for their time.
===World War II===
BMW [[motorcycle|motorcycles]], specifically the [[BMW R 12]] and the [[BMW R 75]] combination were used extensively by the [[Aufklärungsabteilung|Reconnaissance formations]] of German [[panzer]] and motorised divisions of the [[Heer]], [[Waffen SS]] and [[Luftwaffe]].
BMW was also a major supplier of engines to the [[Luftwaffe]] and of engines and vehicles, especially motorcycles, to the [[Wehrmacht]]. Planes used the aero-engines included the [[BMW 801|801]], one of the most powerful available. Over 30,000 were manufactured up to [[1945]]. BMW also researched [[jet engine]]s, producing the [[BMW 003]], and rocket-based weapons. BMW has admitted to using between 25,000 and 30,000 slave labourers during this period, consisting of both inmates of infamous [[concentration camp]]s such as [[Dachau]] and prisoners of war.
The BMW works were heavily bombed towards the end of the war. Of its sites, those in eastern Germany ([[Eisenach|Eisenach-Dürrerhof]], [[Wandlitz|Wandlitz-Basdorf]] and [[Zühlsdorf]]) were seized by the [[Soviet Union|Soviets]]. The factory in Munich was largely destroyed.
===Aftermath of WWII===
After the war the [[Munich]] [[factory]] took some time to restart production in any volume. BMW was banned from manufacturing for three years by the [[Allies]] and did not produce a car model until [[1952]].
In the east, the company's factory at Eisenach was taken over by the soviet [[Awtowelo]] group which finally formed [[Automobilwerk Eisenach|Eisenacher Motor-Werke]]. That company produced cars called "BMW" until in [[1951]] the Bavarian company prevented use of the [[trademark]]s — the BMW name, the [[logotype|logo]] and the "double-kidney" [[radiator]] [[grille]] — the cars being then rebranded EMW. Production continued until [[1955]].
In the west, representatives from the [[Bristol Aeroplane Company]] inspected the factory, and returned to [[United Kingdom|Britain]] with [[plan]]s for the 326, 327 and 328 models. These plans, which became official war reparations, along with BMW [[engineer]] [[Fritz Fiedler]] allowed the newly formed [[Bristol Cars]] to produce a new, high-quality sports saloon (sedan), the [[Bristol 400|400]] by [[1947]], a car so similar to the BMW 327 that it even kept the famous BMW grille.
[[image:bmw.z3.750pix.jpg|thumb|250px|BMW Z3]]
===Post-war history===
In 1952, BMW produced its first passenger car since the war, but its attempts to get into the premium sector were not commercially successful; models such as the acclaimed [[BMW 507]] were too expensive to build profitably and were low volume. By the late 1950s, it was making bubble cars such as the [[Isetta]]. In [[1959]] BMW's management suggested selling the whole concern to [[Daimler-Benz]]. Major shareholder, [[Herbert Quandt]] was close to agreeing such a deal, but changed his mind at the last minute because of opposition from the workforce and trade unions and advice from the board chairman, [[Kurt Golda]]. Instead Quandt increased his share in BMW to 50% against the advice of his bankers, and he was instrumental in turning the company around.
That same year, BMW launched the [[BMW 700|700]], a small car with an air-cooled, rear-mounted 697 cc boxer engine from the R67 motorcycle. Its bodywork was designed by [[Giovanni Michelotti]] and the 2+2 model had a sporty look. There was also a more powerful RS model for racing. Competition successes in the 700 began to secure BMW's reputation for sports sedans.
At the [[Frankfurt]] show in 1961, BMW launched the [[BMW New Class#1500|1500]], a powerful compact [[sedan (car)|sedan]], with front disc brakes and four-wheel independent suspension. This modern specification further cemented BMW's reputation for sporting cars. It was the first BMW to officially feature the "[[Hofmeister kink]]", the rear window line that has been the hallmark of all BMWs since then.
The "[[BMW New Class|New Class]]" 1500 was developed into [[BMW New Class#1600|1600]] and [[BMW New Class#1800|1800]] models. In 1966, the two-door version of the 1600 was launched, along with a convertible in 1967. These models were called the '02' series—the [[BMW New Class#2002|2002]] being the most famous—and began the bloodline that later developed into the [[BMW 3 Series]].
In [[1968]], BMW launched its large "[[BMW New Six|New Six]]" sedans, the [[BMW New Six#2500/2800/Bavaria|2500, 2800, and American Bavaria]], and coupés, the [[BMW New Six#Coupes|2.5 CS and 2800 CS]].
By the [[1970s]], BMW was commercially successful and in December 1971, moved in to its present HQ in Munich, architecturally modelled after four cylinders.
In [[1972]], the [[BMW 5 Series|5 Series]] was launched to replace the New Class sedans, with a body styled by [[Marcello Gandini]]. The New Class coupes were replaced by the [[BMW 3 Series|3 Series]] in [[1975]], and the New Six became the [[BMW 7 Series|7 Series]] in [[1977]]. Thus the three-tier sports sedan range was formed, and BMW essentially followed this formula into the [[1990s]]. Other cars, like the [[BMW 6 Series|6 Series]] coupes that replaced the CS and the [[BMW M1|M1]], were also added to the mix as the market demanded.
==="The English Patient"===
Between [[1994]] and [[2000]], under the leadership of [[Bernd Pischetsrieder]], BMW owned the [[Rover (car)|Rover Group]] in an attempt to get into mass market production, buying it from [[British Aerospace]]. This brought the [[Rover (car)|Rover]], [[Mini]], [[Land Rover]] and [[Triumph Motor Company|Triumph]] brands under BMW ownership.
The venture was not successful. For years, Rover tried to rival BMW, if not in product, then in market positioning and "snob appeal". BMW found it difficult to reposition the English automaker alongside its own products and the Rover division was faced with endless changes in its marketing strategy. In the six years under BMW, Rover was positioned as a premium automaker, a mass-market automaker, a division of BMW and an independent unit.
BMW was more successful with the [[Mini]] and [[Land Rover]] brands, which did not have parallels in its own range at the time.
In 2000, BMW disposed of [[Rover (car)|Rover]] after years of losses, with Rover cars going to the [[Phoenix Venture Holdings]] for a nominal £10 and Land Rover going to the [[Ford Motor Company]]. In the press, many years of under-investment by Rover before BMW's ownership were mainly blamed for the debacle; productivity and industrial relations were generally good during this period. The German press ridiculed the English firm as "[[The English Patient (film)|The English Patient]]", after a film at the time. BMW itself, protected by its product range's image, was largely spared the blame &mdash; even though it was the serious marketing issues that brought Rover down. Even the British press was not particularly sympathetic toward Rover.
BMW retained the Mini and [[Triumph Motor Company|Triumph]] marques. [[BMW MINI|MINI]] has been a highly successful business, though the Triumph name has not been used.
[[Image:BMW logo.png|150px|thumb|The BMW logo is a [[circle]] (known as a [[roundel]]) divided into [[quadrant]]s of alternating white and light blue colour. This is a stylized representation of an [[aircraft]] [[propeller]]. The colours of the logo are those of the flag of [[Bavaria]].]]
===Redesign Controversy===
In the early part of the [[2000s]], BMW undertook another of its periodic cycles of redoing the styling design of its various series of vehicles, under the auspices of newly promoted design chief [[Christopher Bangle]]. These designs, which were much curvier and 'swoopier' -- a design cue called "flame surfacing" by Bangle, did not rest well at all with BMW enthusiasts or the automotive press which referred to the new designs as "Bangled" or "Bangle-ized". While Bangle did not pen all of these designs, and has indeed been promoted within the company, some question what long term effect the disaffection of BMW traditionalists for these designs will have on sales, and on the company's future. Despite the controversy, BMW sales have increased year after year, showing the buying public's embrace of the new design philosophy.
What is not well known, however is that Bangle was indeed responsible for many 'conservative' BMW designs and has worked at BMW for almost a decade. The first X5 sketches (which highly resembled the production car), were designed by him, and under his tenure the E46 came to be.
===Production outside Germany===
BMW started producing automobiles at its [[Spartanburg, South Carolina]] plant in 1994. Today, the plant manufactures the [[BMW X5]] and [[BMW Z4]] Roadster.
The Spartanburg plant is open six days a week, producing automobiles approximately 110 hours a week. It employs about 4,700 people and manufactures over 500 vehicles daily.
After a period of local assembly, BMW's [[Rosslyn, South Africa]] plant now manufactures cars, with over 70 percent of its output destined for export. In the mid-1990s, BMW invested [[Rand (currency)|R]]1 billion to make Rosslyn a world-class facility. The plant now exports over 50,000 3 Series cars a year, mostly to the USA, Japan, Australia, Africa and the Middle East.
Starting from October 2003, BMWs are produced in |
osexuality%26Bible.htm Homosexuality and the Bible] believes the Bible does not condemn homosexuality.
* [http://www.gaychristianonline.org/ Gay Christian Online] Providing Encouragement, Support, Counseling, and Information for the Gay and Lesbian Christian.
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/hom_bibi.htm The Bible and Homosexuality] advocates religious tolerance of homosexuality.
* [http://www.pbs.org/pov/pov2003/familyfundamentals/resources.html Christianity and Homosexuality] from ''[[PBS]]''.
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/assault/bible/ Bible Scholars and religious leaders interpret and debate Scripture's references to homosexuality] from ''[[PBS]]''.
* [http://centurypubl.tripod.com/Understanding%20text.htm Understanding Male Homosexual Problems: An Introduction for Latter-day Saints] (A [[Mormon]] view of male homosexuality)
* [http://www.pbs.org/wnet/religionandethics/week128/perspectives.html PERSPECTIVES: Homosexuality and the Church]
* [http://www.ekd.de/english/2403_tensions_1997_homo1.html Living with Tension] a position paper on the issue "Homosexuality and the Church" of the Evangelical Church of Germany (in english)
* [http://www.bigissueground.com/atheistground/cauthen-homosexuality.shtml Homosexuality and Religion] (a liberal Christian perspective)
* [http://www.tanbooks.com/doct/church_sodomy.htm The Catholic Church and Homosexuality]
[[Category:Christian law|Homosexuality, Christian views of]]
[[Category:Christian philosophy|Homosexuality, Christian views of]]
[[Category:Christian viewpoints]]
[[Category:LGBT issues and religion|Christianity]]
[[Category:Religious ethics]]
[[fr:Christianisme et homosexualité]]
[[zh:同性恋和基督教]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chadic languages</title>
<id>7273</id>
<revision>
<id>40840584</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T09:54:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>218.188.0.150</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>+zh:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Chadic languages''' are a language family spoken across northern [[Nigeria]], [[Niger]], [[Chad]], [[Central African Republic]] and [[Cameroon]], belonging to the [[Afro-Asiatic_languages|Afro-Asiatic phylum]]. The most widely spoken Chadic language is [[Hausa language|Hausa]], the [[lingua franca]] of much of West [[Africa]]. They are divided into four subgroups:
*[[Biu-Mandara languages|Biu-Mandara languages]]
*[[East Chadic languages|East Chadic languages]]
*[[Masa languages|Masa languages]]
*[[West Chadic languages|West Chadic languages]]
==Bibliography==
* Lukas, Johannes (1936) 'The linguistic situation in the Lake Chad area in Central Africa.' ''Africa'', 9, 332&ndash;349.
* Newman, Paul (1977) 'Chadic classification and reconstructions.' ''Afroasiatic Linguistics'' 5, 1, 1&ndash;42.
* Newman, Paul (1978) 'Chado-Hamitic 'adieu': new thoughts on Chadic language classification', in Fronzaroli, Pelio (ed.), ''Atti del Secondo Congresso Internazionale di Linguistica Camito-Semitica''. Florence: Instituto de Linguistica e di Lingue Orientali, Università di Firenze, 389&ndash;397.
* Newman, Paul (1980) ''The Classification of Chadic within Afroasisatic.'' Leiden: Universitaire Pers Leiden.
* Newman, Paul and Ma, Roxana (1966) 'Comparative Chadic: phonology and lexicon.' ''Journal of African Languages'', 5, 218&ndash;251.
* Schuh, Russell (2003) 'Chadic overview', in M. Lionel Bender, Gabor Takacs, and David L. Appleyard (eds.), ''Selected Comparative-Historical Afrasian Linguistic Sudies in Memory of [[Igor M. Diakonoff]]'', LINCOM Europa, 55&ndash;60.
{{aa-lang-stub}}
[[Category:Chadic languages|*]]
[[Category:Afro-Asiatic languages]]
[[ar:تشادية]]
[[de:Tschadische Sprachen]]
[[he:שפות צ'אדיות]]
[[sl:Čadski jeziki]]
[[sv:Tchadspråk]]
[[zh:乍得语族]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cushitic languages</title>
<id>7274</id>
<revision>
<id>40719216</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T15:22:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Deeceevoice</username>
<id>72454</id>
</contributor>
<comment>subhead (does this require a disambig page?)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Cushitic languages''' are a subgroup of the [[Afro-Asiatic languages]], named after the Biblical figure [[Cush (Bible)|Cush]] by analogy with [[Semitic languages|Semitic]]. They are spoken in the [[Horn of Africa]]. The most prominent language is [[Oromo language|Oromo]] with about 35 million speakers, followed by [[Somali language|Somali]] (in [[Somalia]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Djibouti]], and [[Kenya]]) with about 20 million speakers, [[Sidamo language|Sidamo]] (in Ethiopia) with about 2 million speakers, and [[Afar language|Afar]] (in [[Eritrea]], Ethiopia, and Djibouti) with about 1.5 million speakers. It is divided into the following subgroups, as per [[Joseph Greenberg]], as modified by [[Harold Fleming]]:
* [[Beja language]] (often placed outside Cushitic proper)
* [[Central Cushitic languages|Central Cushitic]] or [[Agaw languages|Agaw]] languages
* [[East Cushitic languages]] (including Oromo, Somali, Sidamo, and Afar)
* [[South Cushitic languages|South Cushitic]] or Rift languages (including [[Iraqw language|Iraqw]]-[[Alagwa language|Alagwa]], [[Burunge language|Burunge]], and arguably [[Dahalo language|Dahalo]])
[[Robert Hetzron]] has suggested that the South Cushitic languages are a subgroup of Lowland East Cushitic. Maarten Mous, in his [[24 June]] [[2005]] oration at Leiden University, has suggested more specifically that South Cushitic be linked to the Southern Lowland East Cushitic branch, together with such languages as Oromo, the Omo-Tana languages (such as Somali), and Yaaku-Dullay.
Richard Hayward, on the other hand, breaks up East Cushitic into three well-supported families: ''Sidamic'' or Highlands, a diverse Lowlands family (with ''Afar'', ''Somalic'', and ''Oromic'' subgroups), and ''[[Dullay language|Dullay]]'' (he apparently leaves [[Yaaku language|Yaaku]] unclassified), that he believes should be considered separately when attempting to work out the internal relationships of Cushitic. This makes for a tentative four to seven branches, depending on the status of Beja, Rift, and Yaaku.
Cushitic was traditionally seen as also including the [[Omotic languages]], then called [[West Cushitic languages|West Cushitic]], but this view has been largely abandoned; the Omotic languages are now considered an isolated branch of Afro-Asiatic.
==Cushitic peoples==
''Cushitic'' also is used to refer to the indigenous peoples of the Horn of Africa. ''Ethiopid'' is an equivalent, though somewhat archaic, term.
{{aa-lang-stub}}
[[Category:Cushitic languages|*]]
[[ar:كوشية]]
[[de:Kuschitische Sprachen]]
[[es:Lenguas cusitas]]
[[eu:Hizkuntza Kuxitikoak]]
[[pt:Línguas cuchíticas]]
[[sv:Kushitiska språk]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Celestial dynamics</title>
<id>7277</id>
<revision>
<id>15905353</id>
<timestamp>2003-12-11T12:57:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Charles Matthews</username>
<id>12978</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Celestial mechanics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chinese new year</title>
<id>7278</id>
<revision>
<id>15905354</id>
<timestamp>2003-12-23T23:30:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lowellian</username>
<id>29210</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chinese New Year]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chapter 11, Title 11, United States Code</title>
<id>7279</id>
<revision>
<id>41919115</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:49:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Chapter 11''' is a chapter of the Untied States [[Bankruptcy Code]] which governs the process of ''reorganization'' under the [[bankruptcy]] laws of the [[United States]]. (The Bankruptcy Code itself is Title 11 of the [[United States Code]]; therefore reorganization under bankruptcy is covered by Chapter 11 of Title 11 of the United States Code.) In contrast, [[Chapter 7, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 7]] governs the process of a ''liquidation'' bankruptcy.)
==Definition==
When a troubled business decides that it is unable to service its debt or pay its creditors, it can file (or be forced by its creditors to file) with a federal bankruptcy court for bankruptcy protection under either [[Chapter 7, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 7]] or Chapter 11. A Chapter 7 filing means that the business intends to sell all its assets, distribute the proceeds to its creditors, and then cease operations. A Chapter 11 filing, on the other hand, is an attempt to stay in business while a bankruptcy [[court]] supervises the "reorganization" of the company's [[contract|contractual]] and [[debt]] obligations. The court can grant complete or partial relief from most of the company's debts and its contracts, so that the company can make a fresh start. Often, if the company's debts exceed its assets, then at the completion of bankruptcy the company's owners (stockholders) all end up with nothing &mdash; all their rights and interests are terminated &mdash; and the company's creditors end up with ownership of the newly reorganized company, in the hopes that it will eventually succeed financially as compensation for their losses.
==Rationale==
It is thought that the value of a typical business as a going concern is far higher than the value of the sum of its parts if the business's assets were to be sold of |
ases are [[copyright]]ed but are distributed with a liberal [[licence]] (a simplified two-clause [[BSD licence]]) [http://www.maradns.org/license.html].
== See also ==
* [[Comparison of DNS server software]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.maradns.org/ MaraDNS homepage]
[[Category:DNS software]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dylan programming language</title>
<id>8741</id>
<revision>
<id>41664274</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T22:47:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>217.21.40.1</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Dylan''' [[programming language]] ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|pronounced]] {{IPA|[ˈdɪlən]}}, like the name) is [[Functional programming|functional]], [[object-oriented]], [[Reflection (computer science)|reflective]] and [[dynamic programming language|dynamic]]. It was created in the early 1990's by a group led by [[Apple Computer]].
Dylan is essentially a cleaned-up and simplified version of [[CLOS]], an [[object-oriented]] programming system built on [[Common Lisp]]. In Dylan, almost all entities (including primitive data types, methods, and classes) are first-class objects. Programs can be written on a continuum from fully dynamically typed to fully statically typed, allowing for both rapid prototyping and later optimization. Dylan supports multiple inheritance, polymorphism, multiple dispatch, keyword arguments, object introspection, macros, and many other advanced features.
Dylan's main design goal is to be a dynamic language well-suited for developing commercial software. Dylan attempts to address the performance problem by introducing "natural" limits to the full flexibility of Lisp systems, allowing the compiler to clearly understand compilable units (i.e., libraries). Early versions of Dylan were otherwise similar to existing CLOS systems, but developer feedback in the 1993 era forced them to send the product back into engineering and produce a clearer syntax as well.
==History==
Dylan was created in the early 1990's by a group led by [[Apple Computer]]. At one point in its development it was intended for use with Apple's [[Apple Newton|Newton]] computer, but their implementation did not reach sufficient maturity in time, and they instead developed [[NewtonScript programming language|NewtonScript]] for that project. Apple ended their Dylan development effort in 1995, though they made a "technology release" version available ("Apple Dylan TR1") that included an advanced [[Integrated development environment|IDE]].
Two other groups contributed to the design of the language and developed implementations: [[Harlequin (software company)|Harlequin]] released a commercial IDE for [[Microsoft Windows]] and [[Carnegie Mellon University]] released an [[open source]] compiler for [[Unix]] systems. Both of these implementations are now open source and maintained by a group of volunteers, the [http://www.gwydiondylan.org Gwydion Maintainers].
==Syntax==
At first, Dylan used Lisp syntax, which is based on [[s-expressions]]:
<code>
(bind ((radius 5)
(circumference (* 2 $pi radius)))
(if (> circumference 42)
(format-out "Hello big circle! c is %=" circumference)
(format-out "Hello circle! c is %=" circumference)))
</code>
The language was then changed to use an [[ALGOL|Algol]]-style syntax,
which would be more familiar to C programmers:
<code>
begin
let radius = 5;
let circumference = 2 * $pi * radius;
if (circumference > 42)
format-out("Hello, big circle! c = %=", circumference);
else
format-out("Hello, circle! c is %=", circumference);
end if
end
</code>
Similar to other functional programming languages, the last evaluation in a function is its return value. This means that the following code is a valid function, returning one of two possible values to the caller of the function:
<code>
define method a_number(isTen :: <string>)
if (isTen = "10")
10;
else
11;
end if;
end method;
</code>
==Modules vs. namespace==
In most OO languages the concept of ''class'' is the primary encapsulation system; the language is generally thought of as "a way to make classes". Modern OO languages often also include a higher level construct known as the ''namespace'' in order to collect related classes together. In addition the namespace/class system in most languages defines a single unit that must be used as a whole, if you want to use the String.concat function, you must import and compile against all of String, or the namespace that includes it.
In Dylan the concepts of compile-unit and import-unit are separated, and classes have nothing specifically to do with either. A ''module'' defines items that should be compiled and handled together, while an ''interface'' defines the namespace. Classes can be placed together in modules, or cut across them, as the programmer wishes. Often the complete definition for a class does not exist in a single module, but is spread across several that are optionally collected together. Different programs can have different definitions of the same class, including only what they need.
What's the difference? Well consider an add-on library for [[regex]] support on String. Under traditional languages in order for the functionality to be included in strings, the functionality has to be added to the String namespace itself. As soon as you do this, the String class becomes larger, and people who don't need to use regex still have to "pay" for it in increased library size. For this reason these sorts of add-ons are typically placed in their own namespaces and objects. The downside to this approach is that the new functionality is no longer a ''part of'' string, instead it is isolated in its own set of functions that have to be called separately. Instead of the clean <code>myString.parseWith(myPattern)</code> syntax that follows classical OO concepts, you are forced to use something like <code>myPattern.parseString(myString)</code>, which effectively reverses the natural ordering.
In addition, under Dylan many interfaces can be defined for the same code, for instance the String.concat could be placed in both the String interface, and the "concat" interface which collects together all of the different concatenation functions from various classes. This is more commonly used in math libraries, where functions tend to be applicable to widely differing object types.
A more practical use of the interface construct is to build public and private versions of a module, something that other languages include as a "bolt on" feature that invariably causes problems and adds syntax. Under Dylan the programmer can simply place every function call in the "Private" or "Development" interface, and collect up publicly accessible functions in "Public". Under [[Java programming language|Java]] or [[C++]] the visibility of an object is defined in the code itself, meaning that to support a similar change the programmer would be forced to re-write the definitions completely, and could not have two versions at the same time.
==Classes==
Classes in Dylan describe "slots" (data members, fields, ivars, etc.) of objects in a fashion similar to most OO languages. All access to slots are via methods, a feature of most dynamic languages. Default getter and setter methods are automatically generated based on the slot names. In contrast with most other OO languages, other methods applicable to the class are often defined outside of the class, and thus class definitions in Dylan typically include the definition of the storage only. For instance:
<code>
define class <window> (<view>)
slot title :: <string> = "untitled", init-keyword: title:;
slot position :: <point>, required-init-keyword: position:;
end class;
</code>
In this example the class "<code>&lt;window&gt;</code>" is defined. The &lt;class name&gt; syntax is convention only, to make the class names stand out—the angle brackets are merely part of the class name. In comparison, in some languages the convention is to capitalize the first letter of the class name or to prefix the name with a "C" or "T" (for example). <code>&lt;window&gt;</code> inherits from a single class, <code>&lt;view&gt;</code>, and contains two slots, <code>title</code> holding a string for the window title, and <code>position</code> holding an X-Y point for the upper corner of the window. In this particular example the title has been given a default value, while the position has not. The optional "init-keyword" syntax allows the programmer to specify the initial value of the slot when instantiating an object of the class.
In languages such as C++ or Java, the class would also define its interface. In this case the definition above has no explicit instructions, so in both languages access to the slots and methods is considered <code>protected</code>, meaning they can be used only by subclasses. In order to allow unrelated code to use the window instances, they would have to be declared <code>public</code>.
In Dylan these sorts of visibility rules are not considered part of the code itself, but of the module/interface system. This adds considerable flexibility. For instance, one interface used during early development could declare everything public, whereas one used in testing and deployment could limit this. With C++ or Java these changes would require changes to the source code itself, so people won't do it, whereas in Dylan this is a completely unrelated concept.
Although this ex |
lish, he gave with a laugh his celebrated answer: "The thicker the hay, the easier mowed!" After much bargaining, the famine-stricken citizens agreed to pay a ransom of more than two thousand pounds in weight of gold, besides precious garments of [[silk]] and leather and three thousand pounds of [[black pepper|pepper]]. Thus ended Alaric's first siege of Rome.
At this time, and indeed throughout his career, Alaric's primary goal wasn't to pull down the fabric of the empire but to secure for himself, by negotiation with its rulers, a regular and recognized position within its borders. His demands were certainly large&mdash; the concession of a block of territory 200 miles long by 150 wide between the Danube and the Gulf of Venice (to be held probably on some terms of nominal dependence on the empire) and the title of commander-in-chief of the imperial army&mdash;but, great as these terms were, the emperor would probably have been well advised to grant them. Honorius, however, was one of those timid and feeble folk who are equally unable to make either war or peace, and refused to look beyond the question of his own personal safety, guaranteed as it was by the dikes and marshes of Ravenna. As all attempts to conduct a satisfactory negotiation with this emperor failed before his impenetrable stupidity, Alaric, after instituting a second siege and blockade of Rome in [[409]], came to terms with the senate. With their consent he set up a rival emperor and invested the prefect of the city, a Greek named [[Priscus Attalus]], with the diadem and the purple robe.
Attalus, however, proved quite unfit for his high position; he rejected the advice of Alaric and lost in consequence the [[Africa (province)|province of Africa]], the granary of Rome, which was defended by the partisans of Honorius. The weapon of famine, formerly in the hand of Alaric, was thus turned against him, and loud in consequence were the murmurs of the Roman populace. Honorius was also greatly strengthened by the arrival of six legions sent to his assistance from Constantinople by his nephew [[Theodosius II]].
Alaric therefore cashiered his puppet emperor, after the latter's eleven months of ineffectual rule, and once more tried to reopen negotiations with Honorius. These negotiations would probably have succeeded but for the malign influence of another Goth, [[Sarus]], the hereditary enemy of Alaric and his house. When Alaric found himself once more outwitted by the machinations of such a foe, he marched southward and began in deadly earnest his third, his ever-memorable siege of Rome. No defence apparently was possible; there are hints, not well substantiated, of treachery; there is greater probability of surprise. However this may be&mdash;for our information at this point of the story is meagre&mdash;on [[August 24]], [[410]], Alaric and his Visigoths burst in by the Salarian gate on the northeast of the city. She who had been mistress of the world now lay at the feet of foreign enemies.
But in their plundering of the city, the Visigoths weren't absolutely ruthless. The contemporary ecclesiastics recorded with wonder many instances of their clemency: Christian churches saved from ravage; protection granted to vast multitudes both of pagans and Christians who took refuge therein; vessels of gold and silver which were found in a private dwelling, spared because they "belonged to St. Peter"; at least one case in which a beautiful Roman matron appealed, not in vain, to the better feelings of the Gothic soldier who attempted her dishonor. But even these exceptional instances show that Rome wasn't entirely spared those scenes of horror which usually accompany the storming of a besieged city. Nonetheless, the written sources do not tell of any damage wrought by fire, save in the case of [[Sallust]]'s palace, which was situated close to the gate by which the Goths had made their entrance; nor is there any reason to attribute any extensive destruction of the buildings of the city to Alaric and his followers. The [[Basilica Aemilia]] in the [[Roman Forum]] did burn down, which perhaps can be attributed to Alaric, based on evidence from archaeologists: coins dating from 410 found melted in the floor.
[[Image:Death of Alaric.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The burial of Alaric in the bed of the [[Busento River]]. 1895 lithograph]]
His work being done, his fated task, and Alaric having penetrated to the city, nothing remained for him but to die. He marched southwards into [[Calabria]]. He desired to invade Africa, which on account of its corn crops was now the key of the position, but his ships were dashed to pieces by a storm in which many of his soldiers perished. He died in [[Cosenza]] soon after, probably of fever, at the early age of thirty-four, and his body was buried under the riverbed of the [[Busento]]. The stream was temporarily turned aside from its course while the grave was dug wherein the Gothic chief and some of his most precious spoils were interred; when the work was finished the river was turned back into its usual channel and the captives by whose hands the labor had been accomplished were put to death that none might learn their secret.
Alaric was succeeded in the command of the Gothic army by his brother-in-law, [[Ataulf]].
Our chief authorities for the career of Alaric are the historian [[Orosius]] and the poet [[Claudian]], both strictly contemporary; [[Zosimus]], a somewhat prejudiced pagan historian, who lived probably about half a century after the death of Alaric; and [[Jordanes]], a Goth who wrote the history of his nation in the year [[551]], basing his work on the earlier history of [[Cassiodorus]] (now lost), which was written about [[520]].
{{1911}}
See also: [[Alaric II]]
==External links==
*Edward Gibbon, ''History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/g43d/chapter30.html Chapter 30] and [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/g43d/chapter31.html Chapter 31].
{{start box}}
|width=25% align=center|'''Preceded by:'''<br>'''[[Visigoth#Kings_of_the_Visigoths|Early kings]]'''
|width=25% align=center|'''[[Visigoth#Kings_of_the_Visigoths|King of the Visigoths]]'''<br>395&ndash;410
|width=25% align=center|'''Succeeded by:'''<br>'''[[Ataulf]]'''
|-
{{end box}}
[[Category:370 births]]
[[Category:412 deaths]]
[[Category:Goths]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[Category:Late Antiquity]]
[[Category:Kings of the Visigoths]]
[[cs:Alarich I.]]
[[de:Alarich I.]]
[[es:Alarico I]]
[[eo:Alariko]]
[[fr:Alaric Ier]]
[[it:Alarico I]]
[[he:אלאריק הראשון]]
[[nl:Alarik]]
[[pl:Alaryk]]
[[pt:Alarico I]]
[[sl:Alarik I.]]
[[fi:Alarik]]
[[sv:Alarik I]]
[[zh:亚拉里克一世]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alaric II</title>
<id>1571</id>
<revision>
<id>36213855</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-22T12:55:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mvuijlst</username>
<id>72854</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alaric II''', also known as Alarik, Alarich, and ''Alarico'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] or ''Alaricus'' in [[Latin]] (d. [[507]]) succeeded his father [[Euric]] in [[485]] as king of the [[Visigoths]]. His dominions included not only the whole of [[Hispania]] except its north-western corner but also [[Aquitaine]] and the greater part of an as-yet undivided [[Gallia Narbonensis]].
In religion Alaric was an [[Arianism|Arian]], like all the early Visigothic nobles, but he greatly mitigated the persecuting policy of his father Euric toward the [[Catholicism|Catholics]] and authorized them to hold in [[506]] the council of [[Agde]]. He was on uneasy terms with the Catholic bishops of Arles as epitomized in the career of the Frankish [[Caesarius of Arles|Caesarius, bishop of Arles]], born at [[Châlons]] and appointed bishop in 503. Caesarius was suspected of conspiring with the [[Burgundians]] to turn over the Arelate to Burgundy, whose king had married the sister of [[Clovis I|Clovis]], so Alaric exiled him for a year safely at Bordeaux in Aquitaine before allowing him to return unharmed when the crisis had passed ([http://www.ccel.org/w/wace/biodict/htm/iii.iii.iv.htm Wace, ''Dictionary'']).
He displayed similar wisdom and liberality in political affairs by appointing a commission to prepare an abstract of the Roman laws and imperial decrees, which should form the authoritative code for his Roman subjects. This is generally known as the ''Breviarium Alaricianum'' or [[Breviary of Alaric]].
Alaric was of a peaceful disposition and endeavoured strictly to maintain the treaty which his father had concluded with the [[Franks]], whose king [[Clovis I]], however, desiring to obtain the Gothic province in Gaul, found a pretext for war in the Arianism of Alaric. The intervention of [[Theodoric the Great|Theodoric]], king of the [[Ostrogoths]] and father-in-law of Alaric, proved unavailing. The two armies met in [[507]] at the [[Battle of Vouillé]], near Poitiers, where the Goths were defeated and their king, who took to flight, was overtaken and slain, it is said, by Clovis himself.
His legitimate son [[Amalaric]] was still a child, so he was succeeded by his
illegitimate son, [[Gesalec]].
==External links==
==References==
*{{1911}}
*Edward Gibbon, [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/g43d/chapter38.html ''History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire''] Chapter 38
{{start box}}
|width=25% align=center|'''Preceded by:'''<br>'''[[Euric]]'''
|width=25% align=center|'''[[Visigoth#Kings_of_the_Visigoths|King of the Visigoths]]'''<br>485&ndash;507
|width=25% align=center|'''Succeeded by:'''<br>'''[[Gesalec]]'''
|-
{{end box}}
[[Category:507 deaths|Alaric]]
[[Category:Goths|Alaric]]
[[Category:History of Spain]]
[[Category:History of Portugal]]
[[Category:Spanish people]]
[[Category:Portuguese people]]
[[Category:Kings |
nt follows the principles of separation of power and its people elect a 101-member parliament every four years. Only Estonian citizens may participate in parliamentary elections. The Parliament chooses a president, who can be in office for a five year period for a maximum of two terms. The President is the Supreme Commander of the National Defence of Estonia. A party must gather 5% of the votes in order to become part of the Parliament. As a rule, the President asks the party leader who has collected the most votes to form the new government.
In the years shortly following the restoration of independence, there were dozens of parties to represent a population of only 1.3 million; at present 6–7 parties remain. The local authorities have developed in much the same direction. All permanent residents of voting age (18) may participate in local elections. Estonia does not have a state church, religious freedom is guaranteed by the constitution.
==Political developments since independence==
On [[June 28]], [[1992]], [[Estonia]]n voters approved the constitutional assembly's draft constitution and implementation act, which established a parliamentary government with a president as chief of state and with a government headed by a prime minister.
The [[Riigikogu]], a unicameral legislative body, is the highest organ of state authority. It initiates and approves legislation sponsored by the prime minister. The prime minister has full responsibility and control over his cabinet. Parliamentary and presidential elections were held on [[September 20]], [[1992]]. Approximately 68% of the country's 637,000 registered voters cast ballots. [[Lennart Meri]], an outstanding writer and former [[Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs|Minister of Foreign Affairs]], won this election and became [[President of Estonia|president]]. He chose 32-year-old historian and Christian Democratic Party founder [[Mart Laar]] as prime minister.
In February [[1992]], and with amendments in January [[1995]], the [[Riigikogu]] renewed Estonia's [[1938]] citizenship law, which also provides equal civil protection to resident aliens.
In [[1996]], Estonia ratified a border agreement with [[Latvia]] and completed work with [[Russia]] on a technical border agreement. President [[Lennart Meri|Meri]] was re-elected in free and fair indirect elections in August and September in [[1996]]. During parliamentary elections in [[1999]], the seats in [[Riigikogu]] were divided as follows: the [[Estonian Centre Party|Centre Party]] received 28, the [[Pro Patria Union (Estonia)|Pro Patria Union]] 18, the [[Estonian Reform Party|Reform Party]] 18, the People's Party Moderates (election cartel between Moderates and People's Party) 17, Coalition Party 7, Country People's Party (now [[People's Union of Estonia|People's Union]]) 7, United People's Party's electoral cartel 6 seats. Pro Patria Union, the Reform Party, and the Moderates formed a government with [[Mart Laar]] as prime minister whereas the Centre Party with the Coalition Party, People's Union, United People's Party, and Members of Parliament who were not members of factions formed the opposition in the [[Riigikogu]].
The Moderates joined with the People's Party on [[27 November]] [[1999]], forming the People's Party Moderates.
In fall [[2001]] [[Arnold Rüütel]] became the President of the Republic of Estonia. In January [[2002]] [[Mart Laar|Prime Minister Laar]] stepped down and [[Arnold Rüütel|President Rüütel]] appointed [[Siim Kallas]] the new prime minister. On [[January 28]], [[2002]] the new government was formed from a coalition with The Reform Party and the [[Estonian Centre Party|Centre Party]].
Following [[Estonian parliamentary election, 2003|parliamentary elections]] in [[2003]], the seats were allocated as follows: Centre 28, [[Union for the Republic - Res Publica|Res Publica]] 28, the Reform Party 19, the People's Union 13, the Pro Patria Union 7 and the Moderates 6 seats. The United People's Party failed to meet the 5% threshold. Res Publica, the Reform Party and the Peoples Union formed the government. From this coalition President Rüütel chose the leader of the Res Publica party, [[Juhan Parts]], to form a government.
On [[14 September]] [[2003]], following negotiations that began in [[1998]], the citizens of Estonia were asked in a referendum whether or not they wished to join the [[European Union]]. With 64% of the electorate turning out the referendum passed with a 66.83% margin in favor, 33.17% against. Accession to the EU took place on [[1 May]] of the following year.
In February [[2004]] the People's Party Moderates renamed themselves as [[Sotsiaaldemokraatlik Erakond|Social Democratic Party of Estonia]].
On the [[8th May]], [[2004]], a defection of several Centre Party members to form a new party, the Social Liberal Party, over a row concerning the Centrists' "no" stance to joining the European Union changed the allocation of the seats in Riigikogu. Social-liberals had 8 seats, but a hope to form a new party disappeared by the [[10th May]] [[2005]], because most members in the social-liberal group joined other parties.
On [[24 March]] Prime Minister [[Juhan Parts]] announced his resignation following a vote of [[no confidence]] in the Riigikogu against [[Estonian Minister of Justice|Minister of Justice]] [[Ken-Marti Vaher]], which was held on the [[21 March]]. Result: 54 pro (Social Democrats, Social Liberals, People's Union, Pro Patria Union and Reform Party) without no against or neutral MPs. 32 MPs (Res Publica and Centre Party) didn't take part.
On [[4 April]] [[2005]], President Rüütel nominated Reform party leader [[Andrus Ansip]] as Prime Minister designate by and asked him to form a new government, the 8th in 12 years. Ansip formed a government out of a coalition of his Reform Party with the People’s Union and the Centre Party. Approval by the Riigikogu, which by law must decide within 14 days of his nomination, came on [[12 April]] [[2005]]. Ansip was backed by 53 out of 101 members of the Estonian parliament. Forty deputies voted against his candidature.
The general consensus in the Estonian media seems to be that the new cabinet, on the level of competence, is not necessarily an improvement over the old one. The new government is colloquially called the [[Andrus Ansip's cabinet|"Garlic Coalition"]], because the agreement between the party leaders was reached at the Tallinn restaurant [http://www.restaurant.ee/Balthasar/index.php?lang=eng&rid=1 "Balthasar"], which specialises in garlic dishes.
On [[18 May]], [[2005]], Estonia signed a border agreement with the Russian Federation in Moscow. The agreement was ratified by the Riigikogu on [[20 June]], [[2005]]. However, in the end of June the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs decided to nullify the agreement one-sidedly due to the fact that Riigikogu had attached a preambula to the agreement mentioning the Soviet occupation. The issue remains unsolved and is in focus of European level discussions.
[[Internet voting]] has already been used in local elections in Estonia, and the lawmakers in Estonia have authorized internet voting for parliamentary elections as well. [http://news.com.com/Estonia+pulls+off+nationwide+Net+voting/2100-1028_3-5898115.html (see COM)].
==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|[[President of Estonia|President]]
|[[Arnold Rüütel]]
|[[People's Union of Estonia|ERL]]
|[[8 October 2001]]
|-
|[[Prime Minister of Estonia|Prime Minister]]
|[[Andrus Ansip]]
|[[Estonian Reform Party|ER]]
|[[31 March]] [[2005]]
|-
|Coalition partners
|
|[[Estonian Centre Party|Kesk]], [[People's Union of Estonia|ERL]]
|
|}
The [[President of Estonia]] is elected by [[Parliament of Estonia|Parliament]] (''Riigikogu'') for a five-year term; if he or she does not secure two-thirds of the votes after three rounds of balloting, then an electoral assembly (made up of Parliament plus members of local governments) elects the president, choosing between the two candidates with the largest percentage of votes.
The [[Prime Minister of Estonia]] (''[[Estonian language|Estonian]]: Eesti Vabariigi Peaminister'') is the [[head of government]] of the [[Republic of Estonia]]. The prime minister is chosen by the [[President of Estonia|President]] and conferred by Parliament. This is usually the leader of the largest party or coalition in the Parliament.
The activity of the government is directed by the Prime Minister, who is the actual political head of state. He does not head any specific ministry, but is, in accordance with the [[Constitution of Estonia|constitution]], the supervisor of the work of the government. The Prime Minister’s significance and role in the government and his relations with other ministries often depend on the position of the party led by the prime minister in vis-à-vis the coalition partners, and on how much influence the prime minister possesses within his own party. If the prime minister has a strong position within his party, and the government is made up solely of representatives of that party, he can enjoy considerable authority. In all crucial national questions, however, the final word rests with Riigikogu as the legislative power.
==Legislative branch==
The [[Riigikogu|State Council]] (''Riigikogu'') has 101 members, elected for a four year term by [[proportional representation]].
==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Estonia|Elections in Estonia}}
{{main|Estonian parliamentary election, 2003}}
{{Estonian parliamentary election, 2003}}
==Judicial branch==
The supreme [[judiciary]] court is the National Court or ''Riigikohus'', with 19 justices whose chairman is appointed by the parliament for life on nomination by the president.
==Administrative divisions==
{{main|Counties of Estonia}}
Estonia numbers 15 main administrative subdivisions. Due to the geographical and demographic size of these subdivisions, they are to be co |
scourse in her article ''Feminist Self-Fashioning: Christine de Pizan and The Treasure of the City of Ladies'' (in The European Journal of Women’s Studies, 1999).
*Karlyn Kohrs Campbell presents an interesting argument about de Pizan’s ability to create a female-oriented dialogue in her lecture ''Three Tall Women: Radical Challenges to Criticism, Pedagogy, and Theory'' (The Carroll C. Arnold Distinguished Lecture, National Communication Association, 2001).
*Refer to ''The Rhetorical Tradition'' (ed. Patricia Bizzell and Bruce Herzberg, 2001) and ''The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism'' (ed. Vincent B. Leitch, 2001) for some commentary on de Pizan’s life, literary works, rhetorical contributions and other relevant sources that one may find useful.
==See also==
*[[Isabeau of Bavaria]]
*[[Joan of Arc]]
*[[List of French language poets]]
*[[Vernacular literature]]
*[[Women's history]]
==External links==
* {{gutenberg author| id=Christine+de+Pisan | name=Christine de Pizan}}
* [http://www.arlima.net/ad/christine_de_pizan.html A complete bibliography of her works, including listings of the manuscripts, editions, translations, and essays.] '''in French''' at [http://www.arlima.net Archives de littérature du Moyen Âge (Arlima)]
[[category:1364 births|De Pizan, Christine]]
[[category:1430 deaths|De Pizan, Christine]][[Category:Natives of Venice
[[Category:French poets|De Pizan, Christine]]
[[Category:Medieval literature|De Pizan, Christine]]
[[Category:Feminism|De Pizan, Christine]]
[[Category:Rhetoricians|De Pizan, Christine]]
[[Category:Women writers|De Pizan, Christine]]
[[da:Christine de Pizan]]
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[[sv:Christine de Pisan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cathar</title>
<id>7630</id>
<revision>
<id>41867923</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T06:20:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Piercetp</username>
<id>861508</id>
</contributor>
<comment>add link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Albigensians}}
:''This article is about a religious movement called "Catharism", for the information on a [[Star Wars]] race under the same name, see the [[list of Star Wars races#Cathar|list of Star Wars races]].
[[Image:cathars_expelled.JPG|right|framed|Cathars being expelled from [[Carcassonne]] in 1209.]]
'''Catharism''' was a [[Dualism|Dualist]] [[religion|religious]] movement with Gnostic elements that originated around the middle of the [[10th century|10<sup>th</sup> century]], branded by the contemporary [[Roman Catholic Church]] either as a [[heresy|heretical]] Christian sect or sometimes as a non-Christian religion. It existed throughout much of [[Western Europe]], but its home was in [[Languedoc]] and surrounding areas in southern [[France]].
The name ''Cathar'' most likely originated from [[Greek language|Greek]] <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'">καθαροί</span>, "pure ones". One of the first recorded uses is [[Eckbert von Schönau]], who wrote on heretics from Cologne in 1181: "Hos nostra germania catharos appellat" ("In Germany we call these people Cathars").
The Cathars were also sometimes labelled '''[[Albigensians]]'''. This name originates from the end of the [[12th century|12<sup>th</sup> century]], and was used by the chronicler [[Geoffroy du Breuil of Vigeois]] in 1181. The name refers to the southern town of [[Albi]] (the ancient Albiga). The designation is hardly exact, for the centre was at [[Toulouse]] and in the neighbouring districts.
==Origins==
The beliefs came originally from [[Eastern Europe]] by way of [[trade route]]s. The name of [[Bulgarians]] (Bougres) was also applied to the Albigenses, and they maintained an association with the [[Paulicians]] and [[Bogomils]] of [[Thrace]]. Their doctrines have numerous resemblances to those of the Bogomils and [[Paulicians]]. It is difficult to form any precise idea of the Cathar doctrines, as all the existing knowledge of them is derived from their opponents, and the few texts from the Cathars (the ''Rituel Cathare de Lyon'' and the ''Nouveau Testament en Provencal'') contain very little information concerning their beliefs and moral practices. What is certain is that they formed an anti-[[priest|sacerdotal]] party in opposition to the Catholic Church, and raised a continued protest against perceived corruption of the clergy. The Cathar heretical theologians, called ''Cathari'' or ''perfecti'' by the Catholic Church, were known to themselves, their followers and even their co-citizens as "''bons hommes''" or "''bons chrétiens''", literally "good men" or "good Christians", were few in number; the mass of believers (''credentes'') were not initiated into the doctrine at all&mdash;they were allegedly freed from all moral prohibition and all religious obligation, on condition that they promised by an act called ''convenenza'' to become "hereticized" by receiving the ''[[consolamentum]]'', the baptism of the Spirit, before their death.
The first Occitan Cathars appeared in [[Limousin]] between 1012 and 1020. Several were discovered and put to death at [[Toulouse]] in 1022. The synods of Charroux (Vienne) (1028) and Toulouse (1056) condemned the growing sect. Preachers were summoned to the districts of the Agenais and the Toulousain to combat the Cathar doctrine in the 1100s. The Cathars, however, gained ground in the south thanks to the protection given by William, Duke of [[Aquitaine]], and a significant proportion of the southern nobility. The people were impressed by the ''bons hommes'', and the anti-sacerdotal preaching of [[Peter of Bruys]] and [[Henry of Lausanne]] in [[Périgord]].
==Beliefs==
===The human condition===
The Cathars proclaimed there existed within humankind a spark of divine light. This light, or spirit, had fallen into captivity within a realm of corruption &mdash; identified with the material world. This was a distinct feature of classical [[Gnosticism]], of [[Manichaeism]] and of the theology of the Bogomils. This concept of the human condition within Catharism most probably was due to direct and indirect historical influences from these older (and sometimes also violently suppressed) Gnostic movements. According to the Cathars, the world had been created by a lesser deity, much like the figure known in classical Gnostic myth as the [[Demiurge]]. This creative force was not the "True God", though he made pretense of being the "one and only God" before whom was no other. The Cathars identified this lesser deity, the Demiurge, with the being known by the name of [[Satan]]. (It should be noted that most forms of classical Gnosticism had not made this explicit link between the Demiurge and Satan). Essentially, the Cathars proclaimed that the God worshipped by orthodox Christianity was an imposter, and his church was a corrupt abomination deeply infused by the failings of the material realm. Spirit &mdash; the vital essence of humanity &mdash; was thus trapped in a flawed physical realm created by a usurper and ruled by his corrupt minions.
===Eschatology===
The goal of Cathar eschatology was liberation from the realm of limitation and corruption identified with material existence. The path to liberation first required an awakening to the intrinsic corruption of the medieval "consensus reality", including its ecclesiastical, dogmatic, and social structures. Once cognizant of the grim existential reality of human existence (the "prison" of matter), the path to spiritual liberation became obvious: matter's enslaving bonds must be broken. This was a step by step process, accomplished in different measures by each individual. The Cathars apparently recognized the potential of [[reincarnation]]. Those who were unable to achieve liberation during their current mortal journey would return later to continue the struggle. Thus it should be understood that reincarnation was neither a necessary nor a desirable event, but resultant of the fact that not all humans could break the enthralling chains of matter within a single lifetime.
===Consolamentum===
Cathar society was divided into two general categories, the ''Perfecti'' (Perfects, Parfaits) and the ''Credentes'' (Believers). The Perfecti were the core of the movement, though the actual number of Perfecti in Cathar society was always relatively small, numbering at most a few thousand during any given period. Regardless of their number, they represented the perpetuating heart of the Cathar tradition, the "true Christian Church". (When discussing the tenets of Cathar faith it must be understood that absolute demands of exteme asceticism fell only upon the Perfecti.)
An individual entered into the community of Perfecti through a ritual known as the [[consolamentum]], a rite that was both sacramental and sacerdotal in nature: sacramental in that it granted redemption and liberation from this world; sacerdotal in that those who had received this rite functioned as the Cathar clergy. Upon reception of the consolamentum, the new Perfectus surrendered his or her worldly goods to the community, vested himself in a simple black robe with cord belt, and undertook a life dedicated to following the example of Christ and His Apostles &mdash; an often peripatetic life of purity, prayer, preaching, charitable work, and total dependence upon alms for material sustanence. Above all, the Perfecti were dedicated to helping others find the road that led from a dark land ruled by a dark lord, to the realm of light that they believed to be humankind's first source and ultimate end.
The perceived goodness of the men and women who were Perfecti was widely witnessed in their own time and land, a |
Czech Republic|president]], indirectly elected every five years by the parliament. The president is also granted specific powers such as the right to nominate Constitutional Court judges, dissolve parliament under certain conditions, complete immunity, and enact a veto on legislation. He also appoints the [[Prime Minister of the Czech Republic|prime minister]], who sets the agenda for most foreign and domestic policy, as well the other members of the [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]] on a proposal by the prime minister.
The Czech [[parliament]] (''Parlament'') is [[Bicameralism|bicameral]], with a Chamber of Deputies (''Poslanecká sněmovna'') and a Senate (''Senát''). The 200 Chamber delegates are elected for 4-year terms, on the basis of [[proportional representation]]. The 81 members of the Czech Senate serve for 6-year terms with one-third being elected every 2 years on the basis of two-round majority voting.
The country's highest court of appeals is the Supreme Court. The Constitutional Court, which rules on constitutional issues, is appointed by the president, and its members serve 10-year terms.
== Military ==
{{Military
| color=#8888dd
| age=18 years of age
| availability=2,414,728 (2005 est.)
| service=1,996,631 (2005 est.)
| reaching age=66,583 (2005 est.)
| active=
| amount= $2.17 billion (2004)
| percent GDP= 1.81% (2005)
}}
The Czech Armed Forces ([[Czech Language|Czech]]: ''Armáda České republiky'') consists of Land and [[Czech Air Force|Air Forces]] and of specialized support units. Being a member of [[NATO]] since [[1999]], the [[Czech Republic]] completes a major overhaul of the extensive [[Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovak]] armed forces which until [[1989]] formed one of the pillars of the [[Warsaw Pact]] military alliance. Czech forces have been gradually downsized from 200,000 to 35,000 and at the same time modernized and reoriented toward defensive posture. In the year [[2004]] the army was transformed into a fully professional organization and compulsory military service was ended.
The structure of the Armed Forces of the Czech Republic is as follows:
*The Army
**Joint Forces
***Joint Forces Command
***Land Forces
***[[Czech Air Force|Air Force]]
***Joint Forces Support Units
**Support and Training Forces
*The Military Office of President of the Republic
*The [[Prague Castle|Castle]] Guard
== Regions ==
''Main article: [[Regions of the Czech Republic]]
The Czech Republic consists of 13 regions (''kraje'', singular - ''kraj'') and one capital city (''hlavní město''), marked by a *:
[[Image:Regions of Czech Republic.png|center|Map of the Czech Republic with colored regions]]
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!width="25"|
!Region!!Capital
|-
|bgcolor="#FFFFFF"|
|[[Prague]]* (Praha)||&nbsp;
|-
|bgcolor="#0000CC"|
|[[Central Bohemian Region]] (St&#345;edo&#269;eský kraj)||its offices are located in [[Prague]] (Praha)
|-
|bgcolor="#00CC00"|
|[[South Bohemian Region]] (Jiho&#269;eský kraj)||[[&#268;eské Bud&#283;jovice]]
|-
|bgcolor="#CC00CC"|
|[[Plze&#328; Region]] (Plze&#328;ský kraj)||[[Plze&#328;]]
|-
|bgcolor="#CCCCCC"|
|[[Carlsbad Region]] (Karlovarský kraj)||[[Karlovy Vary]] (Carlsbad)
|-
|bgcolor="#CC9900"|
|[[Ústí nad Labem Region]] (Ústecký kraj)||[[Ústí nad Labem]]
|-
|bgcolor="#666666"|
|[[Liberec Region]] (Liberecký kraj)||[[Liberec]]
|-
|bgcolor="#00FFCC"|
|[[Hradec Králové Region]] (Královéhradecký kraj)||[[Hradec Králové]]
|-
|bgcolor="#FFFF99"|
|[[Pardubice Region]] (Pardubický kraj)||[[Pardubice]]
|-
|bgcolor="#660066"|
|[[Olomouc Region]] (Olomoucký kraj)||[[Olomouc]]
|-
|bgcolor="#009900"|
|[[Moravian-Silesian Region]] (Moravskoslezský kraj)||[[Ostrava]]
|-
|bgcolor="#6C3306"|
|[[South Moravian Region]] (Jihomoravský kraj)||[[Brno]]
|-
|bgcolor="#00CCFF"|
|[[Zlín Region]] (Zlínský kraj)||[[Zlín]]
|-
|bgcolor="#CC0000"|
|[[Vyso&#269;ina Region]] (Vyso&#269;ina)||[[Jihlava]]
|}
== Geography ==
''Main article: [[Geography of the Czech Republic]]''
[[Image:Ez-map.png|thumb|Map of the Czech Republic]]
The Czech landscape is quite varied; [[Bohemia]] to the west consists of a basin, drained by the [[Elbe]] ([[Czech language|Czech]]: ''Labe'') and [[Vltava]] rivers, surrounded by mostly low mountains such as the [[Sudeten]] with its part [[Krkonoše]], where one also finds the highest point in the country, the [[Sněžka]] at 1,602 [[metre]]s (5,256&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]).
[[Moravia]], the eastern part, is also quite hilly and is drained predominantly by the [[Morava river, Central Europe|Morava]] river, but also contains the source of the [[Oder]] ([[Czech language|Czech]]: ''Odra'') river. Water from the landlocked Czech Republic flows to three different seas: the [[North Sea]], [[Baltic Sea]] and [[Black Sea]].
The local [[climate]] is [[temperate climate|temperate]] with warm summers and cold, cloudy, humid winters, typified by a mixture of maritime and continental influences.
== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of the Czech Republic]]''
One of the most stable and prosperous of the post-Communist states, the Czech Republic has been recovering from recession since mid-1999. Growth in [[2000]]-[[2001]] was led by exports to the [[EU]], especially [[Germany]], and foreign investment, while domestic demand is reviving.
The rate of corruption remains one of the highest among [[OECD]] countries.
Uncomfortably high fiscal and current account deficits could be future problems.
Moves to complete [[banking]], [[telecommunication]]s, and energy [[privatisation]] will add to foreign investment, while intensified restructuring among large enterprises and banks and improvements in the financial sector should strengthen output growth.
The Czech government has expressed a desire to adopt the [[euro]] currency in 2010, but the introduction of the currency is currently only in the early planning stages.
== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of the Czech Republic]]''
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 90%; float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;"
! colspan="6" | Population of the Czech lands <small> (CSU, Prague) </small>
|-
! Year !! Total !! Change
! Year !! Total !! Change
|-
! [[1857]]
| 7,016,531
| -
! [[1930]]
| 10,674,386
| 6.6%
|-
! [[1869]]
| 7,617,230
| 8.6%
! [[1950]]
| 8,896,133
| -16.7%
|-
! [[1880]]
| 8,222,013
| 7.9%
! [[1961]]
| 9,571,531
| 7.6%
|-
! [[1890]]
| 8,665,421
| 5.4%
! [[1970]]
| 9,807,697
| 2.5%
|-
! [[1900]]
| 9,372,214
| 8.2%
! [[1980]]
| 10,291,927
| 4.9%
|-
! [[1910]]
| 10,078,637
| 7.5%
! [[1991]]
| 10,302,215
| 0.1%
|-
! [[1921]]
| 10,009,587
| -0.7%
! [[2001]]
| 10,230,060
| -0.7%
|}
The majority of the inhabitants of the Czech Republic (95%) are ethnically [[Czechs|Czech]] and speak [[Czech language|Czech]], a member of the [[Slavic languages]]. Other ethnic groups include [[Slovaks|Slovaks]], [[ethnic German|Germans]], [[Roma and Sinti|Roma]], [[Magyars|Hungarians]], [[Ukrainians]] and [[Poles]]. After the [[1993]] division, some [[Slovaks]] remained in the Czech Republic and comprise roughly 2% of the current population.
== Religion ==
Despite the very visible presence of [[cathedral]]s and church buildings all over the country, the majority of Czechs (59%) are [[agnostics]] or [[atheism|atheists]] or without any dogmatic organization of belief, mostly as a consequence of the anti-religious policy during the communist era. Significant religious groups include [[Roman Catholics]] (27%), [[Protestants]] (1.2%), and Czechoslovak [[Hussites]] (1%).
== Culture ==
* [[Cinema of the Czech Republic]]
* [[Famous Czech People]]
* [[Literature of the Czech Republic]]
* [[Music of the Czech Republic]]
* [[National Theatre (Prague)]]
* [[Ceska televize|Czech TV]]
* [[Czech cuisine]]
== International rankings ==
* [[Human Development Index]] 2003: Rank 31st out of 177 countries.
* [[Index of Economic Freedom]] 2005: Rank 33rd out of 155 countries.
* [[Reporters Without Borders]] world-wide press freedom index 2005: Rank 9th out of 167 countries.
== Miscellaneous topics ==
{{sisterlinks|Czech Republic}}
* [[Communications in the Czech Republic]]
* [[Foreign relations of the Czech Republic]]
* [[Economy of the Czech Republic]]
* [[Junák]]
* [[List of cities in the Czech Republic]]
* [[List of postal codes in the Czech Republic]]
* [[List of Czech Republic-related topics]]
* [[Military of the Czech Republic]]
* [[Public holidays in the Czech Republic]]
* [[Tourism in the Czech Republic]]
* [[Transportation in the Czech Republic]]
* [[Spa towns in the Czech Republic]]
==Reference==
*''Much of the material in these articles comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''
== External links ==
* [http://www.psp.cz/cgi-bin/eng Chamber of Deputies website], in English
* [http://www.ceskenoviny.cz/news/ Czech Press Agency news in English]
* [http://www.czechtourism.com/index.php?lang=3 CzechTourism] - governmental agency aimed at promoting tourism in the Czech Republic
* [http://wtd.vlada.cz/eng/aktuality.htm Government website], in English
* [http://www.Czech.cz/ Official Czech portal]
* [http://portal.gov.cz/wps/portal/_s.155/5906?lng=en Portal of the Public Administration of Czech Republic]
* [http://www.slackertravel.com/pictures/Czech_Republic/czechrepublic.html Pictures of the Czech Republic] - from slackertravel.com
* [http://www.praguemonitor.com/ Prague Daily Monitor] - Czech news in English
* [http://www.praguepost.com/ Prague Post] - English-language newsweekly
* [http://www.hrad.cz/en/ Presidential website], click for a pop-up overview of English-language content
* [http://radio.cz/en/ Radio Prague] - website of the English service of Czech Radio
* [http://www.senat.cz/index-eng.php Senate website], in English
* [http://www.czechforum.net Czech F |
specified in the AES standard.</div>
* <div id=keysize> Key sizes of 128, 160, 192, 224, and 256 bits are supported by The Rijndael algorithm, but only the 128, 192, and 256 bit key sizes are specified in the AES standard.</div>
==References==
* Nicolas Courtois, Josef Pieprzyk, "Cryptanalysis of Block Ciphers with Overdefined Systems of Equations". pp267&ndash;287, ASIACRYPT 2002.
* Joan Daemen and Vincent Rijmen, "The Design of Rijndael: AES - The Advanced Encryption Standard." Springer-Verlag, 2002. ISBN 3540425802.
* {{note|improved}} [[Niels Ferguson]], [[John Kelsey]], [[Stefan Lucks]], [[Bruce Schneier]], [[Mike Stay]], [[David Wagner]], and [[Doug Whiting]], ''Improved Cryptanalysis of Rijndael'', [[Fast Software Encryption]], 2000 pp213&ndash;230 [http://www.schneier.com/paper-rijndael.html]
[[Category:Block ciphers]]
[[Category:Type 1 encryption algorithms]]
[[Category:Free ciphers]]
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[[sv:Advanced Encryption Standard]]
[[tr:AES]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>April 26</title>
<id>1261</id>
<revision>
<id>41491787</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T18:55:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>PFHLai</username>
<id>63672</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Events */ + * [[1805]] - '''[[United States Marines]]''' captured '''[[Derne, Tripoli]]''' under the command of '''[[First Lieutenant Presley N. O'Bannon]]'''. Moved from the SelAnniv template</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Language links at bottom -->
{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=26}}
|}
'''[[April 26]]''' is the 116th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (117th in [[leap year]]s). There are 249 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1478]] - The [[Pazzi]] attack [[Lorenzo de' Medici]] and kill his brother [[Giuliano di Piero de' Medici|Giuliano]] during High Mass in the [[Florence]] Cathedral.
*[[1607]] - [[England|English]] colonists of the [[Jamestown settlement]] make landfall at [[Cape Henry]], [[Virginia]].
*[[1802]] - A general amnesty signed by [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] allowed all but about one thousand of the most notorious [[émigré]]s of the [[French Revolution]] to return to [[France]], as part of a reconciliary gesture to make peace with the various factions of the [[Ancien Regime]] that would ultimately consolidate his own rule.
* [[1805]] - [[United States Marines]] captured [[Derne, Tripoli]] under the command of First Lieutenant [[Presley N. O'Bannon]].
*[[1865]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] General [[Joseph Johnston]] surrenders his army to General [[William Tecumseh Sherman]] at the [[Bennett Place]] near [[Durham, North Carolina]].
*[[1865]] - Union cavalry troopers corner [[John Wilkes Booth]], [[Abraham Lincoln|President Lincoln]]'s assassin, in a [[Barn (building)|barn]] in [[Virginia]]. Booth is shot dead by cavalryman [[Boston Corbett]].
*[[1925]] - [[Paul von Hindenburg]] defeats [[Wilhelm Marx]] in the second round of the [[German presidential election, 1925|German presidential election]] to become the first directly elected [[Reichspräsident]], the [[head of state]] of the [[Weimar Republic]].
*[[1933]] - The [[Gestapo]], the official [[secret police|secret police force]] of [[Nazi Germany]], is established.
*[[1937]] - [[Spanish Civil War]]: [[Guernica]], [[Spain]] is bombed by [[Germany|German]] [[Luftwaffe]].
*[[1942]] - The worst-ever mining accident in history kills 1,549 [[miner]]s in an [[explosion]] at the [[Honkeiko Colliery]], [[Manchuria]].
*[[1946]] - [[Father Divine]], a controversial religious leader who claims to be [[God]], marries the much-younger [[Edna Rose Ritchings]], a celebrated anniversary in the [[International Peace Mission movement]].
*[[1954]] - The [[Geneva Conference (1954)|Geneva Conference]], an effort to restore peace in [[Indochina]] and [[Korea]], begins.
*[[1962]] - [[NASA]]'s [[Ranger 4]] spacecraft crashes into the [[Moon]].
*[[1964]] - [[Tanganyika]] and [[Zanzibar]] merge to form [[Tanzania]].
*[[1986]] - In [[Ukraine]], a nuclear reactor at the [[Chernobyl]] [[nuclear plant]] [[Chernobyl accident|explodes]], creating the world's worst [[nuclear disaster]].
*[[1991]] - Seventy tornadoes break out in the central [[United States]]. Before its end, [[Andover, Kansas]], would record the year's only [[Fujita scale|F5]] tornado (see [[Andover, Kansas Tornado Outbreak]]).
*[[1994]] - [[South Africa]] holds its first multiracial elections.
*[[1994]] - A [[China Airlines]] [[Airbus A-300]]-600R crashes at [[Nagoya Airport]], [[Japan]] killing 264.
*[[2002]] - 19-year-old Robert Steinhäuser [[Erfurt_massacre|shoots and kills 17 people]] at his school in Erfurt, [[Germany]].
*[[2005]] - Under international pressure, [[Syria]] withdraws the last of its 14,000 troop military garrison in [[Lebanon]], ending its 29-year military domination of that country.
*[[2005]] - [[Setanta Sports]] launches a US television channel on [[DirecTV]].
==Births==
*[[121]] - [[Marcus Aurelius]], [[Roman Emperor]] (d. [[180]])
*[[1538]] - [[Gian Paolo Lomazzo]], Italian painter (d. [[1600]])
*[[1573]] - [[Marie de' Medici]], queen of [[Henry IV of France]] (d. [[1642]])
*[[1564]] (baptized) - [[William Shakespeare]], English writer (d. [[1616]])
*[[1648]] - King [[Peter II of Portugal]] (d. [[1706]])
*[[1710]] - [[Thomas Reid]], Scottish philosopher (d. [[1796]])
*[[1711]] - [[David Hume]], Scottish philosopher and historian (d. [[1776]])
*[[1718]] - [[Esek Hopkins]], American Revolutionary War admiral (d. [[1802]])
*[[1765]] - [[Emma, Lady Hamilton]], English mistress of [[Horatio Nelson]] (d. [[1815]])
*[[1774]] - [[Christian Leopold von Buch]], German geologist (d. [[1853]])
*[[1785]] - [[John James Audubon]], French-American naturalist and illustrator (d. [[1851]])
*[[1787]] - [[Ludwig Uhland]], German poet (d. [[1862]])
*[[1798]] - [[James Beckwourth]], American explorer (d. [[1867]])
*1798 - [[Eugène Delacroix]], French painter (d. [[1863]])
*[[1812]] - [[Alfred Krupp]], German industrialist (d. [[1887]])
*[[1822]] - [[Frederick Law Olmsted]], American landscape architect (d. [[1903]])
*[[1826]] - [[George Hull Ward]], American general (d. [[1863]])
*[[1826]] - [[Ambrose R. Wright]], American Civil War General (d. [[1872]]
*[[1879]] - [[Owen Willans Richardson]], British physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1959]])
*[[1886]] - [[Ma Rainey]], American singer (d. [[1939]])
*[[1888]] - [[Anita Loos]], American writer (d. [[1981]])
*[[1889]] - [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], Austrian-born philosopher (d. [[1951]])
*[[1894]] - [[Rudolf Hess]], Nazi official (d. [[1987]])
*[[1896]] - [[Ernst Udet]], German World War II pilot (d. [[1941]])
*[[1897]] - [[Eddie Eagan]], American sportsman (d. [[1967]])
*1897 - [[Douglas Sirk]], German-born film director (d. [[1987]])
*[[1898]] - [[Vicente Aleixandre]], Spanish writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1984]])
*1898 - [[John Grierson]], Scottish filmmaker (d. [[1972]])
*[[1900]] - [[Charles Richter]], American geophysicist and inventor (d. [[1985]])
*[[1911]] - [[Marianne Hoppe]], German actress (d. [[2002]])
*[[1912]] - [[A. E. van Vogt]], Canadian writer (d. [[2000]])
*[[1914]] - [[Bernard Malamud]], American author (d. [[1986]])
*1914 - [[James W. Rouse]], American real estate investor, activist, and philanthropist (d. [[1996]])
*[[1916]] - [[Morris West]], Australian writer (d. [[1999]])
*[[1917]] - [[I.M. Pei]], Chinese-born architect
*[[1918]] - [[Fanny Blankers-Koen]], Dutch athlete (d. [[2004]])
*1918 - [[Stafford Repp]] American actor (d. [[1974]])
*[[1925]] - [[Jørgen Ingmann]], Danish musician (d. [[1990]])
*[[1926]] - [[Michael Mathias Prechtl]], German illustrator (d. [[2003]])
*[[1932]] - [[Michael Smith (chemist)|Michael Smith]], English-born chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[2000]])
*[[1933]] - [[Carol Burnett]], American singer, actress, and comedian
*1933 - [[Arno Allan Penzias]], German-born physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1934]] - [[Alan Arkin]], American actor
*[[1936]] - [[Lane Smith]], American actor
*[[1938]] - [[Duane Eddy]], American musician
*[[1940]] - [[Giorgio Moroder]], German composer
*[[1942]] - [[Claudine Auger]], French actress
*1942 - [[Michael Kergin]], Canadian diplomat
*1942 - [[Bobby Rydell]], American singer
*[[1943]] - [[Gary Wright]], American singer
*1943 - [[Peter Zumthor]], Swiss architect
*[[1946]] - [[Vladimir Zhirinovsky]], Russian politician
*[[1949]] - [[Carlos Bianchi]], Argetinian football coach and player
*[[1956]] - [[Koo Stark]], American actress
*[[1958]] - [[Jeffrey Guterman]], American mental health counselor
*[[1960]] - [[Roger Andrew Taylor|Roger Taylor]], English musician ([[Duran Duran]])
*[[1961]] - [[Joan Chen]], Chinese-born actress
*[[1963]] - [[Jet Li]], Chinese martial artist and actor
*[[1965]] - [[Kevin James]], American comedian and actor
*[[1967]] - [[Glen Jacobs]], American professional wrestler
*[[1970]] - [[Tionne Watkins]], American singer ([[TLC]])
*[[1973]] - [[Chris Perry (footballer)|Chris Perry]], English footballer
*[[1975]] - [[Joey Jordison]], American musician ([[Slipknot (band)|Slipknot]])
*[[1976]] - [[Jose Pasillas]], American musician ([[Incubus (band)|Incubus]])
*[[1977]] - [[Tom Welling]], American actor
*[[1980]] - [[Jordana Brewster]], American actress
*[[1982]] - [[Joanne Gobure]], Nauruan poet
*[[1983]] - [[Jessica Lynch]], American P.O.W. captured and rescued in Iraq in 2003
*[[1984]] - [[Mija Martina] |
e uh dee yay yo
|-
|generic toast
|건배!<br>위하여!
|geonbae<br>wihayeo
|{{IPA|[kʌnbɛ]}}<br>{{IPA|[wihajʌ]}}
|gun beh<br>wee hah yuh
|-
|Do you speak English?
|영어 할 줄 아세요?
|yeongeo hal jul aseyo
|{{IPA|[jʌŋʌ halʨ͈ul asejo]}}
|young uh hahl jool ah say yo
|}
==[[Belizean Kriol language|Kriol (Belizean)]] Creole, English based, Atlantic, Western==
*Kriol:
*My name is... ''I naym...'' (or) ''Mee naym...''
*What is your name? ''Weh yu naym?''
*What's up? Hello (informal) ''Weh di go aan?''
*Good morning. ''Good maanin.''
*How are you? ''Wassup wid yu?''
*Fine, thank you. ''I Aarait mein.''
*How much does this cost? ''Humoch dis kaas?''
*What time is it? ''Weh taim now?''
*I've had a wonderful time. ''I mi have wahn good taim.''
*It doesn't matter. ''Ih noh mata.''
*Is that so? ''Fu chroo?''
*good-bye: "Lata"
*please:""
*thank you:""
*that one: "Da one deh"
*yes: "yeah"
*no:""
*I don't know: "Me nuh know"
*Sorry:""
*I don't understand: "I nuh understand"
*See you tomorrow: "We wah link up tommorrow"
*What is it?: "Weh dis"
*Where am I?: "Weh I deh"
== [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] ([[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | Pronunciation
|- valign=top
|-
|Kurdish || '''Kurdî''' || || (Kur-di)
|-
|good morning || '''beyanî baş''' || || (ba-ya-nî-bash)
|-
|good day || '''Roj Baş''' || || (rozh-bash)
|-
|good-bye || '''serçawan''' || || (sar-cha-wan)
|-
|welcome || '''be xêr hatî|| || (ba-xer-ha-ti)
|-
|p lease || '''tikaye''' || || (t-ka-ya)
|-
|thank you || '''spas''' || || (spas)
|-
|sorry || '''bibûre''' || || (b-bu-ra)
|-
|that one || '''howe''', || || (ho-wa)
|-
|h*ow much? || '''çende''' || || (chan-da)
|-
|yes || '''belê''' || || (ba-le)
|-
|no || '''na''' || || (na)
|-
|I don't understand || '''tê nagem''' || || (te-na-gam)
|-
|where's the bathroom? || '''awdes le kwêye?''' || || (aw-das-la-kue-ya)
|-
|Do you speak English? || '''Tu inglîsî dezanî?''' || || (tu-in-gli-si-da-za-ni)
|}
== [[Latin]] ([[Italic languages|Italic]]) ==
Pronunciations are first given in the Ecclesiastical Pronunciation (Based on [[Italian language|Italian]], and used in some ceremonies by the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] church, and usually heard in recordings of [[European classical music|classical music]]). These pronunciations are followed by the classical pronunciation (a reconstruction of how scholars believe the Romans pronounced these expressions)
For example -- "of light" lucis {{IPA|/'luʧis/}} (LOO-cheess) {{IPA|/'luːkis/}} (LOO-kiss), with (LOO-cheess) being the ecclesiastical pronunciation, and (LOO-kiss) how the Romans said lucis.
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=1
|-
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|Translation
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|Latin
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|IPA (Ecclesastical)
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|Pseudo-English
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|IPA (Classical)
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|Pseudo-English
|-
|Latin
|lingua Latina
|{{IPA|/'lingwa la'tina/}}
|(lah-TEE-nah)
|{{IPA|/'lingwa la'tiːna/}}
|(lah-TEE-nah)
|-
|hello
|ave!
|{{IPA|/'ave/}}
|(Ah-vay)
|{{IPA|/'aːweː/}}
| (Ah-way)
|-
|goodbye
|vale!
|{{IPA|/'vale/}}
|(vah-lay)
|{{IPA|/'waːleː/}}
| (wah-lay)
|-
|please
|si placet
|{{IPA|/si 'plaʧet/}}
|(see PLAH-chet)
|{{IPA|/siː 'plakɛt/}}
| (see PLAH-ket)
|-
|thank you
|gratias tibi ago
|{{IPA|/'gratsias 'tibi 'ago/}}
|(GRAH-tsee-as TI-bee AH-goh)
|{{IPA|/'graːtiaːs 'tibi 'agoː/}}
| (GRAH-tee-as Ti-bee AH-goh)
|-
|that one
|ille/ illa/ illud
|{{IPA|/'ilːe, 'ilːa, 'ilːud/}}
|(ILL-lay, ILL-lah, ILL-lud)
|{{IPA|/'ilːɛ, 'ilːa, 'ilːud/}}
| (ill-leh, ill-lah, ill-lud)
|-
|how much?
|quot?
|{{IPA|/kwot/}}
|(quote)
|{{IPA|/kwot/}}
| (quaht)
|-
|yes
|certe, ita vero
|{{IPA|/'ʧerte/}}
|(CHAIR-tay)
|{{IPA|/'kɛrteː/}}
| (kert-eh)
|-
|no
|non, nullo modo
|{{IPA|/'non, 'nulːo 'modo/}}
|(noan, NUL-loh MO-doh)
|{{IPA|/'noːn, 'nulːo 'mɔdoː/}}
| (known, NUL-oh MO-doh)
|-
|sorry
|ignosce mihi
|{{IPA|/i'ɲoʃe 'mihi/}}
|(een-YOH-shay MEE-hee)
|{{IPA|/i'ŋnoːskɛ 'mihi/}}
| (ing-know-skeh Mi-hee)
|-
|I don't understand
|non comprehendo
|{{IPA|/noŋ kompre'hendo/}}
|(noan com-pray-HEN-doh)
|{{IPA|/noːŋ komprɛ'hɛndoː/}}
| (known com-pray-HEN-doh)
|-
|where's the bathroom?
|ubi sunt latrinae?
|{{IPA|/'ubi sunt la'trine/}}
|(OO-bee sunt lah-TREE-nay)
|{{IPA|/'ubi sunt la'triːnai/}}
| (OO-bee sunt lah-tri-neye) (neye rhyming with eye)
|-
|generic toast
|salutem!
|{{IPA|/sa'lutem/}}
|(sah-LOO-tehm)
|{{IPA|/sa'luːtɛ̃/}}
| (sah-LOO-tehm)
|-
|Do you speak English?
|loquerisne anglice?
|{{IPA|/lokwe'risne 'aŋgliʧe/}}
|(loh-quay-RISS-nay AHNG-glee-chay?)
|{{IPA|/lɔkwɛ'risnɛ 'aŋglikeː/}}
| (loh-queh-riss-neh ah-ngli-keh?)
|}
== [[Latvian language|Latvian]] ([[Baltic languages|Baltic]]) ==
*Latvian: ''Latviešu''
*Hello (informal): ''Sveiki!''
*Hello (formal): ''Sveicināti!''
*Good day (formal): ''Labdien!''
*Good evening: ''Labvakar!''
*Good morning: ''Labrīt!''
*Goodbye: ''Uz redzēšanos!''
*Glad to meet you: ''Prieks iepazīties!''
*Please: ''Lūdzu!''
*Thank you: ''Paldies!''
*Yes: ''Jā''
*No: ''Nē''
*Sorry: ''Atvainojiet!''
*I don't understand: ''Es nesaprotu''
*General toast: ''Priekā!''
*How are you? (formal): ''Kā jums klājas?''
*How are you? (informal): ''Kā tev iet?''
*Where's the bathroom?: ''Kur ir tualete?''
*Do you speak English? (formal): ''Vai Jūs runājat angliski?''
*Do you speak English? (informal): ''Vai tu runā angliski?''
*I love you: ''Es tevi mīlu''
*See you tomorrow: ''Tiksimies rīt!''
*What is it?: ''Kas tas ir?''
*Where am I?: ''Kur es esmu?''
*Where is the closest train station?: ''Kur atrodas tuvākā vilciena stacija?''
*What time is it?: ''Cik ir pulkstenis?''
*Happy Birthday: ''Daudz laimes dzimšanas dienā!''
*Happy New Year: ''Laimīgu jauno gadu!''
== [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] ([[Baltic languages|Baltic]]) ==
*Lithuanian: ''Lietuviškai'' ("lietu'vishkai")
*hello: ''labas'' ("lA-bas")
*goodbye: ''ate!'' ("ateh'")
*please: ''prašau''("prashau")
*thank you: ''ačiū'' ("Ahchjooh")
*that one: ''tas''(masculine), ''ta''(feminine)
*how much?: ''kiek?'' ("kjEk")
*yes: ''taip'' ("taIp")
*no: ''ne'' ("ne'")
*sorry: ''atsiprašau'' ("atsiprashau")
*what?: ''ką?''
*I don't understand: ''nesuprantu''
*Cheers! (toast): ''į sveikatą!'' ("EE sveikAtA!")
*Do you speak English?: ''kalbi angliškai?'' (informal); ''ar kalbate angliškai?"'' (formal)
*I love you: ''Aš tave myliu''
*Where is (the center) ? ''Kur yra (centras)?''
*You are a good friend. ''Tu esi geras draugas.''
== [[Low German]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Remarks
|-
| Low German || ''Plattdüütsch'' || PLUTdyuhtch || {{IPA|/ˈplatdyːʧ/}} || Literally: Flat Saxon
|-
| || ''Platt'' || PLUT || {{IPA|/plat/}} || Literally: Flat
|-
| || ''Nedderdüütsch'' || NEDdudyuhtch || {{IPA|/ˈnɛdɝdyːʧ/}} || Literally: Low German
|-
| || ''Neddersassisch'' || NEDduhzassish || {{IPA|/ˈnɛdɝˌzasɪʃ/}} || Literally: Low Saxon
|-
| English || ''Ingelsch'' || INGelsh || {{IPA|/ˈɪˑŋl̩̩̩ʃ/}}
|-
| Hello! || ''Moin!'' || MOYN || {{IPA|/'mɔˑɪn/}} || Shortened from ''Moi(e)n Dag!'' = 'Pleasant day!'
|-
| Good-bye! || ''Adschüüß!'' || aTCHYUHS || {{IPA|/aˈʧyːs/}} || From French ''Adieu!''
|-
| || ''Tschüüß!'' || TCHYUHS || {{IPA|/ˈʧyːs/}} || Introduced into German as ''Tschüß!''
|-
| Please || ''Wees so good'' || VEHS zo goat || {{IPA|/ˈveːs zo ˌgeʊt/}} || Literally: Be so good
|-
| Thank you! || ''Velen Dank!'' || fehln DUHNK || {{IPA|/feːlnˈdaˑŋk/}} || Literally: Much thank
|-
| || ''(Wees) bedankt!'' || (vehs) buhDUHNKT || {{IPA|/ˈ(veːs) beˈdaˑŋkt/}} || Literally: (Be) thanked
|-
| You are welcome || ''Nich daarför'' || nikh DOAHfur || {{IPA|/nɪç ˈdɔʌfɶʌ/}} || Literally: Not for that
|-
| that one || ''dat daar'' || DUHT doah || {{IPA|/ˈdat dɔʌ/}} ||
|-
| How much? || ''Wo veel?'' || voe FEHL || {{IPA|/veʊ ˈfeːl/}} ||
|-
| yes || ''ja'', ''jo'' || YAW, JAW, YOH ||{{IPA|/jɒː/, /ʥɒː/, /joː/}} ||
|-
| no || ''nee'' || NEH || {{IPA|/neː/}} ||
|-
| Sorry! || ''Nix för ungood'' || nix fur OONgoat || {{IPA|/nɪks fɶʌ ˈʊˑŋgeʊt/}} || Literally: Nothing for un-good (No offence)
|-
| || ''Deit mi leed'' || dite mee LAYT || {{IPA|/daˑɪt mi ˈlɛˑɪt/}} || Literally: Causes me regret
|-
| I don't understand || ''Ik verstah nich'' || ick fuhSTAW nikh || {{IPA|/ɪk fɝˈstɒː nɪç/}} ||
|-
| Where's the bathroom? || ''Woneem is hier de Tante Meyer?'' || voeNEHM is heer de tuhntuh MY-uh || {{IPA|/veʊˈneːm ɪs hiʌ de ˌtaˑnte ˈmaˑɪɝ/}} || Literally: Where is the Auntie Myer here?
|-
| generic toast || ''Proost!'' || PROHST || {{IPA|/proːst/}} ||
|-
| || "Nich lang snacken! Kopp in'n Nacken!'' || nikh lang(k) SNUCKng, COP in nuckng || {{IPA|/nɪç laˑŋ(k) ˈsnakŋ̍ kɔp ɪˈnakŋ/}} || Literally: No long talking! Head back!
|-
| Do you speak English? || ''Snackst ingelsch?'' || snucks(t) INGelsh || {{IPA|/snaks(t) ˈɪˑŋl̩̩̩ʃ/}}
|}
== [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] ([[Slavic languages|Slavic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | Pronunciation
|- valign=top
|-
|Macedonian || ''македонски'' || ''makedonski''
|-
|hello || ''здраво'' || ''zdravo''
|-
|how are you? || ''како си?'' || ''kako si?''
|-
|good day || ''добар ден'' || ''dobar den''
|-
|good morning || ''добро утро'' || ''dobro utro''
|-
|goodbye || ''пријатно'' || ''prijatno''
|-
|please || ''молам'' || ''molam''
|-
|thank you || ''благодарам'' || ''blagodaram''
|-
|sorry || ''извини'' || ''izvini''
|-
|that one || ''тоа'' || ''toa''
|-
|how much? || ''колку?'' || ''kolku?''
|-
|yes || ''да'' || ''da''
|-
|no || ''не'' || ''ne''
|-
|I don’t understand || ''не раз |
hich is for the practice range; and the green fee, which allows play on the golf course itself. The green fee may vary from the equivalent of a few U.S. dollars for communal courses in many countries up to that of several hundred dollars for elite private clubs. Discounts on fees may be offered for players starting their round late in the day.
==Handicap systems==
{{main|Golf handicap}}
A handicap is a numerical measure of an [[amateur]] golfer's ability. It can be used to calculate a so-called "net" score from the number of strokes actually played, thus allowing players of different proficiency to play against each other on equal terms. Handicaps are administrated by golf clubs or national golf associations.
Handicap systems are not used in professional golf. Professional golfers typically score several strokes below par for a round.
==Golf rules and other regulations==
The ''rules of golf'' [http://www.usga.org/playing/rules/rules_of_golf.html#] [http://www.randa.org/flash/rules/PDF/RoG2004.pdf] are internationally standardised and are jointly governed by the [[Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews]] (R&A), which was founded 1754 and the [[United States Golf Association]] (USGA). By agreement with the R&A, USGA jurisdiction on the enforcement and interpretation of the rules is limited to the [[United States]] and [[Mexico]]. Because the rules of golf continue to evolve, amended versions of the rule book are usually published and made effective in a four-year cycle.
The underlying principle of the rules is fairness. As stated on the back cover of the official rule book: "play the ball as it lies", "play the course as you find it", and "if you can't do either, do what is fair". Some rules state that:
*every player is entitled and obliged to play the ball from the position where it has come to rest after a stroke, unless a rule allows or demands otherwise (Rule 13-1)
*a player must not accept assistance in making a stroke (Rule 14-2)
*the condition of the ground or other parts of the course may not be altered to gain an advantage, except in some cases defined in the rules
*a ball may only be replaced by another if it is destroyed, lost, or unplayable, and a penalty is incurred in the latter cases
The ''Decisions on the Rules of Golf'' are based on formal case decisions by the R&A and USGA and are published regularly.
The ''[[etiquette]]'' of golf, although not formally equivalent to the rules, are included in the publications on golf rules and are considered binding for every player. They cover matters such as safety, fairness, easiness and pace of play, and players' obligation to contribute to the care of the course.
There are strict regulations regarding the amateur status of golfers [http://www.usga.org/rules/am_status]. Essentially, everybody who has ever taught or played golf for money (or even accepted a trophy of more than a modest monetary value) is not considered an amateur and must not participate in amateur competitions.
[[Image:Golf in ireland.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Strandhill Golf Club in Ireland is an example of a coastal links course.]]
==Golf course architecture and design==
While no two courses are alike, many can be classified into one of the following broad categories:
* [[Links (golf)|Links]] courses: the most traditional type of golf course, of which some century-old examples have survived in the British isles. Located in coastal areas, on sandy soil, often amid dunes, with few artificial water hazards and few if any trees. Traditional links courses, such as The [[Old Course at St. Andrews]], are built on "land reclaimed from the sea," land that was once underwater.
*Parkland courses: typical inland courses, often resembling traditional British parks, with lawn-like fairways and many trees.
*Heathland &#8211; a more open, less-manicured inland course often featuring gorse and heather and typically less wooded than &#8220;parkland&#8221; courses. Examples include Woodhall Spa in England and Gleneagles in Scotland.
*Desert courses: a rather recent invention, popular in Australia, parts of the USA and in the Middle East. Desert courses require heavy irrigation for maintenance of the turf, leading to concerns about the ecological consequences of excessive water consumption. A desert course also violates the widely accepted principle of golf course architecture that an aesthetically pleasing course should require minimal alteration of the existing landscape. Nevertheless, many players enjoy the unique experience of playing golf in the desert.
*Sand courses: instead of a heavily irrigated 'green', the players play on sand.
*Snow courses: another rather recent invention; golf being played on snow, typically with an orange colored or another brightly colored ball. Can be played in Arctic or subarctic regions during winter.
In the [[United States]] design varies widely, with courses such as the entirely artificial Shadow Creek in Las Vegas, where a course complete with waterfalls was created in the desert, and on the other end of the spectrum, Rustic Canyon outside of Los Angeles, which was created with a minimal amount of earth moving resulting in an affordable daily green fee and a more natural golfing experience.
==Hitting a golf ball==
To hit the ball, the [[golf club (equipment)|club]] is swung at the motionless ball on the ground (or wherever it has come to rest) from a side stance. Many golf shots make the ball travel through the air (''carry'') and roll out for some more distance (''roll'').
Every shot is a compromise between length and precision, as long shots are generally less precise than short ones. Obviously, a longer shot may result in a better score if it helps reduce the total number of strokes for a given hole, but the benefit may be more than outweighed by additional strokes or penalties if a ball is lost, out of bounds, or comes to rest on difficult ground. Therefore, a skilled golfer must assess the quality of his or her shots in a particular situation in order to judge whether the possible benefits of aggressive play are worth the risks.
===Types of shots===
*A ''tee shot'' is the first shot played from a teeing ground. It is often made with a ''driver'' (i.e., a 1-wood) off a tee for long holes, or with an iron on shorter holes. Ideally, tee shots on long holes have a rather shallow flight and long roll of the ball, while tee shots on short holes are flighted higher and are expected to stop quickly.
*A ''fairway shot'' is similar to a drive when done with a ''fairway wood''. However, a tee may not be used once the ball has been brought into play; therefore, playing from the fairway may be more difficult depending on how the ball lies. If precision is more important than length (typically, when playing on narrow fairways or approaching a green), ''irons'' are usually played from the fairway. Irons or wedges are also often used when playing from the rough.
*A ''bunker shot'' is played when the ball is in a ''bunker'' (''sand trap''). It resembles a pitch and is played with a "sand wedge." The sand wedge is designed with a wider base allowing the club to skid in the sand.
*On the green, a putter is used to 'putt' the ball. The ball rolls on the ground, never becoming air-borne.
An ''approach shot'' is played into the green from outside the green, usually over an intermediate or short distance. Types of approach shots are:
*''Pitch'': a high approach shot that makes the ball fly high and roll very little, stopping more or less where it hits the ground. Pitches are usually done with a ''wedge''.
*''Flop'': an even higher approach shot that stops shortly after it hits the ground. It is used when a player must play over an obstacle to the green. It is usually played with a sand wedge or a lob wedge.
*''Chip'': a low approach shot where the ball makes a shallow flight and then rolls out on the green. Chips are made with a less lofted club than the "pitch" shot or "lob" shot in order to produce the desired flatter trajectory.
*''Punch/Knockdown'': a low shot that carries through the air in order to clear a low hanging tree branch or sometimes high winds.
===Poor shots===
There are several possible causes of poor shots, such as poor alignment of the club, wrong direction of swing, and off-center hits where the clubhead rotates around the ball at impact. Many of these troubles are aggravated with the "longer" clubs and higher speed of swing. Furthermore, the absolute effect of a deviation will increase with a longer shot compared with a short one.
Poor shots include the ''hook'', in which the ball curves to the left (for a right-handed player), a ''slice'', in which the ball curves to the right (for a right-handed player; the reverse are true for left-handers), and a ''shank'', in which the ball shoots sharply to the right (for a right handed player). As a point of safety, it is mandatory to shout "Fore!" whenever there is a chance that a ball might hit any person on the course.
===The golf swing===
Putts and short chips are ideally played without much movement of the body, but most other golf shots are played using variants of the full golf swing. The full golf swing itself is used in tee and fairway shots.
A full swing is a complex rotation of the body aimed at accelerating the club head to a great speed. For a [[right-handed]] golfer, it consists of a ''backswing'' to the right, a ''downswing'' to the left (in which the ball is hit), and a ''follow through''. At ''address'', the player stands with the left [[shoulder]] and hip pointing in the intended direction of ball flight, with the ball before the feet. The club is held with both [[hand]]s (right below left), the clubhead resting on the ground behind the ball, [[hip]]s and [[knee]]s somewhat flexed, and the arms hanging from the shoulders. The backswing is a rotation to t |
ts
* [[1970s]]–[[1990s]] — alleged [[China|Chinese]] theft of American [[nuclear weapon]]s designs (See [[Cox report|Cox Report]])
* [[2005]] — [[Leandro Aragoncillo]] indicted as part of what the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] refers to as the first case in history of espionage from within the [[White House]]
==Spies in various conflicts==
*[[American Civil War spies|American Civil War]]
*[[:Category:World War I espionage|World War I]]
*[[:Category:World War II espionage|World War II]]
*[[Cold War espionage|Cold War]]
==Espionage organizations==
:''Main article: [[List of intelligence agencies]]''.
*[[Argentina]]: [[Secretaría de Inteligencia|SIDE]], [[Dirección Nacional de Inteligencia Criminal|DNIC]], [[Dirección Nacional de Inteligencia Estratégica Militar|DNIEM]], [[Jefatura de Inteligencia del Estado Mayor Conjunto de las Fuerzas Armadas|J-2]], [[Servicio de Inteligencia del Ejército (Argentina)|SIE]], [[Servicio de Inteligencia Naval (Argentina)|SIN]], [[Servicio de Inteligencia de la Fuerza Aérea (Argentina)|SIFA]], [[Inteligencia de la Policía Federal Argentina|SIPF]], [[Inteligencia de la Gendarmería Nacional Argentina|SIGN]], [[Inteligencia de la Prefectura Naval Argentina|SIPN]], [[Inteligencia de la Policía de Seguridad Aeroportuaria|SIPSA]]
*[[Australia]]: [[Defence Signals Directorate|DSD]], [[Australian Security Intelligence Organisation|ASIO]], [[Australian Secret Intelligence Service|ASIS]], [[Office of National Assessments|ONA]], [[Defence Intelligence Organisation|DIO]]
*[[Canada]]: [[Canadian Security Intelligence Service|CSIS]], [[Communications Security Establishment|CSE]]
*[[Cuba]]: [[General Intelligence Directorate|DGI]], Military intelligence, others [CI]
*[[France]]: [[Direction Générale de la Sécurité Extérieure|DGSE]], [[Renseignements Généraux|RG]], [[Direction de la Surveillance du Territoire|DST]]
*[[Germany]]: [[Bundesnachrichtendienst|BND]]
*[[India]]: [[Research and Analysis Wing|RAW]], [[Intelligence Bureau|IB]], [[Joint Intelligence committee|JIC]], [[Defense Intelligence India|DIA]]
*[[Israel]]: [[Mossad]]
*[[Italy]]: [[SISMI]], [[SISDE]]
*[[Mexico]]: [[CISEN]]
*[[Pakistan]]: [[Inter-Services Intelligence|ISI]]
*[[Netherlands]]: [[AIVD]]
*[[New Zealand]]: [[New Zealand Security Intelligence Service|NZSIS]] [[GCSB]]
*[[South Africa]]: [[National Intelligence Agency|NIA]], [[South African Secret Service|SASS]], [[South African National Defence Force Intelligence Division|SANDF-ID]]
*[[Soviet Union]]: [[Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)|SVR]], (formerly [[KGB]] external reconnaissance and predecessor names); Soviet Military Intelligence [[GRU]]
*[[United Kingdom|UK]]: [[MI5]], [[MI6]], [[GCHQ]], [[Special Branch]]
*[[United States|USA]]: [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]], [[Defense Intelligence Agency|DIA]], [[National Security Agency|NSA]], [[National Reconnaissance Office|NRO]]
:See also [[Intelligence agency]] and [[Special Operations Executive]]
==Espionage technology and techniques==
:''Main article [[list of intelligence gathering disciplines]].''
* [[ECHELON]]
* [[Agent Handling]]
* [[Black Bag Operations]]
* [[Concealment device]]
* [[Cryptography]]
* [[Cut-out]]
* [[Dead drop]]
* [[Eavesdropping]]
* [[False flag]] operations
* [[Honey trap]]
* [[Interrogation]]
* [[Nonofficial cover]] - NOC
* [[One Way Voice Link]]
* [[Steganography]]
* [[Surveillance]]
* [[TEMPEST]] &mdash; Protection devices for communication equipment.
==Spy fiction==
:''Main article: [[Spy fiction]]''
Since not much is publicly known about real-life secret agents, the popular conception of the secret agent has been formed largely by 20th and 21st century [[literature]] and [[film|cinema]]. Similar to the character of the [[Private investigator|private eye]], the secret agent is usually a loner, sometimes amoral, an [[existential]] [[hero]] operating outside the everyday constraints of society. [[James Bond]], the protagonist of [[Ian Fleming]]'s novels who went on to spawn an extremely successful [[film]] franchise, is probably the most famous [[fiction]]al secret agent of all. Another is the boy spy [[Alex Rider]], created by [[Anthony Horowitz]]; Rider is said to be useful due to his youth.
Spy Fiction has also become prevalent in video gaming, where the "wetworks" aspect of espionage is highlighted. Game situations typically involve agents sent into enemy territory for purposes of subversion. These depictions are more action-oriented than would be typical in most cases of espionage, and they tend to focus on infiltration rather than information-gathering. Some examples are [[Metal Gear]] and [[Splinter Cell]].
==Further reading==
===Surveys===
* Andrew, Christopher. ''For the President's Eyes Only: Secret Intelligence and the American Presidency from Washington to Bush'' (1996)
* Black, Ian. ''Israel's Secret Wars: A History of Israel's Intelligence Services'' (1992)
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=104262552 Bungert, Heike et al eds. ''Secret Intelligence in the Twentieth Century'' (2003)] essays by scholars
* Friedman, George. ''America's Secret War: Inside the Hidden Worldwide Struggle Between the United States and Its Enemies'' (2005), since 9-11
* Kahn, David ''The Codebreakers: The Comprehensive History of Secret Communication from Ancient Times to the Internet'' (1996), 1200 pages
* Knightley, Philip. ''The Second Oldest Profession: Spies and Spying in the Twentieth Century'' (1986)
* Lerner, K. Lee and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, eds. ''Encyclopedia of Espionage, Intelligence and Security'' (2003), 1100 pages. 850 articles, strongest on technology
* O'Toole, George. ''Honorable Treachery: A History of U.S. Intelligence, Espionage, Covert Action from the American Revolution to the CIA'' (1991)
* Owen, David. ''Hidden Secrets: A Complete History of Espionage and the Technology Used to Support It'' (2002), popular
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=24341844 Richelson, Jeffery T. ''A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century'' (1997)]
* Richelson, Jeffery T. ''The U.S. Intelligence Community'' (4th ed. 1999)
* Smith Jr., W. Thomas. ''Encyclopedia of the Central Intelligence Agency'' (2003), popular
* West, Nigel. ''MI6: British Secret Intelligence Service Operations 1909-1945'' (1983)
* West, Nigel. ''Secret War: The Story of SOE, Britain's Wartime Sabotage Organization'' (1992)
* Wohlstetter, Roberta. ''Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision'' (1962)
===World War I===
*Beesly, Patrick. ''Room 40''. (1982). Covers the breaking of German codes by RN intelligence, including the Turkish bribe, Zimmermann telegram, and failure at Jutland.
*Kahn, David. ''The Codebreakers''. (1996). Covers the breaking of Russian codes and the victory at Tannenberg.
* May, Ernest (ed.) ''Knowing One's Enemies: Intelligence Assessment before the Two World Wars'' (1984)
* Tuchman, Barbara W. ''The Zimmermann Telegram'' (1966)
===World War II: 1931-1945===
* Babington-Smith, Constance. ''Air Spy: The Story of Photo Intelligence in World War II'' (1957)
* Hinsley, F. H. and Alan Stripp. ''Codebreakers: The Inside Story of Bletchley Park'' (2001)
* Hinsley, F. H. ''British Intelligence in the Second World War'' (1996) abridged version of multivolume official history.
* Hohne, Heinz. ''Canaris: Hitler's Master Spy'' (1979)
* Jones, R. V. ''The Wizard War: British Scientific Intelligence 1939-1945'' (1978)
* Kahn, David. ''The Codebreakers''. (1996).
* Kahn, David. ''Hitler's Spies: German Military Intelligence in World War II'' (1978)
* Kahn, David. ''Seizing the Enigma: The Race to Break the German U-Boat Codes, 1939-1943'' (1991)
* Lewin, Ronald. ''The American Magic: Codes, Ciphers and the Defeat of Japan'' (1982)
* May, Ernest (ed.) ''Knowing One's Enemies: Intelligence Assessment before the Two World Wars'' (1984)
* Persico, Joseph. ''Roosevelt's Secret War: FDR and World War II Espionage'' (2001)
* Persico, Joseph. ''Casey: The Lives and Secrets of William J. Casey-From the OSS to the CIA'' (1991)
* Smith, Richard Harris. ''OSS: The Secret History of America's First Central Intelligence Agency'' (2005)
* Stanley, Roy M. ''World War II Photo Intelligence'' (1981)
* Wark, Wesley. ''The Ultimate Enemy: British Intelligence and Nazi Germany, 1933-1939'' (1985)
* Wark, Wesley K."Cryptographic Innocence: The Origins of Signals Intelligence in Canada in the Second World War", ''Journal of Contemporary History'' 22 (1987)
===Cold War Era: 1945-1991===
* Aldrich, Richard J. ''The Hidden Hand: Britain, America and Cold War Secret Intelligence'' (2002).
* Ambrose, Stephen E. ''Ike's Spies: Eisenhower and the Intelligence Establishment'' (1981).
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=25982993 Andrew, Christopher and Vasili Mitrokhin. ''The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB'' (1999)]
* Andrew, Christopher, and Oleg Gordievsky. ''KGB: The Inside Story of Its Foreign Operations from Lenin to Gorbachev'' (1990).
* Aronoff, Myron J. ''The Spy Novels of John Le Carré: Balancing Ethics and Politics'' (1999).
* Bissell, Richard. ''Reflections of a Cold Warrior: From Yalta to the Bay of Pigs'' (1996)
* Bogle, Lori, ed. ''Cold War Espionage and Spying'' (2001), essays by
* Dorril, Stephen. ''MI6: Inside the Covert World of Her Majesty's Secret Intelligence Service'' (2000).
* Dziak, John J. ''Chekisty: A History of the KGB'' (1988)
* Gates, Robert M. ''From The Shadows: The Ultimate Insider's Story Of Five Presidents And How They Won The Cold War'' (1997)
* Haynes, John Earl, and Harvey Klehr. ''Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America'' (1999).
* Helms, Richard. ''A Look over My Shoulder: A Life in the Central Intelligence Agency'' (2003)
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=27191582 Koehler, John O. ''Stasi: The Untold Story of the East German Secret Police'' (1999)]
* Mitrokhin. Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin. ''The Mitrokhin Archive'' (1999). vol 1, on KGB
* Murphy, Da |
nducting sharp-point contact made with some group-3 metal is placed in contact with the semiconductor. Some metal migrates into the semiconductor to make a small region of p-type semiconductor near the contact. The long-popular 1N34 germanium version is still used in radio receivers as a detector and occasionally in specialized analog electronics.
; [[Varicap]] or [[varactor diode]]s
: These are used as voltage-controlled [[capacitors]]. These were important in PLL ([[phase-locked loop]]) and FLL ([[frequency-locked loop]]) circuits, allowing tuning circuits, such as those in television receivers, to lock quickly, replacing older designs that took a long time to warm up and lock. A PLL is faster than a FLL, but prone to integer harmonic locking (if one attempts to lock to a broadband signal). They also enabled tunable oscillators in early discrete tuning of radios, where a cheap and stable, but fixed-frequency, crystal oscillator provided the reference frequency for a [[voltage-controlled oscillator]].
; PIN diodes
: have a central un-doped layer. They are used as radio frequency switches, similar to varactor diodes but with a more sudden change in capacitance. They are also used as large volume ionizing radiation ditectors.
; [[Current-limiting diode|Current-limiting field-effect diodes]]
: These are actually a [[JFET]] with the gate shorted to the source, and function like a two-terminal current-limiting analog to the Zener diode; they allow a current through them to rise to a certain value, and then level off at a specific value. Also called '''CLDs''', '''constant-current diodes''', or '''current-regulating diodes'''. [http://www.avtechpulse.com/faq.html/IV.5/], [http://www.aemarketing.co.uk/Central/curlimitdiodes/applicsCLD.pdf]
Other uses for semiconductor diodes include sensing temperature, and computing analog [[logarithm]]s (see [[Operational amplifier applications#Logarithmic]]).
== Related devices ==
* [[Thyristor]] or silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)
* [[TRIAC]]
* [[DIAC|Diac]]
* [[Transistor]]
== Applications ==
=== Radio demodulation ===
The first use for the diode was the demodulation of [[amplitude modulation|amplitude modulated]] (AM) radio broadcasts. The history of this discovery is treated in depth in the '''[[radio]]''' article. In summary, an AM signal consists of alternating positive and negative peaks of voltage, whose [[amplitude]] or 'envelope' is proportional to the original audio signal, but whose average value is zero. The diode rectifies the AM signal (i.e. it eliminates peaks of one polarity), leaving a signal whose average amplitude is the desired audio signal. The average value is extracted using a simple [[electronic filter|filter]] and fed into an audio [[transducer]] (originally a [[crystal earpiece]], now more likely to be a [[loudspeaker]]), which generates sound.
=== Power conversion ===
'''[[Rectifier]]s''' are constructed from diodes, where they are used to convert [[alternating current]] (AC) electricity into [[direct current]] (DC). Similarly, diodes are also used in '''[[Cockcroft-Walton generator|Cockcroft-Walton]] voltage multipliers''' to convert AC into very high DC voltages.
=== Over-voltage protection ===
Diodes are frequently used to conduct damaging high voltages away from sensitive electronic devices. They are usually reverse-biased (non-conducting) under normal circumstances, and become forward-biased (conducting) when the voltage rises above its normal value. For example, diodes are used in [[stepper motor]] and [[relay]] circuits to de-energize coils rapidly without the damaging voltage spikes that would otherwise occur. Many [[integrated circuits]] also incorporate diodes on the connection pins to prevent external voltages from damaging their sensitive transistors. Specialized diodes are used to protect from over-voltages at higher power (see [[#Diode_types|Diode types]] above).
=== Logic gates ===
Diodes can be combined with other components to construct [[logical conjunction|AND]] and [[logical disjunction|OR]] [[logic gate]]s.
=== [[Ionising radiation]] [[detector]]s ===
In addition to light, mentioned above, [[semiconductor]] diodes are sensitive to more [[energy|energetic]] radiation. In [[electronics]], [[cosmic ray]]s and other sources of ionising radiation cause [[noise]] [[pulse]]s and single and multiple bit errors.
This effect is sometimes exploited by [[particle detector]]s to detect radiation. A single particle of radiation, with thousands or millions of [[electron volt]]s of energy, generates many charge carrier pairs, as its energy is deposited in the semiconductor material. If the depletion layer is large enough to catch the whole shower or to stop a heavy particle, a fairly accurate measurement of the particle's energy can be made, simply by measuring the charge conducted and without the complexity of a magnetic spectrometer or etc.
These semiconductor radiation detectors need efficient and uniform charge collection and low leakage current. They are often cooled by [[liquid nitrogen]]. For longer range (about a centimetre) particles they need a very large depletion depth and large area. For short range particles, they need any contact or un-depleted semiconductor on at least one surface to be very thin. The back-bias voltages are near breakdown (around a thousand volts per centimetre). Germanium and silicon are common materials. Some of these detectors sense position as well as energy.
They have a finite life, especially when detecting heavy particle, because of radiation damage. Silicon and germanium are quite different in their ability to convert [[gamma ray]]s to electron showers.
[[Semiconductor detector]]s for high energy particles are used in large numbers. Because of [[energy loss fluctuation]]s, accurate measurement of the energy deposited is of less use.
=== Temperature measuring ===
A diode can be used as a [[temperature]] measuring device, since the forward voltage drop across the diode depends on temperature. This temperature dependence follows from the Shockley ideal diode equation given above.
=== [[Charge-coupled device|Charge coupled devices]] ===
Digital cameras and similar units use arrays of photo diodes, integrated with readout circuitry.
==See also==
*[[Diode modelling]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.avtechpulse.com/faq.html/ The Unusual Diode FAQ]
[[Category:Diodes| ]]
[[ar:صمام ثنائي]]
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[[lt:Puslaidininkis diodas]]
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[[no:Diode]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>DX communication</title>
<id>8255</id>
<revision>
<id>39752874</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T17:07:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Blainster</username>
<id>31831</id>
</contributor>
<comment>add link to amateur dx'ing, add cats & move to end</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''DX communication''' is communication over great distances using the [[ionosphere]] to refract the transmitted [[radio]] beam. The beam returns to the Earth's surface, and may then be reflected back into the ionosphere for a second bounce. Ionospheric refraction is generally only feasible for frequencies below about 50 MHz, and is highly dependent upon atmospheric conditions, the time of day, and the eleven-year [[sunspot]] cycle. It is also affected by [[solar storm]]s and some other solar events, which can alter the Earth's ionosphere by ejecting a shower of charged particles.
The angle of refraction places a minimum on the distance at which the refracted beam will first return to Earth. This distance increases with frequency. As a result, any station employing DX will be surrounded by an annular ''dead zone'' where they can't hear other stations or be heard by them.
This is the phenonenon that allows [[short wave]] radio reception to occur beyond the limits of line of sight. It is utilized by [[amateur radio]] enthusiasts (hams), shortwave broadcast stations (such as [[BBC]] and [[Voice of America]]) and others. This is what allows you to hear AM (MW) stations from locations far from your location. It is the only backup to failure of long distance communication by satellites, when their operation is affected by [[electromagnetic]] storms from the sun.
== See also ==
*[[TV-FM DX]]
*[[MW DX]]
*[[DX station]]
[[Category:Radio]]
[[Category:Wireless communications]]
[[Category:radio frequency propagation]]
[[Category:Amateur radio]]
[[Category:Radio Hobbies]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Drexel University</title>
<id>8256</id>
<revision>
<id>40649678</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T01:37:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Quarl</username>
<id>59118</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Student Newspaper */ «"The Triangle" → "'''The Triangle'''"»</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_University
|name= Drexel University
|image=[[Image:Drexel_seal.jpg|The Drexel Seal]]
|motto= Science, Industry, Art
|established=[[1891]]|
type=[[Private school|Private]]|
president=[[Constantine Papadakis]]|
city=[[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]]|
state=[[Pennsylvania]]|
country=[[United States|USA]]|
undergrad=11,613|
[[Financial endowment|endowment]]=500 Million |
postgrad=5,387|
staff=1,308|
campus=[[Urbanization|Urban]]|
colors=Blue and Gold|
free_label=Athletics|
free=16 varsity teams, 20 sports clubs|
mascot=[[European dragon|Dragon]], "Mario the Magnificent"|
website=http://www.drexel.edu|
footnotes= |
}}
'''Drexel |
Doorslammer—Pro Stock, Pro Mod, or other car with doors, from the requirement to have working doors.
*E-town—Englishtown, New Jersey (raceway)
*Flopper—Funny Car, from the flip-up fiberglass bodies; does not apply to the early FCs.
*Fuel—mix of [[methanol]] and [[nitromethane]] ("pop", nitro); race class using it
*Fueler—any car running fuel or in Fuel class (most often, TFD)
*Holeshot—getting a significant advantage off the starting line. The other driver gets "holeshotted" or "left at the tree"
*Grenade—wreck an engine (the engine "grenaded") due to internal failure. Distinct from "popping a blower".
*Lit the tires—lost traction, causing smoke
*Nitro—[[nitromethane]]
*Pedalling—working the throttle to avoid lighting the tires; "pedalled" it, had to "pedal" it
*Pop—[[nitromethane]]
*Pop a blower—suffer a backfire through the supercharger, causing a spectacular explosion. Usually results in loss of engine and race.
*Pro tree—timing lights which flash all three yellow lights simultaneously, and after four tenths of a second, turns green.
*Put on the trailer—lost (got "put on the trailer") or won (put the other driver on the trailer). From the obvious, losing drivers trailer their cars home.
*Rail—dragster (as distinct from bodied car or flopper). From the exposed frame rails of early cars.
*Redlight(ed)—jump(ed) the start
*Silhouette—car closely resembling street model, but built specially for racing, such as Pro Stock car. Does not include Stock classes.
*Slicks—rear tires with no grooves, for increased traction
*Slingshot—early front-engined dragster, named for the driving position behind the rear wheels (erroneously attributed to launch speed)
*Standard tree—timing lights which flash in sequence five tenths of a second between each yellow light before turning green. Traditional form, before introduction of Pro tree.
*Top end—finish line of strip; high part of engine's rev band.
*Trap(s)—timing lights at top end, used to measure speed.
*Traction bar (also ladder bar, slapper bar, or Jenkins bar)—device to prevent rotation of the rear axle and thus keep the front wheels on the ground. Will not prevent blowover.
==Selected records==
*At the 1970 NHRA Winternats, Bill (Grumpy) Jenkins' '68 Camaro won the first Pro Stock event ever. He repeated the feat at the Gatornats.
*In 1972, Jenkins' silhouette '72 Vega was the first tube chassis Pro Stock car ever. (He won 6 of 9 events, and the national title.)
*At the 1986 NHRA Gatornats, [[Don Garlits]] was first to run over 270mph (272.56).
*At the 1986 NHRA U.S. Nats, [[Kenny Bernstein]] was first to run a Funny Car over 270mph (271.41).
*At the Texas Motorplex in 1986, Darrell Gwynn was first to clock a Top Fuel 5.20.
*At the 1987 IHRA Winternats, Bill Kuhlmann was first to run a gas doorslammer at over 200mph (202.24 in T/A).
*In 1987, at the Chief Nationals, Mike Dunn was first to run a Funny Car over 280mph (280.72).
*On [[9 April]] [[1988]] at the Texas Motorplex, Eddie Hill was first to clock a Top Fuel run under 5sec (4.99).
*In 1988 at the IHRA Fall Nationals (Bristol, TN), Gordie Hmiel's "Over the Hill Gang" T/A was first gas dooslammer to run under 7sec (6.99).
*On [[7 May]] [[1989]] at E-town, Bob Newberry was first to put an Alcohol Funny Car (A/FC) in the 5s, thus also becoming first alky racer in the 5s.
*In 1989, at [[Infineon Raceway]], Steve Faria was first to put an Alcohol Dragster (A/D) in the 5s.
*In 1989 at the NHRA Winter Nationals, Conrad (Connie) Kalitta was first to run over 290mph.
*At the 1989 NHRA Keystone Nationals (Mohnton, PA), Joe Amato's 4.96 beat Shirley Muldowney's 4.97, first side-by-side sub-5sec race.
*Kenny Bernstein became the first driver in 1992 to hit 300 MPH in Gainesville, FL.
==A few famous names of drag racing==
*[http://www.nitrosheriff.com Jack Harris]
*[[Joe Amato]]
*[[Art Arfons]]
*[[Walt Arfons]]
*[[Raymond Beadle]]
*[[Gary Beck]]
*[[Kenny Bernstein]]
*[[Brandon Bernstein]]
*[[Arnie "Farmer" Beswick]]
*[[JoJo Callos]]
*[[Laurie Connister]] (''Girl Power'' F/FC, IHRA)
*[["Dyno Don" Nicholson]]
*[[Al Eckstrand]]
*[[Erica Enders]]
*[[John Force]]
*[http://www.wdifl.com Don Ewald]
*[[Don Garlits|"Big Daddy" Don Garlits]]
*[[Bob Glidden]]
*[[Abel Ibarra]]
*[[Tommy Ivo|"TV Tommy" Ivo]]
*[[Bill "Grumpy" Jenkins]]
*[[Lori Johns]]
*[[Warren Johnson]]
*[[Kurt Johnson]]
*[[Connie Kalitta|Conrad "Connie" ("Bounty Hunter") Kalitta]]
*[[Scott Kalitta]]
*[[Tetsuya Kawasaki|Tetsuya "Dryhopp" Kawasaki]]
*[[Lisa Kubos]]
*[[Tom "Mongoose" McEwen]]
*[[Shirley Muldowney|Shirley "Cha Cha" Muldowney]]
*[[Danny Ongais]]
*[[Stephan Papadakis]]-famous [[Honda Civic]] drag racer
*[[Hayden Proffitt]]
*[[Don Prudhomme|Don "The Snake" Prudhomme]]
*[[Bob Riggle]]—famous ''[[Hemi Under Glass]]'' wheelstander
*[[Adam Sawatari]]
*[[Angelle Sampey]]
*[[Gary Scelzi]]
*[[Tony Schumacher (drag racer)|Tony Schumacher]]
*[[Kenny Tran]]
*[[Mickey Thompson]]
*[[Jack "Doc" Watson]]—another famous ''Hemi Under Glass'' wheelstander
==External links==
*[http://www.wediditforlove.com Dragster History] '''Site dedicated to the 'golden age' of drag racing.'''
*[http://www.cacklefest.com Cacklefest.com] - '''Restored and Recreated Dragsters from the 60s & 70s'''
*[http://www.SpenceFamilyRacing.com Spence Family Racing] - Nostalgia Drag Racing Photos News Video Clips and More
*[http://www.AmericanRoadster.com American Roadster] - building custom fabricated parts for street rods and race cars for people who love fine cars.
*[http://www.dragtimes.com/ DragTimes.com] Database of car and motorcycle 1/4 mile drag racing timeslips
*[http://www.nitroflames.com NitroFlames.com] - Drag Racing Message Board and Resource Center
*[http://www.suped-up-cars.com Suped Up Cars] - Modified Cars
*[http://www.dragracecanada.com/ www.dragracecanada.com] news and infos about Drag Racing
*[http://drag-racing.on-topic.net/ Drag Racing Topics]
*[http://www.dragster.com.au/ Dragster.com.au] Australia's premier drag racing website
*[http://www.nhra.com/ www.nhra.com] Official site of the NHRA
*[http://www.ihra.com/ www.ihra.com] Official site of the IHRA
*[http://www.dragracecentral.com Dragracecentral.com] News, photos, and live timing of drag races.
*[http://www.eurodragster.com/ www.eurodragster.com] Guide to drag racing in [[Europe]].
*[http://www.vwdrc.com/ www.vwdrc.com] Home of [[Volkswagen|VW]] drag racing in the [[UK]].
*[http://www.werner-habermann-racing.com Werner Habermann Racing Team] - german Top Methanol Dragster team, competing in the FIA Championship.
*[http://www.rinehartsracing.com drag racing photos]
*[http://www.usenet-replayer.com/webrings/drag-racing.html Pictures of drag racing] published on USENET stored with an search function.
*[https://secure.nhra.powerade.com/contest/podcast.asp Drag Racing Podcasts] POWERade NHRA Podcasts from the races with Bob Frey
*[http://www.wediditforlove.com Dragster History]
*[http://www.tony-morris-racing.com Tony "Chunky" Morris Drag Racing Team]
*[http://www.dragracinghistory.de German Drag Racing History]
[[Category:Drag racing|*]]
[[de:Beschleunigungsrennen]]
[[fr:Dragster]]
[[nl:Dragrace]]
[[pt:Dragster]]
[[fi:Kiihdytyskisat]]
[[sv:Dragracing]]
Ľ</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Don Bradman</title>
<id>8374</id>
<revision>
<id>15906377</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T14:04:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Donald Bradman]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Donald Bradman]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Draugr</title>
<id>8375</id>
<revision>
<id>41507095</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T20:56:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Veledan</username>
<id>306701</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>serpent --> Serpent (symbolism). Disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''draugr''' is a [[corporeal]] [[undead]], from the [[Norse Mythology]]. Draugrs were believed to live in the graves of dead [[viking]]s, being the [[human body|body]] of the dead. Views differed on whether the [[personality]] and [[soul]] of the dead person lingered in the draugr. As the [[grave]]s of important men often contained a good amount of wealth, the draugr jealously guarded his treasures, even after [[death]]. All draugr possessed superhuman strength and some were immune to usual [[weapon]]s. To defeat a draugr, a [[hero]] was often necessary, since only such a man had strength and courage enough to stand up to so formidable an opponent. The hero would often have to [[amateur wrestling|wrestle]] with the draugr and so defeat him, since weapons would do no good. A good example of this kind of fight is found in ''[[Hrómundar saga Gripssonar]]''.
It is said that the draugr, even when defeated, would come back, requiring the hero to dispose of the body in unconventional ways. The most preferred method was to cut off the draugr's head, burn the body, and dump the ashes in the sea, the emphasis being on making absolutely sure the draugr was dead and gone. This may be related to the traditional practice of killing [[vampires]] seen in other cultures.
The draugr were said to be either ''hel-blar'' ("death black") or, conversely, ''na-folr'' ("corpse-pale").
Some draugr were able to leave their dwelling place, the burial mound, and visit the living during the night. Such visits were universally horrible events, and often ended in death for one or more of the living, and warranted the [[exhumation]] of the draugrs tomb by a hero.
In modern times, the most familiar encoun |
ogue|HD]] 19356, [[General Catalogue of Trigonometric Parallaxes|GCTP]] 646.00, [[Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory|SAO]] 38592, FK5 111, Wo 9110, ADS 2362, WDS 03082+4057A, [[Hipparcos catalogue|HIP]] 14576. }}
{{Starbox end}}
'''Algol''' (&beta; Per / [[beta (letter)|Beta]] Persei) is a bright [[star]] in the [[constellation]] [[Perseus (constellation)|Perseus]]. It is one of the best known [[eclipsing binary|eclipsing binaries]], the first such star to be discovered, and also one of the first [[variable star]]s in general to be discovered. Algol's [[apparent magnitude|magnitude]] changes regularly between 2.3 and 3.5 over a period of 2 days, 20 hours and 49 minutes.
As an eclipsing binary, it is actually two stars in close orbit around one another. Because the [[Orbital plane (astronomy)|orbital plane]] coincidentally matches the [[Earth]]'s line of sight, the dimmer star (Algol B) passes in front of the brighter star (Algol A) once per orbit, and the amount of light reaching Earth is temporarily decreased. To be more precise, however, Algol happens to be a triple star system: the eclipsing binary pair is separated by only 0.062 [[astronomical unit|AU]], while the third star (Algol C) is at an average distance of 2.69 AU from the pair and the mutual [[orbital period]] is 681 days (1.86 years). The total mass of the system is about 5.8 solar masses, and the mass ratios of A, B and C are about 4.5&nbsp;: 1&nbsp;: 2.
The variability of Algol was first recorded in [[1670]] by [[Geminiano Montanari]], but it is probable that this property was noticed long before this time; the name Algol means "demon star," (from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] '''&#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1608;&#1604;''' ''al-gh&#363;l'', "the [[ghoul]]") which was probably given due to its peculiar behavior. In the [[constellation]] Perseus, it represents the eye of the [[Gorgon]] [[Medusa (mythology)|Medusa]].
Studies of Algol led to the '''Algol paradox''' in the theory of [[stellar evolution]]: although components of a binary star form at the same time, and massive stars evolve much faster than the less massive ones, it was observed that the more massive component Algol A is still in the [[main sequence]], while the less massive Algol B is a [[subgiant star]] at a later evolutionary stage. The paradox can be solved by [[mass transfer]]: when the more massive star became a subgiant, it filled its [[Roche lobe]], and most of the mass was transferred to the other star, which is still in the main sequence. In some binaries similar to Algol, a gas flow can actually be seen.
Algol is 92.8 [[light year]]s from Earth; however, about 7.3 million years ago it passed within 9.8 light years and its [[apparent magnitude]] was approximately &minus;2.5, considerably brighter than [[Sirius]] is today. Because the total mass of the system is 5.8 solar masses, and despite the fairly large distance at closest approach, this may have been enough to slightly perturb the [[solar system]]'s [[Oort cloud]] and increase the number of [[comet]]s entering the inner solar system. However, the actual increase in net cratering rate is believed to have been quite small. [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJ/journal/issues/v117n2/980216/980216.html]
[[Astrology|Astrologically]], Algol is considered the most [[luck|unfortunate]] star in the sky. In the [[Middle Ages]] it was one of the 15 [[Behenian fixed stars|Behenian stars]], associated with the [[diamond]] and [[hellebore]], and marked with the [[kabbalistic]] sign [[Image:Agrippa1531_caputAlgol.png]].
==External links==
* [http://skyscript.co.uk/algol.html Discusses the history of Algol]
* [http://www.solstation.com/stars2/algol3.htm SolStation article]
* [http://www.ari.uni-heidelberg.de/aricns/cnspages/4c02517.htm ARICNS entry]
* [http://www.alcyone.de/SIT/mainstars/SIT000666.htm MainStars data]
* [http://www.astro.uiuc.edu/~kaler/sow/algol.html Algol by Jim Kaler]
[[Category:Bayer objects|Persei, Beta]]
[[Category:Eclipsing binaries]]
[[Category:Blue-white dwarfs]]
[[Category:Orange subgiants]]
[[Category:Perseus constellation]]
[[Category:Variable stars]]
[[Category:Arabic words]]
[[de:Algol (Stern)]]
[[es:Algol]]
[[fr:Algol (étoile)]]
[[gl:Algol, estrela]]
[[ko:알골]]
[[it:Algol (astronomia)]]
[[nl:Algol (ster)]]
[[ja:アルゴル]]
[[pl:Algol (gwiazda w Perseuszu)]]
[[pt:Beta Persei]]
[[ru:Алголь]]
[[sv:Algol (stjärna)]]
[[zh:大陵五]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amazing Grace</title>
<id>1395</id>
<revision>
<id>41336614</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T18:01:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Metahacker</username>
<id>74726</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Recordings */ +arlo here too</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
'''"Amazing Grace"''' is one of the most well-known [[Christian]] [[hymn]]s. The words were written by [[John Newton]]; they form a part of the [[Olney Hymns]] that he worked on, with [[William Cowper]] and other hymnodists.
==History==
John Newton ([[1725]]&ndash;[[1807]]) was the captain of a slave ship. On [[10 May]] [[1748]] returning home during a storm he experienced a "great deliverance". In his journal he wrote that the ship was in grave danger of sinking. He exclaimed "Lord have mercy upon us". He came to the light gradually and even continued to trade slaves after his conversion.
Newton wrote the song "How Sweet the Name of Jesus Sounds" while waiting in an African harbor for a shipment of slaves. Later he renounced his profession, became a minister, and joined William Wilberforce in the fight against slavery.
Newton may have borrowed an old tune sung by the slaves themselves, redeeming the song, just as he had been redeemed.
The now familiar and traditional melody of the hymn was not composed by Newton, and the words were sung to a number of tunes before the now inseparable melody was chanced upon.
There are two different tunes to the words. "New Britain" first appears in a [[shape note]] hymnal from [[1831]] called ''Virginia Harmony''. Any original words sung to the tune are now lost. The melody is believed to be [[Scotland|Scottish]] or [[Ireland|Irish]] in origin; it is [[pentatonic]] and suggests a [[bagpipe]] tune; the hymn is frequently performed on bagpipes and has become associated with that instrument. The other tune is the so-called "Old Regular Baptist" tune. It was sung by the Congregation of the Little [[Zion]] Church, Jeff, Kentucky on the album "The [[Jean Ritchie|Ritchie]] Family of Kentucky" on Folkways ([[1958]]).
Newton's lyrics have become a favourite for [[Christianity|Christians]] of all [[religious denomination|denominations]], largely because the hymn vividly and briefly sums up the Christian doctrine of [[Divine grace]]. The lyrics are loosely based around the text of [[Ephesians]] 2:4-8.
It has also become known as a favorite with supporters of freedom and human rights, both Christian and non-Christian, as it is believed by many to be a song against [[slavery]], as Newton was once a slave trader. He continued to be a slave trader for several years after his experience, but with more compassion. Later he became a clergyman. The song has been sung by many notable musical performers.
The hymn was quite popular among both sides in the [[American Civil War]]. While on the [[trail of tears]], the [[Cherokee]] were not always able to give their dead a full burial. Instead, the singing of Amazing Grace had to suffice. Since then, Amazing Grace is often considered the Cherokee National Anthem. For this reason, many contemporary [[List of Native American musicians|Native American musicians]] have recorded this song.
The name "Amazing Grace" was used as the title of a musical written by Mal Pope about the 1904 [[Wales|Welsh]] [[Revival]] and the life of [[Evan Roberts (minister)|Evan Roberts]].
==Bagpipes==
The association with bagpipes is a relatively modern phenomenon; for over a century the tune was nearly forgotten in the British Isles until the folk revival of the [[1960s]] began carrying traditional musicians both ways between the British Isles and the United States (where Amazing Grace had remained a very popular hymn). It was little known outside of church congregations or folk festivals until Arthur Penn's film "[[Alice's Restaurant]]" ([[1969]]). Lee Hays of the Weavers leads the worshipers in "Amazing Grace".
==Lyrics==
:Amazing grace! (how sweet the sound)
:That sav'd a wretch like me!
:I once was lost, but now am found,
:Was blind, but now I see.
:'Twas grace that taught my heart to fear,
:And grace my fears reliev'd;
:How precious did that grace appear,
:The hour I first believ'd!
:Thro' many dangers, toils and snares,
:I have already come;
:'Tis grace has brought me safe thus far,
:And grace will lead me home.
:The Lord has promis'd good to me,
:His word my hope secures;
:He will my shield and portion be,
:As long as life endures.
:Yes, when this flesh and heart shall fail,
:And mortal life shall cease;
:I shall possess, within the veil,
:A life of joy and peace.
:The earth shall soon dissolve like snow,
:The sun forbear to shine;
:But God, who call'd me here below,
:Will be forever mine.
Some versions of the hymn include an additional verse:
:When we've been there ten thousand years,
:Bright shining as the sun,
:We've no less days to sing God's praise
:Than when we'd first begun.
This verse is not by Newton. It was originally from a hymn called ''[[Jerusalem, My Happy Home]]''. It was added to a version of "Amazing Grace" by [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]], as it appears in her [[novel]] ''[[Uncle Tom's Cabin]]''. Uncle Tom has pieced the lyrics of several hymns together; those who learned the lyrics from the novel have assumed that it belongs.
Some versions include |
[Lautaro]], a young Mapuche ''[[toqui]]'' (war chief) but the European conquest was well underway. The Spaniards never subjugated the Mapuche territories; various attempt at conquest, both by military and peaceful means, failed. The Great Uprising of 1600 swept all Spanish presence south of the [[Bío-Bío River]] (except for Valdivia and Chiloé), and the great river became the frontier line between Mapuche lands and the Spanish realm.
North of that line cities grew up slowly, and Chilean lands eventually became an important source of food for the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]].
Chile was the least wealthy realm of the Spanish Crown for most of its colonial history. Only in the 18th century did a steady economic and demographic growth begin, an effect of the reforms by Spain's [[Bourbon Spain|Bourbon dynasty]] and a more stable situation along the frontier.
==Independence==
[[Image:ohiggins.jpg|thumb|Bernardo O'Higgins]]
The drive for independence from [[Spain]] was precipitated by usurpation of the Spanish throne by [[Napoleon]]'s brother [[Joseph Bonaparte]]. A national junta in the name of Ferdinand &mdash; heir to the deposed king &mdash; was formed on [[September 18]], [[1810]]. Spanish attempts to reimpose arbitrary rule during the period known in Chile as the ''Reconquista'' ("Reconquest": the term echoes the ''[[Reconquista]]'' in which the Christian kingdoms retook Iberia from the Muslims) led to a prolonged struggle under [[Bernardo O'Higgins]], Chile's most renowned patriot and a member of South America's [[Irish diaspora]]. Other revolutionary leaders included the exiled British admiral [[Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald]], who commanded the Chilean Navy from 1817-1822.
Chilean independence was formally proclaimed on [[February 12]], [[1818]].
==The nineteenth century==
The political revolt brought little social change, however, and nineteenth century Chilean society preserved the essence of the stratified colonial social structure, family politics, and the influence of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. The system of presidential power eventually predominated, but wealthy landowners continued to control Chile.
Toward the end of the nineteenth century, the government in Santiago consolidated its position in the south by persistently suppressing the [[Mapuche]]. In [[1881]], it signed a treaty with [[Argentina]] confirming Chilean sovereignty over the [[Strait of Magellan]], but conceding all of oriental [[Patagonia]], and a considerable fraction of the territory it had during colonial times. As a result of the [[War of the Pacific]] with [[Peru]] and [[Bolivia]] ([[1879]]-[[1883]]), Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third and acquired valuable [[nitrate]] deposits, the exploitation of which led to an era of national affluence.
[[Image:JoseManuelBalmaceda.jpg|thumb|right|200px|José Manuel Balmaceda, the president of the civil war]]
In the [[1870s]], the church influence started to diminish slightly with the passing of several laws that took some old roles of the church into the State's hands such as the registry of births and marriages.
In [[1886]], [[José Manuel Balmaceda]] was elected president. His economic policies visibly changed the existing liberal policies. He began to violate the constitution and slowly began to establish a dictatorship. Congress decided to depose Balmaceda, who refused to step down. [[Jorge Montt]], among others, directed an armed conflict against Balmaceda, which soon extended into the [[Chilean Civil War]] of [[1891]]. Defeated, Balmaceda fled to Argentina's embassy, where he committed suicide. Jorge Montt became the new president.
==The twentieth century==
[[Image:Arturo Alessandri official portrait.jpg|thumb|200px|Arturo Alessandri Palma]]
By the [[1920s]], the emerging middle and working classes were powerful enough to elect a reformist president, whose program was frustrated by a conservative congress. A military coup led by General [[Luis Altamirano]] in 1924 set off a period of great political instability that lasted until 1932. The longest lasting of the ten governments between those years was that of Gen. [[Carlos Ibáñez]], who briefly held power in [[1925]] and then again between [[1927]] and [[1931]] in what was a de facto dictatorship. When constitutional rule was restored in [[1932]], a strong middle-class party, the Radicals, emerged. It became the key force in coalition governments for the next 20 years. During the period of [[Radical Party]] dominance (1932-52), the state increased its role in the economy. In [[1952]], voters returned Ibáñez to office for another 6 years. [[Jorge Alessandri]] succeeded Ibáñez in [[1958]].
The [[1964]] presidential election of [[Christian Democrat]] [[Eduardo Frei Montalva]] by an absolute majority initiated a period of major reform. Under the slogan "Revolution in Liberty", the Frei administration embarked on far-reaching social and economic programs, particularly in education, housing, and agrarian reform, including rural unionization of agricultural workers. By [[1967]], however, Frei encountered increasing opposition from leftists, who charged that his reforms were inadequate, and from conservatives, who found them excessive.
===1970–1973===
[[Image:sallende.jpg|thumb|Salvador Allende]]
In [[1970]], [[Salvador Allende]] gained the presidency of Chile. Allende was a [[Marxism|Marxist]] and member of Chile's [[Socialist Party of Chile|Socialist Party]], who headed the "[[Popular Unity]]" (UP) coalition of the Socialist, Communist, Radical, and Social-Democratic Parties, along with dissident Christian Democrats, the Popular Unitary Action Movement (MAPU), and the Independent Popular Action. His program included the nationalization of most remaining private industries and banks, massive land expropriation, and collectivization. Allende's proposal also included the nationalization of US interests in Chile's major copper mines. Allende had two main competitors in the election — [[Radomiro Tomic]], representing the incumbent Christian Democratic party, who ran a left-wing campaign with much the same theme as Allende's, and the right-wing former president [[Jorge Alessandri]].
Allende received a plurality of the votes cast, getting 36% of the vote against Alessandri's 34% and Tomic's 27%. This was not the first time the leading candidate received less than half of the popular vote. Such had been the case in every post-war election, save that of 1968 — Alessandri himself was elected president in 1958 with 31%. In the absence of an absolute majority, the Chilean constitution required the president-elect to be confirmed by the Chilean parliament. This procedure had previously been a near-formality, yet became quite fraught in 1970. After assurances of legality on Allende's part, and in spite of pressure from the U.S. government, Tomic's Christian Democrats voted together with Allende's supporters to confirm him as president. Allende received 153 votes to Alessandri's 35. Following his election, indigenous and peasant forces across the country violently took control of ranches, forcibly fulfilling Allende's land redistribution promises.
Immediately after the election, the [[United States]] expressed its disapproval and raised a number of economic sanctions against Chile. In addition, the [[CIA]]'s website reports that the agency aided three different Chilean opposition groups during that time period and "sought to instigate a coup to prevent Allende from taking office(.)" [http://www.cia.gov/cia/reports/chile/#6] [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/news/20001113/]
In the first year of Allende's term, the short-term economic results of Minister of the Economics [[Pedro Vuskovic]]'s expansive monetary policy were unambiguously favorable: 12% industrial growth and an 8.6% increase in [[Gross domestic product|GDP]], accompanied by major declines in inflation (down from 34.9% to 22.1%) and unemployment (down to 3.8%). However, these results were not sustained and in [[1972]] the Chilean ''escudo'' had runaway inflation of 140%. The combination of inflation and government-mandated price-fixing led to the rise of [[black market]]s in rice, beans, sugar, and flour, and a "disappearance" of such basic commodities from supermarket shelves. [http://icarito.latercera.cl/icarito/2003/912/pag1b.htm]
By 1973, Chilean society had grown highly polarized, between strong opponents and equally strong supporters of Salvador Allende and his government. Military actions and movements, separate from the civilian authority, began to manifest in the countryside. A failed military [[coup d'état|coup]] was attempted against Allende in June 1973. Just a few months later, on [[September 11]] [[1973]], the successful [[Chilean coup of 1973]] received support from a large portion of the populace and from the political parties of the center and right, notably including the Christian Democratic party that had, earlier, supported the Allende regime.
As the armed forces attacked by land and air the presidential palace of [[Palacio de La Moneda|La Moneda]], President Allende died. The cause of his death was long a matter of controversy. Allende's supporters initially nearly all believed that he was murdered by [[Augusto Pinochet|Pinochet]]'s military forces while defending the palace, and some hold to that belief even today. However, several witnesses including one of the doctors of the presidential palace infirmary have said that he committed suicide with by machine gun, presumably the machine gun given to him by [[Fidel Castro]], a view that has come increasingly to be accepted.
Controversy surrounds alleged [[CIA]] involvement in the coup. As early as the [[Church Committee]] Report (1975), publicly available documents have indicated that the CIA attempted to prevent Allende from taking office after he was elected in 1970; the CIA itself released documents in 2000 acknowled |
species, from ''[[TiHKAL]]'' (by [[Alexander Shulgin]]):
<table>
<tr>
<td>''A. baileyana''</td><td>0.02% tryptamine and &beta;-carbolines, in the leaf</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>''A. maidenii''</td><td>DMT and NMT, in the stem bark</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>''A. albida''</td><td>DMT, in the leaf</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>''A. confusa''</td><td>DMT and NMT, in the leaf, stem and bark</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>''A. cultriformis''</td><td>tryptamine, in the leaf and stem</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>''A. laeta''</td><td>DMT, in the leaf</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>''A. mellifera''</td><td>DMT, in the leaf</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>''A. nilotica''</td><td>DMT, in the leaf</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>''A. phlebophylla''</td><td>DMT, in the leaf</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>''A. podalyriaefolia''</td><td>tryptamine, in the leaf</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>''A. senegal''</td><td>DMT, in the leaf</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>''A. seyal''</td><td>DMT, in the leaf</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>''A. sieberiana''</td><td>DMT, in the leaf)
</tr><tr>
<td>''A. simplicifolia''</td><td>DMT and NMT, in the leaf, stem and trunk bark</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>''A. vestita''</td><td>tryptamine, in the leaf and stem</td>
</tr>
</table>
== Species ==
There are over 1,300 species of Acacia. See [[List of Acacia species]] for a complete listing.
== External links ==
{{wikispecies|Acacia}}
{{Commons|Acacia}}
* [http://www.worldwidewattle.com/ World Wide Wattle]
* [http://waynesword.palomar.edu/plaug99.htm Wayne's Word] on "The Unforgettable Acacias"
[[Category:Acacia| ]]
[[Category:Pantropical Flora]]
[[Category:Australian plants]]
[[Category:Argentine flora]]
[[Category:Trees of Africa]]
[[ar:طلح]]
[[bg:Акация]]
[[da:Akacie]]
[[de:Akazien]]
[[et:Akaatsia]]
[[es:Acacia]]
[[eo:Akacio]]
[[fr:Acacia]]
[[gl:Acacia]]
[[ko:아카시아속]]
[[it:Acacia]]
[[nl:Acacia]]
[[ja:アカシア]]
[[pl:Akacja]]
[[pt:Acácia]]
[[sr:Акација]]
[[uk:Акація]]
[[vi:Chi Keo]]
[[zh:金合欢]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Acapulco</title>
<id>1446</id>
<revision>
<id>41701158</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T03:49:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tyler Oderkirk</username>
<id>430856</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Typo fix: "non" -> "none"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article is about the city in Mexico; there is also a town called [[Acapulco, Peru|Acapulco]] in Peru.''
'''Acapulco''' (Officially: '''Acapulco de Juárez''') is a city and major [[sea port]] in the state of [[Guerrero]] on the Pacific coast of [[Mexico]], 300 km (190 miles) southwest from [[Mexico City]], at {{coor d|16.85|N|99.92|W|}}. Acapulco is located on a deep, semi-circular bay. Many consider it to be one of the best harbours on the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] coast of Mexico, and it is a port of call for shipping lines running between [[Panama]] and [[San Francisco, California]], [[United States|USA]]. In [[2003]] the estimated population was 638,000 people. [[Image:spring break.jpg||thumb|280px|right|Acapulco Beach]]
[[Image:JLNYCAcapulcoBay.jpg|thumb|right|Acapulco]]
==Geography==
The town is built on a narrow strip of low land, scarcely half a mile wide, between the shore line and the lofty mountains that encircle the bay. There is great natural beauty in the surroundings, mountains render the access to the town, though not difficult to access particularly since the construction of a 2-km-long tunnel to the waterfront from the hinterland in the [[1990s]]. An earlier effort to admit the cooling sea breezes by cutting through the mountains a passage called the Abra de San Nicolas had some beneficial effect.
==History==
Acapulco has been well known as a traveler's crossroads for at least a millennium. Its name is a [[Nahuatl]] word, meaning "plain of dense reeds."
The earliest local remains, stone metates and pottery utensils, were left in the [[3rd millennium BC]]. Much later, sophisticated artisans fashioned curvaceous female figurines. Some hypothesize that there was early Polynesian or Asian influences in Pacific Mexico as early as 1500 years before the arrival [[Christopher Columbus]].
Other artifacts resemble those found in highland Mexico. Although influenced by [[Tarascan]], [[Mixtec]], [[Zapotec]], and [[Aztec]] civilizations, sometimes paying tribute to them and frequented by their traders, Acapulco never came under their direct control, but instead remained subject to local caciques until the [[Spain|Spanish]] conquest.
[[Image:Puerto_de_Acapulco_Boot_1628.png|right|thumb|A 1628 Spanish relief map of Acapulco Bay]]
After conquering the Aztecs, [[Hernán Cortés]] sent expeditions south to build ships and find a route to [[China]]. The first explorers sailed from [[Zacatula]], near present-day [[Lázaro Cárdenas, Michoacán]], on the coast 400 km (250 miles) north-west of Acapulco. By a royal decree dated [[April 25]], [[1528]], "Acapulco and her land ... where the ships of the south will be built...." passed directly into the hands of the Spanish Crown. Voyages of discovery set sail from Acapulco for [[Peru]], the [[Sea of Cortez]], and to [[Asia]]. None returned across the Pacific, however, until Augustinian priest [[Andrés de Urdaneta]] discovered the northern Pacific tradewinds, which propelled him and his ship, loaded with Chinese treasure, to Acapulco in [[1565]].
For more than 200 years after that, a special yearly trading ship, known to the English as the [[Manila Galleon]], set sail from Acapulco for the [[Manila]] and the Orient. Its return started an annual merchant fair in Acapulco where traders bargained for the Galleon's cargo of silks, porcelain, ivory, and lacquerware. This trade connection, which persisted up to Mexican independence, was instrumental in placing the [[Philippines]] on the east side of the [[International Date Line]] until the end of [[1844]].
Acapulco's yearly treasure soon attracted marauders, too. In [[1579]], [[Francis Drake]] attacked but failed to capture the Galleon, but in [[1587]], off [[Cabo San Lucas]], [[Thomas Cavendish]] seized the ''Santa Anna''. The cash alone, 1.2 million [[gold]] pesos, severely depressed the [[London bullion market]].
After a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] fleet invaded Acapulco in [[1615]], the Spanish rebuilt their fort, which they christened ''Fort San Diego'' in [[1617]]. Destroyed by an [[earthquake]] in [[1776]], the fort was rebuilt by 1783. The [[Mexican War of Independence|War of Independence]] ([[1820]]-[[1821|21]]) stopped the Manila Galleon forever, sending Acapulco into a century-long slumber.
The town suffered considerably from [[earthquake]]s in July and August [[1909]].
[[Miguel Aleman Valdes]] was the [[President of Mexico]] who put so much in the modernization and development of Acapulco. He did so much not only as President but also as the Head of Mexico's National Tourist Commission after he left office.
Acapulco was devastated by [[Hurricane Pauline]] in [[October]] [[1997]].
==Economy==
There are exports of hides, [[wood]], and fruit, and the adjacent district of [[Tabares]] produces [[cotton]], [[tobacco]], [[cacao]], [[sugarcane]], Indian corn, beans, and [[coffee]].
==Acapulco as a holiday resort==
[[Image:Acapulco.jpg|thumb|right|View of the Pacific Ocean from an Acapulco hotel]]
For many years Acapulco has been a popular resort for holiday makers. The city has had its star-spangled times, prompting none other than Old Blue Eyes [[Frank Sinatra]] to give the place a mention in his all time classic [[Come Fly With Me]]. Modern Acapulco still has a great appeal. The vast majority of the tourists now tend to come from the rest of Mexico but several other foreign nationals make appearances in the numerous bars and clubs dotted around the bay come sun down.
In recent years, Acapulco has made some ground on [[Cancún]] for Spring Break's most popular resort destinations. Acapulco offers a relatively unknown experience and a larger international student crowd than Cancún. Due to a recent gun fight between drugdealers and police that left 4 drug dealers dead, the town has feared it might affect tourism this spring break.[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5228258][http://www.univision.com/content/content.jhtml?cid=784788][http://www.el-universal.com.mx/notas/327982.html][http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2006/01/28/003n1pol.php][http://www.cronica.com.mx/nota.php?idc=223266]
==Transportation==
By the early [[20th century]], the town was chosen as the terminus for two railway lines seeking a Pacific port &ndash; the Interoceanic and the Mexican Central. The port city grew greatly in the 20th century.
Acapulco is served by [[General Juan N. Álvarez International Airport]].
==External links==
* {{wikitravel}}
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=16.870193,-99.875679&spn=0.166014,0.234180&t=k&hl=en Satellite picture from Google Local]
==References==
*{{1911}}
==Sources==
*[http://www.el-universal.com.mx/notas/327982.html Ejército y agentes federales sitian Acapulco tras balacera, January 29, 2006]
*[http://www.univision.com/content/content.jhtml?cid=784788 Tiroteo en México dejó cuatro muertos, January 28, 2006]
*[http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2006/01/28/003n1pol.php Balacera entre narcos y policías en Acapulco; versiones contradictorias, January 28, 2006]
*[http://www.cronica.com.mx/nota.php?idc=223266 Narcos y policías se baten a balazos en Acapulco, January 28, 2006]
==S |
he Croatian economy is [[Post-Communism|post-communist]]. In the late 1980s, at the beginning of the process of economic [[transition]], its position was favourable, but it was gravely impacted by de-industrialization and war damages.
Main problems include massive structural [[unemployment]] followed by an insufficient amount of economic reforms. Of particular concern is the gravely backlogged [[judiciary]] system combined with inefficient [[public administration]], especially involving land ownership.
The country has since experienced faster [[economic growth]] and has been preparing for membership in the European Union, its most important [[international trade|trading partner]].
In February 2005, Croatia implemented the [[Stabilization and Association Agreement]] with the [[EU]] and is advancing further towards full EU membership. The country expects some major economic impulses and high growth rates in the following next years (currently Croatia suffers most from its high export deficit and considerable debt). Some big trading companies have already taken advantage of the liberalization of the Croatian market. Croatia is expecting a boom in investments, especially [[Greenfield land|greenfield]] investments.
== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Croatia]]''
[[Image:Costume from Konavle near Dubrovnik, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Girl wearing costume from [[Konavle]] near [[Dubrovnik]]]]
The population of Croatia has been stagnating over the last decade. The 1991-1995 war in Croatia had previously displaced large parts of the population and increased emigration. The natural growth rate is minute or negative (less than +/- 1%), as the [[demographic transition]] has been completed half a century ago. Average life expectancy is approximately 75 years, and the literacy rate is 98.5%.
Croatia is inhabited mostly by [[Croats]] (89.6%). There are around twenty minorities, [[Serbs]] being the biggest one (4.5%), others having less than 0.5% each. The predominate religion is [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholicism]] (87.8%), with some [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]] (4.4%) and [[Sunni Muslim]] (1.3%) minorities.
The official and common language, [[Croatian language|Croatian]], is a South [[Slavic language]], using the [[Latin alphabet]]. Less than 5% of the population cites other language as their mother tongues.
== Culture ==
''Main article: [[Culture of Croatia]]''
[[Image:Zadar - église Saint-Donat.jpg|thumb|right|170px|St. Donatus' Church - the monumental building in the pre Romanesque style from 9th century [[Zadar]]]]
Croatian culture is based on a [[Culture of Croatia#History|thirteen century long history]] during which the country has attained many monuments and cities, which gave birth to a good number of [[Culture of Croatia#People|brilliant individuals]]. The country includes [[Culture of Croatia#Places|six World Heritage sites and eight national parks]]. Two [[Nobel prize]] winners came from Croatia, as did numerous important inventors and [[List of Croatians|other notable people]] — notably, some of the first [[fountain pen]]s came from Croatia.
Croatia also has a place in the history of clothing as the origin of the [[necktie]] (''cravat''). The country has a long [[Culture of Croatia#Arts and literature|artistic, literary]] and [[Music of Croatia|musical tradition]]. Of particular interest is also the diverse [[Croatian cuisine|cuisine]].
== Famous Croats ==
[[Image:Alka tournament, Sinj, Croatia.jpg|thumb|150px|right|[[Alka]] in [[Sinj]]]]
For a full list see [[List of Croatians|List of Croats]].
'''Nobel Prize winners'''
* [[Vladimir Prelog]] - [[chemistry]]
* [[Lavoslav Ružička]] - [[chemistry]]
'''Literature'''
* [[Miroslav Krleža]] - novelist
* [[Antun Gustav Matoš]] - poet
* [[August Šenoa]] - writer
* [[Marko Marulić]] - writer
* [[Ivan Gundulić|Ivan Dživo Gundulić]] - poet
'''Science'''
* [[Rudjer Boskovic|Ruđer Bošković]] - physicist and Jesuit
* [[Faust Vrančić]] - philosopher, thinker
'''Sport'''
* [[Davor Suker|Davor Šuker]] - [[football (soccer)|football]] player, Top scorer [[Football World Cup 1998]]
* [[Zvonimir Boban]] - [[football (soccer)|football]] player
* [[Dario Šimić]] - AC Milan defender
* [[Drazen Petrovic|Dražen Petrović]]- basketball player
* [[Toni Kukoč]]- basketball player
* [[Goran Ivanišević]] - tennis player, [[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]] winner
* [[Ivan Ljubičić]] - tennis player, [[Davis Cup]] winner
* [[Janica Kostelic|Janica Kostelić]] - World ski champion, gold Olympic medal winner
* [[Ivica Kostelic|Ivica Kostelić]] - World ski champion, silver Olympic medal winner
* [[Mirko Filipović]] - kickboxer and [[mixed martial artist]]
'''Politics'''
* Ban [[Josip Jelačić]] - politician, soldier
* [[Ante Starčević]] - politician
* [[Stjepan Radić]] - politician
* [[Josip Broz]] - Tito - politician and guerilla leader
* [[Franjo Tuđman]] - politician , first Croatian president
* [[Don Mihovil Pavlinović]] - politician, priest, writer
==See also==
* [[Communications in Croatia]]
* [[Transportation in Croatia]]: recent highway construction progress, buses, railways and airports in Croatia
* [[Military of Croatia]]
* [[Holidays in Croatia]]
* [[Tourism in Croatia]]
* [[List of Croatians]]
==Literature==
*Agičić et al. (2000): Povijest i zemljopis Hrvatske (History and Geography of Croatia), priručnik za hrvatske manjinske škole (handbook for croatian minority schools), Biblioteka Geographica Croatica, 292 p., Zagreb, ISBN 953-6235-40-4 ''(croatian)''
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Croatia}}
* [http://us.mfa.hr/?mh=186&mv=1111 Basic facts, website of the Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
* [http://www.kartegradova.com kartegradova.com, detailed online maps of Croatia]
* [http://www.croatia.hr/ Croatian National Tourist Board @ croatia.hr]
* [http://www.hr/hrvatska/general.en.shtml General information about Croatia @ www.hr]
* [http://www.vlada.hr/ The Croatian government's official website @ vlada.hr]
* [http://www.fivestars.hr/photo_gallery/croatian_coast_ivo_pervan/ Picture Gallery @ fivestars.hr]
* [http://www.hrvatska.nl/gallery Picture Gallery @ hrvatska.nl]
* [http://www.mythinglinks.org/euro~east~Balkans~Croatia.html Culture Links @ mythinglinks.org]
* [http://www.showcaves.com/english/hr/index.html Speleology @ showcaves.com]
* [http://www.romwell.com/travel/advisory/europe/croatia/crocastles.shtml Castles @ romwell.com]
* [http://www.map-of-croatia.co.uk/ Map of Croatia]
* [http://www.freeworldmaps.net/europe/croatia/map.html Physical Map of Croatia]
[[Category:Croatia| ]]
{{Europe}}
{{EU countries and candidates}}
{{Mediterranean}}
[[af:Kroasië]]
[[ar:كرواتيا]]
[[an:Croazia]]
[[ast:Croacia]]
[[az:Xorvatiya]]
[[bg:Хърватска]]
[[zh-min-nan:Hrvatska]]
[[be:Харватыя]]
[[bn:ক্রোয়েশিয়া]]
[[bs:Hrvatska]]
[[ca:Croàcia]]
[[cs:Chorvatsko]]
[[cy:Croatia]]
[[da:Kroatien]]
[[de:Kroatien]]
[[et:Horvaatia]]
[[el:Κροατία]]
[[es:Croacia]]
[[eo:Kroatio]]
[[eu:Kroazia]]
[[fr:Croatie]]
[[fy:Kroaasje]]
[[gl:Croacia - Hrvatska]]
[[ko:크로아티아]]
[[hi:क्रोएशिया]]
[[hr:Hrvatska]]
[[io:Kroatia]]
[[id:Kroasia]]
[[is:Króatía]]
[[it:Croazia]]
[[he:קרואטיה]]
[[ka:ხორვატია]]
[[kw:Kroati]]
[[la:Croatia]]
[[lv:Horvātija]]
[[lt:Kroatija]]
[[lb:Kroatien]]
[[li:Kroatië]]
[[hu:Horvátország]]
[[mk:Хрватска]]
[[mt:Kroazja]]
[[na:Croatia]]
[[nl:Kroatië]]
[[nds:Kroatien]]
[[ja:クロアチア]]
[[no:Kroatia]]
[[nn:Kroatia]]
[[oc:Croàcia]]
[[pl:Chorwacja]]
[[pt:Croácia]]
[[ro:Croaţia]]
[[ru:Хорватия]]
[[se:Kroátia]]
[[sa:क्रोएशिया]]
[[sq:Kroacia]]
[[sh:Hrvatska]]
[[simple:Croatia]]
[[sk:Chorvátsko]]
[[sl:Hrvaška]]
[[sr:Хрватска]]
[[fi:Kroatia]]
[[sv:Kroatien]]
[[tl:Croatia]]
[[th:ประเทศโครเอเชีย]]
[[tr:Hırvatistan]]
[[uk:Хорватія]]
[[zh:克罗地亚]]
[[fiu-vro:Horvaatia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of Croatia</title>
<id>5574</id>
<revision>
<id>42148640</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:29:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jandrinov</username>
<id>317972</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Croatia}}
This is the '''history of Croatia'''. See also the [[list of rulers of Croatia]], the [[history of the Mediterranean]], the [[history of the Balkans]], the [[history of Europe]], and the [[history of present-day nations and states]].
== Croatian lands before the Croats (until 7th c.) ==
{{main|Croatia before the Croats}}
The area known as [[Croatia]] today has been inhabited throughout the prehistoric period, since the [[Stone Age]]. In the middle [[Paleolithic]], [[Neanderthals]] lived in Krapina. In the early [[Neolithic]] period, the [[Starčevo-Körös|Starčevo]], [[Vinča culture|Vinča]], [[Sopot culture|Sopot]], [[Vučedol culture|Vučedol]] and [[Hvar culture|Hvar]] cultures were scattered around the region. The [[Iron Age]] left traces of the [[Hallstatt culture]] (proto-[[Illyrians]]) and the [[La Tène culture]] (proto-[[Celts]]).
In recorded history, the area was inhabited by the [[Illyria]]ns, and since the [[4th century BC]] also colonized by the [[Celts]] and by the [[Greek colonies|Greeks]]. Illyria was a sovereign state until the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] conquered it in [[168 BC]]. The Western Empire organized the [[Roman province|provinces]] of [[Pannonia]] and [[Dalmatia]], which after its downfall passed to the [[Huns]], the [[Ostrogoths]] and then to the [[Byzantine Empire]]. Forebears of Croatia's current [[Slavic peoples|Slav]] population settled there in the [[7th century]].
== Medieval Croatian state (until 1102) ==
{{main|Medieval Croatian state}}
[[Image:Migration of the Croats through Euro-Asian regions.jpg|thumb|left|Migration of the [[Croats]] through Eurasia]]
[[Image:Oton Ivekovic, Dolazak Hrvata na Jadran.jpg|thumb|right|Oton Iveković. The Croats' arrival at the Adriatic Sea.]]
The [[Croats|Croat]] and other Slavic tribes arrived in what is today Croatia and [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]] in the [[7th century]]. The Croats or |
revealing that she had slept with many women as a teenager and is still interested in women sexually.
==Trivia==
* Barrymore was delivered by [[Paul M. Fleiss|Dr. Paul Fleiss]], father of [[Heidi Fleiss]] (interview on ''The [[Tonight Show]]'', [[January 22]], [[2003]]).
* She is the godmother of [[Frances Bean Cobain]], the daughter of musicians [[Kurt Cobain]] and [[Courtney Love]].
* She is the goddaughter of filmmaker [[Steven Spielberg]].
* She has 6 tattoos: a crescent moon on her big toe, a cross with ivy on her lower leg, a butterfly on her stomach, a daisy on her hip, and 2 angels on her lower back (one has a banner with her mother's name, Jaid, and the other has the name James--a tribute to her then-boyfriend Jamie Walters).
* She was the second ever guest on [[Late Night with Conan O'Brien]], appearing on the first show with [[John Goodman]] and the late [[Tony Randall]].
==Filmography==
[[Image:Charlies Angels movie still.jpg|thumb|250px|Barrymore (right) with [[Lucy Liu]] and [[Cameron Diaz]] in ''[[Charlie's Angels (film)|Charlie's Angels]]'' (2000)]]
*''[[Altered States]]'' ([[1980 in film|1980]])
*''[[E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial]]'' ([[1982 in film|1982]])
*''[[Firestarter]]'' ([[1984 in film|1984]])
*''[[Irreconcilable Differences (film)|Irreconcilable Differences]]'' ([[1984 in film|1984]])
*''[[Cat's Eye (film)|Cat's Eye]]'' ([[1985 in film|1985]])
*''See You in the Morning'' ([[1989 in film|1989]])
*''Far from Home'' ([[1989 in film|1989]])
*''[[Motorama]]'' ([[1991 in film|1991]])
*''[[Poison Ivy (film)|Poison Ivy]]'' ([[1992 in film|1992]])
*''Waxwork II: Lost in Time'' ([[1992 in film|1992]])
*''Guncrazy'' ([[1992 in film|1992]])
*''No Place to Hide'' ([[1993 in film|1993]])
*''[[Doppelganger_%281993_film%29|Doppelganger]]'' ([[1993 in film|1993]])
*''[[Wayne's World 2]]'' ([[1993 in film|1993]]) ([[Cameo appearance|Cameo]])
*''Inside the Goldmine'' ([[1994 in film|1994]])
*''[[Bad Girls (film)|Bad Girls]]'' ([[1994 in film|1994]])
*''[[Boys on the Side]]'' ([[1995 in film|1995]])
*''[[Mad Love]]'' ([[1995 in film|1995]])
*''[[Batman Forever]]'' ([[1995 in film|1995]])
*''[[Everyone Says I Love You]]'' ([[1996 in film|1996]])
*''[[Scream (film)|Scream]]'' ([[1996 in film|1996]])
*''Wishful Thinking'' ([[1997 in film|1997]])
*''[[Best Men]]'' ([[1997 in film|1997]])
*''[[The Wedding Singer]]'' ([[1998 in film|1998]])
*''[[Ever After]]'' ([[1998 in film|1998]])
*''[[Home Fries]]'' ([[1998 in film|1998]])
*''[[Never Been Kissed]]'' ([[1999 in film|1999]]) (also executive producer)
*''Skipped Parts'' ([[2000 in film|2000]])
*''[[Titan A.E.]]'' ([[2000 in film|2000]]) ([[voice actor|voice]])
*''[[Charlie's Angels (film)|Charlie's Angels]]'' ([[2000 in film|2000]]) (also producer)
*''[[Donnie Darko]]'' ([[2001 in film|2001]]) (also executive producer)
*''[[Freddy Got Fingered]]'' ([[2001 in film|2001]]) (Cameo)
*''[[Riding in Cars with Boys]]'' ([[2001 in film|2001]])
*''[[Confessions of a Dangerous Mind]]'' ([[2002 in film|2002]])
*''[[Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle]]'' ([[2003 in film|2003]]) (also producer)
*''[[Duplex]]'' ([[2003 in film|2003]]) (also producer)
*''[[50 First Dates]]'' ([[2004 in film|2004]])
*''Ramones Raw'' ([[2004 in film|2004]]) (documentary)
* [[Stewie Griffin The Untold Story]] (Herself, Voice)
*''[[Fever Pitch (2005 film)|Fever Pitch]]'' ([[2005 in film|2005]]) (also producer)
*''[[Curious George (film)|Curious George]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]]) (voice)
===Upcoming===
*''[[Lucky You (2006 film)|Lucky You]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]])
*''[[Family Guy]]'' ([[2006 in television|2006]]) (voice)
==See also==
*[[Barrymore family]]
==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0000106|name=Drew Barrymore}}
*[http://www.twoop.com/people/archives/2005/10/drew_barrymore.html Timeline of events in Drew Barrymore's life]
*[http://www.drewsmiles.com Drew Smiles]
*[http://www.drew-barrymore.org The Drew Barrymore Collective]
*[http://www.aceshowbiz.com/celebrity/drew_barrymore/ Beautiful Drew Barrymore]
[[Category:Living people|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[Category:1975 births|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[Category:American film producers|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[Category:Barrymore family|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[Category:Batman actors|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[Category:Bisexual actors|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[Category:American child actors|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[Category:American film actors|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[Category:Hungarian-Americans|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[Category:People from the Greater Los Angeles Area|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[Category:Vegans|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[Category:American voice actors|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[Category:Worst Actress Razzie nominees|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[Category:Worst Supporting Actress Razzie nominees|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[Category:Child actors|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[de:Drew Barrymore]]
[[eo:Drew BARRYMORE]]
[[es:Drew Barrymore]]
[[fr:Drew Barrymore]]
[[it:Drew Barrymore]]
[[ja:ドリュー・バリモア]]
[[nl:Drew Barrymore]]
[[no:Drew Barrymore]]
[[pl:Drew Barrymore]]
[[pt:Drew Barrymore]]
[[sv:Drew Barrymore]]
[[tl:Drew Barrymore]]
[[tr:Drew Barrymore]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Drama Film</title>
<id>7887</id>
<revision>
<id>15905927</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Drama film]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>D. W. Griffith</title>
<id>7888</id>
<revision>
<id>42004176</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:03:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>208.19.88.254</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Biography */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{unsourced}}
'''David Llewelyn Wark Griffith''', commonly known as '''D.W. Griffith''' ([[January 22]], [[1875]]&ndash;[[July 23]], [[1948]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[film director]]. He is best known for being the director of he controversial film ''[[The Birth of a Nation]]''.
==Biography==
<!--No SOurce Information: [[Image:DWGriffith.jpg|thumb|D.W. Griffith]]-->
Griffith was born in [[La Grange, Kentucky|La Grange]], [[Oldham County, Kentucky]] to [[Jacob Griffith|Jacob "Roaring Jake" Griffith]], a [[Confederate States Army|Confederate Army]] colonel and [[American Civil War|Civil War]] hero. He began his career as a hopeful [[playwright]] but met with little success. He then became an actor. Finding his way into the motion picture business, he soon began to direct a huge body of work.
Between 1908 and 1913 (the years he directed for the [[American Mutoscope and Biograph Company|Biograph Company]]), Griffith produced 450 short films, an enormous number even for this period. This work enabled him to experiment with [[cross-cutting]], camera movement, [[close-up]]s, and other methods of spatial and temporal manipulation.
On Griffith's first trip to California, he and his company discovered a little village to film their movies in. This place was known as [[Hollywood]]. With this, [[American Mutoscope and Biograph Company|Biograph]] was the first company to shoot a movie in Hollywood: ''[[In Old California (1910)|In Old California]]'' (1910).
Influenced by a European feature film "[[Cabiria]]" from Italy, Griffith was convinced that longer films (then called "features") could be financially viable. He produced and directed the [[American Mutoscope and Biograph Company|Biograph]] feature film [[Judith of Bethulia]]. This was one, if not "The" first feature ever produced in the United States. [[American Mutoscope and Biograph Company|Biograph]] believed that longer features were not viable, and as actress [[Lillian Gish]] puts it "They (Biograph) thought that a movie that long would hurt their (The audience's) eyes". Because of this, and the overrun on the budget by the film which cost 30,000 dollars to produce, Griffith and [[American Mutoscope and Biograph Company|Biograph]] parted ways, with Griffith taking his whole stock company of actors with him. His new production company became an autonomous production unit partner in Triangle Pictures Corporation with [[Keystone Studios]] and [[Thomas Ince]]. Through David W. Griffith Corp. he produced ''[[The Birth of a Nation]]'' (1915).
''Birth of a Nation'' was extremely popular but expressed the racist views of the era. The film ends with the Ku Klux Klan galloping in to save the heroine. In reaction to protests, Griffith mounted his most ambitious project, ''[[Intolerance (film)|Intolerance]]'', an epic spanning several thousand years of human history. The film was a flop, and the Triangle partnership was dissolved in 1917, so Griffith went to Artcraft (part of [[Paramount Pictures|Paramount]]), then to [[First National]] (1919-20). At the same time he founded [[United Artists]], together with [[Charlie Chaplin]], [[Mary Pickford]], and [[Douglas Fairbanks]].
Though United Artists survived as a company, Griffith's association with it was short-lived, and while some of his later films did well at the box office, commercial success often eluded him. Features from this period include ''[[Broken Blossoms]]'' (1919), ''[[Way Down East]]'' (1920), ''[[Orphans of the Storm]]'' (1921) and ''[[America (movie)|America]]'' (1924). Griffith made only two sound films, ''[[Abraham Lincoln (movie)|Abraham Lincoln]]'' (1930) and ''[[The Struggle]]'' (1931). Neither was successful, and he never made another film.
Griffith Park in [[Los Angeles]] is named for D. W. Griffith.
==Achievements==
Griffith has been called the father of [[film grammar]]. Few scholars still hold that his "innovations" really began with him, but Griffith was a key figure in establishing the set of codes that have become the universal backbone of film language. He was particularly influential in popularizing "cross-cutting& |
Augustus was portrayed in the movie [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0340529/ ''Imperium: Augustus''] (part of the [[Imperium (movie)|Imperium]] movie series) by [[Peter O'Toole]].
==See also==
*[[Augustus (honorific)]]
*[[Julio-Claudian Family Tree]]
==Notes ==
# {{note|slander}} [[Suetonius]], ''Augustus'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#68 68], [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#71 71]
# {{note|2ndTri}} From the Gracchi to Nero: HH Scullard p163
# {{note|pros}} From the Gracchi to Nero: HH Scullard p164
# {{note|suicide}} Alexander to Actium: Peter Green pp 697
==External links==
{{commons|Augustus}}
{{wikiquote|Augustus}}
===Primary sources===
a
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Augustus/Res_Gestae/home.html The Res Gestae Divi Augusti] (The Deeds of Augustus, ''his own account'': complete Latin and Greek texts with facing English translation)
* [http://www.usask.ca/antharch/cnea/DeptTransls/ResGest.html Selections from the Res Gestae] (in a different English translation)
* [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html Suetonius' biography of Augustus, Latin text with English translation]
* [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/home.html#45 Cassius Dio's Roman History: Books 45&#8209;56, English translation]
* [http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/nicolaus.html Life of Augustus] by [[Nicolaus of Damascus]]
===Secondary material===
* [http://www.roman-emperors.org/auggie.htm De Imperatoribus Romanis] (A good detailed biography)
* [http://janusquirinus.org/Octavian/OctavianHome.html Octavian / Augustus]
*[http://www.jerryfielden.com/essays/augustus.htm Augustus and the Roman army &#8211; Mutual Loyalty and Rewards]
==Select Bibliography==
* ''The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus'', Paul Zanker.
* ''Augustan Culture'', Karl Galinsky.
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of Roman consuls|Consul]] of the [[Roman Republic]]|before=[[Gaius Julius Caesar]] and [[Marc Antony|Marcus Antonius]]||after=[[Aulus Hirtius]] and [[Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus]] |years=[[44 BC]]}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of Roman consuls|Consul]] of the [[Roman Republic]]|before=[[Aemilius Lepidus Paullus]]||after=[[Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (1st century BC)|Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus]] and [[Gaius Sosius]] |years=[[33 BC]]}}
{{succession box|title=[[Julio-Claudian Dynasty]]|before=&mdash;|after=[[Tiberius]]|years=63 BC &ndash;14 AD}}
{{succession box|title=[[Roman Emperor]]| before=&mdash; | CoEmperor= | after=[[Tiberius]]|years=27 BC-14 AD}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:63 BC births|Augustus, Caesar]]
[[Category:14 deaths|Augustus, Caesar]]
[[Category:Natives of Rome|Augustus, Caesar]]
[[Category:Julio-Claudian Dynasty|Augustus, Caesar]]
[[Category:Deified Roman Emperors|Augustus, Caesar]]
[[Category:Adoptive parents|Augustus, Caesar]]
[[Category:Historical figures portrayed by Shakespeare]]
[[bg:Октавиан Август]]
[[ca:August]]
[[cs:Augustus]]
[[da:Cæsar Augustus]]
[[de:Augustus]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[et:Augustus]]
[[es:César Augusto]]
{{Link FA|es}}
[[eo:Aŭgusto Cezaro]]
[[eu:Zesar Augusto]]
[[fr:Auguste]]
[[ko:아우구스투스]]
[[hr:August]]
[[it:Augusto (imperatore romano)]]
[[he:אוגוסטוס קיסר]]
[[la:G. Iulius Caesar Octavianus Augustus]]
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[[nl:Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (Augustus)]]
[[ja:アウグストゥス]]
[[no:Augustus]]
[[pl:Oktawian August]]
[[pt:César Augusto]]
[[ro:Caesar Augustus]]
[[ru:Гай Юлий Цезарь Октавиан Август]]
[[scn:Cesari Augustu]]
[[simple:Caesar Augustus]]
[[sl:Gaj Avgust Oktavijan]]
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[[zh:屋大维]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Antarctica</title>
<id>1274</id>
<revision>
<id>39866053</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T11:44:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>William M. Connolley</username>
<id>8072</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+/- ???: plus!</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Booth_Island.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Photo of [[Booth Island]] in [[Antarctica]]]]
[[Image:Antarctica2.jpg|250px|thumb|right|[http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/corps/images/big/corp2359.jpg] higher resolution copy]]
[[Image:Lake Fryxell.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Blue ice (glacial)|Blue ice]] covering [[Lake Fryxell]], in the Transantarctic Mountains, comes from [[glacier|glacial]] meltwater from the [[Canada Glacier]] and other smaller glaciers. The fresh water stays on top of the lake and freezes, sealing in briny water below.]]
The continent of [[Antarctica]] is located mostly south of the [[Antarctic Circle]]. Physically Antarctica is divided in two by mountains close to the neck between the [[Ross Sea]] and the [[Weddell Sea]]. The portion of the continent west of the Weddell Sea and east of the Ross Sea is called [[Western Antarctica]] and the remainder [[Eastern Antarctica]], since they correspond roughly to the eastern and western hemispheres relative to the [[Prime Meridian|Greenwich meridian]]. This usage has been regarded as [[Eurocentrism|Eurocentric]] by some, and the alternative terms Lesser Antarctica and Greater Antarctica (respectively) are sometimes preferred.
Western Antarctica is covered by the [[West Antarctic Ice Sheet]]. There has been some concern about this [[ice sheet]], because there is a small chance that it will collapse. If it does, ocean levels would rise by a few metres in a very short period of time.
In some areas, the ice sheet rests on bedrock below sea level [http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/aedc/bedmap/examples/bed10.gif].
==Statistics==
; Area:
:* Total: [[1 E13 m²|14 million sq km]]
:* Land: 14 million km² ([[1 E11 m²|280,000 sq km]] ice-free, 13.72 million km² ice-covered) (est.)
:* Note: Fifth-largest continent, following [[Asia]], [[Africa]], [[North America]], and [[South America]], but larger than [[Australia]] and the subcontinent of [[Europe]]
; Land boundaries:
: None
; Coastline:
: [[1 E7 m|17,968 km]]
; Maritime claims:
: None
; Climate:
: Severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and distance from the ocean; East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation; Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate; higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below freezing
; Terrain:
: About 98% thick continental ice sheet and 2% barren rock, with average elevations [[1 E3 m|between 2,000 and 4,000 meters]]; mountain ranges up to 5,140 meters; ice-free coastal areas include parts of southern [[Victoria Land]], [[Wilkes Land]], the [[Antarctic Peninsula]] area, and parts of [[Ross Island]] on [[McMurdo Sound]]; [[glacier]]s form ice shelves along about half of the coastline, and floating ice shelves constitute 11% of the area of the continent. The dry valleys of Antarctica are a particularly interesting region of Antarctica. Due to extreme winds and lack of precipitation, this area is devoid of any snow and barren earth is visible.
; Elevation extremes:
:* Lowest point: [[Southern Ocean]] 0 [[metre|m]], although in some areas the bedrock under the ice sheet is below sea level.
:* Highest point: [[Vinson Massif]] 4,897 m ([[Ellsworth Mountains]])
; Natural resources:
: None presently exploited; [[iron]] ore, [[chromium]], [[copper]], [[gold]], [[nickel]], [[platinum]] and other minerals, and [[coal]] and [[hydrocarbons]] have been found in small, uncommercial quantities
; Land use:
:* Other: 100% (ice 98%, barren rock 2%)
; Irrigated land:
: 0 km² (1993)
; Natural hazards:
: [[katabatic wind|Katabatic]] (gravity-driven) winds blow coastward from the high interior; frequent blizzards form near the foot of the plateau; cyclonic storms form over the ocean and move clockwise along the coast; volcanism on [[Deception Island]] and isolated areas of West Antarctica; other seismic activity rare and weak
; Environment - current issues:
: [[Ozone hole]], [[sea level rise]]
; Geography - note:
: The coldest, windiest, highest (2,300 m on average), and driest continent; during summer, more solar radiation reaches the surface at the [[South Pole]] than is received at the [[Equator]] in an equivalent period; mostly uninhabitable.
==Volcanoes==
There are four [[volcano]]es on the mainland of Antarctica that are
considered to be active on the basis of observed fumarolic activity or
"recent" tephra deposits:
[[Mount Melbourne]] (2,730 m) (74°21'S., 164°42'E.), a stratovolcano;
[[Mount Berlin]] (3,500 m) (76°03'S., 135°52'W.), a stratovolcano;
Mount Kauffman (2,365 m) (75°37'S., 132°25'W.), a stratovolcano; and
[[Mount Hampton]] (3,325 m) (76°29'S., 125°48'W.), a volcanic caldera.
Several volcanoes on offshore islands have records of historic activity.
[[Mount Erebus]] (3,795m), a stratovolcano on
[[Ross Island]] with 10 known eruptions and 1 suspected eruption.
On the opposite side of the continent,
[[Deception Island]]
(62°57'S., 60°38'W.), a volcanic caldera with 10 known
and 4 suspected eruptions, have been the most active.
[[Buckle Island]] in the [[Balleny Islands]] (66°50'S., 163°12'E.),
[[Penguin Island (South Shetland Islands)|Penguin Island]] (62°06'S., 57°54'W.),
Paulet Island (63°35'S., 55°47'W.), and
Lindenberg Island (64°55'S., 59°40'W.) are also
considered to be active.
==See also==
* [[List of antarctic and sub-antarctic islands]]
==External links==
* [http://sd-www.jhuapl.edu/FlareGenesis/Antarctica/1999/pictures/antarctica_pol_map.jpg Political Claims Map]
* [http://terraweb.wr.usgs.gov/TRS/projects/Antarctica/AVHRR.html USGS TerraWeb: Satellite Image Map of Antarctica]
* [http://erg.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/factsheets/fs05101.html United States Antarctic Resource Center (USARC)]
* [http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/aedc/bedmap/ BEDMAP]
[[Category:Geography of Antarctica| ]]
[[nl:Aa |
continental features; winters can be very cold for long periods, and summers can become very warm. Here too, long dry periods are often recorded. In the centre and the south there is a transitional climate which may be predominantly oceanic or continental, according to the general weather situation.
[[Image:Deutschland topo.png|thumb|400x|right|Altitude levels]]
==Terrain==
Lowlands in north, uplands in centre, [[Bavarian Alps]] in south.
'''Elevation extremes:'''
* Lowest point: Wilstermarsch (near [[Itzehoe]]) - 3.5 [[metre|m]]
* Highest point: [[Zugspitze]] (in [[Bavarian Alps]]) - 2962 [[metre|m]]
==Land boundaries==
* Total: 3,621 km
* Border countries: [[Austria]] 784 km, [[Belgium]] 167 km, [[Czech Republic]] 646 km, [[Denmark]] 68 km, [[France]] 451 km, [[Luxembourg]] 138 km, [[Netherlands]] 577 km, [[Poland]] 456 km, [[Switzerland]] 334 km
==[[Coastline]]==
* length 2,389 km
[[image:Germanymap2.png|thumb|400x|right|Rivers]]
==[[Maritime claims]]==
* [[Continental shelf]]: 200m depth or to the depth of exploitation
* [[Exclusive economic zone]]: 200 [[Nautical mile|nm]]
* Territorial sea: 12 nm
==Rivers==
See [[list of rivers in Germany]]
*major rivers are
**[[Rhine]] (Rhein in German) with a German part of 865 km drains into the [[North Sea]], main tributaries: [[Neckar]], the [[Main]] and the [[Moselle River|Moselle]] (Mosel).
**[[Elbe]] with a German part of 727 km drains into the [[North Sea]]
**[[Danube]] (Donau in German) with a German part of 687 km drains into the [[Black Sea]]
==[[Lake]]s==
*Major lakes are
**[[Bodensee]] - 536 km² (with a German part of the coastline of 62%, the German part of the area is not fixed)
**[[Müritz]] - 117 km²
**[[Chiemsee]] - 79,9 km²
==Land use==
* Arable land: 33%
* Permanent crops: 1%
* Permanent pastures: 15%
* Forests and woodland: 31%
* Other: 20% (1993 est.)
==Natural resources==
*[[Iron]] ore, [[coal]], [[potash]], timber, [[lignite]], [[uranium]], [[copper]], [[natural gas]], [[salt]], [[nickel]], arable land
==Irrigated land==
: 4,750 km² (2007 est.)
==Natural hazards==
*Flooding
==Environment--Current issues==
*Emissions from coal-burning utilities and industries contribute to air pollution; acid rain, resulting from sulphur dioxide emissions, is damaging forests; pollution in the Baltic Sea from raw sewage and industrial effluents from rivers in eastern Germany; [[hazardous waste]] disposal; government (under Chancellor Schröder, SPD) announced intent to end the use of nuclear power for producing electricity; government working to meet EU commitment to identify nature preservation areas in line with the EU's Flora, Fauna, and Habitat directive.
== [[Natural environment|Environment]]--International Agreements==
* Party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-[[Nitrogen Oxides]], Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
* Signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants
==Extreme points==
[[Image:Extreme points Germany.png|thumb|right|200px|Extreme points]]
This is a list of the '''extreme points of [[Germany]]''', the points that are farther [[north]], [[south]], [[east]] or [[west]] than any other location.
* Northernmost Point: [[List, Germany|List]], [[Sylt]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]]
* Southernmost Point: [[Oberstdorf]], [[Bavaria]]
* Westernmost Point: [[Millen]], [[North Rhine-Westphalia]]
* Easternmost Point: [[Deschka]], [[Saxony]]
The northernmost point in [[mainland]] [[Germany]] lies near [[Aventoft]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]]
The extreme points of medieval Germany are mentioned in the first stanza of ''[[Das Lied der Deutschen]]'', of which the third stanza is today the national anthem of Germany. They were in part no longer accurate when the song was penned, because [[Austria]] and [[Flanders]] had different affiliations by then. The limits mentioned are the [[river|rivers]] [[Meuse|Meuse/Maas]] which crosses [[France]], [[Belgium]] and the [[Netherlands]], the [[Neman River]], which runs through [[Belarus]] and [[Lithuania]] but previously formed part of the border of East Prussia, the [[Adige]] in German-speaking [[South Tyrol]] which was transferred from the [[Habsburg]] Empire to [[Italy]] after [[World War I]], and the [[Little Belt|Belt]] which is a part of the Baltic Sea between Germany and [[Denmark]].
==See also==
*[[Germany]]
*[[National parks (Germany)]]
*[[Geography of Europe]]
*[[Administrative Divisions of Germany]]
[[Category:Geography by country]]
[[Category:Geography of Germany|*]]
[[an:Cheografía d'Alemaña]]
[[de:Geographie Deutschlands]]
[[es:Geografía de Alemania]]
[[fr:Géographie de l'Allemagne]]
[[lt:Vokietijos geografija]]
[[pt:Geografia da Alemanha]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Germany</title>
<id>11929</id>
<revision>
<id>41989741</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T01:56:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.23.161.113</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Ethnic groups */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Deutschland topo.png|thumb|right|300px]]
The population of [[Germany]], currently numbering over 80 million, is primarily of German nationality. There are about 7 million foreign residents, the largest single nationality group of whom are the Turkish. Germany has been a prime destination for refugees from many developing countries, in part because its constitution long had a clause giving a 'right' to [[refugee|political asylum]], but restrictions over the years have made it less attractive.
Germany has one of the world's highest levels of education, technological development, and economic productivity. Since the end of [[World War II]], the number of youths entering universities has more than tripled, and the trade and technical schools are among the world's best. With a per capita income level of about $27,000, Germany is a broadly middle class society. Germans also are mobile; millions travel abroad each year. A generous social welfare system provides for [[universal health care]], [[unemployment compensation]], and other social needs. Due to Germany's aging population and struggling economy, the welfare system came under a lot of strain from the 1990s. This lead the government to push through a wide-ranging programme of belt-tightening reforms, [[Agenda 2010]], including the labour market reforms known as [[Hartz concept|Hartz I - IV]].
Population: 82,468,000 ([[2005]], 1st quarter avg.)
== Major Cities==
* [[Berlin]] [[Image:Germany Laender Berlin.png|left|80px]]
Berlin is the capital of Germany its largest city. Berlin lies in the eastern part of the country and has a reputation for an Eastern European lifestyle.
[[Berlin/Brandenburg Metropolitan Region|Metropolitan Area]]: 5 million inhabitants
Largest groups of [[Germans]]: Berliners, "Prussians" and others
Largest groups of foreigners: Turks, Poles, Russians
* [[Hamburg]] [[Image:Germany Laender Hamburg.png|left|80px]]
Hamburg is Germany's most Anglo-Saxon city with a long tradition for sea trade and civil establishment. Hamburg is proud of its sophisticated bar and music scene and its reputation as Germany's "capital of good taste".
[[Hamburg Metropolitan Region|Metropolitan Area]]: 4 million inhabitants
Largest groups of Germans: Hamburgers, "Saxons" and others
Largest groups of foreigners: Scandinavians, Turks, Portugese
* [[Munich]] [[Image:Karte muenchen in deutschland.png|left|80px]]
The "secret capital" has Germany's highest standard of living. Countless sporting and leasure opportunities - both in the city and in its picturesque region. Munich is a powerhouse of the [[German economy]] and rich in [[Bavaria]]n culture.
Metropolitan Area: 3 million inhabitants
Largest groups of Germans: [[Bavarians]], Franks and "Zugereiste"
Largest groups of foreigners: [[Austrians]], [[Italians]], [[Croats]]
* [[Cologne]] [[Image:Lage der Stadt Köln in Deutschland.png|left|80px]]
Cologne is the largest and unofficial capital city of the [[Rhineland]], the very Western part of Germany. Particularly among young Germans Cologne is known as a "fun city" for its nightlife and open-minded atmosphere.
[[Rhein-Ruhr|Metropolitan Area]]: 11 millions
Largest groups of Germans: Rhinelanders, "Prussians" and others
Largest groups of foreigners: Spaniards, Poles, (large Japanese community in [[Düsseldorf]])
* [[Frankfurt]] [[Image:Karte frankfurt am main in deutschland.png|left|80px]]
Frankfurt is the economic and financial center both for Germany and the continental [[European Union]]. Frankfurt is arguably Germany's most international city and [[Frankfurt International Airport]] is one of the biggest airports worldwide. Within Germany the city itself has a reputation to be boring.
[[Frankfurt Rhine Main Area|Metropolitan Area]]: 5 million inhabitants
Largest groups of Germans: Hessians, "Prussians" and others
Largest groups of foreigners: Turks, Greeks, US-Americans
== Ethnic groups ==
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="float:right; margin-left:15px;margin-bottom:15px;empty-cells:show; "
|+'''Nationalities in Germany''' (Dec 31, 2004)
|----
|[[Germans]]
| align="right"|75.212.900&nbsp;<sup>1</sup>
|----
| valign="top" |legal alien residents
| valign="top" align="right"|7.288.000&nbsp;<sup>1</sup>
|----
|[[Turkish people|Turks]]
| align="right" | 1.764.300&nbsp;<sup>1</sup>
|----
|[[Italians]] |
ct]]
*[[Boston Port Act]]
*[[Quartering Act]]
The [[First Continental Congress]] was convened in 1774 in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]] and endorsed the [[Suffolk Resolves]], which declared the Intolerable Acts to be unconstitutional, called for the people to form [[militia]]s, and for [[Massachusetts]] to form a Patriot government.
In response, primarily to the Massachusetts Government Act, the inhabitants of Worcester, Massachusetts set up an armed picket line in front of the local courthouse and refused to allow the British magistrates to enter. The magistrates, faced with over 1500 armed men, did not attempt to force entry. Thereafter, the town of Worcester largely governed itself. Similar events occurred, soon after, all across the colony. British troops were sent from England, but, by the time they arrived, the entire colony of Massachusetts, with the exception of the heavily garrisoned city of Boston, had thrown off British control of local affairs.
The [[Battles of Lexington and Concord|Battle of Lexington and Concord]] were the first [[battle]]s of the [[American Revolutionary War]]. They were fought on [[April 19]], [[1775]] in [[Province of Massachusetts Bay|Massachusetts]] within the towns of [[Lexington, Massachusetts|Lexington]], [[Concord, Massachusetts|Concord]], [[Lincoln, Massachusetts|Lincoln]], [[Arlington, Massachusetts|Menotomy]], and [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]]. The battles marked the outbreak of open [[war]] between [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] and the colonies and are known as the "[[shot heard 'round the world]]."
The [[Second Continental Congress]] convened in 1775, after the war had started.
While creating the [[Continental Army]], it also extended the [[Olive Branch Petition]] to the crown as an attempt at reconciliation. King [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]] refused to receive it, leaving the American Patriots no other choice but to wage war against Britain to achieve their Independence.
[[Image:joinordie.png|thumb|250px|This [[political cartoon]] (attributed to [[Benjamin Franklin]]) originally appeared during the [[French and Indian War]], but was recycled to encourage the American colonies to unite against British rule.]]
The American revolutionaries, known as [[Patriot (American Revolution)|Patriot]]s (or Whigs or rebels), included many shades of opinion. [[Alexander Hamilton]], [[John Jay]] and [[George Washington]] represented a socially conservative faction that would later take shape as the [[Federalist party]] and are traditionally characterized as preoccupied with preserving the wealth and power of the "better sorts" of colonial society. [[Thomas Jefferson]], [[James Madison]], [[Benjamin Franklin]] and [[Thomas Paine]] are usually portrayed as representing the less economically affluent side of society, accepting greater political equality. After the revolution, some of these men would become known as the "[[anti-federalists]]" who, led by [[George Mason]], considered the [[Constitution of the United States]] to be a dangerously flawed document, one which would cause greater tyranny than either the British [[Parliament]] or the [[British Crown]] had.
A great many American colonists remained loyal to the British Crown; these became known as [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalist]]s (or 'Tories', or 'King's men'). Loyalists were often of the same well-to-do social circles that produced the right wing of the Patriots (for example [[Thomas Hutchinson]]); however, the Scottish highlanders of the [[Mohawk Valley]] and the frontiersmen of [[Province of Georgia|Georgia]] included a large number of poorer men. Some Loyalists were [[Native Americans of the United States|Native Americans]], including [[Joseph Brant]], who led a mixed band of Indians and white farmers and laborers in the Loyalist cause; others were [[black Loyalist]]s.
After the war, [[United Empire Loyalists]] became a central component of the populations of the [[Abaco]] islands (in the [[Bahamas]]), and the [[Canada|Canadian]] provinces of [[New Brunswick]] and [[Ontario]], where many of them fled to escape persecution in the new United States. Some of the African Americans, who had been freed from slavery by fighting for the British, were settled in [[Freetown]], [[Sierra Leone]].
===Loyalists and Neutrals===
Main article [[Loyalist (American Revolution)]]
Some British North American colonists remained loyal subjects of the British crown during the American Revolution. They included those who were not convinced by the political arguments of the Patriots.They were called Loyalists (also called Tories or "King's Men").
From an American perspective, the Loyalists were traitors who turned against their fellow citizens and collaborated with the enemy, while Loyalists themselves considered the American rebels the traitors.
Loyalists took some part in fighting, especially near Canada. 70,000 left the 13 colonies during or after the war. About 45,000 later settled in Canada, which they profoundly influenced.
In addition, a vast number of colonists in the thirteen colonies, perhaps over half, chose to stay neutral in the highly political American Revolution. While patriots undoubtedly outnumbered loyalists, the neutrals probably outnumbered both groups.
===Class differences among the Patriots===
Just as there were rich and poor Loyalists, the Patriots were a 'mixed lot', and often had different aims for the revolution. Wealthy Patriots viewed independence as a means of freeing themselves from British taxation and limitations on taking western land, but had every intention of remaining in control of the resulting nation. Many craftsmen, small merchants and small farmers, however, were looking at independence as a means of reducing the power and privilege of the elite. Wealthy Patriots knew that they needed the support of the lower classes, but were fearful of their more radical democratic aims. John Adams (an elite more by education than by wealth) attacked Thomas Paine's ''[[Common Sense]]'' for the "absurd democratical notions" it proposed.
===Women===
[[Image:Abigail Adams.jpg|left|thumb|120px|[[Abigail Adams]].]]
The boycott of British goods would have been entirely unworkable without the willing participation of American women: women made the bulk of household purchases, and the boycotted items were largely household items such as tea and cloth. And as cloth was still a basic necessity, for the boycott to work, women would have to return to spinning and weaving, skills that had fallen into disuse. In 1769, the women of Boston produced 40,000 skeins of yarn, and 180 women in Middletown, Massachusetts wove 20,522 yards of cloth.
As the Revolution progressed and economic disruption deepened, women participated directly in the food riots and [[tar and feather]]ing that was the people's response to price gouging by merchants, Loyalist and Patriot alike. On [[August 24]], [[1777]], [[Thomas Boyleston]], a Patriot merchant who was withholding coffee and sugar from the market waiting for prices to rise, was confronted by a crowd of 100 or more women, who seized the keys to his warehouse and distributed the coffee themselves while a large crowd of men stood by and watched, dumbfounded.
===Writing the state constitutions===
By 1776, the colonies had overthrown their existing government, closing courts and driving British agents and governors from their homes, and they had elected conventions and "legislatures" that existed outside of any legal framework whatsoever&mdash; new constitutions were desperately needed in each colony to replace the superseded royal charters.
On [[January 5]], [[1776]], [[New Hampshire]] ratified the first state constitution, six months before the signing of the [[Declaration of Independence]]. Then, in May 1776, Congress voted to suppress all forms of crown authority, to be replaced by locally created authority. [[Virginia]], [[South Carolina]], and [[New Jersey]] created their constitutions before July 4. [[Rhode Island]] and [[Connecticut]] simply took their existing [[royal charter]]s and deleted all references to the crown.
The new states had to decide not only what form of government to create, they first had to decide how to select those who would craft the constitutions and how the resulting document would be ratified. This would be just the start of a process that would pit conservatives against radicals in each state. In states where the wealthy exerted firm control over the process, such as [[Maryland]], [[Virginia]], [[Delaware]], [[New York]] and [[Massachusetts]], the result was constitutions that featured:
*substantial property qualifications for voting and even more substantial requirements for elected positions (though New York and Maryland lowered property qualifications);
*[[bicameral legislature]]s, with the upper house as a check on the lower;
*strong governors, with [[veto]] power over the legislature and substantial appointment authority;
*few or no restraints on individuals holding multiple positions in government;
*the continuation of state-established religion.
In states where the less affluent had organized sufficiently to have significant power, especially [[Pennsylvania]], [[New Jersey]], [[New Hampshire]] and [[Vermont]], the resulting constitutions embodied:
*universal white manhood suffrage, or minimal property requirements for voting or holding office (New Jersey went so far as to enfranchise women, a radical step that they retracted 25 years later);
[[Image:Benjamin_Rush_Painting_by_Peale_1783.jpg|140px|thumb|Dr. [[Benjamin Rush]], 1783]]
*strong, [[Unicameralism|unicameral legislatures]];
*relatively weak governors, without veto powers, and little appointing authority;
*prohibition against individuals holding multiple government posts;
*disestablishment of religion.
Naturally, the fact that conservatives or radi |
the craft. So a [[university]] might refer to its first boat, meaning the rowers who make up their best team, rather than their best piece of equipment.
* A [[submarine]] is generally referred to as a boat rather than a ship. This dates from the early days of submarine warfare, when submarines were essentially [[torpedo boat|motor torpedo boat]]s which could submerge. In the modern combat environment where a typical attack submarine is the size of a [[destroyer]] and equipped with either a [[nuclear reactor]] or [[air independent propulsion]] which can allow it to stay submerged for months or weeks (and [[boomer]]s are even larger, on the order of old-style [[battleship]]s), this use is something of an anachronism.
* A ship can be informally known as a boat, especially by its [[crew]]. This use is uncommon in the case of a [[warship]].
* In [[Great Lakes shipping]], "boat" refers to any vessel, even one which would normally be considered a "ship" on the ocean.
* In some versions of [[cockney rhyming slang]], "boat" means face, from "boat race".
* The term "gravy boat" is used to describe a small jug used to dispense meat gravy at the dining table. Similarly: "sauce boat".
* A [[Boat (car)|boat]] can also be one of the massive cars manufactured in America from the 1950s through the 1970s.
* A boat, short for full-boat is another term for a full-house in the card game [[poker]].
{{Wiktionarypar|boat}}
*The most notorious of all spammers on the online forum [[PBNation]]
==See also==
{{commons|Boat}}
* [[Boat building]]
* [[Cruising]]
* [[Electric boat]]
* [[Air boat]]
* [[Jet boat]]
* [[Jet sprint boat racing]]
* [[Offshore powerboat racing]]
* [[Sport]]
* [[Yachting]]
==External links==
* [http://www.talkboats.com Talk Boats] Non-commercial online boating forum
* [http://www.boatingdir.com Boating Directory]
* [http://www.firstboat.com FirstBoat.com] Information about boating, particularly for new boaters
* [http://www.barges.org DBA - Dutch Barge Association] Living aboard ex-commercial barges or any other type of broad-beam inland waterways craft
* [http://www.everyboat.com Every Boat Sales] Extensive search engine of boats around the world
* [http://www.boatlinx.com BoatlinX: A very popular directory of boat sites]
[[Category:Vehicles]]
[[Category:Water transport]]
[[Category:Boat types|*]]
[[ar:قارب]]
[[bg:Лодка]]
[[cy:Cwch]]
[[da:Bov (skibsterminologi)]]
[[de:Boot]]
[[es:Bote]]
[[eo:Boato]]
[[fr:Bateau]]
[[he:סירה]]
[[nl:Boot (vaartuig)]]
[[ja:船]]
[[no:Båt]]
[[pt:Barco]]
[[ru:Лодка]]
[[simple:Boat]]
[[fi:Vene]]
[[sv:Båt]]
[[th:เรือ]]
[[sh:Čamac]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blood</title>
<id>3997</id>
<revision>
<id>42121374</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:33:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vsmith</username>
<id>84417</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Invincible Ninja|Invincible Ninja]] ([[User talk:Invincible Ninja|talk]]) to last version by Calair</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Blood smear.jpg|350px|thumb|right|Human [[blood smear]]: a - [[erythrocytes]]; b - [[neutrophil]]; c - [[eosinophil]]; d - [[lymphocyte]].]]
'''Blood''' is a [[circulation (physiology)|circulating]] [[biological tissue|tissue]] composed of fluid [[blood plasma|plasma]] and [[cell (biology)|cells]] ([[red blood cell]]s, [[white blood cell]]s, [[platelet]]s). Medical terms related to blood often begin in ''hemo-'' or ''hemato-'' ([[British English|BE]]: ''haemo-'' and ''haemato-'') from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word "''haima''" for "blood".
The main function of blood is to supply nutrients ([[oxygen]], [[glucose]]) and constitutional elements to [[biological tissue|tissues]] and to remove waste products (such as [[carbon dioxide]] and [[lactic acid]]). Blood also enables cells ([[leukocyte]]s, abnormal [[tumor]] cells) and different substances ([[amino acid]]s, [[lipid]]s, [[hormone]]s) to be transported between tissues and organs. Problems with blood composition or circulation can lead to downstream tissue dysfunction.
The blood is circulated around the [[lungs]] and body by the [[pump|pumping]] action of the [[heart]].
==Anatomy of blood==
Blood is composed of several kinds of corpuscles; these ''formed elements'' of the blood constitute about 45% of whole blood. The other 55% is [[blood plasma]], a yellowish fluid that is the blood's liquid medium. The normal [[pH]] of human arterial blood is approximately 7.40 (normal range is 7.35-7.45). Blood that has a [[pH]] below 7.35 is [[acidic]], while blood [[pH]] above 7.45 is [[alkaline]]. Blood [[pH]] along with [[paCO2]] and [[HCO3]] readings are helpful in determining the acid-base balance of the body. Blood is about 7% of the human body weight [http://www.bloodcenters.org/aboutblood/bloodfacts.htm], so the average adult has a blood volume of about 5 liters, of which 2.7-3 liters is plasma.
The combined surface area of all the erythrocytes in the human anatomy would be roughly 2,000 times as great as the body's exterior surface.
The corpuscles are:
*''[[Red blood cell]]s or erythrocytes'' (96%). In mammals, mature red blood cells lack a [[Cell nucleus|nucleus]] and [[organelle]]s. They contain the blood's hemoglobin and distribute oxygen. The red blood cells (together with endothelial vessel cells and some other cells) are also marked by proteins that define different [[blood type]]s.
*''[[White blood cell]]s or leukocytes'' (3.0%), are part of the [[immune system]]; they destroy infectious agents.
*''[[Platelet]]s or thrombocytes'' (1.0%) are responsible for blood clotting ([[coagulation]])
[[Blood plasma]] is essentially an [[water|aqueous]] solution containing 96% water, 4% blood plasma [[protein]]s, and trace amounts of other materials. Some components are:
* [[albumin]]
* [[coagulation|blood clotting factors]]
* [[antibody|immunoglobulins]] (antibodies)
* [[hormone]]s
* various other [[protein]]s
* various [[electrolyte]]s (mainly [[sodium]] and [[chlorine]])
Together, plasma and corpuscles form a [[non-Newtonian fluid]] whose flow properties are uniquely adapted to the architecture of the blood vessels.
==Physiology of blood==
===Production and degradation===
Blood cells are produced in the [[bone marrow]]; the process is termed [[hematopoiesis]]. The proteinaceous component is produced overwhelmingly in the [[liver]], while hormones are produced by the [[endocrine gland]]s and the watery fraction maintained by the [[gut]] and the [[kidney]].
Blood cells are degraded by the [[spleen]] and the [[Kupffer cell]]s in the liver. The liver also clears proteins and [[amino acid]]s (the kidney secretes many small proteins into the [[urine]]). Erythrocytes usually live up to 120 days before they are systematically replaced by new erythrocytes created by the process of hematopoiesis.
===Transport of oxygen===
Blood oxygenation is measured with the [[partial pressure]] of oxygen. 98.5% of the oxygen is chemically combined with the [[Hb]]. Only 1.5% is physically dissolved. The [[hemoglobin]] molecule is the primary transporter of oxygen in mammals and many other species.
With the exception of [[Pulmonary artery|pulmonary]] and [[Umbilical artery|umbilical arteries]] and their corresponding veins, [[artery|arteries]] carry oxygenated blood away from the [[heart]] and deliver it to the body via [[arteriole]]s and [[capillary|capillaries]], where the oxygen is consumed; afterwards, [[venule]]s and [[vein]]s carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
Under normal conditions in humans, hemoglobin in blood leaving the lungs is about 96-97% saturated with oxygen; 'deoxygenated' blood returning to the lungs is still approximately 75% saturated.[http://home.hia.no/~stephens/ventphys.htm][http://groups.msn.com/TransplantSupportLungHeartLungHeart/oxygen2.msnw] A fetus, receiving oxygen via the placenta, is exposed to much lower oxygen pressures (about 20% of the level found in an adult's lungs) and so fetuses produce another form of hemoglobin with a much higher affinity for oxygen (hemoglobin F) in order to extract as much oxygen as possible from this sparse supply.[http://members.aol.com/Bio50/LecNotes/lecnot20.html]
====Insects====
In [[insect]]s, the blood (more properly called [[hemolymph]]) is not involved in the transport of oxygen. (Openings called [[trachea]]e allow oxygen from the air to diffuse directly to the tissues). Insect blood moves nutrients to the tissues and removes waste products.
====Small invertebrates====
In some small [[invertebrate]]s like [[insects]], oxygen is simply dissolved in the plasma. Larger animals use respiratory proteins to increase the oxygen carrying capacity. Hemoglobin is the most common respiratory protein found in nature. [[Hemocyanin]] ([[blue]]) contains [[copper]] and is found in [[crustacean]]s and [[mollusk]]s. It is thought that [[tunicate]]s (sea squirts) might use [[vanabins]] ([[protein]]s containing [[vanadium]]) for respiratory pigment (bright [[green]], blue, or [[orange (colour)|orange]]).
In many invertebrates, these oxygen-carrying proteins are freely soluble in the blood; in vertebrates they are contained in specialized [[red blood cell]]s, allowing for a higher concentration of respiratory pigments without increasing [[viscosity]] or damaging blood filtering organs like the [[kidneys]].
===Transport of carbon dioxide===
When systemic arterial blood flows through capillaries, carbon dioxide diffuses from the tissues into the blood. Some carbon dioxide is dissolved in the blood. Some carbon dioxide reacts with hemoglobin to form [[carbamino hemoglobin]]. The remaining carbon dioxide is converted to [[bicarbonate]] and [[hydrogen ion]]s. Most carbon dioxide is transported through the blood in the form of bicarbonate ions.
===Transport of hydrogen ions===
So |
ent>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Summary statistics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ComedyFilm</title>
<id>5128</id>
<revision>
<id>15903358</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-23T16:58:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Karen Johnson</username>
<id>1300</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>correcting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Comedy film]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CultFilm</title>
<id>5129</id>
<revision>
<id>15903359</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cult film]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CountriesT</title>
<id>5130</id>
<revision>
<id>15903360</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-20T22:20:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chordate</title>
<id>5131</id>
<revision>
<id>41944392</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:15:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ACW</username>
<id>108029</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Promote tetrapods to sarcopterygii; see talk page for details.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Chordates
| image = Tuna.jpg
| image_caption = [[Yellowfin tuna]], ''Thunnus albacares''
| domain = [[Eukaryote|Eukaryota]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| superphylum = [[Deuterostomia]]
| phylum = '''Chordata'''
| phylum_authority = [[William Bateson|Bateson]], 1885
| subdivision_ranks = Typical Classes
| subdivision =
* Subphylum [[Tunicata|Urochordata]] - [[Tunicata]]s
** [[Ascidiacea]]
** [[Thaliacea]]
** [[Larvacea]]
* Subphylum [[Lancelet|Cephalochordata]] - [[Lancelet]]s
* Subphylum [[Hagfish|Myxini]] - [[Hagfish]]es
* Subphylum [[Vertebrate|Vertebrata]] - [[Vertebrate]]s
** [[Lamprey|Petromyzontida]] - [[Lamprey]]s
** [[Placodermi]] (''extinct'')
** [[Chondrichthyes]] - [[cartilage|Cartilaginous]] [[fish]]es
** [[Acanthodii]] (''extinct'')
** [[Actinopterygii]] - Ray-finned fishes
** [[Actinistia]] - [[Coelacanth]]s
** [[Lungfish|Dipnoi]] - [[Lungfish]]es
** [[Amphibia]] - [[Amphibian]]s
** [[Reptile|Reptilia]] - [[Reptile]]s
** [[Bird|Aves]] - [[Bird]]s
** [[Mammal]]ia - [[Mammal]]s
}}
'''Chordates''' ([[phylum (biology)|phylum]] '''Chordata''') are a group of [[animal]]s that includes the [[vertebrate]]s, together with several closely related [[invertebrate]]s. They are united by having, at some stage in their life, a [[notochord]], a hollow dorsal nerve cord, [[pharyngeal slit]]s, an [[endostyle]], and a muscular [[tail]] extending past the anus. Some scientists argue, however, that the true qualifier should be pharyngeal pouches rather than slits.
The phylum Chordata is broken down into three subphyla: [[Urochordata]], [[Cephalochordata]], and [[Vertebrata]]. Urochordate larvae have a notochord and a nerve cord but they are lost in adulthood. Cephalochordates have a notochord and a nerve cord but no [[vertebra]]. In all vertebrates except for [[Hagfish]], the dorsal hollow nerve cord has been surrounded with [[cartilaginous]] or bony vertebrae and the notocord generally reduced.
The chordates and two sister phyla, the [[hemichordate]]s and the [[echinoderm]]s, make up the [[deuterostomes]], a [[superphylum]].
The extant groups of chordates are related as shown in the [[phylogenetic tree]], below. They do not match up very well with the traditional groups, and as a result vertebrate classification is in a state of flux, although their relationships are not very well understood.
Chordata
* [[Tunicata|Urochordata]]
* [[Lancelet|Cephalochordata]]
* [[Craniata]] (animals with skulls)
** [[Myxini]] or [[Hyperotreti]] (hagfish)
** [[Vertebrata]] (animals with backbones)
*** [[Lamprey|Cephalaspidomorphi]] (lampreys)
*** [[Gnathostomata]] ([[jaw]]ed vertebrates)
**** [[Chondrichthyes]] (cartilaginous fish)
**** [[Teleostomi]] (bony fish, ~ [[Osteichthyes]])
***** [[Actinopterygii]] (ray-finned fish)
***** [[Sarcopterygii]] (lobe-finned fish)
****** [[Actinistia]] ([[coelacanth]]s)
****** [[Dipnoi]] (lungfishes)
****** [[Tetrapoda]] (four-legged vertebrates)
******* [[Amphibia]] (amphibians)
******* [[Amniotes]] (amniotic egg)
******** [[Synapsida]]
********* [[Mammal]]ia (mammals)
******** [[Reptilia]] (most modern reptiles)
********* [[Anapsida]]
********** [[Turtle|Testudines]] (turtles)
********* [[Diapsida]]
********** [[Lepidosauria]] ([[lizard]]s, [[snake]]s, [[tuatara]])
********** [[Archosauria]]
*********** [[Crocodilia]] ([[crocodile]]s, [[alligator]]s, [[caiman]]s, [[gharial]]s)
*********** [[Dinosauria]]
************ [[Bird|Aves]] (birds)
{{Wikispecies|Chordata}}
{{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Chordata}}
[[Category:Chordates| ]]
[[ast:Chordata]]
[[bg:Хордови]]
[[ca:Cordat]]
[[cs:Strunatci]]
[[cy:Cordog]]
[[da:Chordater]]
[[de:Chordatiere]]
[[et:Keelikloomad]]
[[es:Cordado]]
[[eo:Ĥordulo]]
[[fr:Chordés]]
[[fy:Rêchstringdier]]
[[ko:척색동물]]
[[ia:Chordatos]]
[[it:Chordata]]
[[he:מיתרניים]]
[[la:Chordata]]
[[lt:Chordiniai]]
[[li:Chordata]]
[[jbo:skoselti'e]]
[[mk:Хордати]]
[[nl:Chordadieren]]
[[ja:脊索動物]]
[[no:Ryggstrengdyr]]
[[oc:Chordata]]
[[pl:Strunowce]]
[[pt:Cordado]]
[[ru:Хордовые]]
[[sl:Strunarji]]
[[sr:Хордати]]
[[fi:Selkäjänteiset]]
[[sv:Ryggsträngsdjur]]
[[th:สัตว์มีแกนสันหลัง]]
[[tr:Kordalılar]]
[[uk:Хордові]]
[[zh:脊索动物]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Charlize Theron</title>
<id>5132</id>
<revision>
<id>41661881</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T22:27:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>131.91.247.40</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Removing unnecessary quotation marks around character names</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Charlize.Theron.0499.jpg|thumb|Charlize Theron, April 1999]]
'''Charlize Theron''' (born [[August 7]] [[1975]]) is an [[Academy Award|Oscar]]-winning [[South African]] [[Actor|actress]].
==Early life==
Theron was born in [[Benoni]], [[South Africa]]. Her father, Charles Theron, was a construction company owner of [[French people|French]] [[Huguenot]] descent; her mother, Gerda, is of [[German People|German]] descent and took over her husband's business after his death. Theron's first language is [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]], and her second is [[English language|English]]. "Theron" is a [[French language|French]] surname pronounced in Afrikaans as "Tronn", although she has stated that she prefers the pronunciation "Thrown" [http://www.aclasscelebs.com/charlizet/interview.htm].
Theron grew up as the only child on her parents' farm near [[Johannesburg]] (Benoni) and was sent to a [[boarding school]] at the age of thirteen. At fifteen, Theron witnessed the death of her father; he was an [[abuse|abusive]] [[alcoholic]], and her mother shot him in [[self defense]] when he attacked her. No charges were pressed.
==Career==
[[Image:Charlizether.jpg|left|175px|thumb|Theron in ''[[Sweet November]]'']]
At the age of sixteen, Theron travelled to [[Milan]], [[Italy]] on a one-year [[model (person)|modelling]] contract, after winning a local competition. Her contract ended while she was in [[New York City]], and she decided to remain there, attending the [[Joffrey Ballet]], where she trained as a [[ballet]] dancer and performed in productions of both ''[[Swan Lake]]'' and ''[[The Nutcracker]]''. A knee injury ended this career path at the age of 18.
Unable to dance, she bought a ticket to [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]. After eight months in the city, she was cast in her first film part, a non-speaking role in the [[direct-to-video]] film ''Children of the Corn III''. She followed this with larger roles in widely released [[Hollywood]] films, and her career skyrocketed in the late [[1990s]], with box office successes like ''[[The Devil's Advocate]]'', ''[[The Cider House Rules]]'', and ''[[Mighty Joe Young]]''.
In [[1999]], she posed nude for the May issue of ''[[Playboy]]'' magazine.
After appearing in a few notable films, Theron starred as [[serial killer]] [[Aileen Wuornos]] in the film ''[[Monster (movie)|Monster]]'' ([[2003 in film|2003]]). Receiving praise for her performance (film critic [[Roger Ebert]] called it "one of the greatest performances in the history of the cinema" [http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20040101/REVIEWS/40310032/1023]), Theron won the [[Academy Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]] Oscar at the [[76th Academy Awards]] in [[February 2004]], as well as the [[Screen Actors Guild#SAG Awards|SAG Award]] and the [[Golden Globe Award]]. She is the first [[South Africa|South African]] to win an Oscar for Best Actress.
[[Image:Charlizether2.jpg|right|175px|thumb|Theron in ''[[Head in the Clouds]]'']]
Having signed a deal with [[John Galliano]] in [[2004]], Theron replaced [[Estonia]]n model Tiiu Kuik in the ''J'ADORE'' advertisements by [[Christian Dior]]; she is the current spokeswoman for [[Dior]] perfume. On [[September 2005|September 30, 2005]], she received her own bronze star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]]. In the same year, she starred in the financially unsuccessful [[science fiction]] thriller ''[[Æon Flux (film)|Æon Flux]]'' [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0402022/business] and was given positive reviews, as well as a ''Best Actress'' [[Golden Globe]] nomination, for her lead performance in the drama ''[[North Country (2005 film)|North Country]]''. She has also been nominated for an [[Academy Award|Oscar]] as a lead actress for the role; this is |
in America).
*'''[[Catherine Bloom]]''': An expert knife thrower in a travelling circus, Catherine is a young woman who detests violence as it took away her entire family when she was child, including her infant brother, Triton. When Trowa comes to the circus, she begins to treat him as a younger brother and does not think too much of Trowa's odd friends showing up after his occasional disappearences from the troupe. There is speculation that Trowa is actually Catherine's biological brother, though confirmed evidence has not been given (Episode Zero hints strongly at this, but official materials do not).
''Voices'': , Saori Suzuki (Japanese) [[Moneca Stori]] (series), [[Cathy Weseluck]] (Endless Waltz) (English), Marianna Gómez (Latin America)
*'''Sally Po''': Formerly a major and a medical officer in the Alliance's Federation Army prior to its takeover by OZ, Sally becomes a resistance fighter, protecting the people against the abuses of OZ. She encounters the various Gundam pilots and their friends and allies on several occasions, and assists them wherever possible. In this aspect she is plays a role similar to Noin's. Yet the difference is that where Noin chooses to lend her support solely to one person/country/ideal (i.e. the total pacifist ideals of the Sanc Kingdom of which Relena is ruler), Sally often works by herself. Despite this, the two women are allies and often supply each other with information.
''Voices'': [[Yumi Touma]] (Japanese), [[Moneca Stori]] (1), [[Samantha Ferris]] (2) (English)
==Episode Guide==
{{main|List of Gundam Wing Episodes}}
#The Shooting Star She Saw
#The Gundam Deathscythe
#Five Gundams Confirmed
#The Victorian Nightmare
#Relena's Secret
#Party Night
#Scenario For Bloodshed
#The Treize Assassination
#Portrait Of A Ruined Country
#Heero, Distracted By Defeat
#The Whereabouts Of Happiness
#Bewildered Warriors
#Catherine's Tears
#The Order To Destroy 01
#To The Battleground Antarctica
#The Sorrowful Battle
#Betrayed By Home, Far Away
#Tallgeese Destroyed
#Assault On Barge
#The Lunar Base Infiltration
#Grief Stricken Quatre
#The Fight For Independence
#Duo, God Of Death Once Again (Edited on Toonami as: ''Duo, The Great Destroyer Once Again'')
#The Gundam They Called Zero
#Quatre VS Heero
#The Eternal Flame Of The Shooting Stars
#The Locus Of Victory And Defeat
#Passing Destinies
#The Heroine Of The Battlefield
#The Reunion With Relena
#The Glass Kingdom
#The God Of Death Meets Zero (Edited on Toonami as: ''The Great Destroyer Meets Zero'')
#The Lonely Battlefield
#And Its Name Is Epyon
#The Return Of Wufei
#The Fall Of Sanc Kingdom
#Zero VS Epyon
#The Birth Of Queen Relena
#Trowa's Return To The Battlefield
#A New Leader
#Crossfire At Barge
#Battleship Libra
#Target: Earth
#Go Forth, Gundam Team
#Signs Of The Final Battle
#Milliardo's Decision
#Collision In Space
#Takeoff Into Confusion
#The Final Victor
==Openings, Endings and Insert Songs==
'''Openings:'''
*Just Communication by [[Two-Mix]] (ep. 1-40) (YTV Broadcast: 1-49)
*Rhythm Emotion by [[Two-Mix]] (ep. 41-49)
*Gundam Wings "أجنحة كاندم" (Arabic) [All episodes]
'''Ending:'''
*It's Just Love by [[Rumi Oishi]] (ep. 1-49)
*Just Communication (Instrumental Version) by [[Kou Ootani]] (Television Broadcast, ep. 1-49)
'''Insert Songs:'''
*Just Communication by [[Two-Mix]] (ep. 3 & 49)
*Rhythm Emotion by [[Two-Mix]]
==See also==
[[Gundam Wing: Endless Waltz]]<br>
[[After Colony|After Colony Timeline]]<br>
[[After Colony Nations and Factions]]<br>
[[After Colony Mobile Units]]<br>
[[After Colony Technology]]<br>
[[After Colony list of characters]]<br>
==External links==
*[http://www.gundamofficial.com/www_ac/gw/index.htm Official ''Mobile Suit Gundam Wing'' website]
*[http://www.mahq.net/mecha/gundam/w/index.htm mahq.net] - detailed Mobile Suit information <!-- this link was dead when I tried it on 2005/08/16; I'll keep an eye on it and remove it if it doesn't come back soon -->
*[http://www.gun-plus.com/index.php?id=pages/000_wing Gundam Plus] - information, image gallery
*[http://www.yaoijanai.com/home.php Gundam Wing Fanworks]
{{Gundam Alternate Timelines}}
[[Category:Gundam series]]
[[Category:After Colony]]
[[Category:Shows on Toonami]]
[[de:Gundam Wing]]
[[fr:Gundam Wing]]
[[ja:新機動戦記ガンダムW]]
[[pl:Gundam Wing]]
[[pt:New Mobile Report Gundam Wing]]
[[th:กันดั้มวิง]]
[[zh:新機動戰記GUNDAM W]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Gödel's completeness theorem</title>
<id>12450</id>
<revision>
<id>40363905</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:54:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gödel's completeness theorem''' is an important statement of fact about [[mathematical logic]] which was first proved by [[Kurt Gödel]] in [[1929]]. It states, in its most familiar form, that in [[first-order predicate calculus]] every logically valid formula can be proved.
The word "proved" above means, in effect: proved by a process whose correctness at each of its steps can be checked [[algorithmically]], for example, by a [[computer]] (although no such machines existed in 1929).
A logical formula is called ''logically valid'' if it is true in every possible domain and with every possible interpretation, inside that domain, of non-constant symbols used in the formula.
To say that a logical formula can be proved means that there exists (mathematically) a formal proof of that formula which uses only the rules of inference and axioms of logic adopted in some particular [[formalisation]] of [[first-order predicate calculus]].
Put another way, the theorem is the statement that the rules of first-order predicate calculus are "complete". A converse to completeness
is soundness. That first-order predicate calculus is sound, i.e., that '''only''' universally valid statements can be proven in first-order logic, is asserted by the [[soundness theorem]].
In order cleanly to state Gödel's completeness theorem, one has to define what the word "domain" in the definition of "logically valid" means. The word can be interpreted with the help of [[set theory]].
The branch of mathematical logic that deals with what is true in different domains and under different interpretations is [[model theory]]; the branch that deals with what can be formally proved is [[proof theory]]. The completeness theorem, therefore, establishes a fundamental connection between what is universally true and what can be proved; between model theory and proof theory; between semantics and syntax in mathematical logic. It should not, however, be misinterpreted as obliterating the difference between these two concepts; in fact, another celebrated result by the same author, [[Gödel's incompleteness theorem]], shows that there are inherent limitations in what can be achieved with formal proofs in mathematics.
==Proofs==
For an explanation of Gödel's original proof of the theorem, see
[[Original proof of Gödel's completeness theorem]].
In modern logic texts, Gödel's completeness theorem is usually proved with [[Henkin]]'s proof rather than with
Gödel's original proof.
==Further reading==
* Kurt Gödel, "Über die Vollständigkeit des Logikkalküls", doctoral dissertation, University Of Vienna, 1929. This dissertation is the original source of the proof of the completeness theorem.
* Kurt Gödel, "Die Vollständigkeit der Axiome des logischen Funktionen-kalküls", Monatshefte für Mathematik und Physik 37 (1930), 349-360. This article contains the same material as the doctoral dissertation, in a rewritten and shortened form. The proofs are more brief, the explanations more succinct, and the lengthy introduction has been omitted.
==External links==
* Vilnis Detlovs and Karlis Podnieks, "Introduction to mathematical logic", http://www.ltn.lv/~podnieks/
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[[uk:Геделя теорема про повноту]]
[[zh:哥德尔完备定理]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point</title>
<id>12451</id>
<revision>
<id>40363907</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:54:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point''', abbreviated '''GSSP''', is an internationally agreed upon stratigraphic section which serves as the reference section for a particular boundary on the [[geologic time scale]]. The effort to define GSSPs is conducted by the [[International Commission on Stratigraphy]], a part of the [[International Union of Geological Sciences]]. Most, but not all, GSSPs are based on [[paleontology|paleontological]] changes. Hence GSSPs are usually described in terms of transitions between different [[faunal stage]]s, though far more faunal stages have been described than GSSPs. The GSSP definition effort commenced in 1977. As of 2004, 45 of the 96 GSSPs required have been approved.
An ideal GSSP would
*be accessible by [[public transit]] from a major [[airport]]
*be accessible to research
*be extensive enough to ensure future access
*be easily related to other exposures worldwide
*contain a radiometrically datable bed at the boundary, and
*include well defined markers at the stage boundary that can be applied worldwide.
No GSSP is ideal.
==Agreed-upon GSSPs==
The [[Precambrian]]-[[Cambrian]] boundary GSSP at [[Fortune Head]], [[Newfoundland]] is a typical GSSP. It is ac |
blood supply as a result of age-dependent damage of inner walls of blood vessels. Previously, medical substances (e.g. [[apomorphine]]) were directly injected into the erectile tissue of penile shaft to treat impotence. In some cases refractory to the medical treatment, a penile implant (penile prosthesis) could be advised. After the discovery of orally active agents that increase the efficacy of NO, which dilates the blood vessels of corpora cavernosa, more conservative methods started to be used.
===PDE5 Inhibitors===
The prescription [[PDE5 inhibitor]]s [[sildenafil]] (Viagra&reg;), [[vardenafil]] (Levitra&reg;) and [[tadalafil]] (Cialis&reg;) are prescription drugs which are taken orally. They work by blocking the action of [[PDE5]], which causes [[Cyclic guanosine monophosphate|cGMP]] to degrade. [[CGMP specific phosphodiesterase type 5 |cGMP]] causes the smooth muscle of the arteries in the penis to relax, allowing the [[corpus cavernosum]] to fill with blood.
===PT-141===
The experimental drug [[PT-141]] does not act on the vascular system like the former compounds but increases sexual desire and drive in male as well as female. It is applied as a nasal spray PT-141 and works by activation of [[melanocortin]] [[receptor (biochemistry)|receptor]]s in the brain. It is awaiting FDA approval.
===Ginseng===
A [[double-blind]] study appears to show evidence that [[ginseng]] is better than placebo: see the [[ginseng]] article for links and more details.
===Enzyte===
Enzyte is a product that has been advertised by saturation coverage on television channels such as [[Court-TV]]. However, the Center for Science in the Public Interest ([[CSPI]]) has filed a complaint with the [[Federal Trade Commission]] (FTC) about Enzyte for deceptive advertising. It is manufactured by Berkeley Nutritionals, which is alleged to be the subject of an investigation by the Attorney General of [[Ohio]] and the defendant in class-action lawsuits.
Enzyte is a supplement that claims to increase the male [[libido]] or frequency of erections of the [[penis]]. Commercials for Enzyte are shown regularly on [[television]]. These commercials feature a man named Bob who never stops smiling, apparently because he had taken Enzyte and improved the size of his sex organs. The commercials are riddled with symbolic [[Phallic symbol|phallic]] imagery, e.g. [[golf]] clubs, remarkably tall glasses of iced tea, and a hose spraying barely a trickle of water (carried by someone who doesn't use Enzyte).
The effectiveness of Enzyte is in dispute. Some medical professionals in fact advise against taking Enzyte, saying that it can lead to damage. The [[Center for Science in the Public Interest]] have urged the [[Federal Trade Commission]] to disallow further television [[advertising]] for Enzyte due to a lack of proper studies supporting claims. Enzyte maker Berkeley Premium Nutraceuticals, Inc., is currently under a [[class action lawsuit]] for [[false advertising]].
Enzyte is said to contain: ''[[Puncture Vine|Tribulus terrestris]]''; Yohimbe Extract; [[Niacin]]; [[Epimedium]]; ''[[oat|Avena sativa]]''; Zinc Oxide; Maca; Muira Pauma; ''[[Ginkgo]] biloba''; L-[[Arginine]]; [[Saw Palmetto]]. Other ingredients: gelatin, rice bran, oat fiber, magnesium stearate, silicon dioxide.
==History==
Dr. [[John R. Brinkley]] began a fad for finding cures for male impotence during the [[1930s]]. He used the medium of radio to achieve the same kind of advertising boom to treat the same kind of symptoms.
In the [[1930s]] the [[United States|American]] radio airwaves were bombarded with such advertising, first from domestic stations and then upon action by the [[American Medical Association]] the media blitz was shifted to superpower [[Mexican]] [[border-blasters]].
Surgeons began providing inflatable [[penile implant]]s in the [[1970s]].
==References==
* Cheitlin MD, Hutter AM Jr, Brindis RG, Ganz P, Kaul S, Russell RO Jr, Zusman RM. ''ACC/AHA expert consensus document. Use of sildenafil (Viagra) in patients with cardiovascular disease. American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association.'' J Am Coll Cardiol. 1999 Jan;33(1):273-82. [http://www.acc.org/clinical/consensus/viagra.htm Fulltext]. PMID 9935041.
==External sources==
<!-- BEFORE inserting new links here you should first post it to the talk page, otherwise your edit is likely to be reverted-->
*[http://www.fda.gov/cder/consumerinfo/druginfo/levitra.htm FDA's Consumer Information]
*[http://www.mediprimer.com/Andrology/impotence/ Erectile Dysfunction Primer]
*[http://health.groups.yahoo.com/group/ssrisex/ Support group for people with permanent impotence or other sexual dysfunction caused by SSRI antidepressants.]
*[http://www.erectionweb.com/ Erection Web] Support group for people with erectile dysfunction and impotence.
*[http://www.mgsglaw.com/enzyte.html Enzyte Company website]
*[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/09/23/health/webmd/main645232.shtml Enzyte investigation reported on CBS-TV news site]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Identity and change</title>
<id>14784</id>
<revision>
<id>36191397</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-22T07:04:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ESkog</username>
<id>88149</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] fix common misspelling</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|May 2005}}
<!--The following is a portion of [[Larrys Text]], lecture notes Larry used to teach a class. Feel free to make this page conform to our NPOV policy--remove first-person arguments, attribute opinions; etc.-->
The relationship between '''identity''' and '''change''' in the [[philosophy|philosophical]] field of [[metaphysics]] seems, at first glance, deceptively simple, and belies the complexity of the issues involved. This article explores "the problem of change and [[identity]]".
== Change ==
When an object changes, it always changes ''in some particular way''. A baby grows up, and so changes in respect of size and maturity; a snake sheds its skin, and so changes in respect of its skin. "Change" may therefore be defined as follows:
: An object, ''O'', changes with respect to [[property]], ''P'', if and only if ''O'' has ''P'' at one time, and at a later time, ''O'' does not have ''P''.
That seems to be what it means for a thing to change: it has a property at one time, and later it does not have that property. If a banana becomes brown, it can then be said: at one time, the banana is yellow; several days later, the banana is not yellow, but is instead brown. This appears fairly straightforward at this point, and there are no apparent problems as yet.
== Problem of change ==
The question then arises as to what sort of change happens after a thing is ''destroyed''? When a person dies, one does not say that the person's life has ''changed''. Neither does one go around saying, "Harry just isn't the same sort of guy after he died." Instead, one says that Harry's life has ''ended''. Similarly, when a building is demolished, one does not say that the building 'changes'; one says that it is ''destroyed''. So what sort of events, on the one hand, result in a mere change, and what sort of events, on the other hand, result in a thing's destruction &mdash; in the end of its [[existence]]? This is one aspect of the problem that will be considered here. It is called "the problem of change and identity".
=== The Ship of Theseus===
The "problem of change and identity" is generally explained with the story of the [[Ship of Theseus]]:
: In ancient times, there was a ship, called the "Theseus". As the years wore on, the Theseus started getting weak and creaky. The old boards were removed, put into a [[warehouse]], and replaced with new ones. Then, the [[mast (sailing)|mast]]s started tottering, and soon they, too, were warehoused and replaced. And in this way, after fifty years, this ship now has all new boards, masts, and everything. The question then arises: Is the ship in the harbor, now called ''S2'', the same ship as the ship that was in the harbor, fifty years ago (called ''S1'', for convenience)? In other words, is ''S2'' really the "Theseus"?
There is one answer which is a little too easy and quick. One might say: "No, of course not. The Theseus has changed a lot, so it's not the same ship. At the end of your life, you're not going to be the same person as you were, when you were a teenager. You're going to change a lot in the meantime." However, this is not quite answering the intended question. What is intended by the question is the sense of the word, "same", in which an old woman is the ''same'' person at the end of her life as she is, at the beginning of her life. Certainly, the word, "same", has such a sense. After all, one implicitly depends on it when one says, for example, "She has changed a lot". In order for someone to change a lot, there has to be ''one person'' who underwent the change. (One could perhaps reject that sense, saying that objects ''do not'' change over time.)
Going back to the definition of "change", an object changes with respect to a property if the object has that property at one time, and at a later time, the object does not have the property. What changes is the fact that ''the object has a particular property''. The only way that that fact ''can'' change is if the object remains in existence. One can therefore think of a contin |
e ideas, and is usually a guarantee of at least one croissant (although simply mentioning custard to try to get votes will not make you popular).
* [[Van de Graaf]] generators are another oft-appearing device on the Halfbakery.
* TPPCPPC, Third Person Plural Conditional Past Perfect Continuous - a complicated tense, which makes use of a lot of [[auxiliary verbs]], that has become a standing joke since its inclusion in 'Third Person Plural Conditional Past Perfect Continuous Song Lyrics', an idea that is sadly no more.
* cat-and-buttered-toast - often used in reference to any perpetual motion device
* the halfbakery logo changes for the day each Halloween
* pirates - similar in usage to custard or mimes
* Fishties - this is an infamous idea, which had the largest organised conspiracy on the HB. A user made an idea, for ties smelling of fish, and then got people to make an account and vote for it, with a comment mentioning the name of a country.
* The Great Crash of Oct '04 (or Sept '04, or just '04) - a huge crash of the Halfbakery, in which all the data was lost. The Halfbakery was brought back to life using a combination of the [[Wayback Machine]] and [[Google|Google's]] cache. There are still hundreds of abandoned accounts asking their owners to reclaim them, and links which lead nowhere.
* Pedantry - being pedantic is considered, by some regulars, to be a virtue of sorts
* Half - Due to the name of the site, any aspect of half-ness is given special significance. Even the voting scale is halved (0.5-2.5 instead of 1-5).
==Halfbakery Regulars==
Note that names are written in [[square brackets]], as they would be written by many Halfbakers, this is a Halfbakery username convention which is usually observed.
* [UnaBubba], [UB] - a '''very''' prolific user who appears to spend his whole life on the Halfbakery. In real life he is a man in Australia.
* [Vernon] - a user renowned for posting huge ideas and holds the record for the longest idea body ever. Ever so rarely posts a short idea, only a few sentences long. Known for getting into long scientific arguments.
* [wagster] - a funny person who seems to like cats. He enjoys making people laugh with some very good ideas
* [DrCurry] - a bit of a pedant, a more serious baker. Seen quite often at times, then seems to disappear for a while
* [bristolz] - a halbakery moderator, bristolz also does illustrations of ideas for people who ask kindly
* [DesertFox] - another who is another '''very''' prolific baker, he will do anything to make a pun. His ideas go from sensible, "Gel Keys", to silly, "Creepy Carpet"
* [po] - the Teletubby of the HB, she wanted to be Dipsy. Loves to laugh, and loves cats and pigeons.
* [benfrost] - His ideas sometimes border on insane. Inventor of the "Hairpoon". Currently holds the record for the idea with the most negative votes. Enjoyed by most for his shock-humor style.
* [Steve DeGroof] - a real old-timer, formerly known as "degroof."
* [jonthegeologist] - a wise moderator, baker and Olympic competitor for charity in 2012.
* [hippo] - a long-time and well-loved baker known for having many ideas in the 'top ten list.'
* [DrBob] - the [[Lewes]] connection.
* [FarmerJohn] - an extremely prolific former regular, known for his creativity, bizarre clock designs, and humorous sketches
* [RayfordSteele] - a frequent regular who moderates the related discussion group '''overbaked.'''
* [waugsqueke] - a former baker who helped keep the bakery standards of excellence in creativity.
* [krelnik] - a baker who wrote a treatise on bakery culture and an excellent guide for first-time posters. To document well-written firsttime posts by newbies, he often would use the acronym WTAGIPBAN (wasn't that a good idea, posted by a newbie!)
* [bungston] - a '''very''' prolific baker who is fond of using advertisements and stories from the fictional company BUNGCO to describe his ideas.
* [AfroAssault] - an infrequent regular who often posts ideas concerning fringe cultural topics.
* [sartep] - a halfbakery moderator, who stands up for the non terrestrial point of view.
* [theircompetitor] - a regular known for his enjoyment of politically controversial subjects.
=External links=
* [http://www.halfbakery.com The Halfbakery]
* [http://www.bz.pair.com Halfbakery Illustrations by bristolz]
* [http://www.halfbakery.com/view/s=o:d=on:dh=2:dn=25:ds=3:n=:i=Every_20halfbaker_20who_20has_20written_20an_20idea_20on_20the_20Halfbakery:t=All_20the_20Halfbakers A list of every halfbaker who has published an idea]
[[es:Halfbakery]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Human sexuality</title>
<id>14079</id>
<revision>
<id>41752502</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T14:16:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MementoVivere</username>
<id>72040</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rvv by [[Special:Contributions/68.97.60.155|68.97.60.155]] without losing subsequent edits</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Portalpar|Sexuality}}
:''This article is about the issues and phenomena pertaining to sexual function and behavior. For information about sexual activities and practices, see the article [[human sexual behavior]].
'''Human sexuality''' refers to the expression of sexual sensation and related intimacy between human beings, as well as the expression of identity through [[sex]] and as influenced by or based on sex. There are a great many forms of human sexuality. The '''[[sexuality]] of [[human]] beings''' comprises a broad range of behavior and processes, including the [[physiology|physiological]], [[psychology|psychological]], social, [[culture|cultural]], [[politics|political]], and [[spirituality|spiritual]] or [[religion|religious]] aspects of sex and [[Human sexual behavior|human sexual behavior]]. [[Philosophy]], particularly [[ethics]] and the study of [[morality]], as well as [[theology]], also address the subject. In almost any historical era or culture, the arts, including literary and visual arts, as well as popular culture, present a substantial portion of a given society's views on sexuality. In most societies and legal jurisdictions, there are [[law|legal]] bounds on what sexual behavior is permitted. Sexuality varies across the cultures and regions of the world, and has continually changed throughout history.
A large variety of books, educational websites, and local education/support/social organizations exist for various forms of sexuality.
== Physiological aspects ==
Human sexuality can be influenced by hormonal changes in the development of the [[fetus]] during [[pregnancy]]. Many claim its manner of expression is largely due to genetic predisposition. Others say it is due to one's own personal experimentation in early life, and thus the establishment of preferences. A less divisive approach recognises that both factors may have a mutual role to play. [[Human physiology]] and gender makes certain forms of sexual expression possible.
== Social aspects ==
Human sexuality can also be understood as part of the social life of humans, governed by implied rules of behavior and the [[status quo]]. Thus, it is claimed, sexuality influences social [[norms]] and society in turn influences the manner in which sexuality can be expressed. Since the invention of the [[mass media]], things such as movies and advertising have given sexuality even more ability to shape the environments in which we live. Some see sexuality as distilled (often into [[stereotypes]]) and then repeatedly expressed in commercialized forms.
[[Gender identity]] is an aspect of human sexuality that can be affected by one's social environment, and differerent social environments can have specific attributes they associate with each sex, such as certain types of dress, colors, behaviors. A common example in western media could be the portrayal of a little boy in blue shorts and a white T-shirt playing with a toy truck, while a girl is shown in a pink dress playing with a doll.
==Society and politics==
===Sex education===
[[Sex education]] is the component of education, typically pre-university/college level, which involves instruction in the health aspects of sexual functions, behavior, and hygiene. All, or nearly all, governments and societies today advocate some degree of sex education. In most educational systems, it reflects the dominant views on sexual behavior, typically attempting to achieve some kind of compliance with the policies of the educational authority, such as the use or non-use of contraception or views on non-marital/pre-marital intercourse.
Some less popular approaches to sexual education focus on abstinence before marriage. Such courses demonstrate the dangers of diseases or teen pregnancy. Most of these courses can be summed up by the idea that if they tell a teenager not to have sex, it might be effective. However, just in case, they will teach them how to use a condom anyway.
== Cultural and psychiatric aspects ==
[[Human sexual behavior]] in most individuals is typically influenced, if not largely determined, by [[norms]] from the culture in which the individual lives. Examples of such norms are prohibitions on [[sexual intercourse]] before [[marriage]], or against [[anal intercourse]], or other activities, because the [[religion]] to which the individual's culture adheres forbids such activities.
Those who wish to express a dissident [[sexuality]] often form [[sub-culture|sub-cultures]] within the main culture. In many cases, forms of sexuality may develop into a [[Sexual_fetishism|fetish]] or develop into a psychiatric [[disorder]] ([[paraphilia]]). [[Paraphilias]] can also result from childhood abuse or mistreatment.
==Documentary Films==
*''Filming Desire: A Journey Through Women's Film'', A film by Marie Mandy, 2000
*''(Comedy)[[The Mating Habits of the Earthbound Human]] (1999) Starring: David Hyde Pierce, M |
em, albeit still under a complete Communist party control, replaced police terror, and intellectuals had more freedom than before.
On [[October 4]], [[1957]] Soviet Union launched the first space satellite Sputnik. On [[April 12]], [[1961]] [[Yuri Gagarin]] became the first human to travel into space in the Soviet spaceship Vostok 1.
In 1964 Khrushchev was ousted by the Communist Party's Central Committee, charging him with a host of errors that included Soviet setbacks such as the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] and the deepening [[Sino-Soviet Split]]. After a brief period of collective leadership, a veteran bureaucrat, [[Leonid Brezhnev]], took Khrushchev's place.
Despite Khrushchev's tinkering with economic planning, the economic system remained dependent on central plans drawn up with no reference to market mechanisms. As a developed industrial country, the Soviet Union by the [[1970s]] found it increasingly difficult to maintain the high rates of growth in the industrial sector that it had enjoyed in earlier years. Increasingly large investment and labor inputs were required for growth, but these inputs were becoming more difficult to obtain, partly because of the new emphasis on production of consumer goods. Although the goals of the five-year plans of the 1970s had been scaled down from previous plans, the targets remained largely unmet. Agricultural development continued to lag in the Brezhnev years.
Although certain appliances and other goods became more accessible during the [[1960s]] and 1970s, improvements in housing and food supply were not sufficient. The growing culture of [[consumerism]] and shortages of consumer goods, inherent in a non-market pricing system, encouraged pilferage of government property and the growth of the [[black market]]. But, in contrast to the revolutionary spirit that accompanied the birth of the Soviet Union, the prevailing mood of the Soviet leadership at the time of Brezhnev's death in 1982 was one of aversion to change.
===Impending breakup of the Union===
Two developments dominated the decade that followed: the increasingly apparent crumbling of the Soviet Union's economic and political structures, and the patchwork attempts at reforms to reverse that process. After the rapid succession of [[Yuri Andropov]] and [[Konstantin Chernenko]], transitional figures with deep roots in Brezhnevite tradition, the relatively young and energetic [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] made significant changes in the economy and the party leadership. His policy of ''[[glasnost]]'' freed public access to information after decades of government repression. But Gorbachev failed to address the systemic crisis of the Soviet system; by [[1991]], when a plot by government insiders (''see'' [[Soviet coup attempt of 1991|August coup]]) revealed the weakness of Gorbachev's political position, the end of the Soviet Union was in sight.
At the end of World War I, the vast empires of the Ottomans, the Habsburgs, and the Romanovs collapsed, leaving Eastern Europe and Eurasia in turmoil. Only the Russian empire was reconfigured, under Bolshevik leadership. Stalin led it through industrialization and the Nazi onslaught to become a superpower rivaling the United States. Yet the Soviet Union remained essentially an empire, held together by a party rather than tsar. The command economy proved progressively less able to cope with postindustrial technologies and with the demands of the new industrial middle class and well-educated bureaucracy forged under its tutelage. Gorbachev's ''[[Perestroika]]'' spelled deconstruction of the economy; and ''glasnost'' allowed ethnic and nationalist disaffection to reach the surface. When Gorbachev tried to reform the party, he weakened the bonds that held the state and union together.
===The emergence of the Russian republic in the Soviet Union===
[[Image:Gorbachev and Yeltsin.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gorbachev has accused Boris Yeltsin, his old rival and Russia's first post-Soviet president, of tearing the country apart out of a desire to advance his own personal interests.]]
Because of the dominant position of Russians in the Soviet Union, most gave little thought to any distinction between Russia and the USSR before the late [[1980s]]. However, the fact that the Soviet regime was dominated by Russians did not mean that the Russian SFSR necessarily benefited from this arrangement. In the Soviet Union, Russia lacked even the paltry instruments of statehood that the other republics possessed, such as its own republic-level Communist Party branch, [[KGB]], trade union council, Academy of Sciences, and the like. The reason of course is that if these organizations had had branches at the level of the Russian SFSR, they would have threatened the power of Union-level structures.
In the late 1980s, Gorbachev underestimated the importance of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic emerging as a second power base to rival the Soviet Union. A Russian nationalist backlash against the Union came with many Russians arguing that Russia had long been subsidizing other republics, which tended to be poorer, with cheap oil, for instance. Demands were growing for Russia to have its own institutions, underdeveloped because of the equation of the Russian republic and the Soviet Union. As Russian nationalism became vocal in the late 1980s, a tension emerged between those who wanted to hold the Russian-dominated Union together and those who wanted to create a strong Russian state.
This tension came to be personified in the bitter power struggle between Gorbachev and [[Boris Yeltsin]]. Squeezed out of Union politics by Gorbachev in [[1987]], Yeltsin, an old-style party boss with no dissident background or contacts, needed an alternative platform to challenge Gorbachev. He established it by representing himself as both a Russian nationalist and a committed democrat. In a remarkable reversal of fortunes, he gained election as chairman of the Russian republic's new Supreme Soviet in May [[1990]], becoming in effect Russia's first directly elected president. The following month, he secured legislation giving Russian laws priority over Soviet laws and withholding two-thirds of the budget.
The [[Soviet coup attempt of 1991|August 1991 coup]] by Communist hardliners was later foiled with the help from Yeltsin. The coup plotters had intended to save the party and the Union; instead, they hastened the demise of both.
The Soviet Union officially broke up on [[December 25]], [[1991]]. The final act of the passage of power from the Soviet Union to Russia was the passing of the briefcases containing codes that would launch the Soviet nuclear arsenal from Gorbachev to Yeltsin.
==Russian Federation==
''Main article: [[History of post-Soviet Russia]]''
[[Image:October1993crisis.jpg|framed|left|The shelling of the [[White House of Russia|Russian White House]], October 4, 1993]]
By the mid-[[1990s]] Russia had a system of multiparty electoral politics. But it was harder to establish a representative government because of two structural problems&mdash;the struggle between president and parliament and the anarchic party system. Although Yeltsin had won plaudits abroad for casting himself as a democrat to weaken Gorbachev, his conception of the presidency was highly autocratic. He either acted as his own prime minister (until June [[1992]]) or appointed men of his choice, regardless of parliament.
Meanwhile, the profusion of small parties and their aversion to coherent alliances left the legislature chaotic. During [[1993]], Yeltsin's rift with the parliamentary leadership led to the [[Russian constitutional crisis of 1993|September&ndash;October 1993 constitutional crisis]]. The crisis climaxed on [[October 3]], when Yeltsin chose a radical solution to settle his dispute with parliament: he called up tanks to shell the [[White House of Russia|Russian White House]], blasting out his opponents. As Yeltsin was taking the unconstitutional step of dissolving the legislature, Russia came the closest to serious civil conflict since the revolution of 1917. Yeltsin was then free to impose a constitution with strong presidential powers, which was approved by referendum in December 1993. But the December voting also saw sweeping gains for communists and nationalists, reflecting growing disenchantment with the costs of [[neoliberalism|neoliberal]] economic reforms.
Although Yeltsin came to power on a wave of optimism, he never recovered his popularity after endorsing [[Yegor Gaidar]]'s "[[shock therapy (economics)|shock therapy]]" of ending Soviet-era price controls, drastic cuts in state spending, and an open foreign trade regime in early [[1992]] (''see'' [[Economy of Russia#Economic Reform in the 1990s|Russian economic reform in the 1990s]]). The reforms immediately devastated the living standards of much of the population, especially the groups that had enjoyed the benefits of Soviet-era state-controlled wages and prices, state subsidies, and welfare entitlement programs. In the 1990s Russia suffered an economic downturn more severe than the United States or Germany had undergone six decades earlier in the Great Depression.<sup>[[#Notes|3]]</sup>
Economic reforms also consolidated a semi-criminal oligarchy with roots in the old Soviet system. Advised by Western governments, the [[World Bank]], and the [[International Monetary Fund]], Russia embarked on the largest and fastest [[privatization]] that the world had ever seen. By mid-decade, retail, trade, services, and small industry was in private hands. Most big enterprises were acquired by their old managers, engendering a new rich ([[Russian oligarch]]s) in league with criminal mafias or Western investors.<sup>[[#Notes|4]]</sup> At the bottom, many workers were forced by inflation or unemployment into poverty, prostitution, or crime. Meanwhile, the central government had lost control of the localities, bureaucracy, and ec |
testimony very difficult to believe." Gandy held her ground: "That is your privilege."
"I can give you my word. I know what there was&mdash;letters to and from friends, personal friends, a lot of letters," she testified. Gandy also said the files she took to his home also included his financial papers, such as tax returns and investment statements, the deed to his home, and papers relating to his dogs' pedigrees.
Curt Gentry wrote
:Helen Gandy must have felt quite safe in testifying as she did for who could contradict her? Only one other person knew exactly what the files contained and he was dead.
==Later years==
While she officially retired the day Hoover died, she spent the next few weeks destroying his papers and Hoover left her $5,000 in his will. In [[1961]], she and her sister, Lucy G. Rodman, donated a portrait of their mother by [[Thomas Eakins]] to the [[Smithsonian Museum of American Art]] [http://americanart.si.edu/search/search_artworks1.cfm?StartRow=1&format=long&db=all&LastName=&FirstName=&Title=&Accession=1961.11.12&Keyword=]. Gandy lived in [[Washington, D.C.]], until [[1986]], when she moved to [[DeLand, Florida]], where a niece lived. An avid [[trout]] fisherman (according to her ''[[The Washington Post|Washington Post]]'' obituary), she died of a heart attack in [[1988]], either in DeLand (says her ''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]'' obituary) or in [[Orange City, Florida]] (says her ''Post'' obituary).
==References==
*John Crewdson. "U.S. Investigating Missing F.B.I. Data." '' [[The New York Times]]''. [[June 7]], [[1972]]. 14.
*[[W. Mark Felt]]. ''The FBI Pyramid: From the Inside''. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, [[1979]]. (ISBN 0399119043).
*Franklin Dallas Gandy. Post on [[MyFamily.com, Inc.|Ancestry.com]] [http://boards.ancestry.com/mbexec/message/an/surnames.gandy/455]. Retrieved [[July 18]], [[2005]].
*Curt Gentry. '' [[J. Edgar Hoover]]: The Man and the Secrets''. New York: W.W. Norton, [[1991]]. (ISBN 0393024040)
*Richard Hack. ''Puppetmaster: The Secret Life of [[J. Edgar Hoover]]''. Beverly Hills, California: New Millennium Press, [[2004]]. (ISBN 1893224872)
*"Helen W. Gandy, FBI Secretary." ''[[The Washington Post]]''. [[July 13]], [[1988]]. C8.
*"Helen W. Gandy, Secretary, 91." ''[[The New York Times]]''. [[July 16]], [[1988]]. 33.
*"Hoover's Political Spying for Presidents". '' [[Time (magazine)|Time Magazine]].'' [[December 15]], [[1975]]. [http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,879504,00.html]
*"Obituaries". ''[[Orlando Sentinel]]''. [[July 9]], [[1988]]. D10.
*[http://ssdi.rootsweb.com/cgi-bin/ssdi.cgi?lastname=gandy&firstname=helen&start=11 Roots.com Social Security Death Index]. Retrieved July 17, 2005.
*William C. Sullivan with Bill Brown. ''The Bureau: My Thirty Years in Hoover's F.B.I''. New York: W.W. Norton, [[1979]]. (ISBN 0393012360)
*[[Anthony Summers]]. ''Official and Confidential: The Secret Life of [[J. Edgar Hoover]]''. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, [[1993]]. (ISBN 0399138005)
*[[Athan G. Theoharis]] and John Stewart Cox. ''The Boss: J. Edgar Hoover and the Great American Inquisition''. Philadelphia: [[Temple University]] Press, [[1987]]. (ISBN 087722532X)
*[[Athan G. Theoharis]], Tony G. Poveda, Susan Rosefeld, and Richard Gid Powers. ''The FBI: A Comprehensive Reference Guide''. New York: Checkmark Books, [[2000]]. (ISBN 0816042284)
*Robert McG. Thomas. "[[John Mohr]], 86, Hoover Confident and Ally at F.B.I." ''[[The New York Times]]''. [[February 1]], [[1997]]. 26.
*"The Truth About Hoover" (cover story) ''[[Time Magazine]]''. [[December 22]], [[1975]]. [http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,879566,00.html]
*[[United Press International]]. "Secretary Says She Destroyed Hoover's Letters on His Orders." ''[[The New York Times]]''. [[December 2]], [[1975]]. 14.
*United States. [[Congress of the United States|Congress]]. [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]. [[U.S. House Committee on Government Operations|Committee on Government Operations]]. Subcommittee on Government Information and Individual Rights. ''Inquiry Into the Destruction of Former FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]]'s Files and FBI Recordkeeping: Hearing Before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Government Operations, House of Representatives, [[Ninety-fourth Congress|94th Congress]], December 1, 1975''. Washington, D.C.: [[United States Government Printing Office]], [[1975]].
==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Helen_Gandy.ogg|2005-08-09}}
*Attorney General [[Griffin Bell]]'s [http://www.martykaiser.com/fbi1~1a.htm statement on the investigation into the destruction of the files]:
[[Category:1897 births|Gandy, Helen]]
[[Category:1988 deaths|Gandy, Helen]]
[[Category:Federal Bureau of Investigation|Gandy, Helen]]
[[Category:People from New Jersey|Gandy, Helen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Horsepower</title>
<id>14019</id>
<revision>
<id>40048411</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T19:31:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>134.129.244.145</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Brake horsepower (bhp) */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the unit of measurement. For the machine which used horses to generate power, see [[horse power (machine)]]''.
The '''horsepower''' ('''hp''') is the name of several non-metric [[unit]]s of [[Power (physics)|power]]. In scientific discourse the term "horsepower" is rarely used due to the various definitions and the existence of an [[SI]] unit for power, the [[watt]] (W). However, the idea of horsepower persists as a legacy term in many languages, particularly in the [[automobile|automotive]] industry for listing the maximum power of [[internal-combustion engine]]s.
The various types of horsepower (metric) are:
== Horsepower (hp) ==
According to the most common definition of horsepower, one horsepower is defined as:
: 1 hp = 33,000 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]·[[pound-force|lbf]]·[[minute|min]]<sup>−1</sup> = exactly 745.69987158227022 W
A common memory aid is based on the fact that [[Christopher Columbus]] first sailed to [[the Americas]] in [[1492]]. The memory aid states that 1 hp = 1/2 Columbus or 746 W.
: ''In fourteen hundred and ninety-two''
: ''Columbus sailed the ocean blue''.
: ''Divide that [[son of a gun|son-of-a-gun]] by two''
: ''And that's the number of watts in a horsepower too''.
The horsepower was first used by [[James Watt]] during a business venture where his [[steam engine]]s replaced [[horse]]s. It was defined that a horse can lift 33,000 [[pound-force|pounds force]] with a speed of 1 [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] per [[minute]]: 33,000 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]·[[pound-force|lbf]]·[[minute|min]]<sup>−1</sup>. This is sometimes called a ''mechanical'' horsepower to distinguish it from the other definitions of horsepower below.
==Engine horsepower==
The power of an engine may be measured or estimated at several points in the transmission of the power from its generation to its application. A number of names are used for the power developed at various stages in this process:
=== Indicated horsepower (ihp) ===
''Indicated horsepower'' is the theoretical power of a reciprocating engine assuming that it is completely efficient in converting the energy contained in the expanding gases in the cylinders. It is calculated from the pressures developed in the cylinders, measured by a device called an ''engine indicator'' - hence indicated horsepower. It was the figure normally used for [[steam engine]]s in the [[19th century]] but is misleading because the mechanical efficiency of an engine means that the actual power output may be only 70% to 90% of the indicated horsepower.
=== Brake horsepower (bhp) ===
Brake Horsepower (bhp) - The measure of horsepower at maximum engine output, minus power lost from heat, friction, expansion of the engine, etc.
==== hp (SAE)====
In the United States the term "bhp" fell into disuse after the American [[Society of Automotive Engineers]] (SAE) recommended manufacturers use "hp (SAE)" to indicate the power of the engine, given that particular car's complete engine installation. It measures engine power at the [[flywheel]], not counting drivetrain losses.
Prior to [[1972]] most American automakers rated their engines in terms of '''SAE gross horsepower''' (defined under SAE standards J245 and J1995). Gross hp was measured using a blueprinted test engine running on a stand without accessories, mufflers, or emissions control devices. It therefore reflected a maximum, theoretical value, not the power of an installed engine in a street car. Gross horsepower figures were also subject to considerable adjustment by carmakers: the power ratings of mass-market engines were often exaggerated, while those for the highest-performance [[muscle car]] engines were frequently underrated.
Starting in [[1971]] automakers began to quote power in terms of '''SAE net horsepower''' (as defined by standard J1349). This reflected the rated power of the engine in as-installed trim, with all accessories and standard intake and exhaust systems. By 1972 U.S. carmakers quoted power exclusively in SAE net hp. The change was meant to 'deflate' power ratings to assuage the [[auto insurance]] industry and environmental and safety lobbies, as well as to obfuscate the power losses caused by [[smog|emissions]]-control equipment.
SAE net ratings, while more accurate than gross ratings, still represent the engine's power at the flywheel. Contrary to some reports, it does ''not'' measure power at the drive wheels.
Because SAE gross ratings were applied liberally, at best, there is no precise conversion from gross to net |
e correspondence of De Morgan with Hamilton the mathematician extended over twenty-four years; it contains discussions not only of mathematical matters, but also of subjects of general interest. It is marked by geniality on the part of Hamilton and by wit on the part of De Morgan. The following is a specimen: Hamilton wrote, "My copy of Berkeley's work is not mine; like Berkeley, you know, I am an Irishman." De Morgan replied, "Your phrase 'my copy is not mine' is not a bull. It is perfectly good English to use the same word in two different senses in one sentence, particularly when there is usage. Incongruity of language is no bull, for it expresses meaning. But incongruity of ideas (as in the case of the Irishman who was pulling up the rope, and finding it did not finish, cried out that somebody had cut off the other end of it) is the genuine bull."
De Morgan was full of personal peculiarities. We have noticed his almost morbid attitude towards religion, and the readiness with which he would resign an office. On the occasion of the installation of his friend, Lord Brougham, as Rector of the University of Edinburgh, the Senate offered to confer on him the honorary degree of LL. D.; he declined the honour as a misnomer. He once printed his name: Augustus De Morgan, ''H - O - M - O - P - A - U - C - A - R - U - M - L - I - T - E - R - A - R - U - M''.
He disliked the country, and while his family enjoyed the seaside, and men of science were having a good time at a meeting of the British Association in the country he remained in the hot and dusty libraries of the metropolis. He said that he felt like [[Socrates]], who declared that the farther he got from [[Athens]] the farther was he from happiness. He never sought to become a [[Fellow of the Royal Society]], and he never attended a meeting of the Society; he said that he had no ideas or sympathies in common with the physical philosopher. His attitude was doubtless due to his physical infirmity, which prevented him from being either an observer or an experimenter. He never voted at an election, and he never visited the [[House of Commons]], or the [[Tower of London]], or [[Westminster Abbey]].
Were the writings of De Morgan published in the form of collected works, they would form a small library. We have noticed his writings for the Useful Knowledge Society. Mainly through the efforts of Peacock and Whewell, a Philosophical Society had been inaugurated at Cambridge; and to its Transactions De Morgan contributed four memoirs on the foundations of algebra, and an equal number on formal logic. The best presentation of his view of algebra is found in a volume, entitled ''Trigonometry and Double Algebra'', published in [[1849]]; and his earlier view of formal logic is found in a volume published in [[1847]]. His most unique work is styled a ''Budget of Paradoxes''; it originally appeared as letters in the columns of the ''Athenæum'' journal; it was revised and extended by De Morgan in the last years of his life, and was published posthumously by his widow. If you wish to read something entertaining, get De Morgan's ''Budget of Paradoxes'' out of the library. We shall consider more at length his theory of algebra, his contribution to exact logic, and his Budget of Paradoxes.
[[George Peacock]]'s theory of algebra was much improved by D. F. Gregory, a younger member of the Cambridge School, who laid stress not on the permanence of equivalent forms, but on the permanence of certain formal laws. This new theory of algebra as the science of symbols and of their laws of combination was carried to its logical issue by De Morgan; and his doctrine on the subject is still followed by English algebraists in general. Thus Chrystal founds his ''Textbook of Algebra'' on De Morgan's theory; although an attentive reader may remark that he practically abandons it when he takes up the subject of infinite series. De Morgan's theory is stated in his volume on ''Trigonometry and Double Algebra''. In the chapter (of the book) headed "On symbolic algebra" he writes: "In abandoning the meaning of symbols, we also abandon those of the words which describe them. Thus addition is to be, for the present, a sound void of sense. It is a mode of combination represented by <math>+</math>; when <math>+</math> receives its meaning, so also will the word addition. It is most important that the student should bear in mind that, with one exception, no word nor sign of arithmetic or algebra has one atom of meaning throughout this chapter, the object of which is symbols, and their laws of combination, giving a symbolic algebra which may hereafter become the grammar of a hundred distinct significant algebras. If any one were to assert that <math>+</math> and <math>-</math> might mean reward and punishment, and <math>A</math>, <math>B</math>, <math>C</math>, etc., might stand for virtues and vices, the reader might believe him, or contradict him, as he pleases, but not out of this chapter. The one exception above noted, which has some share of meaning, is the sign <math>=</math> placed between two symbols as in <math>A = B</math>. It indicates that the two symbols have the same resulting meaning, by whatever steps attained. That <math>A</math> and <math>B</math>, if quantities, are the same amount of quantity; that if operations, they are of the same effect, etc."
Here, it may be asked, why does the symbol <math>=</math> prove refractory to the symbolic theory? De Morgan admits that there is one exception; but an exception proves the rule, not in the usual but illogical sense of establishing it, but in the old and logical sense of testing its validity. If an exception can be established, the rule must fall, or at least must be modified. Here I am talking not of grammatical rules, but of the rules of science or nature.
De Morgan proceeds to give an inventory of the fundamental symbols of algebra, and also an inventory of the laws of algebra. The symbols are 0, 1, +, &minus;, &times;, ÷, ()<sup>()</sup>, and letters; these only, all others are derived. His inventory of the fundamental laws is expressed under fourteen heads, but some of them are merely definitions. The laws proper may be reduced to the following, which, as he admits, are not all independent of one
another:
#Law of signs. +&nbsp;+&nbsp;=&nbsp;+, +&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&minus;, &minus;&nbsp;+&nbsp;=&nbsp;&minus;, &minus;&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;=&nbsp;+, &times;&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&times;, &times;&nbsp;÷&nbsp;=&nbsp;÷, ÷&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;=&nbsp;÷, ÷&nbsp;÷&nbsp;=&nbsp;&times;.
#Commutative law. ''a''+''b'' = ''b''+''a'', ''ab''=''ba''.
#Distributive law. ''a''(''b''+''c'') = ''ab''+''ac''.
#Index laws. ''a''<sup>''b''</sup>&times;''a''<sup>''c''</sup>=''a''<sup>''b''+''c''</sup>, (''a''<sup>''b''</sup>)<sup>''c''</sup>=''a''<sup>''bc''</sup>, ''(ab)''<sup>''c''</sup>= ''a''<sup>''c''</sup>&times;''b''<sup>''c''</sup>.
#''a''&minus;''a''=0, ''a''÷''a''=1.
The last two may be called the rules of reduction. De Morgan professes to give a complete inventory of the laws which the symbols of algebra must obey, for he says, "Any system of symbols which obeys these laws and no others, except they be formed by combination of these laws, and which uses the preceding symbols and no others, except they be new symbols invented in abbreviation of combinations of these symbols, is symbolic algebra." From his point of view, none of the above principles are rules; they are formal laws, that is, arbitrarily chosen relations to which the algebraic symbols must be subject. He does not mention the law, which had already been pointed out by Gregory, namely, <math>(a+b)+c = a+(b+c), (ab)c = a(bc)</math> and to which was afterwards given the name of the ''law of association''. If the commutative law fails, the associative may hold good; but not ''vice versa''. It is an unfortunate thing for the symbolist or formalist that in universal arithmetic <math>m^n</math> is not equal to <math>n^m</math>; for then the commutative law would have full scope. Why does he not give it full scope? Because the foundations of algebra are, after all, real not formal, material not symbolic. To the formalists the index operations are exceedingly refractory, in consequence of which some take no account of them, but relegate them to applied mathematics. To give an inventory of the laws which the symbols of algebra must obey is an impossible task, and reminds one not a little of the task of those philosophers who attempt to give an inventory of the ''a priori'' knowledge of the mind.
De Morgan's work entitled ''Trigonometry and Double Algebra'' consists of two parts; the former of which is a treatise on [[Trigonometry]], and the latter a treatise on generalized algebra which he calls Double Algebra. But what is meant by Double as applied to algebra? and why should Trigonometry be also treated in the same textbook? The first stage in the development of algebra is ''arithmetic'', where numbers only appear and symbols of operations such as <math>+</math>, <math>\times</math>, etc. The next stage is ''universal arithmetic'', where letters appear instead of numbers, so as to denote numbers universally, and the processes are conducted without knowing the values of the symbols. Let <math>a</math> and <math>b</math> denote any numbers; then such an expression as <math>a-b</math> may be impossible; so that in universal |
published in the summer of 1969 edition of ''Dialogue: A journal of Mormon Thought'', pp76-78 in which he acknowledged that the NWAF findings did not back up the veracity of the Book of Mormon claims. After this article and another six years of fruitless search, Thomas Ferguson published a 29 page paper in 1975 entitled ''Written Symposium on Book-of-Mormon Georgraphy: Response of Thomas S. Ferguson to the Norman & Sorenson Papers''. The full text will be omitted here, but he summed up as thus on page 29: "I'm afraid that up to this point, I must agree with Dee Green, who has told us that to date there is no Book-of-Mormon geography..."
Ferguson wrote a [[20 February]] [[1976]] letter to Mr & Mrs H.W. Lawrence in which he stated: "...The real implication of the paper is that you can't set the Book-of-Mormon geography down anywhere &mdash; because it is fictional and will never meet the requirements of the dirt-archeology" (sic).
While each of the aforementioned quoted sources are easily verifiable, critics think it interesting to note that the LDS Church library does contain copies of each, but they are not part of any LDS curriculum.
This is not to say the NWAF has found nothing. Quite the opposite, the findings of the NWAF have been invaluable in continuing the unbroken record of Meso-America. Currently BYU maintains 86 documents on the work of the NWAF at the [http://www.lib.byu.edu/spc/nwaf/ BYU NWAF website] and these documents are used outside both BYU and the LDS church by researchers.
====DNA====
Recent studies have claimed that Native Americans do not have certain genetic markers in common with modern Middle Eastern DNA samples, and genetic research shows that they are more closely related to people in Asia than anywhere else. These studies have come mainly from [[Thomas Murphy]]. and [http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/academic-falls-foul-of-mormons/2005/07/20/1121539033179.html/ Simon Southerton]. Critics claim this contradicts the statement found in the introduction of the current edition of the Book of Mormon, which says that the Lamanites, descendents of Hebrews, are the "principal ancestors" of Native Americans, however there is no claim that they are the sole ancestors. There are three different people who are mentioned, of which one may be Asian.
In [http://www.fairlds.org/apol/bom/bom12.html/ response] to these arguments, David Stewart states that the studies fail to account for the fact that Ancient Israelite DNA would be vastly different from their modern DNA. He also said that mtDNA testing, which was the cornerstone in both studies, cannot even link different Jewish groups let alone compare them to American Indians faithfully. He concluded that the studies take a very limited and biased approach in order to control the outcome and that the studies ignore other basic DNA facts in order to come to their biased conclusion. This criticism of the science is not generally accepted outside of Mormonism.
====Archaeology====
''For a detailed discussion about Book of Mormon Archaeology, visit [[Archaeology and the Book of Mormon]]''
Other arguments against the Book of Mormon are made on an archaeological basis, such as the mention of animals that are not known to have been present in the Americas prior to contact with Europe. One specific issue is language, in that the Nephites and Lamanites would have spoken a Semetic language up to at least 400 C.E., where the Book of Mormon stops. However, no spoken semetic language has survived in the Americas to modern times. These critics also feel that the 1,000 years after the end of the period covered in the Book of Mormon do not suffice to account for the difference among Native American languages nor their distance from Semetic languages. A common counterargument is that the Book of Mormon mentions contact with other civilizations with their own non-Semitic languages that might have influenced or supplanted any Semitic language being spoken, and point to written samples of Semetic languages in available archaelogical data.
Mormon critics often point to lacking evidence supporting all of Book of Mormon claims. Apologists often counterargue that Meso-American archeaology is a young field and that evidence will eventually surface. One example of lacking evidence is that although horses lived in the ancient americas, there is little evidence that they were domesticated or even co-existed during the time period of the Book of Mormon narrative. Another example of evidence once believed lacking, now found is that the Book of Mormon referred to elephants (Ether 9:19) being brought to America by one of the groups. This claim was refuted by critics as absurd until 1903 when, according to American Antiquarian, 25:395-397, Dr. Nicholas Leon unearthed elephant bones near the town of Paredon, north of the City of Mexico [http://www.2s2.com/chapmanresearch/elephant.html]. Currently, most Book of Mormon claims are substantiated, however, a good deal of them are problematic from a dating perspective - some, such as horses (mentioned above), existed in the Americas, but not during the Book of Mormon time period.
==Role of the Book of Mormon in Mormonism==
[[Joseph Smith]] said, “"I told the brethren that the Book of Mormon was the most correct of any book on earth, and the [[keystone]] of our religion, and a man would get nearer to [[God]] by abiding by its precepts, than by any other book." (History of the Church 4:461). The ''Book of Mormon'' is of prime importance to the church as one of the greatest differentiating factors of the church as well as a spiritual foundation. It is held as a tangible evidence of the truthfulness of the church.
Members of the church hold The ''Book of Mormon'' as the most important, correct, and basic book of scripture. Not placing enough emphasis on the Book of Mormon or ignoring it all together was decried in a revelation to [[Joseph Smith, Jr.|Joseph Smith]] that pronounced a condemnation on the "whole church" for treating the ''Book of Mormon'' "lightly," until they should "[[repentance|repent]] and remember the new covenant, even the ''Book of Mormon'' and the former commandments which I [the [[God|Lord]]] have given them, not only to say, but to do according to that which I have written, that they may bring forth fruit meet for their [[God the Father|Father's]] [[kingdom of heaven|kingdom]]" ([[Doctrine and Covenants]] 84:55-58). The importance of studying the Book of Mormon has been stressed by every LDS church [[President of the Church (Mormonism)|president]] since Joseph Smith, who stated that the Book of Mormon was "the most correct of any book on earth, and the [[keystone]] of our [[religion]], and a man would get nearer to [[God]] by abiding by its precepts, than by any other book."
The ''Book of Mormon'''s significance was reiterated in the late 20th century by [[Ezra Taft Benson]], [[Apostle (Mormonism)|Apostle]] and 13th [[President of the Church (Mormonism)|President]] of [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]. In an August 2005 ''[[Ensign (magazine)|Ensign]]'' message, current LDS President [[Gordon B. Hinckley]] challenged each member of the church to reread the Book of Mormon again before year end. The book's importance is commonly stressed at the twice-yearly [[General Conference (Mormonism)|General Conference]] and at special devotionals by [[General Authority|General Authorities]] in the [[First Presidency]], the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]], and the several [[Quorums of the Seventy]].
===Claimed differences between the Book of Mormon and Latter-day Saint doctrine===
[[Criticism of Mormonism|Critics of Mormonism]] argue that the teachings of ''Book of Mormon'' are not entirely consistent with Mormon (and/or more specifically, LDS) doctrine. The book's Introduction states that the Book of Mormon "contains, as does the Bible, the fullness of the everlasting gospel," though it does not dictate certain specific doctrines important to [[Latter-day Saints]]. These come from other sources, including modern revelation. Members of [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] believe that when the church is properly organized, the president of the church is a prophet who receives guidance from God. From his revelations come the doctrines of the church which are treated as God's will, as well as the official interpretation of scripture, even if latter revelation modifies or contradicts earlier revelation. The organization, instructions and even the scriptures may change with the times to meet the current needs of the church, but the basic belief as a whole will remain mostly unchanged. However, it is clear that a few of the doctrinal elements that distinguish Mormonism from other Christian religions are not mentioned in the Book of Mormon.
Vital doctrines not found in the Book of Mormon include the origin of [[God]], [[Baptism for the dead]], The [[Word of Wisdom]] (the Mormon law of health) and other [[temple (Mormonism)|temple]] [[ordinance]]s. It also does not dictate the doctrine of [[plural marriage]], or [[polygamy]].
To counter the accusation that the Book of Mormon does not contain "the fullness of the everlasting gospel," some LDS members point to a statement made by Joseph Smith to the effect that the basic and essential ordinances of [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] are [[Faith]] in Jesus, [[Repentance]], [[Baptism]], and [[Confirmation (sacrament)|Confirmation]] to receive the Gift of the [[Holy Ghost]], which are taught in the Book of Mormon, and all other doctrines and practices are but appendages to those tenets. Another interpretation of the phrase "fullness of the everlasting gospel" is t |
vilization|Vedic]] culture. In the [[Vedas]], which span back to [[20th century BCE|2000 BCE]] (and much further in oral tradition), the first concept that is strikingly ''dharmic'' is that of [[rta]].
Rta literally means the "course of things." At first, the early [[Hindus]] (or followers of the "Sanatan Dharma") were notably confused as to the inscrutable order of nature, how the heavenly bodies, the rushing winds and flowing waters, the consistent cycling of the seasons, were regulated. Thenceforth sprang rta, whose all-purpose role it was to signify this order, the path that was always followed. Through all the metamorphoses and permutations of nature, of life in general, there was one unchangeable fact: rta.
Soon it transcended its passive role as a mere signifier and took on a greater one, that of an active imposition of order. Not only the natural principles, but the gods and goddesses themselves, were obliged to abide by rta. Rta became the father, the law of justice and righteousness, unyielding but eminently fair. It grew, as Radhakrishnan states, from "physical" to "divine" in its purvey.
The world's seeming mess of altercating fortune, the caprice of the divinities, was now intelligible. Indeed, there was a single, unchanging harmony working 'behind the scenes.' A right path existed, ready to be taken by the righteous ones. Rta signifies the way life ought to be, shifting from physical to divine, from [[natural]] to [[moral]] order. Rta was morality, the equitable law of the universe. The conception of this all-transcending, supramental force that is, practically, the same concept as later understandings of dharma, is captured in this early [[Vedic religion|Vedic]] prayer, preempting the liturgical strains of classical [[Hinduism|Hindu]] [[mantra]]s involving ''dharma'':
:::::"''O Indra, lead us on the path of Rta, on the right path over all evils''."
:::::--('''Rig Veda Book X, Chapter CXXXIII, Verse 6''')
Thus we see the logical progression of an early 'course of things' into an all-encompassing moral order, a path and way of righteousness, an all-encompassing harmony of the universe, in the Vedic idea of Rta. ([[#References|1]])
===Developing conceptions===
An earlier and insightful demonstration of the continuity of thought from rta to dharma is a brief but "pregnant definition" (([[#References|3]]) of dharma given in the Brihadaranyaka [[Upanishad]], a pre-Buddhist work dating back to between [[10th century BCE|1000]] to [[700s BCE|700 BCE]]. Founded upon the Hindu ideas of, as R. H. Hume's "intelligent [[monism]]," with [[Brahman]] the [[monad]], the Upanishads saw dharma as the universal principle of law, order, harmony, all in all truth, that sprang first from Brahman. It acts as the regulatory moral principle of the universe. It is ''sat'', truth, a major tenet of Hinduism. This hearkens back to the conception of the Rig Veda that "Ekam Sat," (Truth Is One), of the idea that Brahman is "''Sacchidananda''" (Truth-Consciousness-Bliss). Dharma has imbibed the highest principles of Truth, and as such is <u>the</u> central guiding principle in the Hindu conception of existence. Dharma is not just law, or harmony, it is pure Reality. In the Brihadaranyaka's own words:
:::::" ''Verily, that which is Dharma is truth''.
:::::''Therefore they say of a man who speaks truth, 'He speaks the Dharma,' ''
:::::''or of a man who speaks the Dharma, 'He speaks the Truth.' ''
:::::''Verily, both these things are the same''."
:::::('''Brh. Upanishad, 1.4.14''') ([[#References|2]])
===Dharma as a Purushartha===
In moving through the four stages of life, viz. [[Brahmachaaryaashram]], [[Grihasthaashram]], [[Vanprasthaashram]], [[Sanyaasaashram]], a person also seeks to fulfill the four essentials ('''purushaartha''') of Dharma, [[Artha]] (worldly gain}, [[Kama]] (sensual pleasures), and [[Moksha]] (liberation from [[reincarnation]] or rebirth). Moksha, although the ultimate goal, is emphasized more in the last two stages of life, while Artha and Kama are primary only during Grihasthaashram. Dharma, however is essential in all four stages.
===Kane's view===
According to [[Pandurang Vaman Kane|Dr.Pandurang Vaman Kane]], the word "Dharma" acquired a sense of "the privileges, duties and obligations of a man, his standard of conduct as a member of the Aryan community, as a member of the caste and as a person in a particular state of life."
==In Buddhism ==
{{buddhism}}
In East Asia, the character for Dharma is [[wiktionary:法|法]], pronounced ''fǎ'' in Mandarin and ''hō'' in Japanese.
===Buddha's teachings===
For practicing Buddhists, references to "dharma" or ''dhamma'' in the singular, particularly as "the" Dharma, is used to mean the teachings of the Buddha, and is sometimes referred to as the Buddha-Dharma. ''Dharma'' is the universal law of nature and to call it Buddha-Dhamma suggests that other kinds of Dharma may exist. But this is not so, there is only one Dharma. The term Buddha-Dharma merely refers to the fact that it was discovered by the Buddha, not created by him.
The status of the Dharma is regarded variably by different traditions. Some regard it as an ultimate and transcendent truth which is utterly beyond worldly things, somewhat like the Christian [[logos]]. Others, who regard the Buddha as simply an enlightened human being, see the Dharma more as a useful set of ideas and suggestions for how to live one's life, not requiring any special transmundane status.
"Dharma" usually refers inclusively not just to the sayings of the Buddha but to the later traditions of interpretation and addition that the various [[Schools of Buddhism|schools of Buddhism]] have developed to help explain and expand upon the Buddha's teachings.
The Dharma is one of the [[Three Jewels]], and Buddhists are said to seek refuge in it as in the [[Buddha]] and the [[Sangha]].
===Qualities of Buddha Dharma===
The Teaching of the Buddha also has six supreme qualities:
:# Svakkhato The Dhamma is not a speculative philosophy, but is the Universal Law found through enlightenment and is preached precisely. Therefore it is excellent in the beginning (Sīla ... Moral principles), Excellent in the middle (Samadhi. . . Concentration) and excellent in the end (Pań ña . . . Wisdom),
:# (Samditthiko) The Dhamma can be tested by practice and therefore he who follows it will see the result by himself through is own experience.
:# (Akāliko) The Dhamma is able to bestow timeless and immediate results here and now, for which there is no need to wait till the future or next existence.
:# (Ehipassiko) The Dhamma welcomes all beings to put it to the test come and see for themselves.
:# (Opāneyiko) The Dhamma is capable of being entered upon and therefore it is worthy to be followed as a part of one's life.
:# (Paccattam veditabbo viññūnhi) The Dhamma can be perfectly realized only by the noble disciples (Ariyas) who have matured and enlightened enough in supreme wisdom.
Knowing these attributes, Buddhists believe that they will attain the greatest peace and happiness through the practice of the Dhamma. Each person is therefore fully responsible for himself to put it in the real practice.
Here the Buddha is compared to an experienced and skilful doctor, and the Dhamma to proper medicine. However efficient the doctor or wonderful the medicine may be, the patients cannot be cured unless they take the medicine properly. So the practice of the Dhamma is the only way to attain the final deliverance of Nibbāna.
===Dharmas in Buddhist phenomenology===
Other uses include, dharma, normally spelled with a small "d" (to differentiate), and refers to "phenomenon" or "constituent factor" of human experience. This was gradually expanded into a classification of constituents of the entire material and mental world. Rejecting the substantial existence of permanent entities which are qualified by possibly changing qualities, Buddhist [[Abhidharma]] philosophy, which enumerated [[seventy-five dharmas]], came to propound that these "constituent factors" are the only type of entity that truly exists. This notion is of particular importance for the analysis of human experience: Rather than assuming that mental states inhere in a cognizing subject, or a soul-substance, Buddhist philosophers largely propose that mental states alone exist as "momentary elements of consciousness", and that a subjective perceiver is assumed.
One of the central tenets of Buddhism, is the denial of a separate permanent "I", and is outlined in the [[Three Signs of Being]] / [[Three Seals of Existence]]. The three signs: 1. [[Dukkha]] - Suffering (Pali: Dukkha), 2. [[Anitya]] - Change/Impermanence (Pali: Anicca), 3. [[Anatman]] - No-I (Pali: Annatta). At the heart of Buddhism, is the denial of an "I" (and hence the delusion) as a separate self-existing entity.
Later, Buddhist philosophers like [[Nagarjuna|N&#257;g&#257;rjuna]] would question whether the dharmas (momentary elements of consciousness) truly have a separate existence of their own. (ie Do they exist apart from anything else?) Rejecting any inherent reality to the dharmas, he asked (rhetorically):
<blockquote>
&#347;&#363;nye&#7779;u sarvadharme&#7779;u kim ananta&#7745; kimantavat
<br />kim anantam antavac ca n&#257;nanta&#7745; n&#257;ntavacca ki&#7745;
<br />ki&#7745; tad eva kim anyat ki&#7745; &#347;&#257;&#347;vata&#7745; kim a&#347;&#257;&#347;vata&#7745;
<br />a&#347;&#257;&#347;vata&#7745; &#347;&#257;&#347;vata&#7745; ca ki&#7745; v&#257; nobhayam apyata&#7717; 'tha
<br />sarvopalambhpa&#347;ama&#7717; prapa |
n drop LGBs with the the help of another aircraft (Buddy-Lase) or, when equipped with a targeting pod, Self-Lase.
The A-10 also initially lacked systems to compute target range or impact points, greatly limiting its ability to deliver weapons other than cannon and rocket fire (in direct, visual-range attacks) or the self-guided [[AGM-65 Maverick]] missile, whose own sensors displayed imagery in the A-10's cockpit. Often times this small monitor would provide the only source of imagery for missions that took place in dark environments. Much later in the 'Warthog's' career, the Low-Altitude Safety and Targeting Enhancement (LASTE) upgrade provided computerized weapon-aiming equipment, an autopilot, and ground-collision warning system. The A-10 is now compatible with [[night-vision]] goggles for low-light operation. In 1999, aircraft began to be given [[Global Positioning System]] navigation systems.
[[Image:A-10_Thunderbolt_flight.jpg|thumb|left|200px|An A-10 Thunderbolt in flight]]
==Operational service==
[[Image:Usaf.thunderbolt2.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|An A-10 Thunderbolt II in flight fully loaded with armaments]]
The first unit to receive the A-10 Thunderbolt II was the [[355th Tactical Training Wing]], based at [[Davis-Monthan Air Force Base]], Arizona in March [[1976 in aviation|1976]].
A-10s were initially an unwelcome addition to the arsenal in the eyes of Air Force brass. The Air Force prized the high-flying, high-performance [[F-15]] and [[F-16]] jets, and were determined to leave the dirty work of close air support to Army [[helicopters]].
The planes proved their mettle in the [[Persian Gulf War]] in 1991, destroying more than 1,000 tanks, 2,000 military vehicles and 1,200 artillery pieces. Five A-10s were shot down during the war (a number of those by [[ZSU-23-4 Shilka|ZSU-23-4 Shilka]]), far fewer than military planners expected. A-10s had a mission capable rate of 95.7 percent, flew 8,100 sorties and launched 90 percent of the [[AGM-65 Maverick]] missiles.
In the 1990s many A-10s were shifted to the "[[forward air control]] (FAC)" role and redesignated O/A-10. In the FAC role the 'Warthog' is typically equipped with up to six pods of 5 inch (127&nbsp;mm) Zuni rockets, usually with smoke or [[white phosphorus]] warheads used for target marking. They remain fully combat capable despite the redesignation.
A-10s again saw service in the 1999 [[Kosovo War]], in later stages of the 2001 [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan|invasion of Afghanistan]] from an air base at [[Bagram]], including [[Operation Anaconda]] in March 2002, and in the [[2003 Iraq War|2003 Iraq war]]. Sixty A-10s were deployed in Iraq; one was shot down near [[Baghdad International Airport]] by Iraqi fire late in the campaign.
A-10 pilots have been involved in a number of notorious '[[friendly fire]]' incidents. In the [[Gulf War]] of 1991 an A-10 attacked two [[British Army]] [[Warrior Tracked Armoured Vehicle|Warrior Infantry Fighting Vehicles]] (out of 37 parked up), killing nine soldiers. Two [[FV107 Scimitar|British Scimitar]] armoured reconnaissance vehicles were attacked by an A-10 in the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|Iraq War]] of 2003. They were also involved in a friendly fire incident with a U.S. Marine [[Amphibious Assault Vehicle]] at the Battle of Nasiriyah during the opening stages of [[Operation Iraqi Freedom|Operation IRAQI FREEDOM]].
The A-10 is scheduled to stay in service with the USAF until 2028, when it may be replaced by the [[F-35 Joint Strike Fighter|Joint Strike Fighter]]. Beginning in 2005 the entire A-10 fleet is being upgraded to the "C" model that will include improved FCS, ECM, and the ability to carry smart bombs. However, the A-10 could stay in service indefinitely due to both its low cost and its unique capabilities which the Joint Strike Fighter simply cannot incorporate such as its cannon, ruggedness, and slow flying capabilities.
==Nicknames==
====Friendly Forces====
The A-10 Thunderbolt II received the nickname "[[Warthog]]" and dates back to Fairchild-Republic's initial deliveries. The name was derived from the report of the main gun, which has a surprisingly low pitch and sounds much like the snorting or grunting of a hog. This coupled with the A-10's lack of aesthetics and "thick skin" earned it the nickname "[[Warthog]]".
====Enemy Forces====
During Desert Storm, captured Iraqi soldiers referred to A-10 as 'the silent gun'. The rounds hit their target before the target heard the report of the gunfire.
==Trivia==
The [[GAU-8/A 30mm Avenger Cannon|GAU-8 Avenger cannon]] is said to produce almost the same amount of force as one of the A-10's engines, leading to a persistent military legend that if enough bullets could be carried and fired in a long burst, the plane would stop flying (or move backwards, in some versions of the legend). Using the specs from the [http://www.gdatp.com/products/lethality/gau-8a/gau-8.htm GAU-8/A product homepage], the recoil force of the GAU-8/A is measured to an average of 10,000 [[pound-force|lbf]] (45 kN). While the recoil force is considerable, the cannon is employed only in short bursts to protect the barrel cluster from overheating. Even if both engines were stopped and the jet was gliding unpowered, firing the cannon will not bring it to a stop in midair, only slow it down much in the same manner as if an airbrake was deployed.
Of further note on the impressive cannon recoil force, the A-10's nosewheel gear assembly is situated in the less than optimal off-centre-line position (immediately starboard of the gun). This design feature was necessary to accommodate the GAU-8 in the centre-line position as off-centre placement would result in potentially catastrophic yaw forces on firing the cannon.
The A-10 was the inspiration for the [[COBRA Rattler]] aircraft seen in the 1980s cartoon series GI Joe, as well as the [[Autobots|Autobot]] [[Powerglide (Transformers)|Powerglide]] in the [[The Transformers]].
==Specifications (A-10 Thunderbolt II)==
[[Image:Thunderbolt_II_flight.jpg|thumb|320px|Two A-10 Thunderbolts in flight]]
* Date deployed: March 1976
* Unit cost: US$9.8 million
* Inventory: active force, A-10, 143 and OA-10, 70; reserve, A-10, 46 and OA-10, 6; ANG, A-10, 84 and OA-10, 18
{{airtemp|
<!-- if you do not understand how to use this template, please ask at [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Aircraft]] -->
<!-- please answer the following questions -->
|plane or copter?=plane
|jet or prop?=jet
<!-- Now, fill out the specs. Please include units where appropriate (main comes first, alt in parentheses).
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|crew=One
|span main=57 ft 6 in
|span alt=17.53 m
|length main=53 ft 4 in
|length alt=16.26 m
|height main=14 ft 8 in
|height alt=4.47 m
|area main=506 ft²
|area alt=47.0 m²
|airfoil=[[NACA airfoil|NACA 6716]] / NACA 6713
|empty weight main= 24,959 lb
|empty weight alt=11,321 kg
|loaded weight main=30,384 lb; [[Close air support|CAS]] mission 47,094 lb; anti-armour mission 42,071 lb; ferry: 49,774 lb
|loaded weight alt=13,782 kg; CAS mission 21,361 kg; anti-armour mission 19,083 kg; ferry 22,577 kg
|max takeoff weight main=50,000 lb
|max takeoff weight alt=22,680 kg
|engine (jet)=[[General Electric TF34]]-GE-100A
|type of jet=turbofans
|number of jets=2
|thrust main=9,065 lbf
|thrust alt=40.32 kN
|max speed main=381 kt; 380 kt at 5,000 ft with six [[Mk 82]] bombs
|max speed alt=706 km/h; 704 km/h at 1,500 m with six Mk 82 bombs
|never exceed speed main=450 kt
|never exceed speed alt=834 km/h
|cruise speed main=300 kt
|cruise speed alt=555 km/h
|climb rate main=6,000 ft/min
|climb rate alt=30 m/s
|ceiling main=45,000 ft
|ceiling alt=13,700 m
|range main=Anti-armour configuration, 30 min combat, 40 nm sea-level penetration and exit: 252 nm; CAS configuration, 1.88 h single-engine loiter at 5,000 ft, 10 min combat: 250 nm; ferry range, 50 kt (90 km/h) headwinds, 20 min reserve: 2,240 nm
|range alt=Anti-armour, 30 min combat, 75 km sea-level penetration and exit: 267 km; CAS, 1.88 h single-engine loiter at 1,500 m, 10 min combat: 460 km; ferry 4,150 km
|loading main=99 lb/ft&sup2;
|loading alt=482 kg/m&sup2;
|thrust/weight=0.36
|armament=
[[Image:A10_gun.jpg|right|thumb|250px|GAU-8 Avenger]]
* 1x 30 mm [[GAU-8 Avenger|GAU-8/A Avenger]] seven-barrel [[Gatling gun]] with 1,350 rounds. The standard ammunition is a four-to-one mixture of armor-piercing depleted-uranium rounds and high-explosive incendiary rounds.
* 8x underwing and 3x under-fuselage pylon stations holding 16,000 lb (7,300 kg) housing:
**[[Mark 82 bomb|Mk 82]], [[Mark 83 bomb|Mk 83]], and [[Mark 84 bomb|Mk 84]] [[general-purpose bomb]]s
**'''BLU-1''', '''BLU-27/B Rockeye II''' and '''CBU-52/71''' [[cluster bomb|cluster bombs]]
**[[GBU-10]] Paveway II, [[GBU-16]] [[Paveway]] II, [[GBU-24]] [[Paveway]] III, and [[GBU-12]] Paveway II [[Laser-Guided Bombs]]
**[[AGM-65 Maverick]] and [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]] [[Missiles]]
**[[LAU-68 Hydra 70 mm]] and 127 mm rocket pods
**Illumination flares, [[Electronic countermeasures|ECM]] and [[chaff]] pods
**[[ALQ-131]] [[ECM]]pod
}}
(Spick, 2000, p. 21).
__FORCETOC__
[[Image:thunderbolt.a10.fairford.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|81st Fighter Squadron Thunderbolt]]
[[Image:thunderbolt.a10.closeup.fairford.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Thunderbolt closeup]]
==References==
* Spick, M. ''The Great Book of Modern Warplanes'', Salamander Books, 2000. ISBN 1840651563
==External links==
* http://www.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?fsID=70
* http://www.a-10.org/
* http://globalsecurity.org/military/systems/aircraft/a-10.htm
* http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/aircraft/a-10-history.htm
* http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ac/a-10.htm
==Related content==
{{Commons|A-10 Thunderbolt II}}
{{aircontent|
|rela |
ldry, a [[charge (heraldry)|charge]] means objects on the shield.
*In [[munition]]s and [[explosive]]s, the ''charge'' is the explosive material used, for instance, to propel a bullet or shell, or demolish a structure.
*In an [[internal combustion engine]], "charge" is used to refer to the air or fuel/air mixture being fed into the intake. "Charge air" usually refers to air that has not had fuel mixed with it.
*During the European Middle Ages, a [[charge (youth)|charge]] often meant an underage person placed under the supervision of a nobleman
*To [[charge (warfare)]] is a maneuver in battle where soldiers rush towards their enemy to engage in close combat
*In context of wartime operations, to charge with certain [[rights]], such as guaranteeing persons held in custody are allowed those rights
*In money, a [[charge (finance)]] is any [[fee]] assessed, such as a charge for using an automatic teller machine (ATM), entering a museum, being late with a payment, etc
*In [[basketball]], a charge is an offensive foul, called when an offensive player with the ball makes illegal contact with a defensive player who has legally established his position.
*In [[Scientology]], a negative emotional imprint in the subconscious mind.
*''[[Charge!!]]'' is a 2005 album by [[The Aquabats]].
*[[Benzylpiperazine|Charge]] is the name of a legal party pill in New Zealand
*[[CHARGE syndrome]] refers to a specific set of birth defects in children.
{{disambig}}
[[da:Ladning]]
[[de:Ladung]]
[[ja:チャージ]]
[[fr:Charge]]
[[it:Carica]]
[[hu:Töltés]]
[[pt:Carga]]
[[ru:Заряд]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Colonna family</title>
<id>6440</id>
<revision>
<id>42019933</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T06:50:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Adam Bishop</username>
<id>13008</id>
</contributor>
<comment>added info about 1297 revolt, as best I understand it</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Colonna crest in the Lateran cloister.jpg|thumb|Crest of the Colonna family.]]
The '''Colonna family''' was a powerful noble family in [[Middle Ages|medieval]] and [[renaissance]] [[Rome]], supplying one [[pope]] and many other leaders, and fighting with their rivals the [[Orsini family]] for influence. Otto di Colonna ended the [[Western Schism]] as [[Pope Martin V]].
According to their family tradition, the Colonna are a branch of the counts of Tusculum. The first [[Catholic Cardinal|cardinal]] from the family was appointed in [[1192]] when Giovanni Colonna was made [[Cardinal Priest]] of [[Santa Prisca]].
In [[1297]] Cardinal Jacopo disinherited his brothers Ottone, Matteo, and Landolfo of their lands. The latter three appealed [[Pope Boniface VIII]], who ordered Jacopo to return the land, and furthermore hand over the family's strongholds of Colonna, [[Palestrina]], and other towns to the [[Papacy]]. Jacopo refused; in May Boniface removed him from the [[College of Cardinals]] and excommunicated him and his followers for four generations. The Colonna family (aside from the three brothers allied with the Pope) declared that Boniface had been elected illegally after the unprecedented [[papal abdication|abdication]] of [[Pope Celestine V]] three years previously. The dispute lead to open warfare, and in September Boniface appointed Landolfo to the command of his army, to put down the revolt of Landolfo's own relatives. This he did, and by the end of [[1298]] Colonna, Palestrina, and other towns had been captured and razed to the ground. The family's lands were distributed among Landolfo and his loyal brothers; the rest of the family fled Italy.
In [[1728]], the family added the name [[Barberini]] to its family name when Giulio Cesare Colonna di Sciarra married Cornelia Barberini, daughter of the last male Barberini to hold the name, Taddeo Barberini.
The Colonna family have been [[Prince Assistants to the Papal Throne]] since 1710, though their papal princely title only dates from 1854.
==See also==
* [[Vittoria Colonna]], friend of [[Michelangelo]]
* [[Sciarra Colonna]], who participated in the Outrage of [[Anagni]]
* [[Fabrizio Colonna]], who was the father of [[Vittoria Colonna]], and a general in the [[holy league]].
{{euro-noble-stub}}
[[Category:Italian noble families]]
[[de:Colonna (Adelsgeschlecht)]]
[[es:Colonna]]
[[it:Colonna (famiglia)]]
[[ja:コロンナ家]]
[[sv:Colonna]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ciliate</title>
<id>6441</id>
<revision>
<id>41945623</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:25:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdr</username>
<id>55814</id>
</contributor>
<comment>use Haeckel picture in taxobox to show the variety of forms; keep old picture; add more pictures</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = khaki
| name = Ciliates
| image = Haeckel Ciliata.jpg
| image_caption = "Ciliata" from [[Ernst Haeckel]]'s ''Artforms of Nature'', 1904
| regnum = [[Protist]]a
| phylum = '''Ciliophora'''
| phylum_authority = [[Doflein]], 1901 ''emend.''
| subdivision_ranks = Classes
| subdivision =
[[Karyorelictea]]<br/>
[[Heterotrich]]ea<br/>
[[Spirotrich]]ea<br/>
[[Litostomatea]]<br/>
[[Phyllopharyngea]]<br/>
[[Nassophorea]]<br/>
[[Colpodea]]<br/>
[[Prostomatea]]<br/>
[[Oligohymenophorea]]<br/>
[[Plagiopylid|Plagiopylea]]<br/>
See text for subclasses.
}}
The '''ciliates''' ([[pronounced]] /ˌsɪlɪeɪt/) are one of the most important groups of [[protist]]s, common almost everywhere there is water - [[lake]]s, [[pond]]s, [[ocean]]s, and [[soil]]s, with many [[Ectosymbiosis|ecto]]- and [[endosymbiotic]] members, as well as some obligate and opportunistic parasites. Ciliates tend to be large protozoa, a few reaching 2 mm in length, and are some of the most complex in structure. The name ''ciliate'' comes from the presence of hair-like organelles called [[cilium|cilia]], which are identical in structure to [[flagellum|flagella]] but typically shorter and present in much larger numbers. Cilia occur in all members of the group, although the peculiar [[suctoria]] only have them for part of the life-cycle, and are variously used in swimming, crawling, attachment, feeding, and sensation.
[[Image:Paramecium.jpg|thumb|''[[Paramecium]]'']]
Unlike other [[eukaryote]]s, ciliates have two different sorts of [[cell nucleus|nuclei]]: a small, [[diploid]] [[micronucleus]] (reproduction), and a large, [[polyploid]] [[macronucleus]] (general cell regulation). The latter is generated from the micronucleus by amplification of the genome and heavy editing. The high degree of polyploidi allows the cell to sustain an appropriate level of [[transcription (genetics)|transcription]]. Division of the macronucleus does not occur by a [[mitosis|mitotic process]] but segregation of the chromosomes is by a different process, whose mechanism is unknown. This process is by no means perfect, and after about 200 generations the cell shows signs of aging. Periodically the macronuclei must be regenerated from the micronuclei. In most, this occurs during [[sexual reproduction]], which is not usually through [[syngamy]] but through ''conjugation''. Here two cells line up, the micronuclei undergo [[meiosis]], some of the [[haploid]] daughters are exchanged and then fuse to form new micro- and macronuclei.
With a few exceptions, there is a distinct ''[[cytostome]]'' or mouth where ingestion takes place. Food [[vacuole]]s are formed through [[phagocytosis]] and typically follow a particular path through the cell as their contents are digested and broken down via [[lysosomes]] so the substances the vacuole contains are then small enough to [[diffuse]] through the membrane of the food vacuole into the cell. Anything left in the food vacuole by the time it reaches the cytoproct (anus) is discharged via [[exocytosis]]. Most ciliates also have one or more prominent contractile vacuoles, which collect water and expel it from the cell to maintain osmotic pressure, or in some function to maintain ionic balance. These often have a distinctive star-shape, with each point being a collecting tube.
Most ciliates feed on smaller organisms (heterotrophic), such as [[bacterium|bacteria]] and [[alga]]e, and detritus swept into the mouth by modified oral cilia. These usually include a series of membranelles to the left of the mouth and a paroral membrane to its right, both of which arise from ''polykinetids'', groups of many cilia together with associated structures. This varies considerably, however. Some ciliates are mouthless and feed by absorption, while others are predatory and feed on other protozoa and in particular on other ciliates. This includes the suctoria, which feed through several specialized tentacles.
In some forms there are also body polykinetids, for instance, among the [[spirotrich]]s where they generally form bristles called ''cirri''. More often body cilia are arranged in ''mono-'' and ''dikinetids'', which respectively include one and two kinetosomes (basal bodies), each of which may support a cilium. These are arranged into rows called ''kineties'', which run from the anterior to posterior of the cell. The body and oral kinetids make up the ''infraciliature'', an organization unique to the ciliates and important in their classification, and include various fibrils and [[microtubule]]s involved in coordinating the cilia.
The infraciliature is one of the main component of the cell cortex. Another are the ''alveoli'', small vesicles under the cell membrane that are packed against it to form a [[pellicle]] maintaining the cell's shape, which varies from flexible and contractile to rigid. Numerous [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]] and [[extrusome]]s are also generally present. The presence of alveoli, the structure of the cilia, the form of mitosis and various other details indicate a close re |
unlucky" plants and animals and the like. Orally-transmitted material may have exaggerated deep origins in antiquity, however, and is constantly subject to influence from surrounding culture.
==Druidic sites==
Sites associated with Druidry include:
*The Isle of [[Ynys Môn]]
*The [[Isle of Man]]
*Wistman's Wood on [[Dartmoor]]
*[[Newland's Corner]] in Surrey
*[[Iona]]
The association of Druids with [[Stonehenge]] is entirely false. It was invented in the sixteenth century in attempts to explain the mysteries of Stonehenge, a prehistoric monument that was abandoned long before any Druids came to Britain. There is no evidence whatever that it was ever used by authentic Druids in ancient times. Nevertheless, it has become an important site for modern movements calling themselves druidic.
==In Christian literature==
In the lives of saints and martyrs, the Druids are represented as magicians and diviners opposing the Christian missionaries. In [[Adamnan]]'s ''vita'' of Columba, two of them act as tutors to the daughters of [[Lóegaire mac Néill]], the [[High King of Ireland|High King]], at the coming of [[Patrick|Saint Patrick]]. They are represented as endeavouring to prevent the progress of Patrick and Saint [[Columba]] by raising clouds and mist. Before the battle of Culdremne (561) a Druid made an ''airbe drtiad'' (fence of protection?) round one of the armies, but what is precisely meant by the phrase is unclear. The Irish Druids seem to have had a peculiar tonsure. The word ''druí'' is always used to render the [[Latin]] ''magus'', and in one passage St Columba speaks of Christ as his Druid.
Once the public ordination of Christian bishops in strongly Druidic territories was possible, it was essential for a 4th century bishop to demonstrate comparable powers. [[Sulpicius Severus]]' ''Vita'' of [[Martin of Tours]] relates how Martin encountered a peasant funeral, carrying the body in a winding sheet, which Martin mistook for some Druidic rites of sacrifice, "because it was the custom of the Gallic rustics in their wretched folly to carry about through the fields the images of demons veiled with a white covering." So Martin halted the procession by raising his pectoral cross: "Upon this, the miserable creatures might have been seen at first to become stiff like rocks. Next, as they endeavored, with every possible effort, to move forward, but were not able to take a step farther, they began to whirl themselves about in the most ridiculous fashion, until, not able any longer to sustain the weight, they set down the dead body." Then discovering his error, Martin raised his hand again to let them proceed: "Thus," the hagiographer points out," he both compelled them to stand when he pleased, and permitted them to depart when he thought good." [http://www.users.csbsju.edu/~eknuth/npnf2-11/sulpitiu/lifeofst.html#tp]
''This account partly depends on information from the ''Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1911'' and the ''Catholic Encyclopedia, 1908''.''
==Late Druidic survivals in Flanders==
The people of [[Flanders]] and the [[Low Countries]] remained pagan as late as the 7th century CE, when [[Saint Eligius]] travelled from Antwerp to [[Frisia]], preaching and converting them to [[Christianity]]. One of the best glimpses of late Druidic practices comes from the ''Vita'' of Eligius written by [[saint Ouen (catholic saint)|saint Ouen]], his contemporary and companion. Ouen drew together the familiar admonitions of Eligius to the pagans in Flanders. "It does not represent anything he said in a particular day in order" Ouen cautioned, "but is a digest of the precepts which he taught the people at all times."
Eligius in his sermons denounced "sacrilegious pagan customs." The following excerpted quotes from Ouen's ''Vita'' of Eligius are instructive, for the negative description they offer of some late druidic practices in Flanders:
:"For no cause or infirmity should you ''consult magicians, diviners, sorcerers or incantators'', or presume to question them."
:"Do not observe ''[[augur]]ies'' or ''violent sneezing'' or pay attention to any little ''birds singing'' along the road. If you are distracted on the road or at any other work, make the sign of the cross and say your Sunday prayers with faith and devotion and nothing inimical can hurt you."
:"No Christian should be concerned about which day he leaves home or which day he returns, because God has made all days. No influence attaches to the ''first work of the day or the [phase of the] moon''; nothing is ominous or ridiculous about the ''[[Calends]] of January'' [what we would call [[New Year's Day]] ].
:"[Do not] make ''vetulas,''*, ''[[Deer (mythology)|little deer]] or iotticos'' or ''set tables [for the house-elf, compare [[Puck (mythology)|Puck]] ] at night'' or ''exchange New Years' gifts'' or ''supply superfluous drinks'' [a [[Yule]] custom]."
:*''Vetula'', a little figure of the Old Woman. A Roman would have equated her with [[Hecate]], but precisely who the Old Woman was and what she meant in the pagan [[Low Countries]] cannot be determined.
:"No Christian gives credence to impurity or sits in incantation, because the work is diabolic. No Christian ''on the [[Midsummer|feast of Saint John]]''* or the solemnity of any other saint performs ''solestitia'' [summer solstice rites] or ''dancing or leaping or diabolical chants.''"
:* The Christian [[summer solstice]] feast of Saint [[John the Baptist]] is still celebrated with [[bonfire]]s on June 24th, though the actual June Solstice occurs on June 21 (or 20th) in the Gregorian Calendar.
:"No Christian should presume to invoke the name of a demon, not [[Neptune]] or ''[[Orcus (mythology)|Orcus]]*'' or [[Diana]] or [[Minerva]] or ''Geniscus'' or believe in these inept beings in any way. No one should observe Jove's day in idleness without holy festivities not in May or any other time, not days of ''[[larvae]]''** or mice or any day but Sunday. No Christian should make or render any devotion to the ''gods of the trivium, where three roads meet'' [cf. [[Hecate]]], to the ''fanes or the rocks, or springs or groves or corners.''"
:* Orcus, a chthonic Etruscan/Roman god of the underworld, who enforced the sacredness of oaths and avenged the broken word. ([http://paganinstitute.org/p-hades_essay.html An essay on Hades/Orcus.])
:* ''Larvae'' ("malignant spirits") in this Latin text more specifically refer to the ''Roman'' [[Feast of the Lemures]], propitiating the dead, rather than to the Celtic propitiation, which was at [[Samhain]].
:"None should presume to hang any ''phylacteries''* from the neck of man nor beast, even if they are made by priests and it is said that they contain holy things and divine scripture, because there is no remedy of Christ in these things but only the devil's poison."
:* [[Gregory of Tours]] set great store by phylacteries.
:"None should presume to make lustrations or incantations with herbs, or to ''pass cattle through a hollow tree'' or ditch because this is to consecrate them to the devil. No woman should presume to ''hang [[amber]] from her neck'' or call upon [[Minerva]] or other ill-starred beings in their weaving or dyeing but in all works give thanks only to Christ and confide in the power of his name with all your hearts. None should presume to ''shout when the moon is obscured,'' for by God's order eclipses happen at certain times. Nor should they fear the new moon or abandon work because of it. For God made the moon for this, to mark time and temper the darkness of night, not impede work nor make men mad as the foolish imagine, who believe lunatics are invaded by demons from the moon. None should ''call the sun or moon lord'' or swear by them because they are God's creatures and they serve the needs of men by God's order."
:"No one should ''tell fate or fortune or horoscopes'' by them as those do who believe that a person must be what he was born to be."
:"Above all, should any infirmity occur, do not seek ''incantators or diviners or sorcerers or magicians'', do not use diabolic phylacteries through ''springs and groves or crossroads''. But let the invalid confide solely in the mercy of God and take the body and blood of Christ with faith and devotion and ask the church faithfully for blessing and oil, with which he might anoint his body in the name of Christ and, according to the apostle, "the prayer of faith will save the infirm and the Lord will relieve him."
:"''Diabolical games and dancing or chants'' of the gentiles will be forbidden. No Christian will do them because he thus makes himself pagan. Nor is it right that ''diabolical canticles'' should proceed from a Christian mouth where the sacrament of Christ is placed, which it becomes always to praise God. Therefore, brothers, spurn all inventions of the enemy with all your heart and flee these sacrileges with all horror. Venerate no creature beyond God and his saints. Shun ''springs and arbors which they call sacred''. You are forbidden to ''make the crook which they place on the crossroads'' and wherever you find one you should burn it with fire. For you must believe that you can be saved by no other art than the invocation and cross of Christ. For how will it be if groves where these miserable men make their devotions, are felled and the wood from them given to the furnace? See how foolish man is, to ''offer honor to insensible, dead trees'' and despise the precepts of God almighty. Do not believe that ''the sky or the stars or the earth or any creature should be adored'' beyond God for he created and disposes of them all."
[[Image:Arch-Druid in his full Judicial Costume.jpg|thumb|200px|Charles Knight, "Arch-Druid in his full Judicial Costume" etching from ''Old England: A Pictorial Museum' |
iring big, dumb automated vessels with neolithic automation and massive redundancy. These properties make actual exploration of this zone problematic.
* ''The Slow Zone'' is the next layer. FTL travel and communications do not function, dependent as they are on some physical property of the universe whose abrupt termination marks the boundary between the Beyond and the Slow Zone. Intelligences above the level of human-equivalent are not possible. Molecular nanotechnology also doesn't function well, if at all. Earth is deep within the Slow Zone.
* ''The Beyond'' is where the majority of the action takes place in ''A Fire Upon the Deep''. FTL travel is possible, as is FTL communications, though the latter can be prohibitively expensive, often requiring planet-sized transceiver arrays. Antigravity and mind-machine interfaces, along with many other technological advances work in the Beyond. There are still limits to how smart organic or machine intelligences may become, most of them dependent on one's proximity to the Slow Zone or The Transcend.
* ''The Transcend'' is where super beings known as Powers reside. Here there are no limits on nanotechnology, FTL travel is very fast (relative to the Beyond), FTL communications bandwidth is cheap, and there are no limits upon organic or machine intelligences or meldings between the two. Indeed, each individual Power is a single consciousness comprised of the intelligences, both organic and inorganic, of an entire star system or group of neighboring star systems. The Powers have passed through the [[technological singularity]] and engage in behavior that is simply beyond human comprehension. They routinely create intelligent species from scratch, build [[Dyson Spheres]], and in general perform near-miraculous feats of engineering on scales both atomic and cosmic. They regard involvement in the affairs of races in the Beyond in much the same way that humans would care about the competition for Alpha Male amongst a pack of wild animals.
A prequel to this book was subsequently written, ''[[A Deepness in the Sky]]'', set twenty thousand years earlier in the "Slow Zone" near Earth and detailing the earlier adventures of Pham Nuwen.
Two major plotlines exist in the book, related to the appearance of a malevolent quasi-Power referred to as The Blight. Accidentally released by human explorers from an ancient library, this intelligence is able to infiltrate and control computer and biological systems, quickly infecting and destroying many star systems in the High Beyond.
Apparently with some knowledge of what they are doing, some of the humans escaping from the infected research colony travel to the edge of the Slow Zone with an object from the library. They are forced to land their [[sleeper ship]] on a planet with a [[medieval]] civilization of dog-like creatures (the Tines) that think in packs of 4 to 6 individuals. (In other words, an individual consciousness is carried between several persistent biological entities, who share their thoughts through [[ultrasound|high-frequency sound]]. A single creature is as smart as a clever dog, two to three can form dim intelligence, four to six is the standard, packs of more rapidly degrade into incoherence, although a genius pack of eight was known as one exceptional case. Other configurations are possible, e.g. search lines or camp perimeters with continuous mental link all along, or robotic slave teams.) The book follows a long-lived conflict between two groups of Tines who now fight over the landed ship (which the closer group immediately attacked) and their future status in the rest of the galaxy, which they previously had no conception of. One group, led by the Woodcarver, so named for her (sexual identity amongst multi-gender packs is fairly arbitrary) artistic abilities, is helped to develop [[cannon]] and other technology by a survivor, a young human girl, and her toy databank. The other group, led by Lord Steel ruling for the absent Flenser (named so for his cruel psychological research), develops radio and cannon through the help of her younger brother and his communications with the outside world through the ship. Both siblings are unaware of the other's survival and alliance with the opposing group.
Simultaneously, a rescue mission is sent from the High Beyond in the form of a human woman, Ravna, a somewhat human man, Pham Nuwen (assembled from leftover body parts by a Power and infused with memories of his former existence), and two Skroderiders, Blueshell and Greenstalk, part of an ancient species of aquatic beings with the appearance of large potted plants, with memory and thinking enhancements provided by the movable Skrodes they maneuver with. The Power ("Old One") which created Pham has been killed by The Blight, and [[mind transfer|downloaded]] as much of himself as he could fit into Pham, providing him with subconscious knowledge of how to activate the Countermeasure located on the landed ship. While fighting off anti-human military forces (humans are purported to be the cause and furtherance of The Blight) they reach the planet and Pham initiates the Countermeasure, a [[nanotechnology|nanotechnological]] fungus-like substance/device. It drastically alters the boundaries of the zones of thought, expanding the Slow Zone to envelop The Blight, where it is effectively neutralized. However, this also ends up killing Pham, stranding the protagonists and many human children (in [[suspended animation]]) on the Tines' world, and a large chunk of the galaxy besides, in the depths of the Slow Zone. Also implied is that this event thrust thousands of star systems into an environment where technology needed to survive would no longer work; a situation analogous to the state of civilization on Earth were electricity to cease to function.
== Trivia ==
The name "Lord Steel" suggests [[Josef Stalin]] (Russian стал (''stal'') means steel, and -ин (''-in'') is an adjectival suffix), as do many of the Flenserist society's names, mores and structures.
Several subtle references to computer science are found in the book. For example, at one point Woodcarver mentions that a particular arrangement of the parliament chamber was strangely effective - the arrangement resembles a [[hypercube]].
== See also ==
* [[Death cube]]
[[Category:1992 books|Fire Upon the Deep]]
[[Category:Science fiction novels|Fire Upon the Deep]]
[[Category:Hugo Award winning works|Fire Upon the Deep]]
[[Category:Space opera|Fire Upon the Deep]]
[[Category:Transhumanist books|Fire Upon the Deep]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aeronautics</title>
<id>2082</id>
<revision>
<id>42088932</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:26:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>18.89.3.147</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:F-16 Fighting Falcons above New York City(2).jpg|300px|thumb|right|Six [[F-16 Fighting Falcon]]s with the U.S. Air Force Thunderbirds aerial demonstration team fly in delta formation in front of the [[Empire State Building]].]]
'''Aeronautics''' is the [[science]] involved with the study, design, and manufacture of [[flight]] capable machines, or the techniques of operating aircraft. This includes a branch of aeronautics called [[aerodynamics]]. Aerodynamics deals with the motion of air and the way it interacts with objects in motion, such as an aircraft. Both of these branches are a part of physical science. [[Aviation]], however, refers to the operation of heavier-than-air craft.
==Early aeronautics==
{{main|Aviation history}}
Before scientific investigation of aeronautics started, people started thinking of ways to fly. In Greek legend, [[Icarus (mythology)|Icarus]] and his father [[Daedalus]] built wings of feathers and flew out of a prison. Icarus went to close to the sun and fell. When people started to scientifically study how to fly, people began to understand the basics of air and aerodynamics. One of the earliest scientists to study aeronautics was [[Leonardo da Vinci]]. Da Vinci studied the flight of birds in developing engineering schematics for some of the earliest flying machines in the late fifteenth century AD. His schematics, however, such as the [[ornithopter]] ultimately failed as practical aircraft. The flapping machines that he designed were either too small to generate sufficient lift, or too heavy for a human to operate. Although the ornithopter continues to be of interest to hobbyists, it was replaced by the glider in the 19th century.
[[Sir George Cayley]] designed the first manned glider, the ''Coachman Carrier'', in 1853. Although unpowered, it successfully flew 130 meters across a valley in [[Scarborough]].
==Modern aeronautics==
Modern aeronautic research is primarily conducted by independent corporations and universities. There are also a number of government agencies that study aeronautics, including [[NASA]] in the [[United States]] and the [[European Space Agency]] in [[Europe]].
==Aeronautical Engineering==
Aeronotical engineering is an engineering area that covers research, design, manufacture and maintenance of products such as aircraft, missiles and space satellites.
It involes scientific topics of [[Aerodynamics]], [[Materials]], [[Technology]], [[Fluid Mechanics]] and [[Aircraft Structures]].
==See also==
[[Image:F-15 vertical deploy.jpg|thumb]]
*[[Aerostation]]
*[[Aviation]]
*[[Aircraft]]
*[[Aerospace Engineering]]
*[[Aerostat]]
*[[Astronautics]]
*[[Spacecraft]]
*[[Mechanics of fluids]]
*[[Aerodynamics]]
*[[Hydrodynamics]]
*[[Hydrostatics]]
*[[Aeronautical abbreviations]]
==External links==
* [http://www.ari.ac.ir Aerospace Research Institute,IRAN], Persian Language [پژوهشگاه هوافضا]
* [http://aerospace-news.persianblog.com Space Science], Persian Language [دانش فضايي]
* [http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Aeronautics-and-Astronautics/index.htm |
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Estonia</title>
<id>9392</id>
<revision>
<id>29727528</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-30T20:44:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tedernst</username>
<id>3700</id>
</contributor>
<comment>disambiguation link repair [[broadcast]] ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
476,078 (year end 1998)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
850,000 (year end 2002)
'''Telephone system:'''
Foreign investment in the form of joint business ventures greatly improved telephone service. [[Internet]] services are available throughout most of the country; there are about 150,000 unfilled subscriber requests. Usually, Estonia is considered to be the most advanced country in terms of communications in Eastern and Central [[Europe]].
<br>''domestic:''
local - the [[Estonian Ministry of Transport and Communications|Ministry of Transport and Communications]] is expanding cellular telephone services to form rural networks; intercity - highly developed [[fiber-optic cable|fiber-optic]] backbone (double loop) system presently serving at least 16 major cities (1998)
<br>''international:''
Fiber-optic cables to [[Finland]], [[Sweden]], [[Latvia]], and [[Russia]] provide worldwide packet switched service. Two international switches are located in [[Tallinn]].
'''Radio [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 3 (all AM stations inactive since July 1998), FM 82, shortwave 1 (1998)
'''Radios:'''
1.01 million (1997)
'''Television broadcast stations:'''
31 (plus five repeaters) (September 1995)
'''Televisions:'''
605,000 (1997)
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
6 (1999)
'''[[Country code]]:''' EE
:''See also :'' [[Estonia]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Estonia]]
[[Category:Communications in Estonia| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transportation in Estonia</title>
<id>9393</id>
<revision>
<id>40835547</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T08:43:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>85.131.20.63</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Baltic Sea */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">== Railways ==
*total: 1,018 km common carrier lines only; does not include dedicated industrial lines
*broad gauge: 1,018 km 1.520-m gauge (132 km electrified) (1995)
=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===
* [[Transportation in Latvia|Latvia]] - yes - same 1524mm gauge
* [[Transportation in Russia|Russia]] - yes - same 1534mm gauge
== Highways ==
*total: 49,480 km
*paved: 10,935 km (including 75 km of [[expressway]]s)
*unpaved: 38,545 km (1998 est.)
== Pipelines ==
* natural gas 420 km (1992)
== Waterways ==
* 320 km perennially navigable
== Ports and harbors ==
=== Baltic Sea ===
* [[Haapsalu]], [[Kunda]], [[Muuga]]
* [[Paldiski]], [[Pärnu]], [[Tallinn]]
== Merchant marine ==
*total: 50 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 306,264 GRT/293,083 DWT
*ships by type: (1999 est.)
**bulk 3
**cargo 20
**combination bulk 1
**container 5
**petroleum tanker 2
**roll-on/roll-off 13
**short-sea passenger 6
== Airports ==
=== Airports - with paved runways ===
*total: 5 (1997 est.)
*over 3,047 m: 1
*2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
*914 to 1,523 m: 3 (1997 est.)
== See also ==
* [[Estonia]]
* [[M/S Estonia]]
[[Category:Transportation in Estonia|*]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Estonia</title>
<id>9394</id>
<revision>
<id>40146522</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T14:12:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pt</username>
<id>91721</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Estonian Air Force (Õhuvägi) */ rm a space; wikified [[BALTNET]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Estonian Defence Forces''' consists of 5120 persons in uniform.
In [[2004]], [[Estonia]] joined the [[NATO]], which has been one of its priorities since the restoration of independence.
The 2002 state budget allocated 2% of [[gross domestic product]] for defence expenditures. The [[United States]] is among the countries with which Estonia has very intensive cooperation in the defence and security field.
<table border=1 width=300 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 align=right>
<tr><th colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=#aaaaff>'''Estonian Defence Forces'''</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan=2 align=center>'''Military manpower''' </td></tr>
<tr><td>Military age<td> 18 years of age </td></tr>
<tr><td>Availability<td>''males age 15-49:'' 360,440 (2003 est.) </td></tr>
<tr><td>Fit for military service<td> 283,278 (2003 est.) </td></tr>
<tr><td>Reaching military age annually<td> ''males:''
11,123 (2003 est.) </td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=2 align=center>'''Military expenditures''' </td></tr>
<tr><td>Dollar figure<td> $155 million (FY02) </td></tr>
<tr><td>Percent of GDP<td> 2% (FY02) </td></tr>
</td></tr>
</table>
== Organisation ==
The Estonian Defence Forces consist of regular military units, the ''Kaitsevägi'' totalling 5120 officers and men, and a voluntary corps, the Defence League (''Kaitseliit'') with about 8100 soldiers. The Defence Forces are stationed within four defence districts with headquarters in [[Tallinn]], [[Rakvere]], [[Tartu]], [[Pärnu]].
Estonia cooperates with Latvia and Lithuania in the joint infantry battalion BALTBAT and naval squadron BALTRON which can be deployed for peacekeeping operations.
*Army
*Navy
*Air Force
*Defence League
*Border Guards
=== Estonian Army (Maavägi)===
The Estonian Army consists of 9 battalions:
*Kuperjanov Independent Infantry Battalion
*Pärnu Independent Infantry Battalion
*Peace Operations Centre
*Scouts Battalion
*Artillery Group
*Viru Independent Infantry Battalion
*Air Defence Battalion
*Independent Signal Battalion
*Independent Guard Battalion
===Estonian Navy (Merevägi)===
The [http://www.mil.ee/index_eng.php?s=merevagi Estonian Navy]has one naval base in Miinisadam and operates one [[minesweeper (ship)|minesweeper]] [[division (military)|division]]:
*[http://www.mil.ee/index_eng.php?s=pitka EML Admiral Pitka] - command and support ship, ex-Danish Beskytteren, modified Hvidbjørnen-class
* [[EML Ahti]] - cutter, ex-Danish Maagen class
* [[EML Sulev]] - minehunter, ex-German Lindau class
* [[EML Wambola]] - minehunter, ex-German Lindau class
* [[EML Vaindlo]] - minesweeper, ex-German Frauenlob class
* [[EML Olev]] - minesweeper, ex German Frauenlob class
* [[EML Ristna]] - patrol boat, ex-Finnish Rihtiniemi class
* [[EML Suurop]] - patrol boat, ex Finnish Rihtiniemi class
===Estonian Air Force (Õhuvägi)===
The Air Force has an air base in [[Ämari]] and operates two [[Antonov An-2]]s and four [[Robinson Helicopter|Robinson]] [[Robinson R44|R44]] helicopters. The Border Guard Aviation Group is based at [[Tallinn Airport]] and operates two [[L-410|Let L-410 UVP]]s and [[Mil Mi-8]] helicopters. Air defence batteries are equipped with 100 [[ZU-23-2]]s.
Estonian primary radar system is integrated with [[Baltic States]] radar system network [[BALTNET]].
[[NATO]] jets based in [[Lithuania]] are also involved in the patrolling and protection of Estonian air space.
==External links==
*[http://www.mil.ee/index_eng.php Estonian Defence Forces]
*[http://www.mod.gov.ee/index.php?setlang=eng Estonian Ministry of Defence]
{{NATO}}
[[Category:Military of Estonia| ]]
[[fr:Armée estonienne]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Estonia</title>
<id>9395</id>
<revision>
<id>39374561</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T19:20:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.121.2.141</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Estonia}}
Following restoration of independence from the [[Soviet Union]], [[Estonia]]'s immediate priority was the withdrawal of [[Russia|Russian]] (formerly Soviet) forces from Estonian territory. In [[August]] [[1994]], this was completed. However, relations with Moscow have remained strained because of the border treaty still not ratified by [[Russian Federation]].
Estonia maintains close ties with the other [[Baltic states]] and has been relatively successful in achieving wider European integration since independence.
Estonia is a party to 181 international organizations, including the [[Bank for International Settlements|BIS]], [[CBSS]], [[Council of Europe|CE]], [[Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council|EAPC]], [[EBRD]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|ECE]], [[EU]] (member since [[1 May]] [[2004]]), [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[IHO]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]] (observer), [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] (correspondent), [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[OPCW]], [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], [[Partnership for Peace|PFP]], [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNMIBH]], [[UNMIK]], [[UNTSO]], [[UPU]], [[World Customs Organization|WCO]], [[WEU]] (associate partner), [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[World Trade Organization|WTO]].
'''Disputes - international:'''
Estonian and Russian negotiators reached a technical border agreement in December 1996 which has not been signed or ratified as of [[1 January]] [[2000]]
' |
ilosophers|Korzybski, Alfred]]
[[fr:Alfred Korzybski]]
[[nl:Alfred Korzybski]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Asteroids</title>
<id>785</id>
<revision>
<id>41931398</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T18:32:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>John DiFool2</username>
<id>658468</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Features */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses4|the arcade game|the minor planet type of space object|Asteroid}}
{{Infobox Arcade Game |title = Asteroids
|image = [[Image:Asteroi1.png|250 px|Asteroids screenshot]]
|developer = [[Atari Games|Atari]]
|publisher = Atari
|designer = [[Lyle Rains]] and [[Ed Logg]]
|release = 1979
|genre = [[Shoot 'em up#Multi-directional shooter|Multi-directional shooter]]
|modes = Up to 2 players, alternating turns
|cabinet = Upright and cocktail
|arcade system =
|monitor = [[Vector graphics|Vector]] 256 &times; 231 (Horizontal) Colors: black and white, Size: 19[[inch|"]]
|input = Five buttons
|ports = [[Atari 2600]], [[Atari 5200|5200]], [[Atari 7800|7800]], [[Atari Lynx]], [[PlayStation]], [[Nintendo 64]], [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[Game Boy Color]]
}}
'''''Asteroids''''' is a popular [[vector graphics|vector-based]] video [[arcade game]] released in 1979 by [[Atari Games|Atari]]. The object of the game is for the player to shoot and destroy [[asteroid]]s without being hit by the fragments. It was one of the most popular and influential games of the [[Golden Age of Arcade Games]].
==Description==
''Asteroids'' was inspired, in a roundabout way, by the seminal ''[[Spacewar]]'', the first computer-based video game. In the early 1980s a stand-up arcade game version was produced as ''Space Wars'', which included a number of optional versions and added a floating asteroid as a visual device. ''Asteroids'' is essentially a one-player version of Spacewar, featuring the "wedge" ship from the original and promoting the asteroids to be the main opponent.
The game was conceived by [[Lyle Rains]] and programmed by [[Ed Logg]]. ''Asteroids'' was a hit in the [[United States]] and became one of Atari's best selling games of all time. Atari had been in the process of releasing a vector beam version of ''[[Lunar Lander]]'', but demand for ''Asteroids'' was so high they simply pulled them apart and converted them over. Today the ''Lunar Lander'' version is difficult to find. ''Asteroids'' was so popular that [[video arcade]] owners usually had to install larger boxes to hold all the coins this machine raked in.
One feature of the game was the ability for players to record their initials with their high scores, an innovation which is standard in arcade games to this day.
''Asteroids'' was the first of several games to use Atari's "Quadra-Scan" vector-refresh system (although a [[Raster graphics|raster-based]] full-color version was developed for the [[Atari 2600]] home video game system). Later full-color Quadra-Scan games would include ''[[Tempest (game)|Tempest]]''.
==Features==
The player's controls consisted of thrust and fire buttons, and rotate left/rotate right buttons (actually rotate counterclockwise and rotate clockwise respectively). The momentum of the player's ship was not conserved, and it would start to slow down if thrust was not applied. There was also a [[hyperspace]] button, which randomly teleported the player's ship somewhere on the screen, with the risk of exploding upon rematerialization (or rematerializing inside an asteroid).
The player's ship spawned in the middle of the screen, with 4 large asteroids drifting around. Each large asteroid (20 points) would break into 2 medium-sized ones (50 points) when shot, which in turn would break into 2 small (100 points) asteroids. The medium and small asteroids, once "spawned", could travel at widely varying speeds. Periodically one of two types of flying saucers ("UFOs") would fly onto the screen: the big one (worth 200 points) would shoot in random directions, while the small one (1000 points) would attempt to aim at the player; they tended to appear more often when few asteroids remained on the screen and/or the player hadn't shot an asteroid recently. The screen wrapped around, allowing the player's ship, as well as asteroids and shots but not saucers, to fly off the one edge of the screen and reappear on the opposite side. Once a level had been cleared of all asteroids and UFOs, a new set of large asteroids would appear, increasing by 2 each round up to a maximum of 12.
The maximum score possible was 99,990 points, after which it turned back over to zero. A player who desired to get onto the top score list then had to be careful to shoot just enough asteroids/UFOs to reach this score without going over (including committing suicide with the last ship left to reach the final total!).
On some early versions of the game it was possible to hide the ship in the score area indefinitely without being hit by asteroids.
==Lurking==
[[Image:Asteroids UFO.svg|thumb|right|150px|The small UFO is the key to high scores for many advanced players.]]
Soon after the release of ''Asteroids'', some players discovered that small UFOs would be continually sent out when the asteroid count decreased to a certain level. Since these UFOs were worth 1,000 points each - a significant sum on this game - a strategy known as "lurking" soon developed around this. Players would shoot asteroids until there was only one small or mid-sized rock remaining, and then maneuver the ship to a spot approximately one inch from any corner of the screen. Small UFOs would then be ambushed as soon as they emerged (and before they were able to return fire), using wraparound fire if necessary. Because the small UFOs were unable to "lead" the player's ship with their fire (i.e. aiming ahead of the ship's flight path), a clever player could manuever, if necessary, in such a way as to virtually ensure they would never be hit by the small UFO (in fact the large UFO in a sense was seen as more of a threat precisely because of its unpredictable random shots). Since each 10,000 points awarded an extra life, players could continue almost indefinitely once the practice had been mastered. [http://www.gamearchive.com/General/Articles/ClassicNews/1981/Esquire2-81-pg62.htm] The designers abolished this practice in ''Asteroids Deluxe'' by causing the UFOs to either shoot at the remaining asteroids, thus ending the round, or shoot at the player as soon as they appeared on the screen-they also gained the ability to lead the player's ship as well, making them much more dangerous.
However it was also possible to succeed by shooting the asteroids instead; a shrewd "asteroid hunting" player would typically attempt to kill all the asteroids "inside" a large one before shooting another asteroid, thus minimizing the amount of "clutter" on the screen.
==Technical Description==
The ''Asteroids'' arcade machine is a so-called [[vector game]]. This means that the game graphics are composed entirely of lines which are drawn on a [[vector monitor]]. The hardware consists primarily of a standard [[MOS Technology 6502|MOS 6502]] [[central processing unit|CPU]], which executes the game program, and the [[Atari Digital Vector Generator|Digital Vector Generator]] (DVG), vector processing [[circuitry]] developed by [[Atari]] themselves. As the 6502 by itself was too slow to control both the game play and the vector hardware at the same time, the latter task was delegated to the DVG.
For each picture frame, the 6502 writes graphics commands for the DVG into a defined area of [[RAM]] (the vector RAM), and then asks the DVG to draw the corresponding vector image on the screen. The DVG reads the commands and generates appropriate signals for the vector monitor. There are DVG commands for positioning the cathode ray, for drawing a line to a specified destination, calling a subroutine with further commands, and so on.
''Asteroids'' also features various sound effects, each of which is implemented by its own [[circuitry]]. The CPU activates these audio [[electrical network|circuits]] (and other hardware components) by writing to special memory addresses (memory mapped ports). The inputs from the player's controls (buttons) are also mapped into the CPU [[address space]]
The main ''Asteroids'' game program uses only 4 [[kilobyte|KB]] of [[Read-only memory|ROM]] code. Another 4 KB of vector ROM contain the descriptions of the main graphical elements (rocks, saucer, player's ship, explosion pictures, letters, and digits) in the form of DVG commands.
==Legacy==
The gameplay in ''Asteroids'' was imitated by many games that followed. For example, one of the objects of ''[[Sinistar]]'' is to shoot asteroids in order to get them to release resources which the player needs to collect.
Due to its success, ''Asteroids'' was followed by three sequels:
* ''[[Asteroids Deluxe]]'' (1980)
* ''[[Space Duel]]'' (1982)
* ''[[Blasteroids]]'' (1987)
However, the original game was by far the most popular of the series.
The [[Killer List of Videogames]] (KLOV) credits this game as one of the "Top 100 Videogames." Readers of the KLOV credit it as the seventh most popular game.
==Ports==
Being one of the most popular video games ever, ''Asteroids'' has been ported to multiple systems, including many of [[Atari]]'s systems ([[Atari 2600]], [[Atari 5200|5200]], [[Atari 7800|7800]], [[Atari Lynx]]) and many others. The 2600 port was the first game to utilize a bank-switched cartridge, doubling available ROM space. Also, a new version of ''Asteroids'' was developed for [[PlayStation]], [[Nintendo 64]], [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], and the [[Game Boy Color]] in the late 1990s. A port was also included on Atari's [[Atari Cosmos|Cosmos]] system, but the system never saw release. Many of the r |
re you?: ''ela Vunnaru ?''
*Language: ''Basha''
*Where are we going ?: ''ekkadiki valthunnam manam ?''
*What, where, why, when, who, how, : ''enti, ekkada, endhuku, eppudu, evaru, ela''
*generic toast: ''Kakarakaaya vepudu'' {{IPA|/kakarakaːja vepudu/}}
== [[Turkish language|Turkish]] ([[Turkic languages|Turkic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
|- valign=top
| hello
| merhaba
| {{IPA|meɾhaba}}
|- valign=top
| welcome
| hoş geldiniz
| {{IPA|hoʃ gʲeldiniz}}
|- valign=top
| good morning
| günaydin
| {{IPA|gʲynajdin}}
|- valign=top
| good afternoon
| iyi günler
| {{IPA|iː gʲynleɾ}}
|- valign=top
| good evening
| iyi akşamlar
| {{IPA|iː akʃamlaɾ}}
|- valign=top
| good night
| iyi geceler
| {{IPA|iː gʲedʒeleɾ}}
|- valign=top
| good bye
| Allahaιsmarladιk
hoşçakal
hoşçakalιn
| {{IPA|hoʃtʃakal}}
{{IPA|hoʃtʃakalɯn}}
|- valign=top
| please
| lütfen
| {{IPA|lytfen
|- valign=top
| thank you
| teşekkür ederim
| {{IPA|teʃekʲyɾ edeɾim}}
|- valign=top
| how much
| ne kadar
| {{IPA|ne kadaɾ}}
|- valign=top
| English
| Ingilizce
|
|- valign=top
| Turkish
| Türkçe
| {{IPA|tyɾktʃe}}
|- valign=top
| yes
| evet
| {{IPA|evet}}
|- valign=top
| no
| hayιr
| {{IPA|hajɯɾ}}
|}
== [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] ([[Slavic languages|Slavic]]) ==
''Note: adjectives have different forms when describing feminine, masculine or neuter nouns.''
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | pronunciation
! align=left | Literally
|- valign=top
| Ukrainian
| ''f'': українська <br />
''m'': український <br />
''n'': українське
| {{IPA|/uˌkraˈjinˌs<sup>j</sup>ka/}} <br />
{{IPA|/uˌkraˈjinˌs<sup>j</sup>kɪj/}} <br />
{{IPA|/uˌkraˈjinˌs<sup>j</sup>kɛ/}}
| ooh-kra-YEEN-ska <br />
ooh-kra-YEEN-skiy <br />
ooh-kra-YEEN-ske
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| hello
| привіт
| {{IPA|/prɪˈvit/}}
| pri-VEET
| "greetings"
|- valign=top
| good-bye
| до побачення
| {{IPA|/do poˈbaˌtʃenˌn<sup>j</sup>a/}}
| doh po-BAH-chen-nyah
| "until seeing"
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| please
| будь ласка
| {{IPA|/bud<sup>j</sup> ˈlaˌska/}}
| bood LA-ska
| "be kind"
|- valign=top
| thank you
| дякую
| {{IPA|/ˈdjakuju/}}
| DYA -koo-yoo
|}
== [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] ([[Austro-Asiatic languages|Austroasiatic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
|-
|'''Vietnamese''' || tiếng Việt :Teeng Viet
|-
|'''Hello''' || xin chào :Xin chao (ch- as in chocolate)
|-
|'''Good bye''' || tạm biệt :Taam Byeet
|-
|'''Yes''' || có :Kaw
|-
|'''No''' || không :Khum
|-
|'''Thank you''' || cảm ơn :Caam uhng
|-
|'''You're welcome''' || Không có chi :Khum kaw chee
|-
|'''I'm sorry''' || Tôi xin lỗi : Toi tsin loy
|-
|'''English''' || tiếng Anh :Teeng ahn
|-
|'''Do you speak English?''' || [[Vietnamese pronouns|Bạn]] có biết nói tiếng Anh không? :Baan kaw byeet nawhy teeng ahn khong?
|-
|'''Please''' || Làm ơn : Lam earn (same sound without the r in earn)
|-
|'''Who?''' || Ai? : Aye?
|-
|'''What?''' || Cái gì? : Kai zee?
|-
|'''When?''' || Hôi nào? : hoy (as in oy!) now?
|-
|'''Where?''' || ơ dâu? : Uh dough?
|-
|'''Why?''' || Tai sao? : Tai south (same sound without the trailing th sound)?
|-
|'''How?''' || Nhu' nào? : Yeuh now? (Nhu sounds like the spanish ñ)
|-
|}
== [[Visayan language|Visayan]]/[[Filipino language|Filipino]] ([[Malayo Polynesian]])==
*English: ''Inglés''
*Visayan - ''Bisayan''
*Hello - ''helo''
*good-bye - ''paalam''
*How are you/How you've been? - ''Kumusta (ka na)''
*Where?: ''asa?''
*This one?: ''ma o ni?/kani?''
*thank you: ''salamat''
*Do you speak English?: ''maka istorya ka'g inglés?
*Do you speak Visayan?: ''maka istorya ka'g bisaya?
*yes: ''o'o''
*no: ''dili''
*this or this?: ''kani o kani?''
*clock: ''relo; orasan''
*What time is it?: ''unsa nang oras?''
*It's twelve o'clock: ''alas dose na''
*Do you understand?: ''kasabut ka?''
*It's important: ''importante ni''
*How much?: ''pila?''
*Do it again: ''otroha; usba''
*one, two, three...: uno, dos, tres/usa, doha tolo
*Can I use your phone?: ''puede ko maka gamit sa imong telefono?''
*Can I pay with dollars?: ''puede ko maka bayad ug dolyares?''
*Have a good trip!: ''maayong pag biyahe!''
*Return soon: ''balik pohon''
*Good Luck: ''maayong swerte''
== [[Welsh language|Welsh]] (Celtic) ==
*Welsh: ''Cymraeg'' ''(kum-RAig)''
*English: ''Saesneg'' ''(SAY-sneg)''
*Good morning!: ''Bore da!'' ''(bo-re da)''
*Good afternoon!: ''P'nawn da!'' ''(p'nown da)''
*Welcome!: ''Croeso!'' ''(KROY-so)''
*Goodbye!: ''Da boch chi!'' ''(da BO-khi)''
*Cheerio!: ''Hwyl fawr!'' ''(hooil vowR)''
*Good night!: ''Nos da!'' ''(noss da)
*Please: ''Os gwelwch chi'n dda'' ''(oss GWEL-oo-khin dha)''
*Thank you: ''Diolch'' ''(DEE-olkh)
*Thank you very much: ''Diolch yn fawr'' ''(DEE-olkh'n vowR)''
*You're welcome: ''Da chi'' ''(dah khee)
*No thank you: ''Dim diolch'' ''(dim dee-olkh)
*Yes: ''Ie (EE-eh), Do (doh), Oes (oyss), Ydy (UD-ee) etc.
There are at least 20 words for "yes".
To answer "yes" you must agree with the question.
"Oes...?" (Is there...?) is answered with "Oes" (Yes there is).
"Ydy...?" (Is he/she...?) is answered with "Ydy" (Yes he/she is).
"Ydw...?" (Am I...?) would however be answered appropriately with "Ydych" (Yes you are) and vice versa.
"Ie" (Yes) is only used when a proper question hasn't been asked, or in reply to "Ai...?" (Is it...?).
"Do" (Yes I did, Yes you did, etc.)is used in reply to questions in the past tense.
*No: ''Na'' ''(nah)
To contradict someone or to give a more definite "no" you can however precede the words for "yes" with "na" or "nag", e.g. "Nag oes!" (No there isn't!)'' (The opposite of ''Do'' is ''Naddo''.)
*(I'm) sorry!: ''Mae'n flin gen i!'' ''(mye'n vleen Gen ee)''
*Isn't it? Wouldn't it? Aren't they? Won't we? etc.: ''Ynte?'' ''(un-teh)''
*Cheers! Good health!: ''Iechyd da!'' ''(YEKH-id dah)''
== [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]] (Benue-Congo) ==
*hello: ''Ba wo ni''
*good-bye: ''O da bo''
*please: ''E jo''
*thank you: ''O se/E se''
*that one: ''Iyen''
*how much?: ''E lo?''
*English: ''Oyinbo''
*yes: ''Be ni''
*no: ''Be ko''
[[Category:Language comparison]]
[[Category:Lists of phrases]]
[[es:Frases usuales en distintos idiomas]]
[[fr:Phrases usuelles en différentes langues]]
[[ko:언어별 기초 회화]]
[[nl:Algemene uitdrukkingen in het Turks]]
[[pt:Frases comuns em diferentes línguas]]
[[ro:Fraze uzuale în diferite limbi]]
[[zh:不同语言中的共同词组]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Child node</title>
<id>6709</id>
<revision>
<id>30780845</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-10T02:13:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stevertigo</username>
<id>4099</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergeto|Node}}
A '''child node''' or ''descendant node'' is a [[node (computer science)|node]] in a [[tree data structure]] that is linked to by a [[parent node]]. Thinking of the tree as a [[directed graph]], node ''A'' is a child of node ''B'' if and only if node ''A'' is a successor node of ''B''.
A node with no child nodes is called a [[leaf node]].
A node which is not the child of any node (i.e. has no parent) is called a [[root node]].
[[Category:Trees (structure)]]
{{compu-sci-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Coyote</title>
<id>6710</id>
<revision>
<id>41399143</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T01:50:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fuhghettaboutit</username>
<id>665998</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>prominantly--->prominently</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Coyote
| image = Coyote.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[mammal|Mammalia]]
| ordo = [[Carnivora]]
| familia = [[Canidae]]
| genus = ''[[Canis]]''
| species = '''''C. latrans'''''
| binomial = ''Canis latrans''
| binomial_authority = [[Thomas Say|Say]], [[1823]]
}}
The '''coyote''' (''Canis latrans'', meaning "barking dog", also ''prairie wolf''[http://www.bartleby.com/65/x-/X-prairiew.html]) is a member of the [[Canidae]] (the [[dog]] family) and a relative of the domestic dog. Coyotes are only found in [[North America]]. Coyotes may occasionally assemble in small packs, but normally hunt alone. Coyotes live an average of about 6 years. The word "coyote" derives from the [[Nahuatl language|Náhuatl]] (Aztec) word '''cóyotl''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /&#712;k&#596;.j&#596;t&#620;/).
Despite being extensively hunted, the coyote is one of the few medium-to-large-sized animals that has enlarged its territory since human encroachment began (another is the [[raccoon]]). Coyotes have moved into most of the areas of North America formerly occupied by [[Gray Wolf|wolves]], and the "dog" one sees scrounging from a suburban trashcan may in fact be a coyote.
== Anatomy ==
[[Image:Coyote portrait.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Coyote profile]]
The coyote stands less than two feet (0.6 m) tall and varies in color from gray to tan with sometimes a reddish tint to its coat. A coyote's ears and nose appear long and pointed, especially in relation to the size of its head. It weighs between 9 - 22 kilograms (20 - 50 lb), averaging 14 kg. The coyote can be identified by its thick bushy tail, which it often holds low to the ground. It can be distinguished from its much larger relative, the [[Gray Wolf]], by its overall slight appearance compared to the massive 34 to 57 kg (75 |
mp>2005-11-14T07:46:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hathawayc</username>
<id>221296</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>4la</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''EISA''' means:
* [[Extended Industry Standard Architecture]]
* [[European Imaging and Sound Association]] ([http://www.eisa-awards.org/home.htm EISA Awards]).
== See also ==
[[Eisa]]
{{4LA}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>European Computer Manufacturers Association</title>
<id>9786</id>
<revision>
<id>15907652</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-07T16:51:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Qlmatrix</username>
<id>34482</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moved content to Ecma International, set redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ecma International]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Enders Game</title>
<id>9787</id>
<revision>
<id>15907653</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-22T19:09:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ender's Game]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electromagnetic spectroscopy</title>
<id>9788</id>
<revision>
<id>40977775</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T06:19:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pavel Vozenilek</username>
<id>87110</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>complete revert to 82.83.184.44</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Electromagnetic spectroscopy''' a.k.a. '''spectrophotometry''' is the [[spectroscopy]] of [[electromagnetic spectrum|electromagnetic spectra]] which arise out of [[atom]]s absorbing and emitting quanta of [[electromagnetic radiation]].
Electromagnetic spectroscopy involves the use of a [[spectrophotometer]].
==Types of electromagnetic radiation measured==
This can be in any range of [[wavelength]]s:
*[[Radio]] waves
*[[Microwave]]s
*[[Infrared]] light (see [[infrared spectroscopy]])
*[[Optical spectrum|Visible light]] (see [[UV/VIS spectroscopy|UV/visible spectroscopy]])
*[[Ultraviolet]] light (see [[UV/VIS spectroscopy|UV/visible spectroscopy]])
*[[X-ray]]s
Electromagnetic spectroscopy can be classified into narrower fields as discussed below, though in some spectroscopic techniques, several processes may be happening at the same time.
==Types of electromagnetic spectroscopy==
===Emission spectroscopy===
Emission spectroscopy is the study of electromagnetic radiation spectra given off by atoms or molecules that undergo a transition to a lower [[energy level]]. Such a process is called [[fluorescence]] or, under certain conditions, [[phosphorescence]]. Generally, emission spectroscopy deals with visible light and shorter wavelengths, since fluorescence is less likely to happen with long wavelengths. See also: [[spontaneous emission]].
Examples:
*[[Fluorescence spectroscopy]]
*[[Flame emission spectroscopy]]
*[[X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy]]
*[[Stellar spectroscopy]]
===Absorption spectroscopy===
[[Absorption spectroscopy]] is the study of electromagnetic radiation spectra absorbed by atoms or molecules that change [[energy levels]]. Often, it is used as an analytical technique; specific chemical compounds have a specific absorption spectrum that acts as a fingerprint. Moreover, the amount of absorption is related to the amount of absorbing compound. Absorption spectroscopy can be used to determine the concentration of chemical compounds in samples (see [[molar absorptivity]]).
Examples of absorption spectroscopy:
*Vibrational spectroscopy - absorption of [[infrared]] radiation, see [[infrared spectroscopy]]; often used as an analytical tool
*[[Atomic absorption spectroscopy|Atomic absorption]] - often used as an analytical tool
*[[UV/VIS spectroscopy|UV/visible spectroscopy]] - absorption of [[ultraviolet]] and visible light; often used as an analytical tool
*[[Mossbauer spectroscopy]] - Measures the absorption of gamma rays by atoms bound in a solid as a function of gamma-ray energy. This is not an analytical technique; it is a means to understand certain microscopic processes in matter.
===Other techniques===
Electromagnetic radiation can interact with matter in ways other than simple absorption and emission, such as in the following techniques:
*[[Circular dichroism]] spectroscopy - measures effects of a sample on the polarization of light.
*[[Magnetic circular dichroism]]
*[[Nuclear magnetic resonance]] (NMR) - measures the resonant absorption of radiofrequency radiation by nuclei in a strong [[magnetic field]]. Absorption peaks correspond to transitions in the nuclear spin states of the sample molecule(s).
*[[Electron spin resonance]] - similar to NMR, but looking at electrons.
*[[Raman spectroscopy]] - A molecule can absorb a part of the energy of a photon, which results in a change in frequency (or wavelength) of the photon. The amount of absorbed energy corresponds to an infrared transition in the molecule, even though the photon might have a visible-light wavelength.
*[[Stark spectroscopy]] - measures effects of electrical fields on the spectra.
== Examples ==
=== The spectrum of sunlight ===
Matter reflects, absorbs or scatters regions of the electromagnetic radiation shown upon it. Depending on the Correlated Color Temperature of the light source, you will perceive the object to be of a differing color. Man has attempted to utilize Plank's Law to assign a specific Correlated [[Color temperature]] to each light source sold in your store. Each bulb measured, was assigned a Correlated Color Temperature CCT in [[kelvin]]s; 2800 K is a living room light, 6000 K is a bright sunny day. "Correlated" is used because all is compared back to a perfect [[black body]] radiator.
The higher the temperature, the shorter (and bluer) the average visible wavelength. The sun, which has a temperature around 6000 K, emits most strongly in the visible light. However, certain wavelengths are missing from the solar spectrum, which is the result of [[chemical element]]s in the [[chromosphere]] of the [[sun]] that have resonant transitions at those wavelengths. From the exact wavelengths of these missing parts of the spectrum, or absorption lines, we can deduce which elements are present in the sun. The fact that these elements have absorbed the radiation indicates that the chromosphere is cooler than the photosphere.
However absorption spectra can not give us information about the abundance of the various elements. This is because [[hydrogen]] and [[helium]] (the main constituents of the sun) need much more energy to excite them enough to absorb radiation than other elements (such as [[calcium]]) present. So even though H and He are more abundant, a much smaller percentage of them get excited enough to produce a high intensity. To get a better understanding of abundance of these elements it is necessary to study the [[emission spectrum]] of elements in the chromosphere. It is only possible to assess this when the photosphoric radiation is totally obscured during an [[eclipse]]. At this time the emission spectrum of the chromosphere is highly dominated by hydrogen, which is the main constituent of the sun.
=== Absorption in the atmosphere ===
The material in [[Earth's atmosphere]] absorbs some of the sunlight passing through it. This has been measured at sea level and various altitudes. Estimates were made of the likely spectrum of sunlight above the atmosphere and the absorption within the atmosphere. Actual measurements above the atmosphere required spacecraft which were able to take such readings. These efforts are illustrated in the following images.
<gallery>
Image:Atmospheric absorption.png|Atmospheric absorption as measured horizontally at sea level.
Image:Solar irradiance spectrum 1992.gif|Solar irradiance spectrum as calculated in 1992.
Image:MODIS ATM solar irradiance.jpg|[[Solar radiation]] measured above the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] and at the surface.
</gallery>
==External links==
*[http://www.scienceofspectroscopy.info The Science of Spectroscopy] - supported by NASA, includes OpenSpectrum, a Wiki-based learning tool for spectroscopy that anyone can edit
[[Category:Color]]
[[Category:Electromagnetic radiation]]
[[Category:Spectroscopy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Earthdawn</title>
<id>9789</id>
<revision>
<id>39923882</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T21:28:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Piotrus</username>
<id>59002</id>
</contributor>
<comment>start a section on 'Political entities'</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox RPG
|title= Earthdawn
|image= [[Image:Earthdawn rulebook 2e 200.jpg|200px]]
|caption= ''Earthdawn 2<small>nd</small> edition'' cover
|designer= [[Greg Gorden]]
|publisher= [[FASA]] ''(1<small>st</small> edition)''<br>[[Living Room Games]] ''(2<small>nd</small> edition)''<br>[[RedBrick Limited]] ''(Classic edition)''
|date= 1993 ''(1<small>st</small> edition)''<br>2001 ''(2<small>nd</small> edition)''<br>2005 ''(Classic edition)''
|genre= [[Fantasy]]
|system= [[Step System]]
|footnotes= Set in the same world as [[Shadowrun]], [[Millennium|millennia]] earlier
}}
'''Earthdawn''' is a [[fantasy]] [[role-playing game]] produced originally by [[FASA]]. It has since been licensed to [[Living Room Games]], which is producing the ''Second Edition'' line, and [[RedBrick Limited]], a company that is producing the ''Classic'' line.
The game is similar to fantasy games like [[Dungeons & Dragons]], but draws more inspiration from games like [[RuneQuest]]. The rules of the game are tightly bound to the underlying [[magic (gaming)|magical]] |
Haddo'' is the [[courtesy title]] for the Marquess's eldest son and heir, the eldest son of whom has the [[courtesy title]] ''Viscount Formartine''.
The family seat is [[Haddo House]], [[Aberdeenshire (traditional)|Aberdeenshire]].
==Earls of Aberdeen ([[1682]])==
* [[George Gordon, 1st Earl of Aberdeen]] ([[1637]]-[[1720]])
* [[William Gordon, 2nd Earl of Aberdeen]] (c. [[1679]]-[[1745]])
* [[George Gordon, 3rd Earl of Aberdeen]] ([[1722]]-[[1801]])
* [[George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen]] ([[1784]]-[[1860]])
* [[George Hamilton-Gordon, 5th Earl of Aberdeen]] ([[1816]]-[[1864]])
* [[George Hamilton-Gordon, 6th Earl of Aberdeen]] ([[1841]]-[[1870]])
* [[John Hamilton-Gordon, 1st Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair|John Campbell Hamilton-Gordon, 7th Earl of Aberdeen]] ([[1847]]-[[1934]]) (became Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair in 1916)
==Marquesses of Aberdeen and Temair ([[1916]])==
* [[John Hamilton-Gordon, 1st Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair|John Campbell Gordon, 1st Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair]] ([[1847]]-[[1934]])
* [[George Gordon, 2nd Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair]] ([[1879]]-[[1965]])
* [[Dudley Gordon, 3rd Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair|Dudley Gladstone Gordon, 3rd Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair]] ([[1883]]-[[1972]])
* [[David Gordon, 4th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair|David George Ian Alexander Gordon, 4th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair]] ([[1908]]-[[1974]])
* [[Archibald Gordon, 5th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair|Archibald Victor Dudley Gordon, 5th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair]] ([[1913]]-[[1984]])
* [[Alistair Gordon, 6th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair|Alistair Ninian John Gordon, 6th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair]] ([[1920]]-[[2002]])
* [[Alexander Gordon, 7th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair|Alexander George Gordon, 7th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair]] (b. [[1955]])
his son and heir: [[George Gordon, Earl of Haddo|George Ian Alastair Gordon, Earl of Haddo]] (b. [[May 4]] [[1983]])
[[Category:Marquessates|Aberdeen and Temair]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>East Brunswick</title>
<id>10143</id>
<revision>
<id>29424424</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-27T23:22:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alansohn</username>
<id>118722</id>
</contributor>
<comment>link to [[East BrunswickTownship, New Jersey]], not CDP [[East Brunswick, New Jersey]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[East Brunswick Township, New Jersey]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>East Brunswick, New Jersey</title>
<id>10144</id>
<revision>
<id>29424295</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-27T23:21:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alansohn</username>
<id>118722</id>
</contributor>
<comment>CDP [[East Brunswick, New Jersey]] oberlaps with [[East BrunswickTownship, New Jersey]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''East Brunswick''' is a [[census-designated place]] located in [[Middlesex County, New Jersey|Middlesex County]], [[New Jersey]]. As of the [[United States 2000 Census]], the CDP had a total population of 46,756.
The East Brunswick CDP overlaps in its entirety with [[East Brunswick Township, New Jersey|East Brunswick Township]].
== Geography ==
East Brunswick is located at 40&deg;26'3" North, 74&deg;24'18" West (40.434239, -74.405040){{GR|1}}.
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the township has a total area of 58.0 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (22.4 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]). 56.9 km&sup2; (22.0 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 1.1 km&sup2; (0.4 mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 1.92% water.
== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 46,756 people, 16,372 households, and 13,081 families residing in the CDP. The [[population density]] is 822.4/km&sup2; (2,129.7/mi&sup2;). There are 16,640 housing units at an average density of 292.7/km&sup2; (758.0/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the CDP is 77.56% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 2.83% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.09% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 16.27% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.01% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 1.12% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.12% from two or more races. 4.19% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.
There are 16,372 households out of which 40.5% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 68.6% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 8.5% have a female householder with no husband present, and 20.1% are non-families. 17.2% of all households are made up of individuals and 7.0% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.84 and the average family size is 3.23.
In the CDP the population is spread out with 26.0% under the age of 18, 6.2% from 18 to 24, 29.3% from 25 to 44, 26.9% from 45 to 64, and 11.6% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 39 years. For every 100 females there are 94.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 90.1 males.
The median income for a household in the CDP is $90,956, and the median income for a family is $86,863. Males have a median income of $75,790 versus $58,534 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the township is $72,286. 2.8% of the population and 2.1% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 2.1% of those under the age of 18 and 4.4% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
== External links ==
*[http://www.eastbrunswick.com/ East Brunswick website]
*[http://www.ebpl.org/ East Brunswick Public Library]
*[http://www.eastbrunswick.org/abouttown/history.asp East Brunswick History]
*[http://www.ebnet.org/ East Brunswick Public Schools]
*[http://www.ebdirectory.com/ East Brunswick Directory]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|40.434239|-74.40504}}
[[de:East Brunswick]]
[[Category:Middlesex County, New Jersey]]
[[Category:Census-designated places in New Jersey]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>East Coast Swing</title>
<id>10147</id>
<revision>
<id>41295897</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T10:03:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Poseidon^3</username>
<id>144758</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Steps */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|July 2005}}
'''East Coast Swing''' ('''ECS''') is a [[partner dance]] derived from the [[Lindy Hop]]. The basic step is triple step, triple step, and a rock step. East Coast Swing (6 count) is intermixable with most forms of [[swing dancing]], though primarily with the Lindy Hop.
== Steps ==
*''Basic Closed:'' In closed position, simply remain in the same position while doing footwork.
*''Basic Open:'' In open position, remain in the same position while doing footwork.
*''She Goes:'' In open position, leader raises left hand and follower spins under. (Left Inside Turn)
*''He Goes:'' In open position, leader raises left hand and leader spins under. (Leader Left Outside Turn)
*''She Goes, He Goes:'' In open position, leader raises left hand and follower spins under, then leader spins under. (Left Inside Turn followed by Leader Left Outside Turn)
*''Tuck Turn:'' The leader gives a small nudge and raises left hand, and the follower goes under. (Left Outside Turn)
*''Throw Out:'' After closed position rock step, leader gives small right forearm nudge, and follower goes to open position.
*''Return to Close:'' In open position, the leader gives a small pull and the follower comes into closed position.
*''Cuddle:'' Same step as ''She Goes'', except the leader does not let go of the right hand. The leader and follower end up side-by-side in a cuddle position.
*''Waist slide:'' In open position, leader raises right hand, and turns to his left, putting his right arm and his partners left arm over his head and in front of him while turning. He lets go with his left hand, continues to turn while maintaining the hold with his right hand, ends up facing his partner again, and regrips follow's right hand with his left.
== Footwork ==
Footwork can have many different forms:
* ''Single Step:'' Rock-step, step-hold, step-hold.
* ''Double Step:'' Rock-step, kick-step, kick-step; or rock-step, tap-step, tap-step.
* ''Triple Step:'' Rock-step, triple-step, triple-step.
* ''Holds:'' Rock step, hold-hold, hold-hold.
These forms can be mixed and matched, for example: Rock-step, triple-step, kick, hold.
The reasons to choose different footwork are as follows.
* ''Learning:'' Beginning dancers can do simple steps easily, but they may struggle with more complex footwork. Advanced dancers may enjoy more complex footwork.
* ''Tempo:'' Simpler footwork, such as steps and holds, are easier to do to fast music. Complex footwork makes slow music more interesting.
* ''Musicality:'' If the music has very simple rhythm, such as one beat per beat, then kick steps work well. If the music has a more complex rhythm, such as two beats per beat, then triple steps work well. If the music pauses (breaks) then holds work well.
* ''Variety:'' It is nice to vary the dance form, so if you use one kind of footwork for a while, you might want to try another form for a while.
==See also==
[[:category:Swing dance moves]].
[[Category:Swing dances]]
[[Category:East Coast Swing]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ernst Kaltenbrunner</title>
<id>10148</id>
<revision>
<id>41853894</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T04:02:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jack Cox</username>
<id>194464</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Kaltenbrunner.jpg|right|thumb|200px|SS-Obergruppenführer Dr. |
[gl:Abxalom]]
[[ia:Absalom]]
[[he:אבשלום בן דוד]]
[[nl:Absalom]]
[[ja:アブサロム]]
[[pl:Absalon (imię)]]
[[pt:Absalão]]
[[fi:Absalom]]
[[sv:Absalom]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abydos</title>
<id>1439</id>
<revision>
<id>33866377</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-04T18:00:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BoboDS</username>
<id>753167</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Abydos''' may mean:
Egyptian Mythology - The holy city of [[Osiris]], who was buried there himself, as were many other [[pharaohs]].
* [[Abydos, Egypt]], one of the most ancient cities of Upper Egypt
* [[Abydos, Hellespont]] (also "Ábydos"), an ancient city of Mysia, in Asia Minor
* [[Abydos (music)]], a 2004 solo musical project of Andy Kuntz, member of [[Vanden Plas (band)|Vanden Plas]]
* [[Abydos (Stargate)]], name of a fictional planet in the Stargate science fiction universe
* [[Abydos (thema)]], a historical province of the [[Byzantine Empire]]
'''Abidos''' may mean:
* [[Abidos, Pyrénées-Atlantiques]], a commune of the [[Pyrénées-Atlantiques]] ''département'', in southwestern France
{{disambig}}
[[de:Abydos]]
[[fr:Abydos]]
[[it:Abydos]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abydos, Egypt</title>
<id>1440</id>
<revision>
<id>40288578</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T15:23:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Coptic]] to [[Coptic Christianity]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Hiero|1=Abydos|2=<hiero>Ab-b-Dw:O49</hiero>|align=right|era=egypt}}
'''Abydos''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: أبيدوس), one of the most ancient cities of [[Upper and Lower Egypt|Upper Egypt]], stood about 11 km (6 miles) west of the [[Nile]] at latitude 26° 10' N. The [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] name was Abdju (technically, ''3b<u>d</u>w'', hieroglyphs shown to the right), "the hill of the symbol or reliquary," in which the sacred head of [[Osiris]] was preserved. Thence the Greeks named it Abydos, like the city on the [[Hellespont]]; the modern [[Arabic language|Arabic]] name is [[el-'Araba el Madfuna]] ({{lang-ar|العربة المدفنة}} ''al-ʿarabä al-madfanä'').
==History ==
The history of the city begins in the late prehistoric age, it having been founded by the rulers of the [[Predynastic Period of Egypt|Predynastic period]] ([[William Flinders Petrie]], ''Abydos'', ii. 64), whose town, temple and tombs have been found there. The kings of the [[First dynasty of Egypt|first dynasty]], and some of the second dynasty, were also buried here, and the temple was renewed and enlarged by them. Great forts were built on the desert behind the town by three kings of the [[Second dynasty of Egypt|Second dynasty]]. The temple and town continued to be rebuilt at intervals down to the times of the [[Thirtieth dynasty of Egypt|30th dynasty]], and the cemetery was used continuously. In the [[twelfth dynasty of Egypt|12th dynasty]] a gigantic tomb was cut in the rock by [[Senusret III]]. [[Seti I]], in the [[Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt|19th dynasty]], founded a great new temple to the south of the town in honour of the ancestral kings of the early dynasties; this was finished by [[Ramesses II]], who also built a lesser temple of his own. [[Merneptah]] added a great [[Hypogeum]] of Osiris to the temple of Seti. The latest building was a new temple of [[Nectanebo I]] in the 30th dynasty. From [[Ptolemaic Period|Ptolemaic]] times the place continued to decay and no later works are known (Petrie, ''Abydos'', i. and ii.).
==Worship ==
The worship here was of the jackal god [[Upuaut]] (Ophols, Wepwoi), who "opened the way" to the realm of the dead, increasing from the first dynasty to the time of the 12th dynasty and then disappearing after the 18th. [[Anhur]] appears in the eleventh dynasty; and [[Anubis]], the god of the western Hades, rises to importance in the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] and then vanishes in the 18th. The worship here of [[Osiris]] in his various forms begins in the 12th dynasty and becomes more important in later times, so that at last the whole place was considered as sacred to him (''Abydos'', ii. 47).
==Temples built==
The temples successively built here on one site were nine or ten in number, from the 1st dynasty to the [[twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt|26th dynasty]]. The first was an enclosure, about 30 x 50 ft., surrounded by a thin wall of unbaked bricks. Covering one wall of this came the second temple of about 40 ft. square in a wall about 10 ft. thick. An outer ''temenos'' (enclosure) wall surrounded the ground. This outer wall was thickened about the 2nd or [[Third dynasty of Egypt|3rd dynasty]]. The old temple entirely vanished in the 4th dynasty, and a smaller building was erected behind it, enclosing a wide hearth of black ashes.
Pottery models of offerings are found in the ashes, and these were probably the substitutes for sacrifices decreed by [[Khufu (pharaoh)|Khufu]] (or Cheops) in his temple reforms.
A great clearance of temple offerings was made now, or earlier, and a chamber full of them has yielded the fine ivory carvings and the glazed figures and tiles which show the splendid work of the 1st dynasty. A vase of [[Menes]] with purple inlaid [[hieroglyphs]] in green glaze and the tiles with relief figures are the most important pieces. The noble statuette of Cheops in ivory, found in the stone chamber of the temple, gives the only portrait of this greatest ruler.
The temple was rebuilt entirely on a larger scale by [[Pepi I Meryre|Pepi I]] in the [[Sixth dynasty of Egypt|6th dynasty]]. He placed a great stone gateway to the temenos, an outer temenos wall and gateway, with a colonnade between the gates. His temple was about 40 x 50 ft. inside, with stone gateways front and back, showing that it was of the processional type. In the [[Eleventh dynasty of Egypt|11th dynasty]] [[Mentuhotep I]] added a colonnade and altars. Soon after, [[Mentuhotep II]] entirely rebuilt the temple, laying a stone pavement over the area, about 45 feet square, besides subsidiary chambers. Soon after [[Senusret I]] in the 12th dynasty laid massive foundations of stone over the pavement of his predecessor. A great temenos was laid out enclosing a much larger area, and the temple itself was about three times the earlier size.
==18th dynasty==
The [[Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt|18th dynasty]] began with a large chapel of [[Ahmose]], and then [[Thutmose III]] built a far larger temple, about 130 x 200 ft. He made also a processional way past the side of the temple to the cemetery beyond, with a great gateway of granite. [[Rameses III]] added a large building; and [[Ahmose II]] in the 26th dynasty rebuilt the temple again, and placed in it a large monolith shrine of red granite, finely wrought. The foundations of the successive temples were comprised within about 18 ft. depth of ruins; these needed the closest examination to discriminate the various buildings, and were recorded by over 4000 measurements and 1000 levellings (Petrie, ''Abydos'', ii.).
==Other temples==
The temple of Seti I was built on entirely new ground half a mile to the south of the long series of temples just described. This is the building best known as the Great Temple of Abydos, being nearly complete and an impressive sight. A principal object of it was the adoration of the early kings, whose cemetery, to which it forms a great funerary chapel, lies behind it. The long list of the kings of the principal dynasties carved on a wall is known as the "[[Table of Abydos]]". There were also seven chapels for the worship of the king and principal gods. At the back were large chambers connected with the Osiris worship (Caulfield, ''Temple of the Kings''); and probably from these led out the great Hypogeum for the celebration of the Osiris mysteries, built by Mineptah (Murray, ''Osireion''). The temple was originally 550 ft. long, but the forecourts are scarcely recognizable, and the part in good state is about 250 ft. long and 350 ft. wide, including the wing at the side.
Excepting the list of kings and a [[panegyric]] on Ramesses II, the subjects are not historical but mythological. The work is celebrated for its delicacy and refinement, but lacks the life and character of that in earlier ages. The sculptures have been mostly published in hand copy, not facsimile, by [[Auguste Mariette]] in his ''Abydos'', i. The adjacent temple of Rameses II was much smaller and simpler in plan; but it had a fine historical series of scenes around the outside, of which the lower parts remain. A list of kings, similar to that of Seti I, formerly stood here; but the fragments were removed by the French consul and sold to the [[British Museum]].
== Tombs==
The Royal Tombs of the earliest dynasties were placed about a mile back on the great desert plain, in a place now known as [[Umm el-Qa'ab]]. The earliest is about 10 x 20ft. inside, a pit lined with brick walls, and originally roofed with timber and matting. Others also before Menes are 15 x 25 ft. The tomb probably of Menes is of the latter size. After this the tombs increase in size and complexity. The [[tomb-pit]] is surrounded by chambers to hold the offerings, the actual [[sepulchre]] being a great wooden chamber in the midst of the brick-lined pit. Rows of small tomb-pits for the servants of the king surround the royal chamber, many dozens of such burials being usual.
By the end of the 2nd dynasty the type changed to a long passage bordered with chambers on either hand, the royal burial being in the middle of the length. The greatest of these tombs with its dependencies covered a space of over 3000 square yards (2,500 m&sup2;). The contents of the tombs have been nearly dest |
of gold varies wildly around the world, even within geographic regions. For example, gold is quite common in [[Turkey]] but considered a most valuable gift in [[Sicily]].
==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/79.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &ndash; Gold]
*[http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0821152.html The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed]
==See also==
* [[22/22k]]
* [[Carat (purity)]]
* [[Colloidal gold]]
* [[Gold as an investment]]
* [[Gold coin]]
* [[Socialism and Gold]]
* [[Precious metal]]
==External links==
{{Commons|Gold}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Au/index.html WebElements.com &ndash; Gold] (also used as a reference)
*[http://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/elements/gold/gold.htm Mineral Galleries - Native Gold]
*[http://www.lateralscience.co.uk/gold/auriferous.html ''Getting Gold'' 1898 book]
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Transition metals]]
[[Category:Precious metals]]
[[Category:Native element minerals]]
[[Category:Gold|*Gold]]
[[Category:Historical trading items]]
{{Link FA|fr}}
[[af:Goud]]
[[ast:Oru]]
[[bg:Злато]]
[[ca:Or]]
[[cs:Zlato]]
[[cy:Aur]]
[[da:Guld]]
[[de:Gold]]
[[eo:Oro]]
[[es:Oro]]
[[et:Kuld]]
[[fi:Kulta]]
[[fr:Or]]
[[he:זהב]]
[[hr:Zlato]]
[[hu:Arany]]
[[id:Emas]]
[[io:Oro]]
[[is:Gull]]
[[it:Oro]]
[[ja:金]]
[[ko:금]]
[[ku:Zêr]]
[[la:Aurum]]
[[lb:Gold]]
[[li:Goud]]
[[lt:Auksas]]
[[lv:Zelts]]
[[ms:Emas]]
[[nl:Goud]]
[[nn:Gull]]
[[no:Gull]]
[[oc:Aur]]
[[pl:Złoto]]
[[pt:Ouro]]
[[ru:Золото]]
[[simple:Gold]]
[[sk:Zlato]]
[[sl:Zlato]]
[[sr:Злато]]
[[sv:Guld]]
[[ta:தங்கம்]]
[[th:ทองคำ]]
[[tr:Altın]]
[[uk:Золото]]
[[vi:Vàng]]
[[zh:金]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gallium</title>
<id>12241</id>
<revision>
<id>41798321</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:49:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fyver528</username>
<id>734972</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Revert to revision 41451632 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=31 | symbol=Ga | name=gallium | left=[[zinc]] | right=[[germanium]] | above=[[aluminium|Al]] | below=[[indium|In]] | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[poor metal]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=13 | period=4 | block=p }}
{{Elementbox_appearance | silvery white }}
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" | [[image:Ga,31.jpg|125px|Typical (melted blob)]]&nbsp;[[Image:Gallium1_640x480.jpg|130px|Crystallized]]
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|69.723]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(1)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &#91;[[argon|Ar]]&#93; 3d<sup>10</sup> 4s<sup>2</sup> 4p<sup>1</sup> }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 3 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 5.91 }}
{{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 6.095 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=302.9146 | c=29.7646 | f=85.5763 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=2477 | c=2204 | f=3999 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 5.59 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 254 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 25.86 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 1310 | 1448 | 1620 | 1838 | 2125 | 2518 | comment= }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | orthorhombic }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | 3<br />([[amphoteric]] oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 1.81 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 578.8 | 1979.3 | 2963 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|130]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|136]] }}
{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|126]] }}
{{Elementbox_vanderwaalsrad_pm | [[1 E-10 m|187]] }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | no data }}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 40.6 }}
{{Elementbox_speedofsound_rodmpsat20 | 2740 }}
{{Elementbox_mohshardness | 1.5 }}
{{Elementbox_brinellhardness_mpa | 60 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-55-3 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=gallium | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=69 | sym=Ga | na=60.11% | n=38 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=71 | sym=Ga | na=39.89% | n=40 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }}
'''Gallium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Ga''' and [[atomic number]] 31. A rare, soft silvery metallic [[poor metal]], gallium is a brittle solid at low temperatures but liquefies slightly above room temperature and indeed will melt in the hand. It occurs in trace amounts in [[bauxite]] and [[zinc]] ores. An important application is in the compound [[gallium arsenide]], used as a [[semiconductor]], most notably in [[light-emitting diode]]s (LEDs).
== Notable characteristics ==
Very pure gallium has a stunning silvery color and its solid metal fractures [[Conchoidal fracture|conchoid]]ally like [[glass]]. Gallium metal expands by 3.1 percent when it solidifies, and therefore should not be stored in either glass or metal containers, as they may break as the metal solidifies. Gallium also [[corrosion|corrodes]] most other metals by [[diffusion|diffusing]] into their metal [[crystal structure|lattice]].
Gallium is one of the metals (with [[caesium]] and [[mercury (element)|mercury]]) which are liquid at or near normal room temperature, and can therefore be used in metal-in-glass [[thermometer]]s. It is also notable for having one of the largest liquid ranges for a metal, and (unlike mercury) for having a low [[vapor pressure]] at high temperatures.
This metal has a strong tendency to [[supercool]] below its [[melting point]], thus necessitating [[seed crystal|seeding]] in order to solidify. High-purity gallium is attacked slowly by [[mineral acid]]s.
The [[melting point]] temperature is very low, ''T'' = 30 °C, and the density is higher in the liquid state than in the crystalline state (like water, but unlike most materials).
Gallium does not [[crystal]]lize in any of the simple [[crystal structure]]s. The stable phase under normal conditions is [[orthorhombic]] with 8 atoms in the conventional [[unit cell]]. Each atom has only one nearest neighbor (at a distance of 244 [[picometre|pm]]) and six other neighbors within additional 39 pm. Many stable and [[metastable]] phases are found as function of temperature and pressure.
The bonding between the nearest neighbors is found to be of [[covalent]] character, hence Ga<sub>2</sub> [[dimer]]s are seen as the fundamental building blocks of the crystal. The compound with [[arsenic]], [[gallium arsenide]] is a [[semiconductor]] commonly used in [[light-emitting diode]]s.
== Applications ==
Analog [[integrated circuit]]s are the most common application for gallium, with [[optoelectronic]] devices (mostly [[laser diode]]s and light-emitting diodes) as the second largest end use. <br>
Other uses include:
*Since it [[wetting|wets]] glass or [[porcelain]], gallium can be used to create brilliant [[mirror]]s.
*Used widely as a [[dopant]] to [[doping (semiconductor)|dope]] [[semiconductor]]s and produce solid-state devices like [[transistor]]s.
*Gallium readily [[alloy]]s with most metals, and has been used as a component in [[fusible alloy|low-melting alloys]]. The [[plutonium]] pits of [[nuclear weapons]] employ an alloy with gallium to stabilize the [[allotropy|allotrope]]s of plutonium. Much research is being devoted to gallium alloys as substitutes for mercury [[dental]] [[amalgam]]s, but such compounds have yet to see wide acceptance.
*Gallium added in quantities up to 2% in common [[solder]]s can aid wetting and flow characteristics.
*Gallium is used in some high temperature thermometers, and a [[eutectic]] alloy of gallium, [[indium]], and [[tin]] is widely available in fever thermometers, replacing mercury. This alloy, with the trade name ''[[Galinstan]]'', has a freezing point of &minus;20 °C.
*[[Magnesium]] [[gallate]] containing impurities (such as Mn<sup>+2</sup>), is beginning to be used in [[ultraviolet]]-activated [[phosphor]] powder.
*It has been suggested that a liquid gallium-[[tin]] alloy could be used to cool computer chips in place of water. As it conducts heat approximately 65 times better than water it makes a considerably better [[coolant]]. [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7348]
*Gallium [[salt]]s like gallium [[citrate]] and gallium [[nitrate]] are used as [[radiocontrast]] agents in [[medical imaging]]. For these applications, a [[radionuclide|radioactive isotope]] such as <sup>67</sup>Ga is used.
*Gallium is the rarest component of new [[photovoltaic]] compounds (such as copper indium gallium selenium sulphide or Cu(In,Ga)(Se,S)2, recently announced by South African researchers) for use in solar panels as an alternative to [[crystalline silicon]], which is in currently short supply.
== History ==
Gallium ([[Latin]] ''Gallia'' meaning [[Gaul]]; also ''gallus'', meaning "rooster") was discovered [[spectroscopy|spectroscopically]] by [[Lecoq de Boisbaudran]] in [[1875]] by its characteristic spectrum (two [[violet (color)|violet]] lines) in an examination of a [[zinc blende]] from the [[Pyrenees]]. Before its discovery, most of its properties had been predicted and described by [[Dmitri Mendeleev]] (who called the hypothetical element ''[[Mendeleev's predicted elements|eka-aluminium]]'') on the basis of its position in his [[periodic table]]. Later, in 1875, Boisbaudran obtained the free metal through the [[electrolysis]] of its [[hydroxide]] in [[potassium hydroxide|KOH]] solution. He named the element after his native land of [[France]] and, in one of those multilingual [ |
ocket1 = [[Bill Hutchison]]
| fullforward = [[John Coleman]]
| forwardpocket2 = [[Albert Thurgood]]
| ruck = [[Simon Madden]]
| ruckrover = [[Tim Watson]]
| rover = [[Dick Reynolds]] (Captain)
| interchange1 = [[Mark Thompson]]
| interchange2 = [[Keith Forbes]]
| interchange3 = [[Frank Maher]]
| interchange4 = [[William Griffith]]
| interchange5 =
| interchange6 =
| coach =
}}
==Champions of Essendon==
In 2002, a club panel chose and ranked the 25 greatest players to have played for Essendon.
# [[Dick Reynolds]]
# [[John Coleman]]
# [[James Hird]]
# [[Bill Hutchinson]]
# [[Simon Madden]]
# [[Tim Watson]]
# [[Ken Fraser]]
# [[Jack Clarke]]
# [[Albert Thurgood]]
# [[Tom Fitzmaurice]]
# [[Terry Daniher]]
# [[Wally Butsworth]]
# [[Reg Burgess]]
# [[Bill Busbridge]]
# [[Barry Davis]]
# [[Keith Forbes]]
# [[Graham Moss]]
# [[Mark Harvey]]
# [[Gavin Wanganeen]]
# [[Mark Thompson (footballer)|Mark Thompson]]
# [[John Birt (footballer)|John Birt]]
# [[Matthew Lloyd]]
# [[Michael Long]]
# [[Fred Baring]]
# [[Harold Lambert]]
==Club Honours==
''See [[Essendon Football Club honours]].
==Corporate==
===Presidents===
Current president:
*[[Neil McKissock]]
===Sponsors===
*[[Don Smallgoods]] (1977-1983)
*[[Nubrik]] (1984-1993)
*[[Transport Accident Commission]] "Speed Kills" (1994-2000)
*[[Hutchison Telecoms]] "Orange" (2001-02) "[[3 Mobile]]" (2003-present)
==See also==
*[[:Category:Essendon Bombers players|Wikipedia listing of Essendon Football Club players]]
*[[:Category:Essendon Football Club coaches|Wikipedia listing of Essendon Football Club coaches]]
==External links==
* [http://www.essendonfc.com.au/ Official Website of the Essendon Football Club]
* [http://www.bomberblitz.com/ BomberBlitz.com - The Official Unofficial Website of the Essendon Football Club]
* [http://bombersfc.com.au/ The Official AFL website of the Essendon Football Club]
* [http://www.fullpointsfooty.net/Essendon_part_1.htm History of the Essendon Football Club]
{{AFL}}
[[Category:Australian Football League clubs]]
[[Category:Sporting clubs in Melbourne]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Enid Blyton</title>
<id>10258</id>
<revision>
<id>40563017</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T13:17:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>59.94.99.116</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Enid Mary Blyton''' ([[August 11]], [[1897]] &ndash; [[November 28]], [[1968]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[List of children's literature authors|children's author]]. She is noted particularly for numerous series of books, based on recurring characters and designed for different age groups.
Her prolific output involves mainly children's fantasy, which sometimes involves the supernatural. Her books were immensely popular in Britain, India and [[Australia]] and have remained popular. They were translated into 40 languages, including [[Malay language|Malay]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[French language|French]], [[Finnish language|Finnish]], [[German language|German]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]. Translated versions became and have remained extremely popular in many parts of Europe and Asia.
==Most popular works==
[[Image:The Magic Faraway Tree.jpg|thumb|100px|right]]
Best known of her works are:
* the [[Noddy]] books
* [[The Famous Five (characters)|The Famous Five]]
* [[The Five Find-Outers]] (also known as the 'Mystery Series')
* [[The Adventure Series]]
* [[The Secret Seven]]
* [[Malory Towers]]
* [[St. Clare's|The St. Clare's series]]
* [[The Naughtiest Girl series|The Naughtiest Girl series]]
* [[The Magic Faraway Tree series]]
* [[The Wishing-Chair series]]
* [[The Circus Series]]
* [[The Barney Mystery Series]]
* [[The Farm Series]]
==Other works==
[[Image:Enid Blyton Bible Stories.jpg|thumb|100px|right]]
She wrote hundreds of other books for young and older children. She also filled a large number of magazine pages, particularly the long-running ''Sunny Stories''.
An estimate puts her total book publication at around 600 titles, not including decades of magazine writing. It is said at one point she produced 10,000 words a day.
Such astonishingly prolific output led many to believe that some of her work was ghost-written. No [[ghost writer]]s have come forward. She used a [[pseudonym]] '''Mary Pollock''' for a few titles (middle name plus first married name). In her last few years of life she suffered from [[Alzheimer's Disease]]. The last volumes in her most famous series were published in 1963. Many books still appeared, but were mainly story books made up from re-cycled work.
Not all of her output was fiction. For example, her series of [[arithmetic]] books were for many years the standard in [[primary school]]s in the [[UK]]. She also wrote numerous books on nature and Biblical themes.
== Subject matter==
Blyton's books managed to tap into the dreams of pre-pubescent children. The code words are 'mystery' and 'adventure'. Children are free to play and explore without adult interference, more clearly than in most authors before or since. Adult characters are usually either authority figures such as policemen, teachers, or parents, or adversaries to be conquered by the children. The children are often self-sufficient, spending whole days, or even more than one day, away from home. This theme is taken to its extreme in ''The Secret Island'', wherein a group of children run away from uncaring guardians to live on an island together, making a home and fending for themselves until their parents return.
Blyton's books are generally split into three types. One involves ordinary children in extraordinary situations; having adventures, solving crimes, or otherwise finding themselves in unusual circumstances. Examples include the Famous Five and Secret Seven, and the Adventure series. The second type is the [[boarding school story]]; the plots of these are usually less extraordinary than the first type, with more emphasis on the day-to-day life at a boarding school. This is the world of the midnight feast, the practical joke, and the social interaction of the various types of character that can be found at school. Examples of this type are the Malory Towers stories, the St Clare's series, and the Naughtiest Girl books.
The third type is the fantastical. Children are typically transported into a magical world in which they meet fairies, goblins, elves, or other fantastical creatures. Examples of this type are the Wishing-Chair books and the Magic Faraway Tree.
==Controversies==
[[Image:The Three Golliwogs.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Cover of ''The Three Golliwogs'', in which the golliwogs are the heroes.]]
The books are very much of their time, particularly the [[1950s]] titles. They reflect a none-too-subtle version of Britain's class system, as in rough versus well-behaved. Undoubtedly present are some stereotypes on gender. Some argue, from a current perspective, that the portrayal of [[golliwog]]s, amongst others, was [[racism|racist]]. On the other hand, the Famous Five displayed a remarkably modern equality of teamwork between the sexes, and while golliwogs often appeared as villains in the ''Noddy'' books, elsewhere in her fantasy works they appeared as the heroes.
It was frequently reported, in the 1950s and also from the [[1980s]] onwards, that various children's libraries removed some of Blyton's works from the shelves. The history of such 'Blyton bans' is confused. Some librarians certainly at times felt that Blyton's restricted use of language, a conscious product of her teaching background, militated against appreciation of more literary qualities. There was some precedent, in the treatment of [[L. Frank Baum]]'s ''Oz'' books (and the many sequels, by others) by librarians in the [[USA]] in the 1930s.
Much play has been made of naive language permitting ''[[double entendre]]'' (e.g. a tendency to imagine sexual connotations, for instance, Noddy "jumping into bed" with Big Ears, another character, clearly not intended by the author. The "Magic Faraway Tree" series contains characters called Dick and Fanny also (changed to "Rick" and "Frannie" in modern reprints)). This is probably journalistic froth. This whole area is subject to [[urban myth]]s and the carefree retelling in newspapers of anecdotes as factual (recycling the old press cuttings, in fact) making it somewhat difficult to discern the truth.
A more careful account of anti-Blyton attacks is given in Chapter 4 of Robert Druce's ''This Day Our Daily Fictions''. The ''British Journal of Education'' in [[1955]] carried a piece by Janice Dohn, an American children's librarian, considering Blyton's writing together with authors of [[formula fiction]], and making negative comments about Blyton's devices and tone. A [[1958]] article in ''Encounter'' by [[Colin Welch]], directed against the [[Noddy]] character, was reprinted in a [[New Zealand]] librarians' periodical. This gave rise to the first rumour of a New Zealand 'library ban' on Blyton’s books, a recurrent press [[canard]]. Policy on buying and stocking Blyton's books by British public libraries drew attention in newspaper reports from the early [[1960s]] to the end of the [[1970s]], as local decisions were made by a London borough, Birmingham, Nottingham and other central libraries. There is no evidence that her books' popularity ever suffered. She was defended by populist journalists, and others; left-of-centre newspapers ran articles condemning her work, with a piece in [[1966]] in ''[[The Guardian]]'' claiming that Blyton wrote more insidiously dangerous right-wing literature than that published by British [[fascist]] groups.
Modern reprints of some books have had changes made (such as the replacement of Golliwogs with teddy bears). This is the publishers' reaction to contemporary attitudes on [[racial stereotype]]s, and probably enforced by |
ered in revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed.
The Special Clerical Court handles crimes allegedly committed by [[cleric]]s, although it has also taken on cases involving [[lay people]]. The rulings of the Special Clerical Court, which functions independently of the regular judicial framework and is accountable only to the Supreme Leader, are also final and cannot be appealed.
==Geography==
{{main|Geography of Iran}}
[[Image:Iran map.png|framed|Map of Iran]]
Iran borders [[Azerbaijan]] (length of border: 432 km / 268 mi) and [[Armenia]] (35 km / 22 mi) to the northwest, the [[Caspian Sea]] to the north, [[Turkmenistan]] (992 km / 616 mi) to the northeast, [[Pakistan]] (909 km / 565 mi) and [[Afghanistan]] (936 km / 582 mi) to the east, [[Turkey]] (499 km / 310 mi) and [[Iraq]] (1,458 km / 906 mi) to the west, and finally the waters of the [[Persian Gulf]] and the [[Gulf of Oman]] to the south. Iran's total land mass is 1,648,000 km² / ≈636,300 mi² (Land: 1,636,000 km² / ≈631,663 mi², Water: 12,000 km² / ≈4,633 mi²). That is approximately the land mass of [[Alaska]].
Iran's landscape is dominated by rugged [[mountain range]]s that separate various [[Basin|basins]] or [[Plateau|plateaus]] from one another. The populous western part is the most mountainous, with ranges such as the [[Caucasus Mountains|Caucasus]], [[Zagros Mountains|Zagros]] and [[Alborz]] Mountains, the latter of which also contains Iran's highest point, the [[Mount Damavand|Damavand]] at 5,604 m (18,386 ft). The eastern half consists mostly of uninhabited [[desert]] basins like the saline [[Dasht-e Kavir]], with the occasional [[salt lake]].
[[Image:Damavand.jpg|left|thumb|Iran's highest mountain, [[Mount Damavand]], standing at 5604 m.]]
The only large [[plain|plains]] are found along the coast of the [[Caspian Sea]] and at the northern end of the [[Persian Gulf]], where Iran borders on the mouth of the [[Arvand]] river (''[[Shatt al-Arab]]''). Smaller, discontinuous plains are found along the remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, the [[Strait of Hormuz]] and the [[Sea of Oman]]. The Iranian [[climate]] is mostly [[arid]] or [[semiarid]], though [[subtropical]] along the Caspian coast. Iran is considered to be one of the fifteen states that comprise the so-called "[[Cradle of Humanity]]".
===Climate===
[[Image:Dena-kuh.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Zagros Mountains]] are Iran's second largest range in territory. Dena mountain, rises 4359 m.]]
Iran's landscape produces several different [[climate]]s. On the northern edge of the country (the Caspian coastal plain) the temperatures nearly fall below freezing and remain humid for the rest of the year. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 29°C (84°F). Annual precipitation is 680 mm (26 in) in the eastern part of the plain and more than 1700 mm (75 in) in the western side of the plain. To the west, settlements in the Zagros mountains basin experience lower temperatures. These areas have severe winters, with average daily temperatures below freezing and have heavy snowfall. The eastern and central basins are arid. They get less than 200 mm (8 in) of rain and have occasional desert. The average summer temperatures exceed 38°C (100°F). The coastal plains of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman in southern Iran have mild winters and experience very humid and hot summers. The annual precipitation ranges from 135 mm to 355 mm (6 to 14 in).
== Provinces ==
{{main|Provinces of Iran}}
Iran consists of 30 [[province]]s:
{| border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" align="center"
|
#[[Tehran Province|Tehran]]
#[[Qom Province|Qom]]
#[[Markazi]]
#[[Qazvin Province|Qazvin]]
#[[Gilan]]
#[[Ardabil Province|Ardabil]]
#[[Zanjan Province|Zanjan]]
#[[East Azarbaijan]]
#[[West Azarbaijan]]
#[[Kurdistan Province, Iran|Kurdistan]]
#[[Hamadan Province|Hamadan]]
#[[Kermanshah Province|Kermanshah]]
#[[Ilam Province|Ilam]]
#[[Lorestan]]
#[[Khuzestan]]
||
<ol start=16>
<li>[[Chahar Mahaal and Bakhtiari]]
<li>[[Kohkiluyeh and Buyer Ahmad]]
<li>[[Bushehr Province|Bushehr]]
<li>[[Fars]]
<li>[[Hormozgan]]
<li>[[Sistan and Baluchistan]]
<li>[[Kerman Province|Kerman]]
<li>[[Yazd Province|Yazd]]
<li>[[Esfahan Province|Esfahan]]
<li>[[Semnan Province|Semnan]]
<li>[[Mazandaran]]
<li>[[Golestan]]
<li>[[North Khorasan]]
<li>[[Razavi Khorasan]]
<li>[[South Khorasan]]
||[[Image:IranNumbered.png|300px|Numbered map of provinces]]
|}
The islands of Iran are not shown in this picture. These islands belong to the province "Hormozgan".
==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Iran}}
[[Image:1000tomani.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The ''[[Iranian rial|Rial]]'' is Iran's official currency.]]
Iran's economy is a mixture of [[central planning]], [[state ownership]] of [[petroleum|oil]] and other large [[Enterprise|enterprises]], village [[agriculture]], and small-scale [[private trading]] and service ventures. The current [[administration]] has continued to follow the market reform plans of the previous one and has indicated that it will pursue diversification of Iran's oil-reliant economy. The Iranian government is attempting to diversify by [[Investment|investing]] revenues in other areas, including, [[car]] [[manufacturing]], [[aerospace]] industries, consumer [[electronics]], [[Petrochemical|petrochemicals]] and [[nuclear technology]]. Iran is also hoping to attract billions of dollars worth of [[foreign investment]] by creating a more favorable investment climate, such as reduced restrictions and duties on imports and the creation of free-trade zones like in [[Chabahar]] and the island of [[Kish]]. Modern Iran has a solid [[middle class]] and a growing economy but continues to be plagued with high [[inflation]] and [[unemployment]].
Iranian budget deficits have been a chronic problem, in part due to large-scale state subsidies&ndash; totaling some $7.25 billion per year&ndash;including [[foodstuffs]] and especially [[gasoline]].
[[Image:Elahiyeh.jpg|thumb|right|The towering [[Alborz]] mountains in Tehran rising above modern high rises of the [[Elahiyeh]] district.]]
Iran is [[OPEC]]'s second largest oil producer and holds 10% of the world's proven oil reserves. It also has the world's second largest [[natural gas]] reserves (after [[Russia]]). The strong oil market in 1996 helped ease financial pressures on Iran and allowed for Tehran's timely debt service payments.
[[Image:Meydoon sadeghiyeh.jpg|left|thumb|A busy commercial street in Tehran.]]
State investment has boosted [[agriculture]] with the [[liberalization]] of production and the improvement of packaging and marketing helping to develop new export markets. Large-scale [[irrigation]] schemes, together with the wider production of export-based agricultural items such as [[date palm|dates]], [[Flower|flowers]] and [[Pistachio|pistachios]], produced the fastest economic growth of any sector in Iran over much of the [[1990s]]. Even though a series of [[drought]]s has held back output growth substantially, [[agriculture]] remains one of the largest employers. Iran has also developed a [[biotechnology]], [[nanotechnology]] and [[pharmaceuticals]] industry.
Iran's major commercial partners are [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Spain]], [[Russia]], [[China]], [[Japan]] and [[South Korea]]. Since the late 1990's, Iran has increased its economic cooperation with other developing countries, including [[Syria]], [[India]], [[Cuba]], [[Venezuela]] and [[South Africa]]. Iran is also expanding its trade ties with [[Turkey]] and [[Pakistan]] and shares with its partners the common vision for the creation of a single economic market in West and Central [[Asia]].
==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of Iran}}
===Ethnic groups===
[[Image:Iran peoples.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ethnic groups in Iran]]
The majority of Iran's [[population]] speak one of the [[Iranian languages]], though [[Persian language|Persian]] is the official language. While the number, percentage, and definition of the different Iranian peoples is disputed, the major [[ethnic]] groups and [[Ethnic minorities in Iran|minorities]] in Iran include the [[Persians]] (51%), [[Azeris]] (24%), [[Gilaki and Mazandarani]] (8%), [[Kurds]] (7%), [[Arabs]] (3%), [[Baluchistan|Baluchi]] (2%), [[Lorestan|Lurs]] (2%), [[Turkmen people]] (2%), [[Qashqai]], [[Armenians]], [[Georgians]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Circassians]], [[Persian Jews|Iranian Jews]],and others (1%). These percentages however are only old estimates. There are no official statistics on [[ethnicity]] numbers or percentages in Iran.<ref name="factbook">http://cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ir.html</ref>. The literacy rate in Iran is above 89% and closer to 100% for its younger population.
Iran's population size increased dramatically during the latter half of the [[20th century]] to reach 70 million in 2006, although in recent years Iran appears to have taken control of its high population growth rate and many studies show that Iran's population growth rate will continue to decline until it will reach replacement level and stabilize by the year 2050 (100 million). Iran's [[population density]] is forty persons per square kilometer. <ref>http://www.census.gov/cgi-bin/ipc/idbsum.pl?cty=IR</ref> <ref>http://www.un.org/Depts/escap/pop/journal/v10n1a1.htm</ref> <ref>http://www.payvand.com/news/04/aug/1017.html</ref> Iran hosts more than one million [[foreign]] [[Refugee|refugees]] (mainly from [[Afghanistan]] with some from [[Iraq]]), one of the largest figures on [[Earth|earth]], and official government policy and social factors aim towards [[repatriation]]. <ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3971711.stm</ref> <ref>http://www.irinnews.org/report.asp?ReportID=48323&SelectRegion=Middle_East&SelectCountry=IRAN</ |
Some of these cultural influences are strong enough to have affected the culture of the [[United States]] at large, including the popularity (in greatly modified form) of ''[[luau|lu{{okina}}au]]s'' and ''[[hula]]''.
* [[Customs and etiquette in Hawaii|Customs and etiquette in Hawai{{okina}}i]]
* [[Folklore in Hawaii|Folklore in Hawai{{okina}}i]]
* [[Hawaiian mythology]]
* [[List of Hawaii state parks|List of Hawai{{okina}}i state parks]]
* [[Hawaii State Landmark|List of Hawai{{okina}}i State Landmarks]]
* [[List of Hawaii-related topics|List of Hawai{{okina}}i-related topics]]
* [[Literature in Hawaii|Literature in Hawai{{okina}}i]]
* [[Music of Hawaii|Music of Hawai{{okina}}i]]
* [[Polynesian mythology]]
* [[Tourism in Hawaii|Tourism of Hawai{{okina}}i]]
==Demographics==
{| class="toccolours" align="right" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;"
|-
! colspan=2 bgcolor="#ccccff" align="center"| Historical populations
|-
! align="center"| Census<br>year !! align="right"| Population
|-
| colspan=2|<hr>
|-
| align="center"| 1960 || align="right"| 632,772
|-
| align="center"| 1970 || align="right"| 768,561
|-
| align="center"| 1980 || align="right"| 964,691
|-
| align="center"| 1990 || align="right"| 1,108,229
|-
| align="center"| [[United States 2000 Census|2000]] || align="right"| 1,211,537
|}
As of 2005, Hawaii has an estimated population of 1,275,194, which is an increase of 13,070, or 1.0%, from the prior year and an increase of 63,657, or 5.3%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 48,111 people (that is 96,028 births minus 47,917 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 16,956 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 30,068 people, and migration within the country produced a net loss of 13,112 people.
Hawai{{okina}}i has a de facto population of over 1.3 million due to military presence and tourists. [[Oahu|O{{okina}}ahu]] is the most populous island, with a resident population of just under one million.
Hawaii was the first [[majority-minority state]] in the United States since the 20th century. According to the 2000 Census, 6.6% of Hawai{{okina}}i's population identified themselves as [[Native Hawaiian]], 24.3% were White or [[whites|Caucasian]], including [[Portugal|Portuguese]] and 41.6% were [[Asian]], including 0.1% [[Asian Indian]], 4.7% [[Chinese in Hawaii|Chinese]], 14.1% [[Filipino American|Filipino]], 16.7% [[Japanese in Hawaii|Japanese]], 1.9% [[Koreans in Hawaii|Korean]] and 0.6% [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]]. 1.3% were other [[Pacific Islander]], which includes [[Samoan]], [[Tongan]], [[Tahitian people|Tahitian]], [[Māori]] and [[Micronesian]], and 21.4% described themselves as mixed (two or more races/ethnic groups). 1.8% were [[Black (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[African American]] and 0.3% were [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]] and [[Alaska Native]].
The second group of foreigners to arrive upon Hawai{{okina}}i's shores, after the Europeans, were the [[Chinese people|Chinese]]. Chinese employees serving on Western trading ships disembarked and settled starting in 1789. In 1820 the first American missionaries arrived in Hawai{{okina}}i to preach Christianity and teach the Hawaiians what the missionaries considered "civilized" ways. A large proportion of Hawai{{okina}}i's population has become a people of Asian ancestry (especially Chinese, Japanese and Filipino), many of whom are descendants from those waves of early foreign immigrants brought to the islands in the nineteenth century, beginning in the 1850's, to work on the sugar plantations. The first 153 [[Japanese people|Japanese]] immigrants arrived in Hawai{{okina}}i on [[June 19]], 1868. They were not "legally" approved by the Japanese government established after the [[Meiji Restoration]] because the contract was between a broker and the by then terminated [[Tokugawa shogunate]]. The first Japanese government-approved immigrants arrived in Hawai{{okina}}i on [[February 9]], 1885 after Kalākaua's petition to [[Emperor Meiji]] when Kalākaua visited Japan in [[1881]])
The largest city is the capital, [[Honolulu]], located along the southeast coast of the island of O{{okina}}ahu. Other populous cities include [[Hilo, Hawaii|Hilo]], [[Kaneohe, Hawaii|Kāne{{okina}}ohe]], [[Kailua, Hawaii|Kailua]], [[Pearl City, Hawaii|Pearl City]], [[Kahului, Hawaii|Kahului]], and [[Kailua-Kona, Hawaii|Kailua-Kona]].
As of 2000, 73.4% of Hawai{{okina}}i residents age 5 and older speak [[English language|English]] at home and 7.9% speak Pacific Island languages. [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] is the third most spoken language at 5.4%, followed by [[Japanese language|Japanese]] at 5.0% and [[Chinese language|Chinese]] at 2.6%.
*[[Religion]]
**[[Christian]] = 68%
***[[Protestant]] = 42%
****[[Congregational]]/[[United Church of Christ]]= 3%
****[[Baptist]] = 2%
****[[Methodist]] = 2%
***[[Catholic]] = 24%
***[[LDS]] = 2%
**[[Agnostic]]/non-religious = 18%
**[[Buddhist]] = 9%
**Other (e.g. [[Shinto]], [[Tao]], [[Paganism|pagan]]) = 5%
* ''See also'': [[Richest Places in Hawaii|Richest Places in Hawai{{okina}}i]]
==Famous people from Hawai{{okina}}i==
The [[list of famous people from Hawaii|list of famous people from Hawai{{okina}}i]] is a comprehensive, alphabetized list of persons who have achieved fame that presently or at one time claimed Hawai{{okina}}i as their home. Separate registers of members of the [[:Category:Royal Family of Hawaii|Hawaiian royal family]] and [[List of Hawaii politicians|Hawai{{okina}}i politicians]] are also available.
<center><gallery>
<!-- Unsourced image removed: Image:Fatherdamien.jpg|[[Father Damien]]<br>Beatified towards sainthood by Pope John Paul II -->
Image:Mother Marianne Cope.jpg|[[Mother Marianne Cope]]<br>Beatified towards sainthood by Pope Benedict XVI
Image:Fong.jpg|[[Hiram Fong]]<br>First Chinese American and Asian American elected United States Senator
Image:Georgeariyoshi.jpg|[[George R. Ariyoshi]]<br>First Japanese American and Asian American elected governor in the United States
Image:Ericshinseki.jpg|[[Eric Shinseki]]<br>First Japanese American and Asian American member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
</gallery></center>
==References==
*Schamel, Wynell and Charles E. Schamel. "The 1897 Petition Against the Annexation of Hawaii." Social Education 63, 7 (November/December 1999): 402-408.
==See also==
*[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Hawaii/Trivia|Hawai{{okina}}i Trivia]]
<center><gallery>
Image:Lightmatter haleakala Maui Hawaii.jpg|[[Haleakala|Haleakalā]]
Image:Kalalau Trail 2004-08-22.JPG|[[Na Pali Coast]]
Image:Hawaii sts26 big.jpg|[[NASA|Satellite Image]]
</gallery></center>
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Hawaii}}
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.state.hi.us Official state homepage]
*[http://www.gohawaii.com Hawai{{okina}}i Visitors & Convention Bureau]
*[http://www.hawaiianswers.com HawaiiAnswers.com] - a FAQ repository for Hawai{{okina}}i
*[http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=15304 Satellite image of Hawaiian Islands] at [[NASA]]'s [[Earth Observatory]]
*[http://www.google.com/maps?ll=20.731201,-157.675781&spn=5.218506,8.107910&t=k&hl=en Google maps]
*[http://data.bls.gov/PDQ/outside.jsp?survey=sm Bureau of Labor Statistics] - Economic Data, including Hawaii
*[http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/lacroix.hawaii.history Economic History of Hawaii]
*[http://www.cyberrentals.com/USA/Hawaii/r35.htm Hawaii Vacation Rentals]
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{{Hawaii history}}
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<timestamp>2002-08-12T23 |
nd England. The backlash from this venture provoked a [[Irish Rebellion of 1641|rebellion in Ireland]] and Charles was forced to summon the English Parliament to appeal for funds. The summoning of this parliament led to demands for reform in England, and eventually resulted in the [[English Civil War]]). This series of civil wars that engulfed Britain in the 1640s and 50s is known to modern historians as the [[Wars of the Three Kingdoms]]. The [[Covenanters]] meanwhile, were left governing Scotland, where they raised a large army of their own and tried to impose their religious settlement on [[Episcopal|Episcopalians]] and [[Roman Catholics]] in the north of the country.
===Civil War in England and Scotland===
As the civil wars developed, the English [[Parliamentarians]] appealed to the Scots Covenanters for military aid against the King. The Scots agreed in return for substantial religious and political concessions. Scottish troops played a major part in the defeat of Charles I, notably at the [[battle of Marston Moor]]. An army under the Earl of Leven occupied the North of England for some time. However, not all Scots supported the Covenanter's taking arms against their King. In [[1645]], [[James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose]] attempted to raise the Highlands for the King. In truth, few Scots would follow him, but, aided by 1,000 Irish, Highland and Islesmen troops sent by the [[Confederate Ireland|Irish Confederates]] under [[Alasdair MacColla]], and an instinctive genius for mobile warfare, he was stunningly successful. A [[Scottish Civil War]] began in September 1644 with his victory at [[battle of Tippermuir]]. After a series of victories over poorly trained Covenanter militias, the lowlands were at his mercy. However, at this high point, his army melted away as MacColla and the Irish and Highland men fell out with Montrose, who shortly after was defeated at the [[battle of Philiphaugh]]. In July 1646, his army was disbanded on the King's orders as Charles tried to find an accommodation with moderate Scots Presbyterians. In this secret 'engagement', the Scots promised military aid in return for Charles promising Presbyterianism. When the English parliamentarians refuse to release the King, the [[Duke of Hamilton]] then led an invasion of England, but it came too late to save the King, and was defeated by [[Oliver Cromwell]] in August 1647.
===Cromwellian Occupation and Restoration===
[[Image:Cromwell at Dunbar Andrew Carrick Gow.jpg|thumb|275px|right|"Cromwell at Dunbar", Andrew Carrick Gow. The battle of Dunbar was a crushing defeat for the Scottish Covenanters]]
The Covenanters objected to the English Parliament's arrest and execution of Charles I in [[1649]]. The Stuarts after all were of Scottish descent and more importantly, had promised to take the Covenant themselves in return for an alliance against the English Parliament. After Charles' execution in [[1649]], his eldest son was proclaimed King [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] in Edinburgh. [[Oliver Cromwell]] then invaded Scotland in 1650, and defeated the Scottish army in a series of battles at [[battle of Dunbar (1650)|Dunbar]] and [[battle of Worcester|Worcester]]. Scotland was then occupied by an English force under [[George Monck]] throughout the [[Interregnum (England)|Interregnum]] and indeed annexed by the Puritan-governed [[Commonwealth of England|Commonwealth]].
From [[1652]] to [[1659]], Scotland was part of Cromwell's Commonwealth, under English control but gaining equal trading rights. Upon its collapse, and with the restoration of Charles II, nominal Scottish independence returned. Scotland regained its parliament, but the English [[Navigation Acts]] prevented the Scots engaging in what would have been lucrative trading with England's growing colonies. The formal frontier between the two countries was re-established, with customs duties which, while they protected Scottish cloth industries from cheap English imports, also denied access to English markets for Scottish cattle or Scottish linens. (Braudel 1984 p 370).
Charles largely ignored Scotland for the next two decades, concentrating on extending his power in England, though his brother James as Duke of York instituted the ''Commission for Pacifying the Highlands'' which worked in co-operation with the [[Scottish clan|clan]] chiefs and built up goodwill. Charles did, however, continue his father's policy of re-introducing [[Episcopal|Episcopalian]] government into the Scottish Church. Whilst this was not without some support in Scotland, in [[1679]] it provoked another Presbyterian rebellion in the south. Charles contained the rebellion and brutally suppressed the [[Covenanters]], in what became known as "[[the Killing Time]]". When he died in [[1685]] and his brother, a Roman Catholic, succeeded him as [[James II of England|James VII of Scotland (and II of England)]], matters came to a head.
==The Glorious Revolution==
James's attempt to introduce [[religious toleration]] to England's Roman Catholics alienated his Protestant subjects. Neither this, nor his moves towards absolutism, provoked outright rebellion, as it was believed that he would be succeeded by his daughter Mary, a Protestant and future wife of [[William III of Orange|William of Orange]]. When, in 1688, James produced a male heir, everything changed. At the invitation of seven Englishmen, William landed in England with 40,000 men, and James fled. Whilst this was primarily an English event, the "[[Glorious Revolution]]" had a great impact on Scottish history. Whilst William accepted limits on royal power, under the ''[[Bill of Rights]]'' (a contract between himself and the English parliament, Scotland had an equivalent document in the ''Claim of Rights''. This is an important document in the evolution of the rule of law and the rights of subjects.
Most Scots supported William of Orange, but many (particularly in the Highlands) remained sympathetic James VII. His cause, which became known as [[Jacobitism]], spawned a series of uprisings. An initial Jacobite rising under [[John Graham, 1st Viscount Dundee]] (''[[Bonnie Dundee]]'') defeated William's forces at the [[Battle of Killiecrankie]] in [[1689]], but Dundee was slain in the fighting, and the leaderless army was soon defeated at the [[Battle of Dunkeld]]. The complete defeat of James in Ireland by William at the [[Battle of the Boyne]] ([[1690]]), ended matters for a time. (Ironically, the protestant William had also enjoyed the support of the [[Pope]] and the Catholic [[Habsburg]] monarchy against the aggressive foreign policy of [[Louis XIV of France]].)
The late [[17th century]] was economically difficult for Scotland. The bad harvests of the ''seven ill years'' in the 1690s led to severe famine and depopulation. English protectionism kept Scots traders out of the new colonies, and English foreign policy disrupted trade with France. As a result many Scots emigrated to [[Ulster]] (the [[Ulster-Scots]]). The Parliament of Scotland of [[1695]] enacted a number of remedies for the desperate economic situation, including setting up the [[Bank of Scotland]]. The ''Act for the Settling of Schools'' established a parish-based system of public education throughout Scotland. The [[Company of Scotland]] received a charter to raise capital through public subscription to trade with Africa and the Indies.
==Scottish overseas colonies==
In attempts to expand the Scots had earlier sent settlers to the English colony of [[New Jersey]] and had established an abortive colony at Stuart's Town in what is now [[South Carolina]]. The Company of Scotland soon became involved with the [[Darién Scheme]], an ambitious plan devised by [[William Paterson (banker)|William Paterson]] to establish a colony on the Isthmus of [[Panama]] in the hope of establishing trade with the [[Far East]] &mdash; the principle that led to the construction of the [[Panama Canal]] much later. The Company of Scotland easily raised subscriptions in London for the scheme. But the English government opposed the idea: involved in the [[War of the Grand Alliance]] from 1689 to 1697 against [[France]], it did not want to offend [[Spain]], which claimed the territory as part of [[New Granada]]. The English investors had perforce to withdraw. Returning to Edinburgh, the Company raised 400,000 pounds in a few weeks. Three small fleets with a total of 3000 men eventually set out for Panama in 1698. The exercise proved a disaster. Poorly equipped; beset by incessant rain; under attack by the Spanish from nearby [[Cartagena, Columbia|Cartagena]]; and refused aid by the English in the [[West Indies]], the colonists abandoned their project in 1700. Only 1000 survived and only one ship managed to return to Scotland. A desperate ship from the colony which called at [[Kingston, Jamaica|Port Royal]] received no assistance&mdash;on the orders of the English government. Realising the dangers of the conflicting claims and aims of two independent kingdoms at odds with one another, [[William III of England|William of Orange]] called for a union of the two countries. It did not happen. Union, when it did come in 1707, restored free trade between the countries and gave the Scots access to the burgeoning English Empire.
==Union, the Hanoverians and the Jacobites==
[[Image:Bonnie prince charlie.JPG|framed|right|"The Young Pretender" [[Charles Edward Stuart|''Bonnie Prince Charlie'']] began his campaign on Scotland's west coast. His hopes to gain the Scottish and English thrones died at the [[Battle of Culloden]].]]
By [[1700]], the Protestant monarchy seemed in danger of coming to an end with the childless Stuart [[Anne I of Great Britain|Queen Anne]]. Rather than return to her Roman Catholic brother [[James Francis Edward Stuart]], the English Parliament enacted that [[Sophia of Hanover]] and her descendants should succeed ([[Act of Settlement 1701]]) |
in the world.
* The scope of this action is nothing less than humanity (2:5ff.), especially within the [[Roman Empire]]. It was commanded that [[Messiah]]'s witnesses should go, through divine power, to all the world to spread the Gospel (see [[The Book of Matthew|Matt]] 28:19&ndash;20). The book of Acts was written partially to show how this was accomplished in the early years of the church.
* Finally, as we gather from the parallel account in Luke 24:46&ndash;48, the book was designed to show the divinely appointed method for victory through suffering (Acts 14:22).
This explains the large space devoted to the tribulations of the witnesses, and their constancy in them, after the type of their Lord Himself. It is emphasized in absence of earthly prosperity, which the pagan mind was apt to see as the token of Divine approval.
These, then, seem to be the author's main points: the Gospel is universal; Divine initiative led men of [[Jew|Jewish]] birth to gradually recognize the divine will in the tearing down of national boundaries; and that although difficulty will befall those who attempt to spread the gospel, they shall overcome through the power of the Holy Spirit.
This view has the merit of giving the book a practical religious aim. Though meant for men of pagan birth, it is be as inquirers or even converts, such as "[[Theophilus (Biblical)|Theophilus]]," that the argument (that in spite of all difficulties, this religion is worthy of personal belief) is addressed. Among the reasons why such an appeal was needed were doubtlessly the existence of persecution by the Roman authorities, often at the instigation of local [[Judaism]]. The author holds up the picture of early days, when the great protagonist of the Gospel constantly enjoyed protection at the hands of Roman justice, as a sort of banner of hope. It is implied that the present distress is but a passing phase, resting on some misunderstanding; meantime, the example of apostolic constancy should yield strong reassurance.
== Authorship ==
There is substantial evidence to indicate that the author of [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] also wrote the Book of Acts. The most direct evidence comes from the prefaces of each book. Both prefaces are addressed to [[Theophilus (Biblical)|Theophilus]], the author's patron (and perhaps a label for a Christian community as a whole as it can be read "Beloved by God"), and the preface of Acts explicitly references "my former book" about the life of Jesus.
Furthermore, there are linguistic and theological similarities between the two works, suggesting that they have a common author. With the agreement of nearly all scholars, Udo Schnelle writes, "the extensive linguistic and theological agreements and cross-references between the Gospel of Luke and the Acts indicate that both works derive from the same author" (''The History and Theology of the New Testament Writings'', p. 259).
The external evidence, such as it is, is in favor of authorship by [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]], a companion of Paul ([[Epistle to Philemon|Phlm]] 24) who was a physician ([[Epistle to the Colossians|Col]] 4:14). The oldest manuscript with the start of the gospel, Papyrus Bodmer XIV (around 200), is titled the ''euangelion kata Loukan'', the Gospel according to Luke. [[Irenaeus]] (''Haer.'' 3.1.1, 3.14.1), [[Tertullian]] (''Marc.'' 4.2.2), [[Clement of Alexandria]] (''Paed.'' 2.1.15 and ''Strom.'' 5.12.82), [[Origen]], and the [[Muratorian Canon]] also ascribe the third Gospel to one called Luke. Neither [[Eusebius of Caesarea]] nor any other ancient writer mentions another tradition about authorship.
Some also consider the internal evidence to favor authorship by Luke. The thesis that the vocabulary of Luke-Acts is special to a physician met with a rebuttal by H. J. Cadbury in his dissertation ''The Style and Literary Method of Luke'', which argued that the vocabulary is found in nonmedical works; the saying goes that Cadbury earned his doctorate by depriving Luke of his. Some state that the prominence given to [[Antioch]] in Acts coheres with the tradition of Luke's birth in Antioch. <!-- source for this tradition of birth in Antioch? (beats me)--> It is also argued that the minute character of the narrative and accuracy of the journeyings suggest an eyewitness source. Chief among the features of Luke-Acts that have been thought to support the idea that the author knew Paul are the "we passages" found in 16:10&ndash;17, 20:5&ndash;15, 21:1&ndash;18, and 27:1&ndash;28:16. Some note that the "we" narration drops off at [[Philippi]] and then picks up in the second passage with "We sailed from Philippi," and conclude from this dovetailing of incidents that the author of Acts was among those left behind at Philippi who joined up with Paul to sail from there later. Other views of the "we passages" include that a first person travel diary was incorporated into Acts, that the first person narration is generic style for sea voyages (according to V. K. Robbins), and that the author was making a false affectation to being a companion of Paul.
Others consider the internal evidence to be against authorship by Luke. Critics of authorship by Luke mention divergence in theology between Luke-Acts and the letters of Paul, to whom Luke was companion. They also state that there are disagreements between the narrative of Acts and the letters of Paul, such as [[Epistle to Galatians|Galatians]], in describing the period from his conversion to his visit with the apostles in Jerusalem. Some say that the absence of mention of Paul's letters in Acts speaks to non-Lukan authorship, while others attribute this to Paul's letters being published together after Acts was written.
== Sources ==
[[Image:Codex laudianus.jpg|thumb|right|Acts 15.22&ndash;24 from the seventh-century ''Codex laudianus'' in the [[Bodleian Library]], written in parallel columns of [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]].]]
So far from the recognition of a plan in Acts being inimical to a quest after the materials used in its composition, some scholars say that it points the way thereto, while it keeps the literary analysis within scientific limits. These scholars claim that the standpoint of the mind pervading the book as a whole causes them to feel that the speeches in the first part of Acts (e.g., that of [[Saint Stephen|Stephen]])&mdash;and indeed elsewhere, too&mdash;are not "free compositions" of the author, the mere outcome of dramatic idealization such as ancient historians like [[Thucydides]] or [[Polybius]] allowed themselves. The [[Christology]], for instance, of the early Petrine speeches is considered by them to be such as a Gentile Christian writing circa 80 simply could not have imagined. Thus they are forced to assume the use of a certain amount of early Judaeo-Christian material, in the manner in which he supposedly used the [[Gospel of Mark]] and the [[Q document|Q source]] in compiling his own Gospel.
C.C. Torrey expressed these suspicions in his thesis (''The Composition and the Dates of Acts'', 1916) that an [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] source underlay the text of Acts 1&ndash;15, arguing from (1) the preoccupation of this section on the church at [[Jerusalem]], and on the church's Judaic background, and (2) a [[Semitic]] coloring of the language, which he argued was "distinctly translation-[[Greek language|Greek]]" with a number of peculiarities in the language that he claimed were "Semiticisms". While the recovery of the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] has provided us with an irrefutable sample of the language of [[Judea]] in the 1st century AD, severely undermining Torrey's linguistic arguments, study of the content has led to a consensus that the author drew from a set of sources associated with Peter that originated in Jerusalem, and a set of sources associated with Paul that, at least in part, originated in [[Antioch]].
In the second half which focuses almost exclusively on Paul's activities, we are confronted by the so-called "we" passages. Their explanation has led to several theories: (1) they are traces of an earlier document&mdash;whether entries in a travel diary or a more or less consecutive narrative written later; (2) the use of "we" was due to the author's lapsing unconsciously into the first person plural at certain points where he felt specially identified with the history; or (3) this use of "we" was a feature of an ancient convention when talking about sea travel (a thesis proposed by V.K. Robbins in 1975 and embraced by such scholars as [[Helmut Koester]]). The first hypothesis raises the issue whether the "we" document does or does not lie behind more of the narrative than is definitely indicated by the formula in question (e.g., 13&ndash;15, 21:19&ndash;16). The second likewise leads to the question whether the presence or absence of "we" may be due to the writer's absorption in his narrative causes, rather than to the writer's mere presence or absence. However, this alternation from third person to first person plural may be due to emphasis, as [[Martin Hengel]] explains:
:"We" therefore appears in travel accounts because Luke simple wanted to indicate that he was there. However, his personal experiences are uninteresting. Paul remains the sole focal point.
:(''Acts and the History of Earliest Christianity'' Philadelphia: Fortress, 1983)
Robbins's suggestion has been treated with a certain amount of skepticism based on the examples he has produced for this genre; his examples are drawn from [[Ancient Egypt|ancient Egyptian]] and [[Mesopotamia|Mesopotamian]] literature, and even his Greek examples are fraught with problems that include the fact many of the examples come from narratives told in the first person. [[Joseph Fitzmyer|Jose |
e frame is tagged, and the true EtherType/Length is located after the tag. The TPID is followed by two bytes containing the Tag Control Information (TCI) (the IEEE 802.1p priority ([[quality of service]]) and [[Virtual LAN|VLAN]] id). The tag is followed by the rest of the frame, using one of the types described above.
== Varieties of Ethernet ==
Other than the framing types mentioned above, most of the other differences between Ethernet varieties have all been variations on speed and wiring. Therefore, in general, [[protocol stack|network protocol stack]] [[software]] will work identically on most of the following types.
The following sections provide a brief summary of all the official Ethernet media types. In addition to these official standards, many vendors have implemented proprietary media types for various reasons&mdash;often to support longer distances over [[fiber optic]] cabling.
Many Ethernet cards and switch ports support multiple speeds, using auto-negotiation to set the speed and duplex for the best values supported by both connected devices. If auto-negotiation fails, a multiple speed device will sense the speed used by its partner, but will assume half-duplex. A 10/100 Ethernet port supports [[10BASE-T]] and [[100BASE-TX]]. A 10/100/1000 Ethernet port supports 10BASE-T, 100BASE-TX, and 1000BASE-T.
===Some early varieties of Ethernet===
* [[Xerox Ethernet]] -- the original, 3-Mbit/s Ethernet implementation, which in turn had two versions, Version 1 and Version 2, during its development. The version 2 framing format is still in common use.
* [[10BROAD36]] -- Obsolete. An early standard supporting Ethernet over longer distances. It utilized broadband modulation techniques similar to those employed in [[cable modem]] systems, and operated over coaxial cable.
* 1BASE5 -- Also known as [[StarLAN]], was the first implementation of Ethernet on [[twisted pair]] wiring. It operated at 1 Mbit/s and was a commercial failure.
===10 Mbit/s Ethernet===
* [[10BASE5]] (also called Thicknet, Thickwire or Yellow Cable) -- This is the original 10 Mbit/s implementation of Ethernet. The early IEEE standard uses a single 50-ohm [[coaxial cable]] of a type designated RG-8, of maximum length 500 [[metre]]s. Transceivers could be connected by a so-called "[[vampire tap]]", which was attached by drilling into the cable to connect to the core and screen, or using [[N connector]]s at the end of a cable segment. An [[AUI]] cable then connected the transceiver to the Ethernet device. Largely obsolete, though due to its widespread deployment in the early days, some systems may still be in use. It requires precise termination at each end of the cable.
* [[10BASE2]] (also called Thinnet, Thinwire or Cheapernet) -- 50 ohm RG-58 coaxial cable, of maximum length 200 [[metre]]s, connects machines together, each machine using a T-adaptor to connect to its [[NIC]], which has a [[BNC connector|BNC]] connector. Requires termination at each end. For many years this was the dominant 10 Mbit/s Ethernet standard.
* [[StarLAN]] 10 -- First implementation of Ethernet on [[twisted pair]] wiring at 10 Mbit/s. Later evolved into 10BASE-T.
* [[10BASE-T]] -- Runs over 4 wires (two [[twisted pair]]s) on a [[Category 3 cable|Cat-3]] or [[Category 5 cable|Cat-5]] cable up to 100 metres in length. A [[Ethernet hub|hub]] or [[Ethernet switch|switch]] sits in the middle and has a port for each node.
* FOIRL -- Fiber-optic inter-repeater link. The original standard for Ethernet over fiber.
* 10BASE-F (also called 10BASE-FX) -- A generic term for the family of 10 Mbit/s Ethernet standards using fiber optic cable: 10BASE-FL, 10BASE-FB and 10BASE-FP. Of these only 10BASE-FL is in widespread use.
** [[10BASE-FL]] -- An updated version of the FOIRL standard.
** [[10BASE-FB]] -- Intended for backbones connecting a number of hubs or switches, it is now obsolete.
** [[10BASE-FP]] -- A passive star network that required no repeater, it was never implemented
===Fast Ethernet (100 Mbit/s) ===
* [[100BASE-T]] -- A term for any of the three standards for 100 Mbit/s Ethernet over twisted pair cable up to 100 meters long. Includes 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-T4 and 100BASE-T2.
** [[100BASE-TX]] -- Similar star-shaped configuration to 10BASE-T. It also uses two pairs, but requires Cat-5 cable to achieve 100Mbit/s.
** [[100BASE-T4]] -- 100 Mbit/s Ethernet over Cat-3 cabling (as used for 10BASE-T installations). Uses all four pairs in the cable. Now obsolete, as Cat-5 cabling is the norm. Limited to half-duplex.
** [[100BASE-T2]] -- No products exist. 100 Mbit/s Ethernet over Cat-3 cabling. Supports full-duplex, and uses only two pairs. It is functionally equivalent to 100BASE-TX, but supports old telephone cable (cat-3).
* [[100BASE-FX]] -- 100 Mbit/s Ethernet over multimode fibre. Maximum length is 400 meters for half-duplex connections (to ensure collisions are detected) or 2 kilometers for full-duplex.
* [[100BASE-SX]] -- 100 Mbit/s Ethernet over multimode fibre. Maximum length is 300 meters. Unlike 100BASE-FX using lasers as light sources, 100BASE-SX uses [[LED]]s, so it is cheaper.
* [[100BaseVG|100Base-VG]] -- Not Ethernet. Standardized by a different IEEE 802 subgroup, 802.12, because it used a different, more centralized form of media access ("Demand Priority"). Championed by only HP, 100VG-AnyLAN (as was the marketing name) was the earliest in the market. It needed four pairs of Cat-3 cables. As of 2005, obsolete (802.12 has been "inactive" since 1997).
===Gigabit Ethernet===
* [[1000BASE-T]] -- 1 Gbit/s over [[Category 5 cable|Cat-5e]] or [[Category 6 cable|Cat-6]] copper cabling. Limited length.
* [[1000BASE-TX]] -- 1 Gbit/s over only [[Category 6 cable|Cat-6]] copper cabling.
* [[1000BASE-SX]] -- 1 Gbit/s over multi-mode fiber (up to 550 m).
* [[1000BASE-LX]] -- 1 Gbit/s over multi-mode fiber (up to 550 m). Optimized for longer distances (up to 10 km) over single-mode fiber.
* [[1000BASE-LH]] -- 1 Gbit/s over single-mode fiber (up to 100 km). A long-haul solution.
* [[1000BASE-CX]] -- A short-haul solution (up to 25 m) for running 1 Gbit/s Ethernet over special copper cable. Predates 1000BASE-T, and now obsolete.
* [[1000BASE-PX10-D]] -- 1Gbit/s over single-mode fiber using point-to-multipoint topology (supports at least 10 km). This PMD specifies downstream direction only (from head-end to tail-ends). Standardized in IEEE Std. 802.3ah in 2004.
* [[1000BASE-PX10-U]] -- 1Gbit/s over single-mode fiber using point-to-multipoint topology (supports at least 10 km). This PMD specifies upstream direction only (from a tail-end to the head-end). Standardized in IEEE Std. 802.3ah in 2004.
* [[1000BASE-PX20-D]] -- 1Gbit/s over single-mode fiber using point-to-multipoint topology (supports at least 20 km). This PMD specifies downstream direction only (from head-end to tail-ends). Standardized in IEEE Std. 802.3ah in 2004.
* [[1000BASE-PX20-U]] -- 1Gbit/s over single-mode fiber using point-to-multipoint topology (supports at least 20 km). This PMD specifies upstream direction only (from a tail-end to the head-end). Standardized in IEEE Std. 802.3ah in 2004.
===10 Gigabit Ethernet===
The new 10 gigabit Ethernet standard encompasses seven different media types for [[Local area network|LAN]], [[Metropolitan area network|MAN]] and [[Wide area network|WAN]]. It was originally specified by a supplementary standard, [[IEEE 802.3ae]] and is now part of the IEEE 802.3-2005 standard.
* [[10GBASE-CX4]] - designed to support short distances over copper cabling, it uses [[InfiniBand]] 4x connectors and CX4 cabling and allows a cable length of up to 15 m.
* [[10GBASE-SR]] -- designed to support short distances over deployed multi-mode fiber cabling, it has a range of between 26 m and 82 m depending on cable type. It also supports 300 m operation over a new 2000 MHz.km multi-mode fiber.
* [[10GBASE-LX4]] -- uses [[wavelength division multiplexing]] to support ranges of between 240 m and 300 m over deployed multi-mode cabling. Also supports 10 km over single-mode fiber.
* [[10GBASE-LR]] and [[10GBASE-ER]] -- these standards support 10 km and 40 km respectively over single-mode fiber.
* [[10GBASE-SW]], [[10GBASE-LW]] and [[10GBASE-EW]]. These varieties use the WAN PHY, designed to interoperate with OC-192 / STM-64 [[SONET]]/[[SDH]] equipment. They correspond at the physical layer to 10GBASE-SR, 10GBASE-LR and 10GBASE-ER respectively, and hence use the same types of fiber and support the same distances. (There is no WAN PHY standard corresponding to 10GBASE-LX4.)
* [[10GBASE-T]] -- Uses unshielded twisted-pair wiring. 10GBASE-T should be ready by August 2006.
10 gigabit Ethernet is very new, and it remains to be seen which of the standards will gain commercial acceptance.
==Related standards==
*Networking standards that are not part of the IEEE 802.3 Ethernet standard, but support the Ethernet frame format, and are capable of interoperating with it.
** [[LattisNet]] &mdash; A [[SynOptics]] pre-standard twisted-pair 10 Mbit/s variant.
** [[100BaseVG]] &mdash; An early contender for 100 Mbit/s Ethernet. It runs over Category 3 cabling. Uses four pairs. Commercial failure.
** TIA [[100BASE-SX]] &mdash; Promoted by the [[Telecommunications Industry Association]]. 100BASE-SX is an alternative implementation of 100 Mbit/s Ethernet over fiber; it is incompatible with the official 100BASE-FX standard. Its main feature is interoperability with 10BASE-FL, supporting autonegotiation between 10 Mbit/s and 100 Mbit/s operation -- a feature lacking in the official standards due to the use of differing LED wavelengths. It is targeted at the installed base of 10 Mbit/s fiber network installations.
** TIA [[1000BASE-TX]] &mdash; Promoted by the [[Telecommunications Industry Association]], it was a commercial failure, and no products exist. 1000BASE-TX uses a simpler protocol than the official 1000BASE-T stand |
0.1403 x^3 - 1.3359 x^2 + 3.2467 x - 1.3623, & \mbox{if } x \in [2,3], \\
0.1579 x^3 - 1.4945 x^2 + 3.7225 x - 1.8381, & \mbox{if } x \in [3,4], \\
0.05375 x^3 -0.2450 x^2 - 1.2756 x + 4.8259, & \mbox{if } x \in [4,5], \\
-0.1871 x^3 + 3.3673 x^2 - 19.3370 x + 34.9282, & \mbox{if } x \in [5,6]. \\
\end{matrix} \right. </math>
Like polynomial interpolation, spline interpolation incurs a smaller error than linear interpolation and the interpolant is smoother. However, the interpolant is easier to evaluate than the high-degree polynomials used in polynomial interpolation. It also does not suffer from Runge's phenomenon.
==Other forms of interpolation==
Other forms of interpolation can be constructed by picking a different class of interpolants. For instance, [[rational interpolation]] is '''interpolation''' by [[rational function]]s, and [[trigonometric interpolation]] is interpolation by [[trigonometric polynomial]]s. The [[discrete Fourier transform]] is a special case of trigonometric interpolation. Another possibility is to use [[wavelet]]s.
The [[Nyquist-Shannon interpolation formula]] can be used if the number of data points is infinite.
[[Multivariate interpolation]] is the interpolation of functions of more than one variable. Methods include [[bilinear interpolation]] and [[bicubic interpolation]] in two dimensions, and [[trilinear interpolation]] in three dimensions.
Sometimes, we know not only the value of the function that we want to interpolate, at some points, but also its derivative. This leads to [[Hermite interpolation]] problems.
==Related concepts==
The term ''[[extrapolation]]'' is used if we want to find the value of ''f'' at a point ''x'' which is outside of the points ''x''<sub>''k''</sub> at which ''f'' is given.
In [[curve fitting]] problems, the constraint that the interpolant has to go exactly through the data points is relaxed. We only require that it approaches the data points as closely as possible. This requires parameterizing the potential interpolants and having some way of measuring the error. In the simplest case this leads to [[least squares]] approximation.
[[Approximation theory]] studies how to find the best approximation to a given function by another function from some predetermined class, and how good this approximation is. This clearly yields a bound on how well the interpolant can approximate the unknown function.
==References==
* David Kidner, Mark Dorey and Derek Smith (1999). ''[http://www.geovista.psu.edu/sites/geocomp99/Gc99/082/gc_082.htm What's the point? Interpolation and extrapolation with a regular grid DEM].'' IV International Conference on GeoComputation, Fredericksburg, VA, USA.
* David Kincaid and Ward Cheney (2002). ''Numerical Analysis'' (3rd ed.), Chapter 6. Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0-534-38905-8.
* Michelle Schatzman (2002). ''Numerical Analysis: A Mathematical Introduction,'' Chapters 4 and 6. Clarendon Press, Oxford. ISBN 0-19-850279-6.
==External links==
* [http://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/image-interpolation.htm Digital Image Interpolation ]: Fundamental understanding for digital images
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<page>
<title>Intension</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Intension''' (or "[[connotation]]") refers to the [[meaning]] or [[characteristic]]s encompassed by a given word, often expressed by a [[definition]].
Intension is often discussed with regard to [[extension]]. Intension refers to the set of all ''possible'' things which a word could describe. By contrast, extension (or ''[[denotation]]'') refers to the set of all ''actual'' things which the word actually describes. For example, the intension of 'car' is all possible cars (including mile-high cars made of chocolate). But the extension of 'car' is all actual cars (past, present and future), which will amount to millions or billions of cars, but probably doesn't include any mile-high cars made of chocolate.
Intension is an essential part of meaning. The meaning of a word (for example) is ''the bond between the idea or thing the word is intended to describe'' and ''the word itself''. This is what Swiss linguist [[Ferdinand de Saussure]] described with his concept of the [[signified]] or mentally-evoked aspect of the sign (as contrasted with the signifier, the actual, physical object of the sign itself). Intension is analogous to the signified concepts, extension to actual thing or things being referred to. The intension provides the directions by which objects (the extension) and ideas are identified. Without some understanding of the intension, words could have no meaning.
''Intension'' and ''intensionality'' (the state of having intension) should not be confused with ''intention'' and ''intentionality'', which are pronounced the same and occasionally arise in the same philosophical context. Where this happens, the letter 's' or 't' is sometimes italicized to emphasize the distinction.
==See also==
* [[Comprehension (logic)|Comprehension]]
* [[Intensional definition]]
[[Category:Logic]]
[[Category:Semantics]]
[[Category:Philosophical terminology]]
[[fr:Intension]]
[[zh:内涵]]</text>
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<title>Isaac Asimov</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
[[Image:isaac asimov.jpg|thumb|right|Isaac Asimov, photographed by [[Jay Kay Klein]]]]'''Dr. Isaac Asimov''' (c. [[January 2]], [[1920]] &ndash; [[April 6]], [[1992]], [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA| /&#712;a&#618;zək &#712;æz&#618;m&#716;&#596;f/}}, originally Исаак Озимов but now transcribed into [[Russian language|Russian]] as Айзек Азимов) was a [[Russia]]n-born [[United States|American]] [[Jewish]] [[author]] and [[biochemistry|biochemist]], a highly successful and exceptionally prolific writer best known for his works of [[science fiction]] and for his [[popular science]] books. Asimov's most famous work is the [[The Foundation Series|Foundation Series]], which was part of one of his two major series, the [[Isaac Asimov's Galactic Empire Series|Galactic Empire Series]], later merged with his other famous story arc, the [[Isaac Asimov's Robot Series|Robot series]]. He also wrote [[mystery fiction|mysteries]] and fantasy, as well as a great amount of non-fiction. Asimov wrote or edited more than 500 volumes and an estimated 90,000 letters or [[postcard]]s, and he has works in every major category of the [[Dewey Decimal System]] except [[Philosophy]]. Asimov was by consensus a master of the science-fiction genre and, along with [[Robert A. Heinlein]] and [[Arthur C. Clarke]], was considered to be one of the "Big Three" science-fiction writers during his lifetime.
Most of Asimov's popularized science books explain scientific concepts in a historical way, going back as far as possible to a time when the science in question was at its simplest stage. He often gives nationalities, birth dates and death dates for the scientists he mentions, as well as [[etymology|etymologies]] and pronunciation guides for technical terms. Examples of this style include his ''Guide to Science,'' the three-volume set ''Understanding Physics,'' and ''Asimov's Chronology of Science and Discovery.''
Asimov was a long-time member of [[Mensa International|Mensa]], albeit reluctantly; he described them as "intellectually combative". He took more joy in being president of the [[American Humanist Association]]. The [[asteroid]] [[5020 Asimov]], the magazine ''[[Asimov's Science Fiction]]'' and two different [[Isaac Asimov Award]]s are all named in his honor.
==Biography==
Asimov was born around [[January 2]], [[1920]] (his date of birth for official purposes&mdash;the precise date is not certain) in [[Petrovichi]] ''[[shtetl]]'' of [[Smolensk Oblast]], [[RSFSR]] (now [[Russia]]) to Anna Rachel Berman Asimov and Judah Asimov, a [[Jew]]ish family of [[miller]]s. They emigrated to the [[United States]] when he was three years old; since the parents always spoke [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] and [[English language|English]] with their son, he never learned [[Russian language|Russian]]. Growing up in [[Brooklyn, New York|Brooklyn]], [[New York]], he taught himself to read at the age of five, and remained fluent in Yiddish as well as English. His parents owned a small general store and everyone in the family was expected to work in it. He saw science fiction magazines in the store and began reading them. Around the age of eleven, he began to write his own stories and few years later he was selling them to [[pulp magazine]]s.
[[Image:Isaac.Asimov02.jpg|frame|right|Isaac Asimov in 1965]]
He graduated from [[Columbia University]] in 1939 and |
non-communist governments that recognized Soviet control of the former Tsarist Empire and offered [[non-aggression treaty| assurances of non-aggression]]. Germany's betrayal of its non-aggression promise convinced Stalin that he could no longer rely on non-communist governments.
After the war, Stalin sought to secure the Soviet Union's western border by installing Communist-dominated regimes under Soviet influence in bordering countries of [[Poland]], [[Romania]], [[Hungary]], and [[Bulgaria]]. Some historians see this as an aggressive effort to spread Communism to a dozen new countries. Others see it as a realization of age-old Russian dreams of controlling all Slavic lands. Some have suggested this decision was a response to a 150-year history of repeated assaults on Russia, including [[World War I]], [[World War II]] and [[Napoleon]]'s [[Napoleon's invasion of Russia|1812 invasion]]. No one has come up with a satisfactory explanation of why Stalin was willing to turn the United States into a determined foe. Stalin considered it essential to destroy Germany's capacity for another war, which conflicted with the U.S. desire to rebuild Germany as the economic center of a stable Europe. Thus, much of the heavy industry was uprooted to the USSR. The West viewed these developments as violations of those nations' basic rights and a clear disregard of the Yalta agreement. [[Winston Churchill]] accused Stalin of cordoning off a new Russian empire with an "[[Iron Curtain]]." The dispute over Germany escalated after Truman refused to give the Soviet Union [[reparation]]s from West Germany's industrial plants because he believed it would hamper Germany's economic recovery further. Stalin responded by splitting off the [[East Germany|Soviet sector of Germany]] as a communist state.
There were signs of caution on Stalin's part. The Soviet Union eventually withdrew from Northern [[Iran]], at Anglo-American behest; Stalin did observe his 1944 agreement with Churchill and did not aid the communists in the struggle against a weak government in Greece that was supported by the UK; in Finland he demanded a neutralized but non-communist government; and Russian troops were withdrawn from [[Czechoslovakia]] by the end of 1945. However, a communist coup in 1948 made Czechoslovakia an effective Soviet satellite.
== Containment ==
=== The Truman Doctrine ===
''Main article: [[Truman Doctrine]]''
The immediate post-1945 period may have been the historical high point for the popularity of communist ideology. The burdens the Red Army and USSR endured had earned it massive respect which, had it been fully exploited by Stalin, had a good chance of resulting in a communist Europe. Communist parties won sizeable shares of the vote in countries such as [[Belgium]], [[France]], [[Italy]], [[Czechoslovakia]], and [[Finland]] and won significant popular support in Asia - in [[Vietnam]], [[India]], and [[Japan]] - and throughout Latin America. In addition, they achieved a significant popularity in such nations as [[China]], [[Greece]], and [[Iran]]. In northern Iran the USSR created the [[Republic of Mahabad]], the second Kurdish independent state. After the red army left Iran, the Republic was conquered by Iranian forces.
The United Kingdom and the United States were concerned that a political victory by communists in any of these countries could lead to a Soviet takeover similar to those in Eastern Europe. While the Soviet Union acquiesced to Anglo-American efforts to impede Soviet access to the Mediterranean (a perennial focus of British foreign policy since the [[Crimean War]] in the 1850s), the Americans increased their anti-communist campaign.
Both East and West regarded [[Greece]] as a nation well within the sphere of influence of the United Kingdom. Stalin had respected his agreement with Churchill to not intervene, but [[Yugoslavia]], under [[Joseph Tito|Tito]], continuously sent arms and supplies during the [[Greek Civil War]] to the partisan forces of the [[Communist Party of Greece]], the ELAS (National Popular Liberation Army). Startlingly, the UK had given aid to the royalist Greek forces, and ELAS leaders, failing to realize that there would be no Soviet aid and foolishly having boycotted the elections, were at a disadvantaged position. However by 1947, the near-bankrupt British government could no longer maintain its massive overseas commitments and was forced to receive aid from such nations as [[New Zealand]]. In addition to granting [[India]] [[Partition of India|independence]] and handing back the [[Palestinian Mandate]] to the [[United Nations]], the British government decided to withdraw from both Greece and nearby Turkey. This would have left the two nations, in particular Greece, vulnerable to a communist takeover.
Notified that British aid to Greece and Turkey would end in less than six weeks, the U.S. government, already hostile towards and suspicious of Soviet intentions, decided that action was necessary. With [[United States Congress|Congress]] solidly in [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] hands and populated by the traditional [[isolationism|isolationists]], Truman adopted an ideological approach. In a meeting with congressional leaders, the argument of "apples in a barrel infected by one rotten one" was used to convince them of the significance in supporting Greece and Turkey. It was to become the [[Domino Theory]], the justification for [[containment]]. On the morning of [[March 12]], [[1947]], Truman appeared before Congress to ask for $400 million of aid to Greece and Turkey. Calling on congressional approval for the United States to "support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures," or in short a policy of containment, Truman articulated a presentation of the ideological struggle that became known as the [[Truman Doctrine]]. Although based on a simplistic analysis of internal strife in Greece and Turkey, it was to be the single dominating influence over U.S. thinking until at least the [[Vietnam War]].
Truman's speech had a tremendous effect. The anti-communist feelings that had just begun to hatch in the U.S. were given a great boost, and a silenced Congress voted overwhelmingly in approval of aid. The United States would not withdraw back to the Western Hemisphere as it had after the First World War. From then on, the U.S. would actively engage any communist threats anywhere in the globe under the ostensible cause of "freedom", "democracy" and "human rights." The U.S. brandished its role as the leader of the "free world." Meanwhile, the Soviet Union brandished its position as the leader of the "progressive" and "anti-imperialist" camp.
In 1947, the [[Marshall Plan]] began and was designed to give billions of dollars to assist the recovery of Europe. The Soviets, however, refused to accept any aid in their satellite states. Consequently, the West gained an economic boom while the Eastern living standards remained low.
=== The Berlin Blockade ===
''Main article: [[Berlin Blockade]]''
Stalin responded by blocking access to [[Berlin]], which was deep within the Soviet zone although subject to four power control. The Soviets cut off all rail and road routes to West Berlin. No trucks or trains were allowed entry into the city during the Berlin Blockade. Truman embarked on a highly visible move that would humiliate the Soviets internationally: flying supplies in over the blockade during 1948-1949. Military confrontation loomed while Truman flew supplies through East Germany into West Berlin during the 1948-1949 blockade. This costly aerial supplying of West Berlin became known as the [[Berlin Airlift]].
=== NATO ===
''Main article: [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]]''
Truman joined eleven other nations in 1949 to form the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] (NATO), America's first "entangling" European alliance in 170 years. Stalin retaliated against these steps by integrating the economies of Eastern Europe in his version of the [[Marshall Plan]], exploding the first Soviet atomic device in 1949, signing an alliance with [[People's Republic of China]] in February 1950, and forming the [[Warsaw Pact]], Eastern Europe's counterpart to [[NATO]].
=== NSC-68 ===
''Main article: [[NSC-68]]''
U.S. officials quickly moved to escalate and expand "containment." In a secret 1950 document, NSC-68, they proposed to strengthen their alliance systems, quadruple defense spending, and embark on an elaborate propaganda campaign to convince the U.S. public to fight this costly cold war. Truman ordered the development of a [[hydrogen bomb]]; and in early 1950 came the first U.S. effort to opposing communist forces in Vietnam, plans to form a West German army, and proposals for a peace treaty with Japan that would guarantee long-term U.S. military bases.
== Communist China ==
Shortly after [[World War II]], an all out war resumed in China between the [[Communist Party of China]] led by [[Mao Zedong]] and the [[Kuomintang|Nationalist Party of China]] (Kuomintang) led by [[Chiang Kai-shek]]. While the [[Soviet Union]] provided limited aid to the Communists, the United States assisted the Nationalists with hundreds of millions of dollars worth of military supplies and generous loans of hundreds of millions of dollars worth of military equipment. However, the demoralized and undisciplined Nationalist troops proved no match for the communist [[People's Liberation Army]], which had gained the support of the peasantry. Although the Nationalists had an advantage in numbers of men and weapons, initially controlled a much larger territory and population than their adversaries, and enjoyed considerable international support, they were exhausted by the [[Second Sino-Japanese War|long war with Japan]] and the attendant internal responsibiliti |
endowed with great linguistic gifts, and his activity was marked by restless pushing forward. His efforts left a significant impression upon the missionary history of India, and by pointing out the way to [[East India]] to the Jesuits, his work is of fundamental significance with regard to the history of the propagation of Christianity in China and Japan.
He himself witnessed many of the results of his labor, but still greater were the tasks he proposed. Since the Roman Catholic Church responded to his call, the effects of his efforts reach far beyond the Jesuit order; the entire systematic and aggressive incorporation of great masses of people on broad lines of policy by the Roman Catholic Church in modern times dates back to Xavier.
==Recognition==
===Beatification===
Francis Xavier is a Catholic [[saint]]. He was beatified by [[Paul V]] on [[October 25]], [[1619]], and was [[canonized]] by [[Gregory XV]] on [[March 12]], [[1622]], at the same time as [[Ignatius Loyola]]. He is the [[patron saint]] of [[Navarre]], [[Australia]], [[Borneo]], [[China]], [[East Indies]], [[Goa]], [[Japan]], [[New Zealand]] and of missionaries. His [[feast day]] is [[December 3]].
===Educational institutions===
Educational institutions named after Francis Xavier include:
* In the [[Philippines]], there is a [[Xavier School]], an elite private institution offering primary and secondary educational services and [[Xavier University - Ateneo de Cagayan]], a comprehensive university in Cagayan de Oro City.
* [[St. Xavier's College, Bombay]], one of the best colleges in [[India]]
* St. Xavier's College, [[Palayamkottai]], in the Tirunelveli city of South [[India]]
* [[St. Francis Xavier University]] in [[Antigonish, Nova Scotia]]. It is traditionally one of the highest rated primarily undergraduate universities in Canada, as defined by MacLean's Magazine in their annual ranking of Canadian universities.
* Three American universities: [[Xavier University (Cincinnati)|Xavier University]] in Cincinnati, [[Xavier University of Louisiana]] in New Orleans, and [[Saint Xavier University]] in Chicago
* [[Xavier College]] in [[Melbourne]], Australia
* [[St. Xavier High School]], located in Cincinnati, Ohio, was founded in 1831
* [[Universidad Javeriana]], located in Bogotá, Colombia.
* Xavier High School located in New York City, New York, United States
* Xavier High School located in Appleton, Wisconsin, United States
===Others===
The Japanese university [[Sophia University]] was initiated in his honour in [[Tokyo]] 1913.
In 1839, [[Theodore James Ryken]] founded the [[Xaverian Brothers]], or Congregation of St. Francis Xavier (CFX). Currently, over 20 [[college]]s or [[high school]]s in the [[United States]] are [[Xaverian Brothers]] Sponsored [[Schools]] (XBSS).
Many churches all over the world have been named in honor of Xavier. One notable church is the [[Basilica of St. Francis Xavier]] in [[Dyersville, Iowa]]. It is one of only 52 minor [[basilica]]s in the [[United States]], and the only one outside a metropolitan area.
The [[Javierada]] is an annual peregrination from Pamplona to Xavier instituted in the 1940s.
Xavier is one of the few English [[List of people by name: X|names starting with X]].
The [[X-Men]] comic book character, [[Professor X|Charles Francis Xavier]] is possibly named after him.
The station [[Saint François Xavier (Paris Metro)|Saint François Xavier]], on Line 13 of the [[Paris Métro]] is named after St
==See also==
*[[Jesuit China missions]]
*[[Catholicism in China]]
*[[List of people on stamps of Ireland]]
==External links and references==
* This article incorporates material from the ''Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religion''
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06233b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia, 1909 on St. Francis Xavier]
* http://www.jesuites.com/xavier/index.html (in French)
* [http://www.goacom.com/culture/religion/sfx/francis.html The feast of St Francis Xavier in Goa]
* [http://www.geocities.com/francischinchoy/sfx/sfxarticle01.html St Francis Xavier and Malacca]
* [http://www.jesuites.com/xavier/images/sancian_maxi.jpg Picture of Shangchuan island. The chapel marks the location of his death]
* [http://www.tsinfo.com.cn/UploadFiles/2005/02/22/022211304125023.jpg Another picture of the church on Shangchuan island]
* Old map of Shangchuan island: [http://www.portsmouthbookshop.com/MapPage/MapPages542xx/54282maca.htm]
* [http://www.apol.net/dightonrock/inquisition_goa.htm Inquisition Goa]
* [http://members.tripod.com/~jcolaco/sfx.html St. Francisco Xavier]
* [http://www.navarra.es/home_es/Redireccion/La+Huella+Universal+de+Francisco+de+Javier.htm La huella universal de Francisco de Javier (Spanish)]
[[Category:1506 births|Francis Xavier]]
[[Category:1552 deaths|Francis Xavier]]
[[Category:Jesuits|Xavier, Francis]]
[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Christianity in Japan]]
[[Category:Foreigners in Japan]]
[[Category:History of Catholicism in Asia]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic missionaries|Xavier, Francis]]
[[Category:Diplomats of the Holy See|Xavier, Francis]]
[[Category:Kanyakumari]]
[[cs:František Xaverský]]
[[da:Francisco Xavier]]
[[de:Francisco de Xavier y Jassu]]
[[es:Francisco Javier]]
[[eo:Francisco XAVIER]]
[[fr:François Xavier]]
[[id:Fransiskus Xaverius]]
[[it:San Francesco Saverio]]
[[he:פרנסיסקו חאווייר]]
[[la:Franciscus Xaverius]]
[[hu:Xavéri Szent Ferenc]]
[[nl:Francisco Xavier]]
[[ja:フランシスコ・ザビエル]]
[[pl:Franciszek Ksawery]]
[[pt:Francisco Xavier]]
[[ru:Франциск Ксаверий]]
[[sk:Francisco de Xavier y Jassu]]
[[sv:Frans Xavier]]
[[zh:方济各·沙勿略]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fossil</title>
<id>10958</id>
<revision>
<id>41525519</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T23:11:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RexNL</username>
<id>241337</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.244.45.65|69.244.45.65]] ([[User talk:69.244.45.65|talk]]) to last version by RexNL</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of the term, see [[Fossil (disambiguation)]]''
[[Image:Igammonite.jpg|thumb|250px|A fossil [[Ammonite]]]]
'''Fossils''' (from [[Latin]] ''fossus'', literally "having been dug up") are the [[mineral]]ized or otherwise preserved remains or traces (such as footprints) of animals, plants, and other organisms. The totality of fossils and their placement in '''fossiliferous''' (fossil-containing) [[Rock (geology)|rock]] formations and sedimentary layers ([[Stratum|strata]]) is known as the [[fossil record]]. The study of fossils is called [[paleontology]]. Because fossils are by their nature old, the word has also entered the modern vernacular as a derogatory term for an elderly person.
[[Image:Knightia.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Fossil fish of the genus ''[[Knightia]]'']]
Fossilization is actually a rare occurrence because natural materials tend to decompose. In order for an organism to be fossilized, the remains normally need to be covered by [[sediment]] as soon as possible. However there are exceptions to this, such as if an organism becomes [[petrifaction|petrified]] or comes to rest in an anoxic environment such as at the bottom of a lake. There are several different types of fossils and fossilization processes.
Fossils usually consist of traces of the remains of the organism itself. However, fossils may also consist of the marks left behind by the organism while it was alive, such as the footprint or feces of a [[dinosaur]] or [[reptile]]. These types of fossil are called [[trace fossil]]s, as opposed to body fossils. Finally, past life leaves some evidences that cannot be seen but can be detected in the form of chemical signals; these are known as ''chemical fossils'' (for lack of a better term).
[[Image:Fossil.JPG|thumb|250px|''[[Tentaculite|Tentaculites]]'' found in a State Park in Albany, New York. The enigmatic organisms that grew these shells are estimated to have lived over 360 million years ago.]]
The oldest known structured fossils are most likely [[stromatolites]]. Now understood to be formed by the entrapment of minerals by mucous-like sheets of [[cyanobacteria]], the oldest of these formations dates from 3.5 billion years ago. Even older deposits (3.8 billion years old) of heavy [[carbon]] that are indicative of even earlier life are currently proposed as the remains of the earliest known life on [[Earth]].
==Permineralization==
[[Image:Trilobite2.jpg|thumb|250px|A permineralized [[trilobite]], ''[[Asaphus kowalewskii]]'']]
[[Image:Charnia wardi.jpg|thumb|right|250px|570-575 million-year old specimen of ''Charnia wardi'' from Newfoundland; the oldest large, architecturally complex fossils known anywhere]]
Permineralization consists of organic remains being to some degree impregnated by minerals derived from the surrounding sediments or waters. For permineralization to occur, the organism must become covered by sediment soon after death or soon after the initial decaying process. The degree to which the remains are decayed when covered determines the later details of the fossil. Some fossils consist only of skeletal remains or teeth; other fossils contain traces of [[skin]], [[feather]]s or even soft tissues. Once covered with sediment, these layers slowly become compacted and cemented into rock, and the organic remains are slowly replaced with hard minerals.
==Replacement and compression fossils==
In some cases the original remains of the organism have been completely dissolved or otherwise destroyed. When all that is left is an organism-shaped hole in the rock, we call this a ''mould fossil'' or typolite. If this hole is later filled with other minerals, it is called a ''cast fossil'' and is considered a replacement fossil since the original materials have been completely replaced by new, unrelated ones. In some cases replacement occurs so gradually and at such fine scales that no "hole" in the rock can ever be discerned |
[[SVCD]]
* [[Jewel case]]
* [[Digipak]]
* [[miniCD]]
* [[Optical disc]]
** [[DVD]]
* [[:Image:Zapped-CD-Art.gif]]
[[Category:CD| ]]
[[Category:120 mm discs]]
[[Category:Audio storage]]
[[Category:Video storage]]
[[Category:Digital audio]]
<!-- interwiki -->
[[als:Compact Disc]]
[[ar:قرص مضغوط]]
[[bs:CD]]
[[ca:Disc Compacte]]
[[cs:CD]]
[[da:Compactdisk]]
[[de:Compact Disc]]
[[es:Disco compacto]]
[[eu:Disko konpaktu]]
[[fa:لوح فشرده]]
[[fr:Disque compact]]
[[fy:Kompakte skiif]]
[[ga:Dlúthdhiosca]]
[[gl:CD (informática)]]
[[ko:컴팩트 디스크]]
[[hr:CD]]
[[it:Compact disc]]
[[he:תקליטור]]
[[lt:Kompaktinė plokštelė]]
[[hu:CD]]
[[ms:Cakera padat]]
[[nl:Compact disc]]
[[ja:コンパクトディスク]]
[[no:CD-plate]]
[[nn:Kompaktplate]]
[[yi:סידי]]
[[pl:Płyta kompaktowa]]
[[pt:CD]]
[[ro:CD]]
[[ru:Компакт-диск]]
[[simple:Compact disc]]
[[sk:Kompaktný disk]]
[[sl:Zgoščenka]]
[[sr:Компакт диск]]
[[fi:CD-levy]]
[[sv:Compact Disc]]
[[th:ซีดี]]
[[tr:CD]]
[[uk:Компакт диск]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Compact Disc</title>
<id>6430</id>
<revision>
<id>15904569</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Compact disc]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Charles Farrar Browne</title>
<id>6431</id>
<revision>
<id>34479334</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-09T09:49:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wiccan Quagga</username>
<id>135584</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Charles Farrar Browne''', ([[April 23]], [[1834]] - [[March 6]], [[1867]]) was a [[United States]] [[humor]]ous writer, best known under his ''nom de plume'' of '''Artemus Ward'''.
[[Image:ArtemusWard.jpg|thumbnail|200px|right|Artemus Ward]]
Browne was born in [[Waterford, Maine]]. He began life as a compositor and occasional contributor to the daily and weekly journals. In 1858 he published in the [[Cleveland Plain Dealer|Cleveland ''Plaindealer'']] the first of the "Artemus Ward" series, which in a collected form achieved great popularity in both America and [[England]]. In 1860 he became editor of ''[[Vanity Fair magazine]]'', a humorous New York weekly, which proved a failure. About the same time he began to appear as a lecturer, and by his droll and eccentric humour attracted large audiences.
"Artemus Ward" was the favorite author of [[President of the United States|US President]] [[Abraham Lincoln]]. Before presenting "[[The Emancipation Proclamation]]" to his Cabinet, Lincoln read to them the latest episode, "Outrage in Utiky", also known as ''High-Handed Outrage at Utica''.
Ward is also said to have inspired [[Mark Twain]], after Ward performed in [[Virginia City]], [[Nevada]]. Legend has it that following Ward's stage performance, Ward, Mark Twain, and [[Dan De Quille]] were taking a drunken rooftop tour of Virginia City, until a town constable threatened to blast all three of them with a [[shotgun]] loaded with [[rock salt]].
In 1866 Ward visited England, where he became exceedingly popular both as a lecturer and as a contributor to ''[[Punch magazine]]''. In the spring of the following year his health gave way and he died of [[tuberculosis]] at
Southampton on [[March 6]], [[1867]].
== Stories ==
* A Visit to Bringham Young
* Women's Rights
* One of Mr's Wards Business Letters
* On "Forts"
* Forth of July Oration
* High-Handed Outrage at Utica
* Artemus Ward and the Prince of Wales
* Interview with Lincoln
* Letters to his Wife
==References==
{{1911}}
== External links ==
* {{gutenberg author| id=Artemus+Ward | name=Charles Farrar Browne}}
{{Wikiquote}}
[[Category:1834 births|Browne, Charles Farrar]]
[[Category:1867 deaths|Browne, Charles Farrar]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Caelum</title>
<id>6432</id>
<revision>
<id>39168825</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T04:21:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GrinBot</username>
<id>411872</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: hu</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Caelum |
abbreviation = Cae |
genitive = Caeli |
symbology = the [[chisel]] |
RA = 5 |
dec= &minus;40 |
areatotal = 125 |
arearank = 81st |
numberstars = 0 |
starname = &alpha; Cae |
starmagnitude = 4.45 |
meteorshowers = None |
bordering =
*[[Columba (constellation)|Columba]]
*[[Lepus (constellation)|Lepus]]
*[[Eridanus (constellation)|Eridanus]]
*[[Horologium]]
*[[Dorado]]
*[[Pictor]] |
latmax = 40 |
latmin = 90 |
month = January |
notes=}}
'''Caelum''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[chisel]]'', and similar to Latin for ''of the [[Sky]]'') is a minor southern [[constellation]] introduced by [[Nicolas Louis de Lacaille]].
==Table of leading stars==
{| border=1 cellpadding=4 align=center style="clear:both;"
|-
! name
! HD number
! right ascension
! declination
! apparent<br>magnitude
! spectral<br>type
! distance<br>(parsecs)
! absolute<br>magnitude
|-
| &alpha; Cae
| HD 29875
| 4h 40m 33.6s
| &minus;41&deg; 51&prime; 50&prime;&prime;
| align=center | 4.45
| align=center | F2 V
| align=center | 20
| align=center | 3.0
|-
| &gamma; Cae
| HD 32831
| 5h 04m 24.3s
| &minus;35&deg; 29&prime; 00&prime;&prime;
| align=center | 4.55
| align=center | K2 III
| align=center | 57
| align=center | 0.2
|-
| &beta; Cae
| HD 29992
| 4h 42m 03.4s
| &minus;37&deg; 08&prime; 40&prime;&prime;
| align=center | 5.05
| align=center | F8 V
| align=center | 28
| align=center | 4.0
|-
| &delta; Cae
| HD 28873
| 4h 30m 50.1s
| &minus;44&deg; 57&prime; 13&prime;&prime;
| align=center | 5.07
| align=center | B3 V
| align=center | 217
| align=center | &minus;1.7
|}
==History==
Since this is a southern constellation, invented in the 17th century, there is no pre 17th-century mythology associated with it.
==Stars==
:Stars with Bayer designations:
:* [[Alpha Caeli|&alpha; Cae]] 4.45; [[Beta Caeli|&beta; Cae]] 5.05; [[Gamma Caeli|&gamma; Cae]] &ndash; double 4.55 & 6.34; [[Delta Caeli|&delta; Cae]] 4.55; [[Zeta Caeli|&zeta; Cae]] 6.35; [[Lambda Caeli|&lambda; Cae]] 6.24; [[Nu Caeli|&nu; Cae]] 6.06
{{ConstellationsByLacaille}}
{{ConstellationList}}
==External links==
{{Commons|Caelum}}
[[Category:Caelum constellation]]
{{astro-stub}}
[[ca:Burí (constel·lació)]]
[[cs:Rydlo (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Mejslen]]
[[de:Grabstichel (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Caelum]]
[[fr:Burin (constellation)]]
[[ko:조각칼자리]]
[[id:Caelum]]
[[it:Caelum]]
[[la:Caelum (sidus)]]
[[lt:Skaptukas (astronomija)]]
[[hu:Véső (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Graveerstift]]
[[ja:ちょうこくぐ座]]
[[nn:Gravstikka]]
[[pl:Rylec (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Caelum]]
[[ru:Резец (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Rydlo]]
[[fi:Veistotaltta]]
[[sv:Gravstickeln]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวสิ่ว]]
[[zh:雕具座]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Clarinet</title>
<id>6433</id>
<revision>
<id>41845856</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T02:55:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rsholmes</username>
<id>116612</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Reduced redundancy; revision of other instruments' overblowing (or not)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bassclarinet.jpg|right|thumb|A [[Bass clarinet|bass clarinet]], which sounds an octave lower than the more common B&#9837; soprano clarinet.]]
The '''clarinet''' is a [[musical instrument]] in the [[woodwind]] family. The name derives from adding the suffix ''-et'' meaning ''little'' to the Italian word ''clarino'' meaning ''[[trumpet]]'', as the first clarinets had a strident tone similar to that of a trumpet. The instrument has an approximately cylindrical bore, and uses a single [[reed (music)|reed]]. (See [[#Characteristics of the instrument|Characteristics of the instrument]].)
Clarinets actually comprise a family of instruments of differing sizes and pitches. It is the largest such instrument family, with more than two dozen types. Of these many are rare or obsolete, and music written for them is usually played on one of the more common size instruments. The unmodified word ''clarinet'' usually refers to the soprano size. (See [[#Extended family of clarinets|Extended family of clarinets]]).
A person who plays the clarinet is called a [[clarinetist]], sometimes spelled "clarinettist".
==Characteristics of the instrument==
===Tone===
The clarinet has a distinctive liquid [[timbre|tone]], resulting from the shape of the bore, whose characteristics vary between its three registers: the chalumeau (low), clarion or clarino (middle), and altissimo (high). It has a very wide compass, which is showcased in chamber, orchestral, and wind band writing. The tone quality varies greatly with the musician, the music, the style of clarinet, the reed, and humidity. The German (Oehler) clarinet generally has a fuller tone quality than the French (Boehm) system. In contrast, the French clarinet typically has a lighter, brighter tone quality. The differences in instruments and geographical isolation of players in different nations led to the development, from the last part of the 18th century on, of several different schools of clarinet playing. The most prominent of these schools were the German/Viennese traditions and the French school, centred around the clarinettists of the ''Conservatoire National Supérieur de Musique de Paris''. Increasingly, through the proliferation of recording technology and the internet, examples of many different styles of clarinet playing are available to developing clarinettists today. This has led to decreased homogeneity of st |
and west. The dividing line between terrain types is usually indicated by the [[Tees-Exe line]]. There is also an area of flat, low-lying marshland in the east, much of which has been drained for agricultural use.
The list of England's largest cities is much debated because in [[British English]] the normal meaning of [[city]] is "a continuously built-up urban area"; these are hard to define and various other definitions are preferred by some people to boost the ranking of their own city. [[London]] is by far the largest English city. [[Manchester]] and [[Birmingham]] vie for second place. A number of other cities, mainly in the north of England, are of substantial size and influence. These include: [[Liverpool]], [[Leeds]], [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]], [[Nottingham]], [[Bristol]] and [[Sheffield]] Using the standard U.S. [[city limits]] definition of a city the [[list of English districts by population|top six]] are: Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield, Bradford, Liverpool and Manchester. Note that London is not on this list ([[Greater London]] is a [[Regions of England|region]] and the [[City of London]] is tiny), and that one of the two candidates for the status of England's "second city", Manchester, is down in sixth. In the UK, this method of ranking cities is generally used only by people whose own city is promoted by it.
The [[Channel Tunnel]], near [[Folkestone]], links England to the [[Europe|European]] [[Continental Europe|mainland]]. The English/[[France|French]] border is halfway along the tunnel.
The largest harbour in England is at [[Poole]], on the south-central coast. Internationally, it is the second largest harbour in the world, although this fact is disputed (See [[harbour]]s for a list of other potential second largest harbours)
The highest temperature ever recorded in England is 38.5 [[degree Celsius|°C]] (101.3 [[Fahrenheit|°F]]) on [[August 10]], [[2003]] in [[Kent]]. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/kent/3153532.stm]. The lowest temperature ever recorded in England is -26.1 [[degree Celsius|°C]] (-15.0 [[Fahrenheit|°F]]) on [[January 10]], [[1982]] near [[Newport, Shropshire|Newport]] in [[Shropshire]]. [http://www.metoffice.com/climate/uk/location/england/#temperature]
===Major rivers===
[[Image:CanalettoSomersetHouseTerrace.jpg|thumb|right|220px|View of the [[River Thames]] from the terrace at Somerset House, by [[Antonio Canaletto]].]]
* [[River Thames|Thames]]
* [[River Severn|Severn]]
* [[River Trent|Trent]]
* [[Humber]]
* [[River Ouse, Yorkshire|Yorkshire Ouse]]
* [[River Tyne, England|Tyne]]
* [[River Mersey|Mersey]]
* [[River Dee, Wales|Dee]]
* [[River Avon|Avon]]
''Main article: [[Waterways in the United Kingdom]]''
===Major conurbations===
{| align=right
| [[Image:Birmingham (UK) skyline - Centenary Square 700.jpg|thumb|220px|The City of Birmingham]]
|-
| [[Image:Liverpool skyline.jpg|thumb|220px|The City of Liverpool]]
|}
:''See main article: [[List of towns in England]]''
The largest cities in England are much debated but according to the urban area populations (continuous built up areas) these would be the 15 largest conurbations. (Population figures taken from 2001 census)
#[[Greater London]] (8,278,251)
#[[West Midlands conurbation|West Midlands]] (2,284,093)
#[[Greater Manchester]] (2,244,931)
#[[Leeds]]/[[Bradford]] (1,499,465)
#[[Tyneside]] (879,996)
#[[Liverpool]] (816,216)
#[[Nottingham]] (666,358)
#[[Sheffield]] (640,720)
#[[Bristol]] (551,066)
#[[Sussex coast|Brighton/Worthing/Littlehampton]] (461,181)
#[[Portsmouth]] (442,252)
#[[Leicester]] (441,213)
#[[South East Dorset conurbation|Bournemouth/Poole]] (383,713)
#[[Reading, Berkshire|Reading]] (369,804)
#[[Teesside]] (365,323)
==Economy==
''Main article: [[Economy of England]]''
==Demographics==
''Main articles: [[Demographics of England]], [[Population of England]]''
England is both the most populous and the most ethnically diverse nation in the United Kingdom with around 49 million inhabitants, of which roughly a tenth are from non-White ethnic groups. It is one of the most densely populated countries in Europe, second only to the [[Netherlands]].
There is a debate over the extent to which the population of England (and indeed that of [[Britain]] as a whole) is composed of long-standing indigenous stock or descended from various groups of settlers and immigrants who have arrived over millennia. The traditional view that the population was largely descended from successive waves of incomers has been increasingly challenged, and DNA evidence of the contemporary connections of [[Cheddar Man]] has been cited as demonstrating that a substantial proportion of the present day population maybe descended from groups that populated the island in [[prehistory]] (''The Times'', [[8 March]] [[1997]]).
The principal waves of migration have been in c. 600 <small>BC</small> ([[Celts]], although these days there is a strong view that the 'Celtic' culture spread to Britain through [[acculturation]] rather than migration), the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] period (garrison soldiers from throughout the Empire), 350&ndash;550 ([[Angles]], [[Saxons]], [[Jutes]] and other West [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] groups), 800&ndash;900 ([[Viking]]s, [[Danes]]), 1066 ([[Normans]]), 1650&ndash;1750 ([[Continental Europe|European]] refugees such as the [[Huguenot]]s), 1840&ndash;1850 ([[Irish people|Irish]]), 1880&ndash;1940 ([[Irish people|Irish]], [[Jew]]s), 1950&mdash; ([[Irish people|Irish]], [[British Afro-Caribbean community|Caribbeans]], [[Africa]]ns, [[South Asia]]ns), 1985&mdash; (citizens of [[European Community]] member states especially [[Ireland]], [[Eastern Europe|East Europeans]], [[Iran]]ians, [[Kurds]], [[refugee]]s). In 2001 the largest foreign-born elements in the British population came from the [[Republic of Ireland]] (495,000), [[India]] (466,000), [[Pakistan]] (321,000), [[Germany]] (262,000), the [[Caribbean]] (255,000) and the [[United States]] (155,000).[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/uk/05/born_abroad/countries/html/overview.stm]
The general prosperity of England as the largest partner of the UK, has also made it a destination for economic migrants from [[Scotland]], [[Wales]] and [[Northern Ireland]]. This segment of English [[homogeneous]] society continues to create a diverse and dynamic language that is widely used internationally. The other image of foreign ethnic components in England is still mostly seen as a legacy of the [[British Empire]]; especially the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].
==English identity==
The simplest view is that an English person is someone who is from England and holds British nationality, regardless of his or her racial origin. It has, however, been a notoriously complicated and controversial identity to delimit [http://www.guardian.co.uk/britain/article/0,2763,1237689,00.html]. This is partially because inhabitants of England quite commonly refer to themselves as "British" rather than "English"; centuries of English dominance within the United Kingdom has created a situation where to be English is, as a [[linguistics|linguist]] would put it, an "unmarked" state (i.e. a British person, institution, custom, city, etc. is often assumed English unless specified otherwise). The English frequently include their neighbours in the general term "British" while the Scots and Welsh, proud of their separate identities, tend to be more forward about referring to themselves by one of those more specific terms. Although currently a part of England, a small, but noticeable, minority of those living in [[Cornwall]] feel similarly, considering themselves ethnically [[Cornish]] first.
English national identity is often taken to have been appropriated by [[far right]] organizations such as the [[British National Party]] or the [[English Democrats Party]]. This radicalizing of identity is often seen to be a problem. The English musician [[Morrissey]] expressed this sentiment in the lyrics of his 2004 single "Irish Blood, English Heart", having been criticised as being [[racist]] when he aligned himself to the English flag in the 1990s: "I've been dreaming of a time when / To be English is not to be baneful / To be standing by the flag / Not feeling shameful / Racist or partial".
With devolution in Scotland and Wales, some English see an 'anglophobia' in British institutions. The English Democrat Party claims that the government's plans for regionalization threaten a coherent English identity [[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,564-1883181,00.html].
Thus, English identity is - for better or worse - closely associated with [[British Nationalism|British]] or [[English nationalism]]. English nationalists claim that the 'original culture' of England is comprised of legacies of [[Brythonic]] tribes of Celts and [[Anglo-Saxons]] appearing in waves of gradual migration. It also seen as being influenced by the Scandinavian legends such as [[Beowulf]] and the [[Norman Conquest]]. The [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicles]] are a common early location for English identity.
Modern English identity is often built around its sports, one field in which the British [[Home Nations]] often compete individually. In particular the English [[Football (soccer)|Association football]] [[English national football team|team]], [[English rugby union team|Rugby Union team]] and [[English cricket team|Cricket team]] often cause increases in the popularity of 'Englishness'.
England is often called the 'non-[[Modern Celts|Celtic]]' part of the UK, but this is increasingly seen as incorrect, many of the "English" have very strong Celtic roots, due to the numerous Celtic tribes and factions still inhabiting what is now lowland England in the 5th century. Historians are now agreeing that these were not displaced or massacred; rather, they remained, often living alongside thei |
was possible. Lincoln perhaps could have allowed the southern states to secede, and some Republicans recommended that. However conservative Democratic nationalists, such as [[Jeremiah S. Black]], [[Joseph Holt]], and [[Edwin M. Stanton]] had taken control of Buchanan's cabinet around January 1, 1861, and refused to accept secession. Lincoln, and nearly all Republican leaders, adopted this nationalistic position by March, 1861: the Union could not be broken.
==War begins: 1861-1862==
{{main|American Civil War}}
After Union troops at [[Battle of Fort Sumter|Fort Sumter]] were fired on and forced to surrender in April, Lincoln called on governors of every state to send 75,000 troops to recapture forts, protect the capital, and "preserve the Union," which in his view still existed intact despite the actions of the seceding states. Virginia, which had repeatedly warned Lincoln it would not allow an invasion of its territory or join an attack on another state, then seceded, along with North Carolina, Tennessee and Arkansas.
The slave states of Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware did not secede, and Lincoln urgently negotiated with state leaders there, promising not to interfere with slavery in loyal states.
==Emancipation Proclamation==
[[Image:Emancipation_proclamation.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Lincoln met with his Cabinet for the first reading of the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] draft on [[July 22]], [[1862]].]]
{{main articles|[[Abraham Lincoln on slavery]] and [[Emancipation Proclamation]]}}
Congress in July 1862 moved to free the slaves by passing the Second Confiscation Act. It provided:
:That if any person shall hereafter incite, set on foot, assist, or engage in any rebellion or insurrection against the authority of the United States, or the laws thereof, or shall give aid or comfort thereto, or shall engage in, or give aid and comfort to, any such existing rebellion or insurrection, and be convicted thereof, such person shall be punished by imprisonment for a period not exceeding ten years, or by a fine not exceeding ten thousand dollars, and by the liberation of all his slaves, if any he have; or by both of said punishments, at the discretion of the court.
:....
:SEC. 9. And be it further enacted, That all slaves of persons who shall hereafter be engaged in rebellion against the government of the United States, or who shall in any way give aid or comfort thereto, escaping from such persons and taking refuge within the lines of the army; and all slaves captured from such persons or deserted by them and coming under the control of the government of the United States; and all slaves of such person found on [or] being within any place occupied by rebel forces and afterwards occupied by the forces of the United States, shall be deemed captives of war, and shall be forever free of their servitude, and not again held as slaves.
Thus everyone who 60 days after [[July 17]], [[1862]] supported the rebellion was to be punished by having all their slaves freed. The goal was to weaken the rebellion, which was led and controlled by slave owners. This did not abolish the legal institution of slavery (the XIII Amendment did that), but it shows Lincoln had the support of (and was even somewhat pushed by) Congress in liberating the slaves owned by rebels. Lincoln implemented the new law by his "Emancipation Proclamation."
Lincoln is well known for ending slavery in the United States and he personally opposed slavery as a profound moral evil not in accord with the principle of equality asserted in the [[Declaration of Independence (United States)|Declaration of Independence]]. Yet, Lincoln's views of the role of the federal government on the subject of slavery are more complicated. Before the Confederate states seceded, Lincoln had campaigned against the expansion of slavery into the [[Historic regions of the United States|territories]], where Congress did have authority. However, he maintained that the federal government could not constitutionally bar slavery in states where it already existed. During his presidency, Lincoln made it clear that the North was fighting the war to preserve the Union, not to abolish slavery. Freeing the slaves was a war measure to weaken the rebellion by destroying the economic base of its leadership class. Lincoln was criticized both at home and abroad for his refusal to take a stand for the complete abolition of slavery. On [[August 22]], [[1862]], a few weeks before signing the Proclamation, and after it had already been drafted, Lincoln responded by letter to an editorial by [[Horace Greeley]] of the ''[[New York Tribune]]'' which had urged abolition:
:I would save the Union. I would save it the shortest way under the Constitution. The sooner the national authority can be restored; the nearer the Union will be "the Union as it was." If there be those who would not save the Union, unless they could at the same time save slavery, I do not agree with them. If there be those who would not save the Union unless they could at the same time destroy slavery, I do not agree with them. My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or to destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any slave I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone I would also do that. What I do about slavery, and the colored race, I do because I believe it helps to save the Union; and what I forbear, I forbear because I do not believe it would help to save the Union. I shall do less whenever I shall believe what I am doing hurts the cause, and I shall do more whenever I shall believe doing more will help the cause. I shall try to correct errors when shown to be errors; and I shall adopt new views so fast as they shall appear to be true views.
:I have here stated my purpose according to my view of official duty; and I intend no modification of my oft-expressed personal wish that all men everywhere could be free.[http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/speeches/greeley.htm]
With the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] issued in two parts on [[September 22]], [[1862]] and [[January 1]], [[1863]], Lincoln made the abolition of slavery a goal of the war. Lincoln addresses the issue of his consistency (or lack thereof) between his earlier position and his later position on emancipation in an 1864 letter to [[Albert G. Hodges]][http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/speeches/hodges.htm]
Lincoln is often credited with freeing enslaved [[African Americans]] with the [[Emancipation Proclamation]]. However, border states that still allowed slavery but were under Union control were exempt from the emancipation because they were not covered under any war measures. The proclamation on its first day, [[January 1]], [[1863]], freed only a few escaped slaves, but as Union armies advanced south more and more slaves were liberated until hundreds of thousands were freed (exactly how many is unknown). Lincoln signed the Proclamation as a wartime measure, insisting that only the outbreak of war gave constitutional power to the President to free slaves in states where it already existed. He later said: "I never, in my life, felt more certain that I was doing right, than I do in signing this paper." The proclamation made abolishing slavery in the rebel states an official war goal and it became the impetus for the enactment of the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|13th Amendment]] to the [[United States Constitution]] which abolished slavery; Lincoln was one of the main promoters of that amendment.
Although some Northern conservatives recoiled at the notion that the war was now being fought for the slaves instead of for preserving the Union, in the end the Emancipation Proclamation did much to help the Northern cause politically. Lincoln's strong [[abolitionist]] stand finally convinced the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] and other foreign countries that they could not support the [[Confederate States of America]]. This move remains one of the great seizures of private property by the federal government, restoring the ownership of the blacks to themselves,
Lincoln had for some time been working on plans to set up [[Abraham Lincoln on slavery#Colonization|colonies]] in Africa and South America for the nearly 4 million newly freed slaves. He remarked upon colonization favorably in the Emancipation Proclamation, but all attempts at such a massive undertaking failed.
==Important domestic measures of Lincoln's first term==
[[Image:Lincoln.png|thumb|right|While Lincoln is usually portrayed bearded, he first grew a beard in 1861 at the suggestion of 11-year-old [[Grace Bedell]].]]
Lincoln believed in the Whig theory of the presidency, which left Congress to write the laws. He was anti-vescovian. He signed them, vetoing only bills that threatened his war powers. Thus he signed the [[Homestead Act]] in 1862, making available millions of acres of government-held land in the west for purchase at very low cost. The [[Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act]], also signed in 1862, provided government grants for [[agricultural universities]] in each state. Lincoln also signed the Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864, which granted federal support to the construction of the United States' first transcontinental railroad, which was completed in 1869. The most important legislation involved money matters, including the first income tax and higher tariffs. Most important was the creation of the system of national banks by the [[National Banking Act]]s of 1863, 1864 and 1865 which allowed the creation of a strong national financial system.
Lincoln sent a senior general to put down the "[[Sioux Uprising |Sioux Uprising]]" of August 1862 in [[Minnesota]]. Presented with 303 death warrants for convict |
Fury logo]]
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| [[Fort Wayne General Electrics]]
| [[Basketball]]
| [[National Basketball Association]]
| [[1937]] - [[1938]]
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| [[Fort Wayne Kekiongas]]
| [[Baseball]]
| [[Major League Baseball]] [[National League]]
| [[1871]]
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|-
| [[Fort Wayne Pistons]]
| [[Basketball]]
| [[National Basketball Association]]
| [[1941]] - [[1957]]
| align="center" | [[Image:Fort Wayne Zollner Pistons logo.gif|35px|Fort Wayne Pistons logo]]
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| [[Indiana Kick]]
| [[Soccer]]
| [[American Indoor Soccer Association]]
| [[1989]]
| align="center" | [[Image:Indiana Kick logo.gif|40px|Indiana Kick logo]]
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| [[Fort Wayne River City Rhinos|River City Rhinos]]
| [[American football|Football]]
| [[Mid-Continental Football League]]
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| align="center" | [[Image:River City Rhinos logo.gif|35px|River City Rhinos logo]]
|}
==Planes, Trains & Automobiles==
[[Fort Wayne International Airport]][http://www.fwairport.com/] (formerly known as Baer Field, originally known as Smith Field) is the only Midwest commercial airport, other than Chicago's O'Hare, with a 12,000-foot runway. A construction project now underway will strengthen the runway to make it useable by heavier airplanes that need a longer runway. Passenger service is provided by Air Wisconsin ([[United Express]]). American Eagle ([[American Airlines|American Eagle]]), [[ATA]], CommutAir ([[Continental Connection]] affiliate), Atlantic Southeast ([[Delta Connection]]), Comair ([[Delta Connection]], Mesaba ([[Northwest Airlink]]), Pinnacle ([[Northwest Airlink]]), and Sky West ([[United Express]]).
[[Amtrak]] offers daily passenger trains with a station in Waterloo ([[Garrett, Indiana]]), 24 miles north of downtown Fort Wayne along I-69.
Fort Wayne Public Transportation Corporation[http://www.fwcitilink.com/index.htm] ''Citilink'' provides bus service between downtown, urban shopping centers and area employment locations.
Fort Wayne is located on Interstate I-69, US 24, US 27, [[US 30]] (the [[Lincoln Highway]]), and US 33.
==Notable natives and former residents==
===Athletes===
* [[Lloy Ball]], [[Olympics|olympic]] and pro [[volleyball]] player
* [[DaMarcus Beasley]], professional soccer player for [[PSV Eindhoven]] ([[Eredivisie|Netherlands]]) and the [[United States men's national soccer team|US national team]], who used to play for the [[Chicago Fire (soccer)|Chicago Fire]] of [[Major League Soccer|MLS]].
* [[Jamar Beasley]], former professional soccer player for the [[New England Revolution]] and the Chicago Fire of MLS.
* [[Vaughn Dunbar]], athlete, [[NFL]] [[New Orleans Saints]]
* [[Jason Fabini]], athlete, [[NFL]] [[New York Jets]]
* [[Art Smith]], aviator, invented "loop the loop"
* [[Rod Woodson]], athlete, [[NFL]] [[Oakland Raiders]]
===Artists and Designers===
* [[Bill Blass]], fashion designer
* [[Gray Morrow]], [[comic book]] artist and illustrator
===Authors===
* [[Edith Hamilton]], author, mythology expert
* [[Stephen King]], author, horror stories
* [[Ross Lockridge, Jr.]], author, ''[[Raintree County]]''
===Entertainers===
* [[Joey Allen]], [[glam metal]] [[guitarist]], [[Warrant (American band)|Warrant]]
* [[Julia Barr]], actress, ''[[All My Children]]''
* [[Eric Bruskotter]], actor, ''[[Starship Troopers]]'', ''[[Six Feet Under]]''
* [[Dan Butler]], actor ''[[Frasier]]''
* [[Sharon Gabet]], actress,''[[The Edge of Night]]'', ''[[One Life to Live]]''
* [[Hilliard Gates]], sportscaster
* [[Heather Headley]], Broadway and R&B singer
* [[Drake Hogestyn]], actor ''[[Days of Our Lives]]''
* [[Neil LaBute]], director
* [[Carole Lombard]], actress, ''[[My Man Godfrey]]''
* [[Shelley Long]], actress, ''[[Cheers]]''
* [[Mark McLendon II]], musician
* [[Patrick McVey]], actor, ''[[Dark Shadows]]'', ''[[North by Northwest]]''
* [[Ed Metcalfe]], saxophonist with Spike Jones
* [[Amanda Perez]], [[R&B]] singer
* [[Robert Rusler]], actor, ''[[Babylon 5]]'', ''[[Weird Science]]''
* [[Herbert Schiner]], comic "Herb Shriner", father of Wil Shriner
* [[Randy Thompson]], actor, ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]''
* [[Herb Vigran]], actor, ''[[White Christmas (film)|White Christmas]]'', ''[[The Flintstones]]'', ''[[Benji]]''
* [[Dick York]], actor, ''[[Bewitched]]''
===Business leaders and inventors===
* [[Kris Bex]], president, [[Remnant Trust]]
* [[Andrew George Burry]], paper box manufacturer
* Joseph and Cornelius Hoagland, invented baking powder
* Henry C. Paul and John C. Peters, manufactured first self-contained washing machine.
* [[Johnny Appleseed|John Chapman]], orchardist.
* Isaac T. Packard, manufactured pianos and organs
* Lewis Centlivre, brewer
* Silvanus Bowser, invented the gas pump
* James Jenny, perfected arc light. Jenny Electric became General Electric.
* [[Philo T. Farnsworth]], inventor of the television
* [[Dale W. McMillan|Dale "Mr. Mac" McMillan]], founder of [[Central Soya]], Wayne Feeds, Allied Mills
* [[Ian Rolland]], former [[Lincoln Financial Group|Lincoln National Corporation]] executive, philanthropist
* [[Dave Thomas]], founder of [[Wendy's International]]
* [[Fred Zollner]], industrialist, founder of the [[National Basketball Association]] and the ''Fort Wayne Zollner Pistons'', later the [[Detroit Pistons]].
===Public servants===
* [[Dan Coats|Daniel R. Coats]], U.S. ambassador to Germany, former U.S. representative, U.S. senator
* [[Hugh McCulloch]], former [[United States Secretary of the Treasury]], namesake of [[McCulloch Park]]
* [[Mark Souder]], U.S. Representative
* Harry Baals, former Mayor
* [[Paul Baer]], pilot. first American ace of [[World War I]]
==Religious centers==
*[[Fundamental Baptist Fellowship Association]]
*[[Missionary Church|Missionary Church, Inc.]]
*[[Evangelical Mennonite Church|Fellowship of Evangelical Churches (formerly Evangelical Mennonite Church)]]
*[[Abundant Life Tabernacle]]
== Cultural impact ==
===Film/TV shot in Fort Wayne===
* ''[[In the Company of Men]]''
* ''[[American Reel]]''
* ''[[The Last Roadstop]]''
* ''[[Endless Bread]]''
===Famous fictional characters from Fort Wayne===
* [[Frank Burns]], fictional doctor, ''[[M A S H|M*A*S*H]]''
* Fawn Liebowitz, fictional character, ''[[Animal House]]''
* George Taylor, fictional character, ''[[Planet of the Apes]]''
* "Topside" fictional character, ''[[GI Joe]]''
===Fiction set in Fort Wayne===
* [[Richard Bach]]'s 1977 book ''Illusions: The Adventures of a Reluctant Messiah'' is set in the ''mystical hills'' east of Fort Wayne, Indiana. East of Fort Wayne is the remnants of the [[Black Swamp]], the flattest land in Indiana and Ohio.
==Sister cities==
Fort Wayne has three [[Sister city|sister cities]]:
* [[Gera]], [[Germany]] since 1992
* [[Płock]], [[Poland]]
* [[Takaoka, Toyama|Takaoka]], [[Japan]] since 1977
==Trivia==
* On June 3, 1883, Fort Wayne hosted the Quincy Professionals for the first lighted baseball game involving a professional team (the very first lighted game of any kind was played earlier that year in Lowell, Massachussetts).
* The first game of the [[National League]] of Professional Baseball Players was played on May 4, 1871, between the Fort Wayne Kekiongas and the Cleveland Forest Citys. The Kekiongas failed halfway through the first season, and moved to New York, where they became the Brooklyn Trolley Dodgers and eventually today's [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] professional baseball team.
* Fort Wayne was the home of the Daisies, the first women's professional baseball team
== External links ==
* [http://www.cityoffortwayne.org/ Official city web page]
* [http://www.cityoffortwayne.org/new/news/jun03news/jun_20_03.htm 2003 Census adjustment]
* [http://www.fortwayne.com/mld/journalgazette/ ''The Journal Gazette'' daily morning newspaper]
* [http://www.fortwayne.com/mld/newssentinel/ ''News-Sentinel'' daily afternoon newspaper]
* [http://www.fwbusiness.com/ Fort Wayne Business Weekly]
* [http://www.whatzup.com/ ''Whatzup'' weekly entertainment newspaper]
* [http://www.fortwaynereader.com ''Fort Wayne Reader'' entertainment periodical]
* [http://www.fwchamber.org/ Chamber of Commerce]
* [http://www.allencountygop.com/ Allen County GOP]
* [http://www.visitfortwayne.com/ Convention and Visitor's Bureau]
* [http://www.fwacc.org/ Fort Wayne Animal Care and Control]
* [http://www.cityoffortwayne.org/iTeams City of Fort Wayne iTeams (Innovation Teams)]
* [http://www.fwchurches.com/ FWChurches]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|41.078348|-85.126546}}
{{Indiana}}
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[[Category:Allen County, Indiana]]
[[Category:Cities in Indiana]]
[[Category:Fort Wayne, Indiana| ]]
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[[la:Castrum Vainense, Indiana]]
[[sv:Fort Wayne]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Fart</title>
<id>11236</id>
<revision>
<id>42120298</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:24:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>-Barry-</username>
<id>647870</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the word "fart". For information about flatulence, see [[flatulence]].''
'''Fart''' is a [[slang]], [[vulgar]], or non-technical term meaning to flatulate, when gas, including [[methane]], [[carbon dioxide]] and [[hydrogen sulfide]] is exerted from the intestines and out through the sphincter, sometimes creating a sound and an unpleasent smell. Many euphemisms have been formed such as "pass gas", "break wind", "cut the cheese", "toot", "let it rip", "poot", "shart", and much more. The word is popular among youths and a source of humor to them.
[[Category:Slang]]</text>
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<page>
<title>FA Cup</title>
<id>11237</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2006-02-26T10:32:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Robdurbar</username>
<id>320488</id>
|
oriolis effect force.
*the effect works in opposite directions in the two hemispheres - an object travelling across the equator, and moving equal distances each side, would find its course deflected in a parabolic arc that would begin and end on the same line of longitude.
The Coriolis effect strongly affects the large-scale [[atmospheric circulation]], leading to the [[Hadley Cell | Hadley]], [[Ferrel cell| Ferrel]], and Polar cells. In the oceans, Coriolis is responsible for the propagation of [[Kelvin wave]]s and the establishment of the [[Sverdrup balance]].
== Coriolis Elsewhere ==
=== Coriolis flow meter ===
A practical application of the Coriolis effect is the [[mass flow meter]], an instrument that measures the [[mass flow rate]] of a fluid through a tube. The operating principle was introduced in 1977 by Micro Motion Inc. Simple flow meters measure [[volumetric flow rate|volume flow rate]], which is proportional to mass flow rate only when the [[density]] of the fluid is constant. If the fluid has varying density, or contains bubbles, then the volume flow rate multiplied by the density is not an accurate measure of the mass flow rate. The Coriolis mass flow meter operating principle essentially involves rotation, though not through a full circle. It works by inducing a vibration of the tube through which the fluid passes, and subsequently monitoring and analysing the inertial effects that occur in response to the combination of the induced vibration and the mass flow.
=== Molecular physics ===
In polyatomic molecules, the molecule motion can be described by a rigid body rotation and internal vibration of atoms about their equilibrium position. As a result of the vibrations of the atoms, the atoms are in motion relative to the rotating coordinate system of the molecule. Coriolis effects will therefore be present and will cause the atoms to move in a direction perpendicular to the original oscillations. This leads to a mixing in molecular spectra between the rotational and vibrational [[energy level |levels]].
=== Ballistics ===
The Coriolis effects become important in [[external ballistics]] for calculating the trajectories of very long-range [[artillery]] shells. The most famous historical example was the [[Paris gun]], used by the Germans during [[World War I]] to bombard [[Paris]] from a range of about 120 km.
== References ==
=== Physics and meteorology references ===
* Gill, AE 'Atmospher-Ocean dynamics'', Academic Press, 1982.
* [http://www.atmos.washington.edu/~durrand/ Durran, D. R.], 1993: ''[http://www.atmos.washington.edu/~durrand/pdfs/Coriolis_BAMS.pdf Is the Coriolis force really responsible for the inertial oscillation?]'', Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 74, 2179–2184; Corrigenda. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 75, 261
* Durran, D. R., and S. K. Domonkos, 1996: ''[http://www.atmos.washington.edu/~durrand/pdfs/inertial_osc.pdf An apparatus for demonstrating the inertial oscillation]'', Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 77, 557–559.
*Marion, Jerry B. 1970, ''Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems'', Academic Press.
* Persson, A., 1998 ''[http://www.ap.cityu.edu.hk/Ap8813/References/Coriolis/Coriolis.pdf How do we Understand the Coriolis Force?]'' Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 79, 1373-1385.
*Symon, Keith. 1971, ''Mechanics'', Addison-Wesley
* [http://www.fi.edu/tfi/exhibits/bower/03/earth.html Norman Ph. A.], 2000 ''[http://www.met.utah.edu/reichler/6010/Coriolis/Phillips.pdf An Explication of the Coriolis Effect]'', Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society: Vol. 81, No. 2, pp. 299–303.
=== Historical references ===
* Grattan-Guinness, I., Ed., 1994: ''Companion Encyclopedia of the History and Philosophy of the Mathematical Sciences''. Vols. I and II. Routledge, 1840 pp. <BR> 1997: ''The Fontana History of the Mathematical Sciences''. Fontana, 817 pp. 710 pp.
* Khrgian, A., 1970: ''Meteorology—A Historical Survey''. Vol. 1. Keter Press, 387 pp.
* Kuhn, T. S., 1977: Energy conservation as an example of simultaneous discovery. ''The Essential Tension, Selected Studies in Scientific Tradition and Change'', University of Chicago Press, 66–104.
* Kutzbach, G., 1979: ''The Thermal Theory of Cyclones. A History of Meteorological Thought in the Nineteenth Century''. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 254 pp.
== External links ==
* http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=coriolis-force1
*{{fnb|1}}[http://www.ems.psu.edu/~fraser/Bad/BadCoriolis.html Coriolis effect misconceptions]
*{{fnb|2}}[http://www-paoc.mit.edu/labweb/lab5/gfd_v.htm Rotating turntable setup] The concave turntable used at MIT for educational purposes.
*{{fnb|3}}[http://www-paoc.mit.edu/labweb/lab1/gfd_1.htm Taylor columns] The counterintuitive behavior of a rotating fluid. Demonstration at MIT for educational purposes
*[http://met.no/english/topics/nomek_2005/coriolis.pdf The Coriolis Effect] PDF-file. 17 pages. A general discussion by Anders Persson of various aspects of the coriolis effect, including Foucault's Pendulum and Taylor columns.
* Anders Persson [http://www.meteohistory.org/2005historyofmeteorology2/01persson.pdf The Coriolis Effect: Four centuries of conflict between common sense and mathematics, Part I: A history to 1885] History of Meteorology 2 (2005)
* [http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/CoriolisForce.html Coriolis Force] - from [[ScienceWorld]]
* [http://shopinberkeley.com/science/coriolis/ An introduction to the coriolis effect and prevailing wind patterns.] Targeted towards ages 5-18 (pre-university) teachers and students.
{{Commons|Coriolis effect}}
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<page>
<title>Coriolis force</title>
<id>7784</id>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Coriolis_effect]]
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<page>
<title>Challenger Deep</title>
<id>7786</id>
<revision>
<id>38934426</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T16:52:04Z</timestamp>
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<username>N328KF</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Challenger Deep''' is the deepest known point in the oceans, [[1 E4 m|10,911 meters]] (35,797 feet) deep at its maximum, near {{coor dm|11|22|N|142|36|E|}}.
==Location==
It is in the [[Pacific Ocean]], off the island of [[Guam]] in the [[Mariana Islands]] group at the southern end of the [[Mariana Trench]]. The closest piece of land is [[Fais Island]], one of the outer islands of [[Yap]], 289 km southwest. [[Guam]] is 306 km to the northeast.
==Name==
The Challenger Deep is named after the [[Royal Navy]] survey ship ''[[HMS Challenger (1931)|Challenger II]],'' which surveyed the trench in [[1951]].
==Depth==
On [[23 January]] [[1960]], the [[US Navy]] [[Bathyscaphe]] [[Bathyscaphe Trieste|''Trieste'']] descended to the ocean floor in the trench. ''Trieste'', which was manned by [[Jacques Piccard]] and Lieutenant [[Don Walsh]], measured the descent as 10,916 meters (35,813 feet) deep. (Later and more accurate measurements in 1995 have found the Challenger Deep to be shallower, at 10,911 m or 35,797 ft.). The descent took almost five hours and the two men spent barely twenty minutes on the ocean floor before undertaking the 3 hour 15 minute ascent. They observed small [[sole (fish)|soles]] and [[flounder]]s and noted the floor consisted of [[diatom]]aceous ooze while on the bottom.
In [[1984]], a [[Japan]]ese survey vessel using a narrow, multi-beam [[echo sounder]] took a measurement of 10,923 meters (35,838 feet).
A Japanese [[robot]]ic deep-sea probe, known as ''[[Kaiko]]'', broke the depth record for unmanned probes when it reached the bottom of the Challenger Deep on [[24 March]], [[1995]]. Created by the Japan Marine Science and Technology Center [http://www.jamstec.go.jp/jamstec-e/index-e.html (JAMSTEC)], it was one of the rare few unmanned deep-sea probes in operation that could dive deeper than about 6000 meters (19,680 feet). Its recorded depth of 10,911 m (35,797 ft) for the Challenger Deep is believed to be the most accurate measurement taken yet. Unfortunately, ''Kaiko'' was lost at sea on [[29 March]], [[2003]], after just more than 8 years of service, when one of the secondary cables snapped during an approaching [[typhoon]]. Currently no other operational vehicle exists that is capable of reaching the same depths, and no other manned vehicle has come to the same depth as ''Trieste''.
==Fauna==
Recently, an analysis of the sediment samples collected by Kaiko before she sank, published in ''Science'', Vol 307, Issue 5710, pq. 689[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/307/5710/689], announced the discovery of simple organisms at 10,900 meters water depth. While similar lifeforms have been known to exist in shallower ocean trenches (>7,000 m) and on the [[abyssal plain]], the lifeforms discovered in the Challenger Deep possibly represent independent [[taxa]] from those shallower ecosystems.
Out of the 432 organisms collected, the overwhelming majority of the sam |
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<page>
<title>Bohrium</title>
<id>4194</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-26T14:45:02Z</timestamp>
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<username>Siffler</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=107 | symbol=Bh | name=bohrium | left=[[seaborgium]] | right=[[hassium]] | above=[[rhenium|Re]] | below=(Ups) | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[transition metal]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=7 | period=7 | block=d }}
{{Elementbox_appearance | unknown, probably silvery<br />white or metallic gray }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|(264)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | perhaps &#91;[[radon|Rn]]&#93; 5f<sup>14</sup> 6d<sup>5</sup> 7s<sup>2</sup><br />(guess based on [[rhenium]]) }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 13, 2 }}
{{Elementbox_phase | presumably a [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 54037-14-8 }}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
'''Bohrium''' (Eka-Rhenium) is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol Bh and [[atomic number]] 107. It is a [[synthetic element]] whose most stable [[isotope]], Bh-262, has a [[half-life]] of [[1 E-1 s|102 ms]].
== History ==
It was [[discovery of the chemical elements|synthesized]] in [[1976]] by a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] team led by Y. Oganessian at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research at [[Dubna]], who produced isotope <sup>261</sup>Bh with a half-life of 1-2 ms (later data give a half life of around 10 ms).
They did this by bombarding [[bismuth]]-204 with heavy nuclei of [[chromium]]-54.
In [[1981]] a [[Germany|German]] research team led by [[Peter Armbruster]] and [[Gottfried Münzenberg]] at the [[Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung]] (Institute for Heavy Ion Research) at Darmstadt were also able to confirm the Soviet team's results and produce bohrium, this time the longer-lived Bh-262.
The Germans suggested the name nielsbohrium to honor the Danish physicist [[Niels Bohr]]. The Soviets had suggested this name be given to element 105 ([[dubnium]]).
There was an [[element naming controversy]] as to what the elements from 101 to 109 were to be called; thus [[IUPAC]] adopted unnilseptium (symbol Uns) as a temporary, [[systematic element name]] for this element. In [[1994]] a committee of IUPAC recommended that element 107 be named bohrium.
While this conforms to the names of other elements honoring individuals, where only the surname is taken, it was opposed by many who were concerned that it could be confused with [[boron]]. Despite this, the name bohrium for element 107 was recognized internationally in [[1997]].
==External links==
{{Commons|Bohrium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Bh/index.html WebElements.com - Bohrium]
*[http://www.apsidium.com/elements/107.htm Apsidium - Bohrium]
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/107.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Bohrium]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Barbara Olson</title>
<id>4195</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T07:41:17Z</timestamp>
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<comment>rm fair use image that clearly isn't</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Barbara Olson''' ([[December 27]], [[1955]] &ndash; [[September 11]], [[2001]]) was a [[conservative]] [[United States|American]] [[television]] commentator who worked for [[FOX News]], [[CNN]] and several other outlets.
Olson was born '''Barbara Kay Bracher''' in [[Houston, Texas]]. (Her older sister, Toni Bracher-Lawrence, has been a member of the Houston City Council since 2004.) She earned a Bachelor of Arts from the [[University of Saint Thomas (Texas)]] and a [[Juris Doctor]] degree from Yeshiva University [[Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law]]. In the early 1990s, she worked as an associate at the Washington-based law firm of Wilmer, Cutler & Pickering before marrying [[United States Solicitor General]], [[Theodore Olson]] in 1997.
In the mid-1990s she was a chief investigator for the House Government Reform Committee - and later a staff lawyer for Senate Minority Whip [[Don Nickles]] - before branching out as a TV commentator and private lawyer. She was a frequent critic of the [[Clinton administration]] and wrote a book about First Lady [[Hillary Clinton]], ''Hell to Pay: The Unfolding Story of Hillary Rodham Clinton''. She was working on her second book, '''The Final Days: The Last, Desperate Abuses of Power by the Clinton White House''' (published December 2001) at the time of her death.
She was a passenger on [[American Airlines Flight 77]] on her way to a taping of ''[[Politically Incorrect]]'' in [[Los Angeles]] (host [[Bill Maher]] left a panel seat vacant during the first month the show aired after the attacks), when it was flown into [[the Pentagon]] in the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]]. She had been scheduled to take a different flight, but cancelled and booked herself on that particular flight on that Tuesday in order to celebrate her husband's birthday on Monday, [[September 10]]. (Her husband's birthday is actually [[September 11]].)
She had reported the hijacking to her husband twice with her cell phone about 20 minutes before the plane hit the Pentagon, reportedly asking him "What should I do?".
She was the subject of a eulogy by her husband, [[Theodore Olson]], at the [[Federalist Society]] on [[November 16]], [[2001]]. The occasion was the launching of the annual '''Barbara K. Olson Memorial Lectures'''. These lectures have a theme of "Limited Government and the Spirit of Freedom", to quote from the Society's website.
:''See also: [[:sep11:|In Memoriam: September 11, 2001 wiki]].''
[[Category:1955 births|Olson, Barbara]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Olson, Barbara]]
[[Category:American television personalities|Olson, Barbara]]
[[Category:American lawyers|Olson, Barbara]]
[[Category:American writers|Olson, Barbara]]
[[Category:Murdered writers|Olson, Barbara]]
[[Category:Political writers|Olson, Barbara]]
[[Category:People from Texas|Olson, Barbara]]
[[Category:Victims of the September 11, 2001 attacks|Olson, Barbara]]
==External links==
*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=6048175&ptBarbara%20Olson Barbara Olson] at [http://www.findagrave.com Find A Grave]</text>
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<page>
<title>Barnard's star</title>
<id>4196</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:44:05Z</timestamp>
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<username>Gcapp1959</username>
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<comment>Flare date</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Starbox begin |
name=Barnard's star }}
{{Starbox observe |
epoch=J2000 |
constell=[[Ophiuchus]] |
ra=17h 57m 48.5s |
dec=+04&deg; 41' 36" |
appmag_v=9.57 }}
{{Starbox character |
class=M4 V |
b-v=1.74 |
u-b=1.28 |
variable=''Suspected'' }}
{{Starbox astrometry |
radial_v=-110.8 |
prop_mo_ra=-797.84 |
prop_mo_dec=10326.93 |
parallax=546.98 |
p_error=1.00 |
dist_ly=5.96 |
dist_pc=1.828 |
absmag_v=13.26 }}
{{Starbox detail|
age=~1.0 &times; 10<sup>10</sup> |
metal=10-32% Sun |
mass=0.17 |
radius=0.15-0.20 |
rotation=130.4 days |
luminosity=0.0004 |
temperature=3,000 }}
{{Starbox catalog |
names=[[Bonner Durchmusterung|BD]]+04&deg;3561a, [[General Catalogue of Trigonometric Parallaxes|GCTP]] 4098.00, [[Gliese-Jahreiss catalogue|GJ]] 699, [[Luyten Half-Second catalogue|LHS]] 57, Munich 15040, [[Henry Lee Giclas|Gl]] 140-024, LTT 15309, LFT 1385, [[Alexander N. Vyssotsky|Vyssotsky]] 799, and [[Hipparcos Catalogue|HIP]] 87937. }}
{{Starbox end}}
'''Barnard's star''' is a [[star]] in the [[constellation]] [[Ophiuchus]] which is notable for having the largest [[proper motion]] (10.3" per year) of any star relative to the [[Sun]]. This large proper motion was discovered by the [[astronomer]] [[Edward Emerson Barnard|E. E. Barnard]] in [[1916]].
Lying at a distance of about 1.8 [[parsec|pc]] or 5.96 [[light-year|ly]], Barnard's star is the [[List of nearest stars|fifth closest]] known star to Earth. Only the [[Sun]] and the three components of the [[Alpha Centauri]] system are closer. But Barnard's star is a [[red dwarf]] ([[spectral type]] M4), so despite its proximity it is too faint to see without a [[telescope]] or powerful binoculars. Its [[apparent magnitude]] is 9.57. Although Barnard's star was long thought to be a quiescent, old star, astronomers recently reported a [[flare]] that was observed in 1998 (but not regarded as important by the planet-seeking astronomer who observed it), making it a surprising [[flare star]].(1)
The proper motion at this distance corresponds to a relative lateral speed of 90 km/s.
Its closest neighbour is [[Ross 154]], 1.66 pc or 5.41 ly away.
Barnard's star is also known as [[Bonner Durchmusterung|BD]]+04°3561a, [[Hipparcos Catalogue|HIP]] 87937, Munich 15040, [[Alexander N. Vyssotsky|Vyssotsky]] 799, [[Luyten H |
[[Category:1952 births|Jones, Charles Edward]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Jones, Charles Edward]]
[[Category:American astronauts|Jones, Charles Edward]]
[[Category:Colonels|Jones, Charles Edward]]
[[Category:United States Air Force officers|Jones, Charles Edward]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Ceramic</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-01T12:25:17Z</timestamp>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|1=ceramic materials|2=the fine art|3=Ceramics (art)}}
[[Image:DSCN0126.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Fixed Partial Denture, or "Bridge"]]
The word '''''ceramic''''' is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word &kappa;&epsilon;&rho;&alpha;&mu;&iota;&kappa;&omicron;&sigmaf; (''keramikos'', "having to do with pottery"). The term covers inorganic non-metallic materials whose formation is due to the action of heat. Up until the 1950s or so, the most important of these were the traditional [[clay]]s, made into [[pottery]], [[brick]]s, [[tile]]s and the like, along with [[cement]]s and [[glass]]. The traditional crafts are described in the article on [[pottery]]. A [[composite material]] of ceramic and [[metal]] is known as [[cermet]].
Historically, ceramic products have been hard, porous and brittle. The study of ceramics consists to a large extent of methods to mitigate these problems, and accentuate the strengths of the materials, as well as to offer up unusual uses for these materials.
The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) defines a ceramic article as “''an article having a glazed or unglazed body of crystalline or partly crystalline structure, or of glass, which body is produced from essentially inorganic, nonmetallic substances and either is formed from a molten mass which solidifies on cooling, or is formed and simultaneously or subsequently matured by the action of the heat''.”
The word ''ceramic'' can be an adjective, and can also be used as a noun to refer to a ceramic material. ''Ceramics'' is a singular noun referring to the art of making things out of ceramic materials. In [[Commonwealth English]], ''ceramic'' can also be used as a singular noun, referring to an object made of ceramic material.
== Classifications of technical ceramics ==
Technical Ceramics can also be classified into three distinct material categories:
* [[Oxide]]s: [[Alumina]], [[zirconia]]
* Non-oxides: [[Carbide]]s, [[boride]]s, [[nitride]]s, [[silicide]]s
* [[Composite]]s: Particulate reinforced, combinations of oxides and non-oxides.
Each one of these classes can develop unique material properties
=== Examples of ceramic materials ===
*[[Barium titanate]] (often mixed with [[strontium titanate]]) displays [[ferroelectricity]], meaning that its mechanical, electrical, and thermal responses are coupled to one another and also history-dependent. It is widely used in electromechanical [[transducer]]s, ceramic [[capacitor]]s, and [[Ferroelectric RAM|data storage]] elements. [[crystallite|Grain boundary]] conditions can create [[positive temperature coefficient|PTC]] effects in [[heating element]]s.
*[[Bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide]], a [[high-temperature superconductor]]
*[[Boron carbide]] ([[boron|B]]<sub>4</sub>[[carbon|C]]), which is used in some helicopter and tank [[vehicle armour|armor]].
*[[Boron_nitride]] is structurally [[isoelectronic]] to [[carbon]] and takes on similar physical forms: a [[graphite]]-like one used as a [[lubricant]], and a [[diamond]]-like one used as an abrasive.
*[[Brick]]s (mostly aluminium [[silicate]]s), used for construction.
*[[Earthenware]], which is often made from [[clay]], [[quartz]] and [[feldspar]].
*[[ferrite (magnet)|Ferrite]] ([[iron|Fe]]<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>), which is [[ferrimagnetism|ferrimagnetic]] and is used in the core of electrical [[transformer]]s and [[magnetic core memory]].
*[[Lead zirconate titanate]] is another ferroelectric material.
*[[Magnesium diboride]] ([[magnesium|Mg]][[boron|B]]<sub>2</sub>), which is an [[unconventional superconductor]].
*[[Porcelain]], which usually contains the clay mineral [[kaolinite]].
*[[Silicon carbide]] ([[silicon|Si]][[carbon|C]]), which is used as a susceptor in microwave furnaces, a commonly used abrasive, and as a [[refraction (metallurgy)|refractory]] material.
*[[Silicon nitride]] ([[silicon|Si]]<sub>3</sub>[[nitrogen|N]]<sub>4</sub>), which is used as an [[abrasive]] powder.
*[[Steatite]] is used as an [[electrical insulator]].
*[[Uranium oxide]] ([[uranium|U]]O<sub>2</sub>), used as [[nuclear fuel|fuel]] in [[nuclear reactor]]s.
*[[Yttrium barium copper oxide]] ([[yttrium|Y]][[barium|Ba]]<sub>2</sub>[[copper|Cu]]<sub>3</sub>[[oxygen|O]]<sub>7-x</sub>), another high temperature [[Superconductivity|superconductor]].
*[[Zinc oxide]] ([[zinc|Zn]][[oxygen|O]]), which is a [[semiconductor]], and used in the construction of [[varistor]]s.
*[[Zirconia]], which in pure form undergoes many [[phase (matter)|phase]] changes between room temperature and practical [[sintering]] temperatures, can be chemically "stabilized" in several different forms. Its high [[oxygen]] [[ion]] conductivity recommends it for use in [[fuel cell]]s. In another variant, metastable structures can impart [[transformation toughened ceramics|transformation toughening]] for mechanical applications; most ceramic knife blades are made of this material.
== Properties of ceramics ==
=== Mechanical properties ===
Ceramic materials are usually [[ionic bond|ionic]] or [[covalent]]ly-bonded materials, and can be [[crystal]]line or [[amorphous solid|amorphous]]. A material held together by either type of bond will tend to [[Fracture#Brittle fracture|fracture]] before any [[plastic deformation]] takes place, which results in poor [[toughness]] in these materials. Additionally, because these materials tend to be porous, the [[pore]]s and other microscopic imperfections act as [[Stress concentration|stress concentrators]], decreasing the [[toughness]] further, and reducing the [[tensile strength]]. These combine to give [[catastrophic failure]]s, as opposed to the normally much more gentle [[failure mode]]s of [[metal]]s.
These materials do show [[plasticity (physics)|plastic deformation]]. However, due to the rigid structure of the crystalline materials, there are very few available [[slip system]]s for [[dislocation]]s to move, and so they deform very slowly. With the non-crystalline ([[glass]]y) materials, [[Viscosity|viscous]] flow is the dominant source of plastic deformation, and is also very slow. It is therefore neglected in many applications of ceramic materials.
=== Electrical properties ===
==== Semiconductivity ====
There are a number of ceramics that are [[semiconductor]]s. Most of these are [[transition metal]] oxides that are II-VI semiconductors, such as zinc oxide.
While there is talk of making blue [[LED]]s from [[zinc oxide]], ceramicists are most interested in the electrical properties that show grain boundary effects.
One of the most widely used of these is the [[varistor]]. These are devices that exhibit the unusual property of [[negative resistance]]. Once the voltage across the device reaches a certain threshold, there is a [[Electrical breakdown|breakdown]] of the electrical structure in the vicinity of the [[grain boundary|grain boundaries]], which results in its [[electrical resistance]] dropping from several megaohms down to a few hundred [[ohm]]s. The major advantage of these is that they can dissipate a lot of energy, and they self reset &mdash; after the voltage across the device drops below the threshold, its resistance returns to being high.
This makes them ideal for [[Surge protector|surge-protection]] applications. As there is control over the threshold voltage and energy tolerance, they find use in all sorts of applications. The best demonstration of their ability can be found in [[electrical substation]]s, where they are employed to protect the infrastructure from [[lightning]] strikes. They have rapid response, are low maintenance, and do not appreciably degrade from use, making them virtually ideal devices for this application.
Semiconducting ceramics are also employed as [[gas sensor]]s. When various gases are passed over a polycrystalline ceramic, its electrical resistance changes. With tuning to the possible gas mixtures, very inexpensive devices can be produced.
==== Superconductivity ====
Under some conditions, such as extremely low temperature, some ceramics exhibit [[superconductivity]]. The exact reason for this is not known, but there are two major families of superconducting ceramics.
====Ferroelectricity and subsets====
[[Piezoelectricity]], a link between electrical and mechanical response, is exhibited by a large number of ceramic materials, including the [[quartz]] [[resonator]]s used as to [[crystal oscillator|measure time]] watches and other electronics. Such devices use both properties of piezoelectrics, using electricity to produce a mechanical motion (powering the device) and then using this mechanical motion to produce electricity (generating a signal). The unit of time measured is the natural interval required for electricity to be converted into mechanical energy and back again.
The piezoelectric effect is generally stronger in materials that also exhibit [[pyroelectricity]], and all pyroelectric materials are also piezoelectric. These materials can be used to interconvert between thermal, mechanical, and/or electrical energy; for instance, after synthesis in a furnace, a pyroelectric crystal allowed to cool under no applied stress generally builds up a static charge of thousands o |
diameter of 900-1000 km. Two other large inner solar system belt asteroids are [[2 Pallas]] and [[4 Vesta]]; both have diameters of ~500 km. Vesta is the only main belt asteroid that is sometimes visible to the naked eye (in some very rare occasions, a near-Earth asteroid may be visible without technical aid; see [[99942 Apophis]]).
The mass of all the asteroids of the Main Belt is estimated to be about 2.3x10<sup>21</sup>&nbsp;kg, or about 3% of the mass of our moon. Of this, [[1 Ceres]] comprises 940 to 950x10<sup>18</sup>&nbsp;kg, some 40% of the total. Adding in the next three most massive asteroids, [[4 Vesta]] (12%), [[2 Pallas]] (9%), and [[10 Hygiea]] (4%), bring this figure up 66%; while the three after that, [[511 Davida]] (1.6%), [[704 Interamnia]] (1.4%), and [[3 Juno]] (1.2%), only add another 4% to the total mass. The number of asteroids then increases [[Exponential distribution|exponentially]] as their individual masses decrease.
See also a [[List of noteworthy asteroids]] in our Solar System, or a sequentially-ordered [[List of asteroids]].
==Asteroid classification==
Asteroids are commonly classified into groups based on the characteristics of their orbits and on the details of the [[visible spectrum|spectrum]] of sunlight they reflect.
===Orbit groups and families===
:''main articles: [[asteroid family]] and [[minor planet]]''
Many asteroids have been placed in groups and families based on their orbital characteristics. It is customary to name a group of asteroids after the first member of that group to be discovered. Groups are relatively loose dynamical associations, whereas families are much "tighter" and result from the catastrophic break-up of a large parent asteroid sometime in the past.
For a full listing of known asteroid groups and families, see [[minor planet]] and [[asteroid family]].
===Spectral classification===
[[Image:253 Mathilde small.jpg|thumb|right|[[253 Mathilde]], a [[C-type asteroid]].]]
In 1975, an asteroid [[taxonomy|taxonomic]] system based on [[colour]], [[albedo]], and [[spectral line|spectral shape]] was developed by [[Clark R. Chapman]], [[David Morrison]], and [[Ben Zellner]]. These properties are thought to correspond to the composition of the asteroid's surface material. Originally, they classified only three types of asteroids:
*[[C-type asteroid]]s - carbonaceous, 75% of known asteroids
*[[S-type asteroid]]s - silicaceous, 17% of known asteroids
*[[M-type asteroid]]s - metallic, most of the remaining asteroids
This list has since been expanded to include a number of other asteroid types. The number of types continues to grow as more asteroids are studied. See [[Asteroid spectral types]] for more detail or [[:Category:Asteroid spectral classes]] for a list.
Note that the proportion of known asteroids falling into the various spectral types does not necessarily reflect the proportion of all asteroids that are of that type; some types are easier to detect than others, biasing the totals.
====Problems with spectral classification====
Originally, spectral designations were based on inferences of an asteroid's composition:
* C - [[carbonate|Carbonaceous]]
* S - [[silicate|Silicaceous]]
* M - [[Metallic]]
However, the correspondence between spectral class and composition is not always very good, and there are a variety of classifications in use. This has led to significant confusion. While asteroids of different spectral classifications are likely to be composed of different materials, there are no assurances that asteroids within the same taxonomic class are composed of similar materials.
At present, the spectral classification based on several coarse resolution spectroscopic surveys in the 1990s is still the standard. Scientists have been unable to agree on a better taxonomic system, largely due to the difficulty of obtaining detailed measurements consistently for a large sample of asteroids (e.g. finer resolution spectra, or non-spectral data such as densities would be very useful).
==Asteroid discovery==
===Historical discovery methods===
Asteroid discovery methods have drastically improved over the past two centuries.
In the last years of the [[18th century]], Baron [[Franz Xaver von Zach]] organized a group of 24 astronomers to search the sky for the "missing planet" predicted at about 2.8 [[Astronomical unit|AU]] from the [[Sun]] by the [[Titius-Bode law]], partly as a consequence of the discovery, by Sir [[William Herschel]] in [[1781]], of the planet [[Uranus (planet)|Uranus]] at the distance "predicted" by the law. This task required that hand-drawn sky charts be prepared for all stars in the [[zodiac]]al band down to an agreed-upon limit of faintness. On subsequent nights, the sky would be charted again and any moving object would, hopefully, be spotted. The expected motion of the missing planet was about 30 seconds of arc per hour, readily discernable by observers.
Ironically, the first asteroid, [[1 Ceres]], was not discovered by a member of the group, but rather by accident in [[1801]] by [[Giuseppe Piazzi]] director, at the time, of the observatory of [[Palermo]], in [[Sicily]]. He discovered a new star-like object in [[Taurus]] and followed the displacement of this object during several nights. His colleague, [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]], used these observations to determine the exact distance from this unknown object to the Earth. Gauss' calculations placed the object between the planets [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] and [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]. Piazzi named it after [[Ceres (mythology)|Ceres]], the Roman goddess of agriculture.
Three other asteroids ([[2 Pallas]], [[3 Juno]], [[4 Vesta]]) were discovered over the next few years, with Vesta found in [[1807]]. After eight more years of fruitless searches, most astronomers assumed that there were no more and abandoned any further searches.
However, [[Karl Ludwig Hencke]] persisted, and began searching for more asteroids in [[1830]]. Fifteen years later, he found [[5 Astraea]], the first new asteroid in 38 years. He also found [[6 Hebe]] less than two years later. After this, other astronomers joined in the search and at least one new asteroid was discovered every year after that (except the wartime year 1945). Notable asteroid hunters of this early era were [[John Russell Hind|J. R. Hind]], [[Annibale de Gasparis]], [[Karl Theodor Robert Luther|Robert Luther]], [[Hermann Mayer Salomon Goldschmidt|H. M. S. Goldschmidt]], [[Jean Chacornac]], [[James Ferguson (astronomer)|James Ferguson]], [[Norman Robert Pogson]], [[Ernst Wilhelm Leberecht Tempel|E. W. Tempel]], [[James Craig Watson|J. C. Watson]], [[Christian Heinrich Friedrich Peters|C. H. F. Peters]], [[Alphonse Louis Nicolas Borrelly|A. Borrelly]], [[Johann Palisa|J. Palisa]], [[Paul Henry and Prosper Henry]] and [[Auguste Charlois]].
In [[1891]], however, [[Maximilian Franz Joseph Cornelius Wolf|Max Wolf]] pioneered the use of [[astrophotography]] to detect asteroids, which appeared as short streaks on long-exposure photographic plates. This drastically increased the rate of detection compared with previous visual methods: Wolf alone discovered 248 asteroids, beginning with [[323 Brucia]], whereas only slightly more than 300 had been discovered up to that point. Still, a century later, only a few thousand asteroids were identified, numbered and named. It was known that there were many more, but most astronomers did not bother with them, calling them "vermin of the skies".
===Modern discovery methods===
Until [[1998]], asteroids were discovered by a four-step process. First, a region of the sky was [[photograph]]ed by a wide-field [[telescope]]. Pairs of photographs were taken, typically one hour apart. Multiple pairs could be taken over a series of days. Second, the two [[film]]s of the same region were viewed under a [[stereoscope]]. Any body in orbit around the Sun would move slightly between the pair of films. Under the stereoscope, the image of the body would appear to float slightly above the background of stars. Third, once a moving body was identified, its location would be measured precisely using a digitizing microscope. The location would be measured relative to known star locations [http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/About/People/CarolynShoemaker/].
These first three steps do not constitute asteroid discovery: the observer has only found an [[apparition]], which gets a [[Provisional designation in astronomy|provisional designation]], made up of the year of discovery, a code of two letters representing the week of discovery, and of a number so more than the one discovered one took place in this week (example: 1998 FJ74).
The final step of discovery is to send the locations and time of observations to [[Brian Marsden]] of the [[Minor Planet Center]]. Dr. Marsden has computer programs that compute whether an apparition ties together previous apparitions into a single orbit. If so, the object gets a number. The observer of the first apparition with a calculated orbit is declared the discoverer, and he gets the honour of naming the asteroid (subject to the approval of the [[International Astronomical Union]]) once it is numbered.
===Latest technology: detecting hazardous asteroids===
There is increasing interest in identifying asteroids whose orbits cross [[Earth|Earth's]] orbit, and that could, given enough time, collide with Earth (see [[Earth-crosser asteroid]]s). The three most important groups of [[near-Earth asteroid]]s are the [[Apollo asteroid|Apollos]], [[Amor_asteroid|Amors]], and the [[Aten_asteroid|Atens]]. Various [[asteroid deflection strategies]] have been proposed.
The [[near-Earth object|near-Earth]] asteroid [[433 Eros]] had been discovered as long ago as [[1898]], and the [[1930]]s brought a flurry of similar objects. In order of discovery, these were: [[1221 Amor]], [[1862 Apollo]], [[2101 Adonis]], and finally [[69230 Hermes]], which |
GDB has compiled-in [[Instruction Set Simulator|simulators]] for target processors even for lesser-known target processors such like M32R or V850.
GDB offers a 'remote' mode often used when debugging embedded systems. Remote operation is when GDB runs on one machine and the program being debugged runs on another. GDB can communicate to the remote 'stub' which understands GDB protocol via Serial or TCP/IP.
===Limitations===
The debugger does not contain its own [[graphical user interface]], and defaults to a [[command-line interface]]. Several front-ends have been built for it, such as [[Data Display Debugger|DDD]], [[GDBtk]]/[[Insight]] and the "GUD mode" in [[Emacs]]. These offer facilities similar to debuggers found in [[integrated development environment]]s.
Some other debugging tools have been designed to work with GDB, such as [[memory leak]] detectors.
== An example session ==
This is an example GDB session on the example program in [[Stack trace]]:
<pre>
GNU gdb Red Hat Linux (6.3.0.0-1.21rh)
Copyright 2004 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
GDB is free software, covered by the GNU General Public License, and you are
welcome to change it and/or distribute copies of it under certain conditions.
Type "show copying" to see the conditions.
There is absolutely no warranty for GDB. Type "show warranty" for details.
This GDB was configured as "i386-redhat-linux-gnu"...Using host libthread_db library "/lib/libthread_db.so.1".
(gdb) run
Starting program: /home/sam/programming/crash
Reading symbols from shared object read from target memory...done.
Loaded system supplied DSO at 0xc11000
This program will demonstrate gdb
Program received signal SIGSEGV, Segmentation fault.
0x08048428 in function_2 (x=24) at crash.c:22
22 return *y;
(gdb) edit
(gdb) shell gcc crash.c -o crash -gstabs+
(gdb) run
The program being debugged has been started already.
Start it from the beginning? (y or n) y
warning: cannot close "shared object read from target memory": File in wrong format
`/home/sam/programming/crash' has changed; re-reading symbols.
Starting program: /home/sam/programming/crash
Reading symbols from shared object read from target memory...done.
Loaded system supplied DSO at 0xa3e000
This program will demonstrate gdb
24
Program exited normally.
(gdb) quit
</pre>
The program is being run. After the cause of the segmentation fault is found, the program is edited to use the correct behavior. The corrected program is recompiled with [[GCC]] and then run.
== References ==
* [[Richard Stallman|Richard M. Stallman]], [[Roland Pesch]], [[Stan Shebs]], et al., ''Debugging with GDB'' ([[Free Software Foundation]], 2002) ISBN 1882114884
* [[Norman Matloff]], [[P. J. Salzman]], ''The Art of Debugging with GDB/DDD: For Professionals and Students'' ([[No Starch Press]], 2003) ISBN 159327002X
== External links ==
*[http://www.gnu.org/software/gdb/gdb.html GDB homepage]
*[http://sources.redhat.com/gdb/current/onlinedocs/gdb.html Debugging with GDB]
*[http://sources.redhat.com/gdb/current/onlinedocs/gdbint.html GDB Internals]
*[http://users.actcom.co.il/~choo/lupg/tutorials/debugging/debugging-with-gdb.html A tutorial]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GNOME Office</title>
<id>13054</id>
<revision>
<id>41148732</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T09:58:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zero0w</username>
<id>227044</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Change from Free to Open source office suites */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''GNOME Office''' is an [[office suite]] containing:
*[[AbiWord]] [[word processor]]
*[[Gnumeric]] [[spreadsheet]]
*[[GNOME-DB]], software that provides database connectivity.
The integration between the various applications in the suite is rather loose, and therefore many consider GNOME Office to be merely the collection of desktop productivity applications written for the [[GNOME]] environment rather than an office suite in the usual sense. Integration is achieved chiefly through the [[Bonobo (computing)|Bonobo]] component technology.
GNOME Office is intended to be a competitor to the [[Microsoft Office]] suite. The [[KOffice]] suite was developed earlier, but was not at first [[free software]] according to the strict interpretation of the [[Free Software Foundation]], so the [[GNOME]] desktop was created as a free alternative.
Neither suite is currently competitive with the [[Microsoft]] products in user base, although the feature set of both projects is getting closer to that goal.
There also exists an office suite called [[OpenOffice.org]] which is the free software base used to create [[StarOffice]]. [[Sun Microsystems]] is integrating OpenOffice.org with GNOME with the intention that the applications of OpenOffice.org will become part of GNOME Office.
==See also==
*[[List of office suites]]
*[[Comparison of office suites]]
*[[List of GNOME applications]]
==External links==
*[http://www.gnome.org/gnome-office/ GNOME Office home page]
[[Category:Open source office suites]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Galeon</title>
<id>13055</id>
<revision>
<id>41354070</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T20:29:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Where</username>
<id>722151</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Category:Free web browsers]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Software2 <!-- Release version update? Don't edit this page, just click on the version number! -->
|name = Galeon
|developer = [[GNOME]]
|logo = [[Image:Galeon logo.png|48px|Galeon logo]]
|screenshot = [[Image:MainPage Galeon 1.3.21 2006-02.png|250px|Screenshot of Galeon]]
|caption = A screenshot of Galeon
|operating_system = [[Unix-like]] operating systems
|genre = [[Web browser]]
|license = [[GNU General Public License|GPL]]
|website = [http://galeon.sourceforge.net/ galeon.sourceforge.net]
}}
{{dablink|This page is about a web browser. For the type of [[sailing ship]], see [[Galleon]].}}
'''Galeon''' is a [[web browser]] for [[GNOME]] based on [[Mozilla]]'s [[Gecko (layout engine)|Gecko layout engine]]. Galeon's developer's self-declared mission was to deliver "the web and only the web".
At the time of Galeon's creation, the most popular web browsers, including [[Netscape (web browser)|Netscape]], [[Mozilla Application Suite|Mozilla]], and [[Internet Explorer]], were large multi-functional programs. This made them slow to start and often impractical due to their high memory usage and processor requirements. Galeon was the first mainstream graphical web browser which specifically focused on the reduction of peripheral functionality. Galeon is also famous for introducing "[[Smart Bookmark]]s", bookmarks that take an argument and can be used as toolbar buttons with a text field used to enter the value for the argument.
Galeon's initial development team split in [[2002]] due to disagreements about the target audience. This split led to the creation of [[Epiphany (web browser)|Epiphany]], a [[Fork (software)|fork]] of Galeon. [[Epiphany (web browser)|Epiphany]] has since become the default browser of [[GNOME]]. On [[October 22]], [[2005]], the Galeon developers announced plans to stop development of Galeon in its current form, saying "the current
approach is unsustainable" in the resources required for maintenance. Instead, they hope to develop a set of extensions for Epiphany to provide similar functionality.
Other comparable browsers have appeared, including Mozilla's own [[Mozilla Firefox|Firefox browser]], and the [[K-Meleon]] browser available for [[Microsoft Windows]].
==See also==
*[[List of web browsers]]
*[[Comparison of web browsers]]
==External links==
*[http://galeon.sourceforge.net/ Galeon homepage]
*[http://galeon.sourceforge.net/links/history.php Galeon History homepage]
*[http://gnomedesktop.org/node/2450 The future of Galeon], regarding plans for Epiphany extensions
[[Category:GNOME]]
[[Category:Mozilla]]
[[Category:Linux web browsers]]
[[Category:Mac OS web browsers]]
[[Category:Free web browsers]]
{{GNOME-stub}}
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[[zh:Galeon]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Goedel Escher Bach</title>
<id>13056</id>
<revision>
<id>15910698</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-07T13:56:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rootbeer</username>
<id>1297</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to Gödel, Escher, Bach</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gödel, Escher, Bach]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gatling gun</title>
<id>13057</id>
<revision>
<id>42023081</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T07:30:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cabez</username>
<id>983677</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Combat use */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gatling gun 1865.jpg|thumb|A [[1865]] Gatling gun.]]
The '''Gatling gun''' was the first successful rapid-repeating firearm. It was the first firearm to combine reliability, high firing rate and ease of loading into a single device. It was designed by the American inventor [[Richard Jordan Gatling|Richard J. Gatling]], in [[1861]] and patented on [[May 9]], [[1862]]. In modern usage it typically refers to guns with a similar rotating ba |
t Koch]]
[[it:Robert Koch]]
[[ja:ロベルト・コッホ]]
[[ka:კოხი, რობერტ]]
[[nl:Robert Koch]]
[[no:Robert Koch]]
[[pl:Robert Koch]]
[[pt:Robert Koch]]
[[ro:Robert Koch]]
[[ru:Кох, Роберт]]
[[sv:Robert Koch]]
[[vi:Robert Koch]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heart Wipe</title>
<id>13723</id>
<revision>
<id>19110259</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-18T22:26:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Agentsoo</username>
<id>80866</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wipe]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heart wipe</title>
<id>13724</id>
<revision>
<id>15911317</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-28T21:02:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Grm wnr</username>
<id>72203</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Merged with [[Wipe]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wipe]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hogshead</title>
<id>13726</id>
<revision>
<id>39355493</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T16:40:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ZwoBot</username>
<id>332929</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: de</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''hogshead''' is a large [[Barrel (storage)|cask]] of liquid (less often, of a [[List of traded commodities#Foodstuffs|food commodity]]). More specifically, it refers to a specified volume, measured in [[Imperial unit]]s, primarily applied to [[alcoholic beverage]]s such as [[wine]], [[ale]], or [[cider]].
A '''tobacco hogshead''' was used in colonial times to transport and store tobacco. It was a very large wooden barrel. A standardized hogshead measured 48 inches long and 30 inches in diameter at the head. Fully packed with tobacco, it weighed about 1000 pounds.
The ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' (OED) notes that the hogshead was first standardized by an [[act of Parliament]] in [[1423]], though the standards continued to vary by locality and content. For example, the OED cites an [[1897]] edition of ''[[Whitaker's Almanack]]'', which specified the number of gallons of wine in a hogshead varying by type of wine: [[claret]] 46 gallons, [[Port wine|port]] 57, [[sherry]] 54; and [[Madeira wine|Madeira]] 46. The ''[[American Heritage Dictionary]]'' claims that a hogshead can consist of anything from 62.5 to 140 (presumably U.S.) gallons.
Eventually, a hogshead of [[wine]] came to be 63 [[gallon]]s, while a hogshead of [[beer]] or [[ale]] is 54 gallons.
A hogshead was also used as unit of measurement for sugar in [[Louisiana]] for most of the 19th century. [[Plantation]]s were listed in sugar schedules as having produced x number of hogsheads of sugar or molasses.
{{English wine casks}}
{{English brewery casks}}
== Popular culture and trivia ==
* This measurement was the namesake for the UK pub chain of the same name.
* In the episode of ''[[The Simpsons]]'' entitled &lsquo;[[A Star is Burns]]&rsquo;, [[Grampa Simpson]] uttered: &ldquo;My car gets forty [[rod (unit)|rod]]s to the hogshead, and that's the way I likes it!&rdquo; That translates into about 12 (beer) or 10 ½ (wine) feet per gallon, or about 1.2 litres per metre!
* In the [[Harry Potter]] book series, the town of [[Hogsmeade]] contains a pub named the Hog's Head, a wordplay on this measurement.
* The [[ Beatles]] song [[Being for the Benefit of Mr Kite]] contains the line, &ldquo;Over men and horses, hoops and garters and lastly through a hogshead of real fire&rdquo;
* The opening song in [[The Music Man]] contains the line, &ldquo;Gone are the hogshead cask and [[demijohn]]&rdquo;
[[Category:Imperial units]]
[[Category:Wine packaging and storage]]
[[Category:Beer]]
[[Category:Units of volume]]
[[de:Oxhoft]]
[[nl:Okshoofd]]
[[ru:Хогсхед]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Huallaga</title>
<id>13727</id>
<revision>
<id>33102334</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-29T08:45:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Aidanb</username>
<id>345584</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Huallaga''' may refer to:
*Locations in [[Peru]]:
**'''[[Huallaga Province]]'''
**'''[[Huallaga River]]'''
**'''[[Huallaga Valley]]'''
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Honda</title>
<id>13729</id>
<revision>
<id>42087844</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:18:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>212.32.103.39</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Infobox_Company |
company_name = Honda Motor Co., Ltd. |
company_logo = [[Image:Honda_logo.png|100px]] |
company_type = [[Public company|Public]] {{tyo|7267}} |
company_slogan = ''"Power of Dreams"'' |
foundation = [[September 24]], [[1948]] |
location = [[Tokyo]], [[Japan]] |
key_people = [[Soichiro Honda]], Founder <br /> [[Takeo Fukui]], CEO|
num_employees = 131,600 |
industry = [[Automobile]] & [[Truck]] [[manufacturer]]|
products = automobiles, trucks, [[motorcycle]]s, [[scooter (motorcycle)|scooter]]s, [[all-terrain vehicle|ATVs]], [[electrical generator]]s, [[robotics]], [[Electric_boat|marine equipment]], and [[Landscape maintenance|lawn and garden equipment]] |
revenue = [[image:green up.png]]$79.222 billion [[United States dollar|USD]] ([[2004]])|
homepage = [http://www.honda.co.jp/ www.honda.co.jp]
}}
'''Honda Motor Co., Ltd.''' (in Japanese: 本田技研工業株式会社, in romaji: ''Honda Giken K&#333;gy&#333; Kabushiki Kaisha'') {{tyo|7267}} ({{nyse|HMC}}), is a [[Japan]]ese [[manufacturer]] of [[automobile|automobiles]], [[truck|trucks]], [[motorcycle|motorcycles]], and [[scooter (motorcycle)|scooter]]s. They also make [[all-terrain vehicle|ATVs]], water craft, [[electrical generator|electrical generators]], marine engines, and lawn and garden equipment. With more than 14 [[million]] [[internal combustion engine]]s built each year, Honda is the largest engine-maker in the world. In [[2004]], the company began to produce [[diesel]] motors, which were both very quiet whilst not requiring particulate filters to pass pollution standards. Honda's high-end line of cars are branded [[Acura]] in [[North America]]. It is arguable, however, that the foundation of Honda's success is the motorcycle division, for which the name is still probably the best known.
Honda is headquartered in [[Tokyo]]. Their shares trade on the [[Tokyo Stock Exchange]], the [[New York Stock Exchange]], as well as exchanges in [[Osaka, Osaka|Osaka]], [[Nagoya]], [[Sapporo]], [[Kyoto]], [[Fukuoka, Fukuoka|Fukuoka]], [[London]], [[Paris]] and [[Switzerland]]. American Honda Motor Co., is based in Torrance, CA. Honda Canada is based in [[Alliston, Ontario]].
==Company history==
[[image:honda.rune.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The 1832cc Honda Rune motorcycle]]
[[Soichiro Honda]] began by manufacturing [[piston]] rings in [[November]] [[1937]]. He quickly became a sub-contractor to [[Toyota]], and then expanded into other engine parts.
On [[September 24]], [[1948]] the Honda Motor Co. was founded. Soichiro Honda took advantage of a gap in the Japanese market that was decimated by [[World War II]], Japan was starved of money and fuel, but still in need of basic [[transport]]. Honda, utilizing his manufacturing facilities, attached an engine to a bicycle, creating the cheap and efficient transport that was required.
The Honda piston manufacturing facilities were almost completely destroyed. Soichiro Honda created a new company with what he had left, giving it the unusual name of "Honda Giken Kōgyō Kabushiki Kaisha" which translates to "Honda Research Institute Co. Ltd." Despite its grandiose name, the first facility bearing that name was a simple wooden shack where Mr. Honda and associates would fit engines to bicycles. Interestingly, the official Japanese name for Honda Motor Co. Ltd. remains the same, in honor of Soichiro Honda's efforts.
Honda quickly began to produce a range of scooters and motorcycles and Soichiro Honda quickly recovered from the losses incurred during the war. By the late [[1960s]], Honda had conquered most world markets. The [[United Kingdom|British]] were especially slow to respond to the Honda introduction of [[electric starter]]s to motorcycles. By the [[1970s]], Honda was the largest producer of motorcycles in the world, a title it has never relinquished.
Honda began producing road cars in [[1960]], mostly intended for the Japanese market. Though participating in international [[motorsport]] (see [[#Racing history|Racing]]), Honda was having difficulty selling its automobiles in the [[United States]]. Built for Japanese buyers, Honda's small cars had failed to gain the interest of American buyers.
Honda finally established a foothold in the American market in [[1972]] with the introduction of the [[Honda Civic|Civic]]&mdash;larger than their previous models, but still small compared to the typical American car&mdash;just as the [[1970s]] [[energy crisis]] was impacting worldwide economies. New emissions laws in the US, requiring American car makers to affix expensive [[catalytic converter]]s to exhaust systems, noticeably increased sticker prices. However, Honda's introduction of the 1975 Civic [[CVCC]], CVCC being a variation on the [[stratified charge engine]], allowed the Civic to pass emissions tests without a catalytic converter.
In [[1976]], the [[Honda Accord|Accord]] was immediately popular because of its economy and fun-to-drive nature; Honda had found its niche in the United States. In [[1982]], Honda was the first Japanese car manufacturer to build [[factory|car plants]] in the US, starting with an Accord plant in [[Marysville, Ohio]]. They now have plants in [[Marysville, Ohio|Mary |
, Andrew (1994). ''A Man On The Moon: The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts''. Viking. ISBN 0670814466.
*Harland, David M. (1999). ''Exploring the Moon: The Apollo Expeditions''. Springer/Praxis Publishing. ISBN 1852330996.
*NASA Manned Spacecraft Center (1972). ''Apollo 15 Preliminary Science Report''. Scientific and Technical Office, NASA.
*[http://history.nasa.gov/ap15fj/ Apollo 15 Flight Journal]. Retrieved on [[June 17]], [[2005]]
*[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a15/a15.html Apollo 15 Lunar Surface Journal]. Retrieved on [[June 17]], [[2005]]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_15a_Summary.htm Apollo By The Numbers: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA)]. Retrieved on [[June 17]], [[2005]]
*[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/ch20-6.html Moonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations]. Retrieved on [[June 17]], [[2005]]
*[http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo15.htm Apollo 15] in the [[Encyclopedia Astronautica]]. Retrieved on [[June 17]], [[2005]]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report]. Retrieved on [[June 17]], [[2005]]
*[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo15info.html NSSDC Apollo 15 page]. Retrieved on [[June 17]], [[2005]]
*NASA ([[September 15]], [[1972]]). ''[http://www.collectspace.com/resources/flown_a15_articlescarried.html Articles Carried on Manned Space Flights]''. Press Release.
*[http://www.spacephilatelics.com/suchap3-32.html Sieger Flown Moon Covers]. Retrieved on [[June 18]], [[2005]]
*[http://www.archive.org/details/IntheMountainsOfTheMoonApollo15 In the Mountains of the Moon (Part 1) NASA film on the Apollo 15 mission downloadable at www.archive.org The Internet Archive]
*[http://www.archive.org/details/InTheMountainsOfTheMoon In the Mountains of the Moon (Part 2) NASA film on the Apollo 15 mission downloadable at www.archive.org The Internet Archive]
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[[Category:Human spaceflights]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Apollo 16</title>
<id>1970</id>
<revision>
<id>42106675</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:44:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Header - references plural</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right"
|+<font size="+1">'''Apollo 16'''</font>
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission Insignia
|-
|colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:AP16hennings.JPG|200px|Apollo 16 insignia]]
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission Statistics
|-
|'''Mission Name:'''||Apollo 16
|-
|'''Call Sign:'''||Command module: ''Casper''<br />Lunar module: ''Orion''
|-
|'''Number of<br />Crew:'''||3
|-
|'''Launch:'''||[[April 16]], [[1972]]<br />17:54:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]<br />[[Kennedy Space Center]]<br />LC 39A
|-
|'''Lunar Landing:'''||[[April 21]], 1972<br />02:23:35 UTC<br />8° 58' 22.84" S - 15° 30' 0.68" E<br />[[Descartes Highlands]]
|-
|'''Lunar EVA<br />length:'''||1st: 7 h 11 min 2 s<br />2nd: 7 h 23 min 9 s<br />3rd: 5 h 40 min 3 s<br />Total:20 h 14 min 14 s
|-
|'''CMP EVA:'''||1 h 23 min 42 s
|-
|'''Lunar surface<br />time:'''||71 h 2 min 13 s
|-
|'''[[Lunar sample]]<br />mass:'''|| 95.71 kg (211 lb)
|-
|'''Splashdown:'''||[[April 27]], [[1972]]<br />19:45:05 UTC<br />0° 43' S - 156° 13' W
|-
|'''Duration:'''||11 d 1 h 51 min 5 s
|-
|'''Number of<br />Lunar Orbits:'''||64
|-
|'''Time in<br />Lunar Orbit:'''||125 h 49 min 32.59 s
|-
|'''Mass:'''||CSM 30,395 kg;<br />LM 16,445 kg
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Crew Picture
|-
|colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:GPN-2000-001134.jpg|300px|Apollo 16 crew portrait (L-R: Mattingly, Young and Duke)]] <br/>Apollo 16 crew portrait <br/>(L-R: Mattingly, Young and Duke)
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Apollo 16 Crew
|}
'''Apollo 16''' was the tenth manned mission in the [[Project Apollo|Apollo program]] and the fifth mission to land on the Moon.
==Crew==
*[[John W. Young]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 3]]'', ''[[Gemini 10]]'', ''[[Apollo 10]]'', ''Apollo 16'', ''[[STS-1]]'', & ''[[STS-9]]''), commander
*[[Ken Mattingly|Thomas K. (Ken) Mattingly Jr.]] (flew on ''Apollo 16'', ''[[STS-4]]'', & ''[[STS-51-C]]''), command module pilot
*[[Charles Moss Duke, Jr.|Charles Duke Jr.]] (flew on ''Apollo 16''), lunar module pilot
===Backup crew===
*[[Fred Haise]], commander
*[[Stuart Roosa]], command module pilot
*[[Edgar Mitchell]], lunar module pilot
===Support crew===
*[[Philip K. Chapman|Philip Chapman]]
*[[Anthony England]]
*[[Henry Hartsfield]]
*[[Robert Overmyer]]
==Mission parameters==
*'''Mass:'''
**Launch mass: 2,921,005 kg
**Total spacecraft: 46,782 kg
***CSM mass: 30,354 kg, of which CM was 5840 kg, SM 24,514 kg
***LM mass: transposition and docking 36,252 lb (16,444 kg), separation for landing 36,743 lb (16,666 kg), ascent stage at lunar liftoff 10,949 lb (4966 kg)
*'''Earth orbits:''' 3 before leaving for Moon, about one on return
*'''Lunar orbits:''' 64
*'''[[Perigee]]:''' 166.7 km
*'''[[Apogee]]:''' 176.0 km
*'''[[Inclination]]:''' 32.542°
*'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 87.85 min
*'''[[Perilune]]:''' 107.6 km
*'''[[Apolune]]:''' 315.4 km
*'''[[Inclination]]:''' 168°
*'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 120 min
*'''Landing Site:''' [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/lunar_sites.html 8.97301° S - 15.50019° E] or<br /> 8° 58' 22.84" S - 15° 30' 0.68" E
===LM - CSM docking===
*'''Undocked''': [[April 20]], [[1972]] - 18:07:31 UTC
*'''Docked''': [[April 24]], [[1972]] - 03:35:18 UTC
===EVAs===
* '''''Young and Duke''''' - EVA 1
*'''EVA 1 Start''': [[April 21]], [[1972]], 16:47:28 UTC
*'''EVA 1 End''': April 21, 23:58:40 UTC
*'''Duration''': 7 hours, 11 minutes, 02 seconds
* '''''Young and Duke''''' - EVA 2
*'''EVA 2 Start''': [[April 22]], [[1972]], 16:33:35 UTC
*'''EVA 2 End''': April 22, 23:56:44 UTC
*'''Duration''': 7 hours, 23 minutes, 09 seconds
* '''''Young and Duke''''' - EVA 3
*'''EVA 3 Start''': [[April 23]], [[1972]], 15:25:28 UTC
*'''EVA 3 End''': April 23, 21:05:31 UTC
*'''Duration''': 5 hours, 40 minutes, 03 seconds
* ''''' Mattingly ''''' - Transearth EVA 4
*'''EVA 4 Start''': [[April 25]], [[1972]], 20:33:46 UTC
*'''EVA 4 End''': April 25, 21:57:28 UTC
*'''Duration''': 1 hour, 23 minutes, 42 seconds
The splashdown point was 0 deg 43 min S, 156 deg 13 min W, 215 miles (350 km) southeast of Christmas Island and 5 km (3 mi) from the recovery ship [[USS Ticonderoga (CV-14)|USS ''Ticonderoga'']].
==Introduction==
[[Image:a16-plaque.jpg|right|thumb|depiction of the plaque left on the moon by Apollo 16]]
The crew members: [[John W. Young]], commander; [[Ken Mattingly]], command module pilot; and [[Charles Duke]], lunar module pilot. It was a J-class mission, featuring a [[Lunar Rover]]. It brought back 94.7 kg of lunar samples. It included three lunar [[Extra-vehicular activity|EVA]]: 7.2 hours, 7.4 hours, 5.7 hours and one trans-earth EVA of 1.4. This was only the second trans-earth EVA ever and was used to bring in film from exterior cameras and conduct an experiment on microbial survival.
The Apollo 16 subsatellite was launched from the CSM while it was in lunar orbit. The subsatellite carried out experiments on magnetic fields and solar particles. It was launched [[April 24]], [[1972]] at 21:56:09 UTC and orbited the Moon for 34 days and 425 revolutions. It had a mass of 80 lb (36.3 kg) and consisted of a central cylinder and three 1.5 m booms.
Enroute to the moon, the Apollo 16 astronauts took several photos of Earth. One of which was with North America in the background, with much of the northern portion of the continent under extensive cloud cover. This photo would later be used as a backdrop for the opening sequence of television's [[World Class Championship Wrestling]], a Dallas-based professional wrestling organization, from 1983 to 1987.
==Mission highlights==
[[Image:40_A16Plum.jpg|thumb|360px|Panoramic Assembly of Apollo 16 Plum and Flag Craters (moonpans.com)]][[Image:AS16-113-18339.jpg|thumb|360px|John Young jumps while saluting the flag. (NASA)]]
[[Image:Apollo_16_LM_Orion.jpg|thumb|360px|John Young works at the LRV near the LM Orion (NASA)]]
A malfunction in a yaw gimbal servo loop in the main propulsion system of the CSM "Casper" caused concerns about firing the engine to adjust the CSM's lunar orbit, and nearly caused the Moon landing to be scrubbed. But it was decided that the malfunction presented relatively little risk, and Young and Duke (who were already undocked, and flying LM "Orion" when the problem occurred) were permitted to land on the Moon. However, the mission was shortened by a day (reducing the time in orbit around the Moon after the LM left the Moon and docked with the CSM), as a safety measure.
Young and Duke spent three days exploring the Descartes highland region, while Mattingly circled overhead in "Casper." The astronauts discovered that what was thought to have been a region of volcanism was actually a region full of impact-formed rocks (breccias). Th |
Player 1'' gets 4, and ''Player 2'' gets 3.
When a game is presented in normal form, it is presumed that each player acts simultaneously or, at least, without knowing the actions of the other. If players have some information about the choices of other players, the game is usually presented in extensive form.
===Extensive form===
{{main article|[[Extensive form game]]}}
[[Image:Ult.png|thumb|left|An extensive form game]]
Extensive form games attempt to capture games with some important order. Games here are presented as [[tree (graph theory)|trees]] (as pictured to the left). Here each [[vertex]] (or node) represents a point of choice for a player. The player is specified by a number listed by the vertex. The lines out of the vertex represent a possible action for that player. The payoffs are specified at the bottom of the tree.
In the game pictured here, there are two players. ''Player 1'' moves first and chooses either ''F'' or ''U''. ''Player 2'' sees ''Player 1'''s move and then chooses ''A'' or ''R''. Suppose that ''Player 1'' chooses ''U'' and then ''Player 2'' chooses ''A'', then ''Player 1'' gets 8 and ''Player 2'' gets 2.
Extensive form games can also capture simultaneous-move games as well. Either a dotted line or circle is drawn around two different vertices to represent them as being part of the same [[information set]] (i.e., the players do not know at which point they are).
==Types of games==
===Symmetric and asymmetric===
{{main article|[[Symmetric game]]}}
{| border="1" align=right cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+ align=bottom|''An asymmetric game''
|
! ''E''
! ''F''
|-
! ''E''
| 1, 2
| 0, 0
|-
! ''F''
| 0, 0
| 1, 2
|}
A symmetric game is a game where the payoffs for playing a particular strategy depend only on the other strategies employed, not on who is playing them. If the identities of the players can be changed without changing the payoff to the strategies, then a game is symmetric. Many of the commonly studied 2&times;2 games are symmetric. The standard representations of [[Game of chicken|chicken]], the [[prisoner's dilemma]], and the [[stag hunt]] are all symmetric games. {{ref|symmetry}}
Most commonly studied asymmetric games are games where there are not identical strategy sets for both players. For instance, the [[ultimatum game]] and similarly the [[dictator game]] have different strategies for each player. It is possible, however, for a game to have identical strategies for both players, yet be asymmetric. For example, the game pictured to the right is asymmetric despite having identical strategy sets for both players.
===Zero sum and non-zero sum===
{{main article|[[Zero-sum]]}}
{| border="1" align=right cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+ align=bottom|''A Zero-Sum Game''
|
! ''A''
! ''B''
|-
! ''A''
| 2, &minus;2
| &minus;1, 1
|-
! ''B''
| &minus;1, 1
| 3, &minus;3
|}
In [[zero-sum]] games the total benefit to all players in the game, for every combination of strategies, always adds to zero (or more informally put, a player benefits only at the expense of others). [[Poker]] exemplifies a zero-sum game (ignoring the possibility of the house's cut), because one wins exactly the amount one's opponents lose. Other zero sum games include [[matching pennies]] and most classical board games including [[go (board game)|go]] and [[chess]]. Many games studied by game theorists (including the famous [[prisoner's dilemma]]) are non-zero-sum games, because some [[Outcome (Game theory)|outcomes]] have net results greater or less than zero. Informally, in non-zero-sum games, a gain by one player does not necessarily correspond with a loss by another.
It is possible to transform any game into a zero-sum game by adding an additional dummy player (often called "the board"), whose losses compensate the players' net winnings.
===Simultaneous and sequential===
{{main article|[[Sequential game]]}}
Simultaneous games are games where both players move simultaneously, or if they do not move simultaneously, the later players are unaware of the earlier players' actions (making them ''effectively'' simultaneous). Sequential games (or dynamic games) are games where later players have some knowledge about earlier actions. This need not be [[perfect information|perfect knowledge]] about every action of earlier players; it might be very little information. For instance, a player may know that an earlier player did not perform one particular action, while she does not know which of the other available actions the first player actually performed.
The difference between simultaneous and sequential games is captured in the different representations discussed above. [[Normal form game|Normal form]] is used to represent simultaneous games, and [[extensive form game|extensive form]] is used to represent sequential ones.
===Perfect information and imperfect information===
[[Image:PD with outside option.png|thumb|250px|right|A game of imperfect information (the dotted line represents ignorance on the part of player 2)]]
{{main article|[[Perfect information]]}}
An important subset of sequential games consists of games of perfect information. A game is one of perfect information if all players know the moves previously made by all other players. Thus, only sequential games can be games of perfect information, since in simultaneous games not every player knows the actions of the others. Most games studied in game theory are imperfect information games, although some interesting games are games of perfect information, including the [[ultimatum game]] and [[centipede game]]. Many popular games are games of perfect information including [[chess]], [[go]], and [[mancala]].
Perfect information is often confused with [[complete information]], which is a similar concept. Complete information requires that every player know the strategies and payoffs of the other players but not necessarily the actions.
===Infinitely long games===
{{main article|[[Determinacy]]}}
For obvious reasons, games as studied by economists and real-world game players are generally finished in a finite number of moves. Pure mathematicians are not so constrained, and [[set theory|set theorists]] in particular study games that last for infinitely many moves, with the winner (or other payoff) not known until ''after'' all those moves are completed.
The focus of attention is usually not so much on what is the best way to play such a game, but simply on whether one or the other player has a [[Determinacy#Basic notions|winning strategy]]. (It can be proved, using the [[axiom of choice]], that there are games&mdash;even with perfect information, and where the only outcomes are "win" or "lose"&mdash;for which ''neither'' player has a winning strategy.) The existence of such strategies, for cleverly designed games, has important consequences in [[descriptive set theory]].
==Uses of game theory==
Games in one form or another are widely used in many different academic disciplines.
===Economics and business===
Economists have used game theory to analyze a wide array of economic phenomena, including [[auction]]s, [[bargaining]], [[duopoly|duopolies]] and [[oligopoly|oligopolies]], [[social network]] formation, and [[voting systems]]. This research usually focuses on particular sets of strategies known as [[solution concept|equilibria]] in games. These "solution concepts" are usually based on what is required by norms of [[perfect rationality|rationality]]. The most famous of these is the [[Nash equilibrium]]. A set of strategies is a Nash equilibrium if each represents a best response to the other strategies. So, if all the players are playing the strategies in a Nash equilibrium, they have no incentive to deviate, since their strategy is the best they can do given what others are doing.
The payoffs of the game are generally taken to represent the [[utility function|utility]] of individual players. Often in modeling situations the payoffs represent money, which presumably corresponds to an individual's utility. This assumption, however, can be faulty.
A prototypical paper on game theory in economics begins by presenting a game that is an abstraction of some particular economic situation. One or more solution concepts are chosen, and the author demonstrates which strategy sets in the presented game are equilibria of the appropriate type. Naturally one might wonder to what use should this information be put. Economists and business professors suggest two primary uses.
====Descriptive====
[[Image:Centipede game.png|thumb|300px|right|A three stage Centipede Game]]
The first use is to inform us about how actual human populations behave. Some scholars believe that by finding the equilibria of games they can predict how actual human populations will behave when confronted with situations analogous to the game being studied. This particular view of game theory has come under recent criticism. First, it is criticized because the assumptions made by game theorists are often violated. Game theorists may assume players always act rationally to maximize their wins (the [[Homo economicus]] model), but real humans often act either irrationally, or act rationally to maximize the wins of some larger group of people ([[altruism]]). Game theorists respond by comparing their assumptions to those used in physics. Thus while their assumptions do not always hold, they can treat game theory as a reasonable scientific [[Idealization|ideal]] akin to the models used by [[physicist]]s. However, additional criticism of this use of game theory has been levied because some |
[[Johann Bayer]]'s ''[[Uranometria]]'' of [[1603]].
It should not be confused with [[Hydra (constellation)|Hydra]].
{{astro-stub}}
==Notable Stars==
===Stars with proper names===
* [[Alpha Hydri|&alpha; Hyi]] "Head of Hydrus" 2.86
===Stars with Bayer designations===
* [[Beta Hydri|&beta; Hyi]] 2.82 &ndash; nearby; [[Gamma Hydri|&gamma; Hyi]] 3.26; [[Delta Hydri|&delta; Hyi]] 4.08; [[Epsilon Hydri|&epsilon; Hyi]] 4.12; [[Zeta Hydri|&Zeta; Hyi]] 4.83; [[Theta Hydri|&theta; Hyi]] 5.51; [[Eta1 Hydri|&eta;<sup>1</sup> Hyi]] 6.77; [[Eta2 Hydri|&eta;<sup>2</sup> Hyi]] 4.68; [[Iota Hydri|&iota; Hyi]] 5.51; [[Kappa Hydri|&kappa; Hyi]] 5.99; [[Lambda Hydri|&lambda; Hyi]] 5.09; [[Mu Hydri|&mu; Hyi]] 5.27; [[Nu Hydri|&Nu; Hyi]] 4.76; [[Pi1 Hydri|&pi;<sup>1</sup> Hyi]] 5.57; [[Pi2 Hydri|&pi;<sup>2</sup> Hyi]] 5.67; [[Sigma Hydri|&sigma; Hyi]] 6.15; [[Tau1 Hydri|&tau;<sup>1</sup> Hyi]] 6.33; [[Tau2 Hydri|&tau;<sup>2</sup> Hyi]] 6.05
==Notable Deep-sky Objects==
==History==
Was found in 1609
== Headline text ==
==Mythology==
Since it was introduced in the 17th century, and due to its southern position is not visible from Greece, there is no earlier mythology associated with Hydrus, despite its name.
==See also==
{{ConstellationsByBayer}}
{{ConstellationList}}
==References==
==External links==
{{Commons|Hydrus}}
[[Category:Hydrus constellation| ]]
[[ca:Hidra mascle]]
[[da:Lille Søslange]]
[[de:Kleine Wasserschlange (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Hydrus]]
[[fr:Hydre mâle]]
[[ko:물뱀자리]]
[[it:Hydrus]]
[[la:Hydrus (sidus)]]
[[lt:Pietų Hidra]]
[[hu:Déli Vízikígyó (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Kleine Waterslang]]
[[ja:みずへび座]]
[[nn:Den sørlege vasslangen]]
[[pl:Wąż Wodny (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Hydrus]]
[[ru:Южная Гидра (созвездие)]]
[[sv:Lilla vattenormen]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวงูไฮดรัส]]
[[zh:水蛇座]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hercules</title>
<id>13770</id>
<revision>
<id>42137763</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:49:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mcduff</username>
<id>476429</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>remove immature comment about Michel [sic] Jackson</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
----
[[Image:BandinelliHercules.jpg|thumb|right|193px|''Hercules and [[Cacus]],'' by [[Baccio Bandinelli]], 1525 - 1534. Piazza della Signoria, [[Florence]].]]
'''Hercules''' (also known as '''Herakles''') was the name in [[Roman mythology]] of the hero '''[[Heracles]]''' from [[Greek mythology]], the Roman name being a [[Metathesis_(linguistics)|metathesis]] of the Greek name. He is the son of [[Jupiter]], the Roman counterpart to the Greek god [[Zeus]] and the mortal [[Alcmene]]. He was made to perform twelve great tasks, called ''[[The Twelve Labours|The Twelve Labours of Hercules]]'' and became a god; the Romans adopted the Greek version of his life and works essentially unchanged, but added anecdotal detail of their own, some of it linking the hero with the geography of the Western Mediterranean. Details of [[cult (religion)|cult]] were adapted to Rome as well.
Hercules can be identified by his attributes, the [[Nemean Lion|lion skin]] and the [[Club (weapon)|club]]. He is a paragon of masculinity, and thus embodies characteristics such as great strength, great courage, and great appetite, including great sexual appetite for women and boys. By conquering negative forces he is said to have "made the world safe for mankind." He is often compared to the biblical strong man [[Samson]], who also possessed vast superhuman strength and performed similar feats such as wrestling a [[lion]]. The later [[Roman Emperor]]s, in particular [[Commodus]] and [[Maximinus]], often identified or compared themselves with Hercules.
The ''Great Altar of Hercules'', housed within the [[Forum Boarium]], has been dated to the [[6th century BC|6th]] or [[5th century BC]].
What is believed to be an [[Egypt|Egyptian]] [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/herculest.htm Temple of Hercules] in the [[Bahariya Oasis]] dates to 21 BC.
<!-- needs work ... There are also some astronomical details:
* Variable stars alpha Her, S Her, SZ Her
* Binaries zeta Her, kappa Her, mu Her, rho Her, u Her, 95 Her
* Globular clusters M 13, M 92, NGC 6229
* Planetary Nebula NGC 6210
* X-ray source Hercules X-1
* Meteor Shower: Tau Herculids -->
==Origin of the legend==
The cult of Hercules may have been the first foreign one to be adopted in Rome; his most important shrine, the [[Ara Maxima]], was in the original [[Palatine Hill|Palatine]] settlement. He became popular with merchants, who customarily paid him a [[tithe]] of their profits.
Hercules is said to have founded an altar where the [[Boarium Forum|Forum Boarium]], the cattle market, was later held. One possible origin for the myth of the [[Geryon|Cattle of Geryon]], one of [[The Twelve Labours]] of [[Herakles]], has been attributed to an older [[Milky Way (mythology)|Milky Way myth]] which associates the [[Milky Way]] constellation with a herd of [[dairy]] [[cattle]], where each [[cow]] is represented by a [[star]].
A [[mosaic]] discovered in the ruins of [[Pompeii]] vividly depicts Hercules as a black man ([http://academic.reed.edu/humanities/110Tech/RomanAfrica2/pompei%26herc1.jpg], [http://academic.reed.edu/humanities/110Tech/RomanAfrica2/#Subject]).
There is also an ancient tradition of killing a [[lion]] to earn entry into manhood among the [[Maasai]], who are further known for their deeply-rooted tradition of [[cattle]]-grazing. But no firm connection between the [[Maasai]] and the legend of Hercules has ever been established.
==The Greek Legend==
After killing his music tutor with a lute, he was sent to tend cattle on a mountain by Amphitryon. Here, he was visited by two nymphs - Pleasure and Virtue - who offered him a choice between a pleasant and easy life or a severe but glorious life. He chose the latter.
One of Heracles' challenges was put to him by [[King Thespius]] of [[Thespia]] who wished him to impregnate each of his 50 daughters. According to the legend, Heracles did this in one night.
Later in [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], Heracles married [[King Creon]]'s daughter, [[Megara (mythology)|Megara]]. However, Hera drove Heracles into a fit of madness during which he killed his wife and children. Upon realizing what he had done, he fled to the [[Oracle of Delphi]]. Unbeknownst to him, the Oracle was guided by Hera. He was directed to serve [[King Eurystheus]] for 12 years and perform any task which he required, resulting in [[The Twelve Labours]] of Hercules.
After completing these tasks, Heracles joined the [[Argonauts]] in the search of the [[Golden Fleece]]. They rescued heroines, conquered Troy, and helped the gods fight against the [[Gigantes]]. He also fell in love with [[Princess Iole of Oechalia]]. Heracles' advances were spurned by the king and his sons, except for one - Iole's brother Iphitus. Iphitus became Heracles best friend. But once again, Hera drove Heracles mad and he threw Iphitus over the city wall to his death. Once again, Heracles purified himself through servitude - this time to Queen Omphale of Lydia.
Heracles later married [[Deianira]]. When travelling with her, he came to a river where the centaur Nessus made some money by carrying people across. Heracles decided to make his own way but entrusted his wife to the Centaur. However, Nessus attempted to rape Deianira and Heracles shot him with a poisoned arrow. Nessus, as he was dying, gave Deiranira his coat which he stated would stop Heracles from ever being unfaithful. He did not however mention, that as it was stained with his blood - it would poison whoever wore it.
Heracles later decided to elope with Princess Iole, and realizing he was not dressed for the occasion requested that his wife send him a coat. Deianira, who knew more about Heracles' relationship with Iole than he thought, decided to send Nessus' coat in order to keep him faithful. However, when Heracles put on the coat it burned his skin, and he was unable to remove it. Heracles begged Zeus to save him, but his calls went unanswered. He eventually ordered his attendants to light fire to him in order to put him out of his misery. The burning of his physical body burned off the mortal parts of him (since he was a demi-god), thus only the immortal parts were left. Because his mortal parts had been incinerated, he could now become a full god and join his father and the other Olympians on Mount Olympos.
=== Acca Larentia ===
In [[Roman mythology]], [[Acca Larentia]] was Hercules' mistress. She was married to [[Tarutius]], a wealthy merchant. When he died, she gave his money to charity. In another version, she was the wife of [[Faustulus]].
== Movie and television adaptations ==
Views of Heracles/Hercules since the Renaissance have made few distinctions, the Roman figure overshadowing the Greek. Later interpretations of Heracles' legend cast him as a wise leader and a good friend (many of the movie and TV adaptations cast him in this light, especially the recent syndicated TV series ''[[Hercules: The Legendary Journeys]]'', and the movie [[Hercules (movie)|Hercules]]). While he was a champion and a great warrior, he was not above cheating and using any unfair trick to his advantage. However, he was renowned as having made the world safe for man by destroying many dangerous monsters, and he was also held up as an example for never having attacked first, but for having conquered all merely by defending himself when attacked, and protecting the helpless and distraught. His self-sacrifice obtained him the ascent to the Olympian realms and he was welcomed by the gods. The legend of Heracles endures, though often co-opted to suit the political fashion of the day.
As a public domain chara |
ified version of column chromatography called '''flash column chromatography''' ("flash"). The technique is very similar to the traditional column chromatography, except for that the solvent is driven through the column by applying positive pressure.
When applying positive pressure on top of the column, most separations could be performed in less than 20 minutes with improved separations compared to the old method. This makes flash column chromatography the method of choice for most synthetic organic chemists when purifying organic compounds.
In the modern Flash chromatography systems which can be purchased, the glass columns are replaced with pre-packed plastic cartridges. Solvent is pumped through the cartridge, which is much quicker. Systems may also be linked with detectors and fraction collectors providing automation. The introduction of gradient pumps means quicker separations and less solvent usage.
== Gas-liquid chromatography ==
[[Gas-liquid chromatography]] is based on a [[partition equilibrium]] of analyte between a liquid stationary phase and a mobile gas. It is useful for a wide range of non-polar analytes, but poor for thermally labile molecules.
== Ion exchange chromatography ==
Ion exchange chromatography is a column chromatography that uses a charged stationary phase. It is used to separate charged compounds including [[amino acid]]s, [[peptide]]s, and [[protein]]s. The stationary phase is usually an [[ion exchange resin]] that carries charged [[functional group]]s which interact with oppositely charged groups of the compound to be retained:
* Positively charged ion exchanger (''anion exchanger'') interacts with [[anion]]s
* Negatively charged ion exchanger (''cation exchanger'') interacts with [[cation]]s.
Bound compounds can be eluted from the column by [[gradient elution]] or isocratic elution with a change in salt concentration or pH. Ion exchange chromatography is commonly used to purify proteins using [[Fast protein liquid chromatography|FPLC]].
== Immobilized metal ion affinity chromatography ==
IMAC is a popular and powerful way to purify [[protein]]s. It is based on the specific [[coordinate covalent bond|coordinate covalent binding]] between [[histidine]] or other unique [[amino acid]]s (either naturally present on the surface of the protein or grafted with [[recombinant DNA technology|recombinant DNA techniques]]) and various immobilized metal ions, such as copper, nickel, zinc, or iron.
Salt concentration is increased to produce later fractions.
== High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) ==
[[High performance liquid chromatography]], usually referred to simply as '''HPLC''', is a form of [[column chromatography]] used frequently in [[biochemistry]] and [[Analytical Chemistry]]. The analyte is forced through a column (stationary phase) by a liquid (mobile phase) at high pressure, which decreases the time the separated components remain on the stationary phase and thus the time they have to [[diffuse]] within the column. Diffusion within the column leads to broad peaks and loss of resolution. Less time on the column then translates to narrower peaks in the resulting chromatogram and thence to better resolution (it's easier to differentiate one peak from another) and sensitivity (tall, narrow peaks can be easier to discriminate from noise than shorter, broader peaks). Another way to decrease time the analyte stays on the column is to use a solvent gradient. A solvent gradient is how the composition of the mobile phase changes over a period of time and can be used to force the analyte off of the column at a faster rate.
=== Normal phase (NP) liquid chromatography ===
Normal phase HPLC (NP-HPLC) was the first kind of HPLC setup used. This method uses a polar stationary phase and a nonpolar mobile phase, and is commonly used when the analyte of interest is has a nonpolar nature. NP-HPLC has fallen out of favor recently with the development of reversed phase HPLC.
=== Reversed phase (RP) liquid chromatography ===
Reversed phase HPLC (RP-HPLC) was developed due to the increasing interest in large polar biomolecules. Like the name implies the nature of the stationary phase is reversed. The RP-HPLC consists of a nonpolar stationary phase and a polar mobile phase. One common stationary phase is a ''normal'' silica which has been treated with RMe<sub>2<sub>SiCl, where R is a straight chain alkyl group such as C<sub>18<sub>H<sub>37<sub> or C<sub>8<sub>H<sub>17<sub>. It is the case that for a given substance the retention time is longer when the mobile phase is more polar. This is the reverse of the situation which exists when normal silica is used as the stationary phase.
Reversed phase columns are quite difficult to damage when compared with normal silica columns. But they must never be used with strong aqueous [[bases]] ([[alkali]]) as these will destroy the silica, however they can be used with aqueous acid but the column should not be exposed to the acid for too long. One reason is because the acid will corrode the metal parts of the HPLC equipment. The metal content of HPLC columns must be kept low if the best possible ability to separate substances is to be retained. A good test for the metal content of a [[column]] is to inject a sample which is a [[mixture]] of 2,2'- and 4,4'- [[bipyridine]]. Because the 2,2'-bipy can [[chelate]] the metal it is normal that when a [[metal]] [[ion]] is present on the surface of the [[silica]] the shape of the peak for the 2,2'-bipy will be distorted, tailing will be seen on this distorted peak.
== Gel permeation chromatography ==
[[Gel permeation chromatography]], also known as size exclusion chromatography or Sephadex gel chromatography, separates molecules on basis of size. Smaller molecules enter a porous media and take longer to exit the column, hence larger particles leave the column first. GPC is good for determining polymer molecular weight distribution, but is low [[resolution]].
== Affinity chromatography ==
[[Affinity chromatography]] is based on selective non-covalent interaction between an analyte and specific molecules. It is very specific, but not very [[robust]]. It is often used in biochemistry in the purification of [[protein]]s (or better: protein constructs). These constructs can be of [[fusion protein]]s with a so-called [[His-tag]], [[biotin|biotinylated]] or possibly [[antigen]]s. After purification some of these [[tag]]s are usually removed and the pure protein is obtained.
== Countercurrent chromatography ==
[[Countercurrent chromatography]]
==See also==
* [[wikibooks:Transwiki:Paper chromatography of amino acids|Paper chromatography of amino acids]] on [[Wikibooks]].
==External links==
* [http://www.chromatography-online.org/ Library 4 Science] online books about chromatography.
* [http://www.novasep.com/Technologies/Chromatography.asp NOVASEP] Principe of operation and applications in chemistry
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Clement Martyn Doke</title>
<id>6330</id>
<revision>
<id>27808429</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-09T10:30:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Evertype</username>
<id>58589</id>
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<comment>sp</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Clement Martyn Doke''' ([[1893]]-[[1980]]) was a [[South African]] [[linguist]] working mainly on [[African languages]]. A most prolific writer, he published a string of grammars, several dictionaries, comparative work, and a history of Bantu linguistics. Many of these works appeared while he was working in relative obscurity at the University of the Witwatersrand (1923-1953). He wrote on [[Zulu language|Zulu]] and other [[Bantu languages]], and was an early describer of [[Khoisan languages|Khoisan]] and Bantu [[click consonant]]s, devising phonetic symbols for a number of them. Realizing that the grammatical structures of Bantu languages are quite different from those of European languages, he was one of the first African linguists of his time to abandon the Euro-centric approach to language description for a more locally grounded one.
Doke's report "'Report on the unification of the Shona dialects" (1931) was an attempt to resolve conflicts about the orthography of [[Shona language|Shona]]. Doke devised a unified orthography based on the Zezuru, Karanga and Manyika dialects. However, Doke's orthography was never fully accepted and the South African government introduced an alternative, leaving Shona with two competing orthographies between 1935-1955.
In the early [[1940s]], Doke colloborated with Zulu [[poet]] and scholar [[Benedict Wallet Vilakazi]] to create a Zulu-English dictionary, published [[1948]].
==Selected publications==
*''Bantu linguistic terminology''. London; New York Longmans, Green, 1935.
*''Outline grammar of Bantu''. Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand, 1943.
*''Zulu-English Dictionary''. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1948. (with Benedict Wallet Vilakazi)
*''The Southern Bantu languages''. London; New York: Oxford University Press, 1954.
*''Contributions to the history of Bantu linguistics''. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1961. (with D. T. Cole)
{{Academic-bio-stub}}
[[Category:1893 births|Doke, Clement Martyn]]
[[Category:1980 deaths|Doke, Clement Martyn]]
[[Category:South African linguists|Doke, Clement Martyn]]
[[Category:South African people|Doke, Clem |
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