text stringlengths 1.83k 10k |
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n is an alternative name for [[Aspen Mountain (Colorado)]]
* Nike Ajax missile, of the U.S. [[Project Nike]]
* a russian hypersonic aircraft project based on plasma stealth technology, see [[Ajax (aircraft)]]
{{disambig}}
[[bg:Аякс]]
[[ca:Ajax]]
[[de:Ajax]]
[[fr:Ajax]]
[[ko:아이아스]]
[[it:Ajax]]
[[la:Aiax]]
[[nl:Ajax]]
[[ja:アイアス]]
[[pt:Ajax]]
[[ru:Аякс]]
[[sv:Ajax]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alaric I</title>
<id>1570</id>
<revision>
<id>40067980</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T22:19:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FlaBot</username>
<id>228773</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Modifying: sl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AlaricTheGoth.jpg|thumb|right|270px|An [[1894]] [[photogravure]] of Alaric I taken from a painting by Ludwig Thiersch.]]
'''Alaric I''' (Alaric or Alarich, in Latin ''Alaricus'') was likely born about [[370]] on an island named Peuce (the Fir) at the mouth of the [[Danube]], became king of the [[Visigoths]] from [[395]]&ndash;[[410]], and was the first Germanic leader to take the city of [[Rome]].
He was well born, his father kindred to the [[Balti dynasty|Balti]], considered next in worth among Gothic fighters to the [[Amali]]. He was a [[Goths|Goth]] and belonged to the western branch, called the [[Visigoth|Visigoths]], who at the time of his birth dwelt in what is today [[Bulgaria]], having fled beyond the wide estuary marshes of the [[Danube]] to its southern shore so as not to be followed by their foe from the [[steppe]], the [[Huns]].
==In Roman service==
During the [[4th century]] it had become common practice with the emperors to employ ''[[foederati]]''; Germanic [[irregular military|irregular troops]] under Roman command, but organized by tribal structures. The provincial population, crushed under a load of taxation, could no longer furnish soldiers in the numbers needed for the defence of the empire. Moreover, the emperors—ever fearful that a brilliantly successful general of Roman extraction might be proclaimed [[Augustus]] by his followers—preferred that high military command should be in the hands of one to whom such an accession of dignity was as yet impossible. The largest of these contigents were the Goths which had in [[382]] been allowed to settle within the imperial frontier with a large degree of autonomy.
In [[394]] Alaric served as a leader of foederati under [[Theodosius I]] in the campaign in which he crushed the usurper [[Eugenius]]. As the [[Battle of the Frigidus]], which terminated this campaign, was fought at the passes of the [[Julian Alps]], Alaric probably learned the weakness of [[Italy|Italy's]] natural defences on its northeastern frontier at the head of the [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic]].
Theodosius died in 395, leaving the empire to be divided between his two sons [[Arcadius]] and [[Flavius Augustus Honorius|Honorius]], the former taking the eastern and the latter the western portion of the empire. Arcadius showed little interest in ruling, leaving most of the actual power to his [[Praetorian Prefect]] [[Rufinus (Byzantine official)|Rufinus]]. Honorius was still a minor; as his guardian, Theodosius had appointed the ''[[magister militum]]'' [[Stilicho]]. Stilicho also claimed to be the guardian of Arcadius, causing much rivalry between the western and eastern courts.
In the shifting of offices which took place at the beginning of the new reigns, Alaric apparently hoped he would be promoted from a mere commander of federates to generalship of one of the regular armies. This was denied him, however. Among the Visigoths, settled in Lower [[Moesia]], the situation was ripe for rebellion. At Frigidus they had suffered disproportional high losses, according to rumour a convenient way of weakening the Gothic tribes. Their rewards after the campaign had also been lacking. So they raised Alaric on a shield and proclaimed him king; leader and followers both resolving (says [[Jordanes]] the Gothic historian) "rather to seek new kingdoms by their own work, than to slumber in peaceful subjection to the rule of others."
==In Greece==
Alaric struck first at the eastern empire. He marched to the neighbourhood of [[Constantinople]] but, finding himself unable to undertake the siege of that superbly strong city, retraced his steps westward and then marched southward through [[Thessaly]] and the unguarded pass of [[Thermopylae]] into [[Greece]].
The armies of the eastern empire were occupied with [[Huns|Hunnic]] incursions in [[Asia Minor]] and [[Syria]]. Instead Rufinus attempted to negotiate with Alaric in person. The only results was suspicions in Constantinople that Rufinius was in league with the Goths. Stilicho now marched east against Alaric. According to [[Claudian]], Stilicho was in a position to destroy the Goths, when he was ordered by Arcadius to leave [[Illyricum]]. Soon after Rufinus was hacked to death by his own soldiers. Power in Constantinople now passed to the eunuch chamberlain [[Eutropius (Byzantine official)|Eutropius]].
The death of Rufinus and departure of Stilicho gave Alaric free reins. He ravaged Attica but spared Athens, which at once capitulated to the conqueror. Then he penetrated into the [[Peloponnesus]] and captured its most famous cities—[[Corinth, Greece|Corinth]], [[Argos]], and [[Sparta]]—selling many of their inhabitants into slavery.
Here, however, his victorious career ended. In [[397]] Stilicho crossed by sea to Greece and succeeded in shutting up the Goths in the mountains of [[Pholoe]] on the borders of [[Elis]] and [[Arcadia]] in the peninsula. From thence Alaric escaped with difficulty, and not without some suspicion of connivance on the part of Stilicho, who supposedly again had received orders to depart. Alaric then crossed the [[Gulf of Corinth]] and marched with the plunder of [[Greece]] northwards to [[Despotate of Epirus|Epirus]]. Here his rampage continued until the eastern government appointed him ''magister militum per Illyricum'', giving him the Roman command he had desired and authority to resupply his men from the imperial arsenals.
==First invasion of Italy==
It was probably in the year [[400]] that Alaric made his first invasion of Italy, cooperating with another Gothic chieftain named [[Radagaisus]]. Supernatural influences weren't lacking to urge him to this great enterprise. Some lines of the Roman poet inform us that he heard a voice proceeding from a [[Oracle|holy grove]], "Break off all delays, Alaric. This very year thou shalt force the Alpine barrier of Italy; thou shalt penetrate to the city." But the prophecy wasn't to be fulfilled at this time. After spreading desolation through North [[Italy]] and striking terror into the citizens of Rome, Alaric was met by [[Stilicho]] at [[Pollentia]], today in [[Piedmont (Italy)|Piedmont]]. The battle which followed on [[April 6]], [[402]] (coinciding with Easter), was a victory for Rome, though a costly one. But it effectually barred the further progress of the Goths.
Stilicho's enemies later reproached him for having gained his victory by taking impious advantage of the great Christian festival. Alaric, too, was a Christian, though an [[Arianism|Arian]] rather than a [[Catholic]]. He had trusted to the sanctity of Easter for immunity from attack.
The wife of Alaric is said to have been taken prisoner after this battle; and there is some reason to suppose that he was hampered in his movements by the presence with his forces of large numbers of women and children, having given to his invasion of [[Italy]] the character of a national migration.
After another defeat before [[Verona, Italy|Verona]], Alaric left Italy, probably in [[403]]. He hadn't indeed "penetrated to the city" but his invasion of Italy had produced important results. It had caused the imperial residence to be transferred from [[Milan]] to [[Ravenna]], it had necessitated the withdrawal of [[Legio XX Valeria Victrix|Legio XX ''Valeria Victrix'']] from Britain, and it had probably facilitated the great invasion of [[Vandals]], [[Suevi|Sueves]], and [[Alans]] into Gaul, which lost Gaul and the provinces of [[Hispania]] to the Empire.
==Second invasion of Italy==
We next hear of Alaric as the friend and ally of his late opponent Stilicho. The estrangement between the eastern and western courts had in [[407]] become so bitter as to threaten civil war, and Stilicho was actually proposing to use the forces of Alaric in order to enforce the claims of Honorius to the [[prefecture]] of Illyricum. The death of Arcadius in May [[408]] caused milder counsels to prevail in the western cabinet, but Alaric, who had actually entered Epirus, demanded in a somewhat threatening manner that if he were thus suddenly bidden to desist from war, he should be paid handsomely for what in modern language would be called the expenses of mobilization. The sum which he named was a large one, 4,000 pounds of gold. Under strong pressure from Stilicho the Roman senate consented to promise its payment.
But three months later Stilicho himself and the chief ministers of his party were treacherously slain in pursuance of an order extracted from the timid and jealous Honorius. In the disturbances that followed, throughout Italy the wives and children of the foederati were slain. The natural consequence of all this was that these men, to the number of 30,000, flocked to the camp of Alaric, clamouring to be led against their cowardly enemies. He accordingly led them across the Julian Alps and, in September [[408]], stood before the walls of [[Rome]] (now with no capable general like Stilicho as a defender) and began a strict blockade.
No blood was shed this time; hunger was the weapon on which Alaric relied. When the ambassadors of the [[Roman Senate|Senate]], in treating for peace, tried to terrify him with their hints of what the despairing citizens might accomp |
Wars]]
*[[Battle of Adrianople (1365)]] - [[Capture by Ottoman Turks]]
*[[Battle of Adrianople (1913)]] - [[First Balkan War]]
{{disambig}}
[[cs:Bitva u Adrianopole]]
[[es:Batalla de Adrianópolis (Desambiguación)]]
[[nl:Slag bij Adrianopel]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Beacon</title>
<id>3731</id>
<revision>
<id>38974823</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T22:00:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
<id>293907</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up + typo fix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This page discusses Beacons, fires designed to attract attention. See also [[radio beacon]]. For other uses of the word, see [[Beacon (disambiguation)]]''
[[Image:Karl-dahl-vardetenning.jpg|400px|right|thumb|The beacon is being lit somewhere in [[Scandinavia]].]]
'''Beacons''' are fires lit on hills or high places, used either as [[lighthouse]]s for [[navigation]] at sea, or for signalling over land that enemy troops are approaching, and alerting the defence. In the latter form, beacons are an ancient form of [[optical telegraph]] and always used in [[relay league]]s.
This system have existed over a large part of the world and in [[Scandinavia]] many [[hill forts]] were part of networks of beacons to warn about pillaging expeditions from other Scandinavians.
Similarly the [[Brecon Beacons]] in [[Wales]] take their name from beacons to warn of approaching [[England|English]] raiders.
In England, the most famous example is the beacons used in [[Elizabethan]] [[England]] to warn of the approaching [[Spanish Armada]]. This chain of beacons gave the name to many [[Beacon Hill]]s.
Beacons have often been abused by [[pirate]]s. A fire at a wrong position was used to direct a ship against [[cliff]]s or [[beach]]es, so the cargo could be looted after the ship sank or ran aground.
In modern technical parlance, a beacon can also be a [[radio Beacon|transmitter]] used for navigation.
Beacons are aids to navigation devices. Intentionally conspicuous, beacons help guide navigators to their destinations. Beacon types include radar reflectors, radio beacons, sound signals, and visual beacons. Visual beacons range from small, single-pile structures to large lighthouses or light stations and are located on land or in water. Lighted beacons are called lights; unlighted beacons are called daybeacons.
See also [[Emergency position-indicating rescue beacon]].
==External links==
The Probert Encyclopedia has a good picture of an Elizabethan Beacon. http://www.probertencyclopaedia.com/cgi-bin/xphrase.pl?keyword=Beacon
[[Category:Early telecommunications]]
[[de:Befeuerung]]
[[sv:Vårdkase]]
[[zh:烽火台]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bangra</title>
<id>3732</id>
<revision>
<id>15902047</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bhangra]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bhangra</title>
<id>3733</id>
<revision>
<id>41853172</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T03:56:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Samdean</username>
<id>964858</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bhangra''' ({{lang-pa|ਭੰਗੜਾ}}, ''{{IAST|bhaṅgṛā}}'') is both a lively dance which is from the region of [[Punjab region|Punjab]], now divided between North [[India]] and [[Pakistan]], and the musical accompaniment to the dance. A variety of popular music, also called Bhangra, has developed from these traditions and has a keen youth following around the world.
{{Indianmusic}}
Bhangra is a fusion of music, [[singing]] and the beat of the [[dhol]] drum, a single stringed instrument called the [[iktar]] ([[ektara]]), the [[tumbi]] and an instrument reminiscent of an enlarged pair of tongs called [[chimta]]. The accompanying songs are small couplets written in the [[Punjabi language]] called ''bolis''. They relate to harvest celebration, love, patriotism or current social issues.
Today the word ''Bhangra'' is more associated with the style of [[dance music|dance]] [[pop music]] derived from the above mentioned musical accompaniment. The dhol's smaller cousin, the [[dholaki]], is sometimes used instead of or in addition to the dhol. Additional [[Percussion_instrument|percussion]], including [[tabla]], is frequently used in bhangra.
Bhangra has always been popular amongst Punjabi people all over the world, but it has enjoyed a resurgence over the last ten years or so. Its raw traditional sound is often supplemented with contemporary musical styles. In its more recent history, bhangra has been fused with [[disco]], [[reggae]], [[techno music|techno]], [[house music|house]], [[rapping|rap]], [[ragga]] and now [[jungle (music)|jungle]]. In fact these new styles are so successful that modern bhangra is now being re-exported back to India. Most of this tends to come from the UK [[Desi]] scene, a [[subculture]] found amongst the [[South Asian]] [[diaspora]].
Both collegiate and non-collegiate Bhangra competitions are held throughout the world, especially in the Punjab (India), [[United States]], [[Canada]], and the [[UK]]. Some competitions in the United States include:
* [http://www.bhangrablowout.com/ Bhangra Blowout] in [[Washington, D.C.]]
* [http://www.bruinbhangra.com/ Bruin Bhangra] in [[Long Beach, California]]
* [http://www.bhangrafusion.net/ Bhangra Fusion] in [[Ann Arbor, Michigan]]
* [http://www.dholdiawaz.com/ Dhol Di Awaz] in the [[San Francisco Bay Area]]
* [http://www.southbeachbhangra.com/ South Beach Bhangra] in [[Miami]]
== Notable Bhangra artists ==
(alphabetical by first name or stage name)
* [[A.S. Kang]]
* [[Abrar Ul-Haq]]
* [[Akram Rahi]]
* [[Aman Hayer]]
* [[Amar Singh Chamkila]]
* [[Amrinder Gill]]
* [[Amrita Virk]]
* [[Apna Sangeet]]
* [[Ashok Masti]]
* [[Ataullah Isivi]]
* [[B21]]
* [[Babbu Mann]]
* [[Balkar Sidhu]]
* [[Balwinder Safri]] (of the Safri Boyz, aka Safri Boys)
* [[BEE2]]
* [[BBT]]
* [[Daler Mehndi]]
* [[DJ GT]]
* [[Dr. Zeus]]
* [[Gurdas Mann]]
* [[Hans Raj Hans]]
* [[Harbhajan Mann]]
* [[Harjit Harman]]
* [[Inderjit Singh]]
* [[Jasbir Jassi]]
* [[Jaspinder Narula]]
* [[Jassi Sidhu]]
* [[Jassi Sohal]]
* [[Jazzy Bains]]
* [[K.S. Makhan]]
* [[Kamal Heer]]
* [[Kuldip Manak]]
* [[Kulwinder Dhillon]]
* [[Lehmber Hussainpuri]]
* [[Malkit Singh]]
* [[Manmohan Waris]]
* [[Nachattar Gill]]
* [[Pammi Bai]]
* [[Preet Brar]]
* [[Ravinder Grewal]]
* [[RDB]]
* [[Romi Gill]]
* [[The Sahotas]]
* [[Sardool Sikander]]
* [[Satwinder Bitti]]
* [[Sukhshinder Shinda]]
* [[Surjit Bindrakhia]]
* [[Surinder Shinda]]
== Bands ==
* [[Apna Sangeet]]
* [[Heera Group]]
* [[Premi]]
* [[Sahotas]]
* [[Safri Boys]]
== Producers ==
* [[Bally Sagoo]]
* [[Panjabi MC]]
* [[Rishi Rich]]
* [[Shin G.C.]]
* [[Taj-E]]
* [[Panjabi By Nature]]
* Sukhshinder Shinda
* [[DJ S]]
* [[DJ Stormz]]
==External links ==
* [http://www.cs.cuw.edu/csc/csc175/project/hrpsingh/HISTORYOFFOLKDANCE.HTML Pictures and more information]
* [http://punjabgovt.nic.in/Culture/cul27.htm Bhangra and other dance styles of Punjab]
* [http://www.ajayarora.com/bhangra Video Footage of Bhangra Competitions in North America]
[[Category:Bhangra|*]]
[[Category:Dances of India]]
[[Category:Asian dances]] <!-- ... and Pakistan -->
[[Category:Punjab]]
[[Category:Desi culture]]
[[fr:Bhangra]]
[[de:Bhangra]]
[[sv:Bhangra]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Beastie Boys</title>
<id>3735</id>
<revision>
<id>42146981</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:13:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ziggur</username>
<id>374132</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Revert vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beastiealive.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Beastie Boys; from left to right, Ad-Rock, Mike D, MCA.]]The '''Beastie Boys''' are an [[United States|American]] [[alternative]] [[hip-hop music]] group from [[New York City]] ([[Brooklyn]] and [[Manhattan]]). The main members are Mike D (real name [[Michael Diamond]]), MCA ([[Adam Yauch]]) and Ad-rock ([[Adam Horovitz]]).
Beastie Boys were the first successful white rap group, and one of the few acts from the early days of hip-hop that still enjoy major success. Their rock and punk-influenced rap has had significant impact on artists both in and outside the hip-hop scene.
== The early days ==
Beastie Boys were formed in 1979 as a punk band called The Young Aborigines. In 1981 Adam Yauch (MCA) joined them and changed the name to the Beastie Boys. The name "Beastie" originally stood for "Boys Entering Anarchistic States Towards Inner Excellence", and the initials B.B. intended to mimic Washington DC punk band [[Bad Brains]]. The band's original line-up consisted of Adam Yauch on [[bass guitar|bass]], [[Kate Schellenbach]] on [[drums]], John Berry on [[guitar]] and Michael Diamond on vocals. Their first gig was at Berry's house on Yauch's 17th birthday. The band quickly earned support slots for [[Bad Brains]] and [[Reagan Youth]] at venues such as [[CBGB]] and [[Max's Kansas City]], playing at the latter venue on its closing night. That same year, the Beastie Boys recorded the 7" [[Extended play|EP]] ''[[Pollywog Stew]]'' at [[171A studios]].
John Berry left the group (later forming [[Thwig]]) and was replaced by Horovitz, who had previously played in the punk band [[The Young and the Useless]] in 1983. The band also performed its first rap track ''[[Cooky Puss]],'' based on a prank call by the group to [[Carvel|Carvel Ice Cream]]. The song became a hit in [[New York]] underground [[dance club]]s upon its release.
==''[[Licensed to Ill]]'' - 1984-1987==
It was during this period that [[ |
es, and attitudes would be associated with and define different decades of the century, and thus the names of the decades themselves have come to be synonymous with them. Some commentators suggest that this phenomenon will not continue into the [[21st Century]] with its decades.
<table cellpadding="1" border="0">
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<td align="right">[[550s BC]]</td>
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<td align="right">[[530s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[520s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[510s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[500s BC]]</td>
</tr><tr>
<td align="right">'''[[5th century BC]]'''</td>
<td align="right">[[490s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[480s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[470s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[460s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[450s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[440s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[430s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[420s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[410s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[400s BC]]</td>
</tr><tr>
<td align="right">'''[[4th century BC]]'''</td>
<td align="right">[[390s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[380s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[370s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[360s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[350s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[340s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[330s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[320s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[310s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[300s BC]]</td>
</tr><tr>
<td align="right">'''[[3rd century BC]]'''</td>
<td align="right">[[290s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[280s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[270s BC]]</td>
<td align="right">[[260s BC]]</td>
<td al |
owing at the northern tip of Manhattan island (in the neighborhood of [[Inwood]]). There is a third campus on the west bank of the [[Hudson River]], the 157 acre Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory in [[Palisades, New York]].
New buildings and structures on the campus have often only been constructed after a contentious process often involving open debate and protest over the new structures. Often the complaints raised by these protests during these periods have expansion have included issues beyond the debate over the construction of any of the architectural features which diverged from the original McKim, Mead, and White plan, and often involved complaints against the administration of the university. This was the case with Uris Hall which sits behind Low Library, which evolving from an original plan for a single building encompassing the area of Low and Uris and with Alfred Lerner Hall. Elements of these same issues have been reflected in the current debate over the future expansion of the campus into [[Manhattanville]], several blocks uptown from the current campus.<ref>[http://www.columbia.edu/~tt2124/CUHist/ Evolution of Morningside]</ref>
Columbia's library system includes 8.7 million bound volumes [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/opir/facts.html?libraries]. <!--more content here -->
== History ==
Columbia is the oldest institution of [[higher education]] in the state of [[New York]] and the sixth-oldest in the [[United States]]. Columbia has grown over time to comprise twenty schools and affiliated institutions.
In the early [[1750]]'s, clergymen of the [[Episcopal]]ian Trinity Church in [[New York City]] became alarmed by the [[Presbyterian]] founding of [[Princeton University ]](then known as the ''College of New Jersey'') [http://beatl.barnard.columbia.edu/kingsv1/biosketches.htm]. They established their own "rival" institution, ''[[King's College]]'' and elected as its first president [[Samuel Johnson (1696-1772)|Samuel Johnson]]. Classes began on [[July 17]], [[1754]], with Johnson being the sole faculty member. A few months later, [[Great Britain]]'s [[George II of Great Britain|King George II]] officially granted a [[royal charter]] for the college on [[October 31]], 1754.
Controversy surrounded the founding of the new college in New York, as it was a thoroughly Anglican institution dominated by the influence of Crown officials in its governing body such as the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] and the [[Crown Secretary for Plantations and Colonies]]. The fears of an [[Anglican]] episcopacy and Crown influence in America through [[King's College]] were confirmed by its vast wealth, far surpassing all other colonial colleges of the period. Until the American Revolution, [[King's College]] would remain a bastion of Loyalists. On the other hand, the College would produce the leading men of the Revolutionary generation.
After the [[American Revolutionary War]], King's College was renamed in [[1784]] to Columbia College, and Samuel Johnson's son, [[William Samuel Johnson]], became its president. In [[1896]], it was renamed to Columbia University.
=== Park Place and Rockefeller Center ===
In July 1754, [[Samuel Johnson (1696-1772)|Samuel Johnson]] held the first classes in a new school house adjoining [[Trinity Church, New York|Trinity Church, Wall Street]], located on what is now lower [[Broadway (New York City)|Broadway]] in [[Manhattan]]. There were eight students in the class. In [[1767]] King's College established the first American medical school to grant the MD degree.
The [[American Revolutionary War]] brought the growth of the College to a halt, forcing a suspension of instruction in [[1776]] that lasted for eight years. Among the earliest students and trustees of King's College were [[John Jay]], the first [[Chief Justice of the United States]]; [[Alexander Hamilton]], the first [[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]; [[Gouverneur Morris]], the author of the final draft of the [[United States Constitution]]; and [[Robert R. Livingston]], a member of the five-man committee that drafted the [[Declaration of Independence]]. In 1784, the college reopened as Columbia College, reflecting the patriotic fervor which had inspired the nation's quest for independence.[[Image:Kings_college_1770.gif|thumb|King's College Hall, 1770]]
In 1849, the College moved from Park Place, near the present site of City Hall, to 49th Street and [[Madison Avenue]], where it remained for the next fifty years. During the last half of the nineteenth century, Columbia rapidly assumed the shape of a modern university. [[Columbia Law School]] was founded in 1858, and the country's first mining school, a precursor of today's [[Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science]], was established in 1864. [[Barnard College]] for women became affiliated with Columbia in 1889; the [[Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons]] came under the aegis of the University in 1891, followed by [[Teachers College]] in 1893.
The development of the Graduate Faculties in Political Science, Philosophy, and Pure Science established Columbia as one of the nation's earliest centers for graduate education. By the close of the nineteenth century, Columbia was the world's leading producer of academic doctorates and was universally recognized as America's top research university.
=== Morningside Heights ===
In 1896, the trustees officially authorized the use of yet another new name, Columbia University, and today the institution is officially known as "Columbia University in the City of New York." At the same time University president [[Seth Low]] moved the campus again from Rockefeller Center at 49th Street to its present location, a more spacious campus in the Morningside Heights area of [[Manhattan]].
[[Image:Columbia_low_plaza_3old.jpg|thumb|left|View of Columbia University's Low Library Plaza, c [[1900]] ]]
The building often depicted as emblematic of Columbia is the centerpiece of the Morningside Heights campus, the Low Library. Constructed in [[1895]], the building is still referred to as the "Low Library" although it has not functioned as a library since [[1934]]. It currently houses the office of the President and some archival collections. Patterned on the [[Parthenon]] and [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]], it is surmounted by the largest all-granite dome in the United States.[http://www.gs.columbia.edu/kevinmap/lowmemorial.htm]
[[Image:Columbia University library.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Library in [[2005]].]]
Under the leadership of Low's successor, [[Nicholas Murray Butler]], Columbia rapidly became the nation's major institution for research, setting the "multiversity" model that later universities would adopt. On the Morningside Heights campus, Columbia centralized on a single campus the College, the School of Law, the Graduate Faculties, the School of Mines (predecessor of the Engineering School), and the College of Physicians & Surgeons. Butler went on to serve as president of Columbia for over four decades and became a giant in American public life (as one-time [[vice-presidential|vice presidential]] candidate and a [[Nobel Laureate]]). His introduction of "downtown" business practices in university administration led to innovations in internal reforms such as the centralization of academic affairs, the direct appointment of registrars, deans, provosts, and secretaries, as well as the formation of a professionalzed university bureaucracy, unprecedented among American universities at the time.
In 1893 the [[Columbia University Press]] was founded in order to "promote the study of economic, historical, literary, scientific and other subjects; and to promote and encourage the publication of literary works embodying original research in such subjects." Among its publications are ''[[The Columbia Encyclopedia]],'' first published in 1935, and ''The Columbia Lippincott Gazetteer of the World,'' first published in 1952.
In 1902, New York newspaper magnate [[Joseph Pulitzer]] donated a substantial sum to the University for the founding of a school to teach journalism. The result was the 1912 opening of the [[Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism|Graduate School of Journalism]]-- the only journalism school in the Ivy League. The school is the administrator of the [[Pulitzer Prize]] and the [[duPont-Columbia Award]] in broadcast journalism.
[[Columbia Business School]] was added in the early [[20th century]]. During the first half of the 20th Century Columbia and [[Harvard]] had the largest endowments in the country.
By the late [[1930s]], a Columbia student could study with the likes of [[Jacques Barzun]], [[Paul Lazarsfeld]], [[Mark Van Doren]], [[Lionel Trilling]], and [[I. I. Rabi]]. The University's graduates during this time were equally accomplished - for example, two alumni of Columbia's Law School, [[Charles Evans Hughes]] and [[Harlan Fiske Stone]] (who also held the position of Law School dean), served successively as Chief Justices of the United States. In the '50s, [[Dwight Eisenhower]] served as Columbia's president before becoming the President of the United States.
Research into the atom by faculty members [[John R. Dunning]], I. I. Rabi, [[Enrico Fermi]] and [[Polykarp Kusch]] placed Columbia's Physics Department in the international spotlight in the [[1940s]] after the first nuclear pile was built to start what would become the [[Manhattan Project]].
Following the end of [[World War II]] the School of International Affairs was founded in [[1946]]. Focusing on developing [[diplomat]]s and [[foreign affairs]] specialists the school began by offering the [[Masters in International Affairs]]. To satisfy an increasing desire for skilled [[civil service|public service]] professionals at home and abroad, the School added the [[Master of Public Administration]] degree in 197 |
'' and ''Mickey Mouse Works'', but Russi Taylor still voices the trio in other projects, such as the video game ''[[Donald Duck: Goin' Quackers]]'', and the [[direct-to-video]] films [[Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas|''Mickey's Once'']] and [[Mickey's Twice Upon a Christmas|''Twice Upon a Christmas'']].
==Comics==
Within the comics, Huey, Dewey and Louie often play a major role in most stories involving either their uncle Donald or great-uncle Scrooge McDuck, accompanying them on most of their adventures. Also seen in the comics is the boys' membership in the [[Scouting|Boy Scouts]]-like organization, the [[The Junior Woodchucks|the Junior Woodchucks]], including their use of the [[Junior Woodchucks Guidebook]], a manual containing all manner of information on virtually every subject possible.
In Disney comic writer [[Don Rosa]]'s (unofficial) continuity, Huey, Dewey and Louie Duck were born around [[1940]] in Duckburg. True to his jocular style, Rosa occasionally makes subtle references to the untold mystery of the three boys' life: What became of their parents? In his epic comic series, ''[[Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck]]'', Rosa pictures how Scrooge first met Donald and his nephews, saying: "I'm not used to relatives, either! The few I had seem to have... disappeared!" Huey, Dewey, and Louie answer: "We know how ''that'' feels, unca Scrooge!"
==Origin of the boys' names==
According to interviews by Taliaferro, Huey, Dewey and Louie were originally named after two political figures and an animator of the time:
*Huey was named after [[Huey Long|Huey Pierce Long]] of [[Louisiana]].
*Dewey was named after [[Thomas Dewey|Thomas Edmund Dewey]] of [[New York]].
*Louie was named after animator [[Louie Schmitt]].[http://us.imdb.com/name/nm0773436/].
The television series ''Quack Pack'' presented full names for the youths:
*Huey's full name was '''Huebert Duck'''.
*Dewey's full name was '''Deuteronomy Duck'''.
*Louie's full name was '''Louis Duck'''.
==Trivia==
*On a few occasions, there is a fourth nephew that appears, slipping through by a mistake of the artist. He has been named "[[Phooey Duck]]" by Disney comic editor [[Bob Foster]]. One short [[Egmont (media group)|Egmont]]-licensed Disney comic explained Phooey's sporadic appearances as a freak incident of nature.
*In the ''[[Kingdom Hearts]]'' video game, Huey, Dewey, and Louie somehow arrived to [[Traverse Town]] and set up an item shop, collecting money to fund their own adventures. They sell items and weapons Sora and company, but refuse to give a family discount to their uncle Donald. By the end of the game, the trio went back to Disney Castle, though in the sequel, go to [[Hollow Bastion]] to aid the reconstruction along with Uncle Scrooge and again run an item shop.
*Donald Duck isn't the only Disney character to have nephews. Other Disney nephews and nieces with unknown or rarely seen parents include [[Mickey Mouse]]'s [[Morty and Ferdie Fieldmouse|Morty and Ferdie]], [[Daisy Duck]]'s [[April, May and June]], [[Goofy]]'s [[Gilbert (Disney character)|Gilbert]], [[Gyro Gearloose]]'s [[Ratchet Gearloose|Ratchet]], [[the Beagle Boys]]' [[the Beagle Brats]] and [[the Beagle Babes]], [[José Carioca]]'s [[Zico and Zeca]], [[Fethry Duck]]'s [[Dugan Duck|Dugan]], [[Minnie Mouse]]'s [[Melody and Millicent]], [[Gladstone Gander]]'s [[Shamrock Gander|Shamrock]], and [[Clarabelle Cow]]'s [[Betsy Cow|Betsy]].
==Cultural references==
*The movie ''[[Silent Running]]'' features three robots named Huey, Dewey, and Louie.
*The [[Japan]]ese [[anime]] series ''[[Cowboy Bebop]]'' featured a trio of shuttle hijackers/bounty heads named Huey, Dewey, and Louie in one episode.
*At the end of every episode of [[Car Talk]] on [[NPR]], one of the fake credits is for the show's legal counsel, Hugh Louis Dewey of [[Dewey, Cheetham, and Howe]], known to his friends in [[Central Square]] (or perhaps [[Harvard Square]]) as Hughie Louie Dewey.
==The boys' names in other languages==
*Croatian: Hinko, Dinko i Vinko
*Czech: Kulík, Dulík a Bubík
*Danish: Rip, Rap og Rup
*Dutch: Kwik, Kwek en Kwak
*Estonian: Hups, Tups ja Lups
*Finnish: Tupu, Hupu ja Lupu
*French: Riri, Fifi et Loulou
*Faroese: Dinni, Danni, Dunni,
*German: Tick, Trick und Track
*Hungarian: Tiki, Niki és Viki (in some comic book translations, either of the names are, without any particular system, replaced with Riki or Diki)
*Icelandic: Ripp, Rapp og Rupp
*Indonesian: Kwik, Kwek dan Kwak
*Italian: Qui, Quo e Qua
*Latvian: Tiks, Tiiks, Triks
*Lithuanian: Bilis, Vilis, Dilis
*Norwegian: Ole, Dole og Doffen
*Polish: Hyzio, Dyzio i Zyzio
*Portuguese: Huguinho, Zezinho e Luisinho (originally Nico, Tico e Chico, changed in mid 50's)
*Russian: Billy, Villy i Dilly
*Serbian: Raja, Gaja i Vlaja ([[cyrillic|cyr]]: &#1056;&#1072;&#1112;&#1072;, &#1043;&#1072;&#1112;&#1072; &#1080; &#1042;&#1083;&#1072;&#1112;&#1072;)
*Slovenian: Žak, Pak in Mak
*Slovak: Hui, Dui, Lui
*Spanish: Hugo, Paco y Luis (Mexico y Chile), Jorgito, Juanito y Jaimito (Spain) and Huguito, Dieguito y Luisito (Argentina)
*Swedish: Knatte, Fnatte och Tjatte
*Turkish: Cin, Can ve Cem
==External links==
*[http://www.toonopedia.com/nephews.htm Toonopedia page about Huey, Dewey, and Louie]
*[http://users.cwnet.com/xephyr/rich/dzone/hoozoo/hdnl.html The boys' profile on the Disney HooZoo]
[[Category:Disney characters|Duck, Huey, Dewey and Louie]]
[[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|Duck, Huey, Dewey and Louie]]
[[category:Kingdom Hearts characters]]
[[Category:Fictional ducks|Duck, Huey, Dewey and Louie]]
[[Category:Donald Duck universe characters]]
[[da:Rip, Rap og Rup]]
[[de:Bewohner von Entenhausen#Tick, Trick und Track]]
[[es:Hugo, Paco y Luis]]
[[fr:Riri, Fifi et Loulou]]
[[it:Qui, Quo, Qua]]
[[hu:Tiki, Niki és Viki]]
[[nl:Kwik, Kwek en Kwak]]
[[nb:Ole, Dole og Doffen]]
[[nn:Ole, Dole og Doffen Duck]]
[[pl:Hyzio, Dyzio i Zyzio]]
[[fi:Tupu, Hupu ja Lupu]]
[[sv:Knatte, Fnatte och Tjatte]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hortense McDuck</title>
<id>14357</id>
<revision>
<id>41398594</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T01:45:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dmetri1</username>
<id>763209</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hortense <nowiki>McDuck</nowiki>''' is a [[fictional character]] from the [[Scrooge McDuck universe]].
Hortense was introduced as a relatively well-connected member of her family. A daughter-in-law to [[Grandma Duck]], a sister to [[Matilda McDuck]] and [[Scrooge McDuck]], wife to [[Quackmore Duck]], sister-in-law of [[Goosetave Gander]] and [[Daphne Duck]], aunt to [[Gladstone Gander]], mother to [[Della Thelma Duck | Thelma Duck]] and [[Donald Duck]] and finally grandmother to [[Huey, Dewey and Louie Duck]]. It should perhaps be noted that Carl had forgotten that [[Al Taliaferro]] had already given the name of Donald's sister as [[Della Thelma Duck | Della Duck]]. To avoid confusion her full name was later given as [[Della Thelma Duck]].
Hortense was born on [[1876]] in [[Glasgow]], [[Scotland]] as the youngest child of [[Fergus McDuck]] and [[Downy ODrake|Downy O'Drake]]. She had an older half-brother named [[Rumpus McFowl]], an older brother named [[Scrooge McDuck]] and an older sister named [[Matilda McDuck]]. She would later have a younger half-brother named [[Gideon McDuck]]. [[Jake McDuck]], her paternal uncle was also living with them.
Hortense was born in a [[working class]] family living in relative poverty. In [[1877]] her ten-year-old brother Scrooge started working as a shoe polisher in an effort to help support his family. At the time Hortense was merely an infant sucking on her thumb. She observed from a distance with her father and sister while her brother earned his [[Number One Dime]]. Scrooge continued working for the next couple years. In his leisure time he would spend some time with his younger sisters. He occasionally repaired their [[doll]]s. Otherwise Hortense spent most of her time clinging to her older sister.
By [[1880]], Scrooge had come to realise that his earnings were not enough despite his hard work and efforts. He took the decision of emigrating to the [[United States|USA]] in hopes of earning his own fortune. He was hired as a cabinboy in a merchant ship heading to [[New Orleans]], [[Louisiana]]. His family was there to see him depart. Scrooge noted that Hortense's "Goodbye, Scrooge" were her first spoken words. Though sad to see her brother leave, Hortense was obviously enjoying the rest of the family's attention.
From an early age it was obvious Hortense had a fairly nasty temper combined with considerable strength. Her brother continued to maintain correspondence with his parents and was also informed about this. In [[1882]], Scrooge was hired as a [[cowboy]] by [[Murdo MacKenzie]]. To do this he had to ride Widow Maker, a mare who had already managed to dispose of five other cowboys. Scrooge soon managed to become her rider although he never really managed to tame her. He renamed Widow Maker [[Hortense (horse)|Hortense]] after his spirited six-year-old sister. The latter found this idea unflattering at best.
In [[1885]] [[The Clan McDuck]]'s hereditary lands were in danger of being seized due to her father being unable to pay taxes for them. The lands also included Dismal Downs, the Clan's Castle which had been abandoned since [[1675]]. The Whiskervilles, traditional enemies of the McDucks since the [[15th century]] planned to gain ownership of the lands and were already trying to plunder the castle and its graveyard in search of old relics and treasure. Fergus and Jake started guarding the Castle in order to stop them. Nine-year-old Hortense offered to help them and proved more effective in conflict than either of the elder McDucks. The Whiskervilles began to fear her.
In [[1902]] |
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'''Beryllium''' is the [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Be''' and [[atomic number]] 4. A toxic [[bivalent]] element, beryllium is a steel grey, strong, light-weight yet brittle, [[alkaline earth]] [[metal]], that is primarily used as a hardening agent in [[alloy]]s (most notably [[beryllium copper]]).
== Notable characteristics ==
Beryllium has one of the highest [[melting point|melting points]] of the light [[metal]]s. The [[modulus of elasticity]] of beryllium is approximately 1/3 greater than that of steel. It has excellent [[thermal conductivity]], is nonmagnetic and resists attack by concentrated [[nitric acid]]. It is highly permeable to [[X-ray]]s, and [[neutron]]s are liberated when it is hit by [[alpha particle]]s, as from [[radium]] or [[polonium]] (about 30 neutrons/million alpha particles). At [[standard temperature and pressure]]s beryllium resists [[oxidation]] when exposed to air (although its ability to scratch glass is probably due to the formation of a thin layer of the oxide).
== Applications ==
* Beryllium is used as an [[alloy]]ing agent in the production of beryllium-[[copper]] because of its ability to absorb large amounts of heat. Beryllium-copper alloys are used in a wide variety of applications because of their [[electrical conductivity|electrical]] and [[thermal conductivity]], high strength and [[hardness]], nonmagnetic properties, along with good corrosion and fatigue resistance. These applications include the making of spot-[[welding]] electrodes, [[Spring_(device)|spring]]s, non-sparking tools and [[electrical contact]]s.
* Due to their stiffness, light weight, and dimensional stability over a wide temperature range, beryllium-copper alloys are also used in the defense and aerospace industries as light-weight structural materials in high-speed aircraft, missiles, space vehicles and [[communication satellite]]s.
* Thin sheets of beryllium foil are used with [[X-ray]] detection diagnostics to filter out visible light and allow only X-rays to be detected.
* In the field of X-ray lithography beryllium is used for the reproduction of microscopic [[integrated circuit]]s.
* Because it has a low [[thermal neutron]] absorption cross section, the nuclear power industry uses this metal in [[nuclear reactor]]s as a neutron reflector and moderator.
* Beryllium is used in nuclear weapons for similar reasons. For example, the [[critical mass]] of a plutonium sphere is significantly reduced if the plutonium is surrounded by a beryllium shell.
* Beryllium is sometimes used in [[neutron source]]s, in which the beryllium is mixed with an alpha emitter such as [[polonium]] 210, [[radium]] 226, [[plutonium]] 239 or [[americium]] 241.
* Beryllium is also used in the making of [[gyroscope]]s, various [[computer]] equipment, watch springs and instruments where light-weight, rigidity and dimensional stability are needed.
* [[Beryllium oxide]] is useful for many applications that require an excellent heat conductor, with high strength and hardness, with a very high melting point, and that acts as an electrical insulator.
* Beryllium compounds were once used in [[fluorescent light]]ing tubes, but this use was discontinued because of [[berylliosis]] in the workers manufacturing the tubes (see below).
* The [[James Webb Space Telescope]] [http://www.jwst.nasa.gov/Telescope/mirrortale/ (Beryllium related details from NASA here)] will have 18 hexagonal beryllium sections for its mirrors. Because JWST will face a temperature of &minus;240 degrees Celsius (30 kelvin), the mirror is made of beryllium, a material capable of handling extreme cold better than glass. Beryllium contracts and deforms less than glass &mdash; and thus remains more uniform &mdash; in such temperatures.
== History ==
The name beryllium comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''beryllos'', beryl, from [[Prakrit]] ''veruliya'', from [[Pāli]] ''veuriya''; possibly from or simply akin to a [[Dravidian]] source represented by [[Tamil language|Tamil]] ''veiruor'', ''viar'', "to whiten, become pale." [http://www.bartleby.com/61/74/B0207400.html] At one time beryllium was referred to as '''glucinium''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''glykys'', sweet), due to the sweet taste of its [[salt]]s. This element was discovered by [[Louis Vauquelin]] in [[1798]] as the oxide in [[beryl]] and in [[emerald]]s. [[Friedrich Woehler|Friedrich Wöhler]] and [[Antoine Bussy|A. A. Bussy]] independently isolated the metal in [[1828]] by reacting [[potassium]] and [[beryllium chloride]].
== Occurrence ==
Beryllium is an essential constituent of about 100 out of about 4000 known [[mineral]]s, the most important of which are [[bertrandite]] (Be<sub>4</sub>Si<sub>2</sub>O<sub>7</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub>), [[beryl]] (Al<sub>2</sub>Be<sub>3</sub>Si<sub>6</sub>O<sub>18</sub>), [[chrysoberyl]] (Al<sub>2</sub>BeO<sub>4</sub>), and [[phenakite]] (Be<sub>2</sub>SiO<sub>4</sub>). Precious forms of beryl are [[aquamarine]] and [[emerald]]. Along with [[hydrogen]], [[helium]], and [[lithium]], some beryllium was created in the [[big bang]].
The most important commercial sources of beryllium and its compounds are beryl and bertrandite. Beryllium metal did not become readily available until [[1957]]. Currently, most production of this metal is accomplished by reducing [[beryllium fluoride]] with [[magnesium]] metal. The price on the US market for vacuum-cast beryllium ingots was 338 [[United States dollar|US$]] per pound ($745/kg) in 2001. [http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/beryllium/]
:BeF<sub>2</sub> + Mg &rarr; MgF<sub>2</sub> + Be
See also [[:category:Beryllium minerals|beryllium minerals]].
== Isotopes ==
[[Image:Solar Activity Proxies.png|thumb|right|300px|Plot showing variations in solar activity, including variation in <sup>10</sup>Be concentration.]]
Of beryllium's 10 [[isotope]]s, only beryllium-9 is stable. [[Cosmogenic]] beryllium-10 is produced in the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] by [[cosmic ray]] [[spallation]] of [[oxygen]] and [[nitrogen]]. Because beryllium tends to exist in [[solution]] at [[pH]] levels less than about 5.5 (and most rainwater has a pH less than 5), it will enter into solution and be transported to the Earth's surface via rainwater. As the [[precipitation (chemistry)|precipitation]] quickly becomes more [[alkaline]], beryllium drops out of solution. Cosmogenic beryllium-10 thereby accumulates at the [[soil]] surface, where its relatively long [[half-life]] (1.51 million years) permits a long residence time before decaying to boron-10. Beryllium-10 and its daughter products have been used to examine [[soil erosion]], [[soil formation]] from [[regolith]], the development of [[laterite|lateritic soils]], as well as variations in [[solar activity]] and the age of [[ice core]]s.
The fact that beryllium-7 and beryllium-8 are unstable has profound cosmological consequences as it means that elements heavier than beryllium could not be produced by nuclear fusion in the [[Big Bang]]. Moreover, the nuclear energy levels of beryllium-8 are such that |
the Association of Institutional Psychotherapy in November [[1965]]. It was at the same time that he founded, along with other militants, the F.G.E.R.I. (Federation of Groups for Institutional Study & Research) and its review research, working on philosophy, mathematics, psychoanalysis, education, architecture, ethnology, etc. The F.G.E.R.I. came to represent aspects of the multiple political and cultural engagements of Félix Guattari: the Group for Young Hispanics, the Franco-Chinese Friendships (in the times of the popular communes), the opposition activities with the wars in [[Algerian War of Independence|Algeria]] and Vietnam, the participation in the M.N.E.F., with the U.N.E.F., the policy of the offices of psychological academic aid (B.A.P.U.), the organisation of the University Working Groups (G.T.U.), but also the reorganizations of the training courses with the Centers of Training to the Methods of Education Activities (C.E.M.E.A.) for psychiatric male nurses, as well as the formation of Friendly Male Nurses (Amicales d'infirmiers)(in [[1958]]), the studies on architecture and the projects of construction of a day hospital of for "students and young workers".
Although heavily influenced by the work of Lacan, he would later come to take many distances with respect to the theoretical elaboration of certain concepts and practices. He was one of the actors in the events of May 1968, starting from the [[Movement of March 22]]. It was at this time that Guattari met [[Gilles Deleuze]] at the University of Vincennes and began to lay the ground-work for the soon to be infamous ''[[Anti-Oedipus]]'' (1972). Throughout his career it may be said that his writings were at all times correspondent in one fashion or another with sociopolitical and cultural engagements. In 1967, he appeared as one of the founders of OSARLA (Organization of solidarity and Aid to the Latin-American Revolution). It was with the head office of the F.G.E.R.I. that he meet, in [[1968]], [[Daniel Cohn-Bendit]], [[Jean-Jacques Lebel]], and [[Julian Beck]]. In [[1970]], he created C.E.R.F.I. (Center for the Study and Research of Institutional Formation), which takes the direction of the Recherches review. In 1977, he created the CINEL for "new spaces of freedom" before joigning in the 1980s the [[ecological]] movement with his "ecosophy".
== 1980s to 1990s ==
In his last book, ''Chaosmose'' ([[1992]]), the topic of which is already partially developed in ''What is Philosophy?'' (1991, with Deleuze), Félix Guattari takes again his essential topic: the question of subjectivity. "How to produce it, collect it, enrich it, reinvent it permanently in order to make it compatible with mutant Universes of value?" This idea returns like a leitmotiv, from ''Psychanalyse and transversality'' (a regrouping of articles from [[1957]] to [[1972]]) through ''Années d'hiver'' ([[1980]] - [[1986]]) and ''Cartographies Schizoanalytique'' ([[1989]]). He insists on the function of "a-signification", which plays the role of support for a subjectivity in act, starting from four parameters: "significative and semiotic flows, Phylum of Machanic Propositions, Existential Territories and Incorporeal Universes of Reference."
In 1995, the posthumous release ''Chaosophy'' featured Guattari's first collection of essays and interviews focuses on the French anti-psychiatrist and theorist's work as director of the experimental La Borde clinic and collaborator of philosopher Gilles Deleuze. Chaosophy is a groundbreaking introduction to Guattari's theories on "schizo-analysis", a process meant to replace [[Sigmund Freud]]'s interpretation with a more pragmatic, experimental, and collective approach rooted in reality. Unlike Freud, Guattari believes that schizophrenia is an extreme mental state co-existent with the capitalist system itself. But capitalism keeps enforcing neurosis as a way of maintaining normality. Guattari's post-Marxist vision of capitalism provides a new definition not only of mental illness, but also of micropolitical means of subversion. It includes key essays such as "Balance-Sheet Program for Desiring Machines," cosigned by Deleuze (with whom he coauthored Anti-Oedipus and A Thousand Plateaus), and the provocative "Everybody Wants To Be a Fascist."
''Soft Subversions'' is another collection of Félix Guattari's essays, lectures, and interviews traces the militant anti-psychiatrist and theorist's thought and activity throughout the 1980s ("the winter years"). Concepts such as "micropolitics," "schizoanalysis," and "becoming-woman" open up new horizons for political and creative resistance in the "postmedia era." Guattari's energetic analyses of art, cinema, youth culture, economics, and power formations introduce a radically inventive thought process engaged in liberating subjectivity from the standardizing and homogenizing processes of global capitalism.
== Works ==
*''Molecular Revolution''
Books written in collaboration with Gilles Deleuze:
*''[[Anti-Oedipus]]'' ([[1972]])
*''Kafka: Towards a Minor Literature''
*''[[A Thousand Plateaus]]'' ([[1980]])
*''What Is Philosophy?'' ([[1991]])
(these are the English translations; dates are from French editions.)
==Other books==
*''Chaosmosis'' ([[1992]])
*''Chaosophy'' ([[1995]]) :
*''Soft Subversions'' ([[1996]])
*''Three Ecologies'' ([[2000]])
==External links==
*[http://www.revue-chimeres.org/guattari/guattari.html Chimeres site on Guattari (in French)]
[[Category:1930 births|Guattari, Félix]]
[[Category:1992 deaths|Guattari, Félix]]
[[Category:French anarchists|Guattari, Félix]]
[[Category:Postmodern theory|Guattari, Félix]]
[[Category:Psychoanalytic theory|Guattari, Félix]]
[[Category:Psychoanalysts|Guattari]]
[[Category:Anti-psychiatry|Guattari]]
[[Category:Psychotherapy|Guattari]]
[[Category:French writers|Guattari]]
[[Category:French philosophers|Guattari]]
[[Category:Political philosophers|Guattari]]
[[Category:Deleuze-Guattari]]
[[de:Félix Guattari]]
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[[ja:フェリックス・ガタリ]]
[[pt:Félix Guattari]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Filioque clause</title>
<id>11110</id>
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<id>42021654</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T07:11:28Z</timestamp>
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<username>Jwrosenzweig</username>
<id>15111</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Historical origins */ Adding subsections, which probably need tweaking, to a ridiculously long section that was near unnavigable without them</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Christian theology}}
In [[Christianity|Christian]] [[theology]] the '''filioque clause''' or '''filioque controversy''' (''filioque'' meaning "and [from] the Son") is a disputed part of the [[Nicene Creed]] and is most often referred to as simply "filioque" or "the filioque."
== Explanation of the creed ==
Following John 15:26b, the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed states that the [[Holy Spirit]] "proceeds from the Father." The creed was first promulgated at the [[First Council of Nicea]] in [[325]] without the section on the Holy Spirit elaborated. It was then modified at the [[First Council of Constantinople]] in [[381]] to include this phrase on the origin of the Spirit. (Hence, the Nicene creed is often called "Nicene-Constantinopolitan" or "Niceno-Constantinopolitan.") This creed was not officially received until the Council of Chalcedon in 451.
In thinking about God as Father, Son, and Spirit, the [[Trinity]], following Jesus (Matt 28:19), Christians from early times have made some important distinctions. The Son and the Spirit are said to have their eternal origin from the Father; the Son, the eternal Divine Logos (John 1:1) is "generated" ("born" or "begotten") of the Father, while the Spirit "proceeds" from the Father. These statements are made in reference to the being of God, from all eternity, "before all ages" in the words of the Nicene Creed.
On the one hand, the Nicene Creed and the Bible do not say explicitly that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Son as well as the Father; that is, there is no statement that the Spirit's eternal origin is found anywhere but in the Father. To be sure, Christians found evidence for a connection between the Son and the Spirit. For example, the [[New Testament]] teaches that the Spirit testifies to the Son (1 Jn 5:6) and is called the "Spirit of Christ" (Rom 8:9;15:5; Phil 1:19; 1 Pet 1:1) and "Spirit of [the] Son" (Gal 4:6). The [[Church Fathers]] further explained that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are "of one essence" (''[[Consubstantial|substantia]]/[[Ousia|ousia]]'') and have one common will and activity, with regard to their external actions (''actiones ad extra''). This tradition continued to be reaffirmed in both East and West, unanimously in medieval times by the Scholastic theologians. (See [[Scholastic Philosophy]]). In this second, "economic" sense, God is said to send us the Spirit through the Son (Acts 2:33; Titus 3:6).
On the other hand, while the New Testament teaches that there is a connection between the Son and the Spirit, the divinity of the Son and the Spirit may not be entirely clear from Scripture alone. Many theologians historically have been unconvinced by the texts, and readily quoted the Scripture in defense of their denials of the Trinity, see [[Nontrinitarianism]]. For this reason, over the years, creeds, decrees, hymns, and prayers have been formulated, in order to clarify, defend, and make explicit this doctrine. The ''filioque'' is one such attempt.
==Historical origins==
As [[Johannes Grohe]] has pointed out, a regional council in [[Persia]] in 410 introduced one of the earliest forms of the '' |
82.3 (3.24)
| style="background: #66CCFF;" | 81.8 (3.22)
| style="background: #66CCFF;" | 77.7 (3.06)
| style="background: #44AADD;" | 85.6 (3.37)
| style="background: #44AADD;" | 88.1 (3.47)
| style="background: #2288BB;" | 96.3 (3.79)
| style="background: #2288BB;" | 101.1 (3.98)
| style="background: #2288BB;" | 94.7 (3.73)
| style="background: #2288BB;" | 1080.2 (42.53)
|}
==Demographics==
{| class="toccolours" align="right" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;"
|-
! colspan=2 bgcolor="#ccccff" align="center"| Historical populations{{ref|census}}
|-
! align="center"| Census<br>year !! align="right"| Population
|-
| colspan=2|<hr>
|-
| align="center"| [[U.S. Census, 1790|1790]] || align="right" | 18,320
|-
| align="center"| [[U.S. Census, 1800|1800]] || align="right" | 24,937
|-
| align="center"| [[U.S. Census, 1810|1810]] || align="right" | 33,787
|-
| align="center"| [[U.S. Census, 1820|1820]] || align="right" | 43,298
|-
| align="center"| [[U.S. Census, 1830|1830]] || align="right" | 61,392
|-
| align="center"| [[U.S. Census, 1840|1840]] || align="right" | 93,383
|-
| align="center"| [[U.S. Census, 1850|1850]] || align="right" | 136,881
|-
| align="center"| [[U.S. Census, 1860|1860]] || align="right" | 177,840
|-
| align="center"| [[U.S. Census, 1870|1870]] || align="right" | 250,526
|-
| align="center"| [[U.S. Census, 1880|1880]] || align="right" | 362,839
|-
| align="center"| [[U.S. Census, 1890|1890]] || align="right" | 448,477
|-
| align="center"| [[U.S. Census, 1900|1900]] || align="right" | 560,892
|-
| align="center"| [[U.S. Census, 1910|1910]] || align="right" | 670,585
|-
| align="center"| [[U.S. Census, 1920|1920]] || align="right" | 748,060
|-
| align="center"| [[U.S. Census, 1930|1930]] || align="right" | 781,188
|-
| align="center"| [[U.S. Census, 1940|1940]] || align="right" | 770,816
|-
| align="center"| [[U.S. Census, 1950|1950]] || align="right" | 801,444
|-
| align="center"| [[U.S. Census, 1960|1960]] || align="right" | 697,197
|-
| align="center"| [[U.S. Census, 1970|1970]] || align="right" | 641,071
|-
| align="center"| [[U.S. Census, 1980|1980]] || align="right" | 562,994
|-
| align="center"| [[U.S. Census, 1990|1990]] || align="right" | 574,283
|-
| align="center"| [[U.S. Census, 2000|2000]] || align="right" | 589,141
|-
|}
As of the [[U.S. Census|census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, there were 589,141 people, 239,528 households, and 115,212 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was 4,697/km&sup2; (12,166/mi&sup2;). There were 251,935 housing units at an average density of 2,009/km&sup2; (5,203/mi&sup2;). The [[Irish ethnicity|Irish]] are the largest ethnic group in the city of Boston, and Boston is commonly considered the capital of "[[Irish American|Irish America]]". [[Italians]] also form a very large segment of the city's population. The racial makeup of the city was 49.48% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 27.33% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.40% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 7.52% [[Asian American]], 0.06% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 7.83% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 4.39% from two or more races. 14.44% of the population was [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race. These figures became less reliable because of the large, partly undocumented Brazilian population, estimated by some studies to approach 250,000 in Massachusetts. Census data did not account for this significant segment of the community because of confusing terminology, as Brazilians speak [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and often do not consider themselves specifically Hispanic, Latino, White or African American.
[[Image:Boston_area_income.gif|thumb|200px|left|Per capita income in the greater Boston area, by US Census block group]]
There were 239,528 households out of which 22.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 27.4% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 16.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 51.9% were non-families. 37.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.31 and the average family size was 3.17.
In the city the population was spread out with 19.8% under the age of 18, 16.2% from 18 to 24, 35.8% from 25 to 44, 17.8% from 45 to 64, and 10.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.2 males.
The [[median]] income for a household in the city was $39,629, and the median income for a family was $44,151. Males had a median income of $37,435 versus $32,421 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $23,353. 19.5% of the population and 15.3% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 25.6% of those under the age of 18 and 18.2% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.
Boston has the second-largest work day population increase in the country just after [[Washington D.C.]] The population is pushed up to one million or more on an average week day. On days with major events such as baseball or basketball games the population can easily increase to 1.5 million. Like many other major cities in the 1950s and 1960s, Boston's population decreased dramatically due to new highway systems that made it easier to access the suburbs and outer regions.
{{seealso|Neighborhoods in Boston, Massachusetts}}
==Law and government==
Boston has a "strong mayor" system in which the [[mayor]] is vested with extensive executive powers. The mayor is elected to a four-year term by [[plurality electoral system|plurality voting]]. The city council is elected every two years. There are nine district seats, each elected by the residents of that district through plurality voting, and four at-large seats. Each voter casts up to four votes for at-large councilors, no more than one vote per candidate. The candidates with the four highest vote totals are elected. The president of the city council, currently [[Michael F. Flaherty]], is elected by the councilors from within themselves. The school committee is appointed by the mayor, as are city department heads.
[[Image:Massachusetts State House frontal view.jpg|thumb|right|86KB|[[Massachusetts State House]]]]
In addition to city government, numerous state authorities and commissions play a role in the life of Bostonians, including the [[Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation]] and the [[Massachusetts Port Authority|Massachusetts Port Authority (Massport)]]. As the capital of Massachusetts, Boston plays a major role in [[Massachusetts#Politics|state politics]]. Boston is also the [[Federal government of the United States|United States federal government]] center for New England. Properties include the [[John F. Kennedy Federal Office Building]] and the [[Thomas P. O'Neil Federal Building]]. The city also serves as the home of the [[United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit]], the [[United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts]], as well as the headquarters of the [[Federal Reserve Bank of Boston]] (the First District of the [[Federal Reserve]]). The city is in the [[United States House of Representatives, Massachusetts District 8|Eighth]] and [[United States House of Representatives, Massachusetts District 9|Ninth]] [[Congressional district]]s.
Boston's low crime rate in the last years of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st has been credited to its police department's collaboration with neighborhood groups and church parishes to prevent youths from joining gangs, as well as heavy involvement from the [[District Attorney]]'s office. The current DA for Suffolk County and Boston, [[Daniel F. Conley]], spent nearly ten years working at reducing gang violence in the city. This helped lead in part to what has been touted as the "Boston Miracle." Murders in the city dropped from 152 in 1990 (for a murder rate of 26.5 per 100,000 people) to just 31—not one of them a juvenile—in 1999 (for a murder rate of 5.26 per 100,000).
In more recent years, however, the annual murder count has fluctuated by as much as 50% compared to the year before, with 60 murders in 2002, followed by just 39 in 2003, 64 in 2004, and 75 in 2005. Though the figures are nowhere near the high-water mark set in 1990, the aberrations in the murder rate have been unsettling for many Bostonians and have prompted discussion over whether the Boston Police Department should reevaluate its approach to fighting crime.{{ref|crime}}{{ref|crime2}}{{ref|crime3}}
Boston has eight [[Town twinning|sister cities]], as designated by [http://www.sister-cities.org/ Sister Cities International] (SCI): [[Barcelona]] ([[Spain]]), [[Hangzhou]] ([[People's Republic of China]]), [[Kyoto, Kyoto|Kyoto]] ([[Japan]]), [[Melbourne]] ([[Australia]]), [[Padua]] ([[Italy]]), [[Strasbourg]] ([[France]]), [[Sekondi-Takoradi]] ([[Ghana]]), and [[Taipei]] ([[Taiwan]]). The city has thrice been a recipient of the [[All-America City Award]], the oldest and most respected civic award in the U.S.
{{Infobox Mass Town Govt |
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.56.20.232|216.56.20.232]] ([[User talk:216.56.20.232|talk]]) to last version by Markalexander100</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{portal}}
[[Image:PICT2367.JPG|thumb|Confucianist temple [[Thian Hock Keng]] in [[Singapore]].]]
'''Confucianism''' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 儒学, [[Pinyin]] ''Rúxué‚'', lit. "''The School of the Scholars''", but see [[Confucianism#Names for Confucianism|Names for Confucianism]]) is an [[East Asia]]n [[Ethics|ethical]] and [[Philosophy|philosophical system]] originally developed from the teachings of the early [[China|Chinese]] sage [[Confucius]]. It is a complex system of [[morality|moral]], [[social philosophy|social]], [[politics|political]], and [[religion|religious]] thought which had tremendous influence on the history of [[Chinese civilization]] down to the [[21st century]]. Some have considered it to have been the "[[state religion]]" of [[imperial China]].
The [[culture]]s most strongly influenced by Confucianism include those of [[Chinese culture|China]], [[Japanese culture|Japan]], [[Korean culture|Korea]], and [[Vietnamese culture|Vietnam]], as well as various territories including [[Hong Kong]], [[Macao]], [[Taiwan]], and [[Singapore]], where [[ethnic Chinese]] are the majority.
==Core Confucian texts==
The development of Confucianism is traced through the development of its [[wiktionary:canon|canon]]. It is therefore helpful to first list the main Confucian texts.
The [[orthodox]] canon of Confucian texts, as eventually formulated by [[Zhu Xi]], is the so-called "Four Books and Five Classics". These are:
===The Four Books===
*The ''[[Great Learning]]'' ([[pinyin]] Dàxúe, 大學)
*The ''[[Doctrine of the Mean]]'' ([[pinyin]] Zhōngyōng, 中庸)
*The ''[[Analects of Confucius]]'' ([[pinyin]] Lùnyǔ, 論語)
*The ''[[Mencius]]'' ([[pinyin]] Mèngzǐ, 孟子)
===The Five Classics===
*The ''[[Classic of Poetry]]'' ([[pinyin]] Shījīng, 詩經)
*The ''[[Classic of History]]'' ([[pinyin]] Shūjīng, 書經)
*The ''[[Classic of Rites]]'' ([[pinyin]] Lǐjīng, 禮經)
*The ''[[Classic of Changes]]'' ([[pinyin]] Yìjīng, 易經; more commonly known by an alternate spelling as the [[I Ching]] in the West)
*The ''[[Spring and Autumn Annals]]'' ([[pinyin]] Chūnqīu 春秋)
A sixth book, the ''[[Classic of Music]]'' ([[pinyin]] Yùejīng, 樂經), is not extant.
There is a further canon known as the [[Thirteen Classics]] ([[pinyin]] Shísānjīng, 十三經).
There is considerable debate about which, if any, of these books were directly written by Confucius himself. The main source of his quotations, the ''Analects'', was not written by him. As with many other spiritual leaders such as [[Siddhartha Gautama]], [[Jesus]], or [[Socrates]], our main source of Confucius' thought, the ''Analects'', was written down by his disciples. Some of the core canon is argued to have been written by Confucius himself, such as the ''Spring and Autumn Annals''. There is considerable debate about this, however.
This factor is further complicated by the "[[To burn the classics and to bury the scholars|Burning of the Books and Burying of the Scholars]]", a massive suppression of [[dissent]]ing thought during the [[Qin Dynasty]], more than two centuries after Confucius' death. The emperor [[Qin Shi Huang]] destroyed a great number of books, possibly destroying other books written by Confucius or his disciples in the process.
The current canon of Four Books and Five Classics was formulated by Zhu Xi. Many versions contain his extensive commentaries on the books. The fact that his specific version of the Confucian canon became the core canon can be seen as an example of his influence in Confucianism.
Other books are not included in the current canon but once were. The major example is the ''[[Xun Zi]]''.
==Development of early Confucianism==
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Confucius 01.jpg|thumb| Sage Confucius——孔子]] -->
[[Confucius]] was a famous sage and [[Social philosophy|social philosopher]] of China whose teachings have deeply influenced East Asia for 2400 years. The relationship between Confucianism and Confucius himself, however, is tenuous. Confucius' ideas were not accepted during his lifetime and he frequently bemoaned the fact that he remained unemployed by any of the [[Feudal society|feudal]] [[lord]]s.
===Development by Confucius===
Although we do not have direct access to Confucius' beliefs, we can sketch out Confucius' ideas from the fragments that remain. Confucius ([[551 BC|551]]&ndash;[[479 BC|479]] BCE) was a [[man of letters]] who worried about the troubled times he lived in. He went from place to place trying to spread his political ideas and influence to the many [[monarch|king]]s contending for supremacy in China. He was greatly concerned with how successful societies should work, how rulers should rule and how relationships should be maintained.
In the [[Zhou Dynasty|Eastern Zhou Dynasty]] (771-221 BCE), the reigning king of the Zhou gradually became a mere figurehead. In this [[power vacuum]], the rulers of small states began to vie with one another for military and political dominance. Deeply persuaded of the need for his mission &mdash; "If right principles prevailed through the empire, there would be no need for me to change its state" ''Analects'' XVIII, 6 &mdash; Confucius tirelessly promoted the virtues of ancient illustrious sages such as the [[Duke of Zhou]]. Confucius tried to amass sufficient political power to found a new dynasty, as when he planned to accept an invitation from a rebel to "make a Zhou dynasty in the East" (''Analects'' XV, 5). As the common saying that Confucius was a "king without a crown" indicates, however, he never gained the opportunity to apply his ideas. He was expelled from states many times and eventually returned to his homeland to spend the last part of his life teaching.
The ''Analects'' were composed primarily during this period. As with most religious or philosophical texts, there is considerable debate over how to interpret the ''Analects.''
Unlike most [[Western world|Western]] philosophers, Confucius did not rely on [[deductive reasoning]] to convince his listeners. Instead, he used figures of [[rhetoric]] such as [[analogy]] and [[aphorism]] to explain his ideas. Most of the time these techniques were highly contextualised. For these reasons, Western readers might find his philosophy muddled or unclear. However, Confucius claimed that he sought "a unity all pervading" (''Analects'' XV, 3) and that there was "one single thread binding my way together." (''op. cit.'' IV, 15).
===Development after Confucius===
The first occurrences of a real Confucian system may have been created by his disciples or by the disciples of his disciples. During the philosophically fertile period of the [[Hundred Schools of Thought]], great early figures of Confucianism such as [[Mencius]] and [[Xun Zi]] (not to be confused with [[Sun Zi]]) developed Confucianism into an ethical and political doctrine. Both had to fight contemporary ideas and gain the rulers' confidence through argumentation and reasoning.
Mencius gave Confucianism a fuller explanation of human nature, of what is needed for good government, of what morality is, and founded his idealist doctrine on the claim that human nature is good (性善). Xun Zi opposed many of Mencius' ideas, and built a structured system upon the idea that human nature is bad (性悪) and had to be educated and exposed to the [[rites]] (''li'') before being able to express goodness.
Some of Xun Zi's disciples, such as [[Han Feizi]] and [[Li Si]], became [[legalism (philosophy)|Legalist]]s (a kind of law-based early [[totalitarianism]], quite distant from virtue-based Confucianism) and conceived the state system that allowed [[Qin Shi Huang]] to unify China under the strong state control of every human activity. The culmination of Confucius' dream of unification and peace in China can therefore be argued to have come from Legalism, a school of thought almost diametrically opposed to his reliance on rites and virtue.
==The spread of Confucianism==
As mentioned above, the [[To burn the classics and to bury the scholars|Burning of the Books and Burying of the Scholars]] resulted in the destruction of large numbers of books, and very probably some Confucian texts. Nonetheless, Confucianism survived this suppression, some say because a scholar hid the texts in the walls of his house.
After the Qin, the new [[Han Dynasty]] approved of Confucian doctrine and sponsored Confucian scholars, eventually making Confucianism the official state philosophy (see [[Han Wu Di|Emperor Wu of Han]]). Study of the Confucian classics became the basis of the government examination system and the core of the educational curriculum. [[Temple of Confucius|Temples of Confucius]] were established throughout the land to propagate the state cult of Confucius. No serious attempt to replace Confucianism arose until the [[May 4th Movement]] in the [[20th century]], although there were Emperors who gave increased favor to [[Taoism|Daoism]] or [[Buddhism]].
Beginning in the [[Tang Dynasty]], but especially during the [[Song Dynasty]], the [[Neo-Confucianism|Neo-Confucians]] sought to bring renewed vigor to Confucianism. [[Zhu Xi]], [[Wang Yangming]] and the other Neo-Confucians gave Confucianism a more thorough system of [[metaphysics]] and distilled a more clearly codified value structure from the ideas of Confucius and his early disciples.
After its reformulation as Neo-Confucianism, both Korea and Japan adopted Confucianism as their state philosophies. Korea during the [[Yi Dynasty]] has been described as a "Confucian state." [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-35013]
In the 1960s, Confucianism was attacked during the [[Cultural Revolution]] i |
#x00f3;m&#x0113;ros'') was a legendary early [[Greek literature|Greek]] [[poet]] and [[rhapsode]] traditionally credited with the composition of the ''[[Iliad]]'' ({{polytonic|Ἰλιάς}}) and the ''[[Odyssey]]'' ({{polytonic|Ὀδύσσεια}}). Homer was even at one time credited with the entire [[Epic Cycle]], which included further poems on the [[Trojan War]] as well as the [[Thebes, Greece|Theban]] poems about [[Oedipus]] and his sons. Other works, such as the corpus of [[Homeric Hymns]], the comic mini-epic ''[[Batrachomyomachia]]'' ("The Frog-Mouse War," Βατραχομυομαχία), and the [[Margites]] were also attributed to him, but this is now believed to be unlikely.
Tradition held that Homer was [[blindness|blind]], and various [[Ionia]]n cities are claimed to be his birthplace, but otherwise his biography is a blank slate. There is considerable scholarly debate about whether Homer was actually a real person, or the name given to one or more oral poets who sang traditional epic material.
It has repeatedly been questioned whether the same poet was responsible for both the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey''. The ''Batrachomyomachia'', Homeric hymns, and cyclic epics are generally agreed to be later than the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey''.
[[Image:William-Adolphe Bouguereau (1825-1905) - Homer and his Guide (1874).jpg|thumb|right|Homer and His Guide, by William-Adolphe Bouguereau (1825-1905)]]
==The Homeric Question==
{{main|Homeric Question}}
[[Image:Homere.jpg|right|200px|thumb|This marble bust of Homer is in the [[Louvre]].]]
Scholars generally agree that the ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' underwent a process of standardization and refinement out of older material beginning in the [[8th century BC]]. An important role in this standardization appears to have been played by the [[Athens|Athenian]] [[tyrant]] [[Hipparchus (son of Pisistratus)|Hipparchus]], who reformed the recitation of Homeric poetry at the [[Panathenaea|Panathenaic festival]]. Many [[classicist]]s hold that this reform must have involved the production of a [[canon (fiction)|canon]]ical written text.
Other scholars, however, maintain their belief in the reality of an actual Homer. So little is known or even guessed of his actual life, that a common joke has it that the poems "were not written by Homer, but by another man of the same name," and the classical scholar [[Richmond Lattimore]], author of well regarded poetic translations to [[English language|English]] of both epics, once wrote a paper entitled "Homer: Who Was She?" [[Samuel Butler (1835-1902)|Samuel Butler]] was more specific, theorizing a young Sicilian woman as author of the ''Odyssey'' (but not the ''Iliad''), an idea further speculated on by [[Robert Graves]] in his novel ''[[Homer's Daughter]]''.
In Greek his name is ''Hom&#275;ros'', which is Greek for "hostage". There is a theory that his name was back-extracted from the name of a society of poets called the [[Homeridae]], which literally means "sons of hostages", i.e., descendants of prisoners of war. As these men were not sent to war because their loyalty on the battlefield was suspect, they would not get killed in battles. Thus they were entrusted with remembering the area's stock of epic poetry, to remember past events, in the times before literacy came to the area.
Most Classicists would agree that, whether there was ever such a composer as "Homer" or not, the Homeric poems are the product of an oral tradition, a generations-old technique that was the collective inheritance of many singer-poets (''aoidoi''). An analysis of the structure and vocabulary of the ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' shows that the poems consist of regular, repeating phrases; even entire verses repeat. Could the ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' have been '''oral-formulaic''' poems, composed on the spot by the poet using a collection of memorized traditional verses and phases? [[Milman Parry]] and [[Albert Lord]] pointed out that such elaborate oral tradition, foreign to today's literate cultures, is typical of [[epic poetry]] in an exclusively oral culture. The crucial words are "oral" and "traditional." Parry started with "traditional." The repetitive chunks of language, he said, were inherited by the singer-poet from his predecessors, and they were useful to the poet in composition. He called these chunks of repetitive language "formulas."
Exactly when these poems would have taken on a fixed written form is subject to debate. The traditional solution is the "transcription hypothesis", wherein a non-literate "Homer" dictates his poem to a literate scribe in the [[6th century BC]] or earlier. More radical Homerists, such as [[Gregory Nagy]], contend that a canonical text of the Homeric poems as "scripture" did not exist until the [[Hellenistic]] period ([[3rd century BC|3rd]] to [[1st century BC]]).
==Ancient Accounts of Homer==
Of the date of Homer probably no record, real or pretended, ever existed. [[Herodotus]] (2.53) maintains that [[Hesiod]] and Homer lived not more than 400 years before his own time, consequently not much before [[850 BC]]. From the controversial tone in which he expresses himself it is evident that others had made Homer more ancient; and accordingly the dates given by later authorities, though very various, generally fall within the 10th and 11th centuries BC, but none of these statements has any claim to the character of external evidence.
The extant lives of Homer (edited in Westermann's ''Vitarum Scriptores Graeci minores'') are eight in number, including the piece called the ''[[Contest of Hesiod and Homer]]''. The longest is written in the [[Ionic]] dialect, and bears the name of Herodotus, but is certainly spurious. In all probability it belongs to the time which was fruitful beyond all others in literary forgeries, viz, the [[2nd century]] of our era. The other lives are certainly not more ancient. Their chief value consists in the curious short poems or fragments of verse which they have preserved, the so-called ''Epigrams'', which used to be printed at the end of editions of Homer. These are easily recognized as Popular Rhymes, a form of folklore to be met with in most countries, treasured by the people as a kind of proverbs. In the Homeric epigrams the interest turns sometimes on the characteristics of particular localities [[Smyrna]] and [[Cyme]] (Epigr. 4), [[Erythrae]] (Epigr. 6, 7), [[Mt Ida]] (Epigr. 10), [[Neon Teichos]] (Epigr. 1); others relate to certain trades or occupations: potters (Epigr. 14), sailors, fishermen, goat herds, etc. Some may be fragments of longer poems, but evidently they are not the work of any one poet. The fact that they were all ascribed to Homer merely means that they belong to a period in the history of the Ionian and Aeolian colonies when Homer was a name which drew to itself all ancient and popular verse.
Again, comparing the epigrams with the legends and anecdotes told in the Lives of Homer, we can hardly doubt that they were the chief source from which these Lives were derived. Thus in Epigr. 4 we find a blind poet, a native of Aeolian [[Smyrna]], through which flows the water of the sacred [[Meles]]. Here is doubtless the source of the chief incident of the Herodotean Life, the birth of Homer Son of the Meles. The epithet ''Aeolian'' implies high antiquity, inasmuch as according to Herodotus Smyrna became Ionian about [[688 BC]]. Naturally the Ionians had their own version of the story, a version which made Homer come out with the first Athenian colonists.
The same line of argument may be extended to the [[Homeric Hymns|Hymns]], and even to some of the lost works of the post-Homeric or so-called [[Epic Cycle|Cyclic poets]]. Thus:
1. The hymn to the Delian [[Apollo]] ends with an address of the poet to his audience. When any stranger comes and asks who is the sweetest singer, they are to answer with one voice, "the blind man that dwells in rocky [[Chios]]; his songs deserve the prize for all time to come." [[Thucydides]], who quotes this passage to show the ancient character of the Delian festival, seems to have no doubt of the Homeric authorship of the hymn. Hence we may most naturally account for the belief that Homer was a Chian.
2. The ''Margites'', a humorous poem which kept its ground as the reputed work of Homer down to the time of [[Aristotle]] began with the words, "There came to Colophon an old man, a divine singer, servant of the Muses and Apollo." Hence doubtless the claim of [[Colophon]] to be the native city of Homer a claim supported in the early times of Homeric learning by the Colophonian poet and grammarian [[Antimachus]].
3. The poem called the ''[[Cypria]]'' was said to have been given by Homer to [[Stasinus of Cyprus]] as a daughter's dowry. The connexion with [[Cyprus]] appears further in the predominance given in the poem to [[Aphrodite]].
4. The ''[[Little Iliad]]'' and the ''[[Phocais]]'', according to the Herodotean life, were composed by Homer when he lived at [[Phocaea]] with a certain Thestorides, who carried them off to Chios and thert gained fame by reciting them as his own. The name Thestorides occurs in Epigr. 5.
5. A similar story was told about the poem called the ''Taking of Oechalia'', the subject of which was one of the exploits of [[Heracles]]. It passed under the name of [[Creophylus]], a friend or (as some said) a son-in-law of Homer; but it was generally believed to have been in fact the work of the poet himself.
6. Finally the ''[[Thebaid]]'' always counted as the work of Homer. As to the ''[[Epigoni]]'', which carried on the Theban story, some doubt seems to have been felt.
These indications render it probable that the stories connecting Homer with different cities and islands grew up after his poems had become known and famous, especially in the new and flourishing colonies of Aeolis and |
s printed when he was dying, and the whole stock except for three copies was destroyed immediately after his death, being regarded as scandalous and blasphemous. The first surviving edition (bilingual Swedish-[[Esperanto]]) was published in Sweden in 2003. The play has not yet (May 2003) been translated into any language other than Esperanto.
Alfred Nobel is buried in the [[Norra begravningsplatsen]] in [[Stockholm]].
== Dynamite ==
Nobel found that when [[nitroglycerin]] was incorporated in an absorbent inert substance like [[diatomaceous earth|kieselguhr]] (diatomaceous earth) it became safer and more convenient to manipulate, and this mixture he [[patent]]ed in 1867 as [[dynamite]].
He next combined nitroglycerin with another high explosive, [[gun-cotton]], and obtained a transparent, jelly-like substance, which was a still more powerful explosive than dynamite. [[Gelignite|Blasting gelatin]], as it was called, was patented in 1876, and was followed by a host of similar combinations, modified by the addition of [[potassium nitrate]], wood-pulp and various other substances.
Some years later Nobel produced [[ballistite]], one of the earliest of the nitroglycerin [[smokeless gunpowder]]s, containing in its latest forms about equal parts of gun-cotton and nitroglycerin. This powder was a precursor of [[cordite]], and Nobel's claim that his patent covered the latter was the occasion of vigorously contested law-suits between him and the [[United Kingdom|British]] Government in 1894 and 1895. Cordite also consists of nitroglycerin and gun-cotton, but the form of the latter which its inventors wished to use was the most highly nitrated variety, which is not soluble in mixtures of [[diethyl ether|ether]] and [[ethanol|alcohol]], whereas Nobel contemplated using a less nitrated form, which is soluble in such mixtures. The question was complicated by the fact that it is in practice impossible to prepare either of these two forms without admixture of the other; eventually the courts decided against Nobel. Cordite became a mainstay munition of the British empire throughout the late 19th and early 20th century.
From the manufacture of dynamite and other explosives, and from the exploitation of the [[Baky|Baku]] oil-fields, in the development of which he and his brothers, Ludvig and Robert Hjalmar (1829-1896), took a leading part, he amassed an immense fortune.
==Armaments Manufacturer==
A less well remembered aspect of his life was his role in setting up a major armaments manufacturer, [[Bofors]] Defence AB. He was Bofors most famous owner, and owned the company from 1894 until his death in December of 1896. He had the key role in reshaping this iron manufacturer to a modern cannon manufacturer and chemical industry.
Bofors went on to become a major supplier of howitzers, cannons and field guns to armies around the world, including the USA and many Third-World dictatorships.
== The Prizes ==
The erroneous publication in 1888 of a [[List of premature obituaries|premature obituary]] of Nobel by a French newspaper, condemning his invention of dynamite, is said to have made him decide to leave a better legacy to the world after his death.
On [[November 27]], [[1895]] at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in [[Paris]], Nobel signed his last will and testament and set aside the bulk of his estate to establish the [[Nobel Prize]]s, to be awarded annually without distinction of nationality. He died of a [[stroke]] on [[December 10]], [[1896]] at [[San Remo]], [[Italy]]. The amount set aside for the Nobel Prize foundation was 31 million kronor.
The first three of these prizes are for eminence in [[Nobel Prize in Physics|physical science]], in [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|chemistry]] and in [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|medical science or physiology]]; the fourth is for the most remarkable [[Nobel Prize for Literature|literary work]] "in an ideal direction" and [[Nobel Peace Prize|the fifth]] is to be given to the person or society that renders the greatest service to the cause of international brother/sisterhood, in the suppression or reduction of standing armies, or in the establishment or furtherance of [[peace]] congresses.
The formulation about the literary prize, "in an ideal direction" (Swedish ''i idealisk riktning''), is cryptic and has caused much consternation. For many years, the Swedish Academy interpreted "ideal" as "idealistic" (in Swedish ''idealistisk''), and used it as a pretext to not give the prize to important but less [[Romanticism|romantic]] authors, such as [[Henrik Ibsen]], [[August Strindberg]] and [[Leo Tolstoy]]. This interpretation has been revised, and the prize given to, for example, [[Dario Fo]] and [[José Saramago]], who definitely do not belong to the camp of literary idealism.
When reading ''Nemesis'' in its original Swedish and looking at his own philosophical and literary standpoint, it seems possible that his intention might have been rather the opposite of that first believed - that the prize should be given to authors who fight for their ideals ''against'' such authorities as God, Church and State.
There was also quite a lot of room for interpretation by the bodies he had named for deciding on the physical sciences and chemistry prizes, given that he had not consulted them before making the will. In his one-page testament he stipulated that the money should go to discoveries or inventions in the physical sciences and to discoveries or improvements in chemistry. He had opened the door to technological awards, but he had not left instructions on how to do the split between science and technology. Since the deciding bodies he had chosen in these domains were more concerned with science than technology it is not surprising that the prizes went to scientists and not to engineers, technicians or other inventors. In a sense the technological prizes announced recently by the [[World Technology Network]] are an indirect (and thus not funded by the Nobel foundation) continuation of the wishes of Nobel, as he set them out in his testament.
In 2001, his great-grandnephew, Peter, asked the Bank of Sweden to differentiate its award to economists given "in Alfred Nobel's memory" from the five other awards. This has caused much controversy whether the prize for [[Economics]] is actually a "Nobel Prize" (see [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel]]).
==Nobel Prize rumors==
* There is no Nobel Prize for mathematics. A common legend states that Nobel decided against a prize in mathematics because a woman he proposed to (or his wife, or his mistress) rejected him or cheated on him with a famous mathematician, often claimed to be [[Gösta Mittag-Leffler]]. There is no historical evidence to support the story, and Nobel was never married.
== References ==
*[[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]]
* Schück, H, and Sohlman, R., (1929). The Life of Alfred Nobel. London: William Heineman Ltd.
* [http://www.dprix.com/biblio/nobel/nobel.html Alfred Nobel US Patent No 78,317, dated May 26, 1868]
== External links ==
*[http://www.nobel.se/nobel/alfred-nobel/index.html Alfred Nobel - Man behind the Prizes]
*[http://www.nobel.no/eng_com_will1.html Biography at the Norwegian Nobel Institute]
*[http://nobelprize.org// Nobelprize.org]
*[http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?AID=271383 The Man who Changed his Life after Reading his Obituary]
{{NobelPrizes}}
[[Category:1833 births|Nobel, Alfred]]
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[[Category:Swedish businesspeople|Nobel, Alfred]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize|Nobel, Alfred]]
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[[Category:Premature obituaries|Nobel, Alfred]]
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<page>
<title>Alexander Graham Bell</title>
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<username>Antandrus</username>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/38.139.36.119|38.139.36.119]] ([[User talk:38.139.36.119|talk]]) to last version by RexNL</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Celebrity
| name = Alexander Graham Bell
| image = Alexander Graham Bell.jpg
| caption =
| birth_date = [[March 3]], [[1847]]
| birth_place = [[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]]
| death_date = [[August 2]], [[1922]]
| death_place = [[Baddeck, Nova Scotia|Baddeck]], [[Canada]]
| occupation = [[Scientist]] and [[inventor]].
| salary =
| networth =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Alexander Graham Bell''' ([[March 3]], [[1847]] &ndash; [[August 2]], [[1922]]) was a [[Canada|Canadian]] and [[Scotland|Scottish]]-[[United States|American]] [[scientist]] and [[inventor]]. |
here are nine surviving manuscripts (including two copies), of which eight are written entirely in [[Old English language|Anglo-Saxon]], while the ninth is in Anglo-Saxon with a translation of each annal into [[Latin]]. One (the [[Peterborough Chronicle]]) contains early [[Middle English]] as well as Anglo-Saxon. The oldest (Corp. Chris. MS 173) is known as the '''Parker Chronicle''', after [[Matthew Parker]] who once owned it, or the '''Winchester Chronicle'''.
The surviving manuscripts are:
*Version A: ''The Parker Chronicle'' (Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, MS. 173); Cottonian Fragment (British Museum, Cotton MS. Otho B xi, 2)
*Version B: ''The Abingdon Chronicle I'' (British Museum, Cotton MS. Tiberius A vi.)
*Version C: ''The Abingdon Chronicle II'' (British Museum, Cotton MS. Tiberius B i.)
*Version D: ''The Worcester Chronicle'' (British Museum, Cotton MS. Tiberius B iv.)
*Version E: ''The Laud'' (or "[[Peterborough Chronicle|Peterborough]]") Chronicle (Bodleian, MS. Laud 636)
*Version F: ''The Bilingual Canterbury Epitome'' (British Museum, Cotton MS. Domitian A viii.) - entries in English and Latin.
*Version H: Cottonian Fragment (British Museum, Cotton MS. Domitian A ix.)
*Version I: ''An Easter Table Chronicle'' (British Museum, Cotton MS. Caligula A xv.)
Version A is of particular importance for the dating of the chronicle. The manuscript is in the handwriting of some thirteen or fourteen scribes and the first scribe wrote as far as 891. For this reason the composition of the chronicle is generally dated to the reign of King [[Alfred the Great|Alfred]].
Some of the annals are derived from earlier sources such as [[Prosper of Aquitaine|Prosper]] and [[Bede]] and the annal for 430 demonstrates this:
[[Prosper of Aquitaine]] wrote that in [[430]]: “Palladius was sent by [[Pope Celestine I|Pope Celestine]] to the Scots who believed in [[Christ]], and was ordained as their first bishop”. This story was known to Bede and was repeated by him: “In the year 430 Palladius was sent by [[Pope Celestine]] to the [[Scots]] that believed in Christ to be their first bishop”. This annal was then copied into the earliest version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (version A, compiled in 891): “430. In this year bishop Palladius was sent by Pope Celestine to the Scots to strengthen their faith”. But during the twelfth century the manuscript was altered to read: “… Palladius (vel Patricius)…”. In another version of the chronicle (version E, written in 1121) Palladius disappears and is replaced by Patrick: “430. In this year Patrick was sent by pope Celestine to preach baptism to the Scots”.
Notice how with each scribe the story changes a little, so starting from [[Palladius]] being sent to the Irish who were already Christian, it eventually becomes a tale about [[Saint Patrick|Patrick]] being sent to convert the Irish.
Other annals were simply invented. Under 477 we read that Wlencing was the son of Ælle, but Wlencing is a patronymic meaning ‘son of Wlenca’, so he cannot also have been son of Ælle! Clearly the chronicler has carelessly extracted Wlencing from an early form of the place-name Lancing. Moving on to 501, [[Portsmouth]] is located at the mouth of a port; it is not named after Port; he was quarried out of the place-name. Then under 508 Natanleag means ‘wet meadow’, so it was not named after a slain Welsh king called Natanleod; he is an invention. And under 514 we find Wihtgar, who in 534 is given the Isle of Wight, and in 544 is buried at Wihtgaraburg. But Wihtgaraburg does not mean 'Wihtgar's fortress' but 'the fortress of the inhabitants of Wight', and Wight itself is derived from Romano-British ''Vectis'' (Ekwall 1947). Clearly, if these annals are fiction, as they plainly are, then the other early annals are suspect.
The translated texts (together with explanatory materials) are available in books and on the Internet, so scholars at all levels can now consult them directly.
See [[Anglo-Saxon kingdom genealogy]] for a comparison of the genealogies of the Canterbury and Winchester manuscripts with the one given by [[Snorri Sturluson]] in his [[Edda]].
==See also==
*[[Anglo-Saxon literature]]
== References ==
*[[Anne Savage]], "Thr Anglo-Saxon Chronicles", ISBN 1-85833-478-0, pub CLB 1997
* [[Peter Hunter Blair]], ''An Introduction to Anglo-Saxon England'', pp. 352-355
*Ekwall, E. 1947. ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Place-Names'', 3rd edition.
* [[Michael Swanton]], ''The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles'' London, J.M. Dent 1996
== External links ==
* [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/657 The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle] at [[Project Gutenberg]] - Public domain copy.
*[http://www.georgetown.edu/labyrinth/library/oe/texts/asc/index.html Transcribed original text]
*[http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Anglo/ Translation to English]
*[http://www.bartleby.com/211/0701.html '''''The Chronicle'''''] from ''[[The Cambridge History of English and American Literature]]'', Volume I, 1907–21.
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<page>
<title>Aston Martin</title>
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<username>Malcolma</username>
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<comment>crude advertising removed</comment>
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[[Image:Astonmartin1976.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Aston Martin logo<br>(before 1987)]]
[[Image:AstonMartin_logo.png|right|thumb|250px|Aston Martin logo<br>(1987 - 2002)]]
[[Image:AstonMartinLogo.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Official Aston Martin logo<br>(since 2003)]]
'''Aston Martin Lagonda Ltd.''' is a [[United Kingdom|British]] luxury [[car]] manufacturer based in [[Newport Pagnell]], [[Buckinghamshire]]. The company name was derived from the ''Aston'' Clinton [[hillclimbing|Hillclimb]] course and founder Lionel ''Martin''. Up to the year 2003, approximately 20,200 cars had been built by Aston Martin. Today, the company is part of the [[Premier Automotive Group]] division of [[Ford Motor Company]].
== History ==
[[image:2001db7.jpg|thumb|250px|2001 Aston Martin DB7 Vantage]]
[[image:aston.db9.coupe.300pix.jpg|thumb|250px|2004 Aston Martin DB9 coupe]]
[[Image:Aston Martin DB AR1.jpg|thumb|250px|DB AR1 roadster]]
[[Image:Amvanquish.jpg|thumb|250px|V12 Vanquish]]
[[image:Zagato_Paris.JPG|thumb|250px|2003 DB7 Zagato (coupe) and DB AR1 (roadster)]]
===Foundation===
Aston Martin was founded in [[1914]] by [[Lionel Martin]] and Robert Bamford. The two had joined forces as Bamford & Martin the previous year to sell cars made by [[Singer (car)|Singer]] from premises in Callow Street, London. Martin raced specials at the [[Aston Hill]] near [[Aston Clinton]], and the pair decided to make their own vehicles. They acquired premises at Henniker Place in [[Kensington]] and produced their first car in March [[1915]]. Production could not start because of World War 1 and Martin joined the Admiralty and Bamford the Royal Army Service Corps. All machinery was sold to the Sopwith Aircraft Company.
===Inter war years===
After the war hiatus, the company was refounded at Abingdon Road, Kensington and a new car designed which would carry the Aston-Martin name. Bamford left in 1920 and the company was revitalised with funding from [[Count Louis Zborowski]]. In [[1922]], Bamford & Martin produced cars to compete in the [[French Grand Prix]], and the cars set world speed and endurance records at [[Brooklands]]. The company went bankrupt in 1924 and was bought by Lady Charnwood who put her son John Benson on the board. The company failed again in 1925 and the factory closed in 1926 with Lionel Martin leaving.
Later that year, a number of rich investors, including Lady Charnwood, took control of the company and renamed it Aston Martin Motors, and moved the firm to the former [[Citroen]] plant in [[Feltham]]. John Benson brought in Augusto Benelli as designer. The [[1929]] Aston Martin International was another successful racer and was followed by the [[Le Mans]] and the [[Ulster]]. Financial problems reappeared in 1932 and the company was rescued by L Prideaux Brune who funded it for the following year before passing the company on to Sir Artur Sutherland. In [[1936]], the company decided to concentrate on road cars. Car production had always been on a small scale and from the company's founding until the advent of [[World War II]] halted work only about 700 had been made. During the war years aircraft components were made.
===The David Brown era===
In [[1947]], [[David Brown Limited]] bought the company under the leadership of managing director Sir [[David Brown (entrepreneur)|David Brown]] &mdash; its "post-war saviour". David Brown also acquired [[Lagonda]] that year, and both companies shared resources and workshops. In [[1954]], David Brown bought the site at Tickford Street in [[Newport Pagnell]], and that was the beginning of the classic series of cars bearing the initials 'DB'. In [[1950]], the company announced the [[Aston Martin DB2|DB2]], followed by the racing [[Aston Martin DB3|DB3]] in [[1957]] and the Italian-styled 3.7&nbsp;L [[Aston Martin DB4|DB4]] in [[1958]]. All the cars established a good racing pedigree for the firm, but the DB4 was the key to establishing the company's reputation&mdash;which was cemented with the famous [[Aston Martin DB5|DB5]] in [[1963]]. The company continued developing the "grand touring" style with the [[Aston Martin DB6|DB6]] (1965&ndash;70), the [[Aston Martin DBS|DBS]], and the [[Aston Martin V8|DBS V8]] (1967&ndash;72). The latter was subsequently renamed the [[A |
|14
|0E
|SO
|<big>&#9230;</big>
|^N
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Shift Out and Shift In characters|Shift Out]]
|-
|0000&nbsp;1111
|017
|15
|0F
|SI
|<big>&#9231;</big>
|^O
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Shift Out and Shift In characters|Shift In]]
|-
|0001&nbsp;0000
|020
|16
|10
|DLE
|<big>&#9232;</big>
|^P
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Data Link Escape
|-
|0001&nbsp;0001
|021
|17
|11
|DC1
|<big>&#9233;</big>
|^Q
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Device Control 1 (oft. XON)
|-
|0001&nbsp;0010
|022
|18
|12
|DC2
|<big>&#9234;</big>
|^R
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Device Control 2
|-
|0001&nbsp;0011
|023
|19
|13
|DC3
|<big>&#9235;</big>
|^S
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Device Control 3 (oft. XOFF)
|-
|0001&nbsp;0100
|024
|20
|14
|DC4
|<big>&#9236;</big>
|^T
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Device Control 4
|-
|0001&nbsp;0101
|025
|21
|15
|NAK
|<big>&#9237;</big>
|^U
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Negative-acknowledge character|Negative Acknowledgement]]
|-
|0001&nbsp;0110
|026
|22
|16
|SYN
|<big>&#9238;</big>
|^V
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Synchronous Idle
|-
|0001&nbsp;0111
|027
|23
|17
|ETB
|<big>&#9239;</big>
|^W
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|End of Trans. Block
|-
|0001&nbsp;1000
|030
|24
|18
|CAN
|<big>&#9240;</big>
|^X
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Cancel character|Cancel]]
|-
|0001&nbsp;1001
|031
|25
|19
|EM
|<big>&#9241;</big>
|^Y
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|End of Medium
|-
|0001&nbsp;1010
|032
|26
|1A
|SUB
|<big>&#9242;</big>
|^Z
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Substitute
|-
|0001&nbsp;1011
|033
|27
|1B
|ESC
|<big>&#9243;</big>
|^<nowiki>[</nowiki>
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Escape character|Escape]]{{ref 5}}
|-
|0001&nbsp;1100
|034
|28
|1C
|FS
|<big>&#9244;</big>
|^\
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|File Separator
|-
|0001&nbsp;1101
|035
|29
|1D
|GS
|<big>&#9245;</big>
|^<nowiki>]</nowiki>
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Group Separator
|-
|0001&nbsp;1110
|036
|30
|1E
|RS
|<big>&#9246;</big>
|^^
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Record Separator
|-
|0001&nbsp;1111
|037
|31
|1F
|US
|<big>&#9247;</big>
|^_
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Unit Separator
|-
|0111&nbsp;1111
|177
|127
|7F
|DEL
|<big>&#9249;</big>
|^?
|style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Delete{{ref 4}}{{ref 7}}
|}
# Printable Representation, the [[Unicode]] glyphs reserved for representing control characters when it is necessary to print or display them rather than have them perform their intended function.
# Control key Sequence, the traditional key sequences for inputting control characters. The caret (^) represents the "Control" or "Ctrl" key that must be held down while pressing the second key in the sequence. The caret-key representation is also used by some software to represent control characters.
# The Backspace character can also be entered by pressing the "Backspace", "Bksp", or ← key on some systems.
# The Delete character can also be entered by pressing the "Delete" or "Del" key. It can also be entered by pressing the "Backspace", "Bksp", or ← key on some systems.
# The Escape character can also be entered by pressing the "Escape" or "Esc" key on some systems.
# The Carriage Return character can also be entered by pressing the "Return", "Ret", "Enter", or ↵ key on most systems.
# The ambiguity surrounding the Backspace key comes from systems that translated the DEL control character into a BS (backspace) before transmitting it. Some software was unable to process the character and would display "^H" instead. "^H" persists in messages today as a deliberate humorous device, e.g. [[there's a sucker born every minute|"there's a sucker^H^H^H^H^H^Hpotential customer born every minute"]]. A less common variant of this involves the use of "^W", which in some [[text editor|text editors]] means "delete previous word". The example sentence would therefore also work as "there's a sucker^W potential customer born every minute".
==ASCII printable characters==
Code 32, the [[Space (punctuation)|"space" character]], denotes the space between words, as produced by the large space-bar of a keyboard. Codes 33 to 126, known as the printable characters, represent letters, digits, punctuation marks, and a few miscellaneous symbols.
Seven-bit ASCII provided seven "national" characters and, if the combined hardware and software permit, can use overstrikes to simulate some additional international characters: in such a scenario a backspace can precede a [[grave accent]] (which the American and British standards, but only those standards, also call "opening single quotation mark"), a [[tilde]], or a breath mark (inverted [[vel]]).
{|
|- valign="top"
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|-
!style="width: 5.5em"|Binary
!style="width: 2.5em"|Dec
!style="width: 2.5em"|Hex
!Glyph
|-
|0010&nbsp;0000
|32
|20
|[[Space (punctuation)|(blank)]] (&#9248;)
|-
|0010&nbsp;0001
|33
|21
|[[Exclamation mark|!]]
|-
|0010&nbsp;0010
|34
|22
|"
|-
|0010&nbsp;0011
|35
|23
|[[Number sign|#]]
|-
|0010&nbsp;0100
|36
|24
|[[Dollar sign|$]]
|-
|0010&nbsp;0101
|37
|25
|[[Percent sign|%]]
|-
|0010&nbsp;0110
|38
|26
|[[Ampersand|&]]
|-
|0010&nbsp;0111
|39
|27
|[[Apostrophe (punctuation)|']]
|-
|0010&nbsp;1000
|40
|28
|[[Bracket|(]]
|-
|0010&nbsp;1001
|41
|29
|[[Bracket|)]]
|-
|0010&nbsp;1010
|42
|2A
|[[Asterisk|*]]
|-
|0010&nbsp;1011
|43
|2B
|[[Plus sign|+]]
|-
|0010&nbsp;1100
|44
|2C
|[[Comma (punctuation)|,]]
|-
|0010&nbsp;1101
|45
|2D
|[[Hyphen|-]]
|-
|0010&nbsp;1110
|46
|2E
|[[Full stop|.]]
|-
|0010&nbsp;1111
|47
|2F
|[[Slash (punctuation)|/]]
|-
|0011&nbsp;0000
|48
|30
|0
|-
|0011&nbsp;0001
|49
|31
|1
|-
|0011&nbsp;0010
|50
|32
|2
|-
|0011&nbsp;0011
|51
|33
|3
|-
|0011&nbsp;0100
|52
|34
|4
|-
|0011&nbsp;0101
|53
|35
|5
|-
|0011&nbsp;0110
|54
|36
|6
|-
|0011&nbsp;0111
|55
|37
|7
|-
|0011&nbsp;1000
|56
|38
|8
|-
|0011&nbsp;1001
|57
|39
|9
|-
|0011&nbsp;1010
|58
|3A
|[[Colon (punctuation)|:]]
|-
|0011&nbsp;1011
|59
|3B
|[[Semicolon|;]]
|-
|0011&nbsp;1100
|60
|3C
|[[Less than sign|<]]
|-
|0011&nbsp;1101
|61
|3D
|[[Equals sign|=]]
|-
|0011&nbsp;1110
|62
|3E
|[[Greater than sign|>]]
|-
|0011&nbsp;1111
|63
|3F
|[[Question mark|?]]
|}
|&nbsp;
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|- valign="bottom"
!style="width: 5.5em"|Bin
!style="width: 2.5em"|Dec
!style="width: 2.5em"|Hex
!Glyph
|-
|0100&nbsp;0000
|64
|40
|[[@]]
|-
|0100&nbsp;0001
|65
|41
|A
|-
|0100&nbsp;0010
|66
|42
|B
|-
|0100&nbsp;0011
|67
|43
|C
|-
|0100&nbsp;0100
|68
|44
|D
|-
|0100&nbsp;0101
|69
|45
|E
|-
|0100&nbsp;0110
|70
|46
|F
|-
|0100&nbsp;0111
|71
|47
|G
|-
|0100&nbsp;1000
|72
|48
|H
|-
|0100&nbsp;1001
|73
|49
|I
|-
|0100&nbsp;1010
|74
|4A
|J
|-
|0100&nbsp;1011
|75
|4B
|K
|-
|0100&nbsp;1100
|76
|4C
|L
|-
|0100&nbsp;1101
|77
|4D
|M
|-
|0100&nbsp;1110
|78
|4E
|N
|-
|0100&nbsp;1111
|79
|4F
|O
|-
|0101&nbsp;0000
|80
|50
|P
|-
|0101&nbsp;0001
|81
|51
|Q
|-
|0101&nbsp;0010
|82
|52
|R
|-
|0101&nbsp;0011
|83
|53
|S
|-
|0101&nbsp;0100
|84
|54
|T
|-
|0101&nbsp;0101
|85
|55
|U
|-
|0101&nbsp;0110
|86
|56
|V
|-
|0101&nbsp;0111
|87
|57
|W
|-
|0101&nbsp;1000
|88
|58
|X
|-
|0101&nbsp;1001
|89
|59
|Y
|-
|0101&nbsp;1010
|90
|5A
|Z
|-
|0101&nbsp;1011
|91
|5B
|[[Bracket|<nowiki>[</nowiki>]]
|-
|0101&nbsp;1100
|92
|5C
|[[Backslash|\]]
|-
|0101&nbsp;1101
|93
|5D
|[[Bracket|<nowiki>]</nowiki>]]
|-
|0101&nbsp;1110
|94
|5E
|[[Caret|^]]
|-
|0101&nbsp;1111
|95
|5F
|[[Underscore|_]]
|}
|&nbsp;
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|- valign="bottom"
!style="width: 5.5em"|Bin
!style="width: 2.5em"|Dec
!style="width: 2.5em"|Hex
!Glyph
|-
|0110&nbsp;0000
|96
|60
|[[Grave accent|`]]
|-
|0110&nbsp;0001
|97
|61
|a
|-
|0110&nbsp;0010
|98
|62
|b
|-
|0110&nbsp;0011
|99
|63
|c
|-
|0110&nbsp;0100
|100
|64
|d
|-
|0110&nbsp;0101
|101
|65
|e
|-
|0110&nbsp;0110
|102
|66
|f
|-
|0110&nbsp;0111
|103
|67
|g
|-
|0110&nbsp;1000
|104
|68
|h
|-
|0110&nbsp;1001
|105
|69
|i
|-
|0110&nbsp;1010
|106
|6A
|j
|-
|0110&nbsp;1011
|107
|6B
|k
|-
|0110&nbsp;1100
|108
|6C
|l
|-
|0110&nbsp;1101
|109
|6D
|m
|-
|0110&nbsp;1110
|110
|6E
|n
|-
|0110&nbsp;1111
|111
|6F
|o
|-
|0111&nbsp;0000
|112
|70
|p
|-
|0111&nbsp;0001
|113
|71
|q
|-
|0111&nbsp;0010
|114
|72
|r
|-
|0111&nbsp;0011
|115
|73
|s
|-
|0111&nbsp;0100
|116
|74
|t
|-
|0111&nbsp;0101
|117
|75
|u
|-
|0111&nbsp;0110
|118
|76
|v
|-
|0111&nbsp;0111
|119
|77
|w
|-
|0111&nbsp;1000
|120
|78
|x
|-
|0111&nbsp;1001
|121
|79
|y
|
ted work on a new edition, in Latin, in the following year, and completed it in 1832; and a shorter grammar appeared in 1834. At the same time he compiled a ''Sanskrit and Latin glossary'' (1830) in which, more especially in the second and third editions (1847 and 1867), he also took account of the cognate languages. His chief activity, however, centred on the elaboration of his ''Comparative Grammar'', which appeared in six parts at considerable intervals (Berlin, 1833, 1835, 1842, 1847, 1849, 1852), under the title ''Vergleichende Grammatik des Sanskrit, Zend, Griechischen, Lateinischen, Litauischen, Gotischen und Deutschen'' (''Comparative Grammar of Sanskrit, Zend, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, Gothic and German''.
How carefully Bopp matured this work emerges from the series of monographs printed in the ''Transactions of the Berlin Academy'' (1824 to 1831), which preceded it. They bear the general title, ''Vergleichende Zergliederung des Sanskrits und der mit ihm verwandten Sprachen'' (''Comparative Analysis of Sanskrit and its related Languages''). Two other essays (on the "Numerals", 1835) followed the publication of the first part of the ''Comparative Grammar''. [[Old Slavonic | Old Slavonian]] began to take its stand among the languages compared from the second part onwards. [[Edward Backhouse Eastwick|EB Eastwick]] translated the work into English in 1845. A second German edition, thoroughly revised (1856 - 1861), also covered Old [[Armenian language | Armenian]]. From this edition [[Michel Jules Alfred Bréal|Professor Michel Bréal]] made an excellent French translation in [[1866]].
In his ''Comparative Grammar'' Bopp set himself a threefold task:
# to give a description of the original grammatical structure of the languages as deduced from their intercomparison
# to trace their [[phonetic]] laws, and
# to investigate the origin of their grammatical forms.
The first and second points remained subservient to the third. As Bopp based his research on the best available sources, and incorporated every new item of information that came to light, so it continued to widen and deepen as it progressed. Witness his monographs on the vowel system in the [[Teutonic languages]] (1836), on the [[Celtic language]]s (1839), on the [[Old Prussian language | Old Prussian]] (1853) and [[Albanian language]]s (1854), on the [[stress (phonology) | accent]] in Sanskrit and Greek (1854), on the relationship of the [[Malayo-Polynesian languages | Malayo-Polynesian]] with the Indo-European languages (1840), and on the [[Caucasian language]]s (1846). In the two last-mentioned the impetus of his genius led him on a wrong track.
Critics have charged Bopp with neglecting the study of the native Sanskrit grammars, but in those early days of Sanskrit studies the great libraries of Europe did not hold the requisite materials; and if they had, those materials would have absorbed his exclusive attention for years, while such grammars as those of Wilkins and Colebrooke, from which Bopp derived his grammatical knowledge, had all used native grammars as a basis. The further charge that Bopp, in his ''Comparative Grammar'', gave undue prominence to Sanskrit stands disproved by his own words; for, as early as the year 1820, he gave it as his opinion that frequently the cognate languages serve to elucidate grammatical forms lost in Sanskrit (''Annals of Or. Lit.'' i. 3), -- an opinion which he further developed in all his subsequent writings.
Bopp's researches, carried with wonderful penetration into the most minute and almost microscopical details of linguistic phenomena, led to the opening up of a wide and distant view into the original seats, the closer or more distant affinity, and the tenets, practices and domestic usages of the ancient Indo-European-speaking nations, and one can date the science of [[comparative grammar]] from his earliest publication. In grateful recognition of that fact, there originated in Berlin on the fiftieth anniversary ([[May 16]], [[1866]]) of the date of Windischmann's preface to that work, a fund called ''Die Bopp-Stiftung'', for the promotion of the study of Sanskrit and comparative grammar, to which his numerous pupils and admirers in all parts of the globe gave liberal contributions. Bopp lived to see the results of his labours everywhere accepted, and his name justly celebrated. But he died a poor man, -- though his genuine kindliness and unselfishness, his devotion to his family and friends, and his rare modesty, endeared him to all who knew him.
See [[Michel Jules Alfred Bréal| M Bréal]]'s translation of Bopp's ''Vergleichende Grammatik'' (1866) introduction; [[Theodor Benfey|Th. Benfey]], ''Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaft'' (1869); A Kuhn in ''Unsere Zeit,'' Neue Folge, iv. I (1868); Lefmann, ''Franz Bopp'' (Berlin, 1891-1897).
[[Category:1791 births|Bopp, Franz]]
[[Category:1867 deaths|Bopp, Franz]]
[[Category:German linguists|Bopp, Franz]]
[[Category:Indo-Europeanists|Bopp, Franz]]
[[ast:Franz Bopp]]
[[bg:Франц Боп]]
[[de:Franz Bopp]]
[[es:Franz Bopp]]
[[eo:Franz BOPP]]
[[fr:Franz Bopp]]
[[hu:Franz Bopp]]
[[pl:Franz Bopp]]
[[pt:Franz Bopp]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Full Metal Jacket</title>
<id>11701</id>
<revision>
<id>41817096</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T23:06:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Milo99</username>
<id>309674</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the type of ammunition, see [[Full metal jacket bullet]].''
{{Infobox Film |
name = Full Metal Jacket |
image = Full Metal Jacket- 1987.jpg |
director = [[Stanley Kubrick]] |
producer = [[Stanley Kubrick]] |
writer = [[Stanley Kubrick]] <BR \> [[Michael Herr]] <BR \> [[Gustav Hasford]] <BR \>(for the novel <br \>''[[The Short-Timers]]'') |
starring = [[Matthew Modine]] <BR> [[Adam Baldwin]] <BR> [[Vincent D'Onofrio]] <BR> [[R. Lee Ermey|Lee Ermey]]<br>[[Dorian Harewood]]<br>[[Arliss Howard]]<br>[[Kevyn Major Howard]]<br>[[Ed O'Ross]] |
music = [[Vivian Kubrick]]|
distributor = [[Warner Bros.]] |
released = [[26 June]], [[1987]] (premiere) |
runtime = 116 min. |
language = English |
budget = $17,000,000 |
tagline: "In Vietnam the wind doesn't blow, it sucks"
imdb_id = 0093058 |
|}}
'''''Full Metal Jacket''''' ([[1987]]) is a [[film]] produced and directed by [[Stanley Kubrick]], based on the novel ''[[The Short-Timers]]'' by [[Gustav Hasford]]. The film is named after the full metal jacketed bullets used in military ammunition.
The film portrays the [[Vietnam War]] from the point of view of the [[United States Marine Corps|US Marines]]. Recurring themes are the contradictions of war, a constant feeling of being out of one's depth, and the idea of combat in [[Vietnam]] being part of a different world, with its own rules and customs. The miasma of confusion and [[angst]] of the new world begins in boot camp, and spirals down into bloodshed before even landing in Vietnam.
In the aftermath of this film a series of policy changes came about in what was considered acceptable behavior by a [[Drill Instructor]] in the [[United States Marine Corps]]. All references to a recruit's family are absolutely forbidden, as is striking a recruit.
The movie is often said to have been shot on the [[Isle of Dogs]], in east [[London]], but in fact the ravaged city scenes were shot in a disused gas works in [[Beckton]], further east. The open country is [[Cliffe-at-Hoo|Cliffe]] marshes, also on the [[River Thames|Thames]], with palm trees imported from Spain. While this was reasonable for the urban nature of the [[Tet Offensive]], it was also influenced by Kubrick's aversion to air travel.
{{spoiler}}
==Synopsis==
The protagonist of the film is Marine recruit J.T. 'Joker' Davis ([[Matthew Modine]]), who is part of a group beginning [[recruit training|basic training]] as a [[United States Marine Corps|Marine]] on [[Parris Island]], [[South Carolina|SC]].
The brutal command of Senior [[Drill Instructor]] [[Gunnery Sergeant]] Hartman (played by former Marine Drill Instructor [[R. Lee Ermey]], which earned him a [[Golden Globe]] nomination for [[Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor - Motion Picture|best supporting actor]]) shows the harsh [[indoctrination]] of the armed forces during the [[Vietnam War]] era. The training is depicted as designed to eliminate virtually all trace of the recruits' individual personalities and transform them into killers (to "keep Heaven packed with fresh souls"). This first section of the film focuses largely on how the brutal treatment of overweight misfit Leonard 'Gomer Pyle' Lawrence ([[Vincent D'Onofrio]]) results in him losing his [[sanity]]. After this, despite Joker's attempts to intervene, Lawrence murders the Drill Instructor, and then kills himself.
[[Image:Full metal jacket screenshot.JPG|thumb|200px|left|Crazy Earl expresses his views of the war.]]
The second part then takes place in Vietnam, focusing on 'Joker', who is now a [[Sergeant]], and a ''[[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)|Stars and Stripes]]'' [[war correspondent]], as he covers the [[Tet Offensive]]. The 'Joker' soon becomes familiar with both the horror and the absurdity of the war. His helmet decoration &ndash; the slogan "[[Born to Kill]]" &ndash; and the [[Peace symbol]] pin on his uniform exemplify his moral ambiguity. In one scene Joker is confronted by a [[Marine Corps]] [[Colonel]] ([[Bruce Boa]]), demanding to know why he has a peace symbol on his uniform and "Born To Kill" on his helmet. Joker mentions the duality of man theory postulated by [[Carl Jung]]; the Colonel questions Joker's patriotism and demands that he shape up, "or I will take a giant shit on you."
Joker joins his friend Cowb |
available data from fields such as archaeology, history and astronomy, or appeal to [[mythology|mythological]], [[mysticism|mystical]], [[numerology|numerological]], [[astrology|astrological]] and other [[esotericism|esoteric]] sources of knowledge, or some combination of these.
Such ideas have been part of popular culture since at least the turn of the 20th century and can be traced back among others to such figures as the early-twentieth century American [[psychic]] [[Edgar Cayce]], whose "psychic channeling" of "Ra Ta" purports to have conveyed that the pyramids were built by refugees from [[Atlantis]], and even to his predecessor [[Ignatius Donnelly]]. In recent years, some of the more widely-publicised writers of alternative theories include [[Graham Hancock]], [[Robert Bauval]], [[Adrian Gilbert]] and Boston University geology professor [[Robert M. Schoch]]. These have written extensive alternate theories about the age and origin of the Giza pyramids and the [[Great Sphinx|Sphinx]]. While many Egyptologists and field scientists tend to dismiss such accounts out of hand as being a form of [[pseudoarchaeology]] (if only because of the subject material), other specialists such as astronomy professor [[Ed Krupp]] who have been involved in debate surrounding their ideas have produced refutations based on analyses of the presented evidence for many of their claims[http://www.antiquityofman.com/Krupp_refutes_Bauval_and_Roy.html].
A common theme found in many of the alternative theories put forward concerning the Giza pyramids and many other megalithic sites around the world, is the suggestion that these are not the products of the civilizations and cultures known to conventional history, but are instead the much older remnants of some hitherto unknown advanced ancient culture. This progenitor civilization is supposed to have been destroyed in antiquity by some devastating catastrophe, according to most of these accounts sometime around 10,500 BC. For the Great Pyramid of Giza in particular, it is maintained (depending on the theorist) that either it was ordained and built by this now-vanished civilization, or else that its construction was somehow influenced by knowledge (now lost) acquired from this civilization. The latter point of view is more common among recent theorists such as Hancock and Bauval, who have acknowledged that the Great Pyramid incorporates star shafts 'locked in' to Orion's Belt and Sirius at around 2450 BC, though they argue the Giza ground-plan was laid out in 10,450 BC [http://www.grahamhancock.com/library/fotg/c52-5.htm].
The ''a priori'' existence of such a civilization is postulated by such theorists who believe this is the only reasonable explanation how the most advanced of ancient historical cultures, such as Egypt and Sumer, were able to reach such high levels of unequaled technological advancement from their very beginnings with what might appear to be little or no precedent. This precedent they argue is not unknown, but found all over the globe in the form of megalithic ruins discovered at the beginnings of history but too complex they argue to have been constructed by the cultures they are ascribed to by the mainstream. As another of these theorists John Anthony West writes in reference to Egypt in particular: "How does a complex civilization spring full blown into being? Look at a 1905 automobile and compare it to a modern one. There is no mistaking the process of 'development'. But in Egypt there are no parallels. Everything is right there from the start." (''Serpent In the Sky'', 1979[http://www.sourcetext.com/pythagoras/serpent.html])
Egyptologists accuse Hancock of "just acknowledg[ing] the existence of a large body of data and the detailed hypothesis formulated to explain them, then bypass[ing] that hypothesis and present[ing] his alternative"{{fact}}<!--is this an actual quote? If so, a citation should be appended; if not, perhaps an alternate direct quote can be used to illustrate the near-universal disdain egyptologists have with ideas such as Hancock's-->. This because most of the evidence presented by Hancock has already been rejected by most Egyptologists and geologists since the evidence has not been subject to the system of [[peer review]]. However, he is only one of the many authors and researchers to have questioned the veracity of the evidence given to support the mainstream theory, and contest that there are too many weaknesses overlooked in their arguments. These shortcomings, they contest, include weak evidence tying the building of the pyramid to Khufu &mdash; a link which his supporters made on far less strong a base than is generally acceptable in egyptology.<!--not sure what these two sentences are trying to say - hasn't Hancock himself acknowledged that the pyramid was built by Khufu?-->
Hancock, Schoch and others who put forward alternative theories contest that traditional thoughts of egyptologists should not prevent us from considering new information with a new model, and that if the old theories cannot explain anomalies then they have to be reevaluated in light of new information, rather than brushing these anomalies under the carpet, for this is the scientific method.
=Further Reading=
* Mainstream [[Egyptology]]
:: [[Miroslav Verner|Verner, Miroslav]], "The Pyramids - Their Archaeology and History", Atlantic Books, 2001, ISBN 1-84354-171-8
* Alternative Theories
:: Smyth, Piazzi, "''Great Pyramid: Its Secrets & Mysteries Revealed''". Gramercy; 4th Rep edition. [[October 23]] [[1994]]. ISBN 0-517-26403-x
:: Hancock, Graham, "''Fingerprints of the Gods''". 3 Rivers Press; 1995. ISBN 0-517-88729-0
:: Hancock, Graham & Bauval, Robert, "''The Message of the Sphinx''". Crown Publishers; 1996. ISBN 0-517-70503-6
:: Bauval, Robert with Gilbert, Adrian, "''The Orion Mystery''". Crown Publishers; 1994/95. ISBN 0-517-88454-2
:: West, John Anthony, "''Serpent in the Sky''". Julian Press; 1979. ISBN 0-517-56635-4(pbk.)
:: Shoch, Robert M. Ph.D., "''Voyages of the Pyramid Builders''". Penguin Group; 2003 ISBN 1-58542-320-3(pbk.)
:: Childress, David Hatcher, "''Lost Cities and Ancient Mysteries of Africa & Arabia''". Adventures Unlimited Press; 1989. ISBN 0-932813-06-2
:: Sitchin, Zecharia, "''The 12th Planet''". Avon Books; 1976. ISBN 0-380-39362-X
== See also ==
{{commons|Great Pyramid of Giza|Great Pyramid of Giza}}
* [[List of Egypt-related topics]]
** [[Egyptian pyramids]]
*** [[Giza Necropolis]]
*** [[Gantenbrink's Door]]
** [[History of Ancient Egypt]]
*** [[Ancient Egypt]]
*** [[Old Kingdom]]
** [[Veneration of the dead]]
*** [[Egyptian soul]]
* [[Archaeology]]
** [[Archaeoastronomy]]
** [[Pseudoarchaeology]]
* [[Measure]]s and [[Mathematics]]
** [[Pyramid]]
** [[Ancient weights and measures]]
** [[Orders of magnitude (length)]]
** [[Orders of magnitude (mass)]]
* Lists
** [[List of buildings]]
** [[List of astronomical topics]]
** [[List of famous pairs]]
== External links ==
'''Archeology'''
*[http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/PROJ/GIZ/Giza.html The Giza Mapping Project]
'''Exploration'''
*[http://www.travellersinegypt.org Travelers in Egypt]
*[http://www.freddyreyes.com/portal/modules.php?name=Downloads&d_op=viewdownloaddetails&cid=17&lid=68&ttitle=3D_Model_of_the_Great_Pyramid_Inside_Version_2.0#dldetails.html 3d walkthru model of the Great Pyramid inside]
'''Other theories'''
* Wall, John, "''[http://www.hallofmaat.com/maat/article.php?sid=17 The Wrong Question (or: The Myth of the Mystery of the Missing Messages)]''". In the Hall of Maat.
* World-Mysteries.com - Mystic Places : [http://www.world-mysteries.com/mpl_2.htm The Great Pyramid]
* [http://www.aiwaz.net/giza/ Composition of Giza Plateau]
* Ottar Vendel's [http://www.nemo.nu/ibisportal/0egyptintro/3egypt/3main.htm Age of the Pyramids]
* [http://members.aol.com/aditt48670/pyramid.html Pyramid construction theory]
* Joseph Davidovits' "[http://www.geopolymer.org/science_archaeology/pyramids_egypt/index.html ''Ari-Kat Technology'']" - Geopolymer theory of pyramid construction
* Maureen Clemmons' "[http://pr.caltech.edu/periodicals/CaltechNews/articles/v35/obelisk.html How Many Caltechers Does It Take to Raise An Egyptian Obelisk?]" - Wind power construction theory
* Chris Dunn "[http://www.gizapower.com/]" - The Theory that the Giza Pyramid was a giant Maser
'''News'''
* Guardian's [http://www.guardians.net/egypt/pyramids.htm Pyramids of Egypt]
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,3604,1293377,00.html Secret chamber may hold key to mystery of the Great Pyramid] ([[The Guardian]], [[August 30]] [[2004]].)
* [http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200408/s1188387.htm Amateur archaeologists track lost tomb of Cheops] ([[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]], [[August 30]] [[2004]].)
* [http://www.guardians.net/hawass/pbuildrs.htm Pyramid Construction]: Ancient ramp leading to the Great Pyramid discovered, but only of maximal height approximately 100 feet (30 m). Pyramid's original height was 481 feet. Also, the heaviest stone blocks were discovered to have holes bored on opposite sides, indicating the use of [[Crane (machine)|cranes]] (or other mechanical means) to raise and precisely position them.
'''Images'''
* [http://www.gizapyramid.com/newtour1.htm A Picture Tour of The Great Pyramid] at the [http://www.gizapyramid.com/ Great Pyramid of Giza Research Association].
* Fullscreen Quicktime VR Panorama' [http://www.panoramas.dk/fullscreen/fullscreen38.html Pyramids of Giza]
* Google Satellite maps of the Pyramids [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=29.977140,31.131649&spn=0.013282,0.017896&t=k&hl=en 29&deg;58'51"N 31&deg;09'00"E]
* [http://www.py |
agliazzo_and_Wigderson|Impagliazzo and Wigderson]]).
<!--
An equivalent statement to the above is the following. Consider this statement:
: There exists a language ''L'' in '''EXPTIME''' for which any family of circuits deciding ''L'' is of exponential size.
If this statement is true, then '''P'''='''NP'''.
If this statement is false, then '''P'''='''BPP'''.
-->
== Other properties ==
For a long time, one of the most famous problems that was known to be in '''BPP''' but not known to be in '''P''' was the problem of determining whether a given number is a [[prime number|prime]]. However,
in the 2002 paper ''PRIMES is in P'', Manindra Agrawal and his students Neeraj Kayal and Nitin Saxena found a deterministic polynomial-time algorithm for this problem, thus showing that it is in '''P'''.
'''BPP''' is [[low (complexity)|low]] for itself, meaning that a '''BPP''' machine with the power to solve '''BPP''' problems instantly (a '''BPP''' [[oracle machine]]) is not any more powerful than the machine without this extra power.
This class is defined for an ordinary [[Turing machine]] plus a source of randomness. The corresponding class for a [[quantum computer]] is '''[[BQP]]'''.
Membership in any language in '''BPP''' can be determined by a polynomial-size [[boolean circuit]] (see [[circuit complexity]]).
== External links ==
* [http://www.cs.princeton.edu/courses/archive/fall03/cs597E/ Princeton CS 597E: Derandomization paper list]
* [http://www.courses.fas.harvard.edu/~cs225/ Harvard CS 225: Pseudorandomness]
== References ==
*<span id="Babai_et_al">László Babai, Lance Fortnow, Noam Nisan, and Avi Wigderson (1993). "BPP has subexponential time simulations unless [[EXPTIME]] has publishable proofs". ''Computational Complexity'', 3:307&ndash;318.</span>
*<span id="Impagliazzo_and_Wigderson">[[Russell Impagliazzo]] and Avi Wigderson (1997). "P=BPP if E requires exponential circuits: Derandomizing the XOR Lemma". ''Proceedings of the Twenty-Ninth Annual ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing'', pp. 220&ndash;229. {{doi|10.1145/258533.258590}}</span>
*<span id="Kabanets">Valentine Kabanets (2003). "CMPT 710 &ndash; Complexity Theory: Lecture 16". [[Simon Fraser University]].</span>
* {{cite book|author = [[Christos Papadimitriou]] | year = 1993 | title = Computational Complexity | publisher = Addison Wesley | edition = 1st edition | id = ISBN 0201530821}} Pages 257&ndash;259 of section 11.3: Random Sources. Pages 269&ndash;271 of section 11.4: Circuit complexity.
* {{cite book|author = [[Michael Sipser]] | year = 1997 | title = Introduction to the Theory of Computation | publisher = PWS Publishing | id = ISBN 0-534-94728-X}} Section 10.2.1: The class BPP, pp.336&ndash;339.
{{ComplexityClasses}}
[[Category:Complexity classes]]
[[de:BPP (Komplexitätsklasse)]]
[[ko:BPP]]
[[he:BPP]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>BQP</title>
<id>4080</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-04T15:33:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chobot</username>
<id>259798</id>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: ko</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''BQP''', in [[computational complexity theory]], stands for "[[bounded-error|'''B'''ounded error]], '''Q'''uantum, [[polynomial time|'''P'''olynomial time]]". It denotes the class of problems solvable by a [[quantum computer]] in polynomial time, with an error probability of at most 1/4 for all instances.
In other words, there is an [[algorithm]] for a quantum computer that is guaranteed to run in polynomial time. On any given run of the algorithm, it has a probability of at most 1/4 that it will give the wrong answer. That is true, whether the answer is YES or NO.
The choice of 1/4 in the definition is arbitrary.
Changing the [[mathematical constant|constant]] to any [[real number]] <var>k</var> such that 0 &lt; <var>k</var> &lt; 1/2 does not change the [[set]] '''BQP'''.
The idea is that there is a small [[probability of error]], but running the algorithm many times produces an [[exponential decay|exponentially-small]] chance that the majority of the runs are wrong.
The number of [[qubit]]s in the computer is allowed to be a [[function (mathematics)|function]] of the instance size.
For example, algorithms are known for factoring an ''n''-bit integer using just over 2''n'' qubits.
Quantum computers have gained widespread interest because some problems of practical interest are known to be in BQP, but suspected to be outside P. Currently, only three such problems are known:
*[[integer factorization|Integer factorization]] (see [[Shor's algorithm]])
*[[Discrete logarithm]]
*Simulation of quantum systems (see [[universal quantum computer]])
This class is defined for a quantum computer. The corresponding class for an ordinary [[Turing machine]] plus a source of randomness is '''[[BPP]]'''.
BQP contains '''[[P (complexity)|P]]''' and '''[[BPP]]''' and is contained in '''[[PP (complexity)|PP]]''' and '''[[PSPACE]]'''. In fact, BQP is [[low (complexity)|low]] for '''PP''', meaning that a '''PP''' machine achieves no benefit from being able to solve '''BQP''' problems instantly, an indication of the vast difference in power between these similar classes.
{{ComplexityClasses}}[[Category:Complexity classes]]
[[Category:Quantum information science]]
[[de:BQP (Komplexitätsklasse)]]
[[es:BQP]]
[[ko:BQP]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Blade Runner 3: Replicant Night</title>
<id>4081</id>
<revision>
<id>30688398</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-09T07:08:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Wookieepedian</username>
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<comment>cleanup</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Blade Runner 3: Replicant Night''''' ([[1996]]) is a [[novel]] by [[K. W. Jeter]] that continues the story of [[Rick Deckard]]. It is the sequel to ''[[Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human]]'', which in turn was itself a sequel to [[Ridley Scott]]'s [[1982]] film ''[[Blade Runner]]'', and the book on which ''Blade Runner'' was based, ''[[Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?]]''.
== Story ==
Living on Mars, Deckard is acting as a consultant to a movie crew filming the story of his [[Blade Runner]] days. He finds himself drawn into a mission on behalf of the [[replicant]]s he was once assigned to kill. Meanwhile, the mystery surrounding the beginnings of the Tyrell Corporation is being dragged out into the light.
== See also==
*''[[Blade Runner 4: Eye and Talon]]''
{{Bladerunner}}
{{Sf-book-stub}}
[[Category:Science fiction novels]]
[[Category:1996 books]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human</title>
<id>4082</id>
<revision>
<id>30688126</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-09T07:03:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Wookieepedian</username>
<id>425277</id>
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<comment>cleanup</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human''''' ([[1995]]) is a [[novel]] by [[K. W. Jeter]], and a continuation of both the film ''[[Blade Runner]]'', and the novel upon which it was based, which was [[Philip K. Dick]]'s ''[[Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?]]''
== Story ==
The book continues the story of Rick Deckard. Beginning several months after the end of ''[[Blade Runner]]'', the author attempts to resolve many of the differences between the movie and the novel. He also addresses at least one inconsistency to be found in the movie itself -- the question of the sixth [[replicant]]. Is Deckard a replicant after all?
== See also ==
*''[[Blade Runner 3: Replicant Night]]''
*''[[Blade Runner 4: Eye and Talon]]''
{{Bladerunner}}
{{Sf-book-stub}}
[[Category:Science fiction novels]]
[[Category:1995 books]]</text>
</revision>
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<page>
<title>Blog (disambiguation)</title>
<id>4085</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:50:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dillona</username>
<id>621583</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Blog''' can refer to:
{{Wiktionarypar|blog}}
*[[Blog]]: an online [[journal]] or [[diary]], also known as a "weblog".
*[[slang]] for [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] (or, in some circles, a particular alcoholic drink), used in [[science fiction]] [[fandom]].</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brainfuck</title>
<id>4086</id>
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<id>41735301</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T10:54:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>144.137.233.202</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Software */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{lowercase|title=brainfuck}}
'''brainfuck''' is an [[Esoteric programming language|esoteric computer programming language]] noted for its extreme minimalism. It was designed to challenge and amuse [[programmer]]s, and is not suitable for practical use. Its name has been variously [[euphemism|euphemized]], as in ''brainf*ck'', since its name contains the word "[[fuck]]". The name of the language is generally not capitalized, despite the fact that it is a [[proper noun]].
==Language design==
[[Urban Müller]] created brainfuck in 1993 with the intention of designing a language which could be implemented with the smallest possible [[compiler]] [http://www.muppetlabs.com/~breadbox/bf/], inspired by the 1024 byte compiler for the [[FALSE]] programming language. Several brainfuck compilers have been made smaller than 200 bytes. The classic distribution is [http://wuarchive.wustl.edu/pub/aminet/dev/lang/brainfuck-2.lha Müller's version 2], containing a compiler for the [[Amiga]], an interpr |
ing Standard Proctor (ASTM D 698), Modified Proctor (ASTM D 1557), and California Bearing Ratio (ASTM D 1883) Tests
* [[Direct Shear Test]]
* Unconfined Compression (UC) (ASTM D2166)
* Triaxial Tests
** CD - Consolidated drained
** CU - Consolidated undrained (ASTM D 4647)
** UU - Unconsolidated undrained (ASTM D 2850)
* Oedometer Test - including consolidation (ASTM D 2435) and swell tests (ASTM D 4546)
* Soil Suction Tests (ASTM D 5298)
== Recommended Reading ==
*Holtz, R. and Kovacs, W. (1981), ''An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering'', Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-13-484394-0
*Bowles, J. (1988), ''Foundation Analysis and Design'', McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. ISBN 0-07-006776-7
*Rajapakse, R., "Pile Design and Construction Guide", 2004, www.geotechweb.com
== See also ==
* [[Civil engineering]]
* [[Soil mechanics]]
*[[Critical State Soil Mechanics]]
*[[Effective stress]]
* [[Engineering geology]]
* [[List of publications in geology#Geotechnical engineering| Important publications in geotechnical engineering]]
* [[Rock mass classifications]]
* [[Earthworks (engineering)|Earthworks]]
* [[LIMS|Laboratory Information Management Systems]]
[[Category:Civil engineering]]
{{sci-stub}}
[[ja:土質力学]]
[[vi:Kỹ thuật địa chất]]
[[zh:土力工程]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Gustave Flaubert</title>
<id>12307</id>
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<username>Pedrose</username>
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<minor />
<comment>/* Life */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GustaveFlaubert.jpg|right|thumb|170px|Gustave Flaubert]]
{{French literature (small)}}
'''Gustave Flaubert''' ([[December 12]], [[1821]] &ndash; [[May 8]], [[1880]]) [{{IPA|gystav flobɛ:ʁ}}] was a [[France|French]] [[novelist]] who is counted among the greatest [[Western literature|Western novelists]]. He is known especially for his first published [[novel]] ''[[Madame Bovary]]'' and for his scrupulous devotion to his art and style, best exemplified by his endless search for ''le mot juste'' ("the precise word"). He was born in [[Rouen]], [[Seine-Maritime]], in the [[Haute-Normandie]] Region of [[France]].
== Life ==
Flaubert's father, who serves as a model for the character Dr. Larivière in ''[[Madame Bovary]]'', was a [[surgery|surgeon]] in practice at Rouen; his mother was connected with some of the oldest [[Normans|Norman]] families. He was educated in his native city and did not leave it until [[1840]], when he went to [[Paris]] to study [[law]]. He is said to have been idle at school, but to have been occupied with literature from the age of eleven. Flaubert in his youth was full of vigour and a certain shy grace, enthusiastic, intensely individual, and apparently without a trace of ambition.
He loved the country and Paris was extremely distasteful to him. He made the acquaintance of [[Victor Hugo]], and towards the close of 1840 he travelled in the [[Pyrenees]] and [[Corsica]]. Returning to Paris, he wasted his time daydreaming, living on his patrimony. In [[1846]], Flaubert abandoned Paris and the study of the law and returned to Croisset, close to Rouen, where he lived with his mother. This estate, a house in a pleasant piece of ground which ran down to the Seine, became Flaubert's home for the remainder of his life. From [[1846]] to [[1854]] he had an affair with the poet [[Louise Colet]]; his letters to her have been preserved, and according to Émile Faguet, their affair was the only sentimental episode of any importance in the life of Flaubert, who never married. His principal friend at this time was [[Maxime du Camp]], with whom he travelled in [[Brittany]] in 1846 and to [[Greece]] and [[Egypt]] in [[1849]]. This trip made a profound impression upon the imagination of Flaubert. From this time forth, save for occasional visits to Paris, he did not stir from Croisset.
On returning from the East, in [[1850]], he began writing ''[[Madame Bovary]]''. He had previously written a novel, ''The Temptation of St. Anthony'', but was unhappy with the result. It took him six years to write ''[[Madame Bovary]]''. The novel was serialized in the ''[[Revue de Paris]]'' in [[1857]]. The government brought an action against the publisher and against the author on the charge of immorality, but both were acquitted. When ''Madame Bovary'' appeared in book form it met with a very warm reception. Flaubert paid a visit to [[Carthage]] in [[1858]] in order to gather material for his next novel, ''[[Salammbô]]'', which was not finished until [[1862]] in spite of the author's ceaseless labors.
He then took up again the study of contemporary manners, and, making use of many recollections of his youth and childhood, wrote ''L'Éducation sentimentale'' (''[[Sentimental Education]]''), the composition of which occupied him for seven years. It was published in [[1869]]. Up to this time Flaubert's sequestered and laborious life had been comparatively happy, but soon suffered a series of misfortunes. During the [[Franco-Prussian War|war of 1870]], Prussian soldiers occupied his house. He began to suffer from nervous maladies.
His best friends were taken from him by death or by misunderstanding; in [[1872]] he lost his mother, and his circumstances became greatly reduced. He was very tenderly guarded by his niece, Caroline Commanville; he enjoyed a rare intimacy of friendship with [[George Sand]], with whom he carried on a correspondence of immense artistic interest, and occasionally he saw his Parisian acquaintances, [[Zola]], [[Alphonse Daudet]], [[Turgenev]], and [[Edmond de Goncourt|Edmond]] and [[Jules de Goncourt]]; but nothing prevented the close of Flaubert's life from being desolate and melancholy. He did not cease, however, to work with the same intensity and thoroughness. ''La Tentation de Saint-Antoine'', of which fragments had been published as early as 1857, was at length completed and sent to press in [[1874]]. In that year he was subjected to a disappointment by the failure of his drama ''Le Candidat''. In [[1877]] Flaubert published in one volume entitled ''Trois contes'' (''[[Three Tales]]''), ''Un Cœur simple'', ''La Légende de Saint-Julien l'Hospitalier'' and ''Hérodias''. He spent the remainder of his life toiling at a vast satire on the futility of human knowledge and the ubiquity of mediocrity, which he left unfinished. This is the depressing and bewildering ''[[Bouvard et Pécuchet]]'' (posthumously printed, 1881), which he believed to be his masterpiece.
Flaubert had aged rapidly since [[1870]], and he seemed quite an old man when he was carried off by [[apoplexy]] at the age of only 58 in 1880. He died at Croisset but was buried in the family vault in the cemetery of Rouen. A beautiful monument to him by [[Henri Chapu]] was unveiled at the museum of Rouen in [[1890]].
The personal character of Flaubert offered various peculiarities. He was shy, and yet extremely sensitive and arrogant; he passed from silence to an indignant and noisy flow of language. The same inconsistencies marked his physical nature; he had the build of a guardsman with a Viking head, but his health was uncertain from childhood, and he was neurotic to the last degree. This ruddy giant was secretly gnawed by misanthropy and disgust of life. His hatred of the bourgeois began in his childhood and developed into a kind of [[monomania]]. He despised his fellow-men, their habits, their lack of intelligence, their contempt for beauty, with a passionate scorn which has been compared to that of an ascetic monk.
== Work and legacy ==
Flaubert's curious modes of composition favored and were emphasized by these peculiarities. He worked in sullen solitude, sometimes occupying a week in the completion of one page, never satisfied with what he had composed, violently tormenting his brain for the best turn of a phrase, the most absolutely final adjective. It cannot be said that his incessant labors were not rewarded. His private letters show that he was not one of those to whom easy and correct language is naturally given; he gained his extraordinary perfection with the unceasing sweat of his brow. One of the most severe of academic critics admits that in all his works, and in every page of his works, Flaubert may be considered a model of style.
That he was one of the greatest writers who ever lived in France is now commonly admitted, and his greatness principally depends upon the extraordinary vigour and exactitude of his style. Less perhaps than any other writer, not of France, but of modern Europe, Flaubert yields admission to the inexact, the abstract, the vaguely inapt expression which is the bane of ordinary methods of composition. He never allowed a [[cliché]] to pass him, never indulgently or wearily went on, leaving behind him a phrase which almost expressed his meaning. Being, as he is, a mixture in almost equal parts of the [[romanticism|romanticist]] and the [[Realism (arts)|realist]] , the marvellous propriety of his style has been helpful to later writers of both schools, of every school. The absolute exactitude with which he adapts his expression to his purpose is seen in all parts of his work, but particularly in the portraits he draws of the figures in his principal romances. The degree and manner in which, since his death, the fame of Flaubert has extended, form an interesting chapter of literary history.
The publication of ''Madame Bovary'' in 1857 had been followed by more scandal than admiration; it was not understood at first that this novel was the beginning of something new, the scrupulously truthful portraiture of life. Gradually this aspect of his genius was accepted, and began to crowd out all others. At the time of his death he was famous as a realist, pure and simple. Under this aspect Flaubert exercised an extraordinary influence over [[Edmond de Goncourt]], Alphonse Daudet |
| align="center"| 1920 || align="right"| 6,485,280
|-
| align="center"| 1930 || align="right"| 7,630,654
|-
| align="center"| 1940 || align="right"| 7,897,241
|-
| align="center"| 1950 || align="right"| 8,712,176
|-
| align="center"| 1960 || align="right"| 10,081,158
|-
| align="center"| 1970 || align="right"| 11,113,976
|-
| align="center"| 1980 || align="right"| 11,426,518
|-
| align="center"| 1990 || align="right"| 11,430,602
|-
| align="center"| [[United States 2000 Census|2000]] || align="right"| 12,419,293
|}
As of 2005, Illinois has an estimated population of 12,763,371, which is an increase of 51,355, or 0.4%, from the prior year and an increase of 343,724, or 2.8%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 406,425 people (that is 959,470 births minus 553,045 deaths) and a decrease due to net migration of 63,011 people out of the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 328,020 people, and migration within the country produced a net loss of 391,031 people.
As of 2004 there were 1,682,900 foreign-born (13.3%).
At the northern edge of the state on Lake Michigan lies Chicago, the nation's third largest city. In 2000, 23.3% of the population lived in the city of Chicago, 43.3% in Cook County and 65.6% in Illinois's part of [[Chicagoland]], the leading industrial and transportation center in the region, which includes Will, DuPage, Kane, and Lake Counties as well as Cook County. The rest of the population lives in the smaller cities and in the rural areas that dot the state's plains.
The racial makeup of the state is as follows:
*67.8% [[Whites|White]]
*15.9% [[Blacks|Black]]
*12.3% [[Hispanics|Hispanic]]
*3.4% [[Asian American|Asian]]
*0.2% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]]
*1.9% [[Mixed Race]]
The top five ancestry groups in Illinois are: [[German-American|German]] (19.6%), [[African American]] (15.1%), [[Ireland|Irish]] (12.2%), [[Mexico|Mexican]] (9.2%), and [[Polish-American|Polish]] (7.5%)
Nearly three in ten whites in Illinois claimed at least partial German ancestry on the Census, making the Germans the largest ancestry group in the state. Blacks are present in large numbers in the city of Chicago, East St. Louis, and the southern tip of the state. Residents of American and British ancestry are especially concentrated in the southeastern part of the state. Metropolitan Chicago has the greatest numbers of people of Irish, Mexican, and Polish ancestry.
7.1% of Illinois' population were reported as under 5, 26.1% under 18, and 12.1% were 65 or older. Females made up approximately 51% of the population.
===Religion===
Protestants are the largest religious group in Illinois, however unlike the other Midwestern states, Illinois is not overwhelmingly Protestant (less than half of the people identify themselves as such). Roman Catholics, who are heavily concentrated in and around Chicago, account for 30% of the population.
The religious affiliations of the people of Illinois are:
*[[Christianity|Christian]] &ndash; 80%
**[[Protestantism|Protestant]] &ndash; 49%
***[[Baptist]] &ndash; 12%
***[[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] &ndash; 7%
***[[Methodism|Methodist]] &ndash; 7%
***[[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] &ndash; 3%
***Other Protestant or general Protestant &ndash; 20%
**[[Roman Catholicism in the United States|Roman Catholic]] &ndash; 30%
**Other Christian &ndash; 1%
*Other religions &ndash; 4%
*Non-religious &ndash; 16%
== Important cities and towns ==
[[Image:Chitown jc01.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Chicago]]
{{main|List of towns and villages in Illinois}}
{| border="0" style="font-size: small;"
|valign="top"|
Population over 1,000,000:
*[[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]]
Population 100,000 to 1,000,000:
*[[Aurora, Illinois|Aurora]]
*[[Joliet, Illinois|Joliet]]
*[[Naperville, Illinois|Naperville]]
*[[Peoria, Illinois|Peoria]]
*[[Rockford, Illinois|Rockford]]
*[[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]] (state capital)
|valign="top" rowspan=2|
Important suburbs of Chicago:
*[[Addison, Illinois|Addison]]
*[[Arlington Heights, Illinois|Arlington Heights]]
*[[Aurora, Illinois|Aurora]]
*[[Berkeley, Illinois|Berkeley]]
*[[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]]
*[[Bolingbrook, Illinois|Bolingbrook]]
*[[Buffalo Grove, Illinois|Buffalo Grove]]
*[[Calumet City, Illinois|Calumet City]]
*[[Carol Stream, Illinois|Carol Stream]]
*[[Carpentersville, Illinois|Carpentersville]]
*[[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]]
*[[Crystal Lake, Illinois|Crystal Lake]]
*[[Des Plaines, Illinois|Des Plaines]]
*[[Downers Grove, Illinois|Downers Grove]]
*[[Elgin, Illinois|Elgin]]
*[[Elk Grove Village, Illinois|Elk Grove Village]]
*[[Elmhurst, Illinois|Elmhurst]]
*[[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]]
*[[Geneva, Illinois|Geneva]]
*[[Glendale Heights, Illinois|Glendale Heights]]
*[[Glen Ellyn, Illinois|Glen Ellyn]]
*[[Glenview, Illinois|Glenview]]
*[[Highland Park, Illinois|Highland Park]]
*[[Hoffman Estates, Illinois|Hoffman Estates]]
*[[Joliet, Illinois|Joliet]]
*[[La Grange, Illinois|La Grange]]
*[[Lemont, Illinois|Lemont]]
*[[Mount Prospect, Illinois|Mount Prospect]]
*[[Naperville, Illinois|Naperville]]
*[[Northbrook, Illinois|Northbrook]]
*[[Oak Lawn, Illinois|Oak Lawn]]
*[[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]]
*[[Orland Park, Illinois|Orland Park]]
*[[Oswego, Illinois|Oswego]]
*[[Palatine, Illinois|Palatine]]
*[[Park Ridge, Illinois|Park Ridge]]
*[[Schaumburg, Illinois|Schaumburg]]
*[[Skokie, Illinois|Skokie]]
*[[St. Charles, Illinois|St. Charles]]
*[[Tinley Park, Illinois|Tinley Park]]
*[[Waukegan, Illinois|Waukegan]]
*[[Western Springs, Illinois|Western Springs]]
*[[Wheaton, Illinois|Wheaton]]
*[[Wheeling, Illinois|Wheeling]]
of [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]]:
*[[Belleville, Illinois|Belleville]]
*[[Collinsville, Illinois|Collinsville]]
*[[East St. Louis, Illinois|East Saint Louis]]
*[[Edwardsville, Illinois|Edwardsville]]
*[[Granite City, Illinois|Granite City]]
*[[O'Fallon, Illinois|O'Fallon]]
of [[Rockford, Illinois|Rockford]]:
*[[Loves Park, Illinois|Loves Park]]
*[[Machesney Park, Illinois|Machesney Park]]
of [[Peoria, Illinois|Peoria]]:
*[[East Peoria, Illinois|East Peoria]]
*[[Morton, Illinois|Morton]]
*[[Pekin, Illinois|Pekin]]
*[[Washington, Illinois|Washington]]
|-
|valign="top"|
Population 10,000 to 100,000:
*[[Champaign, Illinois|Champaign]]
*[[Urbana, Illinois|Urbana]]
*[[Bloomington, Illinois|Bloomington]]
*[[Normal, Illinois|Normal]]
*[[East Moline, Illinois|East Moline]]
*[[Moline, Illinois|Moline]]
*[[Rock Island, Illinois|Rock Island]]
*[[Decatur, Illinois|Decatur]]
*[[Alton, Illinois|Alton]]
*[[Bellwood, Illinois|Bellwood]]
*[[Kankakee, Illinois|Kankakee]]
*[[DeKalb, Illinois|DeKalb]]
*[[Danville, Illinois|Danville]]
*[[Quincy, Illinois|Quincy]]
*[[Galesburg, Illinois|Galesburg]]
*[[Sterling, Illinois|Sterling]]
*[[Peru, Illinois|Peru]]
*[[Freeport, Illinois|Freeport]]
*[[Carbondale, Illinois|Carbondale]]
*[[Jacksonville, Illinois|Jacksonville]]
*[[Charleston, Illinois|Charleston]]
*[[Centralia, Illinois|Centralia]]
*[[Plainfield, Illinois|Plainfield]]
*[[Ottawa, Illinois|Ottawa]]
*[[Woodstock, Illinois|Woodstock]]
*[[Woodridge, Illinois|Woodridge]]
*[[Herrin, Illinois|Herrin]]
*[[Mattoon, Illinois|Mattoon]]
*[[Macomb, Illinois|Macomb]]
*[[Streator, Illinois|Streator]]
*[[Lincoln, Illinois|Lincoln]]
*[[Dixon, Illinois|Dixon]]
*[[Mount Vernon, Illinois|Mount Vernon]]
*[[Marion, Illinois|Marion]]
*[[West Frankfort, Illinois|West Frankfort]]
*[[Canton, Illinois|Canton]]
*[[Rantoul, Illinois|Rantoul]]
*[[Effingham, Illinois|Effingham]]
*[[Taylorville, Illinois|Taylorville]]
*[[Morris, Illinois|Morris]]
*[[Murphysboro, Illinois|Murphysboro]]
*[[Kewanee, Illinois|Kewanee]]
*[[Sandwich, Illinois|Sandwich]]
*[[Pontiac, Illinois|Pontiac]]
*[[Harrisburg, Illinois|Harrisburg]]
*[[Braidwood, Illinois|Braidwood]]
*[[Monmouth, Illinois|Monmouth]]
|}
== Counties of Illinois ==
{{see also|List of Illinois counties}}
{| border="0" style="font-size: small;"
|valign="top"|
* [[Adams County, Illinois|Adams]]
*[[Alexander County, Illinois|Alexander]]
*[[Bond County, Illinois|Bond]]
*[[Boone County, Illinois|Boone]]
*[[Brown County, Illinois|Brown]]
*[[Bureau County, Illinois|Bureau]]
*[[Calhoun County, Illinois|Calhoun]]
*[[Carroll County, Illinois|Carroll]]
*[[Cass County, Illinois|Cass]]
*[[Champaign County, Illinois|Champaign]]
*[[Christian County, Illinois|Christian]]
*[[Clark County, Illinois|Clark]]
* [[Clay County, Illinois|Clay]]
* [[Clinton County, Illinois|Clinton]]
* [[Coles County, Illinois|Coles]]
* [[Cook County, Illinois|Cook]]
* [[Crawford County, Illinois|Crawford]]
* [[Cumberland County, Illinois|Cumberland]]
* [[DeKalb County, Illinois|DeKalb]]
* [[De Witt County, Illinois|De Witt]]
* [[Douglas County, Illinois|Douglas]]
|valign="top"|
* [[Du Page County, Illinois|Du Page]]
* [[Edgar County, Illinois|Edgar]]
* [[Edwards County, Illinois|Edwards]]
* [[Effingham County, Illinois|Effingham]]
* [[Fayette County, Illinois|Fayette]]
* [[Ford County, Illinois|Ford]]
* [[Franklin County, Illinois|Franklin]]
* [[Fulton County, Illinois|Fulton]]
* [[Gallatin County, Illinois|Gallatin]]
* [[Greene County, Illinois|Greene]]
* [[Grundy County, Illinois|Grundy]]
* [[Hamilton County, Illinois|Hamilton]]
* [[Hancock County, Illinois|Hancock]]
* [[Hardin County, Illinois|Hardin]]
* [[Henderson County, Illinois|Henderson]]
* [[Henry County, Illinois|Henry]]
* [[Iroquois County, Illinois|Iroquois]]
* [[Jackson County, Illinois|Jackson]]
* [[Jasper County, Illinois|Jasper]]
* [[Jefferson County, Illinois|Jefferson]]
* [[Jersey County, Illinois|Jersey]]
|valign="top"|
* [[Jo Daviess County, Illinois|Jo Daviess]]
* [[Johnson County, Illinois|Johnson]]
* [[Kane Co |
d's "individual first" mantra - it was very collectivist in nature.{{ref|31-Abasciano}} Identity stemmed from membership in a group more than individuality.{{ref|32-Abasciano}} According to Romans 9-11, supporters claim, Jewish election as the chosen people ceased with their national rejection of Jesus as Messiah. As a result of the new covenant, God's chosen people are now the corporate body of Christ, the church (sometimes called ''spiritual Israel'' - see also [[Covenant theology]]). Pastor and theologian Dr. Brian Abasciano claims "What Paul says about Jews, Gentiles, and Christians, whether of their place in God’s plan, or their election, or their salvation, or how they should think or behave, he says from a corporate perspective which views the group as primary and those he speaks about as embedded in the group. These individuals act as members of the group to which they belong, and what happens to them happens by virtue of their membership in the group."{{ref|33-Abasciano}}
These scholars also maintain that Jesus was the only human ever elected and that individuals must be "in Christ" (Eph 1:3-4) through faith to be part of the elect. Joseph Dongell, professor at Asbury Theological Seminary, states "the most conscipuous feature of Ephesians 1:3-2:10 is the phrase 'in Christ', which occurs twelve times in Ephesians 1:3-4 alone...this means that Jesus Christ himself is the chosen one, the predestined one. Whenever one is incorporated into him by grace through faith, one comes to share in Jesus' special status as chosen of God."{{ref|34-Dongell}} Markus Barth illustrates the inter-connectedness: "Election in Christ must be understood as the election of God's people. Only as members of that community do individuals share in the benefits of God's gracious choice."{{ref|35-Barth}}
==Comparison to other views==
Understanding Arminianism is aided by understanding the theological alternatives - Pelagianism and Calvinism. Arminianism, like any major belief system, is frequently misunderstood both by critics and would-be supporters. Listed below are a few common misconceptions.
===Common misconceptions===
* '''Arminianism supports works-based salvation''' - No well-known system of Arminianism denies salvation "by faith alone" and "by faith first to last". This misconception is often directed at the Arminian possibility of apostasy, which critics maintain requires continual good works to achieve final salvation. To Arminians, however, both intial salvation ''and'' eternal security are "by faith alone"; hence "by faith first ''to last''". Belief through faith is the condition for entrance into the Kingdom of God; unbelief is the condition for exit from the Kingdom of God - not a lack of good works.{{ref|36-Pawson}} {{ref|37-Picirilli}} {{ref|38-Ashby}}
* '''Arminianism denies original sin and total depravity''' - No system of Arminianism founded on Arminius or Wesley denies original sin or total depravity;{{ref|39-Ashby}} both Arminius and Wesley ''strongly'' affirmed that man's basic condition is one in which he cannot be righteous, understand God, or seek God.{{ref|40-Arminius}} See the comparison to Calvinism below for where the two systems diverge.
* '''Arminianism denies Jesus' substitutionary payment for sins''' - Both Arminius and Wesley believed in the necessity and sufficiency of Christ's atonement through substitution.{{ref|41-Picirilli}} Arminius held that God's justice was satisfied [[Atonement (Satisfaction view) | individually]]{{ref|42-Ashby}} while Hugo Grotius and many of Wesley's followers taught that it was satisfied [[Atonement (Governmental view) | corporately]].{{ref|43-Picirilli}}
===Comparison to Pelagianism===
:''Main article: [[Pelagianism]]. See also: [[Semi-Pelagianism]], and [[History of Calvinist-Arminian Debate]]''
[[Pelagius]] was a British monk and opponent of [[Augustine of Hippo]] and [[St. Jerome | Jerome]] in the early 5th Century AD. When he arrived in Christian Rome from Britain, Pelagius was appalled at the lack of holiness he found. Pelagius preached justification through faith alone, but also believed salvation was finished through good works and moral uprightness. Furthermore, Pelagius completely denied the [[Predestination | double predestination]] and [[irresistible grace]] affirmed by Augustine. Several of his students - notably [[Caelestius]] - went further than their teacher and rejected justification by faith.
Through the influence of Augustine and Jerome, the teachings of Pelagius and Caelestius were rejected by the Papacy as heretical. Historically [[Pelagianism]] has come to to represent any system that denies original sin, holds that by nature humans are capable of good, and maintains morality and works are part of the equation that yields salvation. [[Semi-Pelagianism]] is a variation on the original more akin to Pelagius' own thought - that justification is through faith, but that Adam's original sin was merely a bad example, humans can naturally seek God, and salvation is completed through works. Both systems reject a Calvinist understanding of predestination.
Many critics of Arminianism, both historically and currently, claim that Arminianism condones, accepts, or even explicitly supports Pelagianism of either variety. Arminius refered to Pelagianism as "the grand falsehood" and stated that he "must confess that I detest, from my heart, the consequences [of that theology]."{{ref|44-Arminius}} David Pawson, a British pastor/theologian, decries this association as "libelous" when attributed to Arminius' or Wesley's doctrine.{{ref|45-Pawson}} Indeed most Arminians reject all accusations of Pelagianism; nonetheless, partially due to Calvinist opponents,{{ref|46-Pawson}} {{ref|47-Picirilli}} the two terms remain intertwined in popular usage. Listed below are similarities and contrasts between Arminianism and Pelagianism.
:'''Similarities:''' Both systems reject doctrines of Calvinistic predestination and irresistible grace. Both systems accept the Biblical importance of works, morality, and striving to become more holy.
:'''Differences:''' Arminianism maintains original sin, total depravity, substitutionary atonement, and salvation through faith alone. Arminianism maintains that works and holiness, while important, have no determining effect on salvation at any point in the process.
===Comparison to Calvinism===
{{Methodism}}
:''Main article: [[Calvinism]]''
Ever since Arminius and his followers revolted against Calvinism in the early 17th century, soteriology has been largely divided between Calvinism and Arminianism. On the conservative side of Calvinism is [[Hyper-Calvinism]] and on the liberal side of Arminianism is [[Pelagianism]], but the overwhelming majority of [[Protestantism | Protestant]], [[Evangelicalism | evangelical]] pastors and theologians hold to one of these two systems or somewhere in between.
====Similarities====
*'''[[Total depravity]]''' - Arminians affirm with Calvinists the doctrine of total depravity. The differences come in the understanding of how God remedies this depravity.
*'''[[Substitutionary_atonement | Substitutionary effect of atonement]]''' - Arminians also affirm with Calvinists the substitutionary effect of Christ's atonement and that this effect is limited only to the elect. Classical Arminians would agree with Calvinists that this substitution was an individual [[Atonement (Satisfaction view) | penal satisfaction]] for all of the elect, while most Wesleyan Arminians would maintain that the substitution was corporate and [[Atonement (Governmental view) | governmental]] in nature.
====Differences====
* '''Extent of Atonement''' - Arminians hold to a universal drawing and [[Unlimited atonement | universal extent of atonement]] instead of the specific drawing and [[limited atonement | limited extent]] held by Calvinism. Ashby states:
::"God could have sovereignly chosen to remedy humanity's situation differently than by the particularistic, cause-and-effect means proposed by Calvinism. In other words, when God saw his fallen human race in as bad a condition as it could possibly be in -'' 'dead in sins' ''and'' 'unable to do the least spiritual good' ''- logically, nothing would have precluded him from sovereignly choosing to reach out to all people with enabling grace (often referred to as prevenient grace). In fact, the Apostle Paul says that 'the grace of God that brings salvation has appeared to all men' (Titus 2:11)"{{ref|48-Ashby}}
* '''Nature of Grace''' - Arminians believe that through God's [[prevenient grace]], he restores free will concerning salvation to all humanity. Individuals, therefore, are able either to accept the Gospel call through faith or resist it through unbelief. Calvinists hold that an individual's response to the Gospel call is determined by God, not man; thus God's grace is [[Irresistible grace | irresistible]]. Ashby continues:
::"The Calvinist recoils and says, 'if all are enabled and all are drawn, then universalism must surely result - all would be saved.' To which I would say, 'Yes, ''if'' God's grace were irresistable grace.' Once again, however, God can sovereignly choose that his salvation is not going to proceed along the lines of a deterministic, cause-and-effect relationship. Rather, he is going to allow the sinner to resist the offer of grace, which grace he has sovereignly enabled the sinner to accept." {{ref|49-Ashby}}
* '''Conditionality of Election''' - Arminians hold that election to eternal salvation comes through (within) Jesus and therefore has the [[Conditional election| condition of faith]] attached. The Calvinist doctrine of [[unconditional election]] states that salvation cannot be earned and therefore has no human conditions - faith is not a condition, but rather a means. Jerry Dongell uses an illustration of a terrorist p |
nt they are near double the [[Krasina class cruiser|''Krasina'' class]] missile cruisers (~11,000 tons), but half the ''Iowa'' class (~55,000 tons).
Battleships still in existence as museums include the American [[USS Massachusetts|USS ''Massachusetts'']], [[USS North Carolina (BB-55)|''North Carolina'']], [[USS Alabama (BB-60)|''Alabama'']] and [[USS Texas (BB-35)|''Texas'']], the British [[Mary Rose|HMS ''Mary Rose'']], [[HMS Victory|''Victory'']] and [[HMS Warrior (1860)|''Warrior'']], the Japanese [[Japanese battleship Mikasa|''Mikasa'']], the Swedish [[Regalskeppet Vasa|''Vasa'']], the Dutch [[HNLMS Buffel|''Buffel'']] and [[HNLMS Schorpioen|''Schorpioen'']], and the Chilean [[Huáscar (ship)|''Huascar'']]. (See [[:Category:Museum ships]] for other museum ships).
USS ''Iowa'' and USS ''Wisconsin'' are maintained in accordance with the National Defense Authorization Act of [[1996]], which includes the following battleship readiness requirements:
# List and maintain at least two ''Iowa'' class battleships on the Naval Vessel Register that are in good condition and able to provide adequate fire support for an amphibious assault;
# Retain the existing logistical support necessary to keep at least two ''Iowa''-class battleships in active service, including technical manuals, repair and replacement parts, and ordnance; and
# Keep the two battleships on the register until the Navy certified that it has within the fleet an operational surface fire support capability that equals or exceeds the fire support capability that the ''Iowa''-class battleships would be able to provide for the Marine Corps' amphibious assaults and operations ashore. (Section 1011) [http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ship/bb-61.htm Source]
Current plans in the United States Navy call for keeping ''Iowa'' and ''Wisconsin'' on the register until the naval surface fire support gun and missile development programs achieve operational capability, which is expected to occur sometime between [[2003]] and [[2008]]. If and when ''Iowa'' and ''Wisconsin'' are removed from the [[Naval Vessel Register]] there is a high probabilty that interest groups will request that they be placed on donation hold and transferred for use as museums.
The longterm plan to remove ''Iowa'' and ''Wisconsin'' and donate them as museum ships is not without controversy; the [[United States Marine Corps]] has fought to get both battleships reinstated. The USMC believes that the naval surface fire support gun and missile programs will not be able to provide adequate fire support for an amphibious assault or onshore operations; additionally, the USMC does not think that the Navy's [[DD(X)]] destroyer program will be an acceptable replacement for the battleships, and points out that the DD(X) will not be available until 2013 in any event.
Refurbishing ''Iowa'' and ''Wisconsin'' has been priced at either $430 million for a 14-month program or $500 million for a 10-month program.
==Fictional appearances==
The term "battleship" often makes an appearance in military-oriented [[science fiction]], where they often occupy a role similar to their historical one. It should be noted that some writers have come to believe "battleship" is synonymous with "[[warship]]", and thus we see strange classifications like "light battleship" or "small battleship". Sometimes the futuristic battleships are large [[Starship|starships]] operating in outer space, rather than the open ocean.
Like [[Aircraft Carriers in Fiction|aircraft carriers]], conventional ocean-going battleships both fictional and real have also made frequent appearances in fictionalized accounts.
==Notes==
<references/>
==References==
*''Steam, Steel and Shellfire: The steam warship 1815-1905'', Conway's History of the Ship, ISBN 0785814132
==See also==
* [[Battleships throughout history]] (table only)
* [[List of Royal Navy ships]]
* [[List of ships of the Canadian Navy]]
* [[List of ships of the Japanese Navy]]
* [[List of ships of the Norwegian Navy]]
* [[Naval ship]]
* [[United States battleships]]
* [[Crossing the T]]
==External links==
*[http://www.friesian.com/dreadnot.htm "Dreadnought" by Kelley L. Ross, Ph.D.]
*[http://hazegray.org/navhist/battleships/ World Battleship Lists] at hazegray.org
*[http://www.wideopenwest.com/~jenkins/ironclads/foreign.htm List of early armored ships]
*[http://www.maritimequest.com/warship_directory/us_navy_pages/us_battleship_list.htm Maritimequest U.S. Battleship Index]
*[http://www.maritimequest.com/warship_directory/great_britain/pages/battleship_index.htm Maritimequest British Battleship Index]
*[http://www.maritimequest.com/warship_directory/germany/battleships_main.htm Maritimequest German Battleship Index]
*[http://www.maritimequest.com/warship_directory/france/battleships/french_battleship_index.htm Maritimequest French Battleship Index]
*[http://www.maritimequest.com/warship_directory/italy/battleships/battleship_index.htm Maritimequest Italian Battleship Index]
*[http://www.maritimequest.com/warship_directory/japan/battleships/japanese_battleship_index.htm Maritimequest Japanese Battleship Index]
*[http://www.maritimequest.com/warship_directory/russia/battleship_index.htm Maritimequest Russian Battleship Index]
*[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ship/battleships.htm GlobalSecurity.org]
*[http://www.ussmissouri.com/VDO_on_demand.aspx?Name=TurretOps_GunRoom.wmv Video: Inside one of ''Missouri''’s 16" gun room, about 1955. (Windows Media File)]
*[http://www.combinedfleet.com/baddest.htm Comparison of the capabilities of seven WWII battlesips]
[[Category:Ship types]]
[[Category:Battleships]]
[[cs:Bitevní loď]]
[[da:Slagskib]]
[[de:Schlachtschiff]]
[[et:Lahingulaev]]
[[es:Acorazado]]
[[fr:Navire de ligne]]
[[gl:Acoirazado]]
[[ko:전함]]
[[he:ספינת קרב]]
[[ms:Kapal perang]]
[[nl:Slagschip]]
[[it:Nave da battaglia]]
[[ja:戦艦]]
[[pl:Pancernik]]
[[pt:Couraçado]]
[[ru:Линейный корабль]]
[[sv:Slagskepp]]
[[zh:战列舰]]</text>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: no</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[Norse Mythology]], '''Bifröst''' is the bridge leading from the realm of the mortals [[Midgard]] to the realm of the gods [[Asgard]], which the [[gods]] travel daily to hold their councils under the shade of the tree [[Yggdrasill]]. The bridge itself is the [[rainbow]] and its guardian is the god [[Heimdallr]]. The red color was the flaming fire, which served as a defense against the giants. The bridge is destroyed at the end of the world, [[Ragnarök]]. It was built by the [[Æsir]].
==The Prose Edda==
In the [[Gylfaginning]] part of [[Snorri Sturluson]]'s [[Prose Edda]] there is a description of Bifröst.
{|
|
:''Þá mælti Gangleri: "Hver er leið til himins af jörðu?"''
:''Þá svarar Hár ok hló við: "Eigi er nú fróðliga spurt. Er þér eigi sagt þat at guðin gerðu brú til himins af jörðu, ok heitir Bifröst? Hana muntu sét hafa, kann vera at þat kallir þú regnboga. Hon er með þrim litum ok mjök sterk ok ger með list ok kunnáttu meiri en aðrar smíðir. Ok svá sem hon er sterk, þá mun hon brotna þá er Muspells megir fara ok ríða hana, ok svima hestar þeira yfir stórar ár. Svá koma þeir fram."''
:''Þá mælti Gangleri: "Eigi þótti mér goðin gera af trúnaði brúna, er hon skal brotna mega, er þau megu gera sem þau vilja."''
:''Þá mælti Hár: "Eigi eru goðin hallmælis verð fyrir þessa smíð. Góð brú er Bifröst, en engi hlutr er sá í þessum heimi er sér megi treystask þá er Muspells synir herja."'' - [http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/ggrpar13.html Eysteinn Björnsson's edition]
|
:Then said Gangleri: "What is the way to heaven from earth?"
:Then Hárr answered, and laughed aloud: "Now, that is not wisely asked; has it not been told thee, that the gods made a bridge from earth to heaven, called Bifröst? Thou must have seen it; it may be that ye call it 'rainbow.' It is of three colors, and very strong, and made with cunning and with more magic art than other works of craftsmanship. But strong as it is, yet must it be broken, when the sons of Múspell shall go forth harrying and ride it, and swim their horses over great rivers; thus they shall proceed."
:Then said Gangleri: "To my thinking the gods did not build the bridge honestly, seeing that it could be broken, and they able to make it as they would."
:Then Hárr replied : "The gods are not deserving of reproof because of this work of skill: a good bridge is Bifröst, but nothing in this world is of such nature that it may be relied on when the sons of Múspell go a-harrying." - [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose/021024.php Brodeur's translation]
|
|}
Alternative names: '''Bilröst''', '''Ásbrú'''.
==Named after Bifröst==
The [[Åsatrufellesskapet Bifrost]] is one of two [[Asatru]] organizations recognized by the [[Norway|Norwegian]] government.
In Soul Calibur III (PS2 game) it is Tira's first unlockable weapon. As the legend
states, the weapon is rainbow coloured.
{{NorseMythology}}
[[Category:Locations in Norse mythology]]
[[ca:Bifrost]]
[[da:Bifrost (nordisk mytologi)]]
[[de:Bifröst]]
[[es:Bifrost]]
[[fr:Bifrost]]
[[it:Bifröst]]
[[nl:Bifröst]]
[[no:Bifrost]]
[[nn:Bivrost]]
[[pt:Bifrost]]
[[ru:Биврёст]]
[[sv:Bifrost]]
[[uk:Біфрьост]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Battlecruiser</title>
<id>4057</id>
<revision>
<id>41892705</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T12:18:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GraemeLeggett</username>
<id>187158</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* British designs */ copyedit</comment>
<text xml:space="pre |
ll membrane''. This membrane serves to separate and protect a cell from its surrounding environment and is made mostly from a [[lipid bilayer|double layer of lipids]] (fat-like molecules) and [[protein]]s. Embedded within this membrane <!--"are" is INCORRECT: "variety," which is SINGULAR, is the subject-->is a variety of other molecules that act as channels and pumps, moving different molecules into and out of the cell.
===Cytoskeleton - a cell's scaffold===
''Main article:'' [[Cytoskeleton]]
The cytoskeleton is an important, complex, and dynamic cell component made up of [[microfilaments]]. It acts to organize and maintain the cell's shape; anchors organelles in place; helps during [[endocytosis]], the uptake of external materials by a cell; and moves parts of the cell in processes of growth and motility. There <!--"are" is incorrect: the complement of "is" is "a great number (singular)"-->is a great number of proteins associated with the cytoskeleton, each controlling a cell's structure by directing, bundling, and aligning filaments.
===Genetic material===
Two different kinds of genetic material exist: [[DNA|deoxyribonucleic acid]] (DNA) and [[RNA|ribonucleic acid]] (RNA). Most organisms use DNA for their long-term information storage, but some viruses ([[retrovirus]]es) have RNA as their genetic material. The biological information contained in an organism is [[Genetic code|encoded]] in its DNA or RNA sequence. RNA is also used for information transport (e.g., [[mRNA]]) and [[enzyme|enzymatic]] functions (e.g., [[ribosome|ribosomal]] RNA) in organisms that use RNA for the genetic code itself.
Prokaryotic genetic material is organized in a simple circular DNA molecule (the bacterial [[chromosome]]) in the [[nucleoid region]] of the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic genetic material is divided into different, linear molecules called [[chromosome]]s inside a discrete nucleus, usually with additional genetic material in some organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts (see [[endosymbiotic theory]]).
A human cell has genetic material in the nucleus (the [[genome|nuclear genome]]) and in the mitochondria (the [[mitochondrial genome]]). The nuclear genome is divided into 46 linear DNA molecules called chromosomes. The mitochondrial genome is a circular DNA molecule separate from the nuclear DNA. Although the mitochondrial genome is very small, it codes for some important proteins.
Foreign genetic material (most commonly DNA) can also be artificially introduced into the cell by a process called [[transfection]]. This can be transient, if the DNA is not inserted into the cell's [[genome]], or stable, if it is.
===Organelles===
''Main article:'' [[Organelle]]
The human body contains many different [[Organ (anatomy)|organs]], such as the heart, lung, and kidney, with each organ performing a different function. Cells also have a set of "little organs," called [[organelle]]s, that are adapted and/or specialized for carrying out one or more vital functions. Membrane-bound organelles are <!--"only" INCORRECT here: misplaced modifier; placed before the prepositional phrase--> found only in eukaryotes.
*'''Cell nucleus - a cell's information center''': The [[cell nucleus]] is the most conspicuous organelle found in a eukaryotic cell. It houses the cell's chromosomes, and is the place where almost all DNA replication and RNA synthesis occur. The nucleus is spheroid in shape and separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane called the [[nuclear envelope]]. The nuclear envelope isolates and protects a cell's DNA from various molecules that could accidentally damage its structure or interfere with its processing. During processing, DNA is [[transcribed]], or copied into a special RNA, called mRNA. This mRNA is then transported out of the nucleus, where it is translated into a specific protein molecule. In prokaryotes, DNA processing takes place in the cytoplasm.
*'''Ribosomes - the protein production machine''': [[Ribosome]]s are found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The [[ribosome]] is a large complex composed of many molecules, including RNAs and proteins, and is responsible for processing the genetic instructions carried by an mRNA. The process of converting an mRNA's genetic code into the exact sequence of amino acids that make up a protein is called [[translation (genetics)|translation]]. Protein synthesis is extremely important to all cells, and therefore a large number of ribosomes &mdash; sometimes hundreds or even thousands &mdash; can be found throughout a cell.
*'''Mitochondria and chloroplasts - the power generators''': [[Mitochondrion|Mitochondria]] are self-replicating organelles that occur in various numbers, shapes, and sizes in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. As mitochondria contain their own genome that is separate and distinct from the nuclear genome of a cell, they play a critical role in generating energy in the eukaryotic cell, a process involving a number of complex [[metabolic pathway]]s. [[Chloroplasts]] are larger than mitochondria, and convert solar energy into a [[chemical energy]] ("food") via [[photosynthesis]]. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts have their own genome. Chloroplasts are found only in photosynthetic eukaryotes, like plants and [[algae]]. There is a number of plant organelles that are modified chloroplasts; they are broadly called [[plastid]]s, and are often involved in storage.
*'''Endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus - macromolecule managers:''': The [[endoplasmic reticulum]] (ER) is the transport network for molecules targeted for certain modifications and specific destinations, as compared to molecules that will float freely in the cytoplasm. The ER has two forms: the rough ER, which has ribosomes on its surface, and the smooth ER, which lacks them. Translation of the mRNA for those proteins that will either stay in the ER or be ''exported'' from the cell occurs at the ribosomes attached to the rough ER. The smooth ER is important in [[lipid]] synthesis, [[detoxification]] and as a [[calcium]] reservoir. The [[Golgi apparatus]], sometimes called a ''Golgi body'' or ''Golgi complex'' is the central delivery system for the cell and is a site for protein processing, packaging, and transport. Both organelles consist largely of heavily-folded membranes.
*'''Lysosomes and peroxisomes - the cellular digestive system''': [[Lysosome]]s and [[peroxisome]]s are often referred to as the garbage disposal system of a cell. Both organelles are somewhat spherical, bound by a single membrane, and rich in digestive [[enzyme]]s, naturally-occurring proteins that speed up biochemical processes. For example, lysosomes can contain more than three dozen enzymes for degrading proteins, nucleic acids, and certain sugars called polysaccharides. Here we can see the importance behind compartmentalization of the eukaryotic cell. The cell could not house such destructive enzymes if they were not contained in a membrane-bound system.
*'''Centrioles''' help in the formation of mitotic appratus. Two centrioles are present in the animal cells. They are also found in some fungi and algae cells.
*'''Vacuoles''' store food and waste. Some vacuoles store extra water. They are often described as liquid filled space and are surrounded by a membrane.
==Anatomy of cells==
=== Prokaryotic cells ===
[[Prokaryote]]s are distinguished from eukaryotes on the basis of nuclear organization, specifically their lack of a nuclear membrane. Prokaryotes also lack most of the intracellular organelles and structures that are characteristic of eukaryotic cells (an important exception is the ribosomes, which are present in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells). Most of the functions of organelles, such as mitochondria, chloroplasts, and the Golgi apparatus, are taken over by the prokaryotic plasma membrane. Prokaryotic cells have three architectural regions: appendages called [[flagella]] and [[Pilus|pili]] &mdash; proteins attached to the cell surface; a [[cell envelope]] consisting of a capsule, a [[cell wall]], and a [[plasma membrane]]; and a [[cytoplasm|cytoplasmic region]] that contains the [[genome|cell genome]] (DNA) and ribosomes and various sorts of inclusions. Other differences include:
*The ''plasma membrane'' (a phospholipid bilayer) separates the interior of the cell from its environment and serves as a filter and communications beacon.
*Most prokaryotes have a ''[[cell wall]]'' (some exceptions are ''[[Mycoplasma]]'' (a bacterium) and ''[[Thermoplasma]]'' (an archaeon)). It consists of ''[[peptidoglycan]]'' in bacteria, and acts as an additional barrier against exterior forces. It also prevents the cell from "exploding" from [[osmotic pressure]] against a [[hypotonic]] environment. A cell wall is also present in some eukaryotes like [[fungi]], but has a different chemical composition.
*A prokaryotic chromosome is usually a circular molecule (an exception is that of the bacterium ''Borrelia burgdorferi'', which causes [[Lyme disease]]). Even without a real ''nucleus'', the DNA is condensed in a ''nucleoid''. Prokaryotes can carry extrachromosomal DNA elements called ''[[plasmid]]s'', which are usually circular. Plasmids can carry additional functions, such as antibiotic resistance.
===Eukaryotic cells ===
There are two types of cells, eukaryotic and prokaryotic. Eukaryotic cells are usally found in multi-cellular organisms, while prokaryotic cells are usually on their own. [[Eukaryote|Eukaryotic]] cells are about 10 times the size of a typical prokaryote and can be as much as 1000 times greater in volume. The major difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is that eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound compartments in which specific metabolic activities take place. Most important among these is the presence of a [[cell nucleus]], a membr |
on on the DLR.
===Retired rolling stock===
The original fleet for the [[1987]] opening consisted of eleven [[light rail|light-rail]] vehicles built in [[1986]] by [[LHB]] in Germany and numbered 01 to 11. These were referred to as P86 stock, with P referring to [[Poplar DLR depot|Poplar depot]], where they were primarily maintained. These cars were built for the initial above-ground system and, because of the lack of appropriate fire-proofing, were not allowed to operate on the tunnelled extension to [[Bank and Monument stations|Bank]]. Because of this, and because adaptation to a new signalling system was too costly, these cars were sold in [[1991]] to [[Essener Verkehrs-AG]] of [[Essen|Essen, Germany]], where they were extensively rebuilt and put into service between [[1994]] and [[1998]].
In [[1989]], [[BREL]] supplied another ten LRVs, numbered 12 to 21. These were designated P89 stock and remained in operation on the DLR until the middle of the 1990s. They were also subsequently sold to Essen, where they entered service between [[1999]] and [[2004]] after major modifications had been carried out.
===Current rolling stock===
Further vehicles were required as the network grew and as the original P86 and P89 cars had to be replaced due to their unsuitability to the changed system conditions. [[Bombardier]] built 23 vehicles of B90 stock in [[1991]], 47 vehicles of B92 stock between [[1993]] and [[1995]] and 24 vehicles of B2K stock in [[2001]] and [[2002]]. The B in the type codes refers to [[Beckton DLR depot|Beckton depot]], where they are primarily maintained. They are of a common design and can be operated interchangeably in trains of two. All of them remain in service.
The current DLR fleet (at the end of [[2004]]) is:
*22–44: [[Bombardier]] B90, built [[1991]]
*45–91: [[Bombardier]] B92, built [[1993]]–[[1995]]
*92–99, 01–16: [[Bombardier]] B2K, built [[2001]]–[[2002]]
All DLR cars carried a common livery of red, blue, and white upon delivery. Over the years, several vehicles have received all-over advertising livery. A new livery of turquoise and blue was tested on B92 car 45 in the mid-1990s, but it was not adopted, and the car reverted to standard livery a few years later. Refurbishment of the B90 cars started in [[2004]], with the completed trains re-entering service in a new livery of red and blue with grey doors.
===Future rolling stock===
In May 2005, Bombardier announced that they would be providing a further 24 vehicles of a new design, which they consider superior to the current fleet. The new cars, needed for coming extensions and three-car service on the Bank–Lewisham route, are to be delivered between May [[2007]] and September [[2008]]. <ref name="newstock">Bombardier (1997-2006). ''[http://www.bombardier.com/en/0_0/pressleft.jsp?group=0_0&lan=en&action=view&mode=list&year=null&id=2801&sCateg=1_0 Bombardier Receives A $94 Million US Order From Docklands Light Railway For Automatic Light Rail Cars To Be Used In London, UK]''. Retrieved [[February 26]] [[2006]].</ref>
==Fares and ticketing==
Ticketing for single and return journeys is identical to the London Underground fare-zone system, and [[Travelcard]]s that cover the correct zones are valid. One-day and season Travelcards provide considerable savings for passengers who make several journeys on different types of public transport in London.
There are also one-day and season DLR-only ‘Rover’ tickets available, plus a one-day DLR ‘Rail and River Rover’ ticket for use on the DLR and on City Cruises river boats. Oyster Pre-Pay is also available on the DLR — passengers need to both touch in and touch out their [[Oyster card]]s on the readers at the entrance / exit to the platforms, or pass through the automatic gates at selected stations.
Tickets for travel on DLR trains be must purchased from ticket machines located at the entrance to the platforms, and in theory are required before the passenger enters the platform. There are, however, no ticket barriers in DLR-only stations, and correct ticketing is enforced by on-train checks by the Passenger Service Agent. The only exceptions to this rule are [[Bank and Monument stations|Bank]], [[Canning Town station|Canning Town]], and [[Stratford station|Stratford]] stations, where the DLR platforms are located within the barrier lines of a [[London Underground]] and/or [[National Rail]] station.
==Map==
[[Image:Docklands Light Railway.svg|thumb|550px|center|A geographically-accurate map of the Docklands Light Railway]]
==Stations==
''See also: [[:Category:Docklands Light Railway stations]]''
Many DLR stations are elevated, with a few at street level, in cutting, or underground. Access to the platforms is normally by staircase, with very few stations having escalators, and with some requiring passengers to climb long flights of stairs. All stations are accessible by [[wheelchair]], however, usually by the use of [[elevator|lift]]s. The stations have high platforms, matching the floor height of the cars, so as to allow easy access to the trains, especially for passengers dependent on wheelchair or carrying buggies.
Most of the stations conform to a simple modular design dating back to the initial system, albeit extended. This design has two side platforms, each with separate access from the street, and platform canopies with a distinctive rounded roof design. Almost all stations are unmanned, although for legislative reasons the three underground stations ([[Bank and Monument stations|Bank]], [[Island Gardens DLR station|Island Gardens]], and [[Cutty Sark DLR station|Cutty Sark]]) are manned, along with a few of the busier interchange stations.
===Stations on west to east branches===
* ''Terminus:'' [[Bank and Monument stations|Bank]] for Central London
* ''Terminus:'' [[Tower Gateway DLR station|Tower Gateway]] for The [[Tower of London]]
* [[Shadwell station|Shadwell]] (the branches to Tower Gateway and Bank diverge west of Shadwell)
* [[Limehouse station|Limehouse]]
* [[Westferry DLR station|Westferry]]
* [[Poplar DLR station|Poplar]]
* [[Blackwall DLR station|Blackwall]]
* [[East India DLR station|East India]]
* [[Canning Town station|Canning Town]]
* [[Royal Victoria DLR station|Royal Victoria]]
* [[Custom House station|Custom House]]
* [[Prince Regent DLR station|Prince Regent]]
* [[Royal Albert DLR station|Royal Albert]]
* [[Beckton Park DLR station|Beckton Park]]
* [[Cyprus DLR station|Cyprus]]
* [[Gallions Reach DLR station|Gallions Reach]]
* ''Terminus:'' [[Beckton DLR station|Beckton]]
===Stations on north to south branches===
* ''Terminus:'' [[Stratford station|Stratford]]
* [[Pudding Mill Lane DLR station|Pudding Mill Lane]]
* [[Bow Church DLR station|Bow Church]]
* [[Devons Road DLR station|Devons Road]]
* Langdon Park (Proposed)
* [[All Saints DLR station|All Saints]]
* Poplar (see above)
* [[West India Quay DLR station|West India Quay]]
* [[Canary Wharf DLR station|Canary Wharf]]
* [[Heron Quays DLR station|Heron Quays]]
* [[South Quay DLR station|South Quay]]
* [[Crossharbour and London Arena DLR station|Crossharbour and London Arena]]
* [[Mudchute DLR station|Mudchute]]
* [[Island Gardens DLR station|Island Gardens]]
* [[Cutty Sark DLR station|Cutty Sark]] for [[Maritime Greenwich]]
* [[Greenwich station|Greenwich]]
* [[Deptford Bridge DLR station|Deptford Bridge]]
* [[Elverson Road DLR station|Elverson Road]]
* ''Terminus:'' [[Lewisham station|Lewisham]]
===Stations on London City Airport branch===
Opened [[December 2]] [[2005]].
*[[Canning Town DLR station|Canning Town]]
*Thames Wharf (proposed)
*[[West Silvertown DLR station|West Silvertown]]
*[[Pontoon Dock DLR station|Pontoon Dock]]
*[[London City Airport DLR station|London City Airport]]
*[[King George V DLR station|King George V]]
Due to open [[2009]]:
*[[Woolwich Arsenal railway station|Woolwich Arsenal]]
==See also==
* [[:Category:Docklands Light Railway stations]]
*[[List of rapid transit systems]]
*[[Rail transport in the United Kingdom]]
*[[UK topics]]
==References==
<references />
==External links==
{{commonscat|Docklands Light Railway}}
* [http://www.tfl.gov.uk/dlr/ Docklands Light Railway website]
* [http://www.tfl.gov.uk/tfl/tube_map.shtml Tube Maps (including the DLR routes) on the Transport for London website]
* [http://bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/showthreaded.php/Cat/0/Number/96371 Collection of Google Earth locations of Docklands Light Railway stations] (Requires [http://earth.google.com Google Earth software]) from the Google Earth Community forum.
{{-}}
{| class="toccolours" border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0 auto;"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
! scope="col" | West:
| '''[[Crossings of the River Thames]]'''
! scope="col" | East:
|-
| width="30%" | [[Greenwich foot tunnel]]
| width="40%" style="text-align: center;" | '''[[Lewisham station|Lewisham]] branch''',<br />between [[Island Gardens DLR station|Island Gardens]]<br />and [[Cutty Sark DLR station|Cutty Sark]]
| width="30%" | [[Jubilee Line]]<br />between [[Canary Wharf tube station|Canary Wharf]]<br />and [[North Greenwich tube station|North Greenwich]]
|-
| width="30%" | [[Woolwich foot tunnel]]
| width="40%" style="text-align: center;" | '''[[Woolwich]] branch''',<br />between [[King George V DLR station|King George V]]<br />and [[Woolwich Arsenal railway station|Woolwich Arsenal]]<br />''(under construction)''
| width="30%" | [[Thames Gateway Bridge]]<br />''(planned)''
|}
{{TFL}}
<br>
{{Britishmetros}}
[[Category:Electric railways]]
[[Category:Greenwich]]
[[Category:Intermodal transportation authorities]]
[[Category:Lewisham]]
[[Category:Light rail]]
[[Category:London's railways]]
[[Category:Newham]]
[[Category:Public trans |
encing, Lamo expressed remorse<ref>[http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/09/16/feds_on_lamo/]</ref> for harm he had caused through his intrusions, with the court record quoting him as adding "I want to answer for what I have done and do better with my life."
== References ==
<references />
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20041013023310/http://www.techfocus.org/article4395.html Losing His Religion: Techfocus interviews Adrian Lamo] Bill Royle, TechFocus.
* [http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=04/04/09/1530212 Slashdot.org] Discussion regarding TechFocus interview [[09 April]] [[2004]].
* [http://www.securityfocus.com/news/9520 Feds say Lamo inspired other hackers] Kevin Poulsen, SecurityFocus [[16 September]] [[2004]].
* [http://www.newarchitect.com/documents/s=2415/na1202r/ Inside The Hacker Mind] Chris Null, New Architect December 2002.
* [http://www.securityfocus.com/news/340 New York Times Internal Network Hacked] Kevin Poulsen, SecurityFocus [[26 February]] [[2002]].
* [http://online.securityfocus.com/news/595 Lamo Bumped from NBC After Hacking Them] Kevin Poulsen, SecurityFocus [[27 August]] [[2002]].
* [http://securityfocus.com/news/6888 Adrian Lamo charged with computer crimes] Kevin Poulsen, SecurityFocus [[5 September]] [[2003]].
* [http://securityfocus.com/news/7771 Lamo Pleads Guilty to Times Hack] Kevin Poulsen, SecurityFocus [[8 January]] [[2004]].
* [[Off the Hook]] [http://www.2600.com/offthehook/2004/0404.html Interview - April 7, 2004]; with [[Eric_Corley|Emmanuel Goldstein]] and Bernie S. on the phone with Lamo's comments recorded [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/OTH_Lamo_Transcript_20040407 here]
* [http://news.zdnet.com/2100-1009_22-5077078.html?tag=zdnnfd.main 'Homeless Hacker' speaks out] Tech News on ZDNet
* [http://www.wired.com/news/infostructure/0,1377,50811,00.html He Hacks by Day, Squats by Night] Noah Shachtman, Wired News [[6 March]] [[2002]].
* [http://www.hollywood.com/movies/detail/id/3462967 Hollywood.com] Preliminary documentation of [[Trigger Street Productions]] documentary involving Lamo.
* [http://www.businessweek.com/bwdaily/dnflash/mar2002/nf2002035_9312.htm BusinessWeek] Stop Him Before He Hacks Again
==See also==
* [[Computer insecurity]]
* [[Software bug]]
* [[Vulnerability (computer science)]]
==External links==
* [http://adrian.adrian.org Just Breathe] Adrian Lamo's personal site
* [http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=TechTV+Adrian+Lamo TechTV Video] Adrian Lamo interviews prior to arrest
* [http://freelamo.org Articles about Adrian Lamo dating back to 2001] at Freelamo.org
<!-- Categories -->
[[Category:1981 births|Lamo, Adrian]]
[[Category:American criminals|Lamo, Adrian]]
[[Category:American hackers|Lamo, Adrian]]
[[Category:American journalists|Lamo, Adrian]]
[[Category:Colombian-Americans|Lamo, Adrian]]
[[Category:Lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender people|Lamo, A]]
[[Category:Living people|Lamo, Adrian]]
[[Category:People from California|Lamo, Adrian]]
[[Category:People from Massachusetts|Lamo, Adrian]]
<!-- Translations -->
[[pl:Adrian Lamo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States</title>
<id>3004</id>
<revision>
<id>40360187</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:24:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Ced.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{PoliticsUS}}
'''Associate Justices of the [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]]''' are the members of that court other than the [[Chief Justice of the United States]]. Their number is determined by Congress and is currently eight, as set by the [[Judiciary Act of 1869]]. Associate Justices are nominated for service by the [[President of the United States]]. Their nominations are then referred to the [[United States Senate]] for confirmation. If confirmed then, like other [[federal judge]]s, they serve for life and can only be removed by death, resignation or [[impeachment]].
Each of the Justices of the Supreme Court has a single vote in deciding the cases argued before it; the Chief Justice's vote counts no more than that of any other Justice. However, in drafting opinions, the Chief Justice assigns who writes the opinion in a case when the Chief is in the majority, and thus gets additional influence in case disposition. Otherwise, the senior justice in the majority assigns the writing of a decision. Furthermore, the Chief Justice leads the discussion of the case among the justices. The Chief Justice has certain administrative responsibilities that the other Justices do not, and is paid slightly more ($208,100 vs. $199,200 [[as of 2005]] [http://money.cnn.com/2005/07/01/news/newsmakers/salary/]).
Associate justices have seniority by order of appointment, although the Chief Justice is always considered the most senior. If two justices are appointed on the same day, the older is designated the senior justice of the two. The senior associate justice is now [[John Paul Stevens]]. By tradition, when the Justices are in conference deliberating the outcome of cases before the Court, the justices state their views in reverse order of seniority. If there is a knock at the conference room door, however, the junior justice (who sits closest to the door) must answer it.
==See also==
*[[Associate Justice]]
*[[Chief Justice of the United States]]
*[[List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States]]
*[[List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States by court composition]]
*[[List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States by seat]]
==External links==
*[http://supct.law.cornell.edu/supct/cases/judges.htm Historic collection of Supreme Court decisions and biographies] indexed by judge name
[[Category:Supreme Court of the United States]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Apadrayva piercing</title>
<id>3005</id>
<revision>
<id>21697786</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-24T03:05:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jusjih</username>
<id>21887</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Fixed double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Apadravya]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ampallang piercing</title>
<id>3006</id>
<revision>
<id>19607095</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-25T23:33:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Plaintiger</username>
<id>159177</id>
</contributor>
<comment>the term "Ampallang piercing" is redundant and not used in common parlance.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ampallang]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Albino</title>
<id>3008</id>
<revision>
<id>15901383</id>
<timestamp>2004-03-08T23:07:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Abassign</username>
<id>50014</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Albinism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Analcim</title>
<id>3009</id>
<revision>
<id>18305397</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-07T04:00:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vsmith</username>
<id>84417</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redir -> analcite. Misspelling of synonym analcime</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Analcite]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alan Jay Lerner</title>
<id>3010</id>
<revision>
<id>40360198</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:24:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alan Jay Lerner''' ([[August 31]], [[1918]] &ndash; [[June 14]], [[1986]]) was a [[Jewish-American]] [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] [[lyricist]] and [[librettist]].
Lerner was born in [[New York City]] on [[August 31]], [[1918]], the son of Joseph Jay Lerner, the wealthy owner of a chain of dress stores (the [[Lerner Stores]]). He was educated at [[Bedales School]], [[Choate Rosemary Hall]], and [[Harvard]]. One of Lerner's school friends was [[John F. Kennedy]]. Lerner wrote for the [[Harvard University|Harvard]] annual [[Musical theatre|musical]]s and produced [[radio]] scripts after college.
In 1942 he was introduced to [[Austria|Austrian]] composer [[Frederic Loewe]], who needed a lyricist for an out-of-town musical. The Lerner/Loewe collaboration had begun. Their first major hit was ''[[Brigadoon]]'' (1947), a romantic fantasy set in a mystical Scottish village. In 1951 they wrote the less successful ''[[Paint Your Wagon]]''. That same year Lerner wrote the [[Academy Award|Oscar-winning]] [[screenplay]] for ''[[An American in Paris (Movie)|An American in Paris]]''. He had also written with [[Kurt Weill]] (the stage musical ''[[Love Life]]'') and [[Burton Lane]] (the movie musical ''[[Royal Wedding]]'').
After years of dead ends, Lerner and Loewe unveiled their masterpiece, ''[[My Fair Lady]]'', in [[1956]]. Their adaptation of ''[[Pygmalion (play)|Pygmalion]]'' retained [[George Bernard Shaw]]'s social commentary, and added unusally appropriate songs for the characters of [[Eliza Doolittle]] and [[Henry Higgins]], played originally by [[Julie Andrews]] and [[Rex Harrison]]. ''My Fair Lady'' set box-office records in [[New York]] and [[London]]; the eventual movie version won seven [[Academy Award|Oscar]]s. Lerner and Loewe's next work was the film musical hit ''[[Gigi (1958 film)|Gigi]]''. Their partnership cracked during the stress of ''[[Camelot (musical)|Camelot]]'' in [[1960]], with Loewe resisting Lerner's desire to direct as well as write. ''Camelot'' was a hit nonetheless, and became the symbol for Preside |
l consonant|Palatal]]
|[[Velar consonant|Velar]]
|[[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
|[[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|- <!-- Stops -->
|[[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
| {{IPA|p}} {{IPA|b}}
|
| {{IPA|t}} {{IPA|d}}
|
|
| {{IPA|k}} {{IPA|g}}<sup>1</sup>
|
| {{IPA|&#660;}}&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|- <!-- Nasals -->
|[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA|m}}
|
| {{IPA|n}}
|
|
| {{IPA|&#331;}}
|
|
|- <!-- Fricatives -->
|[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
|
| {{IPA|f}} {{IPA|v}}&nbsp;<sup>3</sup>
| {{IPA|s}} {{IPA|z}}&nbsp;<sup>3</sup>
| {{IPA|&#643;}} {{IPA|&#658;}}&nbsp;<sup>4</sup>
|
| {{IPA|x}} {{IPA|&#611;}}&nbsp;<sup>3</sup>
| {{IPA|&#641;}}&nbsp;<sup>5</sup>
| {{IPA|&#614;}}
|- <!-- Approximants -->
|[[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
|
| {{IPA|&#651;}}&nbsp;<sup>6</sup>
|
|
| {{IPA|j}}
|
|
|
|- <!-- Lateral approximant -->
|[[Lateral approximant consonant|Lateral]]
|
|
| {{IPA|l}}
|
|
|
|
|
|}
Where symbols for consonants occur in pairs, the left represents the [[voiceless consonant]] and the right represents the [[voiced consonant]].
Notes:
1) {{IPA|[g]}} is not a native phoneme of Dutch and only occurs in borrowed words, like ''goal''.
2) {{IPA|[&#660;]}} is not a separate phoneme in Dutch, but is inserted before vowel-initial syllables within words after {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/&#601;/}}.
3) In some dialects, the voiced fricatives have almost completely merged with the voiceless ones, and {{IPA|[v]}} is usually realized as {{IPA|[f]}}, {{IPA|[z]}} is usually realized as {{IPA|[s]}}, and {{IPA|[&#611;]}} is usually realized as {{IPA|[x]}}.
4) {{IPA|[&#643;]}} and {{IPA|[&#658;]}} are not native phonemes of Dutch, and usually occur in borrowed words, like ''show'' and ''bagage'' (baggage). However, {{IPA|/s/}} + {{IPA|/j/}} phoneme sequences in Dutch are often realized as {{IPA|[&#643;]}}, like in the word ''huisje'' (='little house'). {{IPA|[&#658;]}} often is realized as {{IPA|[&#643;]}}.
5) The realization of the {{IPA|/r/}} phoneme varies considerably from dialect to dialect. In the so-called "standard" Dutch of [[Amsterdam]]<sup>7</sup>, {{IPA|/r/}} is realized as indicated here&#8212;as the voiced uvular fricative {{IPA|[&#641;]}}. In other dialects, however, it is realized as the uvular trill {{IPA|[&#640;]}} or as the alveolar trill {{IPA|[r]}}.
6) The realization of the {{IPA|/ʋ/}} varies considerably from the Northern to the Southern and Belgium dialects of the Dutch language. In the South, including Belgium, it is realized as {{IPA|[w]}}. Note that in the South {{IPA|/ʋ/}} is usually considered an allophone of {{IPA|[v]}}.
7) The "standard" Dutch is that as spoken in Haarlem, ''not'' the Amsterdams dialect. Amsterdams dialect is different from standard Dutch in that {{IPA|[z]}} is replaced by {{IPA|[s]}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Dutch Consonants with Example Words'''
|colspan=1 align=center|'''Symbol'''
|colspan=4 align=center|'''Example'''
|-
![[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
![[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
![[orthography]]
!English translation
|-
|[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]]
|{{IPA|p&#603;n}}
|''pen''
|'pen'
|-
|[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]]
|{{IPA|bit}}
|''biet''
|'beetroot'
|-
|[[Voiceless alveolar plosive|t]]
|{{IPA|t&#593;k}}
|''tak''
|'branch'
|-
|[[Voiced alveolar plosive|d]]
|{{IPA|d&#593;k}}
|''dak''
|'roof'
|-
|[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]]
|{{IPA|k&#593;t}}
|''kat''
|'cat'
|-
|[[Voiced velar plosive|g]]
|{{IPA|gol}}
|''goal''
|'goal' (sports)
|-
|[[Bilabial nasal|m]]
|{{IPA|m&#603;ns}}
|''mens''
|'human being'
|-
|[[Alveolar nasal|n]]
|{{IPA|n&#603;k}}
|''nek''
|'neck'
|-
|[[Velar nasal|{{IPA|&#331;}}]]
|{{IPA|&#603;&#331;}}
|''eng''
|'scary'
|-
|[[Voiceless labiodental fricative|f]]
|{{IPA|fits}}
|''fiets''
|'bicycle'
|-
|[[Voiced labiodental fricative|v]]
|{{IPA|ov&#601;n}}
|''oven''
|'oven'
|-
|[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]]
|{{IPA|s&#596;k}}
|''sok''
|'sock'
|-
|[[Voiced alveolar fricative|z]]
|{{IPA|zep}}
|''zeep''
|'soap'
|-
|[[Voiceless postalveolar fricative|{{IPA|&#643;}}]]
|{{IPA|&#643;&#603;f}}
|''chef''
|'boss, chief'
|-
|[[Voiced postalveolar fricative|{{IPA|&#658;}}]]
|{{IPA|&#658;y&#641;i}}
|''jury''
|'jury'
|-
|[[Voiceless velar fricative|x]]
|{{IPA|&#593;xt}}
|''acht''
|'eight'
|-
|[[Voiced velar fricative|{{IPA|&#611;}}]]
|{{IPA|&#611;a&#720;n}}
|''gaan''
|'to go'
|-
|[[Voiced uvular fricative|{{IPA|&#641;}}]]
|{{IPA|&#641;&#593;t}}
|''rat''
|'rat'
|-
|[[Voiced glottal fricative|{{IPA|&#614;}}]]
|{{IPA|&#614;ut}}
|''hoed''
|'hat'
|-
|[[Labiodental approximant|{{IPA|&#651;}}]]
|{{IPA|&#651;&#593;&#331;}}
|''wang''
|'cheek'
|-
|[[Palatal approximant|j]]
|{{IPA|j&#593;s}}
|''jas''
|'coat'
|-
|[[Lateral alveolar approximant|l]]
|{{IPA|l&#593;nt}}
|''land''
|'land / country'
|-
|[[Glottal stop|{{IPA|&#660;}}]]
|{{IPA|b&#601;&#660;am&#601;}}
|''beamen''
|'to confirm'
|}
===Phonology===
Dutch [[Final devoicing|devoices all consonants at the ends of words]] (e.g. a final ''d'' sound becomes a ''t'' sound; to become 'ents of worts'), which presents a problem for Dutch speakers when learning English. This is partly reflected in the spelling, the singular ''hui'''s''''' has the plural ''hui'''z'''en'' (house(s)) and ''dui'''f''''' becomes ''dui'''v'''en'' (dove). The other cases, viz. ‘p’/‘b’ and ‘d’/‘t’ are always written with the voiced consonant, although a devoiced one is actually pronounced, e.g. sg. ''baar'''d''''' (beard), pronounced as ''baar'''t''''', has plural ''baar'''d'''en'' and sg. ''ri'''b''''' (rib), pronounced as ''rip'' has plural ''ribben''.
Because of assimilation, often the initial consonant of the next word is also devoiced, e.g. ''het vee'' (the cattle) is {{IPA|/(h)&#601;tfe/}}. This process of devoicing is taken to an extreme in some regions (Amsterdam, Friesland) with almost complete loss of {{IPA|/v/}},{{IPA|/z/}} and {{IPA|/&#611;/}}. Further south these phonemes are certainly present in the middle of a word. Compare e.g. ''logen'' and ''loochen'' {{IPA|/lo&#611;&#601;n/}} vs. {{IPA|/lox&#601;n/}}. In the South (i.e. Zeeland, Brabant and Limburg) and in Flanders the contrast is even greater because the g becomes a palatal. ('soft g').
The final 'n' of the plural ending -en is normally not pronounced (as in Afrikaans), except in the North East (Low Saxon) and the South West (West Flemish) where the ending becomes a syllabic n sound.
Dutch is a stress language, the stress position of words matters. Stress can occur on any syllable position in a word. There is a tendency for stress to be at the beginning of words. In composite words, secondary stress is often present. There are some cases where stress is the only difference between words. For example ''vóórkomen'' (occur) and ''voorkómen'' (prevent). Marking the stress in written Dutch is optional, never obligatory, but sometimes recommended.
===Historical sound changes===
Dutch (with the exception of the Limburg dialects) did not participate in the second (High German) sound shifting - compare German ''machen'' {{IPA|/-x-/}} Dutch ''maken'', English ''make'', German ''Pfanne'' {{IPA|/pf-/}}, Dutch ''pan'', English ''pan'', German ''zwei'' {{IPA|/ts-/}}, Dutch ''twee'', English ''two''.
It also underwent a few changes of its own. For example, words in -old or -olt lost the l in favor of a [[diphthong]]. Compare English ''old'', German ''alt'', Dutch ''oud''. A word like ''hus'' with {{IPA|/u/}} (English "house") first changed to ''huus'' with {{IPA|/y/}}, then finally to ''huis'' with a diphthong that resembles the one in French ''l'oeil''. The phoneme /g/ was lost in favor of a (voiced) velar [[fricative]] {{IPA|/&#611;/}}, or a voiced palatal fricative (in the South: Flanders, Limburg).
==Grammar==
:''Main article: [[Dutch grammar]]''
Like all other continental West Germanic languages, Dutch has a word order that is markedly different from English, which presents a problem for some Anglophones learning Dutch.
The Dutch written grammar has simplified over the past 100 years: cases are now mainly used for the pronouns, such as ''ik'' (I), ''mij, me'' (me), ''mijn'' (my), ''wie'' (who), ''wiens, wier'' (whose), although the latter is quite formal and rarely used in speech, comparable to English ‘whom’. Nouns and adjectives are not case inflected (except for the genitive of nouns: -'s or -'). In the spoken language cases and case inflections had already gradually disappeared from a much earlier date on (probably the 15th century) as in many continental West Germanic dialects.
Inflection of adjectives is a little more complicated: nothing with indefinite neuter nouns in singular and -e in all other cases:
:''een mooi huis'' (a beautiful house)
:''het mooi'''e''' huis'' (the beautiful house)
:''mooi'''e''' huizen'' (beautiful houses)
:''de mooi'''e''' huizen'' (the beautiful houses)
:''een mooi'''e''' vrouw'' (a beautiful woman)
More complex inflection is still found in certain lexicalized expressions like ''de heer de'''s''' hui'''zes''''' (litt.: the man of the house), etc. These are usually remnants of cases (in this instance, the genitive case which is still used in German, cf. ''Der Herr des Hauses'') and other inflections no longer in general use today. In such lexicalized expressions remnants of strong and weak nouns can be found too, e.g. ''in het jaar des Her'''en''''' (Anno Domini), where “-en” is actually the genitive ending of the weak noun. Also in this case, German [[German_grammar#Irregular_declensions|retains this feature]].
Dutch nouns can take endings for size: -je for singular [[diminutive]] and -jes fo |
nership of capital goods, by investments that are determined by private decision rather than by state control, and by prices, production, and the distribution of goods that are determined mainly in a free market."
According to [http://www.anarchy.no/ai.html The Anarchist International], capitalism is an economic [[plutocracy]] that includes its own [[hierarchy]]. They place anarcho-capitalism outside of the anarchist movement, and into the classical liberal tradition "[[Plutarchy]] without statism = liberalism." Some, while accepting that anarcho-capitalism is a radical form of liberalism, question the coherence of such a statement, holding that if [[socialism]] and [[communism]] can have anarchist forms, then liberalism can as well.<ref>Garner, Richard A. (2002) [http://www.againstpolitics.com/market_anarchism/no_bogus_anarchy.htm On Peter Sabatini's "Libertarianism: Bogus Anarchy"] ''Ifeminists Newsletter'' [[May 14]] [[2002]]</ref> Often, anarchist individualism is regarded as a form of socialism (for example, by individualist anarchists such as E. Armand<ref>Armand, E. (1907), Anarchist Individualism as Life and Activity</ref>). However, American individualist anarchism is sometimes regarded as a form of "liberal-anarchism."<ref>Weisbord, Albert (1937) [http://www.weisbord.org/conquest10.htm ''American Liberal-Anarchism''] from ''The Conquest of Power'' (1937)</ref><ref>http://www.bkmarcus.com/blog/2004/11/liberal-anarchism.html</ref><ref>http://homepage.mac.com/dmhart/ComteDunoyer/Ch1fn.html</ref> Also, as anarchists by definition favor voluntary interaction, anarcho-capitalists and their opponents disagree on whether certain actions are voluntary (see sidebar for definitions).
Some anarchists espouse a form of [[labor theory of value]], which they put forth as one reason that [[profit]], [[Economic rent|rent]], and [[wage labour]] are [[exploitation|exploitive]]. While classical capitalists such as [[Adam Smith]] also accepted the labor theory of value, most modern economists, including anarcho-capitalists, argue that value is subjective and adhere to [[marginalism]].
==="Left" and "Right" anarchism===
The divide between anarcho-capitalism and traditional anarchism has been termed as [[left anarchism]] versus [[right anarchism]] by some individuals, such as [[Ulrike Heider]], who placed anarcho-capitalism on the far right.<ref>Heider, Ulrike (1994) [http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/books/other/anarchism.html ''Anarchism: Left, Right, and Green''] City Lights Books ISBN 0872862895 Retrieved [[19 May]] [[2005]]</ref> Most contemporary anarcho-capitalists reject the standard [[Left-Right politics|linear model of ideologies]] in favor of a multidimensional model with a liberty-authority dimension, though some of their opponents maintain that anarchism itself is a left-wing ideology.
==History and influences==
[[Image:molinari.jpg|thumb|right|[[Gustave de Molinari]] (1819–1912)]]
===Liberalism===
{{main|Liberalism}}
Anarcho-capitalist philosophy has been influenced by many sources. The primary influence with the longest history is classical liberalism. Classical liberals have had two main themes since [[John Locke]] first expounded the philosophy: the liberty of man, and limitations of state power. The liberty of man was expressed in terms of [[natural rights]], while limiting the [[state]] was based (for Locke) on a [[consent theory]]. While Locke saw the state as evolving from society via a [[social contract]], later, more radical liberals saw a fundamental schism between society, the "natural" voluntary interactions of men, and state, the institution of brute force.
In the 18th century, liberal revolutionaries in Britain and America had opposed [[statism]] without grounding it in theory, while some French economists had theorized it without endorsing it. In the 19th century, classical liberals led the attack against statism. One notable was [[Frederic Bastiat]] (''The Law''), who wrote, "The state is the great fiction by which everybody seeks to live at the expense of everybody else." [[Henry David Thoreau]]'s liberalism might be considered evolutionary anarchism, as he wrote, "I heartily accept the motto, 'That government is best which governs least'; and I should like to see it acted up to more rapidly and systematically. Carried out, it finally amounts to this, which also I believe, 'That government is best which governs not at all'; and when men are prepared for it, that will be the kind of government which they will have."<ref>Thoreau, Henry David (1849) [http://www.cs.indiana.edu/statecraft/civ.dis.html Civil Disobedience]</ref>
One of the first liberals to discuss the possibility of privatizing protection of individual liberty and property was France's [[Jakob Mauvillon]] in the 18th century. Later, in the 1840s, [[Julius Faucher]] and [[Gustave de Molinari]] advocated the same. Molinari, in his essay ''The Production of Security'', argued, "No government should have the right to prevent another government from going into competition with it, or to require consumers of security to come exclusively to it for this commodity." Molinari and this new type of anti-state liberal grounded their reasoning on liberal ideals and classical economics. Historian [[Ralph Raico]] asserts what that these liberal philosophers "had come up with was a form of individualist anarchism, or, as it would be called today, anarcho-capitalism or market anarchism."<ref>Raico, Ralph (2004) [http://www.mises.org/story/1787 ''Authentic German Liberalism of the 19th Century''] Ecole Polytechnique, Centre de Recherce en Epistemologie Appliquee, Unité associée au CNRS</ref> Unlike the liberalism of Locke, which saw the state as evolving from society, the anti-state liberals saw a fundamental conflict between the voluntary interactions of people — society — and the institutions of force — the State. This ''society versus state'' idea was expressed in various ways: natural society vs. artificial society, liberty vs. authority, society of contract vs. society of authority, and industrial society vs. militant society, just to name a few.<ref name=Molinari-1849/> The anti-state liberal tradition in Europe and the United States continued after Molinari in the early writings of [[Herbert Spencer]], as well as in thinkers such as [[Paul Émile de Puydt]] and [[Auberon Herbert]].
Later, in the early 20th century, the mantle of anti-state liberalism was taken by the "[[Old Right]]". These were minarchist, antiwar, anti-imperialist, and (later) anti-[[New Deal]]ers. Some of the most notable members of the Old Right were [[Albert Jay Nock]], [[Rose Wilder Lane]], [[Isabel Paterson]], [[Frank Chodorov]], [[Garet Garrett]], and [[H. L. Mencken]]. In the 1950s, the new "fusion conservatism", also called "[[cold war]] conservatism", took hold of the right wing in the U.S., stressing anti-communism. This induced the libertarian Old Right to split off from the right, and seek alliances with the (now left-wing) antiwar movement, and to start specifically libertarian organizations such as the (U.S.) Libertarian Party.
===American individualist anarchism===
[[Image:LysanderSpooner.jpg|thumb|left|[[Lysander Spooner]] (1808–87)]]
:''Main articles: [[American individualist anarchism]], [[American individualist anarchism and anarcho-capitalism]]''{{Anarchism}}
Anarcho-capitalism is influenced by the work of the 19th-century American individualist anarchists. Rothbard sought to meld the 19th-century individualist theory with the principles of Austrian economics: "There is, in the body of thought known as 'Austrian economics', a scientific explanation of the workings of the free market (and of the consequences of government intervention in that market) which individualist anarchists could easily incorporate into their political and social Weltanschauung" (''Egalitarianism''). The 19th-century individualist anarchists espoused a labor theory of value, while the anarcho-capitalists adhere to a subjective theory, leading to differences over the legitimacy of [[profit]]. Anarchist historian Peter Marshall believes that anarcho-capitalists selectively interpret individualist anarchists texts, overlooking egalitarian implications. <ref>http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/dward/newrightanarchocap.html</ref> However, Marshall may have overlooked that the most noted individualist anarchist Benjamin Tucker explicitly supports the right to inequality in wealth and upholds it as the natural result of liberty<ref>[http://flag.blackened.net/daver/anarchism/tucker/tucker29.html ''Economic Rent'']</ref>. Tucker did, although, oppose vast concentrations of wealth which he believed were made possible by government intervention which protected monopoly. He believed the most dangerous intervention was the protection of a "banking monopoly" which concentrated capital in the hands of the privileged elite. Though, he also argued that harmful monopolies that were created by government intervention could be maintained in the absence of government protection because of the accumulation of great wealth (see [[predatory pricing]]). Anarcho-capitalists also oppose governmental restrictions on banking. They, like all Austrian economists, believe that monopoly can only come about through government intervention. Most modern individualists, following in the footsteps of historical counterparts, reject capitalism in the sense of government-backed privilege for capital. Individualists anarchists have long argued that monopoly on credit and land interferes with the functioning of a free market economy. Although anarcho-capitalists disagree on the critical topic of [[profit]], both schools of thought agree |
b> underground, reducing the risk of leakage.
A major research project examining the geological sequestration of carbon dioxide is currently being performed at an oil field at [[Weyburn, Saskatchewan|Weyburn]] in southeastern [[Saskatchewan]]. In the North Sea, Norway's Statoil natural gas platform Sleipner strips carbon dioxide out of the natural gas with amine solvents and disposes of this carbon dioxide by geological sequestration. Sleipner reduces emissions of carbon dioxide by approximately one million tonnes a year. The cost of geological sequestration is minor relative to the overall running costs. As of April 2005, [[BP]] are considering a trial of large-scale sequestration of carbon dioxide stripped from power plant emissions in the Miller oilfield as its reserves are depleted.
=== Mineral sequestration ===
Mineral sequestration aims to trap carbon by placing it in its thermodynamics groundstate where it will be nonreactive. This occurs naturally and is responsible for much of the surface limestone. Acids are used to convert mineral silicates to mineral carbonates. Ongoing research aims to speed up the kinetics of the reactions.
== Carbon sinks and the Kyoto Protocol ==
The protocols hold that, since growing vegetation absorbs [[carbon dioxide]], countries that have large areas of forest (or other vegetation) can deduct a certain amount from their emissions, thus making it easier for them to achieve the desired emission levels. The effectiveness of these provisions is controversial.
Some countries want to be able to trade in emission rights in carbon emission markets, to make it possible for one country to buy the benefit of carbon dioxide sinks in another country. It is said that such a market mechanism will help find cost-effective ways to reduce greenhouse emissions. There is as yet no [[carbon audit regime]] for all such markets globally, and none is specified in the [[Kyoto Protocol]]. Each nation is on its own to verify actual carbon emission reductions, and to account for carbon sequestration using some less formal method.
==Notes==
# {{Note|SciAmJuly05}} ''[[Scientific American]]'', July 2005, p42
== See also ==
* [[Carbon capture and storage]]
* [[Carbon cycle]]
* [[Global warming]]
* [[Greenhouse gas]]
* [[Kyoto Protocol]]
* [[North American Carbon Program]]
==References and external links==
===General===
*[http://www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/carbon_seq/index.html National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) Carbon Sequestration Home Page]
*[http://cdiac2.esd.ornl.gov/ U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Science Carbon Sequestration Research Programs]
*[http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/carbon_seq/2005_roadmap_for_web.pdf U.S. Department of Energy's National Energy Technology Laboratory - Carbon Sequestration Technology Roadmap]
*[http://www.offsetopportunity.com/ The Carbon Offset Opportunity Program: A Tool for Collaborative Carbon Sequestration Project Development]
*[http://sequestration.mit.edu/ Carbon Capture and Sequestration Technologies Program at MIT]
*[http://www.co2captureandstorage.info/ International industry R&D group focussed on CO<sub>2</sub> sequestration]
*[http://www.co2captureproject.org/reports/reports.htm CO2 Capture Project]
*[http://www.princeton.edu/~cmi/ Carbon Mitigation Initiative]
*[http://www.secarbon.org/ Southeast Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnership (SECARB)]
*[http://climatechangeaction.blogspot.com/2005/11/carbon-capture-and-storage-whats-that.html Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) from power plants explained]
*[http://www.abc.net.au/catalyst/stories/s1195633.htm 'Catalyst' on Australian science TV on geosequestration]
*[http://www.nacarbon.org The U.S. North American Carbon Program]
*[http://www.yeomansplow.com.au/priority-one.htm Priority One: Together we can beat global warming, downloadable book]
*[http://pangea.stanford.edu/~mhesse/NewsLinks.html Collection of recent news articles on CO2 capture and storage]
===Research===
* [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]] (2004) [http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5738e/y5738e00.htm Carbon sequestration in dryland soils]
*IEA Reports: [http://www.ieagreen.org.uk/putcback.pdf Putting carbon back into the ground (pdf)] and [http://www.ieagreen.org.uk/oceanrep.pdf Ocean storage of CO<sub>2</sub> (pdf)]
*Haszeldine (2005) [http://www.geos.ed.ac.uk/research/subsurface/diagenesis/CO2_sites_biofuel.pdf Deep geological CO2 storage: principles, and prospecting for bio-energy disposal sites (pdf)]
*The Role of Carbon in Agricultural Soils ''in'' Carbon Sequestration - A Better Alternative for Climate Change? Chapter 1: Agricultural Sinks (1999) University of Maryland [http://www.puaf.umd.edu/faculty/nelson/carbseq/pdf/1.pdf pdf format] [http://www.puaf.umd.edu/faculty/nelson/carbseq/CHAPTER%201.doc doc format]
* Schlesinger, W.H. 1991. ''Biogeochemistry: An Analysis of Global Change''. Academic Press, San Diego.
*[http://www.mcgill.ca/reporter/32/15/roulet/ Peat bogs may be soaking up 10 to 20% of the excess CO<sub>2</sub> generated by human activity]
*[http://saga.pmel.noaa.gov/review/dms_climate.html DMS and Climate]
===Action===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3930245.stm Britain entertains the idea]
*''[[Seattle Times]]'', [[20 February]] [[2004]], [http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2001861641_carbon19.html Canada pumps CO<sub>2</sub> underground] (Weyburn oil field)
*[http://www.csmonitor.com/2003/0624/p02s02-usgn.html United States pumps CO<sub>2</sub> underground]
*Observer [[24 April]] [[2005]] [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,6903,1469010,00.html Seabed supplies a cure for global warming crisis]
*[http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/publications/fact_sheets/t2_21.shtml Tyndall Centre - Assessing the potential for geological carbon sequestration in the UK]
[[Category:Climate change]]
[[Category:Climate forcing agents]]
[[Category:Photosynthesis]]
[[de:CO2-Sequestrierung]]
[[fr:Puits de carbone]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Charles Tupper</title>
<id>5981</id>
<revision>
<id>41915269</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:17:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>199.235.123.239</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox PM
| name=[[The Right Honourable|Rt. Hon.]] Sir Charles Tupper
| image=Sir charles tupper.jpg
| country=Canada
| term=[[May 1]], [[1896]] &ndash; [[July 8]], [[1896]]
| before=[[Mackenzie Bowell]]
| after=[[Wilfrid Laurier]]
| date_birth=[[July 2]], [[1821]]
| place_birth=[[Amherst, Nova Scotia]]
| date_death=[[October 30]], [[1915]]
| place_death=[[Bexleyheath]], [[England]]
| party=[[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Conservative]]
}}
:''Not to be confused with Sir [[Charles Hibbert Tupper]] who was Sir Charles Tupper's son''
'''Sir Charles Tupper''', [[Order of St Michael and St George|GCMG]], [[Order of the Bath|CB]], [[Queen's Privy Council for Canada|PC]], [[Doctor of Civil Law|DCL]], [[Doctor of Laws|LL.D]], [[Doctor of Medicine|MD]] ([[July 2]], [[1821]] – [[October 30]], [[1915]]) was the sixth [[Prime Minister of Canada]] and, [[as of 2006]], the one with the shortest term of office.
Tupper was born in [[Amherst, Nova Scotia]], studied at the [[University of Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]], and became a [[physician|doctor]] upon his graduation in [[1843]]. In [[1846]], he married [[Frances Tupper|Frances Morse]] ([[1826]]-[[1912]]), with whom he had three sons (Orin Stewart, [[Charles Hibbert Tupper|Charles Hibbert]], and [[William Johnston Tupper|William Johnston]]) and three daughters (Emma, Elizabeth Stewart (Lilly), and Sophy Almon).
He entered [[Nova Scotia]] politics in [[1855]] and became premier in [[1864]] as leader of the [[Confederation Party]]. As a delegate to the [[Charlottetown Conference|Charlottetown]], [[Quebec Conference|Quebec]], and [[London]] conferences, Tupper guided his province into [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation]].
Sir Charles Tupper's public career was long and successful. He was [[Canada]]'s [[High Commissioner]] in [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]] from [[1884]] to [[1887]], and later served as one of Sir [[John A. Macdonald]]'s key lieutenants. In [[1895]], he returned from service as Canada's representative in Britain to take over the leadership of the [[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Conservative party]], replacing [[Mackenzie Bowell]]. The Conservative Party was "dissatisfied" in Bowell's leadership because of the controversial [[Manitoba Schools Question]]. Despite these successes, Tupper was [[Prime Minister of Canada]] for just 69 days in [[1896]], the shortest term ever for a Canadian Prime Minister. He was also the oldest, at the age of 74, to assume the office.
Tupper led the Conservatives into the [[Canadian federal election, 1896|1896 election]]; however, the question of the educational rights of [[French-Canadian|French-speaking]] [[Manitoba]]ns turned voters towards the [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberals]] under [[Wilfrid Laurier]]. Despite garnering 46.5% of the votes, in comparison to 45% for the Liberals, Tupper's Conservatives were defeated. He retired from the federal scene in [[1901]], after thirty years in national politics.
Sir Charles Tupper died in [[Bexleyheath]], [[Kent]], England at the age of 94, and was brought home to be buried in St. John's Cemetery, [[Halifax Regional Muncipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax, Nova Scotia]].
Tupper was also a notorious womanizer, his nickname 'The Ram of Cumberland' being believed to have a dual meaning. He allegedly seduced an older woman to pay for his doctorate, and was sued by his secretary while in his 70's. Rumours swirled about his paternity of a child and his advising the woman to have an abortion, although the case was eventually settled. There is evidence that during his retirement he had returned to monogamy.
== External links ==
*[http://ww |
e, -ine, -one, and -une were used to denote the hydrocarbons with 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8 fewer hydrogens than their parent [[alkane]]. In this system, ethylene became ''ethene''. Hofmann's system eventually became the basis for the [[Geneva nomenclature]] approved by the [[International Congress of Chemists]] in [[1892]], which remains at the core of the [[IUPAC]] nomenclature. However, by that time, the name ethylene was deeply entrenched, and it remains in wide use today, especially in the chemical industry.
== Chemistry ==
The double bond is a region of slightly higher [[electron density]], and most of ethylene's chemistry involves other molecules reacting with and adding across its double bond. Ethylene can react with [[bromine]], [[chlorine]], and other [[halogen]]s, to produce halogenated hydrocarbons. It can also react with water to produce [[ethanol]], but the rate at which this happens is very slow unless a suitable [[catalyst]], such as [[phosphoric acid|phosphoric]] or [[sulfuric acid]], is used. Under high pressure, and, in the presence of a catalytic metal ([[platinum]], [[rhodium]], [[nickel]]), [[hydrogen]] will react with ethylene, [[saturation (chemistry)|saturating]] it.
== Production ==
Ethylene is produced in the [[petrochemical]] industry via [[steam cracking]]. In this process, gaseous or light liquid hydrocarbons are briefly heated to 750&ndash;950 °C, causing numerous [[free radical]] [[chemical reaction|reactions]] to take place. Generally, in the course of these reactions, large hydrocarbons break down in to smaller ones and saturated hydrocarbons become unsaturated.
The result of this process is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons in which ethylene is one of the principal components. The mixture is separated by repeated [[compressor|compression]] and [[distillation]].
Another process is catalytic cracking where it is used in oil refineries to crack large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller ones. Use of zeolite as a catalyst allows the cracking to be achieved at a lower temperature. It is an important way of separating alkenes from alkanes using a fractionating column.
== Theoretical considerations ==
Although ethylene is a relatively simple molecule, its spectra is considered to be one of the most difficult to explain adequately from both a theoretical and practical perspective. For this reason, it is often used as a test case in computational chemistry. Of particular note is the difficulty in characterizing the ultraviolet absorption spectrum of the molecule. Interest in the subtleties and details of the ethylene spectrum can be dated back to at least the 1950s.
== Uses ==
; Chemistry
Ethylene is used primarily as an intermediate in the manufacture of other chemicals, especially [[plastic]]s. Ethylene may be [[polymer]]ized directly to produce [[polyethylene]] (also called ''polyethene'' or ''polythene''), the world's most widely-used plastic. Ethylene can be [[chlorine|chlorinated]] to produce ethylene dichloride ([[1,2-Dichloroethane]]), a precursor to the plastic [[polyvinyl chloride]], or combined with [[benzene]] to produce [[ethylbenzene]], which is used in the manufacture of [[polystyrene]], another important plastic.
Smaller amounts of ethylene are [[oxidation|oxidized]] to produce chemicals including [[ethylene oxide]], [[ethanol]], and [[polyvinyl acetate]].
Ethylene is also a widely-used refrigerant in commercial low temperature systems due to the low boiling point.
Ethylene was once used as an inhaled [[anesthetic]], but it has long since been replaced in this role by nonflammable gases.
It has also been hypothesized that ethylene was the catalyst for utterances of the [[oracle]] at [[Delphi]] in ancient [[Greece]].
==Ethylene as a plant hormone==
Ethylene functions as a [[plant hormone|hormone]] in [[plant]]s. It stimulates the [[ripening]] of [[fruit]], the opening of [[flower]]s, and the [[abscission]] of [[leaves]]. Its biosynthesis starts from [[methionine]] with [[1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid]] (ACC) as a key intermediate.
"Ethylene has been used in practice since the ancient Egyptians, who would gas figs in order to stimulate ripening. The ancient Chinese would burn incense in closed rooms to enhance the ripening of pears. It was in 1864, that leaks of gas from street lights showed stunting of growth, twisting of plants, and abnormal thickening of stems (the triple response)[see [[plant senescence]]](Arteca, 1996; Salisbury and Ross, 1992). In 1901, a russian scientist named Dimitry Neljubow showed that the active component was ethylene (Neljubow, 1901). Doubt discovered that ethylene stimulated [[abscission]] in 1917 (Doubt, 1917). It wasn't until 1934 that Gane reported that plants synthesize ethylene (Gane, 1934). In 1935, Crocker proposed that ethylene was the plant hormone responsible for fruit ripening as well as inhibition of vegetative tissues (Crocker, 1935). Ethylene is now known to have many other functions as well." - from ([http://www.plant-hormones.info/references.htm plant-hormones.info])
===Location, Characteristics and Occasions for Synthesis Induction===
* Directly induced by high levels of [[auxin]]
* Found in [[Germination|germinating]] seeds
* Induced by [[root flooding]]
* Induced by [[drought]]
* Synthesized in nodes of [[Plant stem|stems]]
* Synthesized in tissues of [[ripening]] [[fruit]]s
* Synthesized in response to shoot environmental, [[pest (animal)|pest]], or disease stress
* Synthesized in senescent [[leaf|leaves]] and [[flower]]s
* Rapidly [[diffuse]]s
* Inhibiting effects of ethylene on shoot growth (more specifically on stem elongation) reduced in the presence of [[light]]. Also ethylene levels are decreased by light
* The above may be because light induces [[auxin]] synthesis and moderate auxin levels inhibit ethylene. ([http://www.planthormones.info speculative])
* Released in mature (and to a lesser extent immature cells) [[cell_(biology)|cell]]s when they do not have enough [[mineral]]s and [[water]] to support both themselves and any dependent cells. ([http://www.planthormones.info speculative])
===Effects===
* Stimulates leaf and flower [[senescence]]
* Induces [[leaf abscission]] mainly in older leaves.
* Induces seed [[germination]]
* Induces [[root hair]] growth &#8211; this increases the efficiency of water and mineral absorption
* Stimulates epinasty &#8211; leaf [[petiole]] grows out, leaf hangs down and curls into itself
* Stimulates [[fruit ripening]]
* Induces the growth of adventitious [[root]]s during flooding
* Usually inhibits growth - although perhaps just shoot growth ([http://www.planthormones.info speculative])
* Affects neighboring individuals
* Disease/wounding resistance
* Triple response when applied to seedlings &#8211; root ? and shoot growth inhibition and pronounced [[hypocotyl]] hook bending
* Inhibits stem swelling ? (Contradictory to the finding below &#8211; contradictory sources)
* Stimulates cell broadening (and lateral root growth)
* Interference with auxin transport (with high auxin concentrations)
* Directly or indirectly induces auxin at high levels ([http://www.planthormones.info speculative])
* Inhibits the rate of metabolism of cells in the shoot so as to redirect resources to the root ([http://www.planthormones.info speculative])
* Is a general indicator of poor root health. Strategy of senescent leaves may to funnel more resources to the root. ([http://www.planthormones.info speculative])
* May be more active at night when root and mineral acquisition are, on average, lower ([http://www.planthormones.info speculative])
* Just as a role of auxin may be to increase minerals and water by shoot growth, ethylene may do this by shoot senescence. [[Cytokinin]] and auxin hormones are released when conditions are favorable for growth, for example during the day. Ethylene and [[gibberellin]] (or [[brassinosteroid]]) may be released when the plant must either cut back in size, or survive on stored resources, for example during the night. ([http://www.planthormones.info speculative])
* Induces flowering in [[pineapple]]s
*In food production, some plants are considered ethylene producers, while others are considered ethylene sensitive.
==External links==
*[http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/safework/cis/products/icsc/dtasht/_icsc04/icsc0475.htm International Chemical Safety Card 0475]
*[http://ecb.jrc.it/ European Chemicals Bureau]
{{Plant_hormones}}
[[Category:Alkenes]]
[[Category:Plant hormones]]
[[Category:Monomers]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[ar:إثيلين]]
[[ca:Etilè]]
[[da:Ethen]]
[[de:Ethen]]
[[es:Eteno]]
[[fr:Éthylène]]
[[it:Etene]]
[[lv:Etilēns]]
[[nl:Etheen]]
[[ja:エチレン]]
[[pl:Eten]]
[[pt:Etileno]]
[[ru:Этилен]]
[[sv:Eten]]
[[tr:Etilen]]
[[zh:乙烯]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eiffel programming language</title>
<id>9838</id>
<revision>
<id>42097007</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:31:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Trixx</username>
<id>168932</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Specifications and standards */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Eiffel''' is an [[object-oriented]] [[programming language]] which emphasizes the production of robust software. Its syntax is keyword-oriented in the [[ALGOL]] and [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]] tradition. Eiffel is strongly [[Static typing|statically typed]], with automatic memory management (typically implemented by [[Garbage collection (computer science)|garbage collection]]).
Begun in 1985, Eiffel is a mature language with development systems available from multiple suppliers. Despite this maturity and a generally excellent reputation among those who are familiar with it, Eiffel has failed to gain as large a following as some other object-oriented languages. The reasons for this lack of interest are unclear, and are a topic of frequent discussion within the Eiff |
rime (liturgy)|Prime]] in the Western Church; it is not used in the Eastern Church.
Today the Athanasian Creed is rarely used even in the Western Church. When used, one common practice is to use it once a year on [[Trinity Sunday]].
==English-Language Translations==
===The ICET English Language Translation===
The following translation was prepared by
the [[Consultation on Common Texts|International Consultation on English Texts]]:
:Whoever wants to be saved should above all cling to the catholic faith.
:Whoever does not guard it whole and inviolable will doubtless perish eternally.
:Now this is the catholic faith: We worship one God in trinity and the Trinity in unity, neither confusing the persons nor dividing the divine being.
:For the Father is one person, the Son is another, and the Spirit is still another.
:But the deity of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit is one, equal in glory, coeternal in majesty.
:What the Father is, the Son is, and so is the Holy Spirit.
:Uncreated is the Father; uncreated is the Son; uncreated is the Spirit.
:The Father is infinite; the Son is infinite; the Holy Spirit is infinite.
:Eternal is the Father; eternal is the Son; eternal is the Spirit:
:And yet there are not three eternal beings, but one who is eternal;
:as there are not three uncreated and unlimited beings, but one who is uncreated and unlimited.
:Almighty is the Father; almighty is the Son; almighty is the Spirit:
:And yet there are not three almighty beings, but one who is almighty.
:Thus the Father is God; the Son is God; the Holy Spirit is God:
:And yet there are not three gods, but one God.
:Thus the Father is Lord; the Son is Lord; the Holy Spirit is Lord:
:And yet there are not three lords, but one Lord.
:As Christian truth compels us to acknowledge each distinct person as God and Lord, so catholic religion forbids us to say that there are three gods or lords.
:The Father was neither made nor created nor begotten;
:the Son was neither made nor created, but was alone begotten of the Father;
:the Spirit was neither made nor created, but is proceeding from the Father and the Son.
:Thus there is one Father, not three fathers; one Son, not three sons; one Holy Spirit, not three spirits.
:And in this Trinity, no one is before or after, greater or less than the other;
:but all three persons are in themselves, coeternal and coequal; and so we must worship the Trinity in unity and the one God in three persons.
:Whoever wants to be saved should think thus about the Trinity.
:It is necessary for eternal salvation that one also faithfully believe that our Lord Jesus Christ became flesh.
:For this is the true faith that we believe and confess: That our Lord Jesus Christ, God's Son, is both God and man.
:He is God, begotten before all worlds from the being of the Father, and he is man, born in the world from the being of his mother --
:existing fully as God, and fully as man with a rational soul and a human body;
:equal to the Father in divinity, subordinate to the Father in humanity.
:Although he is God and man, he is not divided, but is one Christ.
:He is united because God has taken humanity into himself; he does not transform deity into humanity.
:He is completely one in the unity of his person, without confusing his natures.
:For as the rational soul and body are one person, so the one Christ is God and man.
:He suffered death for our salvation.
:He descended into hell and rose again from the dead.
:He ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father.
:He will come again to judge the living and the dead.
:At his coming all people shall rise bodily to give an account of their own deeds.
:Those who have done good will enter eternal life,
:those who have done evil will enter eternal fire.
:This is the catholic faith.
:One cannot be saved without believing this firmly and faithfully.
===Book of Common Prayer 1662 Church of England===
''(Note that this version contains an arguable borderline mistranslation when the Latin word "immensus", meaning immeasurable or infinite, is rendered into English as "incomprehensible", and uses some terms which probably convey very little specific meaning to the mind of the typical 21st-century English-speaker, such as when the Latin word "divinitas", meaning divine nature or quality of divinity, is translated into English as "godhead".)''
:At Morning Prayer
:Upon these Feasts; Christmas Day, the Epiphany, Saint Matthias, Easter Day, Ascension Day, Whitsunday, Saint John Baptist, Saint James, Saint Bartholomew, Saint Matthew, Saint Simon and Saint Jude, Saint Andrew, and upon Trinity Sunday, shall be sung or said, this Confession of our Christian Faith, commonly called the Creed of Saint Athanasius, by the Minister and people standing.
:QUICUNQUE VULT
:Whosoever will be saved : before all things it is necessary that he hold the Catholick Faith.
:Which Faith except every one do keep whole and undefiled : without doubt he shall perish everlastingly.
:And the Catholick Faith is this : That we worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity;
:Neither confounding the Persons : not dividing the Substance.
:For there is one Person of the Father, another of the Son : and another of the Holy Ghost.
:But the Godhead of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost is all one : the Glory equal, the Majesty co-eternal.
:Such as the Father is, such is the Son : and such is the Holy Ghost.
:The Father uncreate, the Son uncreate : and the Holy Ghost uncreate.
:The Father incomprehensible, the Son incomprehensible : and the Holy Ghost incomprehensible.
:The Father eternal, the Son eternal : and the Holy Ghost eternal.
:And yet they are not three eternals : but one eternal.
:As also there are not three incomprehensibles, nor three uncreated : but one uncreated, and one incomprehensible.
:So likewise the Father is Almighty, the Son Almighty : and the Holy Ghost Almighty.
:And yet they are not three Almighties : but one Almighty.
:So the Father is God, the Son is God : and the Holy Ghost is God.
:And yet they are not three Gods : but one God.
:So likewise the Father is Lord, the Son Lord : and the Holy Ghost Lord.
:And yet not three Lords : but one Lord.
:For like as we are compelled by the Christian verity : to acknowledge every Person by himself to be God and Lord;
:So are we forbidden by the Catholick Religion : to say there be three Gods, or three Lords.
:The Father is made of none : neither created, nor begotten.
:The Son is of the Father alone : not made, nor created, but begotten.
:The Holy Ghost is of the Father and of the Son : neither made, nor created, nor begotten, but proceeding.
:So there is one Father, not three Fathers; one Son, not three Sons : one Holy Ghost, not three Holy Ghosts.
:And in this Trinity none is afore, or after other : none is greater, or less than another;
:But the whole three Persons are co-eternal together : and co-equal.
:So that in all things, as is aforesaid : the Unity in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity is to be worshipped.
:He therefore that will be saved : must thus think of the Trinity.
:Furthermore, it is necessary to everlasting salvation : that he also believe rightly the Incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ.
:For the right Faith is that we believe and confess : that our Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, is God and Man;
:God, of the Substance of the Father, begotten before the worlds : and Man, of the Substance of his Mother, born in the world;
:Perfect God, and Perfect Man : of a reasonable soul and human flesh subsisting;
:Equal to the Father, as touching his Godhead : and inferior to the Father, as touching his Manhood.
:Who although he be God and Man : yet he is not two, but one Christ;
:One, not by the conversion of the Godhead into flesh : but by taking of the Manhood into God;
:One altogether, not by confusion of Substance : but by unity of Person.
:For as reasonable soul and flesh is one man : so God and Man is one Christ.
:Who suffered for our salvation : descended into hell, rose again the third day from the dead.
:He ascended into heaven, he sitteth on the right hand of the Father, God Almighty : from whence he shall come to judge the quick and the dead.
:At whose coming all men shall rise again with their bodies : and shall give account for their own works.
:And they that have done good shall go into life everlasting : and they that have done evil into everlasting fire.
:This is the Catholick Faith : which except a man believe faithfully, he cannot be saved.
:Glory be to the Father, and to the Son : and to the Holy Ghost;
:As it was in the beginning, is now, and ever shall be : world without end. Amen.
===Scholarly edition and annotated translation===
There is a scholarly comparative edition of the original Latin text of the Athanasian creed, along with commentary on the older English translation at [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds2.iv.i.iv.html http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds2.iv.i.iv.html]
== See also ==
*[[Creed]]
*[[Apostles' Creed]]
*[[Nicene Creed]]
*[[Shield of the Trinity]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[category:Christian Confessions, Creeds and Statements]]
[[Category:Christian texts]]
[[cs:Vyznání Quicumque]]
[[de:Athanasisches Glaubensbekenntnis]]
[[fr:Symbole d'Athanase]]
[[it:Simbolo Atanasiano]]
[[la:Symbolum Quicumque]]
[[nl:Geloofsbelijdenis van Athanasius]]
[[fi:Athanasioksen uskontunnustus]]
[[pt:Credo de Atanásio]]
[[sv:Athanasianska trosbekännelsen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alicante</title>
<id>2417</id>
<revision>
<id>42074272</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:21:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.120.13.71</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Land of Valencia is a Martorell-Disney invention of the name</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Alicante, Spain location.png|fr |
ce in the fight against [[AIDS]], and has had renewed moments of commercial triumph, such as his defiant hit "I'm Still Standing" and his award-winning work on the popular animated film ''[[The Lion King]]''.
== Early life and career ==
Elton John was born '''Reginald Kenneth Dwight''' in [[Pinner]], [[England]], the son of Squadron Leader Stanley Dwight, [[Royal Air Force|RAF]], and his wife, Sheila Dwight. Reginald was raised primarily by his mother and other female relatives, and saw little of his father as a boy. Stanley and Sheila divorced in [[1962]], when Reginald was 15.
Reginald began playing the piano when he was four. Something of a child prodigy, he was able to play by ear any melody he heard on the radio or phonograph. At 11, he won a scholarship to the [[Royal Academy of Music]]. He stayed at the Academy for six years, leaving before graduation to focus on his professional music.
In [[1960]], Reginald and some of his friends formed a band called the "Corvettes", which evolved into "Bluesology". By the mid-1960s, "Bluesology" was backing touring American soul and R&B musicians like [[the Isley Brothers]], [[Major Lance]], [[Doris Troy]], and [[Patti LaBelle and the Bluebelles]]. In [[1966]] the band became musician [[Long John Baldry]]'s supporting band and began touring cabarets with him throughout [[England]]. Reginald left soon after, as Baldry's control had increased. After failing lead vocalist auditions for both "[[King Crimson]]" and "[[Gentle Giant]]", Reginald answered an advertisement in the New Musical Express placed by [[Ray Williams]] then the young A&R manager for [[Liberty Records]]. There, Ray gave him lyrics written by [[Bernie Taupin]] who had answered the same ad. Reginald wrote music for the lyrics, and then mailed it to Taupin. Thus began a partnership that continues to this day. When they met six months later, Reginald had changed his name to "Elton John", by [[deed poll]], in homage to Bluesology saxophonist [[Elton Dean|'''Elton''' Dean]] and [[Long John Baldry|Long '''John''' Baldry]]. In [[1967]] the first Elton John/Bernie Taupin song, ''Scarecrow'', was recorded.
Elton and Bernie, now partners, joined Dick James's [[DJM Records]] as staff songwriters in [[1968]], and over the next two years, wrote songs for pop singers like [[Roger Cook]] and "[[Lulu (singer)|Lulu]]", while also recording their own songs. Taupin would write a batch of lyrics in under an hour, and give it to John who would write music for them in half an hour, disposing the lyrics if he couldn't come up with anything quickly.
In June [[1969]], Elton John released ''[[Empty Sky (album)|Empty Sky]]'', his first album, for DJM. Despite good reviews, it failed to click with the record buying public.
==1970s success==
[[Image:Elton Tommy.jpg|thumb|240px|right|The Pinball Wizard from ''[[Tommy (film)|Tommy]]'' (1975)]]
Elton's [[Elton John (album)|self-titled second album]] was released in the spring of [[1970]] on [[Music Corporation of America|MCA]], and slowly began to climb the charts. The first single from the album, "[[Your Song]]", made the US Top Ten, and the album followed path.
John's first American concert took place at the Troubadour in Los Angeles, in August, receiving praise from the likes of [[Quincy Jones]].
''Elton John'' was followed quickly with the concept album ''[[Tumbleweed Connection]]'' in [[October]] [[1970]]. It reached the Top Ten on the [[Billboard 200]] like its predecessor, and got heavy airplay on album-oriented radio stations in the U.S., which most likely played a part in its success. ''[[Tumbleweed Connection]]'' was followed by the live album ''[[11-17-70]]'', an ambitious and largely underrated album showcasing Elton's considerable talent as a rock pianist and father of [[Piano rock]], with astonishing interaction between Elton, bassist [[Dee Murray]], and drummer [[Nigel Olsson]]. Extended versions of his early compositions clearly illustrate the gospel and boogie-woogie influences on Elton's piano playing, as the lead instrument in a successful, yet unusual (for Rock) trio format. The live album was followed by the soundtrack to the obscure film ''Friends'' and the album ''[[Madman Across the Water]]'', both that same year. ''[[Madman Across the Water]]'' reached the Top Ten, and produced the hit &#8220;Levon&#8221; while the soundtrack album produced the hit "Friends". In [[1972]], Elton released ''[[Honky Chateau]]'', which became his first American number one album, spending five weeks at the top of the charts, and spawned the hit singles "[[Rocket Man (song)|Rocket Man (I Think It's Going To Be A Long, Long Time)]]" and "[[Honky Cat]]".
In [[1973]], Elton started his own label, [[Rocket Records]]. That year, Elton released the pop album ''[[Don't Shoot Me I'm Only the Piano Player]]'' which produced the hits "Crocodile Rock" and "[[Daniel (song)|Daniel]]", and the more thoughtful, album-oriented [[double album|double LP]] ''[[Goodbye Yellow Brick Road]]'' which gained instant critical acclaim. ''Goodbye Yellow Brick Road'' topped the charts and is considered by many to be his best album. It contains the number 1 hit "Bennie and the Jets", along with the popular title song, "Candle in the Wind" (which went on to become the best selling song of all time), and the FM radio favourite "Saturday Night's Alright (for Fighting)." It also contained gems such as the track "Funeral For A Friend"/"Love Lies Bleeding" and "Grey Seal".
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:ejohn2.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Elton John mugging for the camera with friend [[John Lennon]], mid-70s, wearing his trademark silly glasses.]] -->
In [[1974]], Elton engaged in a noted collaboration with [[John Lennon]], resulting in Elton covering [[The Beatles]]'s "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" and Lennon's "One Day at a Time", Elton being featured on Lennon's "Whatever Gets You Thru the Night", and a surprise joint concert performance of these two No. 1 hits along with the Beatles classic "I Saw Her Standing There". Elton got Lennon to perform these songs at [[Madison Square Garden]] in what would be his last public performance. The concert was recorded and released two years later with another live concert recording on the album '''Here & There''. That year, he also became director of a professional soccer team, the [[Watford F.C.|Watford Football Club]], and released the albums ''[[Caribou (album)|Caribou]]'' and ''[[Elton John's Greatest Hits]]'', both #1 hits, like their predecessors. Caribou was widely considered a lesser quality album but demonstrated John's rocking ability with "The Bitch Is Back" and his versatility in orchestral songs with "Don't Let The Sun Go Down On Me". Also in 1974, Elton John was asked to play a character called the "Pinball Wizard" and perform a song of the same name by the British band [[The Who]] for their rock opera ''[[Tommy (rock opera)|Tommy)]]''. Drawing on [[power chord]]s, Elton's version was recorded and used for the movie release in 1975 and the single came out in 1976 (1975 in the U.S.). The song charted #7 in England. Many still recognize Elton John's rocker version more easily than The Who's original version.
[[Image:Elton John - Captain Fantastic and the Brown Dirt Cowboy.jpg|left|thumb|Elton John's cryptic personality was revealed with the autobiographical album, ''[[Captain Fantastic and the Brown Dirt Cowboy]]''.]]
With the release of the [[1975]] autobiographical album ''[[Captain Fantastic and the Brown Dirt Cowboy]]'' Elton John revealed his previously ambiguous personality. In the album, Taupin and John describe their early days as struggling songwriters and musicians in [[London]] and its environs. The lyrics and accompanying photo booklet are infused with a specific sense of place and time that would otherwise be rare in John's music. "Someone Saved My Life Tonight" was the hit single from this album and captured an early turning point in John's life. His next album, the rock-oriented ''[[Rock of the Westies]]'', entered the [[Billboard 200]] chart at #1 like ''Captain Fantastic'', a previously unattained feat.
[[1976]] also saw a highly successful collaboration with English singer [[Kiki Dee]], when their duet "Don't Go Breaking My Heart" went to number 1 on the charts.
Elton, in a way, owes his success at that time to his concert performances. His flamboyant stage wardrobe that included [[ostrich]] feathers, $5,000 spectacles that spelled his name in lights, a Statue of Liberty costume and more, and his dressing up like [[Donald Duck]] or [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]] among others at his concerts made them a success and created interest for his music.
Elton's career slowed down somewhat after [[1976]]. That year he stated in an interview with ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' that he was bisexual. This revelation may have contributed to a drop in record sales the following years. The decline in his record sales was also probably due to his exhaustion. He cut his performance schedule after that year, and retired from live performances in [[1977]] and started recording only one album per year.
Nevertheless, Elton John dominated the rock world in the [[1970s]], as evidenced by his seven consecutive albums that topped the US album charts: ''[[Honky Château]]'' ([[1972]], #1 for five weeks), ''[[Don't Shoot Me I'm Only the Piano Player]]'' ([[1973]], #1 for two weeks), ''[[Goodbye Yellow Brick Road]]'' ([[1973]], #1 for eight weeks), ''[[Caribou (album)|Caribou]]'' ([[1974]], #1 for four weeks), ''[[Elton John's Greatest Hits]]'' ([[1974]], #1 for ten weeks), ''[[Captain Fantastic and the Brown Dirt Cowboy]]'' ([[1975]], #1 for seven weeks) |
oegelin/EVS/Panel72001.htm|Petrarch] between the [[Classical Period]] of [[Ancient Greece]] and [[Rome]], the succeeding [[Dark Ages]], and the [[Renaissance]]. For Gibbon:-
''"The decline of Rome was the natural and inevitable effect of immoderate greatness. Prosperity ripened the principle of decay; the cause of the destruction multiplied with the extent of conquest; and, as soon as time or accident and removed the artificial supports, the stupendous fabric yielded to the pressure of its own weight. The story of the ruin is simple and obvious: and instead of inquiring why the Roman Empire was destroyed we should rather be surprised that it has subsisted for so long."''[Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 2nd ed., vol. 4, ed. by J. B. Bury (London, 1909), pp. 173-174.] Gibbon suggested the final act of the collapse of Rome was the collapse of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 AD.
'''[[Theodor Mommsen]]''' in his ''"[[History of Rome]]"'', suggested Rome collapsed with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD and he also tended towards a biological analogy of "genesis", "growth", "senescence", "collapse" and "decay".
'''[[Oswald Spengler]]''', in his ''"[[Decline of the West]]"'' rejected Petrarch's chronological division, and suggested that there had been only eight "mature civilizations". Growing cultures he argued tended to develop into imperialistic civilizations which expand and ultimately collapse, with democratic forms of government ushering in plutocracy and ultimately imperialism.
'''[[Arnold Toynbee]]''' in his monumental ''"[[A Study of History]]"'' suggested that there had been a much larger number of civilizations, including a small number of [[arrested civilizations]], and that all civilizations tended to go through the cycle identified by Mommsen. The cause of the fall of a civilization occurred when a [[cultural elite]] became a [[parasitic elite]], leading to the rise of [[internal proletariat|internal]] and [[external proletariat]].
'''[[Joseph Tainter]]''' in ''"[[The Decline of Complex Societies]]"'' suggested that there was a [[diminishing return]] to [[complexity]], in which as states achieved a maximum permissible complexity, would decline when further increases actually produced a negative return. Tainter suggested that Rome achieved this figure in the 2nd Century AD.
'''[[Jared Diamond]]''' in his recent book ''"[[Collapse (book)|Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed]]"'' suggests five major reasons for the collapse of 41 studied cultures including:
* environmental damage, (such as [[deforestation]] and [[soil erosion]]
* [[Climate change]]
* dependence upon [[international trade|long-distance trade]] for needed resources
* increasing and rising levels of internal and external violence, such as war or invasion
* societal responses to internal and environmental problems
Generally explanations for the collapse of civilization have shifted from inherent biological analogies, towards more systemic [[ecology|ecological]] understandings where [[sustainable cultures]] fail to be built.
==Negative views of civilization==
Civilization has been criticized from a variety of viewpoints and for a variety of reasons. However, few critics have objected to ''all'' aspects of civilization; rather, most have argued that civilization brings a mixture of good and bad effects, and that the bad outweigh the good.
The best known opponents of civilization are people who have voluntarily chosen to live outside it. These include [[hermit]]s and religious [[ascetic]]s who, in many different times and places, have attempted to eliminate the influence of civilization over their lives in order to concentrate on spiritual matters. [[Monasticism|Monasteries]] represent an effort by these ascetics to create a life somewhat apart from their mainstream civilizations. In the 19th century, [[Transcendentalism|Transcendentalists]] believed civilization was shallow and materialistic, so they wanted to build a completely agrarian society, free from the oppression of the city.
Civilizations have shown an inclination towards conquest and expansion. When civilizations were formed, more food was produced and the society's material possessions increased, but wealth also became concentrated in the hands of the powerful. The communal way of life among tribal people gave way to [[aristocracy]] and [[hierarchy]]. As hierarchies are able to generate sufficient resources and food surpluses capable of supplying standing [[armies]], civilizations were capable of conquering neighboring cultures that made their livings in different ways. In this manner, civilizations began to spread outward from [[Eurasia]] across the world some [[agricultural revolution|10,000 years ago]] - and are finishing the job today in the remote jungles of the [[Amazon River|Amazon]] and [[New Guinea]].
Many [[environmentalism|environmentalists]] criticize civilizations for their exploitation of the environment. Through intensive agriculture and urban growth, civilizations tend to destroy natural settings and habitats. This is sometimes referred to as "dominator culture". Proponents of this view believe that traditional societies live in greater harmony with nature than civilizations; people work with nature rather than try to subdue it. The [[sustainable living]] movement is a push from some members of civilization to regain that harmony with nature.
[[Anarcho-primitivism|Primitivism]] is a modern philosophy totally opposed to civilization. Primitivists accuse civilizations of restricting human potential, oppressing the weak, and damaging the environment. They wish to return to a more primitive way of life which they consider to be in the best interests of both nature and human beings. A leading proponent is [[John Zerzan]], whereas a critic is [[Roger Sandall]].
However, not all critics of past and present civilization believe that a primitive way of life is better. Some have argued that a third alternative exists, which is neither primitive nor "civilized" in the current sense of the word. This may be described as a radically different form of civilization. [[Karl Marx]], for instance, argued that the beginning of civilization was the beginning of [[oppression]] and [[exploitation]], but also believed that these things would eventually be overcome and [[communism]] would be established throughout the world. He envisioned communism not as a return to any sort of idyllic past, but as a quantum leap forward to a new stage of civilization. [[Conflict theory]] in the social sciences also views present civilization as being based on the domination of some people by others, but makes no moral judgments on the issue.
Among Eastern schools of thought, [[Taoism]] was one of the first to reject the [[Confucian]] concern for civilization.
==Problems with the term "civilization"==
As discussed above, "civilization" has a number of meanings, and its use can lead to confusion and misunderstanding.
However, "civilization" can be a highly [[connotation|connotative]] word. It might bring to mind qualities such as superiority, humaneness, and refinement. Indeed, many members of civilized societies ''have'' seen themselves as superior to the "[[barbarian]]s" outside their civilization.
Many 19th-century [[anthropology|anthropologists]] backed a theory called [[cultural evolution]]. They believed that people naturally progress from a simple state to a superior, civilized state. [[John Wesley Powell]], for example, classified all societies as Savage, Barbarian, and Civilized; the first two of his terms would shock most anthropologists today. The early 20th century saw the first cracks in this world view within [[Western Civilization]]: [[Joseph Conrad]]'s 1902 novel "[[Heart of Darkness]]", for example, told a story set in the [[Congo Free State]], in which the most savage and uncivilized behavior was initiated by a white European. This hierarchical world view was dealt further serious blows by the [[atrocity|atrocities]] of [[World War I]] and [[World War II]] and so on.
Today most social scientists believe at least to some extent in cultural relativism, the view that complex societies are not by nature superior, more humane, or more sophisticated than less complex or technologically advanced groups. This view has its roots in the writings of [[Franz Boas]].
A minority of scholars reject the relativism of Boas and mainstream social science. English biologist [[John Baker (biologist)|John Baker]], in his 1974 book ''Race'', gives about 20 criteria that make civilizations superior to non-civilizations. Baker tries to show a relation between the cultures of civilizations and the biological disposition of their creators.
Many [[postmodern]]ists, and a considerable proportion of the wider public, argue that the division of societies into 'civilized' and 'uncivilized' is arbitrary and meaningless. On a fundamental level, they say there is no difference between civilizations and tribal societies; that each simply does what it can with the resources it has. In this view, the concept of "civilization" has merely been the justification for [[colonialism]], [[imperialism]], [[genocide]], and coercive acculturation.
For all of the above reasons, many scholars today avoid using the term "civilization" as a stand-alone term; they prefer to use '''urban society''' or '''intensive agricultural society''', which are much less ambiguous, more neutral-sounding terms. "Civilization" however remains in common academic use when describing specific societies, such as "Mayan Civilization".
==Early civilizations==
Two cities were recently found in underwater research at Gulf of Cambay,[[India]], belonging to |
he ideas about indistinguishability discussed earlier.
Actually, it is an empirical fact that identical particles occupy special types of multi-particle states, called '''symmetric states''' and '''antisymmetric states'''. Symmetric states have the form
:<math> |n_1, n_2; S\rang \equiv \mbox{constant} \times \bigg( |n_1\rang |n_2\rang + |n_2\rang |n_1\rang \bigg) </math>
Antisymmetric states have the form
:<math> |n_1, n_2; A\rang \equiv \mbox{constant} \times \bigg( |n_1\rang |n_2\rang - |n_2\rang |n_1\rang \bigg) </math>
Note that if ''n''<sub>1</sub> and ''n''<sub>2</sub> are the same, our equation for the antisymmetric state gives the zero ket, which cannot be a state vector as it cannot be normalized. In other words, in an antisymmetric state the particles cannot occupy the same single-particle states. This is known as the [[Pauli exclusion principle]], and it is the fundamental reason behind the [[chemistry|chemical]] properties of atoms and the stability of [[matter]].
=== Exchange symmetry ===
The importance of symmetric and antisymmetric states is ultimately based on empirical evidence. It appears to be a fact of Nature that identical particles do not occupy states of a mixed symmetry, such as
:<math> |n_1, n_2; ?\rang = \mbox{constant} \times \bigg( |n_1\rang |n_2\rang + i |n_2\rang |n_1\rang \bigg) </math>
There is actually an exception to this rule, which we will discuss later. On the other hand, we can show that the symmetric and antisymmetric states are in a sense special, by examining a particular symmetry of the multiple-particle states known as '''exchange symmetry'''.
Let us define a linear operator ''P'', called the exchange operator. When it acts on a tensor product of two state vectors, it exchanges the values of the state vectors:
:<math>P \bigg(|\psi\rang |\phi\rang \bigg) \equiv |\phi\rang |\psi\rang </math>
''P'' is both [[Hermitian]] and [[Unitary matrix|unitary]]. Because it is unitary, we can regard it as a [[symmetry (quantum mechanics)|symmetry operator]]. We can describe this symmetry as the symmetry under the exchange of labels attached to the particles (i.e., to the single-particle Hilbert spaces).
Clearly, ''P&sup2; = 1'' (the identity operator), so the [[eigenvalue]]s of ''P'' are +1 and &minus;1. The corresponding [[eigenvector]]s are the symmetric and antisymmetric states:
:<math>P|n_1, n_2; S\rang = + |n_1, n_2; S\rang</math>
:<math>P|n_1, n_2; A\rang = - |n_1, n_2; A\rang</math>
In other words, symmetric and antisymmetric states are essentially unchanged under the exchange of particle labels: they are only multiplied by a factor of +1 or &minus;1, rather than being "rotated" somewhere else in the Hilbert space. This indicates that the particle labels have no physical meaning, in agreement with our earlier discussion on indistinguishability.
We have mentioned that ''P'' is Hermitian. As a result, it can be regarded as an observable of the system, which means that we can, in principle, perform a measurement to find out if a state is symmetric or antisymmetric. Furthermore, the equivalence of the particles indicates that the [[Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)|Hamiltonian]] can be written in a symmetrical form, such as
:<math>H = \frac{p_1^2}{2m} + \frac{p_2^2}{2m} + U(|x_1 - x_2|) + V(x_1) + V(x_2) </math>
It is possible to show that such Hamiltonians satisfy the [[Commutator|commutation relation]]
:<math>\left[P, H\right] = 0</math>
According to the [[Heisenberg picture|Heisenberg equation]], this means that the value of ''P'' is a constant of motion. If the quantum state is initially symmetric (antisymmetric), it will remain symmetric (antisymmetric) as the system evolves. Mathematically, this says that the state vector is confined to one of the two eigenspaces of ''P'', and is not allowed to range over the entire Hilbert space. Thus, we might as well treat that eigenspace as the actual Hilbert space of the system. This is the idea behind the definition of [[Fock space]].
=== Fermions and bosons ===
The choice of symmetry or antisymmetry is determined by the species of particle. For example, we must always use symmetric states when describing [[photon]]s or [[helium|helium-4]] atoms, and antisymmetric states when describing [[electron]]s or [[proton]]s.
Particles which exhibit symmetric states are called [[boson|bosons]]. As we will see, the nature of symmetric states has important consequences for the statistical properties of systems composed of many identical bosons. These statistical properties are described as [[Bose-Einstein statistics]].
Particles which exhibit antisymmetric states are called [[fermion|fermions]]. As we have seen, antisymmetry gives rise to the [[Pauli exclusion principle]], which forbids identical fermions from sharing the same quantum state. Systems of many identical fermions are described by [[Fermi-Dirac statistics]].
[[Parastatistics]] are also possible.
In certain two-dimensional systems, mixed symmetry can occur. These exotic particles are known as [[anyon|anyons]], and they obey [[fractional statistics]]. Experimental evidence for the existence of anyons exists in the [[quantum Hall effect|fractional quantum Hall effect]], a phenomenon observed in the two-dimensional electron gases that form the inversion layer of [[MOSFET]]s. There is another type of statistic, known as [[braid statistics]], which are associated with particles known as [[plekton]]s.
The [[spin-statistics theorem]] relates the exchange symmetry of identical particles to their [[spin (physics)|spin]]. It states that bosons have integer spin, and fermions have half-integer spin. Anyons possess fractional spin.
=== ''N'' particles ===
The above discussion generalizes readily to the case of ''N'' particles. Suppose we have ''N'' particles with quantum numbers ''n''<sub>1</sub>, ''n''<sub>2</sub>, ..., n<sub>N</sub>. If the particles are bosons, they occupy a '''totally symmetric state''', which is symmetric under the exchange of ''any two'' particle labels:
:<math>|n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; S\rang = \sqrt{\frac{\prod_j N_j!}{N!}} \sum_p |n_{p(1)}\rang |n_{p(2)}\rang \cdots |n_{p(N)}\rang </math>
Here, the sum is taken over all possible [[permutation]]s ''p'' acting on ''N'' elements. The square root on the right hand side is a [[normalizing constant]]. The quantity ''N<sub>j</sub>'' stands for the number of times each of the single-particle states appears in the ''N''-particle state.
In the same vein, fermions occupy '''totally antisymmetric states''':
:<math>|n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; A\rang = \frac{1}{\sqrt{N!}} \sum_p \mathrm{sgn}(p) |n_{p(1)}\rang |n_{p(2)}\rang \cdots |n_{p(N)}\rang\ </math>
Here, sgn(''p'') is the [[Symmetric group|signature]] of each permutation (i.e. +1 if ''p'' is composed of an even number of transpositions, and &minus;1 if odd.) Note that we have omitted the ''&Pi;<sub>j</sub>N<sub>j</sub>'' term, because each single-particle state can appear only once in a fermionic state.
These states have been normalized so that
:<math> \lang n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; S | n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; S\rang = 1, \qquad \lang n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; A | n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; A\rang = 1. </math>
=== Measurements of identical particles ===
Suppose we have a system of ''N'' bosons (fermions) in the symmetric (antisymmetric) state
:<math>|n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; S/A \rang</math>
and we perform a measurement of some other set of discrete observables, ''m''. In general, this would yield some result ''m<sub>1</sub>'' for one particle, ''m<sub>2</sub>'' for another particle, and so forth. If the particles are bosons (fermions), the state after the measurement must remain symmetric (antisymmetric), i.e.
:<math>|m_1 m_2 \cdots m_N; S/A \rang</math>
The probability of obtaining a particular result for the ''m'' measurement is
:<math>P_{S/A}(n_1, \cdots n_N \rightarrow m_1, \cdots m_N) \equiv \bigg|\lang m_1 \cdots m_N; S/A \,|\, n_1 \cdots n_N; S/A \rang \bigg|^2 </math>
We can show that
:<math> \sum_{m_1 \le m_2 \le \dots \le m_N} P_{S/A}(n_1, \cdots n_N \rightarrow m_1, \cdots m_N) = 1 </math>
which verifies that the total probability is 1. Note that we have to restrict the sum to ''ordered'' values of ''m<sub>1</sub>'', ..., ''m<sub>N</sub>'' to ensure that we do not count each multi-particle state more than once.
=== Wavefunction representation ===
So far, we have worked with discrete observables. We will now extend the discussion to continuous observables, such as the [[position]] ''x''.
Recall that an eigenstate of a continuous observable represents an infinitesimal ''range'' of values of the observable, not a single value as with discrete observables. For instance, if a particle is in a state |&psi;>, the probability of finding it in a region of volume ''d&sup3;x'' surrounding some position ''x'' is
:<math> |\lang x | \psi \rang|^2 \; d^3 x </math>
As a result, the continuous eigenstates |''x''> are normalized to the [[delta function]] instead of unity:
:<math> \lang x | x' \rang = \delta^3 (x - x') </math>
We can construct symmetric and antisymmetric multi-particle states out of continuous eigenstates in the same way as before. However, it is customary to use a different normalizing constant:
:<math>|x_1 x_2 \cdots x_N; S\rang = \frac{\prod_j N_j!}{N!} \sum_p |x_{p(1)}\rang |x_{p(2)}\rang \cdots |x_{p(N)}\rang </math>
:<math>|x_1 x_2 \cdots x_N; A\rang = \frac{1}{N!} \sum_p \mathrm{sgn}(p) |x_{p(1)}\rang |x_{p(2)}\rang \cdots |x_{p(N)}\rang </math>
We can then write a many-body [[wavefunction]],
<table>
<tr>
<td><math> |
07</id>
<revision>
<id>15910742</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-09T22:43:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ed Poor</username>
<id>188</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect Mikhail Gorbachev</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Glendower</title>
<id>13108</id>
<revision>
<id>18890891</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-15T14:29:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>PedanticallySpeaking</username>
<id>91656</id>
</contributor>
<comment>shandon in ohio</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">*'''[[Owen Glendower]]''', medieval Welsh nobleman
*'''[[The Glendower (whiskey)|The Glendower]]''', a brand of Scotch [[whisky]]
*'''[[Glendower State Memorial]]''', a historical [[house]] in [[Lebanon, Ohio]]
*[[Shandon, Ohio|Glendower, Ohio]]--The original name of a town in [[Morgan Township, Butler County, Ohio]], now called [[Shandon, Ohio]].
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Global warming controversy</title>
<id>13109</id>
<revision>
<id>41773184</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T17:21:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vsmith</username>
<id>84417</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/166.113.26.214|166.113.26.214]] ([[User talk:166.113.26.214|talk]]) to last version by 216.226.127.190</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''global warming controversy''' is an ongoing dispute about the effects of humans on the global climate and the policies that should be followed to avoid future effects. Although not fully settled, the current [[scientific opinion on climate change]] is that recent warming is largely human-caused.
This article is about that controversy. The description and scientific explanation of [[global warming]] is spread over several articles:
*The basic scientific description is in [[greenhouse effect]] and [[global warming]].
*Past climate behavior is in [[historical temperature record]], [[temperature record of the past 1000 years]], and [[satellite temperature record]].
*Causes of recent climate trends are in [[attribution of recent climate change]].
__TOC__
==Overview==
Leaving the realm of scientific journals, the debate has spilled out into the public arena, with some politicians making the issue a component of their campaigns for high office. One example of this is [[2000]] [[President of the United States|U.S. presidential]] candidate [[Al Gore]], author of ''[[Earth in the Balance]]''. Global warming is a more central and sustained issue, however, for the [[European Union|EU]]. In fact, both 'global warming' and the more politically neutral 'climate change' were listed in the political buzzwords or catchphrases of 2005. [http://www.LanguageMonitor.com]
Much about global warming theories is controversial, particularly whether there exists a [[scientific consensus]] sufficient to justify concerted international action to ameliorate its effects (see '''[[Kyoto Protocol]]''').
Proponents of global warming theory express a wide range of opinions. Some merely recognize the validity of the observed increases in temperature. Others support measures such as the [[Kyoto Protocol]] that are intended to have some near-future climate effects and to lead eventually to further measures. Others believe that the environmental damage will have such severe impact that immediate steps must be taken to reduce CO<SUB>2</SUB> emissions, regardless of the economic costs to advanced nations such as the United States (which has the largest emissions of greenhouse gases of any country in absolute terms, and the second largest emissions per capita after Australia [http://www.tai.org.au/Publications_Files/DP_Files/Dp66sum.pdf]).
Critics of the global warming theory similarly offer a wide spectrum of opinions. Some, such as [[Patrick Michaels]], propose that human influence has warmed the atmosphere yet dispute the conclusion of the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|IPCC]] TAR, which says "[t]here is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities". Others point out that observations of global temperatures over much larger time spans, thousands of years rather than decades, show global temperatures fluctuated wildly in the past long before the introduction of human industrial activity such as the [[industrial revolution]]. An additional assertion of many critics is that it is not possible to ascertain any definitive global temperature trend from the limited temperature record often cited. Other scientists theorize that global temperature change may be induced by natural causes, such as [[volcanism]] and [[solar activity]].
The above paragraphs might give the impression that belief in the course of past climate change correlates strongly with advocacy for future actions: this is not necessarily so. It is possible, perhaps common, to study the past record and give no counsel on the future.
==Controversial issues==
The controversy is made up of separate issues relating to global warming which are sometimes mixed together by proponents of one view or another.
#Whether the climate is changing beyond natural variations ([[historical temperature record]]).
#Whether human/industrial activity is responsible for the change ([[attribution of recent climate change]]).
#How large future changes will be.
#What will be the consequences of climate change.
#What are the best responses to climate change.
#Whether decisions require less uncertainty.
Much of the discussion centers on the effect of emissions of [[carbon dioxide]] related to human activity ranging from burning fossil-fuels to industrial activity. But this alone would be a scientific argument confined to the scientific press. The point that leads to major controversy&mdash;because it could have significant economic impacts&mdash;is whether action (usually, restrictions on the use of [[fossil fuel]]s to reduce carbon dioxide emissions) should be taken now or in the near future and whether those restrictions would have any meaningful effect on global temperature.
Because of the economic ramifications of such restrictions, there are those who feel strongly that, even if global warming is caused solely by the burning of fossil fuels, restricting their use would have more damaging effects on the world economy than the increases in global temperature. In contrast, others feel strongly that early action to reduce emissions would help avoid much greater economic costs later and would reduce the risk of catastrophic, irreversible change.
==Scope of the controversy==
The controversy occurs almost entirely within the press and political arenas. In the scientific press and among climate researchers, there is little controversy about global warming, only a desire to investigate a scientific problem and possible consequences. As [[Kevin E. Trenberth]] writes:
:''In 1995 the IPCC assessment concluded that "the balance of evidence suggests that there is a discernible human influence on global climate". Since then the evidence has become much stronger ... Thus the headline in IPCC (2001) is "There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities"... While some changes arising from global warming are benign or even beneficial, the economic effects of the weather extremes are substantial and clearly warrant attention in policy debates... Consequently, there is a strong case for slowing down the projected rates of climate change from human influences.'' [http://www.cgd.ucar.edu/cas/GLOB_CHANGE/ipcc2001.html]
Trenberth also provides evidence for the controversy that occurs when science meets the political arena:
:''The [[Summary for policymakers|SPM]] was approved line by line by governments... The argument here is that the scientists determine what can said,'' [sic] ''but the governments determine how it can best be said. Negotiations occur over wording to ensure accuracy, balance, clarity of message, and relevance to understanding and policy. The IPCC process is dependent on the good will of the participants in producing a balanced assessment. However, in Shanghai, it appeared that there were attempts to blunt, and perhaps obfuscate, the messages in the report, most notably by Saudi Arabia. This led to very protracted debates over wording on even bland and what should be uncontroversial text... The most contentious paragraph in the IPCC (2001) SPM was the concluding one on attribution. After much debate the following was carefully crafted: "In the light of new evidence, and taking into account the remaining uncertainties, most of the observed warming over the last 50 years is likely to have been due to the increase in greenhouse gas concentrations."'' [http://www.cgd.ucar.edu/cas/GLOB_CHANGE/ipcc2001.html]
Critics of GWT and/or the IPCC point out that the majority of the temperature change has occurred before the majority of the carbon dioxide has been released into the atmosphere.
The arguments over global warming are viewed differently in different parts of the world. In [[Europe]] for example global warming has gained wider acceptance than in other parts of the world, most notably the [[United States]].
==Points made by supporters of the global warming theory==
Supporters of the global warming theory assert that:
*the recent rise in [[carbon dioxide]] and other [[greenhouse gases]] is human-caused
*the [[historical temperature record]] shows a rise of 0.4-0.8 &deg;C over the last 100 years.
*the [[urban heat island]] effect makes no significant contribution.
*the current warmth is unusual in the past 1000 years (see [[Temperature r |
== Comparisons ==
Comparisons are made with the adverbial correlatives ''tiel ... kiel'' (as ... as), the adverbial roots ''pli'' (more) and ''plej'' (most), the antonym prefix ''mal-'', and the preposition ''ol'' (than):
:''mi skribas tiel bone kiel vi'' (I write as well as you)
:''tiu estas pli bona ol tiu'' (this one is better than that one)
:''tio estas la plej bona'' (that's the best)
:''la mia estas malpli multekosta ol la via'' (mine is less expensive than yours)
Implied comparisons are made with ''tre'' (very) and ''tro'' (too [much]).
Phrases like "The more people, the smaller the portions" and "All the better!" are translated using ''ju'' and ''des'' in place of "the":
:'''''Ju''' pli da homoj, '''des''' malpli grandaj la porcioj'' (The more people, the smaller the portions)
:'''''Des''' pli bone!'' (All the better!)
== Non-Indo-European aspects ==
Although Esperanto is overwhelmingly [[Romance languages|Romance]], [[Slavic languages|Slavic]], and [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] in origin, with a bit of [[Classical Greek]], there are, arguably, elements of the grammar which are not found in these language families. Most noticeably, Esperanto has no [[ablaut]] (internal inflection of its [[root word|roots]]), something which is nearly universal in the Indo-European languages. Examples of ablaut in English are ''mouse'' vs. ''mice'' for nouns, ''less'' vs. ''least'' for adjectives, and ''run'' vs. ''ran'' for verbs. However, European languages also have many words without ablaut, such as ''cat'' vs. ''cats,'' ''fewer'' vs. ''fewest,'' and ''walk'' vs. ''walked.'' (This is the so-called [[strong (grammatical term)|strong]]-[[weak (grammatical term)|weak]] dichotomy.) Indeed, for many European languages the majority of words inflect without ablaut; Esperanto merely extends this tendency. The closest Esperanto comes to ablaut is in a few sets of related root words such as ''pli, plu, plej'' (more, more, most), ''tre, tro'' (very, too much), and the verbal morphemes ''-as, -anta, -ata; -is, -inta, -ita;'' and ''-os, -onta, -ota.''
Sometimes the part-of-speech endings are given as another example of non-European grammar, but they are similar in their essentials to the more complex system of Russian, which has separate sets of suffixes for nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs. At first Esperanto may appear to stand out in having a suffix for the nominative-singular inflection of nouns, but this is parallel to the feminine and neuter nouns of Russian and Latin; as a rule, bare noun roots only occur in those languages when masculine in [[grammatical gender|gender]]. Although it is not the source of the Esperanto system, [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] is an example of a European language with a general nominative-singular suffix.
Other arguably non-Indo-European features are derived through regular [[Analogy#Linguistics|analogic]] extension of standard European grammatical structures. For example, the nominal-adjectival paradigm is taken from Greek: Esperanto nominative singular ''mus'''o''''' (mouse) vs. Greek ''mous'''a''','' nominative plural ''muso'''j''''' vs. Greek ''mousa'''i''','' and accusative singular ''muso'''n''''' vs. Greek ''mousa'''n'''.'' However, Esperanto does not have a separate [[portmanteau]] accusative plural suffix like Greek ''mous-'''ās''';'' rather, it compounds the accusative and plural suffixes for this use: ''mus-'''o'''-'''j'''-'''n'''.'' It has been claimed that this system is similar to [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]] grammar in its mechanics; however, those languages do not have the grammatical singular-plural distinction that Esperanto and the Indo-European languages do.
A more clearly non-Indo-European feature is the future participle. Many European languages have three tenses, past, present, and future, but only two participles, past and present. Esperanto extends this system to a pair of future participles, ''-onta'' and ''-ota,'' which are transparently related both to the future verbal tense ''-os'' and to the other participles (''-anta, -ata; -inta, -ita,'' which reflect the vowels of the present and past verbal tenses ''-as, -is''). Occasionally this system has been extended further, with nonce conditional participles ''-unta'' and ''-uta'' derived from the conditional mood in ''-us.''
In none of these cases were the non-Indoeuropean elements of Esperanto grammar taken from other language families such as [[Semitic languages|Semitic]], [[Finno-Ugric languages|Fenno-Ugric]], or [[Turkic languages|Turkic]]. Rather, they were derived through internal extensions of existing European grammatical structures.
== Sample text ==
The paternoster, from the [[Unua Libro|first Esperanto publication]] in 1887, illustrates many of the grammatical points presented above, and should be readable without translation,
:''Patro nia, kiu estas en la ĉieloj,
:''sanktigata estu via nomo.
:''Venu via regno,
:''fariĝu via volo,
:''kiel en la ĉielo, kaj sur la tero.
:''Panon nian ĉiutagan donu al ni hodiaǔ.
:''Kaj pardonu al ni niajn ŝuldojn,
:''kiel ankaǔ ni pardonas al niaj ŝuldantoj.
:''Kaj ne konduku nin en tenton,
:''sed liberigu nin de la malbono.
:''(Ĉar via estas la regno kaj la potenco
:''kaj la gloro eterne.
:''Amen.)''
(A [http://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patro_Nia slightly different version].)
The morphologically complex words (see [[Esperanto vocabulary#word formation|Esperanto word formation]]) are,
:{| class=wikitable
|colspan=4 align=center|''sanktigata''
|- align=center
|'''sankt'''||'''-ig'''||'''-at'''||'''-a'''
|- align=center
|''holy''||causative||passive<br>participle||adjective
|- align=center
|colspan=4|"made holy"
|}
:{| class=wikitable
|colspan=3 align=center|''fariĝu''
|- align=center
|'''far'''||'''-iĝ'''||'''-u'''
|- align=center
|''do''||middle<br>voice||jussive
|- align=center
|colspan=3|"be done"
|}
:{| class=wikitable
|colspan=4 align=center|''ĉiutagan''
|- align=center
|'''ĉiu'''||'''-tag'''||'''-a'''||'''-n'''
|- align=center
|''every''||''day''||adjective||accusative
|- align=center
|colspan=4|"daily"
|}
:{| class=wikitable
|colspan=4 align=center|''ŝuldantoj''
|- align=center
|'''ŝuld'''||'''-ant'''||'''-o'''||'''-j'''
|- align=center
|''owe''||active<br>participle||noun||plural
|- align=center
|colspan=4|"debtors"
|}
:{| class=wikitable
|colspan=5 align=center|''liberigu nin''
|- align=center
|'''liber'''||'''-ig'''||'''-u'''||'''ni'''||'''-n'''
|- align=center
|''free''||causative||jussive||''we''||accusative
|- align=center
|colspan=5|"free us"
|}
:{| class=wikitable
|colspan=4 align=center|''la malbono''
|- align=center
|'''la'''||'''mal'''||'''-bon'''||'''-o'''
|- align=center
|generic<br>article||antonym||''good''||noun
|- align=center
|colspan=4|"evil"
|}
== External links ==
A fairly good overview of Esperanto's grammar and word-building system can be gained by viewing [http://www.webcom.com/~donh/Esperanto/rules.html "The Sixteen Rules of Esperanto"], [http://www.webcom.com/~donh/Esperanto/correlatives.html "The Esperanto Correlatives"] and [http://www.webcom.com/~donh/Esperanto/affixes.html "Word Building With Esperanto Affixes"]
Also see Jiri Hana's Master thesis overview of Esperanto:
:[http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~hana/esr/grammar/EsrGrammar-Title.html "Esperanto Grammar"]
[[Category:Esperanto language|Grammar]]
[[Category:Grammars of specific languages]]
[[be:Граматыка эспэранта]]
[[fi:Esperanton kielioppi]]
[[fr:Grammaire de l'espéranto dans le Fundamento]]
[[lt:Esperanto gramatika]]
[[ro:Gramatica limbii esperanto]]
[[zh:世界语语法]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Esperanto culture</title>
<id>10404</id>
<revision>
<id>39080590</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T16:08:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>62.194.208.105</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Esperanto}}
The language [[Esperanto]] is often used to access an international [[culture]]. There are over 25,000 Esperanto books (originals and translations) as well as over a hundred regularly distributed [[Esperanto magazine]]s. Many Esperanto speakers use the language for free travel throughout the world using the [[Pasporta Servo]]. Others like the idea of having [[pen pal]]s in many countries around the world using services like the [[Esperanto Pen Pal Service]]. Every year, 1500-3000 Esperanto speakers meet for the ''[[World Congress of Esperanto]]'' ''(Universala Kongreso de Esperanto)''.
==Literature, music and film==
Every year, hundreds of new titles are published in Esperanto along with [[Esperanto music|music]]. Also, many Esperanto newspapers and magazines exist.
''[[Monato]]'' is a general news magazine "like a genuinely international ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' or ''[[Newsweek]]''" [http://www.esperanto-usa.org/epss.html], but written by local correspondents. A magazine for the blind, ''A&#365;roro'', has been published since 1920.
Esperanto can be heard in television and radio broadcasts and on the internet. There are currently radio broadcasts from [[China Radio International]], [[Melbourne Ethnic Community Radio]], [[Radio Habana Cuba]], [[RAI|Radio Audizioni Italiane]] (Rai), [[Radio Polonia]], and [[Radio Vatican]]. [[Internacia Televido]], an internet television channel, began broadcasting in november 2005.
Historically most of the [[music]] published in Esperanto has been in various folk traditions; in recent decades more rock and other modern genres has appeared.
In [[1964]], [[Jacques-Louis Mahé]] produced the first full-length feature film in Esperanto, entitled ''[[Angoroj]]''. This was followed in [[1965]] by ''[[Incubus (movie)|Incubus]]'', starring [[William Shatner]], being the first American Esperanto-production. Several shorter [[ |
ion as fit only for [[barbarian]]s and [[Scythian]]s (Fr. 64).
Of the five books of lyrical pieces by Anacreon which the ''[[Suda]]'' and Athenaeus mention as extant in their time, we have now but the merest fragments, collected from the citations of later writers. Those graceful little poems (most of them first printed from the MSS. by [[Henry Estienne]] in [[1554]]), which long passed among the learned for the songs of Anacreon, and which are well-known to many English readers in the translations of [[Abraham Cowley]] and Moore, are really of much later date, though possibly here and there genuine fragments of the poet are included. Modern critics, however, regard the entire collection as imitations belonging to different periods--the oldest probably to [[Alexandria]]n times, the most recent to the last days of [[paganism]]. They will always retain a certain popularity from their lightness and elegance, and some of them are fair copies of Anacreon's style, which would lend itself readily enough to a clever imitator. A strong argument against their genuineness lies in the fact that the peculiar forms of the [[Ionic Greek]], in which Anacreon wrote, are not to be found in these reputed odes, while the fragments of his poems quoted by ancient writers are full of Ionicisms. Again, only one of the quotations from Anacreon in ancient writers is to be found in these poems, which further contain no references to contemporaries, whereas [[Strabo]] (xiv. p. 638) expressly states that Anacreon's poems included numerous allusions to [[Polycrates]]. In particular, Anacreon addresses a poem to the boy Smerdis, with whom he had fallen in love, and whom Polycrates, in a fit of jealousy had shorn of his locks (Athenaeus (12.540e) and Aelian (VH 9.4). The character of Love as a mischievous little boy is quite different from that given by Anacreon, who describes him as "striking with a mighty [[axe]], like a [[smith]]," and is more akin to the conceptions of later literature.
==A Poem==
'''The Wounded Cupid. Song'''
Cupid as he lay among<br />
Roses, by a Bee was stung.<br />
Whereupon in anger flying<br />
To his Mother, said thus crying;<br />
Help! O help! your Boy's a dying.<br />
And why, my pretty Lad, said she?<br />
Then blubbering, replied he,<br />
A winged Snake has bitten me<br />
Which Country people call a Bee.<br />
At which she smil'd; then with her hairs<br />
And kisses drying up his tears:<br />
Alas! said she, my Wag! if this<br />
Such a pernicious torment is:<br />
Come, tell me then, how great's the smart<br />
Of those, thou woundest with thy Dart!<br />
Translated from the Greek by [[Robert Herrick (poet)|Robert Herrick]] ([[1591]]-[[1674]]).
== External links ==
*[http://www.gottwein.de/Grie/lyr/LyrAnakr01.php Zweisprchige Textauswahl zu den griechischen Lyrikern mit zus&auml;tzlichen Hilfen]
==Poets named after Anacreon==
* ''[[Francesco Albani|Anacreon of Painters]]'', Francesco Albani
* ''[[Hafiz|Anacreon of Persia]]'', Hafiz
* ''[[Bertrand Barère de Vieuzac|Anacreon of the Guillotine]]'', Barere
* ''[[Carl Michael Bellman|Anacreon of Sweden]]'', Bellmann
* ''[[Hippolit Bogdanovich|Russian Anacreon]]'', Bogdanovich
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Ancient Greek poets]]
[[Category:Pederasty]]
[[bg:Анакреон]]
[[de:Anakreon]]
[[es:Anacreonte]]
[[fr:Anacréon]]
[[gl:Anacreonte]]
[[he:אנאקראון ]]
[[it:Anacreonte]]
[[hu:Anakreón]]
[[nl:Anacreon]]
[[pl:Anakreont z Teos]]
[[pt:Anacreonte]]
[[fi:Anakreon]]
[[sv:Anakreon]]
[[uk:Анакреонт]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anah</title>
<id>1734</id>
<revision>
<id>41377090</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T23:05:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Charles Matthews</username>
<id>12978</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>lk</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the town of Anah. For the character in the Book of [[Genesis]], see [[Minor characters in the Book of Genesis]].''
'''Anah''', or '''`Ana''', a town on the [[Euphrates]], about mid-way between the Gulf of Alexandretta and the [[Persian Gulf]]. It is called '''Hanat''' in a Babylonian letter (about [[2200 BC]]), and '''An-at''' by the scribe of Assur-nasir-pal (879 B.C.), Anatho (Isidore Charax), Anatha (Ammianus Marcellinus) by Greek and Latin writers in the early Christian centuries,
`Ana (sometimes, as if plural, `Anat) by Arabic writers. The name has been connected with that of the deity Anat.
Whilst `Ana has thus retained its name for forty-one centuries the site is variously described. Most early writers concur in placing it on an island; so [[Assur-nasir-pal]], [[Isidore of Seville|Isidore]], [[Ammianus Marcellinus]], [[Ibn Serapion]], [[al-Istakri]], [[Abulfeda]] and [[al-Karamani]]. Ammianus (lib. 24, c. 2) calls it a munimentum, Theophylactus Simocatta (iv. 10, v. 1, 2) to 'Anathon frourion, [[Zosimus]] (iii. 14) a frourion, opp. Fathusai, which may be the Beth(th)ina of Ptolemy (v. 19).<sup>1</sup> Leonhart Rauwolff, in AD 1574, found it "divided ... into two towns," the one "Turkish," "so surrounded by the river, that you cannot go into it but by boats," the other, much larger, on the Arabian side of the river.<sup>2</sup> GA Olivier in the beginning of the 19th century describes it as a long street (5 or 6 m. long), parallel to the right bank of the Euphrates--some 100 yards from the water's edge and 300 to 400 paces from the rocky barrier of the Arabian desert--with, over against its lower part, an island bearing at its north end the ruins of a fortress (p. 451).
This southernmost town of [[Mesopotamia]] proper (Gezira) must have shared the chequered history of that land. Of `Ana's fortunes under the early Babylonian
empire the records have not yet been unearthed; but in a letter dating from the third millennium BC, six men of Hanat (Ha-na-atK1) are mentioned in a statement as to certain disturbances which had occurred in the sphere of the Babylonian
Resident of Suhi, which would include the district of `Ana.
How `Ana fared at the hands of the Mitanni and others is unknown. The suggestion that [[Amenhotep I|Amenophis (Amenhotep) I]]. ([[16th century BC]]) refers to it is improbable; but we seem to be justified in holding `Ana to be the town "in the middle of the Euphrates" opposite (ina put) to which
Assur-nasir-pal halted in his campaign of 879 BC. The supposed reference to `Ana in the speech put into the mouth of [[Sennacherib]]'s messengers to Hezekiah (2 Kings xix. 13, Is. xxxvii. 13) is exceedingly improbable. The town may be mentioned, however, in four 7th century documents edited by [[Claude Hermann Walter Johns]].<sup>3</sup>
It was at `Ana that the emperor Julian met the first opposition on his disastrous expedition against [[Iran|Persia]] (363), when he got possession of the place and transported the people; and there that Ziyad and Shureih with the advanced guard of `Ali's army were refused passage across the Euphrates (36/657) to join `Ali in Mesopotamia (Tabari i. 3261).
Later `Ana was the place of exile of the caliph Qaim (al-qaim bi-amr-illah) when [[Basisiri]] was in power (450/1058.) In the 14th century `Ana was the seat of a
Catholicos, primate of the Persians (Marin Sanuto). In 1610 [[Della Valle]] found a [[Scotland|Scot]], George Strachan, resident at `Ana (to study Arabic) as physician to the amir (i. 671-681). In 1835 the steamer "Tigris" of the English Euphrates expedition went down in a hurricane just above `Ana, near where Julian's force had suffered from a similar storm. Della Valle described `Ana as the chief Arab town on the Euphrates, an importance which it owes to its position on one of the routes from the west to [[Baghdad]]; Texeira said that the power of its amir extended to [[Palmyra]] (early 17th century); but Olivier found the ruling prince with only twenty-five men in his service, the town becoming more depopulated every day from lack of protection from the Arabs of the desert.
[[Von Oppenheim]] (1893) reported that Turkish troops having been recently stationed at the place, it had no longer to pay blackmail (huwwa) to the Arabs. [[FR Chesney]] reported some 1800 houses, 2 mosques and 16 water-wheels; WF Ainsworth (1835) reported the Arabs as inhabiting the northwestern part of the town, the Christians the centre, and the Jews the southeast; Della Valle (1610) found some sun-worshippers still there.
Modern `Ana lies from west to east on the right bank along a bend of the river just before it turns south towards Hit, and presents an attractive appearance. It extends, chiefly as a single street, for several miles along a narrow strip
of land between the river and a ridge of rocky hills. The houses are separated from one another by fruit gardens. `Ana marks the boundary between the olive (north) and the date (south). Arab poets celebrated its wine (Yuqut, iii. 593
f.), and Mustaufi (8/14th century) tells of the fame of its palm-groves. In the river, facing the town, is a succession of equally productive islands. The most easterly contains the ruins of the old castle, whilst the remains of the ancient Anatho extend from this island for about 2 miles down the left bank. Coarse cloth is almost the only manufacture.
===BIBLIOGRAPHY===
In addition to the authorities cited above may be mentioned: [[Guillaume-Antoine Olivier|G. A. Olivier]], ''Voyage dans l'empire othoman'', etc., iii. 450-459 (1807); Carl Ritter, ''Erdkunde von Asien'', vii. b., pp. 716- 726 (1844); W. F. Ainsworth, ''Euphrates Expedition'', i. 401-418 (1888).
<sup>1</sup> Steph. Byz. (sub Turos) says that [[Arrian]] calls Anatha Turos.
<sup>2</sup> Texeira (1610) says that "Anna" lay on both banks of the river, and so Della Va |
mas finance eight terrorist attacks that resulted in the deaths of numerous Israeli civilians [http://story.news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&u=/ap/hamas_indictments][http://washingtontimes.com/national/20040820-113158-5933r.htm (Washington Times)].
On [[February 8]], 2006, Hamas has been successfully sued in an Israeli court. The Jerusalem District Court has awarded the Gavish family a judgment in the amount of N.I.S. 90 million ($20 million). Following an attack on their home which left four members of the household, including both parents, dead, six children brought suit in May 2002. Concerning its rationale for awarding the Gavish family punitive damages, the District Court wrote:
: "With no need to elaborate, I believe, that the current case is appropriate for awarding punitive compensation against the defendant. The sinful act of murder justifies such an award. It is a terrorist action, which was done with intent and full awareness to cause the death of the victims and the damage to their families, since there is no other explanation for this act. Behind the act is a pure hatred that brought about the death of the decedents and a very difficult and traumatic experience upon the plaintiffs - their survivors."[http://imra.org.il/story.php3?id=28444]
==List of notable Hamas members==
* [[Gaza Strip]]
** [[Sheikh Ahmed Yassin]] - spiritual leader and founder of Hamas ([http://www.guardian.co.uk/flash/0,5860,1175454,00.html assassinated by Israeli military operation], 2004)
** [[Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi|Dr. Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi]] - leader in Gaza ([http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/F6718419-88F8-48D0-A3F1-2E4A4F2817AC.htm assassinated by Israeli military operation], 2004)
** [[Ibrahim al-Makadmeh]] - co founder of Hamas ([http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2003/629/re2.htm assassinated by Israeli military operation], 2003)
** [[Mahmoud al-Zahar]] - "political wing"
** [[Ismail Haniya]] - "political wing"
** [[Sa'id A-Siyam]] - "political wing"
** [[Ismail Abu Shanab]] - "political wing" ([http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A29070-2003Aug21&notFound=true assassinated by Israeli military operation], 2003)
** [[Salah Shahade]] - leader of "military wing" ([http://www.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/meast/07/22/mideast/ assassinated by Israeli military operation], 2002)
** [[Mohammed Deif]] - leader of "military wing"
** [[Adnan al-Ghoul]] - chief explosives expert in Gaza and "father of the [[Qassam rocket]]"[http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=worldNews&storyID=6580807]([http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull&cid=1098331916230 assassinated by Israeli military operation], 2004)
** [[Umm Nidal]] - "the mother of martyrs"
* [[West Bank]]
** [[Mohammad Taha]] - co founder of Hamas (arrested by Israel, March 2003)
** [[Members of Hamas called Qawasameh|Qawasameh clan]] in [[Hebron]] - provided local leaders and suicide bombers to Hamas (some members killed by Israeli military operations, one arrested, 2002-2003)
** [[Yahya Ayyash]] - the "Muhandees", a senior [[bomb]]-maker (assassinated by Israeli military operation, 1996)
** [[Muhammad Abu Tir]] - "political wing" senior leader
* Arab and Muslim countries
** [[Khaled Mashal]] - leader of Hamas, based in [[Damascus]].
** [[Mousa Abu Marzuk]] - Hamas senior, Damascus, believed to have fled [[Syria]] in September 2004.
** [[Izz El-Deen Sheikh Khalil]] - Hamas mid-level, "military wing" (according to Israel) Damascus (assassinated by Israeli military operation, 2004)
<!-- list is now sorted according to Israel's hierarchy, but there is a mess: (1) because some leaders were killed and than replaced by less senior leaders. (2) because it is difficult to compare the Gaza leadership to the Damascus leadership. -->
== See also ==
* [[wikisource:Hamas Covenant|Hamas Covenant]]
* [[Hamastan]]
* [[Holy Land Foundation]]
* [[Sheikh Ahmed Yassin]]
* [[Qassam rocket]]
* [[Members of Hamas called Qawasameh]]
* [[Palestinian political violence]]
* [[PLO and Hamas]]
==Notes and references==
<references/>
*Kushner, Harvey W. (2002). ''Encyclopedia of Terrorism''. Sage Publications. ISBN 0761924086
==External links==
*[http://www.hamasonline.org/indexx.php?page=hamas Hamas official website (not updated since 2004)]
*[http://72.14.207.104/search?q=cache:btFiPAkN71kJ:www.alqassam.com/arabic/%20&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=1 Hamas military wing web site]
*[http://www.palestine-info.info/arabic/hamas/ Website for the study of the ideas of Hamas, not the official website.] In Arabic.
*[http://www.pmw.org.il/tv-hamas.htm Hamas in its own words]
*[http://www.palestine-info.co.uk/am/publish/ "The Palestinian Information Center"] Mideast news from the Hamas point of view. In English.
*[http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/Excluded/Hamasbooks.htm Books on Hamas]
*[http://ict.org.il/organizations/orgdet.cfm?orgid=13 Hamas] at the [http://ict.org.il/ The Institute for Counter-Terrorism] at the Interdisciplinary Center Herzliya, Israel
*[http://www1.idf.il/DOVER/site/mainpage.asp?sl=EN&id=7&docid=30286.EN The Hamas organization is responsible for more than 425 terror attacks in Israel from November 6, 2000 to April 17, 2004] at [[IDF]]
*[http://www.memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=subjects&Area=conflict&ID=SP42602 Suicide Bomber's Father: Let Hamas and Jihad Leaders Send Their Own Sons] a letter to the editor of the London Arabic-language daily Al-Hayat. October 8, 2002
*[http://www.adl.org/main_israel/hamas_facts.htm Hamas Fact Sheet] and [http://www.adl.org/main_israel/hamas_own_words.htm Hamas in Their Own Words] at [[Anti-Defamation League|ADL]]
*[http://cfrterrorism.org/groups/hamas.html Hamas] at [[Council on Foreign Relations]], October 2005
*[http://abcnews.go.com/International/print?id=79201 Frequently Asked Questions About Hamas] at ''[[ABC News]]''
*[http://www.defenddemocracy.org/in_the_media/in_the_media_show.htm?doc_id=274430 Springtime for Hamas] by Diane West at ''The Jewish World Review'', April 22, 2005
*[http://www.defenddemocracy.org/research_topics/research_topics_show.htm?doc_id=275458&attrib_id=7777 Hamas vs. America] by [[Daniel Pipes]]. Published in ''[[The New York Sun]]'' on May 3, 2005
*[http://www.intelligence.org.il/eng/eng_n/isa.htm Hamas terrorist infrastructures in the regions of Hebron and Ramallah exposed by The Israel Security Agency], October 12, 2005
*[http://www.nationalreview.com/script/printpage.p?ref=/comment/ottolenghi200601261002.asp Hamas Without Veils. No more hiding behind the PA] by Emanuele Ottolenghi in ''[[National Review Online]]'', January 26, 2006
*[http://www.socialistworld.net/eng/2006/01/29hamas.html Political earthquake strikes as Hamas wins landslide] by Kevin Simpson on [[Committee for a Workers' International|CWI]] Website, January 29, 2006
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4661066.stm BBC: Hamas urges EU not to end funding]
*[http://users.skynet.be/diab/Europe/Hamas.htm The EU's new Palestine dilemma by Khaled Diab]
*[http://www.obelus.org/index.php?artID=18 Checkmate: the Hamas victory]
*[http://www.axisglobe.com/article.asp?article=642 Russia is Ready for Dialogue With HAMAS]
*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/02/03/AR2006020302605_pf.html Give Hamas Nothing for Free] by [[Dennis Ross]]. (''[[The Washington Post]]'', p. B07. February 5, 2006)
*[http://www.historyguy.com/hamas.html Description and historical information on Hamas (Harakat al-Muqawama al-Islamiyya, or Islamic Resistance Movement.]
[[Category:Hamas|National Liberation Movements]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>History of the graphical user interface</title>
<id>13914</id>
<revision>
<id>40845409</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T11:00:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kcordina</username>
<id>643099</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/195.194.168.80|195.194.168.80]] to last version by Kcordina</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{History of computing}}
The '''[[graphical user interface]]''', or '''"GUI"''' (pronounced ''"gooey"''), is a computer interface that uses graphic icons and controls in addition to text. The user of the computer utilizes a [[pointing device]], like a mouse, to manipulate these icons and controls. This is considerably different from the [[command line interface]] in which the user types a series of text commands to the computer.
== Initial Developments ==
The first concept of a windowing system begins with the first real-time graphic display systems for computers, namely the [[SAGE Project]] and [[Ivan Sutherland]]'s [[Sketchpad]].
== Augmentation of Human Intellect (NLS) ==
[[Image:On_Line_System_FJCC_1968.jpg|thumb|[[NLS (computer system)|On-Line System]] (1968)]]
[[Doug Engelbart]]'s [[Augmentation of Human Intellect]] project at [[Stanford Research Institute|SRI]] in the [[1960s]] developed the [[NLS (computer system)|On-Line System]] (NLS), which incorporated a mouse-driven cursor and multiple windows. Engelbart had been inspired, in part, by the [[memex]] desk based information machine suggested by [[Vannevar Bush]] in 1945. |
qual with [[Moses]]. “At times Aaron, and at other times [[Moses]], is mentioned first in Scripture—this is to show that they were of equal rank,” says Mekilta בא, 1; and [[Ecclesiasticus]] ([[Sirach]]), 44:6-24, expressly infers this when introducing in his record of renowned men the glowing description of Aaron’s ministration.
==[[Moses]] and Aaron compared==
According to Tanḥuma (ed. Buber, 2:12), Aaron’s activity as a prophet began earlier than that of [[Moses]]. The writer of the Testaments of the Patriarchs, however, hesitates to rank [[Moses]] the faithful, “him that speaks with [[God]] as with a father,” as equal with Aaron (Testament of [[Levi]], 8:17). The rabbis are still more emphatic in their praise of Aaron’s virtues. Thus Hillel, who in Herod’s time saw before him mainly a degenerate class of priests, selfish and quarrelsome, held Aaron of old up as a mirror, saying: “Be of the disciples of Aaron, loving peace and pursuing peace; love your fellow creatures and draw them nigh unto the Law!” (Abot, 1:12). This is further illustrated by the tradition preserved in Abot de-Rabbi Natan 12, Sanhedrin 6b, and elsewhere, according to which Aaron was an ideal priest of the people, far more beloved for his kindly ways than was [[Moses]]. While [[Moses]] was stern and uncompromising, brooking no wrong, Aaron went about as peacemaker, reconciling man and wife when he saw them estranged, or a man with his neighbor when they quarreled, and winning evil-doers back into the right way by his friendly intercourse. The mourning of the people at Aaron’s death was greater, therefore, than at that of [[Moses]]; for whereas, when Aaron died the whole house of Israel wept, including the women ([[Numbers]] 20:29), [[Moses]] was bewailed by “the sons of Israel” only ([[Deuteronomy]] 34:8). Even in the making of the Golden Calf the rabbis find extenuating circumstances for Aaron (Sanhedrin 7a). His fortitude and silent submission to the will of [[God]] on the loss of his two sons are referred to as an excellent example to men how to glorify [[God]] in the midst of great affliction (Zebaḥim 115b; [[Josephus]], “[[Antiquities of the Jews]]” 3:8, § 7). Especially significant are the words represented as being spoken by [[God]] after the princes of the [[Twelve Tribes]] had brought their dedication offerings into the newly reared Tabernacle: “Say to thy brother Aaron: Greater than the gifts of the princes is thy gift; for thou art called upon to kindle the light, and, while the sacrifices shall last only as long as the Temple lasts, thy light of the Law shall last forever” (Tanḥuma, ed. Buber, בהעלותך, 6).
==Death of Aaron==
In fulfillment of the promise of peaceful life, symbolized by the pouring of oil upon his head ([[Leviticus]] Rabbah 10, Midrash Tehilim 133:1), Aaron’s death, as described in the Haggadah, was of a wonderful tranquillity. Accompanied by [[Moses]], his brother, and by [[Eleazar]], his son, Aaron went to the summit of [[Mount Hor]], where the rock suddenly opened before him and a beautiful cave lit by a lamp presented itself to his view. “Take off thy priestly raiment and place it upon thy son [[Eleazar]]!” said [[Moses]]; “and then follow me.” Aaron did as commanded; and they entered the cave, where was prepared a bed around which angels stood. “Go lie down upon thy bed, my brother,” [[Moses]] continued; and Aaron obeyed without a murmur. Then his soul departed as if by a kiss from [[God]]. The cave closed behind [[Moses]] as he left; and he went down the hill with [[Eleazar]], with garments rent, and crying: “Alas, Aaron, my brother! thou, the pillar of supplication of Israel!” When the Israelites cried in bewilderment, “Where is Aaron?” angels were seen carrying Aaron’s bier through the air. A voice was then heard saying: “The law of truth was in his mouth, and iniquity was not found on his lips: he walked with me in righteousness, and brought many back from sin” ([[Malachi]] 2:6, 7). He died, according to Seder ‘Olam R. 9, Rosh ha-Shanah 2, 3a, and [[Josephus]], “[[Antiquities of the Jews]]” 4:4, § 7, on the first of Ab. [[Josephus]] says also that “he died while the multitude looked upon him.” The pillar of cloud which proceeded in front of Israel’s camp disappeared at Aaron’s death (see Seder ‘Olam, 9 and Rosh ha-Shanah 2b-3a). The seeming contradiction between [[Numbers]] 20:22 ''et seq.'' and [[Deuteronomy]] 10:6 is solved by the rabbis in the following manner: Aaron’s death on [[Mount Hor]] was marked by the defeat of the people in a war with the king of Arad, in consequence of which the Israelites fled, marching seven stations backward to [[Moseroth|Mosera]], where they performed the rites of mourning for Aaron; wherefore it is said: “There [at [[Moseroth|Mosera]]] died Aaron.” See Mekilta, Beshallaḥ, Wayassa’, 1; Tanḥuma, Huḳḳat, 18; Yerushalmi Soṭah, 1:17c, and Targum Yerushalmi [[Numbers]] and [[Deuteronomy]] on the above-mentioned passages.
The rabbis also dwell with special laudation on the brotherly sentiment which united Aaron and [[Moses]]. When the latter was appointed ruler and Aaron high priest, neither betrayed any jealousy; instead they rejoiced in one another’s greatness. When [[Moses]] at first declined to go to [[Pharaoh]], saying: “O my Lord, send, I pray thee, by the hand of him whom thou wilt send” ([[Exodus]] 4:13), he was unwilling to deprive Aaron, his brother, of the high position the latter had held for so many years; but [[the Lord]] reassured him, saying: “Behold, when he seeth thee, he will be glad in his heart” ([[Exodus]] 4:14). Indeed, Aaron was to find his reward, says Simon ben Yoḥai; for that heart which had leaped with joy over his younger brother’s rise to glory greater than his was decorated with the Urim and Thummim, which were to “be upon Aaron’s heart when he goeth in before [[the Lord]]” (Canticles Rabbah 1:10). [[Moses]] and Aaron met in gladness of heart, kissing each other as true brothers ([[Exodus]] 4:27; compare [[Song of Songs]], 8:1), and of them it is written: “Behold how good and how pleasant [it is] for brethren to dwell together in unity!” ([[Psalms]] 133:1). Of them it is said ([[Psalms]] 85:10): “Mercy and truth are met together; righteousness and peace have kissed [each other]”; for [[Moses]] stood for righteousness, according to [[Deuteronomy]] 33:21, and Aaron for peace, according to [[Malachi]] 2:6. Again, mercy was personified in Aaron, according to [[Deuteronomy]] 33:8, and truth in [[Moses]], according to [[Numbers]] 12:7 (Tanḥuma, Shemot, ed. Buber, 24-26).
When [[Moses]] poured the oil of anointment upon the head of Aaron, Aaron modestly shrank back and said: “Who knows whether I have not cast some blemish upon this sacred oil so as to forfeit this high office.” Then the Holy Spirit spake the words: “Behold the precious ointment upon the head, that ran down upon the beard of Aaron, that even went down to the skirts of his garment, is as pure as the dew of [[Hermon]]” ([[Psalms]] 133:2, 3, ''Heb''.; Sifra, Shemini, Milluim; Tanḥuma, [[Korah]], ed. Buber, 14).
==Genetics==
Recently, the tradition that [[Kohanim]] are actually descended from Aaron was supported by [[genetic testing]] (Skorecki et al., 1997). Since all direct male lineage shares a common [[Y chromosome]], testing was done across sectors of the Jewish population to see if there was any commonality between their Y chromosomes. There was proven to be certain distinctions among the [[Cohen modal haplotype]], implying that the Kohanim do share some common ancestry. This information was used to support the claim of the [[Lemba]] (a [[sub-Saharan]] tribe) that they were in fact, a tribe of Jews.
==According to the documentary hypothesis==
The Biblical representation of his character, negative and shadowy compared with Moses's, may be viewed in several ways. A clue to the seemingly contradictory delineations of Aaron (other than the obvious explanation that he is a complex character) is found in the framework of documentary analysis (see also ''[[Hexateuch]]''), which is accepted by some but not all scholars. According to those who accept the [[documentary hypothesis]], the following portions of text belong to (1) [[Elohist|E]], (2) [[Jahwist|J]], (3) [[Deuteronomist|D]], and (4) [[Priestly source|P]] sources, respectively, with the fifth item being from ''[[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]]''.
#'''Aaron as fallible'''. These passages do not represent Aaron as a sacrosanct [[priest]]. He comes to meet Moses (''Exodus'' 4:14), supports him in war (Exodus 17:12) and jurisprudence (Exodus 24:14). He yields to the people and makes the [[Golden Calf|calf]] (Exodus 32), and, with [[Miriam]], [[Snow-white Miriam|criticises Moses]] for marrying a [[Cush]]ite woman. Miriam is subsequently punished (''Numbers'' 12). He is present at the sacrificial covenant meal between [[Israel]] and the [[Kenite]]s (Exodus 18:12). In this aspect, [[Joshua]], instead of Aaron, serves in the Tent (Exodus 33:11).
#'''Aaron as Moses's prophet'''. This representation concerns the covenant meal on [[Sinai]] (Exodus 24:1, 2, 9-11) and the vague charge that Aaron "let the people loose" (Exodus 32:25). Aaron seems to be an afterthought in the plague narrative (Exodus 8:25). In both this and the last view, Moses is the viceregent of God and Aaron is Moses' prophet (Exodus 4:16, 7:1).
#'''Aaron as idolatrous'''. In ''[[Deuteronomy]]'' 9, Aaron is partly responsible for the building of the [[Golden Calf]]. The story says that [[Yahweh]] is so angry toward Aaron that he was about to destroy him. It appears that it is only Moses's intercessory prayer and his destruction of the Golden Calf which saves Aaron. The account of his death in Deuteromy 10:6 is different from that in Numbers 20:22. According to Deuteronomy it occurred at [[Moseroth|Moserah]], seven stations from [[Mount Hor]] (Numbers 33:30), in the early months of the wandering because of the sign of the Golden Calf. The only other passage in referenc |
ogist|school psychologists]]. Educational psychology is concerned with the processes of educational attainment among the general population and sub-populations such as [[gifted]] children and those subject to specific [[disabilities]].
Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by [[psychology]], bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between [[medicine]] and [[biology]]. Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialities within educational studies, including [[instructional design]], [[educational technology]], curriculum development, [[organizational learning]], [[special education]] and [[classroom management]]. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to [[cognitive science]] and the [[learning sciences]]. In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks (Lucas, Blazek, & Raley, 2005).
== Formal education ==
Formal education occurs when society or a group or an individual sets up a [[curriculum]] to educate people, usually the young. Formal education can become systematic and thorough. Formal education systems can be used to promote doctrines or ideals as well as knowledge and this can sometimes lead to abuse of the system.
Life-long or [[adult education]] has become widespread in many countries. However, education is still seen by many as something aimed at children, and adult education is often branded as ''adult learning'' or ''lifelong learning''.
Adult education takes on many forms from formal class-based learning to self-directed learning. Lending [[Library|libraries]] provide inexpensive informal access to books and other self-instructional materials. Many adults have also taken advantage of the rise in computer ownership and internet access to further their informal education.
== Technology ==
{{main|Educational technology}}
Inexpensive [[technology]] is an increasingly influential factor in education. [[Computers]] and mobile phones are being widely used in developed countries to both complement established education practices and develop new ways of learning such as [[online education]] (a type of distance education). This gives students discretion in what they are interested in learning. The proliferation of computers also means the increase of programming and blogging. Technology clearly offers powerful learning tools that can engage students.
== History ==
In 1994, [[Dieter Lenzen]], president of the [[Freie Universität Berlin]], said "education began either millions of years ago or at the end of [[1770]]". This quote by Lenzen includes the idea that education as a science cannot be separated from the educational traditions that existed before. The first chair of [[pedagogy]] was founded at the end of the [[1770s]] at the [[University of Halle]], [[Germany]].
Education was the natural response of early civilizations to the struggle of surviving and thriving as a culture. Adults trained the young of their society in the knowledge and skills they would need to master and eventually pass on. The evolution of culture, and human beings as a species depended on this practice of transmitting knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation. Story-telling continued from one generation to the next. Oral language developed into written symbols and letters. The depth and breadth of knowledge that could be preserved and passed soon increased exponentially.
When cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond the basic skills of communicating, trading, gathering food, religious practices, etc, formal education, and schooling, eventually followed. Schooling in this sense was already in place in Egypt between 3000 and 500BC.
[[Basic education]] today is considered those skills that are necessary to function in society.
=== Europe ===
In the West, the origins of education were heavily influenced by the specific organized religion: [[priest]]s and [[monk]]s realised the importance of promoting positive virtues in the young and founded, maintained, and staffed [[school]] systems. In [[Europe]], many of the first [[universities]] have [[Catholic]] roots. Following the [[Reformation]] in [[Scotland]] the newly established national [[Church of Scotland]] set out a programme for spiritual reform in January [[1561]] setting the principle of a schoolteacher for every parish church and free education for the poor. In 1633 an Act of the [[Parliament of Scotland]] introduced a tax to pay for this programme, and by the end of the [[17th century]] [[education in Scotland]] brought [[literacy]] to much of the population, with the system being used by all except the nobility. In the german language area there are two words for education: Bildung (which means cultivation, formation and creation) and Erziehung (which means breeding and instructing).
During and following the [[Age of Enlightenment]] people largely forgot the relationship between religion and education. [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] fuelled an influential early-[[Romanticism]] reaction to formalised religion-based education at a time when the concept of [[childhood]] had started to become popular as a distinct aspect of [[child development|human development]].
The [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]]'s [[Commission of National Education]] (Polish: ''Komisja Edukacji Narodowej'', Lithuanian: ''Nacionaline Edukacine Komisija'') formed in [[1773]] counts as the first [[Ministry of Education]] in the history of mankind.
Conventional social history narrates how by about the beginning of the [[19th century]] the [[industrial revolution]] a demand for masses of disciplined, inter-changeable [[worker]]s possessing minimal literacy became commonplace. In these circumstances, the [[state]] began to mandate and dictate attendance at standardised schools with a state-ordained curriculum. The general and [[vocational education]] paths of the [[20th century]] soon emerged. With increasing economic specialisation demanding increasingly specialised [[skill]]s from a population, children spent longer periods in formal education before entering or while engaged in the [[workforce]].
=== China ===
Education in China began with the Chinese classic texts, rather than organized religion. The early Chinese state depended upon literate, educated officials for operation of the empire, and an [[imperial examination|imperial examination system]] was established in the [[Han Dynasty]] (206 BC-220) for evaluating and selecting officials. This merit-based system gave rise to schools that taught the classics and continued in use for 2,000 years, until the end the [[Qing Dynasty]], and was abolished in [[1911]] in favour of Western education methods.
=== Japan ===
{{main|History of education in Japan}}
The origins of education in [[Japan]] are closely related to [[religion]]. Schooling was conducted at [[Shaolin|temples]] for youngsters who wanted to study [[Buddhism]] to become [[priest]]s. Later, children who were willing to study started to meet at places called, "Tera-koya" (literally meaning temple huts) and learned how to read and write [[Japanese language|Japanese]].
=== India ===
{{main|Education in India}}
India has a long history of organized education. The [[Gurukul]] system of education is one of the oldest on earth, and was dedicated to the highest ideals of all-round human development: physical, mental and spiritual. Gurukuls were traditional Hindu residential schools of learning; typically the teacher's house or a monastery. Education was free, but students from well-to-do families payed Gurudakshina, a voluntary contribution after the completion of their studies. At the Gurukuls, the teacher imparted knowledge of Religion, Scriptures, [[Hindu Philosophy|Philosophy]], [[Sanskrit Literature|Literature]], Warfare, Statecraft, [[Ayurveda|Medicine]] Astrology and History (the Sanskrit word "[[Itihaas]]" means History). The first millennium and the few centuries preceding it saw the flourishing of higher education at [[Nalanda]], [[Takshashila University]], [[Ujjain]], & [[Vikramshila]] Universities. Art, Architecture, Painting, Logic, Grammar, Philosophy, Astronomy, Literature, [[Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]], [[Arthashastra]] (Economics & Politics), Law, and Medicine were among the subjects taught and each university specialized in a particular field of study. Takshila specialized in the study of medicine, while Ujjain laid emphasis on astronomy. Nalanda, being the biggest centre, handled all branches of knowledge, and housed up to 10,000 students at its peak. [http://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/t_es/t_es_goyal_education.htm British records] show that education was widespread in the 18th century, with a school for every temple, mosque or village in most regions of the country. The subjects taught included Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Theology, Law, Astronomy, Metaphysics, Ethics, Medical Science and Religion. The schools were attended by students representative of all classes of society. The current system of education, with its western style and content, was introduced & funded by the British in the 20th century, following recommendations by Macaulay. Traditional structures were not recognized by the British govt and have been on the decline since. [[Mahatma Gandhi|Gandhi]] is said to have described the traditional educational system as a beautiful tree that was destroyed during the British rule.
=== Recent world-wide trends ===
Overall, [[illiteracy]] has greatly decreased in recent years.
Illiteracy and the percentage of populations without any schooling have decreased in the past several decades. For example, the percentage of population without any schooling |
Finland.
Many Whites feared that the Russian troops would take the side of the Reds. The Russian Bolshevik government now also expressed support for the Reds, despite their official recognition of Finland's independence only three weeks before, because they wanted the Communist [[World Revolution]] to continue in Finland.
[[Image:Tampere war victims 1918.jpg|thumb|270px|'''Unburied bodies''' – outcome of the Battle of Tampere]]
The White side was dominated by [[middle class]] "activists" &mdash; members of Finland's pro-German independence movement. As far as they were concerned, close contact with communist Russia was tantamount to forfeiture of the recently won independence. They were also influenced by [[Germany|German]] interests, because Germany had secretly given assistance, including the volunteer [[Finnish Jäger troops|"Jäger" troops ''(Jääkärit)'']] that had been secretly trained in Germany during [[the Great War]].
The Whites regrouped in the northern and central parts of the country, under the political leadership of the initially absent president of the Senate [[Pehr Evind Svinhufvud]] and the military command of [[Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim|Mannerheim]].
Initially, both sides of the conflict would agree to [[rules of engagement]]. The turning point was the [[Suinula massacre]] early in the war. A troop of White Guard men had managed to escape from Red-controlled Tampere on [[January 1]]. They captured the Aitolahti people's hall in nearby Suinula the following day. A Red detachment was sent from Tampere, and this detachment of 300 riflemen quickly overpowered the Whites and imprisoned them, with promises not to harm them. However, a backup force of 200 was sent from Tampere, and their leader Hyrskymurto had given the order not to take prisoners. When they arrived a Russian trooper hit one of the prisoners with a sword, prompting Hyrskymurto gave the order to shoot the captures troops. Only 15 men escaped alive, out of which only 5 made it all the way back to White territory. After this incident the Whites took revenge with similar shootings, and escalation of violence leading to massacre and terrorism began.
The Reds' situation in the south worsened after the arrival of [[Finnish Jäger troops|White Jäger troops]] on [[February 25]] and the subsequent withdrawal of Russian forces according to the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] ([[March 3]], [[1918]]).
White forces launced a counterattack in "The Tampere Operation" on [[March 15]], lasting until [[April 6]] when they captured [[Tampere]] seizing 10,000 Red prisoners. This was a determining factor indicating that the Civil War might be won by the Whites, as it meant a strategically important bridge-head was taken.
On [[April 3]], German troops landed at [[Hanko]] in support of the Whites, advanced rapidly eastward and took Helsinki on [[April 13]]. This was followed by another Red defeat at [[Vyborg|Viipuri]] on [[April 28]]-[[April 29|29]], and the last Red strongholds fell by [[May 7]].
== Outcome ==
{| border=1 cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" style="text-align: right;"
|-
! colspan="5" style="background-color: #cfcfcf; text-align: center;" | Lives Lost
|- style="background-color: #dfdfdf;"
! style="text-align: left;" | Reason !! Reds !! Whites !! Other !! Total
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | Killed in action
| 5,199
| 3,414
| 790
| 9,403
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | Executed, shot or murdered
| 7,370
| 1,424
| 926
| 9,720
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | Concentration Camp deaths
| 11,652
| 4
| 1,790
| 13,446
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | Died after release from camp
| 607
| -
| 6
| 613
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | Missing
| 1,767
| 46
| 380
| 2,193
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | Other causes
| 443
| 291
| 531
| 1,265
|-
! style="text-align: left;" | Total
! 27,038
! 5,179
! 4,423
! 36,640
|-
| colspan=5 style="text-align: left;" | <small>''Source: [http://vesta.narc.fi/cgi-bin/db2www/sotasurmaetusivu/stat2 National Archive]''</small>
|}
[[Image:Civil War Prison Camp in Helsinki.gif|thumb|270px|'''Prisoner Camp in Suomenlinna, Helsinki'''. More than eleven thousand people died in such camps due to hunger, disease, and executions.]]
The civil war had ended, but it left Finnish society divided into two groups. A "Red terror" campaign against the right wing was followed by a "White terror" against supporters of the revolutionary movement. Disease, hunger, and maltreatment killed thousands detained in [[concentration camp]]s. The conflict and its immediate aftermath are believed to have killed more than 30,000 out of a population of three million.
In addition, an unknown number of Red children were orphaned or sent into foster care as their parents were either interned (there were as many as 75,000 Red internees) or deemed unfit to raise patriotic children for an independent Finland.
Many Red children suffered from the social stigma of being representatives of the defeated treacherous proletariat. These feelings were especially strong in the children that were separated from their parents.
A large number of Finnish Reds fled to Russia at the end of the Civil War and in the years shortly thereafter. Most of them were lost in [[Stalin]]'s [[Great Purges]]. The exact number is unknown.
While the Whites celebrated the "War of Independence" against Russia and Bolshevism, the Left refused for many years to participate in commemorations of Finland's pre-Civil War independence. The Communist Party was outlawed in [[1923]] and [[1930]], while the Social Democrats remained in opposition for most of the inter-war period. Svinhufvud became president ([[1931]]-[[1937]]) on a platform of keeping Social Democrats out of the Cabinet.
Finland, the first Nordic (and European) country to adopt true [[universal suffrage]] became the last to adopt [[parliamentarism]].
The Civil War and pre-war polarization lead (directly and indirectly) to Finland developing a mentality more like 19th century Prussia, with the military forces and conservative ideologies having earned great prestige for their success. This was highly unlike other Scandinavian countries where popular movements and liberal ideologies had won modern democracy.
The polarization would remain in Finland for a long time, and would put its clear mark on Finland's foreign policies. Consensus was established for the major goal, namely Finland's maximal independence, but Finland's foreign affiliations changed frequently: Imperial Germany in [[1918]], then the victorious [[Entente]], to [[Poland]] ([[1922]]), then the [[League of Nations]], again towards Germany (from [[1931]]), Scandinavia ([[1934]]), demonstrably against [[Nazi]] Germany ([[1937]]), intense courting of Nazi Germany (in [[1940]]), and finally involuntary but necessary accommodation to the [[Soviet Union]] after [[1944]] balanced by intensified Scandinavian relations.
Another legacy of the Civil War was an anti-democratic and anti-parliamentarian current which remained in public opinion and was particularly popular [[Academic Karelia Society|among academic youth]] until the end of the [[Continuation War]] when such utterances became dangerous. One further result was the [[Lapua Movement]] of the late [[1920s]], which was a reaction to the increased popularity and threatening influence of "Socialists" (reformist Social Democrats). However, after the Lapua Movement's failed ''[[coup d'état]]'' in [[1932]], the anti-parliamentarians lost much of their popularity and could no longer dominate: neither in any major political party, nor in the public debate.
Before the Civil War, the Scandinavian countries had been the first to recognize Finland's independence. After the Civil War relations cooled -- mutually. When Finland, in the mid-[[1930s]], again oriented towards Scandinavia, the reception was less enthusiastic than the Finns had expected and ultimately Finland had to fight the [[Winter War]] on her own. Bitter debate followed: was this coolness typical of the Scandinavian countries, or was it an unfortunate consequence of the impression the nations had gained from Finland's Civil War and its aftermath?
== See also ==
{{Commons|Category:Finnish Civil War}}
* [[Winter War]]
* [[Continuation War]]
* [[Finnish War]]
* [[History of Finland]]
* [[List of Finnish wars]]
* [[Lotta Svärd]]
* [[Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim]]
[[Category:Civil wars]]
[[Category:Wars of Finland|Civil War]]
[[de:Finnischer Bürgerkrieg]]
[[nn:Den finske borgarkrigen]]
[[fi:Suomen sisällissota]]
{{Link FA|fi}}
[[sv:Finska inbördeskriget]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Flynn effect</title>
<id>11773</id>
<revision>
<id>39580532</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T12:27:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate from {{journal reference}} to {{cite journal}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Flynn effect''' is the continued year-on-year rise of [[IQ]] test scores, an effect seen in most parts of the world, although at greatly varying rates. It is named after [[New Zealand]] [[political scientist]] [[James R. Flynn]], its discoverer. The average rate of rise seems to be around three IQ points per decade. Attempted explanations have included improved nutrition, a trend towards smaller families, better education, greater environmental complexity, and [[heterosis]] (Mingroni, 2004).
The Flynn effect is a perplexing phenomenon for those who believe that IQ tests represent a true measure of human [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]], as it would suggest that people today are in general considerably more intelligent than tho |
391,335 for an average of 6,632 per game).
Selig was denied an expansion franchise at the 1968 owners meetings, and turned his efforts toward purchasing and relocating an existing club. His search began close to home, with the White Sox themselves. According to Selig, he had a handshake agreement with Arthur Allyn in early 1969 to purchase a majority stake in the Pale Hose and move them north to the Cream City. The American League, however, blocked the sale, unwilling to give up its presence in the a major city. Allyn instead sold his shares to his brother John, who agreed to stay in Chicago. Selig would go on to buy the [[Seattle Pilots]] and move them to Milwaukee instead.
The Sox had a brief resurgence in [[1972 in baseball|1972]], with slugger [[Dick Allen]] winning the MVP award; but injuries, especially to popular third baseman [[Bill Melton]], took their toll and the team finished 5 1/2 games behind Oakland, the eventual world champion.
==="South Side Hit Men"===
On December 10, [[1975 in baseball|1975]], Veeck regained ownership of the team, and vowed to make the Sox an exciting team again. But the [[1976 in baseball|1976]] team was one of the worst White Sox teams ever fielded, winning only 64 games (.398), drawing fewer than 915,000 fans, and ridiculed for wearing uniforms which featured shorts. Things were about to change, however, as the [[1977 in baseball|1977]] team gave 1,657,135 fans (at the time, an all-time Chicago baseball attendance record) much to cheer about. Veeck, unable to shell out money for huge, long-term contracts, adopted a "rent a player" strategy &ndash; trading for players in the last year of their contracts. The 1977 team featured new faces [[Richie Zisk]], [[Oscar Gamble]], and [[Eric Soderholm]], and by the end of July, the team was 24 games over .500 and 5 1/2 games ahead of the [[Kansas City Royals]]. Team organist [[Nancy Faust]] riled the opponents with her version of "[[Na Na Hey Hey (Kiss Him Goodbye)]]" after White Sox home runs and opponent pitching changes; despite complaints by the opposition, Faust continues the tradition to this day. Fans were also entertained by announcer [[Harry Caray]]'s seventh-inning stretch renditions of "[[Take Me Out to the Ball Game]]" (a tradition which, contrary to popular belief, did not originate at [[Wrigley Field]] when Caray joined the crosstown Cubs in 1982). A 4-12 stretch in early August, and a club-record 16-game winning streak by the Royals, left the White Sox in third place by the end of the season with a 90-72 record.[[Image:whitesox7690.gif|frame|Chicago White Sox logo from 1976-1990]]
After the end of the 1977 season, free agents Gamble and Zisk signed with other teams. Veeck's attempt to replace them with [[Bobby Bonds]] and [[Ron Blomberg]] fizzled as the [[1978 in baseball|1978]] team lost 90 games. After 87 losses in [[1979 in baseball|1979]] (including the infamous July 12, 1979 forfeit on [[Disco Demolition Night]]) and 90 losses in [[1980 in baseball|1980]], Veeck sold the team to an ownership group headed by [[Jerry Reinsdorf]] and [[Eddie Einhorn]] after his earlier attempt to sell the team to Ohio real estate tycoon [[Edward J. DeBartolo, Sr.|Ed DeBartolo]] was rejected by other American League owners. The new owners moved quickly to show that they were committed to winning by signing All-Star catcher [[Carlton Fisk]] from the [[Boston Red Sox]] during the 1980-81 offseason. They also retained the club's young, relatively unknown manager [[Tony La Russa]]. Rather than focusing on announcers Caray and [[Jimmy Piersall]], or the threat of the team moving to [[Denver, Colorado|Denver]], the focus would be the team on the field. It was a sign of good things to come for the White Sox.
==="Winning Ugly"===
In [[1983 in baseball|1983]], the White Sox enjoyed their best success in a generation. Despite great expectations, at the All-Star Break the White Sox were only one game over .500, at 39-38. After the break, they went on a tear, going 60-25 to win 99 games and the AL West title. The White Sox were led by catcher [[Carlton Fisk]], outfielder [[Harold Baines]], eventual Rookie of the Year outfielder [[Ron Kittle]], designated hitter [[Greg Luzinski]], and pitchers [[LaMarr Hoyt]] (who won the [[Cy Young Award|Cy Young]] that year), [[Britt Burns]], [[Floyd Bannister]], and [[Richard Dotson]]. Manager Tony La Russa also won the Manager of the Year award in his first managerial success.
A catchphrase of the team was "Winning Ugly" for the style of play, which reflected a tendency to win games through scrappy play rather than consistently strong hitting or pitching. That tag was put on them derisively by [[Doug Rader]], then manager of the [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]], but Chicago media and Sox fans picked up on it and turned it into a positive. While they had a great run in the regular season, they were not able to carry that over into the postseason as they lost to a powerful [[Baltimore Orioles]] team 3 games to 1 in the [[American League Championship Series|AL Championship Series]]. Hoyt led the Sox to a 2-1 victory in Game 1, but the Orioles clinched the series with a 3-0 ten-inning victory in Game 4. White Sox pitcher Britt Burns pitched a "gutsy" game, throwing 9 1/3 shutout innings before a home run by [[Tito Landrum]] broke up the game and the hearts of the South Side faithful. (In the 1997 ALCS, Sox fans took some vicarious pleasure when [[Tony Fernandez]] of Cleveland homered in the 11th inning of a scoreless game at Baltimore, knocking the O's out of the playoffs).
The club slid back into mediocrity for the rest of the 1980s, contending only in [[1985 in baseball|1985]]. In 1986, broadcaster-turned-general manager [[Ken Harrelson|Ken "Hawk" Harrelson]] fired La Russa after a poor start. The club wouldn't contend again until 1990, the final year in [[Comiskey Park|Old Comiskey Park]].
===New Comiskey Park/U.S. Cellular Field===
In the late 1980s, the franchise threatened to relocate to [[Tampa Bay Area|Tampa Bay]] (as did the [[San Francisco Giants]]), but frantic lobbying of the part of the Illinois governor and state legislature resulted in approval (by one vote) of public funding for a new stadium. Although designed primarily as a baseball stadium (as opposed to a "multipurpose" stadium) New Comiskey Park (redubbed [[U.S. Cellular Field]] in 2003) was built in a 1960s style similar to [[Dodger Stadium]] and [[Kauffman Stadium]]. It opened in 1991 to positive reviews; many praised its wide open concourses, excellent sight lines, and natural grass (unlike other stadiums of the era such as [[Skydome]] in Toronto.) However, it was quickly overshadowed in the public imagination by the wave of "nostalgia" or "retro" ballparks, beginning with [[Oriole Park at Camden Yards]]. The park's inaugural season drew 2,934,154 fans - at the time, an all-time attendance record for any Chicago baseball team.
Despite a number of innovations in its original construction - including a lower deck concourse that circumscribes the entire stadium, allowing a view of the game from any location - the park was often criticized for its sterile appearance and steep upper deck. In recent years, money accrued from the sale of naming rights to [[U.S. Cellular]] has been allocated for renovations to make the park more aesthetically appealing and fan friendly. Notable renovations of early phases included: re-orientation of the bullpens parallel to the field of play (thus decreasing slightly the formerly symmetrical dimensions of the outfield); filling seats in up to and shortening the outfield wall; ballooning foul-line seat sections out toward the field of play; creating a new multi-tiered batter's eye, allowing fans to see out through one way screens from the center-field vantage point, and complete with concession stand and bar-style seating on its 'fan deck'; renovating all concourse areas with brick, historic murals, and new concession stand ornaments to establish a more friendly feel. The stadium structure was repainted to resemble a pink granite finish on its facade stone, and dark gray and black in its steel and concrete. The scoreboard Jumbotron was also replaced with a new [[Mitsubishi]] Diamondvision HDTV giant screen.
More recently, the top third of the upper deck was removed in 2004 and a black wrought metal roof was placed over it, covering all but the first 8 rows of seats. This decreased seating capacity from 47,000 to 40,615. 2005 also saw the introduction of the Scout Seats, redesignating (and re-upholstering) 200 lower deck seats behind home plate as an exclusive area, with seat-side waitstaff and a complete restaurant located underneath the concourse. The most significant structural addition besides the new roof was 2005's FUNdamentals Deck, a multi-tiered structure on the left field concourse containing batting cages, a small [[tee-ball]] field, and several other child-themed activities intended to entertain and educate young fans. This structure was used during the 2005 playoffs by [[ESPN]] and [[Fox Television]] as a broadcasting platform.
Designed as a 5-phase plan, the renovations will be complete after the 2006 season with the 5th and final phase. The most visible renovation in this final phase will be replacing the original blue seats with green seats. The Upper Deck will have the new green seats at the beginning of the 2006 season.
==="Good Guys Wear Black"===
In anticipation of the move to the new ballpark, the White Sox of the [[1990s]] adopted classic pinstriped uniforms and the occasional use of black jerseys, instantly jumping to the top of the league in merchandise sales. The 1990s teams also contended well, led by first baseman [[Frank Thomas (AL baseball player)|Frank Thomas]], third baseman [[Robin Ventura]], and pitcher [[Jack McDowell]] |
each scanline)
** 8 System timers (2 reserved for LCD timing, one for UART)
**Interrupt controller
**UART (for ComLynx) ( fixed format 8E1, up to 62500Bd)
**512 bytes of bootstrap and game-card loading ROM
*Suzy (16-bit custom CMOS chip running at 16MHz)
**Graphics engine
***Hardware drawing support
***Unlimited number of high-speed sprites with collision detection
***Hardware high-speed sprite scaling, distortion, and tilting effects
***Hardware decoding of compressed sprite data
***Hardware clipping and multi-directional scrolling
***Variable frame rate (up to 75 frames/second)
***160 x 102 standard resolution (16,320 addressable pixels). Capability of 480 x 102 artificially high resolution
**Math co-processor
***Hardware 16-bit multiply and divide (32-bit answer)
***Parallel processing of CPU and a single multiply or a divide instruction
*[[RAM]]: 64Kbyte 120ns [[DRAM]]
*Storage: Cartridge - 128, 256 and 512Kbyte exist, up to 2Mbyte is possible with bank-switching logic.
Some (homebrew) carts with EEPROM to save hi-scores.
*Ports:
**[[Headphone]] port (mini-DIN 3.5mm stereo; wired for mono on the original Lynx)
**ComLynx (multiple unit communications, serial)
*[[LCD]] Screen: 3.5" diagonal
*[[Battery (electricity)|Battery]] holder (six AA) ~4-5 hours
==Screenshots==
<!--
FAIR USE of Atari-lynx-california-games-surfing.png: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Atari-lynx-california-games-surfing.png for rationale.
FAIR USE of Atari-lynx-chips-challenge.png: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Atari-lynx-chips-challenge.png for rationale.
FAIR USE of Atari-lynx-rampart.png: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Atari-lynx-rampart.png for rationale.
FAIR USE of Atari-lynx-shanghai.png: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Atari-lynx-shanghai.png for rationale.
FAIR USE of Atari-lynx-road-blasters.png: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Atari-lynx-road-blasters.png for rationale.
FAIR USE of Atari-lynx-jimmy-connors-tennis.png: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Atari-lynx-jimmy-connors-tennis.png for rationale.
FAIR USE of Atari-lynx-turbo-sub.png: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Atari-lynx-turbo-sub.png for rationale.
-->
<gallery>
Image:Atari-lynx-california-games-surfing.png|''[[California Games]]''<br>[[Epyx]] (1989)
Image:Atari-lynx-chips-challenge.png|''[[Chip's Challenge]]''<br>[[Atari]]/[[Epyx]] (1989)
Image:Atari-lynx-road-blasters.png|''Road Blasters''<br>[[Tengen (company)|Tengen]] (1990)
Image:Atari-lynx-shanghai.png|''[[Shanghai solitaire|Shanghai]]''<br>Mediagenic (1990)
Image:Atari-lynx-turbo-sub.png|''Turbo Sub''<br>[[Atari]] (1991)
Image:Atari-lynx-rampart.png|''[[Rampart (arcade game)|Rampart]]''<br>[[Atari]]/[[Tengen (company)|Tengen]] (1992)
Image:Lynx-steel-talons.png|''Steel Talons''<br>[[Atari]]/[[Tengen (company)|Tengen]] (1992)
Image:Atari-lynx-jimmy-connors-tennis.png|''Jimmy Connors' Tennis''<br>[[Atari]] (1993)
</gallery>
== See also ==
{{dedicated video game handheld consoles}}
*[[List of Atari Lynx games]]
*[[Atari 2600]]
*[[Atari 5200]]
*[[Atari Panther]]
*[[Atari Jaguar]]
*[[Atari Jaguar II]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.ataritimes.com/lynx/index.html Atari Times, Lynx] - Covering the Atari Lynx
* http://dmoz.org/Games/Video_Games/Console_Platforms/Atari/
* [http://www.electric-escape.net/atari/Lynx/FAQ Atari Lynx FAQ]
* [http://www.monlynx.de/lynx/ Information regarding development for the Lynx]
*[http://www.planet-atari.de/ Germany's biggest Atari Fanpage]
*[http://users.forthnet.gr/ath/kosmas1/atarilynx/ Greece's biggest Atari Lynx Fanpage]
[[Category:Handheld game consoles]]
[[Category:Third-generation video game consoles]]
[[Category:Atari consoles|Lynx]]
[[de:Atari Lynx]]
[[es:Atari Lynx]]
[[eo:Atari Lynx]]
[[fr:Lynx (console)]]
[[it:Atari Lynx]]
[[nl:Atari Lynx]]
[[ja:Atari Lynx]]
[[pl:Atari Lynx]]
[[fi:Atari Lynx]]
[[sv:Atari Lynx]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ahimsa</title>
<id>2784</id>
<revision>
<id>42116551</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:54:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zirland</username>
<id>335898</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>interwiki</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Hinduism_small}}
'''Ahimsa''' is a [[religion|religious]] concept which advocates [[non-violence]] and a respect for all [[life]]. ''Ahimsa'' (&#2309;&#2361;&#2367;&#2306;&#2360;&#2366; ahim&#775;s&#257;) is [[Sanskrit]] for avoidance of ''[[himsa]]'', or injury. It is interpreted most often as meaning peace and reverence toward all [[sentient]] beings. Ahimsa is the core of [[Hinduism]], [[Jainism]], and [[Buddhism]]. Its first mention in Indian philosophy is found in the Hindu scriptures called the [[Upanishads]], the oldest dating about 800 BCE. Those who practice ahimsa are often [[vegetarianism|vegetarians]] or [[vegan|vegans]].
Ahimsa was introduced to the [[Western world|West]] by the [[Mahatma Gandhi]]. Inspired by his actions, Western [[civil rights]] movements, led by such people as [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], engaged in non-violent protests. The more recent popularity of [[yoga]] and [[meditation]] in the West has also served to introduce many westerners to ahimsa and other [[Hindu]] concepts. [[Nonviolent Communication]], developed by American Dr. [[Marshall Rosenberg]] and practiced and taught around the world, is inspired by Gandhi's example.
== Ahimsa in Jainism ==
In [[Jainism]], the '''ahimsa-[[vrata]]''', or vow of ahimsa, is the first of the five '''mahavratas''', or great vows. All animal life, and most [[plant]] life, is considered [[sentience|sentient]]. Any action endangering such life, including [[agriculture]], [[violence]], animal sacrifice, drinking liquor, eating [[honey]], [[potato]]es or certain [[fruit]]s, and eating at night, is forbidden. Some Jains wear a [[cloth]] over their [[mouth]]s to avoid inhaling airborne life forms.
The ethical code of Jainism is taken very seriously. Summarized in the Five Vows, they are followed by both lay people and monastics. These are:
# non-injury (ahimsa)
# non-lying (satya)
# non-stealing (asteya)
# non-possession (aparigrah)
# chastity (brahmcharya)
The Jain conception of ahimsa involves three times three&mdash;the three actions (''karanas'') of himsa in the three modes (''yogas'')&mdash;observances:
Neither by action or by speech or by thought:
# do injury oneself (''krita'')
# cause injury to be done by others (''karita'')
# approve injury done by others (''anumata'', ''mananat'', or ''anumodana'')
===External links and references in Jainism ===
*[http://www.jainworld.com/phil/ahimsa/ahimindex.htm Jainworld.com Ahimsa index]
*[http://www.herenow4u.de/indexEng.htm HereNow4U - Online Magazine]
==Ahimsa in Hinduism==
=== Yoga ===
[[Yoga]] is one of the six schools of [[Hindu philosophy]], and as codified by [[Patanjali|Maharishi Patanjali]] in the seminal work ''[[Yoga Sutra]]'', the foundation of [[ashtanga yoga|ashtanga]] and Raja Yoga, ahimsa is the first of the five '''yamas''', or eternal vows or restraints of yoga.
=== Gandhi ===
[[Mahatma Gandhi]] drew many of his concepts of truth, nobility and ethics from the [[Bhagavad Gita]] and his personal love of Lord [[Rama]], a Hindu God. Gandhi's concept of life and ahimsa, which led to his concept of [[satyagraha]], or peaceful protest, primarily stem from his association with [[Hindu Philosophy|Hindu]] and [[Jainism|Jain philosophy]].
Quotations from Gandhi on the subject:
<cite>
:Nonviolence is the greatest force at the disposal of mankind. It is mightier than the mightiest weapon of destruction devised by the ingenuity of man.
</cite>
Literally speaking, ahimsa means non-violence towards life but it has much higher meaning. It means that you may not offend anybody; you may not harbor uncharitable thought, even in connection with those who consider your enemies. To one who follows this doctrine, there are no enemies. A man who believes in the efficacy of this doctrine finds in the ultimate stage, when he is about to reach the goal, the whole world at his feet. If you express your love&mdash;''ahimsa''&mdash;in such a manner that it impresses itself indelibly upon your so-called enemy, he must return that love.
:This doctrine tells us that we may guard the honor of those under our charge by delivering our own lives into the hands of the man who would commit the sacrilege. And that requires far greater courage than delivering of blows.
Ahimsa or non-injury, of course, implies non-killing. But, non-injury is not merely non-killing. In its comprehensive meaning, ahimsa or non-injury means entire abstinence from causing any pain or harm whatsoever to any living creature, either by thought, word, or deed. Non-injury requires a harmless mind, mouth, and hand.
</cite>
==External links==
*[http://www.sivanandadlshq.org/teachings/ahimsa.htm Sri Swami Sivananda on Ahimsa]
*[http://www.kamat.com/mmgandhi/ahimsa.htm Ask Gandhi: Ahimsa]
*[http://www.lifepositive.com/Body/yoga/ashtanga-yoga.asp#yama Ashtanga Yoga Yamas]
==See also==
*[[Turn the other cheek]]
*[[Nonviolence]]
*[[Pacifism]]
{{Hinduism}}
[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Jain philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Buddhist philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Religious ethics]]
[[cs:Ahinsa]]
[[de:Ahimsa]]
[[fr:Ahimsa]]
[[nl:Ahimsa]]
[[nn:ahimsa]]
[[pl:Ahinsa]]
[[pt:Ainsa]]
[[sv:Ahimsa]]
[[th:อหิงสา]]
[[vi:Bất hại]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Annals of Mathematics</title>
<id>2785</id>
<revision>
<id>40360076</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:23:44Z</timestamp>
|
n Clark]], (1829-1912) Born Daviot, Aberdeenshire became Dean of Taunton and prebendary of Wells 1859-1880 and Professor of Theology, mental and moral philosophy - University of Toronto, Canada 1888-1912. External link: [http://www.oliveweb.clara.net/clark-hogg/ch-gallery-clark-william-robinson.htm William Robinson Clark] and [http://www.oliveweb.clara.net/clark-hogg/ch-gallery-clark-william-robinson-obituary.htm obitituary].
*[[Alexander Penrose Forbes]] (1817-1875)
*[[James Frazer]] (1854-1941), anthropologist of comparative religion and myth
*[[Alexander Henderson]] (1583-1646)
*[[Richard Holloway]]
*[[John Knox]], (c.1513-1572)
*[[Thomas McCrie]]
*[[George Newlands]]
*[[Andrew Purves]], born in Scotland, currently working at [[Pittsburgh Theological Seminary]] in USA
*[[Duns Scotus|John Duns Scotus]], (c.1266-1308)
*[[Thomas Torrance]], (born 1913)
*[[George Wishart]], (1513-1546)
*[[Saint Mungo]] (or Kentigern)....
*Rev Prof [[Norman Walker Porteous]] (1898-2003), translator of the Bible
==Writers==
See [[List of Scottish writers]]
==Others==
*[[Alison Balfour]], A "Notorious Witch"
*[[Andrew Bell (educator)]], (1753-1832), Developer of the [[Madras System]]
*[[Helen Duncan]], "Hellish Nell", The Last woman to be tried under the [[Witchcraft Act]]
*[[Douglas Haig]], (1861-1928), Commander-in-chief of British Forces during [[World War I]]
*[[Elsie Inglis]], Medical Reformer and Suffragette
*[[Alexander Kinloch Forbes]], (1821-1865) Scholar of the [[Gujarati language]] and Colonial Administrator in [[British India]]
*[[John Paul Jones]], (1747-1792), Admiral of the Russian and American Navies
*[[William Kidd|Captain Kidd]], (1645-1701), Pirate
*[[Flora Macdonald]], [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] and [[United Empire Loyalists|United Empire Loyalist]]
*[[Rob Roy MacGregor]], Romantic Outlaw
*[[Colin Mackenzie]], (c.1754-1821), Soldier and Scholar in [[British India]]
*[[John James Richard Macleod]], (1876-1935)
*[[John Muir]], (1838-1914), 19th Century Environmentalist
*[[James Murdoch (born 1856)|James Murdoch]],(1856-1921) Journalist and Teacher in [[Japan]] and [[Australia]]
*[[Robert Noble]]
*[[Allan Pinkerton]], (1819-1884), US Detective
*[[John Charles Walsham Reith]], (1889-1971), a.k.a Lord Reith, First Director General of the [[BBC]]
*[[Alexander Selkirk]], (1676-1723), Inspiration for [[Robinson Crusoe]], by [[Daniel Defoe]]
*[[Christian Shaw]], Started the [[Paisley Thread Industry]]
*[[Mary Slessor]], Missionary and Advocate for Women's Rights
*[[Elizabeth, Countess of Sutherland]], Enthusiastic Contributor to the [[Highland Clearances]]
*[[Stella Tennant]], Model
==See also==
*[[List of people by nationality]]
*[[List of Kings of the Picts]]
*[[List of monarchs of Scotland]]
*[[Scottish-American]]
*[[Scots-Quebecer]]
*[[Scottish-Canadian]]
[[Category:Lists of British people| Scots]]
[[Category:Lists of people by nationality|Scotland]]
[[Category:Lists of Scottish people| ]]
[[Category:Scotland-related lists|Scots]]
[[Category:Scottish people| ]]
[[fr:Liste d'Écossais célèbres]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of South Africans</title>
<id>11380</id>
<revision>
<id>41289992</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T08:41:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Exclusia</username>
<id>993568</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Football (Rugby Union) */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This is a list of notable [[South Africa]]ns with Wikipedia articles.
==Academics, Medical and Scientists==
*[[Estian Calitz]], academic (1949 - )
*[[Clement Martyn Doke]], linguist (1893 - 1980)
*[[Allan McLeod Cormack]], physicist (1924 - 1998)
*[[Abraham Manie Adelstein]], UK Chief Medical Statistician (1916 - 1992)
*[[Christiaan Barnard]], pioneering heart surgeon (1922 - 2001)
*[[Peter Beighton]], geneticist (1934 - )
*[[Sydney Brenner]], biologist (1927 - )
*[[Thebe Medupe]], astrophysicist
*[[Calie Pistorius]], academic and Principal of the University of Pretoria
*[[Basil Schonland]], physicist (1896 - 1927)
*[[James Leonard Brierley Smith]], ichthyologist (1897 - 1968)
==Artist==
===Actors, Playwrights, TV and Radio personalties===
*[[Lev David]], writer and media consultant (1980 - )
*[[Ronald Harwood]], playwright and writer (1934 - )
*[[Athol Fugard]], playwright (1932 - )
*[[John Kani]], actor, entertainer and writer
*[[Felicia Mabuza-Suttle]], talk show host, public speaker and businesswoman
*[[Jeremy Mansfield]], radio and TV personality
*[[Mbongeni Ngema]], playwright, actor, choreographer and director
*[[Leon Schuster]], filmmaker, comedian, actor and prankster
*[[Anthony Sher]], actor, author and painter (1949 - )
*[[Mthuli ka Shezi]], playwright and political activist ( - 1972)
*[[William Smith (South African)|William Smith]], TV teacher and presenter
*[[Janet Suzman]], actress (1939 - )
*[[Charlize Theron]], actress (1975 - )
*[[Pieter Dirk Uys]] political satirist and entertainer
*[[Jamie Uys]], film Director (1921 - 1996)
===Authors, Editors, Poets and Journalists===
*[[Herman Charles Bosman]], author (1905 - 1951)
*[[Roy Campbell (Poet)|Roy Campbell]], poet (1901 - 1957)
*[[John Michael Coetzee]], author (1940 - )
*[[K. Sello Duiker]], novelist (1974-2005)
*[[Totius|Jakob Daniël du Toit]], poet aka Totius (1877 - 1953)
*[[Elisabeth Eybers]], poet ( - )
*[[Arthur Goldstuck]], journalist (1959 - )
*[[Nadine Gordimer]], 1991 [[Nobel Prize for Literature|Nobel Prize]]-winning author (1923 - )
*[[John Tengo Jabavu]], political activist and newspaper editor (1859 - 1921)
*[[Ingrid Jonker]], poet (1933 - 1965)
*[[Aggrey Klaaste]], journalist and editor
*[[Antjie Krog]], poet, novelist and playwright
*[[Laurence Lerner]], poet (1925-)
*[[Eugene Marais|Eugène Nielen Marais]], lawyer, naturalist, poet and writer (1871 - 1936)
*[[Dalene Matthee]], author (1938 - 2005)
*[[Gcina Mhlope]], storyteller, author, playwright, director, actor (1959 - )
*[[Phaswane Mpe]], novelist (1970 - 2004)
*[[Alan Paton]], author (1903 - 1988)
*[[Olive Schreiner]], author (1855 - 1920)
*[[J. R. R. Tolkien|JRR Tolkien]], author (1892 - 1973)
*[[Donald Woods]], journalist and anti-apartheid activist (1933 - 2001)
*[[Rachel Zadok]], London-based South African writer (1972- )
*[[Sol Plaatje]], journalist and political activist (1877 - 1932)
===Musicians===
'''See:''' [[List of South African musicians]]
===Artists, Cartoonist and Painters===
*[[Jeff Chandler (artist)|Jeff Chandler]], artist (1947 - 2000)
*[[T.O. Honiball]], cartoonist (1905-1990)
*[[Neville Lewis]], artist (1895 - 1972)
*[[Rexon Mathebula]], artist (1926 - )
*[[Jacobus Hendrik Pierneef]], artist
*[[Gerard Sekoto]], artist and musician (1913 - 1993)
===Photographers===
*[[David Goldblatt]], photographer (1930 - )
==Business==
*[[Raymond Ackerman]], businessman
*[[David Brink]], businessman (1939 - )
*[[Basetsana Kumalo]], former Miss South Africa, presenter and businesswoman
*[[Sammy Marks]], businessman ( - )
*[[Patrice Motsepe]], businessman (1962 - )
*[[Elon Musk]], Internet and space launch entrepreneur (1971 - )
*[[Harry Oppenheimer]], businessman (1908 - 2000)
*[[Mamphela Ramphele]], political activist, academic, businesswoman and mother to the son of Steve Biko
*[[Cyril Ramaphosa]], politician and businessman
*[[Cecil Rhodes]], businessman (1853 - 1902)
*[[Anton Rupert]], businessman (1916 - 2006)
*[[Tokyo Sexwale]], politician and businessman
*[[Mark Shuttleworth]], Web entrepreneur, founder of Thawte and Ubuntu Linux, astronaut (1973 - )
==Legal==
*[[Lourens Ackermann]], constitutional court judge (1934 - )
*[[George Bizos]], lawyer
*[[Arthur Chaskalson]], judge (1931 - )
*[[Harold Hanson]], advocate QC (1904 - 1973)
*[[Bram Fischer]], advocate QC and political activist
==Political==
===Activists and trade unionists===
*[[Zackie Achmat]], AIDS activist
*[[Neil Aggett]], political activist and trade unionist (&dagger; 1982)
*[[Jeremy Baskin]], trade unionist (1956 - )
*[[Steve Biko]], [[nonviolence|nonviolent]] political activist (1946 - 1977)
*[[Chris Hani]], political activist (1942 - 1993)
*[[Ahmed Kathrada]], political activist
*[[Adolph Malan]], fighter pilot and civil rights activist (1910 - 1963)
*[[Govan Mbeki]], political activist and father of Thabo Mbeki
*[[Fatima Meer]], scientist and political activist
*[[Elias Motsoaledi]], political activist (1924 - 1994)
*[[Victoria Mxenge]], anti-apartheid activist (1942 - 1985)
*[[Lilian Ngoyi]], anti-apartheid activist (1911 - 1980)
*[[Rachel Simons]], communist and trade unionist (1914 - 2004)
*[[Albertina Sisulu]], political activist and wife of Walter Sisulu (1919 - )
*[[Walter Sisulu]], political activist (1912 - 2003)
*[[Robert Sobukwe]], political activist (1924 - 1978)
*[[Oliver Tambo]], political activist (1917 - 1993)
*[[Eugène Terre'Blanche]], right wing activist
*[[Richard Turner]], academic and political activist {1941 - 1978}
===Leaders and Politicians===
*[[Ken Andrew]], politican (1943 - )
*[[Kader Asmal]], an activist, politician and professor of human rights (1934 -)
*[[Sibusiso Bengu]], politican (1934 - )
*[[Thozamile Botha]], politican (1948 - )
*[[Cheryl Carolus]], politican (1958 - )
*[[Piet Cronje]], boer general and commander-in-chief the [[South African Republic]]'s military forces (1840 - 1911)
*[[Sir De Villiers Graaff|De Villiers Graaff]], leader of United Party ( 1913 - 1999)
*[[Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma]], politician
*[[Patricia de Lille]], politician
*[[Yusuf Dadoo]], doctor and politician
*[[Danny Jordaan]], politician and soccer administrator
*[[Tony Leon]], politician (1956 - )
*[[Winnie Madikizela-Mandela]], politician and 2nd wife of Nelson Mandela (1936 - )
*[[Magnus Malan]], minister of defence and chief of the South African Defence Force (1930 - )
*[[Trevor Manuel]], minister of finance
*[[Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka]], current deputy president (1955 - )
*[[Monty Naicker|Gagathura (Monty) Mohambry Naicker]], medical doctor and politician (1910 - 1978)
*[[Bulelani Ngc |
allisti''). The apple was disputed over by [[Hera]], [[Athena]], and [[Aphrodite]]. None of the gods would venture an opinion favouring any one contender for fear of earning the enmity of the other two. Eventually, Zeus ordered the matter to be settled by [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]], the youngest prince of [[Troy]], who was being raised as a shepherd in the plains nearby. Athena tempted Paris with power in battle and wisdom, Hera offered him political power, and Aphrodite offered him the most beautiful woman in the world. Paris eventually awarded the apple to Aphrodite.
The most beautiful woman in the world was [[Helen]], daughter of [[Leda (mythology)|Leda]] by Zeus. Scores of men sought her hand. Her father was unwilling to choose any for fear the others would attack him; finally, at [[Odysseus]]' suggestion, he solved the problem by making all the suitors swear an oath to protect Helen and her future husband. These suitors included [[Agamemnon]], [[Ajax the Greater]], [[Ajax the Lesser]], [[Diomedes]], [[Odysseus]], [[Nestor]], [[Idomeneus]], and [[Philoctetes]]. Helen married [[Menelaus]] of [[Sparta]]; her sister [[Clytemnestra]] married his brother [[Agamemnon]] of [[Mycenae (Greece)|Mycenae]]. (See [[House of Atreus]])
On a diplomatic mission to Sparta, Paris became enamoured of Helen, and she either eloped with or was abducted by Paris and went with him to Troy. In anger, Menelaus called upon Helen's past suitors to make good their oaths to attack Troy. Eventually a force of a thousand ships marshalled by Menelaus' brother Agamemnon was gathered at [[Aulis]], including all the above-named men and their own forces. A [[seer]] told them that the winds would not take them to Troy unless Agamemnon sacrificed his daughter [[Iphigenia]]. He did so, and the fleet set off. They landed at Troy, eventually, where there ensued a siege of nine years, broken only intermittently by fighting until the tenth year.
Shortly prior to the ''Iliad'', Greek forces had raided a nearby town allied to Troy. Agamemnon had taken prisoner a girl, [[Chryseis]], daughter of a local priest of [[Apollo]]. The priest begged the god to punish the Greeks, and a plague ravaged their army.
===The ''Iliad'''s story===
====Overview====
The ''Iliad'' focuses mainly on [[Achilles]] and his rage against king [[Agamemnon]], the [[Greece|Greek]] commander-in-chief.
[[Apollo]] has sent a plague against the Greeks, who captured the daughter of the priest Chryses and gave her as a prize to [[Agamemnon]]. He is compelled to restore her to her father. Out of pride, he takes [[Briseis]], whom the Athenians had given [[Achilles]] as a prize. Achilles, the greatest warrior of the age, follows the advice of his mother, [[Thetis]], and withdraws from battle in revenge and the allied [[Achaean]] (Greek) armies nearly lose the war.
In counterpoint to Achilles' pride and arrogance stands the Trojan prince [[Hector]], son of King [[Priam]], with a wife and child, who fights to defend his city and his family. The death of [[Patroclus]], Achilles' dearest friend or lover, at the hands of Hector, brings Achilles back to the war for [[revenge]], and he slays Hector. Later Hector's father, King Priam, comes to Achilles disguised as a beggar to ransom his son's body back, and Achilles is moved to pity; the funeral of Hector ends the poem.
The poem is a poignant depiction of the tragedy and agony of friendship and family destroyed by battle. The first word of the Greek poem is "Μηνιν" ("mēnin", meaning "wrath"); the main subject of the poem is the wrath of Achilles; the second word is "aeide", meaning "sing"; the poet is asking someone to sing; the third word is "thea", meaning "goddess"; the goddess here being the "Mousa" or "muse"; a literal translation of the first line would read "Wrath, sing goddess, of Peleus' son Achilles" or more intelligibly "Sing, goddess, the wrath of Peleus' son Achilles". ({{perseus|Hom.|Il.|1.1}})
====Book summaries====
* Book 1: Ten years into the war, [[Achilles]] and [[Agamemnon]] quarrel over a slave girl, [[Achilles]] withdraws from the war in anger
* Book 2: [[Odysseus]] motivates the [[Greeks]] to keep fighting; [[Catalogue of Ships]], Catalogue of Trojans and Allies
* Book 3: [[Paris]] challenges [[Menelaus]] to single combat
* Book 4: The truce is broken and battle begins
* Book 5: [[Diomedes]] has an aristea and wounds [[Aphrodite]] and [[Ares]]
* Book 6: [[Glaucus]] and [[Diomedes]] greet during a truce
* Book 7: [[Hector]] battles [[Telamonian Aias | Ajax]]
* Book 8: The gods withdraw from the battle
* Book 9: [[Agamemnon]] retreats: his overtures to [[Achilles]] are spurned
* Book 10: [[Diomedes]] and [[Odysseus]] go on a spy mission
* Book 11: [[Paris]] wounds [[Diomedes]], and [[Achilles]] sends [[Patroclus]] on a mission
* Book 12: The [[Greeks]] retreat to their camp and are besieged by the [[Trojans]]
* Book 13: [[Poseidon]] motivates the [[Greeks]]
* Book 14: [[Hera]] helps [[Poseidon]] assist the [[Greeks]]
* Book 15: [[Zeus]] stops [[Poseidon]] from interfering
* Book 16: [[Patroclus]] borrows [[Achilles]]' armour, enters battle, kills [[Sarpedon]] and then is killed by [[Hector]]
* Book 17: The armies fight over the body and armour of [[Patroclus]]
* Book 18: [[Achilles]] learns of the death of [[Patroclus]] and receives a new suit of armour
* Book 19: [[Achilles]] reconciles with [[Agamemnon]] and enters battle
* Book 20: The gods join the battle; [[Achilles]] tries to kill [[Aeneas]]
* Book 21: [[Achilles]] fights with the river [[Scamander]] and encounters [[Hector]] in front of the [[Trojan]] gates
* Book 22: [[Achilles]] kills [[Hector]] and drags his body back to the [[Greeks|Greek]] camp
* Book 23: Funeral games for [[Patroclus]]
* Book 24: [[Achilles]] lets [[Priam]] have [[Hector]]'s body back, and he is burned on a pyre
===After the ''Iliad'': Conclusion of the war, and after===
Although certain events subsequent to the funeral of Hector are foreshadowed in the ''Iliad'', and there is a general sense that the Trojans are doomed, a detailed account of the fall of Troy is not set out by Homer. The following account comes from later Greek and Roman poetry and drama.
[[Achilles]] fights and kills the [[Amazons|Amazon]] queen [[Penthesilea]] and the Aethiopean king [[Memnon]]. Very soon he is killed on the battlefield by [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] with a poisoned arrow to his vulnerable heel. (See [[Achilles' tendon|Achilles' Heel]]). After his death, [[Ajax the Greater]] and [[Odysseus]] feud over who should keep his armour. They submit their disagreement to an impromptu court and Odysseus is awarded the armour. Ajax subsequently goes mad and slaughters his livestock, believing they are the Greek commanders. He then kills himself in grief.
The [[Amazons]] come to join the battle. [[Philoctetes]], a crippled Greek who had been abandoned by the others along the journey, was recruited because it was prophesied the war could not be won without his bow.
Odysseus devises a plan to take the city. He has his men build a large, hollow [[Trojan horse|wooden horse]], and then he and twenty others hide inside. The Greek ships withdraw out of sight of Troy, apparently admitting defeat, and leave behind the horse, purportedly as an offering to Poseidon for good winds on the return trip. The Trojans take this inside the great walls of Troy, and then feast and celebrate their victory and the war's end. At night, Odysseus and the soldiers creep out of the horse and open the gates to the other Greeks who have sailed back under cover of night. The city is sacked, and in some accounts burned for seven years.
Priam is killed. According to one tradition, [[Hector]]'s wife [[Andromache]] throws their son [[Astyanax]] and herself from the ramparts to save them from [[slavery]]. According to another, Astyanax was killed by [[Neoptolemus]], son of Achilles, to ensure that Hector's son could not seek vengeance for his father's death against Achilles' son. Andromache became Neoptolemus' concubine, later to marry [[Helenus]], Hector's brother. A Roman tradition held that [[Aeneas]] escaped with his family and several hundred people, who after years of migration eventually founded [[Rome]]. (This was used by [[Virgil]] in his [[Aeneid]]).
Odysseus' long journey home is narrated in Homer's ''Odyssey''. [[Menelaus]] and [[Helen]] returned to [[Sparta]] to rule. Agamemnon took home as a slave the priestess [[Cassandra]], who was gifted with prophecy but cursed never to be believed. When he returned home he was murdered by his wife [[Clytemnestra]] and her lover, [[Aegisthus]]. They in turn were killed by [[Agamemnon]]'s son, [[Orestes]], and his daughter, [[Electra|Elektra]].
==Technical features and translations==
The poem is written in [[dactylic hexameter]]. The ''Iliad'' comprises roughly 16,000 lines of verse. Later Greeks divided it into twenty-four books, and this convention has lasted to the present day with little change.
The ''Iliad'' has been translated into [[English language|English]] for centuries. [[George Chapman]] did a translation in the [[16th century]] which [[John Keats]] praised in his sonnet, ''[[On First Looking into Chapman's Homer]]'' and [[Alexander Pope]] did another one in rhymed [[pentameter]].
There are five widely read modern English translations. [[Richmond Lattimore]] provides a translation that attempts to reproduce, line for line, the rhythm of the original poem. [[Robert Fagles]] emphasizes contemporary English phrasing while maintaining faithfulness to the Greek. The translations of [[Stanley Lombardo]] and [[Robert Fitzgerald]] are known for their attention to Homer's imagery. Lombardo's translation is generally the one most often recommended by classics scholars because of its faithfulness to the Greek and its modern vernacular style. H |
turer in theoretical physics at the [[University of Kiel]]. In 1885 he became a full professor at the [[University of Karlsruhe]] where he discovered electromagnetic waves.
[[Image:Autograph of Heinrich Hertz.png|left|thumb|200px|Hertz's autograph]]
Following [[Albert Abraham Michelson|Michelson's]] [[1881]] experiment (precursor to the [[1887]] [[Michelson-Morley experiment]]) which disproved the existence of [[luminiferous aether]], he reformulated [[Maxwell's equations]] to take the new discovery into account. Through experimentation, he proved that electric signals can travel through open air, as had been predicted by [[James Clerk Maxwell]] and [[Michael Faraday]], and which is the basis for the invention of [[radio]]. He also discovered the [[photoelectric effect]] (which was later explained by [[Albert Einstein]]) when he noticed that a [[electric charge|charged]] object loses its charge more readily when illuminated by ultraviolet light.
He died of blood poisoning at the age of 37 in [[Bonn]], Germany.
His nephew [[Gustav Ludwig Hertz]] was a [[Nobel Prize]] winner, and Gustav's son [[Carl Hellmuth Hertz]] invented [[medical ultrasonography]].
==See also==
{| style="text-align: left; width: 75%;" border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="2"
| style="vertical-align: top;" |
''People''
* [[Hans Christian Ørsted]]
* [[Guglielmo Marconi]]
* [[Gustav Ludwig Hertz]]
* [[Hermann von Helmholtz]]
* [[James Clerk Maxwell]]
* [[Nikola Tesla]]
* [[Wilhelm Röntgen]]
''Lists and histories''
* [[Timeline of electromagnetism and classical optics|Electromagnetism timeline]]
* [[Timeline of quantum mechanics, molecular physics, atomic physics, nuclear physics, and particle physics|Timeline of mechanics and physics]]
* [[List of physicists]]
* [[History of radio|Radio history]]
* [[Wireless telegraphy]]
* [[List of people on stamps of Germany]]
* [[List of physics topics]]
| style="vertical-align: top;" | <br>
| style="vertical-align: top;" |
''[[Electromagnetic radiation]]''
* [[Frequency]]
** [[Hertz]]
* [[Microwave]]
* [[X-ray]]
* [[Photoelectric effect]]
* [[Radar]]
* [[Luminiferous aether]]
''Other''
* [[University of Bonn]]
* [[University of Karlsruhe]]
* [[Radio]]
* [[Dipole antenna]]
|}
==External links==
*[http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/history/hertz.htm Short biography]
[[Category:1857 births|Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf]]
[[Category:1894 deaths|Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf]]
[[Category:German physicists|Hertz, Heinrich]]
[[Category:Telecommunications history]]
[[cs:Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]]
[[da:Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]]
[[de:Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]]
[[es:Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]]
[[eo:Heinrich Rudolf HERTZ]]
[[fr:Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]]
[[ko:하인리히 루돌프 헤르츠]]
[[hr:Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]]
[[ia:Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]]
[[id:Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]]
[[it:Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]]
[[he:היינריך רודולף הרץ]]
[[ka:ჰერცი, ჰაინრიხ რუდოლფ]]
[[nl:Heinrich Hertz]]
[[ja:ハインリヒ・ヘルツ]]
[[no:Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]]
[[pl:Heinrich Hertz]]
[[pt:Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]]
[[ru:Герц, Генрих Рудольф]]
[[simple:Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]]
[[sl:Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]]
[[fi:Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]]
[[sv:Heinrich Hertz]]
[[tr:Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]]
[[uk:Герц Генріх]]
[[zh:海因里希·鲁道夫·赫兹]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hebrew alphabet</title>
<id>13446</id>
<revision>
<id>41434338</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T07:45:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Yossarian</username>
<id>65633</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>em-dash</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{SpecialCharsNote}}
:''This article is mainly about Hebrew letters. For Hebrew diacritical marks, see [[niqqud]] (for the vowel points) and [[cantillation]].''
{{alphabet}}
{{Hebrew alphabet}}
The '''Hebrew [[alphabet]]''' is a set of 22 letters used for writing the [[Hebrew language]]. It has also been used in mildly adapted forms for writing several languages of the Jewish diaspora, most famously [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]], [[Ladino language|Ladino]], and [[Judaeo-Arabic languages|Judaeo-Arabic]] (for a full and detailed list, see [[Jewish languages]]). Hebrew is written from right to left.
The Hebrew word for "alphabet" is אלף-בית (''alef-bet''), named after the first two letters of the Hebrew alphabet. The Hebrew alphabet was in origin an [[abjad]], in other words it had letters for [[consonant]]s only, but means were later devised to indicate vowels, first by using consonant letters as [[matres lectionis]], later by separate vowel points or [[nikud]].
The number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet, their order, their names, and their phonetic values are virtually identical to those of the [[Aramaic alphabet]], as both [[Hebrews]] and [[Arameans]] borrowed the [[Phoenician alphabet]] for their uses during the end of the [[2nd millennium BC]].
The modern ''script'' used for writing Hebrew (usually called the '''Jewish script''' by scholars, and also traditionally known as the '''square script''', or the '''Assyrian script'''—not to be confused with the Eastern variant of the [[Syriac alphabet]]), evolved during the [[3rd century BC]] from the [[Aramaic script]], which was used by [[Jew|Jews]] for writing Hebrew since the [[6th century BC]]. Prior to that, Hebrew was written using the old '''Hebrew script''', which evolved during the [[9th century BC]] from the Phoenician script; the [[Samaritan|Samaritans]] still write Hebrew in a variant of this script for religious works (see [[Samaritan alphabet]]).
==Roots of the Hebrew Alphabet==
The Hebrew alphabet has been developed in the same way as the [[Phoenician alphabet]] has. Each letter originally represented some picture and has developed into the modern rectangular alphabet:
*א aleph - "ox"
*ב bet - "house"
*ג gimel - "camel"
*ד dalet - "fish" or "door"
*ה heh - "jubilation" or "window"
*ו vav - "hook"
*ז zayin - "manacle" or "weapon"
*ח {{ArabDIN|ḥ}}et - "enclosure" or "fence"
*ט {{ArabDIN|ṭ}}et - "snake"
*י yad - "arm" or "hand"
*כ kaf - "hand" or "palm"
*ל lamed - "goad"
*מ mem - "water"
*נ nun - "fish"
*ס samech - "prop"
*ע 'ayin - "eye"
*פ peh - "mouth"
*צ tsadee - "plant"
*ק kaph - "monkey" or "back of the head"
*ר reš - "head"
*ש šin - "tooth"
*ת tav - "signature"
==Short table==
[[Image:Hebrewblockandscript.png|thumb|The Hebrew alphabet, in print and handwriting.]]
The Hebrew alphabet consists of the following letters. Some letters have a different form used at the ends of words: these are shown in the table below the normal form.
{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" style="text-align:center;" class="wikitable"
|-
|'''[[Aleph (Hebrew)|Alef]]'''||'''[[Beth (letter)|Bet/Vet]]'''||'''[[Gimel (letter)|Gimel]]'''||'''[[Daleth|Dalet]]'''||'''[[He (letter)|He]]'''||'''[[Waw (letter)|Vav]]'''||'''[[Zayin]]'''||'''[[Heth (letter)|Het]]'''||'''[[Teth|Tet]]'''||'''[[Yodh|Yod]]'''||'''[[Kaph|Kaf/Chaf]]'''
|-
|style="font-size:300%" height=40 valign=top| א
<span style="font-family: serif"> א </span>
|style="font-size:300%" height=40 valign=top| ב
<span style="font-family: serif"> ב </span>
|style="font-size:300%" height=40 valign=top| ג
<span style="font-family: serif"> ג </span>
|style="font-size:300%" height=40 valign=top| ד
<span style="font-family: serif"> ד </span>
|style="font-size:300%" height=40 valign=top| ה
<span style="font-family: serif"> ה </span>
|style="font-size:300%" height=40 valign=top| ו
<span style="font-family: serif"> ו </span>
|style="font-size:300%" height=40 valign=top| ז
<span style="font-family: serif"> ז </span>
|style="font-size:300%" height=40 valign=top| ח
<span style="font-family: serif"> ח </span>
|style="font-size:300%" height=40 valign=top| ט
<span style="font-family: serif"> ט </span>
|style="font-size:300%" height=40 valign=top| י
<span style="font-family: serif"> י </span>
|style="font-size:300%" height=40 valign=top| כ
<span style="font-family: serif"> כ </span>
|-
| ||||||||||||||||||||style="font-size:300%" height=40 valign=top|ך
<span style="font-family: serif"> ך </span>
|-
|'''[[Lamedh|Lamed]]'''||'''[[Mem]]'''||'''[[Nun (letter)|Nun]]'''||'''[[Samekh]]'''||'''[[Ayin]]'''||'''[[Pe (letter)|Pe/Fe]]'''||'''[[Tsade|Tsadi]]'''||'''[[Qoph|Qof]]'''||'''[[Resh]]'''||'''[[Shin (letter)|Shin/Sin]]'''||'''[[Taw (letter)|Tav]]'''
|-
|style="font-size:300%" height=40 valign=top| ל
<span style="font-family: serif"> ל </span>
|style="font-size:300%" height=40 valign=top| מ
<span style="font-family: serif"> מ </span>
|style="font-size:300%" height=40 valign=top| נ
<span style="font-family: serif"> נ </span>
|style="font-size:300%" height=40 valign=top| ס
<span style="font-family: serif"> ס </span>
|style="font-size:300%" height=40 valign=top| ע
<span style="font-family: serif"> ע </span>
|style="font-size:300%" height=40 valign=top| פ
<span style="font-family: |
ine"]] [[surface-to-air missile]]. Both crewmembers ejected, and one was captured until the end of the war. The other managed to escape and was picked up after eight hours.
* The Tomcat first deployed air-to-ground (bombs) weapons during [[September]] of [[1995]] over [[Bosnia]] during [[Operation Deliberate Force]]. This was done by the [[VF-41 Black Aces]], who also was the first squadron to deploy air-to-air weapons in combat.
* F-14s from [[VF-32]] and [[VF-213]] participated in [[Operation Desert Fox]] in [[December]] [[1998]].
* F-14Ds from [[VF-213]] engaged [[Iraqi]] [[MiG-25]]’s with [[AIM-54 Phoenix]] missiles on [[January 5]] [[1999]], no hits were registered.
* Between [[April 9]], [[1999 in aviation|1999]] and [[June 9]], [[1999]] during [[Operation Allied Force]] over [[Yugoslavia]], F-14s of [[VF-14 Tophatters]] dropped 350 laser-guided 1000 pound (454 kg) [[bomb]]s in addition to other air-to-ground ordnance. They also performed [[reconnaissance]] missions. F-14s from VF-41 also participated in Operation Allied Force
* An [[VF-2]] F-14D engaged an Iraqi [[MiG-23]] with an AIM-54 Phoenix missile in [[September]] [[1999]], not hits registered.
* On [[October 9]], [[2001 in aviation|2001]] during [[Operation Enduring Freedom]], F-14s from VF-14 Tophatters struck [[Taliban]] aircraft on the ground at [[Mazar-e-Sharif]], about 850 miles <!-- nautical or statute? --> (1370 km) from their aircraft carrier. This was followed by more air-to-ground strikes from VF-14 and other Tomcat-equipped squadrons during the operation.
* F-14s from five different squadrons participated in [[Operation Iraqi Freedom]] with great success.
* The Iranian Air Force used their F-14As in combat several times against Iraq during the [[Iran-Iraq War]], but the exact results are difficult to determine.
== F-14 in fiction and popular culture ==
The Tomcat was immortalized in the 1986 film ''[[Top Gun]]'', about naval aviators that fly the F-14. The success of that film entrenched the Tomcat as [[wiktionary:synonymous|synonymous]] with fighter jet, and spurred a rash of games (not to mention a surge in Navy recruiting). Additional appearances:
*The 1980 time-travel film ''[[The Final Countdown]]'' featured the VF-84 "Jolly Rogers" F-14 fighter squadron aboard [[USS Nimitz (CVN-68)|''Nimitz'']].
* James W. Huston's novel "Flash Point" is about a group of [[US Navy|US naval]] aviators flying Tomcats.
* The F-14 is the plane featured in the computer game [[Afterburner (video game)|Afterburner]].
* The F-14 appears in numerous episodes of the TV series [[JAG]]. The lead character Captain [[Harmon Rabb]] (played by [[David James Elliott]]) is a qualified F-14 pilot.
* Tomcats are featured in [[Stephen Coonts]]' novel Final Flight.
* The F-14 was the inspiration for the [[VF-1 Valkyrie]] in the [[anime|Japanese animated]] TV series ''[[The Super Dimension Fortress Macross]]'' (1982-1983). In the prequel ''[[Macross Zero]]'', the lead character Lieutenant [[Shin Kudo]] (played by [[Kenichi Suzumura]]) is a qualified F-14 pilot.
* A modified single-seater F-14 is Mickey Simon's aircraft in the popular [[manga]]/[[anime]] series [[Area 88]].
== Notes ==
<div style="font-size: 85%">
<references />
</div>
==External links==
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/aircraft/f-14.htm GlobalSecurity.org page]
* [http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ac/f-14.htm Federation of American Scientists page]
* [http://www.anft.net/f-14/ Home of M.A.T.S.]
* [http://www.faqs.org/docs/air/avtomcat.html F-14 FAQ]
* [http://www.aerospaceweb.org/aircraft/fighter/f14/ AerospaceWeb page]
* [http://www.sizor.com/cvn65/f14/ F-14B Tomcat photos from USS Enterprise (CVN-65)]
* [http://www.patricksaviation.com/videos.php?action=search&p=1&f=text&aircraft=35&pp=10&s=views&o=desc F-14 Videos]
* [http://www.history.navy.mil/planes/f-14.pdf Navy.mil - Standard Aircraft Characteristics: F-14D Tomcat]
* [http://www.chinfo.navy.mil/navpalib/factfile/aircraft/air-f14.html Navy Fact File: F-14 ''Tomcat'']
* [http://www.alert5.com/gallery/1972PukinDogs VF-143 Pukin Dogs AG101 Final Flight photos]
* [http://www.tomcatalley.com Tomcat Alley - The F-14 Website]
* [http://www.airtoaircombat.com/compare.asp]
* [http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ac/f-14.htm]
* [http://usmilitary.about.com/library/milinfo/navyfacts/bltomcat.htm]
* [http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_302.shtml U.S. Air-to-Air Victories during the Cold War, Wars in Yugoslavia, and Anti-Terror War]
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/usmnf.htm US Multinational Force (USMNF) Lebanon]
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/achille_lauro.htm Operation Red Hat]
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/attain_document.htm Operation Attain Document]
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/el_dorado_canyon.htm Operation El Dorado Canyon]
*Tony Holmes (2005). ''US Navy F-14 Tomcat Units of Operation Iraqi Freedom'', Osprey Publishing Limited.
==Related content==
{{Commons|Grumman F-14}}
'''Related development:'''
[[General Dynamics F-111|F-111B]]
'''Comparable aircraft:'''
'''Designation Series'''
[[F-10 Skyknight|F-10]] -
[[F-11 Tiger|F-11]] -
[[Lockheed YF-12|YF-12]] -
'''F-14''' -
[[F-15 Eagle|F-15]] -
[[F-16 Fighting Falcon|F-16]] -
[[YF-17 Cobra|YF-17]]
'''See also:'''
*[[List of military aircraft of the United States]]
*[[List of fighter aircraft]]
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[[Category:Carrier-based aircraft]]
[[Category:Swing-wing aircraft]]
[[Category:U.S. fighter aircraft 1970-1979]]
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<page>
<title>F-117 Nighthawk</title>
<id>11720</id>
<revision>
<id>42094284</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:08:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Colonies Chris</username>
<id>577301</id>
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<comment>link, sp</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:usaf.f117.750pix.jpg|thumb|300px|USAF F-117 Nighthawk during maintenance]]
The [[Lockheed]] '''F-117 Nighthawk''' is the world's first operational [[aircraft]] designed to use [[stealth technology]]. Flown only by the [[United States Air Force]], it is a direct descendant of the [[Have Blue]] stealth prototype program.
==Nicknames==
Before it was given an official name, the engineers and test pilots referred to the ungainly aircraft, which went into hiding during daylight to avoid detection by Soviet satellites, as "Cockroaches", a name that is still sometimes used. A short-lived hourglass on the bottom of one hinted at a nickname of "Black Widow", as in the [[black widow spider]]. Another sometimes used nickname is "Wobblin' Goblin," due to the aircraft's instability at low speeds, especially during [[in-flight refueling]] operations.
==Inconsistent designation==
The Nighthawk's designation of F-117 marks it as a [[fighter aircraft|fighter]], but this is a misnomer; the aircraft is a [[ground attack aircraft]], incapable of air-to-air warfare.
The "F-" designation has never been officially explained. There are several theories. The USAF has always been more proud of its fighters than its ground-attack aircraft, which are sometimes denigrated as "mud movers." Officials may have felt that they could more easily generate political and military support for the radical new aircraft if it were called a "fighter" rather than a bomber or attack plane. The "F-" designation may also have been part of the attempt to keep the Nighthawk secret (the program was classified until the late 1980s). During development the term 'LT,' for Logistics Trainer, was often used.
Also a recent televised documentary quoted a senior member of the F-117 development team as saying that the top-notch fighter pilots required to fly the new aircraft were more easily attracted to an F- plane, as opposed to a B- or A- aircraft. There has been something of a class distinction between fighter and bomber crews, particularly in the days of the [[Strategic Air Command]] (1945-1991), and flying one type often limited a pilot's prospects for flying the other.
The USAF maintains that F-117 can carry every weapon in the inventory, including [[air-to-air missile]]s. That may be technically true, but the aircraft is unsuited to air combat. It cannot turn at greater than 5 gs, lacks the radar to guide longer-range missiles, and does not carry shorter-range ones for self-defense because that would cut its already-small bombload in half. [[USAF]] officials once considered putting [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]] air-to-air missiles on the F-117 &mdash; pilots were even trained to fire them &mdash; but there is no evidence that AIM-9s have ever been loaded aboard.
==Design and operation==
[[Image:F-117 Nighthawk flight.jpg|thumb|left|200px|An F-117A Nighthawk in the skies above New Mexico]]About the size of an [[F-15 Eagle|F-15C Eagle]], the single-seat, twin-engine F-117 is powered by two non-afterburning [[General Electric Aircraft Engines|General Electric]] [[General Electric F404|F404]] turbofan engines, and has quadruple-redundant [[Fly-by-wire|fly-by-wire flight controls]]. It is [[Aerial refueling|air refuelable]]. In order to lower development costs, the avionics, fly-by-wire systems, and other parts are derived from the [[F-16 Fighting Falcon]] and [[F/A-18 Hornet]].
Among the penalties for stealth are 30 percent lower engine power and a very low wing [[Aspect ratio (wing)|aspect ratio]], thanks to the high sweep angle needed to deflect incoming radar waves to the sides.
The black color of the fuselage |
Mahatma Gandhi]] championed the cause of the untouchables and began India's attempts to integrate them into society, coining the perhaps [[euphemistic]] term [[Harijan]]s ("people of God"). The Indian Constitution has tough laws against discrimination on the basis of caste. Matrimony between members of different castes is not rare, but is not very frequent either. There is a policy for the socio-economic upliftment of the former outcasts, by the provision of [[education]], reservation of admission seats in institutions for higher education, and a 12.5% [[quota]] in [[government]] jobs with faster promotions. These [[affirmative action]]s have often been challenged in courts, and through mass protests. Anti-reservation activists allege that the process, which they suspect is fuelled by political gains, artificially fosters the sub-divisions. A few allege that in the process of categorizing people "who need reservation", sub-caste based ''jati'' identities becomes very important and is firmly entrenched in the Indian [[psyche]]. Many also allege that the progress of the meritorious is cramped by the reservation system, which has not been set any deadline by the [[Constitution of India]]. Pro-reservation activists allege that the system helps in upliftment of the lower castes and needs to be in place until all sections achieve an equal status in the Indian society. However, what started as a way of upliftment of a certain section of the society, has turned into a full fledged political issue - useful only for the politicians at elections. Certain states in India have a reservations of over 70%.
Proponents of Affirmative Action or Reservations usually point to the centuries old system of social and economic reservation that upper castes of Hindus have been enjoying. Opponents of Affirmative Action tend to say that one needs to look to the future, not the past, if society is to prosper. It is not difficult to see that Affirmative Action may be impossible beyond a certain point - society may not generate sufficient wealth to maintain such a social mechanism.
==Nepalese caste system==
The caste system in [[Nepal]] can be traced back to the introduction of [[Muluki Ain]] (1854) by [[Jung Bahadur Rana]] after his return from his European tour. The Muluki Ain (1854) was a written version of social code that had been in practice for several centuries in Nepal. Its caste categories diverged from the four varnas of the classical Vedic model and instead had three categories to accommodate the tribal peoples between the pure and impure castes. These were further classified into five hierarchies with the following order precedence. (Harka Gurung 2005:3,Occational Papers in Sociology and Anthropology)
* Thagadhari, (Wearer of holy chord)
* Matwali
** Namasyane Matwali (Non-enslavable alcohol-drinkers)
** Masyane Matwali (Enslavable alcohol drinkers)
* Pani nachalne choichoto halnu naparne, (Impure but touchable castes)
* Pani nachalne chiochoti halnu parne, (Impure and Untouchable castes)
The above mention categories implies that Thagadhari (Wearer of holy chord) remains in the highest hierarchy in Hindu caste system followed by Matwali, (Non-enslavable alcohol-drinkers) and enslavable alcohol drinkers touchable caste and lastly untouchable.
Muluki Ain imposes the caste system in Nepal in order to incorporate people of different origin to bring under one umbrella of caste system. The first categories of Thagadhari which include Parbate Brahmin and Chettri are in the higher categories of hierarchy where as Brahmins of Terai and Newari Brahmin as per Muluki Ain do not fall under these categories.
Matwali group, salvable and enslavable falls under second categories, which include the people of ethnic origin and Brahmins of terai and Newari Brahmins. It also includes those people in the non-enslavable group such as Magar, Gurung, Rai, and Limbu etc and enslavable are Tamang, Chepang, Thami etc.
Untouchable are the categories of varnas system in ancient Manu's Code but some people such as Musalman and foreigners as well falls under these categories. Untouchables are divided into Pani nachalne choichoto halnu naparne, (Impure but touchable castes) and Pani nachalne chiochoti halnu parne, (Impure and Untouchable castes). In present day context caste system falls under Hindu varna system i.e, Brahmin, Khatria Vaisias and Sudra respectively instead of following Muluki Ain's codification, as ethnic group do not follow the caste system because they have their own culture, tradition ,religion and values system which do not fall under caste system. which is great.
==Sri Lankan caste system==
{{main|Caste in Sri Lanka}}
The caste system appears to have been introduced to [[Sri Lanka]] by [[Aryan]]-language-speakers from North India. There is evidence of the main vedic castes in the early [[Anuradhapura]] era. The introduction of [[Buddhism]] in the 3rd century BCE blunted the edge of the system somewhat. However, there is a reference to King [[Dutugemunu]] Abhaya's son, [[Saliya]] choosing to lose caste by marrying [[Asokamala]], a [[Chandala]] (outcaste) woman, in the 2nd century BCE.
The later caste system seems to have evolved as much through waves of ethnic migration as by occupation. Among the present-day [[Sinhalese]] the Vedic categories no longer exist, while among the Sri Lanka [[Tamils]], the only Vedic category to persist is that of [[Brahmins]]; these ethnic groups share many categories.
The major Sinhalese castes (''Jathi'') are: ''Govigama'' or ''Goyi'' ('farmers'), ''Navandhaenna'' or ''Ridhi'' (silversmiths), ''Karava'' (fishermen), ''Dhurave'' (toddy tappers), ''Salagama'' or ''Haali'' (cinnamon peelers), ''Wahumpura'' or ''Hakuru'' (Jaggery-makers), ''Bathgama'' or ''Padhu'' (bearers), ''Berava'' (Tom-tom beaters), ''Panna'' (grass-cutters), ''Kumbal'' (potters), [[Radha]] (Washers or Dhobies), ''Demelagaththaro'' (Tamil tribes) and ''Hinna'' (washers to the Salagamas). There also 'Out' castes, the Tamil-speaking, wandering 'Gypsies' - ''Rodi'' and ''Ahikuntaka''. The aboriginal [[Veddas]] were considered to be outside the caste system: many aristocratic families claim descent from these tribes; however, the 'Gypsy' castes may be offshoots of aboriginal hunters employed by the ancient kings.
Among the Tamils, many of these castes are duplicated: ''Vellala'' (equivalent to ''Govigama''), ''Karaiyar'' (''Karava'') and ''Dhuraiyar'' (''Dhurave''). There is also a caste called ''Kovi'', the members of which claim to be Sinhalese ''Govigama'' isolated in Tamil areas after the [[Chola]] conquest of the North.
The Indian Tamils who were brought over by the British as [[indentured labour]] were mainly from the lower Indian castes; the South Indian categories came over with them.
It appears that caste was more important than ethnicity until comparatively recently. In pre-British times, the ''Govigama'' were classed as ''Vellala'' by the colonial authorities. [[Eurasians]] and South Indian ''[[Chetties]]'' were absorbed into the ''Govigamas''. Cross-ethnic marriage was fairly common. Several leading 'aristocratic' Sinhalese families are descended from Tamils or [[Keralites]]. Many ''Karavas'' speak Tamil at home and have relatives among the 'Tamil' ''Karaiyars''.
Religious practice tends to reinforce the caste system. In the feudal era, people of low castes were not allowed into the shrines of the major gods or into the [[Sangha|Buddhist clergy]]. The priests of the gods ([[kapuralas]]) had to be Govigama among the Sinhalese, Brahmins among the Tamils. However, the '[[Devil Dancers]]' (exorcists, healers and sorcerers) were drawn from the tom-tom beating caste.
In the 19th century the [[Amarapura Nikaya|Amarapura]] and [[Ramanna Nikaya|Ramanna]] sects were formed to allow non-Govigama priests to be ordained, in opposition to the casteist [[Siam Nikaya|Siam]] sect. In the late 1960s, there were a series of '[[Temple Struggles]]' in the northern Jaffna district, during which members of lower castes forced their way into Hindu temples, establishing their right of entry.
==Balinese caste system==
{{main|Balinese caste system}}
==Castes in ancient Israel==
Something akin to the caste system was also found in [[Judaism]] (during the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]] period), which divided its society into the inherited [[Cohanim]] priesthood, who, due to their Temple duties, had access to most parts of the Temple, [[Levites]], whose auxiliary duties allowed them somewhat less access than the Cohanim, and the rest of the [[Israelites]], whose involvement in the Temple was lesser than the Levites. This "caste system" had mostly ritualistic ramifications, and the social side-effects were very limited and far lesser than those found in the Hindu caste system, which entailed almost complete social separation and a clear social hierarchy. Intermarriage was completely allowed within the Israelite people, with rare exception (such as the prohibition against a Cohen marrying a divorcee), and the Israelites were prohibited only from marrying outside their own people. This Israelite "caste system" continued along lines of [[Patrilineal descent]]. Converts to the Israelite people were considered full Israelites, and Mosaic law demanded that they be treated kindly and with special sensitivity. In contemporary Judaism, despite the absence of the Temple, certain ritual laws continue to apply to Cohanim, and both they and the Levites are honored with deferential formalities in some rituals.
==Castes in Africa==
Countries in [[Africa]] who have societies with caste systems within their borders include Mali, Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Niger, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Ghana, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Algeria, Nigeria, Chad, Ethiopia and Somalia.
The Osu caste system in [[Nigeria]] and northern [[Cameroon]], can be traced back to an indigenous r |
ip Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery]] 1894-1896
*[[John Wodehouse, 1st Earl of Kimberley]] 1896-1902
*[[George Robinson, 1st Marquess of Ripon]] 1902-1908
*[[Robert Offley Ashburton Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe|Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe]] 1908-1916
'''Liberal Leaders in the House of Commons, 1859-1916'''
*[[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston]] 1859-1865
*[[William Ewart Gladstone]] 1865-1875
*[[Spencer Compton Cavendish, 8th Duke of Devonshire|Spencer Compton Cavendish, Marquess of Hartington]] 1875-1880
*[[William Ewart Gladstone]] 1880-1894
*[[William Vernon Harcourt (politician)|Sir William Vernon Harcourt]] 1894-1899
*[[Henry Campbell-Bannerman|Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman]] 1899-1908
*[[Herbert Henry Asquith]], 1st Earl of Oxford and Asquith (1925) 1908-1916
'''Leaders of the Liberal Party, 1916-1988'''
*[[Herbert Henry Asquith]], 1st Earl of Oxford and Asquith (1925) [[1916]]-[[1926]]
**''[[Donald Maclean]], Acting Leader'' [[1919]]-[[1922]]
*[[David Lloyd George]] [[1926]]-[[1931]]
*[[Herbert Samuel|Sir Herbert Samuel]] [[1931]]-[[1935]]
*[[Archibald Sinclair, 1st Viscount Thurso|Sir Archibald Sinclair]] [[1935]]-[[1945]]
*[[Clement Davies]] [[1945]]-[[1956]]
*[[Jo Grimond]] [[1956]]-[[1967]]
*[[Jeremy Thorpe]] [[1967]]-[[1976]]
*[[Jo Grimond]] [[1976]]
*[[David Steel]] [[1976]]-[[1988]]
==See also==
*[[List of Liberal Party (UK) MPs]]
*[[Liberalism]]
*[[Contributions to liberal theory]]
*[[Liberalism worldwide]]
*[[List of liberal parties]]
*[[Liberal democracy]]
*[[Liberalism in the United Kingdom]]
*[[Politics of the United Kingdom]]
*[[UK topics]]
==External links==
*[http://www.liberalhistory.org.uk/ Liberal Democrat History Group]
==References==
Chris Cook, ''A Short History of the Liberal Party, 1900-2001'' (6th edition). Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002. ISBN 0-333-91838-X.
Jonathan Parry, ''The Rise and Fall of Liberal Government in Victorian Britain''.
Yale, 1993.ISBN 0-300-06718-6.
[[Category:Defunct political parties in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Historical liberal parties|United Kingdom 1860s]]
[[de:Liberal Party]]
[[fr:Parti libéral (Royaume-Uni)]]
[[pl:Partia Liberalna (brytyjska)]]
[[sv:Liberal Party (Storbritannien)]]
[[uk:Ліберальна партія (Великобританія)]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Social Democratic Party (UK)</title>
<id>4483</id>
<revision>
<id>41982381</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T00:59:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>EdwinHJ</username>
<id>25167</id>
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<minor />
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the party that existed from 1981 until 1988. For the later parties which claim continuity, see [[Social Democratic Party (UK, 1988)]] or [[Social Democratic Party (UK, 1990)]]. From 1907, the "Social Democratic Party" was also the official name of the [[Social Democratic Federation]].
[[Image:SDPLogo.jpg|right|thumb|150px|]]
The '''Social Democratic Party''' (SDP) was a [[political party]] of the [[United Kingdom]] that existed nationwide between [[1981]] and [[1988]]. It was founded by four senior [[Moderate#Politics|moderate]] [[Member of Parliament|Members of Parliament]] (MPs) from the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]], dubbed the "Gang of Four": [[Roy Jenkins]], [[David Owen]], [[Bill Rodgers (politician)|Bill Rodgers]] and [[Shirley Williams]]. They left the Labour Party in the belief that it had become too [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]], and had been infiltrated at [[constituency]] level by [[Trotskyist]] [[Political faction|faction]]s whose views and behaviour were at odds with the [[parliamentary party]] and the Labour-voting [[electorate]].
For the [[United Kingdom general election, 1983|1983]] and [[United Kingdom general election, 1987|1987 General Elections]], the SDP joined the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]] in the [[SDP-Liberal Alliance]]. The majority of the party merged with the Liberal Party in 1988 to form the Social and Liberal Democrats (SLD), now known as the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]].
==History==
===Origins===
<!--Copyedited to here, 19 Decmber 2005-->
[[Image:SDP gangoffour.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The "Gang of Four" at a press conference, 1981]]
The origin of the party lies in the 1979 [[Dimbleby Lecture]] given by [[Roy Jenkins]] as he neared the end of his [[President of the European Commission|presidency]] of the [[European Commission]]. Jenkins argued the necessity for a realignment in British politics, and discussed whether this could be brought about from within the existing Liberal Party, or from a new group driven by [[Europe]]an principals of [[social democracy]].
There were long-running claims of corruption and administrative decay within Labour at local level (the North East of England was to become a cause celebré), and concerns that experienced and able Labour MPs could be deselected (i.e., lose the Labour Party nomination) by those wanting to put into a safe seat their friends, family or members of their own Labour faction. In particular, the [[Militant Tendency]] were held to be systematically targeting weak local party branches in safe seat areas in order to have their own candidates selected, and thus become MPs.
[[Eddie Milne]] at [[Blyth]] (Northumberland) and [[Dick Taverne]] in [[Lincoln, Lincolnshire|Lincoln]] were both victims of such intrigues during the 1970s, but in both cases there was enough of a local outcry by party members - and the electorate - for them to fight and win their seats as independent candidates against the official Labour candidates.
===The March 1973 Lincoln by-election===
In Taverne's case, he resigned his seat to force a by-election to highlight the issue of infiltration and intimidation by Militant. He won the seat as a [[Democratic Labour]] candidate when he was deselected in favour of a Militant-supported one. He founded the short lived [[Campaign for Social Democracy]] thereafter, and wrote a book about events surrounding the by-election called ''The Future of the Left - Lincoln and After'' (1972). But the CFSD failed to gain nationwide support, and Taverne lost the seat at the October 1974 General Election. Some independent Social Democrats contested the October 1974 and 1979 General Elections, but none were elected.
Taverne's Lincoln by-election campaign was also helped to a lesser degree by problems with the Conservative candidate, [[Monday Club]] chairman [[Jonathan Guinness]]. His suggestion during the by-election that murderers should have razor blades left in their cells so they could decently commit suicide resulted in him being nicknamed "Old Razor Blades" during the campaign. This, combined with considerable Conservative grassroots disquiet over the Club's links to the [[British National Front|National Front]], persuaded some Conservative voters to switch to Taverne in protest as much as tactically to ensure Labour suffered an embarrassing loss. (Guinness had been elected as Chairman specifically to eradicate such links.)
===The Manifesto Group and the split from Labour===
Many original members of the future Social Democratic Party had been members of the [[Manifesto Group]] within the Labour Party. This group opposed the leftward shift in Labour policy, the increasing prominence within the party of [[Tony Benn]], and the involvement of trade unions in choosing the leader of the Labour Party. They argued that a new type of political force was needed to challenge the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]]. Further, they argued that the leader of that party should be elected by its entire membership, rather than the [[electoral college]] in use in the Labour party that was largely dominated by the block votes of the Trade Unions. They were also vehemently opposed to Labour's pledge to nuclear disarmament at a time of extreme "Cold War" tensions between the USA and the Soviet Union.
The final straw for many in the Manifesto Group was the behaviour of former Chancellor of the Exchequer [[Denis Healey]] at a meeting with them during the Labour leadership campaign to replace [[James Callaghan]]. He bluntly told the assembled to vote for him and answered their questions uninformatively. At the end, one asked him why they should vote for him, and Healey answered "You have nowhere else to go" (to stop the left-winger [[Michael Foot]] from winning). Healey's arrogance convinced many that their days as members of the Labour Party were now over. Ivor Crewe and Anthony King found five defectors who claimed to have voted for Foot in order to saddle Labour with an unelectable leader and make life easier in their new party. One defector, Mike Thomas, said he was tempted to send a telegraph to Healey reading "Have found somewhere else to go".
Newspapers of the period reported that the announcement of the new party came as a complete shock to MPs from all sides of the Commons, including members of the Manifesto Group, as "The Gang of Four" had kept their preparations a closely guarded secret. One notable Manifesto Group exception was its secretary, future Defence Secretary [[George Robertson]], who was the only officer to remain. The story got around that he had refused to join the new party because he feared he would not be able to keep his Lanarkshire seat at a general election; local [[Scottish National Party]] supporters nicknamed him "Chicken George".
===The Limehouse Declaration and the birth of the SDP===
The founding members or "Gang of Four" were [[Roy Jenkins]], [[David Owen]], [[Bill Rodgers (politician)|Bill Rodgers]] and [[Shirley Williams]], all leading figures on the Labour "Right". They announced the new party at a press conference, and outlined their policies in what became known as the [[Limehouse Declaration]].
Twenty-eight Labour MPs e |
s philosophy has not found widespread recognition by academic philosophers outside of the anthroposophical movement, however; one exception is Richard Tarnas, author of ''The Passion of the Western Mind''.
Steiner's philosophy begins by recognizing a division between our sensory experiences of the outer world and our soul experiences of an inner world consisting of thoughts, feelings and intentions (will impulses). He focuses on how our thinking in particular complements what we experience through the senses; one facet of the world is its outer appearance, a second is its inner structure. We access the two separately but they are originally united in the objective world, and we have the capacity to reunite them through creating a relationship between our percepts and our concepts, between what we experience outwardly and inwardly. He claims we only understand an aspect of the outer world when we find this connection between our sensory impressions of it and our concepts about it.
Thus, though all experience begins subject to the subject-object divide, through our own activity Steiner says we can progressively overcome this divide. This lies in our free will, however; we are given the divide but not its overcoming.
Steiner also examines the step from thinking as determined by outer impressions to what he calls sense-free thinking. Thoughts without sensory content, for example mathematical or logical thinking, is clearly a free deed. He thus believes he locates the origin of the free will in our thinking, and in particular in sense-free thinking. Especially in his later work, Steiner asserts that the objective truths attainable through [[mathematics]] and [[logic]] are evidence of an objective non-sensory world - a world of spirit/mind that is not subject to the subjective nature of our inner experiences. (The German word Geist means both [[spirit]] and [[mind]].)
==Relationship to Natural Science==
Anthroposophy explicitly seeks to extend [[natural science]]'s mandate, which is to study the world as external observers (a mandate which some say has been shaken by [[quantum mechanics]]' rejection of the possibility of splitting the observer from the observed phenomena), to explore human experience from within. It postulates that, as we have learned over centuries and even millennia to treat our experience of the outer world in a clear and systematic way, we can also learn to do this for our experience of out inner life.
It believes the genuine and even scientific study of man, need not restrict itself to externally observable phenomena. If an equally objective description of human soul and spiritual life can be achieved, these too can be elevated to a science. ''Natural'' science thus sets the example and provides a methodological goal; the potential content of observation is however extended to experiences beyond the purely sensory.
Today's science already recognizes the scientific validity of our inner, soul states in the special case of our thinking. The discipline of science assumes that scientific reasoning is possible, i.e.in anthroposophical terms, that our soul experience of thinking can be as [[Objectivity (philosophy)|objective]] and [[verification|verifiable]] as the [[senses|sensory phenomena]] themselves. Natural science thus allows inner, thought processes as part of the ''methodology'' of science, but excludes them from being the subject of scientific work. If thinking can be objective about sensory phenomena, however, can it not be objective about its own activity, and by extension, to the rest of our inner life?
Natural science even includes non-sensory phenomena as the content of its study in the special case of mathematics. Is the number two purely non-sensory? What about 'i', [[Imaginary unit|the square root of negative one]]? Mathematics provides a doorway through which we can see how a scientific treatment of nonsensory phenomena may be valid.
Key here is that the scientific standards of a rigorously logical approach, duplicability of results and intersubjectivity are not lost. Much of today's spirituality is thus not spiritual science. Anthroposophy respects religious and spiritual life that is not scientific as having its own proper place in culture, just as our free exploration of nature has its place next to natural science. Often such excursions give just the raw material out of which scientific understanding is born. It seeks, however, to make a step from free experience of soul and spiritual life to a scientifically motivated description of these, with the motive of bringing clarity and a higher understanding to the 'buzzing, blooming confusion' that reigns as strongly in inner experiences as in the natural world.
==Applications==
Practical results of Anthroposophy include work in:
*Architecture ([[Goetheanum]]),
*[[Biodynamic agriculture]],
*Holistic [[Waldorf Education]]
*[[Astrosophy]] as opposed to [[Astrology]],
*[[Anthroposophical Medicine]] ([[Weleda]]),
*Philosophy (The "Philosophy of Freedom"),
*[[Goethean Science]] resulting in new developments in the Arts,
*[[Eurythmy]] ("movement as visible speech"),
*Centres for helping the mentally handicapped ([[Camphill Villages]]) and
*Religion ([[The Christian Community]])
Medical doctors in the Anthroposophy movement use, amongst others, [[homeopathy]] as a part of their medical practices. In addition, Steiner gave several series of lectures to physicians, and out of this grew a medical movement that now includes hundreds of European M.D.s as adherents, and that has its own hospitals and medical universities.
==Social Goals of Anthroposophy==
For a period after World War I, Steiner was extremely active and well-known in Germany in part because in many places he gave lectures on social questions. A petition expressing his basic social ideas (signed by Herman Hesse, among others) was very widely circulated. His main book on social questions, ''Die Kernpunkte der Sozialen Frage'' (available in English today as ''Toward Social Renewal'') sold tens of thousands of copies.
Today around the world there are a number of innovative banks, companies, charitable institutions, and schools for developing new cooperative forms of business, all working partly out of Steiner&#8217;s social ideas. One example is The Rudolf Steiner Foundation, incorporated in 1984, and as of 2004 with estimated assets of $70 million. RSF provides "charitable innovative financial services". According to the independent organizations Co-op America and the Social Investment Forum Foundation, RSF is "one of the top 10 best organizations exemplifying the building of economic opportunity and hope for individuals through community investing." The first bank founded out of Steiner's ideas was the ''Gemeinschaftsbank für Leihen und Schenken'' in [[Bochum]], [[Germany]]; it was started in 1974.
===Steiner's Outlook on Social History===
In Steiner's various writings and lectures he held that there were three main spheres of power comprising human society''':''' the cultural, the economic and the political. In ancient times, those who had political power were also generally those with the greatest cultural/religious power and the greatest economic power. Culture, State and Economy were fused (for example in ancient Egypt). With the emergence of classical Greece and Rome, the three spheres began to become more autonomous. This autonomy went on increasing over the centuries, and with the slow rise of egalitarianism and individualism, the failure adequately to separate economics, politics and culture was felt increasingly as a source of injustice.
Anthroposophy has its own concept of history: according to Steiner our present time falls into the post-[[Atlantean]] period, since in his view the disaster that he says hit Atlantis in [[7227 BC]] was a significant turning point in the history of man. This post-Atlantean period is divided by him into seven epochs, the current one being the European-American Epoch, which Steiner said would last until about the year [[3573]].
===Social Threefolding===
:''see full description in [[Social Threefolding]] article''.
There are three kinds of social separations Steiner wanted strengthened. This is known as [[Social Threefolding]] ,
# Increased separation between the State and cultural life
# Increased separation between the economy and cultural life
# Increased separation between the State and the economy (stakeholder economics)
==Aspects of Anthroposophic Thinking==
According to Steiner, a real [[spiritual]] world exists out of which the material one gradually condensed, and evolved. The spiritual world, Steiner held, can in the right circumstances be researched through direct experience, by persons practicing rigorous forms of [[ethics|ethical]] and [[Cognition|cognitive]] [[Self-Discipline|self-discipline]]. Steiner described many exercises he said were suited to strengthening such self-discipline. Details about the spiritual world, he said, could on such a basis be discovered and reported, not infallibly, but with approximate accuracy.
Steiner regarded his research reports as being important aids to others seeking to enter into spiritual experience. He suggested that a combination of spiritual exercises (for example, concentrating on an object such as a seed), moral development (control of thought, feelings and will combined with openness, tolerance and flexibility) and familiarity with other spiritual researchers' results would best further an individual's spiritual development. He consistently emphasized that any inner, spiritual practice should be undertaken in such a way as not to interfere with one's responsibilities in outer life.
Steiner often advised people avoid turning his work into a [[doctrine]]. He emphasized that any researcher, in any field, was able to make mistakes, and that both science and the world continued to evolve, maki |
the 1970s and 1980s in the United States and Europe and triggered the first organized [[anti-cult movement|anticult]] group ([[FREECOG]]).
As it grew and expanded around the world, so did its message&mdash;[[salvation]], [[apocalypticism]], spiritual "revolution" against the outside world that they called "the System"&mdash;and resultant controversy. In 1974, it began to experiment with a method of [[evangelism]] called [[Flirty Fishing]]&mdash;using sex to show God's love and win converts and support. The practice was discontinued in 1987. Their founder and prophetic leader, [[David Berg]], communicated with his followers via ''Mo Letters''&mdash;letters of instruction and counsel on a myriad of spiritual and practical subjects&mdash;until his death in late 1994. After his death, his widow [[Karen Zerby]] became the leader of the Family.
The group’s liberal sexuality and its publication and distribution of writings, photographs and videos advocating and documenting adult-child sexual contact and the sexualization of children led to numerous reports of sexual contact between adults and minors. A number of judicial and academic investigations in the 1990s found the Family to be a safe environment for children, yet such investigations have also highlighted troubles in its past. Family leadership, admitting only that some children were abused from 1978 until 1986, created policies prohibiting excessive discipline or any sexual contact between adults and minors. Those found to have abused children after December 1988 are [[Excommunication|excommunicated]] from Family membership. The Family requires individuals who decide to report child abuse to a law enforcement agency or pursue any other legal action against an alleged abuser to leave the group entirely or, if the alleged abuser has been excommunicated for child abuse, to move to a lower commitment membership status until the matter is resolved.
The January 2005 murder of a former member by the leader's son [[Ricky Rodriguez]] (who had also left the group several years earlier) and his subsequent suicide shocked both members and former members, and led to considerable media attention.
==Beliefs==
:''Main article: [[Beliefs of the Children of God]]''
Theologians have placed the Family's basic [[theology]] within the historical Christian tradition, along with some unorthodox beliefs. To some extent, they identify, and would be seen by most, as [[fundamentalist]] Christians, though some of their more radical beliefs and practices would certainly be regarded as non-traditional, even heretical, by most fundamentalist Christians, and indeed by most Christian theologians.
The Family International states they believe the [[Bible]] to be the inspired Word of God and sacred revelation. [[David Berg]] is regarded as a [[prophet]] by them, in the understanding of one who passed on the message of God, not so much as a predictor of the future, though he frequently attempted to predict future events, for the most part inaccurately. They believe his "mantle" passed to his wife, Karen Zerby, at his death. They regard the officially published writings of both of them, but not everything they have written, as part of the ''Word of God''. While there is an understanding in the movement that all ''word'' is not on the same level of significance, nevertheless all ''word'' is important to read and take heed to.
They believe that the [[Great Commission]] of evangelizing the world is the duty of every Christian, and that their lives should be dedicated to the service of God and others. They have several levels of membership, and the most committed, "Family Disciples," live communally. They also encourage the having of children. While birth control was initially highly discouraged, the choice is currently left to the individual and is not uncommon in practice.
A central tenet to their theology is the "Law of Love," that, simply stated, maintains that if a person's actions are motivated by unselfish, sacrificial love and are not intentionally hurtful to others, such actions are in accordance with Scripture and are, thus, lawful in the eyes of God. They believe that this tenet supersedes all other biblical laws, except the ones forbidding male homosexuality, which they believe is an abomination. They believe that God created [[human sexuality]], that it is a natural, emotional, and physical need, and that [[heterosexual]] relations between consenting adults of legal age is a pure and natural wonder of God's creation, and permissible according to Scripture. Adult members may have sex with any other adult member of the opposite sex. Teenagers from the age of 16 are also allowed to have sex with other members under age 21. Since 1986, sex between minors and adults is strictly forbidden. Family members are strongly encouraged to have sex with any member who may be in need, commonly called "sharing" or "sacrificial sex". No one is pressured to have sex against their will, but members who do not "share" are considered selfish and unloving.
In common with other apocalyptic and millenarian movements, they believe that they are now living in the time period known in Scripture as the "[[Last Days]]" or the "Time of the End," which is the era immediately preceding the return of Jesus Christ. Before that event, they believe that the world will be ruled for seven years by a man known as the [[Antichrist]], who will create a one-world government. At the half-way point in his rule he will become completely possessed by [[Satan]], precipitating a time of troubles known as the [[Great Tribulation]] which will bring intense [[persecution]] of Christians as well as stupendous natural and unnatural disasters. At the end of this period, faithful Christians will be taken to heaven in an event known as the [[Rapture]] that is shortly followed by a battle between Jesus and the Antichrist commonly known as the "Battle of [[Armageddon]]", in which the Antichrist is defeated. Jesus Christ reigns on Earth for 1000 years, a period they call the Millennium.
The Family's official statement of their beliefs can be found here: [http://www.thefamily.org/dossier/statements/faith.htm]
===Recent Teachings===
The Family's recent teachings center around beliefs that they have termed the "new [spiritual] weapons." The Family believes that they are soldiers in the [[spiritual warfare|spiritual war]] of [[Conflict Between Good and Evil|good versus evil]] for the souls and hearts of men. Although some of these beliefs are not new to the Family, they have assumed greater importance in recent years. These include:
[[Prophecy]]: In Family jargon, the traditional definition of ''prophecy''&mdash;a prediction of the future&mdash;has been expanded to refer to any message received from the "spirit world" from Jesus, deceased founder David Berg, or another "spirit helper" (see below). A great emphasis has been placed on each member using prophecy directly and regularly to guide their daily lives. Although prophecy, also referred to as "[[channeling]]," has been a part of the movement from the beginning, it has assumed greater significance in recent years. It has been noted by scholars that the Family is unique among new religious movements in its decentralization and democratization of divine guidance from God.
Spirit Helpers: These include [[angel]]s, departed humans, and even famous fictional characters, eg. Don Quixote, who are sent to give instruction and to fight in the spiritual warfare taking place in the spiritual dimension that Family members believe is coexistent with the physical world that surrounds them. These helpers are believed to relay the divine messages they receive in prophecy and also are engaged in spiritual combat with [[Satan]] and his demons.
The Keys of the Kingdom: The Family believes that the keys referred to in the Biblical passage "and I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven" (Matthew 16:19), have assumed greater significance today. As such, Family members call on the various Keys of the Kingdom for supposed extra effect during prayer. These keys are also believed to power various spacecraft, and can magically turn into swords for the purpose of fighting spiritual demons.
[[Loving Jesus]]: This is a term that members of the Family use to describe their intimate, sexual relationship with [[Jesus]]. The Family describes the "Loving Jesus" teachings as a radical form of [[bridal theology]] [http://www.thefamily.org/dossier/statements/lj.htm]. It is their understanding of the Scriptures that the followers of Christ are His bride, called to love and serve Him with the fervor of a wife. They take bridal theology a step further than most Christians have by encouraging members to imagine that Jesus is having sex with them during sexual intercourse or masturbation. Male members are told to visualize themselves as women "in the spirit", in order to avoid a homosexual relationship with Jesus.
The Family continues to stress the imminent [[second coming|Second Coming of Christ]], preceded by the rise of a worldwide government led by the "Antichrist". These doctrines regarding the "[[End times|End Time]]" influence virtually all long-term decision making.
==History==
===The Children of God (1968-1977)===
The founder of the movement was a former [[Christian Missionary Alliance]] pastor, [[David Berg|David Brandt Berg]] (1919-1994), also known within the group as Moses David, Mo, Father David, and Dad to adult group members and eventually as Grandpa to the group's youngest members.
Members of the Children of God founded [[Intentional Community|communes]] |
e-My-Car system, and other resources for BMW enthusiasts.
*[http://www.bmwvsmercedes.com BMW vs Mercedes] BMW vs Mercedes-Benz Discussion Forum
*[http://www.auto-specs.com/viewall/BMW BMW Specifications, Performance Stats, and Car List]
* [http://www.bmw-sg.com BMW Singapore Community] Singapore's BMW Community with News Portal, Forums And Active Community.
* [http://www.bmwboard.com BMWBoard.com] BMW Forums, News, Articles, Discussion and BMW Chat
* [http://www.bmw-team.lu BMW TEAM LUXEMBOURG] A team of BMW enthusiasts from Luxembourg
*[http://www.wreckedexotics.com/m3 BMW Crash Gallery]
* [http://www.euroclub.ca European Car Club] A growing BMW community for Canadians
* [http://www.bmwportal.net/ The BMW Portal] has grown enormously over the past months. It has a lot of NAV info, Picture Gallery, useful documents, tips and tricks, helpful Forum and much more.
* [http://www.bmwzine.com BMWZine] The Online BMW news and information resource
* [http://www.bimmerdiy.com BMW Do It Yourself] provides BMW DIY articles for the home mechanic.
* [http://www.thewallpapers.org/cars/bmw/index.php BMW Gallery] hosts images of BMWs.
* [http://bmwinfo.com/ BMW Models] provides information on past, current, upcoming, and concept BMWs.
* [http://www.bmw-club.org.uk/home.html The BMW club] is a website for BMW owners in the UK and Ireland.
* [http://www.bmwcca.org/ BMW Car Club of America] is a club for BMW owners in the Americas.
* [http://www.bmwcarclubgb.co.uk/ BMW Car Club of Great Britain]
* [http://www.bmwworld.com/museums.htm BMW Museums] provides information about museums where BMWs can be found.
* [http://www.bmwmoa.org BMW Motorcycle Owners of America]
* [http://www.bmwra.org BMW Riders Association]
* [http://www.e38.org BMW 7-series information and links]
* [http://www.e30zone.co.uk The World's Largest e30 Community]
* [http://www.clubs.bmw.com.au/indexframe.asp BMW Clubs Australia]
* [http://www.apexgarage.com/cars-by-brand-bmw.shtml BMW @ ApexGarage] - Directory of BMW clubs, groups, and information sites.
* [http://www.bimmerfest.com Bimmerfest - a site with informative forums and information on an annual BMW gathering in California]
* [http://www.bimmerforums.com/main.php Bimmerforums.com] is a website dedicated to owners and enthusiasts of BMW automobiles with over 64,000 members. Consists of sub forums for the different BMW models, track and racing, show and shine, wheels and general maintenance.
* [http://www.bmwnut.blogspot.com BMWNut] is a collection of BMW related information, including repair and modification how-to's, BMW model information, performance product reviews and additional BMW links.
* [http://www.bimmerwerkz.com Bimmer Werkz] Previously BMW-Forums.com. Large BMW enthusiast forum with features being added regularly.
* [http://www.bigblogging.com/bmw/ BMW News]
* [http://www.e90post.com E90Post.com] - The enthusiast site for the E90 Generation 3-series models (2006+).
*[http://www.automotoportal.com/ Automotive industry portal with BMW news]
{{BMW cars}}
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blaue Reiter</title>
<id>3773</id>
<revision>
<id>15902088</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-14T13:10:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fuelbottle</username>
<id>34451</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Der Blaue Reiter]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Der Blaue Reiter]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bisexual (disambiguation)</title>
<id>3774</id>
<revision>
<id>34096821</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-06T10:44:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Oliver Lineham</username>
<id>83708</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>moved [[Bisexual]] to [[Bisexual (disambiguation)]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">*In [[human sexuality]], '''[[bisexuality]]''' describes a man or woman having a sexual orientation to persons of either or both sexes (a man or woman who sexually likes both sexes; people who are sexually and/or romantically attracted to both males and females). Bisexuality is also synonymous with ambisexuality. Many [[group sex]] combinations require one or more participants to be bisexual.
*In [[botany]], a '''bisexual''' [[flower]] is one that possesses both male (pollen-producing) and female (seed-producing) parts. Botanists call these flowers '''perfect''' or [[hermaphrodite|hermaphroditic]]. Species that possess separately sexed ('''unisexual''') flowers, but have both types on the same indiviudual plant are called [[Plant sexuality|monoecious]].
*In [[biology]], a bisexual species is one that has members of two different distinct sexes. Humans are a bisexual species.
{{disambig}}
[[tr:biseksüel]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Boston</title>
<id>3775</id>
<revision>
<id>40778574</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T23:29:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MIT Trekkie</username>
<id>147037</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Boston, Massachusetts]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bornholm</title>
<id>3776</id>
<revision>
<id>42034625</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:01:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Valentinian</username>
<id>256198</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>"Coat of Arms" -> "coat of arms"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| colspan="4" width=250 style="border: 1px solid #6688AA; background-color:#f0f6fa; margin:0.5em; padding:0.5em; float:right" valign="top" |
|-
| style="border: 1px solid #1188AA; background-color:#c0ccfa" align="center" colspan="2" | <big>'''Bornholms Regionskommune'''</big>
|-
| bgcolor=#FFFFFF align="center" colspan="2" |[[Image:Bornholms regionskommune coa.png|150px|]]<br>''Bornholms Regionskommune's<br/>coat of arms''.
|-
| style="border: 1px solid #1188AA; background-color:#c0ccfa" align="center" colspan="2" | '''Basic Facts'''
|-
| Municipality<br/>seat || [[Rønne]]
|-----
| Area || 588 [[square kilometre|km²]]
|-----
| Inhabitants || 44,100 <small>''(2003)''</small>
|-----
| Website || [http://www.bornholm.dk/ www.bornholm.dk]
|-
| style="border: 1px solid #1188AA; background-color:#c0ccfa" align="center" colspan="2" | '''Map'''
|-
| bgcolor=#FFFFFF align="center" colspan="2" |[[Image:DenmarkBornholm.png|Bornholm Regional Municipality in Denmark]]
|-
|-
|}
'''Bornholm''' is a [[Denmark|Danish]] [[island]] in the [[Baltic Sea]]. It also refers to '''Bornholm Regional Municipality''', the municipality ([[Danish language|Danish]], ''[[Commune (subnational entity)|kommune]]'') which covers the entire island, and has county privileges.
The island is located to the east of Denmark, the south of [[Sweden]], and the north of [[Poland]] (on the map of Denmark to the right, it is not shown in its true location; see the map at the bottom of the article). The main industries on the island include [[fishing]], [[pottery]] using locally worked [[clay]], clockmaking and [[dairy farming]]. [[Tourism]] is important during the summer.
The small islands [[Ertholmene]] are located 18 km to the north-east of Bornholm.
Strategically located in the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] Bornholm has been a bone of contention usually ruled by Denmark, but also by [[Lübeck]] and [[Sweden]]. The castle ruin [[Hammershus]] on the northwestern tip of the island gives testimony to its importance.
== Municipality ==
[[Image:Flag_Denmark_Bornholm.png|Unofficial flag of Bornholm.|left|thumb]]
Bornholm Regional Municipality is the municipality ([[Danish language|Danish]], ''[[Commune (subnational entity)|kommune]]'') which covers the entire island, and it has county privileges. It comprises the five former municipalities on the island ([[Allinge-Gudhjem]], [[Hasle, Denmark|Hasle]], [[Nexø]], [[Rønne]] and [[Aakirkeby]]) and the former county.
The municipality covers an area of 588 [[square kilometre|km²]], and has a total population of 43,347 (2005). Regional mayor is Bjarne Kristiansen.
The main town and the site of its municipal council is the town of Rønne.
[[Ferry]] service connects the municipality at the town of Rønne to [[Świnoujście]] ([[Poland]]), [[Sassnitz]] ([[Germany]]), [[Køge]] ([[Denmark]]), and [[Ystad]] ([[Sweden]]).
[[Image:Bornholms amt coa.png|Coat of arms of the former Bornholm County.|right|thumb]]Bornholm Regional Municipality will not be merged with other municipalities by [[January 1]], [[2007]] as the result of nationwide [[Municipalities of Denmark#Municipality_Reform_2007|''Kommunalreformen'' ("The Municipality Reform" of 2007)]].
== History ==
[[Image:Da-map.png|thumb||left|300px|''Map of Denmark, Bornholm is to the far right'']]
In the Old Icelandic sources, its name is ''Burgundarholm'', and [[Alfred the Great]] uses the form ''Burgenda land''. Some scholars believe that the [[Burgundians]] are named after Bornholm; the Burgundians were a [[Germanic tribe]] which moved west when the western |
future intervention, and through posthypnotic suggestions, encourage more rapid recovery.
===Obstetric Application (Painless Childbirth)===
The practice of hypnotically assisted deliveries has a history of over a century. Falling into disfavor due to competition from chemical anesthesia, hypnosis has seen a revival in the last two decades. One important reason for this comeback is the realization that hypnosis may find usefulness not only in obstetric analgesia or anesthesia, but also in all phases of giving birth from pregnancy to postpartum recovery.
===Forensic Application===
Scientific knowledge of hypnosis applied to Legal problems is called forensic hypnosis. Courts prior to 1968 consistently excluded post-hypnotic testimony on the grounds that it was unreliable and apt to influence a jury unduly. Now hypnosis practice is growing stronger and still admissible in courtroom testimonies as long as the stringent criteria and guidelines are met. American Law Institute’s Model Penal Code specifies Crime done by hypnotic Suggestion & Witness evidence in court after Hypnotic suggestion are not valued. In the U.S., [[Oregon]], [[Texas]], [[Indiana]],[[ Nevada]], and [[California]] states have separate hypnotic investigation acts. Nevada courts accept hypnotically refreshed statements as evidence for judgment. [[Russia]] generally uses hypnosis in criminal investigations.
=== Mass Application ===
Influencing the crowds of common longings and yearnings by a demagogue is called mass hypnosis. Generally mass hypnosis is applied to religious sessions. The pious mob will easily respond to, monotonously repeating suggestive words. Many forms of music and dance can be used to create religious trance.
===Stage Application===
In stage hypnosis, a hypnotist carefully chooses volunteers from the audience, puts them into a trance using hypnosis and then plants suggestions for them to perform. The critical factor in all stage hypnosis shows is the choice of enthusiastic and credulous individuals. Various techniques exist for discerning whether an individual is a likely candidate for a hypnosis stage act. Often, the sheer willingness of audience members to volunteer is a sign that they will "go along with" the hypnotist's suggestions during the show, whether or not they ever really become hypnotised in the first place. For example, the volunteers may be made to believe they are drunk, aliens speaking a strange alien language, naked or seeing others naked, 6-year-old children, ballet dancers etc. Such suggestions are designed to be temporary, lasting the duration of the show. Stage hypnosis is a unique performance in that it involves "real" people from the audience responding in a variety of ways, making no two shows the same. There has been debate over the years as to whether some degree of fraud or collusion may be involved in some stage hypnosis acts.
Regarding the phenomenon of stage hypnotism, Jon Connelly, Ph.D., a therapeutic hypnotist, writes:
''How does the stage hypnotist create the illusion of "taking over" his subject's minds? It appears they are helpless to refuse whatever he directs them to do under his power and control.''
''How is this accomplished? It begins with the hypnotist asking for volunteers from an audience already entranced enough with the idea of stage hypnosis that they chose to make attending the show their priority. Naturally, they all have expectations about what they will witness.''
''The audience is made up of three categories of attendees. The first is prepared, and actually hoping to come up on stage to be subjects despite knowing they will be doing silly things in front of everyone else. The second category is comprised of those who want to prove they can't be hypnotized. These folks are likely to volunteer but only to prove the hypnotist wrong. Finally, the third group is simply interested in watching the show.''
''The first thing the hypnotist does is to ask for volunteers. On the crowded stage, he "tests" their willingness to cooperate by directing them to do something and he observes their reactions. Anyone not cooperating is eliminated. Seeing others dismissed, enhances the willingness of the remaining volunteers to cooperate even more fully.''
''The task of finding the most cooperative and dramatic volunteers is accomplished as the hypnotist asks those on stage to do even stranger things and eliminates those whose performance isn't up to par. Soon a small number of volunteers remain. These people are willing to dramatically engage in almost anything the hypnotist suggests. The audience has enjoyed the screening process on another level, believing the hypnotist has caused the subjects to become more and more entranced with hypnosis.''
''The hypnotist tells the small group of remaining subjects to relax even more into the role of "hypnotized person" he created for them. There is little difference between a good hypnotic subject and a good actor. The context and the understanding each has of why they are doing what they are doing, is the main difference. They both voluntarily throw themselves into the role created for them since both are stage performers.''
''The stage hypnotist is like a casting director for a movie. The casting director selects people who can vividly imagine and act on what is written in the script as if it was real. These are the same qualities that would make someone a good hypnotic subject. Both the hypnotist and the film director create the scene and encourage the subject or actor into imagining their role to the extent that it can become real to them. They are often described as "absorbed" in the role. Actors know their job is to fool the audience into experiencing the role as real also. The hypnosis subject imagines her role so vividly, it is experienced as real. On some level, both the actor and the hypnotized subject know what is happening. Neither is being "controlled."''
''In stage hypnosis, audience members confuse what is really cooperation with control over the subject's mind. But it is an illusion.''
===Indirect Application===
In addition to direct application of hypnosis (that is, treatment of conditions by means of hypnosis), there is also indirect application, wherein hypnosis is used to facilitate another procedure. Some people seem more able to display 'enhanced functioning', such as the suppression of pain, under hypnosis.
One of the major initial applications of hypnotism was the suppression of pain during medical procedures; this was supplanted (in the late 19th century) by the development of more reliable chemical anesthetics.
Some studies suggest that while hypnosis may possess these qualities, they are not exclusive to hypnosis, that it is often the drama and fantasizing that produces the behavior.
===Objective Signs of the Hypnotic State: Breuer's Absent Pupillary Reflex Sign ===
For those who discount trance state completely. This may be an objective sign... and is opposite the normal physiological response! When the subject/patient/client is in 'deep' hypnosis (based upon most scales)she/he is asked to stay in hypnosis and open their eyes. The pupils are usually [[dilated]]. When a penlight is shone into the eyes the pupils will usually stay dilated or poorly reactive (the normal non-hypnotic response being contraction). Some clinicians use this as a benchmark for cases being readied for hypno-anesthesia. What is meant by very 'deep hypnosis' is debatable as is the terminology used for that state (somnamulistic, Esdaile, Ultradepth, etc.). This is a brief test and will not take away from therapy.
(Dr. William Breuer popularized this test in University lectures to his students after conducting a research project that involved professionals in multiple sites from three countries.) HISTORY: The early mention of this sign is in an 'archaic' and esoteric book, 'Hypnotism' by Carl Sextus, which stated that when people are asked to open their eyes while remaining in deep trance and then when a light is shone into their eyes, their pupils won't contract. Use any suggestions you wish to keep them in hypnosis, but at this point in trance do not use any suggestions relating to their eyes, visual focus, light or the pupils' dilation/contraction.
==Professional associations and governmental authorities==
Several types of organizations exist to further the professionalism and regulation of practicing hypnotists. For example, professional associations typically offer opportunities for collegial exchanges and professional development in general and/or specialized areas of hypnosis. They also may establish codes of conduct and standards for various certification programs. They may offer such certification programs directly or approve third-party programs. Organizations not affiliated with any professional association may offer their own certificates as well.
Governmental authorities, such as state licensing agencies, may establish minimum requirements for credentials that must be earned before one may practice hypnosis within their jurisdiction. Such credentials typically are called certificates or licenses. Some noteworthy examples of professional associations and governmental authorities that offer certification, licensure or statutes that regulate hypnosis follow.
===Professional associations===
* [http://www.abmedhyp.org American Board of Medical Hypnosis]
* [http://www.hypnotistexaminers.org American Council of Hypnotist Examiners]
* [http://lankton.com/dahb/ American Hypnosis Board for Clinical Social Work]
* [http://www.apa.org/divisions/div30 American Psychological Association, Division 30 Psychological Hypnosis]: "Brings together psychologists and other professionals interested in scientific and applied hypnosis."
* [http://apmha.com American Psychotherapy and Medical Hypnosis Association]
* [[American Society of Clinical Hypnosis]], founded |
Illustration Entry of The Empire State Building]
*[http://www.nypl.org/research/chss/spe/art/photo/hinex/empire/empire.html The Construction of the Empire State Building, 1930-1931], New York Public Library.
*[http://www.cbsforum.com/cgi-bin/articles/partners/cbs/search.cgi?template=display&dbname=cbsarticles&key2=empire&action=searchdbdisplay The story of Empire State Building]
*[http://www.esbnyc.com/ Empire State Building: Official Internet Site] with [http://www.esbnyc.com/tourism/tourism_lightingschedule.cfm lighting schedule and explanation of colors]
*[http://www.damninteresting.com/?p=179 Article describing the B-25 crash of July 28, 1945]
*[http://www.mergatroyd.org/cam/esbcam.asp Empire State Building web cam]
*[http://www.nycfoto.com/showPage.php?albumID=37 NYCfoto.com] - Photos of Empire State Building
*[http://www.nycfoto.com/showPage.php?albumID=51 NYCfoto.com] - Photos from the inside of Empire State Building (from 29th and 68th floors)
* [http://perrin.olivier.free.fr/new_york_2005/Empire%20State%20Building/index.html Gallery of photographs on the Empire State Building]
* [http://perrin.olivier.free.fr/webcam/menu_webcam/ani_esb.html One day in the life of the Empire State Building]
{{New York City}}
{{Supertall}}
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Manhattan]]
[[Category:Manhattan]]
[[Category:Skyscrapers in New York City]]
[[Category:Skyscrapers over 350 meters]]
[[af:Empire State-gebou]]
[[cs:Empire State Building]]
[[de:Empire State Building]]
[[et:Empire State Building]]
[[es:Edificio Empire State]]
[[fr:Empire State Building]]
[[it:Empire State Building]]
[[he:בניין אמפייר סטייט]]
[[ka:ემპაია სტეიტ ბილდინგი]]
[[nl:Empire State Building]]
[[ja:エンパイアステートビルディング]]
[[no:Empire State Building]]
[[pl:Empire State Building]]
[[pt:Empire State Building]]
[[sr:Емпајер стејт билдинг]]
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[[ta:எம்பயர் ஸ்டேட் கட்டிடம்]]
[[zh:帝国大厦]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eugenics</title>
<id>9737</id>
<revision>
<id>41663245</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T22:39:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DonSiano</username>
<id>215548</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Counter-arguments */ ok, I searched the HGP site, found 59 refs to eugenics</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Eugenics congress logo.png|right|thumb|275px|''"Eugenics is the self-direction of human evolution"'': Logo from the Second International Congress of Eugenics, 1921, depicting it as a tree which unites a variety of different fields.]]
'''Eugenics''' is a social philosophy which advocates the improvement of [[human]] [[hereditary]] traits through social intervention. The goals have variously been to create more healthy, [[intelligence (trait)|intelligent]] people, save society [[economics|resources]], and lessen human [[suffering]]. Proposed means of achieving these goals most commonly include [[prenatal testing]] and screening, [[genetic counseling]], [[birth control]], [[selective breeding]], [[In vitro fertilisation]], and [[genetic engineering]]. Critics argue that eugenics is a [[pseudoscience]], and that historically it has been a means whereby social thinking culminated in coercive state-sponsored discrimination and human rights violations, even [[genocide]].
Selective breeding of human beings was suggested at least as far back as [[Plato]], but the modern field was first formulated by [[Francis Galton|Sir Francis Galton]] in [[1865]], drawing on the recent work of his cousin, [[Charles Darwin]]. From its inception, eugenics (derived from the Greek "well born" or "good breeding") was supported by prominent thinkers (including [[Alexander Graham Bell]] and [[W.E.B. DuBois]]) and was an academic discipline at many colleges and universities. Its scientific reputation tumbled in the [[1930s]], a time when [[Ernst Rüdin]] began incorporating eugenic rhetoric into the [[Racial policy of Nazi Germany|racial policies]] of [[Nazi Germany]]. During the postwar period both the public and the scientific community largely associated eugenics with [[Nazi]] abuses, which included enforced "[[racial hygiene]]" and [[extermination]], although a variety of regional and national governments maintained eugenic programs until the 1970s.
== What is eugenics? ==
Definitions of the term vary. The term ''eugenics'' is often used to refer to a movement and social policy that was influential during the first half of the twentieth century. In an historical and broader sense, eugenics can also be a study of "improving human genetic qualities". It is sometimes more broadly applied to describe any human action whose goal is to improve the [[gene pool]]. Some forms of [[infanticide]] in ancient societies, present-day [[reprogenetics]], pre-emptive abortions and [[designer babies]] have been (sometimes controversially) referred to as eugenics.
Because of its [[normative]] goals and historical association with [[scientific racism]], as well as the development of the science of [[genetics]], the international scientific community has mostly disassociated itself from the term "eugenics", sometimes referring to it as a pseudo-science, although one can find advocates of what is now known as ''[[liberal eugenics]]''. Modern inquiries into the potential use of genetic engineering have led to an increased invocation of the history of eugenics in discussions of bioethics, most often as a cautionary tale. Some [[bioethics|ethicists]] suggest that even non-coercive eugenics programs would be inherently unethical, though this view has been challenged by such thinkers as [[Nicholas Agar]].
Eugenicists advocate specific policies that (if successful) would lead to a perceived improvement of the human gene pool. Since defining what improvements are desired or beneficial is arguably a [[cultural]] choice rather than a matter that can be determined objectively (e.g. by empirical, scientific inquiry), eugenics has been deemed [[pseudo-science]] by many. The most disputed aspect of eugenics has been the definition of "improvement" of the human gene pool, such as what is a beneficial characteristic and what is a defect. This aspect of eugenics has historically been tainted with [[scientific racism]].
Early eugenicists were mostly concerned with perceived [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]] factors that often correlated strongly with [[social class]]. Many eugenicists took inspiration from the [[selective breeding]] of animals (where [[purebreed]]s are often strived for) as their analogy for improving human society. The mixing of races (or [[miscegenation]]) was usually considered as something to be avoided in the name of [[racial purity]]. At the time, this concept appeared to have some scientific support, and it remained a contentious issue until the advanced development of [[genetics]] led to a scientific consensus that the division of the human species into unequal races is unjustifiable.
Eugenics has also been concerned with the elimination of [[hereditary diseases]] such as [[haemophilia]] and [[Huntington's disease]]. However, there are several problems with labeling certain factors as "genetic defects":
* In many cases, there is no scientific consensus on what a "genetic defect" is. It is often argued that this is a more matter of social or individual choice.
* What appears to be a "genetic defect" in one context or environment may not be so in another. This can be the case for genes with a [[heterozygote advantage]], such as [[sickle cell anemia]] or [[Tay-Sachs disease]], which in their [[heterozygote]] form may offer an advantage against, respectively, [[malaria]] and [[tuberculosis]].
* [[List of people with disabilities|Many people]] can succeed in life with disabilities.
* Many of the conditions early eugenicists identified as inheritable ([[pellagra]] is one such example) are currently considered to be wholly or at least partially attributed to environmental conditions.
Similar concerns have been raised when a [[prenatal diagnosis]] of a [[congenital disorder]] leads to [[abortion]] (see also [[preimplantation genetic diagnosis]]).
Eugenic policies have been historically divided into two categories: ''positive eugenics'', which encourage a designated "most fit" to reproduce more often, and ''negative eugenics'', which discourage or prevent a designated "less fit" from reproducing. Negative eugenics need not always be coercive. A state might offer financial rewards to certain people who submit to sterilization, although some critics might reply that this incentive along with social pressure could be perceived as coercion. Positive eugenics can also be coercive. [[Abortion]] by "[[fit]]" women was illegal in [[Nazi Germany]].
During the twentieth century, many countries enacted various eugenics policies and programs, including:
*Promoting differential birth rates
*[[Compulsory sterilization]]
*Marriage restrictions
*Genetic screening
*[[Birth control]]
*[[Immigration]] control
*[[Segregation]] (both [[racial segregation]] as well as segregation of the mentally ill from the "normal")
*[[Extermination]]
Most of these policies were later regarded as coercive, restrictive, or genocidal, and now few jurisdictions implement policies that are explicitly labeled as eugenic, or unequivically eugenenic in substance (however labled). However, some private organizations assist people in [[genetic counseling]], and [[reprogenetics]] may be considered as a form of non state-enforced, "liberal" eugenics.
==History==
=== Galton's theory ===
Selective breeding was suggested at least as far back as [[Plato]], who believed human reproduction should be controlled by government. He recorded these views in his famous dialogue "The Republic." "The best men must h |
, which still stands, was not a part of the Temple proper, but rather part of a larger structure on which the Temple and other buildings stood.) This fulfilled prophecy would place the passage before the [[destruction of Jerusalem]], for readers who affirm the reality of prophecies; others speculate that this an example of a ''[[vaticinium ex eventu]]'' ([[New Latin|NL]], loosely "prophecy after the event"; cf. [[Book of Daniel]]).
Jesus seems to be also talking about the [[End of the world]]:
Nation will rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom; there will be [[earthquake]]s in various places; there will be famines. This is but the beginning of the birth pangs.
(verse 8)
==Losses and early editing==
Mark is the shortest gospel. Manuscripts, both scrolls and codices, tend to lose text at the beginning and the end, not unlike a coverless paperback in a backpack. These losses are characteristically unconnected with excisions. For instance, Mark [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%201:1;&version=31; 1:1] has been found in two different forms. Most manuscripts of Mark, included the highly regarded 4th century manuscript of Mark, [[Codex Vaticanus]], has the text "son of God," but three important manuscripts do not. Those three are: [[Codex Sinaiticus]] 01 (4th century), [[Codex Koridethi]] 037 (9th century), and the text called [[Minuscule 28]] (11th century). A further manuscript, P45 is 3rd century, but its opening portion has not survived. (At the same time there is a translation issue that affects the intent: the article "the" is not present in Greek MSS; it was instead added to English translations for flow and compatibility with Church doctrine. "A Son of God" would also be a correct translation, as would the omission the article entirely.) <!-- "That a copyist omitted "Son of God" seems unlikely. As the phrase appears later in the story, some speculate that the author is intentionally building drama toward a later revelation of Jesus's true identity." What is this? -ADH -->
An axiom adopted by some readers, though not by professionals generally, is: "A shorter version generally means an earlier form." Judicious editing of unwanted material, however, may also produce a shorter document. The discovery of sections that have been deleted in the familiar, canonical Mark, quoted in a letter of [[Clement of Alexandria]], is discussed in the entry for [[Secret Gospel of Mark]].
Interpolations may not be editorial, either. It is a common experience that [[gloss]]es written in the margins of manuscripts get incorporated into the text as copies are made. Any particular example is open to dispute of course, but one may take note of Mark [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%207:16;&version=31; 7:16], "Let anyone with ears to hear, listen," which is not found in early manuscripts.
===Ending===
There was some dispute among textual critics in the 19th century as to whether [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2016:9-20;&version=31; 16:9-20], describing some disciples' encounters with the resurrected Jesus, were actually part of the original Gospel, or if they were added later. The oldest extant manuscripts do not contain these verses and the style differs from the rest of Mark, suggesting that they were a later addition. A few manuscripts even include a different ending after verse 8. By the 5th century, at least 4 different endings have been attested. (See [[Mark 16]] for a more comprehensive treatment of this topic.)
The third-century theologian [[Origen]] quoted the resurrection stories in Matthew, Luke, and John but failed to quote anything after Mark [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2016:8;&version=31; 16:8], suggesting that his copy of Mark stopped there, but this is an argument of silence. Critics are divided over whether the original ending at 16:8, which ends the Gospel at the [[empty tomb]] without further explanation, was intentional or the accidental loss of the complete ending or even the author's death.[http://www.christiancadre.org/member_contrib/Mark_Ending.html] Some of those who believe that the 16:8 ending was intentional suggest a connection to the theme of the Messianic Secret.
==References and further reading==
*[[Raymond Brown|Brown, R.]], et al. ''The New Jerome Biblical Commentary'', Prentice Hall, 1990.
*[[Rudolf Bultmann|Bultmann, R.]], ''History of the Synoptic Tradition'', Harper & Row, 1963.
*Dewey, J., “The Survival of Mark’s Gospel: A Good Story?”, ''JBL'' 123.3 (2004) 495-507.
*[http://www.religion-online.org/showchapter.asp?title=1116&C=1228 Grant, Robert M., ''A Historical Introduction to the New Testament'' Harper and Row, 1963: Chapter 8: The Gospel Of Mark]
*Holmes, M. W., "To Be Continued... The Many Endings of Mark", ''Bible Review'' 17.4 (2001).
*Mack, Burton L., 1993. ''The Lost Gospel: The Book of Q and Christian origins'', HarperSanFrancisco.
*McKnight, E. V., ''What is Form Criticism?'', 1997.
*Perrin, N., ''What is Redaction Criticism?''
*Perrin, Norman & Duling, Dennis C., ''The New Testament: An Introduction'', Harcourt Brace Jovanovich 1982, 1974
*Schnelle, Udo, 1998. ''The History and Theology of the New Testament Writings'' (M. Eugene Boring translator), Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1998.
*Stephen Neill and Tom Wright,''The Interpretation of The New Testament 1861-1986'', Oxford University Press, 1990, 1989, 1964
*Telford, W. (ed.), ''The Interpretation of Mark'', Fortress Press, 1985.
*Tuckett, C. (ed), ''The Messianic Secret'', Fortress Press, 1983
==See also==
* [[Ancient history]]
* [[Curiosity]]
* [[Gospel of John]]
* [[Hero]]
* [[Miracle]]
* [[Mythology|Myth]]
* [[Parable]]
* [[Resurrection]]
* [[Ritual]]
* [[Rudolf Bultmann]]
* [[Science]]
* [[Storytelling]]
* [[Supernatural]]
* [[Tradition]]
==External links==
Online translations of the [[Gospel of Mark]]:
*[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/mark.html Early Christian Writings:] Mark in numerous English translations, on-line scholarly resources
* {{biblegateway||Mark}}
*[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Mark Mark on Wikisource]
Related articles:
*[http://www.site-berea.com/dicionarios.html ''Easton's Bible Dictionary,'' 1897]: mainstream Protestant scholarship of the 19th century summed up for the average reader.
*"Gospel of Mark", ''New Catholic Encyclopedia'', [http://www.newadvent.org]. A bit dated, but very informative.
*[http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/Secret/secmark_home.html Secret Gospel of Mark] Description of an altered Gospel of Mark in Egypt, mentioned in a letter by Clement of Alexandria, with images.
*[http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/TCG/TC-Mark.pdf A textual commentary on the Gospel of Mark] Detailed textcritical discussion of the 300 most important variants of the Greek text (PDF, 411 pages).
*[http://users2.ev1.net/~turton/GMark/GMark_index.html Michael A. Turton's Historical Commentary on the Gospel of Mark]A detailed commentary on the Gospel of Mark.
*[http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/TCG/TC-Mark-Ends.pdf The various endings of Mark] Detailed textcritical description of the evidence, the manuscripts, and the variants of the Greek text (PDF, 17 pages).
<center>
<br>
{| border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse"
|- bgcolor="darkgray"
|colspan=3|<Center>'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor="gainsboro"
|Preceded by:<br><Center>[[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]]
|'''[[Gospels]]'''
|Followed by:<br><Center>[[Gospel of Luke|Luke]]
|}
</center>
[[Category:New Testament books|Mark]]
[[Category:New Testament narrative|Mark]]
[[cs:Evangelium podle Marka]]
[[da:Markusevangeliet]]
[[de:Evangelium nach Markus]]
[[es:Evangelio de Marcos]]
[[fr:Évangile selon Marc]]
[[ko:마르코 복음서]]
[[id:Injil Markus]]
[[ia:Evangelio Secundo Marco]]
[[nl:Evangelie naar Marcus]]
[[ja:マルコによる福音書]]
[[no:Evangeliet etter Markus]]
[[pl:Ewangelia Marka]]
[[pt:Evangelho segundo Marcos]]
[[ru:Евангелие от Марка]]
[[scn:Vancelu di Marcu]]
[[sr:Свето Јеванђеље по Марку]]
[[fi:Evankeliumi Markuksen mukaan]]
[[sv:Markusevangeliet]]
[[zh:馬爾谷福音]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gospel of Luke</title>
<id>12491</id>
<revision>
<id>40669725</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T04:38:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tawker</username>
<id>212671</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.123.202.165|216.123.202.165]] ([[User talk:216.123.202.165|Talk]]) to last version by Wiki alf</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
{{Template:Chapters in the Gospel of Luke}}
The '''Gospel of Luke''' is the third of the four [[Biblical canon|canon]]ical [[Gospel]]s of the [[New Testament]], which tell the story of [[Jesus]]' life, death, and resurrection. Although the text does not name its author, the modern consensus follows the traditional view that this gospel and the [[Acts of the Apostles]] were written by the same author. The traditional view is that this author is the [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]] named in the ''[[Epistle to Philemon]]'' [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Philemon%201:24;&version=31; 1:24], a follower of [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]].
The main characteristic of this Gospel, as Farrar (''Cambridge Bible'', Luke, Introd.) remarks, is expressed in the motto, "Who went about doing good, and healing all that were oppressed of the devil" (Acts [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=acts%2010:38;&version=31; 10:38]; compare with [[Luke 4|Luke]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=luke%204:18;&version=31; 4:18]). Luke wrote for the "[[Hellenic]] world."
==Authorship and audience==
There is |
chess of Montpensier|duchess of Montpensier]]'s participation in the [[Fronde]]).
The [[Dahomey Amazons]] were a 6000 strong military unit of [[Dahomey]] (now [[Benin]]) in [[West Africa]] who were active from the [[16th century|16th]] to the late [[19th century]]. They were largely successful in their battles with neighboring kingdoms, and were finally defeated by the [[France|French]]. [[Libya]] has a long history of Amazon women, which probably pre-dates the Greek Amazons. Even today, [[Gadaffi]] is guarded by female soldiers. Other [[Africa]]n ethnic groups who used fighting women were the [[Igbo (people)|Igbo]] and [[Fulani]], who integrated the women into their armies.
In the kingdom of [[Siam]] in the 19th century, the king had a personal battalion of 400 spear-wielding women. They were chosen from the most beautiful women of the country, and were said to be excellent spear-throwers, though they were regarded as too valuable to be sent to war. Almost all countries have female combatants in their history one time or the other; it is simply the matter of more or less.
Around 400 women secretly took part as soldiers in the [[American Civil War]]. For notable cases of women became soldiers, reference may be made to [[Mary Anne Talbot]] and [[Hannah Snell]].
In the 20th century, the states of the [[Soviet Union]] and [[Israel]] took the initiative to train and utilize women for light infantry and other combatant roles. Although these moves were initially motivated by the shortage of manpower, for example on USSR's western front in WWII, they led the way for the use of female combatants by the U.S. and other western nations.
==Modern depiction of Amazons==
It has been noted that until the 20th century, Amazons were typically depicted in [[literature]] as an alien adversary that threatened the masculinity of heroes. As such, the typical goal of the heroes has been to defeat and humiliate them as a way of reasserting male superiority.
In the 20th century, Amazons were depicted with increasing sympathy. Today, the typical depiction of the characters is as an isolated community of powerful and beautiful warriors whom the male heroes are challenged to earn their respect to become valuable allies. The most famous modern example of an Amazon is the [[superhero]], [[Wonder Woman]]. Amazons were also frequently featured on the ''[[Xena: Warrior Princess]]'' and ''[[Hercules: The Legendary Journeys]]'' television series. [[Robert E. Howard]]'s minor character [[Red Sonja]], who was fleshed out more in the ''[[Conan the Barbarian]]'' comic books, and subsequently, in her own movie, also owes much to this modern sympathetic treatment of Amazons. An episode of [[Futurama]] had a planet of [[giant (mythology)|giant]] Amazon-like women where the cast gets stranded. [[Esther Freisner]] has published a series of [[anthology|anthologies]] on the theme of ''Chicks in [[Chainmail]]'', containing humorous takes on Amazon characters by a number of science fiction and fantasy writers.
The [[comic book]] series ''[[Y: The Last Man]]'', in which every male on Earth is wiped out in a mysterious plague, includes a hyper-feminist [[cult]] called the Daughters of the Amazon, who believe that [[Mother Earth]] cleansed itself of the "aberration" of the Y chromosome.
A [[Buck Rogers in the 25th Century (TV series)|Buck Rogers]] episode, ''Planet of the Amazon Women'' features a society composed solely of women, because all men were either killed in war or held as prisoners of war by their enemy.
A [[Star Trek]]: The Next Generation episode features similar women in "Angel One". These women are large and strong and dominate the smaller, weaker, more servile men.
[[Zeus, Master of Olympus]], a computer game, features these women under the command of Artemis who is, depending on the scenario/campaign played, are either the player's allies or deadly enemies, since Artemis can either "bless" the game player's leader or "curse" the game player's leader, depending on the scenario/campaign played. Some scenarios also feature ''independent'' amazons, such as the Military 2 scenario and The Labors of Hercules scenario.
A [[Sliders]] Episode depicts women in control of a Earth, due to a germ warfare virus killing most of the men, and causing the survivors to be sterile, and left the women unaffected by it. When the male Sliders were found, they were mistaken for men that
somehow escaped the plague, not knowing that they're aliens from another dimension, which they were.
A [[Stargate SG-1]] episode, Birthright, has the military unit from Earth asking woman warriors on another planet for aid against spaceborne and dimensional enemies.
A [[Thundarr the Barbarian]] episode, ''Attack of the Amazon Women'', depicts warlike women located in
what was left of Mt. Rushmore. He and his companions defeated a female meglomaniac who had found a
"ancient" nuclear warhead, and intended to use it in her attempt at conquest.
Another computer game, [[Diablo II]], depicts these women in it as a combat class.
In the [[Wheel of Time]] books by [[Robert Jordan]], the [[Aiel]] people have amazon warriors, called ''[[Far Dareis Mai]]'', "Maidens of the Spear".
In The Television series [[Futurama]] the characters crash-land on a planet called "Amazonia" inhabited by a race of giant women (Amazonians). Episode 5 of Season 3, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futurama_%28TV_series_-_season_3%29#Amazon_Women_in_the_Moodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futurama_%28TV_series_-_season_3%29#Amazon_Women_in_the_Mood Amazon Women in the Mood]
A [[Outer Limits]] episode, called [[Lithia]] depicts women who have survived all out war, incl. a nuclear attack and a germ warfare attack which killed all men. In this, a man, who was a [[Major]] in the US Military, was cryogenically frozen as part of a experiment before the war broke out, was revived by some women. He found that humanity survived the war, but were all women. Reproduction was carried out by using frozen sperm, but the virus kills male babies.
Due to a social taboo, he was placed BACK into cryogenic stasis. This episode was shown on the [[Sci-Fi]] channel on 3-1-06 @ 3pm EST/EDT, was made in 1998.
==See also==
{{wikiquote}}
*[[Timeline of women's participation in warfare]]
*[[Valkyrie]]
*[[Themis]]
*[[Artemis]]
*[[Diablo II#Amazon|Amazon Class: Diablo II]]
*[[Virago]]
*[[Joan of Ark]]
*[[Amazon Women on the Moon]]
==External links==
*[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/case_amazon/index.html Secrets of the Dead: Amazon Warrior Women (PBS)] - includes information on genetic and archaeological study of recent finds of skeletons in tombs
*[http://www.moonspeaker.ca/amazonsframe.html Amazon Nation] The Amazons existed. But, their history has been long lost, or else so corrupted by later peoples who would rather we forgot them they are barely recognizable. This is a version of a book in progress, so you may notice differences if you were to compare it to a printed version.
*[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Hdt.+4.110.1 Herodotus on the Amazons]
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?pageno=180&fk_files=1131 Herodotus via Gutenberg]
*[http://www.stevequayle.com/Giants/W.Europe/W.Europe4.html] The Amazons existed. They were originally warrior women of Scythians. Greeks later added them to their mythology even sometimes deitifying some of them.
*[http://folk.uio.no/thomas/lists/amazon-connection.html The Amazon Connection] - A guide to online resources about Amazons, aiming to cover the entire spectrum of meaning that has been attributed to the term Amazon.
*[http://folk.uio.no/thomas/lists/amazons.html Amazons International] - A newsletter dedicated to the image of the Amazon or female hero in fiction and in fact, in art and literature, in the physiques and feats of female athletes, and in gender-related and sexual orientations.
*[http://www.theowljournal.com/article.php?issue=06&story=04&comments=1 Man-Handlers: Feminism in Ancient Greece] by Declan Jenkins, New College, Oxford, in [http://www.theowljournal.com ''The Owl Journal'']
*[http://www.perseus.org/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0004%3Aid%3Damazon Perseus]
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/wmn/rca/rca02.htm THE AMAZONS IN GREEK LEGEND]
*[http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mamazon.html Straight Dope]
*[http://www.lisasmedman.topcities.com/page22.html Amazons of Mythology] Information on the European and North African Amazons of Greek mythology, comments on archaeological findings, plus an article on sites of interest in Turkey for modern travelers.
==References==
*[[A. D. Mordtmann]], ''Die Amazonen'' (1862)
*[[W. Stricker]], ''Die Amazonen in Sage und Geschichte'' (1868)
*[[A. Klugmann]], ''Die Amazonen in der attischen Literatur und Kunst'' (1875)
*[[H. L. Krause]], ''Die Amazonensage'' (1893)
*[[F. G. Bergmann]], ''Les Amazones dans l'histoire et dans la fable'' (1853)
*[[P. Lacour]], ''Les Amazones'' (1901)
*articles in [[Pauly-Wissowa]]'s ''Realencyclopadie,'' and [[W. H. Roscher]]'s ''Lexikon der Mythologie''
*[[George Grote]], ''History of Greece,'' pt. i. ch. 11.
*[[J. A. Salmonson]], ''The Encyclopedia of Amazons'' (1991), ISBN 0385423667
==Sources==
About twenty-five hundred years ago, [[Herodotus]] in ''Histories'' in book four records:
110. About the Sauromatai the following tale is told:--When the
Hellenes had fought with the Amazons,--now the Amazons are called by the Scythians /Oiorpata/, which name means in the Hellenic tongue "slayers of men," for "man" they call /oior/, and /pata/ means "to slay,"--then, as the story goes, the Hellenes, having conquered them in the battle at the Thermodon, were sailing away and conveying with them in three ships as many Amazons as they were able to take prisoners. These in the open sea set upon the men and cast them out of the ships; but they knew not |
ur hand or with the broom, and then cleaning the area around you with the broom. The reason for this is that any dirt in the area or on the bottom of a rock could alter the trajectory of it and ruin the shot. When this happens, this is called a "pick".
After cleaning the rock, the next step is to know what rotation, or ''turn'', to put on the rock. The skip will usually tell the thrower this information. The thrower will then place the handle of the rock generally at either a "two o'clock" or a "ten o'clock" position. When delivering the rock, the thrower will turn the rock from one of these two positions toward the "twelve o'clock" position before releasing it. A rock turned from ten o'clock to twelve will spin clockwise and curl to the right, and a rock turned from two o'clock to twelve will have the opposite effect. A generally desired rate of turn is about two and a half rotations before coming to a rest.
Once the thrower knows the turn to give the rock, the thrower will place the rock in front of his or her toe in the hack. At this point the thrower will then start his or her delivery. This begins by slightly rising from the hack, and moving the rock back to one's toe. This is the beginning of a pendulum movement that will determine the force given to the rock. Some older curlers will actually raise the rock in this backward movement, as this is what they are accustomed to. The forward thrust of the delivery comes next. The thrower moves his or her slider-foot in front of the other foot while keeping the rock ahead of him. The thrower then lunges out from the hack. The more thrust from this lunge, the more power or "''weight''" the rock will have. When lunging out, the gripper-foot will drag behind the thrower. When lunging out, it is important to push as precisely as possible in the direction of the skip's broom at the other end, so that the "line" of the rock is accurate. The rock should be released before the thrower's momentum wanes at which point the thrower imparts the appropriate curl, keeping in mind the stone should be released before the first hog-line.
The amount of weight given to the rock will also be told to the thrower by the skip at the other end. This usually occurs by the skip tapping the ice with his broom where he or she wants the rock to be delivered. In the case of a take-out or a tap, the skip will tap the rock that he or she wants removed or tapped.
It should also be noted that with a more skilled skip, where he wants the rock to land will not always be the exact place he holds the broom if the skip expects the rock to curl. When the rock is delivered accurately at the broom, it will curl towards where the skip wants it to land.
=== Sweeping ===
When a rock is delivered, it is important that there be two players following the rock so that they are ready to sweep its path if needed. Sweeping is done for two reasons: to make the rock travel farther, and to make the rock travel straighter (curl less). When sweeping, pressure and speed of the brush head are key to slightly melting the pebbled ice in the path of the rock. [http://www.curling.ca/fan_central/features/from_the_ntc/article.asp?id=16]
One of the interesting strategy aspects of curling is knowing when to sweep. When swept, a rock will always travel both farther and straighter. In some situations, one of the two is often not desirable (for example, a rock may have too much weight, but needs sweeping to prevent curling into a guard), and the team must decide which is better: getting by the guard but traveling too far, or hitting the guard.
Much of the yelling that goes on during a curling game is the skip calling the ''line'' of the shot. The skip evaluates the path of the rock and calls to the sweepers to sweep as necessary to hold the rock straight. The sweepers themselves are responsible for judging the weight of the rock and ensuring the length of travel is correct.
Usually, the two sweepers will be on opposite sides of the rock's path. Grip of the broom is vital - one hand grips the top (non-brush end) of the handle while the other grips the handle close to the head of the broom so that as much pressure as needed may be applied while sweeping, though the precise amount of pressure may vary from relatively light brushing to maximum-pressure scrubbing. It is important to never to touch the rock while sweeping (touching the rock results in "burning" it, and the opposing skip may opt to have the rock removed from play).
Sweeping can be done anywhere on the ice up to the "tee-line", as long as it is only for your own team's rock. Once your team's rock crosses the tee-line, only one player may sweep it. Additionally, when an opposing rock crosses the tee-line, one player from your team is allowed to sweep it. This is the only case that a rock may be swept by an opposing team member. In international rules, this player must be the skip, or if the skip is throwing, then the third.
=== Types of shots ===
Essentially, there are two kinds of shots in curling, the draw and the takeout. There are many variations of these shots, however. Draws are shots in which the stone is thrown only to reach the house (or in front of the house - when the rock is called a guard), while takeouts are shots designed to remove stones from play. Choosing which shot to play will determine whether the thrower will use an in-turn or out turn, for a right-handed person, the clockwise and counter-clockwise rotation of the stone, respectively. Possible draw shots include guard, raise, come around, and freeze. Takeout shots include peel, hit and roll, chip and hack. For a more complete listing look at the [[Glossary of curling terms]].
=== Free guard zone ===
Until four rocks have been played (two from each side), rocks in the ''free guard zone'' (those rocks left in the area between the hog and tee lines, excluding the house) may not be removed by an opponent's stone. These are known as ''guard rocks''. If the guard rocks are removed, they are replaced and the opponent's rock is removed from play. This rule is known as the '''four-rock rule''' or the '''free-zone rule'''; some people and leagues play with a '''three-rock rule''', where the rule is in place until three rocks are played.
This rule, a relatively recent addition to curling, was added in response to a strategy of "peeling" opponents' guard stones (knocking them out of play at an angle that caused the shooter's stone to also roll out of play, leaving no stones on the ice). Skilled teams leading a game would employ this strategy to prevent their opponents from "stealing" an end (scoring without having the last rock, or hammer) by placing guard stones and later trying to draw around them and using them for protection. The team with the hammer could peel rock after rock, which would blank the end, keeping the last rock advantage for another end. While a sound strategy, this made for an unexciting game.
=== Last rock (or Hammer) ===
The last rock in an end is called the '''hammer'''. Before the game, teams typically decide who gets the hammer in the first end by coin toss or similar method. (In tournaments, this is typically assigned, giving every team the first-end hammer in half their games.) In all subsequent ends, the hammer belongs to the team that did not score in the preceding end. In the event that neither team scores, the hammer remains with the same team. Naturally, it is easier to score points with the hammer than without; in tournament play, the team with the hammer generally tries to score two or more points. If only one point is possible, the skip will often try to avoid scoring at all in order to retain the hammer until the next end, when two or more points may be possible. This is called a '''blank''' end. Scoring without the hammer is commonly referred to as '''stealing''', or a '''steal''', and is much more difficult.
=== Scoring ===
After both teams have delivered eight rocks, the team with the rock closest to the button is awarded one point for each of its own rocks that is closer than the opponent's closest rock. Rocks that are not in the house (further from the center than the outer edge of the 12-foot ring) do not score even if no opponent's rock is closer. A rock is considered in the house if any portion of its edge is over any portion of the 12-foot ring. Since the bottom of the rock is rounded, a rock just barely in the house will not have any actual contact with the ring, which will pass under the rounded edge of the stone, but it still counts.
[[image:curlingscore.jpg|thumb|This is a typical curling score-board used at clubs, which is vastly different from the ones used on television.]]
The score is marked on a [[scoreboard]], of which there are two types. One is the baseball type scoreboard, which is usually used for televised games. On this scoreboard the ''ends'' are marked by columns 1 through 10 (or 11 for the possibility of an extra end to break ties) plus an additional column for the total. Below this are two rows — one for each team. The number of points each team gets in an end is marked this way.
The other form of scoreboard is the one used in most curling clubs (see photo). It is set up in the same way, except the numbered row indicates points, not ends, and it can be found between the rows for the team. The numbers placed are indicative of the end. If the red team scores 3 points in the first end (called a ''three-ender''), then a one (indicating the first end) is placed beside the number three in the red row. If they score two more in the second end, then a two will be placed beside the five in the red row indicating that the red team has five points in total (3+2). This scoreboard works because only one team can get points in an end. However, some confusion can exist if no team gets points in an end. This is called a ''blank end'' an |
ns)|full-duplex]] or [[duplex (telecommunications)|half-duplex]] communication between two [[analogue]] fixed-line [[modem]]s using [[PSK]] [[modulation]] at 1600 [[baud]]s to carry synchronous data at 4800 [[Bit rate|bit/s]]. An optional 75 bauds reverse channel carries 75 bit/s.
**[[V.27|V.27bis]] An extension of [[V.27]], first agreed in 1976, adding a fall-back modulation rate, compatible with [[V.26]], of 1200 [[baud]]s to carry data at 2400 [[Bit rate|bit/s]]. An adaptive equalizer is included to handle lower grade lines.
**[[V.27|V.27ter]] An extension of [[V.27|V.27bis]] for use on dial-up lines.
**[[V.28]] A recommendation, first agreed in 1972, for [[unbalanced]] electrical circuits for data communication. Together with the circuit specifications of [[V.24]] and the 25-pin connector and pin assignments of IS 2110, this is compatible with [[EIA]] [[RS-232|RS 232]].
**[[V.29]] A recommendation, first agreed in 1976, for [[duplex (telecommunications)|full-duplex]] communication between two [[analogue]] fixed-line [[modem]]s using [[Quadrature amplitude modulation|QAM]] [[modulation]] at 2400 [[baud]]s to carry synchronous data at 9600 [[Bit rate|bit/s]]. Fallback rates of 7200 and 4800 bit/s use 2400 bauds at reduced modulations. Multiplexing of 7200, 4800 and 2400 bit/s subchannels up to an aggregate rate of 9600 bit/s is optional. An adaptation of this standard is used for facsimile (fax) transmission.
**[[V.32]] A recommendation, first agreed in 1984, for a family of [[duplex (telecommunications)|duplex]] [[analogue]] dial-up or fixed-line [[modem]]s using [[Quadrature amplitude modulation|QAM]] [[modulation]] at 2400 [[baud]]s to carry data at 9600/4800/2400 [[bit/s]].
**[[V.32|V.32bis]] A duplex modem operating at data signalling rates of up to '''14 400''' bit/s for use on the general switched telephone network and on leased point-to-point 2-wire telephone-type circuits, with [[fallback]] to 12 kbit/s. This standard was improved on by modem manufacturers to create the V.terbo adhoc standard, signalling at 19,2 kbit/s, as suggestive of a V.32ter standard that never materialized.
**[[V.34]] is the ITU-T standard for full-duplex data communications up to '''28,800''' [[bit/s]] with [[fallback]] to lower speeds depending on the [[remote]] modem and the conditions of the phone line. This standard was known informally as V.Fast, hence pre-standard modems called V.FC (V.FastClass).
**[[V.34]]bis A communications protocol for full-duplex datacommunications up to '''33,6 kbit/s''' between two analog modems on dial-up lines.
**[[V.42]] Error correction protocol
**[[V.42bis|V.42bis]] Data compression procedures for data circuit terminating equipment ([[DCE]]) using error correction procedures to try to ensure the transfer of error-free data, even over the noisiest telephone lines. Ratified by CCITT in January 1990.
**[[V.44]] Data compression protocol
**[[V.90]] A digital modem and analogue modem pair for use on the Public Switched Telephone Network ([[PSTN]]) at data signalling rates of up to '''56 000''' bit/s downstream and up to 33 600 bit/s upstream, using [[PCM]] encoding downstream, and [[QAM]] encoding upstream. V.90 Mode 2 used PCM upstream as well. This standard was known informally as V.Last and some pre-standard modems indicate V.Last compatibility or upgradeability. Prior to the arrival of the standard, there were two competing industry standards for 56 kbit/s downstream signalling, X2 and [[K56flex]]. K56flex itself is a merged standard of K56 and 56flex.
**[[V.92]] A digital modem and analog modem pair for use on [[Plain old telephone service|POTS]] at data signalling rates of up to '''56 kbit/s''' downstream and up to '''48 kbit/s''' upstream, using [[PCM]] encoding both ways, supporting Modem-on-Hold technology. This is a development of V.90 Mode 2.
===X - Data networks and open system communication===
**[[X.1]] International user classes of service in, and categories of access to, public data networks and Integrated Services Digital Networks (ISDNs)
**[[X.3]] This is essentially a numbered list of terminal and comms setting attributes.
**[[X.21]] Interface between Data Terminal Equipment and Data Circuit-terminating Equipment for synchronous operation on public data networks
**[[X.25]] Interface between Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) and Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE) for terminals operating in the packet mode and connected to public data networks by dedicated circuit
**[[X.29]] Defines the level 4 (or the Session Layer, in the [[ISO_protocols]]) for X.25 communications. Call establishment and X.3 parameter negotiation occurs via the X.29 protocol.
**[[X.75]] Interface between DCE units in a network. Essentially transport of X.25 messaging.
**[[X.110]] International routing principles and routing plan for public data networks
**[[X.121]] International numbering plan for public data networks. This can be seen as the specification for X.25 Addresses.
**[[X.200]] Information technology - [[Open Systems Interconnection]] - Basic Reference Model: The basic model
**[[X.208]] Specification of Abstract Syntax Notation One ([[ASN.1]]) (superseded by X.680)
**[[X.209]] Specification of Basic Encoding Rules for Abstract Syntax Notation One (ASN.1) (superseded by X.690)
**[[X.400]] Message handling services: Message handling system and service overview
**[[X.500]] Information technology - Open Systems Interconnection - The Directory: Overview of concepts, models and services Common text with ISO/IEC
**[[X.509]] Information technology - Open Systems Interconnection - The Directory: Public-key and attribute [[public key certificate|certificate]] frameworks
**X.520 Information technology &#8211; Open Systems Interconnection &#8211; The Directory - Selected Attribute Types
**X.521 Information technology &#8211; Open Systems Interconnection &#8211; The Directory - Selected Object Classes
**X.680 series - [[ASN.1]] syntax specification
**X.690 series - [[ASN.1]] encoding rules
** [[X.700]] Management framework for Open Systems Interconnection for CCITT applications
** X.701 Information technology — Open Systems Interconnection — Systems management overview
**[[X.800]] Security architecture for Open Systems Interconnection for CCITT applications
===Y - Global information infrastructure and Internet protocol aspects===
===Z - Languages and general software aspects for telecommunication systems===
* Z.200 The Programming Language [[CHILL]]
==See also==
* Other specifications which are numbered similarly to ITU-T Recommendations, but are not products of the ITU-T, include:
**[[X10 (industry standard)|X10]] Interface between Home Automation devices
**[[Electronic Data Interchange]] ANSI Standard
**[[ITU-R]] Recommendations, such as M.1457
==External links==
* [http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/ Official ITU-T website]
* [http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/publications/recs.html List of all ITU-T recommendations]
[[Category:Standards organizations]]
[[Category:Telecommunications]]
[[ca:Comité Consultiu Internacional Telegràfic i Telefònic]]
[[da:International Telecommunication Union, Telecommunication standardization sector]]
[[de:Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique]]
[[es:CCITT]]
[[eo:CCITT]]
[[nl:ITU-T]]
[[ja:ITU-T]]
[[pl:ITU-T]]
[[sv:CCITT]]
[[zh:国际电信联盟远程通信标准化组]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Indian</title>
<id>14745</id>
<revision>
<id>41436342</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T08:12:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bnitin</username>
<id>344653</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Change Indian Airlines to Indian</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar2|Indian|Indians}}
'''''Indian''''' or '''''Indians''''' can refer to:
*since 1947, a person from the [[Republic of India]], a nation-state
*until 1947, a person from the [[Indian subcontinent|subcontinent of India]], a continental landmass where the modern-day nation-states of [[India]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Bangladesh]] are located
*[[Languages of India]]
*[[Indian American]]
*[[Indian Airlines|Indian]], India's national carrier, formerly called Indian Airlines.
*[[Indigenous peoples of the Americas]], ''American Indians'', the aboriginal people of the Americas and their descendants
*[[Indian (motorcycle)]], a classical US motorcycle
*[[Cleveland Indians]], a baseball team in the United States
*''Indians'', a Chicago monument created by [[Ivan Meštrović]]
*[[Indus (constellation)]]
*[[Indian ink]] is a carbon based ink
*''[[Indians (play)]]'', by Arthur Kopit
*''[[Indian cinema ]]''
{{disambig}}
[[da:indianer]]
[[de:indisch]]
[[es:Indio]]
[[ja:&#12452;&#12531;&#12487;&#12451;&#12450;&#12531;]]
[[simple:Indian]]
[[sv:indian]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Internalization</title>
<id>14746</id>
<revision>
<id>23627502</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-20T21:43:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>193.164.126.16</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[pl:Internalizacja]]
To '''internalize''' is to put something inside of borders where it did not originally belong. In [[sociology]] to '''internalize''' is to learn something (such as ideas or skills) and make use of it from then on.
[[Religious conversion]] is one example of this process.
Internalization is the opposite of [[externalization]].
In Freudian psychology, internalization is one of the concepts of the psychological process [[introjection]], a psychological [[defence mechanism]]. Cognate concepts are [[identification]] and incorporation.
{{socio-stub}}
[[Category:Sociology]][[Category:Social philosophy]]
[[he:הפנמה]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ionic</title>
<id>14747</id>
<revision>
<id>41957594</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T21:53:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>171.72.5.226</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* |
er. [[Fort Bulnes]] established, the first Chilean presence on the Strait of Magellan.
[[1844]]: Spain recognizes the [[Independence of Chile]]
[[1851]]: [[José María de la Cruz]] revolts in the southern provinces of Chile. Bulnes crushes the revolutionary attempt and signs the treaty of ''Purapel'' with the revolutionaries. [[Manuel Montt]] becomes the third of the ''decenal'' presidents.
[[1856]]: The [[Dispute of Sacristán]] (''"Cuestión del Sacristán"''). An apparently trivial question of ecclesiastical discipline divides the Conservative Party into secular and ultra-Catholic factions, which lays the ground for their political defeat in the elections of [[1861]].
[[1857]]: The [[Civil Code of Chile]] comes into effect; it will become a model for Latin American legal codes down to the present day.
[[1859]]: [[Chilean Revolution of 1859]]. [[Pedro León Gallo]], radical revolutionary of [[Copiapó]], and others are defeated by the goverment forces. However, as a consequence, [[Antonio Varas]] renounces to his candidature.
[[1861]]: [[José Joaquín Pérez]] of the [[Liberal Party (Chile)|Liberal Party]] elected president. His party will retain power until the [[Chilean Revolution of 1891]].
[[1863]]: A [[France|French]] adventurer proclaims himself [[Orélie Antoine I]], King of Araucanía. After a short time he is arrested by the Chileans and deported, but the incident meant the end of the Chilean preocupation with occupying the remaining Mapuche, before some other power could do so and divide Chile in two. This intensification of activity is known as the [[Pacification of Araucanía]].
[[1866]]: Chile, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia at war with Spain. The port of Valparaíso is bombed by the Spanish. A treaty of limits (borders) of 1866 is signed with Bolivia.
[[1871]]: A constitutional reform prohibits re-election, resulting in the end of the ''decenios''. Governments of five years duration persist until [[1925]], except for the premature death of [[Pedro Montt]] in [[1910]].
[[1874]]: Another treaty of limits is signed with Bolivia due to political tensions.
[[1879]]: In defense of the interests of the Chilean industrial oligarchy, Chilean soldiers occupy the Bolivian port of [[Antofagasta]], precipitating the [[War of the Pacific]] against Peru and Bolivia. The Chilean cause is adopted by the general populace after the death of Captain [[Arturo Prat]] in the [[Naval battle of Iquique]]. The same day, [[May 21]], Captain [[Carlos Condell]] sinks the powerful ''Independencia'', which together with the capture of the ''Huáscar'' in the [[Naval battle of Angamos]], eliminates Peruvian sea power and permits the Chileans to land troops at will along the coast throughout the military theater of operations.
[[1881]]: Chilean troops occupy and sack [[Lima]], capital of Peru. The war will continue another three years, with the Peruvians retreating to the Sierra and successfully defending their mountainous redoubts. Argentina takes advantage of the military situation to impose upon Chile a settlement of their border disputes, granting all of Patagonia to Argentina. The Mapuches also take advantage, with an armed rising against the increasing Chilean occupation of their territories, but are finally and definitively defeated for the first time in three centuries of combat.
[[1883]]: Law of [[marriage|Civil Matrimony]] adopted. This secularization was fiercely resisted by the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic Church]]. The [[Treaty of Ancón]] is signed with Perú to end the war.
[[1884]]: War of the Pacific ends, allowing mining of [[saltpeter]] in the regions conquered from Peru and Bolivia, leading to great national prosperity for Chile. Treaty called "[[Pacto de Tregua]]".
[[1888]]: [[Policarpo Toro]] leads a naval expedition to annex [[Easter Island]]. The [[Catholic University of Chile]] is privately founded.
[[1891]]. [[Chilean Revolution of 1891]]. The constitutional president [[José Manuel Balmaceda]] is overthrown by troops favorable to the National Congress. The beginning of "Parliamentarism" under which the Chilean oligarchy governed on its own behalf.
[[1906]]: Massacre of the Escuela Santa María de Iquique; soldiers fire on saltpeter workers and their unarmed associates. It will be years before the workers, terrorized by the brutal repression, resume the struggle for their rights.
[[1910]]: The centenary of independence is darkened by the death of President [[Pedro Montt]], the only president between [[1831]] and [[1925]] who failed to complete his term of office.
[[1920]]: [[Arturo Alessandri Palma]] elected president, indicating a rise to power by the Chilean middle class.
[[1924]]: Chile's first [[income tax]] levied.
[[1925]]: After intense political agitation the [[Chilean Constitution of 1925]] is adopted, only slightly less authoritarian than that of 1833. The ''Impuesto Global Complementario'', a [[graduated income tax]], is introduced.
[[1927]]: Amidst great political instability, and by way of a bloodless coup, [[Carlos Ibáñez del Campo]] takes the presidency. He will govern as dictator, taking [[Benito Mussolini]] as his model, until [[1931]]. Also in 1927, the corps of ''[[carabineros]]'' &mdash; militarized police &mdash; is founded.
[[1929]]: The economic [[crash of 1929]] strikes Chile with more force than any other country on earth.
[[1931]]: The deep economic crisis obliges Ibáñez del Campo to step down. A series of civilian governments and military juntas follows, some of which last no more than a few days.
[[1932]]: The period of political anarchy ends with the return to power of [[Arturo Alessandri Palma]].
[[1938]]: Massacre of [[Seguro Obrero]].
[[1939]]: The [[Radical Party (Chile)|Radical Party]] gains power, which they will keep until [[1952]].
[[1940]]: [[Pedro Aguirre Cerda]], president of the nation, establishes internationally the first Chilean claims in [[Antarctica]].
[[1945]]: [[Gabriela Mistral]] receives the [[Nobel Prize for Literature]].
[[1946]]: [[Gabriel González Videla]] becomes president, backed by a broad alliance of parties, including the Radicals and [[Communist Party of Chile|Communists]]. Once in power, he acceded to pressure from the [[United States]] and promulgates the [[Law of Defense of Democracy (Chile)|Law of Defense of Democracy]], also known as the ''Ley Maldita'' ("accursed law"), which outlawed his former allies the Communists, some of whom were placed in [[concentration camps]] in [[Pisagua]]. Poet [[Pablo Neruda]] hounded into exile.
[[1952]]: [[Carlos Ibáñez del Campo]] returns to the presidency, this time via the ballot box, ending the era of the Radical Party. His emblem is the broom, with which he proposed (fruitlessly) to sweep away the Radicals' legacy of corruption.
[[1964]]: [[Christian Democracy|Christian Democrat]] [[Eduardo Frei Montalva]] becomes president, proclaiming the so-called "Revolution in Liberty".
[[1970]]: [[Salvador Allende]] elected president; his leftist orientation greatly displeases the government of the [[United States]]. See [[1970 Chilean presidential election]].
[[1971]]: Poet [[Pablo Neruda]] receives [[Nobel Prize for Literature]].
[[1973]]. The Armed Forces, ''carabineros'', and others stage a coup, overthrowing Allende, who dies in the course of the coup. [[Augusto Pinochet]] establishes himself as the head of a military junta. The subsequent repression of leftists and other opponents of the military regime results in approximately 130,000 arrests and at least 30,000 dead or [[Disappearances|"disappeared"]] over the next three years. ''See [[Chilean coup of 1973]].''
[[1976]]: The machinations of the United States oblige [[President of the Philippines|President]] [[Ferdinand Marcos]], to cancel a scheduled visit by President Pinochet to the Philippines.
[[1980]]: The military government promulgates the [[Chilean Constitution of 1980]], which is adopted by [[plebiscite]]. Economic policy begins to be significantly influenced by the ideas of the [[Chicago School]] and of [[Neoliberalism]].
[[1988]]: Pinochet loses the plebiscite foreseen by the constitution, which brings about, by agreement of all, elections the following year.
[[1990]]: [[Patricio Aylwin]] takes office as President. Transition to democracy begins.
[[1994]]: [[Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle]] is elected President.
[[1998]]: During a visit to [[London]] for medical reasons, Augusto Pinochet is arrested in accord with the orders of Spanish judge [[Baltasar Garzón]], beginning an international struggle between his supporters and detractors. He returns to Chile the following year, and the charges against him are later thrown out on the basis of his ostensibly deteriorated mental state. Chile suffers greatly from the world economic crisis, resulting in years of inflation and unemployment.
[[2000]]: In the second round of voting, in a tight contest with [[right wing]] candidate [[Joaquín Lavín]], [[Ricardo Lagos Escobar]] is elected President.
[[2004]]: The Chilean Supreme Court declares that Pinochet is mentally competent to stand trial.
[[2005]]: The Pinochet trial continues. The presidential election of [[December 11]] puts [[Michelle Bachelet]] and [[Sebastián Piñera]] into a second round.
[[2006]]: In the second round of the presidential election the socialist leader Michelle Bachelet emergers the winner.
==See also==
*[[War of the Pacific]]
*[[José de San Martín]]
==Articles about Allende/Pinochet coup d'état in Chile==
*[[Salvador Allende]]: deposed by 1973 coup
*[[Augusto Pinochet]]: took power in 1973 coup
*[[Chilean coup of 1973]]: about the 1973 coup itself
*[[U.S. intervention in Chile]]
*[[1970 Chilean presidential election]]
==External links==
* [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1981.htm U.S. State Department Background Note: Chile]
==References==
Some of this material was drawn from [[:es:Cronología de Chile|Cronología de Chile]] in |
]
[[es:Borneo (Asia)]]
[[eo:Borneo]]
[[fr:Bornéo]]
[[ko:보르네오 섬]]
[[id:Borneo]]
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[[lt:Borneo]]
[[ms:Kepulauan Borneo]]
[[nl:Borneo]]
[[ja:ボルネオ島]]
[[no:Borneo]]
[[os:Калимантан]]
[[pl:Borneo]]
[[pt:Bornéo]]
[[ru:Борнео]]
[[fi:Borneo]]
[[sv:Borneo]]
[[th:เกาะบอร์เนียว]]
[[uk:Борнео]]
[[zh:婆罗洲]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ballpoint pen</title>
<id>4519</id>
<revision>
<id>41378624</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T23:16:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joy</username>
<id>20318</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* History */ chronological sorting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Pen.jpg|frame|A papermate PhD Multi ballpoint pen]]
A '''ballpoint pen''', in many countries also [[eponym]]ously called a '''biro''', is a [[writing]] instrument, more specifically a [[pen]], similar to a [[pencil]] in size and shape.
The pens have an internal chamber filled with a [[viscosity|viscous]] [[ink]] that is dispensed at the tip during use by the rolling action of a small metal sphere (0.7 mm to 1 mm in diameter); the ink dries almost immediately after contact with [[paper]].
Inexpensive, reliable and maintenance-free, they have almost completely replaced the [[fountain pen]].
== History ==
The modern ball point pen was invented in [[1938]] by the [[Hungary|Hungarian]] [[journalist]] [[Laszlo Biro]], who noticed that the ink used in [[newspaper]] printing dried quickly, leaving the paper dry and smudge-free.
He tried using the same ink in a fountain pen but found that it would not flow into the nib, as it was too viscous.
Working with his brother Georg, a [[chemistry|chemist]], Laszlo Biro developed a new tip consisting of a ball that was free to turn in a socket, and as it turned it would pick up ink from a [[cartridge]] and then roll to deposit it on the paper.
It has been argued that a design by [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] (during the [[17th century]]), was that of a ballpoint pen.
A [[patent]] dated [[1888]] on the same basic idea, was unused and expired. [[Slavoljub Eduard Penkala]] had invented a solid-ink fountain pen in [[1907]]. These earlier pens leaked or clogged due to improper viscosity of the ink and depended on gravity to deliver the ink to the ball. Depending on gravity caused difficulties with the flow and required that the pen be held nearly vertically. The Biro pen used capillary action for ink delivery, solving the flow problems.
In [[1943]] the Biro brothers moved to [[Argentina]] and on [[June 10]] filed another patent, and formed ''Biro Pens of Argentina''.
The pen was sold in Argentina under the '''Birome''' brand, which is the way ballpoint pens are still called in Argentina. Laszlo was known in Argentina as Lisandro José Biro.
This new design was licensed by the [[United Kingdom|British]], who produced ball point pens for [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] aircrew, who found they worked much better than fountain pens at high altitude.
''Eversharp'', a maker of [[mechanical pencil]]s teamed up with Eberhard-Faber in May [[1945]] to license the design for sales in the [[United States]]. At about the same time a US businessman saw a Biro pen in a store in [[Buenos Aires]].
He purchased several samples and returned to the U.S. to found the ''Reynolds International Pen Company'', producing the Biro design without license as the ''Reynolds Rocket''. He managed to beat Eversharp to market in late [[1945]]; the first ballpoint pens went on sale at [[Gimbel's Department Store]] in [[New York City]] on [[October 29]], [[1945]] for US$12.50 each (about USD$130 of today's money). This pen was widely known as ''the rocket'' in the U.S. into the late [[1950s]].
Similar pens went on sale before the end of the year in England, and by the next year in most of Europe. Cheap disposable instruments were produced by the [[BIC Corporation]] with "Bic" as the tradename; as with '[[The Hoover Company|Hoover]]' and '[[Xerox]]', the tradename has subsequently passed into general use.
Since [[1990]] Biro's birthday the 28th of September is [[Inventor's Day]] in Argentina.
== Description ==
[[Image:Ballpoint_of_common_ballpoint_pen.jpg|right|frame|The tip of a common disposable ballpoint pen. The ball, with dark ink on it, can be seen.]]There are two basic types of ball point pen: disposable and refillable.
'''Disposable pens''' are chiefly made of [[plastic]] throughout and discarded when the ink is consumed; '''refillable''' pens are [[metal]] or plastic and tend to be higher in quality and price. The refill tends to replace the entire internal ink reservoir and ball point unit rather than actually refilling it with ink.
The simplest types of ball point pens have a cap to cover the tip when the pen is not in use, while others have a mechanism for retracting the tip. This is usually controlled by a [[button]] at the bottom and powered by a [[spring (device)|spring]] within the pen apparatus, but other possibilities include a pair of buttons, a [[screw]], or a slide.
Early pens were notorious for leaking, giving rise to the '[[pocket protector]]', but changes to the composition of the ink have largely made this a thing of the past. Modern ink is generally more viscous, but contains additives which cause it to thin out under pressure. As the pen is pushed against the paper, the ball causes the ink pressure to rise slightly, and thus thin out; as the pen is lifted, the pressure drops, and the ink thickens again.
The most recent developments in the technology include:
*Multi-color pens, with multiple ink refills and ballpoints which are switchable at will. One of the most common types is a four-color pen with the colors [[Black#Color_or_light|black]], [[red]], [[blue]], and [[green]]. This type of pen was first introduced by [[BIC Corporation|Bic]] in the [[1970s]];
*[[Rollerball pen]]s, which combine the ballpoint design with the use of liquid ink and flow systems from fountain pens;
*"[[Space Pen]]s", developed by Fisher in the United States, which combine a more viscous than normal ballpoint pen ink with a gas pressurized piston which forces the ink toward the point. This design allows the pen to write even upside down or in zero gravity environments.
==Ballpoint pens in everyday life==
[[Image:Ballpoint pen marks closeup.jpg|thumb|left|Close-up of black ballpoint pen marks on paper.]]
[[Image:Ballpoint-pen-parts.jpg|right|thumb|Parts of a ballpoint pen]]
Ballpoint pens are ubiquitous in modern [[culture]]. While other forms of pen are available, ballpoint pens are certainly the most common and almost every [[household]] is likely to have several dozen. The fact that they are so cheaply available (costing from just a few cents/pence to produce) and so convenient to use means they are often to be found on desks and also in pockets, handbags, purses, bags and in [[automobile|car]]s&mdash;almost anywhere where one could conceivably need to use a pen. Ballpoint pens are often provided free by businesses as a form of [[advertising]]&mdash;printed with a company's name, a ballpoint pen is a low cost advertisement that is highly effective (customers will use, and therefore see, a pen on a daily basis). Businesses and charities may also include ballpoint pens in [[direct mail]] mailings in order to increase a customer's interest in the mailing.
In recent years, the ballpoint pen has become a popular art medium, as demonstrated by such websites as [http://www.biro-art.com biro-art.com]
== The Grip and Feel of a Ballpoint Pen ==
Ballpoint pens have three characteristics that distinguish them from rollerball systems. First, the ink flow increases with pressure. A rollerball will typically lay down its line without pressure.
Second, they write with the greatest ink flow when perpendicular to the paper, but as the angle is increased the line width gradually decreases; at some angle, when the edge of the ball socket brushes against the surface of the paper, the line width is reduced to zero and the pen ceases to write. (By way of contrast, a rollerball pen has a thin line when perpendicular to the paper, but the line width increases suddenly as the angle is increased and a blob forms between the tip of the ball and the edge of the socket.)
Third, a ballpoint pen's ink is typically not as bright on paper as its liquid or gel ink counterparts.
These characteristics have consequences for the grip with which the pen is held. First, one tends to bear down on a ballpoint to get a stonger line, and this increases tension in the hand. (One way of getting a stronger line, comparable in intensity to a rollerball line, is to use a broad line ballpoint, with a 1.2mm diameter, or greater, ball size. Most ballpoints have a thin or medium ball.)
Second, one has to hold the pen sufficiently vertically for it to roll across the paper and not to scratch. Most people nowadays are so accustomed to writing nearly perpendicularly that they do not realize that there are other, possibly better, ways to hold a pen.
There are two kinds of pens that can write at greater angles than ballpoint pens: [[fountain pen|fountain pens]] and [[felt-tipped pen|felt-tipped pens]]. Both of these types of pen also write with less pressure and therefore with less tension in the hand.
==Trivia==
*The [[Al Faisaliyah Center|Al Faisalia skyscraper]] in [[Riyadh]], [[Saudi Arabia]], takes the shape of a ballpoint pen.
*The ballpoint pen drawing [http://www.biro-art.com/inhumanpyramid.html 'Inhuman Pyramid'] is two meters tall, one and a half meters wide, used up six ballpoint pens and took seven months to complete.
==External links==
*[http://www.biro-art.com Biro Art - Doodles with a ball point pen].
*[http://www.ideafinder.com/history/inventions/story055.htm A history of the ballpoint pen].
[[Category:Writing instruments]]
[[Category:Hungarian culture]]
{{Link FA|eo}}
[[da:Kuglepen]]
[[de:Kugelschreibe |
y comes true [[freedom of speech]], and that what they view as the beneficial uses of Freenet outweigh its negative uses.
Due to the nature of Freenet, a typical user may unknowingly host this sort of information, which may hypothetically make them subject to severe civil and criminal penalties. Freenet attempts to prevent this through "[[plausible deniability]]", preventing the user himself/herself from knowing what's on his or her own node and making it difficult to determine if a piece of information is in any given node without causing the distribution of that piece of information throughout the network to change in the process. No court cases have tested any of this to date.
Some anonymous [[friend-to-friend]] (F2F) networks do allow you to control what kind of files your friends exchange with your node in order to stop them from exchanging files you disapprove of, but Freenet's "deniability" defence would not apply to users of these systems.
F2F prevents random people from proving that your IP address can effectively be used to get some controversial files. Freenet does not offer this protection because for efficiency reasons (path shortening) some random nodes are allowed to connect directly to your node, thus exchanging files faster, but thus knowing your IP and thus being able to prove that specific files can be obtained from your computer. However, due to Freenet's "plausible deniability" and the way in which Freenet redistributes files among nodes, one cannot prove that those files were placed there by the node owner or that the node owner knows what they are.
== Related tools ==
=== Freesite Insertion Wizard (FIW) ===
FIW is one of the most popular of all the Freenet tools. It is currently the best maintained insertion tool for [[freesite]]s. It is written in [[Java programming language|Java]] and provides both a terminal interface and a [[Graphical_user_interface|GUI]]. It supports the latest Freenet technologies such as containers as well.
=== Fishtools ===
Another extremely popular tool for inserting freesites. However, due to an argument, its main developer has broken off with the Freenet community, and it is no longer maintained. It is written in [[Python programming language|Python]] and it is still widely used and fairly up to date.
=== Freenet Utility for Queued Inserts and Downloads (FUQID) ===
This is a [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]-only tool (although reports say it works under [http://www.winehq.org/ WINE] too), typically used to retrieve large splitfiles and to insert non-Freesite content such as binaries, audio, and archives. It is written in [[Delphi_programming_language|Delphi]], and it is maintained sporadically. It is generally regarded as an excellent complement to either FIW or Fishtools.
=== FCPTools ===
The [http://freenetproject.org/index.php?page=fcptools FCPTools] are command-line driven programs for inserting and retrieving files with Freenet. Included separately is FCPLib, the Freenet Client Protocol Library. The FCPTools are linked against FCPLib and serve as nice examples for using the library in Freenet client programs.
[http://freenetproject.org/index.php?page=FCPlib FCPLib] (Freenet Client Protocol Library) aims to be a [[Cross-platform|platform independent]] but natively [[Compiler|compiled]] set of [[C programming language|C]]-based functions for storing and retrieving information to and from Freenet. There are routines for storing documents to Freenet from the local disk, and other routines for moving data in memory to and from Freenet.
Everything is released under the [[GNU]] [[GNU General Public License|General Public License]].
FCPLib is now routinely compiled on the following platforms: [[Microsoft Windows]] (NT/2K/XP), [[Debian]] [[GNU/Linux]], [[BSD]], [[Solaris Operating Environment|Solaris]], and [[Mac OS X]].
=== Freenet Tools ===
The Freenet Tools perform roughly the same tasks as FCPTools, however it does not include a client library for use in other projects. It is written in [[ANSI C]], and runs under [[Unix-like|*nix]].
=== Frost ===
[http://jtcfrost.sourceforge.net Frost] is a well-maintained and popular message board system for Freenet. It uses a [[web of trust]] concept as well as public and private keys to prevent excess [[Spam (electronic)|spam]]. It is very popular in the area of [[file sharing]] and is the most widely used Freenet messaging application. For a long time many people preferred Freenet Message Board (FMB) but it has fallen into disuse. It is written in [[Java programming language|Java]] and therefore works on any platform where a [[Java virtual machine|JVM]] is available, such as [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[Mac OS X]], [[Linux]] and other [[operating system]]s.
=== Freenet Message Board (FMB) ===
The Freenet Message Board is the most branched message board software for Freenet ever coded. It is written in [[Java programming language|Java]], and the original author does not maintain it. However, the community continues to provide several branches which are generally up to date. It works on both [[Unix-like|*nix]] and [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]].
==See also==
* [[Anonymous P2P]]
* [[Crypto-anarchism]]
* [[Cypherpunk]]
* [[distributed file system]]
* [[Entropy (anonymous data store)]]
* [[Friend-to-friend]] networks
* [[GNUnet]]
* [[I2P]]
* [[Tor (anonymity network)]]
==External links==
* [http://freenetproject.org/ The Freenet Project]
* [http://wikiserver.freenethelp.org:14741/index The Freenet Help Site]
* [http://freenet-china.org/ China News on Freenet] - Site in Chinese
* [http://www.wikiuniverse.com/cgi-bin/freenet.pl FreenetWiki] - Wiki devoted to Freenet, suitable for technical discussions and content]
* {{note|2}} [http://www.openp2p.com/pub/a/p2p/2000/11/21/freenetcontent.html What's On Freenet?] - An analysis of the types of files contained in Freenet (written in [[2000]])
* [http://news.com.com/2010-1027_3-1023325.html?tag=fd_nc_1 Piracy and peer-to-peer] - An online debate between Ian Clarke, Freenet's creator, and Matt Oppenheim, the [[RIAA]]'s senior vice president of business and legal affairs
* [http://www.math.chalmers.se/%7eossa/defcon13/ DEF CON 13 darknet slides by Oskar Sandberg and Ian Clarke]
* [http://pl.atyp.us/content/tech/freenet_fiq.html Freenet Infrequently Asked Questions] - A web page expressing criticism of the Freenet project circa 2001
<!-- categories -->
[[Category:Free software]]
[[Category:Anonymous file sharing networks]]
[[Category:Anonymity networks]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fortified wine</title>
<id>10998</id>
<revision>
<id>40123500</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T08:14:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Themadchopper</username>
<id>633190</id>
</contributor>
<comment>keepin' it legal</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''fortified wine''' is a [[wine]] to which additional [[ethanol|alcohol]] has been added, most commonly in the form of [[brandy]] (a spirit distilled from wine).
The original reason for fortification was to preserve wines, as the higher alcohol level and additional sweetness (if the alcohol is added before fermentation finishes, killing the [[yeast]] and leaving [[residual sugar]]) help to preserve the wine. However now that these types of wine have been established people have developed a taste for them, even though other preservation methods exist.
Common fortified wines include:
* [[Sherry]]
* [[Port Wine|Port]]
* [[Marsala wine|Marsala]]
* [[Madeira wine|Madeira]]
* [[Vermouth]]
* [[Muscat grape#Muscat Wines|Muscat]]
Fortified wines must be distinguished from [[spirits]] made from wine. While both have increased alcohol content, spirits are the result of a process of [[distillation]]; while fortified wines have spirits added to them. Fortified wines generally have an alcohol content between that of wines and spirits.
Fortified wines are legally called ''[[dessert wine]]s'' in the U.S. but are called ''liqueur wines'' in Europe.
==American "Dessert" Wines==
*[[MD 20/20]]
*[[Night train]]
*[[Thunderbird_(wine) | Thunderbird]]
[[Category:Fortified wine|*]]
[[fr:Vin muté]]
[[he:יין מחוזק]]
[[is:Styrkt vín]]
[[it:Vino liquoroso]]
[[no:Sterkvin]]
[[pl:Wino wzmacniane]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fred Hoyle</title>
<id>11001</id>
<revision>
<id>42047280</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:52:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GW Christie</username>
<id>889802</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>quasars distributed in the universe, not galaxies</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fred_Hoyle.jpg|right|thumb|180px|Sir Fred Hoyle]]
'''Sir Fred Hoyle''' ([[June 24]], [[1915]] in [[Yorkshire]] &ndash; [[August 20]], [[2001]] in [[Bournemouth]], [[England]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[astronomer]], notable for a number of his theories that run counter to current astronomical opinion, and a [[writer]] of [[science fiction]], including a number of books co-authored by his son [[Geoffrey Hoyle]]. He spent most of his working life at the [[Institute of Astronomy]] at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]], and was director of the institute for a number of years.
==Contribution to cosmogony==
An early paper of his made an interesting use of the [[Anthropic Principle]]. In trying to work out the routes of [[stellar nucleosynthesis]], he observed that one particular nuclear reaction, the [[Triple-alpha process]], which generated [[carbon]], would require the carbon nucleus to have a very specific energy for it to work. The large amount of carbon in the universe, which makes it |
rich]] | after=[[Georg Friedrich, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach|Georg Friedrich]]}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1484 births|Brandenburg-Ansbach, Georg Margrave of]]
[[Category:1543 deaths|Brandenburg-Ansbach, Georg Margrave of]]
[[Category:House of Hohenzollern]]
[[Category:Margraves of Brandenburg-Ansbach]]
[[de:Georg (Brandenburg-Ansbach)]]
[[pl:Jerzy von Ansbach Hohenzollern]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>God Save The Queen</title>
<id>13142</id>
<revision>
<id>15910774</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[God Save the Queen]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Generalized mean</title>
<id>13143</id>
<revision>
<id>40364242</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:57:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''generalized mean''', also known as '''power mean''' or '''Hölder mean''', is an abstraction of the [[arithmetic mean|arithmetic]], [[geometric mean|geometric]] and [[harmonic mean|harmonic]] [[mean]]s.
If ''t'' is a non-zero [[real number]], we can define the '''generalized mean with exponent ''t''''' of the positive real numbers ''a''<sub>1</sub>,...,''a''<sub>''n''</sub> as
:<math>
M(t) = \left( \frac{1}{n} \sum_{i=1}^n a_{i}^t \right) ^ {\frac{1}{t}}
</math>
The case ''t'' = 1 yields the [[arithmetic mean]] and the case ''t'' = &minus;1 yields the [[harmonic mean]]. As ''t'' approaches 0, the [[limit]] of M(''t'') is the [[geometric mean]] of the given numbers, and so it makes sense to ''define'' M(0) to be the geometric mean. Furthermore, as ''t'' approaches &infin;, M(''t'') approaches the maximum of the given numbers, and as ''t'' approaches &minus;&infin;, M(''t'') approaches the minimum of the given numbers.
In general, if &minus;&infin; &le; ''s'' < ''t'' &le; &infin;, then
:<math>M(s)\leq M(t)</math>
and the two means are equal if and only if ''a''<sub>1</sub> = ''a''<sub>2</sub> = ... = ''a''<sub>''n''</sub>. Furthermore, if ''b'' is a positive real number, then the generalized mean with exponent ''t'' of the numbers ''ba''<sub>1</sub>,..., ''ba''<sub>''n''</sub> is equal to ''b'' times the generalized mean of the numbers ''a''<sub>1</sub>,..., ''a''<sub>''n''</sub>.
This could be generalized further to the [[generalized f-mean]]:
:<math> M = f^{-1}\left({\frac{1}{n}\sum_{i=1}^n{f(x_i)}}\right) </math>
and again a suitable choice of an invertible f(''x'') will give the arithmetic mean with f(''x'') = ''x'', the geometric mean with f(''x'') = log(''x''), the harmonic mean with f(''x'') = 1/''x'', and the generalized mean with exponent ''t'' with f(''x'') = ''x''<sup>''t''</sup>. But other functions could be used, such as f(''x'') = e<sup>''x''</sup>.
==See also==
* [[arithmetic mean]]
* [[geometric mean]]
* [[harmonic mean]]
* [[average]]
==External links==
*[http://mathworld.wolfram.com/PowerMean.html Power mean at MathWorld]
[[Category:Means]]
[[Category:Inequalities]]
[[nl:Wortelgemiddelde]]
[[pl:Średnia uogólniona]]
[[ru:Неравенство о средних]]
[[su:Generalized mean]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>G.I.</title>
<id>13144</id>
<revision>
<id>32629847</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-24T21:43:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jsmethers</username>
<id>614213</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''G.I.''' may refer to:
* [[Government issue]] - low-ranking millitary personnel or standard equipment.
* [[Galvanized Iron]] - iron that has been electrochemically rustproofed with zinc.
There is also a [[wikt:GI|dictionary definition of GI]] over on [[Wiktionary]].
{{2LCdisambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gerolamo Cardano</title>
<id>13145</id>
<revision>
<id>41995893</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:49:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.50.64.4</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cardano.jpg|right|180px]]
'''Gerolamo Cardano''' or '''Jerome Cardan''' or '''Girolamo Cardan''' ([[September 24]], [[1501]] - [[September 21]] [[1576]]) was a celebrated [[Italy|Italian]] [[Renaissance]] [[mathematician]], [[physician]], [[astrologer]], and [[gambler]].
He was born in [[Pavia]], [[Italy]], the [[illegitimate]] child of a mathematically gifted [[lawyer]] who was a friend of [[Leonardo da Vinci]]. In his autobiography, Cardano claimed that his mother had attempted to [[abortion|abort]] him. Shortly before his birth, his mother had to move from [[Milan]] to [[Pavia]] to escape the [[Black Death|plague]]; her three other children died from the disease. In [[1520]], he entered the [[University of Pavia]] and later in [[Padua]] studying medicine. His eccentric and confrontational style did not earn him many friends and he had a difficult time finding work after his studies had ended.
Eventually, he managed to develop a considerable reputation as physician and his services were highly valued at the courts. He was the first to describe [[typhoid fever]].
Today, he is best known for his achievements in [[algebra]]. He published the solutions to the [[cubic equation|cubic]] and [[quartic equation]]s in his [[1545]] book ''Ars magna''. The solution to one particular case of the cubic, x^3 + ax = b (in modern notation), was communicated to him by [[Niccolo Fontana Tartaglia]] (who later claimed that Cardano had sworn not to reveal it, and engaged Cardano in a decade-long fight), and the quartic was solved by Cardano's student [[Lodovico Ferrari]]. Both were acknowledged in the foreword of the book, as well as in several places within its body. In his exposition, he acknowledged the existence of what are now called imaginary numbers, although he did not understand their properties.
Cardano was notoriously short of money and kept himself afloat by being an accomplished gambler and [[chess]] player. His book about games of chance, ''Liber de ludo aleae'', written in the [[1560s]] but published only in [[1663]] after his death, contains the first systematic treatment of [[probability]], as well as a section on effective cheating methods.
Cardano invented several mechanical devices including the [[combination lock]], the [[gimbal]] consisting of three concentric rings allowing a supported [[compass]] or [[gyroscope]] to rotate freely, and the [[driveshaft|Cardan shaft]] with [[universal joint]]s, which allows the transmission of rotary motion at various angles and is used in vehicles to this day. He made several contributions to hydrodynamics and held that [[perpetual motion]] is impossible, except in celestial bodies. He published two [[encyclopedia]]s of natural science which contain a wide variety of inventions, facts, and occult superstitions. He also introduced the [[Cardan grille]], a cryptographic tool, in [[1550]].
Cardano's eldest and favorite son was executed in [[1560]] after he confessed to having [[poison]]ed his annoying, mercenary, [[cuckold]]ing wife. Cardano's daughter was a [[prostitution|prostitute]] who died from [[syphilis]], prompting him to write a treatise about the disease. His other son was a gambler who stole money from him. Cardano himself was accused of [[heresy]] in [[1570]] because he had computed and published the [[horoscope]] of [[Jesus]] in [[1554]]. Apparently, his own son contributed to the prosecution. He was arrested and had to spend several months in prison, was forced to abjure and give up his [[professor]]ship. He moved to [[Rome]], received a lifetime [[annuity]] from [[Pope Gregory XIII]] (after first having been rejected by [[Pope Pius V]]) and finished his [[autobiography]]. He died there on the day he had (supposedly) [[astrology|astrologically]] predicted earlier.
== Further reading ==
* Cardano, Girolamo, ''Astrological Aphorisms of Cardan, The''. Edmonds, WA: Sure Fire Press, 1989.
* ———— ''The Book of My Life.'' trans. by Jean Stoner. New York: New York Review of Books, 2002.
* Grafton, Anthony, ''Cardano's Cosmos: The Worlds and Works of a Renaissance Astrologer''. Cambridge, London: Harvard University Press, 1999.
* Ore, Øystein: ''Cardano, the Gambling Scholar''. Princeton, 1953.
==External links==
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Cardan}}
[[Category:Italian mathematicians|Cardano, Gerolamo]]
[[Category:16th century mathematicians|Cardano, Gerolamo]]
[[Category:Natives of Pavia|Cardano, Gerolamo]]
[[Category:1501 births|Cardano, Gerolamo]]
[[Category:1576 deaths|Cardano, Gerolamo]]
[[Category:Astrologers]]
[[de:Gerolamo Cardano]]
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[[eo:Gerolamo CARDANO]]
[[fr:Gerolamo Cardano]]
[[ko:지롤라모 카르다노]]
[[is:Girolamo Cardano]]
[[it:Girolamo Cardano]]
[[he:ג'רולאמו קארדאנו]]
[[hu:Gerolamo Cardano]]
[[nl:Girolamo Cardano]]
[[ja:ジェロラモ・カルダーノ]]
[[pl:Girolamo Cardano]]
[[pt:Girolamo Cardano]]
[[ru:Кардано, Джероламо]]
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[[tr:Gerolamo Cardano]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gabbro</title>
<id>13146</id>
<revision>
<id>41954292</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T21:29:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.18.46.117</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gabro.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gabbro specimen.]]
'''Gabbro''' is a dark, coarse-grained, intrusive [[igneous rock]] chemically equivalent to [[basalt]]. It is a [[Intrusive|plutonic]] |
erfamilies of carnivores (canines and felines) are distinct by this time. ''[[Gomphotherium]]'', ancient elephant.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 19 MYA
| ''[[megatherium|Megatherium americanum]]'' (giant sloth 6m long). Extinct 8000 years ago.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 16 MYA
| ''[[Squalodon]]'' shows early echolocation of whales. ''[[Megalodon]]'' is a gigantic shark the size of a bus <ref>"<cite>"'At a length of 50 feet (15 metres) and a mass of over 52 tons (47 tonnes), it would take more than a mere morsel to satisfy the megalodon.'"</cite>" [http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/evolution/origin_megalodon.htm The Origin of Megalodon] (URL accessed on [[January 9]], [[2005]])</ref>; it has a long reign and disappears suddenly about 1.6 MYA.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 15 MYA
| Apes from Africa migrate to Eurasia to become [[gibbon]]s ([[lesser ape]]s) and [[orangutan]]s. [[Human]] ancestors speciate from the ancestors of the gibbon. Orangutans, gorillas and chimpanzees are [[great ape]]s. Humans are [[hominin]]s.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 13 MYA
| [[Human]] ancestors speciate from the ancestors of the [[orangutan]]. A relative of orangutans: ''[[Lufengpithecus chiangmuanensis]]'' (Northern Thailand). ''[[Pierolapithecus catalaunicus]]'', Spain, possibly common ancestor of great apes and humans.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 10 MYA
| The [[climate]] begins to dry; [[savanna]]s and [[grassland]]s take over the [[forest]]s. [[Monkeys]] proliferate, and the [[ape]]s go into decline. [[Human]] ancestors speciate from the ancestors of the [[gorilla]]s. This is the heyday of the [[horse]]s as they spread throughout the [[Northern hemisphere]]. After 10 MYA they decline in the face of competition from the [[Artiodactyla|artiodactyls]]. [[Tomarctus]], ancestor of dogs, is an extremely dog like animal.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 7 MYA
| Biggest primate ''[[Gigantopithecus]]'' is 2 m tall and lives in China (''[[Gigantopithecus blacki]]''), Vietnam, and northern India (''[[Gigantopithecus bilaspurensis]]''). Extinct by 300,000 years ago.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 5.6 MYA
| Drying up of the [[Mediterranean Sea]] (the [[Messinian Salinity Crisis|Messinian Event]]).
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 5 MYA
| Volcanoes erupt and create the small area of land that joins North and South America. Mammals from North America move South and cause extinction of mammals there.
[[Human]] ancestors speciate from the ancestors of the [[chimpanzee]]s. The latest common ancestor is ''[[Sahelanthropus tchadensis]]'' ([[Chad]], [[Sahara]], west of Rift Valley). The earliest in the human branch is ''[[Orrorin tugenensis]]'' (Millennium Man, Kenya). Chimpanzees and humans share 98% of DNA: biochemical similarities are so great that their hemoglobin molecules differ by only one amino acid. One group of chimps can have more genetic diversity than all of the six [[billion]] humans alive today, due to later [[population bottleneck]]ing on the human lineage. Both chimpanzees and humans have a larynx that repositions during the first two years of life to a spot between the pharynx and the lungs, indicating that the common ancestors have this feature, a precursor of speech.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 4.8 MYA
| [[Chimpanzee]] size [[Hominini|hominim]] genus, ''[[Ardipithecus]]'' walks upright
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 3.7 MYA
| Some ''[[Australopithecus afarensis]]'' leave [http://www.ntz.info/gen/b00128.html#03281 footprints] on volcanic ash in Laetoli, Kenya (Northern Tanzania).
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 3.5 MYA
| Orangutans diverge into Bornean (''[[Pongo pygmaeus]]'') and Sumatran (''[[Pongo abelii]]'') sub-species. [[Great_white_shark|Great White Sharks]] appear.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 3 MYA
| The bipedal [[australopithecines]] (early [[hominins]]) evolve in the savannas of [[Africa]] being hunted by ''[[Dinofelis]]''. Species include ''[[Australopithecus africanus]]'', ''[[Australopithecus bosei]]''. Other genera include ''[[Kenyanthropus platyops]]''.
[[Gorilla]]s die out on the South bank of the [[Congo River]]. [[North America|North]] and [[South America]] become joined, allowing migration of animals. Modern horses, ''[[Equus (genus)|Equus]]'' first appear. ''[[Deinotherium]]'' (4 m tall), is a gigantic cousin of the elephant, with downward pointing tusks in the lower jaw.
|- valign="TOP";
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 2.5 MYA
| ''[[Smilodon]]'' ([[Saber-toothed cat]]) appears.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 2.2 MYA
| Gorillas diverge into the Western lowland (''Gorilla gorilla'') and Eastern (''[[mountain gorilla|Gorilla beringei]]'') sub-species.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 2 MYA
| ''[[Homo habilis]]'' (handy man) uses primitive stone tools (choppers) in Tanzania. Probably lives with ''[[Paranthropus robustus]]''. Emergence of [[Broca's area]] (speech region of modern human brain). ''Homo'' species are meat-eating while ''Paranthropus'' eats plants and termites. Some chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes'') at the Southern part of the [[Congo River]] branch off to form the [[Bonobo]]s (''Pan paniscus''/pigmy chimps). Bonobos live in female dominated society. Saber Tooth moves from North America to South America.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1.8 MYA
| ''[[Homo erectus]]'' evolves in [[Africa]] and migrates to other continents, primarily [[Asia#South_Asia_.28or_Indian_Subcontinent.29|South Asia]].
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1.75 MYA
| Dmanisi man/''[[Homo georgicus]]'' (Georgia, Russia), tiny brain came from Africa, with ''Homo erectus'' and ''Homo habilis'' characteristics. An individual spent the last years of his life with only one tooth by depending on the kindness and compassion of others to obtain sufficient sustenance.
The [[glyptodon]], a giant armadillo the size of a Volkswagen Beetle, lives in southern Peru.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1.6 MYA
| Biggest marsupials: Appearance of Giant Short-faced Kangaroo (''[[Procoptodon goliah]]'') in Australia, extinct by 40,000 years ago. At 2 m to 3 m tall and weighing 200 kg to 300 kg, it is the largest kangaroo ever known. Wombat-like ''[[Diprotodon optatum]]'', 2,800 kg, 3 m long, Australia, extinct by 45,000 years ago.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1.5 MYA
| Marsupial lion (''[[Thylacoleo carnifex]]'' or Leo) appears in Australia and goes extinct by 46,000 years ago.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1 MYA
| Genus ''[[Canis]]'' (coyotes, jackals, wolves, dingoes, domestic dogs) develops as a branch from ''[[Tomarctus]]''. The gray fox, ''[[Urocyon cinereogenteus]]'' is the most primitive canid still alive today.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 800 kYA
| [[Gray Wolf]] (''Canis lupus'') moves to Arctic North America.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 780 kYA
| The Earth's last (most recent) [[geomagnetic reversal]].
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 700 kYA
| Common genetic ancestor of humans and Neanderthals.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 500 kYA
| ''Homo erectus'' (Choukoutien, China) uses charcoal to control fire, though they may not know how to create or start it.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 400 kYA
| Eastern gorillas (''[[mountain gorilla|Gorilla beringei]]'') diverge into the eastern lowland (''G. beringei graueri'') and mountain (''G. beringei beringei'') sub-species. Giant deer ''[[Megaloceros giganteus]]'', Ireland; the antlers together span about 3.6 m or larger, extinct by 9.5 kYA.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 355 kYA
| Three 1.5 m tall ''[[Homo heidelbergensis]]'' scramble down [[Roccamonfina]] volcano in Southern Italy, leaving the earliest known ''Homo'' footprints, which were made before the powdery volcanic ash solidified.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 250 kYA
| The [[Polar Bear]] evolves from an isolated high latitude population of [[Brown Bear]]s.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 195 kYA
| [[Omo_Remains|Omo1, Omo2]] (Ethiopia, Omo river) are the earliest known ''[[Homo sapiens]]''.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 160 kYA
| ''Homo sapiens'' (''[[Homo sapiens idaltu]]'') in Ethiopia, Awash River, Herto village, practise mortuary rituals and butcher hippos. Their dead bodies are later covered by volcanic rocks.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 150 kYA
| [[Mitochondrial Eve]] lives in Africa. She is the last female ancestor common to all mitochondrial lineages in humans alive today.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 130 kYA
| ''[[Homo neanderthalensis]]'' (Neanderthal man) evolves from ''Homo heidelbergensis'' and lives in [[Europe]] and the [[Middle East]], buries the dead and cares for the sick. Has hyoid bone (60,000 yrs ago, Kebara cave, Israel), used for speech in modern humans. (Today humans use roughly 6000 spoken languages). Uses spear, probably for stabbing rather than throwing. [[FOXP2]] [[gene]] appears (associated with the development of [[speech]]).
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 100 kYA
| The first anatomically modern humans (''[[Homo sapiens]]'') appear in [[Africa]] by this time or earlier; they derive from ''Homo heidelbergensis''. '' |
of information security. Conversely, information security covers not just information but all infrastructures that facilitate its use—processes, systems, services, technology, etc., including computers, voice and data networks, etc.
It is an important point that information security is, inherently and necessarily, neither hermetic nor watertight nor perfectible. No one can ever eradicate all risk of improper or capricious use of any information. The level of information security sought in any particular situation should be commensurate with the value of the information and the loss, financial or otherwise, that might accrue from improper use—disclosure, degradation, denial, or whatever. [[Bruce Schneier]] makes this point in ''Secrets and Lies'': information security is about ''[[risk management]]''.
Three widely accepted elements (aims, principles, qualities, characteristics, attributes ...) of information security are:
* [[confidentiality]]
* [[data integrity|integrity]]
* [[availability]]
These can be remembered by the [[mnemonic]] &#8220;CIA&#8221;, and is often referred to as the [[CIA triad]] [http://www.infosecpedia.org/pedia/index.php/CIA_triad].
A simple way to express this is "the right information to the right people at the right time".
A further, generally accepted element is:
* [[accountability]]
Historically, up to about 1990, confidentiality was the most important element of information security, followed by integrity, and then availability. By 2001, changing use and expectation patterns had moved availability to the top of most versions of this priority list. The first goal of modern information security has, in effect, become to ensure that systems are predictably dependable in the face of all sorts of malice, and particularly in the face of [[denial of service]] attacks.
''NIST Special Publication 800-33 Underlying Technical Models for Information Technology Security'' added '''assurance''' as essential. "Without it the other objectives are not met." Assurance is the basis for confidence that the security measures, both technical and operational, work as intended to protect the system and the information in processes and that the other four security objectives (integrity, availability, confidentiality, and accountability) have been adequately met by a specific implementation.
Some other facets of information security are:
*[[governance]]
*[[access control]]
*[[risk assessment]]
*[[classification]]
*[[compliance]]
*[[identification]] and [[authentication]]
*[[Information Technology Infrastructure Library]]
*[[non-repudiation]]
*[[authorization]]
*[[administration]] and [[user provisioning|provisioning]]
*[[auditing]]
*[[alerting]]
*[[assurance services|assurance]] and [[reliability]]
*[[Business Continuity Planning]]
*[[COMSEC]]
[[Cryptography]] and [[Cryptanalysis]] are important tools in assuring confidentiality (in transmission or storage of information), integrity (no change can be made undetectably), and source identification (the sender can be identified and all other than that sender can be excluded). Always assuming, necessarily, that the key(s) involved have not been misused or compromised, and that the crypto systems employed have been well chosen and properly used.
==See also==
''See [[:Category:Computer security]] for a list of all computing and information-security related articles''.
* [[Business continuity planning]]
* [[Common Criteria]]
* [[Computer insecurity]]
* [[Computer security]]
* [[Electronic underground community]]
* [[ISO/IEC 17799]]
* [[Risk aversion]]
* [[Security engineering]]
* [[Computer fraud case studies]]
* [[Hacker#Intruders_and_criminals|Notable hackers]]
* [[Infamous Hacks]]
* [[Infamous Phreaks]]
* The [[Standard of Good Practice]] published by the [[Information Security Forum]]
==External links==
* [https://www.isc2.org ISC2]
*[http://www.securestandard.com/ SecureStandard Information Security Whitepapers]
*[http://www.xml-dev.com/blog/?action=viewtopic&id=141 InfoSec Training Media Archive- Videos and Poster]
*[http://blogs.ittoolbox.com/security/investigator/ Information Security Investigations]
*[http://www.cnss.gov/Assets/pdf/cnssi_4009.pdf National Information Assurance (IA) Glossary]
*[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2828.txt?number=2828 RFC-2828: Internet Security Glossary]
[[Category:Security|Security]]
[[Category:Computer security]]
[[da:Informationssikkerhed]]
[[de:Informationssicherheit]]
[[he:אבטחת מערכות מידע]]
[[nl:Informatiebeveiliging]]
[[no:Datasikkerhet]]
[[pt:Segurança da informação]]
[[ru:Информационная безопасность]]
[[th:การรักษาความปลอดภัยทางข้อมูล]]
[[vi:An ninh thông tin]]
[[zh:信息安全]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Income</title>
<id>15037</id>
<revision>
<id>41448712</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T11:12:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dismas</username>
<id>152983</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>US -> U.S. per MoS</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Unearned income}}
{{mergefrom|Passive income}}
'''Income''', generally defined, is the money that is received as a result of the normal business activities of an individual or a business. For example, for individuals income usually means the gross amount on their [[payslip]]s before any [[tax]] and other deductions has been made by their employer.
==Meaning within U.S. accountancy==
In [[United States|U.S.]] business and [[accounting]], however, '''income''' most often means the amount of money that a company earns after paying for all its costs. Outside the U.S., the term is usually '''[[profit]]''' or '''earnings'''. To calculate a company's income, it starts with its amount of [[revenue]], deducts all costs, including such things as employees' salaries and [[depreciation]], and the number that results is its income, which may be a negative number. This money is typically reinvested in the business, paid in [[corporate tax]] and used to pay the owners (the shareholders) a [[dividend]].
All [[public company|public companies]] are required to provide [[financial statements]] on a quarterly basis. The statement of income is an important part of this. Some companies also provide a more rosy financial report of their income, with ''[[pro forma]]'' reporting, or, [[EBITDA]] reporting. ''Pro forma'' income is an estimate of how much the company would have earned without including the negative effect of exceptional "one-time events", supposedly in order to show investors how much money the company would have made under normal circumstances if these exceptional, one-time events had not occurred. Critics charge that, in most cases, the "one-time events" are normal business events, such as an acquisition of another company or a [[write off]] of a cancelled project or division, and that ''pro forma'' reporting is an attempt to mislead investors by painting a rosy financial picture. Besides that, when discussing results with analysts and shareholders, CEOs and CFOs have a tendency to do even more "hypothetical accounting". [[EBITDA]] stands for "earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation, and amortisation", and is also criticised for being an attempt to mislead investors. [[Warren Buffett]] has criticised EBITDA reporting, famously asking, "Does management think the tooth fairy pays for capital expenditures?"
It is common for some other companies, such as [[real estate investment trusts]], to present reports using a standard called [[FFO]], or funds from operations. Like EBITDA reporting, FFO ignores depreciation and amortization. This is widely accepted in the industry, as [[real estate]] values tend to increase rather than decrease over time, and many data sites report [[earnings per share]] data using FFO.
==Meaning within economic science==
In [[Economics]], income is the constraint to unlimited [[consumer]] purchases. Consumers can purchase a limited number of goods represented by their "budget constraint". The basic equation for this is <tt>Y = Px &times; x + Py &times; y</tt>, where <tt>Px</tt> is the price of good x, <tt>x</tt> is the quantity of good x, and Y is the income (Py and y are similar to Px and x). If you need to examine more than two goods, you can add more on. This equation tells us two things. First, if you buy one more of good x, you get <tt>Px/Py</tt> less of good y. Here, <tt>Px/Py</tt> is known as the rate of substitution. Secondly, if the price of x changes, then the rate of substitution changes. This causes demand curves to slope down.
The distribution of income within a society can be measured by the [[Lorenz curve]] and the [[Gini coefficient]].
'''National income''', measured by statistics such as the [[Net National Income]] (NNI), measures the total income of all individuals in the economy. For more information see [[measures of national income and output]].
== See also ==
*[[Income statement]]
*[[Income tax]]
*[[Income trust]]
*[[Poverty line]]
*[[Profit]]
*[[Per capita income]]
*[[Remuneration]]
== External links ==
*[http://money.cnn.com/markets/IRC/warnings.html Markets & Stocks: Investor Research Center - Earnings Warnings]
[[category:Income]]
[[de:Einkommen]]
[[fr:Revenu]]
[[nl:Inkomen]]
[[pl:Dochód]]
[[pt:Renda]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Iona</title>
<id>15039</id>
<revision>
<id>41589946</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T09:42:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Batmanand</username>
<id>131948</id>
</contributor>
<comment>tidying up lead</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''Alternative uses: see [[Iona (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Iona Village from seawards.jpg|thu |
s determined by Israel's location between the [[Subtropics|subtropical]] aridity characteristic of Egypt and the subtropical humidity of the Levant or eastern Mediterranean. January is the coldest month, with average temperatures ranging from 5 °C to 12 °C (41 °F to 54 °F), and August is the hottest month at 18 °C to 38 °C (64 °F to 100 °F). In Eilat, the desert city, in the summer the temperatures are the highest in the country. But the dry air makes it very pleasant. More than 70 percent of the average rainfall in the country falls between November and March; June through September are often rainless. Rainfall is unevenly distributed, decreasing sharply as one moves southward. In the extreme south, rainfall averages less than 50 millimeters (2 in) annually; in the north, average annual rainfall exceeds 900 millimeters (35 in). Rainfall varies from season to season and from year to year, particularly in the Negev Desert. Precipitation is often concentrated in violent storms, causing [[erosion]] and [[Flood|flooding]]. During January and February, it may take the form of [[snow]] at the higher elevations of the central highlands, including Jerusalem. The areas of the country most cultivated are those that receive more than 300 millimeters (12 in) of rainfall annually; about one-third of the country is cultivable.
===Environmental concerns===
; Natural hazards:
: [[Dust storm|Sandstorms]] may occur during spring; [[drought]]s; [[flash flood]]s; periodic [[earthquake]]s
; Environment--current issues:
: Limited arable land and natural fresh water resources pose serious constraints; [[desertification]]; [[air pollution]] from industrial and vehicle emissions; [[Water pollution|groundwater pollution]] from industrial and domestic waste, [[Chemical fertilizers#Environmental effects of fertilizer use|chemical fertilizers]], and [[Pesticide|pesticides]]
; Environment--international agreements:
:* Party to: [[Convention on Biological Diversity|Biodiversity]], [[UNFCCC|Climate Change]], [[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification|Desertification]], [[Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna|Endangered Species]], Hazardous Wastes, [[Nuclear Test Ban]], [[Montreal Protocol|Ozone Layer Protection]], [[MARPOL 73/78|Ship Pollution]], [[Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially As Waterfowl Habitat|Wetlands]]
:* Signed, but not ratified: [[Kyoto Protocol]], [[Marine Life Conservation]]
; Note:
;[[Sea of Galilee]] is an important freshwater source.
==Human geography==
In [[2005]] the total population of the Israeli inhabited places is estimated at 6.9 million. Depending on the definitions applied, there were three to five metropolises, which included some of Israel's 71 cities, hundreds of towns and thousands of villages and other small settlements. Among the villages, the [[kibbutz]]im and [[moshav]]im are unique types of settlement to Israel. There are 242 Israeli settlements and civilian land use sites in the [[West Bank]], 42 in the Israeli-occupied [[Golan Heights]], and 29 in East [[Jerusalem]] (February 2002 est.);
===Urban geography===
Israeli metropolises are [[Tel Aviv]], [[Haifa]] and [[Beer Sheva]] and possibly also [[Jerusalem]] [http://www.usm.maine.edu/~maps/exhibit1/theme7.html] and [[Nazareth]] [http://www.fips.org.il/fips/site/p_publications/item_en.asp?doc=pap&iss=gov&iid=500&sid=401].
In 2005 there are 71 Israeli [[city|cities]], including 3 Israeli cities in the West Bank. (see [[list of cities in Israel]]). The status of city is awarded by the Israeli minister of internal affairs to settlements that apply for this status and usually pass a threshold of 20.000, although the minister can give and in some cases does give out the status beforehand.
Israeli towns of 5.000 residents and more are incorporated as "local councils". Most towns between 2.000 and 5.000 residents are local committees within regional councils, although exceptions exist.
===Rural geography===
Israel's rural space includes several unique kinds of settlements, notably the [[moshav]] and the [[kibbutz]]. Originally these were collective and cooperative settlements respectively. Over time, the degree of cooperation in these settlements has reduced and in several of them the cooperative structure was dismantled altogether. All rural settlements and many small towns (some of which are dubbed "rurban settlements") are incorporated in regional councils.
===Political geography===
; Area:
:* Total: [[1 E10 m²|20,770]] [[square kilometre|km²]] (8,019 [[square mile|mi²]])
:* Land: 20,330 km&sup2; (7,849 mi²)
:* Water: 440 km&sup2; (170 mi²)
; Land boundaries:
:* Total: 1,017 km (632 [[mile|mi]])
:* Border countries: [[Egypt]] [[1 E5 m|266]] [[kilometre|km]] (165 mi), [[Gaza Strip]] [[1 E4 m|51 km]] (32 mi), [[Jordan]] 238 km (148 mi), [[Lebanon]] 79 km (49 mi), [[Syria]] 76 km (47 mi), [[West Bank]] 307 km (191 mi)
; Coastline:
: 273 km (170 mi)
; Maritime claims:
:* Continental shelf: to depth of exploitation
:* Territorial sea: 12 [[Nautical mile|nm]] (22.2 km)
* Northernmost point - the [[tripoint]] with [[Syria]] and [[Lebanon]], [[Golan Heights]] <sup>1</sup>
* Easternmost point - an unnamed location on the border with Syria <sup>2</sup>
* Southernmost point - the point at which the Israel-Egypt border enters the [[Gulf of Aqaba]], east of [[Taba]], [[Egypt]]
* Westernmost point - the Egypt-Israel-Gaza [[tripoint]], is Israel's westernmost point.
===Economic geography===
; Natural resources:
: [[Copper]], [[phosphates]], [[bromide]], [[potash]], [[clay]], [[sand]], [[sulfur]], [[asphalt]], [[manganese]], small amounts of [[natural gas]] and [[crude oil]]
; Land use:
:* Arable land: 17.02%
:* Permanent crops: 4.17%
:* Other: 78.81% (1998 est.)
; Irrigated land:
: [[1 E9 m²|1,990 km²]] or 768 mi² (1998 est.)
==Sources==
*http://mama.indstate.edu/users/gejdg/rural.pdf
[[Category:Settlements in Israel|*]]
<sup>1</sup> If the Golan Heights region is not considered part of Israel, then an unnamed location on the Lebanese border (the Blue Line), immediately to the north of [[Metulla]], is Israel's northernmost point.
<sup>2</sup> If the Golan Heights region is not considered part of Israel, then an unnamed location on the border with Syria west of [[Qela]] is Israel's easternmost point
==Other geographic features==
*[[Dead Sea]]
*[[Galilee]]
*[[Mount Arbel]]
*[[Jordan River]]
*[[Lake Hula]]
*[[Masada]]
*[[Mount Carmel, Israel|Mount Carmel]]
*[[Negev]]
*[[Sea of Galilee]]
*[[Sharon, Israel|Sharon]]
*[[Districts of Israel]]
*[[List of cities in Israel]]
==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
{{Asia in topic|Geography of}}
[[Category:Geography by country|Israel]]
[[Category:Geography of Israel| ]]
[[fr:Géographie d'Israël]]
[[he:גאוגרפיה של ישראל]]
[[nl:Geografie van Israël]]
[[pt:Geografia de Israel]]
[[ru:География Израиля]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Israel</title>
<id>14688</id>
<revision>
<id>40856380</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T13:19:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jon513</username>
<id>548089</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Religions */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
{{contradict}}
{{Israelis}}
This article discusses the '''[[demographics]] of [[Israel]]'''.
==Population==
(July 2005)
''Total:'' 6,921,000
''note:''
includes about 260,000 Israeli settlers in the [[West Bank]] (excluding East [[Jerusalem]]), and about 9,000 in the [[Gaza Strip]] (prior to the expulsion of Jewish residents of Gaza in the summer of 2005). [http://194.90.153.197/shnaton54/st02_07x.pdf]
==Age structure==
''0-14 years:'' 26.5% (male 851,415; female 812,095)
''15-64 years:'' 63.7% (male 2,010,888; female 1,986,256)
''65 years and over:'' 9.8% (male 264,708; female 351,521) (2005 est.)
==Population growth rate==
''overall:'' 1.2% (2005 est.)
During the 1990s, the Jewish population growth rate was about 3% per year, as a result of massive immigration to Israel, primarily from the republics of the former [[Soviet Union]]. There is also a high population growth rate among certain Jewish groups, especially adherents of [[Haredi Judaism]].
==Birth rate==
18.21 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)
==Death rate==
6.18 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)
==Net migration rate==
{{Jew}}
0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)
==Sex ratio==
''at birth:'' 1.05 male(s)/female
''under 15 years:'' 1.05 male(s)/female
''15-64 years:'' 1.01 male(s)/female
''65 years and over:'' 0.75 male(s)/female
''total population:'' 0.99 male(s)/female (2005 est.)
==Infant mortality rate==
''total'': 7.03 deaths/1,000 live births
''male'': 7.77 deaths/1,000 live births
''female'': 6.26 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)
==Life expectancy at birth==
''total population:'' 79.32 years
''male:'' 77.21 years
''female:'' 81.55 years (2005 est.)
==Total fertility rate==
2.44 children born/woman (2005 est.)
==Nationality==
''noun:'' Israeli(s)
''adjective:'' Israeli
==Ethnic groups==
[[Image:Israeli soldiers and Arabs .jpg|thumbnail|300px|Two Israeli soldiers chat with Israeli Arabs in the Galilee, 1978]]
''See also: [[Jewish ethnic divisions]]''
According to Israel's Central Bureau of Statistics, at the end of [[2004]], of Israel's 6.9 million people, 76.2% were [[Jew]]s, 19.5% [[Arab]]s, and 4.3% "others".[http://www1.cbs.gov.il/shnaton56/st02_01.pdf]
Among Jews, 68% were [[Sabra (person)|Sabras]] (Israeli-born), mostly second or third generation Israelis, and the rest are [[Aliyah|olim]] &mdash; 22% from [[Europe]] and the [[Americas]], and 10% from [[Asia]] and [[Africa]], including the [[Arab world|Arab countries]].[http://www1.cbs.gov.il/shnaton56/st02_24.pd |
described as a possible new direction for research, what he called "biochemical theology". Crick wrote, "So many people pray that one finds it hard to believe that they do not get some satisfaction from it...."
Crick suggested that it might be possible to find chemical changes in the brain that were molecular correlates of the act of [[prayer]]. He speculated that there might be a detectable change in the level of some [[neurotransmitter]] or [[neurohormone]] when people pray. Crick may have been imagining substances such as [[Dopamine#Role in Pleasure and Motivation|dopamine]] that are released by the brain under certain conditions and produce rewarding sensations. Crick's suggestion that there might some day be a new science of "biochemical theology" seems to have been realized under an alternative name: there is now the new field of [[Neurotheology]]{{ref|spiritual}}. Crick's view of the relationship between science and religion continued to play a role in his work as he made the transition from molecular biology research into theoretical neuroscience.
===Directed [[Panspermia]]===
During the 1960s Crick became concerned with the origins of the genetic code. In 1966 Crick took the place of [[Leslie Orgel]] at a meeting where Orgel was to talk about the origin of life. Crick speculated about possible stages by which an initially simple code with a few amino acid types might have evolved into the more complex code used by existing organisms {{ref|origin}}. At that time, everyone thought of proteins as THE enzymes and [[ribozyme]]s had not yet been found. Many molecular biologists were worried about the origin of a protein replicating system as complex as what exists in organisms currently living on Earth. In the early 1970s Crick and Orgel further speculated about the possibility that maybe the production of living systems from molecules was a very rare event in the universe, but once it had developed it could be spread by intelligent life forms using space travel technology, a process they called “Directed Panspermia”{{ref|orgel}}. In a retrospective article{{ref|talk}}, Crick and Orgel noted that they had been overly pessimistic about the chances of life evolving on Earth when they had assumed that some kind of self-replicating protein system was the molecular origin of life. Now it is easier to imagine an [[RNA world]] and the [[origin of life]] in the form of some self-replicating polymer besides protein.
[[Image:Decisionbrain.jpg|thumb|right|Results from an [[fMRI]] experiment in which people made a conscious decision about a visual stimulus. The small region of the brain coloured orange shows patterns of activity that correlate with the decision making process. Crick stressed the importance of finding new methods to probe human brain function.]]
=== Neuroscience ===
Starting in [[1976]], Crick worked at the [[Salk Institute]] in [[La Jolla, California]]. He taught himself neuroanatomy and studied many other areas of neuroscience research. It took him several years to disengage from molecular biology since exciting discoveries continued including the discovery of [[alternative splicing]] and the discovery of [[restriction enzyme]]s that helped make possible [[genetic engineering]]. Eventually, in the 1980s Crick was able to devote his full attention to his other interest, [[consciousness]]. His autobiographical book ''What Mad Pursuit'' includes a description of why he left molecular biology and switched to neuroscience.
Upon taking up work in theoretical neuroscience, Crick was struck by several things:
*there were many isolated subdisciplines within [[neuroscience]] with little contact between them
*many people who were interested in behaviour treated the brain as a [[black box]]
*consciousness was viewed as a [[taboo]] subject by many neurobiologists
Crick hoped he might aid progress in neuroscience by promoting constructive interactions between specialists from the many different subdisciplines concerned with [[consciousness]]. He even collaborated with [[Neurophilosophy|neurophilosophers]] such as [[Patricia Churchland]]. Crick established a collaboration with [[Christof Koch]] that lead to publication of a series of articles on consciousness during the period spanning from 1990{{ref|cycle}} to 2005. Crick made the strategic decision to focus his theoretical investigation of [[consciousness]] on how the brain generates visual [[Awareness|awareness]] within a few hundred milliseconds of [[Visual perception|viewing]] a scene. Crick and Koch proposed that [[consciousness]] seems so mysterious because it involves very short-term [[memory]] processes that are as yet poorly understood. Crick also published a book describing how neurobiology had reached a mature enough stage so that consciousness could be the subject of a unified effort to study it at the molecular, [[Cell biology|cellular]] and [[Behavior|behavioural]] levels{{ref|astonishing}}. Crick's book ''[[The Astonishing Hypothesis]]'' made the argument that [[neuroscience]] now had the tools required to begin a scientific study of how [[brain]]s produce conscious experiences. Crick was sceptical about the value of [[Connectionism|computational models]] of mental function that are not based on details about brain structure and function.
===Other Interests===
Crick was elected a fellow of [[CSICOP]] in [[1983]] and a Humanist Laureate of the [[International Academy of Humanism]] in the same year. In 1995, Francis Crick was one of the original endorsers of the [[Ashley Montagu Resolution]] to petition for an end to the genital mutilations of children. Crick died of [[colon cancer]] at The University of California, San Diego Thornton Hospital, [[San Diego]].
== Reactions to Crick and his Work ==
Crick has widely been described as talkative, brash and lacking modesty. His personality combined with his scientific accomplishments produced many opportunities for Crick to stimulate reactions from others, both inside and outside of the scientific world that was the centre of his intellectual and professional life.
Rumours circulated later in his life that Crick told a colleague that he had taken small doses of the hallucinogenic drug [[LSD]]{{ref|hallucinogens}}. However, during his life, Crick was ready to sue anyone who put these rumours into print. Crick was a founding member of a group called SOMA, one of many organizations that has tried to prevent criminalization of cannabis{{ref|cannabis}}.
See: http://www.intuition.org/txt/crick2.htm regarding Crick's comments on L.S.D.
=== Religious Beliefs ===
The conservative political analyst [[Mark Steyn]] published a [[Popular culture|pop]] [[psychoanalysis]] of Crick and an attempted [[deconstruct|deconstruction]] of Crick's scientific motivations{{ref|Steyn}}. Steyn characterized Crick as a [[militant]] atheist and asserted that it was his atheism that "drove" Crick to move beyond conventional molecular biology towards speculative topics such as panspermia. Steyn described the theory of directed panspermia as amounting to, "gods in the skies who fertilize the earth and then retreat to the heavens beyond our reach." Steyn categorized Crick’s ideas on directed panspermia as a result of "hyper-rationalism" that, "lead him round to embracing a belief in a celestial creator of human life, indeed a [[deus ex machina]]."
Steyn's critique of Crick ignored the fact that Crick never held a belief in panspermia. Crick explored the hypothesis that it might be possible for life forms to be moved from one planet to another. What "drove" Crick towards speculation about directed panspermia was the difficulty of imagining how a complex system like a [[cell (biology)|cell]] could arise under pre-biotic conditions from non-living chemical components. After [[ribozyme]]s were discovered, Crick became much less interested in panspermia because it was then much easier to imagine the [[Origin of life|pre-biotic origins of life]] as being made possible by some set of simple self-replicating polymers.
=== Creationism ===
It has been suggested by some observers that Crick's speculation about [[panspermia]], "fits neatly into the intelligent design concept."{{ref|ID}} Crick's name was raised in this context in the [[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]] trial over the teaching of [[intelligent design]]. However, as a scientist, Crick was concerned with the power of natural processes such as evolution to account for natural phenomena and felt that religiously inspired beliefs are often wrong and cannot be trusted to provide a sound basis for science.
Crick wrote, "The age of the earth is now established beyond any reasonable doubt as very great, yet in the United States millions of Fundamentalists still stoutly defend the naive view that it is relatively short, an opinion deduced from reading the Christian Bible too literally. They also usually deny that animals and plants have evolved and changed radically over such long periods, although this is equally well established. This gives one little confidence that what they have to say about the process of natural selection is likely to be unbiased, since their views are predetermined by a slavish adherence to religious dogmas." (source: ''The Astonishing Hypothesis'')
In a 1987 case before the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]], Crick joined a group of other Nobel laureates who advised that, "'Creation-science' simply has no place in the public-school science classroom."{{ref|amicus}} Crick was also an advocate for the establishment of [[Darwin Day]] as a British national holiday{{ref|DarwinDay}}.
==Recognition==
===The Francis Crick Prize Lectures at The Royal Society, London===
[http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/page.asp?tip=1&id=1809 The Francis Crick Prize Lecture] was established in 2003 following an endowment by his former colleague, |
and is a cultural icon.
In [[1923]] Burroughs set up his own company, Edgar Rice Burroughs, Inc., and began printing his own [[book]]s through the [[1930s]]. He divorced Emma in [[1934]] and married former actress [[Florence Gilbert|Florence Gilbert Dearholt]] in [[1935]], ex-wife of his friend, [[Ashton Dearholt]], adopting the Dearholt's two children. They divorced in [[1942]]. At the time of the attack on [[Pearl Harbor]] he was a resident of [[Hawaii]] and, despite being a [[sexagenarian]], he spent the conflict as a war correspondent. He died in [[Encino, California]] on [[March 19]], [[1950]] having written almost seventy novels.
The town of [[Tarzana, California]] was named after Tarzan. In [[1919]] Burroughs purchased a large ranch north of [[Los Angeles, California]] which he named "Tarzana". The citizens of the community that sprang up around the ranch voted to adopt that name when their town was incorporated in [[1928]].
The [[Burroughs crater]] on Mars is named in Burroughs' honor.
==Selected bibliography==
===[[Barsoom series]]===
*''[[A Princess of Mars]]'' ([[1912]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry: [http://gutenberg.net/etext/62])
*''[[The Gods of Mars]]'' ([[1914]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry:[http://gutenberg.net/etext/64])
*''[[The Warlord of Mars]]'' ([[1918]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry:[http://gutenberg.net/etext/68])
*''[[Thuvia, Maid of Mars]]'' ([[1920]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry:[http://gutenberg.net/etext/72])
*''[[The Chessmen of Mars]]'' ([[1922]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry:[http://gutenberg.net/etext/1153])
*''[[The Master Mind of Mars]]'' ([[1928]])
*''[[A Fighting Man of Mars]]'' ([[1931]])
*''[[Swords of Mars]]'' ([[1936]])
*''[[Synthetic Men of Mars]]'' ([[1940]])
*''[[Llana of Gathol]]'' ([[1948]])
*''[[John Carter of Mars]]'' ([[1964]])
===[[Tarzan]] series===
*''[[Tarzan of the Apes]]'' ([[1912]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry:[http://gutenberg.net/etext/78])
*''The Return of Tarzan'' ([[1913]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry:[http://gutenberg.net/etext/81])
*''The Beasts Of Tarzan'' ([[1914]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry:[http://gutenberg.net/etext/85])
*''The Son of Tarzan'' ([[1914]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry:[http://gutenberg.net/etext/90])
*''Tarzan And The Jewels Of Opar'' ([[1916]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry:[http://gutenberg.net/etext/92])
*''Jungle Tales Of Tarzan'' ([[1919]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry:[http://gutenberg.net/etext/106])
*''Tarzan The Untamed'' ([[1920]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry:[http://gutenberg.net/etext/1401])
*''Tarzan The Terrible'' ([[1921]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry:[http://gutenberg.net/etext/2020])
*''Tarzan and the Golden Lion'' ([[1923]])
*''Tarzan and the Ant Men'' ([[1924]])
*''The Tarzan Twins'' ([[1927]])
*''Tarzan, Lord of the Jungle'' ([[1927]])
*''Tarzan and the Lost Empire'' ([[1928]])
*''Tarzan at the Earth's Core'' ([[1929]])
*''Tarzan the Invincible'' ([[1930]])
*''Tarzan Triumphant'' ([[1931]])
* ''Tarzan and the Leopard Men'' ([[1932]])
*''Tarzan and the City of Gold'' (1932)
*''Tarzan the Magnificent'' ([[1936]])
*''Tarzan and the Forbidden City'' ([[1938]])
*''Tarzan and the Jungle Murders'' ([[1940]])
*''Tarzan and the Champion'' ([[1940]])
*''Tarzan and the Madman'' ([[1964]])
*''Tarzan and the Foreign Legion'' ([[1947]])
===[[Pellucidar]] series===
*''[[At the Earth's Core]]'' ([[1914]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry: [http://gutenberg.net/etext/545])
*''Pellucidar'' ([[1923]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry: [http://gutenberg.net/etext/605])
*''Tanar of Pellucidar'' ([[1928]])
*''Tarzan at the Earth's Core'' ([[1929]])
*''Back to the Stone Age'' ([[1937]])
*''Land of Terror'' ([[1944]])
*''Savage Pellucidar'' ([[1963]])
===[[Venus series]]===
*''Pirates of Venus'' ([[1934 in literature|1934]])
*''Lost on Venus'' ([[1935 in literature|1935]])
*''Carson of Venus'' ([[1939 in literature|1939]])
*''Escape on Venus'' ([[1946 in literature|1946]])
*''The Wizard of Venus'' ([[1970 in literature|1970]])
===Caspak series===
*''[[The Land That Time Forgot (novel)|The Land That Time Forgot]]'' ([[1918]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry: [http://gutenberg.net/etext/551]) see also [[Lost World (genre)|Lost World]] literary genre.
*''[[The People That Time Forgot (novel)|The People That Time Forgot]]'' ([[1918]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry: [http://gutenberg.net/etext/552]) [mislabeled as "People Out of Time"]
*''Out of Time's Abyss'' ([[1918]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry: [http://gutenberg.net/etext/553])
===Moon series===
*''The Moon Maid'' ([[1926]])
*''The Moon Men'' ([[1926]])
===Other science fiction===
*''Beyond the Farthest Star'' ([[1941]])
*''The Lost Continent'' ([[1916]]) (aka ''Beyond Thirty'') ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry: [http://gutenberg.net/etext/149])
*''The Monster Men'' ([[1929]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry: [http://gutenberg.net/etext/96])
===Jungle adventure novels===
*''The Cave Girl'' ([[1925]])
*''The Eternal Savage'' ([[1925]]) (aka ''The Eternal Lover'')
*''The Lad and the Lion ([[1938]])
*''The Land of Hidden Men'' ([[1932]]) (aka ''Jungle Girl'')
*''The Man Eater'' ([[1935]])
===Western novels===
*''Apache Devil'' ([[1933]])
*''The Bandit of Hell's Bend'' ([[1926]])
*''The Deputy Sheriff of Comanche County'' ([[1940]])
*''The War Chief'' ([[1927]])
===Historical novels===
*''I am a Barbarian'' ([[1967]])
*''[[The Outlaw of Torn]]'' ([[1927]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry: [http://gutenberg.net/etext/369])
===Other works===
*''The Efficiency Expert'' ([[1921]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry: [http://gutenberg.net/etext/3475])
*[http://www.strangeexcursions.com/tarzana ''Forgotten Tales of Love and Murder''] ([[2001]])
*''The Girl from Farris's'' ([[1916]])
*''The Girl from Hollywood'' ([[1923]])
*''The Mad King'' ([[1926]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry: [http://gutenberg.net/etext/364])
*''Marcia of the Doorstep'' ([[1999]])
*''Minidoka: 937th Earl of One Mile Series M'' ([[1998]])
*''The Mucker'' ([[1921]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry: [http://gutenberg.net/etext/331])
*''The Oakdale Affair'' ([[1917]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry: [http://gutenberg.net/etext/363])
*''Pirate Blood'' ([[1970]])
*''The Rider'' ([[1937]])
*''You Lucky Girl!'' ([[1999]])
==See also==
*[[Otis Adelbert Kline]]
*[[Mars in fiction]]
*''[[John Carter of Mars (movie)|John Carter of Mars]]'' film
==External links==
{{wikisource author}}
* {{gutenberg author|id=Edgar_Rice_Burroughs|name=Edgar Rice Burroughs}}
* [http://www.erblist.com/erblist/erbfaq.shtml ERB FAQ]
* [http://www.erblist.com/ Burroughs Facts and Articles]
* [http://www.ERBzine.com/ Burroughs Tribute Site]
* [http://www.ERBzine.com/mag Weekly Edgar Rice Burroughs Webzine]
* [http://www.ERBzine.com/all Archive of over 3,000 Burroughs Webpages]
* [http://www.tarzan.org/ Tarzan.org, Burroughs Inc. official site]
* [http://www.strangeexcursions.com/tarzana The Tarzana Project: New Edgar Rice Burroughs Books]
* [http://www.strangeexcursions.com/vaults The Dream Vaults of Opar]
* [http://www.tarzan.org/official_biography_part1.html Official biography of Burroughs]
* [http://scifan.com/writers/bb/BurroughsEdgar.asp Bibliography] on [[SciFan]]
* [http://www.snopes.com/lost/tarzan.htm Snopes.com entry debunking the theory that Tarzana was named after Tarzan (joke)]
* [http://www.snopes.com/lost/false.htm Snopes.com entry debunking the Snopes.com entry debunking the theory that Tarzana was named after Tarzan]
* [http://www.seedwiki.com/wiki/chronology_central/edgar_rice_burroughs.cfm?wpid=183391 Chronology Central's Edgar Rice Burroughs page] - contains a chronological reading order for Edgar Rice Burroughs-based novels and comic books
* [http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/t/taliaferro-tarzan.html NY Times article on Burroughs]
* [http://www.erbfirsts.com/ ERB collectors site] with auction price tracking
* {{isfdb name|id=Edgar_Rice_Burroughs|name=Edgar Rice Burroughs}}
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<page>
<title>Eugène Viollet-le-Duc</title>
<id>9658</id>
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<id>40616456</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T21:24:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Japanese Searobin</username>
<id>153340</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+ja:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc''' ([[January 27]] [[1814]] &ndash; [[September 17]], [[1879]]) was a French [[architect]] and theorist, famous for his restorations of [[medieval]] buildings. Born in [[Paris]], he was as central a figure in the [[Gothic Revival]] in France as he was in the public discourse on "honesty" in architecture, which eventually transcended all revival styles, to inform the moving spirit of [[Modernism]]. Sir John Summerson considered that "there have been two supremely eminent theorists in the history of European architecture&mdash;[[Leon Battista Alberti]] and Eugène Viollet-le-Duc" (Summerson 1948).
[[Image:Viollet-le-DucConcertHallEntretiens.jpg|thumb| |
y]], which describes the evolution of slight inhomogeneities in the early universe, has allowed cosmologists to precisely calculate the angular [[power spectrum]] of the radiation, and it has been measured by the recent satellite experiments ([[COBE]] and [[WMAP]]) and many ground and balloon-based experiments (such as [[Degree Angular Scale Interferometer]], [[Cosmic Background Imager]], and [[BOOMERanG experiment|Boomerang]]). One of the goals of these efforts is to measure the basic parameters of the [[Lambda-CDM model]] with increasing accuracy, as well as to test the predictions of the big bang model and look for new physics. The recent measurements made by WMAP, for example, have placed limits on the neutrino masses.
Newer experiments are trying to measure the [[polarization]] of the cosmic microwave background, which will provide further confirmation of the theory as well as information about cosmic inflation, and the so-called secondary anisotropies, such as the [[Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect]] and [[Sachs-Wolfe effect]], which are caused by interaction between [[galaxy|galaxies]] and [[galaxy groups and clusters|clusters]] with the cosmic microwave background.
===Formation and evolution of large-scale structure===
{{Main|Large-scale structure of the cosmos}}, ''[[Galaxy formation and evolution]]''
Understanding the formation and evolution of the largest and earliest structures (ie, [[quasar]]s, [[galaxy|galaxies]], [[galaxy groups and clusters|clusters]] and [[supercluster]]s) is one of the largest efforts in cosmology. Cosmologists study a model of '''hierarchical structure formation''' in which structures form from the bottom up, with smaller objects forming first, while the largest objects, such as superclusters, are still assembling. The most straightforward way to study structure in the universe is to survey the visible galaxies, in order to construct a three-dimensional picture of the galaxies in the universe and measure the matter [[power spectrum]]. This is the approach of the [[Sloan Digital Sky Survey]] and the [[2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey]].
An important tool for understanding these structure formation is simulations, which cosmologists use to study the gravitational aggregation of matter in the universe, as it clusters into [[filament (astronomy)|filaments]], superclusters and [[void]]s. Most simulations contain only non-baryonic [[cold dark matter]], which should suffice to understand the universe on the largest scales, as there is much more dark matter in the universe than visible, baryonic matter. More advanced simulations are starting to include baryons and study the formation of individual galaxies. Cosmologists study these simulations to see if they agree with the galaxy surveys, and to understand any discrepancy.
Other, complementary techniques will allow cosmologists to measure the distribution of matter in the distant universe and to probe [[reionization]]. These include:
*The [[Lyman alpha forest]], which allows cosmologists to measure the distribution of neutral atomic hydrogen gas in the early universe, by measuring the absorption of light from distant quasars by the gas.
*The 21 centimeter adsorption line of neutral atomic hydrogen also provides a sensitive test of cosmology
*Weak lensing, the distortion of a distant image by [[gravitational lensing]] due to dark matter.
These will help cosmologists settle the question of when the first quasars formed.
===Dark matter===
{{Main|Dark matter}}
Evidence from big bang nucleosynthesis, the cosmic microwave background and structure formation suggests that about 25% of the mass of the universe consists of non-baryonic dark matter, whereas only 4% consists of visible, baryonic matter. The gravitational effects of dark matter are well understood, as it behaves like cold, [[Radioactive decay|non-radiative]] dust which forms around [[galactic halo|haloes]] around galaxies. Dark matter has never been detected in the laboratory: the particle physics nature of dark matter is completely unknown. However, there are a number of candidates, such as a stable [[supersymmetry|supersymmetric]] particle, a [[weakly interacting massive particle]], an [[axion]], a [[massive compact halo object]] or even a modification of gravity at small accelerations ([[MOND]]) or an effect from [[brane cosmology]].
The physics at the center of galaxies (see [[active galactic nuclei]], [[supermassive black hole]]) may give some clues about the nature of dark matter.
===Dark energy===
{{Main|Dark energy}}
If the universe is to be flat, there must be an additional component making up 71% (in addition to the 25% dark matter and 4% baryons) of the density of the universe. This is called dark energy. In order not to interfere with big bang nucleosynthesis and the cosmic microwave background, it must not cluster in haloes like baryons and dark matter. There is strong observational evidence for dark energy, as the total mass of the universe is known, since it is measured to be flat, but the amount of clustering matter is tightly measured, and is much less than this. The case for dark energy was strengthened in 1999, when measurements demonstrated that the expansion of the universe is accelerating, much like the more rapid acceleration during cosmic inflation.
However, apart from its density and its clustering properties, nothing is known about dark energy. [[Quantum field theory]] predicts a [[cosmological constant]] much like dark energy, but 120 [[orders of magnitude]] too large. [[Steven Weinberg]] and a number of string theorists (see [[string landscape]]) have used this as evidence for the [[anthropic principle]], which suggests that the cosmological constant is so small because life (and thus physicists, to make observations) cannot exist in a universe with a large cosmological constant, but many people find this an unsatisfying explantion. Other possible explanations for dark energy include [[quintessence (physics)|quintessence]] or a modification of gravity on the largest scales. The effect on cosmology of the dark energy that these models describe is given by the dark energy's [[equation of state (cosmology)|equation of state]], which varies depending upon the theory. The nature of dark energy is one of the most challenging problems in cosmology.
A better understanding of dark energy is likely to solve the problem of the [[ultimate fate of the universe]]. In the current cosmological epoch, the accelerated expansion due to dark energy is preventing structures larger than superclusters from forming. It is not known whether the acceleration will continue indefinitely, perhaps even increasing and cause a [[big rip]], or whether it will eventually reverse.
===Other areas of inquiry===
Cosmologists also study:
*whether [[primordial black hole]]s were formed in our universe, and what happened to them.
*the [[GZK cutoff]] for high-energy cosmic rays, and whether it signals a failure of [[special relativity]] at high energies
*the [[equivalence principle]], and whether Einstein's general theory of relativity is the correct theory of gravity, and if the fundamental laws of physics are the same everywhere in the universe
==References==
===Popular reading===
* {{cite book | authorlink = Stephen Hawking | last = Hawking | first = Stephen W. | title = Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes | publisher = Bantam Books, Inc | year = 1998 | id = ISBN 0553380168 }}
* {{cite book | authorlink = Stephen Hawking | last = Hawking | first = Stephen W. | title = Universe in a Nutshell | publisher = Bantam Books, Inc | year = 2001 | id = ISBN 055380202X }}
* {{cite book | author = [[Simon Singh]] | title = Big bang: the origins of the universe | publisher = Fourth Estate | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 0007162219 }}
* {{cite book | author = [[Steven Weinberg]] | title = The First Three Minutes | publisher = Basic Books | year = 1993 | id = ISBN 0465024378 }}
* {{cite book | author = [[Brian Greene]] | title = The Fabric of the Cosmos | publisher = Penguin Books Ltd | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 0141011114 }}
* {{cite book | author = [[Alan Guth]] | title = The Inflationary Universe: The Quest for a New Theory of Cosmic Origins | publisher = Random House | year = 1997 | id = ISBN 0224044486 }}
===Textbooks===
* {{cite book | first = Scott | last = Dodelson | year = 2003 | title = Modern Cosmology | publisher = Academic Press | id = ISBN 0122191412 }} Released slightly before the WMAP results, this is the most modern introductory textbook.
* {{cite book | first = Edward | last = Harrison | year = 2000 | title = Cosmology: the science of the universe | publisher = Cambridge University Press | id = ISBN 052166148X }} A relatively unmathematical textbook.
* {{cite book | first = Marc | last = Kutner | title = Astronomy: A Physical Perspective | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2003 | id = ISBN 0521529271 }} An introductory astronomy textbook.
* {{cite book | first = Edward | last = Kolb | coauthors = Michael Turner | title = The Early Universe | publisher = Addison-Wesley | year = 1988 | id = ISBN 0201116049 }} This is the classic reference for cosmologists.
* {{cite book | first = Andrew | last = Liddle | title = An Introduction to Modern Cosmology | publisher = John Wiley | year = 2003 | id = ISBN 0470848359 }} An introduction to cosmology without General Relativity
* {{cite book | first = Andrew | last = Liddle | coauthors = David Lyth | title = Cosmological Inflation and Large-Scale Structure | publisher = Cambridge | year = 2000 | id = ISBN 0521575932 }} An introduction to cosmology with a thorough discussion of inflation.
* {{cite book | first = Viatcheslav | last = Mukhanov | title = Physical Foundations of Cosmology | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 0521563984 }}
* {{cite book | author = Padmanabhan, T. | title = Structure formation in the universe | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1993 | id = ISBN 0521 |
may have been 50,000 men at most, while [[Ludwig Borchardt]] and [[Louis Croon]] placed the number at 36,000. According to Verner, a labor force of no more than 30,000 was needed in the Great Pyramid's construction.
A construction management study carried out by the firm Daniel, Mann, Johnson, & Mendenhall in association with Mark Lehner and other egyptologists (''Civil Engineering'' magazine, June 1999), estimates that the total project required an average workforce of 13,200 people and a peak workforce of 40,000 and was completed from start to finish in approximately 10 years. The study estimates the number of blocks used in construction was between 2-2.8 million (an average of 2.4 million), but settles on a much reduced finished total of 2 million subtracting the estimated area of the hollow spaces of the chambers and galleries. Their calculations suggest the workforce could have sustained a rate of 180 blocks per hour (3 blocks every 60 seconds)with ten hour work days for putting each individual block in place. They derived these estimates from contruction projects in the third world that did not use modern machinery. This study fails to take into account however, especially when compared to modern third world construction projects, the added labor and logistics required among other things to perform the work with such precision, the entire project as a whole, or the use of up to 80 tonne stones being quarried and transported a distance of over 500 miles.
Regardless of how many workers were required for construction, to use the following equation: 2,400,000 (total stones used in construction) ÷ 20 years (estimated time of completion) ÷ 365 days in a year ÷ 10 work hours in a day ÷ 60 minutes in one hour, the resulting answer is 0.55 stones/minute. What this means is that no matter how many workers were used or in what configuration, to complete the construction of the Great Pyramid within this time frame 1.1 blocks would have to be put in place every 2 minutes, ten hours a day, 365 days a year for twenty years. To use the same equation, but instead assuming the time of completion to be one hundred years instead of twenty, it would require 1.1 blocks to be set every ten minutes, ten hours a day, 365 days a year.
These equations, however, do not include the time and labor required to design, plan, survey, and level the 13 acre site which the Great Pyramid sits on. Nor do they include construction time for the two other main pyramids on the site, the Sphinx, the temples (which feature stones weighing upwards of 200 tonnes), networks of causeways, several square miles of paving stones (which originally covered the entire Giza plateau), the leveling of the entire Giza plateau, the 35 boat pits carved out of solid bedrock (some of which are nearly 150 ft long and 30 ft deep), or several other highly laborious features.
When considering the time it would have taken to build the Great Pyramid alone, it is worth noting that the construction of the entire Giza plateau is believed to have been accomplished by three pharaohs (possibly 4 if Djedefre, Kheops' son, is considered) in less than a hundred years starting with Khufu who reigned from 2606-2583 BC and ending with Menkaure 2548-2530 BC (76 years). To apply the Great Pyramid labor formula (which only provides for the physical act of dropping the stones in place) to the entire Giza plateau would require stones, even the 80-200 tonne variety some of which were quarried over 500 miles away in Aswan, to be placed ten hours a day, 365 days a year for approximately 76 years - not every few minutes, but every few seconds. This feat becomes even more impessive given beginning with king Snefru who ruled from 2630-2606 BC (leaving a span of 100 years between the beginning of his reign and the end of Menkaure's in 2530 BC), three other massive pyramids were built: the Step Pyramid of Saqqara (believed to be the first Egyptian pyramid), the Bent Pyramid, and the Red Pyramid of Dashur. Also during this time period (between 2686 and 2498 BC), an equally impressive construction project was carried out, the Wadi Al-Garawi dam believed by some to be the world's oldest, which used an estimated 100,000 cubic metres of rock and rubble for its construction.[http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2004/708/he1.htm]
Herodotus speculated that the stone blocks used in the Great Pyramid's construction were maneuvered into place by raising them up a succession of short wooden [[Scaffolding|scaffold]]s. Another possibility proposed by the ancient scholar [[Diodorus Siculus]] was that the giant blocks were dragged along a system of [[ramp]]s to the necessary height. More recently, [[Mark Lehner]] speculated that a spiralling ramp, beginning in the stone [[quarry]] to the southeast and continuing around the exterior of the pyramid, may have been used. In Lehner's model, the stone blocks may have been drawn on sleds lubricated by water. Another source claims milk was a lubricant.
The most precisely cut stone blocks were reserved for the outside. Once in place their corners were smoothed to give an almost shiny outer appearance of the pyramid. For the inner core, the blocks were cut with less precision, since there are gaps big enough to introduce an arm. These gaps were filled with rubble, mixed with gypsum. Recent studies by Gilles Dormion and Jean Patrice Goidin suggest the existence of cavities filled with sand, that could amount to 10 to 15% of the volume of the pyramid. This could reduce the amount of work required of the construction.
The idea of using rollers to move stone blocks was made popular in Hollywood movies, but as of today, whether it be ramp, roller, or otherwise, there are few historical records to demonstrate how ground transportation was done.
If a ramp were used to push the top-most blocks of the pyramid into place, the incline would contain more material than the pyramid itself and this material would have had to be removed after construction was completed. Excavation on the area south of the Great Pyramid revealed evidence of the remains of a ramp consisting of two walls built of stone rubble and mixed with Tafla. The area in between was filled with sand and gypsum forming the bulk of the ramp. They were discovered during the work of relocating the Sound and Light Show cables at Giza (Hawass, The Pyramids of Ancient Egypt). Given the mass required to build a ramp of such magnitude to contruct the Great Pyramid as ramp theories suggest, it is unknown what purpose this much smaller newly discovered ramp may have served.
It has also been suggested that Egyptians might have moved the stones with wind power, relying on kites and pulleys rather than huge numbers of slaves. On June 23, 2001, Caltech aeronautics professor [[Mory Gharib]] and a small team of undergraduates raised a 3000 kg, 3 metre tall obelisk into vertical position in 22 mph (35 km/h) winds in a California desert in under 25 seconds, using a 10 m kite connected to a pulley system and support frame, to demonstrate that wind power can be harnessed to create large lifting forces. The originator of this idea, business consultant Maureen Clemmons, recalled seeing a building frieze now displayed in a Cairo museum, showing a wing pattern in bas relief that did not resemble any living bird, directly below which were several men standing near vertical objects that could be ropes. However, though the engineering may have been feasible, Egyptian experts point out there is no evidence that ancient Egyptians used either kites or pulleys as we know them today.
Materials scientist [[Joseph Davidovits]] has posited that the blocks of the pyramid are not carved stone, but mostly a form of limestone [[concrete]]: ''i.e.'' they were 'cast' as with modern [[cement]]. Because of the blocks huge (2.5 to 15 tons) size each was molded in situ. [http://www.geopolymer.org/science_archaeology/pyramids_egypt/limestone_fossil_shells.htm]
&nbsp; According to this theory soft [[limestone]] with a high [[kaolinite]] content was quarried in the [[wadi]] on the south if the Giza plateau. It was then dissolved in large, Nile-fed pools until it became a watery slurry. Lime (found in the ash of cooking fires) and [[natron]] (also used by the Egyptians in mummification) was mixed in. The pools were then left to evaporate, leaving behind a moist, clay-like mixture. This wet "concrete" would be carried to the construction site where it would be packed into reusable wooden molds. In the next few days the mixture would undergo a chemical [[hydration]] reaction similar to the 'setting' of cement.
&nbsp; No large gangs would be needed to haul blocks, and no chiseling or carving would be required to dress their surfaces. New blocks could be cast in place, on top of and pressed against the old blocks. This would account for the unerring precision of the joints of the casing (the blocks of the core show tools marks and were cut with much lower tolerances). Proof-of-concept tests using similar compounds were carried out at a geopolymer institute in northern France. It was found that a crew of ten, working with simple hand tools, could build a structure of fourteen, 1.3 to 4.5 ton blocks in a couple of days. [http://www.geopolymer.org/science_archaeology/pyramids_egypt/video_limestone_block_made.html]
&nbsp; According to Davidovits the architects possessed at least two concrete formulas: one for the large structural blocks and another for the white casing stones. He argues earlier pyramids were built using similar techniques.
==Alternative theories==
In common with many other monumental structures from antiquity, the Great Pyramid has over time been the subject of a great number of speculative or alternative theories, which put forward a variety of explanations about its origins, dating, construction and purpose. In support of these claims such accounts either rely upon novel reinterpretations of the |
|charger]] and giving himself up to the hardships of the chase. Throwing dice for money was the cause of many special [[law]]s in [[Rome]]. One of these stated that no [[lawsuit|suit]] could be brought by a person who allowed gambling in his house, even if he had been cheated or assaulted. Professional gamblers were common, and some of their loaded dice are preserved in [[museum]]s. The common public-houses were the resorts of gamblers, and a [[fresco]] is extant showing two quarrelling dicers being ejected by the indignant host.
[[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus|Tacitus]] states that the [[Germanic tribes|Germans]] were passionately fond of dicing, so much so, indeed, that, having lost everything, they would even stake their personal liberty. Centuries later, during the middle ages, dicing became the favourite pastime of the [[knight]]s, and both dicing schools and guilds of dicers existed. After the downfall of [[feudalism]] the famous German [[mercenary|mercenaries]] called [[landsknecht]]s established a reputation as the most notorious dicing gamblers of their time. Many of the dice of the period were curiously carved in the images of men and beasts. In [[France]] both knights and ladies were given to dicing. This persisted through repeated legislation, including interdictions on the part of [[Louis IX of France|St. Louis]] in [[1254]] and [[1256]].
In [[China]], [[India]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]], and other Asiatic countries, dice have always been popular and are so still. The markings on [[Chinese dominoes]] evolved from the markings on dice, taken two at a time.
=== Loaded dice ===
A '''loaded ''' or '''gaffed''' die is a die that has been tampered with to land with a selected side facing upwards more often than it would simply by [[probability|chance]]. There are methods of creating loaded dice, including having some edges round and other sharp and slightly off square faces. If the dice are not transparent, weights can be added to one side or the other. They can be modified to produce winners ("passers") or losers ("miss-outs"). "Tappers" have a drop of [[mercury (element)|mercury]] in a reservoir at the center of the cube, with a [[Capillary action|capillary tube]] leading to another mercury reservoir at the side of the cube. The load is activated by tapping the die on the table so that the mercury leaves the center and travels to the side. Often one can see the circle of the cut used to remove the face and bury the weight. In a professional die, the weight is inserted in manufacture; in the case of a wooden die, this can be done by carving the die around a heavy inclusion, like a [[pebble]] around which a tree has grown.
A variable loaded die is hollow with a small weight and a semi-solid substance inside, usually [[wax]], whose [[melting point]] is just lower than the temperature of the human body. This allows the cheater to change the loading of the die by breathing on it or holding it firmly in hand, causing the wax to melt and the weight to drift down, making the chosen opposite face more likely to land up. A less common type of variable die can be made by inserting a [[magnet]] into the die and embedding a coil of wire in the game table. Then, either leave the current off and let the die roll unchanged or run current through the coil to increase the likelihood that the north side or the south side will land on the bottom depending on the direction of the current.
Transparent [[acetate]] dice, used in all reputable [[casino]]s, are harder to tamper with.
=== Materials ===
[[Image:1Dice00_5465.JPG|right|thumb|125px| Plastic dice]]
[[Image:16mm_Brass_Dice.jpg|right|thumb|125px| Metal dice, made of brass]]
It is unknown of what material the earliest polyhedral dice were made. A pair of icosahedral (20-sided) dice dating from Roman times are on display at the [[British Museum]]. Roughly cubical six-sided Roman dice made of [[wood]], [[bone]], [[ivory]] and [[lead]] have been discovered. It is possible that polyhedral dice were used by even earlier cultures.
Precision casino dice, used for the game of [[craps]], are made from [[cellulose acetate]]. These dice may have a polished finish, making them transparent, or a sand finish, making them translucent. While red is the most common color, they are also seen in casinos in green, amber, blue, or other colors. Casino dice have their pips drilled, and then filled flush with a paint of the same specific gravity as the acetate, such that the dice remain in perfect balance. In casino play, a stick of 5 dice are used, all stamped with a matching serial number to prevent a cheat from substituting a die.
Polyhedral dice are usually made of [[plastic]], though infrequently [[metal]], [[wood]]en, and semi-precious stone dice can be found. Early polyhedral dice from the 1970s and 1980s were made of a soft plastic that would easily wear as the die was used. Typical wear and tear would gradually round the corners and edges of the die until it was unusable. Modern polyhedral dice are typically made of high-impact plastic and can withstand years of use without visible wear. [[Lou Zocchi]] and his company [[Gamescience]] not only always guaranteed that their high-impact plastic dice would not wear down the way other companies' dice did, but for years criticized major dice manufacturers for crafting unfair, loaded dice through sloppy polishing techniques and substandard materials. He was also the creator of the famous and bizarre 100 sides dice, the [[Zocchihedron]].
Polyhedral dice can be purchased at most hobby stores in numerous combinations. In the early days of [[role-playing game]]s, most dice came with the numbers uninked and players took great care in painting their sets of dice. Some twenty-sided dice of this era came numbered zero through nine twice; half of the numbers had to be painted a contrasting color to signify the "high" faces. Such a die could also double as a ten-sided die by ignoring the distinguishing coloring.
== Cubical dice with faces representing values other than digits 1 through 6 ==
As noted, the faces of most dice are labelled to using an unbroken series of whole numbers, starting at one (or zero), expressed with either pips or digits. Common exceptions include:
[[image:Poker_01.jpg|right|thumb|230px| Poker Dice.]]
* colour dice (e.g., with the colours of the playing pieces used in a game)
* [[Poker]] dice, with the following labels somewhat reminiscent of the names of standard [[playing card]]s:
** Nine (of spades; black)
** Ten (of diamonds; red)
** Jack (blue)
** Queen (blue)
** King (red)
** Ace (of clubs; black)
* dice with letters (e.g. in [[Boggle]])
* doubling dice (2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64)
* average dice (2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5)
* cheat dice, such as:
** one face each with two through five, and two with sixes, or
** for [[craps]], a pair of dice in which one die has five on each face, and its mate has a mixture of twos and sixes, guaranteeing rolls of seven or 11
* so-called "3-sided dice", each a cubical die with each of its faces marked identically to exactly one of the other faces, yielding three equally likely distinguishable outcomes, for example:
** those (usually abbreviated ''d3'') in some role-playing games, labelled 1, 2, and 3 respectively, or
** ''[[FUDGE]] dice'', with two minus (&minus;) sides, two blank sides, and two plus (+) sides; a throw of ''n'' fudge dice yields an integer from ''&minus;n'' to ''n'', by reading "&minus;" as "&minus;1" and "+" as "+1" and summing the faces showing.
* random direction dice also known as scatter dice. The dice have arrows on each side, the outcome of a roll is a random direction. Scatter dice are used in [[Tabletop_wargaming|tabletop wargames]] such as [[Warhammer Fantasy Battle]] to determine random movements of troops, wind direction or direction of misfired arms.
== Non-cubical dice ==
[[Image:Dados rodillo.jpg|thumb|right|Rolling-pin style dice]]
'''Polyhedral dice''' are [[dice]] with more or fewer than six sides. They were once almost exclusively used by fortune-tellers and in other occult practices, but they have become popular lately among players of [[wargame]]s, [[trading card game]]s, [[German-style board game]]s, and [[role-playing game]]s. Although polyhedral dice are a relative novelty during modern times, some ancient cultures appear to have used them in games (as evidenced by the presence of two icosahedral dice dating from the days of [[ancient Rome]] on display in the [[British Museum]]). Such dice are typically plastic, and have faces bearing numerals rather than patterns of dots. Reciprocally symmetric numerals are distinguished with a dot in the lower right corner (6. vs 9.) or by being underlined (<u>6</u> vs <u>9</u>).
Dice with various numbers of faces are often described by their numbers of sides, with a ''d6'' being a six-sided die, a ''d10'' a ten-sided die, and so forth. When more than one die is used, the standard terminology is to have two numbers separated by the 'd' - <i>Number of Dice</i> 'd' <i>Number of sides on each die</i>. Hence 2d6 is simply Two Six-Sided Dice, suitable for games of [[Monopoly]] or [[Craps]].
The [[platonic solid]]s are commonly used to make dice of 4, 6, 8, 12, and 20 faces. Other shapes can be found to make dice with 5, 7, 10, 16, 24, 30, 34, 50, or 100 sides, but other than the 10 sided, they are rarely used. (See ''[[Zocchihedron]]''.)
{| class="toccolours" style="margin: 0 auto;"
|-
|id="toc" style="padding:0;"|[[image:20-sided dice 250.jpg|180px|20-sided die]]
|id="toc" style="padding:0;"|[[image:10-sided dice 250.jpg|180px|10-sided die]]
|id="toc" style="padding:0;"|[[image:4-sided dice 250.jpg|180px|4-sided die]]
|- style="font-size:94%;"
|20-sided die||10-sided d |
torum]]''), but it later left the matter to the action of the pope. The preparation of a [[Roman Catechism|catechism]] and revised editions of the [[Breviary]] and [[Missal]] were also left to the pope.
On adjourning, the Council begged the supreme pontiff to ratify all its decrees and definitions. This petition was complied with by [[Pope Pius IV]], [[January 26]], [[1564]], in a bull which enjoins strict obedience upon all Roman Catholics, and forbids, under pain of [[excommunication]], all unauthorized interpretation, reserving this to the pope alone, and threatening the disobedient with "the indignation of Almighty God and of his blessed apostles, Peter and Paul." Pope Pius appointed a commission of cardinals to assist him in interpreting and enforcing the decrees.
The ''Index librorum prohibitorum'' was announced 1564, and the following books were issued with the papal [[imprimatur]]: the Profession of the Tridentine Faith and the [[Roman Catechism|Tridentine Catechism]] (1566), the Breviary (1568), the Missal (1570), and the [[Vulgate]] (1590, and then 1592).
The decrees of the council were acknowledged in Italy, Portugal, Poland, and by the Roman Catholic princes of Germany at the diet of [[1566]]. [[Philip II of Spain]] accepted them for Spain, the Netherlands, and Sicily in so far as they did not infringe on the royal prerogative. In France they were officially recognized by the king only in their doctrinal parts. The disciplinary sections received official recognition at provincial synods and were enforced by the bishops. No attempt was made to introduce it into England. Pius IV sent the decrees to [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary, Queen of Scots]], with a letter dated [[June 13]], [[1564]], requesting her to publish them in Scotland, but she dared not do it in the face of [[John Knox]] and the Reformation.
These decrees were later supplemented by the [[First Vatican Council]] of [[1870]].
==Publication of documents==
The canons and decrees of the council have been published very often and in many languages (for a large list consult ''British Museum Catalogue'', under "Trent, Council of"). The first issue was by [[P. Manutius]] (Rome, 1564). The best Latin editions are by [[J. Le Plat]] (Antwerp, 1779), and by F. Schulte and [[A. L. Richter]] (Leipsig, 1853). Other good editions are in vol. vii. of the ''Acta et decreta conciliorum recentiorum. Collectio Lacensis'' (7 vols., Freiburg, 1870-90), reissued as independent volume (1892); ''Concilium Tridentinum: Diariorum, actorum, epastularum, ... collectio'', ed. [[S. Merkle ]](4 vols., Freiburg, 1901 sqq.; only vols. i.-iv. have as yet appeared); not to overlook [[Mansi]], ''Concilia'', xxxv. 345 sqq. Note also [[Mirbt]], ''Quellen'', 2d ed, pp. 202-255. The best English edition is by [[J. Waterworth]] (London, 1848; ''With Essays on the External and Internal History of the Council'').
The original acts and debates of the council, as prepared by its general secretary, Bishop [[Angelo Massarelli]], in six large folio volumes, are deposited in the [[Vatican Library]], and remained there unpublished for more than 300 years, and were brought to light, though only in part, by [[Augustin Theiner]], priest of the oratory (d. [[1874]]), in ''Acta genuina sancti et oecumenici Concilii Tridentini nunc primum integre edita'' (2 vols., Leipzig, 1874).
Most of the official documents and private reports, however, which bear upon the council, were made known in the sixteenth century and since. The most complete collection of them is that of J. Le Plat, ''Monumentorum ad historicam Concilii Tridentini collectio'' (7 vols., Leuven, 1781-87). New materials were brought to light by J. Mendham, ''Memoirs of the Council of Trent'' (London, 1834-36), from the manuscript history of Cardinal Paleotto; more recently by T. Sickel, ''Actenstücke aus österreichischen Archiven'' (Vienna, 1872); by [[Johann Joseph Ignaz von Döllinger|JJI von Döllinger]] ''(Ungedruckte Berichte und Tagebücher zur Geschichte des Concilii von Trient)'' (2 parts, Nördlingen, 1876); and A. von Druffel, ''Monumenta Tridentina'' (Munich, 1884-97).
==List of dogmatic decrees==
{| cellpadding="4"
|- style="font-weight:bold"
|Doctrine ||Session ||Date ||Canons ||Decrees
|-
|[[Bible|The Holy Scriptures]]|| 4|| [[April 8]], [[1546]]|| None|| 1
|-
|[[Original sin]]|| 5||[[June 7]], [[1546]]|| 5|| 4
|-
|[[Justification (theology)|Justification]]|| 6||[[January 13]], [[1547]]|| 33|| 16
|-
|The [[Sacrament]]s in General|| 7||[[March 3]], [[1547]]|| 13|| 1
|-
|[[Baptism]]|| 7||[[March 3]], [[1547]]|| 14|| None
|-
|[[Confirmation]]|| 7|| [[March 3]], [[1547]]|| 3|| None
|-
|Holy [[Eucharist]]|| 13||[[October 11]], [[1551]]|| 11|| 8
|-
|[[Penance]]|| 14|| [[November 15]], [[1551]]|| 15|| 15
|-
|[[Anointing of the Sick|Extreme Unction]]|| 14||[[November 4]], [[1551]]|| 4|| 3
|-
|Holy Eucharist|| 21||[[June 16]], [[1562]]|| 4|| 3
|-
|Holy Eucharist|| 22||[[September 9]], [[1562]]|| 9|| 4
|-
|[[Holy Orders]]|| 23||[[July 15]], [[1563]]|| 8|| 3
|-
|[[Matrimony]]|| 24||[[November 11]], [[1563]]|| 12|| 1
|-
|[[Purgatory]]|| 25||[[December 4]], [[1563]]|| None|| 1
|-
|[[Cult (religion)|Cults]]: [[Saint]]s [[Relic]]s [[Iconoclasm|Images]]|| 25||[[December 4]], [[1563]]|| None|| 3
|-
|[[Indulgence]]s|| 25||[[December 4]], [[1563]]|| None|| 1
|}
==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15030c.htm A Catholic View of the Council from the Catholic Encyclopedia]
{{Schaff-Herzog}}
[[Category:Council of Trent|*]]
[[bg:Трентски събор]]
[[cs:Tridentský koncil]]
[[de:Konzil von Trient]]
[[es:Concilio de Trento]]
[[fr:Concile de Trente]]
[[it:Concilio di Trento]]
[[la:Concilium Tridentinum]]
[[nl:Concilie van Trente]]
[[ja:トリエント公会議]]
[[no:Konsilet i Trient]]
[[pl:Sobór trydencki]]
[[pt:Concílio de Trento]]
[[ro:Conciliul Tridentin]]
[[ru:Тридентский собор]]
[[fi:Trenton kirkolliskokous]]
[[sv:Tridentinska mötet]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chloroplast</title>
<id>6355</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>41918125</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:40:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>200.67.115.227</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Origins */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chloroplastsfigure1.jpg|thumb|right|The inside of a chloroplast]]
'''Chloroplasts''' are [[organelle]]s found in [[plant]] [[cell (biology)|cells]] and [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] [[alga]]e that conduct [[photosynthesis]]. Chloroplasts capture [[light]] [[energy]] from the [[sun]] to produce the [[free energy]] stored in [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] and [[NADPH]] through a process called [[photosynthesis]].
==Origins==
Chloroplasts are one of the forms a [[plastid]] may take, and are generally considered to have originated as [[endosymbiotic theory|endosymbiotic]] [[cyanobacteria]]. In this respect they are similar to [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]], but are found only in [[plant]]s and [[protist]]a. Both organelles are surrounded by a double celled composite membrane with an intermembrane space; both have their own [[DNA]] and are involved in energy metabolism; and both have reticulations, or many infoldings, filling their inner spaces.
In green plants chloroplasts are surrounded by two [[cell membrane|lipid-bilayer membrane]]s. The inner membrane is now thought to correspond to the outer membrane of the ancestral cyanobacterium. The chloroplast genome is considerably [[genome reduction|reduced]] compared to that of free-living cyanobacteria, but the parts that are still present show clear similarities. Many of the missing genes are encoded in the nuclear genome of the plant, algae or protist.
It is interesting to note that in some algae (such as the [[heterokont]]s and other [[protist]]s such as [[Euglenozoa]] and [[Cercozoa]]), chloroplasts seem to have arisen through a secondary event of endosymbiosis, in which a eukaryotic cell engulfed a second eukaryotic cell containing chloroplasts, forming chloroplasts with three or four membrane layers. In some cases, such secondary [[endosymbiont]]s have themselves been engulfed by still other eukaryotes, forming tertiary endosymbionts.
==Structure==
[[Image:Chloroplast-new.jpg|thumb|right|The inside of a chloroplast with the granum circled.]]
The chloroplast has a two membrane envelope termed the Inner & Outer membrane respectively. Between these two layers is the Intermembrane space.
The fluid within the chloroplast is called the [[stroma]], corresponding to the [[cytoplasm]] of the bacterium, and contains tiny circular DNA and [[ribosome]]s, though most of their proteins are encoded by genes contained in the cell nucleus, with the protein products trafficked to the chloroplast.
Within the stroma are stacks of [[thylakoid]]s, the sub-organelles where photosynthesis actually takes place. A stack of thylakoids is called a [[granum]]. A thylakoid looks like a flattened disk, and inside is an empty area called the thylakoid space or lumen. The photosynthesis reaction takes place on the membrane of the thylakoid, and, as is also the case with mitochondria, involves the coupling of cross-membrane [[flux]]es with [[biochemistry|biosynthesis]].
==Biochemistry==
The photosynthetic proteins in the membrane bind [[chlorophyll]], which is present with various accessory [[pigment]]s. These give chloroplasts their green color. During autumn, the removal of chlorophyll from plant leaves exposes red and yellow pigments (such as [[xanthophyll]]) which were previously masked.
Algal chloroplasts may be golden, brown, or red and show variation in the number of membranes and the presence of thylakoids.
Pigments undergo electronic excitations driven by the absorption of sunlight — red and blue for chlorophyll. The green we see is the color ''not'' absorbed. The energy released by the electronically-excited pigments as they return to their [[ground |
revent and detect fraud, waste, abuse, and mismanagement. The Inspector General is nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. The Inspector General, whose activities are independent of those of any other component in the Agency, reports directly to the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency. OIG conducts inspections, investigations, and audits at Headquarters and in the field, and oversees the Agency-wide grievance-handling system. The OIG provides a semiannual report to the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency which the Director is required to submit by law to the Intelligence Committees of Congress within 30 days. The current Inspector General is John L. Helgerson.
The Office of Public Affairs[http://www.cia.gov/cia/public_affairs/pas.html] advises the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency on all media, public policy, and employee communications issues relating to his role as CIA director and is the CIA’s principal communications focal point for the media, the general public and Agency employees. The current Director of Public Affairs is Jennifer Millerwise Dyck[http://www.cia.gov/cia/information/millerwise.html].
====Relationship with other agencies====
The CIA acts as the primary American provider of central intelligence estimates. It is believed to make use of the surveillance [[satellite]]s of the [[National Reconnaissance Office]] (NRO) and the signal interception capabilities of the [[NSA]], including the [[Echelon]] system, the surveillance aircraft of the various branches of the U.S. armed forces and the analysts of the [[State Department]] and [[Department of Energy]]. At one point, the CIA even operated its own fleet of [[Lockheed U-2|U-2]] surveillance aircraft. The agency has also operated alongside regular military forces, and also employs a group of clandestine officers with [[paramilitary]] skills in its [[Special Activities Division]]. [[Micheal Spann]], a CIA officer killed in November 2001 during the [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan]], was one such individual. The CIA also has strong links with other foreign intelligence agencies such as the UK's [[MI6]] and Canada's [[CSIS]].
==== Director of the Central Intelligence Agency ====
The head of the CIA is given the title of the [[Director of the Central Intelligence Agency]] (DCIA).
The Central Intelligence Agency was created in 1947 with the signing of the National Security Act by President [[Harry S. Truman]]. The act also created a Director of Central Intelligence (DCI) to serve as head of the United States intelligence community; act as the principal adviser to the President for intelligence matters related to the national security; and serve as head of the Central Intelligence Agency. The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 amended the National Security Act to provide for a [[Director of National Intelligence]] who would assume some of the roles formerly fulfilled by the DCI, with a separate Director of the Central Intelligence Agency.
[[Porter J. Goss]] became the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency on [[April 21]] [[2005]][http://www.cia.gov/cia/information/Goss.html]. He served as Director of Central Intelligence from [[September 24]] [[2004]] until [[April 21]] [[2005]]. Director Goss previously served as head of the [[U.S. House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence|House Intelligence Committee]] as a representative from [[Florida]]. Director Goss is also a former CIA Operations Officer.
==Historical operations==
See also [[:Category:CIA operations]]
===North America===
In the 1950's and 60's, the CIA ran a mind-control research programme code-named [[Project MKULTRA]].
===Eastern Europe===
In its earliest years the CIA and its predecessor, the [[OSS]], attempted to [[rollback]] communism in eastern Europe by supporting local anti-communist groups; none of these attempts met with much success. Attempts to instigate revolutions in the Ukraine and Belarus by infiltrating anti-Communist spies and saboteurs met with total failure. In [[Poland]] the CIA spent several years sending money and equipment to an organization invented and run by Polish intelligence. It was more successful in its efforts to limit Communist influence in [[France]] and [[Italy]], notably in the [[1948 Italian election]]. After WWII, the CIA was instrumental in setting up the [[Gladio network]], a secret government network of organizations in Italy and in other parts of Western Europe. In the 1960s-1980s, Gladio operatives, including CIA moles, implemented a series of "false flag" terrorist actions in Italy that were blamed on the "[[Red Brigades]]" and other Left groups in an attempt to discredit the Italian Left.
It has now been firmly established (see references below) that the [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] actively recruited and protected many high ranking [[Nazi]] officers immediately following [[World War II]], a policy that was carried on by the CIA. These included, the CIA now admits, the notorious "butcher of Lyon" [[Klaus Barbie]], Hitler's Chief of Soviet Intelligence General [[Reinhard Gehlen]], and numerous less-renowned [[Gestapo]] officers. General Gehlen, due to his extensive (if dubious) intelligence assets within the [[Soviet Union]], was allowed to keep his spy-network intact after the war in the service of the [[United States]]. The Gehlen organization soon became one of America's chief sources of [[military intelligence|Intelligence]] on the [[Soviet Union]] during the [[cold war]], and formed the basis for what would later become the German intelligence agency the [[Bundesnachrichtendienst|BND]]!
===Third World===
With Europe stabilizing along the line of the [[Iron Curtain]], the CIA then moved in the 1950s to try to limit the spread of Soviet influence elsewhere around the globe, especially in the [[Third World]]. With the encouragement of DCI [[Allen Dulles]], clandestine operations quickly came to dominate the organization. Initially they proved very successful: in [[Iran]] in 1953 the CIA successfully overthrew the democratically elected [[Mossadegh]] government after it attempted to retain more of the country's oil revenues and remove perceived communist influence from the strong Iranian Communist Party (''see [[Operation Ajax]]''). In [[Guatemala]] in 1954 (''see [[Operation PBSUCCESS]]''), CIA operations, with relatively little funding, orchestrated the overthrow of these democratically elected governments and replaced them with non-democratic and pro-American dictatorships. However, the instability created in Guatemala resulted in a 30-year civil war which caused over 100,000 fatalities; and in Iran, the Shah's dictatorship, which aggressively eliminated all political opposition, would cause the rise of a fundamentalist Islamic government after the Shah was eventually overthrown in the 1979 Iranian revolution. However, some claim that without the initial involvement of the US the Soviet Union would have been able to influence Iran and others enough to spread their communism and thus creating a much worse result than radical Islam-- the Cold War turned hot, what would have been World War III.{{fact}}
====Indonesia====
In 1958, a CIA-backed coup attempt was made on Indonesia's President [[Sukarno]], while other elements of the U.S. government backed Sukarno.{{fact}} The operation failed when a CIA operative was captured after his plane was shot down, and was found to have on his possession his actual identification as a CIA agent. {{fact}}
In 1965 [[Sukarno]] was ousted in a [[coup d'état]] led by [[Suharto]]. As many as 5,000 names of communists and leftists were furnished to the Indonesian army by the CIA, and the Americans later checked off the names of those who had been killed or captured."{{ref|5000}} One of those Kadane interviewed was Robert J Martens, a political officer in the US embassy in Jakarta. "It was a big help to the army", he said. "They probably killed a lot of people and I probably have a lot of blood on my hands, but that's not all bad."{{ref|blood}} In little more than a month, an estimated 500,000 executions took place, often directed at Indonesia's Chinese minority. In a 1968 report, the CIA estimated there had been 250,000 deaths, and called the carnage "one of the worst mass murders of the 20th century."{{ref|1968}}
The CIA secretly supplied Suharto's troops with a field communications network. Flown in at night by US Air Force planes from the Philippines, this was state-of-the-art equipment, whose frequencies were known to the CIA and the National Security Agency. Not only did this technology allow Suharto's generals to coordinate the killings more efficiently, it also meant that the highest echelons of the US administration could listen in. Suharto was able to seal off large areas of the country.{{ref|1965}}
====Cuba====
The limitations of large scale covert action became readily apparent during the CIA organized [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]] of [[Cuba]] in 1961. The failure embarrassed the CIA and the United States on the world stage, as Cuban dictator [[Fidel Castro]] used the botched invasion to consolidate power and strengthen ties with the Soviet Union. However, the CIA attempted unsuccessfully several times to assassinate the Cuban head of state as part of its [[Operation Mongoose]].
====CIA operations after Cuba====
CIA operations became less ambitious after the Bay of Pigs, and shifted to being closely linked to aiding the U.S. military operation in [[Vietnam]]. Between 1962 and 1975, the CIA organized a [[Laos|Laotian]] group known as the [[Secret Army]] and ran a fleet of aircraft known as [[Air America]] to take part in the [[Secret War]] in Laos, part of the [[Vietnam War]].
====Chile====
After the election of Marxist President [[Salvador Allende]] in [[1970]] the CIA covertly worked to prevent him from taking office through bribery of Chi |
n system]]s (ITS) are also increasingly used, with [[camera]]s to monitor and direct traffic, so that [[police]], [[fire brigade|fire]], [[ambulance]], [[tow truck|tow]], or other assistance [[vehicle]]s can be [[dispatch]]ed as soon as there is a problem, and to warn [[driving|drivers]] via [[variable message signs]], [[radio]], [[television]], and [[the web]] to avoid problem areas. Research has been underway for many years on how to partly [[automate]] cars by making [[smart road]]s with such things as buried [[magnet]]s to guide [[sensor]]-equipped vehicles, with on-board [[GPS]] to determine location, direction, and destination. While these systems may eventually be used on surface streets as well, they are most [[practical]] in a freeway setting.
In the United States, a few short privatized [[toll road|tolled]] freeways have also been built by private companies with mixed success.
===Freeways around the world===
<gallery>
Image:freeway.jpg|[[Interstate 405 (California)|Interstate 405]] in [[Irvine, California]], with an [[Road junction|interchange]] in the foreground
Image:TullamarineFwy.jpg|The "[[Sound Tube]]", [[CityLink]] Freeway, [[Melbourne]], Victoria, Australia.
Image:Autopista-Central-2.jpg|Autopista Central, [[Santiago, Chile]].
Image:AutopistaLibertadores.JPG|Autopista Los Libertadores, (International Freeway) [[Santiago, Chile]]
Image:DSCN4922.JPG|[[North Central Expressway|US-75 Central Expressway]] southbound in [[Dallas]],Texas
Image:376 east.jpg|Interstate 376 eastbound in downtown [[Pittsburgh]]
Image:Swedish_Motorway_Varberg.jpg|Europeway E6 E20 in southwest [[Sweden]] in [[Varberg]]
Image:Old_Autobahn_DE.jpg|Two-lane German [[Autobahn]] without emergency lane
</gallery>
==References==
{{note|anonymous}} Anonymous. "Median barriers prove their worth." ''Public Works'' 123, no. 3 (March 1992): 72-73.
{{note|bernstein}} Bernstein, Victor H. "Safer Motor Roads: New Construction Principles Introduced On Modern Highways To Cut Accidents." ''[[New York Times]]'', [[1 December]] [[1935]], p. 21.
{{note|california}} Cal. Streets & Highways Code, Section 257.
{{note|cervero}} Cervero, Robert. "Road expansion, urban growth, and induced travel: a path analysis." ''Journal of the American Planning Association'' 69, no. 2 (Spring 2003): 145-164.
{{note|coulombe}} Coulombe, Gerard. "Doing The Turnpike Crawl." ''[[New York Times]]'', [[6 July]] [[1986]], sec. CN, p. 16.
{{note|fhwastudy}} Federal Highway Administration, Case Studies, 'Route 9 Reconstruction'
[http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/flex/cs01.htm]
{{note|hill}} Hill, Gladwin. "Traffic Chaos Spurs Los Angeles To Plan 'Freeways' On Mass Scale: Coast Metropolis, Lacking Rapid Transit System Such as New York Possesses, Maps $300,000,000 Highway Set-Up." ''[[New York Times]]'', [[13 January]] [[1947]], p. 12.
{{note|martin}} Martin, Hugo. "Will More Freeways Bring More Traffic?" ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'', [[10 April]] [[2002]], sec. B, p. 1.
{{note|mccreery}} McCreery, Sandy. "Don't just sit there, enjoy it!" ''[[New Statesman]]'', [[23 July]] [[2001]], 23.
{{note|mississippi}} Mississippi Code, Section 65-5-3, subdivisions (b) and (c).
{{note|missouri}} Missouri Revised Statutes, Section 304.010.
{{note|mutcd}} Section 1A.13, Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices, 2003 ed. [http://mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov/HTM/2003r1/part1/part1a.htm]
{{note|nebraska}} Nebraska Statutes, Sections 60-618.01 and 60-621.
{{note|ohio}} Ohio Revised Code, Section 4511.01, subdivisions (YY) and (ZZ).
{{note|patton}} Patton, Phil. "A quick way from here to there was also a frolic." ''Smithsonian'' 21, no. 7 (October 1990): 96-108.
{{note|spivak}} Spivak, Jeffrey. "Today's road opening represents progress, pain." ''Kansas City Star'', [[27 July]] [[1999]], sec. A, p. 1.
{{note|taylor}} Taylor, Brian D. "Public perceptions, fiscal realities, and freeway planning: the California case." ''Journal of the American Planning Association'' 61, no. 1 (Winter 1995): 43-59.
{{note|vanhengel}} Van Hengel, Drusilla, Joseph DiMento, and Sherry Ryan. "Equal Access? Travel Behaviour Change in the Century Freeway Corridor, Los Angeles." ''Urban Studies'' 36, no. 1 (March 1999): 547.
{{note|wisconsin}} Wisconsin Statutes, Sections 59.84(1)(b) and 346.57(1)(am).
{{note|yordan}} Yordan, E.L. "The 'Freeway' System Expands: Broader Roads With Grade Crossings Eliminated Are Built And Latest Designs Envision Still Greater Speed And Safety." ''[[New York Times]]'', [[24 February]] [[1935]], p. 21.
== See also ==
* [[Motorway]], [[Autobahn]], [[Autoroute]], [[Expressway]]
* [[Divided highway]]
* [[Hierarchy of roads]]
* [[Highway]]
* [[Non-motorized vehicle access on freeways]]
* [[List of roads and highways]]
* [[Parkway]]
* [[Road safety]]
* [[List of major freeway systems]]
* [[Controlled-access highway]]
* [[Limited-access highway]]
* [[Freeway revolts]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.georgianavigator.com Georgia NaviGAtor] - example of a freeway information system
* [http://www.archenzo.it A new concept in motorway design - Rethink the highways]
[[ca:Autopista]]
[[da:Motorvej]]
[[de:Autobahn]]
[[es:Autovía]]
[[fr:Autoroute]]
[[ja:高速道路]]
[[ko:고속도로]]
[[it:Autostrada]]
[[nl:Autosnelweg]]
[[pl:Autostrada]]
[[pt:Via expressa]]
[[sv:Motorväg]]{{Link FA|sv}}
[[zh:高速公路]]
[[Category:Freeways| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Folk etymology</title>
<id>11709</id>
<revision>
<id>40363632</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:51:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Folk etymology''' (or '''popular etymology''') is a [[Linguistics|linguistic]] term for a category of [[false etymology]] which has grown up in popular lore, as opposed to one which arose in scholarly usage.
Folk etymology is particularly important because it can result in the modification of a word or phrase by [[analogy]] with the erroneous [[etymology]] which is popularly believed to be true. In this case, 'folk etymology' is the trigger which causes the process of linguistic [[analogy]] by which a word or phrase changes because of a popularly-held etymology, or misunderstanding of the history of a word or phrase. Here the term 'folk etymology' is also used (originally as a shorthand) to refer to the change itself.
The question of whether the resulting usage is "correct" or "incorrect" depends on one's notion of correctness and is in any case distinct from the question of whether a given etymology is correct.
==Instances of word change by folk etymology==
In linguistic change caused by folk etymology, the form of a word changes so that it better matches its popular rationalisation. For example, the [[Old English language|Old English]] ''sam-blind'' ("semi-blind" or "half-blind") became ''[[Wiktionary:sand-blind|sand-blind]]'' (as if "blinded by the sand") when people were no longer able to make sense of the element ''sam'' ("half"), and the Old English ''[[Wiktionary:bryd-guma|bryd-guma]]'' ("bride-man") became ''[[Wiktionary:bridegroom|bridegroom]]'' after the loss of the Old English word ''[[Wiktionary:guma|guma]]'' ("man", compare French ''[[Wiktionary:homme|homme]]'') rendered the compound semantically obscure. The silent ''s'' in ''[[Wiktionary:island|island]]'' is also a result of folk etymology. The word, which derives from an Old English compound of ''ig'' ("water", surprisingly, [[cognate]] to [[Latin]] ''[[Wiktionary:aqua|aqua]]'') with ''[[Wiktionary:land|land]]'', was erroneously believed to be related to ''[[Wiktionary:isle|isle]]'', which has a similar meaning but derives from Latin ''[[Wiktionary:insula|insula]]'' ("island"). More recent examples are the French ''(e)crevisse'' (likely from [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] ''[[Wiktionary:krebiz|krebiz]]'') which became the English ''[[Wiktionary:crayfish|crayfish]]'', and ''[[Wiktionary:asparagus|asparagus]]'', which in England became ''[[Wiktionary:sparrow-grass|sparrow-grass]]''. Similarly, ''[[Wiktionary:cater-corner|cater-corner]]'' became ''[[Wiktionary:kitty-corner|kitty-corner]]'' or ''[[Wiktionary:catty-corner|catty-corner]]'' when the original meaning of ''[[Wiktionary:cater|cater]]'' ("four") had become obsolete.
Other changes due to folk etymology include:
:''[[Wiktionary:buttonhole|buttonhole]]'' from ''[[Wiktionary:buttonhold|buttonhold]]'' (originally a loop of string that held a button down)
:''[[Wiktionary:hangnail|hangnail]]'' from ''[[Wiktionary:agnail|agnail]]''
:''[[Wiktionary:penthouse|penthouse]]'' from ''[[Wiktionary:pentice|pentice]]''
:''[[Wiktionary:sweetheart|sweetheart]]'' from ''[[Wiktionary:sweetard|sweetard]]'' (the same suffix as in ''[[Wiktionary:dullard|dullard]]'' and ''[[Wiktionary:dotard|dotard]]'')
:''[[Wiktionary:shamefaced|shamefaced]]'' from ''[[Wiktionary:shamefast|shamefast]]''
:''[[Wiktionary:chaise lounge|chaise lounge]]'' from ''[[Wiktionary:chaise longue|chaise longue]]''
When a [[back-formation]] rests on a misunderstanding of the morphology of the original word, it may be regarded as a kind of folk etymology.
In heraldry, a [[rebus]] coat-of-arms may reinforce a folk etymology for a placename.
For further examples, see the following articles that discuss folk etymologies for their subjects:
*[[Belfry (architecture)]]
*[[Brass monkey]]
*[[Brent Goose]]
*[[Caesarean section]]
*[[Common scold|Ducking stool]]
*[[Gringo]]
*[[Jerusalem artichoke]]
*[[Poll tax]]
*[[Rake|Rake-hell]]
*[[Serviceberry]]
*[[Welsh rabbit|Welsh rarebit]]
==See also==
*[[Back-formation]]
==Reference==
* Adrian Room, ''Dictio |
owever, still would not repent and so this led to the convening of the [[First Ecumenical Council of Ephesus]] ([[431]]), over which Cyril presided.
The [[First Ecumenical Council of Ephesus]] confirmed the teachings of [[Athanasius of Alexandria|Saint Athanasius]] and confirmed the title of the Holy Ever-Virgin Mary as "Mother of God". It also clearly stated that anyone who separated [[Christ]] into two hypostases was anathema, as Athanasius had said that there is "One Nature and One Hypostasis for God the Word Incarnate" (Mia Physis kai Mia Hypostasis tou Theou Logou Sasarkomeni). Also, the introduction to the creed was formulated as follows:
:"We magnify you O Mother of the True Light and we glorify you O saint and Mother of God ''(Theotokos)'' for you have borne unto us the Saviour of the world. Glory to you O our Master and King: Christ, the pride of the Apostles, the crown of the martyrs, the rejoicing of the righteous, firminess of the churches and the forgiveness of sins. We proclaim the Holy Trinity in One Godhead: we worship Him, we glorify Him, Lord have mercy, Lord have mercy, Lord bless us, Amen."
The Orthodox faith is considered to have prevailed at the council. Unfortunately, Cyril of Alexandria died soon afterwards. [[Dioscorus of Alexandria|Saint Dioscorus]], the archdeacon of Alexandria (considered a saint by the non-Chalcedonians but a heretic by the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholics) was elected as Cyril's replacement. The Nestorians took the opportunity of Cyril's death to revive their campaign against Cyrillian Christology.
===Council of Chalcedon===
[[Image:StMarkCathAlex.jpg|thumb|St Mark Coptic Cathedral in Alexandria]]
By the time the [[Council of Chalcedon]] was called, politics had already started to intermingle with Church affairs. When the Emperor [[Marcianus]] interfered with matters of faith in the Church, the response of [[Dioscorus of Alexandria|Saint Dioscorus]], the Pope of Alexandria who was later to be exiled, to this interference was clear: "You have nothing to do with the Church." It was at [[Chalcedon]] that the emperor would take his revenge for the Pope's frankness.
The [[Council of Chalcedon]] abandoned Cyrillian terminology and declared that Christ was one hypostasis in two natures. However, in the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed, "Christ was conceived of the Holy Spirit and of the Virgin Mary," thus the foundation according to non-Chalcedonians is made clear. In terms of Christology the Oriental understanding is that Christ is "One Nature--the Logos Incarnate," ''of'' the full humanity and full divinity. The Byzantine understanding is that Christ is ''in'' two natures, full humanity and full divinity. (Just as all of us are of our mother and father and not in our mother and father, so too is the nature of Christ. If Christ is in full humanity and in full divinity, then He is separate in two persons as the [[Nestorianism|Nestorians]] teach. Imagine your nature in your mother and your father; you are then two different people. If however your nature is of your mother and your father, then you are one person [http://www.geocities.com/mfignatius/others/byzantine01.html].) This is the linguistic difference which separated the Orientals from the Byzantines.
The Council's finding were rejected by many of the Christians on the fringes of the [[Byzantine Empire]]: Egyptians, [[Syria]]ns, [[Armenia]]ns, and others. From that point onward, Alexandria would have two patriarchs: the "[[Melkite]]" or Imperial Patriarch, now known as the [http://www.greekorthodox-alexandria.org/ Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria], and the non-Chalcedonian national truly Egyptian one, now known as the [[List of Coptic Popes|Coptic Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria and Apostolic See of St. Mark]]. Almost the entire Egyptian population rejected the terms of the Council of Chalcedon and remained faithful to the national Egyptian Church (now known as the Coptic Church). Those who supported the Chalcedonian definition remained in [[Full communion|communion]] with the other leading churches of [[Rome]] and [[Constantinople]]. The non-Chalcedonian party became what is today called the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Church]].
The Coptic Church regards herself as having been misunderstood at the Council of Chalcedon. Some Copts believe that perhaps the Council understood the Church correctly, but wanted to exile the Church, to isolate her and to abolish the Egyptian, independent Pope, who maintained that Church and State should remain separate. The Coptic Church regarded that the ousting of Pope Dioscorus of Alexandria in the council of Chalcedon was in part due to the rivalry between the Bishops of Alexandria and Rome. The Tome of Pope Leo of Rome was considered influenced by Nestorian philosophy. It is important to note that Pope Dioscorus of Alexandria was never labeled as heretic by the council's canons. Copts also believe that the Pope of Alexandria was forcibly prevented from attending the third congregation of the council in which he was ousted, which apparently was a result of the conspiracy tailored by the Roman delegates. For further info, please refer to [http://www.romanity.org/htm/rom.06.en.orthodox_and_oriental_orthodox_consultation.htm this key paper] on the subject by Professor Fr. [http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/John_S._Romanides John S. Romanides], a prominent Greek Orthodox scholar.
Before the current positive era of Eastern and Oriental Orthodox dialogues, Chalcedonians sometimes used to call the non-Chalcedonians "[[Monophysitism|monophysites]]", though the Coptic Church denies that she teaches monophysitism, which she has always regarded as a heresy. They have sometimes called the Chalcedonian group "[[Dyophysitism|dyophysites]]". A term that comes closer to Coptic doctrine is "[[Miaphysitism|miaphysite]]" [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miaphysitism], which refers to a conjoined nature for Christ, both human and divine, united indivisibly in the Incarnate Logos. The Coptic Church believes that Christ is perfect in His divinity, and He is perfect in His humanity, but His divinity and His humanity were united in one nature called "the nature of the incarnate word", which was reiterated by [[Cyril of Alexandria|Saint Cyril of Alexandria]]. Copts, thus, believe in two natures "human" and "divine" that are united in one hypostasis ''without mingling, without confusion, and without alteration''. These two natures ''did not separate for a moment or the twinkling of an eye'' (Coptic Liturgy of Saint Basil of Caesarea).
===From Chalcedon to the Arab conquest of Egypt===
Copts suffered under the rule of the Byzantine [[Eastern Roman Empire]]. The Melkite Patriarchs, appointed by the emperors as both spiritual leaders and civil governors, massacred the Egyptian population whom they considered heretics. Many Egyptians were tortured and martyred to accept the terms of Chalcedon, but Egyptians remained loyal to the faith of their fathers and to the Cyrillian view of [[Christology]]. One of the most renowned Egyptian saints of that period is [[Saint Samuel the Confessor]].
===The Arab conquest of Egypt===
The [[Arab]] conquest of Egypt took place in AD [[641]]. Although the Imperial forces resisted the Arab army under [[Amr ibn al-As]], the majority of the civilian population, having suffered persecution for the differing Christian beliefs, were less hostile. Considered "[[People of the Book]]", Christians were allowed to practice their religion, under the protection of the Islamic [[Shari'a]] law. This protection stemmed in part from a [[Hadith]] of [[Muhammad|the Prophet]] (whose [[Muhammad's marriages|Egyptian wife]] ''Maria'' had borne him a son who died in infancy, named Ibrahim) that advised "When you conquer Egypt, be kind to the Copts for they are your proteges and kith and kin" .
Despite the political upheaval, Egypt remained a mainly Christian land, although gradual conversions to Islam over the centuries and the massive immigration of Arabs had the effect of changing Egypt from a mainly Christian to a mainly [[Muslim]] country by the end of the [[12th century]]. This process was sped along by persecutions during and following the reign of the mad [[Fatimid]] caliph [[Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah]] (reigned AD 996-1021) and the [[Crusades]], and also by the acceptance of Arabic as a liturgical language by the [[Coptic Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria|Pope of Alexandria]] [[Pope Gabriel II of Alexandria|Gabriel ibn-Turaik]].
===From the 19th century to the 1952 revolution===
The position of the Copts began to improve early in the 19th century under the stability and tolerance of [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]]'s dynasty. The Coptic community ceased to be regarded by the state as an administrative unit and, by [[1855]], the main mark of Copts' inferiority, the ''Jizya'' tax, was lifted. Shortly thereafter, Christians started to serve in the Egyptian army. The [[1919 revolution]] in Egypt, the first grassroots display of Egyptian identity in centuries, stands as a witness to the homogeneity of Egypt's modern society with both its Muslim and Christian components.
==Coptic Christianity today==
[[Image:Monastry3.jpg|frame|left|A modern Coptic monastery.]]
The current Coptic Orthodox [[Patriarch of Alexandria|Pope of Alexandria and the Patriarch of the Holy See of Saint Mark]] is [[Pope Shenouda III]] (his title should not be confused with that of the [[Roman Catholic]] [[Pope]]). The most recent Greek-Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria is [[Patriarch Theodoros II of Alexandria|Theodoros II]] [http://www.greekorthodox-alexandria.org/main.htm]. There is a small [[Coptic Catholic Church]] ([[Eastern Rite]] Catholic) which is headed by a Patriarch of Alexandria. The [[Melkite Catholic Church]] ([[Eastern Rite]] Catholic) has l |
los''' in Spanish. There are over 50 different styles of flamenco.
A palo can be defined as the basic rhythmic pattern of a flamenco style, but also covers the whole musical and cultural context of a particular flamenco style.
The rhythmic patterns of the palos are also often called ''compás''.
A ''compás'' is characterised by a recurring pattern of beats and accents.
These recurring patterns make up a number of different rhythmic and musical forms known as ''toques''.
To really understand the different palos it is also important to understand their musical and cultural context:
*The mood intention of the palo (dancing - Fandango, consolation - Solea, fun - Buleria, etc.).
*The set of typical melodic phrases, called ''[[falseta]]'s'', which are often used in performances of a certain palo.
*The relation to similar palos.
*Cultural traditions associated with a palo (men's dance - Farruca)
The most fundamental palos are: Toná, Soleá, Fandango and Seguiriya. These four palos all belong in the ''cante jondo'' category and form the rhythmic basis for nearly all the other palos.
Flamenco ''cante'' consists of a number of traditional (and not-so-traditional) forms, with characteristic [[rhythm|rhythmic]] and [[harmony|harmonic]] structures. The rhythm (''compas'') is perhaps the most fundamental distinguishing feature of the different flamenco forms. The ''cante jondo'', called the mother of flamenco, consists of 12 beats, with accents on the 3rd, 6th, 8th, 10th, and 12th beats. Songs are composed of several falseta's with rhythms defined by the song form.
Some of the forms are sung unaccompanied, while others usually have a guitar and sometimes other accompaniment. Some forms are danced while others traditionally are not. Amongst both the songs and the dances, some are traditionally the preserve of men and others of women, while still others would be performed by either sex. Many of these traditional distinctions are now breaking down; for example the ''Farruca'' is traditionally a man's dance, but is now commonly performed by women too.
The classification of flamenco forms is not entirely uncontentious, but a common and convenient first classification is into three groups. The deepest, most serious forms are known as ''cante jondo'' (or ''cante grande''), while relatively light, frivolous forms are called ''cante chico''. Forms which do not fit into either category but lie somewhere between them are classified as ''cante intermedio''. Many flamenco artists, including some considered to be amongst the greatest, have specialised in a single flamenco form.
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="center">
<tr><th colspan="3" align="center" bgcolor="lightblue">Cantes of Flamenco</th></tr>
<tr bgcolor="lightblue" align="center"><td>'''Cante Jondo'''</td><td>'''Cante Intermedio'''</td><td>'''Cante Chico'''</td></tr>
<tr align="center"><td>[[Siguiriyas]]</td><td>[[Bulerias]]</td><td>[[Alegrías]]</td></tr>
<tr align="center"><td>[[Soleares]]</td><td>[[Tangos (flamenco)|Tangos]]</td><td>[[Fandango (dance)|Fandangos]]</td><tr>
<tr align="center"><td>[[Tientos]]</td><td></td><td>[[Farruca]]</td><tr>
<tr align="center"><td>[[Peteneras]]</td><td></td><td>[[Guajira]]s</td><tr>
<tr align="center"><td></td><td></td><td>[[Sevillana]]</td><tr>
<tr align="center"><td></td><td></td><td>[[Verdiales]]</td><tr>
</table>
===Palos===
====Toná Palos====
*Debla
*Martinete
*Saeta
*Tonás
====Soleá Palos====
*Alboreá
*[[Alegrías]]
*Bamberas
*[[Bulerías]] - [[media:Bulerias31.ogg|Bulerias]] ''([[Luis Maravilla]]. 31 seconds,133Kb)''
*Campanilleros
*Caña
*Cantiñas
*Caracoles
*Carceleras
*Cartagenera
*Colombianas
*Mariana
*Mirabrás
*Nanas
*Peteneras
*Polo
*Romance
*Romera
*Rondeña
*Sevillanas
*[[Soleares|Soleá]] - [[media:Soleares30.ogg|Soleares]] ''([[Juan Serrano]]. 30 seconds,118Kb)''
*Trillera
*Vidalita
*Zambras
*Zorongo
====Fandango Palos====
*[[Fandango (dance)|Fandango]]
**Verdiales - fandango variation from [[Málaga]]
**Jaleos - fandango variation based on the Andalusian scale. Rythmic predecessor of the bulería and of the soleá.
*Fandanguillos
*[[Farruca]] - [[media:Farruca35.ogg|Farruca]] ''([[Sabicas]]. 35 seconds,147Kb)''
*Garrotín
*Granaína
*Guajiras - [[media:Guajiras35.ogg|Guajiras]] ''([[Sabicas]]. 35 seconds,158Kb)''
*Jabera
*Malagueñas
*Media
*Media Granaína
*[[Milonga]]
*Mineras
*[[Rumba]]
*[[Tangos (flamenco)|Tango]]
**Tanguillos - from [[Cádiz]]
*Tarantas
*Tarantos
*Tientos
====Seguiriya Palos====
*Cabales
*Livianas
*Seguiriyas - (siguerillas, siguiriyas) [[media:Siguiriyas30.ogg|Siguiriyas]] ''([[Carlos Montoya]]. 30 seconds,135Kb)''
*Serranas
==Flamenco artists==
Flamenco occurs in two types of settings. The first, the ''Juerga'' is an informal gathering where people are free to join in creating music. This can include dancing, singing, violin, ''Palmas'' (hand clapping), or simply pounding in rhythm on an old orange crate. Flamenco, in this context, is very dynamic; It adapts to the local talent, instrumentation, and mood of the audience. One tradition remains firmly in place: Singers are the most important part.
The professional concert is more formal and organized. The most common performance usually has only one or more instruments (guitar is almost always at the center). Dancers are the next addition, followed by singers.
It is rare to find an artist who has mastered performing in both settings at the same level.
An overview of the various flamenco artists can be found in the following categories:
*[[:Category: Flamenco singers]]
*[[:Category: Flamenco guitarists]]
*[[:Category: Flamenco dancers]]
*[[:Category: Flamenco bands]]
==See also==
*[[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain]]
*[[La Convivencia]]
==External links==
*[http://www.classicalguitarmagazine.com/ Classical Guitar Magazine] The world's only monthly magazine dedicated to the classical guitar
*[http://www.CamarondelaIsla.org Camaron dela Isla - Singer]
*[http://www.esflamenco.com All things Flamenco - Spain]
*[http://cgm.cs.mcgill.ca/~godfried/publications/winfield.pdf Scientific Flamenco palos study] - [[Phylogenetics|Phylogenetic]] study of some palos
*[http://www.mozaicoflamenco.com Mozaico Flamenco - Canadian Dance Training]
*[http://www.filmview.com/terremoto/modules.php?op=modload&name=gallery&file=index Terremoto Flamenco Artists Image Gallery]
*[http://www.flamencoschool.nl The Dutch Flamenco School]
*[http://www.travel-impressions.de/andalucia/flamenco/claping_flamenco.htm Flamenco Photographer]
*[http://flickr.com/groups/41245539@N00 Flamenco Photo Group on Flickr]
*[http://www.flamenco-seiten.de Addresses of Flamenco teachers, groups and institutions]
*[http://www.afana.org/flamenco.htm An Introduction to Flamenco Music]
*[http://www.forward.com/issues/2003/03.11.21/arts4.html Aaiieee! Uncovering the Jewish Roots of Flamenco]
*[http://www.oscarnieto.com History of flamenco - Oscar Nieto - Teacher/Dancer/Choreographer]
*[http://www.condehermanos.com Conde Hermanos]
*[http://www.flamenco.ca/ All Things Flamenco - Canada]
*[http://www.sadlerswells.com/whats_on/2005_2006/ff06.asp Flamenco Festival London 2006]
[[Category:Flamenco]]
[[Category:Spanish music]]
[[Category:European folk dances]]
[[cs:Flamenco]]
[[da:Flamenco]]
[[de:Flamenco]]
[[es:Flamenco (música)]]
[[eo:Flamenko]]
[[fr:Flamenco]]
[[it:Flamenco]]
[[nl:Flamenco]]
[[pl:Flamenco]]
[[pt:Flamenco]]
[[ru:Фламенко]]
[[simple:Flamenco]]
[[fi:Flamenco]]
[[sv:Flamenco]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Federally Administered Tribal Areas, Pakistan</title>
<id>11560</id>
<revision>
<id>41209098</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T20:21:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Siddiqui</username>
<id>308269</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Introduction */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Pakistan infobox|
region = Federally Administered Tribal Areas |
flag = Flag of Pakistan.svg |
map = PakistanTribal.png |
capital = [[Peshawar]] |
latd = 34.00 |
longd = 71.32 |
pop_year = 2003 |
population = 3,138,000 |
density = 115.3|
area = 27,220 |
languages = [[Pashto language|Pashto]] <br> [[Persian language|Persian]] |
status = Tribal Areas |
districts = 7 Agencies |
towns = |
unions = |
established = 1st July 1970|
governor = Khalid-ur-Rehman |
minister = None |
legislature = None |
seats = N.A. |
website = www.nwfp.gov.pk |
website_title = Gov't of NWFP |
footnotes = |
}}
The '''Federally Administered Tribal Areas''' ('''FATA''') are areas of [[Pakistan]] outside the four provinces, comprising a region of some 27,220 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (10,507 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]).
== Introduction ==
The FATA are bordered by: [[Afghanistan]] to the west with the border marked by the [[Durand Line]], the [[North-West Frontier Province, Pakistan|North-West Frontier Province]] and the [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]] to the east, and [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan]] to the south.
The total population of the FATA was estimated in [[2003]] to be about 3,138,000 people, or roughly 2% of Pakistan's population. Only 2.7% of the population of the Tribal Areas resides in established towns.
The Tribal Areas comprise seven Agencies: [[Khyber agency|Khyber]], [[Kurram Agency|Kurram]], [[Bajaur]], [[Mohmand Agency|Mohmand]], [[Orakzai]], and North and South [[Waziristan]]. The main towns include [[Miran Shah]], [[Razmak]], [[Bajaur]], and |
ounty, California]], and at a recent birthday celebration of a Development Team member of a local charity in [[Houston]], [[Texas]]. According to these reports, the creature was sighted for the first time in the early to mid 1990s, harming animals of different species - although it is now thought that people did this themselves.
In July of 2004, a rancher near [[San Antonio, Texas]], killed a hairless, dog-like creature (the [[Elmendorf Creature]]) that was attacking his livestock. It was later determined to be a canine (most likely a coyote) of some sort with demodectic [[mange]]. In October of 2004, two animals which closely resemble the Elmendorf creature were observed in the same area. The first was dead, and the second was noticed by a local zoologist who was called to identify the animal while she was travelling to the location where the first was found. Specimens were studied by biologists in Texas; the creatures are thought to have been canines of undetermined species with skin problems and facial deformities.
El Chupacabra has often been spotted in [[Michigan]], a recent sighting occurring in [[Grand Haven, Michigan|Grand Haven]]. A forty-two year old man said he saw it suck the blood out of a cat.
A famous appearance in the city of [[Varginha]], [[Brazil]], (see [[Varginha incident]]) is sometimes attributed to the chupacabras, the phenomenon is more frequently associate with [[extraterrestrial]]s. In 1997, was an explosion of Chupacabra cases in Brazil, were reported in Brazilian newspapers, one report coming from police officer, who claimed to get a nauseous feeling when he saw a [[dog]]-like chupacabra in a tree.
Recently, there has been a spate of El Chupacabra sightings in the United States, specifically in the suburbs of Washington DC and outside of the Philadelphia area. However, controversy exists whether these Chupacabra sightings are legitimate; some contend El Chupacabra is simply a [[beagle]] named Sophie Peanuts.[http://www.washingtonpost.com Wash. Post][http://www.philly.com Philadelphia Inquirer]
==Supposed appearance==
Usually, Chupacabras are said to appear in three specific forms:
*The first and most common: a [[lizard]]-like being, appearing to have leathery or scaly greenish-gray skin and sharp spines or quills running down its back. It stands approximately 3 to 4 feet (1 to 1.2 m) high, and stands and hops in a similar fashion as a kangaroo. In at least one sighting, the creature hopped 20 feet (6 m). This variety is said to have a dog or panther-like nose and face, a [[forked tongue]] protruding from it, large fangs, and is said to hiss and screech when alarmed, as well as to leave a sulfuric stench behind.
*The second variety also stands and hops as a [[kangaroo]], and it has coarse fur with greyish facial hair. The head is similar to a dog's, and its mouth has large teeth.
*The third form is simply that of a strange breed of wild dog that is mostly hairless, has a pronounced spinal ridge, unusually pronounced eye sockets, teeth, and claws, but is otherwise a typical canine. This animal is said to be the result of interbreeding between several populations of wild dogs, though enthusiasts claim that it might be an example of a dog-like reptile. The account during the year 2001 in Nicaragua of a chupacabras corpse being found supports the conclusion that it is simply a strange breed of wild dog. The alleged corpse of the animal was found in [[Tolapa]], Nicaragua, and forensically analyzed at [[UNAN-Leon]]. Pathologists at the University found that it was just an unusual-looking dog. There are very striking morphological differences between different breeds, from which wild dogs generally descend. These can easily account for the strange characteristics.
Some reports claim the chupacabra's red eyes have the ability to hypnotize and paralyze their prey&mdash;the prey animal is mentally stunned, allowing the chupacabras to suck the animal's blood at its leisure. The effect is similar to the bite of the [[vampire bat]] or certain snakes or spiders that stun their prey with venom. Unlike conventional predators, the chupacabras sucks all the animal's blood (and sometimes organs) through a single hole or two holes.
==In fiction==
*In the series [[The Venture Bros.]], in episode 1-01 "Dia de los Dangerous", a Chupacabra is said to be an urban legend only to appear later.
*The episode ''[[The X-Files (season 4)#El Mundo Gira|El Mundo Gira]]'' of the TV series ''[[X-Files]]'' is about a man believed to be El Chupacabra.
*In November of 2005 the [[Sci-Fi Channel]] aired a movie called Chupacabra, about a beast killing on a [[cruise ship]].
*An episode of [[Dexter's Laboratory]] had the Chupacabra as one of Dexter's experiments (which he named Charlie) that escaped to South America. Throughout the episode, Dexter could not remember the creature's purpose until the end, when he realizes that he created Charlie to scare Dee Dee.
*An episode of [[Jackie Chan Adventures]] also featured the Chupacabra. In the show, the Chupacabra only came out at night and attacked the live-stock in its area. If the Chupacabra bit or scratched a person, he or she would become a Chupacabra.
*Canadian punk-pop bank [[Chixdiggit]] recorded a song by the name of "Chupacabra".
*A monster named El Chupanibre appeared in an [[Futurama (TV series - season 2)#I_Second_That_Emotion|episode]] of the TV Series [[Futurama]].
*In an episode of [[Maya & Miguel]], the twins claimed that they had a Chupacabra as a pet, and tried to trick the whole town into believing them before they realized that the REAL Chupacabra was there.
* In an episode of [[The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy]] Billy found a supernatural video documentery on the Chupacabra which summons the Chupacabra from the T.V. screen to suck out the viewer's brain each time the video is played.
* In an episode of Mucha Lucha, The Flea tried to use a hair grow formula to sport a new hairstyle and ended up being mistaken for the Chupacabra, angering the real Chupacabra and ending in a battle with it.
* In an early episode of [[Red Vs Blue]], Chupacabra was sugested as a name for the [[List_of_vehicles_in_the_Halo_universe#M12_Light_Reconnaissance_Vehicle_.28LRV.29|warthog]], along with sasquatch.
==Naming convention==
The creature is known as both "chupacabras" and "chupacabra" throughout the Americas, with the former probably being the original word, and the latter a better regularization of it. The name can be preceded by the masculine definite article ("el chupacabras"), which means "the goat-sucker" in [[Spanish language|Spanish]].
==[[Hoax]]ed Chupacabras photo==
[[Image:Chupacabra.jpg|thumb|The hoaxed Chupacabras museum photo]]
At the height of the Chupacabras craze, there were probably a couple dozen "Goatsucker Home Pages" on the Internet. The web site of radio host Art Bell posted an alleged photograph of a living Chupacabras, depicting a ridiculous creature later exposed as a statue from a museum exhibit.
==See also==
*[[Cryptozoology]]
*[[Vampire]]
Similar creatures include:
*[[Jersey Devil]]
*[[Skunk Ape]]
*[[Mothman]]
*[[Monkey-man of New Delhi]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.parascope.com/en/cryptozoo/predators01.htm Cryptozoo: El Chupacabras]
*[http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mchupacabra.html A Straight Dope article] on the chupacabras
*[http://www.its-dms.com/broadcastschedule.htm "Chupacabras! The Legend Begins"] Real Player documentary on the Chupacabras
*[http://www.nbc4.tv/news/4895053/detail.html Possible capture of Chupacabras] on August 25, 2005 (with pictures and video)
*[http://www.chupacabras100km.org/en/inicio.html "Chupacabras Race 100km"] "The most fun mountain bike race in the world"
*[http://www.mysteries-megasite.com/ Mysteries Megasite Homepage, Click on "Chupacabra"]
*[http://www.maar.us/ Malevolent Alien Abduction Research: Alien Races/Species : Chupacabra]
[[Category:American folklore]]
[[Category:Cryptids]]
[[Category:Legendary creatures]]
[[Category:Latin American folklore]]
[[Category:Urban legends]]
[[de:Chupacabra]]
[[es:Chupacabras]]
[[eo:Chupacabras]]
[[fr:Chupacabra]]
[[it:Chupacabra]]
[[he:צ'ופקברה]]
[[hu:Chupacabra]]
[[nl:Chupacabra]]
[[ja:チュパカブラ]]
[[pl:Chupacabra]]
[[pt:Chupacabra]]
[[ru:Чупакабра]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Classical Element</title>
<id>6302</id>
<revision>
<id>15904456</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-28T08:33:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Noren</username>
<id>97840</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Reverting my error</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Classical element]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Classical Element/Fire</title>
<id>6303</id>
<revision>
<id>15904457</id>
<timestamp>2003-06-06T01:33:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Camembert</username>
<id>3113</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix doub;le redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fire (classical element)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Classical Element/Air</title>
<id>6304</id>
<revision>
<id>39228283</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T18:15:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Srleffler</username>
<id>252195</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Correct redirect.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Air (classical element)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Classical Element/Water</title>
<id>6305</id>
<revision>
<id>15904459</id>
<timestamp>2003-06-06T01:34:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Camembert</username>
<id>3113</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="pres |
4'; A2; Theorem 1.1; and Theorem 1.2, respectively).
As a result, we can speak of ''the'' inverse of an element ''x'', rather than ''an'' inverse.
==Inverting twice gets you back where you started==
'''Theorem 1.6''': For all ''a'' belonging to a group (''G'',*), (''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>)<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>=''a''.
* ''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>*''a'' = ''e''.
* Therefore the conclusion follows from theorem 1.4.
==The inverse of ab==
'''Theorem 1.7''': For all ''a'',''b'' belonging to a group (''G'',*), (''a''*''b'')<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>=''b''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>*''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>.
* (''a''*''b'')*(''b''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>*''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>) = ''a''*(''b''*''b''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>)*''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup> = ''a''*e*''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup> = ''a''*''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup> = e
* Therefore the conclusion follows from theorem 1.4.
==Cancellation==
'''Theorem 1.8''': For all ''a'',''x'',''y'', belonging to a group (''G'',*), if ''a''*''x''=''a''*''y'', then ''x''=''y''; and if ''x''*''a''=''y''*''a'', then ''x''=''y''.
* If ''a''*''x'' = ''a''*''y'' then:
** ''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>*(''a''*''x'') = ''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>*(''a''*''y'')
** (''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>*''a'')*''x'' = (''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>*''a'')*''y''
** ''e''*''x'' = ''e''*''y''
** ''x'' = ''y''
* If ''x''*''a'' = ''y''*''a'' then
** (''x''*''a'')*''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup> = (''y''*''a'')*''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>
** ''x''*(''a''*''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>) = ''y''*(''a''*''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>)
** ''x''*''e'' = ''y''*''e''
** ''x'' = ''y''
==Repeated use of *==
'''Theorem 1.9''': For every ''a'' in a group, ''a''<sup>m</sup>''a''<sup>n</sup> = ''a''<sup>m+n</sup> = ''a''<sup>n</sup>''a''<sup>m</sup> and (''a''<sup>m</sup>)<sup>n</sup> = (''a''<sup>n</sup>)<sup>m</sup> = ''a''<sup>nm</sup>. (This generalizes the associativity.)
=(uncategorized)=
Given a group (''G'', *), if the total number of elements in ''G'' is finite, then the group is called a ''finite group''. The '''order of a group''' (''G'',*) is the number of elements in ''G'' (for a finite group), or the [[cardinality]] of the group if ''G'' is not finite. The order of a group ''G'' is written as |''G''| or (less frequently) o(''G'').
----
A [[subset]] ''H'' of ''G'' is called a '''[[subgroup]]''' of a group (''G'',*) if ''H'' satisfies the axioms of a group, using the same operator "*", and restricted to the subset ''H''. Thus if ''H'' is a subgroup of (''G'',*), then (''H'',*) is also a group, and obeys the above theorems, restricted to ''H''. The ''order'' of subgroup ''H'' is the number of elements in ''H''.
A ''proper subgroup'' of a group ''G'' is a subgroup which is not identical to ''G''. A ''non-trivial'' subgroup of ''G'' is (usually) any proper subgroup of ''G'' which contains an element other than ''e''.
'''Theorem 2.1''': If ''H'' is a subgroup of (''G'',*), then the identity ''e''<sub>''H''</sub> in ''H'' is identical to the identity ''e'' in (''G'',*).
* If ''h'' is in ''H'', then ''h''*''e''<sub>''H''</sub> = ''h''; since ''h'' must also be in ''G'', ''h''*''e'' = ''h''; so by theorem 1.4, ''e''<sub>''H''</sub> = ''e''.
'''Theorem 2.2''': If ''H'' is a subgroup of ''G'', and ''h'' is an element of ''H'', then the inverse of ''h'' in ''H'' is identical to the inverse of ''h'' in ''G''.
* Let ''h'' and ''k'' be elements of ''H'', such that ''h''*''k'' = ''e''; since ''h'' must also be in ''G'', ''h''*''h''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup> = ''e''; so by theorem 1.5, ''k'' = ''h''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>.
Given a subset ''S'' of ''G'', we often want to determine whether or not ''S'' is also a subgroup of ''G''. One handy theorem that covers the case for both finite and infinite groups is:
'''Theorem 2.3''': If ''S'' is a non-empty subset of ''G'', then ''S'' is a subgroup of ''G'' if and only if for all ''a'',''b'' in ''S'', ''a''*''b''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup> is in ''S''.
* If for all ''a'', ''b'' in ''S'', ''a''*''b''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup> is in ''S'', then
** ''e'' is in ''S'', since ''a''*''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup> = ''e'' is in ''S''.
** for all ''a'' in ''S'', ''e''*''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup> = ''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup> is in ''S''
** for all ''a'', ''b'' in ''S'', ''a''*''b'' = ''a''*(''b''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>)<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup> is in ''S''
** Thus, the axioms of closure, identity, and inverses are satisfied, and associativity is inherited; so ''S'' is subgroup.
* Conversely, if ''S'' is a subgroup of ''G'', then it obeys the axioms of a group.
** As noted above, the identity in ''S'' is identical to the identity ''e'' in ''G''.
** By A4, for all ''b'' in ''S'', ''b''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup> is in ''S''
** By A1, ''a''*''b''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup> is in ''S''.
The intersection of two or more subgroups is again a subgroup.
'''Theorem 2.4''': The intersection of any non-empty set of subgroups of a group ''G'' is a subgroup.
* Let {''H''<sub>''i''</sub>} be a set of subgroups of ''G'', and let K = &cap;{''H''<sub>''i''</sub>}.
* ''e'' is a member of every ''H''<sub>''i''</sub> by theorem 2.1; so K is not empty.
* If ''h'' and ''k'' are elements of ''K'', then for all ''i'',
** ''h'' and ''k'' are in ''H''<sub>''i''</sub>.
** By the previous theorem, ''h''*''k''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup> is in ''H''<sub>''i''</sub>
** Therefore, ''h''*''k''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup> is in &cap;{''H''<sub>''i''</sub>}.
* Therefore for all ''h'', ''k'' in ''K'', ''h''*''k''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup> is in ''K''.
* Then by the previous theorem, ''K''=&cap;{''H''<sub>''i''</sub>} is a subgroup of ''G''; and in fact ''K'' is a subgroup of each ''H''<sub>''i''</sub>.
In a group (''G'',*), define ''x''<sup>0</sup> = ''e''. We write ''x''*''x'' as ''x''&sup2; ; and in general, ''x''*''x''*''x''*...*''x'' (''n'' times) as ''x''<sup>''n''</sup>. Similarly, we write ''x''<sup>&nbsp;-''n''</sup> for (''x''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>)<sup>''n''</sup>.
'''Theorem 2.5''': Let ''a'' be an element of a group (''G'',*). Then the set {''a''<sup>''n''</sup>: n is an integer} is a subgroup of ''G''.
A subgroup of this type is called a ''[[cyclic group | cyclic]]'' subgroup; the subgroup of the powers of ''a'' is often written as <''a''>, and we say that ''a'' [[generating set of a group | ''generates'']] <''a''>.
If there is a positive integer ''n'' such that ''a''<sup>''n''</sup>=''e'', then we say the element ''a'' has '''order''' ''n'' in G. Sometimes this is written as "o(''a'')=''n''".
----
If ''S'' and ''T'' are subsets of ''G'', and ''a'' is an element of ''G'', we write "''a''*''S''" to refer to the subset of ''G'' made up of all elements of the form ''a''*''s'', where ''s'' is an element of ''S''; similarly, we write "''S''*''a''" to indicate the set of elements of the form ''s''*''a''. We write ''S''*''T'' for the subset of ''G'' made up of elements of the form ''s''*''t'', where ''s'' is an element of ''S'' and ''t'' is an element of ''T''.
If ''H'' is a subgroup of ''G'', then a ''left [[coset]]'' of ''H'' is a set of the form ''a''*''H'', for some ''a'' in ''G''. A ''right coset'' is a subset of the form ''H''*''a''.
Some useful theorems about cosets, stated without proof:
'''Theorem''': If ''H'' is a subgroup of ''G'', and ''x'' and ''y'' are elements of ''G'', then either ''x''*''H'' = ''y''*''H'', or ''x''*''H'' and ''y''*''H'' have empty intersection.
'''Theorem''': If ''H'' is a subgroup of ''G'', every left (right) coset of ''H'' in ''G'' contains the same number of elements.
'''Theorem''': If ''H'' is a subgroup of ''G'', then ''G'' is the disjoint union of the left (right) cosets of ''H''.
'''Theorem''': If ''H'' is a subgroup of ''G'', then the number of distinct left cosets of ''H'' is the same as the number of distinct right cosets of ''H''.
Define the '''index''' of a subgroup ''H'' of a group ''G'' (written "[''G'':''H'']") to be the number of distinct left cosets of ''H'' in ''G''.
From these theorems, we can deduce the important [[Lagrange's theorem]] relating the order of a subgroup to the order of a group:
'''Lagrange's theorem''': If ''H'' is a subgroup of ''G'', then |''G''| = |''H''|*[''G'':''H''].
For finite groups, this also allows us to state:
'''Lagrange's theorem''': If ''H'' is a subgroup of a finite group ''G'', then the order of ''H'' divides the order of ''G''.
----
== References ==
* ''Group Theory'', W. R. Scott, Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-65377-3
[[Category:Group theory]]
* ''Groups'', C. R. Jordan and D. A. Jordan, Newnes (Elsevier), ISBN 0-340-61045-X
[[zh:群基本定理]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Euthanasia</title>
<id>9587</id>
<revision>
<id>42087594</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:16:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dustimagic</username>
<id>567793</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/204.39.67.11|204.39.67.11]] to last version by RexNL</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{for|the Megadeth album|Youthanasia}}
[[Image:Euthanasia machine (Australia).JPG|thumb|240px|A euthanasia machine.]]
'''Euthana |
es]] and [[Fort Lauderdale, Florida|Fort Lauderdale]] has been [[Grandfather clause|grandfathered]] as a toll road from its original construction as [[State Road 84 (Florida)|S.R. 84]]
*[[Florida's Turnpike]], which begins at Interstate 75 south of [[Ocala, Florida|Ocala]] and continues southeast through [[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]], and south through the western suburbs of [[Fort Lauderdale, Florida|Fort Lauderdale]] and [[Miami, Florida|Miami]], to [[Homestead, Florida|Homestead]]
For more information about the myriad secondary toll expressways in Florida, see articles detailing roads maintained by: the [[Florida's Turnpike|Florida Turnpike Authority]]; the [[Miami-Dade Expressway Authority]]; and the [[Orlando-Orange County Expressway Authority]].
===Intercity rail===
In 2000, voters approved a constitutional amendment to construct a high speed rail system to interconnect Florida's major cities. A committee was formed by the [[Florida Legislature]] to oversee the project. However, Governor [[Jeb Bush]] and other lawmakers pushed for an amendment in 2004 to remove the amendment, which succeeded. They stated that the cost would have been too high to construct the system; however, proponents of the system have said the claims regarding high cost were exaggerated and taken out of context, compared with the cost of building roads, maintaining automobiles, and so forth. The [[Florida High Speed Rail|Florida High Speed Rail Authority]], originally formed to implement the high speed rail amendment, has vowed to find a way to implement the system without the amendment.
[[Amtrak]] service exists in Florida, but it is considered by many not to be extensive or convenient enough for anything but vacation travel. [[Sanford, Florida|Sanford]], in [[Orlando-Kissimmee, Florida, Metropolitan Statistical Area|Greater Orlando]], is the southern terminus of the [[Auto Train (Amtrak)|Amtrak Auto Train]].
===Public transportation===
[[Public transportation]] systems exist in many major cities. [[Miami]] has a [[monorail]] system as well as a [[Metro|metro system]], and most cities have [[bus]] service. In the South Florida Metropolitan area, train service is provided by [[Tri-Rail]]; this service has a southern terminus in Miami and a northern terminus in West Palm Beach. It has been proposed that the northern terminus be extended north as far as Stuart, however no progress has been made at this time. Tri-Rail also provides local bus service from their stations.
[[Greyhound Lines|Greyhound]] provides commercial bus service between different cities in Florida.
===Airports===
Major international airports in Florida, with passenger traffic over 20 million annually, are [[Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport]], [[Miami International Airport]], [[Orlando International Airport]] and [[Tampa International Airport]].
Secondary airports, with annual passenger traffic over 7 million annually include [[Jacksonville International Airport]], [[Palm Beach International Airport]] (West Palm Beach), and [[Southwest Florida International Airport]] (Fort Myers).
There are many other smaller regional airports including those in [[Daytona Beach, Florida|Daytona Beach]], [[Fort Walton Beach, Florida|Fort Walton Beach]], [[Gainesville, Florida|Gainesville]], [[Key West, Florida|Key West]], [[Naples, Florida|Naples]], [[Pensacola, Florida|Pensacola]], [[Sarasota, Florida|Sarasota]], [[St. Petersburg, Florida|St. Petersburg]], and [[Tallahassee, Florida|Tallahassee]].
==Education and culture==
Florida's public school revenue per student and spending per $1000 of personal income usually ranks in the bottom 25% of U.S. states. Average teacher salaries rank near the middle of U.S. states.
Florida public schools have consistently ranked in the bottom 25% of many national surveys and average test score rankings. It should be noted that many education surveys are not scientific, but do measure prestige. Governor [[Jeb Bush]] has been criticized by many Florida educators for a program that penalizes underperforming schools (as indicated by [[standardized test]]s, such as the [[FCAT]]) with fewer funding dollars, though supporters claim the program's tough measures have resulted in vast improvements to the education system. Major testing organizations frequently discount the use of state average test score rankings, or any average of scaled scores, as a valid metric (see [[psychometrics]] for more details on scaled test scores).
In 2000, Governor Bush and the state legislature acted to abolish the Board of Regents that governed the [[State University System of Florida]]. Instead, each public university is now controlled by its own Board of Trustees who are directly appointed by the governor. As is typical of executive-appointed government boards, the appointees so far have been overwhelmingly Republican. This has not been without controversy. [http://www.sptimes.com/News/050801/State/Bush_s_trustees_mostl.shtml] In 2002, [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic]] Senator [[Bob Graham]] started a ballot referendum designed to revert to the Board of Regents system.
===Colleges and universities===
[[Image:Uftower20031025.jpg|thumb|right|Century Tower, [[University of Florida]].]]
[[Image:FSUWestcottBuilding.jpg|thumb|right|The Westcott Building, [[Florida State University]].]]
[[Image:FIU-GreenLibrary.jpg|right|thumb|180px|The Green Library at [[Florida International University]].]]
[[Image:Sundomecloseup.JPG|right|thumb|180px|The [[USF Sun Dome|Sun Dome]] at the [[University of South Florida]].]]
{| border="0"
|-
|valign="top"|
*[[Barry University]]
*[[Bethune-Cookman College]]
*[[Brevard Community College]]
*[[Broward Community College]]
*[[Carlos Albizu University Miami campus]]
*[[Clearwater Christian College]]
*[[Eckerd College]]
*[[Edison College]]
*[[Edward Waters College]]
*[[Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University]]
*[[Flagler College]]
*[[Florida A&M University]]
*[[Florida Atlantic University]]
*[[Florida Christian College]]
*[[Florida Coastal School of Law]]
*[[Florida Community College at Jacksonville]]
*[[Florida College]]
*[[Florida Gulf Coast University]]
*[[Florida Hospital College of Health Sciences]]
*[[Florida Institute of Technology]]
*[[Florida International University]]
*[[Florida Memorial College]]
*[[Florida Metropolitan University]]
*[[Florida Southern College]]
*[[Florida State University]]
*[[Full Sail Real World Education]]
*[[Heritage College & Heritage Institute]]
*[[Hillsborough Community College]]
*[[Hobe Sound Bible College]]
*[[International College (Florida)|International College]]
*[[International Fine Arts College]]
*[[Jacksonville University]]
*[[Johnson And Wales University]]
*Jones College
*[[Lake City Community College]]
*[[Lake-Sumter Community College]]
|valign="top"|
*[[Lynn University]]
*[[Manatee Community College]]
*[[Miami Dade College]]
*[[New College of Florida]]
*[[Northwood University]]
*[[Nova Southeastern University]]
*[[Okaloosa-Walton Community College]]
*[[Palm Beach Atlantic College]]
*[[Palm Beach Community College]]
*[[Pasco-Hernando Community College]]
*[[Pensacola Junior College]]
*[[Pensacola Christian College]]
*[[Polk Community College]]
*[[Ringling School of Art and Design]]
*[[Rollins College]]
*[[Saint John Vianney College Seminary]]
*[[Saint Leo University]]
*[[Santa Fe Community College]]
*[[St. Johns River Community College]]
*[[St. Petersburg College]]
*[[St. Thomas University (Florida)|St. Thomas University]]
*[[Seminole Community College]]
*[[South Florida Bible College and Theological Seminary]]
*[[Southeastern College of the Assemblies of God]]
*[[Stetson University]]
*[[Trinity College of Florida]]
*[[Troy State University Florida Region]]
*[[University of Central Florida]]
*[[University of Florida]]
*[[University of Miami]]
*[[University of North Florida]]
*[[University of South Florida]]
*[[University of Tampa]]
*[[University of West Florida]]
*[[Valencia Comunity College]]
*[[Warner Southern College]]
*[[Webber College]]
|}
==Sports==
===Major-league teams===
{| border="0"
|-
|valign="top"|
*[[National Football League]]
**[[Jacksonville Jaguars]]
**[[Tampa Bay Buccaneers]]
**[[Miami Dolphins]]
*[[National Basketball Association]]
**[[Orlando Magic]]
**[[Miami Heat]]
|valign="top"|
*[[National Hockey League]]
**[[Tampa Bay Lightning]]
**[[Florida Panthers]]
*[[Major League Baseball]]
**[[Tampa Bay Devil Rays]]
**[[Florida Marlins]]
|valign="top"|
*[[Arena Football League]]
**[[Orlando Predators]]
**[[Tampa Bay Storm]]
|}
===Spring training===
Florida is the traditional home for Major League Baseball spring training, with teams informally organized into the "[[Grapefruit League]]." [[As of 2004]], Florida hosts the following major league teams for spring training:
*[[Atlanta Braves]] at Walt Disney World
*[[Baltimore Orioles]] in Fort Lauderdale
*[[Boston Red Sox]] in Fort Myers
*[[Cincinnati Reds]] in Sarasota
*[[Cleveland Indians]] in Winter Haven
*[[Detroit Tigers]] in Lakeland
*[[Florida Marlins]] in Jupiter
*[[Houston Astros]] in Kissimmee
*[[Los Angeles Dodgers]] in Vero Beach
*[[Minnesota Twins]] in Fort Myers
*[[New York Mets]] in Port St. Lucie
*[[New York Yankees]] in Tampa
*[[Philadelphia Phillies]] in Clearwater
*[[Pittsburgh Pirates]] in Bradenton
*[[Saint Louis Cardinals]] in Jupiter
*[[Tampa Bay Devil Rays]] in St. Petersburg
*[[Toronto Blue Jays]] in Dunedin
*[[Washington Nationals]] in Viera
===Minor-league teams===
Florida also hosts the following [[minor league baseball]] teams:
{| border="0"
|-
|valign="top"|
*[[Brevard County Manatees]]
*[[Clearwater Threshers]]
*[[Daytona Cubs]]
*[[Dunedin Blue Jays]]
*[[Fort Myers Miracle]]
*[[Jacksonville Suns]]
*[[Jupiter Hammerheads]]
|valign="top"|
*[[Lakeland Tigers]]
*[[Sarasota Reds]]
*[[St. Lucie Mets]]
*[[Tampa Yankees]]
*[[Palm Beach Cardinals]]
*[[Vero Beach Dodgers]]
|}
|
[Reggie Jackson]], [[Ernie Banks]], [[Eddie Mathews]] and the other members of Major League Baseball's [[500 home run club]].
==Home run slang==
[[Baseball slang|Slang terms]] for home runs include: ''big-fly'', ''blast'', ''bomb'', ''circuit clout'', ''dinger'', ''four-bagger'', ''homer'', ''jack'', ''round-tripper'', ''shot'', ''moonshot'', ''tape-measure shot'', ''swat'', ''tater'', ''wallop'' and ''gopherball'' (because the batter "goes for" it). The act of hitting a home run can be called ''going yard''. A game with many home runs in it can be referred to as a ''slugfest''. A player who hits a home run is said to have "dialed 9", from the practice of having to dial 9 from a hotel room telephone to get "long distance".
Player nicknames that describe home run-hitting prowess include:
*The ''Sultan of Swat'', the ''Colossus of Clout'', the ''Wali of Wallop'' (Babe Ruth)
*The ''Crown Prince of Swat'' ([[Lou Gehrig]], playing on Ruth's nickname)
*The ''Rajah of Swat'' (Rogers Hornsby, likewise)
*''Hammerin' Hank''. ''The Hammer'', ''The New Sultan of Swat'' (Hank Aaron)
*''Joltin' Joe'' ([[Joe DiMaggio]])
*''Kong'' ([[Dave Kingman]])
*''Juan Gone'' ([[Juan Gonzalez]])
*''Downtown'' ([[Ollie Brown]])
*[[Frank Baker|Frank "Home Run" Baker]]
*''Two Man Swat Team'' [[Manny Ramírez]] and [[David Ortiz]]
*''The Bash Brothers'' (Mark McGwire and [[José Canseco]])
*''Slammin' Sammy'' (Sammy Sosa)
*''[[Murderers' Row]]'' (the entire [[New York Yankees]] lineup for [[1927 in baseball|1927]])
*The "Big Hurt" ([[Frank Thomas (AL baseball player)|Frank Thomas]])
== Progression of the single-season home run record ==
: '''5''', by [[George Hall (baseball player)|George Hall]], Philadelphia Athletics (NL), [[1876 in baseball|1876]] (70 game schedule)
: '''9''', by [[Charley Jones]], [[Atlanta Braves|Boston Red Stockings]] (NL), [[1879 in baseball|1879]] (84 game schedule)
:'''14''', by [[Harry Stovey]], Philadelphia Athletics (AA), [[1883 in baseball|1883]] (98 game schedule)
:'''27''', by [[Ned Williamson]], [[Chicago Cubs|Chicago White Stockings]] (NL), [[1884 in baseball|1884]] (112 game schedule)
::Williamson benefitted from a very short outfield fence in his home ballpark, [[Union Base-Ball Grounds|Lakeshore Park]]. During the park's previous years, balls hit over the fence in that park were ground-rule doubles, but in 1884 (its final year) they were credited as home runs. Williamson led the pace, but several of his Chicago teammates also topped the 20 HR mark that season. Of Williamson's total, 25 were hit at home, and only 2 on the road. Noticing the fluke involved, fans of the early 20th century were more impressed with [[Buck Freeman]]'s total of 25 home runs in [[1899 in baseball|1899]] or [[Gavvy Cravath]]'s [[1915 in baseball|1915]] total of 24.
:'''29''', by [[Babe Ruth]], [[Boston Red Sox]] (AL), [[1919 in baseball|1919]] (140 game schedule)
::Even with that relatively small quantity, Ruth outslugged 10 of the other 15 major league clubs. The second-highest individual total was 12, by Gavvy Cravath of the [[Philadelphia Phillies]]. Ruth homered in every park in the league, the first time anyone had achieved that goal.
:'''54''', by Ruth, [[New York Yankees]] (AL), [[1920 in baseball|1920]] (154 game schedule)
::Ruth hit just a few more home runs on the road (26) than he had the previous year (20), but he hit far more (29) in the Polo Grounds in New York (where the Yankees played at the time) than he had in [[Fenway Park]] (9) in Boston the year before, as he took full advantage of the nearby right field wall. Of the other 15 major league clubs, only the Philadelphia Phillies exceeded Ruth's single-handeded total, hitting 64 in their bandbox ballpark [[Baker Bowl]]. The second-highest individual total was the [[Baltimore Orioles|St. Louis Browns]]' [[George Sisler]]'s 19. Ruth's major-league record slugging percentage (total bases / at bats) of .847 stood for the next 80 years.
:'''59''', by Ruth, New York (AL), [[1921 in baseball|1921]] (154 game schedule)
::Ruth's slugging percentage was just .001 less than his record-setting average the previous year.
:'''60''', by Ruth, New York (AL), [[1927 in baseball|1927]] (154 game schedule)
::Ruth hit more home runs in 1927 than any of the other seven American League ''teams''. His closest rival was his teammate [[Lou Gehrig]], who hit 47 homers that year.
:'''61''', by [[Roger Maris]], New York (AL), [[1961 in baseball|1961]] (162 game schedule)
::Pushing Maris that year was teammate [[Mickey Mantle]]; slowed by an injury late in the season, Mantle finished with 54.
:'''70''', by [[Mark McGwire]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]] (NL), [[1998 in baseball|1998]] (162 game schedule)
::Pushing McGwire that year was [[Sammy Sosa]] of the [[Chicago Cubs]], who finished with 66. When McGwire hit his 62nd home run to break the record, the Cardinals were playing at home ([[Busch Stadium]] in [[Saint Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]]) against the Cubs. In a tremendous show of sportsmanship, Sosa, who was playing in the [[right fielder|outfield]], actually ran in to celebrate with McGwire, who in return honored Sosa by saluting him in Sosa's own trademark fashion. McGwire also went to the stands to honor Maris' family, who were in attendance at the game. The following day, newspapers throughout the United States printed commemorative sports pages in honor of the milestone.
:'''73''', by [[Barry Bonds]], [[San Francisco Giants]] (NL), [[2001 in baseball|2001]] (162 game schedule)
::Far less press surrounded Bonds's chase for the record than surrounded McGwire's for three main reasons. First, most attention was still focused on the recent [[September 11, 2001 attacks|9/11 terrorist attacks]]. Second, the record at that time had stood for only three years. Third, Barry Bonds' surly relationship with the news media contrasted significantly with the relative openness of McGwire and the expressiveness of Sosa in 1998. Bonds' phenomenal [[slugging percentage]] of .863 broke the major league record set by Ruth in 1920.
Selected list of pitchers giving up record home runs:
*1919 - [[Waite Hoyt]], New York Yankees - Babe Ruth's 28th of the season
*1920 - (still looking for it - July 20), Chicago White Sox - Babe Ruth's 30th of the season
*1921 - [[Bill Bayne]], St. Louis Browns - Babe Ruth's 55th of the season
*1927 - [[Tom Zachary]], Washington Nats/Senators - Babe Ruth's 60th of the season
*1961 - [[Tracy Stallard]], Boston Red Sox - Roger Maris' 61st of the season
*1974 - [[Al Downing (baseball player)|Al Downing]], Los Angeles Dodgers - Hank Aaron's 715th of his career
*1998 - [[Steve Trachsel]], Chicago Cubs - Mark McGwire's 62nd of the season
*2001 - [[Chan Ho Park]], Los Angeles Dodgers - Barry Bonds' 71st of the season
This includes only the home runs that broke a record set in a previous year, not home runs that extended a record within the same year.
==See also==
*''[[61*]]'', a [[2001 in television|2001]] made-for-TV [[baseball movie]] chronicling Maris' 1961 season
* [[List of home run calls in baseball]]
===Career achievement lists===
* [[List of lifetime home run leaders through history]]
* [[Major League Baseball home run milestones]]
* [[500 home run club]]
* [[Top 500 home run hitters of all time]]
* [[MLB All-Time leaders in Homeruns for a Pitcher|All-Time leaders in home runs for a pitcher]]
* [[Home run leaders by letter]]
===Single game or season achievements===
* [[Batters with 4 home runs in one game|Players who have hit 4 home runs in the same baseball game]]
* [[Batters with two Grand Slams in the same baseball game|Players who have hit two Grand Slams in the same baseball game]]
* [[MLB players who have hit 3 home runs in consecutive innings|Players who have hit home runs in consecutive innings]]
* [[Batters with Two 3-Home run Games in a Season|Players who have hit Two 3-Home run Games in a Season]]
* [[MLB players who have hit 30 or more home runs before the All-Star break|Players who have hit 30 or more home runs before the All-Star break]]
==External links==
*[http://baseball-almanac.com/firsts/first7.shtml First Career Home Run by Members of the 500 Home Runs Club at ''Baseball Almanac'']
*[http://www.baseball-almanac.com/feats/art_hr.shtml Long Distance Home Runs at ''Baseball Almanac'']
[[Category:Baseball statistics]]
[[Category:Baseball rules]]
[[de:Home Run]]
[[fr:Coup de circuit]]
[[ko:홈런]]
[[ja:ホームラン]]
[[zh:全壘打]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Harappa</title>
<id>14149</id>
<revision>
<id>41635571</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T18:09:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.120.183.108</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>correct reference and add external link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Harappa.gif|right|thumb|380px|Conception of ancient Harappa's Mound E Gateway [http://www.harappa.com/3D/7.html]]]
'''Harappa''' is a [[city]] in [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]], northeast [[Pakistan]], located beside a former course of the [[Ravi River]]; about 35km southwest of [[Sahiwal]].
The modern town is built beside the remains of an [[ancient history|ancient]] [[fortification|fortifed]] city, which was part of the
[[Cemetery H culture|Cemetery H]] and the [[Indus Valley Civilization]]. The city existed from about [[3300 BCE]] [1] until [[1600 BCE]] [2].
----
In [[2005]] a controversial [[amusement park]] scheme at the site was abandoned when builders encountered large quantities of artifacts during the beginning of construction work. A plea from the prominent Pakistani archaeologist [[Ahmed Hasan Dani]] to the Ministry of Culture resulted in a re-survey of the site and cancellation of the project amid accusations of corruption and incompetence.
----
Notes
[1] The earliest [[radiocarbon dating]] mentioned on the web is 2725+-185 BCE (uncalibrated) or 3338, 3213, 3203 BCE calibrated, giving a midpoint of 3251 BCE. Kenoyer, Jonatha |
brother, as I account him, I have written unto you briefly" (5:12). In the following verse the author includes greetings from "she that is in Babylon, elect together with you," taken for the church "in Babylon", which may be an early use of this Christian title for [[Rome]], familiar from the [[Apocalypse of John]]. "There is no evidence that Rome was called Babylon by the Christians until the Book of Revelation was published, i.e. circa 90-96 AD," say the editors of ''The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia,'' who conclude, however, that [[Babylon]] on the Euphrates was intended.
Some scholars reject both Peter and Silvanus as authors, and date its composition during the reign of the emperor [[Domitian]] (AD 81&ndash;96), from its reference to [[persecution of Christians]], which had not occurred until the persecution under [[Nero]], in which Peter was martyred himself.
If Silvanus himself wrote this work, then it could have been written at a much later time; yet both bishop [[Polycarp]] (Phil 1:3; 8:1; 10:2), who was martyred in 156, and [[Papias]] allude to this letter, so it must have been written before the mid-2nd century. Additionally [[1 Clement]] 49:5 appears to be quoting 1 Peter 4:8 which would date it during the 1st century. Though it is also cited by [[Irenaeus]] and [[Tertullian]] in the West, the ''First Epistle of Peter'' is missing from the [[Muratorian fragment|Muratorian Canon]] of ca. AD 170. The obvious inference is that it was not yet being read in the Western churches. This would have been a curious omission if ''1 Peter'' were available, for 1 Peter, the [[Epistles of Clement|First Epistle of Clement]] and the ''[[Shepherd of Hermas]]'' are the three writings that most clearly place the bishops of Rome in the position of instructing the other churches.
==Audience==
This [[epistle]] is addressed to "the strangers scattered abroad", though it otherwise appears to be addressed to Gentiles rather than to the [[Jew]]s of the [[Diaspora]]. Five of the provinces of Asia Minor are listed. The author counsels (1) to steadfastness and perseverance under persecution (1&ndash;2:10); (2) to the practical duties of a holy life (2:11&ndash;3:13); (3) he adduces the example of Christ and other motives to patience and holiness (3:14&ndash;4:19); and (4) concludes with counsels to pastors and people (chap. 5).
The Epistle takes pains to align itself with Paul. Its object is to confirm its readers in the [[Pauline Christianity|Pauline doctrine]]s they had already been taught.
==The "Harrowing of Hell"==
The Epistle contains the remarkable assertion "For unto this end was the gospel preached even to the dead, that they might be judged indeed according to men in the flesh, but live according to God in the spirit" (4:6). This passage, which has no support or parallel anywhere else in the New Testament, occasioned the later interpolation into the [[Apostles' Creed]], "He descended into Hell", which was not in any of the early versions quoted by [[Tertullian]], and which eventually gave rise to the [[Christian mythology|Christian myth]] of the "[[Harrowing of Hell]]", which flowered in elaborated anecdotal medieval imagery.
==External links==
Online translations of the [[First Epistle of Peter]]:
* [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/1peter.html Early Christian writings:] 1 Peter
* {{Biblegateway|1|Peter}}
Related articles:
*[http://www.studylight.org/enc/isb/view.cgi?number=T6839 ''The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia'']: 1 Peter
*[http://www.ccel.org/e/easton/ebd/ebd/T0002900.html#T0002912 ''Easton's Bible Dictionary'' 1897:] First Epistle of Peter
<center>
<br>
{| border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse"
|- bgcolor="darkgray"
|colspan=3|<center>'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor="gainsboro"
|<Center>Preceded by:<br><Center>[[Epistle of James|James]]
|'''[[Epistles]]'''
|<Center>Followed by:<br><Center>[[Second Epistle of Peter|2 Peter]]
|}
</center>
[[Category:New Testament books|Peter 1]]
[[de:Erster Petrusbrief]]
[[es:Primera Epístola de Pedro]]
[[fi:Ensimmäinen Pietarin kirje]]
[[fr:Première épître de Pierre]]
[[id:Surat Petrus yang Pertama]]
[[ja:ペトロの手紙一]]
[[jv:I Petrus]]
[[ko:베드로의 첫째 편지]]
[[nl:Eerste brief van Petrus]]
[[pt:Primeira Epístola de Pedro]]
[[sv:Första Petrusbrevet]]
[[zh:彼得前書]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>First Epistle of John</title>
<id>11388</id>
<revision>
<id>42048858</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:10:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>58.91.157.144</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>+ja</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
The '''First Epistle of John''' is a book of the [[Bible]] [[New Testament]].
The fourth of the catholic or "general" epistles. It was traditionally held to have been written by [[John the Evangelist]], and probably also at [[Ephesus]], and when the writer was in advanced age.
The Epistle's content, language and conceptual style is an indication that a common authorship existed between this letter, the two other letters attributed to the Apostle John, as well as the [[Gospel of John]]. Whether the author was the Apostle John himself, someone who wrote under his name and spoke "for him", or whether a body of authors contributed to the writing of all four Johannine texts is an open question.
The author wrote the Epistle so that "you who believe in the name of the [[Son of God]]... may know that you have [[eternal life]]." (5.13) It appears as though the author was concerned about [[heretical]] teachers that had been influencing [[churches]] under his care. Such teachers were considered [[antichrist|Antichrists]] (2.18-19) who had once been church leaders but whose teaching became [[heterodox]]. It appears that these teachers taught that Christ was a Spirit being without a body (4.2), that his death on the cross was not as an [[atonement]] for sins (1.7) and that they were no longer able to sin (1.8-10).
The purpose of
the apostle (1:1-4) is to declare the Word of Life to those to
whom he writes, in order that they might be united in fellowship
with the Father and his Son Jesus Christ. He shows that the
means of union with God are, (1) on the part of Christ, his
atoning work (1:7; 2:2; 3:5; 4:10, 14; 5:11, 12) and his
advocacy (2:1); and (2), on the part of man, holiness (1:6),
obedience (2:3), purity (3:3), faith (3:23; 4:3; 5:5), and love
(2:7, 8; 3:14; 4:7; 5:1).
==Comma Johanneum==
One of the most controversial verses of the bible is the [[Comma Johanneum]], verses 5:7 through 5:8. They do not appear in any version of the text prior to the sixteenth century, but do appear in the [[King James Bible]]. This is sometimes used as evidence to counter the [[King-James-Only Movement]].
==External links==
Online translations of the [[First Epistle of John]]:
* {{biblegateway|1|John}}
Related article:
* [http://www.plymouthbrethren.org/passage.asp 1 John from the Biblical Resource Database]
----
{{eastons}}
<center>
<br>
{| border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse"
|- bgcolor="darkgray"
|colspan=3|<center>'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor="gainsboro"
|<Center>Preceded by:<br><Center>[[Second Epistle of Peter|2 Peter]]
|'''[[Epistles]]'''
|<Center>Followed by:<br><Center>[[Second Epistle of John|2 John]]
|}
</center>
[[Category:New Testament books|John 1]]
[[de:1. Brief des Johannes]]
[[fr:Première épître de Jean]]
[[id:Surat Yohanes yang Pertama]]
[[ja:ヨハネの手紙一]]
[[jv:I Yohanes]]
[[ko:요한의 첫째 편지]]
[[nl:Zendbrieven van Johannes]]
[[pl:1 List Jana]]
[[pt:Primeira Epístola de João]]
[[fi:Ensimmäinen Johanneksen kirje]]
[[sv:Första Johannesbrevet]]
[[zh:約翰壹書]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>File format</title>
<id>11389</id>
<revision>
<id>42044085</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:13:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''file format''' is a particular way to encode information for storage in a [[computer file]].
Since a [[disk drive]], or indeed any [[computer storage]], can store only [[bit]]s, the computer must have some way of converting [[information]] to 0s and 1s and vice-versa. There are different kinds of formats for different kinds of information. However, within any format type e.g. [[word processor]] documents, there will typically be several different - and sometimes competing - formats.
== Generality ==
Some file formats are designed to store very particular sorts of data: the [[JPEG]] format, for example, is designed only to store static [[image]]s. Other file formats, however, are designed for storage of several different types of data: the [[GIF]] format supports storage of both still images and simple animations, and the [[QuickTime]] format can act as a container for many different types of [[multimedia]]. A [[text file]] is simply one that stores any text, in a format such as [[ASCII]] or [[Unicode]], with few if any [[control character]]s. Some file formats, such as [[HTML]], or the [[source code]] of some particular programming language, are in fact also text files, but adhere to more specific rules which allow them to be used for specific purposes.
It is sometimes possible to cause a program to read a file encoded in one format as if it were encoded in another format. For example, one can play a [[Microsoft Word]] document as if it were a song by using a music-playing program that deals in &q |
career, tying him with Vilas for fifth on the all time list of players with most career titles behind Connors (109), Lendl (94), McEnroe (77), and Sampras (64).
* Retired with $3.6 million in career prize money, a record at the time.
* Was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 1987 at only 30 years of age.
* Finally, in 1999 Borg was elected the best Swedish sportsman ever by a jury in his homecountry. His tennis rivals included a pair of world #1's: Wilander (who won 7 Grand Slam titles) and [[Stefan Edberg]] (who won 6).
== See also ==
*[[List of Swedes in sports]]
==External links==
*[http://www.atptennis.com/en/players/playerprofiles/default2.asp?playersearch=Bjorn+Borg Official ATP profile]
*[http://www.tennisfame.com/enshrinees/bjorn_borg.html International Tennis Hall of Fame profile]
*[http://www.wimbledon.org/en_GB/history/bjorn_borg.html Official Wimbledon website profile]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/tennis/wimbledon_history/3742099.stm BBC profile]
*[http://www.daviscup.com/teams/player.asp?player=10002258 Davis Cup record]
*[http://www.bjornborg.20m.com Björn Borg fan club]
*[http://www.bjornborg.net Björn Borg fashion company]
{{Tennis World Number Ones (men)}}
{{French Open men's singles champions}}
{{Wimbledon men's singles champions}}
[[Category:1956 births|Borg, Björn]]
[[Category:Living people|Borg, Björn]]
[[Category:Swedish tennis players|Borg, Björn]]
[[Category:Stockholmians|Borg, Björn]]
[[Category:Wimbledon champions|Borg, Björn]]
[[bg:Бьорн Борг]]
[[da:Björn Borg]]
[[de:Björn Borg]]
[[et:Björn Borg]]
[[es:Björn Borg]]
[[fr:Björn Borg]]
[[it:Björn Borg]]
[[nl:Björn Borg]]
[[ja:ビョルン・ボルグ]]
[[no:Björn Borg]]
[[pl:Björn Borg]]
[[pt:Björn Borg]]
[[fi:Björn Borg]]
[[sv:Björn Borg]]
[[zh:比約·博格]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Booch method</title>
<id>4603</id>
<revision>
<id>40292378</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T16:05:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Localzuk</username>
<id>687650</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergeto|Object-oriented analysis and design}}
The '''Booch method''' is a technique used in [[software engineering]]. It is an [[object modeling language]] and methodology that was widely used in [[object-oriented analysis and design]]. It was developed by [[Grady Booch]] while at [[Rational Software]] (now part of [[IBM]]).
The notation aspect of the Booch method has now been superseded by the [[Unified Modeling Language]] (UML), which features graphical elements from the Booch method along with elements from the [[Object-modeling technique]] (OMT) and [[Object-oriented software engineering]] (OOSE).
Methodological aspects of the Booch method have been incorporated into several methodologies and processes, the primary such methodology being the [[Rational Unified Process]] (RUP).
==See also==
*[[Object modeling language]]
*[[Software engineering]]
==References==
*{{cite book
| first = Grady
| last = Booch
| authorlink = Grady Booch
| year = 1993
| title = Object-oriented Analysis and Design with Applications
| edition = 2nd ed.
| publisher = Redwood City: Benjamin Cummings
| id = ISBN 0-8053-5340-2
}}
*{{cite book
| first = Robert Cecil
| last = Martin
| authorlink = Robert Cecil Martin
| year = 1995
| title = Designing Object-Oriented C++ Applications using the Booch Method
| publisher = Prentice-Hall
| id = ISBN 0-13-203837-4
}}
==External links==
*[http://www.ifra.ing.tu-bs.de/docs/BoochReferenz/ The Booch Method Reference] by Philipp Schneider (includes postscript version), featuring [http://www.ifra.ing.tu-bs.de/docs/BoochReferenz/class.html Class diagrams], [http://www.ifra.ing.tu-bs.de/docs/BoochReferenz/object.html Object diagrams], [http://www.ifra.ing.tu-bs.de/docs/BoochReferenz/state.html State Event diagrams] and [http://www.ifra.ing.tu-bs.de/docs/BoochReferenz/module.html Module diagrams].
----
[[Category:Software engineering]]
[[fr:Booch]]
[[pl:Metoda Boocha]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Battle of Cape St. Vincent</title>
<id>4604</id>
<revision>
<id>37103791</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-28T18:25:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.173.191.128</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">Three naval battles have taken place near [[Cape St. Vincent]] on the southern coast of [[Portugal]], near the [[Strait of Gibraltar]]:
*The '''[[Battle of Cape St. Vincent (1693)]]''' took place during the [[Nine Years War]].
*The '''[[Battle of Cape St. Vincent (1780)|Battle of Cape St. Vincent]]''' ([[January 16]] [[1780]]) was a victory of a British fleet under Admiral Sir [[George Rodney]] over a Spanish squadron under Don Juan de Lángara in the [[American War of Independence]].
*The '''[[Battle of Cape St. Vincent (1797)|Battle of Cape St. Vincent]]''' ([[14 February]] [[1797]]) was a British victory over the Spanish in the [[Wars of the French Revolution]].
*The '''[[Battle of Cape St. Vincent (1833)|Battle of Cape St. Vincent]]''' ([[July 5]] [[1833]]) was a British victory under Sir [[Charles Napier (naval officer)|Charles Napier]] over the fleet of [[Miguel of Portugal]] in the [[Liberal Wars]].
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Battle of Aboukir Bay</title>
<id>4605</id>
<revision>
<id>15902867</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Battle of the Nile]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Battle of the Nile</title>
<id>4606</id>
<revision>
<id>41823015</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T23:47:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of the Nile
|partof=the [[French Revolutionary Wars]]
|image=[[Image:Luny Thomas Battle Of The Nile August 1st 1798 At 10pm.jpg|300px|Battle of the Nile by Luny Thomas]]
|caption=''Battle of the Nile'', [[August 1]], [[1798]], 10pm, by [[Luny Thomas]]
|date=[[August 1|1]]-[[August 2]] [[1798]]
|place=[[Aboukir|Aboukir Bay]], [[Egypt]]
|result=Decisive British victory
|combatant1=[[United Kingdom|Britain]]
|combatant2=[[France]]
|commander1=[[Horatio Nelson]]
|commander2=[[François-Paul Brueys D'Aigalliers]]
|strength1=14 [[ships of the line]] (thirteen 74-gun, one 50-gun)
|strength2=13 ships of the line (one 120-gun, three 80-gun, nine 74-gun) and 4 [[frigate]]s
|casualties1=218 killed<br>677 wounded
|casualties2=3 battleships burnt<br>9 battleships captured<br>1 frigate sunk<br>1,700 killed<br>600 wounded<br>3,000 prisoners
}}
{{Campaignbox Egypt-Syria}}
The '''Battle of the Nile''', known in France as the '''Battle of Aboukir Bay''', was an important [[naval battle]] of the [[French Revolutionary Wars]] between a [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] fleet commanded by Rear-Admiral [[Horatio Nelson]] and a [[France |French]] fleet under Vice-Admiral [[François-Paul Brueys D'Aigalliers]]. It took place on the evening and early morning of [[August 1]] and [[August 2|2]] [[1798]]. French losses were as high as 1,700 dead (including Brueys) and 3,000 captured. British losses were 218 dead.
==Background==
Still on the rise but not yet the number one enemy of Britain, commanding General [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] intended to threaten the British position in [[India]] via the invasion and conquest of [[Egypt]]. The expedition was also cultural and included many scientists, educators, and technical specialists &mdash; including a surveying party, as French intellectuals had long debated the feasibility of cutting a ship-canal between the Red and Mediterranean Seas. About three weeks after his landing there, a British fleet of 14 ships under [[Horatio Nelson]], which had been scouring the eastern [[Mediterranean Sea]] looking for the French fleet, finally came upon the 15 French ships being used to support the invasion.
==Preparations==
[[Image:Battle of Aboukir Bay.png|thumb|300px|Map of ship positions and movements during the Battle of Aboukir Bay, [[1 August|1]]&ndash;[[2 August]], [[1798]]. British ships are in red; French ships are in blue. Intermediate ship positions are shown in pale red/blue. Based upon a map from ''Intelligence in War'', [[John Keegan]], 2003]]
The fleets met, close to sunset on [[August 1]]. The French were at anchor in [[Abu Qir Bay |Abū Qīr Bay]], in shallow water near a shoal, less than 4 [[fathom]]s (8 m) deep. The shoal was being used to protect the south-western (port) side of the fleet, while the star-board side faced the north-east, and open sea. Nelson had already achieved great fame, and Admiral Brueys had studied his tactics at the [[Battle of the Saints]] and other engagements. As a consequence, Brueys had his line of battle chained together at anchor, to prevent the British from cutting the line, and defeating a part of it in detail in a night action. Brueys expected the battle to begin the next morning, as he did not believe the British would risk a night encounter in shallow, uncharted waters. Leisurely, preparations for combat began. It is possible that the French were preparing to try to escape during the night.
==The battle==
Admiral Nelson observed that the French fleet was anchored too far from the shallows. He ordered his line of battle to divide in two, with one division to pass between the French line and the shoal, and the o |
Wally Lewis
* Darren Lockyer
* Brad Meyers
* Gene Miles
* Steve Renouf
* Wendell Sailor
* Dale Shearer
* Darren Smith
* Gorden Tallis
* Brent Tate
* Brad Thorn
* Lote Tuqiri
* Kerrod Walters
* Kevin Walters
* Shane Webcke
===Test Captains===
* Wally Lewis (1988-89)
* Allan Langer (1998)
* Gorden Tallis (2002-03)
* Darren Lockyer (2003-05)
===World Cup Captains===
* Wally Lewis (1988-89)
* Gorden Tallis (2000)
===Rothmans Medal Winners===
The Rothmans Medal was awarded to the best player in the NSWRL
* Allan Langer (1992)
===Dally M Medal Winners===
The Dally M Medal took over as the Player of the Year Medal from the Rothmans Medal
* Allan Langer (1998)
===Clive Churchill Medal Winners===
The Clive Churchill Medal is awarded to the Man of the Match in the Grand Final
* Allan Langer (1992)
* Gorden Tallis (1998)
* Darren Lockyer (2000)
==Famous Fans==
* [[Lachlan Murdoch]], who is the club's No.1 Ticket Holder
* Peter Beattie, Queensland Premier
* Jim Soorley, former Lord Mayor of Brisbane & former No.1 Ticket Holder
==Sources==
* The Official NRL 2003 Season Guide
* The Official NRL 2005 Season Guide
* [http://www.broncos.com.au/index.cfm?MenuID=326&TopMenuID=266 Brisbane Broncos Club Records]
* [http://www.broncos.com.au/index.cfm?MenuID=331&TopMenuID=266 Brisbane Broncos Season 2005]
==External links==
*[http://www.broncos.com.au/ Broncos official web page]
*[http://stats.rleague.com/rl/teams/brisbane/brisbane_idx.html Brisbane Statistics Tables]
{{NRL}}
[[Category:National Rugby League]]
[[Category:Sport in Brisbane]]
[[Category:Australian rugby league clubs]]
[[Category:Sport in Queensland]]
[[Category:1988 establishments]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brisbane Lions</title>
<id>5026</id>
<revision>
<id>40678578</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T06:12:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Drini</username>
<id>195374</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/192.165.166.4|192.165.166.4]] ([[User talk:192.165.166.4|talk]]) to last version by The Brain of Morbius</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox aus sport club | clubname = Brisbane Lions
| image = [[Image:Brisbane_Lions_Logo.jpg|200px|Brisbane Lions logo]]
| fullname = Brisbane Lions Australian Football Club
| emblem = The Lions
| strip = Maroon and blue guernsey with gold lion, maroon shorts, maroon socks
| founded = [[1996]]
| sport = [[Australian rules football]]
| league = [[Australian Football League]]
| ground = The [[Brisbane Cricket Ground|Gabba]]
| capacity = 42,000
| song = [[The Pride of Brisbane Town]]
| president = [[Tony Kelly]]
| coach = [[Leigh Matthews]]
| season = 2005
| position = 11th of 16}}The '''Brisbane Lions''' Australian Football Club (the trading name for the ''Brisbane Bears-Fitzroy Football Club'') are an [[Australian Football League]] club, formed from the post-[[1996]] [[merger]] of the [[Brisbane Bears]] and [[Fitzroy Football Club|Fitzroy]], the ''Lions''. The side plays its home games at the [[Brisbane Cricket Ground]], also known as the Gabba and in 2005 the average home ground attendance for the Lions was 33,101.
The merged club won its first league premiership in [[2001]], and Lion [[Jason Akermanis]] won the league's highest individual honour, the [[Brownlow Medal]]. In [[2002]], the Lions repeated as premiers, and Lion [[Simon Black]] won the Brownlow. In [[2003]], the Lions became the first Grand Final participant in AFL history to have three Brownlow Medallists in its lineup, the third being [[1996]] winner [[Michael Voss]]. The club went on to win the 2003 premiership, and become the first in the AFL to win three consecutive Premierships, but fell just short in its quest for a fourth consecutive flag, losing to [[Port Adelaide Football Club|Port Adelaide]] in the 2004 Grand Final.
==Membership Base==
Year, #members, finishing position, average home attendance<br>
*1997 16,679 (8th) 19,550<br>
*1998 16,108 (16th) 16,675<br>
*1999 16,931 (4th) 21,936<br>
*2000 20,295 (5th) 27,406<br>
*2001 18,330 (1st) 27,313<br>
*2002 22,288 (1st) 26,904<br>
*2003 25,578 (1st) 31,462<br>
*2004 30,941 (2nd) 33,574<br>
*2005 30,027 (11th) 33,101<br>
==Individual Awards==
===[[Best and Fairest]]===
:See [[Merrett-Murray Medal]]
===[[Brownlow Medal]] winners===
* [[Jason Akermanis]] - 2001
* [[Simon Black]] - 2002
===[[Leigh Matthews Trophy]] winners===
* [[Michael Voss]] - 2002 (with [[Luke Darcy]]), 2003
===[[Norm Smith medal]] winners===
* [[Shaun Hart]] - 2001
* [[Simon Black]] - 2003
===[[Mark of the Year]] winners===
* [[Jonathan Brown]] - 2002
===[[Goal of the Year]] winners ===
* [[Jason Akermanis]] - 2002
===[[All-Australian]] players===
* [[Jason Akermanis]] - 1999, 2001, 2002, 2004
* [[Chris Johnson]] - 2002, 2004
* [[Nigel Lappin]] - 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004
* [[Simon Black]] - 2001, 2002, 2004
* [[Justin Leppitsch]] - 1999, 2002, 2003
* [[Michael Voss]] - 1999, 2001, 2003 (captain)
==Club Facts==
===Premierships===
*[[Australian Football League season 2001|2001]]
*[[Australian Football League season 2002|2002]]
*[[Australian Football League season 2003|2003]]
===[[Wooden Spoon]]===
*[[Australian Football League season 1998|1998]]
===Coaches===
* [[John Northey]] - 1997-1998
* [[Roger Merrett]] - 1998
* [[Leigh Matthews]] - 1999-current
===Captains===
* [[Michael Voss]]
* [[Alastair Lynch]]
===Biggest Home Crowd===
37,224 - 2005: Brisbane vs [[Collingwood]] (Gabba)
==Other notable players ==
* [[Marcus Ashcroft]]
* [[Daniel Bradshaw]]
* [[Richard Champion]]
* [[Matthew Kennedy]]
* [[Nigel Lappin]]
* [[Craig McRae]]
* [[Mal Michael]]
* [[Martin Pike]]
* [[Luke Power]]
* [[Darryl White]]
== See also ==
* [[Merrett-Murray Medal]]
* [[List of prominent Brisbane Lions supporters]]
* [[:Category:Brisbane Lions players|Wikipedia listing of Brisbane Lions players]]
==External links==
*[http://www.lions.com.au/ Official Website of the Brisbane Lions Football Club]
* [http://lions.com.au/default.asp?pg=lionshistory&spg=overview The Brisbane Lions - an Overview] - Official AFL website of the Brisbane Lions Football Club]
*[http://www.myafl.com/forum/forumdisplay.php?f=9/ myAFL.com Brisbane Lions Forum]
*[http://www.lionised.com Lionised (unofficial site)]
*[http://www.fullpointsfooty.net/brisbane_(1).htm Full Points Footy History of the Brisbane Football Club]
{{AFL}}
[[Category:Australian Football League clubs]]
[[Category:Sport in Queensland]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blondie</title>
<id>5027</id>
<revision>
<id>39064357</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T13:28:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Guinnog</username>
<id>764861</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Blondie''' may mean
* [[Blondie (band)]], a band based in New York City, active since the 1970s.
* [[Blondie (comic strip)]], a long-running newspaper comic strip
* [[Blondie (film)]], a 1938 movie based on the comic strip. The movie was followed by a number of sequels until the 1950s.
* [[Blondie (Bloom County)]], a minor character from the 1980s comic strip ''Bloom County''
* [[Blondi]], Adolf Hitler's German Shepherd dog
* Nickname of Clint Eastwood's character in ''[[The Good, the Bad and the Ugly]]''.
* In [[American cuisine|US cuisine]], the '''Blondie''' is a bar cookie similar to the [[brownie]] but made with brown sugar and no cocoa.
{{disambig}}
[[de:Blondie]]
[[fr:Blondie]]
[[nl:Blondie]]
[[pt:Blondie]]
[[sv:Blondie]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Battle of Chojnice</title>
<id>5028</id>
<revision>
<id>34521754</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-09T19:31:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Appleseed</username>
<id>404133</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Campaignbox Thirteen Years' War}}
The '''Battle of Chojnice''' ('''Battle of Conitz''') occurred on [[September 18]] [[1454]] by the town of [[Chojnice]] between [[Poland]] and the [[Teutonic Knights]] during the [[Thirteen Years' War]], it was won by the latter. The Teutonic army had around 9000 cavalry and 6000 infantry under [[Bernard Szumborski]]. The Polish army had 16000 cavalry, a few thousand servants (who can and usually were used in battles), a few hundred infantry plus 500 mercenaries and burgers from [[Gdańsk]] and 2000 mercenaries hired by Prussian Confederacy, all under the command of King [[Casimir IV]], advised by [[chancellor]] [[Jan Koniecpolski]] and [[Piotr from Szczekociny]].
The Polish commanders were counting that the battle would be traditionally won by the Polish heavy cavalry, not caring much about either artillery or infantry. They hadn't thought that opponent could change their traditional strategy, or that the Teutonic soldiers besieged in [[Chojnice]] could be anything more than spectators. Bernard Szumborski however had planned a totally different kind of battle.
At the beginning everything went as expected, following the pattern of many other battles between the Poles and Teutons. The Polish cavalry charged with much success, breaking the Teutonic lines, killing Prince Rudolf of Żagań and even capturing Bernard Szumborski. The Teutonic cavalry tried to break through Polish lines and escape to Chojnice; however infantry grouped at Teutonic wegenburg broke with tradition and offer a very good defense against the mounted troops. Then a sudden sally from Chojnice at the back of the Polish army caused panic. Bernard Szumborski managed to release himself and organised pursuit; hundreds of Poles, including Piotr from Szczekociny, were killed during the rout or drowned in nearby marsh. The Polish King fought on with great personal courage and his knights had to force him to leave the battlefield.
The Polish defeat was complete. 3000 bodies were left at battle |
s of Hungary, although his love affair with its folk music continued.
After his disappointment over the Fine Arts Commission prize, Bartók wrote very little for two or three years, preferring to concentrate on folk music collecting and arranging (in Central Europe, the Balkans, [[Music of Algeria|Algeria]], and Turkey). However, the outbreak of [[World War I]] forced him to stop these expeditions, and he returned to composing, writing the [[ballet (music)|ballet]] ''The Wooden Prince'' in [[1914]]&ndash;[[1916|16]] and the [[String Quartet No. 2 (Bartók)|String Quartet No. 2]] in [[1915]]&ndash;[[1917|17]]. It was ''The Wooden Prince'' which gave him some degree of international fame.
Bartók subsequently worked on another ballet, ''The Miraculous Mandarin,'' influenced by [[Igor Stravinsky]], [[Arnold Schoenberg]], as well as Richard Strauss, following this up with his two [[violin sonata]]s which are harmonically and structurally some of the most complex pieces he wrote. He wrote his [[String Quartet No. 3 (Bartók)|third]] and [[String Quartet No. 4 (Bartók)|fourth]] [[string quartet]]s, regarded as some of the finest string quartets ever written, in [[1927]]&ndash;[[1928|28]], after which his harmonic language began to become simpler. The [[String Quartet No. 5 (Bartók)|String Quartet No. 5]] ([[1934]]) is somewhat more traditional from this point of view. Bartók wrote his [[String Quartet No. 6 (Bartók)|sixth]] and last string quartet in [[1939]].
''The Miraculous Mandarin'' was started in [[1918]], but not performed until [[1926]] because of its sexual content, a sordid modern story of prostitution, robbery, and murder.
Bartók divorced Márta in [[1923]], and married a piano student, [[Ditta Pásztory]]. His second son, Péter, was born in [[1924]]. For Péter's music lessons Bartók began composing a six-volume collection of graded piano pieces, ''[[Mikrokosmos]]'', which is popular with piano students today.
==World War II and later career==
In [[1940]], after the outbreak of [[World War II]], and the European political situation worsened, Bartók was increasingly tempted to flee Hungary.
Bartók was strongly opposed to the Nazis. After they came into power in Germany, he refused to concertize there and switched away from his German publisher. His liberal views (as evident in the opera ''[[Bluebeard's Castle]]'' and the ballet ''The Miraculous Mandarin'') caused him a great deal of trouble from right-wingers in Hungary.
Having first sent his manuscripts out of the country, Bartók reluctantly moved to the [[United States|USA]] with Ditta Pásztory. Péter Bartók joined them in [[1942]] and later enlisted in the [[United States Navy]]. Béla Bartók, Jr. remained in Hungary.
Bartók did not feel comfortable in the USA, and found it very difficult to write. As well, he was not very well known in America and there was little interest in his music. He and his wife Ditta would give concerts; and for a while, they had a research grant to work on a collection of [[Yugoslavia|Yugoslav]] folk songs, but their finances were precarious, as was Bartók's health.
His last work might well have been the String Quartet No. 6, were it not for [[Fritz Reiner]] and [[Serge Koussevitsky]] commissioning him to write the [[Concerto for Orchestra (Bartók)|Concerto for Orchestra]], which became Bartók's most popular work and which was to ease his financial burdens. He was also commissioned by [[Yehudi Menuhin]] to write [[Sonata for Solo Violin]]. This seemed to reawaken his interest in composing, and he went on to write his [[Piano Concerto No. 3 (Bartók)|Piano Concerto No. 3]], an airy and almost neo-classical work, and begin work on his [[Viola Concerto (Bartók)|Viola Concerto]].
Béla Bartók died in [[New York City]] from [[leukemia]] in September, 1945. He left the viola concerto unfinished at his death; it was later completed by his pupil, [[Tibor Serly]].
He was interred in the [[Ferncliff Cemetery]] in [[Hartsdale, New York]], but after the fall of Hungarian [[communism]] in [[1988]], his remains were transferred to [[Budapest, Hungary]] for a [[state funeral]] on [[July 7]], [[1988]] with interment in Budapest's Farkasreti Cemetery.
There is a statue of Béla Bartók in [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]] near the central train station in a public square. The statue stands with its back to a large cathedral looking towards the ground. Directly opposite the statue of Béla Bartók in the same square, on a large elevated platform is a statue of [[Don Quixote]] and [[Sancho Panza]] facing the cathedral
.
==Music==
Paul Wilson lists as the most prominent characteristics of Bartók's music the influence of the folk music of rural Hungary and eastern Europe and the art music of central and western Europe, and his changing attitude toward (and use of) tonality, but without the use of the traditional [[Diatonic functionality|harmonic functions]] associated with major and minor scales (Wilson 1992, p.2-4).
Bartók is an influential [[Modernism (music)|modernist]] (though see [[Béla Bartók#Reception|Reception]] below) and his music used or may be analysed as containing various modernist techniques such as [[atonality]], [[bitonality]], attenuated harmonic function, [[polymodal chromaticism]], [[projected set]]s, [[privileged pattern]]s, and large set types used as source sets such as the equal tempered twelve tone aggregate, [[octatonic scale]] (and [[alpha chord]]), the diatonic and heptatonia seconda seven-note scales, and less often the whole tone scale and the primary pentatonic collection (ibid, p.24-29).
He rarely used the aggregate to actively shape musical structure though there are notable examples such as the second theme from the first movement of his ''Second Violin Concerto'', commenting that he "wanted to show Schoenberg that one can use all twelve tones and still remain tonal". More thoroughly in the first eight measures of the last movement of his ''Second Quartet'' all notes gradually gather with the twelfth (Gb) sounding for the first time on the last beat of measure 8, marking the end of the first section. The aggregate is partitioned in the opening of the ''Third String Quartet'' with C#-D-D#-E in the accompaniment (strings) while the remaining pitch classes are used in the melody (violin 1) and more often as 7-35 (diatonic or "white-key" collection) and 5-35 (pentatonic or "black-key" collection) such as in no. 6 of the ''Eight Improvisations''. There, the primary theme is on the black keys in the left hand, while the right accompanies with triads from the white keys. In measures 50-51 in the third movement of the ''Fourth Quartet'', the first violin and 'cello play black-key chords, while the second violin and viola play stepwise diatonic lines (ibid, p.25).
[[Ernő Lendvai]] (1971) analyses Bartók's works as being based on two opposing systems, that of the [[golden section]] and the [[acoustic scale]], and tonally on the [[axis system]] (ibid, p.7).
===Reception===
Some of Bartók's works have been criticized for their use of tonality and nontonal methods unique to each piece; [[Milton Babbitt]], for example, praises the "identification of the personal exigency with the fundamental musical exigency of the epoch" yet concludes that "Bartók's solution was a specific one, it cannot be duplicated." The problem is Bartók's praised use of "two organizational principles" - tonality for large scale relationships and the piece-specific method for moment to moment thematic elements - worrying that the "highly attenuated tonality" requires extreme non-harmonic methods to create a feeling of closure. Presumably he preferred [[Arnold Schoenberg]]'s completely non-tonal non-piece specific method of [[twelve tone music]]. (Maus 2004, p.164)
==Selected works==
Works are catalogued with the designation Sz (Szöllösy).
===Orchestral music===
*[[Piano Concerto No. 1 (Bartók)|Piano Concerto No. 1]]
*[[Piano Concerto No. 2 (Bartók)|Piano Concerto No. 2]]
*[[Piano Concerto No. 3 (Bartók)|Piano Concerto No. 3]]
*[[Violin Concerto No. 1 (Bartók)|Violin Concerto No. 1]]
*[[Violin Concerto No. 2 (Bartók)|Violin Concerto No. 2]]
*Dance Suite (1923)
*[[Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta]] (1937)
*[[Concerto for Orchestra (Bartók)|Concerto for Orchestra]] ([[1942]]&ndash;[[1943|43]], revised [[1945]])
*[[Viola Concerto (Bartók)|Viola Concerto]] ([[1945]])
*''Rhapsody no.1 for violin'' ([[19?]])
*''Rhapsody no.2 for violin'' ([[19?]])
===Choral music===
* ''Cantata Profana'' ([[1930]])
* ''From Olden Times'' ([[1935]])
===Chamber music===
*[[Sonata for two pianos and percussion]]
*[[List of string quartets by Béla Bartók|String Quartets]] Nos. 1-6
*Violin Sonata Nos. 1-3
*''Divertimento'' ([[1939]])
===Piano===
*''Allegro barbaro'' ([[1911]])
*''Elegy Op.7a,7b'' ([[191?]])
*''Bagatellen'' ([[1911]])
*[[Sonatina (Bartók)|Sonatina]] ([[1915]])
*''Romanian Folk Dances'' ([[1915]]) Also played on violin
*''Suite Op.14'' ([[1916]])
*Improvisations Op.20 ([[1920]])
*Sonata ([[1926]])
*''Im Freien'' ([[1926]])
*''[[Mikrokosmos]]'' ([[1926]], [[1932]]&ndash;[[1939|39]])
===Music for the stage===
* ''[[Bluebeard's Castle]]'', [[opera]]
* ''The Miraculous Mandarin'', pantomime
* ''The Wooden Prince'', [[ballet (music)|ballet]]
===See also===
* [[:Category:Compositions by Béla Bartók]]
==Sources==
*Maus, Fred (2004). "Sexual and Musical Categories", ''The Pleasure of Modernist Music''. ISBN 1580461433.
*Wilson, Paul (1992). ''The Music of Béla Bartók''. ISBN 0300051115.
==References==
*Antokoletz, Elliott (1984). ''The Music of Béla Bartók: A Study of Tonality and Progression in Twentieth-Century Music''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
*Kárpáti, János (1975). ''Bartók's String Quartets''. Translated by Fred MacNicol. Budapest: Corvina Press.
*Lendvai, Ernő (1971). ''Béla Bartók: An Analysis of His Music''. London |
t]] with the Giants, for whom his father had played the first seven years of his career.
Bonds' speed and power in his early and middle years recalled his father's abilities. [[Baseball Hall of Fame]]r [[Willie Mays]] is his godfather; [[Reggie Jackson]], another Hall of Famer, is his uncle. His aunt [[Rosie Bonds]] finished 8th in the [[Women's 80-meter hurdles]] (Extended to [[100-meter hurdles]] in [[1971]]) at the [[1964 Summer Olympics]] in [[Tokyo]],[[Japan]].
==Achievements==
In ''[[Sports Illustrated]]'' (June 5, 2000), San Francisco Giant [[Shawon Dunston]] said of his teammate Bonds, "He's not going to hit 70 homers, but he believes he can. That's frightening." The next year, Bonds set the single-season home run record, hitting [[73 (number)|73]] to break [[Mark McGwire]]'s 70-homer mark set in [[1998 in baseball|1998]]. Some analysts consider Bonds' [[2001 in baseball|2001]] performance among the greatest hitting seasons in history. Besides the home run record, he set single-season marks for [[base on balls|walks]] (177) and [[slugging percentage]] (.863) (topping Ruth's records of 170 and .847, set in [[1923 in baseball|1923]] and [[1920 in baseball|1920]], respectively). In [[2002 in baseball|2002]], however, he did not repeat his 73-homer feat. Partly because pitchers tried to "pitch around" him whenever possible, he bettered his own record for walks with 198, which contributed greatly to a .582 [[on-base percentage]], breaking Williams' 1941 record of .551. He also won the National League [[batting average|batting title]] with a .370 average, becoming the oldest player to win the honor for the first time. In [[2004 in baseball|2004]], he won his second batting title with a .362 average. He also broke two of his own records: [[on-base plus slugging|OPS]], with 1.422, and on-base percentage with .609 - the only time a player has bettered .600 over a full season.
Bonds has been voted the National League's [[MLB Most Valuable Player award|Most Valuable Player]] a record seven times, in [[1990 in baseball|1990]], [[1992 in baseball|1992]], [[1993 in baseball|1993]], 2001, 2002, [[2003 in baseball|2003]], and 2004. He is the first player in history to be MVP in four or even three consecutive years, and no other player has won the award more than three times. He was also second in the voting for the award twice: in [[1991 in baseball|1991]] to [[Terry Pendleton]] of the [[Atlanta Braves]], and in [[2000 in baseball|2000]] to then-teammate [[Jeff Kent]]. During the 2002 season, Bonds became the fourth man to hit 600 career home runs, and also set the record for most home runs hit in a single post-season (8). The Giants would lose the [[2002 World Series|World Series]] that year to the [[Anaheim Angels]], four games to three.
Bonds' 4000 Gold Glove awards as an outfielder are the third-most ever for that position. He has been named to 13 National League All-Star teams: 1990, 1992-1998, 2000-2004.
Bonds became the first 400-400 player (400 home runs and 400 stolen bases) on [[August 23]], 1998, when he hit home run number 400 off of [[Florida Marlins|Florida's]] [[Kirt Ojala]]. He had stolen his 400th base on July 26, [[1997 in baseball|1997]] against the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] at [[Candlestick Park]]. On June 23 2003, Bonds recorded his 500th stolen base in the eleventh inning of a game against the [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] at [[SBC Park|Pacific Bell Park]]. Bonds later scored the winning run. By chance, his ailing father Bobby was in attendance that night. With 633 career home runs at the time, Bonds became the first 500-500 player in baseball history, already the only member of the 400-400 club. In addition, in [[1996 in baseball|1996]] Bonds became the second of the three current members of the so called [[40-40 club]]: 40 home runs and 40 stolen bases in one season. The other two members are [[José Canseco]] and [[Alex Rodriguez]].
Bonds is among the power hitters who "crowd the plate": [[batting (baseball)|standing]] in such a way that his body is almost over the plate (and thus close to the [[strike zone]]). Because of Bonds and others like [[Mo Vaughn]], in 2001 Major League Baseball instructed [[umpire (baseball)|umpires]] to call a slightly different strike zone, calling more high inside pitches strikes. The new regulations also banned hitters from using hard protective gear apart from helmets (e.g., hard elbow or chest guards), which enabled them to get closer to the plate.
On April 12, 2004, Bonds hit his 660th home run, tying him with his godfather [[Willie Mays]] for 3rd on the all-time career home run list in a game against the [[Milwaukee Brewers]] at SBC Park. [[Larry Ellison (baseball)|Larry Ellison]] ('''''not''''' the CEO of <nowiki>Oracle Corporation</nowiki>) caught the home run and returned it to Barry. He hit his 661st home run at the same venue the next day, April 13, placing him in outright third behind [[Babe Ruth]] (714) and [[Hank Aaron]] (755). Ellison also caught number 661, but kept it for himself with Barry's blessing. (Ellison was in a kayak in [[McCovey Cove]], an arm of [[San Francisco Bay]] that lies behind the right-field stands at SBC Park, so this wasn't quite the amazing coincidence it appears at first sight.)
On July 4, 2004, Bonds passed [[Rickey Henderson]] to take the lead in career walks, with his 2191st. Later in 2004, he broke his own single-season record for walks, becoming the first player with over 200 in a season and ending the season with 232. His total of 232 walks was 105 more than the next closest leader, [[Lance Berkman]], [[Todd Helton]], and [[Bobby Abreu]] who all had 127. Included in Bonds' 2004 total were 120 [[intentional walk]]s, the most issued since MLB began recording them separately in 1954.
Bonds also has the 2nd- and 3rd-highest single-season intentional walk totals, with 68 in 2002 and 61 in 2003. He has been the league leader in the category for 13 of the past 14 seasons.
Bonds holds almost every major league record in existence for intentional walks with four in a nine-inning game (2004), 120 in a season (2004) and 604 in his career (more than the next two players on the all-time list, [[Hank Aaron]] and [[Willie McCovey]], combined). Bonds, a prolific home run hitter, is an easy candidate for the intentional walk. In the first month of the 2004 season, Bonds drew 43 walks, 22 of them intentional. He broke his previous record of 68 intentional walks, set in 2002, on July 10, 2004 in his last appearance before the All-Star break. On May 28, 1998, Bonds became one of only four players in major league history to be intentionally walked with the bases loaded, when the [[Arizona Diamondbacks]] elected to give up a run and face catcher [[Brent Mayne]] instead.
On September 17, 2004, Bonds hit his 700th home run off [[San Diego Padres]] pitcher [[Jake Peavy]] in San Francisco and became only the third man to achieve the 700 home run plateau.
==Resurgence==
Although [[Ken Griffey Jr.]] was voted Player of the Decade in the 1990s, many believed that Bonds was the better player. In [[1999]], with only statistics through [[1997]] counted, Bonds ranked Number 34 on ''[[The Sporting News]]''' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, making him the highest-ranking active player (next-best was Greg Maddux at Number 39), while Griffey came in at Number 93. When the Sporting News list was redone in 2005, Bonds jumped up 28 spaces to Number 6 All Time, behind only [[Babe Ruth]], [[Willie Mays]], [[Ty Cobb]], [[Walter Johnson]], and [[Hank Aaron]]. However, while Bonds was nominated as a finalist for the [[Major League Baseball]] All-Century Team that year, Griffey was actually elected to it, probably due to being more popular rather than more impressive or more respected.
Through the decade, Bonds was a very patient hitter and great slugger who stole bases and played exceptional defense. While by the end of the decade Bonds was regarded as a surefire Hall of Famer, it was in the beginning of the millennium - at the age of 37 - when Bonds would surpass his peers and achieve a level that only a couple of hitters in the history of the game have achieved.
In 2001, Bonds hit 73 HRs (the only time he has hit over 50 in a season), and even more astonishingly, surpassed Babe Ruth's record of single-season slugging percentage with a mind-blowing .863. The very next year, he broke Ted Williams' single-season on-base percentage record with .582, and then shattered his own record in 2004 with an unprecedented .609. Bonds holds virtually every record associated with walks, whether in a season (232), in a game (6), or intentional (4).
Today Bonds is generally considered to be the best hitter in the game, and comparable only to a handful of hitters in the sport's entire history. Many of the game's best players, hitter and pitcher alike, remain in awe of Bonds' bat speed and dominance at the plate.
== 2005 injury problems ==
On [[March 22]], [[2005 in baseball|2005]], Bonds announced that he could be sidelined for the rest of the 2005 season because of surgery on his knee. At the press conference, Bonds also indicated that he was frustrated by the focus on his alleged [[steroid]] use and the negative portrayal of him in the media. Later, Bonds sounded positive about his rehabilitation and told fans at the Opening Day festivities, "I will be back!" The chances of Bonds' return to the playing field were covered relentlessly through the summer by ESPN, in anticipation of potentially unprecedented scrutiny by the media and baseball fans. For the media, this story was irresistible in light of baseball's recently toughened testing program for steroids. On [[May 4]], Bonds revealed on his website that he had undergone a third arthroscopic knee surgery because of a bacterial infection in his knee. This setba |
ring but does so for either solely selfish reasons (i.e. power or wealth) or because they are [[sadistic]] (which would mean they gain pleasure from it, placing it again entirely selfish). Under their definition of evil, a person who commits morally wrong acts but does so truly believing the ends justifies the means would not be evil, even if most people disagreed the ends justified the means. Even when they agree that the ends in and of themselves are morally wrong, so long as the person believes they are doing right regardless of how misguided they may be, they would not classify them as evil. This does not mean they do not view their actions as morally wrong, just that they do not see an evil intent in them. The intent of the actions is a key factor for them. Thus, for example [[Osama Bin Laden]] would not be evil as his motives are based on his belief that [[western culture]] is corrupt and evil.
Regardless of the source of their definitions, most human cultures have a set of beliefs about what things, actions, and ideas are undesirable. Undesirable circumstances are often categorized as evil within some cultures. Natural evils generally include accidental death, disease, and other misfortunes, although some cultures see these occurrences instead as a healthy part of the natural order. Moral evils generally include violence, deceit or other destructive behavior toward others, although the same behavior toward "outsiders" of the group may be considered "good." War provides many examples, and "God is always on the winning side."
Many cultures recognize many levels of immoral behaviour, from minor vices to major crimes. These beliefs are often encoded into the [[law]]s of a society, with methods of judgment and punishment for offenses.
==Is evil a useful term?==
The definition of evil has engendered some debate, much as the term [[terrorism]] has. It has been said that evil is subjective, that one person's idea of evil can be another person's idea of good, much like one person's terrorist is a freedom fighter of another. The term is often used by people or groups against their enemies, largely to evoke a strong emotional response against the person or group. For example, this claim has been made by some critics of the U.S. President [[George W. Bush]] with regard to his labeling [[North Korea]], [[Iraq]], and [[Iran]] as part of an "[[Axis of Evil]]".
Many critics reject the current common usage of the term evil, suggesting that motivation must be taken into account. Thus, they feel it is inappropriate to apply the term to just anyone committing significant acts of violence such as terrorism and mass murder. Only those people motivated by sadism, lust for power or greed of wealth (in many forms) should qualify as evil. That does not mean they think violent acts like terrorism and murder are acceptable, just that perpetrators of those acts should not automatically be labeled evil. Under such applications of the term evil, malicious juveniles and sadistic minors are classified as evil despite their misguided purposes.
There is a school of thought that holds that no ''person'' is evil, that only ''acts'' may be properly considered evil.
Some critics also feel the term evil is too closely linked with [[religion]], particularly [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]]. Because of this, they think the term should be avoided in political discussion, especially in reference to members of other religions or leaders. They might be also add that since use of the term evil to describe one's enemies is so comfortable that it removes all possibility of empathy and necessity for self-examination, its use usually indicates an absolutist or extremist attitude on the part of the user, regardless of his or her belief-system.
Psychologist and mediator [[Marshall Rosenberg]] claims that the root of violence is the very concept of "evil" or "badness." When we label someone as bad or evil Rosenberg claims, it invokes the desire to punish or inflict pain. It also makes it easy for us to turn off our feelings towards the person we are harming. He cites the use of language in Nazi Germany as being a key to how the German people were able to do things to other human beings that they normally wouldn't do. He links the concept of evil to our judicial system, which seeks to create justice via punishment &mdash; "punitive justice" &mdash; punishing acts that are seen as bad or wrong. He contrasts this approach with what he found in cultures where the idea of evil was non-existent. In such cultures, when someone harms another person, they are believed to be out of harmony with themselves and their community, they are seen as sick or ill and measures are taken to restore them to a sense of harmonious relations with themselves and others, as opposed to punishing them.
Psychologist [[Albert Ellis]] makes a similar claim, in his school of psychology called Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy or [[REBT]]. He says the root of anger, and the desire to harm someone, is almost always one of these beliefs:
# That they should/shouldn't have done certain things
# That someone is awful/bad/horrible person for doing what they did
# That they deserve to be punished for what they did
He claims that without one of the preceding thoughts, violence is next to impossible.
[[Peter Singer]]'s book, ''The President of Good and Evil'' uses the case of [[George W. Bush]] to illustrate how 'evil' can become a dangerous [[reification]].
==Is evil good?==
[[Anton LaVey]] is one of many who assert that evil is actually good (an often-used slogan is, "evil is live spelled backwards"). This belief is usually a reaction to religious definitions of evil, which some think oppose the natural pleasures of life or the natural instincts of men and women. In the more extreme cases, however, this belief can extend to the claim that hurting others is acceptable if you can get away with it.
In modern slang, "bad" has become a synonym for "good", as in "Man, that's a bad piece of music." In the [[tabletop role-playing game]] [[Dungeons and Dragons]], players may choose to play as a character whose alignment is evil, although this is not encouraged for normal play. The ability to choose between good and evil is also a major theme of a number of video games, including [[Fable (video game)]], and [[Prince of Persia: The Two Thrones]]. The play ''[[The Rocky Horror Show]]'' and the motion picture based on the play can be seen as a celebration of evil.
In politics, the acceptance of evil is often called, "playing hardball," or, in the words of US Vice President [[Dick Cheney]], making a reference to [[Star Wars]] in a speech given [[September 11]], [[2001]], "we also have to work ... sort of the dark side ...". It is not uncommon to find people in power who are indifferent to good or evil, taking actions based solely on self-interest; this approach to politics was championed by [[Niccolò Machiavelli]], a sixteenth century Florentine writer and politician who declared in ''The Prince'', "the ends justifies the means... The world consists mainly of vulgar people and the few who are honorable can safely be ignored when so many vulgar rally around the prince." The [[international relations]] theories of [[Realism_in_international_relations|realism]] and [[neorealism]], to which Machiavelli is a philosophical contributor, explicitly disavow absolute moral and ethical considerations in international politics in favor of a focus on self-interest, political survival, and power politics, which they hold to be more accurate in explaining a world they view as explicitly [[anarchy|anarchic]] and dangerous. It should be noted that political realists, including Machiavelli, usually justify their perspectives by laying claim to a "higher moral duty" specific to political leaders, under which the greatest evil is seen to be the failure of the state to protect itself and its citizens. Machiavelli explicitly states : "[A prince] need not worry about incurring the disgrace of those vices without which it would be difficult for him to save the state, for if everything is carefully considered, it will be found that something which seems a virtue would, if practiced, become his ruin, and some other thing, which seems a vice, would, if practiced, result in his security and well-being."
==Sociological views on evil==
Some [[sociology|sociologists]], [[psychology|psychologists]], [[psychiatry|psychiatrists]] and [[neuroscience|neuroscientists]] have attempted to construct scientific explanations for the development of specific characteristics of an "antisocial" personality type, called the [[sociopath]]. The sociopath is typified by extreme self-serving behavior, and a lack of [[conscience]], or inability to [[empathy|empathize]] with others, to restrain self from, or to feel remorse for, harm personally caused to others. However, a diagnosis of antisocial or sociopath personality disorder (formerly called psychopathic mental disorder), is sometimes criticized as being, at the present time, no more scientific than calling a person "evil". What critics perceive to be a [[morality|moral]] determination is disguised, they argue, with a scientific-sounding name, but no complete description of a mechanism by which the abnormality can be identified is provided. In other words, critics argue, "sociopaths" are called such, because they are first thought to be "evil" - a determination which itself is not derived by a [[scientific method]].
Research into sociopathology has also investigated biological, rather than moral underpinnings of behaviors that societies reject as sociopathic. Most neurological research into sociopathology has focused on regions of the neocortex involved in impulse control. Some other r |
ple, the [[Uilleann pipes|Irish piping tradition]], which by the mid 20th century had declined to a handful of master players is today alive, well, and flourishing. A similar story can be told of [[Northumbrian smallpipe|Northumbrian]], [[Music of Brittany#Bagpipes|Breton]], [[Gaida|Bulgarian]], and other bagpipes.
Any estimate of the number of pipers playing today can only be a wild guess. However, in the Great Highland Bagpipe world, there are hundreds of [[pipe band]]s registered with pipe band associations world wide, mostly averaging ten or twelve pipers. There are many more pipers who do not play with bands. Estimates for the number of GHB players worldwide usually suggest a figure between ten and fifty thousand players worldwide. Numbers for other types of bagpipe are much smaller, but many have a substantial worldwide following, and there are many types of bagpipe who have full time makers, teachers, and professional players, supported by a large base of players.
Traditionally, one of the main purposes of the bagpipe in most traditions was to provide music for dancing. In most countries this has declined with the growth of professional dance bands, recordings, and the decline of traditional dance. In turn, this has led to many types of pipes developing a performance led tradition, and indeed much modern music based on the dance music tradition played on bagpipes is no longer suitable for use as dance music.
===The future===
Bagpipes today are probably as popular as they have ever been in history; one Scottish maker produces forty sets of pipes per week for sale worldwide, and while this is high, it is indicative of the state of the market. Pipe band associations report continued growth and the number of commercial recordings of bagpipes continues to grow year on year.
==Bagpipes in non-traditional forms of music==
===Classical works featuring bagpipes===
*''Ur Og and Aji,'' for 4 bagpipes, bass clarinet & tabla by Canadian [[composer]] [[Michael O'Neill]].
*''An Orkney Wedding, With Sunrise'' (1984) by Sir Peter Maxwell Davies
*''Sinfonia Concertante for Six Solo Instruments and Orchestra'' by [[P.D.Q. Bach]] features bagpipes as one of the six instruments.
===Bagpipes in jazz===
* U.S. musician [[Rufus Harley]] (b. 1936) was the first jazz performer to use the Great Highland Bagpipes as his primary instrument.
* The American jazz saxophonist [[Albert Ayler]] (1936–1970) used great highland bagpipe on two albums: ''New Grass'' (1968) and ''Music is the Healing Force of the Universe'' (1969).
===Bagpipes in rock===
*[[The Animals]], a British rock band from [[Newcastle upon Tyne]], featured Great Highland Bagpipes on their 1968 anti-war song "Sky Pilot," released in the U.K. on ''The Twain Shall Meet'' album, and as a hit single 45rpm disc in the USA.
*Canadian Rock band The [[Mudmen]] has released 3 albums, consiting of 6 guys, and 2 of them, former worlds strongest men, and brothers, play the pipes.
*The hard rock band [[AC/DC]] first gained renown for the marriage of bagpipes and rock and roll with their [[1975]] song "It's a Long Way to the Top (If You Wanna Rock 'n' Roll)"; the bagpipes were held in the video by band member Bon Scott, who in his youth had played bagpipes and drums in the [[Fremantle, Western Australia]] Scots Pipe Band. There were two other pipers recorded for the song.
*Although not as well known, bagpipes were used a year earlier in rock by the [[Sensational Alex Harvey Band]], a Scottish group which featured the instrument in their [[1974]] single "Anthem."
*UK rock band [[Wizzard]] featured the bagpipes on their 1974 single "Are you ready to rock".
*[[Paul McCartney]]'s song "[[Mull of Kintyre (song)|Mull of Kintyre]]" (1977) with the band Wings, made strong use of bagpipes for a characteristically Scottish sound.
*[[Van Morrison]] on his album "Beautiful Vision" (1982) Sean Folsom played Irish Uilleann Pipes on the song "Celtic Ray", the song was later re-recorded with [[The Chieftains]].
*The Scottish-Canadian [[punk rock]] band [[Real McKenzies]] (formed 1992) has featured bagpipes on all their albums, played by various pipers. Their most recent piper, Matt MacNasty, has been playing with the group since their 2003 album ''Oot & Aboot'' and also played on their 2005 album ''10,000 Shots''.
*The [[Germany|German]] band [[Corvus Corax (band)|Corvus Corax]] uses bagpipes extensively, alongside various authentic medieval instruments.
*The [[nu-metal]] band [[Korn|KoЯn]] (formed 1993) often uses bagpipes in their songs (played by [[vocalist]] [[Jonathan Davis]]).
*[[Irish-American]] punk rock stalwarts [[Dropkick Murphys]] (formed 1995) also incorporate bagpipes into their sound.
*[[United States|American]] punk rockers [[Flatfoot 56]] use great highland pipes in many of their songs.
*The [[Germany|German]] [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] bands [[In Extremo]] uses bagpipes.
*The [[Germany|German]] [[hard rock]]/[[heavy metal music|metal]]/[[folk music|folk]] bands [[Subway to Sally]] and [[Schandmaul]] use bagpipes.
*The [[Germany|German]] [[power metal|power metal]] band [[Blind Guardian]] used bagpipes in the song ''The Piper's Calling'', from the album "[[Somewhere far Beyond|Somewhere far Beyond]]".
*The [[Germany|German]] [[death metal|death metal]] band [[Suidakra]] used bagpipes on their album ''Command To Charge''.
*[[Ron Wilson]] and His [[Surfaris]], The Drummer famous for [[Wipe Out]] recorded the song [[Louie-Louie]] with Sean Folsom on Scots GHB, also the song "Moonshine" with Sean on the Irish Uilleann Pipes. The album is called "Lost It In The Surf" Bennet House Records (1987).
* Dave Shaw plays pipes on The Men They Couldn't Hang's CD Waiting for Bonaparte.
* [[Peter Gabriel]]'s "Come Talk to Me" features an opening passage played by bagpipes.
* The Irish-Punk Band [[Flogging Molly]] incorporates the Irish Uillean Pipes into some of their music.
* The Scottish-Punk band [[Enter the Haggis]] frequently makes use of the Great Highland Bagpipe.
* Irish-rock band [[Black 47]] incorporates the uilleann pipes with a horn section consisting of alto saxophone and trombone.
* The [[Australian]] [[folk music|folk]]/[[Rock (music)|rock]] band [[Brother (band)|Brother]] often pairs bagpipes with the [[didgeridoo]] in their songs.
* The often surreal band [[Forest for the Trees]] makes liberal use of the bagpipes.
* [[The Darkness]] used bagpipes in the song "Hazel Eyes".
* The Spanish Folk Metal Band [[Mägo de Oz]] uses bagpipes in many songs.
* [[Ryofu]][http://www.ryofu.co.uk/], a band from northeast England, use the Northumbrian smallpipes to play rock, nu-metal and heavy metal; this has caused some controversy amongst Northumbrian folk musicians [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/tyne/4224934.stm]
* Though not actual bagpipes, the Scottish band [[Big Country]] would often use guitars that, by the use of electronics, were very similar sounding to bagpipes.
* Also, not to be forgotten, Bad Haggis, featuring Eric Riggler, who is considered to be the most recorded bagpiper alive, utilising Highland and Ulian bagpipes.
* Don Scobie, known as the Father of the Pacific Northwest Highland Bagpipe Rock/Rap movement, a founder of The Bag'n'Pipe Hoppers, still hires himself out for lessons, plays regular gigs, and can even be found busking on his off days.
* British folk-rock songwriter and guitarist [[Richard Thompson]] has used Northumbrian smallpipes on two of his albums: 1988's [[Amnesia (album)|Amnesia]], on the track Pharoah, and 1994's [[Mirror Blue]], on the track Beeswing. In both cases the piper is [[Alistair Anderson]]. Thompson's guitar playing is influenced by pipe music, and he has cited Billy Pigg as one of his influences.
* [[The Netherlands|Dutch]] [[black metal|black metalers]] [[Black Nocturnal Darkness]] also incorporated bagpipes, specially in their early years. Also the [[folk metal]] of [[Magnor (band)|Magnor]] (a side project of Black Nocturnal Darkness) makes use of this instrument.
===Bagpipes in other forms of music===
*Originally a hymn, "[[Amazing Grace]]" is often thought of as a bagpipe tune since it is particularly powerful on the pipes and is commonly heard at funerals when the pipes are present.
*The U.S. funk band [[Parliament (band)|Parliament]] used bagpipes on the track "Silent Boatman, from their [[1970]] debut ''Osmium''.
*The late Canadian-born Scottish musician [[Martyn Bennett]] (1971-2005) played Great Highland Bagpipe and Scottish smallpipe in combination with hip-hop and electronic dance music on all of his albums.
*Bagpipes (played by Rufus Harley) are featured on the title track of the 1995 album ''Do You Want More?!!!??!'' by the U.S. hip hop group [[The Roots]].
*[http://www.theshipbuilders.com/catalogue/breakfast_in_balquhidder.php Orchestra Macaroon - Breakfast In Balquhidder] -Scottish [[Latin America|Latin-American]] jazz folk-rock with the apposite "''Warning: This product may contain traces of bagpipes''".
*Part of [[Orbital (band)|Orbital]]'s single, "Style", includes a remix with (probably synthesized) bagpipes called "Big Pipe Style". The original was played with a [[Stylophone]].
*In the video game [[Dance Dance Revolution EXTREME]], the song '''bag''' is composed of synthesized bagpipe sounds.
== See also ==
*[[Great Highland Bagpipe]]
*[[List of bagpipers]]
*[[Types of bagpipes]]
==External links==
* [http://www.hotpipes.com/main.html The Universe of Bagpipes - 30 different examples of bagpipes from Sean Folsom's collection]
* [http://www.gaitadefoles.net Website about Portuguese bagpipes ("Gaita-de-fole")], with many articles and information on this and other bagpipes of the world
* [http://www.bagpipelessons.com Information on how to learn the bagpipes.]
* [http://www.bobdunsire.com/bagpipeweb Bagpipe Web Directory |
тав, 20]]
[[co:20 di decembre]]
[[cs:20. prosinec]]
[[cy:20 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:20. december]]
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[[el:20 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:20 de diciembre]]
[[eo:20-a de decembro]]
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[[fo:20. desember]]
[[fr:20 décembre]]
[[fy:20 desimber]]
[[ga:20 Nollaig]]
[[gl:20 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 20일]]
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[[id:20 Desember]]
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[[it:20 dicembre]]
[[he:20 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:20 Desember]]
[[ka:20 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:20 gòdnika]]
[[ku:20'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:20 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 20]]
[[lb:20. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 20]]
[[mk:20 декември]]
[[ms:20 Disember]]
[[nap:20 'e dicembre]]
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[[ja:12月20日]]
[[no:20. desember]]
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[[oc:20 de decembre]]
[[pl:20 grudnia]]
[[pt:20 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:20 decembrie]]
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[[se:Juovlamánu 20.]]
[[sco:20 December]]
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[[sr:20. децембар]]
[[fi:20. joulukuuta]]
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[[tl:Disyembre 20]]
[[ta:டிசம்பர் 20]]
[[tt:20. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 20]]
[[th:20 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:20 tháng 12]]
[[tr:20 Aralık]]
[[uk:20 грудня]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>December 21</title>
<id>8850</id>
<revision>
<id>42043481</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:05:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joy Stovall</username>
<id>69412</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Births */ rmvd redlink</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 21]]''' is the 355th day of the year (356th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 10 days remaining.
{{DecemberCalendar}}
==Events==
*[[69]] - [[Year of the four emperors]]: Following [[Galba]], [[Otho]] and [[Vitellius]], [[Vespasian]] becomes the fourth [[Emperor of Rome]] within a year.
*[[1620]] - [[Plymouth Colony]]: [[William Bradford (1590-1657)|William Bradford]] and the ''[[Mayflower]]'' [[Pilgrims]] land on what is now known as [[Plymouth Rock]] in [[Plymouth, Massachusetts]].
*[[1861]] - [[Medal of Honor]]: Public Resolution 82, containing a provision for a Navy Medal of Valor, is signed into law by President [[Abraham Lincoln]].
*[[1872]] - [[Challenger expedition]]: ''[[HMS Challenger (1858)|HMS Challenger]]'', commanded by Captain [[George Nares]], sails from [[Portsmouth]].
*[[1913]] - [[Arthur Wynne]]'s "word-cross", the first [[crossword puzzle]], is published in the ''[[New York World]]''.
*[[1937]] - The film ''[[Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)|Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs]]'' is premiered at the Carthay Circle Theater in [[Los Angeles]].
*[[1958]] - [[French presidential election, 1958]]: [[Charles de Gaulle]] is elected [[President of France]] as his [[Union des Démocrates pour la République]] party gain 78.5% of the vote.
*[[1962]] - [[Rondane National Park]] is established as [[Norway]]'s first [[national park]].
*[[1968]] - [[Project Apollo]]: ''[[Apollo 8]]'', crewed by [[Frank Borman]], [[Jim Lovell]] and [[William Anders]], is launched from the [[Kennedy Space Center]] in [[Florida]].
*[[1979]] - [[Lancaster House Agreement]]: An independence agreement for [[Rhodesia]] is signed in [[London]] by [[Lord Carrington]], Sir [[Ian Gilmour]], [[Robert Mugabe]], [[Joshua Nkomo]], Bishop [[Abel Muzorewa]] and Dr S C Mundawarara.
*[[1983]] - Former [[U.S. President]] [[Gerald Ford]] appears as himself in the [[soap opera]] ''[[Dynasty (TV series)|Dynasty]]''.
*[[1987]] - The passenger ferry ''[[Doña Paz]]'' sinks after colliding with the oil tanker ''Vector 1'' in the Tablas Strait in the [[Philippines]], killing 1,565.
*[[1988]] - A bomb explodes on board [[Pan Am flight 103]] over [[Lockerbie]], [[Dumfries and Galloway]], killing 270.
*[[1999]] - The [[Spanish Civil Guard]] intercepts a van loaded with 950 [[kg]] of explosives which [[ETA]] intend to use to blow up [[Torre Picasso]] in [[Madrid]].
*[[2001]] - [[Japan]]ese [[celebrity|television personality]] [[Masashi Tashiro]] temporarily leads ''[[Time (magazine)|TIME]]'''s [[Person of the Year]] vote.
*[[2012]] - The [[Maya Calendar#Long Count|Long Count of the Maya calendar]] recycles according to the most popular correlation. A minority argues that it does so on [[December 23]], [[2012]].
==Births==
* [[1118]] - [[Thomas à Becket|Thomas Becket]], [[Lord Chancellor|Lord Chancellor of England]] and [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] (d. [[1170]])
* [[1401]] - [[Tommaso Masaccio]], Italian painter (d. [[1428]])
* [[1596]] - [[Petro Mohyla]], Moldovan Orthodox Metropolitan Bishop of Kiev and Galicia (d. [[1646]])
* [[1603]] - [[Roger Williams (theologian)|Roger Williams]], English theologian and colonist (d. [[1684]])
* [[1714]] - [[John Bradstreet]], Canadian-born soldier (d. [[1774]])
* [[1804]] - [[Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1881]])
* [[1805]] - [[Thomas Graham (chemist)|Thomas Graham]], British chemist (d. [[1869]])
* [[1811]] - [[Archibald Campbell Tait]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] (d. [[1882]])
* [[1815]] - [[Thomas Couture]] French painter and teacher (d. [[1879]])
* [[1843]] - [[Thomas Bracken]], Irish-born New Zealander poet (d. [[1898]])
* [[1850]] - [[Zdeněk Fibich]], Bohemian composer (d. [[1900]])
* [[1859]] - [[Gustave Kahn]], French poet (d. [[1936]])
* [[1872]] - [[Don Lorenzo Perosi]], Italian composer (d. [[1956]])
* 1872 - [[Albert Payson Terhune]], American author (d. [[1942]])
* [[1876]] - [[Jack Lang (Australia)|Jack Lang]] (John Thomas Lang), [[Premier of New South Wales]] (d. [[1975]])
* [[1878]] - [[Jan Łukasiewicz]], Polish philosopher and mathematician (d. [[1956]])
* [[1889]] - [[Sewall Wright]], American biologist (d. [[1988]])
* [[1890]] - [[Hermann Joseph Muller]], American geneticist and [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1967]])
* [[1892]] - [[Walter Hagen]], American golfer (d. [[1969]])
* 1892 - [[Rebecca West]], American writer (d. [[1983]])
* [[1896]] - [[Leroy Robertson]], American composer (d. [[1971]])
* [[1914]] - [[Ivan Generalić]], Austro-Hungarian-born Croatian painter (d. [[1992]])
* [[1917]] - [[Heinrich Böll]], German writer and [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1985]])
* [[1918]] - [[Donald Regan]], [[White House Chief of Staff]] and [[United States Secretary of the Treasury]] (d. [[2003]])
* 1918 - [[Kurt Waldheim]], Austrian [[United Nations Secretary-General]] and [[Federal President of Austria]]
* [[1921]] - [[Vampira]] (Maila Nurmi), Finnish-born actress
* [[1921]] - [[Alicia Alonso]] (Alicia Ernestina de la Caridad del Cobre Martinez Hoya), Cuban ballerina
* [[1922]] - [[Paul Winchell]], American ventriloquist (d. [[2005]])
* [[1926]] - [[Joe Paterno]], American Football coach
* [[1935]] - [[John G. Avildsen]], American film director and editor
* 1935 - [[Yusuf Bey]] (Joseph Stephens), American activist and businessman [[2003]])
* 1935 - [[Phil Donahue]], American talk show host
* [[1937]] - [[Jane Fonda]], American actress and activist
* [[1940]] - [[Frank Zappa]], American singer, guitarist and composer (d. [[1993]])
* [[1942]] - [[Hu Jintao]], [[President of the People's Republic of China]]
* 1942 - [[Reinhard Mey]], German singer
* 1942 - [[Carla Thomas]], American singer
* [[1944]] - [[Michael Tilson Thomas]], American conductor
* [[1946]] - [[Carl Wilson]], American singer and guitarist ([[The Beach Boys]]) (d. [[1998]])
* [[1947]] - [[Paco de Lucía]], Spanish guitarist
* [[1947]] - [[Bryan Hamilton]], Northern Irish footballer and football manager
* [[1948]] - [[Samuel L. Jackson]], American actor
* 1948 - [[Willi Resetarits]], Austrian musician and cabaret artist
* [[1950]] - [[Jeffrey Katzenberg]], American producer
* [[1954]] - [[Chris Evert]], American tennis player
* [[1955]] - [[Jane Kaczmarek]], American actress
* [[1957]] - [[Tom Henke]], American baseball player
* 1957 - [[Ray Romano]], American comedian and actor
* [[1959]] - [[Florence Griffith Joyner]], American sprinter, Olympic gold medalist and 100m & 200m world record holder (d. [[1998]])
* [[1960]] - [[Louis Demetrius Alvanis]], London-based pianist
* [[1961]] - [[Francis Ng]], Hong Kong actor
* [[1965]] - [[Andy Dick]], American actor and comedian
* 1965 - [[Anke Engelke]], German comedienne
* [[1966]] - [[Kiefer Sutherland]], British-born Canadian actor
* [[1967]] - [[Mikhail Saakashvili]], Soviet-born [[President of Georgia]]
* [[1969]] - [[Julie Delpy]], French actress
* [[1971]] - [[Brett Scallions]], American singer ([[Fuel]])
* [[1973]] - [[Karmen Stavec]], German-born Slovenian singer
* [[1974]] - [[Karrie Webb]], Australian golfer
* [[1977]] - [[Jim Carson]], American music producer and disc jockey
* [[1978]] - [[Mike Vitar]], American actor
* [[1982]] - [[Mike Gansey]], American basketball player
* [[1984]] - [[Darren Potter]], [[Ireland national football team|Irish]] international footballer
* [[1985]] - [[James Stewart Jr.]], professional [[motocross]] racer
==Deaths==
*[[1295]] - [[Marguerite Berenger of Provence]], queen of [[Louis IX of France]]
*[[1308]] - [[Henry I of Hesse]] (b. [[1244]])
*[[1375]] - [[Giovanni Boccaccio]], Italian writer (b. [[1313]])
*[[1504]] - [[Bertold von Henneberg-Römhild]], German archbishop and elector (b. [[1442]])
*[[1549]] - [[Marguerite of Navarre]], queen of [[Henry II of Navarre]] (b. [[1492]])
*[[1579]] - [[Vicente Masip]], Spanish painter
*[[1597]] - [[Petrus Canisius]], Dutch Jesuit (b. [[1521]])
*[[1807]] - [[John Newton]], English cleric and hymnist (b. [[1725]])
*[[1824]] - [[James Parkinson]], English physician, geologist, paleontologist, and political activist (b. [[1755]])
*[[1873]] - [[Francis Garnier]], French explorer (b. [[1839]])
*[[1889]] - [[Friedrich August von Quenstedt]], German |
natus]]'' (lit., "prince of the senate", "first man of the senate") he was the parliamentary leader of the house in the Senate and received diplomatic embassages on behalf of that body; as ''[[pontifex maximus]]'' (lit. "greatest bridgemaker") he was the chief priest of the Roman state religion; as bearing [[consul]]ar ''[[imperium]]'' he had [[authority]] equal to the official chief (and [[eponym]]ous) magistrates within [[Rome]] and as bearing ''imperium maius'' he had authority greater than theirs outside Rome (because of this, he outranked all provincial governors and was also supreme commander of all Roman [[legion]]s); as bearing ''[[tribune|tribunicia potestas]]'' ("tribunician power") he had personal inviolability (''sacrosanctitas'') and the right to [[veto]] any act or proposal by any magistrate within Rome. In a famous passages of ''Res Gestae'', Augustus claims for him, as ''princeps'', ''[[auctoritas]]'', has underlined philosopher [[Giorgio Agamben]]. This concentration of powers became the model by which all subsequent Emperors ruled Rome in constitutional theory (in practice this systematic and sophisticated theory gradually lost any resemblance to reality in the [[3rd century|III]] and [[4th century|IV centuries]], when the Emperors became rather more reminiscent of oriental despots than "first among equals").
*Octavian "Caesar Augustus" also set the standard by which Roman Emperors were named. The three titles used by the majority of Roman Emperors -- "''[[imperator]]''", "''[[Caesar (title)|caesar]]''" and "''augustus''" -- were all used personally by Caesar Augustus (he officially styled himself "Imperator Caesar Augustus"); of these names, only "Augustus" was unique to the Emperor himself, as others could and did bear the titles "Imperator" and "Caesar" (it should be noted, however, that the Emperor's mother or wife could bear the name "Augusta"). It became customary for an Emperor-designate to adopt the name ''NN. Caesar'' (where NN. is the individual's personal name) or later ''NN. Nobilissimus Caesar'' ("NN. Most Noble Caesar"), and occasionally to be awarded the title ''Princeps Iuventutis'' ("Prince of Youth"). Upon accession to the purple, the new Emperor usually adopted the name ''Imperator Caesar NN. Augustus'' (later Emperors took to inserting ''Pius Felix'', "Pious and Blest", and ''Invictus'', "Unconquered", between their personal names and ''Augustus'').
In this usage, by signifying the complete assumption of all Imperial powers, "''Augustus''" is roughly analogous to "[[Emperor]]", though a modern reader should be careful not to project onto the ancients a modern, monarchical understanding of what an emperor is. As noted, there was no constitutional office associated with the imperial dignity; the Emperor's personal authority (''dignitas'') and influence (''[[auctoritas]]'') derived from his position as ''princeps senatus'', and his legal authority derived from his ''consulari imperium'' and ''tribunicia potestas''; in Roman constitutional theory, one might consider "''augustus''" as being shorthand for "''princeps senatus et pontifex maximus consulari imperio et tribuniciae potestate''" (loosely, "Leader of the House and Chief Priest with Consular ''Imperium'' and Tribunician Power").
In many ways, "''augustus''" is comparable to the [[United Kingdom|British]] dignity of [[prince]]; it is a personal title, dignity, or attribute rather than a title of nobility such as [[duke]] or king. The Emperor was most commonly referred to as ''princeps'' (''[[basileus]]'', "[[sovereign]]", in Greek).
==Women of the Imperial dynasty==
Originally, the title '''Augusta''' was only exceptionally bestowed on women of the Imperial dynasties: for these women it meant a fortification of their worldly power, and a status near to divinity. There was no qualification with higher prestige.
The first woman to receive it was [[Livia Drusilla]], by the last will of her husband [[Emperor Augustus]] (14 AD). Hence she was known as [[Julia Augusta]]. As much as Augustus was the model for all further Augustusses, Julia Augusta was the model for all further Augustas. A model that included scheming for a son to become successor to the throne, and falling in disgrace under the new Emperor if the scheming had been successful.
[[Agrippina minor]], becoming "Augusta" under her last husband [[Claudius]], would oblige to the model, being sent to death by her son [[Nero]], a few years after he had become Emperor.
If ''Augustus'' as honorific could be compared to the title of ''Prince'' in moderner societies, then ''Augusta'' would not so much be ''Princess'' than rather something more exceptional like ''[[Princess Royal]]'', deliberately given by the reigning monarch in rare cases, to a relative that received by this title prominence among other members of the royal household. Of course, it's only a partial comparison: ''Princess Royal'' was a title most often received by younger women, while ''Augusta'' was rather reserved for the aged - in this sense ''Augusta'' has something of the connotation of ''[[Queen mum]]'' too. Further, the "akin to divinity" does not really translate in any of these moderner titles or understood honorifics.
==In the Divided Roman Empire==
Later, under the [[Tetrarchy]], the rank of "''augustus''" referred to the two senior Emperors (in East and West), while "''caesar''" referred to the junior sub-Emperors.
The aforementioned three principal titles of the emperors -- "''imperator''", "''caesar''", and "''augustus''" -- were rendered as ''[[autocrat|autokratôr]]'', ''kaisar'', and ''augustos'' (or ''sebastos'') in Greek. The Greek title continued to be used in the [[Byzantine Empire]] until its extinction in [[1453]], although "''sebastos''" lost its Imperial exclusivity: persons who were not the Emperor could receive titles formed from "''sebastos''", and "''autokratôr''" became the exclusive title of the Emperor.
==Legacy==
The Latin title of the [[Holy Roman Emperor]]s was usually "''Imperator Augustus''", which conveys the modern understanding of "emperor" rather than the original Roman sense (i.e., the "first citizen" of the Republic). Ironically, although the [[German language|German]] word for "emperor" is "''Kaiser''", a clear derivative of "''caesar''", that was the only one of the three principal titles of the Latin- and Greek-speaking Roman Emperors that was not regularly used in Latin by the German-speaking Holy Roman Emperors.
== See also ==
* ''[[Archons]]''
* ''[[Auctoritas]]''
* ''[[Basileus]]''
* ''[[Imperium]]''
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</page>
<page>
<title>Antartic Treaty</title>
<id>1290</id>
<revision>
<id>15899780</id>
<timestamp>2003-01-17T05:41:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Antarctic_Treaty_System]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Antarctic_Treaty_System]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Antarctic Treaty System</title>
<id>1291</id>
<revision>
<id>41965140</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T22:47:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bota47</username>
<id>341052</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: cs</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| align="right"
|{{International ownership conventions}}
|}
The '''Antarctic Treaty''' and related agreements, collectively called the '''Antarctic Treaty System''' or '''ATS''', regulate the [[international relations]] with respect to [[Antarctica]], [[Earth]]'s only uninhabited [[continent]]. For the purposes of the [[treaty]] system, Antarctica is defined as all land and [[ice shelf|ice shelves]] south of the southern 60th [[Circle of latitude|parallel]]. The treaty was signed by 12 countries, including the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[United States]], and set aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, established freedom of scientific investigation and banned military activity on that [[continent]]. This was the first [[arms control]] agreement established during the [[Cold War]].
[[Image:Flag of Antarctica.svg|thumb|200px|right|Graham Bertram (NAVA) 1996 conceptual flag for Antarctica]]
== The Antarctic Treaty System ==
[[Image:Antarctica.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Research stations and territorial claims in Antarctica (2002).]]
=== The (Main) Antarctic Treaty ===
The main treaty was opened for signature on [[December 1]], [[1959]], and officially entered into force on [[June 23]], [[1961]]. The original signatories were the 12 countries active in Antarctica during the [[International Geophysical Year]] of 1957-58 and willing to accept a US invitation to the conference at which the treaty was negotiated. These countries were [[Argentina]], [[Australia]], [[Belgium]], [[Chile]], [[France]], [[Japan]], [[New Zealand]], [[Norway]], [[South Africa]], the U.S.S.R., the [[United Kingdom]] and the United States (which opened the [[Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station]] for the [[International Geophysical Year]]).
==== Articles of the Antarctic Treaty ====
*'''Article 1 |
e to the development of small [[glomerulations]] (aka [[petechial]] hemorrhages) often found in IC. Thus, a diagnosis of IC is one of [[diagnosis of exclusion|exclusion]], as well as a review of clinical symptoms.
==Treatment==
===Diet===
The foundation of therapy is a modification of diet to help patients avoid those foods which can will further irritate the damaged bladder wall. Common offenders include [[coffee]]s, [[tea]]s, herbal teas, [[green tea]]s, all [[soda]]s (particularly diet), concentrated [[fruit juice]]s, [[vitamin|multivitamins]], [[monosodium glutamate]], [[chocolate]], and potassium-rich foods such as [[bananas]]. Patients who continue to consume daily coffee are those which appear to struggle the most with symptoms, particularly pain. Most IC support groups and many urology clinics have diet lists available.
The problem with diet triggers is that they vary from person to person: the best way for a person to discover his or her own triggers is to use an '''elimination diet'''. This is where someone cuts out all foods except the basics (e.g. potatoes, bread, rice, water) and then introduces new foods one at a time. Trying to discover which foods are one's own triggers without the use of an elimination diet is like trying to do a scientific [[experiment]] whilst altering 10 variables all at once.
===Bladder coatings===
As recently as a decade ago, treatments available were limited to the use of [[astringent]] instillations, such as [[clorpactin]] or [[silver nitrate]], designed to kill infection and/or strip off the bladder lining. In 2005, our understanding of IC has improved dramatically and these therapies are now no longer done. Rather, IC therapy is typically multi-modal, including the use of a bladder coating, an [[antihistamine]] to help control [[mast cell]] activity and a low dose [[antidepressant]] to fight [[neuroinflammation]].
The two US FDA approved therapies for IC have had recent setbacks in various research studies. Oral [[Elmiron]] (aka [[pentosan polysulfate]]) is believed to provide a protective coating in the bladder, however data released in late 2005 by [[Alza Pharmaceuticals]] suggests that 84% of Elmiron is eliminated, intact, in [[feces]]. Another 6% is excreted via [[urine]]. Reference: Metabolism of [3H]pentosan polysulfate sodium (PPS) in healthy human volunteers. Xenobiotica. 2005 Aug;35(8):775-84. In addition, the NIH funded ICCTG study of pentosan revealed results only slightly better than placebo.
[[DMSO]], a wood pulp extract, is the only approved bladder instillation for IC yet it is much less frequently used in urology clinics. Research studies presented at recent conferences of the American Urological Association by C. Subah Packer have demonstrated that the FDA approved dosage of a 50% solution of DMSO had the potential of creating irreversible muscle contraction. However, a lesser solution of 25% was found to be reversible. Long term use is questionable, at best, particularly given the fact that the method of action of DMSO is not fully understood.
More recently, the use of a "rescue instillation" composed of [[elmiron]] or [[heparin]], cystistat, [[lidocaine]] and [[sodium bicarbonate]], has generated considerable excitement in the IC community because it is the first therapeutic intervention that can be used to reduce a flare of symptoms. Published studies report a 90% effectiveness in reducing symptoms.
Another bladder coating treatment is that of Cystistat(TM) which consists primarily of [[sodium hyaluronate]]. It is believed to replace the deficient GAG layer on the bladder wall. Like most other [[intravesical]] bladder treatments, this treatment requires the patient to lie for 20 - 40 minutes, turning over every ten minutes, to allow the chemical to 'soak in' and give a good coating, before it is passed out with the urine.
===Pelvic floor treatments===
[[Pelvic floor]] dysfunction may also be a contributing factor thus most major IC clinics now evaluate the pelvic floor and/or refer patients directly to a physical therapist for a prompt treatment of pelvic floor muscle tension or weakness.
===Pain control===
Pain control is usually necessary in the IC treatment plan. The pain of IC has been rated equivalent to cancer pain and should not be ignored to avoid [[central sensitization]]. The use of a variety of traditional pain medications, including [[opiate]]s, is often necessary to treat the varying degrees of pain. [[alternative medicine|Complementary therapies]] such as [[acupuncture]], [[massage]], and [[biofeedback]] are also beneficial to some patients. Even children with IC should be appropriately addressed regarding pelvic pain, and receive necessary treatment to manage it.
Electronic pain-killing options include [[TENS]] (a machine connected to sticky pads which one palces on their body at certain pressure points; the tens machine sends electrical impulses to the skin, using the human body as an 'earth'). [[Percutaneous Tibial Nerve Stimulation (PTNS)|PTNS]] stimulators have also been used, with varying degrees of success. This is similar to a TENS treatment, except a needle is used rather than sticky pads.
===Other treatments===
Bladder distentions (a procedure which stretches the bladder [[capacity]], done under [[general anaesthetic]]) have shown remarkable success in giving pain relief to patients. However, many experts still cannot understand precisely ''how'' this can cause pain relief. Unfortunately, the relief achieved by bladder distentions is only temporary (weeks or months) and consequently, it is not really viable as a long-term treatment for Interstitial Cystitis: it is generally only used in extreme cases.
[[Surgical]] interventions are rarely used for IC. Neurostimulation techniques are not FDA approved for IC.
==Links to other conditions==
It is important to note that some people with IC also develop other medical conditions such as [[Anxiety disorder]] (usually because of the nature of the symptoms), and other conditions that may have the same etiology as IC. These include: [[irritable bowel syndrome]] (IBS), [[Fibromyalgia]], [[Endometriosis]] and [[Multiple chemical sensitivity|chemical sensitivities]].
==References==
* ''The Interstitial Cystitis Survival Guide: Your Guide to the Latest Treatment Options and Coping Strategies'' ISBN 1572242108
* "A Taste of the Good Life: A Cookbook for an IC Diet" ISBN 096657060X
* "Confident Choices" ISBN 097672460X
* "Patient to Patient: Managing IC and Related Conditions" ISBN 0970559003
* "ICN Meet the IC Expert Guest Lecture Series"
== External links ==
*[http://www.americanbladder.org American Bladder & Pelvic Pain Association, Inc.]
*[http://www.canadaic.com Canada IC & Overactive Bladder Resource Center]
*[http://www.interstitialcystitis.co.uk/ Cystitis & Overactive Bladder Foundation (UK)]
*[http://kidney.niddk.nih.gov/kudiseases/pubs/interstitialcystitis/ IC section of the NKUDIC]
*[http://www.ichelp.org Interstitial Cystitis Association]
*[http://www.ic-network.com Interstitial Cystitis Network (ICN)]
*[http://icresearch.umaryland.edu/ Unviversity of Maryland Interstitial Cystitis Center] The leading academic research center for interstitial cystitis.
*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?CMD=search&DB=omim OMIM ''interstitial cystitis'']
* {{MedlinePlusOverview|interstitialcystitis}}
* {{GPNotebook|-449511390}}
[[Category:Ailments of unknown etiology]]
[[Category:Urology]]
[[de:Interstitielle Zystitis]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ICI</title>
<id>15355</id>
<revision>
<id>36484865</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-24T10:33:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jheald</username>
<id>141421</id>
</contributor>
<comment>disambig Phoenix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''ICI''' is a [[TLA|three-letter abbreviation]] or acronym which can refer to:
* [[Imperial Chemical Industries]] PLC
* the [[ICI programming language]]
* the [[Investment Company Institute]]
* the [[Internet Computer Integration]] project
* [[Inter-Channel-Interference]].
* [[Ici (magazine)|Ici]], an [[alternative weekly]] newspaper in [[Montreal]].
* the International Commerce Institute, a high school in [[Phoenix, Arizona| Phoenix]], [[Az]].
{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Imperial Chemical Industries</title>
<id>15356</id>
<revision>
<id>41030714</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T16:34:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Catapult</username>
<id>792235</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 18|CFD]]: renaming category[[user:freakofnurture|...]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Company
| company_name = Imperial Chemical Industries plc
| company_logo = [[Image:ICI.png|center|180px|ICI's logo]]
| company_type = [[Public company|Public]] ({{lse|ICI}})
| foundation = 1926
| location = [[London]], [[United Kingdom]]
| key_people = Peter Ellwood (Chairman) <br>John McAdam (CEO)
| industry = Chemicals
| products = Paints & speciality chemicals
| revenue = £5.6 billion GBP (2004)
| num_employees = 33,820 (2004)
| homepage = http://www.ici.com
}}
'''Imperial Chemical Industries''' ('''ICI''') is a British chemical company, based in [[London]]. It produces paints and specialty products (including ingredients for foods, specialty polymers, electronic materials, fragrances and flavours). It employs around 35,000 people and had a turnover of just over £5.6 billion in 2004.
For much of the 20th century ICI was generally regarded as the leading company in the United Kingdom. The phrase "the chairman of ICI" became a colloquialism for the top person in British business. However ICI's status has fallen steadily in recen |
es B) at a distance of about 2.9&Prime;. Although it is 5th magnitude, it is normally difficult to see because of Antares' glare, but can be observed with the [[naked eye]] for a few seconds during lunar [[occultation]]s while Antares itself is hidden by the [[Moon]]; it was discovered during one such occultation on [[April 13]] [[1819]]. The [[orbital period]] is 878 years.
Of the 21 first-magnitude stars, Antares now lies further in angular distance from any first-magnitude star than any other first magnitude star, i.e. you could draw the largest circle around Antares without including any other first-magnitude star inside that circle. The nearest first-magnitude star to Antares is [[Alpha Centauri]], lying approximately 39&deg;6.75&prime; away. The high [[proper motion]] of [[Alpha Centauri]] is gradually increasing this distance further. Before about March 2000, [[Alpha_Eridani|Achernar]] and [[Fomalhaut]] held this distinction.
In 1971, the crew of [[Apollo 14]] named their [[lunar module]] after the star.
[[Category:Bayer objects|Scorpii, Alpha]]
[[Category:Binary stars]]
[[Category:Blue-white dwarfs]]
[[Category:Red giant branch stars]]
[[Category:Red supergiants]]
[[Category:Scorpius constellation]]
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[[zh:心宿二]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aldebaran</title>
<id>3077</id>
<revision>
<id>41987656</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T01:40:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Colonel Cow</username>
<id>108294</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>cleaned up disambig</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the Fallen Angel Aldebaran, see [[Demon (Aldebaran)]].''
{{Starbox begin
| name = Aldebaran A/B
}}
{{Starbox image
| image = [[Image:aldebaran-sun.gif | 250px]]
| caption = Aldebaran (lower right) in the Bull's head close to the Sun every year around May 31. Photo &copy; by [[NASA]] SOHO C3.
}}
{{Starbox observe
| epoch = J2000
| constell = [[Taurus]]
| ra = 04h 35m 55.2s
| dec = +16° 30' 33"
| appmag_v = +0.87/13.50
}}
{{Starbox character
| class = K5+III/dM2 V
| b-v = 1.54/?
| u-b = 1.90/?
| variable = Suspected/?
}}
{{Starbox astrometry
| radial_v = +53.8
| prop_mo_ra = 62.78
| prop_mo_dec = -189.36
| parallax = 50.09
| p_error = 0.95
| dist_ly = 65.1
| dist_pc = 20
| absmag_v = -0.63/11.98
}}
{{Starbox detail
| age = ?
| metal = 47-100%/?
| mass = 1/0.15
| radius = 40-52/0.36
| rotation = ?
| luminosity = 150/0.00014
| temperature = 4,000/?
}}
{{Starbox catalog
| names = α Tauri, Parilicium, Cor Tauri, Paliliya, 87 Tauri, [[Henry L. Giclas catalogue | Gl]] 171.1A/B, [[Gliese-Jahreiss catalogue | GJ]] 9159 A/B, [[Harvard Revised catalogue | HR]] 1457, [[Bonner Durchmusterung | BD]] +16°629 A/B, [[Henry Draper catalogue | HD]] 29139, [[General Catalogue of Trigonometric Parallaxes | GCTP]] 1014.00, [[Luyten Two-Tenths catalogue | LTT]] 11462, [[Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory | SAO]] 94027, FK5 168, GC 5605, ADS 3321 A/B, CCDM 04359+1631, Wo 9159 A/B, [[Hipparcos catalogue | HIP]] 21421. }}
{{Starbox end}}
[[Image:Aldebaran.PNG|thumb|200px|Comparison between Aldebaran and the Sun]]
'''Aldebaran''', (α Tau / α Tauri / [[Alpha (letter)|Alpha]] Tauri), is the brightest star in the constellation [[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]] and [[list of brightest stars|one of the brightest stars]] in the nighttime sky. Because of its location in the head of Taurus, it has historically been called the '''Bull's Eye'''.
Its name is derived from Arabic '''&#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1576;&#1585;&#1575;&#1606;''' ''ad-dabarān'' meaning "the follower", a reference to the way the star follows the [[Pleiades (star cluster)|Pleiades]] [[open cluster|star cluster]] in its nightly journey across the sky. Aldebaran has the appearance of being the brightest member of the more scattered [[Hyades (star cluster)|Hyades]] cluster, which is the closest star cluster to Earth. However, it is merely located in the line of sight between the Earth and the Hyades, and is actually an independent star.
Aldebaran is a K5&nbsp;III star, which means it is orangish, large, and has moved off of the [[main sequence]] by using all its [[hydrogen]] fuel. It has a minor companion (a dim M2 dwarf orbiting at several hundred [[astronomical unit|AU]]). Now primarily fusing [[helium]], the main star has expanded to a diameter of approximately [[1 E10 m|5.3]] [[scientific notation|&times;]] 10<sup>7</sup> [[kilometre|km]], or about 38 times the diameter of the [[Sun]]. The ''[[Hipparcos]]'' satellite has measured it as 65.1 [[light year]]s away, and it shines with 150 times the Sun's luminosity. Taken together this distance and brightness makes it the [[list of brightest stars|14th brightest star]], having an [[apparent magnitude]] of 0.87. It is slightly variable, of the [[irregular variable]] type, by about 0.2 magnitude.
[[Image:Aldebaranrad.JPG|left|thumb|Radio scan of Aldebaranrad, brightness temperature measures at all frequencies]]
In 1997, a possible large planet (or small [[brown dwarf]]) companion was reported, with a mass equalling that of 11 [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]s and orbiting at a distance of 1.35&nbsp;AU.
Aldebaran is one of the easiest stars to find in the [[night sky]], partly due to its brightness and partly due to its spatial relation to one of the more noticeable asterisms in the sky. If one follows the three stars of [[Orion (constellation)|Orion]]'s belt from left to right (in the Northern Hemisphere) or right to left (in the Southern), the first bright star found by continuing that line is Aldebaran.
The unmanned [[Pioneer 10]] [[spacecraft]] was last reported to have been heading toward Aldebaran. Assuming the spacecraft avoids some form of [[collision]], the spacecraft will arrive at Aldebaran in 2 million years.
==Aldebaran in astrology and mysticism==
[[Astrology|Astrologically]], Aldebaran is a fortunate star, portending riches and honor. This star, named "Tascheter" by the Persians, is one of the four "[[royal stars]]" of the [[Iran|Persians]] from around [[3000 BC]]. These stars were chosen in such way that they were approximately 6 hours apart in right ascension. To each of these stars was assigned to a season, Aldebaran was prominent in the sky of March and as such, it was associated with the [[vernal equinox]].
The four royal stars with their modern and ancient Persian names:
* Aldebaran (Alpha Tauri) vernal equinox is the brightest star in the constellation Taurus.
* Regulus (Alpha Leonis) summer solstice is the brightest star in the constellation Leo.
* Antares (Alpha Scorpii) autumnal equinox the brightest star in the constellation Scorpius.
* Fomalhaut (Alpha Piscis) winter solstice is the brightest star in the constellation Piscis Austrinus.
In Hindu astronomy, Aldebaran corresponds to the [[Rohini Nakshatram|Rohini]] [[Nakshatra]].
To [[medieval]] astrologers it was one of fifteen [[Behenian fixed stars|Behenian stars]], associated with [[rubies]], [[milk thistle]]s and the [[kabbalistic]] sign [[Image:Agrippa1531_Aldaboram.png]].
In the religion of [[Stregheria]], Aldebaran is a [[fallen angel]] and [[quarter guardian]] of the [[eastern gate]].
Some [[Nazi mysticism|Nazi mystics]] believed that the [[Aryan]] race had extraterrestrial ancestors from Aldeberan.
For the Dakotas (a [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] branch of the [[Sioux]] tribe), Aldebaran took on a heroic aspect. The young star was the child of the sun and the lady Blue Star. One day he desired to hunt the [[white buffalo]] (the [[Pleiades]]). After he pulled up a sapling to make a spear, a hole was made in the ground and he could see all the people of earth down below. The white buffalo took this chance to push him through. He was found by an old woman and was to be known as Old Woman's Grandson. On earth he killed many strange monsters which had been troubling the Native Americans; one monster of which was a serpent that caused drought; he killed it releasing a great stream of water that became the [[Mississippi River]]. In time, Old Woman's Grandson remembered the white buffalo and returned to hunting him in the sky to fulfill his destiny.
==Aldebaran in fiction==
Aldebaran is one of several stars mentioned in the [[Cthulhu Mythos]], as somehow relating to the god [[Hastur]].
In [[Joe Haldeman]]'s ''[[The Forever War]]'', mankind's first contact with the alien race, later called Taurans, technically occurs near Aldebaran. As the main character explains, ''""Aldebaranian" is a little hard to handle, they named the enemy "Tauran"."''
[[Frederik Pohl]]'s ''[[Narabedla Inc.]]'' is partially set on a planet circling Aldebaran. The title being the name of an Earth Corporation run by human agents of the Aldebaran aliens. Narabedla is Aldebaran spelled backward.
In [[Douglas Adams]]' ''[[The Restaurant at the End of the Universe]]'', Aldebaran is mentioned once. In 576 thousand million years, right after the Universe has ended, the guests at [[Milliways]], The [[Restaurant]] at the [[end]] of the [[Universe]], will be served with a table of sweets and delicious Aldebaranian [[liqueur]]. In the original radio broadcast, [[Roy Hudd]], playing the Restaurant Host, Max Quordlepleen, mispronounced the name as "Adelbaran".
In [[Masami Kurumada]]'s ''[[Saint Seiya]]'' Aldebaran is the name of the Taurus Saint, which guards the Taurus pallace at the greek sanctuary where the 12 houses of the Zodiac lay ground. Aldebaran is Brazilian, is the tallest and one of the strongest, wisest wa |
authored the books ''Price Theory'' ([[1986]]), ''Law's Order'' ([[1999]]) and ''Hidden Order: The Economics of Everyday Life'' ([[1996]]).
He holds a [[Ph.D.]] in [[Physics]] from the [[University of Chicago]], although he is not well known for his work in physics. He is a professor of law at [[Santa Clara University]]. Earlier in his career he was a professor of [[economics]].
David Friedman comes from an impressive academic pedigree. He is the son of [[Nobel Prize]]-winning economist [[Milton Friedman]]. Also part of the family is sister [[Janet Friedman]], economist mother [[Rose Friedman]], and law professor uncle [[Aaron Director]].
Professor Friedman is also a long time member of the [[Society for Creative Anachronism]], where he is known as ''Cariadoc of the Bow''. He is a [[science fiction]] fan, and has recently sold a [[fantasy]] novel, ''Harald'', to [[Baen Books]].
He is also a contributing editor for ''[[Liberty (1987)|Liberty]]'' magazine.
==External links==
*[http://www.daviddfriedman.com/ David Friedman's personal website]
*[http://daviddfriedman.blogspot.com/ David Friedman's blog]
*[http://groups.google.com/groups?q=author:david+author:friedman&num=100&scoring=d Usenet posts (via Google)]
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[[Category:1945 births|Friedman, David]]
[[Category:American economists|Friedman, David]]
[[Category:Political writers|Friedman, David]]
[[Category:Libertarians|Friedman, David]]
[[Category:Living people|Friedman, David]]
[[Category:Usenet people|Friedman, David]]
[[Category:Anarcho-capitalists|Friedman, David]]
[[Category:American_anarchists|Friedman, David]]
[[de:David D. Friedman]]
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[[fr:David Friedman]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dystopia</title>
<id>7936</id>
<revision>
<id>41995211</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:43:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.243.109.94</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Traits of dystopian fiction */ fix link to "We"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the philosophical concept and literary form. For the Half-Life 2 mod, see [[Dystopia (computer game)]]''.
A '''dystopia''' (alternatively, '''cacotopia''', '''kakotopia''' or '''anti-utopia''') is usually seen as the [[antithesis]] of a [[utopia]]n [[society]].
A dystopian society is usually characterized by an [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] or [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]] [[form of government]], or some other kind of [[oppression|oppressive]] [[social control]].
The first use of the word has been credited to [[John Stuart Mill]], whose knowledge of Greek would suggest that he meant it as a place where things are bad, rather than simply the opposite of Utopia. The Greek prefix 'dys'/'dis' signifies 'ill','bad' or 'abnormal', whereas 'ou' means 'not' ([[Utopia]] means 'nowhere', and is a pun on 'Eutopia' meaning 'happy place' - the prefix 'eu' means 'well'). So 'dystopia' and 'utopia' are not exact opposites in the sense that [[dysphoria]] and [[euphoria]] are opposites.
== Common traits of a dystopian society==
A dystopian society usually exhibits at least one of the following traits from the following non-exhaustive list:
* An apparent Utopian society, free of poverty, disease, conflict, and even unhappiness. Scratching the surface of the society, however, reveals exactly the opposite. The exact problem, the way the problem is suppressed, and the chronology of the problem forms the central conflict of the story.
* [[Social stratification]], where [[social class]] is strictly defined and enforced, and [[social mobility]] is non-existent (see [[caste system]]).
* A [[nation-state]] ruled by an [[upper class]] with few democratic ideals
* State [[propaganda]] programs and educational systems that coerce most [[citizen]]s into worshipping the state and its [[government]], in an attempt to convince them into thinking that life under the [[regime]] is good and just, e.g. [[Alan Moore]]'s ''[[V for Vendetta]]''
* Strict conformity among citizens and the general assumption that dissent and individuality are bad
* A state figurehead that people worship fanatically through a vast [[personality cult]], such as ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s [[Big Brother (1984)|Big Brother]], ''[[We (novel)|We]]''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s The Benefactor, or ''[[Equilibrium (2002 film)|Equilibrium]]''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s [[Father]]
* A fear or disgust of the world outside the state.
* A common view of traditional life, particularly organized religion, as primitive and nonsensical
* Alternatively, complete domination by a state religion, e.g [[Ingsoc]] in the [[Oceania (1984)|Oceania]] of ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'', the [[Sisterhood of Metacontrol]] in ''[[FAQ: Frequently Asked Questions]]'', the [[Technopriests]] in ''[[The Incal]]'' or [[fundamentalist Christianity]] (with elements of [[Christian reconstructionism|reconstructionism]]) in ''[[Escape from L.A.]]''
* The "memory" of institutions overriding or taking precedence over human memory
* A penal system that lacks due process laws and often employs psychological or physical torture, e.g. [[Alan Moore]]'s ''[[V for Vendetta]]''
* A lack of the key essentials of life for many citizens, like food shortages
* Constant surveillance by government or other agencies, e.g. [[Alan Moore]]'s ''[[V for Vendetta]]''
* Absence or else total co-option of an educated middle class (i.e. teachers, journalists, scientists) who might criticize the regime's leadership
* Militarized police forces and private security forces
* The banishment of the natural world from daily life
* Construction of fictional views of reality that the populace are coerced into believing
* Corruption, impotence or other usurpation of democratic institutions
* Fictional rivalries between groups that actually operate as a cartel
* Insistence by the forces of the establishment that:
** It provides the best of all possible worlds
** All problems are due to the action of its enemies and their dupes
* An overall slow decay of all systems (political, economic, religion, infrastructure. . .) resulting from people being alienated from nature, the State, society, family, and themselves. Yesterday was better, tomorrow will be worse.
* Everything tends towards [[zero sum]] gain relationships rather than non-zero-sum relationships in a slowly decreasing system.
In dystopian societies, the economic system is one that centers around stability and is structured so that the government or the economic system is immune to change or disruption. Usually, the industries operate at maximum efficiency and capacity, and then the excess products or currency is absorbed in some way by the state. In ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'' people are put on rations and the excess that is produced is absorbed in the "war" that is always occurring with either [[Eurasia]] or [[Eastasia]]. In ''[[Brave New World]]'' the excess produced is sucked up in the extreme consumerism of the population, encouraged by the government. In ''[[We]]'' the [[One State]] there is no currency or exchange whatsoever, either inside or outside the walls of the society, but everything is provided to the people.
== Traits of dystopian fiction ==
Many films and literature featuring dystopian societies exhibit at least a few of the following traits:
* A selectively-told [[back story]] of a war, revolution, uprising, spike in [[overpopulation]], natural disaster or some other climactic event which resulted in dramatic changes to society
* A standard of living among the lower and middle class that is generally poorer than in contemporary society. This is not always the case, however &mdash; in ''[[Brave New World]]'' and ''[[Equilibrium (2002 film)|Equilibrium]]'', people enjoy much higher material living standards in exchange for the loss of other qualities in their lives, such as independent thought and emotional depth.
* A protagonist who questions the society, often feeling intuitively that something is terribly wrong, such as [[V]] from [[Alan Moore]]'s ''[[V for Vendetta]]''.
* Necessarily, if it is based on our world, a shift in emphasis of control, e.g. to corporations, autocratic cliques or bureaucracies.
* Because dystopian literature takes place in the future, it often features technology more advanced than that of contemporary society. Usually, the advanced technology is controlled exclusively by the group in power, while the oppressed population is limited to technology comparable to or more primitive than what we have today.
For the reader to engage with it, dystopian fiction typically has one other trait: familiarity. It is not enough to show people living in a society that seems unpleasant. The society must have echoes of today, of the reader's own experience. If the reader can identify the patterns or trends that would lead to the dystopia, it becomes a more involving and effective experience. Authors can use a dystopia effectively to highlight their own concerns about societal trends. For example, [[George Orwell]] originally based the title of ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'' on the year it was written (1948), because he saw the world he describes emerging in austere postwar [[Europe]]. In similar fashion, [[Ayn Rand]] wrote ''[[Anthem (novella)|Anthem]]'' as a warning against what she saw as the subordination of individual human beings to the state or "the We." [[Margaret Atwood]] wrote ''[[The Handmaid's Tale]]'' as a warning against the rise of religious fundamentalist totalitarianism in the United States and the hypocrisy of 1970s feminism actually aiding the cause of their worst enemies.
Dystopian fiction is often (but not always) ''unresolved''. That is, the narrative may deal with individuals in a dystopian society who are unsatisfied, |
white)
at:-331 shift:(10,0) text:331 BCE Greek ascendancy
bar:test at:-246 mark:(line,white)
at:-246 shift:(10,0) text:247 BCE] Aramaic official in Arsacid Empire
bar:test at:-169 mark:(line,white)
at:-169 shift:(10,5) text:c. 170 BCE Book of Daniel probably composed
bar:test at:-141 mark:(line,white)
at:-141 shift:(10,0) text:142 BCE Aramaic official in Hasmonaean Judah
bar:test at:-49 mark:(line,white)
at:-40 shift:(10,0) text:1st c. BCE Aramaic Palmyra, Petra & Osrhoene
bar:test at:45 mark:(line,white)
at:45 shift:(10,0) text:1st c. New Testament records some Aramaic
bar:test at:135 mark:(line,white)
at:135 shift:(10,4) text:135 Galilean Aramaic becomes prominent
bar:test at:172 mark:(line,white)
at:172 shift:(10,1) text:172 Tatian's Diatessaron produced
bar:test at:200 mark:(line,white)
at:200 shift:(10,-3) text:3rd c. Targum composition
bar:test at:224 mark:(line,white)
at:224 shift:(10,-8) text:224 Classical Mandaic emerges
bar:test at:306 mark:(line,white)
at:306 shift:(10,-1) text:c. 306 Ephrem born, Syriac golden age
bar:test at:431 mark:(line,white)
at:431 shift:(10,0) text:431 Nestorian schism of Aramaic Christians
bar:test at:435 mark:(line,white)
at:435 shift:(10,-9) text:c. 435 Peshitta Syriac Bible produced
bar:test at:637 mark:(line,white)
at:637 shift:(10,0) text:637 Arabic ascendancy
bar:test at:700 mark:(line,white)
at:700 shift:(10,0) text:700 Talmud completed
bar:test at:1258 mark:(line,black)
at:1258 shift:(10,0) text:1258 Mongols sack Baghdad
bar:test at:1290 mark:(line,black)
at:1290 shift:(10,-5) text:13th c. Zohar published in Spain
bar:test at:1650 mark:(line,black)
at:1650 shift:(10,0) text:17th c. School of Alqosh flourishes
bar:test at:1836 mark:(line,black)
at:1836 shift:(10,0) text:1836 Assyrian Neo-Aramaic first in print
bar:test at:1915 mark:(line,black)
at:1915 shift:(10,4) text:1915 Persecution in Turkey
bar:test at:1951 mark:(line,black)
at:1951 shift:(10,2) text:1951 Aramaic Jews move to Israel
bar:test at:1998 mark:(line,black)
at:1998 shift:(10,0) text:1998 last speakers of Mlahso & Bijil die
</timeline>
|}
Here follows a comprehensive history of Aramaic. The history is broken down into three broad periods:
*[[#Old Aramaic|Old Aramaic]] ([[1100 BC|1100 BCE]]–200 CE), including:
**The [[Biblical Aramaic]] of the [[Hebrew Bible]].
**The [[Aramaic of Jesus]].
**The Aramaic of the [[Targum]]s.
*[[#Middle Aramaic|Middle Aramaic]] (200–1200), including:
**Literary [[Syriac language|Syriac]].
**The Aramaic of the [[Talmud]]s and [[Midrash]]im.
*[[#Modern Aramaic|Modern Aramaic]] (1200–present), including:
**Various modern vernaculars.
This classification is based on that used by Klaus Beyer[[#References|*]].
==Old Aramaic==
Old Aramaic covers over thirteen centuries of the language. This vast time span is chosen as it includes all Aramaic that is now effectively extinct. The main turning point for Old Aramaic is around [[500 BC|500 BCE]], when the Ancient Aramaic (the language of Aramaeans) moves into Imperial Aramaic (the language of powerful empires). The various spoken dialects of Old Aramaic come to prominence when [[Greek language|Greek]] replaces Aramaic as the language of power in the region.
===Ancient Aramaic===
Ancient Aramaic refers to the Aramaic of the [[Arameans|Aramaeans]] from its origin until it becomes the official 'lingua franca' of the [[Fertile Crescent]]. It was the language of the city-states of [[Damascus]], [[Hamath]] and [[Arpad (Syria)|Arpad]].
====Early Ancient Aramaic====
There are quite extensive inscriptions that evidence the earliest use of the language, dating from the [[10th century BC|tenth century BCE]]. These inscriptions are mostly diplomatic documents between Aramaean city-states. The orthography of Aramaic at this early period seems to be based on [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]], and there is a unity in the written language. It seems that, in time, a more refined orthography, suited to the needs of the language, began to develop from this in the eastern regions of Aram. Oddly, the dominance of [[Assyria]]n Empire of [[Tiglath-Pileser III]] over Aram in the middle of the eighth century led to the establishment of Aramaic as a [[lingua franca]].
[[Image:Bar-rakib.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Silver ingot of Bar-Rakib son of Panammu, king of Sam'al (modern [[Zincirli]])]]
====Late Ancient Aramaic====
From [[700 BC|700 BCE]], the language began to spread in all directions, but lost much of its homogeneity. Different dialects began to emerge in [[Mesopotamia]], [[Babylonia]], the [[Levant]] and [[Egypt]]. However, the [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]-influenced Aramaic of Assyria, and then [[Babylon]], started to come to the fore. As described in [[Books of Kings|2 Kings]] 18:26, [[Hezekiah]], king of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]], negotiates with Assyrian ambassadors in Aramaic so that the common people would not understand. Around [[600 BC|600 BCE]], Adon, a [[Canaan]]ite king, uses Aramaic to write to the Egyptian [[Pharaoh]].
'Chaldee' or 'Chaldean Aramaic' used to be common terms for the Aramaic of the Chaldean dynasty of [[Babylonia]]. It was used to describe [[Biblical Aramaic]], which was, however, written in a later style. It is not to be confused with the modern language [[Chaldean Neo-Aramaic]].
===Imperial Aramaic===
Around [[500 BC|500 BCE]], [[Darius I]] made Aramaic the official language of the western half of the [[Achaemenid]] [[Persian Empire]]. The bureaucrats in Babylon were already using the local dialect of Eastern Aramaic for most of their work, but Darius's edict put Aramaic on firm, united foundations. The new, Imperial Aramaic was highly standardised; its orthography was based more on historical roots than any spoken dialect, and the inevitable influence of [[Persian language|Persian]] gave the language a new clarity and robust flexibility. Imperial Aramaic is sometimes called Official Aramaic or [[Biblical Aramaic]]. For centuries after the fall of the Achaemenid Empire (in [[331 BC|331 BCE]]), Imperial Aramaic as prescribed by Darius, or near enough for it to be recognisable, remained the dominant language of the region.
'[[Achaemenid]] Aramaic' is used to describe the Imperial Aramaic of the Achaemenid Empire. This period of Aramaic is usually dated from the proclamation of Darius (''c.'' 500 BCE) to about a century after the fall of the Achaemenid Empire in 331 BCE. Many of the extant documents witnessing to this form of Aramaic come from [[Egypt]], and [[Elephantine]] in particular. Of them, the most well known is the 'Wisdom of Ahiqar', a book of instructive aphorisms quite similar in style to the biblical [[book of Proverbs]]. Achaemenid Aramaic is sufficiently uniform that it is often difficult to know where any particular example of the language was written. Only careful examination reveals the occasional loan word from a local language.
====Post-Achaemenid Aramaic====
[[Image:Alexander Aramaic coin.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Coin of Alexander bearing an Aramaic language inscription.]]
The conquest by [[Alexander the Great]] did not destroy the unity of Aramaic language and literature immediately. Aramaic that bears a relatively close resemblance to that of the [[5th century BC|fifth century BCE]] can be found right up to the early [[2nd century BC|second century]]. The [[Seleucid]]s imposed [[Greek language|Greek]] in the administration of [[Syria]] and [[Mesopotamia]] from the start of their rule. In the [[3rd century BC|third century]], Greek overtook Aramaic as the common language in Egypt and Syria. However, a post-Achaemenid Aramaic continued to flourish from [[Judaea]], through the Syrian Desert, and into [[Arabia]] and [[Parthia]]. This continuation of Imperial Aramaic was a subversive, anti-Hellenistic statement of independence.
[[Biblical Aramaic]] is the Aramaic found in four discrete sections of the [[Hebrew Bible]]:
* [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]] 4:8–6:18 and 7:12–26 — documents from the Achaemenid period ([[5th century BC|fifth century BCE]]) concerning the restoration of the temple in Jerusalem.
* [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 2:4b–7:28 — five subversive tales and an apocalyptic vision.
* [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 10:11 — a single sentence in the middle of a Hebrew text denouncing idolatry.
* [[Genesis]] 31:47 — translation of a Hebrew place-name.
Biblical Aramaic is a somewhat hybrid dialect. Some Biblical Aramaic material probably originated in both Babylonia and Judaea before the fall of the Achaemenid dynasty. During [[Seleucid]] rule, defiant Jewish propaganda shaped Aramaic [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]. These stories probably existed as oral traditions at their earliest stage. This might be one factor that led to differing collections of Daniel in the [[Greek language|Greek]] [[Septuagint]] and the [[Masoretic Text]], which presents a lightly [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]-influenced Aramaic.
Under the category of post-Achaemenid is Hasmonaean Aramaic, the official language of [[Hasmonean|Hasmonaean]] Judaea ([[142 BC|142]]–[[37 BC|37]] BCE). It influenced the Biblical Aramaic of the [[Qumran]] texts, and was the main language of non-biblical theological texts of that community. The major [[Targum]]s, translations of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, were originally composed in Hasmonaean. Hasmonaean also appears in quotations in the [[Mishnah]] and [[Tosefta]], although smoothed into its later context. It is written quite differently from Achaemenid Aramaic; there is an emphasis on writing as words are pronounced rather than using etymological forms.
Babylonian [[Targum]]ic is the later post-Achaemenid dialect found in the [[Targum Onkelos|Targum Onqelos]] and [[Targum Jonathan]], the 'official' targums. The original, Hasmonaean targum had reached Babylon sometime in the [[2nd century|second]] or [[3rd century|third]] centuries CE. They were then reworked according to the contemporary dialect of Babylon to c |
itical method, revel in this uncertainty. Different questions are asked, and as a result, the focus shifts from author to reader. What does it matter who wrote Revelation? Why can't the structure be linear, resumptive ''and'' thematic simultaneously? What stops the imagery relating to just 1st-century events and not 21st-century events as well? Fundamentally, what stops Revelation having more than one valid meaning? (For more related information, see [[Literary criticism]], but see also [[Historical-grammatical]] hermeneutics.)
==Footnotes==
# {{note|KJV}} "The Revelation of Jesus Christ, which God gave unto him, to shew unto his servants things which must shortly come to pass; and he sent and signified it by his angel unto his servant John..." (Rev 1:1 [[King James Version of the Bible|KJV]])
==External links==
Online translations of the [[book of Revelation ]]:
*{{biblegateway||Revelation}}
*[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/revelation.html Early Christian Writings:] Apocalypse of John: text, introduction, context
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01594b.htm Apocalypse, Book of] - Article from the Catholic Encyclopedia
*[http://catholic-resources.org/Bible/index.html#Revelation Book of Revelation: Outlines], analyzing the literary structure.
*The crushing of Satan '''under the feet of the Roman Church'''. From [http://www.geocities.com/adam_todm/B-1.htm The Roman Catholic Church: Human Invention or Divine Institution?] by Adam S. Miller. Note: On the sensitive subject of salvation "outside" the church raised in this article, please see the following: [http://ic.net/~erasmus/RAZ419.HTM Ecumenism and Salvation]; [[Extra Ecclesiam nulla salus]]; [http://wesley.nnu.edu/john_wesley/letters/1749b.htm Letter to a Roman Catholic, July 18, 1749.] by [[John Wesley]].
*[http://www.scripturecatholic.com/the_eucharist.html#eucharist-IIf The Book of Revelation and the Holy Mass] by John Salza. cf. [http://www.christusrex.org/www1/CDHN/paschal2.html Catechism of the Catholic Church]; [http://bible.crosswalk.com/Lexicons/Greek/grk.cgi?number=2727&version=kjv KATECHEO]; [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/catechizing catechize].
*[http://flyservers.registerfly.com/members5/newtorah.org/heavenly-liturgy.html The Heavenly Liturgy] cf. [http://bible.crosswalk.com/OnlineStudyBible/bible.cgi?word=%22continual+burnt+offering%22&section=0&version=kjv&new=1&oq=continual The "continual burnt offerings"] and the Hebrew word [http://bible.crosswalk.com/Lexicons/Hebrew/heb.cgi?number=08548&version=kjv '''Tamiyd'''], for the Old Testament concept of a "continual" or "perpetual" sacrifice; The better "sacrifices" of [http://bible.crosswalk.com/OnlineStudyBible/bible.cgi?passage=heb+9&version=kjv&showtools=1 Hebrews 9:23]; [http://bible.crosswalk.com/Lexicons/Greek/grk.cgi?number=3646&version=kjv Holokautoma]; [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/holocaust Holocaust]; [http://bible.crosswalk.com/Lexicons/Greek/grk.cgi?number=3008&version=kjv Leitourgeo] [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/liturgy Liturgy]
*[http://adishakti.org/book_of_revelation.htm Book of Revelation study at adishakti.org]
*[[Martin Luther]]: [http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/jfec/cal/reformat/theologo/grit6222.htm#title Against the Roman Papacy, an Institution of the Devil - March 1545] cf. [http://web.archive.org/web/20030604155554/http://ic.net/~erasmus/RAZ341.HTM Martin Luther the "Super-Pope" and de facto Infallibility ] by [[Dave Armstrong]] [http://ic.net/~erasmus/RAZ212.HTM] ;[http://www.wordtrade.com/religion/christianity/lutherR.htm Luther's Works CD-ROM Edition]; [[Pope Gregory I|Pope Gregory I ( c.540-604 )]].
*[[John Calvin]] on [http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/jfec/cal/reformat/theologb/rome.htm#title On Superstition and the Roman religion]
==See also==
===Directly related===
* [[Number of the Beast (numerology)]]
* [[Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse]]
* [[Whore of Babylon]]
* [[Apocalypse]]
* [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible,_English,_King_James,_Revelation Wikisource Text]
* [[Fifth Monarchy Men]]
* [[Laodicean Church]]
* [[Summary of Christian eschatological differences]]
===General===
*[[Christian eschatology]]
*[[Apocalyptic literature]]
*[[Apocalypticism]]
*[[Bible code]]
*[[End times]]
*[[Jesus on the destruction of Jerusalem]]
*[[Millennialism]]
*[[Books of the Bible]]
*[[Left Behind]]
*[[The Omen]]
*[[Endtime Ministries]]
<center>
<br>
{| border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse"
|- bgcolor="darkgray"
|colspan=3|<center>'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor="gainsboro"
|<Center>Preceded by:<br><Center>[[Epistle of Jude|Jude]]
|'Revelation'
|<Center>Followed by:<br><Center>'''End'''
|}
</center>
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:Book of Revelation|*]]
[[Category:Christian apocalyptic writings]]
[[Category:Christian eschatology|Revelation, Book of]]
[[Category:New Testament narrative]]
[[Category:Prophecy]]
[[ca:Apocalipsi]]
[[de:Offenbarung des Johannes]]
[[es:Apocalipsis]]
[[fi:Johanneksen ilmestys]]
[[fr:Apocalypse]]
[[id:Wahyu kepada Yohanes]]
[[ja:ヨハネの黙示録]]
[[jv:Kitab Wahyu]]
[[ko:요한묵시록]]
[[nl:Openbaring van Johannes]]
[[pl:Apokalipsa świętego Jana]]
[[pt:Apocalipse de São João]]
[[ru:Апокалипсис]]
[[sv:Uppenbarelseboken]]
[[zh:启示录]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Books of Kings</title>
<id>4380</id>
<revision>
<id>41357736</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T20:58:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FDuffy</username>
<id>380940</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Contents */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
The '''Books of Kings''' (also known as '''[The Book of] Kings''' in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: ''Sefer Melachim'' &#1502;&#1500;&#1499;&#1497;&#1501;) is a part of [[Judaism]]'s [[Tanakh]], the [[Hebrew Bible]]. It was originally written in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], and it was later included by [[Christianity]] as part of the [[Old Testament]].
==Contents==
It contains accounts of the kings of the ancient [[Kingdom of Israel]] and [[Kingdom of Judah]].
They contain the annals of the Jewish commonwealth from the accession of [[Solomon]] till the subjugation of the kingdom by [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar]] and the [[Babylonians]] (apparently a period of about four hundred and fifty-three years). The Books of King synchronize with 1 Chronicles 28 - 2 Chronicles 36:21. While in the Chronicles greater prominence is given to the priestly or [[Levite|Levitical]] office, in the Kings greater prominence is given to the royal office. Kings appears to have been written considerably earlier than Chronicles, and as such is generally considered a more reliable historical source.
*'''The story of [[Adonijah]]''' (1 Kings 1:1-2:46) - During his old age, David spends his nights with [[Abishag]], a woman appointed for the purpose of keeping him warm. Adonijah, a son of David, gathers attendants and pursuades [[Joab]] and [[Abiathar]] to support his claim to be David's heir. Opposed to this are [[Zadok]], [[Benaiah]], [[Nathan]], and [[Shimei]], as well as the army generals, who favour [[Solomon]], another son of David. Adonijah invites his supporters, neutral court officials, and his other brothers excepting Solomon, to the [[Zoheleth]] stone. Nathan pursuades Bathsheba, the mother of Solomon, to trick David into announcing that Solomon is his heir. After having done this, David has Solomon anointed as the next king. When Adonijah is told, he and his guests flee, and Adonijah seeks sanctuary at the Jerusalem altar. Begging not to be harmed by Solomon, Adonijah is only told that he won't be harmed if he is guiltless. Dying, David instructs Solomon to take revenge on Joab, a supporter of Adonijah, and Shimei, and to be kind to the sons of Barzillai. Adonijah approaches Bathsheba asking for a conciliatory gesture from Solomon, namely he asks for Abishag, but when Bathsheba asks Solomon about this, Solomon has Benaiah slaughter Adonijah. Abiathar, who had supported Adonijah, is then deposed from being head priest of the jerusalem altar, and exiled to his homeland, and is replaced by Zadok. Joab, another of Adonijah's supporters, seeks sanctuary at the Jerusalem altar, but Solomon has Benaiah slaughter Joab at the altar itself. As for Shimei, Solomon orders him to remain in Jerusalem, but when Shimei later retrieves his servants who had fled to [[Gath]], Solomon has Benaiah slaugter Shimei for leaving.
*'''The story of the [[Wisdom of Solomon]]''' (1 Kings 3:1-15 and 5:9-14) - After having cemented an alliance with Egypt by marrying the daughter of Pharaoh, Solomon went to [[Gibeon]], to make sacrifices, as it was the most prominent of the high places at the time. Once Solomon has made the sacrifices, in a dream God appears to Solomon and grants him a wish, so Solomon asks for wisdom. Since Solomon asked wisely rather than asking for riches, his wish for wisdom is granted, and Solomon surpassed the Egyptians and Cedemites in wisdom, his fame spreading among the neighbouring nations. Solomon also uttered thousands of songs and proverbs.
*'''The story of the [[judgement of Solomon]]''' (1 Kings 3:16-28) -Two whores come to Solomon and ask him to settle an argument between them as to who is the mother of a particular baby. Solomon asks for a sword to cut the baby in half, and the first whore tells him to give the baby to the other, so Solomon gives her the baby.
*'''The [[List of Solomon's officials]]''' (1 Kings 4:1-19, and 5:7-8) - An extensive list is given of the officials of Solomon's court.The commisaries, one for each month of the year, provide the food for Solomon and his guests, as well as for his horses, and the various locations are listed t |
tacks. The British battleship [[HMS Prince of Wales (1939)|HMS ''Prince of Wales'']] and her battlecruiser consort [[HMS Repulse (1916)|HMS ''Repulse'']] were sunk by [[Mitsubishi G4M|Japanese torpedo bombers]] while operating in the defence of Malaya (Malaysia and Singapore). ''Prince of Wales'' became the first battleship to be sunk by aircraft while able to defend itself in open water.
[[D-Day]] saw battleships in the role of coastal bombardment in support of an amphibious landing on a hostile, fortified shore . Several older battlewagons came into their own, not only knocking out coastal guns which threatened transports and landing craft, but also hitting troop and tank concentrations, and railway marshalling yards. [[HMS Ramillies (1916)|HMS ''Ramillies'']] fired 1,002 15" shells at shore targets as well as driving off German aircraft, [[E Boat]] and [[destroyer]] attacks.
The Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor in December 1941 sank or damaged most of the U.S. Pacific Fleet's battleships, but the three aircraft carriers were not in port and so escaped damage. Six months later, it was those carriers that were to turn the tide of the Pacific War at the [[battle of Midway]]. As the war progressed, battleships became festooned with anti-aircraft weapons such as the [[Bofors 40 mm gun|40mm Bofors gun]]. Nonetheless, the advent of air power spelled doom for the battleship.
[[Image:Pennsylvania Lingayen.jpg|thumb|300px|[[USS Pennsylvania (BB-38)|''Pennsylvania'']] leading [[USS Colorado (BB-45)|''Colorado'']], [[USS Louisville (CA-28)|''Louisville'']], [[USS Portland (CA-33)|''Portland'']], and [[USS Columbia (CL-56)|''Columbia'']] into [[Lingayen Gulf]], [[Philippines]], January [[1945]].]]
Battleships in the Pacific ended up primarily performing shore bombardment and anti-aircraft defense for the carriers. The largest battleships ever constructed, Japan's ''Yamato'' and [[Japanese battleship Musashi|''Musashi'']], were sunk by aircraft attacks long before they could come within striking range of the American fleet. The last active German battleship, [[German battleship Tirpitz|''Tirpitz'']], had lurked until late into the war in Norwegian fjords protected by anti-submarine defences and shore based anti-aircraft guns. A daring attempt by Britsh mini-subs to sink her covertly failed, but it was still finally damaged there and sunk by [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] aircraft using [[Tallboy bomb]]s.
<!--subs weren't a threat-->
The second half of World War II saw the last battleship duels. [[USS Massachusetts (BB-59)|''Massachusetts'']] fought Vichy French battleship [[Jean Bart (1949-1961)|Jean Bart]] on [[27 October]],[[1942]]. In the [[Naval Battle of Guadalcanal|Battle of Guadalcanal]] on [[November 15]] [[1942]], the United States battleships [[USS South Dakota (BB-57)|''South Dakota'']] and [[USS Washington (BB-56)|''Washington'']] fought and destroyed the Japanese battleship [[Japanese battleship Kirishima|''Kirishima'']]. In the [[Battle of North Cape]], on [[26 December]] [[1943]], [[HMS Duke of York (1940)|HMS ''Duke of York'']] and destroyers sank the German ''Scharnhorst'' off [[Norway]]. And in the [[Battle of Leyte Gulf]] on [[25 October]] [[1944]] six battleships, led by admiral [[Jesse Oldendorf]] of the US 7th Fleet sank the Japanese admiral [[Shoji Nishimura]]'s battleships [[Japanese battleship Yamashiro|''Yamashiro'']] and [[Japanese battleship Fuso|''Fuso'']] during the [[Battle of Surigao Strait]].
Nevertheless, the [[Battle of Samar]] on [[25 October]] [[1944]] during the [[Battle of Leyte Gulf]] proved that battleships still were a lethal weapon. Only the indecision of Admiral [[Takeo Kurita]] saved the American aircraft carriers of "Taffy 3" from being pounded to the bottom by gunfire of [[Japanese battleship Yamato|''Yamato'']], [[Japanese battleship Kongo|''Kongo'']] and [[Japanese battleship Nagato|''Nagato'']] and their cruiser host. Miraculously, only [[USS Gambier Bay|''Gambier Bay'']] and four destroyers were lost due to surface action.
As a result of the changing technology, plans for even larger battleships, the American [[Montana class battleship|''Montana'' class]] and Japanese [[Super Yamato class|"Super ''Yamato''" class]], were cancelled. At the end of the war, almost all the world's battleships were decommissioned or scrapped. It is notable that most battleship losses occurred while in port. No battleship was lost to heavy bombers on the open seas, which was considered the most grave aerial peril to battleships prior to WWII due to [[Billy Mitchell]] and the [[SMS Ostfriesland|''Ostfriesland'']] experiment. The [[Italian battleship Roma (1940)|''Roma'']] was sunk by a [[Precision-guided munition|guided bomb]], a [[Fritz X]], while underway to surrender. Instead, the true aerial peril to battleships came from small, one to three-man [[dive bomber]]s and [[torpedo bomber]]s like the [[SBD Dauntless]] and [[TBF Avenger]].
==Post World War II==
After World War II, several navies retained battleships, but they were now outclassed by carriers. The Italian [[Italian battleship Giulio Cesare|''Giulio Cesare'']] was taken by the Soviets as reparations and renamed ''Novorossiysk''; it was sunk by a German mine in the Black Sea [[29 October]] [[1955]]. The two [[Doria class battleship|''Doria'' class]] ships were scrapped in the late 1950s. The French [[French battleship Lorraine|''Lorraine'']] was scrapped in 1954, [[French battleship Richelieu|''Richelieu'']] in 1964 and [[French battleship Jean Bart|''Jean Bart'']] in 1970. The United Kingdom's four surviving [[King George V class battleship (1939)|''King George V'' class]] ships were scrapped towards the end of the 1950s, and [[HMS Vanguard (1944)|''Vanguard'']] followed around 1960. All other surviving British battleships had been scrapped in the late 1940s. The Soviet Union's ''Petropavlovsk'' was scrapped in 1953, [[Soviet battleship Sevastopol|''Sevastopol'']] in 1957 and [[Soviet battleship Gangut|''Gangut'']] in 1959, Brazil's [[Brazilian battleship Minas Gerais|''Minas Gerais'']] was scrapped in 1954 (sister ship [[Brazilian battleship Sao Paulo|''Sao Paulo'']] sank en route to the breakers during a storm in 1951), [[Argentina]] kept its two [[Rivadavia class battleship|''Rivadavia'' class]] ships until 1956, Chile kept ''Almirante Latorre'' (formerly HMS ''Canada'') until 1959, and the Turkish battlecruiser ''Yavuz'' (formerly the German [[SMS Goeben|''Goeben'']], launched in 1911) was scrapped in 1976 after an offer to sell it back to Germany was refused. Sweden had several small coastal defense battleships, one of which, ''Gustav V'', survived until 1970. The Russians also scrapped four large incomplete cruisers in the late 1950s, whilst plans to build new battleships were abandoned following the death of Stalin in 1953. There were also some old sailing battleships still used as housing ships or storage depots. Of these, all but HMS ''Victory'' were sunk or scrapped by 1957.
[[Image:Uss iowa bb-61 pr.jpg|thumb|250px|The battleship [[USS Iowa (BB-61)|USS ''Iowa'']] firing a salvo to starboard]]
[[Image:Missouri missile.JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[USS Missouri (BB-63)|USS ''Missouri'']] launches a [[Tomahawk missile]].]]
The battleships gained a new lease of life in the U.S. Navy as fire support ships. Shipborne artillery support is considered by U.S. Marine Corps as more accurate, more effective and less expensive than aerial strikes. Radar and computer controlled gunfire can be aimed with pinpoint accuracy to target. The United States recommissioned all four [[Iowa class battleship|''Iowa'' class]] battleships for the [[Korean War]] and [[USS New Jersey (BB-62)|''New Jersey'']] for the [[Vietnam War]]. These were primarily used for shore bombardment. As part of [[United States Secretary of the Navy|Navy Secretary]] [[John F. Lehman]]'s effort to build a [[600-ship Navy]], and in response to the commissioning of ''Kirov'' by the Soviet Union the United States recommissioned all four ''Iowa'' class battleships. These were modernized to carry [[Tomahawk missile]]s, with ''New Jersey'' seeing action bombarding [[Lebanon]], while [[USS Missouri (BB-63)|''Missouri'']] and [[USS Wisconsin (BB-64)|''Wisconsin'']] fired their 16-inch (406&nbsp;mm) guns at land targets and launched missiles in the [[Gulf War]] of 1991. ''Wisconsin'' served as the TLAM strike commander for the Persian Gulf, directing the sequence of launches that marked the opening of [[Operation Desert Storm]] and firing a total of 24 TLAMs during the first two days of the campaign. This will most likely be the last combat action ever by a battleship.
All four ''Iowas'' were decommissioned in the early [[1990s]], making them the last battleships to see active service. ''Missouri'', and ''New Jersey'' are now museums at [[Pearl Harbor]] and [[Camden, New Jersey|Camden, N.J.]] respectively. ''Wisconsin'' also functions as a museum (at [[Norfolk, Virginia|Norfolk, Va.]]), but is still on the [[Naval Vessel Register|NVR]], and the public can only tour the deck, with the rest of ship closed off. [[USS Iowa (BB-61)|''Iowa'']] (at [[Suisun Bay]]) and ''Wisconsin'' are in the [[United States Navy reserve fleets|Naval Reserve Fleet]], and could be re-activated.
From the late 1970s onwards, the [[Soviet Union]] (later Russia) built four large nuclear-powered [[Kirov class battlecruiser|''Kirov'' class]] missile cruisers (''Raketny Kreyser'' (Rocket Cruiser)), one of which is still operational [[as of 2005]]. Their introduction had been one of the factors leading to the reactivation of the four ''Iowas''. The ships, while comparatively big for a cruiser, are not battleships in the traditional sense; they adhere to the design premise of a large missile [[cruiser]] and lack traditional battleship traits such as heavy armor and significant shore bombardment capability. For example, at ~26,000 tons displaceme |
any of several similar licenses, or indeed a notional imaginary license for discussion purposes. See also the next section, which goes in detail about some definitional issues.
==Types of copyleft and relation to other licenses==
Copyleft is a distinguishing feature of some [[free software]] licenses. Copyleft even became a divisive issue in the ideological strife between the [[open source movement]] and the [[free software movement]].[http://www.onlamp.com/pub/a/onlamp/2005/06/30/esr_interview.html] Many [[free software licenses]] are not copyleft licenses because they do not require the licensee to distribute derivative works under the same license. There is an ongoing debate as to which class of license provides the greater degree of freedom. This debate hinges on complex issues such as the definition of [[freedom]] and whose freedoms are more important, or whether to maximize the freedom of all potential future recipients of a work (''freedom from'' the creation of proprietary software). Non-copyleft [[free software licenses]] maximize the freedom of the initial recipient (''freedom to'' create proprietary software).
===Strong and weak copyleft===
The copyleft governing a work is considered to be "stronger", to the extent that the copyleft provisions can be efficiently imposed on all kinds of derived works. "Weak copyleft" refers to licenses where not all derived works inherit the copyleft license; whether a derived work inherits or not often depends on the manner in which it was derived.
"Weak copyleft" licences are generally used for the creation of [[software library|software libraries]], to allow other software to link to the library, and then be redistributed without the legal requirement for the work to be distributed under the library's copyleft license. Only changes to the weak copylefted software itself become subject the copyleft provisions of such a license, not changes to the software that [[link|links]] to it. This allows programs of any license to be compiled and linked against copylefted libraries such as glibc (a standard library required by many programs), and then redistributed without any re-licensing required.
Two examples of [[free software licenses]] that use strong copyleft are the GNU General Public License and the [[Q Public License]]. Free software licenses that use "weak" copyleft include the [[GNU Lesser General Public License]] (LGPL) [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/why-not-lgpl.html] and the [[Mozilla Public License]]. Examples of non-copyleft free software licenses include the [[MIT License|X11 license]], [[Apache license]] and the [[BSD license|BSD licenses]].
===Full and partial copyleft===
"Full" and "partial" copyleft relate to another issue: Full copyleft is when all parts of a work (except the license itself) can be modified by consecutive authors. Partial copyleft exempts some parts of the work from the copyleft provisions, thus permitting unrestricted modification, or in some other way does not impose all the principles of copylefting on the work. For example, in artistic creation full copylefting is sometimes not possible or desirable (see below).
===Share-alike===
Many [[share-alike]] licenses are partial (or non-full) copyleft licenses. Share-alike, however, imposes the requirement that any freedom that is granted regarding the original work (or its copies), must be granted on exactly the same terms in any derived work: this further implies that any ''full'' copyleft license is automatically a share-alike license (but not the other way around!). Instead of using ''copyright's'' "all rights reserved" motto, or ''full copyleft's'' "all rights reversed", ''share-alike'' licenses rather use the "some rights reserved" statement. Some permutations of the [[Creative_Commons|Creative Commons]] license are examples of share-alike licenses.
==The ideology==
For many people, copyleft is a technique which uses [[copyright]] as a means of subverting the restrictions traditionally imposed by copyright on the dissemination and development of knowledge. This approach uses copyleft primarily as a tool in a broadly scaled [[culture jamming|sniggling]] operation, whose aim is to permanently reverse such restrictions.
While copyleft is not a term in law, it is seen by proponents as a legal tool in a political and ideological debate over intellectual works. Some see copyleft as a first step in doing away with any kind of copyright law. In the [[public domain]] the absence of copyleft-like protection leaves software in an unprotected state. Developers basing their work on public domain originals can spread and sell undocumented [[Binary and text files|binaries]] without providing the source code. If legal copyright was abolished and without other means, then there would be no method for protecting or enforcing a copyleft license, but the need to do so would also be diminished (except from [[software hoarding]]).
==Is copyleft "viral"?==
Copyleft licenses are sometimes referred to as '''viral copyright licenses''', because any works derived from a copylefted work must themselves be copylefted. This language is often used by those who feel that they may lose out as a result of copyleft provisions. In particular, copyleft works cannot legally be incorporated into works that are to be distributed without source, as is the case with most commercial products, without specific permission from the authors. As a consequence, the use of copyleft in industry is overwhelmingly limited to internal use.
''Viral'' refers to anything, especially anything [[meme]]tic, that propagates itself by attaching itself to something else, regardless of whether the viral components themselves add value to the object to which they attach. Many avoid the term ''viral'' in the context of legally binding contracts and licenses, because of these negative connotations with [[computer virus]]es.
Many people and organisations, including [[Microsoft]], describe the GPL as a "viral license". Supporters of the GPL say that any release of something new under the GPL would create positive feedback [[network effect]], which would result over time in there being an ever-expanding pool of copylefted code.
The copylefted code is assumed to be of significant benefit to the person adapting it, as evidenced by their desire to use it, and supporters of the GPL argue that it would be wrong to modify that software and then prevent others from using the modified version under the original license.
Similarly, standard copyrighted programs can be considered "viral" by the same definition, in that anything created from them can only be distributed under the terms imposed by the original author. Typically these terms will be much more restrictive than any imposed by copyleft licenses.
Additionally, some popular copyleft licenses such as the GPL have an "at-arms-length" clause specifying that copyleft components can interact with non-copyleft components as long as the communication is relatively simple, such as executing a command-line tool with a set of switches. As a consequence, even if one module of an otherwise non-copyleft product is placed under the GPL, it may still be legal for other components to communicate with it in a limited fashion.
==Copyleft applied outside the context of copyright licensing for software==
===Art &mdash; documents===
Copyleft also inspired the arts (especially where traditional notions of [[intellectual property]] are experienced as hampering creativity and/or creative collaboration and/or easy distribution of art creations), with movements like the [[Libre Society]] and open-source [[record label]]s emerging. For example, the [[Free Art license]] is a copyleft license that can be applied to any work of art.
Copyleft licenses for materials other than software include the [[Creative Commons]] [[share-alike|ShareAlike]] licenses and the [[GNU Free Documentation License]] (abbreviated to GNU FDL, GFDL, or FDL). The GFDL can be used to apply copyleft to works that have no distinguishable [[source code]] (while the GPL's requirement to release source code is meaningless when [[source code]] is not distinguishable from [[compiler|compiled code]] or [[object code]] or [[executable|executable code]] or [[binary code]] in a work). The GFDL does distinguish between a "transparent copy" and an "opaque copy", using a different definition than the GPL's "source code" vs. "object code".
In art copyleft has to hinge on broader notions regarding authors' rights, which are even more complex (and more differing between countries) than mere [[copyright law]], see ''e.g.'', [[moral rights]], [[droit d'auteur]], [[intellectual rights]] and [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works]].
In common with the [[Creative_Commons|Creative Commons]] share-alike licensing system, GNU's Free Documentation License allows authors to apply limitations to certain sections of their work, exempting some parts of their creation from the full copyleft mechanism. In the case of the GFDL, these limitations include the use of invariant sections, which may not be altered by future editors.
These types of partially copyleft licenses can also be used outside the context of art: for GFDL this was even the initial intention, as it was originally created as a device for supporting the [[documentation]] of (copylefted) software&mdash;the result is however that it can be used for any kind of document.
Many artists copyleft their work on terms requiring that those who copy it and then edit it in some way must credit the initial artist. There are problems with this however - the artist's work may be used in a way that is against his or her will. If the artist is credited, he or she might then seemingly be associated with |
increased water use and low rainfall. Bordered by Chad, [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], and [[Cameroon]], Lake Chad currently covers only 1,350 square kilometers, down from 25,000 square kilometers in 1963. The Chari and Logone Rivers, both of which originate in the Central African Republic and flow northward, provide most of the water entering Lake Chad.
'''Geographic coordinates:'''
{{coor d|15|N|19|E|}}
==Geographical setting==
Located in north-central Africa, Chad stretches for about 1,800 kilometers from its northernmost point to its southern boundary. Except in the far northwest and south, where its borders converge, Chad's average width is about 800 kilometers. Its area of 1,284,000 square kilometers is roughly equal to the combined areas of Idaho, Wyoming, Utah, Nevada, and Arizona. Chad's neighbors include Libya to the north, Niger and Nigeria to the west, Sudan to the east, Central African Republic to the south, and Cameroon to the southwest.
Chad exhibits two striking geographical characteristics. First, the country is landlocked. N'Djamena, the capital, is located more than 1,100 kilometers northeast of the Atlantic Ocean; Abéché, a major city in the east, lies 2,650 kilometers from the Red Sea; and Faya Largeau, a much smaller but strategically important center in the north, is in the middle of the Sahara Desert, 1,550 kilometers from the Mediterranean Sea. These vast distances from the sea have had a profound impact on Chad's historical and contemporary development. The second noteworthy characteristic is that the country borders on very different parts of the African continent: North Africa, with its Islamic culture and economic orientation toward the Mediterranean Basin; West Africa, with its diverse religions and cultures and its history of highly developed states and regional economies; Northeast Africa, oriented toward the Nile Valley and Red Sea region; and Central or Equatorial Africa, some of whose people have retained classical African religions while others have adopted Christianity, and whose economies were part of the great Zaire River system. Although much of Chad's distinctiveness comes from this diversity of influences, since independence the diversity has also been an obstacle to the creation of a national identity.
==The Land==
Although Chadian society is economically, socially, and culturally fragmented, the country's geography is unified by the Lake Chad Basin. Once a huge inland sea (the Pale-Chadian Sea) whose only remnant is shallow Lake Chad, this vast depression extends west into Nigeria and Niger. The larger, northern portion of the basin is bounded within Chad by the Tibesti Mountains in the northwest, the Ennedi Plateau in the northeast, the Ouaddaï Highlands in the east along the border with Sudan, the Guéra Massif in central Chad, and the Mandara Mountains along Chad's southwestern border with Cameroon. The smaller, southern part of the basin falls almost exclusively in Chad. It is delimited in the north by the Guéra Massif, in the south by highlands 250 kilometers south of the border with Central African Republic, and in the southwest by the Mandara Mountains.
Lake Chad, located in the southwestern part of the basin at an altitude of 282 meters, surprisingly does not mark the basin's lowest point; instead, this is found in the Bodele and Djourab regions in the north-central and northeastern parts of the country, respectively. This oddity arises because the great stationary dunes (ergs) of the Kanem region create a dam, preventing lake waters from flowing to the basin's lowest point. At various times in the past, and as late as the 1870s, the Bahr el Ghazal Depression, which extends from the northeastern part of the lake to the Djourab, acted as an overflow canal; since independence, climatic conditions have made overflows impossible.
North and northeast of Lake Chad, the basin extends for more than 800 kilometers, passing through regions characterized by great rolling dunes separated by very deep depressions. Although vegetation holds the dunes in place in the Kanem region, farther north they are bare and have a fluid, rippling character. From its low point in the Djourab, the basin then rises to the plateaus and peaks of the Tibesti Mountains in the north. The summit of this formation--as well as the highest point in the Sahara Desert--is Emi Koussi, a dormant volcano that reaches 3,414 meters above sea level. The basin's northeastern limit is the Ennedi Plateau, whose limestone bed rises in steps etched by erosion.
East of the lake, the basin rises gradually to the Ouaddaï Highlands, which mark Chad's eastern border and also divide the Chad and Nile watersheds. Southeast of Lake Chad, the regular contours of the terrain are broken by the Guéra Massif, which divides the basin into its northern and southern parts.
South of the lake lie the floodplains of the Chari and Logone rivers, much of which are inundated during the rainy season. Farther south, the basin floor slopes upward, forming a series of low sand and clay plateaus, called koros, which eventually climb to 615 meters above sea level. South of the Chadian border, the koros divide the Lake Chad Basin from the Ubangi-Zaire river system.
==Water systems==
Permanent streams do not exist in northern or central Chad. Following infrequent rains in the Ennedi Plateau and Ouaddaï Highlands, water may flow through depressions called enneris and wadis. Often the result of flash floods, such streams usually dry out within a few days as the remaining puddles seep into the sandy clay soil. The most important of these streams is the Batha, which in the rainy season carries water west from the Ouaddaï Highlands and the Guéra Massif to Lake Fitri.
Chad's major rivers are the Chari and the Logone and their tributaries, which flow from the southeast into Lake Chad. Both river systems rise in the highlands of Central African Republic and Cameroon, regions that receive more than 1,250 millimeters of rainfall annually. Fed by rivers of Central African Republic, as well as by the Bahr Salamat, Bahr Aouk, and Bahr Sara rivers of southeastern Chad, the Chari River is about 1,200 kilometers long. From its origins near the city of Sarh, the middle course of the Chari makes its way through swampy terrain; the lower Chari is joined by the Logone River near N'Djamena. The Chari's volume varies greatly, from 17 cubic meters per second during the dry season to 340 cubic meters per second during the wettest part of the year.
The Logone River is formed by tributaries flowing from Cameroon and Central African Republic. Both shorter and smaller in volume than the Chari, it flows northeast for 960 kilometers; its volume ranges from five to eighty-five cubic meters per second. At N'Djamena the Logone empties into the Chari, and the combined rivers flow together for thirty kilometers through a large delta and into Lake Chad. At the end of the rainy season in the fall, the river overflows its banks and creates a huge floodplain in the delta.
The seventh largest lake in the world (and the fourth largest in Africa), Lake Chad is located in the sahelian zone, a region just south of the Sahara Desert. The Chari River contributes 95 percent of Lake Chad's water, an average annual volume of 40 billion cubic meters, 95% of which is lost to evaporation. The size of the lake is determined by rains in the southern highlands bordering the basin and by temperatures in the Sahel. Fluctuations in both cause the lake to change dramatically in size, from 9,800 square kilometers in the dry season to 25,500 at the end of the rainy season. Lake Chad also changes greatly in size from one year to another. In 1870 its maximum area was 28,000 square kilometers. The measurement dropped to 12,700 in 1908. In the 1940s and 1950s, the lake remained small, but it grew again to 26,000 square kilometers in 1963. The droughts of the late 1960s, early 1970s, and mid-1980s caused Lake Chad to shrink once again, however. The only other lakes of importance in Chad are Lake Fitri, in Batha Prefecture, and Lake Iro, in the marshy southeast.
==Climate==
The Lake Chad Basin embraces a great range of tropical climates from north to south, although most of these climates tend to be dry. Apart from the far north, most regions are characterized by a cycle of alternating rainy and dry seasons. In any given year, the duration of each season is determined largely by the positions of two great air masses--a maritime mass over the Atlantic Ocean to the southwest and a much drier continental mass. During the rainy season, winds from the southwest push the moister maritime system north over the African continent where it meets and slips under the continental mass along a front called the "intertropical convergence zone". At the height of the rainy season, the front may reach as far as Kanem Prefecture. By the middle of the dry season, the intertropical convergence zone moves south of Chad, taking the rain with it. This weather system contributes to the formation of three major regions of climate and vegetation.
===Saharan region===
The Saharan region covers roughly the northern third of the country, including Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Prefecture along with the northern parts of Kanem, Batha, and Biltine prefectures (see fig. 1). Much of this area receives only traces of rain during the entire year; at Faya Largeau, for example, annual rainfall averages less than three centimeters. Scattered small oases and occasional wells provide water for a few date palms or small plots of millet and garden crops. In much of the north, the average daily maximum temperature is about 32 °C during January, the coolest month of the year, and about 45 °C during May, the hottest month. On occasion, strong winds from the northeast produce violent sandstorms. In northern Biltine Prefecture, a region called the Mortcha plays a major role in animal husbandry. Dry for nine months of the year, it receives |
y Gary|Elbert H. Gary]].
Among U.S. cities of 100,000 or more, Gary has the highest percentage of [[African-American]] residents (as of the 2000 U.S. census). Gary had one of the nation's first African-American mayors, [[Richard G. Hatcher]], and hosted the ground-breaking 1972 National Black Political Convention. At the same time, Gary suffered the urban phenomenon of "[[white flight]]" as many Caucasian residents left Gary and relocated to the suburbs.
Gary's fortunes have risen and fallen with those of the steel industry. In the [[1960s]], like many other American urban centers, Gary entered a downward spiral of decline. Gary's decline was brought on by layoffs at the steel plants. [[US Steel]] continues to be a major steel producer, but with only a fraction of its former level of employment. While Gary has failed to attract many major businesses since its population peak, two casinos opened along the Gary lakeshore in the [[1990]]s. Today, Gary faces numerous difficulties, including unemployment, major economic problems, and a high rate of [[crime]].
In the [[1957]] Meredith Wilson's Broadway musical ''[[The Music Man]]'' featured the song, "Gary, Indiana," describing the alleged ''alma mater'' of lead character Professor Harold Hill ("Gary Conservatory, Class of '05!"). The joke in Hill's claim, of course, is that the city of Gary wasn't founded until '06. Wilson's musical, set in [[1912]], was later made into two movies.
<br>
Song: "GARY, INDIANA" from Meredith Wilson's "THE MUSIC MAN":
''<br> Gary, Indiana, Gary Indiana, Gary, Indiana,
''<br> Let me say it once again.
''<br>Gary, Indiana, Gary, Indiana, Gary, Indiana,
''<br>That's the town that "knew me when."
''<br>If you'd like to have a logical explanation
''<br>How I happened on this elegant syncopation,
''<br>I will say without a moment of hesitation
''<br>There is just one place
''<br>That can light my face.
''<br>Gary, Indiana, Gary, Indiana,
''<br>Not Louisiana, Paris, France, New York, or Rome,
''<br>but Gary, Indiana,
''<br>Gary, Indiana,
''<br>Gary Indiana,
''<br>My home sweet home.''
==Recent events==
Before his recent legal troubles, singer and famous former Gary resident [[Michael Jackson]] visited the city and promised to build a performing arts center for Gary, though this has not yet come to pass.
Gary has been in the news in connection with politicking over the construction of a new [[airport]] for Chicago. Because the Gary airport is closer to downtown Chicago than the other proposed site for a third Chicago airport at [[Peotone, Illinois|Peotone]], [[Illinois]], some have argued that building a new airport at Peotone is not necessary, and that money would be better spent on improving the [[Gary/Chicago International Airport]]. This plan is backed by the [[mayor|mayors]] of Gary and Chicago, while the Illinois state government is in favor of construction at Peotone. Tax revenues from a new airport at Peotone would go to the Illinois state government, while those from an expanded Gary airport would go to a regional airport authority, and thus to the cities of Chicago and Gary. Most agree that an airport in Gary would be the best solution, not only because of its proximity to downtown Chicago, but also for the fact that thousands of acres of farmland are being seized for the Peotone airport that may or may not even be built.
== Geography ==
Gary is located at 41&deg;34'51" North, 87&deg;20'44" West (41.580786, -87.345449){{GR|1}}.
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 148.3 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (57.2 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]). 130.1 km&sup2; (50.2 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 18.2 km&sup2; (7.0 mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 12.25% water.
Gary sits on the southern end of the former lake bed of the prehistoric [[Lake Chicago]]. Most of the city's soil is nearly pure sand. Much of the sand in the Gary area was used in the manufacturing of glass.
== Neighborhoods ==
*Aetna
*Ambridge
*Black Oak
*Brunswick
*Downtown
*Glen Park
*Ivanhoe
*Marshalltown
*Midtown
*Miller
*Tarrytown
*Tolleston
*Westbrook
== Demographics ==
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:3px;text-size:80%; text-align:right"
|align=center colspan=2| '''City of Gary <br>Population by year [http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027.html]'''
|-
|[[1900]] || NA
|-
|[[1910]] || 16,802
|-
|[[1920]] || 55,378
|-
|[[1930]] || 100,426
|-
|[[1940]] || 111,719
|-
|[[1950]] || 133,911
|-
|[[1960]] || 178,320
|-
|[[1970]] || 175,415
|-
|[[1980]] || 151,953
|-
|[[1990]] || 116,646
|-
|[[2000]] || 102,746
|-
|[[2004]] || 99,516
|}
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 102,746 people, 38,244 households, and 25,623 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 789.8/km&sup2; (2,045.5/mi&sup2;). There are 43,630 housing units at an average density of 335.4/km&sup2; (868.6/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 84.03% [[African American|Black]], 11.92% [[Race (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.21% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.14% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.02% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 1.97% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 1.71% from two or more races. 4.93% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.
There are 38,244 households out of which 31.2% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 30.2% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 30.9% have a female householder with no husband present, and 33.0% are non-families. 28.9% of all households are made up of individuals and 9.4% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.66 and the average family size is 3.28.
In the city the population is spread out with 29.9% under the age of 18, 10.1% from 18 to 24, 25.1% from 25 to 44, 22.2% from 45 to 64, and 12.8% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 34 years. For every 100 females there are 84.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 78.0 males.
The median income for a household in the city is $27,195, and the median income for a family is $32,205. Males have a median income of $34,992 versus $24,432 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $14,383. 25.8% of the population and 22.2% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 37.9% of those under the age of 18 and 14.1% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
==Features==
[[Image:Gary Steelyard.jpg|thumb|left|100py|U.S. Steel Yard, Gary]]
===Sports Franchises===
The following [[sports]] teams are based in Gary:
*The [[Gary Steelheads]], a [[minor league]] [[basketball]] team, part of the [[Continental Basketball Association]]. Their home arena is Gary's [[Genesis Convention Center]].
* The [[Gary SouthShore Railcats]], a minor league [[baseball]] team, part of the [[Northern League (baseball)|Northern League]]. The team plays in Gary's [[U.S. Steel Yard]] baseball park.
Gary is also a major stop along the [[South Shore Line|South Shore railroad]], a commuter rail system (and the United States' last operating [[Interurban streetcar|interurban]] train system), running between Chicago and [[South Bend, Indiana|South Bend]], Indiana.
===Local media===
*Newspapers
**Gary is served by two newspapers with offices outside the city, the ''Post-Tribune,'' which was originally located in Gary, and the ''Times,'' previously known as the ''Hammond Times''. Offices and facilites for the ''Times'' are in nearby [[Munster, Indiana|Munster]], while the ''Post-Tribune'' is based in [[Merrillville]].
*Broadcast
**[[WPWR-TV]] (Channel 50) is the Chicago [[UPN]] affiliate, but is licensed to Gary. Studios and transmitters are co-located with [[WFLD-TV|WFLD-TV's]] in Chicago, and like WFLD, WPWR is owned by [[Fox Television Stations]].
**[[WYIN]] (Channel 56) is a [[PBS]] affiliate licensed to Gary. Their studios are in Merrillville.
**[[WWCA]] (AM 1270) is presently a [[Relevant Radio]] owned-and-operated radio station, carrying programming from the Catholic-oriented Relevant Radio network.
**[[WLTH]] (AM 1370) carries syndicated talk programming, and is owned by Pluria Marshall Jr.
**[[WGVE]] (FM 88.7) is owned by the [[Gary Community School Corporation]], and is used as a teaching facility. Programming is maintained by students in the broadcast program at the Gary Career Center. WGVE also carries limited [[NPR]] programming.
Gary is also served by nearby [[Chicago]] radio and TV stations, and by other nearby stations in Illinois and Indiana.
== Notable people from Gary, Indiana==
*[[Dick Barnett]]
*[[Brian Blair]]
*[[Frank Borman]]
*[[Avery Brooks]]
*[[Vic Bubas]]
*[[Joseph E. Finerty]]
*[[Richard G. Hatcher]]
*[[Tom Harmon]]
*[[LaTroy Hawkins]]
*[[Walter Hellman]]
*The children in the musical '''Jackson family''':
**[[Michael Jackson]]
**[[Janet Jackson]]
**[[Jermaine Jackson]]
**[[LaToya Jackson]]
**[[Tito Jackson]]
**[[Marlon Jackson]]
**[[Randy Jackson (musician)|Randy Jackson]]
**[[Jackie Jackson]]
**[[Rebbie Jackson]]
**[[The Jackson 5]]
*[[Alex Karras]]
*[[Ron Kittle]]
*[[Myron W. Krueger]]
*[[Karl Malden]]
*[[Angel Manfredy]]
*[[William H. Marshall]]
*[[Kym Mazelle]]
*[[Lloyd McClendon]]
*[[James McCracken]]
*[[Karen McDougal]]
*[[Ralph McQuarrie]]
*[[Christopher Peterson]]
*[[Dan Plesac]]
*[[Jesse Powell]]
*[[Ronnie Rancifer]]
*[[Jimmy Reed]]
*[[Glenn Robinson]]
*[[Paul Samuelson]]
*[[Herschel Sparber]]
*[[Joseph Stiglitz]]
*[[Jevetta Steele]]
*[[Hank Stram]]
*[[Sharmell Sullivan]]
*[[Johnathan Thomas]]
*[[Ernest Thomas]]
*[[Pete Visclosky]]
*[[Deniece Williams]]
*[[Fred William |
]] are often used for the stopper.
A very common use of the Dewar flask in laboratories is the storage of liquid [[nitrogen]]; in this case, the leakage of heat into the extremely cold interior of the bottle results in a slow "boiling-off" of the liquid (a [[pressure relief valve]] is provided to prevent [[pressure]] from building up). The excellent insulation of the Dewar flask results in a very slow "boil" and thus the nitrogen lasts a long time without the need for expensive [[refrigeration]] equipment.
A "Thermos bottle" ([[trademark]]ed), or [[vacuum flask]] (generic) used to keep [[coffee]] or other beverages hot, is usually based on the design of a Dewar flask; since glass dewar flasks are fragile and somewhat expensive to fabricate, other constructions based on [[plastic]] or insulated metal are also popular.
==See also==
*[[Cryogenics]]
*[[Dewar tube]]
==Patents==
* Burger, R., {{US patent|872795}}, "Double walled vessel with a space for a vacuum between the walls", December 3, 1907.
[[Category:Cryogenics]]
[[Category:Scottish inventions]]
[[de:Dewargefäß]]
[[fr:Vase de Dewar]]
[[pl:Naczynie Dewara]]
[[ru:&#1057;&#1086;&#1089;&#1091;&#1076; &#1044;&#1100;&#1102;&#1072;&#1088;&#1072;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dance Dance Revolution</title>
<id>9010</id>
<revision>
<id>42151277</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:55:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fubar Obfusco</username>
<id>1200</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Endorsement for Non-violence */ rm propaganda</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Dance Dance Revolution series in general. For the specific games in the series that also use the title, see the [[list of Dance Dance Revolution games]].''
{{Infobox Arcade Game |title = Dance Dance Revolution
|image = [[Image:DDR US 1st alt.jpg|225px|DDR arcade machine]]
|developer = [[Konami]]
|publisher = [[Konami]]
|designer =
|release = [[September]], [[1998]] (JP)<br>[[August 12]], [[1998]] (NA)<br> [[January 13]], [[1999]] (AU)
|genre = [[Music]]
|modes = Multiple one-player and two-player modes
|cabinet = Custom
|arcade system =
|monitor = Horizontal, [[Raster graphics|Raster]], standard resolution
|input = Two 4-panel [[dance pad]]s, six buttons
|ports = [[Sega Dreamcast|Dreamcast]], [[Game Boy Color]], [[Nintendo GameCube|GameCube]], [[Nintendo 64]], [[PlayStation]], [[PlayStation 2]], [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[Microsoft Xbox|Xbox]] | Infobox Arcade Game/ports | [[Arcade game|Arcade]], [[Sega Dreamcast|Dreamcast]], [[Game Boy Color]], [[Nintendo GameCube|GameCube]], [[Nintendo 64]], [[PlayStation]], [[PlayStation 2]], [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[Microsoft Xbox|Xbox]]
}}
[[Image:DDR(bag).jpg|250px|thumb|right|The main gameplay screen of ''Dance Dance Revolution''.]]
'''''Dance Dance Revolution''''', or '''''DDR''''' (known as ''[[Dancing Stage]]'' in Europe), is a [[music video game]] series produced by [[Konami]]. It was first introduced to [[Japan|Japanese]] [[video arcade]]s in 1998, after being shown at the [[Tokyo Game Show]] earlier that year. Since then, the game has gained significant popularity elsewhere in the [[world]], including large portions of [[North America]] and [[Europe]]. As of 2005, over 90 official versions have been produced, including those for home [[video game console]]s. The ''Dance Dance Revolution'' series is a subset of the larger [[Bemani]] series of music games.
The game is typically played on a [[dance pad]] with four [[arrow]] panels: [[up]], [[down]], [[left]], and [[right]]. These panels are pressed using the player's [[foot|feet]], in response to arrows that appear on the screen in front of the player. The arrows are [[synchronization|synchronized]] to the general [[rhythm]] or [[beat (music)|beat]] of a chosen [[song]], and success is dependent on the player's ability to time his or her steps accordingly.
==Gameplay details==
In ''Dance Dance Revolution'', a player must move his or her feet to a set pattern, stepping in time to the general rhythm or beat of a song. During normal gameplay, arrows scroll upwards from the bottom of the screen and pass over stationary, transparent arrows near the top (referred to as the "guide arrows" or "arrow casting"). When the scrolling arrows overlap the stationary ones, the player must step on the corresponding arrows on the dance platform. Successfully hitting the arrows in time with the music fills the "Dance Gauge", or [[life bar]], while failure to do so drains it. If the Dance Gauge is fully depleted during gameplay, the player fails the song, usually resulting in a [[game over]]. Otherwise, the player is taken to the Results Screen, which rates the player's performance with a [[letter grade]] and a numerical [[score (video games)|score]], among other statistics. The player may then be given a chance to play again, depending on the settings of the particular machine (the limit is usually 3-5 songs per game).
''DDR'' is often criticized as being rigid and bearing little resemblance to actual [[dance|dancing]]. Many players, in order to better focus on timing and pattern reading, will minimize any extraneous body movement during gameplay. These players are commonly referred to as "technical", "tech" or "perfect attack" (PA) players. However, there are those who prefer style over accuracy, and may incorporate complex or flashy techniques into their play movements. Some dedicated "freestyle" players will even develop intricate dance routines to perform during a song. Technical players will often practice the most difficult songs for extended periods of time, while freestyle players will choose songs on lower difficulty levels, as to accommodate their desires for easier movement.
===Songs and difficulty levels===
[[Image:DDR US 1st how to play cropped.jpg|thumb|left|250px|How to play screen]]
Music in ''DDR'' comes from two primary sources: songs licensed from, although not limited to, [[Toshiba-EMI]]'s ''[[Dancemania]]'' collections, and music made specifically for the [[Bemani]] series by in-house artists such as [[Naoki Maeda]] and "[[Scotty D]]" (Konami translator [[Scott Dolph]]). Most songs average between one and two minutes long, and may be edited from their original length to accommodate this limit. Exceptions include the three-song or four-song [[medley]]s (better known as "Megamix," "Nonstop" or "Marathons", where the music and step patterns from three different songs are mixed together into one stage or played back-to-back.)Megamixes are only found in ''[[Dance Dance Revolution Solo BASS MIX|DDR Solo Bass]]'' and ''[[Dance Dance Revolution Solo 2000|Solo 2000]]'', and Long Version songs from ''[[Dance Dance Revolution 5thMIX|DDR 5thMIX]]'' (songs at a normal 3:00 length.), double-length "Long Versions", and, for the home version, the 40-minute-plus "Nonstop Megamixes".
Music in ''DDR'' may be fast or slow, and may even change tempo. It is a common mistake to assume that slower songs must be easier; often, the exact opposite is true, as reading fast-scrolling and thus widely spaced arrows is often easier than reading lots of dense, slow-scrolling arrows.
Excluding full song pauses, [[Dance Dance Revolution Club Mix|be in my paradise]] from [[Dance Dance Revolution Club Mix]] has the slowest scrolling speed of any DDR song, clocking in a constant 63 [[Beats per minute|BPM]]- only slightly slower than the vastly more difficult 65-BPM [[Dance Dance Revolution EXTREME|bag]] from [[Dance Dance Revolution EXTREME]]. [[Dance Dance Revolution EXTREME|Sakura]], also from [[Dance Dance Revolution EXTREME]], reaches a tempo of just around 14 BPM for only one note near the midpoint of the song, but speeds up to 320 BPM moments later. On the other end of the spectrum are the MAX songs, including [[DDRMAX: Dance Dance Revolution 6thMIX|MAX 300]] at 300 BPM, [[DDRMAX2: Dance Dance Revolution 7thMIX|MAXX Unlimited]] at 300 and later 320 BPM, [[Dance Dance Revolution EXTREME|The legend of MAX]] at 333 BPM with a speed-up to 666 in the middle of a freeze, and finally [[Dance Dance Revolution Extreme 2|MAX. (period)]] at 300 BPM for a majority of the song with 20 seconds of 180BPM (a tribute to [[PARANOiA]] with it as the only music) to 600BPM (only quarter notes, 15 seconds) and a sudden slowdown to 150 BPM.
The common misconception of the stated BPM is that the song in question actually contains an integer multiple of the actual BPM. These songs can usually be identified by their BPM scrolling to the slowest BPM then to the highest BPM on the Music Select screen however there are some that will not have this option availble.
Each song has multiple step patterns, rated in difficulty from 1-10. The difficulty is measured in units called "feet", as the game screen will display a certain number of feet attributed to the song's difficulty before the player chooses it. Naturally, the more "feet", the more complex the step pattern will be.
The 1-3 foot step patterns are recommended for newer players and 4-8 range from intermediate to, at times, frustratingly difficult (many players have complained about songs being "mislabeled", that is, given foot ratings that do not properly measure their difficulty.) Nine foot songs, commonly referred to as "catas" (short for "catastrophic", the label given to this difficulty of steps on ''3rdMIX'' and ''DDR USA''), generally require high levels of practice of one or more specific ''DDR'' skills. The skills include:
*Stamina - Ability to hit arrows in rapid succession for an extended period of time
*Rhythm - Ability to stay on beat throughout the song
*Alternation - Abi |
903973</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-24T14:28:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BrokenSegue</username>
<id>101451</id>
</contributor>
<comment>made a redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Wikiquote:Chinese proverbs]].</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chaco Canyon</title>
<id>5780</id>
<revision>
<id>15903974</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-24T06:18:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TimShell</username>
<id>4938</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chaco Culture National Historical Park]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chinese numerals</title>
<id>5781</id>
<revision>
<id>41754843</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T14:37:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Noe</username>
<id>57569</id>
</contributor>
<comment>cat.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Numeral systems}}
Today, speakers of [[Chinese language|Chinese]] use three [[numeral system]]s: the ubiquitous system of [[Hindu-Arabic numeral system|Hindu-Arabic numerals]], along with two ancient Chinese numeral systems. The ''huama'' ({{zh-d-cp|c=花碼|p=huāmǎ}}, lit. "flowery or fancy numbers") system has gradually been supplanted by the Arabic system in writing numbers. The character system is still used and roughly analogous to writing out a number in text. The Chinese can be classified as part of the language but is still counts as a number system. Most people in China now use the hindu-arabic system.
The ''huama'' system, the only surviving variation of the [[rod numerals|rod numeral]] system, is nowadays in use only in Chinese markets (e.g. in [[Hong Kong]]). The character writing system is still in use when writing numbers in long form such as on cheques, as their complexity thwarts forgery.
Individual [[Chinese characters]] in this article link to their dictionary entries.
==Written numbers==
The Chinese character numeral system consists of the [[Chinese character]]s used by the [[Chinese written language]] to write spoken numerals. Similarly to spelled-out numbers in English (e.g., "one thousand nine hundred forty-five"), it is not an independent system per se. And since it reflects spoken language, it does not use the positional system as is done in [[Hindu-Arabic numerals]], in the same way that spelling out numbers in English does not.
===Numeral characters===
There are ten characters representing the numbers zero through nine, and other characters representing larger numbers such as tens, hundreds, thousands and so on. There are two sets of characters for Chinese numerals: one for everyday writing and one for use in commercial or financial contexts known as '''''dàxiě''''' (大写 in simplified Chinese, 大寫 in traditional Chinese). The latter arose because the characters used for writing numerals are geometrically simple, so simply using those numerals cannot prevent forgeries in the same way spelling numbers out in English would.
'''S''' denotes Simplified, '''T''' denotes Traditional.
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=1
|- bgcolor=eeeeee
!align=center width=60|[[Pinyin]]
!align=center width=60|Financial
!align=center width=60|Normal
!align=center width=60|Value
!align=center|Notes
|-
|líng||align=center|[[Wiktionary:零|零]]||align=center|零 or [[Wiktionary:〇|〇]]||[[0 (number)|0]]
|casual form is a circle
|-
|yī||align=center|[[Wiktionary:壹|壹]]||align=center|[[Wiktionary:一|一]]||[[1 (number)|1]]
|also &#24332; (obsolete)<br>also &#20040; (y&#257;o) when used in phone numbers etc., see footnote 1
|-
|èr||align=center|[[Wiktionary:貳|貳]] (T) or 贰 (S)||align=center|[[Wiktionary:二|二]]||[[2 (number)|2]]
|also &#24333; (obsolete)<br>&#20004; (S), &#20841; (T) (liǎng) is used when placed before a [[Chinese measure word|measure word]]
|-
|sān||align=center|[[Wiktionary:叄|叄]] (T) or 叁 (S)||align=center|[[Wiktionary:三|三]]||[[3 (number)|3]]
|&#24334; (obsolete)<br>&#21443; is also acceptable.
|-
|sì||align=center|[[Wiktionary:肆|肆]]||align=center|[[Wiktionary:四|四]]||[[4 (number)|4]]
|&nbsp;
|-
|wǔ||align=center|[[Wiktionary:伍|伍]]||align=center|[[Wiktionary:五|五]]||[[5 (number)|5]]
|&nbsp;
|-
|liù||align=center|[[Wiktionary:陸|陸]]||align=center|[[Wiktionary:六|六]]||[[6 (number)|6]]
|&nbsp;
|-
|qī||align=center|[[Wiktionary:柒|柒]]||align=center|[[Wiktionary:七|七]]||[[7 (number)|7]]
|&nbsp;
|-
|bā||align=center|[[Wiktionary:捌|捌]]||align=center|[[Wiktionary:八|八]]||[[8 (number)|8]]
|&nbsp;
|-
|jiǔ||align=center|[[Wiktionary:玖|玖]]||align=center|[[Wiktionary:九|九]]||[[9 (number)|9]]
|&nbsp;
|-
|colspan=5|&nbsp;
|-
|shí||align=center|[[Wiktionary:拾|拾]]||align=center|[[Wiktionary:十|十]]||[[10 (number)|10]]
|&nbsp;
|-
|niàn||align=center|貳拾||align=center|廿||[[20 (number)|20]]
|also &#21316;<br>used mostly on calendars; otherwise &#20108;&#21313; is used. Pronounced as ''ya'' in Cantonese.<br>see [[#constructing numbers|constructing numbers]] below
|-
|sà||align=center|叄拾||align=center|卅||[[30 (number)|30]]
|used mostly on calendars (三十 is used)
|-
|xì||align=center|肆拾||align=center|卌||[[40 (number)|40]]
|rarely used (四十 is used)
|-
|bǎi||align=center|佰||align=center|&#30334;||[[100 (number)|100]]
|&nbsp;
|-
|qiān||align=center|仟||align=center|千||[[1000 (number)|1,000]]
|&nbsp;
|-
|wàn||align=center|萬||align=center|&#19975; (S)<br>&#33836; (T)||[[10000 (number)|10<sup>4</sup>]]
|Chinese numbers group by ten-thousands<br>see [[#constructing numbers|constructing numbers]] below
|-
|colspan=5|&nbsp;
|-
|yì||align=center|億||align=center|&#20159; (S)<br>&#20740; (T)||[[1_E8|10<sup>8</sup>]]
|also means [[1_E5|10<sup>5</sup>]] in some ancient contexts.<br/>see [[#large number systems|large number systems]] below
|-
|zhào||align=center|兆||&nbsp;||[[1_E12|10<sup>12</sup>]]
|also means [[1_E6|10<sup>6</sup>]] or 10<sup>16</sup> in some ancient contexts
also means [[mega]]
|-
|jīng||align=center|京<br/>(or 經)||&nbsp;||10<sup>16</sup>
|(Ancient Chinese) Also: [[1_E7|10<sup>7</sup>]], 10<sup>24</sup>, 10<sup>32</sup>.
|-
|gāi||align=center|垓||&nbsp;||10<sup>20</sup>
|(Ancient Chinese) Also: [[1_E8|10<sup>8</sup>]], 10<sup>32</sup>, 10<sup>64</sup>.
|-
|zǐ||align=center|秭||&nbsp;||[[1_E24|10<sup>24</sup>]]
|(Ancient Chinese) Also: [[1_E9|10<sup>9</sup>]], 10<sup>40</sup>, 10<sup>128</sup>.
|-
|ráng||align=center|穰||&nbsp;||10<sup>28</sup>
|(Ancient Chinese) Also: 10<sup>10</sup>, 10<sup>48</sup>, 10<sup>256</sup>.
|-
|gōu||align=center|溝||&nbsp;||10<sup>32</sup>
|(Ancient Chinese) Also: 10<sup>11</sup>, 10<sup>56</sup>, 10<sup>512</sup>.
|-
|jiàn||align=center|澗||&nbsp;||10<sup>36</sup>
|(Ancient Chinese) Also: [[1_E12|10<sup>12</sup>]], 10<sup>64</sup>, 10<sup>1024</sup>.
|-
|zhèng||align=center|正||&nbsp;||10<sup>40</sup>
|(Ancient Chinese) Also: 10<sup>13</sup>, 10<sup>72</sup>, 10<sup>2048</sup>.
|-
|zài||align=center|載||&nbsp;||10<sup>44</sup>
|(Ancient Chinese) Also: 10<sup>14</sup>, 10<sup>80</sup>, 10<sup>4096</sup>.
|-
|jí||align=center|極||&nbsp;||10<sup>48</sup>
|(Ancient Chinese) Also: 10<sup>15</sup>, 10<sup>88</sup>, 10<sup>8192</sup>.
|-
|colspan=5|&nbsp;
|-
|fēn||align=center|分||&nbsp;||[[Tenth|1/10]]
|also means [[deci]] as a prefix, see [[#SI prefixes|SI prefixes]] below
|-
|lí||align=center|釐||align=center|&#21400;||[[hundredth|1/100]]
|also means [[centi]]
|-
|háo||align=center|毫||&nbsp;||1/1,000
|also means [[milli]]
|-
|sī||align=center|絲||&nbsp;||10<sup>-4</sup>
|(Ancient Chinese)
|-
|hū||align=center|忽||&nbsp;||10<sup>-5</sup>
|(Ancient Chinese)
|-
|wēi||align=center|微||&nbsp;||10<sup>-6</sup>
|also means [[micro]] as a prefix, see [[#SI prefixes|SI prefixes]] below
|-
|xiān||align=center|纖||&nbsp;||10<sup>-7</sup>
|(Ancient Chinese)
|-
|shā||align=center|沙||&nbsp;||10<sup>-8</sup>
|(Ancient Chinese)
|-
|chén||align=center|塵||&nbsp;||10<sup>-9</sup>
|(Ancient Chinese) In SI units it is called &#32013; nà
|-
|āi||align=center|埃||&nbsp;||10<sup>-10</sup>
|(Ancient Chinese)
|-
|miǎo||align=center|渺||&nbsp;||10<sup>-11</sup>
|(Ancient Chinese)
|-
|mò||align=center|漠||&nbsp;||10<sup>-12</sup>
|(Ancient Chinese)
|}
幺; (yāo), "the smallest", is used widely in [[mainland China]] as a replacement for yī in series of digits such as phone numbers, room numbers, et cetera, to prevent confusion between similar sounding words. It is never used in counting, nor is it used in [[Taiwan]] (except for [[soldier]]s in the [[ROC military]], the [[police]] force, and the emergency telephone number 119 for calling a [[fire department]] or requesting an [[ambulance]]) or [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]] (except when communicating in [[Standard Mandarin]]).
===Constructing numbers===
Multiple-digit numbers are constructed using a multiplicative principle; first the digit itself (from 1 to 9), then the place (such as 10 or 100); then the next digit.
In Mandarin, the multiplier 兩 (liǎng) is used rather than 二 (èr) for all numbers greater than 200 with the "2" numeral. Use of both 兩 (liǎng) or 二 (èr) are acceptab |
images, technical data, etc
* [http://www.daveswarbirds.com/b-17/ Battle-Damaged B-17s] - Photographic chronicle of the horrific damage suffered by Forts in combat
== Related content ==
{{Commons|B-17 Flying Fortress}}
{{aircontent|
|sequence=
* Military: [[Martin B-10#XB-14|XB-14]] - [[Boeing XB-15|XB-15]] - [[Martin XB-16|XB-16]] - [[B-17 Flying Fortress|B-17]] - [[B-18 Bolo|B-18]] - [[Douglas XB-19|XB-19]] - [[Boeing Y1B-20|Y1B-20]]
* Boeing: [[P-26 Peashooter|266]] - [[P-26 Peashooter|281]] - [[Boeing XB-15|294]] - '''299''' - [[Boeing 307|307]] - [[Boeing 314|314]] - [[Boeing Y1B-20|316]]
|related=
* [[Boeing XB-15]]
* [[XB-38 Flying Fortress]]
* [[YB-40 Flying Fortress]]
|similar aircraft=
* [[Avro Lancaster]]
* [[B-24 Liberator]]
* [[Handley-Page Halifax]]
|lists=
* [[List of bomber aircraft]]
* [[List of military aircraft of the United States]]
|see also=
}}
[[Category:U.S. bomber aircraft 1930-1939|B-17 Flying Fortress]]
[[da:B-17]]
[[de:Boeing B-17]]
[[es:Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress]]
[[fr:Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress]]
[[he:B-17 מבצר מעופף]]
[[it:Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress]]
[[ja:B-17 (爆撃機)]]
[[nl:B-17 Flying Fortress]]
[[pl:Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress]]
[[sv:Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BQ-7 Aphrodite</title>
<id>4998</id>
<revision>
<id>15903245</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-31T04:47:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ingoolemo</username>
<id>71699</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to [[Operation Aphrodite]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Operation Aphrodite]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bathyscaphe Trieste</title>
<id>5001</id>
<revision>
<id>41748712</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T13:37:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mervyn</username>
<id>32947</id>
</contributor>
<comment>clarify museum ship, tidying</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bathyscaphe_Trieste.jpg|thumb|200px|The bathyscaphe ''Trieste'']]
[[Image:Bathyscaphe Trieste Closeup.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Close-up of pressure sphere]]
[[Image:trieste2.JPG|thumb|200px|right|''Trieste'' emblem]]
'''''Trieste''''' was a deep-diving research [[bathyscaphe]] ("deep boat") with a crew of two. Designed by the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] scientist [[Auguste Piccard]], she was launched in August 1953 in the [[Mediterranean]] near [[Naples]], [[Italy]]. She was purchased by the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] in 1958 for $250,000.00.
The ''Trieste'' basically consisted of a chamber filled with [[gasoline]] for [[buoyancy]] and a separate pressure sphere. This sphere (called [[bathysphere]] by [[Auguste Piccard|Piccard]]) provided just enough room for two persons and was built by the [[Krupp]] Steel Works of [[Essen, Germany|Essen]], [[Germany]]. To withstand the staggering pressure of 9 tons per square inch (124 M[[pascal|Pa]]) at the bottom of [[Challenger Deep]], the new sphere's walls were 5 inches (127 mm) thick. It weighed 13 tons in air, 8 in water.
Transported to the [[Naval Electronics Laboratory]]'s facility in [[San Diego, California|San Diego]], she was extensively modified and then used in a series of deep-submergence tests in the [[Pacific Ocean]] during the next few years, including a dive to the [[Mariana Trench]], the deepest known part of the ocean, in January 1960.
''Trieste'' departed San Diego on [[October 5]], [[1959]] on the way to [[Guam]] by the freighter ''Santa Maria'' to participate in ''[[Project Nekton]]'' - a series of very deep dives in the Mariana Trench.
On [[January 23]], [[1960]], she reached the ocean floor in the Challenger Deep, carrying [[Jacques Piccard]] (son of Auguste) and Lieutenant [[Don Walsh]], USN. This was the first time a ship, manned or unmanned, had reached the deepest point in the sea. The onboard systems indicated a depth of 37,800 ft (11,521 m), but this was later revised to 35,813 ft (10,916 m). (However later and more accurate measurements made in 1995 have found the Challenger Deep to be shallower, at 35,798 ft (10,911 m)). The descent took almost five hours and the two men spent barely twenty minutes on the ocean floor before undertaking the 3 hour 15 minute ascent. They observed small [[sole (fish)|soles]] and [[flounder]]s and noted the floor consisted of [[diatom]]aceous ooze while on the bottom.
In April 1963, she was modified and used in the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to search for the missing submarine [[USS Thresher (SSN-593)|USS ''Thresher'']] (SSN-593). In August 1963, ''Trieste'' found the wreck off [[New England]], 8400 feet (2.56 km) below the surface. The bathyscaphe was then retired and some of her components were used in the ''[[Bathyscaphe Trieste II|Trieste II]]''.
In appearance at the time of ''Project Nekton'' she was over 50 feet (15 m) long, but the great extent of this was a series of floats filled with 22,500 US [[gallon]]s (85 m<sup>3</sup>) of gasoline to provide buoyancy, and air tanks at either end of the ship. The crew were in a 6 ft (2 m) diameter steel sphere attached to the underside of the floats. An additional nine tons of pellet shot were taken on the craft to speed the descent. This additional weight was held in place by electromagnets, so that in case of an electric failure the craft would immediately start to rise to the surface.
The ''Trieste'' class bathyscaphes were replaced by the [[DSV Alvin|''Alvin'' class]] submersibles, best exemplified by [[DSV Alvin|DSV ''Alvin'']]. Though they could not dive as deep (a maximum of 20,000 feet for [[DSV Sea Cliff|DSV ''Sea Cliff'']]), they were more capable and more durable.
''Trieste'' is now a permanent exhibit at the [[Naval Historical Center]], [[Washington Navy Yard]] in [[Washington, DC]].
==External links==
* [http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/t8/trieste.htm Trieste]
* [http://www.bathyscaphtrieste.com/ HISTORY OF THE BATHYSCAPH TRIESTE]
* [http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/ships/html/sh_034900_fnrs2.htm FNRS-2]
==See also==
* [[Deep Submergence Vehicle]]
* [[Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle]]
* [[Trieste class]]
* [[DSV Alvin|Alvin (DSV-2)]]
[[Category:Trieste class DSV|Trieste I]]
[[Category:United States Navy submarines|Trieste]]
[[Category:Submarines of Italy|Batiscafo Trieste]]
[[Category:Museum ships|Trieste]]
[[de:Trieste (U-Boot)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Battle of Bouvines</title>
<id>5003</id>
<revision>
<id>41626630</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T16:51:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.107.3.100</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Battle */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Bouvines
|image=[[Image:Battle-bouvines.jpg|300px]]
|caption=King [[Philip II of France]] at Bouvines, by [[Horace Vernet]]
|partof= the Welf-Hohenstaufen feud
|date=[[July 27]], [[1214]]
|place=[[Bouvines]]
|result=Decisive French victory
|combatant1=[[Welf]]s and Flemish
|combatant2=French
|commander1=[[Otto IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto of Brunswick]] and [[Jeanne of Flanders|Ferrand of Flanders]]
|commander2=[[Philip II of France|Philip Augustus]] of France
|strength1=heavy cavalry: 6500; infantry: 40000
|strength2=cavalry: 7000; infantry: 30000
|casualties1=
|casualties2=
}}
The '''Battle of Bouvines,''' [[July 27]], [[1214]], was the first great international conflict of alliances among national forces in Europe. In the alliances, which were orchestrated by [[Pope Innocent III]], [[Philip II of France|Philip Augustus]] of France defeated [[Otto IV of Germany]] and count [[Jeanne of Flanders|Ferrand of Flanders]] so decisively that Otto was deposed and replaced by [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] [[Hohenstaufen]]. Ferrand was captured and imprisoned. Philip was himself able to take undisputed control of the territories of [[Anjou]], [[Brittany]], [[Maine (province of France)|Maine]], [[Normandy]], and the [[Touraine]], which he had recently seized from Otto's kinsman and ally [[John of England]].
The city of [[Bouvines]] is between [[Lille]] and [[Tournai]], and in the 13th century was in the County of [[Flanders]] and is part of modern [[France]].
==Prelude==
The campaign plan seems to have been designed by John, who was the fulcrum of the alliances; his general idea was to draw the French king away from Paris southward against himself and keep him occupied, while the main army, under emperor Otto IV, with the counts of the low countries, should march on Paris from the north. John's part in the general strategy was carried out at first, but the allies in the north moved slowly. John, after two encounters with his mortal enemy of France, turned back to his Guienne possessions on July 3, however, perhaps in one of his fits of despondency. When, three weeks later, the emperor finally concentrated his forces at [[Valenciennes]], John was out of the picture, and in the interval Philip Augustus had countermarched northward and regrouped. Philip now took the offensive himself, and in maneuvering to get a good cavalry ground upon which to fight he offered battle (July 27), on the plain east of Bouvines and the river Marque. The imperial army drew up facing south-westward towards Bouvines, the heavy cavalry on the wings, the infantry in one great mass in the center, supported by the cavalry corps under the emperor himself. The total force is estimated at 6500 heavy cavalry and 40,000 foot solidiers. The French army (about 7000 cavalry and 30,000 infantry) took ground exactly opposite in a similar formation, cavalry on the wings, infantry, including the townsmen (''milice des communes'') in the center, Philip with the cavalry reserve and the royal standard, the [[Oriflamme]], in rear of the men on foot.
==Battle==
The battle opened with a confused cavalry fight on the French right, in which individual feats of knight |
I. V.V.A.A., Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 2005. ISBN 3-937734-10-4
* Agapita Jurado Santos: "Obras teatrales derivadas de novelas cervantinas (siglo XVII)". Para una bibliografía. Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 2005. ISBN 3-935004-95-8
* James A.Parr: "Cervantes and the Quixote: A Touchstone for Literary Criticism". Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 2005. ISBN 3-937734-21-X
* Reichenberger: "Cervantes and the Hermeneutics of Satire". Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 2005. ISBN 3-937734-11-2
* Kurt Reichenberger: "Cervantes, un gran satírico?" Los enigmas del Quijote descifrados para el carísimo lector. Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 2005. ISBN 3-937734-12-0
* Kurt & Theo Reichenberger: "Cervantes: El Quijote y sus mensajes destinados al lector". Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 2004. ISBN 3-937734-05-8
* Karl-Ludwig Selig: "Studies on Cervantes". Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 1995. ISBN 3-928264-64-9
* Krzysztof Sliwa: "Vida de Miguel Cervantes Saavedra". Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 2005. ISBN 3-937734-13-9
* V.V.A.A., Cervantes. Estudios sobre Cervantes en la víspera de su centenario. Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 1994. ISBN 3-928064-64-9
* Dominique Aubier, ''Don Quichotte, le prodigieux secours du messie'', editions M.L.L. 1997 ISBN 2-9508391-2-6
* Dominique Aubier, ''Don Quichotte, le révélation du code de la Bible''; editions M.L.L. 1999, ISBN 2-9508391-4-2
* Dominique Aubier, ''Don Quichotte, Prophète d'Israel'', éd. Robert Laffont, 1968, Paris
* Dominique Aubier, ''Don Quijote, Profeta y Cabalista'', ed. Obelisco, ISBN 84-300-4527-9
* Dominique Aubier, ''Don Quichotte, la réaffirmation messianique du Coran'' editions M.L.L. 2001 ISBN 2-9508391-8-5
==Films and iconography==
[[Image:Plisecka.jpg|thumb|275px|[[Maya Plisetskaya]] in the ballet ''Don Quixote''.]]
Several films are based on the story of Don Quixote, including:
* ''Don Quixote'' ([[1933]]), directed by [[Georg Wilhelm Pabst]]
* ''[[Дон Кихот]]'' ([[1957]]), a Soviet production by [[Grigori Kozintsev]]
* ''[[Man of La Mancha]]'' ([[1972]]), directed by [[Arthur Hiller]] (also a stage musical by [[Dale Wasserman]])
* ''El Quijote de Miguel de Cervantes'' ([[1991]]), a [[television]] [[miniseries]] directed by Manuel Gutiérrez Aragón
* ''Don Quixote'', begun by [[Orson Welles]] but never finished; a reshaped version by [[Jesus Franco]] was released in ([[1992]])
* ''Don Quixote'' ([[2000]]), directed by Peter Yates
* ''[[Lost in La Mancha]]'' ([[2002]]) is a documentary movie about [[Terry Gilliam]]'s failed attempt to make a movie adaptation of Don Quixote.
The movie "Kissing a Fool," starring David Schwimmer, is based on a story from Don Quixote.
[[Hanna-Barbera]] released a short-lived children's cartoon based on the story called ''[[Don Coyote and Sancho Panda]]''. Other than the [[anthropomorphic]] main characters, the other roles' species have not been changed, and use the original names.
Don Quixote inspired a large number of illustrators, painters and draughtsmen such as [[Gustave Doré]], [[Pablo Picasso]], [[Salvador Dali]] and [[Antonio de La Gandara]].
In Bolivia, Don Quixote became a symbol for justice in a series of paintings by the muralist, [[Walter Solón Romero]]. These were painted during many years of dictatorships that led to Solón´s arrest and torture.
==Opera, music and ballet==
''Don Quichotte'', opera by [[Jules Massenet]], premiered at Monte Carlo Opera on February 24, 1910. In the title role at the first performance was the legendary Russian bass [[Feodor Chaliapin]], for whom the part was written.
There is also [[Master Peter's Puppet Show]], an opera by [[Manuel de Falla]] based on an episode from Book II. Also based on an episode from the novel is ''Die Hochzeit des Camacho'', an early opera by [[Felix Mendelssohn]].
[[Richard Strauss]] composed the tone poem ''Don Quixote'', subtitling it "Introduction, Theme with Variations, and Finale" and 'Fantastic Variations for Large Orchestra on a Theme of Knightly Character.' The music is full of musical tics, pops, and other random sounds symbolizing Don Quixote's insanity, and they increase in volume and frequency as the music develops.
[[Georg Philipp Telemann]] wrote an orchestral [[suite]] entitled "Burlesque Don Quixotte".
In [[1972]] [[Canada|Canadian]] singer-songwriter [[Gordon Lightfoot]] released an album entitled ''[[Don Quixote (album)|Don Quixote]]''. The album's title track was a [[Folk music|folk song]] based around the character of Don Quixote.
[[1869]] saw the [[Bolshoi Ballet]]'s premiere of [[Marius Petipa]]'s [[ballet]] ''Don Quixote'', set to music by [[Léon Minkus]]. This was substantially revised by [[Alexander Gorsky]] in [[1900]], and revisited by several other choreographers in the course of the twentieth century. In 1972, [[Rudolf Nureyev]] and [[Robert Helpmann|Sir Robert Helpmann]] filmed another version of this ballet over 25 days in 40 degree heat, in Melbourne's Essendon airport hangar, which is considered one of Australia's greatest artistic achievements. The choreography was credited to Nureyev, but based closely on Petipa's.
[[George Balanchine]] created another ''Don Quixote'' ballet in 1965, to music by [[Nicolas Nabokov]]. This was dedicated to the dancer [[Suzanne Farrell]], whom he played opposite in the original production. In [[2005]] [[The Suzanne Farrell Ballet]] and [[The National Ballet of Canada]] co-produced a restaging of this ballet, the first in 25 years.
In Puerto Rico, Destileria Serralles' most famous rum is called Don Q, and the logo is a sideview of Don Quixote on horseback.
Israeli transexual pop star, and winner of the 1998 [[Eurovision Song Contest]], [[Dana International]] recorded a song entitled Don Quixote [Hebrew: דון ק'חוטי].
==Spelling and pronunciation==
''Quixote'' is the original spelling in mediaeval Castilian, and is used in [[English language|English]]. However, modern Spanish has since gone through [[spelling reform]]s and [[phonetics|phonetic changes]] which have turned the ''x'' into ''j''.
The ''x'' was pronounced like an English ''sh'' sound ([[voiceless postalveolar fricative]]) in mediaeval times&mdash;{{IPA|/kiˈʃote/}} in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]]&mdash;and this is reflected in the French name ''Don Quichotte''. However, such words (now virtually all spelt with a ''j'') are now pronounced as a [[voiceless velar fricative]] sound like the [[Scots language|Scottish]] or [[German language|German]] ''ch'' (as in ''Loch'', ''Bach'') or the [[Greek language|Greek]] Chi (χ)&mdash;{{IPA|/kiˈxote/}}. English speakers generally attempt something close to the modern Spanish pronunciation when saying ''Quixote''/''Quijote'', although more Anglicized pronunciations of "Don Quixote" often sound more like "Donkey Hotey" or "Don Quicks Oat" or even "Donk Quitz Olt".
==400th anniversary==
[[Image:Spanish commemorative euro coin 2005.jpg|right|100px|frame|[[Spain]]'s coin commemorating the 400th anniversary of the publication of Don Quixote]]
The book's 400th anniversary was celebrated around the world in 2005. Spain issued a commemorative €2 coin. In [[Venezuela]], President [[Hugo Chávez]]'s government handed out 1 million free copies as part of a national literacy program [http://books.guardian.co.uk/news/articles/0,6109,1464835,00.html]. In the [[UK]], [[BBC Radio]] ran during two weeks a ten part serialisation of an adaptation of the work. (There had previously been a 2-part, 3-hour BBC Radio adaptation in [[1980]]). <!-- [http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/programmes/masterpiece.shtml] [http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/programmes/off_the_shelf.shtml]--> In late 2005, [[Peru]] presented at a book fair in Guadalajara a version of Don Quixote translated into the [[Quechua]] language.
==See also==
* [[Belianis]]
* [[List of characters in Don Quixote]]
* [[3552 Don Quixote|Asteroid 3552 Don Quixote]], named after the character
==External links==
{{wikisource}}{{Wikiquote}}{{commons|Don_Quixote}}
*{{gutenberg|no=996|name=Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra}}
*[http://www.planetalibro.com.ar/ebooks/eam/ebook_view.php?ebooks_books_id=25 El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha (spanish ebook)]
*[[Project Gutenberg]] e-texts of ''[http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/search?amode=start&author=Cervantes+Saavedra%2c+Miguel+de]''
*[http://www.elmundo.es/quijote Spanish language newspaper elmundo carries the text in spanish without advertising as a courtesy]
*[http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/FichaObra.html?portal=40&Ref=1270&audio=1 Spanish language audio of entire book]
*[http://www.donquijotedelamancha2005.com Official Don Quixote Quatercentenary site]
*[http://www.bookrags.com/notes/dq/ Notes on the novel]
*[http://www.donquijote.org/vmuseum/ Don Quixote] Virtual Museum of Don Quixote
*[http://www.stefanmart.de/thumbs/12e_quixote.htm 28 Illustrations of Don Quijote by Stefan Mart (1933)]
*[http://www.400Windmills.com 400 Windmills] Weblog Devoted to Discussing Don Quixote
*[http://www.h-net.org/~cervantes/csa/artics04/mcgaha.pdf ''Is There a Hidden Jewish Meaning in Don Quixote?''] by Michael McGaha (Pomona College, Californie)
*[http://dominique-aubier.org/france/books/Q1-2.html The secret kabalistical encodings in Don Quijote.(French)]
*[http://dominique-aubier.org/france/books/KAB.html The secret encodings in Don Quijote. Don Quijote como projeta y cabalista (spanish)]
* [http://www.dominique-aubier.org/france/books/KAB.html ''El secreto de Don Quijote'' spanish film, english subtitles]
* Coloquio Cervantes http://www.ou.edu/cervantes/coloquiocervantes.html
*[http://www.fut.es/~apym/on-line/pymquixote.pdf ''The Translator as Author: Two English Quijotes''], by Anthony Pym, Intercultural Studies Group, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain.
*See also [[Miguel de Cervantes]].
[[C |
act that Tennyson dedicated his ''Tiresias'' to FitzGerald's memory, in some touching reminiscent verses to "Old Fitz." This was but the signal for that universal appreciation of Omar Khayyám in his English version. The melody of FitzGerald's verse is so exquisite, the thoughts he rearranges and strings together are so profound, and the general atmosphere of poetry in which he steeps his version is so pure, that no surprise need be expressed at the universal favour which the poem has met with among critical readers. It became better known to the general public than any single poem of the time.
Of FitzGerald as a man practically nothing was known until, in [[1889]], Mr W. Aldis Wright, his intimate friend and literary executor, published his ''Letters and Literary Remains'' in three volumes. This was followed in [[1895]] by the ''Letters to Fanny Kemble''. These letters constitute a fresh bid for immortality, since they discovered that FitzGerald was a witty, picturesque and sympathetic letterwriter. One of the most unobtrusive authors who ever lived, FitzGerald has, nevertheless, by the force of his extraordinary individuality, gradually influenced the whole face of English ''belles-lettres'', in particular as it was manifested between 1890 and 1900.
The ''Works of Edward FitzGerald'' appeared in [[1887]]. See also a chronological list of FitzGerald's works (Caxton Club, Chicago, 1899); notes for a bibliography by Col. WF Prideaux, in ''[[Notes and Queries]]'' (9th series, vol. vL), published separately in 1901; ''Letters and Literary Remains'' (ed. [[William Aldis Wright|W Aldis Wright]], 1902-1903); and the ''Life of Edward FitzGerald'', by Thomas Wright (1904), which contains a bibliography (vol. ii. pp. 241-243) and a list of sources (vol. i. pp. xvi.&ndash;xvii.). The volume on FitzGerald in the "English Men of Letters" series is by AC Benson. The FitzGerald centenary was celebrated in March 1909. See the ''Centenary Celebrations Souvenir'' (Ipswich, 1909) and ''[[The Times]]'' for [[March 25]], [[1909]].
== The Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám of Naishápur ==
FitzGerald's translation of the [[Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam|Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám]] is notable for the frequency and ubiquity of quotations from it and allusions to it. Its popularity, still high, is in decline; but for about a century following its publication, it formed part of the mental furniture of most English-speaking readers.
Of the 107 [[stanza]]s in the poem (fifth edition), the [[Oxford Dictionary of Quotations]] (2nd edition) quotes no less than 43 ''entire stanzas in full,'' in addition to many individual lines and couplets.
The most familiar stanza is surely:
:A Book of Verses underneath the Bough,
:A Jug of Wine, a Loaf of Bread&mdash;and Thou
: Beside me singing in the Wilderness&mdash;
:Oh, Wilderness were Paradise enow!
Lines and phrases from the poem have been used as the titles of many literary works ([[Nevil Shute]]'s ''The Chequer Board;'' [[James Michener]]'s ''The Fires of Spring''; [[Agatha Christie]]'s ''[[The Moving Finger]]''; [[Eugene O'Neill]]'s ''Ah, Wilderness''&mdash;slightly misquoted). Allusions to it abound in the short stories of [[O. Henry]]. [[Saki]]'s nom-de-plume is a reference to it. In 1925, when [[Billy Rose]] and [[Al Dubin]] wrote the popular song ''A Cup of Coffee, A Sandwich, and You,'' they surely expected listeners to catch the reference to the famous quatrain quoted above.
FitzGerald published five editions of his translation of the Rubáiyát, of which three (the first, second, and fifth) are significantly different. (The second and third are almost identical, as are the fourth and fifth). The first and fifth editions are almost equally popular and equally often anthologized. The stanza above, from the fifth edition, is more familiar than the corresponding stanza in the first edition ("Here with a Loaf of Bread beneath the bough/A Flask of Wine, a Book of Verse&mdash;and Thou"). On the other hand, the lines "'Tis all a Chequer-board of Nights and Days/Where Destiny with Men for Pieces plays," from the first edition, are more familiar than their equivalent from the fifth: "But helpless Pieces of the Game He plays/Upon this Chequer-board of Nights and Days").
[[Iran|Persian]] literature scholar [[Dick Davis]], in a 1989 introduction to the poem, strongly suggests that FitzGerald was gay (describing his marriages as "disastrous.") He points out suggestions of [[homoerotic]]ism in the poem. "The ''sáki''&mdash;the cup-bearer of Persian poetry may be of either sex... [but] is more often conceived of as a young man than as a girl&mdash;as a [[Ganymede (mythology)|Ganymede]] figure, in fact." The line "this delightful Herb whose tender Green/Fledges the River's Lip on which we lean" suggests to Davis a reference to an adolescent boy's moustache; while the stanza
:None answer'd this; but after Silence spake
:A Vessel of a more ungainly Make:
: &ldquo;They sneer at me for leaning all awry;
:&ldquo;What! did the Hand then of the Potter shake?&rdquo;
is read by Davis as FitzGerald's protest of the stigmatization of his sexuality.
'''Spelling note:''' In this article, FitzGerald's name is spelled with an internal capital G, as it is in his own publications, in anthologies such as the [[Quiller-Couch]] ''Oxford Book of English Verse,'' and in most reference books up through about the [[1960s]]. Both spellings&mdash;FitzGerald and Fitzgerald&mdash;are currently seen.
==Quotes==
"If you can prove to me that one miracle took place, I will believe he is a just God who damned us all because a woman ate an apple."
"Science unrolls a greater epic than the Iliad. The present day teems with new discoveries in Fact, which are greater, as regards the soul and prospect of men, than all the disquisitions and quiddities of the Schoolmen. A few fossil bones in clay and limestone have opened a greater vista back into time than the Indian imagination ventured upon for its gods. This vision of Time must not only wither the poet's hope of immortality, it is in itself more wonderful than all the conceptions of Dante and Milton."
"I am all for the short and merry life."
Epitaph
==References==
*'''Great Minds''' "The Rubáiyát of Edward FitzOmar", Gary Sloan, [[Council for Secular Humanism|Free Inquiry]], Winter 2002/2003 - Volume 23, No. 1
* {{gutenberg author| id=Edward+FitzGerald | name=Edward FitzGerald}}
{{1911}}
[[Category:1809 births|FitzGerald, Edward]]
[[Category:1883 deaths|FitzGerald, Edward]]
[[Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge|FitzGerald, Edward]]
[[Category:English poets|FitzGerald, Edward]]
[[Category:Persian-English translators|FitzGerald, Edward]]
[[Category:Natives of Suffolk|FitzGerald, Edward]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Everything2</title>
<id>9538</id>
<revision>
<id>41967008</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:00:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Damian Yerrick</username>
<id>1</id>
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<comment>/* Rewards */ Node Heaven</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Everything2''', or '''E2''' for short, is a large collaborative [[Internet]] community, currently at [http://www.everything2.com/ www.everything2.com]. It describes itself as having "grown from being a very simple user-written [[encyclopedia]] to an [[online community]] with a focus to write, publish and edit a quality database of information, insight and humor."
==Nodes and writeups==
E2 users called ''noders'' create entries called ''nodes'' and add information in multiple ''writeups.'' Only logged-in users can create writeups, and only the author of a writeup or an editor appointed by the site administrators can edit a writeup. E2 categorizes writeups into four types: ''person'', ''place'', ''idea'', and ''thing''. Writeups are written in a simplified [[HTML]] dialect and do not contain images. As of [[25 July]], [[2005]], 1,025,556 nodes and 444,183 writeups exist.
There are other types of nodes that do not contain writeups; for instance, the administrators can create "superdoc" nodes (similar to [[Wikipedia]]'s [[special:Specialpages|special pages]]) such as Everything New Nodes and Page of Cool that allow interaction, and each user has a "homenode" where he or she can add a short autobiography or other text (or a picture, if he or she is level six or above -- see [[#Rewards|Rewards]], below).
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city with solid wooden walls. He described Attila himself as:
: ''"short of stature, with a broad chest and a large head; his eyes were small, his beard thin and sprinkled with gray; and he had a flat nose and a swarthy complexion, showing the evidences of his origin."''
Attila's physical appearance was most likely that of an [[Eastern Asia|Eastern Asian]] or more specifically a [[Mongol]], or perhaps a mixture of this type and the Turkic peoples of [[Central Asia]]. Indeed, he probably exhibited the characteristic Eastern Asian facial features, which Europeans were not used to seeing, and so they often described him in harsh terms.
Attila is known in Western history and tradition as the grim "Scourge of God", and his name has become a byword for cruelty and [[Barbarian|barbarism]]. Some of this may arise from a conflation of his traits, in the popular imagination, with those perceived in later [[steppe]] warlords such as the [[Mongol]] [[Great Khan]] [[Genghis Khan]] and [[Timur|Tamerlane]]: all run together as cruel, clever, and sanguinary lovers of battle and pillage. The reality of his character may be more complex. The Huns of Attila's era had been mingling with Roman civilization for some time, largely through the Germanic ''[[foederati]]'' of the border&mdash;so that by the time of Theodosius's embassy in 448, Priscus could identify [[Hunnic language|Hunnic]], [[Gothic language|Gothic]], and [[Latin]] as the three common languages of the horde. Priscus also recounts his meeting with an eastern Roman captive who had so fully [[cultural assimilation|assimilated]] into the Huns' way of life that he had no desire to return to his former country, and the Byzantine historian's description of Attila's humility and simplicity is unambiguous in its admiration.
The historical context of Attila's life played a large part in determining his later public image: in the waning years of the western Empire, his conflicts with Aetius (often called the "last of the Romans") and the strangeness of his culture both helped dress him in the mask of the ferocious barbarian and enemy of civilization, as he has been portrayed in any number of films and other works of art. The Germanic epics in which he appears offer more nuanced depictions: he is both a noble and generous ally, as [[Etzel]] in the ''Nibelungenlied'', and a cruel miser, as Atli in the ''Volsunga Saga'' and the ''Poetic Edda''. Some national histories, though, always portray him favorably; in [[Hungary]] and [[Turkey]] the names of Attila (sometimes as Atilla in [[Turkish language|Turkish]]) and his last wife Ildikó remain popular to this day. In a similar vein, the Hungarian author [[Géza Gárdonyi]]'s novel ''A láthatatlan ember'' (published in English as ''Slave of the Huns'', and largely based on Priscus) offered a sympathetic portrait of Attila as a wise and beloved leader.
The name Attila may mean "Little Father" in Gothic (''atta'' "father" plus diminutive suffix ''-la'') as many Goths were known to serve under Attila. It could also be of pre-[[Turkish language|Turkish]] ([[Altaic languages|Altaic]]) origin (compare it with [[Ataturk|Atatürk]] and ''Alma-Ata'', now called [[Almaty]]). It most probably originates from ''atta'' ("father") and ''il'' ("land"), meaning "Land-Father". [[Atil]] was also the [[Altaic]] name of the present-day [[Volga]] river which may have given its name to Attila.
<table width = 75% border="2" align="center" style="border-collapse: collapse;">
<tr><td width = 35% align="center">
Preceded by:<br>'''[[Bleda]]'''</td>
<td width = 30% align="center">[[List of Hunnish rulers|List of Hun monarchs]]</td>
<td width = 35% align="center">
Succeeded by:<br>'''[[Ernakh]]'''</td>
</tr></table>
==Notes==
#{{note|rift}} This younger son may have been [[Merovech]], founder of the [[Merovingian]] line, though the sources&mdash;[[Gregory of Tours]] and a later roster from the [[Battle of Chalons]]&mdash;are not conclusive.
#{{note|atlantic}}[[J.B. Bury]], ''The Invasion of Europe by the Barbarians'', lecture IX [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/bury/017.php (e-text)]
#{{note|orleans}}Later accounts of the battle place the Huns either already within the city or in the midst of storming it when the Roman-Visigoth army arrived; Jordanes mentions no such thing. See Bury, ibid.
#{{note|marcellinus}}[[Marcellinus Comes]], ''Chronicon'' [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/marcellinus.html (e-text)], quoted in Hector Munro Chadwick: ''The Heroic Age'' (London, [[Cambridge University Press]], 1926), p. 39 n. 1.
#{{note|atli_death}} ''Volsunga Saga'', [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/volsunga/021.php Chapter 39]; ''Poetic Edda'', [http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/poe/poe35.htm Atlamol En Grönlenzku, The Greenland Ballad of Atli]
==See also==
*[[Attila the Hun to Charlemagne]]
*[[Huns]]
*[[History of Europe]]
*[[History of the Balkans]]
*[[List of military commanders]]
*[[Mule (Foundation)|The Mule]]
==References==
Classical texts include:
*Priscus: ''Byzantine History'', available in the original Greek in Ludwig Dindorf : ''Historici Graeci Minores'' (Leipzig, B.G. Teubner, 1870) and available online as a translation by [[J.B. Bury]]: ''[http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jod/texts/priscus.html Priscus at the court of Attila]''
*Jordanes: ''[http://www.ucalgary.ca/~vandersp/Courses/texts/jordgeti.html The Origin and Deeds of the Goths]''
Recommended modern works are:
*Babcock, Michael A.: "The Night Attila Died: Solving the Murder of Attila the Hun" (Berkley Publishing Group, ISBN 0425202720)
*Blockley, R.C.: ''The Fragmentary Classicising Historians of the Later Roman Empire'', vol. II (ISBN 0905205154) (a collection of fragments from Priscus, Olympiodorus, and others, with original text and translation)
*C.D. Gordon: ''The Age of Attila: Fifth-century Byzantium and the Barbarians'' (Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 1960) is a translated collection, with commentary and annotation, of ancient writings on the subject (including those of Priscus).
* J. Otto Maenchen-Helfen (ed. Max Knight): ''The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture'' (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1973) is a useful scholarly survey.
*E. A. Thompson : ''A History of Attila and the Huns'' (London, [[Oxford University Press]], 1948) is the authoritative English work on the subject. It was reprinted in 1999 as ''The Huns'' in the ''Peoples of Europe'' series (ISBN 0631214437). Thompson did not enter controversies over Hunnic origins, and his revisionist view of Attila read his victories as achieved only while there was no concerted opposition.
==External links==
* A reconstructed [http://www.reportret.info/gallery/attilathehun1.html portrait of Attila the Hun], based on historical sources, in a contemporary style.
* Edward Gibbon describes Attila in his classic [http://www.ccel.org/g/gibbon/decline/volume1/chap34.htm The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]
* Excerpt from 'Leadership Secrets of Attila The Hun' By Wess Roberts, Ph.D describing Attila's [http://worldservicecorps.us/attila%20intro.htm experience in Rome].
[[Category:400s births]]
[[Category:453 deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[Category:History of Europe]]
[[Category:History of Hungary]]
[[Category:History of the Germanic peoples]]
[[Category:Late Antiquity]]
[[Category:Huns]]
[[ar:أتيلا الهوني]]
[[bg:Атила]]
[[cs:Attila]]
[[da:Attila]]
[[de:Attila]]
[[es:Atila]]
[[eo:Atilo la Huno]]
[[fr:Attila]]
[[ko:아틸라]]
[[hr:Atila]]
[[id:Atilla]]
[[it:Attila]]
[[he:אטילה ההוני]]
[[lt:Atila]]
[[hu:Attila (hun uralkodó)]]
[[ms:Atilla]]
[[nl:Attila de Hun]]
[[ja:アッティラ]]
[[no:Attila]]
[[pl:Attyla]]
[[pt:Átila o Huno]]
[[ro:Attila]]
[[ru:Аттила]]
[[scn:Attila]]
[[sl:Atila]]
[[sr:Атила]]
[[fi:Attila]]
[[sv:Attila]]
[[tr:Attila]]
[[uk:Аттіла]]
[[zh:阿提拉]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aegean Sea</title>
<id>842</id>
<revision>
<id>42124188</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:55:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Flauto Dolce</username>
<id>30706</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Disambiguate [[Samos]] to [[Samos Island]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Aegean Sea map.png|thumb|right|The Aegean Sea.]]
The '''Aegean Sea''' is an arm of the [[Mediterranean Sea]], located between the Greek peninsula and [[Asia Minor]]. It is connected to the [[Marmara Sea]] and [[Black Sea]] by the [[Dardanelles]] and [[Bosporus]].
== Etymology ==
In ancient times there were various explanations for the name Aegean. It was said to have been named after the town of [[Aegae]], or [[Aegea]], a queen of the [[Amazons]] who died in the sea, or [[Aegeus]], the father of [[Theseus]], who drowned himself in the sea when he thought his son had died.
The [[Greek language|Greek]] name for the sea is {{Polytonic|Αἰγαῖον Πέλαγος}} (Aigaion Pelagos, [[Modern Greek language|Modern Greek]] Ejéon Pélaγos) and Ege Denizi in [[Turkish language|Turkish]]. A possible etymology is a derivation from the dialect word {{Polytonic|αἶγες}} (aiges) "waves" ([[Hesychius of Alexandria|Hesychius]]; metaphorical use of {{Polytonic|αἴξ}} (aix) "goat"), hence "wavy sea", cf. also {{Polytonic|αἰγιαλός}} (aigialos) "coast".
== History ==
In ancient times the sea was the birthplace of two ancient civilizations - the [[Minoan civilization|Minoans]] of [[Crete]], and the [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenean]] Civilization of the [[Peloponnese]]. Later arose the city-states of Athens and Sparta among many others that constituted the [[Hellenic Civilization]]. The Aegean Sea was later inhabited by [[Persian Empire|Persians]], [[Ro |
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