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<title>Heimdall</title>
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<comment>/* Modern popular culture */ That may have given the wrong impression..</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Heimdall_öfverlämnar_till_Freya_smycket_Bryfing_(1845)_av_Nils_Blommér.jpg|thumbnail|300px|Heimdall returns [[Brisingamen]] to [[Freya]]]]
'''Heimdall''' ([[Old Norse]] ''Heimdallr'', the prefix ''Heim-'' means ''world'', the affix ''-dallr'' is of uncertain origin, perhaps it means ''pole'', ''bright'', or ''valley'') is one of the [[Æsir]] in [[Norse mythology]].
==Characteristics==
Heimdall is the [[guardian]] of the gods who will blow the [[Gjallarhorn]] if danger approaches [[Asgard]]. His senses are so acute that he can hear the [[grass]] grow and he can see to the [[end of the world]]; he also requires no [[sleep]] at all. He is moreover the [[guardian]] of the [[Bifrost Bridge]].
He was the son of nine different mothers (possibly the nine daughters of [[Ægir]], called billow maidens) and was called the ''White God''. His [[hall]] was called ''Himinbjörg'' (''Sky Mountain'') and his [[horse]] was ''[[Gultopp|Gulltoppr]]'' (Gold-top). [[Snorri Sturluson]]'s [[Prose Edda]] relates that a [[kenning]] for ''sword'' is ''head of Heimdall'' because Heimdall was struck by a man's head and that this is treated in the poem ''Heimdalargaldr'', a poem unfortunately no longer extant. Similarly, a kenning for ''head'' is ''sword of Heimdall''. The meaning may lie in Heimdall also being called "ram", the weapon of a ram being its head, including the horns. [[Georges Dumézil]] (1959) suggested that this might also be why Heimdall is called White-god.
Heimdall's nickname ''Hallinskíði'' (bent stick) also appears as a kenning for "ram", perhaps referring to the bent horns on a ram's head. Heimdall's nickname ''Gullintanni'' (golden-toothed) would refer to the yellow coloring found in the teeth of old rams. Dumézil cites [[Wales|Welsh]] folklore sources which tell how ocean waves come in sets of nine with the ninth one being the ram:
<blockquote>We understand that whatever his mythical value and functions were, ''the scene of his birth made him, in the sea's white frothing, the ram produced by the ninth wave.'' If this is the case, then it is correct to say that he has nine mothers, since one alone does not suffice, nor two, nor three.</blockquote>
Old Welsh practice, modern [[French language|French]] practice and modern [[Basque language|Basque]] practice is to refer to white-capped waves as sheep.
==Surviving representations==
Snorri also calls Heimdall a son of [[Odin]], perhaps a foster son.
[[Image:Icelandic_valholl.jpg|left|thumb|200px|In this illustration from a [[17th century]] [[Iceland]]ic manuscript [[Heimdallr]] is shown guarding the gate of Valhalla.]]
Heimdall was destined to be the last of the gods to perish at [[Ragnarök]] when he and [[Loki]] would slay one another.
The first stanza of eddic poem ''Völuspá'' proclaims:
<blockquote>I ask for a hearing &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; of all the holy races<br>
Greater and lesser, &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; kinsman of Heimdall.</blockquote>
The eddic poem ''Rígsthula'' explains in what way these races are kinsmen of Heimdall, explaing who the god Ríg, identified with Heimdall in a short prose introduction, apparently fathered the three classes of humankind as understood by the poet, the youngest of which fathered in turn Kon the Young (Old Norse ''Kon ungr'') understood as the first immortal king (Old Norse ''konungr''). See [[Ríg]] for details.
Hilda R. Ellis Davidson in ''Gods and Myths of Northern Europe'' sees a link between Heimdall and the [[Vanir]] as do some others, partly based on stanza 15 of the eddic poem ''[[Þrymskviða]]'':
<blockquote>Then Heimdall spoke, &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; whitest of the Æsir,<br>
Like the other Vanir he knew &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; the future well.</blockquote>
However ''other'' can be also translated ''even'', which would mean instead that Heimdall had foresight "even" as do the Vanir.
The lost ''Heimdallargaldr'' may have contained the following adventure which was also referenced in [[Úlfr Uggason]]'s skaldic poem ''[[Húsdrápa]]'' of which only fragments are perserved:
<blockquote>Once, [[Freya]] woke up and found that someone had stolen [[Brisingamen]]. Heimdall helped her search for it and eventually found the thief, who turned out to be [[Loki]] and they fought in the form of seals at Vágasker 'Wave-skerry' and Singasteinn, wherever they may be. Heimdall won and returned Brisingamen to Freya.</blockquote>
In ''[[Sörla þáttr]]'', the story is changed an instead Loki hands the jewellry to [[Odin]], who won't give it back to Freyja until she has promised to start the battle of [[Hedin and Högni]].
In the [[Old English language|Old English]] epic, [[Beowulf]], ''Brosingamen'', is brought back to ''the shining citadel'' (perhaps [[Valhalla]] or Asgard) by ''Hama'' (Heimdall). But Hama flees from the "cunning hostility" of [[Ermanaric|Eormenric]] indicating extreme euhemerism, for Eormenric almost certainly would have had no part in the tale known to the Norsemen.
[[Image:Manuscript_Heimdallr.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Heimdallr blows into [[Gjallarhorn]] in this illustration from an [[18th century]] [[Iceland]]ic manuscript.]]
==Homologues in related Indo-European religions==
Georges Dumézil considers Heimdall an old Indo-European god, a type of god he calls ''first god'' which is different than being the highest god. The [[Thessalian]] god of [[Roman mythology|Romans]] [[Janus (mythology)|Janus]] would be the Roman reflex to this concept. But there are other first gods. Heimdall is also a ''frame god'', one who appears at the beginning and remains until the end.
Dumézil suggested that the Hindu counterpart was the god [[Dyaus]], one of the eight [[Vasu]]s, who reincarnated as the ''frame hero'' [[Bhishma]] in the epic ''[[Mahabharata]]'', he and his seven brothers being born to a mortal king by the River [[Ganges]] who herself had taken on mortal form. But the seven other brothers are returned to their immortal forms by being drowned by their mother immediately after birth. Only Dyaus was compelled to live a full life on earth in the form of Bhishma. Bhishma is destined to never hold power himself or have any direct descendants but acts as an ageless uncle on behalf of the line of lords that tortuously descend from his half-brothers, including finally the five [[Pandava]] brothers who represent four classes of society: royalty, noble warrior, lower class club-bearing warrior, and herdsmen. Bhishma is the last to die in the great battle of [[Kurukshetra]].
However Branston (1980) considers the character Heimdall to be cognate with the [[Vedic religion|Vedic]] ''[[Agni]]'' god of fire, who is in many Vedic texts is born from the waters or hides within the waters and who is born from two, seven, nine, and ten mothers in various sources, the ten mothers being sometimes explained as the ten fingers which can manipulate a bore-stick to produce fire. This accords with Viktor Rydberg's theories on Heimdall.
==Modern popular culture==
{{Main|Heimdall in popular culture}}
References and representations of Heimdall infrequently appear in modern popular culture, usually as a horn sounding guard of some kind.
==See also==
*[[Mothers of Heimdallr]]
==References==
* Dumézil, Georges (1959). "Comparative Remarks on the Scandinavian God Heimdall", ''Gods of the Ancient Northmen''. Ed. Einar Haugen, trans. Francis Charat (1973). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520035070.
==External links==
* [http://userpage.fu-berlin.de/~alvismal/2heimdal.pdf Sayers, William (1993). "Irish Perspectives on Heimdallr".] (PDF) ''Alvíssmál'' 2. Freie Universität Berlin. ISBN 3861356015.
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<page>
<title>Humphrey Davy</title>
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<title>House of Lords</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:05:50Z</timestamp>
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<comment>Correct judicial functions paragraph as the House of Lords is still the highest court until the 2005 Act actually comes into force and note appeals to ECHR</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{PoliticsUK}}
:''This article is about the British House of Lords. For the historical Irish body, see [[Irish House of Lords]].''
The '''House of Lords''' is the [[upper house]] of the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]]. Parliament also includes the [[British monarchy|Sovereign]] and the [[lower house]], the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]]. The House of Lords has 732 members.
The House of Lords is an unelected body, consisting of two [[archbishops]] and 26 [[bishops]] of the established [[Church of England]] ("[[Lords Spiritual]]") and 706 members of the [[P |
France and England. This trade was vital to the people of Holland, because Holland could no longer produce enough grain to feed itself. Land drainage had caused the peat of the former [[wetland]]s to reduce to a level that was too low for drainage to be maintained.
[[Gelre]] resented Burgundian rule. It tried to build up its own state in northeast Netherlands and northwest Germany. Lacking funds in the 16th century, [[Gelre]] had its soldiers provide for themselves by pillaging enemy terrain. These soldiers were a great menace to the Burgundian Netherlands. One notorious event was the pillaging of The Hague. [[Gelre]] was allied with France, England and Denmark, who wanted to put an end to the wealth of Holland and Burgundian rule over the Low Countries.
== Struggle for independence and the Golden Age ==
=== Eighty Years' War ===
:''For details, see the main [[Eighty Years' War]] article.''
[[Image:Netherlands flag prince.png|right|thumb|150px|Flag of the revolt &mdash; orange, white, blue]]
Through inheritance and conquest, all of the [[Low Countries]] became possessions of the [[Habsburg]] dynasty under [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] in the 16th century, who united them into one state. The east of the Netherlands was occupied only a few decades before the Dutch struggle for independence. However, in 1548, eight years before his abdication from the throne, Emperor Charles V granted the [[Seventeen Provinces]] of the Netherlands status as an entity separate from both the Empire and from [[France]]. This [[Pragmatic Sanction]] of 1548 was not full independence, but it allowed significant autonomy.
Charles was succeeded by his son [[Philip II of Spain]]. Unlike his father, who had been raised in [[Ghent]] ([[Belgium]]), Philip had little personal attachment to the Low Countries (where he had only stayed for four years), and thus was perceived as detached by the local nobility. A devout [[Catholic]], Philip was appalled by the success of the [[Reformation]] in the [[Low Countries]], which had led to an increasing number of [[Calvinism|Calvinists]]. "On February 16, 1568 a sentence of the Holy Office condemned all the inhabitants of the Netherlands to death as heretics. From this universal doom only a few persons, especially named, were acquitted. A proclamation of the king, dated ten days later, confirmed this decree of the Inquisition and ordered it to be carried out into instant execution without regard to age and sex. This is the most concise death warrant that had ever been framed. Three million people&mdash;men, women and children&mdash;were sentenced to the scaffold." (The Rise of the Dutch Republic , by John Lathrop Motley, Volume 1, Part 2, Chapter 2, par. 12, p. 2.) His attempts to enforce religious persecution of the Protestants and his endeavours to centralise government, justice and taxes made him unpopular and led to a [[revolt]]. The Dutch fought for independence from [[Spain]], leading to the [[Eighty Years' War]] (1568-1648). Seven rebellious provinces united in the [[Union of Utrecht]] in 1579 and formed the [[Republic of the Seven United Netherlands]] (also known as the "United Provinces").
[[William I of Orange|William of Orange]], the nobleman from whom every [[Dutch monarchy|Dutch monarch]] is descended (including the [[Beatrix of the Netherlands|present Queen]]), led the Dutch during the first part of the war. The very first years were a success for the Spanish troops. However, subsequent sieges in [[Holland]] were countered by the Dutch. The Spanish king lost control of the Netherlands after the sack of Antwerp by mutinous Spanish soldiers killing 10,000 inhabitants. The conservative Catholics in the south and east supported the Spanish. The Spanish recaptured [[Antwerp]] and other [[Flanders|Flemish]] and Dutch cities. It recaptured most of the territory in the Netherlands (but not in [[Flanders]], leading to the historical split between [[The Netherlands]] and [[Flanders]]). Flanders was the most radical anti-Spanish territory. Many Flemish fled to Holland, among them half of the population of Antwerp, 3/4 of Brugge and Ghent and the entire population of Nieuwpoort, Dunkerque and countryside. The war dragged on for another 60 years, but the main fighting was over. The [[Peace of Westphalia]], signed on [[January 30]], [[1648]], confirmed the independence of the United Provinces from [[Spain]] and [[Germany]]. The Dutch didn't regard themselves as Germans any more since the 15th century, but they officially remained a part of [[Germany]] until 1648. National identity was mainly formed by the province people came from. Holland was the most important province by far. The republic of the Seven Provinces came to be known as Holland in foreign countries.
These events formed part of a wider turmoil. See [[Spanish Armada]] for a view of some of the history from further west.
=== Golden Age ===
:''For details on the social and cultural history of the Golden Age, see the [[Dutch Golden Age]] article.
During the Eighty Years' War the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] became the most important trading centre of Northern Europe, instead of Flanders; they [[whaling|hunted whales]] near [[Svalbard]], traded [[spices]] with [[India]] and [[Indonesia]] (via the [[Dutch East India Company]], the first company to issue shares) and started colonies in [[Brazil]], [[New Amsterdam]] (now [[New York]]), [[South Africa]] and the [[West Indies]]. This new nation flourished culturally and economically, creating what historian [[Simon Schama]] has called an "embarrassment of riches". Speculation in the tulip trade led to a first stockmarket crash in 1637, but the economic crisis was soon overcome. Due to these developments the 17th century is often called the [[Dutch Golden Age|Golden Age]] (''de gouden eeuw'') of the Netherlands. As the Netherlands was a [[republic]], it was largely governed by an aristocracy of city-merchants called the regents (''regenten''), rather than by a [[monarch|king]]. Every city and province had its own government and laws, and a large degree of autonomy. After attempts to find a competent sovereign proved unsuccessful, it was decided that [[sovereignty]] would be vested in the various provincial Estates (''Staten''), the governing bodies of the provinces. The [[Estates-General of the Netherlands|Estates-General]] (''Staten-Generaal''), with its representatives from all the provinces, would decide on matters important to the Republic as a whole. However, at the head of each province was the [[stadtholder]] (''Stadhouder'') of that province, a position held by a descendant of the [[House of Orange]]. Usually the stadtholdership of several provinces was held by a single man.
Following the recognition of the independence of the Netherlands, a decline in the wealth of the Dutch set in. In 1650, the [[stadtholder]] [[William II, Prince of Orange]] died, leaving the nation without a powerful ruler. Since the conception of the Republic, there had been an ongoing struggle for power between the regents and the House of Orange, whose supporters, [[Orangists]], were mainly to be found among the common people. For now, the dispute was decided in favour of the regents: there would be no new [[stadtholder]] (in [[Holland]]) for 22 years to come. In the year 1651, [[England]] imposed the [[1651 Navigation Act]], which severely hurt Dutch trade interests. An incident at sea concerning the Act resulted in the [[First Anglo-Dutch War]], which lasted from 1652 to 1654, ending in the [[Treaty of Westminster (1654)]], by which the Navigation Act remained in effect.
[[Image:Bol, Michiel de Ruyter.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Michiel de Ruyter]], a famous [[the Netherlands|Dutch]] [[admiral]], destroyed a large part of the [[England|English]] fleet in 1667, during the [[Second Anglo-Dutch War]]. This led to the [[Treaty of Breda]].]]
The [[Second Anglo-Dutch War]] began in 1665 when the English declared war &mdash; they had already attacked Dutch settlements in the [[New Netherlands]]. Because the Dutch were also troubled by French invasions in the [[Spanish Netherlands]], the English and Dutch signed a peace treaty, the 1667 [[Treaty of Breda]], but not before Dutch admiral [[Michiel de Ruyter]] had destroyed a large part of the English fleet on the [[Thames]]. It was agreed that the English would keep the Dutch possessions in North America (the area around current [[New York City]]), while they would give control of [[Surinam]] to the Dutch. Also, the restrictions in the Navigation Act were loosened.
1672 is known in the Netherlands as the "Disastrous Year" (''Rampjaar''). England declared war on the Republic, (the [[Third Anglo-Dutch War]]), followed by [[France]], [[Münster]] and [[Cologne]], which had all signed alliances against the Republic. France, Cologne and Münster invaded the Republic, while an English attempt to land on the Dutch shore could only just be prevented. In the meantime, a new [[stadtholder]], William III, was appointed. With the aid of friendly German nations, the Dutch succeeded in fighting back [[Cologne]] and [[Münster]], after which the peace was signed with both of them, and England as well, in 1674 (Second [[Treaty of Westminster (1674)]]). In 1678, peace was made with France, although the Spanish and German allies felt betrayed by the treaty signed in [[Nijmegen]].
In the course of the [[Glorious Revolution]], [[William III of Orange|William III]], landed in England at the request of notable English citizens, and dethroned [[James II of England]].
Many immigrants went to the cities in the county of Holland in the 17th and 18th century. They came especially from Protestant Germany. The amount of first generation [[immigration|immigrants]] from outside the Netherlands in Amsterdam was nearly 50% in the 17th and 18th century. If you add immigrants from the second and third generation and immigrants from the Dutch |
ecent past, many Catholic theologians have written on the ''filioque'', with an ecumenical intention. Yves Congar, O.P., argues that varying formulations may be seen not as contradictory but as complementary. Irenee Dalmais, O.P. points out that East and West have different, yet complementary, pneumatologies, theologies of the Holy Spirit. Avery Dulles, S.J., traces the history of the ''filioque'' controversy and weighs pros and cons of several possibilities for reconciliation. Eugene Webb makes use of the pneumatology of Bernard Lonergan, S.J.
From an official standpoint, the [[Roman Catholic Church]] has not imposed the recitation of the ''filioque'' on the East. The [[Eastern Rites|Eastern-rite]] Churches of the Catholic Church include, for example, the [[Maronite]]s, the [[Melkite]]s, and the [[Ruthenian Catholic Church|Ruthenians]]. Those who returned to union with the [[Papacy]] at various dates were not required to include the "and the Son" formula in their recitation of the Creed. The Maronites, who claim to have never been out of communion with Rome (though this claim is disputed), have also never used the ''filioque''. Nonetheless, its conciliar definition makes it ''de fide'' for all claiming communion with the faith of Rome.
In many liturgies, when celebrating with bishops from the East, the Pope has recited the Nicene Creed without the ''filioque''. It is certain that Pope Paul VI and Pope John Paul II regard the text of 381 to be entirely correct on its own merit and that in Eastern liturgies it would not even be appropriate.
Of special importance is a recent clarification of the <i>filioque</i> by the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity. This document was prepared at the specific request of the Bishop of Rome. It is entitled ''The Greek and Latin Traditions Regarding the Procession of the Holy Spirit''.
==Overview==
In part, the ''filioque'' was originally proposed in order to stress more clearly the connection between the Son and the Spirit, amid a heresy in which the Son was taken as less than the Father because he does not serve as a source of the Holy Spirit. In other words, when the ''filioque'' came into use in Spain and Gaul in the West, they were not aware that their language of procession would not translate well back into the Greek. Conversely, from Photius to the Council of Florence, the Latin Fathers were also not acquainted with the linguistic issues.
To be more specific, the origins of the ''filioque'' in the West are to be found in the writings of certain Church Fathers in the West and especially in the anti-Arian situation of [[7th-century]] Spain. In this context, the ''filioque'' was a means to affirm the full divinity of both the Spirit and the Son. It is not just a question of establishing a connection with the Father and his divinity; it is a question of reinforcing the profession of Catholic faith in the fact that both the Son and Spirit share the fullness of God's nature.
It is ironic that a similar anti-Arian emphasis also strongly influenced the development of the liturgy in the East, for example, in promoting prayer to "Christ Our God," an expression which also came to find a place in the West. (As Joseph Jungmann, S.J., has shown, this shift in mentality caused a loss in appreciation of the mediating role of Christ in the liturgy, as well as other changes in piety.)
In this case, a common adversary, namely, [[Arianism]], had profound, far-reaching effects, in the orthodox reaction in both East and West. It should be noted that the Nicene Creed was not introduced into the celebration of the Mass in Rome until the eleventh century; in this respect, in terms of the Roman liturgy, ''filioque'' is a relatively late addition.
As noted, Church politics, authority conflicts, ethnic hostility, linguistic misunderstanding, personal rivalry, and secular motives all combined in various ways to divide East and West. More than once, the ''filioque'' dispute was used to reinforce such division. Now, with a growing spirit of charity, in accord with the will of Christ, that there be one flock (Jn 10:16; 17:22), perhaps the ''filioque'' dispute will be resolved, so that the Catholic and the Orthodox Churches may be reconciled.
==Recent discussions and statements==
Dialogue on this and other subjects is continuing.
A little-known sign of shifting [[Roman Catholic]] policy in the ongoing story of this controversy can be found in an official [[Roman Catholic]] document published on [[August 6]], [[2000]] and written by [[Pope Benedict XVI]], when he was [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]] Joseph Ratzinger, [[prefect]] of the [[Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith]], and assisted by the Congregation's then secretary, [[Tarcisio Cardinal Bertone|Tarcisio Bertone]]. This document, ''[[Dominus Iesus]]'', ([[Latin]] for "Lord Jesus"), and subtitled ''"On the Unicity and Salvific Universality of Jesus Christ and the Church"'' contains a remarkable gesture, as in the official [[Latin]] text of this document [http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_20000806_dominus-iesus_lt.html] (second paragraph in the first section), the ''filioque'' clause is quietly left out without notice or comment. Was this removal an attempt to reach a hand across the theological and historical chasm separating Eastern and Western Churches? This document takes on increased significance with the elevation of one of its authors from [[cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]] to [[pope]].
The ''filioque'' clause was the main subject discussed at the 62nd meeting of the [[North American Orthodox-Catholic Theological Consultation]], which met at the Hellenic College/[[Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology]] in [[Brookline, Massachusetts|Brookline]] from June 3 through June 5, 2002, for their spring session. As a result of these modern discussions, it has been suggested that the Orthodox could accept an "economic" ''filioque'' that states that the Holy Spirit, who originates in the Father alone, was sent to the Church "through the Son" (as the [[Paraclete]]), but this is not official Orthodox doctrine. It is what the Greeks call a ''theologumenon'', a theological idea. (Similarly, the late Edward Kilmartin, S.J., proposed as a ''theologumenon'', a "mission" of the Holy Spirit to the Church.)
Recently, an important, agreed statement has been made by the [[North America]]n Orthodox-Catholic Theological Consultation, on [[October 25]], [[2003]]. This document ''The Filioque: A Church-Dividing Issue?'', provides an extensive review of Scripture, history, and theology. Especially critical are the recommendations of this consultation, for example:
#That all involved in such dialogue expressly recognize the limitations of our ability to make definitive assertions about the inner life of God.
#That, in the future, because of the progress in mutual understanding that has come about in recent decades, Orthodox and Catholics refrain from labeling as heretical the traditions of the other side on the subject of the procession of the Holy Spirit.
#That Orthodox and Catholic theologians distinguish more clearly between the divinity and hypostatic identity of the Holy Spirit (which is a received dogma of our Churches) and the manner of the Spirit's origin, which still awaits full and final ecumenical resolution.
#That those engaged in dialogue on this issue distinguish, as far as possible, the theological issues of the origin of the Holy Spirit from the ecclesiological issues of primacy and doctrinal authority in the Church, even as we pursue both questions seriously, together.
#That the theological dialogue between our Churches also give careful consideration to the status of later councils held in both our Churches after those seven generally received as ecumenical.
#That the Catholic Church, as a consequence of the normative and irrevocable dogmatic value of the Creed of [[381]], use the original Greek text alone in making translations of that Creed for catechetical and liturgical use.
#That the Catholic Church, following a growing theological consensus, and in particular the statements made by [[Pope Paul VI]], declare that the condemnation made at the [[Second Council of Lyons]] ([[1274]]) of those "who presume to deny that the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally from the Father and the Son" is no longer applicable.
In the judgment of the consultation, the question of the ''filioque'' is no longer a "Church-dividing" issue, one which would impede full reconciliation and full communion, once again. It is for the bishops of the Catholic and Orthodox Churches to review this work and to make whatever decisions would be appropriate.
==References==
There is a great deal written on the topic of the <i>filioque</i>; what follows, therefore, is selective. As time goes on, this list will inevitably have to be updated.
*"Filioque," <b>Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church</b>. Oxford, 1997, p. 611.
*John St. H. Gibaut, "The <i>Cursus Honorum</i> and the Western Case Against Photius," <b>Logos</b> 37 (1996), 35-73.
*Elizabeth Teresa Groppe. <b>Yves Congar's Theology of the Holy Spirit</b>. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. See esp. pp. 75-79, for a summary of Congar's work on the <i>filioque</i>. Congar is widely considered the most important Roman Catholic ecclesiologist of the twentieth century. He was influential in the composition of several Vatican II documents. Most important of all, he was instrumental in the association in the West of pneumatology and ecclesiology, a new development.
*Joseph Jungmann, S.J. <b>Pastoral Liturgy</b>. London: Challoner, 1962. See "Christ our God," pp. 38-48.
*James Likoudis. <b>Ending |
[.ai]]''' (the [[ccTLD]] for Anguilla).
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<page>
<title>Aung San Suu Kyi</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Aung_San_Suu_Kyi.jpg|thumb|Aung San Suu Kyi]]
Daw '''Aung San Suu Kyi''' ([[Burmese language|Burmese]]: [[Image:AungSanSuuKyi1.png]]), born [[June 19]], [[1945]] in [[Yangon]] (Rangoon), is a [[nonviolence|nonviolent]] pro-[[democracy]] activist in [[Myanmar]] (Burma). In 1990 the devout [[Buddhist]] won the [[Rafto Prize]] and the [[Sakharov Prize|Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought]]. In 1991 she won the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] for her peaceful and non-violent struggle under a repressive military regime.
One of her most famous speeches is the ''Freedom From Fear'' speech which begins:
:"''It is not power that corrupts but fear. Fear of losing power corrupts those who wield it and fear of the scourge of power corrupts those who are subject to it''."
==Political influences==
Aung San Suu Kyi is the daughter of [[Khin Kyi]], a prominent Burmese diplomat, and General [[Aung San]], who negotiated Burma's independence from the [[United Kingdom]] in 1947 and was [[assassination|assassinated]] by rivals in the same year. She studied at [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] in the United Kingdom and at the [[School of Oriental and African Studies]], [[University of London]]. While in [[England]], Aung San Suu Kyi met and married [[Michael Aris]], a scholar of [[Tibet]]an culture. They had two sons, Alexander and Kim.
Aung San Suu Kyi returned to Myanmar in 1988 to care for her ailing mother. In that year, the long-time leader of the [[socialist]] ruling party, General [[Ne Win]], stepped down, leading to mass demonstrations for [[democracy|democratisation]], which were violently suppressed. A new military [[junta]] took power.
Heavily influenced by [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s philosophy of nonviolence, Aung San Suu Kyi entered politics to work for democratisation, helped found the [[National League for Democracy]] on [[September 27]], [[1988]], and was put under [[house arrest]] in 1989. She was offered freedom if she would leave the country, but she refused.
==Detention in Myanmar==
In 1990, the military junta called [[general election]]s, which the National League for Democracy won decisively. Under normal circumstances, she would have assumed the office of [[Prime Minister]]. Instead the results were nullified, and the military refused to hand over power. This resulted in an international outcry and partly led to Aung San Suu Kyi winning the Sakharov Prize that year and the Nobel Peace Prize in the following one. She used the Nobel Peace Prize's [[US$]]1.3 million prize money to establish a [[health]] and [[education]] trust for the Burmese people.
She was released from house arrest in July 1995, although it was made clear that if she left the country to visit her family in the [[United Kingdom]], she would be denied re-entry. When her husband Michael Aris, a British citizen, was diagnosed with [[prostate cancer]] in 1997, the Burmese government denied him an entry visa. Aung San Suu Kyi remained in Burma, and never again saw her husband, who died in March 1999. She remains separated from their children, who remain in the United Kingdom.
She was repeatedly prevented from meeting with her party supporters, and in September 2000 was again put under house arrest. On [[May 6]], [[2002]], following secret confidence-building negotiations led by the [[United Nations]], she was released; a government spokesman said that she was free to move "because we are confident that we can trust each other". Aung San Suu Kyi proclaimed "a new dawn for the country". However on [[May 30]], [[2003]], her caravan was attacked in the northern village of [[Depayin]] by a government-sponsored mob, murdering and wounding many of her supporters. Aung San Suu Kyi fled the scene with the help of her driver, Ko Kyaw Soe Lin, but was arrested upon reaching Ye-U. She was imprisoned at Insein Prison in Yangon. After a surgical operation in [[September]] [[2003]], she was again placed under house arrest in Yangon.
On [[November 28]], [[2005]], the National League for Democracy confirmed that Suu Kyi's house arrest would be extended for yet another year. Many western countries, as well as the [[United Nations]], have expressed their disapproval of this latest extension.
===International supporters===
In 2001, Irish rock band [[U2]] released the single ''[[Walk On (song)|Walk On]]'', which was written about and dedicated to Aung San Suu Kyi. "Walk On" was banned by the junta. During concerts in [[London]] and [[Glasgow]] ([[June 19]] and [[June 21]] 2005 respectively) U2 dedicated performances of "Running to Stand Still" to Aung San Suu Kyi. Other artists such as [[Coldplay]], [[R.E.M. (band)|R.E.M.]], and [[Damien Rice]] have also been publicly supportive of Aung San Suu Kyi's cause.
On [[December 2]], [[2004]], the [[United States]] pressured the Myanmar government to release Aung San Suu Kyi after the announcement that her [[house arrest]] would be extended. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4064211.stm (BBC)]
On [[June 17]], [[2005]], several countries from around the world held protests outside Myanmar embassies, in recognition of Suu Kyi's 60th birthday, which took place on June 19, 2005. The protests received international attention.
In late November 2005, the [[United States]] again returned to diplomatic pressure, this time in the [[United Nations]] [[Security Council]], strongly urging multilateral action to address the "deteriorating situation" in [[Myanmar]], requesting to put it into the official agenda docket. This action was due largely to a reinstatement of Aung San Suu Kyi's [[house arrest]], an extension of precisely one year.
She is featured prominently in [[John Boorman]]'s [[1995]] film ''[[Beyond Rangoon]]'', starring [[Patricia Arquette]].
Aung San Suu Kyi has been an honourary board member of [[Institute_for_Democracy_and_Electoral_Assistance|International IDEA]] and [[ARTICLE 19]] since her detention, and has received support from these organisations.
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.burmacampaign.org.uk The Burma Campaign UK Home Page]
*[http://www.commondreams.org/headlines05/1213-08.htm Myanmar Agrees to Release Aung San Suu Kyi: Source]
* [http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A18107-2003Oct12&notFound=true An extensive story of her life]
* [http://www.sundayherald.com/50329 Sunday Herald article about her ongoing detention]
* [http://www.nobel.se/peace/laureates/1991/press.html Nobel Prize press release]
* [http://www.dassk.com/ Aung San Suu Kyi Pages] made by supporters from the [[Free Burma Coalition]]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/07/international/asia/07BURM.html "Freed Burmese Democracy Leader Proclaims 'New Dawn'"] by Seth Mydans, for [[The New York Times]], May 7 2002, A3 (only abstract available)
* [http://homepages.tesco.net/~ghoutman/index.html On the role of Buddhist meditation and contemplation in Aung San Suu Kyi's politics]
* [http://www.ifex.org/en/content/view/full/201/ Nobel Laureates Call for Suu Kyi's Release] - [[IFEX]]
* [http://www.actionburma.com/ Damien Rice's page] promoting his effort to have Aung San Suu Kyi released and also promoting the CD single ''Unplayed Piano'' by Rice and fellow singer Lisa Hannigan
* [http://www.article19.org/advocacy/campaigns/index.html ARTICLE 19 Campaign for Aung San Suu Kyi]
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Peace|Nobel Peace Prize]] | years =1991 | after = [[Rigoberta Menchú]]}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1945 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Nobel Peace Prize winners]]
[[Category:Political prisoners]]
[[Category:Burmese politicians]]
[[Category:Buddhists]]
[[Category:Civil rights activists]]
[[Category:Democracy activists]]
[[Category:Former students of St Hugh's College, Oxford]]
[[Category:Alumni of the School of Oriental and African Studies]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sakharov Prize]]
[[Category:Humanitarians]]
[[bg:Аун Сан Су Чи]]
[[zh-min-nan:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[cs:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[da:Daw Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[de:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[et:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[es:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[fr:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[id:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[he:אונג סן סו קי]]
[[ka:აუნგ სან სუ კი]]
[[nl:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[ja:アウン・サン・スー・チー]]
[[no:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[nn:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[pl:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[pt:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[ro:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[ru:Аун Сан Су Чжи]]
[[sk:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[fi:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[sv:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[th:ออง ซาน ซูจี]]
[[zh:昂山素季]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Armeninan alphabet</title>
<id>2848</id>
<revision>
<id>15901233</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Armenian alphabet]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Armenian alphabet</title>
<id>2849</id>
<revision>
<id>41861831</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T05:18:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.217.229.148</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{alphabet}}
The '''Armenian alphabet''' is an [[alphabet]] used for writing the [[Armenian language]], created by Saint [[Mesrop Mashtots]] |
0" style="margin-left:3em;"
|- style="text-align:center; background-color:#e6e6e6;"
! align="left" width="25%" | Team
! width=5% | 1
! width=5% | 2
! width=5% | 3
! width=5% | 4
! width=5% | 5
! width=5% | 6
! width=5% | 7
! width=5% | 8
! width=5% | 9
! width=5% | 10
! width=5% | 11
! width=5% | 12
! width=5% | R
! width=5% | H
! width=5% | E
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align="left" | Arizona || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0
| 2 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || '''2'''
| '''8''' || '''0'''
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align="left" | '''New York''' || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0
| 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 2 || 0 || 0 || 1 || '''3'''
| '''9''' || '''1'''
|- style="text-align:left;"
|colspan=16|<small>'''W''': [[Sterling Hitchcock]] (1-0) &nbsp;&nbsp;'''L''': [[Albie Lopez]] (0-1)&nbsp;&nbsp;</small>
|- style="text-align:left;"
|colspan=16|<small>'''HR''': '''ARI''' &ndash; [[Steve Finley]] (1), [[Rod Barajas]] (1) &nbsp;&nbsp; '''NYY''' &ndash; [[Scott Brosius]] (1)</small>
|}
===Game 6===
''Saturday, [[November 3]], 2001'' at Bank One Ballpark
With Arizona in a must-win situation, the Diamondbacks provided Randy Johnson all the offense he would ever need. Johnson struck out seven in six innings of work, giving up just two runs. The Diamondbacks rocked Yankee starter Andy Pettitte for six runs and chased him after two innings. Jay Witasick relieved him and fared even worse, yielding nine runs in one and a third innings. The Diamondbacks hit six doubles and [[Danny Bautista]] went 3-4 with 5 RBIs. They set a World Series record with 22 hits and crushed the Yankees 15-2. Arizona handed New York its most lopsided loss in 293 postseason games. The win evened the series at three games apiece and set up a game seven for the ages between Roger Clemens and Curt Schilling, again pitching on three days' rest.
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 width="425" style="margin-left:3em;"
|- style="text-align:center; background-color:#e6e6e6;"
! align="left" width="28%" | Team
! width=6% | 1
! width=6% | 2
! width=6% | 3
! width=6% | 4
! width=6% | 5
! width=6% | 6
! width=6% | 7
! width=6% | 8
! width=6% | 9
! width=6% | R
! width=6% | H
! width=6% | E
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align="left" | New York || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0
| 0 || 2 || 0 || 0 || 0 || '''2''' || '''7''' || '''1'''
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align="left" | '''Arizona''' || 1 || 3 || 8 || 3
| 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || x || '''15''' || '''22''' || '''0'''
|- style="text-align:left;"
|colspan=13|<small>'''W''': [[Randy Johnson]] (2-0) &nbsp;&nbsp;'''L''': [[Andy Pettitte]] (0-2)&nbsp;&nbsp;</small>
|}
===[http://mlb.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/mlb/baseballs_best/mlb_bb_gamepage.jsp?story_page=bb_01ws_gm7_nyyari Game 7]===
''Sunday, [[November 4]], 2001'' at Bank One Ballpark
It was a matchup of two 20-game-winners in the series finale that would crown a new champion. Clemens at 39 years old became the oldest game seven starter ever. Schilling had already started two games of the series and pitched his 300th inning of the season on just three days' rest. The two aces matched each other inning by inning and after seven full, the game was tied at 1-1. Many felt that Schilling had pitched long enough, but Brenly stayed with his ace into the eighth. The move backfired as the [[Alfonso Soriano]] hit a solo home run on an 0-2 pitch. After Schilling got one out, he gave up a single to [[David Justice]], and he left the game trailing 2-1. Brenly brought in [[Miguel Batista]] to get out Derek Jeter and then in an unconventional move, brought in the previous night's starter Randy Johnson, who had thrown 104 pitches, in relief to finish out the game. It proved to be a smart move, as Johnson got out all four Yankees he faced.
With the Yankees ahead 2-1 in the bottom of the eighth, manager [[Joe Torre]] turned the game over to his ace closer [[Mariano Rivera]] for a two-inning save. Rivera was one of the surest things in the late innings, and he had pitched brilliantly throughout the postseason up to that point. Rivera struck out the side in the eighth and lowered his ERA in the postseason to a major league-best of 0.70. He was not at his sharpest in the ninth, however, and it would cost him. Mark Grace led off the inning with a single to center. Rivera then made an errant throw to second base on a bunt attempt by Damian Miller, putting runners on first and second. Rivera appeared to regain control when he fielded [[Jay Bell]]'s bunt and threw out pinch-runner [[David Dellucci]] at third base. However, the next batter, [[Tony Womack]], drove a double down the right-field line that evened the score. After Rivera hit [[Craig Counsell]] with a 1-1 pitch, [[Luis Gonzalez (baseball outfielder)|Luis Gonzalez]] would become the hero, knocking a soft single to center on an 0-1 pitch that plated Jay Bell with the winning run. This ended New York's bid for a fourth consecutive title and brought Arizona its first championship in just its fourth year of existence.
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 width="425" style="margin-left:3em;"
|- style="text-align:center; background-color:#e6e6e6;"
! align="left" width="28%" | Team
! width=6% | 1
! width=6% | 2
! width=6% | 3
! width=6% | 4
! width=6% | 5
! width=6% | 6
! width=6% | 7
! width=6% | 8
! width=6% | 9
! width=6% | R
! width=6% | H
! width=6% | E
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align="left" | New York || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0
| 0 || 0 || 1 || 1 || 0 || '''2''' || '''6''' || '''3'''
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align="left" | '''Arizona''' || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0
| 0 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 2 || '''3''' || '''11''' || '''0'''
|- style="text-align:left;"
|colspan=13|<small>'''W''': [[Randy Johnson]] (3-0) &nbsp;&nbsp;'''L''': [[Mariano Rivera]] (1-1)&nbsp;&nbsp;</small>
|- style="text-align:left;"
|colspan=13|<small>'''HR''': '''NYY'''&ndash; [[Alfonso Soriano]] (1)</small>
|}
==Quote of the Series==
"''Floater...center field! The Diamondbacks are World Champions!''"--Joe Buck, announcing that the Diamondbacks had won the World Series.
==Trivia==
* Randy Johnson became the first pitcher since [[Orel Hershiser]] in 1988 to be the winning pitcher of the clinching games in the LCS and World Series.
* The Yankees became the first team to appear in four straight World Series since the 1961-64 Yankees.
* The Diamondbacks win pretty well put the "[[Ex-Cubs Factor]]" jinx to bed, as the D-backs not only defied the jinx to win the Series, but two of the three (Grace and Gonzalez) actively participated in the Series-winning rally.
* It's not necessairily a safe bet to say that Schilling and Johnson are close friends anymore. Schilling was traded to the Boston red Sox in 2004 and Johnson went to the Yankees in 2005.
{{WorldSeries}}
==External links==
*[http://sports.espn.go.com/mlb/playoffs2001/worldseries ESPN.com: 2001 World Series]
*[http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/baseball/mlb/2001/postseason/ SI.com: MLB Postseason 2001]
*[http://www.usatoday.com/sports/baseball/01play/index.htm USA Today: Quest for a Title]
*[http://www.sportsline.com/u/baseball/mlb/2001/playoffs/ CBS Sportsline: 2001 MLB Playoffs]
*[http://www.baseball-almanac.com/ws/yr2001ws.shtml 2001 World Series by Baseball Almanac]
*[http://www.baseball-reference.com/postseason/2001_WS.shtml 2001 World Series - ARI vs. NYY - Baseball-Reference.com]
[[Category:World Series]]
[[Category:2001 in baseball|World Series]]
[[Category:2001 Arizona Diamondbacks World Series Championship Team]]
[[Category:Arizona Diamondbacks]]
[[Category:New York Yankees]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>1903 World Series</title>
<id>3865</id>
<revision>
<id>37170604</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-29T04:40:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wknight94</username>
<id>352579</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Moving trivia from [[World Series]] in preparation for overhauling that article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:1903_world_series_poster.jpg|thumb|200px|right|1903 World Series Poster]]
The '''1903 World Series''', the first modern [[World Series]] to be played in [[Major League Baseball]], matched the [[Boston Red Sox|Boston "Pilgrims"]] against the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]], with Boston prevailing five games to three.
Pittsburgh pitcher [[Sam Leever]] injured his shoulder while trap-shooting, so his teammate [[Deacon Phillippe]] had to pitch five complete games for Pittsburgh. He won three of his games, but it was not enough to overcome the club from the new American League. Boston pitchers [[Bill Dinneen]] and [[Cy Young]] led Boston to victory.
Although much was made of the influence of the Boston "[[Royal Rooters]]", Boston only won two out of four at home and three of four at Pittsburgh.
The Pirates' benevolent owner [[Barney Dreyfuss]] added his share of the gate receipts to the players' share, so the losing team's players actually finished with a larger individual share than the winning team's.
'''Managers:''' [[Jimmy Collins]] (Boston), [[Fred Clarke]] (Pittsburgh)
'''Umpires''': [[Hank O'Day]] (NL), [[Tommy Connolly]] (AL)
==Summary==
<tr><td width="33%" valign="top">
{| border="0" cellspacing="3" cellpadding="3"
|-style="background: #e3e3e3;"
!|Game||Score||Date
|-
|1||[[Pittsburgh Pirates|Pittsburgh]] 7, [[Boston Red Sox|Boston]] 3 ||[[October 1]]
|-style="background: #e3e3e3;"
|2||Boston 3, Pittsburgh 0||[[October 2]]
|-
|3||Pittsburgh 4, Boston 2||[[October 3]]
|-style=&q |
quot;border: 1px solid black" | Musician
! style="border: 1px solid black" | Genre
|-
| style="border: 1px solid black" | James
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Classical
|-
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Kate
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Jazz
|-
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Lois
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Jazz
|-
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Lois
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Classical
|-
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Lois
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Rock
|}
| style="width:100px" |
||
{| align="center" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid black"
|+
|- style="background-color: silver; text-align: left; vertical-align: top"
! style="border: 1px solid black" | Instrument
! style="border: 1px solid black" | Genre
|-
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Piano
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Classical
|-
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Piano
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Jazz
|-
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Trumpet
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Classical
|-
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Trumpet
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Jazz
|-
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Drums
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Classical
|-
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Drums
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Jazz
|-
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Drums
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Rock
|-
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Clarinet
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Classical
|-
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Clarinet
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Jazz
|-
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Saxophone
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Jazz
|-
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Guitar
| style="border: 1px solid black" | Rock
|}
|}
Joining these three tables together will return the original relation.
Note how this setup helps to remove redundancy. Suppose that Kate learns
Classical. In the previous setup we would have to add four new entries since each of the four instruments that Kate plays (Drums, Piano, Trumpet, and Clarinet) are all classical instruments, while with the new setup we only need to make one addition.
([[#Further Reading|Kent's]] paper provides more details.)
===Domain/key normal form===
'''Domain/key normal form''' (or '''DKNF''') requires that each key uniquely identifies each row in a table. A domain is the set of permissible values for an attribute. By enforcing key and domain restrictions, the database is assured of being freed from modification anomalies.
While sometimes called the 6NF, the DKNF should not be considered together with the seven other normal forms (1&ndash;6 and Boyce-Codd), because contrary to them it is not always achievable; furthermore, tables in the real 6NF are not always in the DKNF.
===Sixth normal form===
This normal form was, [[as of 2005]], only recently conjectured: the '''sixth normal form''' ('''6NF''') was only defined when extending the relational model to take into account the [[Time|temporal]] [[dimension]]. Unfortunately, most current SQL technologies [[as of 2005]] do not take into account this work, and most temporal extensions to SQL are not relational. See work by Date, Darwin and Lorentzos for a relational temporal extention, or see TSQL2 for a different approach.
== Further reading==
* [http://www.troubleshooters.com/littstip/ltnorm.html Litt's Tips: Normalization]
* [http://www.datamodel.org/NormalizationRules.html Rules Of Data Normalization]
* Date, C. J., & Lorentzos, N., & Darwen, H. (2002). ''[http://www.elsevier.com/wps/product/cws_home/680662 Temporal Data & the Relational Model]'' (1st ed.). Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 1-55860-855-9.
* Date, C. J. (1999), ''[http://www.aw-bc.com/catalog/academic/product/0,1144,0321197844,00.html An Introduction to Database Systems]'' (8th ed.). Addison-Wesley Longman. ISBN 0-321-19784-4.
* Kent, W. (1983) ''[http://www.bkent.net/Doc/simple5.htm A Simple Guide to Five Normal Forms in Relational Database Theory]'', Communications of the ACM, vol. 26, pp. 120-125
* Date, C.J., & Darwen, H., & Pascal, F. ''[http://www.dbdebunk.com Database Debunkings]''
* H.-J. Schek, P.Pistor Data Structures for an Integrated Data Base Management and Information Retrival System
==External links==
* [http://dev.mysql.com/tech-resources/articles/intro-to-normalization.html An Introduction to Database Normalization] by Mike Hillyer.
* [http://www.utexas.edu/its/windows/database/datamodeling/rm/rm7.html Normalization] by ITS, University of Texas.
[[Category:Databases]]
[[Category:Data modeling]]
[[de:Normalisierung (Datenbank)]]
[[es:Normalización de una base de datos]]
[[fr:Formes normales]]
[[it:Normalizzazione del database]]
[[ja:リレーションの正規化]]
[[sk:Normalizácia (databázy)]]
[[fi:Tietokannan normalisointi]]
[[sv:Normalform (databaser)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Desmothoracid</title>
<id>8641</id>
<revision>
<id>39576140</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T11:30:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate from {{journal reference}} to {{cite journal}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = khaki
| name = Desmothoracids
| regnum = [[Protist]]a
| phylum = [[Cercozoa]]
| classis = [[Proteomyxidea]]
| ordo = '''Desmothoracida'''
| ordo_authority = [[Hertwig]] & [[Lesser]] 1874
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision =
''Clathrulina''<br>
''Hedriocystis''<br>
''Cienkowskya''<br>
''Penardiophrys''<br>
''Actinosphaeridium''
}}
The '''desmothoracids''' are a group of [[heliozoa]]n protists, usually sessile and found in freshwater environments. Each adult is a spherical cell around 10-20 &mu;m in diameter surrounded by a perforated organic lorica or shell, with many radial [[pseudopod]]s projecting through the holes to capture food. These are supported by small bundles of [[microtubule]]s that arise near a point on the [[nuclear membrane]]. Unlike other heliozoans, the microtubules are not in any regular geometric array, there does not appear to be a microtubule organizing center, and there is no distinction between the outer and inner cytoplasm.
Reproduction takes place by the budding off of small motile cells, usually with two [[flagella]]. Later these are lost, and pseudopods and a lorica are formed. Typically a single lengthened pseudopod will secrete a hollow stalk that attached the adult to the substrate. The form of the flagella, the tubular cristae within the [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]], and other characters led to the suggestion that the desmothoracids belong among what is now the [[Cercozoa]], which has now been confirmed by genetic studies.
== References ==
* {{cite journal
| author = K.A. Mikrjukov
| title = Taxonomy and Phylogeny of Heliozoa. I. Desmothoracids
| journal = Acta Protozoologica
| year = 2000 | volume = 39 | pages = 81-97
}}
* {{cite journal
| author = Nikolaev, S.I. ''et al.''
| title = Genetic Relationships between Desmothoracid Heliozoa and Gymnophryid Amoebas as Evidenced by Comparison of 18S rRNA Genes
| journal = Doklady Biological Sciences
| year = 2003 | volume = 393 | pages = 553-556
}}
[[Category:Cercozoa]]
[[Category:Amoeboids]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dalhousie University</title>
<id>8642</id>
<revision>
<id>40859396</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T13:52:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>HotRat</username>
<id>229829</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Noted Alumni */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| class="toccolours" border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 width=300px align=right style="margin-left:0.5em"
|-
! colspan=2 align=center|Dalhousie University
|-
| colspan=2 align=center bgcolor="ffffff"|[[Image:Dal-shield.jpg]]
|- align=left
| '''[[Motto]]''' || ora et labora ([[Latin]]: "Pray and work")
|-
|'''Founded'''||[[1818]]
|-
|'''School type'''||Public
|-
|'''President'''||[[Tom Traves]]
|-
|'''Location'''||[[Halifax Regional Municipality|Halifax]], [[Nova Scotia]]
|-
|'''Enrollment'''||12,222 Undergraduates 3,618 Graduates{{fn|1}}
|-
|'''Campus surroundings'''||[[Urbanization|Urban]]
|-
|'''Sports teams'''||[[Dalhousie Tigers|Tigers]]
|}
'''Dalhousie University''' is a [[university]] located in [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax]], [[Nova Scotia]], [[Canada]]. It is the largest post-secondary educational institution in the [[Maritimes|Maritime Provinces]].
Dalhousie has traditionally been one of Canada's leading universities. It offers a wide array of programs, including [[medicine|medical]] and [[law]] programmes. Dalhousie is also rated as one of the top [[research university|research universities]] in Canada. The [[chancellor]] is Dr. [[Richard Goldbloom]]; Dr. [[Tom Traves]] serves as [[president]] and vice-chancellor.
[[image:Dalhousie_Vines.jpg|400px|Dalhousie Henry Hicks Academic Administration Building, September 2002]]
== History ==
Dalhousie College was founded in [[1818]] by [[George Ramsay, 9th Earl of Dalhousie]], the [[List of Nova Scotia lieutenant-governors|Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia]]. Using money acquired from the duties collected during the occupation of parts of Maine in the [[War |
f systems, evil consists of doing harm, and so-called "victimless crimes" should not be considered evil.
The [[duality]] of '[[Goodness and value theory|good]] versus evil' is expressed, in some form or another, by many cultures. This concept describes a [[hierarchy]] of [[moral]] standards applied to human behaviour. In more casual or derogatory use, the word "evil" can characterize people and behaviours that are hurtful, ruinous, or disastrous. Those who believe in the duality theory of evil believe that evil cannot exist without good, nor good without evil, as they are both objective states and opposite ends of the same scale.
A similar term, [[malice]], (from the [[Latin]] ''malus'' meaning "bad") describes the deliberate human intent to harm and be harmful. "Evil", by contrast, tends to represent a more elemental concept; a disembodied [[spirit]] that is natural and yet abominable. Whereas "malice" is specifically concerned with the act itself, "evil" is the cause of a malicious act. True evil is sometimes motivated by malicious [[greed]] and/or [[sadism]]. {{wikiquote}}
== Etymology ==
The [[modern English]] word 'Evil' ([[Old English]] ''Yfel'') and its current living cognates such as the German 'Übel' are widely considered to come from a [[Proto-Germanic]] reconstructed form ''*Ubilaz'', comparable to the [[Hittite]] ''huwapp-'' ultimately from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] form ''*wap-'' and suffixed zero-grade form ''*up-elo-''. Other later Germanic forms include [[Middle English]] ''evel'', ''ifel'', ''ufel'' [[Old Frisian]] ''evel'' (adjective & noun), [[Old Saxon]] ''ubil'', [[Old High German]] ''ubil'', and [[Gothic_language|Gothic]] ''ubils''. The root meaning is of obscure origin though shown to be akin to modern English 'over' (OE ''ofer'') and 'up' (OE ''up'', ''upp'') with the basic idea of "transgressing".
== Evil as a religious concept ==
Most ancient polytheist cultures lacked a concept of evil as a human quality or as a quality of human actions, or if they had such a concept, they did not place as much importance on it as have their monotheist successors. In the world of the [[Odyssey]] and [[Iliad]] epic poems, for example, there are acknowledged human virtues such as honor, faithfulness, and vengeance (which became a sin in Christian thought) but no direct corollary to the modern concept of evil. Likewise, Homeric characters are subject to judgement by the gods, but that judgement is often questionable as the gods themselves have imperfect, human-like characters.
In a number of religious traditions, human beings are considered to be "governed" by an innate bent towards selfishness and pride, actions that are considered evil. In others, humans may be considered naturally good, and evil to be a 'force' that tempts them away from their natural state. Evil may be personified in the form of a figure of evil, such as [[Satan]].
==Zoroastrianism==
In the originally [[Persians|Persian]] religion of [[Zoroastrianism]], the world is a battle ground between the god of good, [[Ahura Mazda]], and the god of evil, [[Ahriman]]. This dualistic belief system had a heavy influence on the [[Abrahamic religions]].
==Judaeo-Christian religions==
In the Hebrew Scriptures, evil is related to the concept of [[sin]] &mdash; "sin" translated in Hebrew is ''chata'' which means "missing the mark" (a term from archery). Evil is defined in Thomistic metaphysics as the absence of a "good" which could and should be present; it is a lack of something that should be present. The evil of gluttony, for example, is marked by the results of obesity. The goodness that is missing in the glutton is [[self]] [[discipline]] and temperance. The results of evil are usually experienced as evil over the long term but may be experienced as short term "goods". The cultivation of the good requires the long view.
In [[Judaism]] and [[Christianity]], evil refers to those aspects of human behaviour that are contrary to the [[Ten Commandments]]. Evil is thus directly correlated to disobedience: the Commandments are a guideline for "what not to do". In the forms of malice and selfishness, evil represents the socially weakening and destructive behaviors that lead directly to a ''fruitless life'' and [[death]]. On a more abstract level, "Evil" refers to the lack of faith in [[God]], the end result of which is separation from Him.
In many [[Abrahamic]] faiths, evil is personified as [[Satan]], a challenger of the law or will of God. Satan is defined in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek writings collectively as the devil, the adversary, false accuser, slanderer, the counterfeit, a liar, a murderer, one with no truth, the serpent, the evil one, the tempter, and a lion prowling around looking for someone to devour. These faiths also teach that [[spiritual being|spirit]]s or [[demon]]s may [[possession|possess]] humans or animals and tempt them to do evil.
Some forms of Christianity do not personify evil in [[Satan]], but instead consider the human heart to be inherently bent toward deceit, although human beings are responsible for their choices.
Note that "self" does not necessarily have to mean "one's self," but also to the various units, groups, and demographics to which one belongs (for example: family, school, team, generation, nationality, race, or religion). The Israelites asked for national repentance of sin while the Christians focus on individual sins. Jewish beliefs and Christian teachings say each person will give an account of all their actions, including faith and obedience.
Some cultures or philosophies believe that evil can arise without meaning or reason (in [[neo-Platonic]] philosophy this is called ''surd evil''). Christianity in general does not adhere to this belief, but the prophet [[Isaiah]] implied that God is ultimately responsible for everything including evil ''(Isa.45:7 "I form the light, and create darkness: I make peace, and create evil: I the LORD do all these things.")''
In the [[Bible]], the story of [[Job]] is a bold example of how evil exists and seems at times to be victorious, although Christianity teaches that all have sinned and fall short of the perfection of God and the wages of that missing the mark of that perfection (sin) is death. Christians believe that the crucifixion of Jesus defeated sin and merited the resurrection-victory over death for himself and all in communion with him.
For the French philosopher [[Michel Henry]], [[God]] is the invisible [[Phenomenological life|Life]] that never stops to generate us and to give us to ourselves in its pathetic self-revelation. God is Love because Love itself in an infinite love ''is'' Life. By consequence life is good in itself. The evil corresponds to all what denies or attacks life, it finds its origin in death which is the negation of life. This death is an inner and spiritual death which is the separation with God, and which consists simply in not loving, in living selfishly as if God didn't exist, as if he was not our Father of us all and as if we were not all its beloved Sons, as if we were not all Brothers generated by a same Life. The evil peaks in the violence of hatred that is at the origin of all the crimes, of all the wars and of all the genocides. But the evil is also the common origin of all those blind processes and of all those false abstractions that lead so many people to misery and exclusion.
==Is evil universal?==
A fundamental question is whether there is a universal, transcendant definition of evil, or whether evil is determined by one's social or cultural background. [[C. S. Lewis]], in ''[[The Abolition of Man]]'', maintained that there are certain acts that are universally considered evil, such as rape and murder. On the other hand, it is hard to find any act that was not acceptable in some society. The [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] celebrated the [[Rape]] of the [[Sabine]] women. The [[Ancient Greek|Greeks]] wrote favorably about [[child sexual abuse|sex]] between adults and children. The fictional [[serial killer]] [[Hannibal Lecter]] is given many admirable qualities. The [[Nazi]]s, during [[World War II]], found [[genocide]] acceptable, as did the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] with the [[Nanking Massacre]]. Today, there is strong disagreement as to whether [[homosexuality]] and [[abortion]] are perfectly acceptable or ultimate evils.
Views on the nature of evil tend to fall into one of two opposed camps. One, [[moral absolutism]], holds that good and evil are fixed concepts established by [[God]], nature, or some other authority. The other, [[moral relativism]], holds that standards of good and evil are only products of local culture, custom, or prejudice. [[Moral universalism]] is a recent humanist term to find a compromise between the unattainable absolutist sense of morality, and the relativist view.
A looser definition of evil describes it as death and [[suffering]], whether it results from human or from other natural causes (e.g., [[earthquakes]] and [[famine]]). In other words, it is not merely the intention to do evil, but the end result, namely, harm to others, that is evil. This is sometimes referred to as "natural evil," and some philosophers hold the position that this is an inappropriate use of the word "evil," as it is without intent.
As [[Plato]] observed, there are relatively few ways to do good, but there are countless ways to do evil, which can therefore have a much greater impact on our lives, and the lives of other beings capable of suffering. For this reason, some philosophers (e.g. [[Bernard Gert]]) maintain that preventing evil is more important than promoting good in formulating moral rules and in conduct.
Some people define evil as not only a person who inflicts pain and suffe |
uld represent the 'actor'; the zodiac signs could represent the 'role' being played by the actor; and the house could represent the 'scene' in which the actor plays.
[[Rune dice]] are a specialized set of dice for divination ([[runecasting]]), using the symbols of the [[runes]] printed on the dice.
== See also ==
*[[Fuzzy dice]]
*[[Craps]] - on the casino game.
*[[Liar's dice]] - dice gambling game.
*[[Mexico (game)|Mexico]] - dice gambling game.
*[[pig (dice)|Pig]] - dice gambling game.
*[[Threes]] - street dice game.
== References ==
* Persi Diaconis and Joseph B. Keller. "Fair Dice". ''The American Mathematical Monthly'', 96(4):337-339, 1989. ''(Discussion of dice that are fair "by symmetry" and "by continuity".)''
* Bias and Runs in Dice Throwing and Recording: A Few Million Throws. G. R. Iverson. W. H. Longcour, et al. Psychometrika, Vol. 36, No. 1, March 1971
* [[Reiner_Knizia | Knizia, Reiner]] (1999). Dice Games Properly Explained. Elliot Right Way Books. ISBN 0716021129.
== External links ==
* [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Dice.html MathWorld: Dice] Analysis of dice probabilities.
* [http://www.maa.org/editorial/mathgames/mathgames_05_16_05.html Fair Dice] is an illustrated [http://www.maa.org/news/mathgames.html Math Games] column about all the possible fair dice, and the mathematical reasons why other shapes are not fair.
* [http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/w/x/wxk116/roma/rbgames.html Roman Board Games] ''(See, in particular, [http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/w/x/wxk116/roma/tali.html Tali] and [http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/w/x/wxk116/roma/tesserae.html Tesserae].)''
* [http://hjem.get2net.dk/Klaudius/Dice.htm Properties of Dice] is a page describing all solids that make for provably fair dice.
* [http://www.openroleplaying.org/tools/dieroller/ Openroleplaying.org's automated Die Roller] - allows rolling any combination of any die using standard RPG 'Dice Equations')
* [http://www.dicecollector.com/ Worlds Largest Dice Collection] Links, Photos, Information about dice
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[[bg:Зар]]
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[[he:קוביית משחק]]
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<page>
<title>Dumpster diving</title>
<id>8246</id>
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<id>41876218</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T08:04:56Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DumpsterDiving.jpg|right|250px]]
'''Dumpster diving''', also called "dumpstering", "trashing" is a [[North America|North American]] term to describe the practice of rummaging through commercial or residential [[Waste|trash]] to find useful free items that have been discarded. In the [[United Kingdom]], the practice is referred to as "skipping." The term originates from the fanciful image of someone leaping into large [[Dustbin|rubbish bins]], the best known of which are produced under the name "[[Dumpster]]". These are also known as "[[skip (container)|skips]]." In practice, dumpstering is more akin to fishing around than diving in.
Food can often be acquired in this manner from [[baker|bakeries]] or [[Supermarket|grocery stores]]. [[Office|Offices]], [[factory|factories]], [[department store|department stores]], and other commercial establishments also sometimes throw out nonperishable items that were returned or have minor damages.
==Overview==
In the [[United States]], [[Canada]], and [[Europe]], supermarkets routinely discard food items before the [[shelf life|expiration date]] because of overstock, minor imperfections or blemishes. Often, this food is safe for consumption. It is considered good practice to wash any unpackaged food items.
Dumpster diving can be a spontaneous act upon seeing a useful item in the garbage, a conscious [[Simple living|low-impact]] lifestyle choice (for example, as a part of [[freeganism]]), or a skill acquired by those with few other options to obtain goods or food. Dumpstering is also associated with "curbing", or rummaging through trash on city sidewalk curbs. Discarded furniture, electronics, appliances, books, and clothing are all commonly found.
Dumpster diving is practiced differently in countries whose commercial disposal practices are different than the United States'. In many economically developed countries, food is rarely thrown away unless it is rotten. Charities collect excess food from supermarkets and restaurants and distribute it to the needy. Dumpster divers in these countries may concentrate on looking for antiques or scrap materials to sell.
[[British television]] shows have even featured home renovations and decoration using salvaged materials. ''[[Changing Rooms (TV show)|Changing Rooms]]'' is one such show, broadcast on [[BBC One]]. Recovery of still-useful items from discards is well-known in other cultures as well; [[James Fallows]] noted it in his book written about his time living in [[Japan]]. However, much of the richness attributed to dumpster diving in Japan ended with the collapse of the nation's [[Japanese_asset_price_bubble|economic bubble]] in 1990.
Dumpster diving is a tool for [[garbology|garbologist]]s, who study the [[sociology]] and [[archeology]] of trash in modern life. There is a major outpost of academic garbology at the [[University of Arizona]], directed for some decades by [[William Rathje]].
Another activity associated with dumpster diving is collecting [[Aluminum can|cans]]. This is when people will go through dumpsters and pick out the alumminum cans, usually soda cans. These can be sold at some [[Recycling|recycling plants]]. This is also done with [[copper]], [[lead]], and other [[scrap metal]]s.
==Information diving==
In addition to offering useful items like food and clothing, dumpsters can also be a source of information. Files, letters, memos, photographs, IDs, passwords, credit cards and more can be found in dumpsters. This is a result of the fact that many people never consider that sensitive items they throw in the trash may be recovered. Of course, using information obtained in a dumpster is illegal in many cases. (See [[identity theft]].)
Supposedly, information diving was common in the [[1980s]] due to lax security; when businesses became aware of the need for increased security in the early [[1990s]], sensitive documents were [[Paper shredder|shredded]] before being placed in dumpsters. In any case, there is still considerable Internet activity on the subject of dumpster diving, so it is unlikely to have stopped with the widespread introduction of document shredding. Security mythology has it that curious [[hacker]]s or malicious [[black hat|cracker]]s commonly use this technique, but this may be an [[urban legend]] as [[social engineering (computer security)|social engineering]] is often easier.
Dumpster diving is commonly practiced by "[[Consumer protection|watchdog]]" organizations seeking information on groups they are investigating. [[Trinity Foundation (Dallas)|Trinity Foundation]] successfully used this technique to report on the activities of [[televangelist]] [[Robert Tilton]], and has also obtained information on [[Benny Hinn]] using this practice. [[Trade unions|Labor unions]] in the United States also use this technique among others to determine who works for a company. This is a crucial step to organizing a workplace.
==Legal status==
Because dumpsters are usually located on private property, dumpster diving is illegal in some parts of the United States, though the law is enforced with varying degrees of rigor. [[California v. Greenwood|The California v. Greenwood Supreme Court case]] in the U.S. have held that there is no [[common law]] expectation of [[privacy]] for [[post-consumer waste|discarded materials]]. Dumpster diving ''per se'' is probably legal when not specifically mentioned in state or town statutes.
[[Police]] (and possibly other) searches of dumpsters and like discards are not violations; [[Evidence (law)|evidence]] [[Search and seizure|seized]] in this way has been permitted in many [[criminal procedure|criminal trials]]. The doctrine is less well established in regard to [[civil litigation]]. Similarly in the UK, though dumpster diving may qualify as theft within the [[Theft Act 1968]], there is very little enforcement in practice.
[[Private investigator]]s have written books on "PI technique" in which dumpster diving, or its equivalent "[[wastebasket]] recovery," figure prominently. In Italy, a law issued at the beginning of the new century declared dumpster diving to be legal.
==Trivia==
Popular rap/rock group from the early-mid nineties [[Pseudohoodlum]] glorified the art of dumpster diving with their song "Dumpster Dive" which stated that one can find all that is needed to exist and feel alive "in the dumpster." Lyrics included "Jump right off the vintage scale, I know a place where there's always a sale... in the dumpster."
In the [[1960s]], [[Jerry Schneider]] recovered several [[instruction manuals]] from [[The Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Company]], and used the information to steal hundreds of thousands of dollars' worth of [[telephone]] equipment.
The [[Castle Infinity]] game, after its shutdown, was brought back from the dead by rescuing its [[server]]s from trash.
Recently, dumpster diving h |
* [[Identity element]]: for all natural numbers ''a'', we have
:<math>a + 0 = 0 + a = a.\,</math> ([[Addition of natural numbers/proofs#Proof of identity element|proof]])
Together, these three properties show that the set of natural numbers '''N''' under addition is a commutative [[monoid]].
[[Category:Elementary arithmetic]]
[[fr:Addition des entiers naturels]]
[[ja:&#21152;&#27861;]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Aliens</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[alien]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Airbus A300</title>
<id>2524</id>
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<id>41593963</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T10:38:35Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:luft.a300b4.d-aias.750pix..jpg|thumb|250px|Lufthansa Airbus A300]]
The '''Airbus A300''' is a short to medium range [[Wide-body aircraft|widebody]] aircraft. Launched in 1972, it was the first twin-engined widebody in the world, and the first aircraft created by the [[Airbus]] consortium of European aerospace companies.
==Development history==
The basic mission requirements were given by Frank Kolk, an [[American Airlines]] executive, in 1966, for a [[Boeing 727]] replacement on busy short to medium range routes such as US transcontinental flights. His brief included a passenger capacity of 250 to 300 seated in a twin-aisle configuration and fitted with two engines, with the capability of carrying full passengers without penalty from high altitude airports like [[Denver]]. American manufacturers responded with widebody trijets, the Douglas [[DC-10]] and the [[Lockheed L-1011 Tristar]], as twinjets were banned from many routes by the FAA.
French president [[Charles de Gaulle]] resented the US domination of civil aviation and wanted a European airliner that could compete with American designs. [[Concorde]] was part of the answer, designed for intercontinental routes; the other was the A300, designed to meet Mr Kolk's US domestic requirements.
[[image:IMG 1265r.jpg|thumb|250px|American Airlines A300]]
In September 1967 the British, French and German governments signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) to start development of the 300 seat Airbus A300. An earlier announcement had been made in July 1967 but had been complicated by the [[British Aircraft Corporation]] (BAC). The British government refused to back BAC's proposed competitor, a development of the [[BAC 1-11]] and instead supported the Airbus aircraft.
In the months following this agreement both the French and British governments expressed doubts about the aircraft. Another problem was the requirement for a new engine (to be developed by Rolls-Royce, the RB207). In December 1968 the French and British partner companies, Sud Aviation and Hawker Siddeley proposed a revised configuration, the 250 seat Airbus A250. Renamed the A300B the aircraft would not require new engines, reducing development costs. To attract potential US customers, American [[General Electric CF6-50]] engines powered the A300, instead of the British RB207. The British government was upset and withdrew from the venture: however, the British firm Hawker Siddeley stayed on as a contractor, developing the wings for the A300, which were pivotal in later versions' impressive performance from short domestic to long intercontinental flights. (Years later, through [[British Aerospace]], the UK reentered the consortium.)
Airbus Industrie was formally set up in 1970 following an agreement between Aerospatiale (France) and Deutsche Aerospace (Germany) (joined by CASA of Spain in 1971). Each company would deliver its sections as fully equipped, ready to fly items.
In 1972 the A300 made its maiden flight and the first production model, the A300B2 entered service in 1974. Initially the success of the consortium was poor but by 1979 there were 81 aircraft in service. It was the launch of the A320 in 1981 that guaranteed Airbus as a major player in the aircraft market - the aircraft had over 400 orders before it first flew, compared to 15 for the A300 in 1972.
The A300 is the first airliner to use just-in-time manufacturing techniques. Whole complete sections were manufactured by consortium partners all over Europe. These were airlifted to the final assembly line in [[Toulouse]] by a fleet of [[Boeing 377]]-derived [[Aero Spacelines Super Guppy]] aircraft. Originally devised as a way to share the work among Airbus's partners without the expense of two assembly lines, it turned out to be a more efficient way of building airplanes (more flexible and reduced costs) as opposed to building the whole airplane at one site. This fact was not lost on Boeing, which decided to manufacture the [[Boeing 787]] in this manner, using outsized 747s to ferry wings and other parts from [[Japan]].
The A300 cemented European cooperation in aviation. Its first flight was commemorated on a [[France|French]] three-[[franc]] stamp.
==Technology==
[[Image:Airbus A300-600R Egyptair SU-GAR.jpg|thumb|250px|Egypt Air Airbus A300-600R]]
Airbus partners employed the latest technology, some derived from the [[Concorde]]. On entry into service, in 1974, the A300, was very advanced and influenced later subsonic airliner designs. The technological highlights include:
*Advanced wings by De Havilland (later [[BAE Systems]]) with:
**[[Supercritical wing|supercritical airfoil section ]]for excellent economical performance
**advanced aerodynamically efficient flight controls
*advanced 222-inch diameter circular fuselage section for 8-abreast passenger seating and wide enough for 2 [[Unit Load Device|LD3]] cargo containers side-by-side giving it bigger belly cargo cross-section than a [[Boeing 747]]. The circular fuselage crossection was later used in the larger [[Boeing 777]].
*Structures made from metal [[billet (manufacturing)|billet]]s, reducing weight
*the first airliner to be fitted with [[wind shear]] protection
*advanced autopilots capable of flying the aircraft from climb-out to landing
*Electrically controlled braking system
Later A300s incorporate other advanced features such as
*2-man crew by automating the flight engineer's functions, an industry first (a request made by [[Garuda Indonesia]], an idea proposed by [[Jusuf Habibie|B. J. Habibie]] , who at that time was [[Indonesia]]'s Minister of Research and Technology)
*[[glass cockpit]] flight instruments
*extensive use of composites
*centre-of-gravity control by shifting around fuel
*the first airliner to use wing fences for better aerodynamics
All these made the A300 a perfect substitute for the widebody trijets such as [[McDonnell Douglas DC-10]] and [[Lockheed L-1011]] for short to medium routes. On the early versions, Airbus even used the same engines and similar major systems as the DC-10. Asian airlines bought the concept and used the early A300s as a complement to the widebody trijets on such routes.
==In-service==
After the launch, sales of the A300 were weak for some years, with most orders going to airlines that had an obligation to order the locally-made product - notably [[Air France]] and [[Lufthansa]]. At one stage, Airbus had 16 "whitetail" A300s - completed but unsold aircraft - sitting on the tarmac.
In 1977 giant US carrier [[Eastern Airlines]] leased four A300s as an in-service trial. [[Frank Borman]], ex-astronaut and the then CEO, was impressed as the A300 consumed 30% less fuel than his fleet of Tristars and then ordered 23 of the type. This was followed by an order from [[Pan Am]]. From then on, the A300 family sold well, eventually reaching the current total of 858 on order or delivered.
Also, [[Olympic Airlines]] operated A300-B4 and A300-605R jets for several years. Now it only operates a single A300-622R (SX-BEM 'Creta') (as of February 2005).
It found particular favour with Asian airlines. It was bought by [[Japan Air System]], [[Thai Airways International]], [[Singapore Airlines]], [[Malaysia Airlines]], [[Philippine Airlines]], [[Garuda Indonesia]], [[China Airlines]], [[PIA]], [[Indian Airlines]], [[Trans Australia Airlines]] and many others. As Asia was not restricted by the FAA [[ETOPS|60-minutes ruling]] for twin-engine airliners which existed at the time, Asian airlines used A300s for routes across [[Bay of Bengal]] and [[South China Sea]].
The Australians used them for domestic transcontinental routes. By 1981, Airbus was growing rapidly, with over 300 aircraft sold and options for 200 more planes for over forty airlines. This fact was not lost to Boeing which responded with the [[Boeing 767]].
The A300 provided Airbus the experience of manufacturing and selling airliners competitively. The basic fuselage of the A300 was later streched ([[A330]] and [[A340]]), shrunk ([[A310]]), or modified into many derivatives ([[Airbus Beluga]]).
Currently, the A300 is reaching the end of its market life and is now mainly sold as a dedicated freighter. The largest freight operator of the A300 in the United States is Federal Express, which, as of January, 2006, has 95 A300/310 aircraft. United Parcel Service (UPS) also has started using freighter versions of the A300. The current version is the A300-600R and is rated for 180-minute ETOPS. The A300 has enjoyed renewed interest in the secondhand market for conversion to freighters. The freighter versions - either new-build A300-600's or converted ex-passenger A300-600's, A300B2's and B4's - account for most of the world freighter fleet after the [[Boeing 747]] freighter.
== Models==
* '''A300B1''' Only two were built: the first prototype and |
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<title>List of people by name: I</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{List of people I}}
{{Index only| a person}}
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<page>
<title>List of people by name: Joh</title>
<id>3899</id>
<revision>
<id>40980555</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T06:54:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Deyyaz</username>
<id>260606</id>
</contributor>
<comment>added [[Per Johansson]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{List_of_people_Jo}}
== Joha ==
*[[Prince Johan-Friso of the Netherlands|Johan-Friso of the Netherlands, Prince]]
*[[Ólafur Jóhannesson|Jóhannesson, Ólafur]], (1978-1979), prime minister
*[[Wilhelm Johannsen|Johannsen, Wilhelm]], (1857-1927), coined the term "gene"
*[[David Johansen|Johansen, David]], (born 1950), ([[Buster Poindexter]]), singer
*[[Jon Johansen|Johansen, Jon]], (born 1983), computer programmer
*[[K.V. Johansen|Johansen, K.V.]], Canadian writer
*[[Lars Emil Johansen|Johansen, Lars Emil]], (1991-1997), prime minister
*[[Donald Johanson|Johanson, Donald]], archaeologist
*[[Klara Johanson|Johanson, Klara]], Swedish writer
*[[Gunnar Johansson|Johansson, Gunnar]], Swedish psychophysicist
*[[Ingemar Johansson|Johansson, Ingemar]], (born 1932), World Heavyweight Boxing Champion
*[[Maria Johansson|Johansson, Maria]] (born 1965), Swedish female boxer
*[[Per Johansson|Johansson, Per]], Swedish trade unionist
*[[Thomas Johansson|Johansson, Thomas]]
*[[Karan Johar|Johar, Karan]], film director
== John ==
=== People named John ===
==== John as given name ====
===== Hierarchs by given name John =====
====== Patriarchs by given name John ======
*[[John Valdez]], teen in California who suggested Cartoon Network its current logo
*[[John I of Alexandria]], Patriarch of Alexandria
*[[John II of Alexandria]], Patriarch of Alexandria
*[[John III of Alexandria]], Patriarch of Alexandria
*[[John IV of Alexandria]], Patriarch of Alexandria
*[[John V of Alexandria]], Patriarch of Alexandria
*[[John VI of Alexandria]], Patriarch of Alexandria
*[[John Chrysostom]], (347-407), patriarch of Constantinople
*[[Patriarch John II|John II, Patriarch]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[Patriarch John III|John III, Patriarch]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[John Scholasticus|John III of Constantinople]], (d. 577), patriarch of Constantinople from 565
*[[Patriarch John IV|John IV, Patriarch]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[Patriarch John V|John V, Patriarch]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[Patriarch John VI|John VI, Patriarch]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[Patriarch John VII|John VII, Patriarch]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[Patriarch John VIII|John VIII, Patriarch]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[Patriarch John IX|John IX, Patriarch]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[John IX Agapetus]], (died 1134), [[Patriarch of Constantinople]]
*[[Patriarch John X|John X, Patriarch]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[Patriarch John XI|John XI, Patriarch]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[Patriarch John XII|John XII, Patriarch]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[Patriarch John XIII|John XIII, Patriarch]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[Patriarch John XIV|John XIV, Patriarch]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[John Maron]], (died 707), Maronite Patriarch
*[[John Maron II]], Maronite Patriarch
*[[John of Jaje]], Maronite Patriarch
*[[John I of Saxony]] (1801-1873), King of Saxony
*[[John I (Maronite Patriarch)|John I]], Maronite Patriarch
*[[John II (Maronite Patriarch)|John II]], Maronite Patriarch
*[[John III (Maronite Patriarch)|John III]], Maronite Patriarch
*[[John IV (Maronite Patriarch)|John IV]], Maronite Patriarch
*[[John V (Maronite Patriarch)|John V]], Maronite Patriarch
====== Popes by given name John ======
*[[Pope John I|John I, Pope]], (523-526)
*[[Pope John II|John II, Pope]], (533-535)
*[[Pope John III|John III, Pope]], (561-574)
*[[Pope John IV|John IV, Pope]], (640-642)
*[[Pope John V|John V, Pope]], (685-686)
*[[Pope John VI|John VI, Pope]], (701-705), [[Pope]]
*[[Pope John VII|John VII, Pope]], (705-709)
*[[Pope John VIII|John VIII, Pope]], (872-882)
*[[Pope John IX|John IX, Pope]], (898-900)
*[[Pope John X|John X, Pope]], (914-928)
*[[Pope John XI|John XI, Pope]], (931-935)
*[[Pope John XII|John XII, Pope]], (955-963)
*[[Pope John XIII|John XIII, Pope]], (965-972)
*[[Pope John XIV|John XIV, Pope]], (983-984)
*[[Pope John XV|John XV, Pope]], (985-996)
*[[Pope John XVII|John XVII, Pope]]
*[[Pope John XVIII|John XVIII, Pope]], (1003-1009)
*[[Pope John XIX|John XIX, Pope]], (1024-1032)
*[[Pope John XXI|John XXI, Pope]], (1276-1277)
*[[Pope John XXII|John XXII, Pope]], (1316-1334)
*[[Antipope John XXIII|John XXIII]], (ca. 1400), Antipope
*[[Pope John XXIII|John XXIII]], (1881-1963)
*[[Pope John Paul I|John Paul I]], (1912-1978), Pope
*[[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]], (1920-2005), Pope
===== People known as saints with given name John =====
*[[John Baptist de La Salle]], (1651–1719), monastic and educator, canonized by Pope in 1900
*[[John Bosco]], (1815-1888), canonized by Pope in 1934
*[[John Chrysostom]], (347-407), archbishop and patriarch, recognized as saint by Orthodox Church
*[[John Maron]], (died 707), Maronite Patriarch,recognized as saint by Catholic Church before 12<sup>th</sup> century
*[[John of the Cross]], (died 1591), canonized by Pope in 1726
*[[John of Damascus]], (c.676–749), religious writer, recognized as saint by Orthodox Church
*[[John of God]], (1495 - 1550), Portuguese-born Spanish monk, canonized by Pope in 1690
*[[John the Apostle]], (fl. 1<sup>st</sup> century), personal disciple of Jesus, among those most widely recognized as saints, considered by some to be John the Evangelist
*[[John the Baptist]], (d. early 1<sup>st</sup> century), Jewish preacher and reputed admirer of Jesus's early preaching, among those most widely recognized as saints
*[[John the Evangelist]], (fl. late 1<sup>st</sup> century), Gospel author, among those most widely recognized as saints, considered by some to be John the Apostle
===== Monarchs by given name John =====
*[[John II of Brabant]], (born 1275)
*[[John I Tzimisces]], (c. 941-c, 976), Byzantine Emperor
*[[John II Comnenus]], Byzantine Emperor
*[[John III Ducas Vatatzes]], (1193-1254), Byzantine Emperor
*[[John IV Lascaris]], Byzantine Emperor
*[[John V Palaeologus]], (1332-1391), Byzantine Emperor
*[[John VI Cantacuzenus]], (c. 1292-1383), Byzantine Emperor
*[[John VII Palaeologus]], (1370-1408), Byzantine Emperor
*[[John VIII Palaeologus]], (1390-1448), Byzantine Emperor
*[[John I of Castile]], (1358-1390), Castilian monarch
*[[John II of Castile]], (1405-1454), Castilian monarch
*[[John of Denmark]], (1481-1513), Norwegian monarch
*[[John of England]], (1166-1216), king of [[England]]
*[[John I of France]], (died 1316)
*[[John I of Poland]], (1492-1501), Polish ruler
*[[John II of Poland]], (1648-1668), abdicated
*[[John III of Poland]], (1674-1696), Polish ruler
*[[John I of Portugal]], (1385-1433), Portuguese monarch
*[[John II of Portugal]], (1481-1495), Portuguese monarch
*[[John III of Portugal]], (1521-1557), Portuguese monarch
*[[John IV of Portugal]], (1640-1656), Portuguese monarch
*[[John V of Portugal]], (1706-1750), Portuguese monarch
*[[John VI of Portugal]], ('' 1799-1816'', 1816-1826), Portuguese monarch
===== Others by given name John =====
*[[Don John of Austria|John of Austria, Don]], (died 1578), Spanish Governor-General of the Netherlands
*[[John Du Scot]], (800-877) Christian philosopher
*[[John, Lord Lovelace]], American colonial Governor of New Jersey
*[[John of Jandun]], scholastic philosopher
*[[John of Mirecourt]], scholastic philosopher
*[[John of Paris]], scholastic philosopher
*[[John of Reading]], scholastic philosopher
*[[John of Salisbury]], (c. 1115-1180), scholastic philosopher
*[[John of Saxony]], (1801-1873), King of Saxony
*[[John of Seville]], scholastic philosopher
*[[John of Sittingbourne]], Archbishop of Canterbury
*[[John of St. Gilles]], scholastic philosopher
*[[John of Treviso]], scholastic philosopher
*[[John McCormack|John, Count McCormack]], ([[23 June]] [[1884]] - [[16 September]] [[1945]]), operatic tenor
*[[John the Blind of Luxemburg|John the Blind]] (1310-1346), Bohemian aristocrat
*[[John the Fearless]], (1371-1419), Duke of Burgundy
==== John as surname ====
*[[Augustus John|John, Augustus]], (1878-1961), artist
*[[Elton John|John, Elton]], (born 1947), British pop singer
*[[Gwen John|John, Gwen]], (1876-1939), artist
*[[Little Willie John|John, Little Willie]] (correct filing i |
e 15th edition, by Ole Stig Andersen] (''[[Danmarks Radio]]'')
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/19/science/19lang.html How Linguists and Missionaries Share a Bible of 6,912 Languages] (''[[New York Times]]'')
* [http://www.linguasphere.net Linguasphere Press]
[[Category:Linguistics]]
[[da:Ethnologue]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Evaporation</title>
<id>10303</id>
<revision>
<id>41874048</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T07:34:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jeffrey O. Gustafson</username>
<id>158658</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.206.230.240|203.206.230.240]] ([[User talk:203.206.230.240|talk]]) to last version by NathanHurst</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Evaporation''' is the process whereby [[atom]]s or [[molecule]]s in a [[liquid]] state (or [[solid]] state if the substance [[sublimation (chemistry)|sublime]]s) gain sufficient energy to enter the [[gas]]eous state.
The thermal motion of a molecule of liquid must be sufficient to overcome the [[surface tension]] and evaporate, that is, its [[kinetic energy]] must exceed the [[work function]] of [[Cohesion (chemistry)|cohesion]] at the surface. Evaporation therefore, proceeds more quickly at higher [[temperature]], at higher flow rates between the gaseous and liquid phase and in liquids with lower surface tension (i.e. higher [[vapor pressure]]). Since only a small proportion of the molecules are located near the surface and are moving in the proper direction to escape at any given instant, the rate of evaporation is limited. Also, as the faster-moving molecules escape, the remaining molecules have lower average kinetic energy, and the temperature of the liquid thus decreases. This phenomenon is also called [[evaporative cooling]]. One example for evaporative cooling is [[sweating]].
Gas has less order than liquid or solid matter, and thus the [[thermodynamic entropy|entropy]] of the system is increased, which always requires energy input. This means that the entropy change for evaporation (&Delta;H<sub>evaporation</sub>) is always positive.
=== Evaporative equilibrium ===
If the evaporation takes place in a closed vessel, the escaping molecules accumulate as a [[vapour]] above the liquid. Many of the molecules return to the liquid, with returning molecules becoming more frequent as the [[density]] and [[pressure]] of the vapour increases. When the process of escape and return reaches an [[equilibrium]], the vapour is said to be "saturated," and no further change in either vapor pressure and density or liquid temperature will occur.
===Evaporation of water===
It is a misconception that at 1 [[atmosphere (unit)|atm]], [[water vapor|water vapour]] ''only'' exists at 100°C. [[Water (molecule)|Water molecules]] are in a constant state of evaporation and condensation flux near the surface of liquid water. If a ''surface'' molecule receives enough energy, it will leave the liquid and turn into vapour pending an allowable vapor pressure. Under a pressure of 1 [[atmosphere (unit)|atm]], water will [[boiling point|boil]] at 100°C.
The ratio of the heat loss from a pond by evaporation to the heat loss due to convection, independent of windspeed, is given by:
:<math>{Q_{c,pa} \over Q_e} = {0.46(T_p -T_a) \over P_{wp} - P_a}{p \over 760}</math>
where <math>Q_{c,pa}</math> is the heat loss from the pond by convection, in Watts/m<sup>2</sup>K,
<math>Q_e</math> is the heat loss from the pond by evaporation, in Watts/m<sup>2</sup>K,
<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_a</math> are the Kelvin (or Celsius) temperatures of the water and air, and
<math>P_{wp}</math> and <math>P_a</math> are the vapor pressures of the pond surface and air, and
<math>p</math> is the barometric pressure, with all pressures in mm Hg.
(Bowen, 1926) <!-- I'm puzzled what the 760 is for - that looks roughly like 1 atm in mmHg, but the pressure units should cancel out. Why are there two constants? -- njh -->
==Factors influencing rate of evaporation==
*Concentration of the substance evaporating in the air. If the air already has a high concentration of the substance evaporating, then the given substance will evaporate more slowly.
*[[Concentration]] of other substances in the air. If the air is already saturated with other substances, it can have a lower capacity for the substance evaporating.
*Temperature of the substance. If the substance is hotter, then evaporation will be faster.
*Flow rate of air. This is in part related to the concentration points above. If fresh air is moving over the substance all the time, then the concentration of the substance in the air is less likely to go up with time, thus encouraging faster evaporation. In addition, molecules in motion have more energy than those at rest, and so the stronger the flow of air, the greater the evaporating power of the air molecules.
*[[Intermolecular force|Inter-molecular forces]]. The stronger the forces keeping the molecules together in the liquid or solid state the more energy that must be input in order to evaporate them.
==Applied evaporation==
===Forced evaporation===
Forced evaporation or [[distillation]] is a process used in the [[separation of mixture]]s, in which a mixture is heated to drive off the more volatile component with a higher [[vapor pressure]].
===Combustion vaporisation===
The fuel [[droplet]]s vaporize as they receive heat by mixing with the hot gases in the combustion chamber. Heat(energy) can also be received by radiation from any hot refractory wall of the combustion chamber.
===Film deposition===
Evaporation is a common method of [[thin film deposition]] used in industry. Evaporative deposition tends to be slower and therefore more expensive compared to [[sputtering]]. However plastic substrates typically cannot tolerate the bombardment with energetic neutral atoms that unavoidably occurs in a sputter chamber. An important example of an evaporative process is the production of [[aluminium|aluminized]] [[Mylar]] packaging film in a [[Roll-to-roll_processing|roll-to-roll web system]]. Often, the aluminum layer in this material is not [[skin depth|thick enough]] to be entirely opaque since a thinner layer can be deposited more cheaply than a thick one. The main purpose of the aluminum is to isolate the product from the external environment by creating a barrier to the passage of [[light]], [[oxygen]], or [[water vapor]].
For some applications, the fact that evaporative deposition proceeds in a line-of-sight fashion is an important advantage. The energy distribution of evaporated material tends to be [[Maxwellian]], with a temperature derived from the evaporation source. In contrast, the [[Plasma (physics)|plasmas]] encountered in sputtering systems are far from thermal equilibrium and may have high-energy tails that contain particles with large random velocities. Evaporation is therefore a gentler process with a better defined beam of source material that can be used to coat just one side of a substrate or even the side of etched surface features, as in [[MEMS]] processing.
[[Image:Fourpocketevapsource.jpg|thumb|A compact four-pocket electron-beam evaporation source.]]
The three main kinds of evaporation are '''thermal''', '''electron-beam''' and '''resistive'''. In the thermal method, the crucible that holds the source material is radiatively heated by a filament that winds around it. In the electron-beam method, the current that heats the crucible is boiled off a filament and is attracted to the crucible by a high voltage. Electron-beam evaporation is used with the highest melting elements. Resistive evaporation is accomplished by passing a large current through a wire or foil of the material that is to be deposited. [[Molecular beam epitaxy]] is a particularly sophisticated kind of thermal evaporation.
==See also==
*[[heat of vaporization]]
*[[evapotranspiration]]
*[[flash evaporation]]
*[[crystallisation]]
*[[Coffee ring]]
*[[Latent heat]]
*[[Distillation]]
*[[Desalination]]
== External links==
*[http://www.grow.arizona.edu/Grow--GrowResources.php?ResourceId=208 Evaporation of water]
==References==
''Semiconductor Devices: Physics and Technology,'' by S.M. Sze, ISBN 0471333727, has an especially detailed discussion of film deposition by evaporation.
[[Category:Physical chemistry]]
[[Category:Thermodynamics]]
[[Category:Materials science]]
[[Category:Thin film deposition]]
[[cs:Vypa&#345;ování]]
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<page>
<title>Esbat</title>
<id>10304</id>
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<id>41608879</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T14:02:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluebot</username>
<id>527862</id>
</contributor>
<comment>clean up and bulleting external links using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Wiccan]]s and many other [[Paganism|Pagan]]s celebrate the '''esbats''', which are the [[full moon]]s. The new moons are also celebrated by many groups, and some very dedicated groups also celebr |
d 'ole Drexel Shaft]
*[http://www.pages.drexel.edu/~emb29/Campus.html Photos from the campus, including The Shaft]
*[http://www.wkdu.org/ 91.7 WKDU, Drexel University radio station]
*[http://www.thetriangle.org/ The Triangle, Drexel University student newspaper]
*[http://www.drexel.edu/drexelcollection/about.asp The Drexel Collection]
{{Colonial Athletic Association}}
{{Association of Independent Technological Universities}}
[[Category:Universities and colleges in Philadelphia]]
[[Category:Schools of Medicine in the United States]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Doom (disambiguation)</title>
<id>8257</id>
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<id>36014214</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-20T22:31:24Z</timestamp>
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<username>Briguy52748</username>
<id>244115</id>
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<comment>Legion of Doom professional wrestlers</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|doom}}
In history:
*[[dōm]] (pronounced "doom") is the [[Anglo-Saxon]] word meaning "[[judgement]]", "[[law]]"
* [[Doom (painting)]], a painting that depicts the [[Last Judgment]].
In popular culture:
* ''[[Doom]]'', a first-person shooter computer game
* [[Doom (film)]], a movie based on the series of the same computer game
* [[Doom (band)]], a band from West Yorkshire credited with founding Crust punk
* [[Doom metal]], a subgenre of heavy metal
* ''[[Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom]]'', a movie directed by Stephen Spielberg and starring Harrison Ford
* [[Doctor Doom]], a fictional supervillain from the comic book Fantastic Four
* [[Judge Doom]], the villain of the movie ''Who Framed Roger Rabbit''
* The [[Legion of Doom]]:
** A group of supervillains from the animated series ''Super Friends''
** The name used by the [[Road Warriors]] professional wrestling [[tag team]] while they wrestled for the [[World Wrestling Entertainment|World Wrestling Federation]].
{{disambig}}
[[sl:Doom (razločitev)]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Daedalus</title>
<id>8258</id>
<revision>
<id>42124316</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:56:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Flauto Dolce</username>
<id>30706</id>
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<minor />
<comment>Disambiguate [[Samos]] to [[Samos Island]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''This article deals with the mythological character Daedalus. For other uses of the name, see [[Daedalus (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Landon-IcarusandDaedalus.jpg|right|thumb|250px|''Daedalus and Icarus'', by [[Charles Paul Landon]], 1799 (Musée des
Beaux-Arts et de la Dentelle, Alençon)]]
In [[Greek mythology]], '''Daedalus''' (Latin, also Hellenized Latin '''Daedalos''', Greek '''Daidalos''' and Etruscan '''Taitle''') was a most skillful artificer and was even said to have first invented images. He built for [[Ariadne]] a wide dancing-ground (''Iliad'' xviii.591), and Homer also still calls her by her Cretan name, the "Lady of the [[Labyrinth]]" (''Iliad'' xviii.96) which Daedalus also made, in which the [[Minotaur]] was kept and from which [[Theseus]] escaped by means of the thread clue of Ariadne. Ignoring Homer, later writers envisaged the labyrinth as an edifice, and rather than a single path to the center and out again, gave it numberless winding passages and turnings opening into one another, seeming to have neither beginning nor end (see [[labyrinth]]). Daedalus built it for King [[Minos]], who needed the labyrinth to imprison his wife's son: [[Asterius]], the [[Minotaur]]. Daedalus had built for Minos' wife, [[Pasiphae]], a wooden cow so she could mate with the bull, for the Greeks imagined the Minoan [[Bull (mythology)|bull of the sun]] to be an actual, earthly bull.
Daedalus afterwards was shut up in a tower to prevent his knowledge of the labyrinth from spreading to the public. He could not leave Crete by sea, as the king kept strict watch on all the vessels, and permitted none to sail without being carefully searched. Since Minos controlled the land and sea routes, Daedalus set to work to fabricate wings for himself and his young son [[Icarus (mythology)|Icarus]]. He tied feathers together beginning with the smallest and adding larger, so as to form an increasing surface. The larger ones he secured with thread and the smaller with wax, and gave the whole a gentle curvature like the wings of a bird. When at last the work was done, the artist, waving his wings, found himself buoyed upward and hung suspended, poising himself on the beaten air. He next equipped his son in the same manner, and taught him how to fly. When both were prepared for flight, Daedalus warned Icarus not to fly too high, because the heat of the sun would melt the wax, nor too low because the sea foam would make the wings wet and they would no longer fly. Then the father and son flew away.
[[Image:PBrueghelElderIcarus.jpg|thumb|360px|''The Fall of Icarus'' (detail) by [[Peter Brueghel the Elder]], ca. 1558]]
They had passed [[Samos Island|Samos]], [[Delos]] and [[Lebynthos]] when the boy began to soar upward as if to reach heaven. The blazing sun softened the wax which held the feathers together, and they came off. Icarus fell into the sea. His father cried and bitterly lamenting his own arts, called the land near the place where Icarus fell into the ocean [[Icaria]] in memory of his child. Daedalus arrived safe in [[Sicily]] in the care of King [[Cocalus]], where he built a temple to [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]], and hung up his wings, an offering to the god.
Minos, meanwhile, searched for Daedalus by travelling from city to city asking a riddle. He presented a spiral seashell and asked for it to be strung all the way through. When he reached [[Camicus]], King Cocalus, knowing Daedalus would be able to solve the riddle, fetched the old man. He tied the string to an ant, which walked through the seashell, stringing it all the way through. Minos then knew Daedalus was in the court of King Cocalus and demanded he be handed over. Cocalus managed to convince Minos to take a bath first. Cocalus' daughters then killed Minos.
Daedalus was so proud of his achievements that he could not bear the idea of a rival. His sister had placed her son [[Perdix]] under his charge to be taught the mechanical arts. He was an apt scholar and gave striking evidences of ingenuity. Walking on the seashore he picked up the spine of a fish (some versions say it is a serpent's jaw that is used as the basis for the saw). Imitating it, he took a piece of iron and notched it on the edge, and thus invented the saw. He put two pieces of iron together, connecting them at one end with a rivet, and sharpening the other ends, and made a pair of compasses. Daedalus was so envious of his nephew's performances that he took an opportunity, when they were together one day on the top of a high tower, to push him off. But [[Athena]], who favors ingenuity, saw him falling, and arrested his fate by changing him into a bird called after his name, the [[partridge]]. This bird does not build his nest in the trees, nor take lofty flights, but nestles in the hedges, and mindful of his fall, avoids high places. For this crime, Daedalus was tried and banished.
Daedalus had two sons: [[Icarus (mythology)|Icarus]] and [[Iapyx]].
Daedalus gave his name [[eponym]]ously to any Greek artificer and to many Greek contraptions that represented dextrous skill. At [[Plataea]] there was a festival, the [[Daedala]], in which a temporary wooden altar was fashioned, an effigy was made from an oak-tree and dressed in bridal attire, and carried in a cart with a woman who acted as bridesmaid. The image was called ''Daedale'' and the archaic ritual given an explanation through a myth to the purpose.
In the period of [[Romanticism]], Daedalus had come to denote the classic artist,a skilled mature craftsman, while Icarus symbolizes the romantic artist, an undisputed heir of the classic artist, whose impetuous, passionate and rebellious nature as well as his defiance of formal aesthetic and social conventions ultimately prove to be self destructive.
[[Apollodorus]]. [[Bibliotheke]]. III.i.4, III.xv.8; [[Apollodorus]]. [[Epitome]]. I.8-15; Ovid. [[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]. VIII.180-262; [[Ovid]]. [[Ars Amatoria]]. II; the name Taitle appears on a gold bulla.
==Cultural derivatives==
Like many other mythological and historical names, modern culture extensively wields this word in a variety of similar and entirely unrelated situations. This listing and the one in [[Daedalus (disambiguation)]] is only a scratching of the surface.
* In ''[[Deus Ex]]'', a video game realesed in 2000, Daedalus is the name of an [[AI]] entity that aids the protagonist, JC Denton.
* [[Stephen Daedalus]] is the main character in ''[[Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man]]'' by [[James Joyce]], as well as an important character in Joyce's ''[[Ulysses]]'', and is often considered to be based on Joyce himself.
* In the anime series ''[[Macross]]'' (adapted outside Japan as the first part of ''[[Robotech]]''), Daedalus is the name given to one of the aircraft carriers that make up the arms of the [[SDF-1 Macross]].
* In the [[Stargate]] universe, [[Tau'ri|Earth's]] second interstellar [[capital ship]] and first production capital ship is the USAFV [[Daedalus class battlecruiser|''Daedalus'']].
* In the [[Star Trek]] universe on of the first classes of starship was the Daedalus class Starship.
* The [[song]] "Too Close To The Sun" from the 1996 [[Alan Parsons]] release [[On Air]] relates the escape of [[Daedalus]] and [[Icarus]] from the [[labyrinth]] of the [[minotaur]].
* The [[song]] "Stare At the Sun" from the 2003 [[Thrice]] release [[The Artist in the Ambulance]] relates the fall of [[Icarus]].
* In ''[[SpaceCamp]], movie 1986, Daedalus is the |
e a useful source of historical information, especially for a record of changes in science and technology.
== Encyclopedia manufacture ==
The encyclopedia's hierarchical structure and evolving nature is particularly adaptable to a [[disk storage|disk]]-based or on-line [[computer]] [[format]], and all major printed encyclopedias had moved to this method of delivery by the end of the 20th century. Disk-based (typically [[CD-ROM|CD-ROM]] format) publications have the advantage of being cheaply produced and extremely portable. Additionally, they can include [[media]] which is impossible in the printed format, such as [[animation]]s, [[sound recording|audio]], and [[video]]. [[Hyperlink]]ing between conceptually related items is also a significant benefit. On-line encyclopedias offer the additional advantage of being (potentially) dynamic: new information can be presented almost immediately, rather than waiting for the next release of a static format (as with a disk- or paper-based publication). Many printed encyclopedias traditionally published annual supplemental volumes or "yearbooks" to provide updates on recent events between new editions, as a partial solution to the problem of currency, but this of course requires the reader check both the main volumes and the supplemental volume or volumes. Some disk-based encyclopedias offer subscription-based access to online updates, which are then integrated with the content already on the user's hard disk in a manner not possible with a printed
encyclopedia.
Information in a printed encyclopedia necessarily needs some form of hierarchical structure. Traditionally, the method employed is to present the information ordered alphabetically by the article title. However with the advent of [[dynamic]] electronic formats the need to impose a pre-determined structure is unnecessary. Nonetheless, most electronic encyclopedias still offer a range of organisational strategies for the articles, such as by subject area or alphabetically.
==Note on spelling==
Owing to [[American and British English spelling differences|differences in American and British English orthographic conventions]], the spellings "encyclopaedia" and "encyclopedia" both see common use in [[Commonwealth English|British and Commonwealth]]- and [[American English|American]]-influenced sources, respectively. (The spelling ''encyclopædia'', with the ''[[æ]]'' [[ligature (typography)|ligature]], is obsolete, although it is preserved in the proper name of the ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.) The [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]] ''ae'', the normal Latin rendering of the Greek [[diphthong]] ''αι,'' is usually changed to ''e'' [[Medieval Latin]], and remains so in American orthography, for example in other words from the root ''paid-'' such as ''paediatrician'' (American ''pediatrician''). Both the British ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' and the U.S. ''[[Webster's Third New International Dictionary]]'' permit both spellings. The citations given in the ''OED'' are roughly evenly divided between the two spellings.
==See also==
*[[List of encyclopedias]] discusses many historical, general and specialized encyclopedias.
*[[Encyclopedic dictionary]]
*[[Encyclopedist]]
*[[Reference work]]
Other types of reference works:
*[[Biographical dictionary]]
*[[Dictionary]]
Theory:
*[[History of science and technology]]
*[[Library and information science]]
*[[Lexicography]]
== Further reading ==
*Collison, Robert, ''Encyclopaedias: Their History Throughout the Ages'', 2nd ed. (New York, London: Hafner, 1966)
*Darnton, Robert, ''The business of enlightenment : a publishing history of the Encyclopédie, 1775-1800'' (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 1979) ISBN 0674087852
*Kafker, Frank A. (ed.), ''Notable encyclopedias of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: nine predecessors of the Encyclopédie'' (Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 1981) ISBN
*Kafker, Frank A. (ed.), ''Notable encyclopedias of the late eighteenth century: eleven successors of the Encyclopédie'' (Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 1994) ISBN
*Walsh, S. Padraig, ''Anglo-American general encyclopedias: a historical bibliography, 1703-1967'' (New York: Bowker, 1968, 270 pp.) Includes a historical bibliography, arranged alphabetically, with brief notes on the history of many encyclopedias; a chronology; indexes by editor and publisher; bibliography; and 18 pages of notes from a 1965 American Library Association symposium on encyclopedias.
*Yeo, Richard R., ''[http://www.cambridge.org/us/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=0521651913 Encyclopaedic visions : scientific dictionaries and enlightenment culture]'' (Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001) ISBN 0521651913
{{wiktionarypar2|encyclopedia|encyclopaedia}}
==External links==
*[http://lii.org/pub/htdocs/search?action=show;search=encyclopedia;searchtype=keywords Librarians' Internet Index list of encyclopedias online]
*[http://www.uwstout.edu/lib/reference/encycl.htm Encyclopedias online] University of Wisconsin - Stout listing by category
*[http://stommel.tamu.edu/~baum/hyperref.html An enormous list of links to dictionaries, glossaries and encyclopedias] (note the dates on which pages were last updated)
*[http://www.lib.duke.edu/lilly/artsearch/guides/discussion%20guides/scholarlyencycl.htm What makes a scholarly encyclopedia?]
*[http://www.search.com/search?channel=19&cat=63 CNET's encyclopedia meta-search] (includes Wikipedia)
*[http://www.shopperpedia.com Shopperpedia.com] (a Shopper's Encyclopedia). Definition at [[shopperpedia]]
*[http://www.educ.fc.ul.pt/hyper/eng/index.html Encyclopaedia and Hypertext]
*[http://www.encyclopediaindica.com/index.html Encyclopedia Indica]
*[http://kennedy.byu.edu/staff/peterson/multivol/multibooks.html Errors and inconsistencies in several printed reference books and encyclopedias]
Historical encyclopedias available online:
*[http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/HistSciTech.Cyclopaedia Chambers' ''Cyclopaedia''], 1728, superbly digitized at the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center
*[http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa&cc=moa&key=title&page=browse&value=encyclop%C3%A6dia+americana&Submit=Quick+Browse ''Encyclopædia Americana''], 1851, [[Francis Lieber]] ed. (Boston: Mussey & Co.) at the University of Michigan Making of America site
*[http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa&cc=moa&key=title&page=browse&value=american+cyclop%C3%A6dia&Submit=Quick+Browse ''The American Cyclopædia''], 1873-76, George Ripley ed. (New York: D. Appleton and Company)
[[Category:Encyclopedias| ]]
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[[zh:百科全书]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Expectation Operator</title>
<id>9254</id>
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<timestamp>2002-03-10T08:22:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AxelBoldt</username>
<id>2</id>
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<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Expected value]]
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<page>
<title>Euglenids</title>
<id>9255</id>
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<timestamp>2002-11-29T15:12:06Z</timestamp>
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<username>Josh Grosse</username>
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<minor />
<comment>Move to singular</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Euglenid]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Enigma machine</title>
<id>9256</id>
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<id>42105546</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:36:32Z</timestamp>
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<username>Dod1</username>
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<minor />
<comment>/* External links */ The three uncracked ciphers - cracked</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{EnigmaSeries}}
[[Image:Nsa-enigma.jpg|thumb|220px|right|A three-rotor German military Enigma machine showing, from bottom to top, the plugboard, the keyboard, the lamps and the finger-wheels of the rotors emerging from the inner lid [[:Image:Label-enigma.jpg|(version with labels)]].]]
In the [[history of cryptography]], the '''Enigma''' was a portable [[cipher]] [[machine]] used to [[encryption|encrypt]] and decrypt secret messages. More precisely, Enigma was a family of related electro-mechanical [[rotor machine]]s &mdash; there were a variety of different models.
The Enigma was used commercially from the early 1920s on, and was also adopted by the military and governmental services of a number of nations &mdash; most famously by [[Nazi Germany]] before and during [[World War II]].
The German military model, the '''[[Wehrmacht]] Enigma''', is the version most commonly d |
Borda count method can be extended to include tie-breaking methods.
* Ballots that do not rank all the candidates can be allowed in three ways.
** One way to allow leaving candidates unranked is to leave the scores of each ranking unchanged and give unranked candidates 0 points. For example, if there are 10 candidates, and a voter votes for candidate A first and candidate B second, leaving everyone else unranked, candidate A receives 9 points, candidate B receives 8 points, and all other candidates receive 0. This, however, allows strategic voting in the form of [[bullet voting]]: voting only for one candidate and leaving every other candidate unranked. This variant makes a bullet vote more effective than a fully-ranked vote. This variant would satisfy the [[Plurality criterion]].
** Another way, called the ''modified Borda count'', is to assign the points up to ''k'', where k is the number of candidates ranked on a ballot. For example, in the modified Borda count, a ballot that ranks candidate A first and candidate B second, leaving everyone else unranked, would give 2 points to A and 1 point to B. This variant would ''not'' satisfy the [[Plurality criterion]].
** The third way is to employ a uniformly truncated ballot obliging the voter to rank a certain number of candidates, while not ranking the remainder, who all receive 0 points. This variant would satisfy the same criteria as the Borda count.
* A proportional election requires a different variant of the Borda count called the [[quota Borda system]].
* A voting system based on the Borda count that allows for change only when it is compelling, is called the [[Borda fixed point]] system.
* A procedure for finding the [[Condorcet winner]] of a Borda count tally is called [[Nanson's method]] or [[Instant Borda runoff]].
==Current uses==
The Borda count is popular in determining awards for sports in the [[United States]]. It is used in determining the [[MLB Most Valuable Player Award|Most Valuable Player]] in [[Major League Baseball]], by the [[Associated Press]] and [[United Press International]] to rank players in [[NCAA]] sports, and other contests. The [[Eurovision Song Contest]] also uses a positional voting method similar to the Borda count, with a different distribution of points. It is used for [[wine]] trophy judging by the [[Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology]]. Borda count is used by the [[RoboCup]] [[autonomous]] [[robot]] [[soccer]] [[:Category:Robotics competitions|competition]] at the Center for Computing Technologies, [[University of Bremen]] in [[Germany]]. The [[People's Remix Competition]] uses a Borda variant where the voter ranks only the top three contestants.
The Borda count has historical precedent in political usage as it was one of the voting methods employed in the [[Roman Senate]] beginning around the year [[105]]. The Borda count is presently used for the election of ethnic minority members of parliament in [[Slovenia]]. In modified versions it is also used to elect members of parliament for the central Pacific island of [[Nauru]] (using a different positional point system) and for the selection of Presidential election candidates from among members of parliament in neighbouring [[Kiribati]]. The Borda count and variations have been used in [[Northern Ireland]] for non-electoral purposes, such as to achieve a consensus between participants including members of [[Sinn Féin]], the [[Ulster Unionists]], and the political wing of the [[UDA]].
Borda is used in a number of educational institutions in the [[United States]], such as at the [[University of Michigan]] College of Literature, Science and the Arts to elect the Student Government, to elect the Michigan Student Assembly for the university at large, at the [[University of Missouri]] Graduate-Professional Council to elect its officers, at the [[University of California Los Angeles]] Graduate Student Association to elect its officers, the Civil Liberties Union of [[Harvard University]] to elect its officers, at [[Southern Illinois University]] at [[Carbondale, Illinois|Carbondale]] to elect officers to the Faculty Senate, and at [[Arizona State University]] to elect officers to the Department of Mathematics and Statistics assembly. It is used to elect faculty members to committees at [[Wheaton College, Massachusetts]]. Borda count is used to break ties for member elections of the faculty personnel committee of the School of Business Administration at the [[College of William and Mary]].
In professional societies, the Borda count is used to elect the Board of Governors of the [[International Society for Cryobiology]], the management committee of [[Tempo sustainable design network]], located in [[Cornwall]], [[United Kingdom]], and to elect members to Research Area Committees of the [[U.S. Wheat and Barley Scab Initiative]].
Borda count is one of the feature selection methods used by the [[OpenGL]] Architecture Review Board.
Borda count is one of the voting methods used and advocated by the [[Florida]] affiliate of the [[American Patriot Party]].
==See also==
* [[List of democracy and elections-related topics]]
* [[Voting system]] &ndash; lists many other ways of voting
* [[Voting system criterion]]
* [[First Past the Post electoral system]]
* [[Instant-runoff voting]]
* [[Approval voting]]
* [[Plurality voting]]
* [[Condorcet method]]
* [[Schulze method]]
==Further reading==
* ''Chaotic Elections!'', by Donald G. Saari (ISBN 0821828479), is a book that describes various voting systems using a mathematical model, and supports the use of the Borda count.
==External links==
*[http://www.deborda.org The de Borda Institute, Northern Ireland]
*[http://www.colorado.edu/education/DMP/voting_b.html The Symmetry and Complexity of Elections] Article by mathematician [[Donald G. Saari]] shows that the Borda Count has relatively few paradoxes compared to certain other voting methods.
*[http://mason.gmu.edu/~atabarro/Would%20the%20Borda%20Count.pdf Article by Alexander Tabarrok and Lee Spector] Would using the Borda Count in the U.S. 1860 presidential election have averted the american Civil War? ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://apseg.anu.edu.au/staff/pub_highlights/ReillyB_05.pdf Article by Benjamin Reilly] Social Choice in the South Seas: Electoral Innovation and the Borda Count in the Pacific Island Countries. ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://www.colorado.edu/education/DMP/voting_c.html A Fourth Grade Experience] Article by [[Donald G. Saari]] observing the choice intuition of young children.
*[http://hypatia.ss.uci.edu/imbs/tr/Final1.pdf Consequences of Reversing Preferences] An article by Donald G. Saari and Steven Barney. ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://www2.hmc.edu/~dym/PairwiseComparisons.pdf Rank Ordering Engineering Designs: Pairwise Comparison Charts and Borda Counts] Article by Clive L. Dym, William H. Wood and Michael J. Scott. ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://mason.gmu.edu/~atabarro/arrowstheorem.pdf Arrow's Impossibility Theorem] This is an article by Alexander Tabarrok on analysis of the Borda Count under Arrow's Theorem. ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://www.kfunigraz.ac.at/fwiwww/home-eng/activities/pdfs/2003-5.pdf Article by Daniel Eckert, Christian Klamler, and Johann Mitlöhner] On the superiority of the Borda rule in a distance-based perspective on Condorcet efficiency. ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://www.math.auckland.ac.nz/~slinko/Research/Borda3.pdf On Asymptotic Strategy-Proofness of Classical Social Choice Rules] An article by Arkadii Slinko. ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://www.bgse.uni-bonn.de/fileadmin/Fachbereich_Wirtschaft/Einrichtungen/BGSE/Discussion_Papers/2003/bgse13_2003.pdf Non-Manipulable Domains for the Borda Count] Article by Martin Barbie, Clemens Puppe, and Attila Tasnadi. ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://www.math.union.edu/~dpvc/papers/2001-01.DC-BG-BZ/DC-BG-BZ.pdf Which scoring rule maximizes Condorcet Efficiency?] Article by Davide P. Cervone, William V. Gehrlein, and William S. Zwicker. ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://pareto.uab.es/wp/2004/61704.pdf Scoring Rules on Dichotomous Preferences] Article mathematically comparing the Borda count to Approval voting under specific conditions by Marc Vorsatz. ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://www.eco.fundp.ac.be/cahiers/filepdf/c224.pdf Condorcet Efficiency: A Preference for Indifference] Article by William V. Gehrlein and Fabrice Valognes. ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://www.hss.caltech.edu/Events/SCW/Papers/seraj.pdf Cloning manipulation of the Borda rule] An article by Jérôme Serais. ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://ksgnotes1.harvard.edu/research/wpaper.nsf/rwp/RWP03-023/$File/rwp03_023_risse.pdf Democracy and Social Choice: A Response to Saari] Article by Mathias Risse.([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://allserv.rug.ac.be/~tmarchan/Crystals.pdf Cooperative phenomena in crystals and social choice theory] Article by Thierry Marchant. ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://www.nuff.ox.ac.uk/Users/McLean/A%20program%20to%20implement%20the%20Condorcet%20and%20Borda%20rules%20in%20a%20small.pdf A program to implement the Condorcet and Borda rules in a small-n election] Article by Iain McLean and Neil Shephard.([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://www.nuff.ox.ac.uk/Politics/papers/2003/McLean%20The%20Reasonableness.pdf The Reasonableness of Independence] Article by Iain McLean.([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://proceedings.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/FILES/HOME/IAPR_IWFHR_2000/3D/43/paper-072-vanerp.pdf Variants of the Borda Count Method for Combining Ranked Classifier Hypotheses] Article by Merijn Van Erp and Lambert Schomaker ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://www.pubchoicesoc.org/papers2005/ratliff.pdf Selecting Committees] Article by Thomas C. Ratliff.
*[http://ola4.aacc.edu/kehays/umbc/MVP/Modified_BC.htm |
r development of a composition, so that it fully represents the melodic, harmonic, and rhythmic structure" (ibid).
A satisfactory musical arrangement will most likely (ibid, p.4):
*Provide "contrast between high and low sounds"
*Avoid heavily doubled parts with an emphasis on solo sections
*Be "sufficiently transparent to allow the musical lines to be clearly heard" and
*Not have all the instruments playing throughout.
An arrangement is often an adaptation of a previously arranged piece of music for a musical application other than that for which it was originally intended. This includes arrangements for different [[musical instrument|instruments]], for example an arrangement for piano or [[flute]], or a [[duet]], based on a [[symphony|symphonic]] piece, or an arrangement of instrumental [[accompaniment]] for [[vocal music]]). Or, it may be an adaptation for another musical style, for example adaptation of a classical piece for a jazz or [[Rock (music)|rock]] [[ensemble]], orchestration of a song written by a popular band, or an [[a capella]] setting of a [[song]] from a [[Musical theater|stage musical]] or an [[opera]].
An arrangement may specify or vary some or all of:
* [[Harmony|Harmonies]], including [[musical parts|parts]].
* Instrumentation.
* [[Musical style|Style]], dynamics and other instructions to the players.
* Sequence, including the order and number of repeats of sections such as [[verse]]s and [[refrain|chorus]]es, and provision of sections to be [[improvisation|improvised]] by instrumentalists.
* [[Introduction (music)|Introduction]], [[coda (music)|coda]], [[modulation]]s and other [[variation (music)|variations]].
As with composition, the ready availability of [[sound recording]] equipment has changed the understanding of what "arrangement" means. At one stage, credit for an arrangement would only be given to a person who had produced a written musical score of some sort. More recently, any original treatment of an existing work that is available for repeated performance by other players may qualify to be loosely called an arrangement. In jazz an unscored collaborative arrangement is called a "'''head arrangement'''" (Randel 2002, p.294; it is in the head of the musician(s)). Every time a piece of music is performed it has an arrangement, which may or may not have been done by a professional arranger.
==Popular music==
In [[popular music]] an '''arrangement''' is a setting of a piece of music, which may have been [[musical composition|composed]] by the '''arranger''' or by someone else. Most commonly, this is a matter of providing [[instrumentation]] for the [[songwriter]] or [[composer]]'s basic [[melody]] and [[harmony]]. It may add details omitted by the [[composer]], or it may replace those originally given and be merely based on the original work.
==Classical music==
In [[European classical music]] an '''arrangement''' is a setting of any composition for a medium other than the one in which it was created: for example, a [[piano]] piece may be arranged for full [[orchestra]], or an orchestral composition may be arranged for solo piano. Often arrangement involves considerable reworking of the original material, in conformance with the resources of the final medium.
==Jazz music==
In jazz music, an '''arrangement''' is a specific setting of a pre-existing composition, although in jazz, the arranger has a larger role: it is common for jazz arrangers to contribute additional original material of their own, to significantly alter the forms and structures of the pre-existing material, or to combine the pre-existing material with snippets or quotes from other pre-existing material.
Big bands such as those of Duke Ellington, Bennie Moten, and Count Basie performed head arrangements (ibid).
==Arrangers==
Commerical and jazz arrangers include:
*Gil Evans
*Robert Farnon
*Nelson Riddle
*Henry Mancini
*Gordon Jenkins
*John Williams
*Don Costa
*Eddie Sauter
*Quincy Jones
*Claude Thornhill
*Duke Ellington
*Bob Florence
*Fletcher Henderson
*Peter Matz
*Don Sebesky
*Thad Jones
*Gerry Mulligan
*Jimmy Giuffre
*Billy May
*Neil Hefti
*Billy Byers
*Bill Holman
:(Corozine 2002, p.5)
For a more complete list, see:
*[[List of arrangers]]
==Further reading==
*''The Billboard Book of Rock Arranging'' by Mark Michaels, ISBN 0823075370.
*''The Professional Arranger Composer'' by Russ Garcia
*''Composing for the Jazz Orchestra'' by Bill Russo
==Sources==
*Corozine, Vince (2002). ''Arranging Music for the Real World: Classical and Commercial Aspects''. ISBN 0786649615.
*Randel, Don Michael (2002). ''The Harvard Concise Dictionary of Music and Musicians''. ISBN 0674009789.
[[Category:Musical terminology]]
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[[sl:Aranžer]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Ascension Island</title>
<id>2415</id>
<revision>
<id>41565448</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T04:38:53Z</timestamp>
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<username>Iyobi</username>
<id>929781</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Added location map</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| class="infobox bordered" cellpadding="4" style="width: 20em; font-size: 95%;"
|+ style="margin-left: inherit; font-size: medium;" | '''Ascension Island'''
|-
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|- style="vertical-align: middle;"
| style="border: 0;" | <span style="display:table-cell; border-collapse:collapse; border: solid 1px #BBBBBB;">[[Image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|125px|Flag of the UK]]</span>
| style="border: 0;" | [[Image:UK Royal Coat of Arms.png|95px|UK Royal Arms]]
|- style="font-size: smaller;"
| style="border: 0;" | Flag
| style="border: 0;" | Coat of Arms
|}
|- style="text-align: center;"
| style="font-size:95%" colspan="2" |<small> [[National anthem|Anthem]]: [[God Save the Queen]],</small>
|-
| '''[[Capital]]'''
| [[Georgetown]]
|-
| '''Status'''
| [[British overseas territory|Overseas territory]] of the [[United Kingdom]]
|-
| '''[[Official language|Official&nbsp;language(s)]]'''
| [[English language|English]]
|-
|'''[[Administrator of Ascension Island|Administrator]]'''
|[[Michael Hill]]
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''<br>&nbsp;- Total <br>&nbsp;- % water
| [[List_of_countries_by_area|Ranked 77]] ([[United Kingdom]])<br>35&nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&nbsp;mi]] (91 km²)<!-- From http://www.ascension-island.gov.ac/ascension.htm --><br>0
|-
| '''[[Population]]'''<br>&nbsp;- Total <br>&nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
| <br>1,100<br>22 per [[square kilometre|km²]] (57 per sq. mile)
|-
|'''[[Currency]]'''
|[[Pound sterling]]; [[US Dollar]] (accepted)
|-
|'''[[Time zone]]'''
|[[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]: +6 ([[Daylight saving time|DST]]: ?)
|-
|'''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]'''
|[[.ac]]
|-
|'''[[List_of_country_calling_codes|Calling Code]]'''
|246
|}
'''Ascension Island''' is an [[island]] in the [[South Atlantic Ocean]], around 1,000 [[mile]]s (1,600&nbsp;[[kilometer|km]]) from the coast of [[Africa]]. It is a dependency of the [[British overseas territory]] of [[Saint Helena]], which is 750 miles (1,200&nbsp;km) to the south. The Island is named after the day of its recorded discovery, [[Ascension Day]].
The Island is most known as the location of Wideawake Airfield, which is a joint facility of the [[Royal Air Force]] and the [[United States Air Force]]. The Island was used extensively by the British military during the [[Falklands War]].
==History==
The Portuguese explorer [[Juan da Nova Castella]] is believed to be the first person to discover the island (in [[1501]]), but did not report it. When in [[1503]] [[Alphonse d'Albuquerque]] (Afonso de Albuquerque, a [[portugal|portuguese]] navigator) saw the island on [[Ascension Day]] as listed on the Roman Catholic Church calendar, he named it for that day of its sighting. Dry and barren, it had little appeal for passing ships except as a provisioning station (local birds provided ample fresh meat), and remained uninhabited until [[1815]], when the British garrisoned it as a precaution after imprisoning [[Napoleon I of France]] on [[St Helena]] to the southeast. The [[Royal Navy]] officially designated the island as "HMS Ascension" with the classification of "Sloop of War of the smaller class". A [[Stone frigate|Stone ship]] was a naval nickname for such land based establishments.
The location of the Island made it a useful stopping point for ships and communications. The [[Royal Navy]] used the Island as a victualling station for ships, particularly those of the [[West Africa Squadron]] working against the slave trade. A garrison of [[Royal Marines]] were based at Ascension from [[1923]]. [[1898]], the Eastern Telegraph Company (now part of [[Cable and Wireless]]), installed the first underwater cable from the Island, connecting the UK with its colonies in [[South Africa]]. In [[1922]], [[Letters Patent]] made Ascension a dependency of [[Saint Helena]], with the island being managed by the head of the Eastern Telegraph Company on the Island until [[1964]] when the British Government appointed an Administrator to represent the Governor of Saint Helena on Ascension.
[[Image:View of Wideawake Airfield.jpg|thumb|300px|left|View of Ascension Island showing Wideawake Airfield]]
During [[World War II]], the [[United States]] built an airbase on Ascension, known as Wideawake after a neaby colony of sooty turns (locally called 'Wideawake' birds beacause of their distictive call, which sounds like they are saying "wideawake! wideawake!& |
vers be lost love shall not / and death shall have no dominion"
* "An alcoholic is someone you don't like who drinks as much as you do."
* "Someone's boring me. I think it's me."
* "For the country of death is the heart's size/ And the star of the lost the shape of the eyes"
* "I had eighteen straight whiskeys. I think this is a record." (Last words)
* "The five kings count the dead but do not soften/ The crusted wound nor pat the brow; A hand rules pity as a hand rules heaven; Hands have no tears to flow"
==Bibliography==
'''Poetry'''
*''Collected Poems 1934 – 1953'' (London: Phoenix, 2003)
*''Selected Poems'' (London: Phoenix, 2001)
'''Prose'''
*''Collected Letters''
*''Collected Stories ''
*''Portrait of the Artist as a Young Dog''
*''Under Milk Wood''
==External links==
*[http://www.undermilkwood.net/ The Life and Work of Dylan Thomas]
*[http://www.poets.org/dthom Dylan Thomas on Poets.org] Biography, poems, audio clips, and related essays from the Academy of American Poets
*[http://www.mumbles.co.uk/ "The Mumbles", a village frequented by Thomas]
*[http://www.dylanthomas.org/ The city of Swansea's site on Thomas]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/dylanthomas/ BBC Wales' Dylan Thomas site]
*[http://www.dylanthomastheatre.org.uk/home/ The Dylan Thomas Theatre Company Swansea]
* http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=cr&GRid=13085541&CRid=639868& - the graves of Dylan and Caitlin
*
[[French language|French]] [http://www.incipitblog.com/index.php/2005/08/29/dylan-thomas-au-bois-lacte-1953/ Audio Book (mp3)] from Under Milk Wood, translated in French by JB.Brunius
* [http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/this_britain/article330213.ece "The pub and the hellraiser: The poet, the actor, their pub, a furore"] [[The Independent]] online edition [[30 November]] [[2005]]
* http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/dylanthomas/biography/pages/caitlin.shtml - bio of Caitlin
*
http://www.guardian.co.uk/obituaries/story/0,,403809,00.html - bio of son Llewelyn, 1939-2000
[[Category:1914 births|Thomas, Dylan]]
[[Category:1953 deaths|Thomas, Dylan]]
[[Category:Anglo-Welsh poets|Thomas, Dylan]]
[[Category:Natives of Swansea|Thomas, Dylan]]
[[Category:Welsh novelists|Thomas, Dylan]]
[[Category:Welsh poets|Thomas, Dylan]]
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[[he:דילן תומס]]
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[[zh:狄兰·托马斯]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fern Hill</title>
<id>8785</id>
<revision>
<id>40363029</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:47:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A pivotal [[poem]] in the career of [[Dylan Thomas]], '''Fern Hill''' starts as a straightforward evocation of his youthful visits to his aunts:
:Now as I was young and easy under the apple boughs
:About the lilting house and happy as the grass was green.
In the middle section the idyllic scene is expanded upon, reinforced by the lilting rhythm of the poem, the dreamlike, pastoral metaphors and allusion to scenes from Eden. By the end the poet's older voice has taken over, mourning his lost youth with echoes of the opening:
:Oh as I was young and easy in the mercy of his means,
:Time held me green and dying
:Though I sang in my chains like the sea.
== Fern Hill ==
:Now as I was young and easy under the apple boughs
:About the lilting house and happy as the grass was green,
:The night above the dingle starry,
:Time let me hail and climb
:Golden in the heydays of his eyes,
:And honoured among wagons I was prince of the apple towns
:And once below a time I lordly had the trees and leaves
:Trail with daisies and barley
:Down the rivers of the windfall light.
:And as I was green and carefree, famous among the barns
:About the happy yard and singing as the farm was home,
:In the sun that is young once only,
:Time let me play and be
:Golden in the mercy of his means,
:And green and golden I was huntsman and herdsman, the calves
:Sang to my horn, the foxes on the hills barked clear and cold,
:And the sabbath rang slowly
:In the pebbles of the holy streams.
:All the sun long it was running, it was lovely, the hay
:Fields high as the house, the tunes from the chimneys, it was air
:And playing, lovely and watery
:And fire green as grass.
:And nightly under the simple stars
:As I rode to sleep the owls were bearing the farm away,
:All the moon long I heard, blessed among stables, the nightjars
:Flying with the ricks, and the horses
:Flashing into the dark.
:And then to awake, and the farm, like a wanderer white
:With the dew, come back, the cock on his shoulder: it was all
:Shining, it was Adam and maiden,
:The sky gathered again
:And the sun grew round that very day.
:So it must have been after the birth of the simple light
:In the first, spinning place, the spellbound horses walking warm
:Out of the whinnying green stable
:On to the fields of praise.
:And honoured among foxes and pheasants by the gay house
:Under the new made clouds and happy as the heart was long,
:In the sun born over and over,
:I ran my heedless ways,
:My wishes raced through the house high hay
:And nothing I cared, at my sky blue trades, that time allows
:In all his tuneful turning so few and such morning songs
:Before the children green and golden
:Follow him out of grace.
:Nothing I cared, in the lamb white days, that time would take me
:Up to the swallow thronged loft by the shadow of my hand,
:In the moon that is always rising,
:Nor that riding to sleep
:I should hear him fly with the high fields
:And wake to the farm forever fled from the childless land.
:Oh as I was young and easy in the mercy of his means,
:Time held me green and dying
:Though I sang in my chains like the sea.
==External links==
*[http://www.undermilkwood.net/poetry_fernhill.html The Life and Work of Dylan Thomas]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/dylanthomas/bibliography/pages/fern_hill.shtml BBC page]
[[Category:British poems]]
[[Category:Welsh literature]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>David Bowie</title>
<id>8786</id>
<revision>
<id>42153674</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:19:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mikeguy</username>
<id>160970</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:dbowie.jpg|frame|right|David Bowie]] -->
'''David Bowie''' (born '''David Robert Hayward-Jones''' on [[8 January]], [[1947]]) is an [[England|English]] [[Rock (music)|rock]] [[singer]], [[musician]] and [[actor]], as well as father of 'Fashion vs Style' advert director [[Zowie Bowie|Duncan Jones]].
{{Infobox_band |
band_name = David Bowie |
image = [[Image:David Bowie Portrait.jpg|175px|David Bowie]]|
country = [[London]], [[England]] |
status = |
years_active = 1967 – present (1973-1993) |
music_genre = [[Rock and roll|Rock]] |
record_label = |
}}
==Overview==
He is commonly known as the [[chameleon]] of pop, predicting trends and adjusting his style and persona, while holding on to his own ideas and creativity. A [[multi-instrumentalist]], he is famous for playing [[guitar]], [[Keyboard instrument|keyboard]] and [[saxophone]]; but also plays [[harmonica]], [[drums]], [[cello]], [[marimba]], [[bass guitar]], [[koto (musical instrument)|koto]] and [[stylophone]]. He first rose to prominence with the heady, 1969 [[folk rock]] [[single (music)|single]] "[[Space Oddity]]" but is perhaps best known for the single "[[Changes (David Bowie song)|Changes]]" from ''[[Hunky Dory]]'' (1971), and the flamboyant, [[androgynous]] [[glam rock]] of ''[[The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars]]'' (1972), and ''[[Aladdin Sane]]'' (1973).
Subsequent albums have explored [[blue-eyed soul]], [[electronica]] and [[New Wave music|new wave]], often predating these genres' popularity or even the point at which they were defined as genres. The so-called "Berlin Trilogy", although receiving mixed commercial success at the time, is seen by many today as masterful and groundbreaking. After slumping sales in the mid- to late-1970s, Bowie again gained commercial success in the early 1980s with his hit single "[[Ashes to Ashes (song)|Ashes to Ashes]]" and the album it came from, ''[[Scary Monsters (and Super Creeps)]]'' (1980). He reached his commercial peak with his singles "Modern Love," "China Girl" and "Let's Dance", the latter the title track of his very successful 1983 album. Many fans and neutral observers will argue that Bowie's consistency as a songwriter decreased afterwards.
Bowie has had a profound influence on rock music from the 1970s to the present. In the cable music network [[VH1]]'s 2000 list of the 100 greatest artists of rock and roll, Bowie ranked seventh. In the [[British Broadcasting Corporation]]'s list of 100 greatest [[British Isles|Briton]]s, Bowie ranked 29. He has sold an estimated 136 million albums in his career and has been inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]].
In addition to his musical career, Bowie has had success as an actor, starring in ''[[The Man Who Fell to Earth]]'' (1976), ''[[The Hunger]]'' (1983), ''[[Merry Christmas, Mr. Lawrence]]'' (1983), ''[[Labyrinth (film)|Labyrinth]]'' (1986), ''[[The Last Temptation of Christ]]'' (1988) and ''[[Basquiat]]'' (1996).
==History==
===1947 to 1967: Early years===
[[Image:dbowie2.jpg|frame|left|David Bowie, ''Space Oddity'']]
David Robert Jones was born in [[Brixton]], [[London]] on [[8 January]], [[1947]], |
l homes that would have had to be destroyed led to massive community opposition to both the Inner Belt and the Boston section of I-95.
Clearances for I-95 through the neighborhoods of Roxbury, [[Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts|Jamaica Plain]], and [[Roslindale, Boston, Massachusetts|Roslindale]] led to secession threats by [[Hyde Park, Massachusetts|Hyde Park]], Boston's southernmost neighborhood (and the most recently consolidated neighborhood, having been added to the city in [[1912]]). By [[1972]], however, with only a minimum of work done on the I-95 right of way and none on the potentially massively disruptive Inner Belt, Governor [[Francis Sargent]] put a moratorium on almost all highway construction within the [[Massachusetts Route 128|MA-128]] corridor, except for a short stretch of [[Interstate 93]]. In [[1974]] the remainder of the Master Plan was canceled, leaving Boston with a severely overstressed expressway system. With ever-increasing traffic volumes funneled onto I-93 alone, the Central Artery became chronically gridlocked. The Sargent moratorium led to the rerouting of I-95 away from Boston around the MA-128 beltway and the conversion of the cleared land in the southern part of the city into the Southwest Corridor linear park and a new right of way for the [[Orange Line (MBTA)|Orange Line]] subway and [[Amtrak]]. Parts of the planned I-695 right of way remain unused and under consideration for future mass transit projects.
The original 1948 Master Plan included a Third Harbor Tunnel plan that was hugely controversial in its own right because it would have disrupted the Maverick Square area of East Boston. It was never built.
===Commingling of traffic===
A major reason for the all-day congestion was that the Central Artery carried not only north-south traffic, but much east-west traffic as well. Boston's Logan Airport lies across [[Boston Harbor]] in [[East Boston, Massachusetts|East Boston]], and before the Big Dig, the only access from downtown was through the paired [[Callahan Tunnel|Callahan]] and [[Sumner Tunnel|Sumner]] tunnels. Traffic on the major highways from west of Boston, the [[Massachusetts Turnpike]] and Storrow Drive, mostly traveled on portions of the Central Artery to reach these tunnels. Getting between the Central Artery and the tunnels involved short stretches on city streets, increasing local congestion.
The final Big Dig plan, then, combined several projects&mdash;the depression and improvement of the Central Artery, the construction of a third Harbor tunnel (now known as the [[Ted Williams Tunnel]]), and massive interchange improvements to the Massachusetts Turnpike and several other major routes in the area. While only one net lane in each direction was added to the north-south I-93, several new east-west lanes were added to untangle the traffic. East-west traffic on the Massachusetts Turnpike now proceeds directly through the Ted Williams Tunnel to Logan Airport and Route 1A beyond, with new exits in South Boston along the way. Traffic between Storrow Drive and the Callahan and Sumner Tunnels uses a short portion of I-93, but additional lanes and direct connections are provided for this traffic.
===Mass transit===
A number of [[public transportation]] projects were included as part of an [[environmental mitigation]] for the Big Dig. Perhaps the most ambitious was the building of the Phase II [[Silver Line (MBTA)|Silver Line]] tunnel under Fort Point Channel, done in coordination with Big Dig construction. Silver Line buses now use this tunnel and the Ted Williams Tunnel to link [[South Station]] and Logan Airport. Several other mitigation transit projects promised have not been completed as of 2005 and litigation has been threatened.
Yet another plan, the [[North-South_Rail_Link|North-South Rail Link]] that would have connected North and South Stations, the major passenger train stations in Boston, was part of the original Big Dig but was ultimately dropped by the [[Michael Dukakis|Dukakis]] administration as an impediment to acquiring Federal funding for the project.
==Early planning==
The project was conceived in the [[1970s]] to replace the rusting elevated six-lane expressway (officially the [[John F. Fitzgerald]] Expressway) that separated downtown from the waterfront, and which was increasingly choked with bumper-to-bumper traffic. Business leaders were more concerned about access to Logan Airport, and pushed instead for a third harbor tunnel. In their second terms as governor and secretary of transportation, respectively, [[Michael Dukakis]] and Salvucci, came up with the strategy of tying the two projects together&mdash;thereby combining the project that the business community supported with the project that they and the City of Boston supported.
Planning for the Big Dig officially began in [[1982]], with environmental impact studies starting in 1983. After years of extensive lobbying for federal dollars, a [[1987]] public works bill appropriating funding for the Big Dig was passed by [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]], but it was subsequently vetoed by President [[Ronald Reagan]] as being too expensive. When Congress overrode his veto, the project had its green light and ground was first broken in [[1991]].<ref>Dan McNichol and Andy Ryan, ''The Big Dig''. Silver Lining Press, 1991</ref>
==Major obstacles==
In addition to these political and financial difficulties, the project faced several environmental and engineering obstacles.
The downtown area through which the tunnels were to be dug was largely landfill, and included existing subway lines and innumerable pipes and utility lines. Before excavation could begin for the tunnels, the lines had to be replaced or moved. Tunnel workers encountered many unexpected barriers, ranging from glacial debris to foundations of buried houses and a number of sunken ships lying within the reclaimed land.
The project received approval from state environmental agencies in 1991, after satisfying concerns including release of toxins by the excavation and the possibility of disrupting the homes of millions of rats, and causing them to roam the streets of Boston in search of new housing. By the time the federal environmental clearances were delivered in [[1994]], the process had taken some seven years, during which time inflation greatly increased the project's original cost estimates.
Reworking such a busy corridor without seriously restricting traffic flow required a number of state-of-the-art construction techniques. Because the old elevated highway (which remained in operation throughout the construction process) rested on pylons located throughout the designated dig area, engineers first utilized [[slurry wall]] techniques to create 120 ft.-deep concrete walls upon which the highway could rest. These concrete walls also stabilized the sides of the site, preventing cave-ins during the excavation process.
Other challenges included an existing subway tunnel crossing the path of the underground highway. In order to build [[slurry]] walls past this tunnel, it was necessary to dig beneath the tunnel and build an underground concrete bridge to support the tunnel's weight.
==Construction phase==
The Central Artery/Tunnel Project was managed by the [[Massachusetts Turnpike]] Authority with design and construction supervised by a joint venture of [[Bechtel Corporation]] and [[Parsons Brinckerhoff]]. Due to the enormous size of the project&mdash;too large for any company to undertake alone&mdash;the design and construction of the Big Dig were broken up into dozens of smaller subprojects with well-defined interfaces between contractors. Major heavy-construction contractors on the project included [[Jay Cashman]], [[Modern Continental]], [[Obayashi Corporation]], [[Perini Corporation]], [[Peter Kiewit Sons']],<!-- yes, it really is spelled that way, per company web site --> [[J.F. White]], and the Slattery division of [[Skanska]] USA. (Of those, Modern Continental was awarded the greatest gross value of contracts, joint ventures included.)
The nature of the [[Charles River]] crossing had been a source of major controversy throughout the design phase of the project. Many environmental advocates preferred a river crossing entirely in tunnels, but this, along with 27 other plans, was rejected as too costly. Finally, with a deadline looming to begin construction on a separate project that would connect the [[Tobin Bridge]] to the Charles River crossing, Salvucci overrode the objections and chose a variant of the plan known as "Scheme Z". This plan was considered to be reasonably cost-effective, but had the drawback of requiring highway ramps stacked up as high as 100 feet (30 m) immediately adjacent to the Charles River.
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:BostonBIGDIGplan.JPG|thumb|right|450px|The Big Dig master plan.]] -->
The city of [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]], objecting to the visual impact of the chosen Charles River crossing design, sued to revoke the project's environmental certificate, and force the project to redesign the river crossing yet again. Meanwhile, construction continued on the Tobin Bridge approach. By the time the I-93 design was finally settled to the satisfaction of all parties, the construction of the Tobin connector (today known as the "City Square Tunnel" after the intersection in [[Charlestown, Boston, Massachusetts|Charlestown]] which it bypasses) was already so far along that significant additional expense would be incurred to stage construction of the [[U.S. Highway 1|US 1]]-to-[[Interstate 93|I-93]] interchange and eventually retrofit the tunnel; in the new design, not all of the traffic movements originally envisioned would be possible.
Boston blue [[clay]] and other soils extracted from the path of the tunnel was used to cap many local [[landfill]]s, fill in the [[Granite |
ts, sometimes treating them almost as if they were children. When a cat bonds with its human owner, at times, the cat may display behaviors similar to that of the human. Such behavior may include a trip to the litter box before bedtime and snuggling up close to its companion in bed or on the sofa. Other behaviors could include mimicking sounds of the owner or using certain sounds the cat picks up from the human; sounds representing specific needs of the cat, which the owner would recognize. The cat may also be capable of learning to communicate with the human using non-spoken language or [[Cat body language|body language]] such as rubbing for affection (confirmation), facial expressions and making eye contact with the owner if something needs to be addressed (e.g. finding a bug crawling on the floor for the owner to get rid of). Some owners like to train their cat to perform "tricks" commonly exhibited by dogs such as jumping.
Allergies to cat [[dander]] are one of the most common reasons people cite for disliking cats. However, in some instances, humans find the rewards of cat companionship outweigh the discomfort and problems associated with allergies. Many chose to cope with cat allergies by taking prescription allergy medicine and bathing their cats frequently, since weekly bathing will eliminate about 90% of the cat dander present in the environment. Recent studies have indicated that humans who are exposed to cats or dogs within the first year of their lives develop few animal allergies, while most adults who are allergic to animals did not have a cat or a dog as a pet in childhood.
In urban areas, some people find feral and free-roaming pet cats annoying and intrusive. Unaltered animals can engage in persistent nighttime calling (caterwauling) and defecation or "marking" on private property. Indoor confinement of pets and TNR (Trap, Neuter, Return) programs for feral cats can help in this situation; some people also use [[cat deterrent]]s to discourage cats from entering their property.
In rural areas, farms often have dozens of semi-feral cats. Hunting in the barns and the fields, they kill and eat rodents that would otherwise spoil large parts of the grain crop. Many pet cats successfully hunt and kill [[rabbit]]s, [[rodents]], [[bird]]s, [[lizard]]s, [[frog]]s, [[fish]], and large [[insect]]s by [[instinct]], but might not eat their prey. They may even present such victims, dead or maimed, to a beloved owner, perhaps expecting their owner to praise or reward them, or possibly even complete the kill and eat the mouse.
Despite its reputation as a solitary animal, the domestic cat is social enough to form [[feral cat colony|colonies]], but does not attack in groups as do [[lion]]s. Some breeds like [[bengal cat|bengal]], [[ocicat]] and [[Manx (cat)|manx]] are very social, but these breeds are exceptions. While each cat holds a distinct territory (sexually active males having the largest territories, and neutered cats having the smallest), there are "neutral" areas where cats watch and greet one another without territorial conflict or aggression. Outside of these neutral areas, territory holders usually vigorously chase away strangers, at first by staring, hissing, and growling, and if that does not work, by short but noisy and violent attacks. [[Catfight|Fighting cats]] make themselves look larger by raising their fur and arching their backs. Attacks usually comprise powerful slaps to the face and body with the forepaws as well as bites, but serious damage is rarely done, and usually the loser runs away with little more than a few scratches to the face. Sexually active males may be engaged in many fights over their lives and often have decidedly weathered faces with obvious scars and cuts to the ears and nose. Not only males will fight; females will also fight over territory or to defend their kittens, and even neutered cats will defend their small territories vigorously.
===Feral cats===
[[Image:Feral cat gl3.gif|thumb|left|Feral cats are thought to be a major predator of [[Hawaii]]an coastal and forest habitats, and are one species among many responsible for the decline of endemic forest bird species as well as seabirds like the [[Wedge-tailed Shearwater]]. [http://www.birdinghawaii.co.uk/XShearwaterkills2.htm] In one study of 56 cat [[Scatology|scats]], the remains of 44 birds were found, 40 of which were [[Endemic birds of Hawaii|endemic species]]. [http://www.earlham.edu/~biol/hawaii/mammals.htm] ]]
[[Feral cat]]s may live alone, but most are found in large groups called [[feral cat colony|feral colonies]] with communal nurseries, depending on resource availability. Many lost or abandoned pet cats join these colonies out of desperation. The average lifespan of these feral cats is much shorter than a domestic housecat, which can live an average of sixteen years or more. Urban areas are not native environments to the cat; most domestic cats were artificially selected from cats in desert climates and were distributed throughout the world by humans, but some feral cat colonies are found in large cities, for example, around the [[Colosseum]] and [[Forum Romanum]] in [[Rome]]. Although cats are adaptable, feral felines are unable to thrive in extreme cold and heat, and with a protein requirement of about 90%, few find adequate nutrition on their own in cities. In addition, they have little defense or understanding of the dangers from dogs, [[coyote]]s, and even [[automobile]]s. However, there are thousands of volunteers and organizations that trap these unadoptable feral felines, [[spaying and neutering|spay or neuter]] them, [[immunization|immunize]] the cats against rabies and [[feline leukemia]], and treat them with long-lasting [[flea]] products. Before release back into their feral colonies, the attending veterinarian nips the tip off one ear to mark the feral as spayed/neutered and inoculated, as these cats will more than likely find themselves trapped again. Volunteers continue to feed and give care to these cats throughout their lives, and not only is their lifespan greatly increased, but behavior and nuisance problems, due to competition for food, are also greatly reduced. In time, if an entire colony is successfully spayed and neutered, no additional kittens are born and the feral colony disappears. Many hope to see an end to urban feral cat colonies through these efforts.
===Environmental issues===
<!-- This section has been subject to extensive debate. Do not make changes to this section without first obtaining consensus on the Talk:Cat page. -->
There are two divergent views about cats’ relationship with the [[natural environment]].
*The first says: The environmental impact of feral cat programs and of indoor/outdoor cats is a subject of debate. Part of this stems from humane concern for the cats themselves and part arises from concerns about cat predation on endangered species. Nearly all studies agree that abandoned animals lead hard lives. Owners who can no longer keep their cats would do best to give them to friends, rescue organizations, or shelters. The amount of ecological damage done by indoor/outdoor cats depends on local conditions. The most severe impact occurs with island ecologies. Serious concerns also exist in places such as Florida where housecats are not native, where several small-sized endangered species live near human populations, and where the climate allows cats to breed throughout the year. Environmental concerns may be minimal in most of England where cats are an established species and few to none of the local prey species are endangered. Pet owners can contact veterinarians, ecological organizations, and universities for opinions about whether local conditions are suitable for outdoor cats. Additional concerns include potential dangers from larger predators and infectious diseases. Coyotes kill large numbers of housecats in the Southwestern United States, even in urban zones. FELV (feline leukemia), FIV (feline immunodeficiency virus), or rabies may be present in the area. If faced with conflicting evidence, the safe choice is to keep a cat indoors. Experts recommend a gradual transition to indoor life for cats who are accustomed to going outside.
*Those opposing this view emphasize that this allegation has never been proved. They say that damaging effects do not follow automatically from the fact that cats are predators. They point out that cats have played a useful role in vermin control for centuries, and that for many animals, especially in urban areas, cats are the only animal available to fill the vital role of predator. Without cats these species would overpopulate.
<!-- This section has been subject to extensive debate. Do not make changes to this section without first obtaining consensus on the Talk:Cat page. -->
==Scientific classification==
The domestic cat was named ''Felis catus'' by [[Carolus Linnaeus]] in his ''[[Systema Naturae]]'' of 1758. [[Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber]] named the [[wild cat]] ''Felis silvestris'' in 1775. The domestic cat is now considered a subspecies of the wild cat: by the strict rule of priority of the [[International Code of Zoological Nomenclature]] the name for the species thus ought to be ''F. catus'' since Linnaeus published first. However, in practice almost all biologists use ''F. silvestris'' for the wild species, using ''F. catus'' only for the domesticated form.
In opinion 2027 (published in Volume 60, Part 1 of the ''Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature'', [[31 March]] [[2003]] <ref>{{cite web | title=Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature 60(1) March 2003 | url=http://www.iczn.org/BZNMar2003.htm | accessdate=August 8 | accessyear=2005 }}</ref>) the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature "conserved the usage of 17 specific names based on wild species, which are predated by or contemporary with those based on domestic forms |
l subscription fees are also usually required to receive these digital channels.
Digital cable channels can offer a higher quality picture than their analog counterparts though digital compression has a tendency to soften the quality of the television picture, particularly of channels that are more heavily compressed.
Many cable systems operate as local monopolies in the United States, as cable companies typically receive exclusive rights to serve a region as a result of a franchise agreement with a local government. In some areas that is changing as competition has been allowed to enter the market, including, in some cases, city run cable systems. The rise of [[Digital Satellite System]]s, which provide the same type of programming using small satellite receivers, has also provided competition to cable TV systems.
===Mexico===
The first cable system started to operate in the early Sixties in Monterrey, as a CATV service (an antenna at the top of the Loma Larga, which could get TV signals from South Texas). Most of the other major cities didn't develop cable systems until the late Eighties, due to government censorship. By 1989 the industry had had a major impulse with the founding of Multivisión&mdash;a MMDS system who started to develop its own channels in Spanish&mdash;and the later development of companies such as Cablemas and [[Megacable]].
Over the past few years, many US networks have started to develop content for the Mexican market, such as [[CNN en Español]], [[MTV]], [[Cartoon Network]], [[Disney Channel]], and others. The country also has a DTH service called SKY (Televisa & News Corp. owned). Recently DirecTV merged with Sky. The dominant company nowadays is [[Megacable]].
===United Kingdom===
In the UK Cable Television had its origins in 1938, when the first Community Antenna TV systems were setup in towns including [[Bristol]] and [[Hull]], for homes which couldn't receive transmisssions over the air; however these signals were on the [[405-line]] system. In the [[1960s]] [[Rediffusion Vision]] was setup to provide cable television in the newer 625-line and [[PAL]] formats.
In the early [[1980s]] Rediffusion Vision suplimented its service with other channels including [[The Box (TV channel)|The Music Box]], [[Screensport (TV Channel)|Screensport]], [[Sky One|Sky Channel]] and [[TEN (TV Channel)|TEN]]. The service was renamed to [[Rediffusion Cablevision]].
In the [[United Kingdom]], the current generation of cable television began in the late [[1980s]] with the issue of franchises to many local operators. These small operations proved uneconomic and there has been a continuing process of consolidation and re-financing.
The two principal cable operators are now [[NTL]] and [[Telewest Broadband]], which are themselves in the process of merging. NTL's cable service was originally known as CableTel and grew rapidly through the acquisition of, among others, ComTel (which itself had bought Telecential), Comcast, Diamond Cable and finally, in [[1999]], the residential and small business operations of [[Cable & Wireless]]. Telewest also steadily acquired local operators.
Cable TV faces intense competition from [[British Sky Broadcasting|SkyDigital]]'s [[satellite television]] service, although most channels on that platform are also carried on cable (however they do lack features- for example interaction news or football that is- available to Sky Digital viewers); very few channels are now exclusive to cable. However, paid for [[digital terrestrial television]] proved less of a competitive threat, as [[ITV Digital]] went into liquidation in [[2002]]. The re-launch of DTTV as the free [[Freeview]] service has been a success in introducing people to multichannel digital TV and seems not to have adversely affected the growth of cable and satellite subscribers.
Another potential source of competition in the future will be TV over [[broadband]]. This was initially launched, using [[ADSL]], in [[London]], where it is provided by [[HomeChoice]], and [[Kingston upon Hull|Hull]], where it where it is provided by [[Kingston Communications]] (as of April 1st, KIT will cease). As the speed and availability of broadband connections increase, more TV content can be delivered using protocols such as [[IPTV]].
===Republic of Ireland===
Cable television first started in the [[Republic of Ireland]] in the [[1970s]], when several comapnies (incluing state broadcaster [[RTÉ]] who began a service called RTE Relays -later Cablelink), started rebroadcasting the UK's (then) three terrestrial TV channels in some cities and larger towns. The services began offering a number of satellite channels in the [[1980s]]. The state telephone operator [[Telecom Éireann]] (now [[eircom]]) was also a stakeholder. In 1989 the company started an [[MMDS]] service called Multilink serving rural areas, as did other companies such as Irish Mulitchannel in [[Cork]], now called [[Chorus Communications|Chorus]]. Cablelink was sold to NTL in [[1999]], and renamed NTL Ireland. On [[9 May]] [[2005]], the business was sold for [[Euro|&euro;]] 325 million to MS Irish Cable Holdings BV, an affiliate of [[Morgan Stanley]]. At the time, Morgan Stanley said that it has entered into an agreement to re-sell the business to UPC Ireland BV, an indirect subsidiary of UnitedGlobalCom, now [[Liberty Global Europe]], subject to regulatory approval.
A small number of other cable providers exist, usually serving a single town. Crossan in [[Longford]] and Casey in [[Dungarvan]] are the only two of these to have moved to a digital network, with the remaining systems often being little more than a community antenna system.
In rural areas where neither cable or MMDS are available, there have been 'deflectors', which pick up the UK terrestrial channels (either from [[Northern Ireland]] or [[Wales]]), and retransmit them on local [[Ultra high frequency|UHF]] signals along with other channels. These operators faced legal action in the late [[1990s]] from MMDS operators, as they did not pay royalties to the relevant broadcasters, and were not licensed. When the deflectors were shut down, there was such an outcry in those areas that an independent candidate in [[County Donegal]], [[Tom Gildea]], was elected as a [[Teachta Dála|TD]] on a platform of supporting legalisation, which occurred in [[1999]].
===Hong Kong===
''[[i-Cable Communications Limited]] ''(branded as "''CableTV''") is the holding company that runs [[Hong Kong]]'s one of four cable television service providers. It is listed on the [[Hong Kong Stock Exchange]] and [[NASDAQ]]. ''Wharf Holdings Limited'' owns 67 per cent of the cable provider and the rest amongst public shareholders. Another three operators offers pay-TV via [[Digital Subscriber Line|DSL]], they are Now Broadband TV([[PCCW]]), HKBN Digital TV and SuperSUN(controlled by [[TVB]]).
Many in Hong Kong watch subscription TV using [[satellite television|satellite]] systems like [[STAR TV]].
===Singapore===
[[StarHub Cable Vision]] is the sole cable television operator in [[Singapore]], where private ownership of satellite dishes is banned. StarHub Cable Vision was formed as a result of a merger between [[StarHub]] and [[Singapore Cable Vision]] on [[15 May]] [[2002]]. The latter first began broadcasting as a terrestrial pay-television operator in [[1992]] as the first cable network was not completed until [[1995]]. Around 15% of households and offices in Singapore are connected to the StarHub network.
===Australia===
In [[Australia]], most people do not have access to cable. Satellite is a more common way of getting subscription TV services.
[[Telstra]]'s [[Foxtel]]-carrying cable network covers parts of [[Sydney]], [[Melbourne]], [[Brisbane]], [[Adelaide]], and [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]].
[[Optus]]'s network covers small parts of [[Sydney]], [[Melbourne]], and [[Brisbane]], though its restrictive subscription rules means that many people in this area are not allowed to subscribe.
A small part of [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]] is covered by [[Bright Telecomunications]]. Part of [[Canberra]] is covered by [[TransACT]]. Much of [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]] is covered by [[Austar]]. Parts of [[Geelong, Victoria|Geelong]], [[Ballarat, Victoria|Ballarat]] and [[Mildura, Victoria|Mildura]] are reached by [[Neighbourhood Cable]].
==Other cable-based services==
Coaxial cables are capable of bi-directional carriage of signals as well as the transmission of large amounts of data. Cable television signals use only a portion the bandwidth available over coaxial lines. This leaves plenty of space available for other digital services such as [[broadband internet]] and [[cable telephony]].
Unlike [[North America]], many cable operators in [[Europe]] have already introduced telephone services, which operate just like existing fixed line operators.
Broadband internet is achieved over coaxial cable by using [[cable modem]]s to convert the [[television network|network]] data into a type of digital signal that can be transferred over coaxial cable. One problem with some cable systems is the older amplifiers placed along the cable routes are unidirectional thus in order to allow for uploading of data the customer would need to use an analog modem to provide for the upstream connection. This limited the upstream speed to 56k and prevented the always-on convenience broadband internet typically provides. Many large cable systems have upgraded or are upgrading their equipment to allow for bi-directional signals, thus allowing for greater upload speed and always-on convenience, though these upgrades are expensive.
Another service being added to many cable systems is [[cable telephone]] service. This service involves installing a special telephone interface at the customer's premises that converts the analog signals from the customer's in-home wiring into a digital signal, which is then sent on the |
[[interactive dialog]], an example of which follows:
:Q. Do you know to which restaurant you want to go?
:A. No
:Q. Is there any kind of food you would particularly like?
:A. Unknown
:Q. Do you like spicy food?
:A. No
:Q. Do you usually drink wine with meals?
:A. Yes
:Q. When you drink wine, is it French wine?
:A. Why
As can be seen from this [[dialog]], the system is leading the user through a set of [[question]]s, the purpose of which is to determine a suitable set of restaurants to recommend. This dialog begins with the system asking if the user already knows the restaurant choice (a common feature of expert systems) and immediately illustrates a characteristic of expert systems; users may choose not to respond to any question. In expert systems, dialogs are not pre-planned. There is no fixed [[control structure]]. Dialogs are synthesized from the current [[information]] and the [[content]]s of the [[knowledge base]]. Because of this, not being able to supply the answer to a particular questions does not stop the consultation.
Another major distinction between expert systems and traditional systems is illustrated by the following answer given by the system when the user answers a [[question]] with the question "[[why]]", as occurred in the above example. The answer is:
:A. I am trying to determine the type of restaurant to suggest. So far Chinese is not a likely choice. It is possible that French is a likely choice. I know that if the diner is a wine drinker, and the preferred wine is French, then there is strong [[evidence]] that the restaurant choice should include French.
It is very difficult to implement a general [[explanation system]] (answering questions like [[Why]] and [[How]]) in traditional systems. The response of the expert system to the question WHY is an exposure of the underlying [[knowledge structure]]. It is a [[rule]]; a set of [[antecedent condition]]s which, if true, allow the [[logical assertion|assertion]] of a [[consequent]]. The rule references values, and tests them against various [[constraint]]s or asserts constraints onto them. This, in fact, is a significant part of the knowledge structure. There are values, which may be associated with some organizing [[entity]]. For example, the individual diner is an entity with various attributes (values) including whether they drink wine and the kind of wine. There are also rules, which associate the currently known [[Value (computer science)|value]]s of some [[attribute]]s with assertions that can be made about other attributes. It is the orderly processing of these rules that dictates the dialog itself.
===The knowledge engineer===
[[Knowledge engineers]] are concerned with the [[representation]] chosen for the expert's knowledge declarations and with the [[inference engine]] used to process that [[knowledge]]. There are several characteristics known to be appropriate to a good [[inference technique]].
:1. A good inference technique is independent of the [[problem domain]].
::In order to realize the benefits of [[explanation]], [[knowledge transparency]], and [[reusability]] of the programs in a new problem domain, the inference engine must not contain domain specific [[expertise]].
:2. Inference techniques may be specific to a particular [[task]], such as [[diagnosis]] of [[hardware configuration]]. Other techniques may be committed only to a particular [[processing technique]].
:3. Inference techniques are always specific to the [[knowledge structure]]s.
:4. Successful examples of rule processing techniques include:
::(a) [[Forward chaining]]
::(b) [[Backward chaining]]
==The inference rule==
An understanding of the "[[inference rule]]" concept is important to understand expert systems. An inference rule is a [[statement]] that has two parts, an [[if-clause]] and a [[then-clause]]. An example of an inference rule is:
:If the restaurant choice includes French, and the occasion is romantic,
:Then the restaurant choice is definitely Paul Bocuse.
An expert system's rulebase is made up of many such inference rules. They are entered as separate rules and it is the inference engine that uses them together to draw [[conclusion]]s. Because each rule is a unit, rules may be deleted or added without affecting other rules (though it should affect which conclusions are reached). One advantage of inference rules over traditional programming is that inference rules use [[reasoning]] which more closely resemble human reasoning.
Thus, when a [[conclusion]] is drawn, it is possible to understand how this conclusion was reached. Furthermore, because the expert system uses [[knowledge]] in a form similar to the [[expert]], it may be easier to retrieve this [[information]] from the expert.
===Chaining===
There are two main methods of [[reasoning]] when using inference rules: backward chaining and forward chaining.
[[Forward chaining]] starts with the data available and uses the inference rules to conclude more data until a desired [[Goal_(management)|goal]] is reached. An inference engine using forward chaining searches the inference rules until it finds one in which the [[if-clause]] is known to be [[true]]. It then concludes the [[then-clause]] and adds this [[information]] to its [[data]]. It would continue to do this until a goal is reached. Because the data available determines which inference rules are used, this method is also called ''data driven''.
[[Backward chaining]] starts with a list of goals and works backwards to see if there is data which will allow it to conclude any of these goals. An inference engine using backward chaining would search the inference rules until it finds one which has a then-clause that matches a desired goal. If the if-clause of that inference rule is not known to be true, then it is added to the list of goals. For example, suppose a rulebase contains two rules:
:(1) If Fritz is green then Fritz is a frog.
:(2) If Fritz is a frog then Fritz hops.
Suppose a goal is to conclude that Fritz hops.The rulebase would be searched and rule (2) would be selected because its conclusion (the then clause) matches the goal. It is not known that Fritz is a frog, so this "if" statement is added to the goal list. The rulebase is again searched and this time rule (1) is selected because its then clause matches the new goal just added to the list. This time, the if-clause (Fritz is green) is known to be true and the goal that Fritz hops is concluded. Because the list of goals determines which Rules are selected and used, this method is called ''goal driven''.
==Confidences==
Another advantage of expert systems over traditional methods of programming is that they allow the use of [[confidence]]s. When a human reasons he does not always conclude things with 100% confidence. He might say, "If Fritz is green, then he is probably a frog" (after all, he might be a chameleon). This type of [[reasoning]] can be imitated by using numeric values called Confidences. For example, if it is known that Fritz is green, it might be concluded with 0.85 Confidence that he is a frog; or, if it is known that he is a frog, it might be concluded with 0.95 Confidence that he hops. These numbers are similar in [[nature]] to [[probability|probabilities]], but they are not the same. They are meant to imitate the Confidences humans use in reasoning rather than to follow the mathematical definitions used in calculating probabilities.
The following general points about expert systems and their architecture have been illustrated.
:1. The sequence of steps taken to reach a [[conclusion]] is dynamically synthesized with each new case. It is not explicitly programmed when the system is built.
:2. Expert systems can process multiple values for any problem parameter. This permits more than one line of reasoning to be pursued and the results of incomplete (not fully determined) reasoning to be presented.
:3. [[Problem solving]] is accomplished by applying specific [[knowledge]] rather than specific [[technique]]. This is a key idea in expert systems technology. It reflects the belief that human experts do not process their knowledge differently from others, but they do possess different knowledge. With this [[philosophy]], when one finds that their expert system does not produce the [[desired result]]s, work begins to expand the [[knowledge base]], not to re-program the [[procedure]]s.
There are various expert systems in which a "[[rulebase]]" and an "[[inference engine]]" cooperate to simulate the reasoning process that a human expert pursues in analyzing a problem and arriving at a conclusion. In these systems, in order to simulate the human reasoning process, a vast amount of knowledge needed to be stored in the knowledge base. Generally, the knowledge base of such an expert system consisted of a relatively large number of "if then" type of statements that were interrelated in a manner that, in theory at least, resembled the sequence of mental steps that were involved in the human reasoning process.
Because of the need for large storage capacities and related programs to store the Rulebase, most expert systems have, in the past, been run only on large information handling systems. Recently, the storage capacity of personal computers has increased to a point where it is becoming possible to consider running some types of simple expert systems on [[personal computer]]s.
In some [[application software|applications]] of expert systems, the nature of the application and the amount of stored information necessary to simulate the [[human reasoning process]] for that application is just too vast to store in the active [[computer storage|memory]] of a [[computer]]. In other applications of expert systems, the nature of the application is such that not all of the information is always needed in the reasoning process. An example of this latter type a |
ely be considered as the means to an end. This is also called the "direct duty" view. According to Regan, we should abolish the breeding of animals for food, animal experimentation, and commercial hunting. Regan's theory does not extend to all sentient animals but only to those that can be regarded as "subjects-of-a-life." Regan argues that all normal mammals of at least one year of age would qualify in this regard.
While Singer is primarily concerned with improving the treatment of animals and accepts that, at least in some hypothetical scenarios, animals could be legitimately used for further (human or non-human) ends, Regan believes we ought to treat animals as we would persons, and he applies the strict [[Immanuel Kant|Kantian]] idea that they ought never to be sacrificed as mere means to ends, and must be treated as ends unto themselves. Notably, Kant himself did not believe animals were subject to what he called the moral law; he believed we ought to show compassion, but primarily because not to do so brutalizes human beings, and not for the sake of animals themselves.
Despite these theoretical differences, both Singer and Regan agree about what to do in practice: for instance, they both agree that the adoption of a [[veganism|vegan]] diet and the abolition of nearly all forms of [[animal experimentation]] are ethically mandatory.
[[Gary Francione]]'s work (''Introduction to Animal Rights'', et.al.) is based on the premise that if non-human animals are considered to be property then any rights that they may be granted would be directly undermined by that property status. He points out that a call to equally consider the 'interests' of your property against your own interests is absurd. Without the basic right not to be treated as the property of humans, non-human animals have no rights whatsoever, he says. Francione posits that sentience is the only valid determinant for moral standing, unlike Regan who sees qualitative degrees in the subjective experiences of his "subjects-of-a-life" based upon a loose determination of who falls within that category. Francione claims that there is no actual animal-rights movement in the United States, but only an [[animal welfare|animal-welfarist]] movement. In line with his philosophical position and his work in animal-rights law for the Animal Rights Law Project [http://animal-law.org] at [[Rutgers University]], he points out that any effort that does not advocate the abolition of the property status of animals is misguided, in that it inevitably results in the institutionalization of animal exploitation. It is logically inconsistent and doomed never to achieve its stated goal of improving the condition of animals, he argues. Francione holds that a society which regards dogs and cats as family members yet kills cows, chickens, and pigs for food exhibits what he calls "moral schizophrenia".
== Animal rights in [[law]] ==
[[Image:600-restraint-tube4.jpg|left|thumb|350px|A monkey in a restraint tube filmed by [[PETA]] in a [[Covance]] branch, [[Vienna, Virginia]], 2004-5 [http://www.covancecruelty.com/photos.asp] ]]
Animals are protected under the [[law]], though without having rights assigned to them. There are [[criminal law]]s against cruelty to animals, laws that regulate the keeping of animals in cities and on farms, the transit of animals internationally, as well as quarantine and inspection provisions. These laws are designed to protect animals from unnecessary physical harm and to regulate the use of animals as food. In the [[common law]], it is possible to create a [[charitable trust]] and have the trust empowered to see to the care of a particular animal after the death of the benefactor of the trust. Some individuals create such trusts in their [[will (law)|will]]. Trusts of this kind can be upheld by the [[court]]s if properly drafted and if the [[testator]] is of sound mind. There are several movements in the UK campaigning to require the [[British parliament]] to award greater protection to animals. The legislation, if passed, will introduce a [[duty]] of care, whereby a keeper of an animal would commit an offence if he or she fails to take reasonable steps to ensure an animal’s welfare. This concept of giving the animal keeper a duty towards the animal is equivalent to granting the animal a right to proper welfare. The draft bill is supported by an [[RSPCA]] campaign.
[[Switzerland]] passed legislation in 1992 to recognize animals as beings, not things; and in 2002, the protection of animals was enshrined in the [[Germany|German]] constitution when its upper house of parliament voted to add the words "and animals" to the clause in the constitution obliging the state to protect the "natural foundations of life ... in the interests of future generations." [http://archives.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/europe/06/21/germany.animals/index.html] [http://www.ebra.org/bulletin/win05_02.html]
The State of [[Israel]], meanwhile, has banned dissections of animals in elementary and secondary schools; performances by trained animals in circuses; and [[foie gras]]. <!--banned the production, sale, or both, do we know?-->
== Animal rights in practice ==
[[Image:ALFbeagles.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The [[Animal Liberation Front]] (ALF)]]
In practice, those who advocate animal rights usually boycott a number of industries that use animals. Foremost among these is [[factory farming]], [http://www.meetyourmeat.com/wycd.html]
which produces the majority of [[meat]], [[dairy product]]s, and [[egg (food)|eggs]] in Western industrialized nations. The transportation of farm animals for slaughter, which often involves their [[live export]], has in recent years been a major issue of campaigning for animal-rights groups, particularly in the [[United Kingdom|UK]].
The vast majority of animal-rights advocates adopt [[vegetarian]] or [[vegan]] diets; they may also avoid clothes made of animal skins, such as [[leather]] shoes, and will not use products such as [[cosmetics]], [[pharmaceutical]] products, or certain [[ink]]s or [[dye]]s known to contain so-called animal [[byproduct]]s. Goods containing ingredients that have been tested on animals are also avoided where possible. Company-wide [[boycott]]s are common. The [[Procter & Gamble]] corporation, for example, [[Animal testing|tests]] many of its products on animals, leading many animal-rights supporters to boycott all of their products, including food like peanut butter.
The vast majority of animal-rights advocates dedicate themselves to educating the public. Some organizations, like ''[[People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals]]'', strive to do this by garnering media attention for animal-rights issues, often using outrageous stunts or advertisements to obtain media coverage for a more serious message.
There is a growing trend in the American animal-rights movement towards devoting all resources to vegetarian outreach. The 9.8 billion animals killed there for food use every year far exceeds the number of animals being exploited in other ways. Groups such as ''Vegan Outreach'' and ''Compassion Over Killing'' devote their time to exposing factory-farming practices by publishing information for consumers and by organizing undercover investigations.
A growing number of animal-rights activists engage in [[direct action]]. This typically involves the removal of animals from facilities that use them or the damage of property at such facilities in order to cause financial loss. A few incidents have involved [[violence]] or the threat of violence toward animal [[Vivisection|experimenters]] or others involved in the use of animals.
<!--I'm making this paragraph invisible as it's problematic, as follows: The first sentence needs a reference for the FBI claim, and for the denouncing of direct action by many animal-rights groups: "As a result of "direct action" tactics, the following needs a reference: (the [[FBI]] has announced that it considers the [[Animal Liberation Front]] and [[Earth Liberation Front]] the number one [[terrorism|terrorist]] groups native to the [[United States]]) many animal-rights organizations denounce its use in advancing the animal rights cause." This sentence is okay: "Most animal-rights groups, including activists who work under the banner of the [[Animal Liberation Front]], reject the use of violence by people acting in their name." This sentence needs references: "However, some radical animal-right activists in Canada, the UK and the US actively engage in harassment of family homes of individual workers of research facilities, related businesses and individual shareholders." It also needs clarification. Is harassment of individuals being counted as violence? Is SHAC, which does this, being counted as more radical than the ALF, which the previous sentence seems to suggest doesn't? -->
There are also a growing number of "open rescues," in which animal-rights advocates enter businesses to steal animals without trying to hide their identities. Open rescues tend to be carried out by committed individuals who are willing to go to jail if prosecuted, but so far no factory-farm owner has been willing to press charges, perhaps because of the negative publicity that would ensue. However some countries like Britain have proposed stricter laws to curb animal extremists. [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2005/10/25/nterr25.xml&sSheet=/news/2005/10/25/ixhome.html]
''See also: [[Animal rights activism]]''
== Criticism of animal rights ==
Criticism against the concept of animal rights include philosophical arguments that to have rights requires moral judgements, that animal rights actually turns humans into second-class citizens under animals, and that humans have a responsibility to promote [[Animal welfare]] instead of animal rights. Criticism against the animal right |
y mainstream audiences.
*[[1988]] - The [[acid house]] scene emerges in the [[UK]]. Originally called "acid parties" for a select few, the events grew in size and popularity, eventually spreading throughout England, Europe, the United States, and the rest of the world.
*early [[1990s]] - The [[rave]] scene grows out of the acid-house scene. Many elements of the rave scene, such as baggy pants and breakdancing, appear to be inherited from the [[Northern Soul]] scene of the [[UK]] approximately 15 years earlier. The notion of "[[trainspotter (music)|trainspotting]]," for example, derives from Northern Soul's emphasis on researching and collecting rare & obscure records; while preventing other DJs from stealing titles via "white labels". The rave scene forever changed dance music, the image of DJs, and the nature of promoting. The innovative marketing surrounding the rave scene created the first superstar DJs.
*early [[1990s]] - The [[compact disc]] surpasses the gramophone record in popularity, but gramophone records continue to be made (although in very limited quantities) into the 21st century, particularly for club DJs and for local acts recording on small regional labels.
*mid-[[1990s]] - [[Trance music]] emerges as a result of producers who wanted to transform repetitive, instrumental rave music into commercially accessible pop songs with vocals. Trance was central to the success of commercial dance music and superstar DJs such as Paul Oakenfold.
*[[1992]] - [[MPEG]] which stands for the "Moving Pictures Experts Groups, releases The MPEG-1 standard, designed to produce reasonable sound at low bit rates. MPEG-1 Layer-3 popularly known as MP3 (a Lossy format) will revolutionize the digital music domain.
*[[1992]] - [[Promo Only]], a popular music service for disc jockeys is launched.
*[[1993]] - The first [[Internet]] "radio station", Internet Talk Radio, was developed by Carl Malamud. Because the radio signal is relayed over the Internet, it is possible to access internet radio stations from anywhere in the world. This makes it a popular service for both amateur and professional disc jockeys operating from a personal computer.
*[[1995]] - The first full-time, Internet-only radio station, Radio HK, begins broadcasting the music of [[independent music|independent]] bands.
*late [[1990s]] - [[Nu metal]] bands such as [[Korn|KoЯn]], [[Limp Bizkit]], and [[Linkin Park]] reach the height of popularity. This new subgenre of [[alternative rock]] bears some influence from hip hop, because rhythmic innovation and syncopation are primary, often featuring DJs as bandmembers.
*late [[1990s]] - Various DJ and Video_jockey VJ_software VJ software programs are developed, allowing personal computer users to deejay or veejay using his or her personal music or video files.
*[[1998]] - The first MP3 digital audio player is released, the Eiger Labs MPMan F10.
*[[1998]] - Final Scratch is announced by Amsterdam based N2IT. This program "mapped" digital music files onto timecoded vinyl records that were then played on a traditional DJ setup. This was the first product of it's kind, and later spawned a slew of competing products (including Serato Scratch Live, Ms. Pinky, and Mixvibes). Final Scratch was later bought by Stanton Magnetics, and its software development is now handled by [[Native Instruments]].
*[[1999]] - [[Shawn Fanning]] releases [[Napster]], the first of the massively popular [[peer-to-peer]] [[file sharing]] systems.
*[[1999]] - late 1999 - AVLA (Audio Video Licensing Agency) of Canada announces MP3 DJing license. Administered by the Canadian Recording Industry Association. DJs can now apply for a license giving them the right to burn their own compilation CDs of "useable tracks," instead of having to cart their whole CD collections around to their gigs.
*[[2001]] - [[Apple Computer]]'s [[Apple iPod | iPod]] is introduced and quickly becomes the highest selling brand of portable digital mp3 audio player. The convenience and popularity of the iPod spawns a new type of DJ, the self-penned "[[MP3J]]". First appearing in certain [[East London]] clubs, and spreading to other music scenes, including New York City, this new DJ scene allows the average music fan to bring two iPods to an "iPod Night", plug in to the mixer, and program a playlist without the skill and equipment demanded by a more traditional DJ setup.
*[[2001]] - late 2001 - Atlanta, Georgia, The fist Computerized Performance System Disc Jockey gathering was scheduled and organized during the small DJ3 convention. CPS mixing culture begins to emerge and organize.
*[[2005]] - Computerized Performance System Disc Jockey Summit is launched. Hosted by Professor Jam and originally developed as a social gathering in 2001, it was the first dedicated computer disc jockey industry event.
==Bibliography==
{{wikiquote}}
* Poschardt, Ulf (1998). ''DJ Culture''. London: Quartet Books. ISBN 0-704-38098-6
* Brewster, Bill & Broughton, Frank (2000). ''Last Night a DJ Saved My Life: The History of the Disc Jockey''. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3688-5 (North American edition). London: Headline. ISBN 0-747-26230-6 (U.K. edition).<br clear="all">
*Lawrence, Tim (2004). ''Love Saves the Day: A History of American Dance Music Culture, 1970-1979 ''. Duke University Press. ISBN 0822331985.
==External Sources==
:*[http://www.digitalvertigo.co.uk/ Digital Vertigo] DJ news and discussion forum.
:*[http://www.djforums.com/ DJ Forums] Various DJ resources and an online community.
:*[http://www.djmoves.com/ DJ Moves] News regarding the moves of radio DJs from station to station.
:*[http://www.discjockey101.com/jan2003.html DJ History] Rob Wegner (2003). DJ History: The First-Wave of Club DJ Growth, 1943-1969.
:* [http://www.dancefrontdoor.co.uk/ DanceFrontDoor] - UK DJ News and reviews site
:* [http://www.trugroovez.com/ Trugroovez] - DJ Listings. Including Sasha, Joey Negro, Danny Rampling
{{hiphop}}
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[[he:די ג'יי]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Athenian Empire</title>
<id>8685</id>
<revision>
<id>15906650</id>
<timestamp>2003-12-27T09:41:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Delirium</username>
<id>6827</id>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Delian League]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Detroit, Michigan</title>
<id>8687</id>
<revision>
<id>41879691</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T08:56:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>72.224.49.93</ip>
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<comment>/* Transportation */ disambig</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Detroit}}
{{Infobox City |official_name = Detroit, Michigan
|nickname = The Motor City, Motown
|motto = Speramus Meliora; Resurget Cineribus"<br>([[Latin]] for, "We Hope For Better Things; It Shall Rise From the Ashes")
|image_skyline = DetroitSkyline.jpg
|image_flag = Detroit flag.png
|image_seal = Detroit Seal.png
|image_map = Detroit_Wayne.png
|map_caption = Location in [[Wayne County, Michigan|Wayne County]], [[Michigan]]
|subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]<br>[[Political divisions of the United States|State]]<br>[[List of counties in Michigan|County]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;[[Michigan]]<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[Wayne County, Michigan|Wayne County]]
|leader_title = [[Mayor]]
|leader_name = [[Kwame Kilpatrick]] (D) |
|area_magnitude = 1 E8
|area_total = 142.9 sq. miles <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;370.2
|area_land = 138.8 sq. miles <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;359.4
|area_water = 4.2 sq. miles <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;10.8
|population_as_of = 2000
|population_total = 951,270
|population_metro = 4,441,551
|population_density = 6,856/sq. mile <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;2,647
|timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time|EST]]
|utc_offset = -5
|timezone_DST = [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]]
|utc_offset_DST = -4
|latd = 42
|latm = 19
|lats = 53.76
|latNS = N
|longd = 83
|longm = 2
|longs = 51
|longEW = W
|elevation =&nbsp;623&nbsp;ft <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;190
|website = http://www.ci.detroit.mi.us
|footnotes =
|}}
'''Detroit''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/d&#618;&#712;t&#688;&#633;&#596;&#618;t/}}) ([[French language|French]]: ''Détroit'', pronounced [[Image:ltspkr.png]][[Media:Detroit.ogg|{{IPA|/det&#640;wa/}}]]) is a city in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Michigan]]. It is the largest city in the state and is the [[county seat]] of [[Wayne County, Michigan|Wayne County]]. Established in 1701 by French [[fur trade]]rs, it is best known today as the world's automotive center and an important music capital &mdash; legacies celebrated by the city's two familiar nicknames, ''Motor City'' and ''Motown'' and more recently ''The D''.
Located along the [[Detroit River]] &mdash; [[French language|French]]: ''Rivière du Détroit'', i.e. "River of the [[Strait]]" &mdash; and across from the [[Canadian]] city of [[Windsor, Ontario|Windsor]], [[Ontario]], it is the center of a tri-county industrial zone (including [[Oakland County, Michigan|Oakland]] and [[Macomb County, Michigan|Macomb]] counties) that is among the most significant in the American [[Rust Belt]].
Detroit is the United States' 11th mos |
Horch'' was a registered trademark on behalf of August Horch's former partners and August Horch was not entitled to use it any more.) Consequently, Horch renamed his company to ''Audi Automobilwerke GmbH'' in [[1910]], ''Audi'' being the Latinization of Horch.
In August [[1928]] the [[Denmark|Danish]] engineer [[Jørgen Skafte Rasmussen]] of [[DKW]] acquired a majority holding in Audiwerke. In June [[1932]] Audi, DKW, Horch and [[Wanderer (car)|Wanderer]] merged to form [[Auto Union]] AG, the new company's logo was four interlinked rings, one for each of the founder companies. [[Horch]] was on the supervisory board of Auto Union.
[[Category:1868 births|Horch, August]]
[[Category:1951 deaths|Horch, August]]
[[Category:Automotive pioneers|Horch, August]]
[[Category:German engineers|Horch, August]]
[[da:August Horch]]
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[[fr:August Horch]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Avionics</title>
<id>2039</id>
<revision>
<id>41781684</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T18:34:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.41.40.16</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The onboard electronics used for piloting an [[aircraft]] are called '''avionics''' (AVI-ation electr-ONICS). Avionics include communications and navigation systems, [[autopilot]]s, and electronic [[flight management system]]s (FMS). Onboard electronics that are unrelated to piloting tasks, such as video systems for passengers, are sometimes considered avionics as well. Many of these devices include [[embedded system|embedded computers]]. The term is also used to define the electronics units fitted to a [[spacecraft]].
== History ==
[[Radiotelephone]] ([[two-way radio|two way voice radio]]) systems have been installed in aircraft since before [[World War II]], and have been widely used for mission coordination and [[air traffic control]]. Early systems used [[vacuum tube]]s, and because of their weight and size, were installed out of the way with only a control head in place in the flight deck. Standardization on [[Very high frequency|VHF]] frequences occurred shortly after [[World War II]], and [[transistor radio]] systems replaced the tube-based systems shortly afterward. Only minor changes have been made to these systems since the [[1960s]].
The earliest navigation systems required the [[Aviator|pilot]] or [[navigator]] to wear [[headphones]] and listen to the relative volume of tones in each ear to determine which way to steer on course.
Later, navigation systems developed along five separate paths:
* [[Non-directional beacon|NDB/ADF]] systems
* [[VHF omnidirectional range|VOR]] systems
* [[Instrument Landing System|ILS]] systems
* [[ATCRBS]] Transponders
* [[Distance Measuring Equipment]]
* [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] receivers
==== Non-Directional Radiobeacon ====
The [[Non-directional beacon|NDB]] (non-directional radiobeacon) was the first electronic navigation system in widespread use. The original radio range stations were high-power NDBs, and followed nighttime routes previously delineated by colored light beacons. DF (direction finder) and [[Automatic Direction Finder|ADF]] (Automatic Direction Finder) avionics can receive signals from these. A needle shows the pilot the relative [[heading]] toward the station compared to the centerline of the aircraft. NDBs use the [[Low Frequency|LF]] and [[Medium frequency|MF]] bands, and are still in use today (2005) at smaller airports because of their low cost but their use is quickly being supplanted by GPS. This is due mostly from the higher cost of ADF equipment in the aircraft and maintaining the NDB stations.
==== VHF Omni Range ====
The [[VHF omnidirectional range|VOR]] system ([[Very high frequency|VHF]] omni range) is less prone to [[interference (communication)|interference]] from [[thunderstorm]]s, and provides improved accuracy. It is still the backbone of the air navigational system today. VOR receivers allow the pilot to specify a ''[[radial]]'', that is, a line extending outward from the VOR transmitter at a particular angle from magnetic north. Then, a [[course deviation indicator]] (CDI) shows the amount by which the aircraft is off the chosen course. [[Distance measuring equipment]] (DME) was added to many VOR transmitters and receivers, allowing the distance between the station and the aircraft to be shown .
==== Instrument Landing System ====
The [[instrument landing system]] (ILS) is a set of components used to navigate to the landing end of a runway. It consists of lateral guidance from a ''[[localizer]]'', vertical guidance from a ''[[glideslope]]'', and distance guidance from a series of ''marker beacons.'' Optional components include [[Distance measuring equipment|DME]] and a ''compass locator,'' the name given to an NDB placed at the start of the final approach course.
==== Transponder ====
The [[transponder]] is a transceiver that receives "interrogations" from [[air traffic control]] [[radar]] systems and replies with a digital code. This [[radar|secondary radar]] reply permits the radar system to detect the [[aircraft]] more reliably and at greater distances than are possible with [[primary radar]]. This system of secondary radars and transponders is known collectively as the [[air traffic control radar beacon system]], or ATCRBS.
A basic "mode A" transponder responds with a 4-digit code with each digit ranging from 0 to 7. This is called a 4,096 code transponder. This pilot sets the code according to the type and status of the flight or as directed by [[air traffic control]].
A "mode C" transponder also replies with the [[pressure altitude]] of the aircraft encoded to the nearest 100 feet (30 m). Modern "mode S" transponders can respond with a longer digital identifier that is unique for each aircraft (thus allowing each aircraft to be uniquely identified even when there is no voice communication between the aircraft and air traffic control) and can receive digital traffic information from [[air traffic control]] [[radar]] systems and display them for the pilot.
An IFF transponder, "[[Identification friend or foe]]", is used in [[military aircraft]] and has additional modes of operation beyond those used in civil air traffic control.
==== DME ====
[[Distance Measurement Equipment]] (DME) is used to inform the pilot of his/her aircraft's distance away from the [[VHF omnidirectional range|VOR]] station, thus with a [[bearing]] and distance from a particular known VOR station a pilot can [[fix (position)|fix]] his exact position. Such systems are refered to as VOR/DME. DME is also part of a military navigation system widely used in the US, the [[TACAN]] (TACtical Air Navigation). A ground station combining VOR and TACAN is known as VOR-TAC. The frequencies for the VOR and DME or VOR and TACAN are paired by international standards. Once a pilot tunes onto a particular VOR frequency, the airborne equipment will automatically tunes on the co-located DME or Tacan.
==== LORAN ====
For a time, [[LORAN]] systems, which provide navigational guidance over large areas, were popular particularly for general aviation use. They have declined in popularity with the commercial availability of GPS service in small planes, and INS, widely used in large airliners.
===Auxiliary and diagnostic systems===
[[civil aviation|Commercial aircraft]] are expensive, and only make money when they are flying. For this reason, efficient operators perform as much service as possible in-flight, and during the turn-around time in a terminal. To make this process possible, [[embedded computer]] systems test aircraft systems, and also collect information about faults in equipment that they control. This information is normally collected in an on-board maintenance computer, and sometimes transmitted ahead to help order spares. Although this sounds ideal, in real life, these self-test systems are often not considered flight-critical, and therefore they are sometimes unreliable, and trusted only to indicate that a device requires service.
==Recent advances==
Avionics have changed significantly with the advent of the GPS receiver and "[[glass cockpit]]" display systems.
===Global Positioning System (GPS)===
The use of the [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS) has changed aircraft navigation both in the en-route phase and approach (landing) phases of flight.
Aircraft have traditionally flown from one radio navigation aid ("navaids") to the next (e.g., from [[VHF omnidirectional range|VOR]] to VOR). The paths between navaids are called [[airways]]. While this is rarely the shortest route between any two [[airport]]s, the use of airways was necessary because it was the only way for aircraft to navigate with precision in instrument conditions. The use of GPS has changed this, by allowing "direct" routing, allowing aircraft to navigate from point to point without the need for ground-based navigation. This has the potential to save significant amounts of both time and [[jet fuel|fuel]] while en-route.
However, "direct-to" routing causes non-trivial difficulties for the [[air traffic control]] (ATC) system. ATC's basic purpose is to maintaining appropriate vertical and horizontal separation between aircraft. The use of direct routing makes maintaining separation harder. A good analogy would be vehicular traffic: Roads are comparable to airways. If there were no roads and drivers simply went directly to their destination, significant chaos would ensue (e.g., large parking lots without barriers or lines). ATC does give clearance for direct routing on occasion, but its use is limited. Projects like [[Free flight (air traffic control)|free flight]] propose to computerize ATC and allow greater use of direct routing by identifing potential conflicts and suggesting maneuvers to maintain separation. This is |
be viewed as a special case of the [[z-transform]], evaluated on the unit circle in the complex plane.
==Multidimensional DFT==
The ordinary DFT computes the transform of a "one-dimensional" dataset: a sequence (or [[array]]) <math>x_n</math> that is a function of one discrete variable <math>n</math>. More generally, one can define the '''multidimensional''' DFT of a multidimensional array <math>x_{n_1, n_2, \cdots, n_d}</math> that is a function of <math>d</math> discrete variables <math>n_\ell = 0, 1, \cdots, N_\ell-1</math> for <math>\ell</math> in <math>1, 2, \cdots, d</math>:
:<math>X_{k_1, k_2, \cdots, k_d} = \sum_{n_1=0}^{N_1-1} \omega_{N_1}^{~k_1 n_1} \cdots \sum_{n_d=0}^{N_d-1} \omega_{N_d}^{~k_d n_d} x_{n_1, n_2, \cdots, n_d} \, , </math>
where <math>\omega_{N_\ell} = \exp(-2\pi i/N_\ell)</math> as above and the <math>d</math> output indices run from <math>k_\ell = 0, 1, \cdots, N_\ell-1</math>. This is more compactly expressed in [[coordinate vector|vector]] notation, where <math>\mathbf{n} \equiv (n_1, n_2, \cdots, n_d)</math> and <math>\mathbf{k} \equiv (k_1, k_2, \cdots, k_d)</math> are <math>d</math>-dimensional vectors of indices from 0 to <math>\mathbf{N} - 1 \equiv (N_1 - 1, N_2 - 1, \cdots, N_d - 1)</math>:
:<math>X_\mathbf{k} = \sum_{\mathbf{n}=0}^{\mathbf{N}-1} e^{-2\pi i \mathbf{k} \cdot (\mathbf{n} / \mathbf{N})} x_\mathbf{n} \, ,</math>
where the division <math>\mathbf{n} / \mathbf{N} \equiv (n_1/N_1, \cdots, n_d/N_d)</math> is performed element-wise, and the sum denotes the set of nested summations above.
The inverse of the multi-dimensional DFT is, analogous to the one-dimensional case, given by:
:<math>x_\mathbf{n} = \frac{1}{\prod_{\ell=1}^d N_\ell} \sum_{\mathbf{k}=0}^{\mathbf{N}-1} e^{2\pi i \mathbf{n} \cdot (\mathbf{k} / \mathbf{N})} X_\mathbf{k} \, .</math>
The multidimensional DFT has a simple interpretation. Just as the one-dimensional DFT expresses the input <math>x_n</math> as a superposition of sinusoids, the multidimensional DFT expresses the input as a superposition of [[plane wave]]s, or sinusoids oscillating along the direction <math>\mathbf{k} / \mathbf{N}</math> in space and having amplitude <math>X_\mathbf{k}</math>. Such a decomposition is of great importance for everything from [[digital image processing]] (<math>d</math>=2) to solving [[partial differential equations]] in three dimensions (<math>d</math>=3) by breaking the solution up into plane waves.
Computationally, the multidimensional DFT is simply the [[function composition|composition]] of a sequence of one-dimensional DFTs along each dimension. For example, in the two-dimensional case <math>x_{n_1,n_2}</math> one can first compute the <math>N_1</math> independent DFTs of the rows (i.e., along <math>n_2</math>) to form a new array <math>y_{n_1,k_2}</math>, and then compute the <math>N_2</math> independent DFTs of <math>y</math> along the columns (along <math>n_1</math>) to form the final result <math>X_{k_1,k_2}</math>. Or, one can transform the columns and then the rows&mdash;the order is immaterial because the nested summations above [[commutative operation|commute]].
Because of this, given a way to compute a one-dimensional DFT (e.g. an ordinary one-dimensional FFT algorithm), one immediately has a way to efficiently compute the multidimensional DFT. This is known as a ''row-column'' algorithm, although there are also intrinsically multi-dimensional FFT algorithms.
== Applications ==
The DFT has seen wide usage across a large number of fields; we only sketch a few examples below (see also the references at the end). All applications of the DFT depend crucially on the availability of a fast algorithm to compute discrete Fourier transforms and their inverses, a [[fast Fourier transform]].
=== Spectral analysis ===
When the DFT is used for [[Frequency spectrum#Spectrum analysis|spectral analysis]], the <math>\{x_n\}\,</math> sequence usually represents a finite set of uniformly-spaced time-samples of some signal <math>x(t)\,</math>, where ''t'' of course represents time. The conversion from continuous time to samples (discrete-time) changes the underlying [[continuous Fourier transform | Fourier transform]] of x(t) into a [[discrete-time Fourier transform]] (DTFT), which generally entails a type of distortion called [[aliasing]]. Choice of an appropriate sample-rate (see [[Nyquist frequency]]) is the key to minimizing that distortion. Similarly, the conversion from a very long (or infinite) sequence to a manageable size entails a type of distortion called [[Window function#Spectral analysis | ''leakage'']], which is manifested as a loss of detail (aka resolution) in the DTFT. Choice of an appropriate sub-sequence length is the primary key to minimizing that effect. When the available data (and time to process it) is more than the amount needed to attain the desired clarity, a standard technique is to perform multiple DFTs. If the desired result is a power spectrum, averaging the magnitude components of the multiple DFTs is often an effective use of the extra data. This technique is referred to as the [[Welch method | Welch]] algorithm.
A final source of distortion (or perhaps ''illusion'') is the DFT itself, because it is just a discrete sampling of the DTFT, which is a function of a continuous frequency domain. That can be mitigated by increasing the resolution of the DFT. That procedure is illustrated in the [[discrete-time Fourier transform]] article.
*The procedure is sometimes referred to as ''zero-padding'', which is a particular implementation used in conjunction with the [[fast Fourier transform]] (FFT) algorithm. The inefficiency of performing multiplications and additions with zero-valued "samples" is more than offset by the inherent efficiency of the FFT.
*As already noted, leakage imposes a limit on the inherent resolution of the DTFT. So there is a practical limit to the benefit that can be obtained from a fine-grained DFT.
===Data compression===
The field of digital signal processing relies heavily on operations in the frequency domain (i.e. on the Fourier transform). For example, several lossy image and sound compression methods employ the discrete Fourier transform: the signal is cut into short segments, each is transformed, and then the Fourier coefficients of high frequencies, which are assumed to be unnoticeable, are discarded. The decompressor computes the inverse transform based on this reduced number of Fourier coefficients. (Compression applications often use a specialized form of the DFT, the [[discrete cosine transform]] or sometimes the [[modified discrete cosine transform]]).
===Partial differential equations===
Discrete Fourier transforms, especially in more than one dimension, are often used to solve partial differential equations, where again the DFT is used as an approximation for the [[Fourier series]] (which is recovered in the limit of infinite ''N''). The reason is that it expands the signal in complex exponentials ''e''<sup>''inx''</sup>, which are eigenfunctions of differentiation: ''d''/''dx'' ''e''<sup>''inx''</sup> = ''in'' ''e''<sup>''inx''</sup>. Thus, in the Fourier representation, a [[linear differential equation with constant coefficients]] is transformed into an easily solvable algebraic equation. One then uses the inverse DFT to transform the result back into the ordinary spatial representation. Such an approach is called a [[spectral method]].
===Multiplication of large integers===
The fastest known [[multiplication algorithms|algorithms]] for the multiplication of large [[integer]]s or [[polynomial]]s are based on the discrete Fourier transform: the sequences of digits or coefficients are interpreted as vectors whose convolution needs to be computed; in order to do this, they are first Fourier-transformed, then multiplied component-wise, then transformed back.
===Outline of DFT polynomial multiplication algorithm===
Suppose we wish to compute the polynomial product ''c''(''x'') = ''a''(''x'') &middot; ''b''(''x''). The ordinary product expression for the coefficients of ''c'' involves a linear (acyclic) convolution, where indices do not "wrap around." This can be rewritten as a cyclic convolution by taking the coefficient vectors for ''a''(''x'') and ''b''(''x'') with constant term first, then appending zeros so that the resultant coefficient vectors '''a''' and '''b''' have dimension ''d'' > deg(''a''(''x'')) + deg(''b''(''x'')). Then,
:<math>\mathbf{c} = \mathbf{a} * \mathbf{b}</math>
Where '''c''' is the vector of coefficients for ''c''(''x''), and the convolution operator <math>*\,</math> is defined so
:<math>c_n = \sum_{m=0}^{d-1}a_m b_{n-m\ \mathrm{mod}\ d} \qquad\qquad\qquad n=0,1,...,d-1</math>
But convolution becomes multiplication under the DFT:
:<math>\mathcal{F}(\mathbf{c}) = \mathcal{F}(\mathbf{a})\mathcal{F}(\mathbf{b})</math>
Here the vector product is taken elementwise. Thus the coefficients of the product polynomial ''c''(''x'') are just the terms 0, ..., deg(''a''(''x'')) + deg(''b''(''x'')) of the coefficient vector
:<math>\mathbf{c} = \mathcal{F}^{-1}(\mathcal{F}(\mathbf{a})\mathcal{F}(\mathbf{b}))</math>
With a [[Fast Fourier transform]], the resulting algorithm takes O(''N'' log ''N'') arithmetic operations. Due to its simplicity and speed, the [[Cooley-Tukey FFT algorithm]], which is limited to [[composite number|composite]] sizes, is often chosen for the transform |
he ocean while still out of sight of the coastline, and the salinity of the ocean is notably lower a hundred miles out to sea.
The main river (which is usually between one and six miles wide) is navigable for large ocean steamers to [[Manaus]], 1,500 km (more than 900 miles) upriver from the mouth. Smaller ocean vessels of 3,000 tons[http://uk.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761571466/Amazon.html] and 5.5 m (18 ft) [[Draft (nautical)|draft]][http://www.ultramargroup.com/TextosPeru/Per-013.html] can reach as far as [[Iquitos, Peru|Iquitos]], 3,600 km (2,250 miles) from the sea. Smaller riverboats can reach 780 km (486 mi) higher as far as [[Achual Point]]. Beyond that, small boats frequently ascend to the [[Pongo de Manseriche]], just above Achual Point.
The Amazon drains an area of some [[1 E12 m²|6,915,000km]]&sup2; (2,722,000 mile&sup2;), or some 40 percent of South America. It gathers its waters from 5 degrees north latitude to 20 degrees south [[latitude]]. Its most remote sources are found on the inter-[[Andes|Andean]] plateau, just a short distance from the [[Pacific Ocean]]; and, after a course of about 6,400 km (4,000 mi) through the interior of [[Peru]] and across [[Brazil]], it enters the [[Atlantic Ocean]] at the [[Equator|equator]].
The Amazon has changed its drainage several times, from westward in the early [[Cenozoic]] to its present eastward locomotion following the uplift of the [[Andes]].
==Source and upper reaches==
[[Image:Amazon_origin_at_Mismi.jpg|thumb|160px|right|The Amazon originates from a cliff at the [[Nevado Mismi]], with a sole sign of a wooden cross.]]
The ultimate source of the Amazon has only recently been firmly established as a stream on a 5,597 metre (18,363 ft) peak called [[Nevado Mismi]] in the Peruvian [[Andes]], roughly 160 km west of Lake [[Titicaca]] and 700 km S.E. of [[Lima, Peru|Lima]]. The mountain was first suggested as the source in [[1971]] but this was not confirmed until [[2001]]. The waters from Nevado Mismi flow into the [[Río Apurímac]] which is a tributary of the [[Ucayali]] which later joins the [[Marañón River|Marañón]] to form the Amazon proper.
After the confluence of [[Río Apurímac]] and [[Ucayali]], the river leaves Andean terrain and is instead surrounded by [[flood plain]]. From this point to the [[Marañón River|Marañón]], some 1,600 km (1,000 mi), the forested banks are just out of water, and are inundated long before the river attains its maximum flood-line. The low river banks are interrupted by only a few hills, and the river enters the enormous [[Amazon Rainforest]].
==Amazonian Rainforest==
{{main|Amazon Rainforest}}
of the [[Andes]], the Amazon [[Rainforest]] begins. It is the largest rainforest in the world and is of great [[ecological]] significance, as its biomass is capable of absorbing enormous amounts of [[carbon dioxide]]. [[Conservation ethic|Conservation]] of the Amazon Rainforest has been a major issue in recent years.
The rainforest is supported by the extremely wet climate of the Amazon basin. The Amazon, and its hundreds of tributaries, flow slowly across the landscape, with an extremely shallow gradient sending them towards the sea: [[Manaus]], 1,600 km (1,000 mi) from the [[Atlantic]], is only 44 m (144 ft) above sea level.
The [[biodiversity]] within the rainforest is extraordinary: the region is home to at least 2.5 million insect species, tens of thousands of plants, and some 2,000 birds and mammals. One fifth of all the world's species of birds can be found in the Amazon rainforest.
The diversity of plant species in the Amazon basin is the highest on Earth. Some experts estimate that one square kilometre may contain over 75,000 types of trees and 150,000 species of higher plants. One square kilometre of Amazon rainforest can contain about 90,000 tons of living plants.
==Flooding==
[[Image:Amazon-river-NASA.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A [[NASA]] satellite image of a flooded portion of the river.]]
Seasonal rains give rise to extensive [[floods]] along the course of the Amazon and its tributaries. The average depth of the river in the height of the rainy season is 40 m (120 ft) and the average width can be nearly twenty-five miles. It starts to rise in November, and increases in volume until June, then falls until the end of October. The rise of the [[Negro River|Negro]] branch is not synchronous; the [[rainy season]] does not commence in its valley until February or March. By June it is full, and then it begins to fall with the Amazon. The [[Madeira River|Madeira]] rises and falls two months earlier than the Amazon.
The abundance of water in the Amazon basin is due to the fact that much of this lies in the region below the [[Intertropical convergence zone]], where rainfall is at a maximum. Also, the basin lies in the [[Trade Wind]] zone, where moisture from the Atlantic is pushed westwards, and eventually forced to rise over the [[Andes]], the second tallest mountain range on Earth, where the moist air cools and precipitates water. This combination creates more rainfall over a large river basin than anywhere else on the planet.
In the rainy season, the Amazon inundates the country throughout its course to the extent of several hundred thousand square miles, covering the flood-plain, called [[vargem]]. The flood-levels are, in some places, from 12 to 15 m (40 to 50 ft) higher than levels during the dry season. During the flood, the level at [[Iquitos]] is 6 m (20 ft); at [[Teffe]], it is 15 m (45 ft); near [[Óbidos, Pará|Óbidos]], 11 m (35 ft); and at [[Pará]], 4 m (12 ft), above the low-water extreme seen during the dry season.
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==Towards the sea==
The breadth of the Amazon in some places is as much as 6 to 10 km (4 to 6 mi) from one bank to the other. At some points, for long distances, the river divides into two main streams with inland and lateral [[channel (geography)|channels]], all connected by a complicated system of natural [[canal]]s, cutting the low, flat igapo lands, which are never more than 5 m (15 ft) above low river, into almost numberless islands.
At the narrows of [[Óbidos, Pará|Óbidos]], 600 km (400 mi) from the sea, the Amazon narrows, flowing in a single streambed, a mile (1.6 km) wide and over 200 ft (60 m). deep, through which the water rushes toward the sea at the speed of 6 to 8 km/h (4 to 5 mph).
From the village of [[Canaria]] at the great bend of the Amazon to the Negro 1,000 km (600 mi) downstream, only very low land is found, resembling that at the mouth of the river. Vast areas of land in this region are submerged at high water, above which only the upper part of the trees of the sombre forests appear. Near the mouth of the Rio Negro to Serpa, nearly opposite the river Madeira, the banks of the Amazon are low, until approaching Manaus, they rise to become rolling hills. At Óbidos, a bluff 17 m (56 ft) above the river is backed by low hills. The lower Amazon seems to have once been a [[gulf]] of the [[Atlantic Ocean]], the waters of which washed the cliffs near Óbidos.
[[Image:Amazon near Manaus.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Amazon near Manaus]]
Only about 10% of the water discharged by the Amazon enters the mighty stream downstream of Óbidos, very little of which is from the northern slope of the valley. The drainage area of the Amazon basin above Óbidos is about 5 million km&sup2; (2 million mile&sup2;), and, below, only about 1 million km&sup2; (400,000 mile&sup2;), or around 20%, exclusive of the 1.4 million km&sup2; (600,000 mile&sup2;) of the Tocantins basin.
In the lower reaches of the river, the north bank consists of a series of steep, table-topped [[hill]]s extending for about 240 km (150 mi) from opposite the mouth of the Xingu as far as [[Monte Alegre]]. These hills are cut down to a kind of [[Terrace (agriculture)|terrace]] which lies between them and the river.
Monte Alegre reaches an altitude of several hundred feet. On the south bank, above the Xingu, an almost-unbroken line of low [[bluff]]s bordering the flood-plain extends nearly to Santarem, in a series of gentle curves before they bend to the south-west, and, abutting upon the lower Tapajos, merge into the bluffs which form the terrace margin of the Tapajos river valley.
==Mouth of the river==
[[Image:Amazon-river-delta-NASA.jpg|thumb|250px|A satellite image of the mouth of the Amazon River, looking south]]
The width of the mouth of the river is usually measured from [[Cabo do Norte]] to [[Punto Patijoca]], a distance of some 330 km (207 mi); but this includes the ocean outlet, 60 km (40 mi) wide, of the Para river, which should be deducted, as this stream is only the lower reach of the Tocantins. It also includes the ocean frontage of [[Marajó]], an island about the size of [[Denmark]] lying in the mouth of the Amazon.
==Tidal bore==
Following the coast, a little to the north of Cabo do Norte, and for 160 km (100 miles) along its Guiana margin up the Amazon, is a belt of half-submerged islands and shallow sandbanks. Here the tidal phenomenon called the [[tidal bore|bore]], or ''Pororoca'', occurs, where the depths are not over 4 [[fathom]]s (7 m). The tidal bore starts with a roar, constantly increasing, and advances at the rate of from 15 to 25 km/h (10 to 15 mph), with a breaking wall of water from 1.5 to 4 m (5 to 12 ft) high. The bore is the reason the Amazon does not have a [[river delta|delta]]; the ocean rapidly carries away the vast volume of [[silt]] carried by the Amazon, making it impossible for a delta to grow. It also has a very large tide sometimes reaching 20 feet.
==Wildlife==
The waters of the Amazon support a diverse range of wildlife. Along with the [[Orinoco]], the river is one of the main habitats of the [[Boto]], also known as the Amazon River Dolphin. The largest species of river dolphin, it can grow to lengths of up to 2.6 m.
Also present in large numbers are the notorious [[Piranha]], carnivorous fish which congregate in lar |
iate (or even illegal) in some situations, but they are not discriminatory.
Examples of discrimination within countries include: [[apartheid]] in [[South Africa]]; institutionalized [[Racial segregation|racial segregation]] in the USA from the [[United States Civil War|Civil War]] through the [[1960s]]; the "Jewish problem" in [[Nazi Germany]]; and [[reeducation camp]]s in some [[communist]] countries.
Many governments have attempted to control discrimination through [[civil rights]] legislation, [[equal opportunity]] laws and institutionalised policies of [[affirmative action]] (called [[reverse discrimination]] by its opponents).
Even in western, secular countries, governments practice discrimination. For example, governments may provide better treatment to citizens than to non-citizens. Unemployed citizens may receive welfare benefits funded by taxpayers, while unemployed non-citizens may be denied such benefits. Governments often have the power to forcefully expel non-citizens but cannot expel citizens. Discrimination based on citizenship status is not generally considered illegal.
==Religious Discrimination==
Today, Muslims widely face job related discrimination in the West, particularly in the [United States of America], following the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001]]. Since that attack, the [[EEOC]] has received more than 800 charge filings nationwide, alleging backlash discrimination by individuals who are or who are perceived to be Muslim, Arabic, Middle Eastern, South Asian or Sikh. The two most common issues alleged are harassment and discharge.
Another example of discrimination against [[Muslim|Muslims]] is occurring in a different hemisphere. Leaders of France, Austria, Germany and the Vatican have openly declared that [[Turkey]] is unqualified to be a full member of the institution because of its "religious and ethnic differences" {{facts}}. Some people consider this to be a very significant case of religious discrimination on an international level.
Currently, non-Muslims are discriminated against in the few remaining Islamic [[theocratic]] states. Jews and Christians have historically had fewer rights than Muslim citizens in Muslim states; non-Muslims [[monotheism|monotheists]] have been consigned to the status of [[dhimmi]]s in some cases. [[Marxism|Marxist]] states have discriminated against all religions at some time or another. This continues in [[North Korea]], [[China]] and [[Vietnam]], and many former [[Soviet]] republics.
The Kingdom of [[Jordan]] forbids Jews from becoming citizens, although people of any other group are allowed to do so (law No. 6, sect. 3, of April 3, 1954; restated in law no. 7, sect. 2, of April 1, 1963). [[Saudi Arabia]] forbids non-Muslims from practising their religion in public, and clergy may not enter the country to lead ceremonies of other faiths. Christians asking Muslims to convert to Christianity have been persecuted and arrested; Muslims who have converted to Christianity have been executed as [[apostate]]s. Fictional tales of Jews committing diabolic crimes are published by the state. The article on [[discrimination against non-Muslims in Saudi Arabia]] discusses this subject in more depth.
Some others claim that non-religious people (atheists, agnostics, etc.) are subject to the most widespread religious discrimination. During his 1988 Presidential campaign, [[George H.W. Bush]] stated that atheists should not be considered patriots or citizens.
Religious students may be said to be discriminated in schools both publicly and privately. For example, names of clubs have been changed due to claims by administrative staff that some part of the name or the symbolism it represents may offend other students, parents, or teachers.
==Age Discrimination==
[[Ageism|Age Discrimination]] is discrimination against a person or group on the grounds of age. Although theoretically the word can refer to the discrimination against any age group, age discrimination usually comes in one of two forms: discrimination against [[youth]], and discrimination against the [[elderly]].
In many countries, companies more or less openly refuse to hire people above a certain age despite the increasing lifespans and average age of the population. The reasons for this range from vague feelings that younger people are more "dynamic" and create a positive image for the company, to more concrete concerns about regulations granting older employees higher salaries or other benefits without these expenses being fully justified by an older employees' greater experience.
Some underage [[teenagers]] consider that they're victims of age discrimination on the grounds that they should be treated more respectfully by adults and not as second-class citizens. Some complain that social [[stratification]] in age groups causes outsiders to incorrectly [[stereotype]] and generalize the group, for instance that all adolescents are equally immature, violent or rebellious, listen to rock or rap music and do [[hard_and_soft_drugs |drug]]s. Some have organized groups against age discrimination.
==Gender Discrimination==
Gender discrimination is any action that grants or denies opportunities, privileges, or rewards to a person just on the basis of their sex.
The [[United Nations]] has concluded that women often experience a "glass ceiling" and that there are no societies in which women enjoy the same opportunities as men. The term 'glass ceiling' describes the process by which women are barred from promotion by means of an invisible barrier. In the [[USA]], the Glass Ceiling Commission has stated that between 95 and 97 per cent of senior managers in the country's biggest corporations are men.
Socially, sexual differences have been used to justify societies in which one sex or the other has been restricted to significantly inferior and secondary roles. While there are non-physical differences between men and women, there is little agreement as to what those differences are.
Legislation to promote gender equality is generally complex and varied, with a wide divergence between different countries. The principal legislation in the UK is found in the Equal Pay Act of 1970 (which provides for equal pay for comparable work) and the Sex Discrimination Act of 1975, which makes discrimination against women or men (including discrimination on the grounds of marital status) illegal in the working situation.
==Sexual Orientation Discrimination==
Sexual orientation discrimination is discrimination against individuals, couples or groups based on sexual orientation or perceived sexual orientation. Predominantly, this involves the discrimination of a person who has a same-sex sexual orientation, whether or not they identify as gay, lesbian or bisexual. Sexual minorities are often seen as undesirable or immoral by one or more social groups and, thus, discrimination against them is frequently codified into law. As acceptability of sexual orientation varies greatly from society to society, the degree to which discrimination is sanctioned by society also varies greatly. Discrimination based on sexual orientation is often exacerbated by frustration or anger brought about societal changes that seem threatening to some members of society. In particular, changing gender roles and the increased equality afforded women in most societies is perceived as a threat to traditional patriarchal roles. Similarly, sexual minorities can also be viewed as a threat to gender roles that favor male power in a traditional social structure.
During the last century, as a result of greater acceptance and visibility of sexual minorities in most developed countries, discrimination based on sexual orientation is increasingly seen as unjust and, in more and more nations and localities, has been rendered illegal. The Republic of South Africa is the first nation on earth to embed freedom from discrimination based on sexual orientation into its constitution. In the United States, 17 states have banned discrimination based on sexual orientation with most laws focusing on freedom from discrimination in the work place, housing and public accommodations. Most of these states exempt religious institutions from these anti-discrimination clauses, and several exempt small businesses. Historically, conservative religious leaders and organizations have been at the forefront of fighting legislation to ban discrimination based on sexual orientation. Increasingly, however, progressive religious leaders have joined with gay rights and human rights activists in seeking to overturn laws that sanction this form of discrimination.
==External links==
*[http://hrw.org/english/docs/2004/08/12/isrlpa9228.htm Human Rights Watch on Israel] &ndash; State Discrimination in the school system.
*[http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/02/03/news/denmark.php International Heral Tribune on Denmark] &ndash; Discrimination against Muslims.
==See also==
*[[Second-class citizen]]
*[[reverse discrimination]]
[[Category:Discrimination|*]]
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(film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]] who subsequently worked together on series and feature films for [[Gerry Anderson]]. Thanks to the Bristol-based [[Aardman Animations]] the UK is still recognised as a world leader in the use of stopmotion animation.
British special effects technicians and production designers are known for creating visual effects at a far lower cost than their counterparts in the US, as seen in ''[[Time Bandits]]'' (1981) and ''[[Brazil (movie)|Brazil]]'' (1985). This reputation has continued through the [[1990s]] and into the [[21st century]] with films such as the [[James Bond]] series, [[Gladiator (2000 movie)|Gladiator]] and [[Harry Potter]].
Throughout to the [[1990s]] to the present day, there has been a progressive movement from traditional [[film opticals]] to an integrated [[digital film]] environment, with special effects, cutting, colour grading, and other post-production tasks all sharing the same all-digital infrastructure. The availability of high-speed [[Internet Protocol]] networks has made the British film industry capable of working closely with U.S studios as part of globally distributed productions. [[As of 2005]], this trend is expected to continue with moves towards (currently experimental) digital distribution and projection as mainstream technologies.
The UK film ''[[This is Not a Love Song]]'' (2003) was the first to be [[stream]]ed live on the [[Internet]] at the same time as its cinema [[premiere]].
==Black and Asian film==
Until the 1980s Black British and Asian British culture was significantly under-represented in mainstream British cinema, as they were in many areas of British life. Pioneers such as [[Horace Ové]] has been working in 1970s (''Pressure'', 1975), but the 1980s saw a wave of new talent, with films like ''Burning an Illusion'' (1981), ''Majdhar'' (1985) and ''Ping Pong'' (1986). Many of these films were assisted by the newly formed [[Channel 4]], which had an official remit to provide for "minority audiences." Commercial success was first achieved with ''[[My Beautiful Laundrette]]'' (1985). Dealing with racial and gay issues, it started the career of its writer [[Hanif Kureishi]].
1980s mainstream British cinema also reflected a change in attitudes, with ''[[Heat and Dust]]'' (1982), ''[[Gandhi (movie)|Gandhi]]'' (1982) and ''[[Cry Freedom]]'' (1987), although it rarely directly addressed the experiences of Black or Asian British people. However, the mainstream continued to be criticised, as it does today, for lack of minority representation. The hit film ''[[Notting Hill (movie)|Notting Hill]]'' (1999) was noted for not featuring any significant black characters in its ensemble cast, despite [[Notting Hill]] being home to many British Afro-Caribbeans.
The turn of the century saw a more commercial Asian British cinema develop, starting with ''[[East is East]]'' (1999) and continuing with ''[[Bend It Like Beckham]]'' (2002). Some argue it has brought more flexible attitudes towards casting Black and Asian British actors, with [[Robbie Gee]] and [[Naomie Harris]] take leading roles in ''[[Underworld (2003 movie)|Underworld]]'' and ''[[28 Days Later]]'' respectively.
==Bibliography==
===Pre-WWII===
*Low, Rachel. 1985. Film Making in 1930s Britain. London: George, Allen and Unwin
*Rotha, Paul. 1973. Documentary diary; an informal history of the British documentary film, 1928-1939, New York: Hill and Wang
*Swann, Paul. 2003. The British Documentary Film Movement, 1926-1946. Cambridge University Press
===World War II===
*Aldgate, Anthony and Richards, Jeffrey 2nd Edition. 1994. Britain Can Take it: British Cinema in the Second World War. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press
*Barr, Charles; Ed. 1986. All Our Yesterdays: 90 Years of British Cinema. London: British Film Institute
*Murphy, Robert. 2000. British Cinema and the Second World War. London: Continuum
===Post-War===
*Friedman, Lester; Ed. 1992. British Cinema and Thatcherism. London: UCL Press
*Geraghty, Christine. 2000. British Cinema in the Fifties: Gender Genre and the New Look. London Routledge
*Gillett, Philip. 2003. The British Working Class in Postwar Film. Manchester: Manchester University Press
*Murphy, Robert; Ed. 1996. Sixties British Cinema. London: BFI
*Shaw, Tony. 2001. British Cinema and the Cold War. London: I.B. Tauris
===1990s===
*Brown, Geoff. 2000. Something for Everyone: British film Culture in the 1990s.
*Brunsdon, Charlotte. 2000. Not Having It All: Women and Film in the 1990s.
*Murphy, Robert; Ed. 2000. British Cinema of the 90s. London: BFI
===Cinema and Government===
*Dickinson, Margaret and Street, Sarah. 1985. Cinema and the State: The Film industry and the British Government, 1927-84. London: BFI
*Miller, Toby. 2000. 'The Film Industry and the Government: 'Endless Mr Beans and Mr Bonds'?'
*Moran, Albert; Ed. 1996. Film Policy: International, National and Regional Perspectives. London: Routledge: ISBN 0-415-09791-6
===General===
*Aldgate, Anthony and Richards Jeffrey. 2002. Best of British: Cinema and Society from 1930 to the Present. London: I.B. Taurus
*Babington, Bruce; Ed. 2001.British Stars and Stardom. Manchester: Manchester University Press
*Chibnall, Steve and Murphy, Robert; Eds. 1999. British Crime Cinema. London: Routledge
*Cook, Pam. 1996. Fashioning the Nation: Costume and Identity in British Cinema. London BFI
*Curran, James and Porter, Vincent; Eds. 1983. British Cinema History. London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson
*[[Raymond Durgnat|Durgnat, Raymond]]. 1970. A Mirror for England: British Movies from Austerity to Affluence. London: Faber. ISBN: 0-571095-038
*Harper, Sue. 2000. Women in British Cinema: Mad Bad and Dangerous to Know. London: Continuum
*Higson, Andrew. 1995. Waving the Flag: Constructing a National Cinema in Britain. Oxford: Oxford University Press
*Higson, Andrew. 2003. English Heritage, English Cinema. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
*Hill, John. 1986. Sex, Class and Realism. London: BFI
*Landy, Marcia. 1991. British Genres: Cinema and Society, 1930-1960. Princeton University Press
*Lay, Samantha. 2002. British Social Realism. London: Wallflower
*McFarlane, Brian. The Encyclopedia of British Film. London: Methuen. ISBN 0-413-77301-9
*Monk, Claire and Sargeant, Amy. 2002. British Historical Cinema. London Routledge
*Murphy, Robert; Ed. 2001. British Cinema Book 2nd Edition. London: BFI
*Perry, George. 1988. The Great British Picture Show. Little Brown, 1988.
*Street, Sarah. 1997. British National Cinema. London: Routledge.
*Tasker, Yvonne; Ed. 2002. Fifty Contemporary Filmmakers: Routledge: London: ISBN 0-415-18974-8
==See also==
* [[:Category:British films|Category:British films]]
* [[Eady levy]]
* [[List of British film studios]]
* [[London in film]]
* [[Cinematograph Films Act 1927|Quota quickies]]
==External links==
* [http://www.bfi.org.uk The British Film Institute], including some [http://www.screenonline.org.uk/film/facts data on UK films]
* [http://UKfilm.org UK film . org] - News, forums and articles for the UK filmmaker.
* [http://www.screenonline.org.uk/ screenonline], a large collection of British film articles and clips.
* [http://www.ukfilmcouncil.org.uk/ The UK Film Council]
* [http://www.filmacademy.co.uk Film Academy]
* [http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/thr/international/feature_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=2092725 UK film funding]
* [http://www.imdb.com/Sections/Countries/UK/ Search British titles] at the [[Internet Movie Database]]
* [http://www.blackfilmmakermag.com/asp/index.asp Black Filmmaker Magazine]
* BBC News In Depth: [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/entertainment/2003/british_film_industry/default.stm British Film Industry]
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/friday_review/story/0,3605,272016,00.html Shame of a nation] - ''[[The Guardian]]'', [[May 26]], [[2000]].
**Polemical article bemoaning the state of British film.
* [http://tv.cream.org/specialassignments/films/prodcomp.htm TV Cream on Britain's independent film companies]
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Feminist film theory''' is [[film theory|theoretical]] work within [[film criticism]] which is derived from [[feminist]] politics and [[feminist theory]]. [[Feminism|Feminists]] have taken many different approaches to the analysis of [[film|cinema]]. These include discussions of the function of women characters in particular [[film narrative]]s or in particular [[genre]]s, such as [[film noir]], where a woman character can often be seen to embody a subversive [[sexuality]] that is dangerous to men and is ultimately punished with death.
In considering the way that films are put together, many feminist film critics have pointed to the "[[male gaze]]" that predominates in [[Classical Hollywood cinema|classical Hollywood]] filmmaking. [[Laura Mulvey]]'s essay "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema" gave one of the most widely influential ver |
When Heracles brought back the man-eating [[Mares of Diomedes]] successfully, Eurystheus dedicated the horses to Hera and allowed them to roam freely in the Argolid. [[Bucephalus]], [[Alexander the Great]]'s horse, was said to be descended from these mares.
To acquire the belt of [[Hippolyte]], queen of the [[Amazons]] was Heracles's ninth task. This task was at the request of Eurystheus' daughter, [[Admete]].
To extend what may have once been ten Labours to the canonical dozen, it was said that Eurystheus didn't count the Hydra, as he was assisted, or the Augean stables as Heracles received payment for his work.
For the eleventh labour Heracles had to steal the Apples of the [[Hesperides]]; his final labour was to capture [[Cerberus]], the three-headed hound that guarded the entrance to [[Hades]].
After Heracles died, Eurystheus attempted to destroy his many children (the [[Heracleidae]], led by [[Hyllus]]), who fled to [[Athens]]. He attacked the city, but was soundly defeated, and he and his sons were killed. The stories about the killer of Eurystheus and the fate of his corpse vary, but the Athenians believed it remained on their soil and served to protect the country against the descendants of Heracles, who traditionally included the [[Sparta|Spartans]] and [[Argos|Argives]].
After him, the brothers [[Atreus]] and [[Thyestes]], whom he had left in charge during his absence, took over the city, the former exiling the latter and assuming the kingship, while [[Tiryns]] returned to the overlordship of [[Argos]].
==References==
*[[Karl Kerenyi|Kerenyi, Karl]], 1959. ''The Heroes of the Greeks''
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'''Effects units''' are devices that affect the sound of an electric instrument when plugged in to the electrical signal path the instrument sends, most often an [[electric guitar]] or [[electric bass|bass guitar]]. They can also be used on other instruments or sound sources, like the [[Rhodes_piano|Rhodes Piano]] or standard [[MIDI]] keyboards, synths or even the human voice. While some effect units transform the sound completely, others just color the sound picture in a minor way.
An effects unit consists of one or more electronic devices which typically contain analog circuitry for processing audio signals, similar to that found in music synthesizers, for example active and passive filters, envelope followers, voltage-controlled oscillators, or digital delays.
Effects units are packaged by their manufacturers, and used by musicians, in various sizes, the most common of which are the stomp-box and the rack-mount unit. A "[[Stomp box]]" is a metal box, containing the circuitry, which is placed on the floor in front of the musician and connected in line with, say, the guitar cord. The box is typically controlled by one or more foot-pedal on-off switches and typically contains only one or two effects. A second type of effects unit may contain the identical electronic circuit, but is mounted in a standard 19" equipment rack. Usually, however, rack-mount effects units contain several different types of effects. They are typically controlled by knobs or switches on the front panel, and often by a MIDI digital control interface. "Off-boards" are used by musicians who prefer multiple stomp-boxes; these may be simply pieces of plywood with several stomp-box units fastened to the plywood and connected in series. Rackmounted effects or off-boards can combine several effects in one unit, and can include analog controls such as pedals or knobs.
Modern desktop and notebook computers often have sound processing capabilities that rival commercially available effects boxes. Some can process sound through [[VST]]-plugins. With a decent sound card, musicians can play any instrument through a computer, emulating any effects unit or even an amplifier in a convincing way. Many VST-plugins are freely downloadable from the World Wide Web.
==Types of effects==
=== Dynamics ===
; [[Audio level compression|Compressor]] : The [[gain]] of the amplifier is varied to reduce the [[dynamic range]] of the signal.
; [[Tremolo]] : Tremolo produces a periodic variation in the amplitude (volume) of the note. A sine wave applied as input to a voltage-controlled amplifier produces this effect.
=== Tone ===
; [[Overdrive]] and [[distortion]]: The signal is amplified past the limits of the amplifier, resulting in clipping. Example: Guitar on "Spirit in the Sky" by [[Norman Greenbaum]]. (see [[Fuzzbox]])
; [[Wah-wah]] : An effect that gives the instrument an almost vocal effect. Example: "White Room" by Cream, used by [[Eric Clapton]]. Popular in [[funk]] and [[psychedelic rock]] (i.e. [[Jimi Hendrix]]).
; [[Ring modulation]] : "Organic" effect.
; [[Equalization|Equalizer]] : Adjusts the frequency response in a number of different bands of EQ. Variants include the Parametric EQ, which instead of flatly boosting and cutting frequencies, curves the frequency response to include changes in adjacent frequencies. Examples: [http://www.bossarea.com Boss PN-2 and GE-2]
; [[Clean Boost]] or any other "booster": Amplifies some aspect of the instrument's signal output. Generally used for preventing signal loss through long chains of effects units (pedals) and getting overdrive tones out of a tube amp. On stage, used for volume boosts for solos. Examples: [http://www.zvex.com/hardon.html Zachary Vex's Super Hard On], [http://www.catalinbread.com/picoso.html catalinbread's Super Chile Picoso], [http://www.bigblockeffects.com Big Block Effects NOS Boost].
; Talk Box : A vowel-tuned wah that actually takes a human voice as the wah control. Used in many Bon Jovi songs
=== Time-based ===
; [[Delay]] : First used by [[Les Paul]], e.g. ''I'm Forever Blowing Bubbles.'' (Modern digital delay units, the first of which was the Eventide Harmonizer, involve sound waves being converted from analog to digital signals, and clocked through large banks of RAM memory. Paul achieved time delay by stretching audiotape between two reel-to-reel tape decks spaced several feet apart.)
; [[Echo]] : Uses delays to simulate an echo.
; [[chorus effect|Chorus]] : Usually short delays to simulate more than one person playing at a time
; [[Flanging]] : Uses very short variable delays to cause a changing [[comb filter]] effect
; [[Reverb]] : Simulates echoes in stadiums, halls, other performance areas. Even actual surfaces, such as plate metal and metal springs, are sometimes simulated.
=== Frequency ===
; [[Pitch shifter]] : Also introduced by the Harmonizer which has a knob on the front to "change your pitch up." First used on ''Itchycoo Park'' by Small Faces.
; [[Vibrato]] : Vibrato refers to a variation in frequency of a note, for example as an opera singer holding one note for a long time will varies the frequency up and down. A sine wave applied as input to a voltage-controlled oscillator produces this effect.<br>Guitarists often use the terms "vibrato" and "tremolo" inconsistently. A so-called ''vibrato unit'' in a guitar amplifier actually produces tremolo, while a ''tremolo arm'' on a guitar produces vibrato. However, ''finger vibrato'' is genuine vibrato. See [[Electric guitar]], [[tremolo]], [[vibrato]].
=== Other specific effects ===
; '''Defretter''' : It simulates a fretless [[guitar]]
; [[Acoustic guitar]] '''simulator''' : Simulates an acoustic guitar. Example: [http://www.bossarea.com Boss AC-2]
; '''Rotary speaker''': A [[Leslie speaker]] simulation effect. One particular effect of this type (the Uni-Vibe) was made famous by Jimi Hendrix.
; '''Envelope Follower''' : Uses the signal amplitude envelope to control one or more effects. Example: [http://www.toadworksusa.com/el ToadWorks Enveloope]
; [[Pickup]] '''simulation''' : Simulates either a [[single-coil]] pickup if the musician has a [[humbucker]] or vice-versa.
; Ambience modelling : Creates an ambience through an amalgam of effects.
; [[Guitar amplifier]] modelling : Models instrument tone to imitate the tone produced by various amplifiers, especially to attain the [[valve sound]] with solid-state equipment.
These types of effects are usually digital, and can therefore be found as features of [[effect processors]] such as the Boss ME series and Vox multieffects.
== Notable manufacturers ==
* [[Behringer]] ([http://www.behringer.com homepage])
* [[BOSS]] ([http://www.bossus.com homepage])
* [[Digitech]] ([http://www.digitech.com homepage])
* [[DOD Electronics|DOD]] ([http://www.dod.com homepage])
* [[Dunlop Manufacturing, Inc.|Jim Dunlop]] ([http://jimdunlop.com homepage])
* [[Korg]] ([http://www.korg.com homepage])
* [[Lexicon ]]([http://www.lexiconpro.com homepage])
* [[Line6]] ([http://www.line6.com homepage])
* [[Roland]] ([http://www.roland.com homepage])
* [[TC Electronic]] ([http://www.tcelectronic.com homepage])
* [[Vox (musical equipment)|Vox]] ([http://voxamps.co.uk/ homepage])
* [[Zoom (Audio Company)|Zoom]] ([http://www.zoom.co.jp homepage])
== Boutique Pedal Manufacturers ==
* [[AnalogMan]] ([http://www.analogman.com homepage])
* [[Big Block Effects]] ([http://www.bigblockeffects.com homepage])
* [[catalinbread]] ([http://www.catalinbread.com homepage])
* [[Effector 13]] ([http://www.effector13.com homepage])
* [[Frantone]] ([http://www.frantone.com homepage])
* [[Metasonix]] ([http://www.metasonix.com homepage])
* [[Robert Kee |
ever consummated; if she were correct, no papal dispensation would have been necessary, but merely a dissolution of ratified marriage. Nonetheless, both the English and Spanish parties agreed on the necessity of a papal dispensation for the removal of all doubts regarding the legitimacy of the marriage. Due to the impatience of Catherine's mother, Queen [[Isabella of Castile|Isabella]], the Pope hastily granted his dispensation in a [[papal bull|Papal Bull]]. Thus, fourteen months after her husband's death, Catherine found herself engaged to his brother, the Prince of Wales. By 1505, however, Henry VII lost interest in an alliance with Spain, and the young Prince of Wales was forced to declare that his betrothal had been arranged without his assent.
==Early reign==
Henry VIII ascended the throne in 1509 upon his father's death. Catherine's father, the [[Aragon|Aragonese]] King [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand II]], sought to control England through his daughter, and consequently insisted on her marriage to the new English King. Henry VIII wed Catherine of Aragon about nine weeks after his accession on [[June 11]] [[1509]] at [[Greenwich]], despite the concerns of [[Pope Julius II]] and [[William Warham]], the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], regarding the marriage's validity. They were both [[coronation|crowned]] at [[Westminster Abbey]] on [[24 June]] [[1509]]. Queen Catherine's first pregnancy ended in a miscarriage in 1510. She gave birth to a son, Henry, on [[1 January]] [[1511]], but he only lived until [[February 22]].
{{Infobox_UKkingstyles|royal name=King Henry VIII of England|dipstyle=[[Majesty|His Majesty]] (first English king to use ''Majesty'')|offstyle=Your Majesty|altstyle=Sir}}
Upon his accession, Henry was faced with the problematic issues posed by [[Richard Empson]] and [[Edmund Dudley]], two nobles of [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]]'s reign who imposed heavy arbitrary taxes on the nobility. In one of the many ways in which he tried to separate himself from the principles of his father's reign, he had them imprisoned in the [[Tower of London]] and later beheaded. Henry's constant willing for war would prove to be another way in which he undertook to distance himself from [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]]'s reign, his predecessor favouring peace.
[[Image:Henry7-new.jpg|thumb|left|Anonymous portrait of Henry VIII c. 1509]]
{|align="right"
For two years after Henry's accession, [[Richard Fox]], the [[Bishop of Winchester]] and [[Lord Privy Seal]], and William Warham controlled matters of state. From 1511 onwards, however, power was held by the ecclesiastic [[Thomas Cardinal Wolsey|Thomas Wolsey]]. In 1511, Henry joined the [[Catholic League (Italian)|Holy League]], a body of European rulers opposed to the French King [[Louis XII of France|Louis XII]]. The League also included such European rulers as Pope Julius II, the Holy Roman Emperor [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]] and Ferdinand II, with whom Henry also signed the [[Treaty of Westminster (1511)|Treaty of Westminster]]. Henry personally joined the English Army as they crossed the [[English Channel]] into France, and took part in sieges and battles.
In 1514, however, Ferdinand left the alliance, and the other parties made peace with the French. Irritation towards Spain led to discussion of a divorce with Queen Catherine. However, upon the accession of the French King [[Francis I of France|Francis I]] in 1515, England and France grew antagonistic, and Henry became reconciled with Ferdinand. In 1516, Queen Catherine gave birth to a girl, [[Mary I of England|Mary]], encouraging Henry in the belief that he could still have a male heir despite his wife's previous failed pregnancies (one stillbirth, one miscarriage and two short-lived infants).
Ferdinand died in 1516, to be succeeded by his grandson (Queen Catherine's nephew) [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]]. By October 1518, Wolsey had engineered the Papacy-led Treaty of London to resemble an English triumph of foreign diplomacy, placing England at the centre of a new European alliance with the ostensible aim of repelling Moorish invasions through Spain, which was the Pope's original aim. In 1519, when Maximilian also died, Wolsey, who was by that time a [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]], secretly proposed Henry as a candidate for the post of Holy Roman Emperor, though supporting the French King Francis in public. In the end, however, the [[prince-elector]]s settled on Charles. The subsequent rivalry between Francis and Charles allowed Henry to act as a mediator between them. Henry came to hold the balance of power in Europe. Both Francis and Charles sought Henry's favour, the former in a dazzling and spectacular manner at the [[Field of Cloth of Gold]], and the latter more solemnly at [[Kent]]. After 1521, however, England's influence in Europe began to wane. Henry entered into an alliance with Charles V through the [[Treaty of Bruges]], and Francis I was defeated by Charles' imperial armies at the [[Battle of Pavia]] in February 1525. Charles' reliance on Henry subsided, as did England's power in Europe, and Henry was refused help to acquire the [[Fleur-de-Lys]], despite Charles' guarantees. This lead to the [[Treaty of Westminster]] in 1527.
Henry's interest in European affairs extended to the attack on Luther's German revolution. In 1521, he dedicated his [[Defence of the Seven Sacraments]], which earned him the title of "Defender of the Faith" (Defensor Fidei). Prior to this, his title had been "inclitissimus", meaning "most illustrious". The later title was maintained even after his break with Rome, and is still used by the British monarch today.
==The King's Great Matter==
Henry VIII's accession was the first peaceful one England had witnessed in many years; however, the new Tudor dynasty's legitimacy could yet be tested. The English people seemed distrustful of female rulers, and Henry felt that only a male heir could secure the throne. Although Queen Catherine had been pregnant at least seven times (for the last time in 1518), only one child, the Princess Mary, had survived beyond infancy. Henry had previously been happy with mistresses, including [[Mary Boleyn]] and [[Elizabeth Blount]], with whom he had had an illegitimate son, [[Henry Fitzroy, 1st Duke of Richmond and Somerset|Henry Fitzroy]]. In 1526, when it became clear that Queen Catherine could have no further children, he began to pursue Mary Boleyn's sister, [[Anne Boleyn|Anne]]. Although it was almost certainly Henry's desire for a male heir that made him determined to divorce Catherine, he was very infatuated with Anne, despite her child-bearing inexperience and famously plain looks.
{{Template:Henryviiiwives}}
Henry's long and arduous attempt to end his marriage to Queen Catherine became known as "The King's Great Matter". Cardinal Wolsey and William Warham quietly began an inquiry into the validity of her marriage to Henry. Queen Catherine, however, testified that her marriage to Arthur, Prince of Wales had never been consummated, and that there was therefore no impediment to her subsequent marriage to Henry. The inquiry could proceed no further, and was dropped.
Without informing Cardinal Wolsey, Henry directly appealed to the [[Holy See]]. He sent his secretary [[William Knight (royal servant)|William Knight]] to [[Rome]] to argue that Julius II's Bull was obtained by trickery, and consequently void. In addition, he requested Pope [[Clement VII]] (1523&ndash;34) to grant a dispensation allowing him to marry any woman, even in the first degree of affinity; such a dispensation was necessary because Henry had previously had intercourse with Anne Boleyn's sister Mary. Knight found that Pope Clement VII was practically the prisoner of the Emperor Charles V. He had difficulty gaining access to the Pope, and when he finally did, he could accomplish little. Clement VII did not agree to annul the marriage, but he did grant the desired dispensation, probably presuming that the dispensation would be of no effect as long as Henry remained married to Catherine.
Being advised of the King's predicament, Cardinal Wolsey sent [[Stephen Gardiner]] and [[Edward Fox]] to Rome. Perhaps fearing Queen Catherine's nephew, Charles V, Pope Clement VII initially demurred. Fox was sent back with a commission authorising the commencement of proceedings, but the restrictions imposed made it practically meaningless. Gardiner strove for a "decretal commission", which decided the points of law beforehand, and left only questions of fact to be decided. Clement VII was persuaded to accept Gardiner's proposal, and permitted Cardinal Wolsey and [[Lorenzo Cardinal Campeggio]] to try the case jointly. His decretal commission was issued in secret; it was not to be shown to anybody, and was to always remain in Cardinal Campeggio's possession. Points of law were already settled in the commission; the Papal Bull authorising Henry's marriage to Catherine was to be declared void if the grounds alleged therein were false. For instance, the Bull would be void if it falsely asserted that the marriage was absolutely necessary to maintain the Anglo-Spanish alliance.
Cardinal Campeggio arrived in England in 1528. Proceedings, however, were brought to a halt when the Spanish produced a second document allegedly granting the necessary dispensation. It was asserted that, a few months before he had granted papal dispensation in a public Bull, Pope Julius II had secretly granted the same in a private Brief sent to Spain. The decretal commission, however, only made mention of the Bull; it did not authorise Cardinal Campeggio and Cardinal Wolsey to determine the validity of the Brief and for eight months, the parties wrangled over its' authenticity. During the spring of 1529, Henry's legal team assembled the ''libelus'' (the summary of Henry's royal argume |
ell?) -->
=== Eastern Christianity ===
{{main|Divine Liturgy}}
Among Eastern Christians, the Eucharistic service is called the ''Divine Liturgy''. It comprises two main divisions: the first is the ''Liturgy of the Catechumens'' which consists of introductory litanies, antiphons and scripture readings, culminating in a reading from one of the [[Gospels]] and often, a [[sermon]]; the second is the ''Liturgy of the Faithful'' in which the Eucharist is offered, consecrated, and received as [[Holy Communion]]. Within the latter, the actual Eucharistic prayer is called the ''anaphora'' ([[Greek language|Greek:]], "offering" or "lifting up"). In the Byzantine Rite, two different anaphoras are currently used: one is attributed to [[John Chrysostom|St. John Chrysostom]], and the other to [[Basil of Caesarea|St. Basil the Great]]. Among the [[Oriental Orthodox]], a variety of anaphoras are used, but all are similar in structure to those of the Byzantine Rite. In the Byzantine Rite, the Anaphora of St. John Chrysostom is used most days of the year; St. Basil's is offered on the Sundays of [[Great Lent]], the eves of [[Christmas]] and [[Theophany]], [[Holy Thursday]], [[Holy Saturday]], and upon his feast day (January 1). At the conclusion of the Anaphora the bread and wine are held to be the Body and Blood of Christ.
Conventionally this change in the elements is understood to occur at the ''Epiklesis'' ([[Greek language|Greek:]] "invocation") by which the [[Holy Spirit]] is invoked and the consecration of the bread and wine as the Body and Blood of Christ is specifically requested, but since the anaphora as a whole is considered a unitary (albeit lengthy) prayer, no one moment within it can be readily singled out.
=== Roman Catholicism ===
See [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] and [[Divine Liturgy]].
=== Protestantism ===
{{section-stub}}
====Anglican====
In the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]] (ECUSA), the Eucharist is designated as the principal service of the church. The service for Holy Eucharist is found in the [[Book of Common Prayer]] for each national church in the [[Anglican Communion]].
See [[Book of Common Prayer]].
{{section-stub}}
====Lutheran====
The Lutheran Eucharistic service is similar in form to the Roman Catholic and "high" Anglican services. Administration of the bread and wine varies between congregations. The bread can be a thin wafer, or leavened or unleavened bread. The wine or grape juice may be administered via a common cup (the "chalice"), or through individual cups that may be either prefilled or filled from the chalice during the communion. Intinction is acceptable, but rarely used. Some congregations that use wine make grape juice available for those who are abstaining from alcohol, and some will accommodate those with an allergy to wheat or grapes.
====Reformed/Presbyterian====
<!-- In my experience, this has been about the same as the Minimalist practice, described below, although there are "high church" Reformed whose liturgy is much more similar to that of an Anglican or Lutheran church. Should we talk about current Reformed practice, historic Reformed practice (i.e. Calvin's Geneva, Covenanters, Puritans, Southern Presbyterians of the 1800s - not that all those are the same (they're actually quite different), or both? -->
{{section-stub}}
====Minimalist==== <!-- Is this name actually used by the groups being discussed? would Zwinglian/memorialist be more appropriate? -->
The elements of the ''Lord's Supper'' are most commonly unleavened bread and wine{{ref|Minimalist}}. In traditions in which [[temperance movement]]s have had strong influence, grape juice is substituted for wine. The term "grape juice" is usually not used in services; instead terms such as "unfermented wine," "wine," "the fruit of the vine," or simply "the cup" are used. Teachers from such movements often assert that ''{{Polytonic|οἶνον}}'', the Greek word which is used in the New Testament, and which is usually understood as meaning "wine", may mean "either fermented or unfermented wine", a claim unknown prior to the temperance movement. A few [[Holiness movement|Holiness]] bodies, as well as the [[Mormons]], substitute water for wine.
===Jehovah's Witnesses===
[[Jehovah's Witnesses]] commemorate Christ's death as a ransom or propitiatory sacrifice by observing The Lord's Evening Meal, or Memorial, each year on [[Nisan]] 14 according to the ancient Jewish calendar. They believe that this is the only celebration commanded for Christians in the Bible. In support, they often quote Jesus' words: "'Keep doing this ... in remembrance of me.' For as often as ''you'' eat this loaf and drink this cup, ''you'' keep proclaiming the death of the Lord, until he arrives." (1 Corinthians 11:25, 26, NWT) Of those who attend the Memorial a small minority worldwide will partake of the eating of the unleavened bread and the drinking of the wine. (For statistics of the number of partakers in relationship to non-partakers, see [[Jehovah's Witnesses#Membership|Jehovah's Witnesses (Membership)]])
Jehovah's Witnesses believe that only a small minority, called the "anointed," can partake of the bread and wine. (see [[Doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses#Salvation|Doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses (Salvation)]]) Those who actually partake are generally considered to be among the "anointed," though Jehovah's Witnesses believe that some of them may be in error.
The celebration of the Memorial of Christ's Death proceeds as follows: In advance of the Memorial, Jehovah's Witnesses invite anyone that may be interested to attend this special night. The week of the Memorial is generally filled with special activity in the ministry , such as door-to-door work. A suitable hall, for example a [[Kingdom Hall]], is prepared for the occasion. The Memorial begins with a song and a prayer. The prayer is followed by a discourse on the importance of the evening. A table is set with wine and unleavened bread. Jehovah's Witnesses believe the bread stands for Jesus Christ's body which he gave on behalf of mankind, and that the wine stands for his blood which redeems from sin. They do not believe in transubstantiation or consubstantiation. Hence, the wine and the bread are merely symbols (sometimes referred to as "emblems"), but they have a very deep and profound meaning for Jehovah's Witnesses. A prayer is offered and the bread is circulated among the audience. Only those who are "anointed" partake. Then another prayer is offered, and the wine is circulated in the same manner. After that, the evening concludes with a final song and prayer.
It is common for the bread and wine to be passed and have no partakers.
=== Open and closed communion ===
{{main articles|[[Open communion]] and [[Closed communion]]}}
{{seealso|Full communion}}
[[Christianity|Christian]] denominations differ in their understanding of whether they may receive the Eucharist together with those not in [[full communion]] with them. [[Closed communion]] was the universal practice of the early Church. The famed apologist [[Saint|St.]] [[Justin Martyr]] (c. 150) wrote: "No one else is permitted to partake of it, except one who believes our teaching to be true...." For the first several hundred years of Church history, non-members were forbidden even to be present at the sacramental ritual; visitors and [[catechumen]]s (those still undergoing instruction) were dismissed halfway through the liturgy, after the Bible readings and sermon but before the Eucharistic rite. The [[Divine Liturgy]] of St. John Chrysostom, used in the Byzantine Churches, still has a formula of dismissal of catechumens (not usually followed by any action) at this point.
The ancient Churches, such as the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] and the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] exclude non-members from Communion under normal circumstances, though they may allow exceptions, e.g. for non-members ''in danger of death'' who share their faith in the reality of the Eucharist and who are unable to have access to a minister of their own religion. Many conservative [[Protestant]] communities also practice closed communion, including conservative [[Lutheran]] Churches like the [[Lutheran Church, Missouri Synod]] and the [[Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod]]. The [[Mennonite]]s and the [[Landmark Baptist Church|Landmark Baptist Church]]es also practice closed communion, as a symbol of exclusive membership and loyalty to the distinctive doctrines of their fellowship.
Most [[Protestant]] communities practice [[open communion]], including some [[Anglican]], [[Reformed]], [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]], [[Methodism|Methodist]], and more-liberal [[Lutheran]]s (such as the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]] and the [[Church of Sweden]]). Some open communion communities adhere to a symbolic or spiritual understanding of the Eucharist, so that they have no fear of sacrilege against the literal body and blood of Christ if someone receives inappropriately. Others feel that Christ calls ''all'' of his children to his table, regardless of their denominational affiliation. Many churches that practice open communion offer it only to [[baptized]] Christians (regardless of denomination), although this requirement is typically only enforced by the recipients' honesty.
==Alleged association with pre-Christian theophagy==
Some writers have expounded the theory that an idea of "theophagy" (eating one's god), or at least of feeding on the life-force of a mystical entity, was characteristic of the central rites of some Greco-Roman and Near-Eastern [[mystery religion]]s. Claiming that the acts and ordinances of Jesus and his apostles were memorialized in that context, they suggest that the mystical |
amp;#1090;]]
[[cs:Evropsk&#233; spole&#269;enstv&#237;]]
[[ca:Comunitat Europea]]
[[da:Europæiske Fællesskab]]
[[de:Europäische Gemeinschaft]]
[[fr:Communauté européenne]]
[[id:Komunitas Eropa]]
[[io:Europana Komuneso Ekonomiala]]
[[is:Evrópubandalagið]]
[[it:Comunità Economica Europea]]
[[ja:&#27431;&#24030;&#20849;&#21516;&#20307;]]
[[lt:Europos Ekonominė Bendrija]]
[[nl:Europese Gemeenschap]]
[[pl:Wspólnota Europejska]]
[[ro:Comunitatea European&#259;]]
[[fi:Euroopan yhteisö]]
[[tr:Avrupa Birli?i]]
[[zh:&#27431;&#27954;&#20849;&#21516;&#20307;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>European Coal and Steel Community</title>
<id>9577</id>
<revision>
<id>41571537</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T05:40:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jrleighton</username>
<id>140144</id>
</contributor>
<comment>"pool coal and steel resources" is a woolly phrase - what did this actually mean in practice ?</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EGKS.png|thumb|Members of the European Coal and Steel Community]]
The '''European Coal and Steel Community''' (ECSC) was founded in [[1951]] ([[Treaty of Paris (1951)|Treaty of Paris]]), by [[France]], [[West Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Belgium]], [[Luxembourg]] and the [[Netherlands]] to pool the [[steel]] and [[coal]] resources of its member-states, thus preventing another European war. The headquarters of the ECSC was, beginning in [[1958]], in [[Luxembourg (city)|the capital city of Luxembourg]]. It was the fulfillment of a plan developed by a French economist [[Jean Monnet]], publicized by the French foreign minister [[Robert Schuman]]. It was also heavily promoted, by the [[United States]].
{{expand}}
The ECSC served as the foundation for the later development of the [[European Economic Community]] (later renamed the [[European Community]] by the [[Maastricht Treaty]]), and then the [[European Union]].
The Treaty of Paris entered into force on [[23 July]] [[1952]], and unlike the Treaty establishing the [[European Community]], provided for a limited duration of only 50 years. Therefore the ECSC '''ceased to exist in [[23 July]] [[2002]], and its responsibilities and [[asset]]s were then assumed by the EC'''. (This assumption was provided for by a [[EU protocol|protocol]] to the [[Treaty of Nice]], but as Member States failed to ratify the Treaty in time, a separate [[Council Decision]] (2002/596/EC) with provisions for the end of the ECSC was [[passed]]. Once the Treaty of Nice had been [[ratify|ratified]], this decision was [[wiktionary:superseded|superseded]] by Council Decision 2003/76/EC.)
==Presidents of the High Authority of the European Coal and Steel Community, 1952-1967==
*[[Jean Monnet]] ([[France]]) 1952-1955
*[[René Mayer]] ([[France]]) 1955-1958
*[[Paul Finet]] ([[Belgium]]) 1958-1959
*[[Piero Malvestiti]] ([[Italy]]) 1959-1963
*[[Dino Del Bo]] ([[Italy]]) 1963-1967
==Timeline==
''Evolution of the Structures of European Union''
{{EU-timeline}}
==See also==
* [[History of the European Union]]
* [[Schuman Declaration]]
==External links==
* [http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=16303 Treaty constituting the European Coal and Steel Community] on www.ena.lu
* [http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=3618 The institutions of the European Coal and Steel Community] on www.ena.lu
* [http://www.proeurope.org/eu_founders.html EU Founders]
[[Category:History of the European Union|Coal and Steel Community]]
[[ca:Comunitat Europea del Carbó i de l'Acer]]
[[cs:Evropské společenství uhlí a oceli]]
[[cy:Cymuned Ewropeaidd Glo a Dur]]
[[da:Kul- og Stålunionen]]
[[de:Europäische Gemeinschaft für Kohle und Stahl]]
[[es:Comunidad Europea del Carbón y del Acero]]
[[fi:Euroopan hiili- ja teräsyhteisö]]
[[fr:Communauté européenne du charbon et de l'acier]]
[[he:קהילת הפחם והפלדה האירופית]]
[[hi:यूरोपीय कोयला और स्टील संगठन]]
[[hu:Európai Szén- és Acélközösség]]
[[io:Europana Karbono- e Stalo-Komuneso]]
[[it:Comunità Europea del Carbone e dell'Acciaio]]
[[ja:&#27431;&#24030;&#30707;&#28845;&#37444;&#37628;&#20849;&#21516;&#20307;]]
[[ko:유럽 석탄 철강 공동체]]
[[lb:Communauté européenne du Charbon et de l'Acier]]
[[nl:Europese Gemeenschap voor Kolen en Staal]]
[[nb:Det europeiske kull- og stålfellesskap]]
[[pl:Europejska Wspólnota Węgla i Stali]]
[[pt:CECA]]
[[ro:Comunitatea Europeană a Cărbunelui şi Oţelului]]
[[sk:Európske spoločenstvo pre uhlie a oceľ]]
[[sv:Europeiska kol- och stålgemenskapen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>European Economic Community</title>
<id>9578</id>
<revision>
<id>15907453</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>-- April</username>
<id>166</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>made redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[European Community]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>EFTA</title>
<id>9579</id>
<revision>
<id>15907454</id>
<timestamp>2003-04-21T12:12:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Docu</username>
<id>8029</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[European Free Trade Association]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>European Free Trade Association</title>
<id>9580</id>
<revision>
<id>41019343</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T14:59:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bastin8</username>
<id>154626</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Minor wikification; most members not Scandinavian</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:efta_logo.png|right]]
The '''European Free Trade Association''' ('''EFTA''') was established on [[May 3]], [[1960]] as an alternative for European states that were not allowed or did not wish to join the [[European Community]] (now the [[European Union]]).
[[Image:EFTA countries.PNG|thumb|300px|member states]]
The treaty was signed on [[January 4]], [[1960]] in [[Stockholm]] by seven states. Today only [[Iceland]], [[Norway]], [[Switzerland]] and [[Liechtenstein]] remain members of EFTA.
In addition, the EFTA States have jointly concluded free trade agreements with a number of countries worldwide.
==Membership history==
Its original membership was [[United Kingdom]], [[Denmark]], [[Norway]], [[Sweden]], [[Austria]], [[Switzerland]] and [[Portugal]].
[[Finland]] became an associate member in [[1961]] (it later became a full member in [[1986]]), and [[Iceland]] joined in [[1970]]. The United Kingdom and Denmark joined the European Community in [[1973]] (together with Ireland), and hence ceased to be EFTA members. Portugal also left EFTA for the European Community in [[1986]]. [[Liechtenstein]] joined in [[1991]] (previously its interests in EFTA had been represented by Switzerland). Finally, Austria, Sweden and Finland joined the European Community in [[1995]] and hence ceased to be EFTA members.
==Institutions==
EFTA has the following institutions: the Secretariat, the EFTA Council, the EFTA Surveillance Authority, and the EFTA Court.
===EEA-related institutions===
The [[EFTA Surveillance Authority]] and the EFTA Court regulate the activities of the EFTA members in respect of their obligations in the [[European Economic Area]] (EEA). Since Switzerland is not an EEA member, it does not participate in these institutions.
The EFTA Surveillance Authority performs the [[European Commission]]'s role as "guardian of the treaties" for the EFTA countries, while the EFTA Court performs the [[European Court of Justice]]'s role for those countries.
The original plan for the EEA lacked the EFTA Court or the EFTA Surveillance Authority, and instead had the European Court of Justice and the European Commission were to exercise those roles. However, during the negotiations for the EEA agreement, the European Court of Justice informed the [[Council of the European Union]] by way of letter that they considered that giving the EU institutions powers with respect to non-EU member states would be a violation of the treaties, and therefore the current arrangement was developed instead.
===Locations===
The EFTA Secretariat is headquartered in [[Geneva]], Switzerland. The EFTA Surveillance Authority has its headquarters in [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]] (the same location as the headquarters of the European Commission), while the EFTA Court has its headquarters in Luxembourg (the same location as the headquarters of the European Court of Justice).
==Portugal Fund==
EFTA also manages the [[Portugal Fund]]. The Portugal Fund was established in [[1975]] when Portugal was still a member of EFTA, to provide funding for the development and reconstruction of Portugal after the end of the dictatorship. When Portugal left EFTA in [[1985]], the remaining EFTA members decided to nonetheless continue the Portugal Fund, so Portugal would continue to benefit from it. The Fund originally took the form of a low-interest loan from the EFTA member states to Portugal, to the value of 100 million [[US dollar]]s. Repayment was originally to commence in [[1988]], but EFTA then decided to postpone the start of repayments until [[1998]].
==International Conventions==
EFTA also originated the [[Hallmarking Convention]] and the [[Pharmaceutical Inspection Convention]], both of which are open to non-EFTA states.
==Relationship to the European Economic Area==
The EFTA members, except for [[Switzerland]], are also members of the [[European Economic Area]] (EEA).
==Future EFTA membership==
Norwegians have rejected in a vote to join the EU on two occasions, at the time of the first [[referendum]] (1972) their historical and geographical neighbours the [[Denmark|Danes]] joined. The second time (1994) two other [[Nordic countries|Nordic neighbors]], [[Sweden]] |
between the two nations of [[Israel]] and [[Edom]] who once struggled together within a single womb, Christians may understand from [[New Testament]] teaching that there is a similar conflict found within their very lives. Paul’s [[Epistle to Galatians|Epistle to the Galatians]] in the [[New Testament]] presents the idea that the spirit and the flesh are in constant conflict within a person. Coming from within a single being, just like the two nations in Obadiah’s prophecy, either the spirit or the flesh will ultimately overcome and the other will fail (just as Israel overcame and Edom failed). It is the [[Christian]] perspective that the spirit will ultimately prevail when the flesh becomes obsolete at the time in which [[Christians|Christians]] believe God will establish his new kingdom on earth.
== Scholarly Issues ==
Aside from the scholarly debate surrounding the date of the prophecy which is discussed above, there is also discussion surrounding verse eighteen which says that once judgment has been carried out, “There will be no survivors from the house of Esau” (NIV). The problem arises when that statement is compared with [[Book of Amos|Amos]] 9:12. According to Obadiah there will not remain even a remnant after [[Edom]]’s judgment; however, [[Book of Amos|Amos]] talks about such a remnant whose possession will be given to [[Israel]]. Some scholars have suggested that [[Book of Amos|Amos]]’s reference to [[Edom]] is symbolic of all nations who were once enemies of [[Israel]] and not meant to literally mean Edomites in the flesh. This is certainly the perspective of [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]] as he recites the passage from [[Book of Amos|Amos]] in [[Book of Acts|Acts]] 15:17. [[Edom]] is symbolic of the remnant of men and Gentiles who will eventually bear God’s name. Moreover, Frederick A. Tatford in ''Prophet of [[Edom]]’s Doom'' says that Obadiah’s prophecy is fulfilled today as there is currently no trace of anyone who may be identified as an Edomite.
There is also scholarly discussion about the captivity of Israelites in [[Sepharad]] mentioned in verse twenty. It is believed that, in ancient times, "Sepharad" was a name for the modern day land of [[Spain]]. Sepharad is also the name of Spain in Rabbinical (and modern) Hebrew. The same verse also speaks of [[Tzarfat]] which iis identified with [[France]] and is the name of France in Rabbinical (and modern) Hebrew. These may have referred to places in the [[Middle East]] and later came to refer to countries in [[Europe]]. This may be due to the fact that Rabbinic literature identifies Edom with the [[Roman Empire]]. If there was a [[Jew|Jewish]] colony of captives there, however, nothing is otherwise known of it; nor are any circumstances evident which would point to the existence of a colony of sufficient importance to be referred to in Obadiah. Therefore the location of Sepharad remains without a conclusive determination.
==Parallels within Scripture==
Although there are no direct parallels from Obadiah found within the [[New Testament]], there are thematic parallels which were discussed previously. Elsewhere in scripture, we can note that verses 1-8 appear with minor changes in the [[Book of Jeremiah]] 49:7-16, and the style and language found in Obadiah is very similar to the [[Book of Joel]], particularly the end.
Obadiah frequently uses the term "the Day of the Lord," which also appears in the Book of Joel, as well as in [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 13, [[Book of Amos|Amos]] 5, [[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah]] 1, and [[Book of Malachi|Malachi]] 3.
==Further Study==
'''Obadiah''', meaning ''servant of the Lord'', is also the
name of several people from the scripture. See the [[Obadiah]] entry for more details.
'''Links to Translations'''
* [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/31_obadiah.htm Obadiah at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
* {{biblegateway||Obadiah}}
* [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Obadiah Obadiah at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)
'''Recommended Sources Used'''
[http://www.mechon-mamre.org/c/ct/c1601.htm Masoretic text] from [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/ Mechon Mamre]
http://www.pbc.org/dp/stedman/adventure/0231.html
[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/index.jsp The Jewish Encyclopedia (1901-1906)]
The NIV Study Bible, 10th Anniversary Edition, Zondervan Publishing, 1995
Old Testament Survey, Second Edition, ''Lasor'', Eerdmans Publishing, 1996
The Old Testament Speaks, Fourth Edition,''Schultz'', HarperCollins Publishing, 1990
'''Prepared in 2005 for the course BIBL5023 at [[Acadia Divinity College]]'''
[[Category:Nevi'im|Obadiah, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Obadiah]]
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<title>Book of Jonah</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
In the [[Hebrew Bible]], the '''Book of Jonah''' is the fifth book in a series of books called the Minor Prophets (itself a subsection of the [[Nevi’im]] or Prophets). Unlike other prophetic books however, this book is not a record of a prophet’s words toward [[Israel]]. Instead of the poetry and prophetic prose of [[Isaiah]] or [[Lamentations]], this book tells the story of an apparently inept prophet who becomes one of the most effective prophets in the entire Bible.
The character of the story is based on an obscure figure that lived during the reign of Jeroboam II (786-746 BCE). Jonah son of Amittai is elsewhere only mentioned in II Kings 14:25. (For more information about the character himself, see the article entitled [[Jonah]].) The book itself was probably written in the post-exilic period (after 530 BCE) and based on oral traditions that had been passed down from the eighth century BCE. (It should be noted that this view is problematic for various reasons, including the story’s setting in the north and not the southern part of Israel [i.e. Judah].) Jonah is considered a Minor Prophet because the book was originally written with the other, smaller prophetic books on a single scroll (also known as the Book of the Twelve).
As a part of the Hebrew Bible, the book is found in both the Jewish [[Tanakh]] and the Christian [[Bible]]. The story has an interesting interpretive history (see below) and has become a well-known story through popular children’s stories.
==Outline of book==
The Book of Jonah is primarily a story about the character of Yahweh. As such, it can be divided into four sections, roughly divided by each chapter: (1) Yahweh’s sovereignty, (2) Yahweh’s deliverance, (3) Yahweh’s mercy, and (4) Yahweh’s righteousness. It may also be outlined in the following manner:
* Yahweh’s first commission and Jonah’s rebellion
** Yahweh’s deliverance toward Jonah and Jonah’s prayer of thanksgiving
* Yahweh’s second commission and Jonah’s obedience
** Yahweh’s deliverance toward Nineveh and Jonah’s complaint of ingratitude
In the first half of the book, Yahweh’s deliverance is demonstrated through His sovereignty. In the second half, Yahweh’s deliverance is demonstrated through His mercy. Finally, Yahweh declares His righteousness in choosing to force and choosing to relent.
==Narrative==
As mentioned above, the book of Jonah is not written like the other books of the prophets. Jonah is almost entirely narrative with the exception of the psalm in chapter 2. The actual prophetic word against Nineveh is only given in passing through the narrative. As with any good story, the story of Jonah has a setting, characters, a plot, and themes. It also relies heavily on such literary devices as irony.
===Setting===
The story of Jonah is set against the historical background of Ancient Israel in the eighth-7th centuries BCE and the religious and social issues of the late sixth to fourth centuries BCE. The views accurately coincide with the latter chapters of the [[book of Isaiah]] (sometimes classified as Third Isaiah), where Israel is given a prominent place in the expansion of Yahweh’s kingdom to the Gentiles. (These facts have led a number of scholars to believe that the book was actually written in this later period.)
The Jonah mentioned in II Kings 14:25 lived during the reign of Jeroboam II (786-746 BCE) and was from the city of Gath-hepher. This city, modern el-Meshed, located only several miles from [[Nazareth]] in what would have been known as [[Israel]] in the post-exilic period (as distinct from the southern kingdom, known as [[Judah]]) and [[Galilee]] around the time of [[Christ]].
[[Nineveh]] was the capital of the ancient [[Assyrian]] empire, which fell to the [[Medes]] in [[612 BC|612 BCE]]. The book itself calls Nineveh a “great city,” probably referring to its affluence, but perhaps to its size as well. (That the story assumes the city’s existence and deliverance from judgment may indeed reflect an older tradition dating back to the eighth-7th century BCE.) Assyria often opposed Israel and eventually took the Israelites captive in 722-721 BCE (see [[History of ancient Israel and Judah]]). The Assyrian oppression against the Israelites can be seen the in the bitter prophecies of [[Nahum]].
===Characters===
The story of Jonah is a drama between a passive man and an active God. [[Jonah]], whose name literally means "dove," is introduced to the reader in the very first verse. The name is decisive. While most prophets had heroic names (e.g., Isaiah means "Yahweh has saved"), Jon |
is approximately:
:''D'' = 20.362954 + 29.5305888531 &times; ''N'' + 102.19 &times; 10<sup>-12</sup> &times; ''N''<sup>&nbsp;2</sup>
* ''D'' is the number of days (and fractions) since [[1 January]] [[2000]] 00:00:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]],
* ''N'' is the count of full moons starting with '''zero''' as the first (not '''1''' as you would have expected) as the first Moon in the year 2000.
The '''true''' Full Moon may differ from this by up to about 14.5 hours, due to the normal irregularity in the Moon's [[Johannes Kepler|Keplerian]] orbit, and due to the periodic perturbations on that Keplerian orbit by the Sun, the equatorial bulge of Earth, and nearby planets.
See the [[New Moon]] page for a detailed explanation of the formula.
==Folklore==
Full Moons are traditionally associated with temporal [[insomnia]], [[insanity]] (hence the terms ''lunacy'' and ''lunatic'') and various magical phenomena such as [[lycanthropy]].
Psychologists have found that there is no strong evidence for effects on behaviour around Full Moon. They find that studies are not consistent, with one showing a positive effect, while another will show a negative effect. In one instance, the [[December 23]], [[2000]] issue of the ''[[British Medical Journal]]'' published two studies on dog bite admission to hospitals in England and Australia. The study of the [[Bradford Royal Infirmary]] found that dog bites were twice as common at Full Moon, while the study of public hospitals in Australia found they were less likely at Full Moon. Psychologists point out that there is a difference between [[correlation]] and [[Causality|causation]]. The mere fact that two events happen at the same time doesn't mean that there is a cause and effect relationship between the two.
[[Neopaganism|Neopagans]] hold a monthly ritual called an [[Esbat]] at each Full Moon.
Many people practicing traditional Chinese religions prepare their ritual offerings to their ancestors and deities on every Full Moon and New Moon.
==Calendars==
The [[Islamic calendar]] and the traditional [[Chinese calendar]] are both based on the phases of the Moon. Neither calendar, however, begins its months with the Full Moon.
In the [[Chinese calendar]], the Full Moon is always the middle of a [[month]]. The [[Mid-Autumn Festival]] falls on the Full Moon of the eighth month. The [[Lantern Festival]] falls on the first Full Moon of the year.
==Full Moon names==
Folklore assigns a special name to each Full Moon, although the rule for determining which name will be assigned to which Moon has changed over time (see article at [[blue moon]]).
Modern practice is to assign the traditional names based on the [[Gregorian calendar]] month in which the Full Moon falls. This frequently results in the same name as the older method would, and is far more convenient in practice. The older method of assigning names is based on seasons and quarters of the year.
{| class="wikitable"
|+'''Full Moon Names'''
|-
! Month
! English Names
! Native American Names
! Other Names Used
|-
| January
| Moon After [[Yule]]
| Wolf Moon
| Old Moon
|-
| February
| Wolf Moon
| Snow Moon
| Hunger Moon
|-
| March
| Lenten Moon
| Worm Moon
| Crow Moon, Crust Moon, Sugar Moon, Sap Moon
|-
| April
| Egg Moon
| Pink Moon
| Sprouting Grass Moon, Fish Moon
|-
| May
| Milk Moon
| Flower Moon
| Corn Planting Moon
|-
| June
| Flower Moon
| Strawberry Moon
| Rose Moon, Hot Moon
|-
| July
| Hay Moon
| Buck Moon
| Thunder Moon
|-
| August
| Grain Moon
| Sturgeon Moon
| Red Moon, Green Corn Moon
|-
| September
| Fruit Moon
| [[Harvest moon|Harvest Moon]]
| Corn Moon, Barley Moon
|-
| October
| [[Harvest moon|Harvest Moon]]
| Hunter's Moon
| Travel Moon, Dying Grass Moon
|-
| November
| Hunter's Moon
| Beaver Moon
| Frost Moon
|-
| December
| Moon Before Yule
| Cold Moon
| Long Nights Moon
|-
| colspan="4" | These are the traditional English names for each month's Full Moon and the names given by [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] in the northern and eastern United States. The Moon was used to track the seasons. (From ''[[Farmer's Almanac]]'')
|}
Traditionally these names corresponded to the seasons rather than calendar months. So, for instance, the Egg Moon would always be the first moon after March 21st, and the Lenten Moon would always be the last moon on or before March 21st, the Full Moon before [[Easter]].
== The Blue moon ==
:''See the full article [[Blue moon]]''.
The origin of the folkloric term "[[Blue Moon]]" is complicated, because its meaning has changed over time. Modern practice is to name a Full Moon a ''blue moon'' if it is the second of two Full Moons to occur in the same calendar month. The original meaning of ''blue moon'' was the third Full Moon in a season when there were four Full Moons in that season.
==See also==
* [[Lunar phase]]
* [[New Moon]]
* [[Blue Moon]]
==References==
*{{Citenews | title=Full Moon Effect On Behavior Minimal, Studies Say | date=February 6, 2004 | org=National Geographic Society | url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/12/1218_021218_moon.html}}
[[Category:Moon]]
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[[ja:満月]]
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[[th:วันเพ็ญ]]</text>
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<title>Fungus</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightblue
| name = Fungi
| image = Fungus on log.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = ''Orange saprotrophic fungus''.
| domain = [[Eukaryote|Eukaryota]]
| regnum = '''Fungi'''
| regnum_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]], 1753
| subdivision_ranks = Divisions
| subdivision =
[[Chytridiomycota]]<br/>
[[Deuteromycota]]<br/>
[[Zygomycota]]<br/>
[[Glomeromycota]]<br>
[[Ascomycota]]<br/>
[[Basidiomycota]]
}}
[[Image:fungi in Borneo.jpg|right|thumb|Fungus growing on a tree in [[Borneo]]]]
<!-- Remove improper hatnote //
:''For the fictional character, see [[Fungus the Bogeyman]].''-->
A '''fungus''' (plural '''fungi''') is a [[Eukaryote|eukaryotic]] [[organism]] that digests its [[food]] externally and absorbs the [[nutrient]] [[Molecule|molecules]] into its [[cell (biology)|cell]]s. Fungi are very important economically: [[yeast]]s are responsible for [[fermentation]] of [[beer]] and [[bread]], and [[mushroom]] farming is a large industry in many countries. Fungi are the primary [[decomposer]]s of dead plant and animal matter in many [[ecosystem]]s, and are commonly seen on old bread as [[mold]]. However, the complex [[biology]] of fungi extends beyond this common knowledge and experience of them.
==Phylogeny of fungi==
Originally classified as [[plant]]s, fungi are not true plants, because they are [[heterotroph]]s (they do not fix their own carbon through [[photosynthesis]] but use the carbon fixed by other organisms.) Fungi are more closely related to [[animal]]s than to plants, but, unlike animals, they absorb their food rather than [[Ingestion|ingest]] it, and their cells have [[cell wall]]s surrounding them. For these reasons, these organisms are now placed in their own [[kingdom (biology)|kingdom]], '''Fungi'''.
The Fungi are a [[monophyletic]] group, meaning all varieties of fungi come from a common ancestor. [[Mycologist]]s (scientists who study fungi) believe they are monophyletic because they have [[chitin]] in their cell walls and are absorbtive heterotrophs, along with other shared characteristics.
==Overview==
Although often inconspicuous, fungi occur in every environment on [[earth]] and play very important roles in most [[ecosystems]]. Some fungi are major [[decomposer]]s of dead plant and animal matter in [[forest]]s and many other environments. Some types of fungi are [[parasite]]s on plants and animals, including [[human]]s. They are responsible for numerous [[disease]]s, such as [[athlete’s foot]] and [[ringworm]] in humans and [[Dutch elm disease]] in plants. Other fungi are partners in [[symbiosis|symbiotic]] relationships with other organisms. For example, [[lichen]]s are formed by a symbiotic relationship between [[algae]] or [[cyanobacteria]] and fungi. Most [[vascular plant]]s benefit from a symbiosis between their [[root]]s and fungi.
Fungi have a long history of use by humans. Many types of [[mushroom]]s and other fungi are eaten, including [[button mushroom]]s, [[shiitake mushroom]]s, and [[oyster mushroom]]s. Of course, many [[species]] of mushrooms are [[poison]]ous and are responsible for numerous cases of [[sickness]] and [[death]] every year. A type of fungus called [[yeast]] is used in baking [[bread]] and [[ferment]]ing [[alcoholic beverage]]s. Fungi are also used to produce industrial chemicals like [[lactic acid]], and even to make stonewashed [[jeans]]. Some types of fungi are ingested for their [[psy |
Ghazna|Mahmud]] and [[Malik Ayaz|Ayaz]]'''<br>The love of the Sultan for his slave has entered Islamic legend as a paragon of ideal love.]]
The most common type of same-sex behavior is ''liwat,'' most commonly used for intercourse between a man and a boy, though it can refer to that between two men or between a man and a woman, being equally prohibited in all cases. The man is known as a ''luti'', which does not imply so much his nature as his role of penetrator. His partner, if paid, is ''murd mu'ajirin,'' if unpaid, ''amrad'' (beardless), or ''ghulam'' (youth, pl. ''ghilman)''.
A separate category exists for men who are "afflicted" with the desire to be penetrated by male partners. They are known as ''ma'bun'' and considered to be victims of a disease, ''ubnah,'' one with an etiology and a number of presumed remedies. Their status is thus very different from that of their male penetrative partners.
Another further category consists of men who are vulnerable to the attractions of handsome boys. All men are thought to fall into this category, and their desires are seen as natural, if problematic in that they render one succeptible of becoming a ''luti.'' (El-Rouayheb, 2005, pp. 14-24)
For example, the [[Hanbalite]] jurist Ibn al-Jawzi (d. [[1200]]) is reputed to have said that "He who claims that he experiences no desire when looking at beautiful boys or youths is a liar, and if we could believe him he would be an animal, and not a human being." (Monroe, 1997, p. 117)
Nevertheless, the act of ''liwat'' ("sodomy," meaning anal intercourse) is proscribed, and men are advised to be even more wary of attraction to beautiful boys than to beautiful women, through religious injunctions exhorting them to resist this temptation. It is related that the Prophet [[Muhammad]] enjoined his followers to "Beware of beardless youth for they are a greater source of mischief than young maidens."
Likewise, the great [[imam]] and legal scholar [[Sufyan At-Thawri]] (d. [[783]] CE) is said to have fled the baths one day, asserting, regarding sexual temptation, that "If every woman has one devil accompanying her, then a handsome lad has seventeen." At the same time, a [[hadith]] by Muhammed posits that chaste love grants one passage into paradise: "He who loves and remains chaste and conceals his secret and dies, dies a martyr." As a result, love for youths in Islam, far from being the path to perdition the Christians made of it, was an understandable passion which, if kept in check, raised one up to the heavens. Male love became a punishable offense (in life) only if one consummated it - and was caught at it, which required witnesses of four men or eight women. If one was not caught at it, however, one would still be punished in the fires of hell. (Murray and Roscoe, 1997, ''passim)''
Historically the punishment has been less severe compared to its Abrahamic counterparts: Judaism and Christianity. The [[Qur'an]] states that if a person commits the sin they can repent and save their life, though there are hadiths that later prescribe the death penalty. Early Islamic cultures, especially ones where homosexuality was entrenched into their Pagan culture were renowned for their cultivation of a homosexual aesthetic. They reconciled their new religion using a [[hadith]] ascribed to [[Muhammad]] declaring male lovers who die chaste to be martyrs, “He who loves and remains chaste and conceals his secret and dies, dies a martyr”.
The result is a religion that allows love between those of the same sex as long as they do not have sexual intercourse. [[Ibn Hazm]], Ibn Daud, [[Al-Mu'tamid]], [[Abu Nuwas]], and many others wrote extensively and openly of love between men. However, in order for the transgression to be proven, at least four men or eight women must bear witness against the accused, thus making it very difficult to persecute those who did not remain celibate in the privacy of their homes.
The intended meaning of "same-sex intercourse" is sexual intercourse between two or more males, or sexual intercourse between two or more females. It does not mean the act of masturbation, nor does it have anything to do with nocturnal emissions, both of which are considered to invalidate [[wudu]] and require the Muslim to take a full bath or shower before his or her next prayer, but are not otherwise punishable under [[Sharia]].
== Homosexuality in the Sharia ==
[[Image:Turkish - Dancing Kocek - Late 19th c - wiki.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Dancing Köçek, a common object of masculine affections in the Ottoman empire. Photograph, late 19th c. Private collection.]]
{{SectNPOV}}
While there is a consensus that same-sex intercourse is in violation of [[Sharia|Islamic law]], there are differences of opinion within Islamic scholarship about punishment, reformation, and what standards of proof are required before physical punishment becomes lawful.
In Sunni Islam there are eight [[madhhab]]s, or legal schools, of which only four still exist: [[Hanafi]], [[Shafi'i]], [[Hanbali]], and [[Maliki]]. The main [[Shia]] school is called [[Ja'fari]], but there are [[Zaidi]] and [[Ismai'ili]] also. More recently, some groups have rejected this tradition in favor of greater [[ijtihad]], or individual interpretation. Of these schools, according to Michael Mumisa of the Birmingham-based Al Mahdi institute:
*The [[Hanafi]] school does not consider same-sex intercourse to constitute adultery, and therefore leaves punishment up to the judge's discretion. Most early scholars of this school specifically ruled out the death penalty; others allow it for a second offence.
*Imam [[Shafi'i]] considers same-sex intercourse as analogous to other [[zina]]. Thus, a married person found to have committed same-sex intercourse is punished as an adulterer (stoned to death), and an unmarried person is punished as a fornicator (flogged).
*The [[Maliki]] school says that anyone (married or unmarried) found to have committed same-sex intercourse should be punished as an adulterer.
*Within the [[Ja'fari]] schools, Sayyid al-Khoi says that anyone (married or unmarried) found to have committed same-sex intercourse should be punished as an adulterer.
It should also be noted that the punishment for adultery requires four witnesses. By analogy, all schools require four witnesses to the act of same-sex intercourse for the punishment to be applied. But if objective proof can be provided (such as through DNA testing, photography, etc.), then punishment can be applied without four witnesses to the act.
According to the modern Islamic scholar [[Yusuf al-Qaradawi]]:
: "The jurists of Islam have held different opinions concerning the punishment for this abominable practice. Should it be the same as the punishment for ''zina'', or should both the active and passive participants be put to death? While such punishments may seem cruel, they have been suggested to maintain the purity of the Islamic society and to keep it clean of perverted elements." - ''The Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam'', p. 165.
== Homosexuality in modern Islamic countries' laws ==
Same-sex intercourse officially carries the death penalty in seven Islamic nations: [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Iran]], [[Mauritania]], [[Sudan]], [[Somalia]], [[Somaliland]], and [[Yemen]].[http://www.ilga.info/Information/Legal_survey/Summary%20information/death_penalty_for_homosexual_act.htm] It formerly carried the death penalty in [[Afghanistan]] under the [[Taliban]], and in [[Iraq]] under a
[[2001]] decree by [[Saddam Hussein]]. The legal situation in the [[United Arab Emirates]] is unclear. In many Muslim nations, such as [[Bahrain]], [[Qatar]], [[Algeria]], and the [[Maldives]], homosexuality is punished with jail time, fines, or corporal punishment. In some Muslim-majority nations, such as [[Turkey]], [[Jordan]], [[Egypt]], or [[Mali]], same-sex intercourse is not specifically forbidden by law. However, in Egypt gays have been prosecuted under general public morality laws.(See [[Cairo 52]].)
In [[Saudi Arabia]], the maximum punishment for homosexuality is public execution, but the government will use other punishments -- e.g., fines, jail time, and whipping -- as alternatives, unless it feels that homosexuals are challenging state authority by engaging in a [[gay rights]] movement. [http://www.sodomylaws.org/world/saudi_arabia/saudinews19.htm] Iran is perhaps the nation to execute the largest number of its citizens for homosexuality. Since its Islamic revolution in [[Iran]], the Iranian government has executed more than 4000 people charged with homosexual acts. In [[Afghanistan]] after the fall of the [[Taliban]] homosexuality went from a capital crime to one that it punished with fines and prison sentence, and a similar situation seems to have occurred in Iraq (see [[gay rights in Iraq]].)
Most international human rights organizations, such as [[Human Rights Watch]] and [[Amnesty International]], condemn laws that make homosexual relations between consenting adults a crime. Since [[1994]] the [[United Nations]] Human Rights Committee has also ruled that such laws violated the right to privacy guaranteed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. However, most Muslim nations (except for [[Turkey]], which has been ruled by secular law since 1923 and recently has modernized its laws in order to meet the requirements of entry to the [[European Union]]) insist that such laws are necessary to preserve Islamic morality and virtue. Of the nations with a majority of Muslim inhabitants, only [[Lebanon]] has an internal effort to legalize homosexuality. However, some Muslims have expressed criticism of the legal sanctions used against homosexuality.
Reasons given by Muslims condemning the executions include the fact that some legal schools (e.g., [[Hanafi]]) regard it as |
games - an NFL record for the worst ending to a season ever. Seifert was fired, and former [[New York Giants]] defensive coordinator [[John Fox (NFL)|John Fox]] was hired as the team's third head coach. Fox's hiring would prove to be one of the better moves the Panthers franchise has ever made.
===Turnaround===
Fox was known for defensive discipline, and it would be needed to improve a team that had finished in the bottom of the defensive rankings the previous year. Fox looked to the 2002 draft to begin revamping the franchise, and it started with the second overall pick of the draft: [[Julius Peppers]]. Peppers was a dominating defensive end at the [[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill|University of North Carolina]], and he was a solid fit with Fox's defensive plan. The Panthers also picked up linebacker [[Will Witherspoon]] and running back [[DeShaun Foster]] in the draft. Peppers combined with fellow defensive end [[Mike Rucker]] and [[defensive tackle|defensive tackles]] [[Brentson Buckner]] and [[Kris Jenkins]] to form what many football experts called the best front four defensive line in football. Meanwhile, [[Mike Minter]] anchored the secondary, while Witherspoon (affectionately called "Spoon" by fans & teammates) and [[Mark_Fields_%28football%29|Mark Fields]] led the linebacker corps. Fox's defense-first philosophy worked with the team, as they turned around to a 7-9 record, and posted the second-best overall defense in the league, including allowing a league-minimum 3.69 yards per rushing attempt.
===The "Cardiac Cats" are Super Bowl bound===
The 2003 season started with hope. The Panthers had drafted several young prospects, including [[Ricky Manning, Jr.]] out of [[UCLA]] at [[cornerback]], and [[Jordan Gross]] at [[offensive team|offensive tackle]]. In addition, quarterback [[Jake Delhomme]], running back [[Stephen Davis]], and wide receiver [[Ricky Proehl]] were signed in the off-season, making additions to an offense that needed to complement a top-ranked defense. The team was not without tragedy, however, as it was revealed that former linebacker and coach Sam Mills was diagnosed with [[intestinal cancer]]; additionally, linebacker Mark Fields was diagnosed with [[Hodgkin's Disease]]. The team used their struggle as inspiration, and started the season 5-0 on their way to a 11-5 finish. In the playoffs, they easily defeated the Cowboys in the Wild-card game before facing the [[St. Louis Rams]] in the Divisional playoff game in the [[Edward Jones Dome]]. Carolina had an 11-point lead in the last 3 minutes of play, but a touchdown from [[Marshall Faulk]], a successful [[two point conversion]], and an [[onside kick]] that led to a [[field goal]] tied the game and sent it to [[overtime]]. Both [[John Kasay]] and [[Jeff Wilkins]] missed potential game-winning kicks in the first overtime, and Carolina had the ball at the start of the second overtime. In the first play of 2nd OT, however, Jake Delhomme hit Steve Smith with a 69-yard touchdown pass to win the game and send the Panthers into the NFC Championship against the [[Philadelphia Eagles]]. The Eagles, led by [[Donovan McNabb]], were in the NFC title match for the 3rd year in a row, but had lost the previous two years. The Panthers made it three in a row for Philadelphia, as they shut down the Eagles offense and, with a 14-3 victory, headed to their first Super Bowl, against the New England Patriots. [[Super Bowl XXXVIII]] may have been remembered more for the [[Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy|Super Bowl XXXVIII Halftime Show]] with [[Janet Jackson]]'s "[[wardrobe malfunction]]", but football fans will agree that the game was one of the best played games in Super Bowl history. The first quarter was scoreless, and neither team scored until near the end of the first half. However, 24 points were scored in the last 5 minutes of the first half, and the score going into halftime was 14-10 New England. The third quarter was as scoreless as the first, and it wasn't until late in the game that things heated up once again. The teams traded leads, and Carolina tied the game with a touchdown pass to [[Ricky Proehl]] with 1:08 left in regulation, opening the possibility to the first overtime game in Super Bowl history. However, John Kasay's kickoff went out of bounds, giving the Patriots the ball on their own 40-yard line. [[Adam Vinatieri]], who had won [[Super Bowl XXXVI]] two years earlier on a last-second field goal, repeated his heroics, connecting on a 41-yarder with four seconds left, even though he had already missed two field goals in the game. This gave the Patriots their second Super Bowl win in three years. The multiple close games, won either in overtime or with a slim margin, gave way to a new nickname for the Panthers: the '''"Cardiac Cats"'''.
===The injury bug===
The experts all picked the Panthers to repeat their 2003 season success in 2004. Having selected cornerback [[Chris Gamble]] and wide receiver [[Keary Colbert]] with their top two picks in the 2004 draft, and not having lost any core players from their Super Bowl run, the team looked ready for their 10th Anniversary season. In addition, Mark Fields, who had missed the previous season with Hodgkin's disease, returned and was ready to go. But the team suffered major injuries early on, as Steve Smith broke his leg in the season opener against Green Bay, Stephen Davis suffered a knee injury before the second game of the season, and Kris Jenkins had shoulder problems that benched him for the season, the Panthers had problems early on. In fact, the Panthers had 14 players on injured reserve, including their top ''four'' running backs, more than any other team. This led to a 1-7 start, and people began wondering if they would repeat the 1-15 season of 2001. However, backup fullback [[Nick Goings]] stepped up to the challenge with five 100-yd rushing games, Keary Colbert played better than most rookies thrown into the #2 receiver spot, and the defense held together despite the injuries to help the team win 6 of their last 8 games, and the Panthers barely missed the playoffs after losing a close game to [[New Orleans Saints|New Orleans]] in the season finale.
In addition, the Panthers celebrated the 10th anniversary of their franchise by, among other things, naming a 10th Anniversary All-Time Team ([[Carolina_Panthers#10-Year_Anniversary_Team|listed below]]). Of interesting note is that, with the exception of tight end [[Wesley Walls]], every offensive starter was on the team during their Super Bowl run of 2003. However, the only defensive players to make the anniversary team that played in the Super Bowl were the front four ([[Julius Peppers|Peppers]], [[Mike Rucker|Rucker]], [[Kris Jenkins|Jenkins]] & [[Brentson Buckner|Buckner]]), linebacker [[Dan Morgan]], and safety [[Mike Minter]]. Naturally, kicker [[John Kasay]] made the team, as he has been the only kicker for practically the franchise's entire existence, and Pro Bowl punter [[Todd Sauerbrun]] made the squad as well.
===2005 season===
Before the 2005 season even began, the Panthers were once again plagued with off-field troubles. First, in March, punter [[Todd Sauerbrun]], center [[Jeff Mitchell]], and former offensive tackle [[Todd Steussie]] were linked to using steroids on a ''[[60 Minutes]]'' report. Then in April, linebacker coach Sam Mills succumbed to his battle with intestinal cancer. And it was revealed that Mark Fields, who has Hodgkin's, would miss the 2005 season as he did the 2003 season while he goes for treatment. Fields was awarded the ESPN "Best Comeback Athlete" award at the July 2005 [[ESPY Awards]]. Panther fans looked forward to repeating their Super Bowl run with a team added to by [[Thomas Davis (NFL)|Thomas Davis]] and [[Eric Shelton]]. Sports Illustrated picked the Carolina Panthers to be Super Bowl favorites over the Indianapolis Colts in the preseason picks, with Jake Delhomme gracing the cover of the magazine just before the season began.
Despite a home-opening loss to the [[New Orleans Saints]] 23-20 on an inspirational field goal by [[John Carney]], and heightened by national feelings of sympathy for the homeless New Orleans Saints - displaced by Hurricane Katrina, the Panthers got revenge against the two-time defending champion [[New England Patriots]] for the loss in [[Super Bowl XXXVIII]] with a final score of 27-17. Despite going on the road and losing a close game to the [[Miami Dolphins]] 27-24, the Panthers managed to get a six-game winning streak going. First, they won at home on [[Monday Night Football]] against the [[Green Bay Packers]] 32-29. Then, they squeaked out victories in their next two games, on the road against the [[Arizona Cardinals]] (24-20) and the [[Detroit Lions]] (21-20). Coming off of their Week 7 Bye, the Panthers won their home game against the [[Minnesota Vikings]] 38-13. During that game, [[Steve Smith (NFL)|Steve Smith]], who had already emerged as one of the league's best wide receivers, had a real breakthrough. He caught 11 passes for 201 yards and 1 touchdown, with his longest reception of the game being 69 yards. A week later, the Panthers won against the [[Tampa Bay Buccaneers]] on the road with a final score of 34-14. Then, they won at home against the hapless [[New York Jets]] 30-3. Their winning streak came to an end at the hands of the [[Chicago Bears]]. The #1 defense held the Panthers to just three points, as they lost 13-3. A week later, they travled to [[Ralph Wilson Stadium]] to play against the [[Buffalo Bills]]. For the most of the game, they were held in check by the Bills' defense, as they were held to just three field goals. In the fourth quarter, the Panthers rallied and got a 13-9 win, thanks to a three-yard TD pass from [[Jake Delhomme]] to TE [[Michael Gaines]]. Then, they would go home and win against their division rival, the [[Atlanta Fa |
and protons''.
Dirac was aware of the problem that his picture implied an infinite negative charge for the universe. Dirac tried to argue that we would perceive this as the normal state of zero charge. Another difficulty was the difference in masses of the electron and the proton. Dirac tried to argue that this was due to the electromagnetic interactions with the sea, until [[Hermann Weyl]] proved that hole theory was completely symmetric between negative and positive charges. Dirac also predicted a reaction <b>e&nbsp;+&nbsp;p&nbsp;→&nbsp;γ&nbsp;+&nbsp;γ</b> (electron and proton annihilate to give two [[photon]]s). [[Robert Oppenheimer]] and [[Igor Tamm]] proved that this would cause ordinary matter to disappear too fast. A year later, in 1931, Dirac modified his theory and postulated the [[positron]], a new particle of the same mass as the electron. The discovery of this particle the next year removed the last two objections to his theory.
However, the problem of infinite charge of the universe remains. Also, as we now know, [[bosons]] (if they exist) also have antiparticles, but since they do not obey the Pauli exclusion principle, hole theory doesn't work for them. A unified interpretation of antiparticles is now available in [[quantum field theory]], which solves both these problems.
== Particle-antiparticle annihilation ==
''Main article: [[Annihilation]]''.
[[Image:kkbar had.png|frame|An example of a virtual [[pion]] pair which influences the propagation of a [[kaon]] causing a neutral kaon to ''mix'' with the antikaon. This is an example of [[renormalization]] in [[quantum field theory]]&mdash; the field theory being necessary because the number of particles changes from one to two and back again.]]
If a particle and antiparticle are in the appropriate quantum states, then they can '''annihilate''' each other and produce other particles. Reactions such as <b>e<sup>+</sup> &nbsp;+&nbsp; e<sup>-</sup> &nbsp;→&nbsp; γ &nbsp;+&nbsp; γ</b> (the two-photon annihilation of an electron-positron pair) is an example.
The single-photon annihilation of an electron-positron pair, <b>e<sup>+</sup> &nbsp;+&nbsp; e<sup>-</sup> &nbsp;→&nbsp; γ</b> cannot occur because it is impossible to conserve energy and momentum together in this process. The reverse reaction is also impossible for this reason. However, in [[quantum field theory]] this process is allowed as an intermediate quantum state for times short enough that the violation of energy conservation can be accommodated by the [[uncertainty principle]]. This opens the way for '''virtual pair''' production or annihilation in which a one particle quantum state may ''fluctuate'' into a two particle state and back. These processes are important in the [[vacuum state]] and [[renormalization]] of a [[quantum field theory]]. It also opens the way for [[neutral particle mixing]] through processes such as the one pictured here: which is a complicated example of [[mass renormalization]].
== Properties of antiparticles ==
[[Quantum state]]s of a particle and an antiparticle can be interchanged by applying the [[C-symmetry|charge conjugation]] (<b>C</b>), [[P-symmetry|parity]] (<b>P</b>), and [[T-symmetry|time reversal]] (<b>T</b>). If <b>|p,σ,n></b> denotes the quantum state of a particle (<b>n</b>) with momentum <b>p</b>, spin <b>J</b> whose component in the z-direction is σ, then one has
::<b>CPT |p,σ,n> &nbsp;=&nbsp; (-1)<sup>J-σ</sup> |p,-σ,n<sup>c</sup>>,</b>
where <b>n<sup>c</sup></b> denotes the charge conjugate state, ie, the antiparticle. This behaviour under <b>CPT</b> is the same as the statement that the particle and its antiparticle lie in the same [[irreducible representation]] of the [[Poincare group]]. Properties of antiparticles can be related to those of particles through this. If <b>T</b> is a good symmetry of the dynamics, then
::<b>T |p,σ,n> &nbsp;α&nbsp; |-p,-σ,n></b>
::<b>CP |p,σ,n> &nbsp;α&nbsp; |-p,σ,n<sup>c</sup>></b>
::<b>C |p,σ,n> &nbsp;α&nbsp; |p,σ,n<sup>c</sup>>,</b>
where the proportionality sign indicates that there might be a phase on the right hand side. In other words, particle and antiparticle must have
*the same mass <b>m</b>
*the same spin state <b>J</b>
*opposite [[electric charge]]s <b>q</b> and <b>-q</b>.
== Quantum field theory ==
<i>This section draws upon the ideas, language and notation of [[canonical quantization]] of a [[quantum field theory]].</i>
One may try to quantize an electron [[field (physics)|field]] without mixing the annihilation and creation operators by writing
::<b>ψ(x) &nbsp;=&nbsp; ∑<sub>k</sub> u<sub>k</sub>(x) a<sub>k</sub> e<sup>-i E(k)t</sup>,</b>
where we use the symbol <b>k</b> to denote the quantum numbers <b>p</b> and σ of the previous section and the sign of the energy, <b>E(k)</b>, and <b>a<sub>k</sub></b> denotes the corresponding annihilation operators. Of course, since we are dealing with [[fermion]]s, we have to have the operators satisfy canonical anti-commutation relations. However, if one now writes down the [[Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)|Hamiltonian]]
::H &nbsp;=&nbsp; ∑<sub>k</sub> E(k) a<sup>+</sup><sub>k</sub> a<sub>k</sub>,</b>
then one sees immediately that the expectation value of <b>H</b> need not be positive. This is because <b>E(k)</b> can have any sign whatsoever, and the combination of creation and annihilation operators has expectation value 1 or 0.
So one has to introduce the charge conjugate ''antiparticle'' field, with its own creation and annihilation operators satisfying the relations
::<b>b<sub>k'</sub> &nbsp;=&nbsp; a<sup>+</sup><sub>k</sub></b> and <b>b<sup>+</sup><sub>k'</sub> &nbsp;=&nbsp; a<sub>k</sub></b>
where <b>k'</b> has the same <b>p</b>, and opposite σ and sign of the energy. Then one can rewrite the field in the form
::<b>ψ(x) &nbsp;=&nbsp; ∑<sub>k(+)</sub> u<sub>k</sub>(x) a<sub>k</sub> e<sup>-i E(k)t</sup> &nbsp;+&nbsp; ∑<sub>k(-)</sub> u<sub>k</sub>(x) b<sup>+</sup><sub>k</sub> e<sup>-i E(k)t</sup>,</b>
where the first sum is over positive energy states and the second over those of negative energy. The energy becomes
::<b>H &nbsp;=&nbsp; ∑<sub>k(+)</sub> E(k) a<sup>+</sup><sub>k</sub> a<sub>k</sub> &nbsp;+&nbsp; ∑<sub>k(-)</sub> |E(k)| b<sup>+</sup><sub>k</sub> b<sub>k</sub> &nbsp;+&nbsp; E<sub>0</sub>,</b>
where <b>E<sub>0</sub></b> is an infinite negative constant. The [[vacuum state]] is defined as the state with no particle or antiparticle, ie, <b>a<sub>k</sub> |0> = 0</b> and <b>b<sub>k</sub> |0> = 0</b>. Then the energy of the vacuum is exactly <b>E<sub>0</sub></b>. Since all energies are measured relative to the vacuum, <b>H</b> is positive definite. Analysis of the properties of <b>a<sub>k</sub></b> and <b>b<sub>k</sub></b> shows that one is the annihilation operator for particles and the other for antiparticles. This is the case of a [[fermion]].
This approach is due to [[Vladimir Fock]], [[Wendell Furry]] and [[Robert Oppenheimer]]. If one quantizes a real [[scalar field]], then one finds that there is only one kind of annihilation operator; therefore real scalar fields describe neutral [[boson]]s. Since complex scalar fields admit two different kinds of annihilation operators, which are related by conjugation, such fields describe charged [[boson]]s.
=== The Feynman-Stueckelberg interpretation ===
[[Image:antiparticle.png|thumb|350 px|left|Observer 1 sees two particles, one propagating inside the light cone, the other outside the light cone. Observer 2, moving at a uniform velocity with respect to the first observer, could then see the second particle as moving back in time, and with reversed charge: hence as an antiparticle. However, the mass and lifetime of such a particle would remain unchanged, as a consequence of relativity.]]
By considering the propagation of the positive energy half of the electron field backward in time, [[Richard Feynman]] showed that [[causality]] is violated unless one allows some particles to travel faster than [[light]]. However, if particles are allowed to do that, then from the point of view of another [[inertial observer]] it would look like it was travelling backward in [[time]] with the opposite [[charge]].
Hence Feynman reached a pictorial understanding of the fact that the particle and antiparticle have equal mass <b>m</b> and spin <b>J</b> but opposite charges. This allowed him to rewrite [[perturbation theory (quantum mechanics)|perturbation theory]] precisely in the form of diagrams, called [[Feynman diagram]]s, of particles propagating back and forth in time. This technique now is the most widespread method of computing amplitudes in [[quantum field theory]].
This picture was independently dev |
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{{Infobox Dogbreed
| image = Borzoi 600.jpg
| image_caption = A Borzoi
| name = Borzoi
| altname = Barzoï <br> Russian Wolfhound <br> Russkaya Psovaya Borzaya
| country = [[Russia]]
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<!-- End Infobox Dogbreed info. Article Begins Here -->
The '''Borzoi''' is a [[dog breeds|breed]] of [[dog]] also called the '''Russian [[Wolfhound]]'''.
They have medium-length, slightly curly hair and are similar in shape to [[Greyhound]]s. They are a member of the [[sighthound]] family.
==Appearance==
Borzois can come in almost any color or color combination. Their coat is silky, flat and should never be wooly. This breed is a large variety with males reaching in excess of 100 pounds (45 kg). Males should stand at least 28 inches while females shouldn't be less than 26 inches.
==Temperament==
The Borzoi is an intelligent, active dog. They are gentle with people and have good manners but sometimes are nervous around children and need to be reared with small children if they are to be the pet in a family which includes very small children. As seen in the United States, they are dogs used to pursue (course) game and they have a strong instinct to chase things that run from them. They do not have strong territorial drives compared to breeds such as Mastiffs and German Shepherds. They are not to be thought of as a "fighting dog". They need a home with a fenced yard if automobile traffic is present within several miles of their home because their instinct to chase such game as rabbits and squirrels can cause them to ignore the danger created by automobile traffic.
The Borzoi can be brutal against wolves and other wild canids. It is not generally territorially aggressive to other domestic dogs. Borzoi will defend themselves against other breeds, but lacks the body weight and the strength to combat a [[mastiff]] or similar hefty breed.
It is quite common for Borzois at play sometimes spontaneously join forces and course (run down) another dog, seizing it by the neck and holding it immobile. Young pups do this with their littermates, trading off as to who is the prey. Older dogs will even do this with strange dogs in dog parks. It is a hunting behavior, not a fighting or territorial domination behavior.
== Health ==
The most common serious health problems are [[gastric torsion]] and cardiac problems including [[cardiomyopathy]] and [[cardiac arhythmia]] disorders. A controversy exists as to the presence of [[progressive retinal atrophy]] in the breed. A condition identified as Borzoi Retinopathy is seen in many individuals, usually active dogs, which differs from [[progressive retinal atrophy]] in several ways. Firstly, it is rarely seen in animals less than 3 years of age, secondly, a clear cut pattern of inheritance has not been demonstrated and finally, most affected individuals do not go blind.
Life expectancy is 10 to 12 years, females usally living longer than males. Exceptional individuals have lived to be more than 16 years of age. Dogs that are physically fit and vigorous in their youth through middle age are more vigorous and healthy as elderly dogs, all other factors being equal.
==History==
[[Image:Borzoi.jpg|thumb|left|Borzois are also known as Russian Wolfhounds.]]
Tradition says that they were brought to [[Russia]] by [[Kublai Khan]]. Although this might be true, the original Borzoi stock was crossed with different Russian herding dogs, which explains the breed's ability to deal with [[wolf|wolves]]&mdash;this was an important part of a [[herding dog]]'s work in the past, when wolves were more common.
Borzois were popular with the [[Tsar]]s before the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|1917 revolution]], and for a long time Borzois could not be purchased but only given as gifts from the Tsar. The most famous breeder was the Russian [[Grand Duke]] Nikolai Nikolaievich, (son of [[Nicholas I of Russia]]), who bred hundreds of Borzois at [[Perchino]], his private kennel. During Tsarist times, several varieties of wolfhounds were bred; however, after the revolution, many of the Tsarist breeds were neglected.
During that time, Russians also performed "hunting tests", to show that Borzois could actually hold a wolf until the hunter arrived. The wolf hunt itself was organized with riding hunters and [[Foxhound]]s on the Russian [[steppe]]. When the wolf was sighted, the hunter would release a pair of Borzois. The Borzois would charge the wolf, attack its neck from both sides, and hold it until the hunter arrived. The classical killing was by the human hunter with a knife.
==Miscellaneous==
A stylized Borzoi serves as the [[logo]] for the Knopf Publishing Group, an [[imprint]] of [[Random House]] publishers. [http://www.randomhouse.com/publishers/images/logo_kpg.gif]
[[Category:Dog breeds]]
[[Category:Sight hounds]]
[[de:Barsoi]]
[[fr:Barzoï]]
[[he:בורזוי]]
[[nl:Barzoi (hond)]]
[[ja:ボルゾイ]]
[[no:Borzoi]]
[[sr:Барзои]]
[[sv:Borzoi]]
[[eo:rusa leporhundo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Basenji</title>
<id>4765</id>
<revision>
<id>40681486</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T06:49:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>That Guy, From That Show!</username>
<id>419920</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] remove "to do" ancient egypt category</comment>
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| image = Basenji 600.jpg
| image_caption = none
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| altname = African Bush Dog <br> African Barkless Dog <br> Ango Angari <br> Avuvi <br> Congo Dog <br> Zande Dog
| country = [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
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<!-- End Infobox Dogbreed info. Article Begins Here -->
The '''Basenji''' is a [[dog breeds|breed]] of [[dog]] and a member of the [[sighthound]] family. The basenji is a Congolese hunting dog that rarely, (if ever) barks, but does have an odd yodelling sound.
== Appearance ==
Basenjis are small, elegant-looking, short-haired dogs with erect ears, tightly curled tail,
and graceful neck. Some people equate their appearance to that of a
miniature [[deer]]. Their forehead is wrinkled, especially when young.
Eyes are typically almond shaped, which gives the appearance of
squinting with a serious look.
Basenjis typically weigh around 20 to 24 pounds (9 to 11 kg) and stand about 17
inches (43 cm) tall at the [[withers]]. They are an athletic dog, and are deceptively
powerful for their size. They have a graceful, confident gait like a trotting horse, and skim the ground in a "double-suspension
gallop" when running flat out at their considerable top speed.
The [[American Kennel Club|AKC]] recognizes the following colorations: red/white,
black/white, tricolor (red/black/white), and brindle (black stripes on
a background of red)/white. There are additional variations,
such as the "trindle", which is a tricolor and brindle, and several
other colorations that remain in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]].
== Temperament ==
Like wild [[canids]], Basenjis don't bark. They will, however, give the occasional single "woof". They will also chortle, whine, squeal, and make a Basenji-specific noise called a yodel or a baroo. Also like wild canids, most Basenjis come into season only once a year, usually in the autumn.
Most Basenjis have a strong dislike for contact with water, and will go to great, and sometimes amusing, lengths to avoid getting wet. On the other hand, they are extremely inquisitive dogs, and can temporarily be completely oblivious to the pouring rain if something piques their interest.
They are highly intelligent and learn quickly, but they also have a cat-like independence and "self-motivation" which can make them somewhat casual about obedience. A healthy Basenji is a mischievous and good-humored animal, and is not above testing the limits of its environment and owner just for sport. They can be aloof with strangers but form strong bonds with their owners. If not supervised or trained properly, Basenjis can become bored an |
[[trade route]]s. The [[Hanseatic League]], an alliance of trading cities, facilitated the absorption of vast areas of [[Poland]], [[Lithuania]] and other [[Baltic countries]] into the [[economy of Europe]].
The conventional end of the [[Middle Ages]] is usually associated with the fall of the city [[Constantinople]] and of the [[Byzantine Empire]] to the [[Ottoman Turks]] in 1453. The Turks made the city the capital of their [[Ottoman Empire]], which lasted until 1919 and also included [[Egypt]], [[Syria]] and most of the [[Balkans]].
==Renaissance and Reformation==
[[Image:Europe in 1470.PNG|thumb|250px|right|Europe in the 1470s]]
{{main articles|[[Renaissance]] and [[Protestant Reformation]]}}
The fall of [[Constantinople]] in [[1453]] brought the realization in the countries of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], that [[Europe]] was the only christian continent from then on. Christianity was split in two due to the reformation in the 16th century. The christian civilization slowly became the European civilization. This Europe was smaller then the Europe of our day: [[Moscow]] didn't belong to it. [[Muscovy|Muscovians]] were seen as Asian barbarians, and Poland was seen in the 16th century as the fortress that protected Europe against the barbarian peoples. Turkey possesed a large part of Europe, but was regarded as alien due to islam, which is a contemporary problem nowadays with the European Union. Émeric Crucé ([[1623]]) came up with the idea of the [[European Council]], which should make an end to wars in Europe. He belonged to the Eirenic peace movement. Attempts to create lasting peace were no success, allthough all European countries (excluding Asian Muscovy) agreed to make peace in [[1518]] at the [[Treaty of London, 1518|Treaty of London]]. Many wars broke out again in a few years, including [[Denmark]] versus [[Sweden]], [[England]] and [[Spain]] versus [[France]]. The reformation made European peace impossible for many centuries. [[Francis Bacon]] and other advocats of [[science]] tried to create unity in Europe by focusing on the unity in [[nature]]. Post services were founded all over Europe, which made the [[Renaissance humanism|humanistic]] Commonwealth of Learned Men possible: university graduates and students were interconnected and could correspond with eachother all over Europe and across the boundaries between protestants and roman catholics. The roman catholic church banned many leading scientific works, this led to an intellectual advantage for protestant countries. This Europe was rapidly exploring the world, but knowledge and art remained an internal development. Europe regarded itself as superior to other continents, allthough there was a movement ([[Montaigne]]) that looked to the non-Europeans as better, more natural and primitive people.<sup>[[#Notes|1]]</sup>
In the 15th century, at the end of the [[Middle Ages]], powerful [[states]] were appearing, built by the [[New Monarchs]] who were centralizing power in [[France]], [[England]], and [[Spain]]. On the other hand the Parliament in the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] grew in power, taking legislative rights from the Polish king. Parliaments were created in other countries and provinces as well where [[The States|the estates]] got a large share in the responsibility. New kinds of states emerged which were cooperations between territorial rulers, cities, farmer republics and knights. These played a major role in the the history of [[constitution]]s of (early) modern history. Contrariwise, the Church was losing much of its power because of corruption, internal conflicts, and the spread of culture leading to the [[art]]istic, [[philosophy | philosophical]], [[science | scientific]] and [[technology | technological]] improvements of the [[Renaissance]] era.
These powerful states were frequently in a state of political flux and war. In particular, after [[Martin Luther]] started the [[Reformation]] in 1517, wars of politics and religion ravaged the continent: the schism of the dominant western church was to have major political, social and cultural implications for Europe. What became the split between [[Catholicism]] and [[Protestantism]] was particularly pronounced in [[England]] (where the king [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] severed ties with Rome and proclaimed himself head of the church), and in [[Germany]] (where [[Protestant Reformation|the Reformation]] united the various Protestant princes against the Catholic [[Habsburg]] emperors).
Unlike [[Western Europe]], the countries of [[Central Europe]], the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] and [[Hungary]], resolved religious questions by adopting [[Religious toleration|religious tolerance]]. Central Europe was already split between Eastern and Western Christianity. Now it became divided between Catholics, Protestants, Orthodox and Jews.
==Colonial expansion==
{{main|Age of Discovery}}
The numerous wars did not prevent the new states from exploring and conquering wide portions of the world, particularly in [[Asia]] ([[Siberia]]) and in the newly-discovered [[the Americas|America]]. In the 15th century, [[Portugal]] led the way in geographical exploration, followed by [[Spain]] in the early 16th century. They were the first states to set up colonies in [[South America]] and trade stations on the shores of [[Africa]] and Asia, but they were soon followed by [[France]], [[England]] and the [[Netherlands]]. In 1552 Russian [[tsar]] [[Ivan the Terrible|Ivan IV the Terrible]] conquered [[Kazan]] and the [[Yermak Timofeyevich|Yermak]]'s voyage of 1580 led to the annexation of Siberia into Russia.
Colonial expansion proceeded in the following centuries (with some setbacks, such as the [[American Revolution]] and the wars of independence in many South American colonies). Spain had control of a great deal of [[South America]], the [[Caribbean]] and the [[Philippines]]; Britain took the whole of [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], most of [[India]], and large parts of [[Africa]] and [[North America]]; France held parts of [[Canada]] and India (nearly all of which was lost to Britain in 1763), [[French Indochina|Indochina]] and large parts of [[Africa]]; the Netherlands gained the [[Indies|East Indies]] (now [[Indonesia]]) and islands in the [[Caribbean]]; Portugal obtained [[Brazil]] and several territories in Africa and Asia; and later, powers such as [[Germany]], [[Belgium]], [[Italy]] and [[Russia]] acquired further colonies.
This expansion helped the [[economic system|economy]] of the [[countries]] owning them. [[Trade]] flourished, because of the minor stability of the [[empire]]s. The [[European]] countries fought wars, that were largely paid for by the money coming in from the colonies.
==Early Modern period: 16th, 17th and 18th century==
{{main|Early Modern Europe}}
The Reformation had profound effects on the unity of Europe. Not only were nations divided one from another by their religious orientation, but some states were torn apart internally by religious strife, avidly fostered by their external enemies. [[France]] suffered this fate in the 16th century in the series of conflicts known as the [[French Wars of Religion]], which ended in the triumph of the [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon Dynasty]]. England avoided this fate for a while and settled down under [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth]] to a moderate [[Anglicanism]]. [[Germany]], divided into numerous small states under the theoretical framework of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], was also divided along internally drawn sectarian lines, until the [[Thirty Years' War]] seemed to see religion replaced by [[nationalism]] as the motor of European conflict. The single exception to this was the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], an entity created by the [[Union of Lublin|agreement between the nobility]] of those two countries, highly valuing the [[religious tolerance]].
Throughout the early part of this period, [[capitalism]] was replacing [[feudalism]] as the principal form of economic organization, at least in the western half of Europe. The expanding colonial frontiers resulted in a [[Commercial Revolution]]. The period is noted for the rise of modern [[science]] and the application of its findings to technological improvements, which culminated in the [[Industrial Revolution]]. New forms of trade and expanding horizons made new developments in [[international law]] necessary.
After the [[Treaty of Westphalia]] which ended the [[Thirty Years War]], [[Political absolutism|Absolutism]] became the norm of the continent, while parts of Europe experimented with constitutions foreshadowed by the [[English Civil War]] and particularly the [[Glorious Revolution]]. European military conflict did not cease, but had less disruptive effects on the lives of Europeans. In the advanced north-west, [[the Enlightenment]] gave a philosophical underpinning to the new outlook, and the continued spread of [[literacy]], made possible by the [[printing press]], created new secular forces in thought. Again, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth would be an exception to this rule, with it's unique quasi-democratic [[Golden Freedom]].
[[Eastern Europe]] was an arena of conflict for domination between [[Sweden]], the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]]. This period saw a gradual decline of these three powers which were eventually replaced by new enlightened absolutist monarchies, [[Russia]], [[Prussia]] and [[Austria]]. By the turn of the 19th century they became new powers, having [[Partitions of Poland|divided Poland]] between them, with Sweden and Turkey having experienced substantial territorial losses to Russia and Austria respectively. Numerous Polish Jews emigrated to Western Europe, founding Jewish communities in places where they had been expelled from during the Middle Ages.
==The English Civil War and Unification with Scotland==
''Main article: [[English Civil War]]''
The first and foremost cause |
st the [[British Empire]] during their colonisation of [[India]], were not suitable against the no less brutal but effective apartheid system. It was decided that [[military]] tactics had to be used, which primarily involved targeting and [[sabotage|sabotaging]] the government's resources, with a philosophy of avoiding bloodshed at all costs. A military wing was formed in 1961, called [[Umkhonto we Sizwe]], meaning "Spear of the Nation". However, Mandela, as its first leader, was arrested for terrorism in 1962 and sentenced to life imprisonment in 1964 on [[Robben Island]], along with Sisulu and other ANC leaders after the [[Rivonia Trial]].
Almost thirty years passed, with international pressure and internal dissent mounting in the country. With the situation becoming ever more untenable, [[State President of South Africa|State President]] [[Frederik Willem de Klerk|F.W. de Klerk]] unbanned the ANC and PAC on [[2 February]] [[1990]].
==Coming to power==
In April 1994, in a tripartite alliance with the [[South African Communist Party]] and the [[Congress of South African Trade Unions]], the ANC won a landslide victory in the [[South African general election, 1994|1994 general election]], and [[Nelson Mandela]] was elected the first [[President of South Africa]].
In [[Kwa-Zulu Natal]], the ANC maintained an uneasy [[coalition]] with the [[Inkatha Freedom Party]] after neither party won a majority in the [[South African general election, 1994|1994]] and [[South African general election, 1999|1999]] provincial elections.
In 2004, the party contested national elections in voluntary coalition with the [[New National Party (South Africa)|New National Party]] (NNP), which it effectively absorbed following the NNP's dissolution in 2005.
After the 1994 and 1999 elections, it ruled seven of the nine provinces, with [[Kwa-Zulu Natal]] under the IFP and the [[Western Cape Province]] under the NNP. As of 2004, it gained both the Western Cape and Kwa-Zulu Natal after a combination of the NNP's electoral base being eroded by the DA and a poor showing by the IFP.
By 2001, the [[tripartite alliance]] between the ANC, COSATU and SACP began showing signs of strain as the ANC moved to more liberal economic policies than its alliance partners were comfortable with. The focus for dissent was the [[GEAR]] program, an [[initialism]] for "Growth, Employment and Redistribution."
In late 2004, this was again thrown into sharp relief by [[Zwelinzima Vavi]] of COSATU protesting the ANC's policy of "quiet diplomacy" towards the worsening conditions in [[Zimbabwe]], as well as [[Black Economic Empowerment]], which he complained benefits a favoured few in the black elite and not the masses.
As of [[2005]], the alliance was facing a crisis as [[Jacob Zuma]], who was fired from his position as [[Deputy President of South Africa]] by Thabo Mbeki, faced [[political corruption|corruption]] charges. Complicating the situation was the fact that Zuma remained Deputy President of the ANC, and maintained a strong following amongst many ANC supporters, and the ANC's alliance partners [http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?art_id=vn20051016093406344C153857]. In October [[2005]], top officials in the [[National Intelligence Agency]], who were Zuma supporters, were suspended for illegally spying on an Mbeki supporter, [[Saki Macozoma]], amid allegations that ANC supporters were using their positions within organs of state to spy on, and discredit each other[http://www.sundayindependent.co.za/index.php?fArticleId=2962595] [http://www.sundaytimes.co.za/articles/article.aspx?ID=ST6A156220]. In December 2005, Zuma was charged with [[rape]] and his position as Deputy President of the ANC was suspended. [http://allafrica.com/stories/200512070314.html]
The ANC also faced (sometimes violent) protests in [[township (South Africa)|townships]] over perceived poor service delivery, as well as internal disputes, as [[South African local government elections, 2006|local government elections]] approached in [[2006]]. [http://www.mg.co.za/articlePage.aspx?articleid=261817&area=/breaking_news/breaking_news__national/] [http://www.capeargus.co.za/index.php?fSectionId=49&fArticleId=3074657].
===Party List===
Politicians in the party win a place in parliament by being on the ''Party List'', which is drawn up before the elections and enumerates, in order, the party's preferred MPs. The number of seats allocated is proportional to the popular national vote, and this determines the cut-off point.
The ANC has also gained members through the controversial [[floor crossing (South Africa)|floor crossing]] process.
==Key personalities within the ANC==
<!--please list alphabetically by surname-->
* Before 1948: [[John Dube]], [[Sol Plaatje]], [[Pixley ka Isaka Seme]]
* 1948 to 1994: [[Chris Hani]], [[Ahmed Kathrada]], [[Albert Lutuli]], [[Nelson Mandela]], [[Govan Mbeki]], [[Thabo Mbeki]], [[Raymond Mhlaba]], [[Cyril Ramaphosa]], [[Walter Sisulu]], [[Joe Slovo]], [[Robert Sobukwe]], [[Oliver Tambo]]
* After 1994: Nelson Mandela, [[Sydney Mufamadi]], Thabo Mbeki, [[Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka]], [[Tokyo Sexwale]], [[Jacob Zuma]]
==Criticism==
[[Archbishop Desmond Tutu]] in his [[Nelson Mandela]] speech in 2004 criticized the ''Party List'' system as discouraging debate and encouraging patronage within the party. He also singled out business deals that favour the "recycled few" in [[Black Economic Empowerment]] deals instead of the poor majority.
Another accusation frequently levelled against them is that they protect their high-ranking members in the face of [[South African political scandals|controversy]], and is seen as supporting criminal behaviour. Recent issues of this nature include the [[Schabir Shaik]] fraud trial linked to Deputy President [[Jacob Zuma]], the sexual misconduct and criminal charges of [[Beaufort West Municipality, Western Cape|Beaufort West]] municipal manager [[Truman Prince]] (see [http://www.news24.com/News24/South_Africa/News/0,,2-7-1442_1700232,00.html]), and the [[Oilgate]] scandal, in which millions of Rand in funds from a state-owned company were allegedly funneled into ANC coffers [http://www.mg.co.za/specialreport.aspx?area=oilgate]. Links between factions in the ANC and businessman [[Brett Kebble]] gained media attention following Kebble's murder in September [[2005]].
==External links==
*[http://www.anc.org.za/ African National Congress] official site
*[http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/anctoday/2004/at48.htm#art2 Response by the ANC General Secretary to COSATU's assessment, 2004]
{{South African Topics}}
[[Category:1912 establishments]]
[[Category:Political parties in South Africa]]
[[Category:National liberation movements]]
[[Category:Apartheid in South Africa]]
[[Category:Socialist International]]
[[af:African National Congress]]
[[de:African National Congress]]
[[es:Congreso Nacional Africano]]
[[fr:Congrès national africain]]
[[ko:아프리카국민회]]
[[id:Kongres Nasional Afrika]]
[[it:African National Congress]]
[[he:הקונגרס הלאומי האפריקני]]
[[ja:アフリカ民族会議]]
[[lt:Afrikos nacionalinis kongresas]]
[[nl:Afrikaans Nationaal Congres (Zuid-Afrika)]]
[[no:African National Congress]]
[[nn:ANC]]
[[pl:Afrykański Kongres Narodowy]]
[[pt:Congresso Nacional Africano]]
[[fi:ANC]]
[[sv:African National Congress]]
[[uk:Африканський Національний Конгрес]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amphetamine</title>
<id>2504</id>
<revision>
<id>41991322</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:10:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fabrício Kury</username>
<id>71458</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* '''Physiological effects''' */ missing ')'</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- To edit the text of this article, scroll down past the tables -->{| border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="250px" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em"
|-
| bgcolor="#ffffff" align="center" colspan="2" |
[[Image:Amphetamine.png|120px|Amphetamine chemical structure]]<br/>
''Amphetamine''
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" | [[IUPAC nomenclature|IUPAC]] name: <br />
'''1-phenylpropan-2-amine'''
|- align="center" style="border-bottom: 3px solid gray"
| '''[[CAS number]]''' <br/> 300-62-9 || '''[[ATC code]]''' <br/> N06BA01
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Chemical formula]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | [[Carbon|C]]<sub>9</sub>[[Hydrogen|H]]<sub>13</sub>[[Nitrogen|N]]
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Molecular weight]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | 135.2084
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Bioavailability]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | 4L/kg; low binding to plasma proteins (20%)
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | Metabolism || bgcolor="#ddeeff" | hepatic & renal clearance
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[half life|Elimination half life]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | 10&ndash;13 hours
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Excretion]] || bgcolor="#ddeeff" | significant portion unaltered
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Pregnancy category (pharmaceutical)|Pregnancy category]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | C
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Controlled Substance Act|Legal status]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | [[Drug Enforcement Administration|DEA]] Schedule II ([[United States|USA]])
Class B ([[UK]])
Schedule III ([[Canada]])
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | Delivery
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | [[Vaporize|Vaporized]], [[Insufflate|Insufflated]], [[Intravenous infusion|Injected]], Taken Orally
|-
|}
{| bgcolor="#ffffff" border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="167px" style="border-col |
**** [[Southern Rightwhale Dolphin]], ''Lissiodelphis peronii''
*** Genus Sotalia
**** [[Tucuxi]], ''Sotalia fluviatilis''
*** Genus Sousa
**** [[Indo-Pacific Hump-backed Dolphin]], ''Sousa chinensis''
***** [[Chinese White Dolphin]] (the Chinese variant), ''Sousa chinensis chinensis''
**** [[Atlantic Humpbacked Dolphin]], ''Sousa teuszii''
*** Genus Stenella
**** [[Atlantic Spotted Dolphin]], ''Stenella frontalis''
**** [[Clymene Dolphin]], ''Stenella clymene''
**** [[Pantropical Spotted Dolphin]], ''Stenella attenuata''
**** [[Spinner Dolphin]], ''Stenella longirostris''
**** [[Striped Dolphin]], ''Stenella coeruleoalba''
*** Genus Steno
**** [[Rough-Toothed Dolphin]], ''Steno bredanensis''
*** Genus Cephalorynchus
**** [[Chilean Dolphin]], ''Cephalorhynchus eutropia''
**** [[Commerson's Dolphin]], ''Cephalorhynchus commersonii''
**** [[Heaviside's Dolphin]], ''Cephalorhynchus heavisidii''
**** [[Hector's Dolphin]], ''Cephalorhynchus hectori''
*** Genus Grampus
**** [[Risso's Dolphin]], ''Grampus griseus''
*** Genus Lagenodelphis
**** [[Fraser's Dolphin]], ''Lagenodelphis hosei''
*** Genus Lagenorhyncus
**** [[Atlantic White-Sided Dolphin]], ''Lagenorhynchus acutus''
**** [[Dusky Dolphin]], ''Lagenorhynchus obscurus''
**** [[Hourglass Dolphin]], ''Lagenorhynchus cruciger''
**** [[Pacific White-Sided Dolphin]], ''Lagenorhynchus obliquidens''
**** [[Peale's Dolphin]], ''Lagenorhynchus australis''
**** [[White-Beaked Dolphin]], ''Lagenorhynchus albirostris''
*** Genus Orcaella
**** [[Australian Snubfin Dolphin]], ''Orcaella heinsohni''
**** [[Irrawaddy Dolphin]], ''Orcaella brevirostris''
*** Genus Peponocephalia
**** [[Melon-headed Whale]], ''Peponocephalia electra''
*** Genus Orcinus
**** [[Killer Whale]], ''Orcinus orca''
*** Genus Feresa
**** [[Pygmy Killer Whale]], ''Feresa attenuata''
*** Genus Pseudorca
**** [[False Killer Whale]], ''Pseudorca crassidens''
*** Genus Globicephala
**** Long-finned [[Pilot Whale]], ''Globicephala melas''
**** Short-finned [[Pilot Whale]], ''Globicephala macrorhynchus''
** Family [[Platanistoidea]], River Dolphins
*** Genus Inia
**** [[Boto]] (Amazon River Dolphin), ''Inia geoffrensis''
*** Genus Lipotes
**** [[Chinese River Dolphin]] (Baiji), ''Lipotes vexillife ''
*** Genus Platanista
**** [[Ganges River Dolphin]], ''Platanista gangetica''
**** [[Indus River Dolphin]], ''Platanista minor''
*** Genus Pontoporia
**** [[La Plata Dolphin]] (Franciscana), ''Pontoporia blainvillei''
Six animals in the family Delphinidae are commonly called "whales" but are strictly speaking dolphins. They are sometimes called "blackfish":
* [[Melon-headed Whale]], ''Peponocephalia electra''
* [[Killer Whale]], ''Orcinus orca''
* [[Pygmy Killer Whale]], ''Feresa attenuata''
* [[False Killer Whale]], ''Psudoorca crassidens''
* Long-finned [[Pilot Whale]], ''Globicephala melas''
* Short-finned [[Pilot Whale]], ''Globicephala macrorhynchus''
==Hybrid Dolphins==
In [[1933]], three strange dolphins were beached off the [[Ireland|Irish]] coast; these appeared to be hybrids between Risso's Dolphin and the Bottlenose Dolphin. This mating has since been repeated in captivity and a hybrid calf was born. In captivity, a Bottlenose Dolphin and a Rough-Toothed Dolphin produced hybrid offspring. In the wild, Spinner Dolphins have sometimes hybridised with Spotted Dolphins and Bottlenose Dolphins. In the wild, bands of males of one dolphin species have been observed to mate with lone female Spinners. Blue Whales, Fin Whales and Humpback Whales all hybridize in the wild. Dall's Porpoises and Harbour Porpoises have hybridized in the wild. There has also been a reported hybrid between a beluga and a narwhal. See also [[wolphin]].
== Evolution and anatomy of dolphins ==
Dolphins, along with whales and porpoises, are descendants of land-living mammals, most likely of the [[Artiodactyl]] [[order (biology)|order]]. Modern dolphin skeletons have two small rod shaped pelvic bones thought to be left-over hind legs. They entered the water roughly 50 million years ago. See [[evolution of cetaceans]] for the details.
Dolphins have a fusiform body, adapted for fast swimming. The head contains the [[melon (whale)|melon]], a round organ used for [[animal echolocation|echolocation]]. In many species, the jaws are elongated, forming a distinct beak; for some species like the Bottlenose, there is a curved mouth that looks like a fixed smile. Teeth can be very numerous (up to 250) in several species. The [[dolphin brain]] is large and has a highly structured cortex, which often is referred to in discussions about their high intelligence.
Their teeth are arranged in a way that works as an array or antenna focusing the incoming sound, making it easier for them to pinpoint the exact location of an object.
The basic coloration patterns are shades of gray with a light underside and a distinct dark cape on the back. It is often combined with lines and patches of different hue and contrast. See individual species articles for details.
==Dolphin behavior==
[[Image:Dolphin-intelligence.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Dolphins in balance.]]
Dolphins are widely believed to be amongst the most intelligent of all animals. A typical statement would be that dolphins are roughly as intelligent as a two-year-old human. However, experts in [[comparative psychology]] or [[animal cognition]] would be reluctant to make any such estimate, as quantitative comparisons of intelligence between species are notoriously difficult to make in principle. Straightforward comparisons of species' relative intelligence are complicated by differences in sensory apparatus, response modes, and nature of cognition; furthermore, the difficulty and expense of doing experimental work with a large marine animal mean that even such tests as can meaningfully be done have still not been done, or have been carried out with inadequate sample size and methodology. See the [[Dolphin intelligence]] article for more details.
Dolphins often leap above the water surface, sometimes performing acrobatic figures (e.g. the [[spinner dolphin]]). Scientists aren't quite certain about the purpose of this behavior, but it may be to locate schools of fish by looking at above water signs, like feeding birds. They could also be communicating to other dolphins to join a hunt, attempting to dislodge parasites, or simply doing it for fun. Play is a very important part of dolphins' lives and they can often be observed playing with seaweed or playfighting with other dolphins. They have even been seen harassing other creatures, like seabirds and turtles. Frequently dolphins will accompany boats, riding the bow waves.
They are also famous for their willingness to occasionally approach humans and playfully interact with them in the water. In return, in some cultures like in [[Ancient Greece]] they were treated with welcome; a ship spotting dolphins riding in their wake was considered a good omen for a smooth voyage. There are many stories of dolphins protecting shipwrecked sailors against sharks by swimming circles around the swimmers.
Dolphins are social animals, living in pods (also called "schools") of up to a dozen animals. In places with a high abundance of food, schools can join temporarily, forming an aggregation called a '''superpod'''; such groupings may exceed 1000 dolphins. The individuals communicate using a variety of clicks, whistles and other vocalizations. They also use ultrasonic sounds for [[animal echolocation|echolocation]].
[[Image:Airborne_dolphin.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dolphin leaping in the air.]]
Membership in schools is not rigid; interchange is common. However, the animals can establish strong bonds between each other. This leads to them staying with injured or ill fellows for support.
Because of their high capacity for learning, dolphins have been employed by humans for any number of purposes. Dolphins trained to perform in front of an audience have become a favorite attraction in [[dolphinarium|dolphinaria]], for example [[SeaWorld]]. Dolphin/Human interaction is also employed in a curative sense at places where dolphins work with autistic or otherwise disabled children. The military has employed dolphins for various purposes from finding mines to rescuing lost or trapped persons. Such [[military dolphins]], however, drew scrutiny during the Vietnam War when rumors circulated that dolphins were being trained to kill Vietnamese [[Skin diving|Skin Divers]].
Reports of cooperative human-dolphin fisheries date back to [[Pliny]]. A modern human-dolphin fishery was reported in Laguna, Santa Catarina, [[Brazil]] in [[1990]]. The transmission of this behavior appears to be matrilineal.
In May [[2005]], researchers in [[Australia]] discovered a cultural aspect of dolphin behaviour: Some dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) teach their offspring to use a tool. The animals break off [[sponge]]s and put them onto their mouths thus protecting the delicate body part during their hunt for fish on the seabed. Other than with [[primate]] [[simian]]s, the knowledge to use a tool is mostly handed over only from mothers to daughters. The technology to use sponges as mouth protection is not genetically inherited but a taught cultural behaviour.
In captivity, many dolphins seem to have committed [[suicide]]. They either do so by repeatedly slamming their head against the pool walls or other solid objects or simply by not coming up for air anymore. Probably one of the best known cases of dolphin suicide is that of a dolphin named Cathy, one of the bottlenose dolphins that performed in the television series ''[[Flipper (1964 television)|Flipper]]''. She most likely died of self induced [[asphyxiation]] in the presence of her trainer [[Richard O'Barry]].[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/whales/interviews/obarry2.html]
Compare also: [[whale behavior]]
==Senses==
Most dolphins have acute [[eyesight]] both in and out of |
e>
<id>3150</id>
<revision>
<id>41569329</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T05:17:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ingoolemo</username>
<id>71699</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Removing unnecessary parametres. using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:harrier.av8b.750pix.jpg|thumb|200px|April 7th 2003: an AV-8B Harrier "Jump Jet" takes off from the assault ship USS Nassau, to engage targets over Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom]]
The '''Harrier II''' is a family of second generation vertical/short takeoff and landing ([[V/STOL]]) [[turbofan|jet]] aircraft of the late 20th century. They were developed from the earlier [[Hawker-Siddeley Harrier]]s, are primarily used for light attack or [[multi-role]] tasks, and are almost all operated from small aircraft carriers. Versions of it are used primarily by [[NATO]] countries, and the non-NATO country of [[India]]. This includes:
*The [[Royal Air Force]] and [[Fleet Air Arm]] of the [[United Kingdom]] under a number of variants and versions starting in the late 1980s, including the GR7, T10, FRS1, FA.2 and T4 versions. (''see [[RAF Harrier II]], [[BAE Sea Harrier]] '')
*[[United States Marine Corps]] as the [[McDonnell Douglas AV-8B]] and TAV-8B starting in 1985.
*The [[Spanish Navy|Spanish Naval air wing]] (''Arma Aerea De La Armada'') as the [[EAV-8B]], AV8-S and TAV-8S.
*The [[Marina Militare|Italian Navy air wing]] (''Aviazione per la Marina Militare'') as the AV-8B and TAV-8.
*The [[Indian Navy]] as the FRS51 and T60.
The Harrier II is also notable in history as an example of U.S.-U.K cooperation and of [[Cold War]] defense achievements. Of note is the U.S aid funding early development under the [[Mutual Weapons Development Program]] (MWDP) and the salvaging of what was left of [[AV-16A Advanced Harrier Program]] by McDonnell Douglas, making the second-generation family possible.
==History==
===Introduction===
The aircraft had its direct origins in a Joint U.S.-British project (Hawker-Siddeley and McDonnell Douglas Aircraft) for a much-improved Harrier aircraft, to be the AV-16A Advanced Harrier program. However cost over-runs in engine development on the part of Rolls Royce and in the aircraft development caused the British to pull out of the program. Interest remained in the U.S. so a less ambitious, though still expensive project was undertaken by McDonnell on their own catered to U.S. needs. Using things learned from AV-16A development, though dropping some things such as further Pegasus development, the development work continued leading the AV-8B for the U.S. Marine Corps. The aircraft was centered on the Marine's needs, light ground attack and was focused on payload and range as opposed to speed. In the late 1970 the British re-entered development of their own second generation Harrier based on the U.S. design leading eventually to the GR.5, which had somewhat different performance goals.
===Overview and Use===
The '''AV-8B''' is an extensively redesigned aircraft with a new [[composite material|composite]] wing, new cockpit and [[avionics]] (e.g., FLIR and new bombing system), and more powerful engine. The new wing enables higher take-off weights and more ordnance. The payload was nearly double and the range much increased over the older design, one of the chief complaints with the older type. It was focused primarily on close-air support, and all the added capabilities came at the cost of about 50 mph (80 km/h) slower speed. The AV-8B was put into service in January [[1985 in aviation|1985]] at a cost of US$21.6 million each. The design was further developed into later types with high-speed, that placed less focus on payload and range.
The primary mission of the AV-8B in [[USMC]] service is to provide responsive close air support for ground forces. This single-piloted, advanced V/STOL aircraft can operate from short fields, forward sites, roads and surface ships providing minimum response time to targets. Recent AV-8B II+ have an expanded secondary air-to-air role.
Three AV-8B squadrons stationed about 40 miles (64 km) from the [[Kuwait|Kuwaiti]] border, were the most forward deployed tactical strike aircraft during Operation [[Desert Storm]] and operated from relatively unprepared sites. One AV-8B squadron and one six-aircraft detachment operated off the landing helicopter ship [[USS Nassau|''USS Nassau'']] in the [[Persian Gulf]]. The average turnaround time during the ground war surge was 23 minutes. A total of 86 [[United States Marine Corps|Marine]] Harriers flew 3,567 sorties against [[Iraq]]i targets in [[Kuwait]] and Iraq. Five Harriers were lost&nbsp;&ndash; four in combat. Following the war, Marine Corps analysis showed that the placement of the engine nozzles that allow for the Harrier's Vertical Take-Off/Landing made the aircraft far more vulnerable to [[infrared]] [[surface-to-air missile]] fire than other aircraft. This is because the nozzles are almost dead center on the aircraft, which means that when infra-red guided missiles hit they generally damage a greater number of systems.
In the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]], Harrier II versions saw extensive usage by both the USMC and RAF. USMC Harriers were based on two USMC amphibious assault ships, [[USS Bataan (LHD-5)|''USS Bataan'' (LHD-5)]] and [[USS Bonhomme Richard (LHD-6)|''USS Bonhomme Richard'' (LHD-6)]]. Each carried 24 Harriers, about four times their normal complement of fixed-wing aircraft, and tried out the long dormant secondary purpose of the LHDs and LHAs, that of a small aircraft carrier, or sea control ship. RAF Harriers were shore-based in Kuwait. Two detachments from [[RAF Cottesmore]] were sent to the region, with one known to have been based at the Ahmed al Jaber Air Base ({{coor dms|28|56|05|N|47|47|31|E}}) in Kuwait, and the other at an undisclosed location. A total of 23 RAF Harriers took part in the campaign; one USMC Harrier crashed into the [[Persian Gulf]] early in the war while trying to land on the ''USS Nassau''. The pilot ejected.
The current AV-8B Remanufacture Program converts older AV-8B day attack aircraft to the most recent production radar/night attack configuration. This radar-equipped version of the AV-8B, called the AV-8B II+, became operational in the summer of [[1994 in aviation|1994]]. The AV-8B II+ uses the same [[AN/APG-65]] radar system as the [[F/A-18 Hornet]] and is able to carry [[AIM-120 AMRAAM]] missiles, giving the aircraft a considerable increase in anti-aircraft capabilities. However, these missiles are most likely to be deployed as a means of self-defense or airbase defense instead of air superiority, because despite its agility, the Harrier is subsonic and therefore slower than most fighters.
'''Avionics:''' [[AN/APG-65]] radar, ASB-19(V) angle-rate bombing system, laser spot tracker, TV tracker, CEC-Marconi [[FLIR]], [[GPS]]
==Manufacture==
Aircraft were built by McDonnell Douglas and [[BAE Systems]] the latter at their [[Warton]] facility in [[Preston]], [[Lancashire]] in the [[UK]]. The factory is also home to the [[Panavia Tornado]], [[SEPECAT Jaguar]], [[BAE Hawk|BAe Hawk T1]] , [[Hawker-Siddeley Nimrod#MRA4|BAe Nimrod MRA4]] and more currently being built there the [[Eurofighter Typhoon]].
The aircraft is known mainly as the '''AV-8B''' in [[USMC]] service and the '''[[RAF Harrier II|GR7/GR9]]''' in RAF service. The '''AV-8A''' (and also TAV-8A versions) , which was the previous generation of Harrier and should not be confused with the next generation, was a [[Hawker-Siddeley Harrier#Harrier GR.3|Hawker-Siddeley Harrier GR.3]] procured for the [[United States Marine Corps|US Marine Corps]].
==Variants==
Harrier II variants can vary significantly depending on the exact model, even among a single country's aircraft.
* '''YAV-8B'''
* '''AV-8B''' Harrier II&nbsp;&mdash; Two versions were developed. The first was commonly known as the "Day Attack" variant. Later, a "Night Attack" variant was fielded (1991). The Night Attack Harrier incorporated a Navigation Forward Looking Infrared camera (NAV FLIR) and the cockpit was made compatible with night vision goggles (NVGs). It was also able to use the larger Rolls Royce engine. The II+ described below is identical to the Night Attack variant, except it incorporates an APG-65 radar, the same as in early F/A-18 Hornets.
* '''AV-8B II+'''&nbsp;&mdash; AV-8B with radar (APG-65) allowing firing of radar guided air-to-air missiles; should be designated '''AV-8C'''.
* '''AV-8C'''&nbsp;&mdash; An experimental version developed from the AV-8B model
* '''TAV-8B''' Harrier II&nbsp;&mdash; A two-seat trainer version
* '''EAV-8B'''&nbsp;&mdash; Spanish Navy version
* '''Harrier GR5'''&nbsp;&mdash; First RAF version of [[RAF Harrier II]]
* '''Harrier GR7'''&nbsp;&mdash; Avionics upgrade to GR5
* '''Harrier GR7A'''&nbsp;&mdash; GR7 with more powerful engine
* '''Harrier GR9'''&nbsp;&mdash; Avionics upgrade to GR7
* '''Harrier GR9A'''&nbsp;&mdash; Avionics upgrade and more powerful engine
==Operating squadrons==
===USMC===
*[[VMA-211]] [http://www.3maw.usmc.mil/MAG13/VMA211/default.asp VMA-211 official page]
*[[VMA-214]] [http://www.3maw.usmc.mil/MAG13/VMA214/default.asp VMA-214 official page]
*[[VMA-311]] [http://www.3maw.usmc.mil/MAG13/VMA311/default.asp VMA-311 official page]
*[[VMA-513]] [http://www.3maw.usmc.mil/MAG13/VMA513/default.asp VMA-513 official page]
*[[VMA-203]] (Fleet Replacement Squadron)[http://www.2maw.usmc.mil/MAG14/vmat203/default.asp VMAT-203 official page]
*[[VMA-231]] [http://www.2maw.usmc.mil/MAG14/vma231/default.asp VMA-231 official page]
*[[VMA-223]] [http://www.2maw.usmc.mil/MAG14/vma223/default.asp VMA-223 official page]
*[[VMA-542]] [http://www.2maw.usmc.mil/MAG14/vma542/default.asp VMA-542 official page]
===RAF===
* [[No. |
ing of Kent]]|years=455/456-488|regent1=[[Horsa]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Oisc of Kent|Oisc]]}}
{{end}}
[[Category:480s deaths]]
[[Category:Kentish monarchs]]
[[Category:English heroic legends]]
[[Category:Arthurian legend]]
[[Category:Mercenaries]]
[[Category:Sub-Roman Britain]]
[[Category:Anglo-Saxon mythology]]
[[ang:Hengest]]
[[de:Hengest]]
[[fr:Hengist et Horsa]]
[[no:Hengest av Kent]]
[[sv:Hengist]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hellenic</title>
<id>14366</id>
<revision>
<id>41576967</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T06:40:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dbachmann</username>
<id>86857</id>
</contributor>
<comment>this is not accepted terminology. by our category, "Hellenic languages" is equivalent to "Greek dialects".</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hellenic''' may refer to:
*the [[Hellenic Republic]] (the modern Greek state)
*the Hellenes, itself a term for either ancient or modern [[Greeks]]
*anything related to [[Greece]] in general or [[Ancient Greece]] in particular.
*the [[Greek language]], especially the [[Ancient Greek language]]
==See also==
*[[Greek (name)]]
*[[:Category:Hellenic languages and dialects]]
*[[:Category:Hellenic scripts]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hero System</title>
<id>14368</id>
<revision>
<id>40074883</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T23:19:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ian Pitchford</username>
<id>230605</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hero system 5th edition.jpg|right|260px|Hero System 5th edition book cover]]
The '''''Hero System''''' (or '''''HERO System''''') is a [[role-playing game]] [[Generic Systems|generic system]] that developed from the [[superhero]] RPG [[Champions]], and underlying the [[Hero Games]] role-playing games such as [[Champions (role-playing game)|Champions]], [[Dark Champions]], [[Fantasy Hero]], [[Star Hero]], and [[Pulp Hero]]. It is characterized by point-based character creation and the rigor with which it measures character abilities. It was one of the first RPG systems to forego the use of non-cubical [[dice]].
== System Features ==
The HERO System character creation system is entirely points-based with no random elements. Players are given a pool of points, the size of which varies depending on the campaign type, with which to buy Characteristics, Skills, Talents and Powers. They can gain additional points by taking Disadvantages that hamper their character in play.
Abilities in the HERO System, particualrly Powers (a broad category that includes superpowers, magic, psionics and high technology), are modeled based on their effects. The player chooses an effect the power models (such as Energy Blast) and chooses a set of modifiers to fine-tune the power's function. Each modifier makes the Power more or less expensive. HERO System products and players are notorious for the ingenuity and complexity of their power contructions.
Tasks are resolved using three six-sided dice and Power effects (especially damage) are resolved by rolling a number of dice based on the power's level.
Unlike the [[d20 System]], experience awards are in the form of character points, which have the same value as those used in character creation and can be applied directly to the character's abilities upon receipt.
===Character Creation===
The Hero System's biggest innovation was its use of a point-based system for character creation with a tool-kit approach to creating abilities. The rules only define the ability's effects in combat -- the player defines what the ability looks like when used. For example, the ability to project a jet of fire could be bought as "Energy Blast," or any of a number of other abilities. The player then defines it as a "jet of fire," with all that implies: it has the possibility of starting secondary fires; it looks, smells and sounds like a jet of fire; etc. This Energy Blast could be modified by any number of modifiers such as "Explosion," "Area of Effect" or "No Range." These affect how the power works as well as its final cost.
Each player creates his character starting with a pool of points to buy abilities (such as the aforementioned "Energy Blast" and "Armor"), increase characteristics (such as "Strength" and "Intelligence") and buy skills (such as "Computer Programming" and "Combat Driving"). This pool can be increased by taking disadvantages for your character (such as being hunted by an enemy, a dependency of some sort or having people who depend on your character in some way). The initial pool, as well as the final pool size, is determined by the [[gamemaster|Game Master]], as well as the point limits on each individual ability.
===Advantages and Disadvantages===
The advantages of the Hero System are commonly considered to be:
#It eases [[game balance]] issues for the GM: a 200-point character is generally less powerful than a 300-point character.
#It is very flexible in character creation, allowing players to create nearly any character they can imagine.
#It uses only common six sided dice.
The primary disadvantages are commonly considered to be:
#Complexity, though perhaps not as much as some other systems, such as [[Chivalry & Sorcery]].
#Combat has a tendency to slow things to a crawl. Twenty seconds of combat can take hours to adjudicate.
#Flexibility in character creation gives large advantage to veteran players who spend time optimizing power limitations and frameworks. This can lead to one 200-point player character being much more powerful than another.
#Depending upon the game's genre and power level, many dice may be needed.
#Character generation can be math-intensive (though this issue is addressed to an extent; see below).
===Powers===
The powers system is divided into a set of standard powers, and a list of advantages and disadvantages that can be applied to each power. Many of the powers have specific advantages and disadvantages that apply only to that power. The powers in the Hero system are categorized roughly as follows:
:*'''Adjust''' &mdash; Modify the Characteristics of self or another.
:*'''Attack''' &mdash; Inflict physical damage to an opponent.
:*'''Affect Body''' &mdash; Change shape, size, density, &c.
:*'''Affect Sense''' &mdash; Alter or hinder a character's senses.
:*'''Defense''' &mdash; Protect against an attack or mishap.
:*'''Mental''' &mdash; Affect the mind of another.
:*'''Movement''' &mdash; Employ various forms of movement.
:*'''Senses''' &mdash; Improve or expand upon the sensory abilities.
:*'''Other''' &mdash; Powers that do not fall into the other categories.
Within each of these categories are multiple powers that have more specialized effects. Thus for the movement category there are powers that can be used for [[running]], [[swimming]], [[climbing]], [[jumping]], [[gliding]], [[flying]], [[tunnel]]ing through solid surfaces, and even [[teleportation]]. For certain game [[genre]]s there are even powers for travel to other dimensions or moving faster than light.
Each power has a base point cost for a given effect. This could be, for example, a certain number of points per six-sided-die (or "d6") of damage inflicted upon a foe. The advantages and disadvantages are then selected for the power, and summed up. These modifiers are typically in integer increments of &plusmn;&frac14;, but can range up to &plusmn;2 or even higher. The real cost of the power is then determined by:
:'''Real Cost''' = '''Base Cost''' &times; (1 + ''Advantages'') / (1 + ''Disadvantages'')
The energy cost (and possibly the skill) required to activate and use a power is typically based on the base cost of the power. The real cost just gives the point expenditure required to gain the power.
The rules also include schemes for providing a larger number of powers to a character for a given cost. These power frameworks reduce the cost either by requiring the group of powers to have a common theme as in an Elemental Control Framework, or by limiting the number of powers that can be active at one time with a Multipower Framework. Powers within a framework can share common disadvantages, further reducing the cost.
===Math Issues===
One of the criticisms leveled at the Hero System almost since its inception is the relatively large amount of math involved in its use, particularly during character creation. While almost none of this math goes beyond the basic functions of [[addition]], [[subtraction]], [[multiplication]], and [[division (mathematics)|division]] (certain obscure and completely optional situations ''may'' call for a [[logarithm|logarithmic]] function), this can seem daunting to newcomers.
== Publishing History ==
Although several games based on the Hero System were published in the 1980's, including [[Champions]], [[Danger International]], [[Justice, Inc. (role-playing game) | Justice, Inc.]], [[Robot Warriors]] and the original versions of [[Fantasy HERO]] and [[Star HERO]], each of the RPGs was self-contained, much as [[Chaosium]]'s [[Basic Role-Playing]] games are. The HERO System itself was not released as an independent entity until [[1989]], as [[GURPS]] (Generic Universal Roleplaying System) became more popular. As a joint venture between [[Hero Games]] and [[Iron Crown Enterprises]], a stand-alone Hero System Rulebook was published alongside the fourth edition of Champions. The content was identical to the opening sections of the Champions rules, but all genre-related material was removed. Afterward, genre books such as [[Ninja HERO]] and [[Fantasy HERO]] were published as sourcebooks for the HERO System Rulebook as opposed |
tudents experience these perceptual paradoxes as feeling good, students are often admonished by teachers to regard their sensations as not worth trying to repeat. Students learn to avoid ''end-gaining,'' meaning, to resist going directly for results using one’s habit. Instead students are to allow themselves the room to use the deliberate new processes of experimenting proscribed by ''the Technique,'' called ''means whereby.'' For this reason students must continue practice of AT without expectation or reinforcement of ''feeling'' themselves changing, because their senses may not yet be awake enough to register the crucial subtle adjustments. Improved sensitivity can be trained or reawakened by sustained practice, but this takes patience. The learner may at different times still paradoxically experience both states; the unusual sensory effects described above during a progressive leap ahead; and a sense of nothing happening when gradual progress is, in fact, taking place.
Evidence of change is sought in verifiable outside feedback; using a mirror; by noting, comparing, or describing differences of the relative location of one's eyes, balance or weight changes; a change in the sound of one's voice or the effects on one’s objectives, props or environment. Alexander teachers have been educated to perceive, observe and articulate very subtle but crucial differences influencing motion, and they offer this education and feedback to their students.
Depending on the causes of limitations, structural posture may or may not improve, but freedom of motion should always improve during the lesson with a teacher. To take improvements away from the class, the dedication of later remembering to attentively experiment is required on the part of the learner. A willingness to experiment is key to gaining continuing results.
==Effective under what circumstances==
Remembering to use Alexander Technique to get its benefits is required, but not a special practice activity; merely an experimental, thinking moment while doing any other action. Of course, the longer these moments of awareness can be sustained, the greater the effect over time. Alexander Technique can be practiced while doing any other activity. Practice at any time while awake will result in its benefits. Curiosity, a willingness to experiment and recognition of gradual improvement are the attitudes that most effectively bring attention to the continuous possible choices of response that momentarily arise. Practice should be unnoticed by others due to the fact that it's an internal process of personal sensory experience.
Unlike many similar self-improvement regimens, the Alexander Technique is '''not''' a series of exercises. Rather, it teaches inter-related principles for human response, such as [[directions]], which are the governing characteristics of how people can use their own bodies easier to perform their objectives. Which motions, actions and criteria someone might apply for an activity that could benefit from practice will range from the most simple and mundane motions to the most strenuously demanding physical challenges.
==Disadvantages==
Alexander Technique may not be effective for everyone. It requires the student to work at a somewhat paradoxical goal that is, at first, based on the teacher's (or classmates') perception of success. Habits are often tied to self-image, emotions and cultural assumptions. The student must be willing and able to challenge the validity and criteria of their assumptions, judgments and motives. Because of this, the road of learning can be rocky. It's difficult to change that which cannot be perceived.
In rare occasions, undoing habits may trigger possibly unpleasant "unresolved" emotions that originally justified the habitual remedies, perhaps requiring additional professional help. Some ingrained habit patterns seem to have a sense of self-preservation that objects to its possible lack of importance.
There can be a time during mid-learning when the student can't yet reliably sustain the new ways of moving he prefers. What used to feel comfortable instead becomes experienced as an unpleasantly heavy, pressured sagging sensation. It's a stage where every posture the student can assume seems to have something wrong with it. Often the student constantly notices other people around them are always stiff and slumping. It seems that once the door to perception is open, there is no going back to unselfconsciousness. If the student feels he cannot continue lessons at this point, perhaps sampling a number of teachers from different teaching styles is advisable rather than quitting altogether.
Alexander Technique will not solve structural problems such as [[arthritis]] or alter bone structure. However, many adult students have reported a gaining an inch or so in height after a few months of regular lessons.
===Scientific Proof===
Proof the Alexander Technique works has only been verified in rare previous and current scientific research. But results in neuroscience and current movement gait lab research on the effects and function of body motion are promising. (See STAT links.) Meanwhile, UK medical communities recognize the effectiveness of the ''Technique,'' though is still often classified as pseudo-scientific in other countries.
===Learning time===
Progress in learning is unlimited, but commonly slow; often taking a significant commitment of months, even years of discipline. Most teachers consider twenty to forty lessons to be required for learning to use it personally. Speed of learning seems to depend on the motivation to shed outdated habits, and the persistence of the learner to confront the power of their own habits with resolve, clear thinking and new responses. During daily lessons in a workshop environment, a rare fast learner can gain rapid functionality in a matter of a few weeks. The fastest learners are often people who are motivated by gaining freedom from chronic pain, or someone recovering from injury who can now again devote themselves to a beloved art or skill. The reason Alexander Technique takes so long to learn is because the kinesthetic sense is often the most "taken for granted" and habitually ingrained. The student is often without words for the qualities in themselves that are changing.
=Learning and Teaching=
Teachers train “pupils” in a personalized, living anatomy lesson. Most use a specialized hands-on technique of guided modeling to show what they mean. Even if only briefly for group classes, movement is guided with very light, one-on-one hand contact, usually about the student's head, neck and back. The value of effortlessness is advocated. Coaching the substitution of more appropriate, specific ways to detour limitations are also suggested. As anyone knows who has tried substitution strategies against a habit, there are often more complex paradoxes involved, because habits can be tricky. Alexander Technique addresses these concerns, tailoring how to establish personally constructive experimentation uniquely for each student.
Most commonly at the beginning of lessons, teachers may suggest activities that are routine, such as walking or sitting. For part of the lesson, some teachers have learners lie on a table, so the student can experience the principles in action without having to pay attention to maintaining balance, called ''table work.'' ''Working on oneself'' while lying semi-supine with knees up is taught to be used while taking a break during the student's workday. Depending on the student's purposes, the teacher might later suggest simulating a particularly stressful situation for using Alexander Technique under pressure, such as acting, public speaking, shouting or other demanding performance.
==Learning Environments==
Teaching methods vary; all have in common guided discovery of easier, more positive ways to carry intention into physical action and how to recognize and prevent outdated habits from derailing intended results. To begin lessons, there is no prerequisite level of fitness or movement ability. Alexander Technique is most often taught in private lessons. Group, shared lessons and workshops are recently becoming more common - especially as an adjunct to a specialized art, sport or skill and as required curriculum in music & drama colleges.
Because the Alexander Technique can be taught and practiced during any activity, some teachers leave the choice of activity up to the student. Many Alexander teachers also have additional specialties; such as teaching children in grade school, [[Repetitive strain injury]] or pain management. Some teach Alexander Technique with an additional professional skill, such as being a speech or physical therapist or yoga teacher. ''AT'' may also be included as an adjunct to improve a sport, as in horsemanship, running or golf. However, the Alexander teacher does not need to be trained in the specific skill, sport or activity for its benefits to be experienced.
==Teacher Training==
Training for being a teacher of Alexander Technique involves more than 1600+ hours of classes over at least a three-year period. Teacher trainees must qualify to graduate; attendance is not a guarantee of becoming a teacher. Trainees are evaluated for the presence of a signature of effortlessness and freedom in themselves and the quality of their touch. Alexander Technique's unexpected poise should be an immediate shared fact for both teacher and student in every hands-on ''Alexander lesson.'' After qualifying, most professional teaching associations require continuing development courses.
The UK professional Alexander teaching organizations and some trained by them believe the public should beware of inadequately trained impostors, because there are no laws that require legal certification of AT teachers. The necessary skill to teach is impossible to "fake" - a fact obviously witnessed by those with the professional skill to see i |
f a standard to simply be marked as "superseded" when a standard is revised, and features of prior versions are ordinarily kept unchanged within the specification as new enhancements are added in new versions.
A standard can be developed that extends or is complementary to an existing one rather than replacing it. Such a standard is sometimes designated by the suffix "bis" or "ter" added to the base standard name, for example "V.26bis" and "V.26ter".
==Series and Recommendations==
ITU-T issues Recommendations that have names like [[X.500]], where X is the series and 500 is an identifying number. When a Recommendation is updated, it will (mostly) keep the same number, so the year of issue may be necessary to identify a specific version of a recommendation.
The term "X.500" is used both to refer to the specific X.500 recommendation, and to the entire family of recommendations named X.5xx, where the specific X.500 recommendation forms the introduction and overview to the set.
See [[:Category:ITU-T recommendations]].
Significant ITU-T series and Recommendations are:
===A - Organization of the work of ITU-T===
===B - Means of expression: definitions, symbols, classification===
===C - General telecommunication statistics===
===D - General tariff principles===
===E - Overall network operation, telephone service, service operation and human factors===
**[[E.123]] Notation for national and international telephone numbers
**[[E.163]] Numbering plan for the international telephone service
**[[E.164]] The international public telecommunication numbering plan
*** Supplement 2 - Number Portability
===F - Non-telephone telecommunication services===
===G - Transmission systems and media, digital systems and networks===
**[[G.165]] Echo cancellers
**[[G.711]] Audio compression (mu-law)
**[[G.722]] Audio compression (wideband)
**[[G.722.1]] Audio compression (wideband, lower bit rates)
**[[G.722.2]] Speech compression [[AMR-WB]] (wideband, lower bit rates)
**[[G.723.1]] Speech compression [[CELP]]
**[[G.726]] Audio compression [[ADPCM]]
**[[G.728]] Speech compression [[LD-CELP]]
**[[G.729]] Speech compression [[ACELP]]
**[[ITU G.992.1|G.992.1]] [[ADSL]] (G.DMT)
**[[ITU G.992.2|G.992.2]] ADSL (G.Lite)
**[[ITU G.992.3/4|G.992.3/4]] ADSL2
**[[ITU G.992.5|G.992.5]] ADSL2+
===H - Audiovisual and multimedia systems===
**[[H.223]] Multiplexing protocol for low bit rate multimedia communication
**[[H.225.0]] Also known as [[Real-time Transport Protocol|RTP]]
**[[H.261]] Video compression standard, circa 1991
**[[H.262]] Video compression standard (common text with part 2 of [[MPEG-2]]), circa 1994
**[[H.263]] Video compression standard, circa 1995
**[[H.263v2]] (a.k.a. H.263+) Video compression standard, circa 1998
**[[H.264/MPEG-4 AVC|H.264]] Video compression standard (technically aligned with [[MPEG-4]] part 10), circa 2003
**[[H.320]] Narrow-band visual telephone systems and terminal equipment
**[[H.323]] Packet-based multimedia communications systems
*** Annex D - Real-time facsimile over H.323 systems
*** Annex G - Text conversation and Text SET
*** Annex J - Security for H.323 Annex F
*** Annex K - [[HTTP]] based service control transport channel in H.323
*** Annex M.1 - Tunnelling of signalling protocol (Qsig) in H.323
*** Annex M.2 - Tunnelling of signalling protocol (Isup) in H.323
**[[H.324]] Terminal for low bit-rate multimedia communication
**[[H.332]] H.323 extended for loosely coupled conferences
===I - Integrated services digital network ([[Integrated Services Digital Network|ISDN]])===
===J - Transmission of television, sound programme and other multimedia signals===
===K - Protection against interference===
===L - Construction, installation and protection of cables and other elements of outside plant===
===M - [[TMN (protocol)|TMN]] and network maintenance: international transmission systems, telephone circuits, telegraphy, facsimile and leased circuits===
===N - Maintenance: international sound programme and television transmission circuits===
===O - Specifications of measuring equipment===
===P - Telephone transmission quality, telephone installations, local line networks===
===Q - Switching and signalling===
**[[Q.700]] Introduction to [[CCITT]] [[Signalling System 7]]
**[[Q.701]] Functional description of the [[Message Transfer Part]] (MTP) of [[Signalling System 7]]
**[[Q.702]] [[Signalling (telecommunication)|Signalling]] data link
**[[Q.703]] [[Signalling (telecommunication)|Signalling]] link
**[[Q.704]] [[Signalling (telecommunication)|Signalling]] network functions and messages
**[[Q.705]] [[Signalling (telecommunication)|Signalling]] network structure
**[[Q.706]] [[Message Transfer Part]] signalling performance
**[[Q.707]] Testing and maintenance
**[[Q.708]] Assignment procedures for international signalling point codes
**[[Q.709]] Hypothetical signalling reference connection
**[[Q.710]] Simplified [[MTP]] for small systems
**[[Q.711]] Functional description of the [[Signalling Connection and Control Part]]
**[[Q.712]] Definition and function of [[Signalling Connection and Control Part|signalling connection control part]] messages
**[[Q.713]] [[Signalling Connection and Control Part|Signalling connection control part]] formats and codes
**[[Q.714]] [[Signalling Connection and Control Part|Signalling connection control part]] procedures
**[[Q.715]] [[Signalling Connection and Control Part|Signalling connection control part]] user guide
**[[Q.716]] [[Signalling Connection and Control Part|Signalling connection control part]] performance
**[[Q.931]] Is the layer 3 standard for [[ISDN]] signalling
===R - Telegraph transmission===
===S - Telegraph services terminal equipment===
===T - Terminals for telematic services===
**[[T.4]] Group 3 Apparatus for Transmission (aka Group 3 [[fax|faxes]])
**[[T.6]] Facsimile Coding Schemes and Coding Control Functions for Group 4 [[fax|Facsimile]] Apparatus. (aka Group 4 Compression)
**[[T.30]] Procedures for Document Facsimile Transmission. (T.30e defines colour faxing).
**[[T.31]] and [[T.32]] Provide an interface between fax machines and data terminals.
**[[T.120]] - Data protocols for multimedia conferencing
**[[Open Document Architecture|T.411 - T.424]] Comprise the [[Open Document Architecture]] (ODA and ODIF), a standardized [[document file format]]
===U - Telegraph switching===
===V - Data communication over the telephone network===
**[[V.1]] Equivalence between binary notation symbols and the significant conditions of a two-condition code.
**[[V.5]] Standard that synchronous data signalling rates should be 600, 1200, 2400, 4800 and 9600 bit/s, to within better than 0.01%.
**[[V.10]] A recommendation, first agreed in 1976, for [[unbalanced]] electrical circuits for data communication at up to 100 [[Bit rate|kbit/s]].
**[[V.11]] A recommendation, first agreed in 1976, for [[Balanced line|balanced]] electrical circuits for data communication at up to 10 [[Bit rate|Mbit/s]].
**[[V.17]] A [[fax]] [[Protocol (computing)|protocol]] that uses [[Trellis_modulation|TCM]] [[modulation]] at 12 and 14.4 [[Bit rate|kbit/s]].
**[[V.21]] A recommendation for [[duplex (telecommunications)|full-duplex]] communication between two [[analogue]] dial-up [[modem]]s using [[Audio frequency-shift keying|AFSK]] [[modulation]] at 300 [[baud]]s to carry data at 300 [[Bit rate|bit/s]].
**[[V.22]] A recommendation for [[duplex (telecommunications)|full-duplex]] communication between two [[analogue]] dial-up [[modems]] using [[Phase-shift keying|PSK]] [[modulation]] at 600 [[baud]]s to carry data at 1200 or 600 [[Bit rate|bit/s]].
**[[V.22bis|V.22bis]] An extension of [[V.22]] using [[Quadrature_amplitude_modulation|QAM]] [[modulation]] at 600 [[baud]]s to carry data at 2400 or 1200 [[Bit rate|bit/s]], with fall-back to V.22 mode.
**[[V.23]] A recommendation for [[duplex (telecommunications)|half-duplex]] communication between two [[analogue]] dial-up [[modems]] using [[frequency-shift keying|FSK]] [[modulation]] at up to 600 or 1200 [[baud]]s to carry digital data at up to 600 or 1200 [[Bit rate|bit/s]] respectively. An optional 75 bauds reverse channel carries 75 bit/s.
**[[V.24]] A list of definitions for interchange circuits between data terminal equipment ([[DTE]]) and data circuit terminating equipment ([[DCE]]), first agreed in 1964. This is equivalent to a subset of [[EIA]] [[RS-232|RS 232]]: for the electrical and physical details, see [[V.28]] and others.
**[[V.25]] A recommendation, first agreed in 1968, for automatic calling and/or answering equipment on dial-up lines, using interchange circuits defined in [[V.24]] specifically for parallel automatic calling. It includes procedures for disabling network echo cancellers and suppressors.
**[[V.25|V.25bis]] An extension of [[V.25]] using the serial interchange circuits defined in [[V.24]] for normal data transfer. Command formats are defined for asynchronous, and synchronous character- or bit-oriented ([[HDLC]]) operation.
**[[V.26]] A recommendation, first agreed in 1968, for [[duplex (telecommunications)|full-duplex]] communication between two [[analogue]] fixed-line [[modem]]s using [[Phase-shift keying|PSK]] [[modulation]] at 1200 [[baud]]s to carry synchronous data at 2400 [[Bit rate|bit/s]]. An optional 75 bauds reverse channel carries 75 bit/s in either direction.
**[[V.26|V.26bis]] An extension of [[V.26]], first agreed in 1972, for [[duplex (telecommunications)|half-duplex]] operation of dial-up [[modem]]s, adding a fall-back rate of 1200 [[Bit rate|bit/s]] (still at 1200 [[baud]]s).
**[[V.26|V.26ter]] An extension of [[V.26]], first agreed in 1984, for [[duplex (telecommunications)|full-duplex]] fixed-line or dial-up operation to carry synchronous or asynchronous data with a fall-back rate of 1200 [[Bit rate|bit/s]] (at 1200 [[baud]]s), separating channels by echo cancellation.
**[[V.27]] A recommendation, first agreed in 1972, for [[duplex (telecommunicatio |
s, in the marshes near the studio. The police proceeded to keep the area secured while they investigated the strange [[paranormal]] events surrounding Kong. The Gorillaz spent the interim period working on their movie, while living in a large rented home in the [[Hollywood Hills]].
Alas, the film was not meant to be, due in part to extensive over-partying, in-fighting, and disagreements with producers, directors, and a notable incident of Murdoc getting himself banned from the [[Playboy Mansion]] for stealing ashtrays. Understandably, at this point the Gorillaz went on a year and half hiatus, each of the members going their separate ways to find themselves. Murdoc headed to [[Mexico]] to booze it up in [[Tijuana]] brothels, getting himself arrested for passing bad cheques in the process. He enjoyed little company in his Mexican jail cell aside from his raven, Cortez, and two Mexican mobsters who would later help break him out. 2D went back home to work for his father at his carnival, re-establish his grip on reality, and come to terms with his newfound pop icon status with the ladies.
Russel disappeared into the States to literally and figuratively exorcise his personal demons, regrettably including the ghost of Del, leaving Russel a mentally and spiritually exhausted wandering shadow of the man he once was. After shambling around Los Angeles for some time, Russel was taken in by [[Ike Turner]] and helped to recover, and while living in Turner's basement Russel recorded his own solo album which was shelved due to strange supernatural activity inherent in the music itself, which Russel described as something of a "cosmic disruption".
Noodle travelled to Japan, in a fruitful attempt to uncover the secrets of her own past which included not only the revelation that she was a test subject in a secret government super soldier project, but that she also speaks fluent English. Armed with her newfound knowledge and iron resolve, Noodle was the first to return to Kong Studios. There she went to task battling the [[zombie]] and monster-infested darkness of the building, set up the "Search For A Star" contest, and began the process of pulling the band back together to record their new album, ''Demon Days''.
The album was major success leaving Gorillaz to go on a few live shows. At the [[Grammys]] they even played side by side with [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]]. But early in 2006, a few mysteries shrouded Kong Studios. The belongings in Noodle's room were being packed into boxes as if she were moving some where. The Windmill from the Feel Good Inc. single appeared tied to the building. Nobody knows exactly what is happening at this point but the future most likely holds the answers.
==Band members==
===Cartoon members===
*'''2D''' (about 28, born in [[1978]]) - [[vocals]], [[Keyboard instrument|keyboard]]
*'''Noodle''' (15, born in [[1991]]) - [[guitar]], [[backing vocals]]
*'''Russel Hobbs''' (about 31, born in [[1975]]) - [[drums]], [[percussion instrument|percussion]]
*'''Murdoc Niccals''' (40, born [[June 6]], [[1966]]) - [[Bass guitar|bass]]
In phase one, '''[[Del tha Funkee Homosapien|Del]]''', the blue phantom in the "[[Clint Eastwood (song)|Clint Eastwood]]" & "[[Rock the House]]" music videos and the Gorilla Bite "[[Jump The Gut]]" was, one could say, another band member. In 2003, he was [[Exorcism|exorcised]]; it took Russel a year to recover. (In real life Albarn and Hewlett didn't ask the real Del to come back.)
2D's ex-girlfriend '''Paula''' was the band's original guitarist. She was ultimately dropped and replaced with Noodle after Paula was caught having an affair with Murdoc in the studio restroom. The state of Murdoc's nose today is a direct result of Russel breaking it in seven or eight different places. This would not be the last affair Murdoc would have with one of 2D's girlfriends; the second affair was with [[Rachel Stevens]] of [[S Club 7]]. (In reality, Paula was removed because Albarn & Hewlett thought she was too similar to Murdoc.)
Note that the establishment of Murdoc's birthday and the celebration of it numerous times on the official fansite proves that the cartoon band members do age. The music video for "[[DARE]]" has also seen physical change in Noodle over 4 years. In 2000 when the "[[Tomorrow Comes Today]]" EP was released, the accompanying promotional booklet stated that their ages were 23, 34, 10 and 27. These are not their current ages.
According to the original promotional booklet, Noodle is 14 as of January 2006. However, there seems to be quite a bit of confusion about it, even for Noodle herself. She has repeatedly referred to herself as '13' during 2005. She stated she was '15' during a (live) [[Habbo Hotel]] interview, and in direct interviews (e.g. her 2005 NME interview). Noodle's multiple and varied assertions of her age could be attributed to errors by various people doing promotional work, such as magazine editors.
===Actual members===
There have been waves of speculation and controversy surrounding who is actually behind Gorillaz ever since "Tomorrow Comes Today" was first released. In the half-hour [[Television|TV]] [[mockumentary]] ''Charts Of Darkness'' it was explicitly stated that [[Damon Albarn]] and [[Jamie Hewlett]] were behind the project. However, many people work on various aspects of Gorillaz. To quote Albarn, "There could be fifty [people] here, but there's two."
Many fans believe guest artists listed in the liner notes of the first album complete the band with this lineup: Albarn as 2D, Hewlett or [[Dan The Automator|Dan "The Automator" Nakamura]] as Murdoc, former [[Cibo Matto]] vocalist [[Miho Hatori]] as Noodle, and [[Del Tha Funkee Homosapien]] of [[Deltron 3030]] as Russel.
The band's artwork and music videos are created by [[Zombie Flesh Eaters]] (Hewlett's own company) and [[Passion Pictures]] (animators including [[Pete Candeland]] and ''2000AD'' artist [[Rufus Dayglo]]).
For example, there are several people who make up the identity of "Noodle", including: [[Miho Hatori]] and [[Talking Heads]]' [[Tina Weymouth]], who both provided the singing vocals for Noodle on the first album; [[Haruka Kuroda]], an actress who provides Noodle's speaking voice; [[Rosie Wilson]], who performs Noodle's lead vocal in "[[DARE]]"; or [[Simon Katz]], [[Simon Tong]], and Damon Albarn himself, who have all played guitar for Gorillaz at some point.
During the "hidden" credits to the DVD ''Phase One: Celebrity Take Down'', it states the names of the creators, the voice talents and those responsible for performing live. The list of integral performers in the group changed drastically for the second album, with the exception of Albarn himself.
In short, the Gorillaz as real human beings don't exist. Rather, they represent all the people working on the project. For a more or less complete list of people involved in Gorillaz, see [http://www.gorillaz-unofficial.com/biography/realpeople.htm this site].
==Live performances==
===2001/2002 live shows===
For the tours affiliated with the debut album, the physical band played behind a specially designed screen which covers the stage area. Videos, [[animatics]] and image collages were projected onto the audience side of the screen, while choreographed lights behind the screen lit up silhouettes of the physical band, creating a meld of the physical and animated. For their first tour of the [[United States]], two screens were used; one was simply the animatics, while the second, lower screen displayed the band's silhouettes along with various quotes from interviews.
===2005 radio tour===
Following the release of their ''Demon Days'' album, Gorillaz began an American radio tour. In keeping with the style of the band the 'Demon Detour' featured a set of pre-recorded songs played on select radio stations, along with comments by the four band members.
===2005/2006 live shows===
From [[1 November]]&ndash;[[5 November]] [[2005]], there was a Gorillaz "festival", billed as ''Demon Days Live'' with collaborators from ''Demon Days'' ([[De La Soul]], [[Shaun Ryder]] and [[Roots Manuva]] appearing) and Damon Albarn performing songs from the album live on those five nights at the [[Manchester]] Opera House. The visual element of the evenings was provided by Gorillaz co-creator Jamie Hewlett and the event was filmed by an EMI film crew for a [[DVD]] release in late [[March]] [[2006]].
On [[3 November]] [[2005]], the third night of the festival, the band also appeared at the [[2005 MTV Europe Music Awards]] in [[Lisbon|Lisbon, Portugal]], where they performed live using technology similar to that of [[Pepper's ghost]]. This technology allows the cartoon band members to be projected onto a smoke-filled stage as three-dimensional [[holograms]]. This marked the first time that a band has used this kind of technology, and it is planned to be used in the Gorillaz 2007&ndash;2008 tour. Although the technology limits the band's movements, it creates a feeling that the band members are actually present on the stage.
It has been announced that an American version of ''Demon Days Live'' will take place from [[2 April]]&ndash;[[6 April]] [[2006]] at the famed [[Apollo Theater]] in [[Harlem]].
Gorillaz performed with [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] at the 2006 [[Grammy Awards]][http://rs6.net/tn.jsp?t=nx6hosbab.0.q4nhosbab.leb9ncbab.15094&p=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.undercover.com.au%2Fnews%2F2006%2Ffeb06%2F20060203_madonna.html].
The performance was a [[mash-up]] of the songs Feel Good Inc. and [[Hung Up]]. They performed using the same [[Pepper's ghost]] trick used at the 2005 MTV Europe Awards, only slightly altered. Midway through, Madonna joined the Gorillaz onstage and did a remix of Hung Up and Feel Good Inc. before exiting to her song.
Gorillaz prefromed at the [[BRIT A |
td>
<th colspan=4 border=0>2nd base</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>U</th>
<th>C</th>
<th>A</th>
<th>G</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th rowspan="4" border="0">1st<br />base</th>
<th>U</th>
<td>
UUU (Phe/F)[[Phenylalanine]]<br />
UUC (Phe/F)[[Phenylalanine]]<br />
UUA (Leu/L)[[Leucine]]<br />
UUG (Leu/L)[[Leucine]], ''Start''<br />
</td>
<td>
UCU (Ser/S)[[Serine]]<br />
UCC (Ser/S)[[Serine]]<br />
UCA (Ser/S)[[Serine]]<br />
UCG (Ser/S)[[Serine]]<br />
</td>
<td>
UAU (Tyr/Y)[[Tyrosine]]<br />
UAC (Tyr/Y)[[Tyrosine]]<br />
UAA Ochre (''Stop'')<br />
UAG Amber (''Stop'')<br />
</td>
<td>
UGU (Cys/C)[[Cysteine]]<br />
UGC (Cys/C)[[Cysteine]]<br />
UGA Opal (''Stop'')<br />
UGG (Trp/W)[[Tryptophan]]<br />
</td>
<td>
U <br />
C <br />
A <br />
G <br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>C</th>
<td>
CUU (Leu/L)[[Leucine]]<br />
CUC (Leu/L)[[Leucine]]<br />
CUA (Leu/L)[[Leucine]]<br />
CUG (Leu/L)[[Leucine]], ''Start''<br />
</td>
<td>
CCU (Pro/P)[[Proline]]<br />
CCC (Pro/P)[[Proline]]<br />
CCA (Pro/P)[[Proline]]<br />
CCG (Pro/P)[[Proline]]<br />
</td>
<td>
CAU (His/H)[[Histidine]]<br />
CAC (His/H)[[Histidine]]<br />
CAA (Gln/Q)[[Glutamine]]<br />
CAG (Gln/Q)[[Glutamine]]<br />
</td>
<td>
CGU (Arg/R)[[Arginine]]<br />
CGC (Arg/R)[[Arginine]]<br />
CGA (Arg/R)[[Arginine]]<br />
CGG (Arg/R)[[Arginine]]<br />
</td>
<td>
U <br />
C <br />
A <br />
G <br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>A</th>
<td>
AUU (Ile/I)[[Isoleucine]], ''Start''<sup>2</sup><br />
AUC (Ile/I)[[Isoleucine]]<br />
AUA (Ile/I)[[Isoleucine]]<br />
AUG (Met/M)[[Methionine]], ''Start''<sup>1</sup><br />
</td>
<td>
ACU (Thr/T)[[Threonine]]<br />
ACC (Thr/T)[[Threonine]]<br />
ACA (Thr/T)[[Threonine]]<br />
ACG (Thr/T)[[Threonine]]<br />
</td>
<td>
AAU (Asn/N)[[Asparagine]]<br />
AAC (Asn/N)[[Asparagine]]<br />
AAA (Lys/K)[[Lysine]]<br />
AAG (Lys/K)[[Lysine]]<br />
</td>
<td>
AGU (Ser/S)[[Serine]]<br />
AGC (Ser/S)[[Serine]]<br />
AGA (Arg/R)[[Arginine]]<br />
AGG (Arg/R)[[Arginine]]<br />
</td>
<td>
U <br />
C <br />
A <br />
G <br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>G</th>
<td>
GUU (Val/V)[[Valine]]<br />
GUC (Val/V)[[Valine]]<br />
GUA (Val/V)[[Valine]]<br />
GUG (Val/V)[[Valine]], ''Start''<sup>2</sup><br />
</td>
<td>
GCU (Ala/A)[[Alanine]]<br />
GCC (Ala/A)[[Alanine]]<br />
GCA (Ala/A)[[Alanine]]<br />
GCG (Ala/A)[[Alanine]]<br />
</td>
<td>
GAU (Asp/D)[[Aspartic acid]]<br />
GAC (Asp/D)[[Aspartic acid]]<br />
GAA (Glu/E)[[Glutamic acid]]<br />
GAG (Glu/E)[[Glutamic acid]]<br />
</td>
<td>
GGU (Gly/G)[[Glycine]]<br />
GGC (Gly/G)[[Glycine]]<br />
GGA (Gly/G)[[Glycine]]<br />
GGG (Gly/G)[[Glycine]]<br />
</td>
<td>
U <br />
C <br />
A <br />
G <br />
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<sup>1</sup>The codon AUG both codes for methionine and serves as an initiation site: the first AUG in an [[mRNA]]'s coding region is where translation into protein begins.
<br />
<sup>2</sup>This is a start codon for [[prokaryotes]] only.
==Table 2: Reverse codon table==
<table border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
<caption>
This table shows the 20 standard amino acids used in proteins, and the codons that code for each amino acid.
</caption>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="top">'''Ala'''</td>
<td valign="top">A</td>
<td valign="top">GCU, GCC, GCA, GCG</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">'''Leu'''</td>
<td valign="top">L</td>
<td valign="top">UUA, UUG, CUU, CUC, CUA,
CUG </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="top">'''Arg'''</td>
<td valign="top">R</td>
<td valign="top">CGU, CGC, CGA, CGG, AGA, AGG</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">'''Lys'''</td>
<td valign="top">K</td>
<td valign="top">AAA, AAG</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="top">'''Asn'''</td>
<td valign="top">N</td>
<td valign="top">AAU, AAC</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">'''Met'''</td>
<td valign="top">M</td>
<td valign="top">AUG</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="top">'''Asp'''</td>
<td valign="top">D</td>
<td valign="top">GAU, GAC</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">'''Phe'''</td>
<td valign="top">F</td>
<td valign="top">UUU, UUC</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="top">'''Cys'''</td>
<td valign="top">C</td>
<td valign="top">UGU, UGC</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">'''Pro'''</td>
<td valign="top">P</td>
<td valign="top">CCU, CCC, CCA, CCG</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="top">'''Gln'''</td>
<td valign="top">Q</td>
<td valign="top">CAA, CAG</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">'''Ser'''</td>
<td valign="top">S</td>
<td valign="top">UCU, UCC, UCA, UCG, AGU,AGC</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="top">'''Glu'''</td>
<td valign="top">E</td>
<td valign="top">GAA, GAG</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">'''Thr'''</td>
<td valign="top">T</td>
<td valign="top">ACU, ACC, ACA, ACG</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="top">'''Gly'''</td>
<td valign="top">G</td>
<td valign="top">GGU, GGC, GGA, GGG</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">'''Trp'''</td>
<td valign="top">W</td>
<td valign="top">UGG</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="top">'''His'''</td>
<td valign="top">H</td>
<td valign="top">CAU, CAC</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">'''Tyr'''</td>
<td valign="top">Y</td>
<td valign="top">UAU, UAC</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="top">'''Ile'''</td>
<td valign="top">I</td>
<td valign="top">AUU, AUC, AUA</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">'''Val'''</td>
<td valign="top">V</td>
<td valign="top">GUU, GUC, GUA, GUG</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="top">'''''Start'''''</td>
<td valign="top"></td>
<td valign="top">AUG, CUG, UUG, GUG, AUU</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">'''''Stop'''''</td>
<td valign="top"></td>
<td valign="top">UAG, UGA, UAA</td>
</tr>
</table>
[[Marshall W. Nirenberg]] and [[Heinrich J. Matthaei]] at the [[National Institutes of Health]] performed the experiments that first elucidated the correspondence between the codons and the amino acids that they code. [[Har Gobind Khorana]] expanded on Nirenberg's work and found the codes for the amino acids that Nirenberg's methods could not find. Khorana and Nirenberg won a share of the 1968 [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] for this work.
==Technical details==
=== Start/stop codons ===
In classical genetics, the stop codons were given names: UAG was ''amber'', UGA was ''opal'', and UAA was ''ochre''. These names were originally the names of the specific genes in which mutation of each of these stop codons was first detected.
Translation starts with a chain initiation codon (start codon). Unlike stop codons, the codon alone is not sufficient to begin the process; nearby initiation sequences are also required to induce transcription into [[mRNA]] and binding by [[ribosome]]s. The most notable start codon is AUG, which also codes for methionine. CUG and UUG, and in [[prokaryotes]] GUG and AUU, also function as start codons, but occur much less frequently.
Stop codons are also called [[Terminator (genetics)|terminators]].
=== Degeneracy of the genetic code ===
Many codons are '''degenerate''' or '''redundant''', meaning that two or more codons may code for the same amino acid. Degenerate codons typically differ in their third positions; e. |
ublin|St Patrick's Cathedral]]. The outer orbital route runs largely along the natural circle formed by Dublin's two canals, the [[Grand Canal of Ireland|Grand Canal]] and the [[Royal Canal of Ireland|Royal Canal]], as well as the North and South Circular Roads.
====Public transport====
[[Image:Ireland_-_Dublin_-_Tram.jpg|[[Luas]] Tram|thumb]]
The [[Dublin Area Rapid Transit]] system is the only electrified railway in the country and serves stations at regular intervals on the railway line along the east coast. A two-line [[light rail]] system called [[Luas]] opened in 2004 and has proved popular in the (limited) areas it serves, although the lack of a link between the two lines is widely criticised. It is hoped a metro system linking Dublin Airport to the city will be the next major infrastructural project.
The bulk of the public transport system in Dublin is made up of bus services operated by [[Bus Átha Cliath]] (Dublin Bus), which operates a network of nearly 200 daytime routes (identified by number and sometimes suffixed with a letter, e.g. 40, 40A, 40B, 40C, 40D) and 24 "Nitelink" overnight services which run on Monday to Saturday nights, which are identified by a number suffixed with "N" e.g. 40N). Apart from some tourist buses, all Dublin Bus' services are one-man operated, and daytime fares are determined by the number of fare stages travelled through — fares are payable in coin and only the exact fare is acceptable — if passengers overpay, they are issued "change tickets" which must be presented at the Dublin Bus office in O'Connell Street to be converted to cash. Alternatively, various pre-paid tickets and passes can be bought from Dublin Bus or its agents, and are processed by a validating machine on the right of the entrance door of the bus. Nitelink buses charge a flat fare regardless of the distance travelled.
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Liffey_boat.jpg| The [[Liffey]] is finally being exploited for Dublin's transport|thumb]] -->A number of other bus companies provide services in Dublin, including [[Bus Éireann]] which provides services to the more distant parts of Dublin's ever-widening commuter belt. In the absence of an overall transport authority in Dublin, obtaining information about all public transport options available for a particular journey can take some time.
The Irish Government has launched a [[Transport 21|national transport plan]] which is expected to cost the government '''€34.4 billion over the next 10 years'''. Most of this will go towards the [[Dublin Port Tunnel]], seven new LUAS projects, two [[Metro]] lines, [[DART]] extensions and an underground station at [[St Stephen's Green]] integrating all services. However Irish transport plans tend to go massively over-budget. The best example is the Port Tunnel which has gone over-budget all the way in to the record books.
The Port Tunnel was originally envisaged as a single bore, two lane road to cater primarily for trucks, and which by charging no toll on trucks an extorionate toll on cars to deter their custom, would not need substantial tolling infrastructure. It has been built to motorway standard as two separate tunnels to cater for all traffic and all traffic will be tolled. The tunnels are significantly deeper than originally planned to reduce disturbance to residential areas, and had to be built one kilometre longer to reach this depth and requiried many more ancillary works to facilitate this, such as demolition and rebuilding of existing bridges.
===Entertainment===
[[Image:The_Helix.jpg|right|thumb|300px|[[The Helix|The Helix Theatre]]]]
There is a vibrant night life in Dublin — the most internationally notorious area for these activities is the [[Temple Bar, Dublin|Temple Bar]] area south of the Liffey. This area has become synonymous with stag and hen parties and tourists, causing many locals to steer clear of the area.
There are several theatres within the city centre, the largest of which include the [[Abbey Theatre]], the [[Gate Theatre]], the [[Olympia Theatre]], and the [[Gaiety Theatre]], which opens its doors after the evening theatre production to host a variety of live music, dancing, and films. The Gaiety's bars are open later than any others in the city. The largest theatre in the city is the Mahony Hall in [[The Helix]] at [[Dublin City University]] in [[Glasnevin]].
There are two large cinemas in the city centre; The [[Savoy Cinema]] and the Cineworld Cinema (formerly [[UGC]]) are located north of the Liffey. Alternative and special-interest cinema can be found in the [[Irish Film Institute]] in Temple Bar, and in the Screen Cinema on d'Olier St.
===Industry===
Probably the most famous industry in Dublin is brewing: [[Guinness]] has been brewed at the [[St. James's Gate Brewery]] since [[1759]].
During the [[Celtic Tiger]] years of the mid to late nineties a large number of pharmaceutical and information technology companies have located in Dublin and its suburbs and the large volume of computer industry in Dublin has led to it being referred to as the [[Silicon Valley]] of [[Europe]]. Microsoft's [[Europe, the Middle East and Africa|EMEA]] Operations Centre is located in [[Sandyford Industrial Estate]] to the south of the city and Google and Amazon have established operational bases in the city. Intel and Hewlett-Packard have large manufacturing plants in [[Leixlip]], [[County Kildare|Co. Kildare]] to the west of Dublin. [[Google]], [[Yahoo!]] and [[PayPal]] also have their European headquarters in Dublin.
==Government==
===City Government===
[[Image:Dublincityhall.jpg|right|300px|framed|[[City Hall, Dublin|Dublin City Hall]]<br /><small>formerly the Royal Exchange</small>]]
Dublin City is governed by ''Dublin City Council'' (formerly called ''[[Dublin Corporation]]'') which is presided over by the [[Lord Mayor of Dublin]], who is elected for a yearly term and resides in the [[Mansion House, Dublin|Mansion House]], which first became the residence of the Lord Mayor in [[1715]]. Dublin City Council is based in two major buildings. Its headquarters is in [[Dublin City Hall]], the former ''Royal Exchange'' taken over for city government use in the [[1850s]]. Many of its administrative staff are based in the controversial ''Civic Offices'', built on top of what had been one of the best preserved [[Viking]] sites in the world. The Corporation's (as it was then) decision to bulldoze the historic site proved one of the most controversial in modern Irish history, with thousands of people, including medieval historian Fr. [[F.X. Martin]] and Senator [[Mary Robinson]] (later President of Ireland) marching to try to stop the destruction. The destruction of the site on [[Wood Quay]] and the building of a set of offices known as ''The Bunkers'' (because of their ugly appearance) is generally seen as one of the most disastrous acts against Ireland's heritage since independence, with even Dublin Corporation admitting subsequently that it was ashamed of its action. Originally, there were to be four of these 'bunkers' built but only two were ever completed. Instead the river frontage is a less brutal office block designed by the firm Scott Tallon Walker. Completed in 1994, it boasts a leafy atrium and fine views from many of its offices. Council meetings take place in City Hall, one of Dublin's finest buildings and located on Dame Street. It was built to the winning design of Thomas Cooley. In an architectural competition, James Gandon was the runner-up with a scheme that many people favoured. Originally from England, Gandon is one of Ireland's favourite adopted sons and designed both the [[Four Courts]] and [[the Custom House]], two of the city's most magnificent classical buildings.
===Twinned Cities===
* {{flagicon|Spain}} - [[Barcelona]], [[Spain]]
* {{flagicon|UK}} - [[Liverpool]], [[United Kingdom]]
* {{flagicon|USA}} - [[San Jose, California]], [[United States]]
===The Dublin Region===
The Dublin Region{{fn|3}} consists of the City of Dublin and the area which was formerly known as [[County Dublin]], and covers an area of 922 km&sup2; and contains over a million inhabitants. In [[1994]] County Dublin (the area ''excluding'' the city) was sub-divided into three, each new area with county-level status and its own administration, namely:
* [[Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown]]
* [[Fingal, Ireland|Fingal]]
* [[South Dublin]]
Administration of the Dublin Region as a whole is now co-ordinated by the [[Dublin Regional Authority]].
===National Government===
[[Image:Leinsterhouseirl.jpg|right|300px|framed|[[Leinster House]]<br><small>18th century ducal palace now the seat of parliament</small>]]
The Republic of Ireland's National Parliament (called the ''[[Oireachtas]]'') consists of the President of Ireland and two houses, [[Dáil Éireann]] (the House of Representatives) and [[Seanad Éireann]] (Senate). All three are based in Dublin. The [[President of Ireland]] lives in [[Áras an Uachtaráin]], the former residence of the [[Governor-General of the Irish Free State]] in the city's largest park, [[Phoenix Park]]. Both houses of the Oireachtas meet in [[Leinster House]], a former ducal palace on the south side of the city. The building has been the home of Irish parliaments since the creation of the [[Irish Free State]] on [[December 6]], [[1922]].
[[Image:gbuildings.jpg|left|thumb|220px|[[Irish Government Buildings|Government Buildings]]<br><small>Formerly the [[Royal College of Science for Ireland|Royal College of Science]]</small>]]
The Irish Government is based in the Irish [[Irish Government Buildings|''Government Buildings'']], a large building designed by Sir [[Aston Webb]], the architect who created the [[Edwardian]] facade to [[Buckingham Palace]]. Initially what is now Government Buildings was designed for use as the [[Royal College of Science (Ireland)|''Royal College of Science'']], the last m |
s of simple instructions arranged by people known as [[programmer]]s.
In practice, people do not normally write the instructions for computers directly in machine language. Such programming is incredibly tedious and highly error-prone, making programmers very unproductive. Instead, programmers describe the desired actions in a "high level" [[programming language]] which is then translated into the machine language automatically by special computer programs ([[Interpreter (computing)|interpreter]]s and [[compiler]]s). Some programming languages map very closely to the machine language, such as [[Assembly Language]] (low level languages); at the other end, languages like [[Prolog]] are based on abstract principles far removed from the details of the machine's actual operation (high level languages). The language chosen for a particular task depends on the nature of the task, the skill set of the programmers, tool availability and, often, the requirements of the customers (for instance, projects for the US military were often required to be in the [[Ada programming language]]).
''[[Computer software]]'' is an alternative term for computer programs; it is a more inclusive phrase and includes all the ancillary material accompanying the program needed to do useful tasks. For instance, a [[Computer and video games|video game]] includes not only the program itself, but also data representing the pictures, sounds, and other material needed to create the virtual environment of the game. A [[computer application]] is a piece of computer software provided to many computer users, often in a retail environment. The stereotypical modern example of an application is perhaps the [[office suite]], a set of interrelated programs for performing common office tasks.
Going from the extremely simple capabilities of a single machine language instruction to the myriad capabilities of application programs means that many computer programs are extremely large and complex. A typical example is the [[Mozilla Firefox|Firefox web browser]], created from roughly 2 million lines of computer code in the [[C++]] [[programming language]]; there are many projects of even bigger scope, built by large teams of programmers. The management of this enormous complexity is key to making such projects possible; programming languages, and programming practices, enable the task to be divided into smaller and smaller subtasks until they come within the capabilities of a single programmer in a reasonable period.
Nevertheless, the process of developing software remains slow, unpredictable, and error-prone; the discipline of [[software engineering]] has attempted, with some partial success, to make the process quicker and more productive and improve the quality of the end product.
====Libraries and operating systems====
Soon after the development of the computer, it was discovered that certain tasks were required in many different programs; an early example was computing some of the standard mathematical functions. For the purposes of efficiency, standard versions of these were collected in libraries and made available to all who required them. A particularly common task set related to handling the gritty details of "talking" to the various I/O devices, so libraries for these were quickly developed.
By the 1960s, with computers in wide industrial use for many purposes, it became common for them to be used for many different jobs within an organization. Soon, special software to automate the scheduling and execution of these many jobs became available. The combination of managing "hardware" and scheduling jobs became known as the "[[operating system]]"; the classic example of this type of early operating system was [[OS/360]] by [[IBM]].
The next major development in operating systems was [[timesharing]] — the idea that multiple users could use the machine "simultaneously" by keeping all of their programs in memory, executing each user's program for a short time so as to provide the illusion that each user had their own computer. Such a development required the operating system to provide each user's programs with a "virtual machine" such that one user's program could not interfere with another's (by accident or design). The range of devices that operating systems had to manage also expanded; a notable one was [[hard disk]]s; the idea of individual "files" and a hierarchical structure of "directories" (now often called folders) greatly simplified the use of these devices for permanent storage. Security access controls, allowing computer users access only to files, directories and programs they had permissions to use, were also common.
Perhaps the last major addition to the operating system were tools to provide programs with a standardized [[graphical user interface]]. While there are few technical reasons why a GUI has to be tied to the rest of an operating system, it allows the operating system vendor to encourage all the software for their operating system to have a similar looking and acting interface.
Outside these "core" functions, operating systems are usually shipped with an array of other tools, some of which may have little connection with these original core functions but have been found useful by enough customers for a provider to include them. For instance, Apple's [[Mac OS X|Mac OS X]] ships with a [[Video editing software|digital video editor]] application.
Not all operating systems provide all of the above functions; operating systems for smaller computers typically provide fewer, such as the highly minimal operating systems for early [[microcomputer]]s. [[Embedded computer]]s may have a specialized operating system, or sometimes none at all. Instead, the custom programs written for their task perform all necessary functions that would be performed by an operating system in less specialized roles.
==Computer applications==
[[Image:Industrial Robotics in car production.jpg|200px|thumb|Computer-controlled robots are now common in industrial manufacture.]]
[[Image:Abyss.jpg|200px|thumb|[[Computer-generated imagery]] (CGI) is a central ingredient in motion picture visual effects. The seawater creature in ''[[The Abyss]]'' ([[1989]]) marked the acceptance of CGI in the visual effects industry.]]
[[Image:Furby.JPG|200px|thumb|[[Furby]]: many modern, mass-produced toys would not be possible without cheap embedded computers.]]
The first digital computers, with their large size and cost, mainly performed scientific calculations, often to support military objectives. The [[ENIAC]] was originally designed to calculate ballistics-firing tables for [[artillery]], but it was also used to calculate neutron cross-sectional densities to help in the design of the [[hydrogen bomb]]. This calculation, performed in December, 1945 through January, 1946 and involving over a million [[punch card]]s of [[data]], showed the design then under consideration would fail. (Many of the most powerful [[supercomputer]]s available today are also used for [[nuclear weapon]]s [[simulation]]s.) The [[CSIRAC|CSIR Mk I]], the first Australian stored-program computer, evaluated rainfall patterns for the [[catchment area]] of the [[Snowy Mountains]] Scheme, a large [[hydroelectric]] generation project. Others were used in [[cryptanalysis]], for example the first programmable (though not general-purpose) digital electronic computer, [[Colossus computer|Colossus]], built in 1943 during [[World War II]]. Despite this early focus of scientific and military engineering applications, computers were quickly used in other areas.
From the beginning, stored program computers were applied to business problems. The [[LEO computer|LEO]], a stored program-computer built by [[J. Lyons and Co.]] in the [[United Kingdom]], was operational and being used for inventory management and other purposes 3 years before [[IBM]] built their first commercial stored-program computer. Continual reductions in the cost and size of computers saw them adopted by ever-smaller organizations. Moreover, with the invention of the [[microprocessor]] in the 1970s, it became possible to produce inexpensive computers. In the 1980s, [[personal computers]] became popular for many tasks, including [[book-keeping]], writing and printing documents, calculating forecasts and other repetitive mathematical tasks involving [[spreadsheet]]s.
As computers have become less expensive, they have been used extensively in the creative arts as well. Sound, still pictures, and video are now routinely created (through [[synthesizers]], [[computer graphics]] and [[computer animation]]), and near-universally edited by computer. They have also been used for entertainment, with the [[Computer and video games|video game]] becoming a huge industry.
Computers have been used to control mechanical devices since they became small and cheap enough to do so; indeed, a major spur for integrated circuit technology was building a computer small enough to guide the [[Apollo program|Apollo missions]] and the [[Minuteman missile]], two of the first major applications for embedded computers. Today, it is almost rarer to find a powered mechanical device ''not'' controlled by a computer than to find one that is at least partly so. Perhaps the most famous computer-controlled mechanical devices are [[robot]]s, machines with more-or-less human appearance and some subset of their capabilities. Industrial robots have become commonplace in [[mass production]], but general-purpose human-like robots have not lived up to the promise of their fictional counterparts and remain either toys or research projects.
Robotics, indeed, is the physical expressions of the field of [[artificial intelligence]], a discipline whose exact boundaries are fuzzy but to some degree involves attempting to give computers capabilities that they do not currently possess but humans do. Over the ye |
needed to create the fuel in the first place may reduce the ultimate energy efficiency of the system to below that of the most efficient [[gasoline]] [[internal-combustion]] engines; this is especially true if the hydrogen has to be compressed to high pressures or liquified, as it does in automobile applications (the [[electrolysis]] of water is itself a rather inefficient process, usually requiring at least 50 % more electricity than the energy stored in the produced hydrogen.). However, even the most efficient internal-combustion engines are not very efficient in absolute terms; furthermore, gasoline is not a primary energy source, because crude oil has to be treated in a [[refinery]] to obtain gasoline.
As an alternative to electrolysis, hydrogen can be generated from [[methane]] (the primary component of [[natural gas]]) with approximately 80% efficiency, or with other [[hydrocarbon]]s to a varying degree of efficiency. The hydrocarbon-conversion method releases [[greenhouse gas]]es, but, since the production is concentrated in one facility, and not distributed on every single vehicle or utility, it is possible to separate the gases and dispose of them properly, for example by injecting them in an oil or gas reservoir. A CO<sub>2</sub> injection project has been started by [[Norway|Norwegian]] company [[Statoil]] in the [[North Sea]], at the [[Sleipner]] field. [http://www.statoil.com/STATOILCOM/SVG00990.NSF?opendatabase&lang=en&artid=01A5A730136900A3412569B90069E947]
Other types of fuel cells do not face these problems, however. For example, [[biological fuel cell]]s take [[glucose]] and [[methanol]] from food scraps and convert it into hydrogen and food for the bacteria.
However, another environmental problem faced by all types of hydrogen fuel cells has been pointed out in a paper published in Science magazine by a group of [[Caltech]] scientists. They note that if hydrogen fuel cell usage becomes widespread enough to replace [[gasoline]] [[internal-combustion]] engines, small amounts of hydrogen leaking from storage containers and pipelines will have a detrimental impact on the Earth's [[ozone layer]]. However, their findings remain controversial, and their assumptions regarding the amount of hydrogen leaked have been disputed by industry officials.
Finally, roughly 50% of all electricity produced in the United States comes from coal. The problem is that coal is a relatively dirty energy source. If electrolysis (a process that uses electricity) is used to create hydrogen using energy from power plants, it is essentially creating hydrogen fuel from coal. Though the fuel cell itself will only emit heat and water as waste, the problem of pollution is still present at power plants.
===Fuel cell design issues===
To make fuel cells economically competitive, there are many practical problems to be overcome as well. Water management remains a key problem in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells or (PEMFCs) where the membrane must be hydrated, requiring water to be evaporated at precisely the same rate that it is produced. If water is evaporated too quickly, the membrane dries, resistance across it increases, and eventually it will crack, creating a gas "short circuit" where hydrogen and oxygen combine directly, generating heat that will damage the fuel cell. If the water is evaporated too slowly, the electrodes will flood, preventing the reactants from reaching the catalyst and stopping the reaction. Methods to dispose of the excess water are being developed by fuel cell companies.
At the same time many other variables must be juggled, including temperature throughout the cell (which changes and can sometimes destroy a cell through thermal loading), reactant and product levels at various cells. Materials must be chosen to do various tasks which none fill completely. Durability and lifetime of the cells can be serious issues for some cells, low power densities for others. Putting all of these factors together hasn't been accomplished decisively yet, and remains the challenge.
In vehicle usage, many problems are amplified. For instance, cars must be required to start in any weather conditions a person can reasonably expect to encounter: about 80% of the world's car park is legally subject to the requirement of being able to start from sub-zero temperatures. Fuel cells have no difficulty operating in the hottest locations, but the coldest do present a problem. Honda's FCX was the first fuel cell powered vehicle to do so, but temperatures below -20 degrees Celsius still prohibit the fuel cell stack from starting.
===Fuel cell applications===
{{Seedetails|Hydrogen economy}}
Fuel cells are very useful as power sources in remote locations, such as spacecraft, remote weather stations, large parks, rural locations, and in certain military applications. A fuel cell system running on hydrogen can be compact, lightweight and has no major moving parts.
A near-term application is combined heat and power (CHP) for office buildings and factories. This type of system generates constant electric power (selling excess power back to the grid when it is not consumed), and at the same time produce hot air and water from the waste heat. [[Phosphoric-acid fuel cell]]s (PAFC) comprise the largest segment of existing CHP products worldwide and can provide combined efficiencies close to 80% (45-50% electric + remainder as thermal). The largest manufacturer of PAFC fuel cells is [[UTX|UTC Power]], a division of [[United Technologies Corporation]]. [[Molten-carbonate fuel cell]]s have also been installed in these applications, and [[Solid-oxide fuel cell]] prototypes exist.
Because fuel cells have a high cost per kilo[[watt]], and because their efficiency decreases with increasing power density, they are usually not considered for applications with high load variations. In particular, they are not suited for energy storage systems in small and medium scale. An electrolyzer and fuel cell would return less than 50 percent of the input energy (this is known as ''round-trip efficiency''), while a much cheaper [[lead-acid battery]] might return about 90 percent.
However, since electrolyzer systems do not store fuel, but rather rely on external storage units, they can be successfully applied in large-scale energy storage, rural areas being one example. In this case, batteries would have to be largely oversized to meet the storage demand, but fuel cells only need a larger storage unit (typically cheaper than an electrochemical device).
The use of fuel cells for cogeneration of electricity and hot water in households is a potential long-term application, with various pilot programs launched in 2005 across the industry.
===Hydrogen vehicles and refuelling===
{{seedetails|Hydrogen vehicle}}
The first hydrogen refueling station was opened in [[Reykjavík]], [[Iceland]] on April [[2003]]. This station serves three buses built by [[DaimlerChrysler]] that are in service in the [[public transport]] net of Reykjavík. The station produces the hydrogen it needs by itself, with an electrolysing unit (produced by [[Norsk Hydro]]), and does not need refilling: all that enters is electricity and water. [[Royal Dutch Shell|Shell]] is also a partner in the project. The station has no roof, in order to allow any leaked hydrogen to escape to the atmosphere.
There are numerous prototype or production cars and buses based on fuel cell technology being researched or manufactured. Research is ongoing at companies like BMW, Hyundai, and Nissan, among many others. However, a practical commercial automobile is not expected until at least 2010 according to the industry. There are, however, fuel cell-powered buses currently active or in production, such as a fleet of Thor buses with [[UTX|UTC Power]] fuel cells in California, operated by SunLine Transit Agency [http://www.utcpower.com/fs/com/bin/fs_com_Page/0,5433,03552,00.html].
Currently, a team of college students called [[Energy-Quest]] is planning to take a hydrogen fuel cell powered boat around the world (as well as other projects using efficient or renewable fuels). Their venture is called the ''Triton''.
[[Sodium boro hydride]] (NaBH<sub>4</sub>) a chemical compound may hold future promise due to the ease at which hydrogen can be stored under normal atmospheric pressures in automobiles that have fuel cells.
<!--
== Research & Development ==
*'''2004'''
*'''2005'''
**August
***[[Georgia Institude of Technology]] reserachers use [[triazole]] to raise the operating temperature of [[Proton exchange membrane fuel cell|PEM]] fuel cells from below 100°C to over 120°C, claiming this will require less carbon-monoxide purification of the hydrogen fuel [http://www.gatech.edu/news-room/release.php?id=618 1]
**September
***[[University of Denmark]] scientists announced in September 2005 a method of storing hydrogen in the form of [[ammonia]] saturated into a salt tablet. They claim it will be an inexpensive and safe storage method.[http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/FuelCellToday/IndustryInformation/IndustryInformationExternal/NewsDisplayArticle/0,1602,6487,00.html 1]
-->
== Suggested applications ==
* [[Base load power plant]]s
* [[Mobile phone]] power
* [[Electric vehicle]]s
* [[Auxiliary power]]
* Off-[[electric power transmission|grid]] power supply
* Portable [[electronics]]
==See also==
=== Types of fuel cells ===
* [[Alkaline fuel cell]]
* [[Biological fuel cell]]
* [[Sodium borohydride#Fuel cells|Direct borohydride fuel cell]]
* [[Direct-methanol fuel cell]]
* [[Formic acid fuel cell]]
* [[Molten-carbonate fuel cell]]
* [[Phosphoric-acid fuel cell]]
* [[Proton exchange membrane fuel cell|Proton-exchange fuel cell]]
* [[Reversible fuel cell]]
* [[Solid-oxide fuel cell]]
* [[Zinc fuel cell]] ('Air' fuel cell)
=== Related Technologies ===
* [[Hydrogen reformer]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/fuelcells/fc_typ |
lly writes his own [[screenplay|scripts]], thinking about them for months or years before starting the actual process of writing, which he views as somewhat tedious. His earlier films are carefully structured, and are either based on [[play|plays]] or written with other authors, usually as a matter of convenience. Bergman states that in his later works, when his characters sometimes start wanting to do things different from what he had intended, he lets them, calling the results "disastrous" when he doesn't. Throughout his career, Bergman increasingly lets his actors [[improvisation|improvise]] their dialogue. In his latest films, he has written just the ideas behind the dialogue, keeping in mind the general direction he thinks it should take.
Bergman developed a personal "repertory company" of Swedish actors whom he repeatedly cast in his films, including [[Max von Sydow]], [[Bibi Andersson]], [[Harriet Andersson]], [[Gunnar Bjornstrand|Gunnar Björnstrand]], [[Erland Josephson]], and the late [[Ingrid Thulin]]. Norwegian actress [[Liv Ullmann]] was the last to join this group (in the 1966 film ''Persona''), and ultimately became most closely associated with Bergman, both artistically and personally.
Bergman began working with [[Sven Nykvist]], his [[cinematographer]], in [[1953]]. The two of them have sufficient rapport to allow Bergman not to worry about the composition of a shot until the day before it is filmed. On the morning of the shoot, he speaks to Nykvist briefly about the mood and composition he hopes for, and then leaves him to work without interruption or comment until they discuss the next day's work.
When viewing [[daily rushes]], Bergman stresses the importance of being critical but unemotional, claiming that he asks himself not if the work is great or terrible, but if it is sufficient or if it needs to be reshot.
Bergman encourages young directors not to direct any film that does not have a "message," but to wait until one comes along that does, yet admits that he himself is not always sure of the message of some of his films. By Bergman's own accounts, he has never had a problem with funding. He cites two reasons for it: one, that he does not live in the United States, which he views as obsessed with box-office earnings; and two, that his films tend to be low-budget affairs. (''[[Cries and Whispers]]'', for instance, was finished for about $450,000, while ''[[Scenes from a Marriage]]''--a six-episode television feature--cost only $200,000.) Bergman left [[Sweden]] for [[Munich]] when accused of tax evasion. Though he was later cleared of the charges, he remained in Munich and did not film again in Sweden until [[1982]]. In 1982 he directed ''[[Fanny and Alexander]]''. Bergman stated that the film would be his last, and that afterwards he would focus on directing theater. Since then he has directed a number of television specials and written several additional scripts, though he does continue to work in theater. In [[2003]], Bergman, at 84 years old, directed a new film, ''[[Saraband]]'', that represents a departure from his previous works.
When asked about his movies, he says he holds ''[[Persona (movie)|Persona]]'' and ''[[Cries and Whispers]]'' highest in regard, though in an interview in [[2004]], Bergman said that he is 'depressed' by his own films and cannot watch them anymore. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/film/3616037.stm] In these films, he says, he managed to push the medium to its limit. He has denounced the critical classification of three of his films (''[[Through a Glass Darkly]]'', ''[[Winter Light]]'' and ''[[The Silence]]'') as a trilogy: he had no intention of so connecting them, and cannot see any common motifs in them.
His daughter [[Eva Bergman]] (born [[1945]]), is also a director, as is his son [[Daniel Bergman]]. He is also the father of writer [[Linn Ullmann]], with actress [[Liv Ullmann]].
In [[1970]], Bergman received [[The Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award]] at the [[Academy Awards]] ceremony.
==Filmography==
*''[[Saraband]]'' (2003) (TV)
*''[[In The Presence of a Clown]]'' (1997) (''Larmar och gör sig till'') (TV)
*''[[After the Rehearsal]]'' (1984) (''Efter repetitionen'')
*''[[Karin's Face]]'' (1984) (''Karins ansikte'') (TV)
*''[[Fanny and Alexander]]'' (1982) (''Fanny och Alexander'') (won 4 [[Academy Award]]s, including one for [[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film|Best Foreign Language Film]])
*''[[From the Life of the Marionettes]]'' (1980) (''Aus dem Leben der Marionetten'')
*''[[Autumn Sonata]]'' (1978) (''Höstsonaten'')
*''[[The Serpent's Egg (movie)|The Serpent's Egg]]'' (1977) (''Das Schlangenei'')
*''[[The Magic Flute (film)|The Magic Flute]]'' (1975) (''Trollflöjten''), first shown on Swedish television, followed by a cinematic release
*''[[Face to Face (1976 movie)|Face to Face]]'' (1975) (''Ansikte mot ansikte'')
*''[[Scenes from a Marriage]]'' (1973) (''Scener ur ett äktenskap'')
*''[[Cries and Whispers]]'' (1973) (''Viskningar och rop'') (won [[Academy Award for Best Cinematography]])
*''[[The Touch]]'' (1971) (''Beröringen'')
*''[[The Passion of Anna]]'' (1969) (''En passion'')
*''[[Hour of the Wolf]]'' (1968) (''Vargtimmen'')
*''[[The Rite]]'' (1968) (''Riten'') (TV)
*''[[Shame (film)|Shame]]'' (1968) (''Skammen'')
*''[[Persona (movie)|Persona]]'' (1966)
*''[[All These Women]]'' (1964) (''För att inte tala om alla dessa kvinnor'')
*''[[The Silence]]'' (1963) (''Tystnaden'')
*''[[Winter Light]]'' (1963) (''Nattvardsgästerna'')
*''[[Through a Glass Darkly]]'' (1961) (''Såsom i en spegel'') (won [[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film]])
*''[[The Virgin Spring]]'' (1960) (''Jungfrukällan'') (won [[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film]])
*''[[The Devil's Eye]]'' (1960) (''Djävulens öga'')
*''[[Brink of Life]]'' (1958) (''Nära livet'')
*''[[The Magician (1958 film)|The Magician]]'' (1958) (''Ansiktet '')
*''[[Wild Strawberries (movie)|Wild Strawberries]]'' (1957) (''Smultronstället'')
*''[[The Seventh Seal]]'' (1957) (''Det sjunde inseglet'')
*''[[Smiles of a Summer Night]]'' (1955) (''Sommarnattens leende'')
*''[[Dreams (film)|Dreams]]'' (1955) (''Kvinnodröm'')
*''[[A Lesson in Love]]'' (1954) (''En lektion i kärlek'')
*''[[Summer with Monika]]'' (1953) (''Sommaren med Monika'')
*''[[The Naked Night]]'' (1953) (''Gycklarnas afton'')
*''[[Secrets of Women]]'' (1952) (''Kvinnors väntan'')
*''[[Summer Interlude]]'' (1951) (''Sommarlek'')
*''[[To Joy]]'' (1950) (''Till glädje'')
*''[[This Can't Happen Here]]'' (1950) (''Sånt händer inte här'')
*''[[Thirst (film)|Thirst]]'' (1949) (''Törst'')
*''[[Prison (film)|Prison]]'' (1949) (''Fängelse'')
*''[[Port of Call]]'' (1948) (''Hamnstad'')
*''[[Music in Darkness]]'' (1948) (''Musik i mörker'')
*''[[A Ship to India]]'' (1947) (''Skepp till India land'')
*''[[It Rains on Our Love]]'' (1946) (''Det regnar på vår kärlek'')
*''[[Crisis (film)|Crisis]]'' (1946) (''Kris'')
==Screenwriting Works==
*''[[Hets]]'' (''Frenzy'' or ''Torment'' in English) (1944) (Directed by [[Alf Sjöberg]])
*''[[Kvinna utan ansikte]]'' (1947) (Directed by [[Gustaf Molander]])
*''[[Eva (film)|Eva]]'' (1948) (Directed by [[Gustaf Molander]])
*''[[Medan staden sover]]'' (1950) (Directed by [[Lars Erik Kjellgren]])
*''[[Frånskild]]'' (1951) (Directed by [[Gustaf Molander]])
*''[[Sista paret ut]]'' (1956) (Directed by [[Alf Sjöberg]])
*''[[Lustgården]]'' (1961) (Directed by [[Alf Kjellin]])
*''[[The Best Intentions]]'' (1992) (''Den goda viljan'') (Directed by [[Bille August]])
*''[[Söndagsbarn]]'' (1992) (Directed by [[Daniel Bergman]])
*''[[Faithless (2000 film)|Faithless]]'' (2000) (Directed by [[Liv Ullmann]])
==Documentary Works==
*''[[Fårö Documentary]]'' (1969) (''Fårö dokument'')
*''[[Fårö Documentary 1979]]'' (1979) (''Fårö-dokument 1979'')
*''[[Fanny and Alexander Documentary]]'' (1985) (''Dokument Fanny och Alexander'')
==See also==
*[[List of directors]]
==Bibliography==
{{wikiquote}}
*''Bergman on Bergman: Interviews with Ingmar Bergman.'' By Stig Björkman, Torsten Manns, and Jonas Sima; Translated by [[Paul Britten Austin]]. Simon & Schuster, New York. Swedish edition copyright 1970, English translation 1973.
*''Filmmakers on filmmaking : the American Film Institute seminars on motion pictures and television.'' Edited by Joseph McBride. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1983.
*''Images: my life in film'', Ingmar Bergman, Translated by Marianne Ruuth. New York, Arcade Pub., 1994, ISBN 1559701862
*''The Magic Lantern'', Ingmar Bergman, Translated by Joan Tate New York, Viking Press, 1988, ISBN 0670819115
==External links==
===Overviews===
*[http://www.ingmarbergman.se/ Ingmar Bergman Face to Face]
*[http://www.samlaren.org/bergman/ Ingmar Bergman Swedish Posters]
*[http://www.sweden.se/templates/cs/BasicFactsheet____4400.aspx A presentation of Ingmar Bergman] from the website Sweden.se.
*{{imdb name|id=0000005|name=Ingmar Bergman}}
*[http://www.bergmanorama.com/index.htm Bergmanorama: The magic works of Ingmar Bergman]
*[http://www.adherents.com/people/pb/Ingmar_Bergman.html The Religious Affiliation of Ingmar Bergman]
*[http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/02/bergman.html Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database]
===Interviews===
*[http://film.guardian.co.uk/interview/interviewpages/0,,427066,00.html The Guardian/NFT interview with Liv Ullmann by Shane Danielson, January 23, 2001]
*[http://film.guardian.co.uk/News_Story/Exclusive/0,,617467,00.html Bergman talks of his dreams and demons in rare interview, by Xan Brooks, The Guardian, December 12, 2001]
===Other articles===
*[http://film.guardian.co.uk/Century_Of_Films/Story/0,,56897,00.html Derek Malcolm on ''Wild Strawberries'', June 10, 1999]
*[http://film.guardian.co.uk/News_Story/Critic_Review/Guardian_review/0,,435340,00.html Peter Bradshaw on ''Trolösa'', The Guardian, February 9, 2001]
==Bibliographies==
*[http://www.lib.berkeley |
nge how the more distant object is seen. These effects include
** Multiple views of the same object: Observed of quasars whose light passes close to an intervening galaxy.
** Brightening of a star due to the focusing effects of a planet or another star passing in front of it: Such "[[microlensing]]" events are now regularly observed.
** [[Einstein ring]]s and arcs: One object directly behind another can make the more distant object's light appear as a ring. When almost directly behind, the result is an arc. Observed for distant galaxies.
==== Orbital effects ====
These are ways in which the [[celestial mechanics]] of general relativity differs from that of classical mechanics.
* Non-Newtonian [[Precession#Precession of planetary orbits|periapsis precession]]: The [[Apsis|apsides]] of [[orbit]]s [[precess]] more than expected under [[Newton]]'s theory of [[gravity]]. This has been [[Tests of general relativity#Classical tests|confirmed for Mercury]] and observed in several binary [[pulsar]]s.
* <div id="orbital_decay">Orbital decay due to the emission of [[gravitational radiation]]: This has been observed in binary pulsars.</div>
* <div id="geodetic_precess">[[Geodetic precession]]: Because of the curvature of spacetime, the orientation of an orbiting [[gyroscope]] will change over time. This is being tested by [[Gravity Probe B]].</div>
==== Rotational effects ====
These involve the behavior of spacetime around a rotating massive object.
* [[Frame dragging]]: A rotating object will drag the spacetime along with it. This will cause the orientation of a gyroscope to change over time. For a spacecraft in a polar orbit, the direction of this effect is perpendicular to the geodetic precession mentioned [[#geodetic precess|above]]. This prediction is also being tested by [[Gravity Probe B]].
==== Black holes ====
[[Black hole]]s are objects which have gravitationally collapsed behind an [[event horizon]]. In a "classical" black hole, nothing that enters can ever escape. However, [[Stephen Hawking]] has shown that black holes can "leak" energy, a phenomenon called [[Hawking radiation]].
=== Cosmological effects ===
* [[Hubble's Law|Expansion of the universe]]: This is predicted by [[Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker|cosmological solutions]] of the Einstein Field Equations. Its existence was confirmed by [[Edwin Hubble]] in [[1929]].
** [[Cosmological redshift]]: Light from distant galaxies will be redshifted due to their movement away from the observer.
* [[Big Bang]]: The arising of the universe from a primordial [[gravitational singularity|singularity]]
** [[Cosmic background radiation]]: The remnants of the primordial fireball. Discovered by [[Arno Penzias]] and [[Robert Woodrow Wilson|Robert Wilson]] in [[1965]].
* [[Dark energy]]: An unobserved energy that is spread throughout the universe. Recent observations of distant supernovae indicate that the expansion of the universe is accelerating. The Einstein Field Equations can support this type of universe only if 70% of its stress-energy is in the form of this dark energy.
=== Other predictions ===
* The equivalence of inertial mass and gravitational mass: This follows naturally from freefall being inertial motion.
** The [[strong equivalence principle]]: Even a self-gravitating object will respond to an external gravitational field in the same manner as a test particle would. (This is often violated by [[#Alternative theories|alternative theories]].)
* [[Gravitational radiation]]: Orbiting objects and merging neutron stars and/or black holes are expected to emit gravitational radiation.
** Orbital decay (described [[#orbital decay|above]]).
** Binary [[pulsar]] mergers: May create gravitational waves strong enough to be observed here on Earth. Several [[:Category:gravitational wave telescopes|gravitational wave observatories]] are (or will soon be) in operation. However, there are no confirmed observations of gravitational radiation at this time.
** [[Gravitons]]: According to [[quantum mechanics]], gravitational radiation must be composed of quanta called gravitons. General relativity predicts that these will be spin-2 [[subatomic particle|particles]]. They have not been observed.
** Only [[quadrupole]] (and higher order [[multipole]]) moments create gravitational radiation.
*** [[Dipole]] gravitational radiation (prohibited by this prediction) is predicted by some [[#Alternative theories|alternative theories]]. It has not been observed.
== Relationship to other physical theories ==
=== Classical mechanics and special relativity ===
Classical mechanics and special relativity are lumped together here because special relativity is in many ways intermediate between general relativity and classical mechanics, and shares many attributes with classical mechanics.
Note that in the discussion which follows, the [[mathematics of general relativity]] is used heavily. Also note that under the [[principle of minimal coupling]], the physical equations of special relativity can be turned into their general relativity equivalent by replacing the Minkowski metric (''&eta;<sub>ab</sub>'') with the relevant metric of spacetime (''g<sub>ab</sub>'') and by replacing any regular derivatives with covariant derivatives. In the discussions that follow, the change of metrics is implied.
==== Inertia ====
In both classical mechanics and special relativity, space and then spacetime were assumed to be flat. In the language of tensor calculus, this meant that ''R<sup>a</sup><sub>bcd</sub> = 0'', where ''R<sup>a</sup><sub>bcd</sub>'' is the [[Riemann curvature tensor]]. In addition, the coordinate system itself was also assumed to be Cartesian. These restrictions permit inertial motion to be described mathematically as
<math>\ddot{x}^a = 0,</math> where
*''x<sup>a</sup>'' is a position vector,
*<math>\dot{} = \partial / \partial\tau</math>, and
*''&tau;'' is [[proper time]].
Note that in classical mechanics, ''x<sup>a</sup>'' is three-dimensional and ''&tau; &equiv; t'', where ''t'' is coordinate time.
In general relativity, these restrictions on the shape of spacetime and on the coordinate system to be used are lost. Therefore a different definition of inertial motion is required. In relativity, inertial motion occurs along timelike or null [[geodesic]]s as parameterized by proper time. This is expressed mathematically by the [[geodesic equation]]:
<math>\ddot{x}^a + {\Gamma^a}_{bc} \, \dot{x}^b \,\dot{x}^c = 0,</math> where
* <math>{\Gamma^a}_{bc}</math> is a [[Christoffel symbol]] (otherwise known as a [[Levi-Civita connection|connection]]).
Since ''x'' is a rank one tensor, these equations are four in number, with each one describing the second derivative of a coordinate with respect to proper time. (Note that under the [[Minkowski metric]] of special relativity, the values of the connections are all zeros. This is what turns the general relativity geodesic equations into <math>\ddot{x}^a = 0</math> for special relativity.)
==== Gravitation ====
For gravitation, the relationship between Newton's theory of [[gravity]] and general relativity is governed by the [[correspondence principle]]: General relativity must produce the same results as gravity does for the cases where Newtonian physics has been shown to be accurate.
Around a spherically symmetric object, the theory of gravity predicts that objects will be physically accelerated towards the center on the object by the rule <math>\mathbf{F} = M \mathbf{\hat{r}}/r^2</math> where
* M is the mass of the gravitating object,
* r is the distance to the gravitation object, and
* <math>\mathbf{\hat{r}}</math> is a unit vector identifying the direction to the massive object.
In the [[weak-field approximation]] of general relativity, an identical coordinate acceleration must exist. For the Schwarzschild solution (which is the simplest possible spacetime surrounding a massive object), the same acceleration as that which (in Newtonian physics) is created by gravity is obtained when a constant of integration is set equal to ''2m'' (where ''m=MG/c^2''). For more information, see [[Deriving the Schwarzschild solution]].
====Transition from Newtonian mechanics to general relativity====
{{main|Newtonian foundation of general relativity}}
Some of the basic concepts of general relativity can be outlined outside the [[Special relativity | relativistic]] domain. In particular, the idea that mass/energy generates [[Curvature | curvature]] in [[Spacetime | space]] and that curvature affects the motion of masses can be illustrated in a [[Newtonian mechanics | Newtonian]] setting.
General relativity generalizes the [[Geodesic equation | geodesic equation]] and the [[Einstein field equation | field equation]] to the relativistic realm in which trajectories in space are replaced with [[Fermi-Walker transport]] along [[World line | world lines]] in [[Spacetime | spacetime]]. The equations are also generalized to more complicated curvatures.
====Transition from special relativity to general relativity====
{{main|Transition from special relativity to general relativity}}
The basic structure of general relativity, including the [[Geodesic equation | geodesic equation]] and [[Einstein field equation]], can be obtained from [[Special relativity | special relativity]] by examining the [[Kinetics | kinetics]] and [[Dynamics | dynamics]] of a particle in a [[Circular orbit | circular orbit]] about the earth.
==== Conservation of energy-momentum ====
In classical mechanics, [[conservation of energy]] and [[Momentum#Conservation of Momentum .26 Collisions|momentum]] are handled separately.
In special relativity, energy and momentum are joined |
think that the elevator is overloaded).
*A stop switch (this is not allowed under British regulations) to halt the elevator (often used to hold an elevator open while freight is loaded). Keeping an elevator stopped for too long may trigger an alarm. Often, this will be a [[key switch]].
*An alarm button or switch, which passengers can use to signal that they have been trapped in the elevator.
Some elevators may have one or more of the following:
*An elevator [[telephone]], which can be used (in addition to the alarm) by a trapped passenger to call for help.
*A [[firefighter|fireman]]'s key switch, which places the elevator in a special operating mode designed to aid firefighters.
*A ''medical emergency'' key switch, which places the elevator in a special operating mode designed to aid medical personnel.
*[[RFID]] card access: Elevators in modern buildings incorporate security features to control / prevent unauthorized floor access. Call buttons don't register until an authorized card is detected.
*Hold button: Larger elevators used for freight and hospital beds have an appropriately named button that "holds" the door open longer.
Other controls, which are generally inaccessible to the public (either because they are [[key switch]]es, or because they are kept behind a locked panel, include:
*Switches to control the lights and ventilation [[Fan (implement)|fans]] in the elevator.
*An ''inspector's'' switch, which places the elevator in inspection mode (this may be situated on top of the elevator)
*An ''independent service'' switch, which selects whether the elevator's operation will be coordinated with other elevators in an elevator bank.
*Up and down buttons, to move the car up and down without selecting a specific floor. Some older elevators can only be operated this way.
====Controls in early elevators====
* Some older freight elevators are controlled by switches operated by pulling on adjacent ropes. Safety interlocks ensure that the inner and outer doors are closed before the elevator is allowed to move.
*Early elevators had no automatic landing positioning. Elevators were operated by [[elevator operator]]s using a motor controller. The controller was contained within a cylindrical container about the size and shape of a cake container and this was operated via a projecting handle. This allowed some control over the energy supplied to the motor (located at the top of the elevator shaft or beside the bottom of the elevator shaft) and so enabled the elevator to be accurately positioned &mdash; if the operator was sufficiently skilled. More typically the operator would have to "jog" the control to get the elevator reasonably close to the landing point and then direct the outgoing and incoming passengers to "watch the step". After stopping at the landing the operator would open the door/doors. Manually operated elevators were generally refitted or the cabs replaced by automatic equipment by the [[1950s]].
*Large buildings with multiple elevators of this type would also have an ''elevator dispatcher'' stationed in the lobby to direct passengers and to signal the operator to leave with the use of a mechanical "cricket" noisemaker.
*Some elevators still in operation have pushbutton manual controls; an example is in a thumbnail on this page. [[Image:mit-old-elevator-panel.jpg|thumb|Manual pushbutton elevator controls.]].
===Floor numbering===
{{see|Floor numbering}}
===The elevator algorithm===
The [[elevator algorithm]], a simple [[algorithm]] by which a single elevator can decide where to stop, is summarized as follows:
* Continue travelling in the same direction while there are remaining requests in that same direction.
* If there are no further requests in that direction, then stop and become idle, or change direction if there are requests in the opposite direction.
The elevator algorithm has found an application in computer [[operating system]]s as an algorithm for scheduling [[hard disk]] requests.
Modern elevators use more complex [[Heuristic (computer science)|heuristic algorithms]] to decide which request to service next.
===Computer dispatched===
Efficiencies of multiple elevators installed in an office building may increase if a central dispatcher is used to group passengers going to the same floor to the same elevator. In buildings with these computer-dispatched elevator system, passengers key in their destination floor in a central dispatch panel located at the building lobby. The dispatch panel will then tell the passenger which elevator to use. Inside the elevator there is no call button to push (or the buttons are there but they cannot be pushed, they only indicate stopping floors). Manufacturers of such systems claim that average travelling time can be reduced by up to 30%. Sometimes, however, one person enters the destination for a large group of people going to the same floor. The dispatching algorithm is usually unable to completely cater for the variation, and late comers may find the elevator they are assigned to is already full.
===Special operating modes===
====Up peak====
During Up Peak mode, elevator cars in a group are recalled to the lobby to provide expeditious service to passengers arriving at the building, most typically in the morning as people arrive for work or at the conclusion of a lunch-time period. Elevators are dispatched one-by-one when they reach a pre-determined passenger load, or when they have had their doors opened for a certain period of time. The next elevator to be dispatched usually has its hall lantern or a "this car leaving next" sign illuminated to encourage passengers to make maximum use of the available elevator system capacity.
The commencement of Up Peak may be triggered by a time clock, by the departure of a certain number of fully loaded cars leaving the lobby within a given time period, or by a switch manually operated by a building attendant.
====Down peak====
During Down Peak mode, elevator cars in a group are sent away from the lobby towards the highest floor served, after which they commence running down the floors in response to hall calls placed by passengers wishing to leave the building. This allows the elevator system to provide maximum passenger handling capacity for people leaving the building.
The commencement of Down peak may be triggered by a time clock, by the arrival of a certain number of fully loaded cars at the lobby within a given time period, or by a switch manually operated by a building attendant.
====Sabbath service====
In areas with large populations of observant [[Jew]]s, one may find a "Sabbath Elevator". In this mode, an elevator will stop automatically at every floor, allowing people to step on and off without having to press any buttons. [[Regenerative brake|Regenerative braking]] is also disabled if it is normally used, shunting energy collected from downward travel, and thus the gravitational [[potential energy]] of passengers, into a [[resistor]] network. This prevents violation of the [[Sabbath]] prohibition against doing useful work.
====Independent service====
Independent Service is a special service mode found on most elevators. It is activated by a key switch either inside the elevator itself or on a centralised control panel. When an elevator is placed on independent service, it will no longer respond to hall calls. (In a bank of elevators, traffic would be rerouted to the other elevators, while in a single elevator, the hall buttons will be disabled). The elevator will remain parked on a floor with its doors open until a floor is selected and the door close button is held until the elevator starts to travel. Independent Service is useful when transporting large goods or moving groups of people between certain floors.
==Standards==
The mechanical, electrical and operational design of elevators are dictated according to various standards (aka elevator codes), which may typically be international, national, state, regional or city based. Where once many standards were prescriptive, specifying exact criteria which must be complied with, there has been a shift towards more performance-based standards where the onus falls on the designer to ensure that the elevator meets or exceeds the standard.
Some of the national elevator standards include:
* Australia - AS1735
* Canada - CAN/CSA B44
* Europe - EN81
* USA - ASME A17
Because an elevator is part of a building, it must also comply with standards relating to earthquake resilience, fire standards, electrical wiring rules and so forth.
Additional requirements relating to access by disabled persons, may be mandated by laws or regulations such as the [[Americans with Disabilities Act]]
<!--Finland elevator standard specifics HAVE BEEN SUPERSEDED BY EU REGULATIONS; ADD THIS INSTEAD-->
===US and Canadian elevator standard specifics===
Passenger elevators are required to conform to the American Society of Mechanical Engineer's Standard A17.1 Safety Code for Elevators and Escalators in most US and Canadian Jurisdictions (In Canada the document is the CAN/CSA B44 Safety Standard which was harmonized with the US version in the [[2000]] edition.) In addition passenger elevators may be required to conform to the requirements of A17.3 for existing elevators where referenced by the Local Jurisdiction. Passenger elevators are tested using the ASME A17.2 Standard. The frequency of these tests is mandated by the Local Jurisdiction, which may be a town, city, or state standard.
Passenger elevators must also conform to many ancillary building codes including the Local or State building code, [[National Fire Protection Association]] standards for Electrical, Fire Sprinklers and Fire Alarms, Plumbing codes, and [[HVAC]] codes. In addition passenger elevators are required to conform to the American's with Disabilities Act and other State and Federal civil rights legislation regarding accessibility.
|
routine of [[Pigmeat Markham]]).
* "Where Oh Where Are You Tonight?", the nonsense duet with the chorus, "Where, oh where, are you tonight?/Why did you leave me here all alone?/I searched the world over, and thought I'd found true love;/You met another, and--pffft! you were gone!" The "pffft" would be done as a spitting "[[Bronx cheer]]."
In early seasons, this was performed by Campbell and Tapp, in the vein of folk songs like "[[Oh! Susanna]]" and "[[Old Dan Tucker]]." In later seasons, Tapp would be replaced by that episode's guest singer, or other surprise celebrities. The guest/celebrity would stand with their back to the viewer while Campbell sang the verse solo, and then spin around to join him on the chorus. (Who got spat upon during the "pffft" would change each show.)
* "Hey Grandpa! What's for supper?" (Grandpa Jones is cleaning a window pane with no glass in it and recites a dinner menu in verse). Often, he would describe a delicious, country-style meal (chicken and biscuits smothered in rich gravy, and collard greens, and the audience would reply approvingly, "yum yum!"); although sometimes he would serve a less-than spectacular meal (thawed out [[TV dinner]]s), to which the cast would reply, "yuck!"
* "Stringbean" would read a "letter from Mama" to his friends (similar in style to the routine of American comedian "[[Charley Weaver]]"). When asked about the latest letter, "Stringbean" would reach for it, stating that he carried it right next to "his Heart" (his upper overalls pocket). Not finding it there, he would proceed to quickly check all his other pockets, saying "Heart" on each check until he found the letter. The friends would chant "Heart" along with him.
* Minnie Pearl's schoolhouse. Minnie would try in vain to gain order in the classroom, while her students were in the mood for one-liners.
* "The Culhanes of Kornfield County (Gordie Tapp, Grandpa Jones, Junior Samples, and Lulu Roman)." A soap-opera satire, the foursome was seated side by side on a couch, resembling an old-time family portrait. With help from an off-screen announcer, they would discuss some family crisis while maintaining a dead-pan monotone look and not moving.
* The "Empty Arms Hotel," in which Roy Clark would pop up from behind the front desk to deal with its clients' complaints.
* "Lulu's (Lulu Roman) Truck Stop," which featured some tough-to-eat items.
* "Junior's (Junior Samples) Used Car Sales," in which Samples would try to palm off a major 'clunker' and then hold up a sign to remind viewers that his phone number was "BR 549.") (''Hee Haw'' tapes were later sold using the "800" number 1-800-BR54949; also, the future country music group [[BR5-49]] adopted this as their name.)
* The "Gloom/Despair song (with the chorus "Gloom, despair and agony on me!/Deep dark depression, excessive misery!/If it weren't for bad luck I'd have no luck at all!/Gloom, despair and agony on me!)" Performed by a variable quartet who sat around looking sad, each of the quartet would sing one line of the verse (a new one for each performance). They would join on the chorus, with each one alternating [[lip-synching]] a mournful howl between each phrase in it.
* "The Cornfield," a version of the ''[[Laugh-In]]'' "Joke Wall," with cast members and guest stars 'popping up' to tell jokes and one-liners.
Until his death, "Stringbean" played the field's 'scarecrow,' delivering one-liners before being shouted down by the 'crow' on his shoulder; after his murder, he was not replaced, and the 'scarecrow' simply was seen in the field as a memorial.
* The "Hee Haw Salutes" feature, in which that night's guest, or other celebrities and cast members, would mention their hometown and its population; the entire cast would then 'pop up' from the cornfield, shouting "SAA-LUTE!!"
* "Pickin' and Grinnin'" with Owens and Clark (Owens: "I'm a-Pickin!" Clark: "And I'm a-Grinnin'!"), with the duo and the cast 'dueling' by playing guitar and banjo, telling jokes and reciting one-liners.
* Riddle and Phelps, long-time members of [[Roy Acuff]]'s Smoky Mountain Boys, would perform a comic poem, and then break into their "Eeph-Awff" rhythm routine. Riddle would repeat those two nonsense syllables with a donkey-sound inflection, while Phelps would slap his hand against his leg in a percussion pattern called "Hamboning." Occasionally, the duo would break into their routine while joking with another cast member, and then get chased away.
* Various male cast members would be seen sitting around and listening to comic stories by either Baptist pastor/humorist Rev. Grady Nutt, or former American radio commentator [[John Henry Faulk]]. Nutt, who had successful LP comedy album releases on [[Word Records]], had his promising career on ''Hee Haw'' cut short by his death in an airplane crash in November 1982.
* KORN-AM radio, featuring humorous news reports by "Charlie Farquarson" (Don Harron).
* Grandpa and Minnie's Kitchen ("How-dee! Welcome to Grandpa and Minnie's Kitchen!")
* The Hee Haw Gospel Quartet, always the last segment of many of the shows, and featuring Clark, Owens, Grandpa Jones and Kenny Price singing a gospel song. This was one of the few serious segments of the show. Several of their performances were released on CD's.
* Various female members of the cast surrounding a clothesline singing "We're not ones to go 'round spreadin' rumors/Well, really we're just not the gossipy kind;/No, you'll never hear one of us repeatin' gossip,/So you better be sure and listen close the first time!", featuring a new verse every episode.
* Gordie Tapp and Roni Stoneman as "The Naggers," a bickering couple, similar in style to the radio classic ''[[The Bickersons]]''.
* During the American Bicentennial year ([[1976]]), [[CBS]] News did a daily television historical feature called "The Bicentenial Minute." ''Hee Haw'''s take on that was Grandpa Jones' "200 And Some Odd Years Ago" sketches, with Grandpa delivering 'facts' such as, "My great-great-great grandmother attended the 'Boston Tea Party.' She was the first old bag thrown overboard."
==Musical legacy==
The show's additional legacy is the hundreds of performances of country music, [[Bluegrass music|bluegrass]], [[gospel music]], and other traditional styles, that were featured on it during its run. In addition to the regular performances by the hosts and cast members, guest artists performing on the show include -- but are hardly limited to --
[[Roy Acuff]],
[[Johnny Cash]],
[[Jessi Colter]],
[[Merle Haggard]],
[[Alan Jackson]],
[[Sonny James]],
[[Waylon Jennings]],
[[George Jones]],
[[Loretta Lynn]],
[[Barbara Mandrell]],
[[Roger Miller]],
[[Willie Nelson]],
[[Dolly Parton]],
[[Ray Price (musician)|Ray Price]],
[[Charley Pride]],
[[Charlie Rich]],
[[Riders in the Sky]],
[[Kenny Rogers]],
[[Roy Rogers]],
[[George Strait]],
[[Ernest Tubb]],
[[Conway Twitty]],
[[Tammy Wynette]],
[[Hank Williams Jr.]], and
[[Faron Young]], among others.
==External links==
*[http://www.heehaw.com/ Official website]
*[http://www.morethings.com/fan/hee_haw/photo_galleries.htm Hee Haw Photo Galleries]
*[http://www.tennessean.com/entertainment/news/archives/04/05/51300282.shtml Hee Haw History], from ''[[The Tennessean]]''
*{{imdb title|id=0063908|title=Hee Haw}}
*[http://www.rissystreasures.com/heehaw/ Risa's Hee Haw Tribute Page]
[[Category:CBS network shows]]
[[Category:Variety television series]]
[[Category:1960s TV shows in the United States]]
[[Category:1970s TV shows in the United States]]
[[Category:1980s TV shows in the United States]]
[[Category:1990s TV shows in the United States]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Harmonic accompaniment</title>
<id>13261</id>
<revision>
<id>15910879</id>
<timestamp>2003-12-23T19:24:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hyacinth</username>
<id>17171</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Accompaniment]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History Of United States Discussion</title>
<id>13262</id>
<revision>
<id>15910880</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-12T00:19:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to Talk:History of the United States</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Talk:History of the United States]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hexadecimal</title>
<id>13263</id>
<revision>
<id>41825770</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T00:10:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FrankHamersley</username>
<id>307013</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Representing hexadecimal */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Table Numeral Systems}}
In [[mathematics]] and [[computer science]], '''[[Base (mathematics)|base]]-{{num|16}}''', '''hexadecimal''', or simply '''hex''', is a [[numeral system]] with a [[radix]] or base of [[sixteen|16]] usually written using the symbols 0&ndash;9 and A&ndash;F or a&ndash;f. The current hexadecimal system was first introduced to the computing world in 1963 by [[IBM]]. An earlier version, using the digits 0&ndash;9 and u&ndash;z, was used by the [[Bendix G-15]] computer, introduced in 1956.
For example, the [[decimal]] numeral 79 whose [[binary numeral system|binary]] representation is 01001111 can be written as 4F in hexadecimal (4 = 0100, F = 1111). It was IBM that decided on the prefix |
he advice and consent of the Commons in this present Parliament assembled, in accordance with the provisions of the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949, and by the authority of the same, as follows:-" are used instead). These words at the beginning of every Act are known as the [[enacting formula]].
==Judicial functions==
In addition to its legislative functions, Parliament also performs several judicial functions. The Queen-in-Parliament constitutes the highest court in the realm for most purposes, but the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]] has jurisdiction in some cases (for instance, appeals from ecclesiastical courts). The jurisdiction of Parliament arises from the ancient custom of petitioning the Houses to redress grievances and to do justice. The House of Commons ceased considering petitions to reverse the judgements of lower courts in [[1399]], effectively leaving the House of Lords as the realm's court of last resort. In modern times, the [[judicial functions of the House of Lords]] are performed not by the whole House, but by a group of "Lords of Appeal in Ordinary" (judges granted life peerage dignities under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876 by the Sovereign) and by "Lords of Appeal" (other peers with experience in the judiciary). The Lords of Appeal in Ordinary and Lords of Appeal (or "Law Lords") are Lords of Parliament, but normally do not vote or speak on political matters.
In the late [[19th century]] Acts allowed for the appointment of ''Scottish Lords of Appeal in Ordinary'' and ended appeal in Scottish criminal matters to the House of Lords so that the [[High Court of Justiciary]] became the highest criminal court in [[Scotland]]. Nowadays the House of Lords legislative committee usually has a minimum of two Scottish Judges to ensure that some experience of [[Scots law]] is brought to bear on Scottish appeals in civil cases, from the [[Court of Session]].
Certain other judicial functions have historically been performed by the House of Lords. Until [[1948]], it was the body in which peers of the Realm had to be tried for felonies or [[high treason]]; now, peers are tried by normal juries. Furthermore, when the House of Commons [[impeachment|impeaches]] an individual, the trial takes place in the House of Lords. Impeachments, however, are now rare; the last impeachment occurred in [[1806]]. There are currently a number of MPs attempting to revive the custom who have signed a motion for the impeachment of the Prime Minister, but this is unlikely to succeed.
==Relationship with the Government==
The British Government is answerable to the House of Commons. However, neither the Prime Minister nor members of the Government are elected by the House of Commons. Instead, the Queen requests the person most likely to command the support of a majority in the House, normally the leader of the largest party in the House of Commons, to form a government. So that they may be accountable to the Lower House, the Prime Minister and most members of the [[Cabinet of the United Kingdom|Cabinet]] are members of the House of Commons instead of the House of Lords. The last Prime Minister to be a Lord of Parliament was [[Alec Douglas-Home|Alec Douglas-Home, 14th Earl of Home]], who became Prime Minister in [[1963]]. Nevertheless, to adhere to the convention under which he was responsible to the Lower House, Lord Home disclaimed his peerage dignity and procured election to the House of Commons within days of becoming Prime Minister.
Governments have a tendency to dominate the legislative functions of Parliament, by using their inbuilt majority in the House of Commons, and sometimes using their patronage power to appoint supportive peers in the Lords. In practice, governments can pass any legislation (within reason) in the Commons they wish, unless there is major dissent by MPs in the governing party. But even in these situations, it is highly unlikely a bill will be defeated, but dissenting MPs may be able to extract concessions from the government. In [[1976]], [[Lord Hailsham]] created a now widely used name for this behaviour, in an academic paper called "[[elective dictatorship]]".
Parliament controls the executive by passing or rejecting its Bills and by forcing Ministers of the Crown to answer for their actions, either at "Question Time" or during meetings of the [[List of Committees of the United Kingdom Parliament|parliamentary committees]]. In both cases, the Ministers are asked questions by members of their Houses, and are obliged to answer.
Although the House of Lords may scrutinise the executive through Question Time and through its committees, it cannot bring about the end of a Government. A ministry must, however, always retain the confidence and support of the House of Commons. The Lower House may indicate its lack of support by rejecting a [[Motion of Confidence]] or by passing a [[Motion of No Confidence]]. Confidence Motions are generally originated by the Government in order to reinforce its support in the House, whilst No Confidence Motions are introduced by the Opposition. The motions sometimes take the form "That this House has [no] confidence in Her Majesty's Government" but several other varieties, many referring to specific policies supported or opposed by Parliament, are often used. For instance, a Confidence Motion of [[1992]] used the form, "That this House expresses the support for the economic policy of Her Majesty's Government." Such a motion may theoretically be introduced in the House of Lords, but, as the Government need not enjoy the confidence of that House, would not be of the same effect as a similar motion in the House of Commons; the only modern instance of such an occurrence involves the No Confidence Motion that was introduced in [[1993]], and subsequently defeated.
Many votes are considered votes of confidence, although not specifically involving the language mentioned above. Important bills that form part of the Government's agenda (as stated in the Speech from the Throne) are generally considered matters of confidence. The defeat of such a bill by the House of Commons indicates that a Government no longer has the confidence of that House. Furthermore, the same effect is achieved if the House of Commons "[[Loss of Supply|withdraws Supply]]", that is, reject the budget.
Where a Government has lost the confidence of the House of Commons, the Prime Minister is obliged either to resign, or seek the dissolution of Parliament and a new general election. Where a Prime Minister has ceased to retain a majority in that vote and requests a dissolution, the Sovereign can in theory reject his request, forcing his resignation and allowing the [[Leader of the Opposition]] to be asked to form a new government. This power however is supposed to be used extremely rarely. The conditions that should be met to allow such a refusal are known as the [[Lascelles Principles]]. Note, however, that these conditions and principles are merely informal conventions; it is possible, though highly improbable, for the Sovereign to refuse dissolution for no reason at all.
In practice, the House of Commons' scrutiny of the Government is very weak. Since the First-Past-the-Post electoral system is employed in elections, the governing party tends to enjoy a large majority in the Commons; there is often limited need to compromise with other parties. Modern British political parties are so tightly organised that they leave relatively little room for free action by their MPs. In many cases, MPs may be expelled from their parties for voting against the instructions of party leaders. During the twentieth century, the Government has lost confidence issues only thrice&mdash;twice in [[1924]], and once in [[1979]].
==Sovereignty==
Several different views have been taken of Parliament's sovereignty. According to the jurist [[William Blackstone|Sir William Blackstone]], "It has sovereign and uncontrollable authority in making, confirming, enlarging, restraining, abrogating, repealing, reviving, and expounding of laws, concerning matters of all possible denominations, ecclesiastical, or temporal, civil, military, maritime, or criminal &hellip; it can, in short, do every thing that is not naturally impossible."
A different view, however, has been taken by the Scottish judge [[Lord Cooper of Culross]]. When he decided the case of [[MacCormick v. Lord Advocate]] as [[Court of Session|Lord President of the Court of Session]], he stated, "The principle of unlimited sovereignty of Parliament is a distinctively English principle and has no counterpart in Scottish constitutional law." He continued, "Considering that the [[Act of Union 1707|Union legislation]] extinguished the Parliaments of Scotland and England and replaced them by a new Parliament, I have difficulty in seeing why the new Parliament of Great Britain must inherit all the peculiar characteristics of the English Parliament but none of the Scottish." Nevertheless, he did not give a conclusive opinion on the subject. Thus, the question of Parliamentary sovereignty appears to remain unresolved. Parliament has not passed any Act defining its own sovereignty.
Parliament's power has often been eroded by its own Acts. Acts passed in [[1921]] and [[1925]] grant the Church of Scotland complete independence in ecclesiastical matters. More recently, its power has been restricted by the United Kingdom's membership of the [[European Union]], which has the power to make laws enforceable in each member state. In the [[Factortame case]], the [[European Court of Justice]] ruled that UK courts could have powers to overturn legislation contravening EU law. This new power is a breach of [[parliamentary sovereignty]], which is part of the [[Constitution of the United Kingdom|UK constitution]]. Parliament has also created national devo |
[[M3 Half-track|M3 half-track]] mounting an M1897 75mm gun in a limited-traverse mount. The larger guns required a counterweight at rear of the turret, which can be seen on designs like the 3-inch gun [[M10 Wolverine]] and the 90 mm gun [[M36 Jackson]]. The [[M18 Hellcat|M18]] came closer to the U.S. ideal; the vehicle was very fast, small, and mounted a 76mm gun in a turret. The open top made these particularly vulnerable to artillery, air, and infantry assault, and the very idea of independent anti-tank groups was found unworkable.
By [[1944]], a number of the "basic" [[Sherman tank|Sherman]]s in British use were being converted to [[Sherman Fireflies]] by adding [[17 pounder]] guns—giving each platoon of Shermans a dedicated anti-tank gun. In British service, 17-pounders were also mounted M10 Wolverine ("Achilles") and [[Archer (tank destroyer)|Archer]] tank destroyers in the [[Comet tank|Comet]], the [[Cruiser Mk VIII Challenger|Challenger]] and the experimental [[Black Prince (tank)|Black Prince]] tanks.
Virtually every U.S. Infantry Division had an attached battalion of tank destroyers, and frequently also a tank battalion. In practice the two types of units were used interchangeably. In effect, the U.S. Army had a mix of vehicles that were either under-armed (the tanks) or under-armored (the tank destroyers). At the end of the war, the arrival of the more balanced [[M26 Pershing]] heavy tank design showed that the lesson had been learnt.
== Post–World War II development ==
In the face of the Warsaw Pact, a general need for extra firepower was identified. In the 1950s, the UK produced the Charioteer to beef up the tank regiments, mounting a 20 pounder gun in an oversize turret on the Cromwell tank hull - it lacked the all round capability of the Centurion tank.
With the development of flexible ATGMs which can be installed on almost any vehicle in the [[1960s]], the concept of the tank destroyer has waned.
With the weight of main battle tanks growing to the forty to seventy-tonne range, airborne forces were unable to deploy reasonable antitank forces. The result was a number of attempts to make a light vehicle, including the conventional [[ASU-85]], the recoilless rifle–armed [[Ontos]], and missile-armed [[Malkara missile#FV1620 Humber Hornet|Hornet Malkara]] armoured car and [[M551 Sheridan|Sheridan]] light tank.
==Modern tank destroyers==
Many forces' [[IFV]]s carry ATGMs in every infantry platoon, and attack [[helicopter]]s have also added antitank capability to the modern battlefield. But there are still dedicated antitank vehicles with very heavy long-range missiles, and ones intended for airborne use.
[[Image:NM142 x 3.jpg|thumb|250px|A Norwegian antitank platoon equipped with [[NM142]] TOW missile launchers]]
There have also been dedicated antitank vehicles built on ordinary [[armoured personnel carrier]] or [[armoured car]] chassis. Examples include the U.S. M901 "Improved TOW Vehicle" and the [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[NM142]], both on an [[M113]] chassis, several [[Soviet]] ATGM launchers based on the [[BRDM]] reconnaissance car, and the [[Germany|German]] [[Raketenjagdpanzer]] series built on the chassis of the [[HS 30]] and [[Marder (IFV)|Marder]] IFV.
A [[United States Army|US Army]] mechanized infantry battalion has four infantry companies with TOW missile–armed [[M2 Bradley |Bradley IFVs]] and can bring a large concentration of accurate and lethal fire to bear on an attacking enemy unit that uses AFVs.
Some gun-armed tank destroyers continue to be used. The German army had specialized [[Kanonenjagdpanzer]], similar in design to the WWII tank destroyers, from the mid-1960s until the 1980s. [[China]] has developed the [[PTL02]] tank destroyer. This wheeled assault tank destroyer armed with a 100mm rifled gun was developed by NORINCO for the PLA new light (rapid reaction) mechanised infantry divisions. The vehicle has a three-man turret derived from the [[Type 96 |Type 88]] MBT, and a 6×6 wheeled chassis based on the [[WZ551]] APC.
== References ==
* Harry Yeide, (2005) ''The Tank Killers: A History of America's World War II Tank Destroyer Force.'' Havertown, PA: Casemate. ISBN 1-9320-3326-2
[[Category:Tank destroyers|*]]
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[[ja:駆逐戦車]]
[[pl:Niszczyciel czołgów]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Armored car</title>
<id>2287</id>
<revision>
<id>41466744</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T15:15:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>85.103.141.195</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">An '''armored car''' ( or '''armoured car''' in [[British English]]) is one of several types of wheeled armoured vehicles: a civilian bullet-proof limousine, a military wheeled armored vehicle, or a special-purpose armored vehicle, for example for transporting valuables.
==Military armoured cars==
[[Image:French VBL DSC00823.jpg|thumb|right|A [[France|French]] [[VBL]] reconnaissance vehicle.]]
A military '''armoured car''' is a type of [[armoured fighting vehicle]] having [[wheel]]s (from four to eight large off-road wheels) instead of [[Caterpillar track|tracks]], and usually light [[vehicle armour|armor]]. Armoured cars are typically inexpensive and have superior speed and range compared to more heavily armoured military vehicles. Their normal use is for [[reconnaissance]], command, control, and communications (liaison between forward units). They may have a [[machine gun]], an [[autocannon]], a small gun, or may even be unarmed.
[[Image:Oconnell-street-fighting-1.jpg|thumb|left|150px|A Rolls Royce armoured car in action in street fighting on [[Dublin]]'s [[O'Connell Street]] during the [[Irish Civil War]].]]
At the beginning of the twentieth century a number of military armoured vehicles were manufactured by adding armour and weapons to existing vehicles: [[tractor|armoured tractors]], armoured cars, and [[armoured train]]s are known. Most of the early designs were a large car chassis to which an body made of steel plates had been added. A spectacularly impractical early armoured ‘car’ was the [[Russia]]n [[Tsar Tank]] of 1915, a sort of tricycle with nine-metre wheels.
Armoured cars have their use in peacekeeping or internal security duties where their appearance is less confrontational or threatening than tanks, their size and mobility fits better with an urban environment with good roads.
[[Image:Armoured_Car_Korfanty_1920.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Polish armoured car ''[[Korfanty]]'' in 1920]]
See also [[List of armoured cars]].
==Civilian armoured cars==
Civilian '''armoured cars''' are modified versions of normal cars, made by replacing the windows with [[bulletproof glass]] and inserting layers of armour under the outer skin of the car, a labor-intensive process that takes a few weeks and costs about $100,000 in the U.S. There is typically no apparent external difference between a non-armoured and armoured version of the same car, in order to not look conspicuous. In most cases [[aramid]] [[composite material|composite]] and ballistic [[steel]] plates are used and the increased mass is offset by a souped-up engine and brakes, as [[composite armour]] is considerably more expensive. The cars may also be equipped for their role: with a [[fire extinguisher]], rims in the wheels allowing to drive on empty tires for typically 15 to 50 km, an explosion-resistant fuel tank, remote starting of the car, pressure and temperature control of the tires, a siren or alarm, and an intercom between the exterior and interior of the car. Sometimes they can also be sealed air-tight from inside, and carry an oxygen bottle, to protect against gas attacks (tear gas, etc).
[[Image:Mercedes s klasse 1 sst2.jpg|thumb|An armoured [[Mercedes-Benz W220]] of the [[Germany|german]] [[President of Germany|Federal President]]]]
Armoured cars are in common use by people who feel at risk and can afford them, for example politicians, enterpreneurs, ambassadors, or in higher-risk areas including Colombia, Iraq, Moscow, and Washington DC. They are very popular in [[Mexico City]] due to the level of violence there. Armoured cars can also help protect the passengers in a [[car accident]].
Civilian armoured cars can be divided into two types:
# [[automobile|cars]] or [[truck]]s used in [[transport]]ing valuables, such as large quantities of money which are armored and equipped to resist attempts at [[highway]] [[robbery]] or the [[hijacking]] of the cargo. They may be manned with armed guards but do not mount weapons. Armoured cars are usually operated by [[security]] firms, which provide secure transport for clients' property.
# Armoured versions of cars or [[Sport utility vehicle|SUVs]] used as protection from crime or violence either by individuals who fear they may become victims, or in high risk environments. Diplomatic missions typically use armoured cars as standard vehicles, and many manufacturers or after market firms offer armoured versions of their vehicles. They are typically indistinguishable from the regular version on casual inspection from a distance.
== See also ==
*[[Tankette]]
*[[Vehicle armour]]
*[[Bulletproof glass]]
==External links==
*[http://www.alpineco.com Armored Vehicles & Armored Cars, US]
*[http://www.armsvos.cz/Eng/index_eng.html Armored vehicles & Cars, European vendor]
[[Category:Armored cars |*]]
[[Category:Armored fighting vehicles by type]]
[[ja:&#35013;&#30002;&#36554;]]
[[pl:Samochód pancerny]]
[[zh-cn:&#35013;&#30002;&#36710;]]
[[nl:pantserwagen]]
[[de:Sonderschutzfahrzeug]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Self-propelled anti-aircraft</title>
<id>2288</id>
<revision>
<id>38981355</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T22:47:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mzajac</username>
<id>61482</id>
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|
y self-destructive bassist.
===After his death===
The music of Charles Mingus is currently being performed and reinterpreted by the [[Mingus Big Band]], which plays every Tuesday and Thursday in New York City, and often tours the rest of the [[United States]] and Europe. [[Elvis Costello]] has written lyrics for a few Mingus pieces and has sung them in performances with the Mingus Big Band. Other tribute bands are also active around the US, including [[Mingus Amungus]] in the [[San Francisco Bay Area]].
Bass players continue to revere Mingus and his work, as exemplified by Pat Kays, the bassist of [[third-wave ska]] band [[Catch 22 (band)|Catch 22]]. Kays took the name Mingus as his nickname.
A documentary film by Ray Davies entitled ''Weird Nightmare'' was released in [[1991]]. It contains footage of Mingus and interviews with artists making [[Hal Willner]]'s tribute album of the same name, including Elvis Costello, [[Charlie Watts]], [[Keith Richards]], and [[Vernon Reid]].
===Mingus's temper===
As respected as Mingus was for his musical talents, he was often feared for his sometimes violent onstage temper, which was at times directed at members of his band, and other times aimed at the audience. He was physically large, prone to [[obesity]] (especially in his later years), and was by all accounts often intimidating and frightening when expressing anger or displeasure.
When confronted with a nightclub audience talking and clinking ice in their glasses while he performed, Mingus stopped his band and loudly chastised the audience, stating "[[Isaac Stern]] doesn't have to put up with this shit" [http://www.swing2bop.com/articles.html]. He once played a prank on a similar group of nightclub chatterers by silencing his band for several seconds, allowing the loud audience members to be clearly heard, then continuing as the rest of the audience snickered at the oblivious 'soloists'.
While onstage at a memorial concert in Philadelphia, he reportedly attempted to crush his pianist's hands with the instrument's keyboard cover, then punched trombonist [[Jimmy Knepper]] in the mouth. [http://www.mp3.com/charles-mingus/artists/6068/biography.html] On [[October 12]], [[1962]], Mingus reportedly punched Knepper while the two men were working together at Mingus's apartment on a score for his upcoming concert at New York Town Hall and Knepper refused to take on more work. The blow broke one of Knepper's teeth, ruined his embouchure and resulted in the permanent loss of the top octave of his range on the trombone. This attack ended their working relationship and Knepper was unable to perform at the concert, a disaster. Charged with assault, Mingus appeared in court in January, 1963 and was given a suspended sentence. [http://www.jazznation.com/Goodbye.htm] In another incident, saxophonist [[Jackie McLean]] once stabbed Mingus after Mingus punched him, fearing the bassist was about to kill him.
Mingus' onstage destruction of an $800 bass prompted British rockers [[The Animals]] &mdash; avid fans who witnessed Mingus's characteristic explosion at a London show &mdash; to emulate the outburst, starting a trend of rampant onstage destruction of musical equipment in "rock theater" popularized by [[Jimi Hendrix]] and [[The Who]], which continues to this day.
===Epitaph===
"[[Epitaph (Mingus)|Epitaph]]" is the master work of Charles Mingus. It is a composition which is more than 4,000 measures long, requires two hours to perform and was only completely discovered during the cataloguing process after his death by musicologist Andrew Homzy. With the help of a grant from the [[Ford Foundation]], the score and instrumental parts were copied, and the piece itself was premiered by a 30-piece orchestra, conducted by [[Gunther Schuller]]. This concert was produced by Mingus' widow, Sue Graham Mingus, at Alice Tully Hall on June 3, 1989, ten years after his death.
==Samples==
{{listen|filename=Fables Of Faubus.ogg|title="Fables of Faubus"|description=from ''[[Mingus Ah Um]]''|format=[[Ogg]]}}
:See "[[Fables of Faubus]]".
==Partial discography==
Major works include:
* ''Pithecanthropus Erectus'' ([[1956]], [[Atlantic Records|Atlantic]])
* ''The Clown'' ([[1957]], Atlantic)
* ''[[Tijuana Moods]]'' (1957)
* ''[[New Tijuana Moods]]'' (1957)
* ''[[Blues & Roots]]'' ([[1959]], Atlantic)
* ''[[Mingus Ah Um]]'' (1959, [[Columbia Records|Columbia]])
* ''Mingus Dynasty'' (1959, Columbia)
* ''Pre Bird'' ([[1960]], [[Mercury Records|Mercury]])
* ''Mingus at Antibes'' (1960, Atlantic)
* ''Charles Mingus Presents Charles Mingus'' (1960, Candid)
* ''[[Oh Yeah (album)|Oh Yeah]]'' ([[1962]], Atlantic)
* ''[[The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady]]'' ([[1963]], Impulse)
* ''Mingus Plays Piano'' (1963, Impulse)
* ''[[Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus]]'' (1963, Impulse)
* ''Let My Children Hear Music'' (1972, Columbia)
* ''[[Changes One (Mingus)|Changes One]]'' ([[1974]], Atlantic)
* ''Changes Two'' (1974, Atlantic)
* ''Cumbia & Jazz Fusion'' ([[1976]], Atlantic)
* ''[[Epitaph (Mingus)|Epitaph]]'' ([[1990]], Columbia, posthumous)
Of these, ''[[Mingus Ah Um]],'' ''[[Blues & Roots]],'' and ''[[The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady]]'' are arguably his best works.
==Cover versions==
Considering the number of compositions that Charles Mingus has written, his works have not been recorded as often as comparable jazz composers. Of all his works, his elegant [[elegy]] for [[Lester Young]], "Goodbye Porkpie Hat" (from ''Mingus Ah Um'') has probably had the most recordings. Besides recordings from the expected jazz artists, the song has also been recorded by musicians as disparate as [[Jeff Beck]], [[Eugene Chadbourne]], and [[Bert Jansch]] and [[John Renbourn]] with and without [[Pentangle]]. [[Joni Mitchell]] sang a version with lyrics that she wrote for the song.
==Books on Charles Mingus==
*His autobiography, ''Beneath the Underdog'', presents a vibrantly boastful and possibly apocryphal account of his early career as a [[pimp]].
*''Myself When I Am Real: The Life and Music of Charles Mingus'' by Gene Santoro, Oxford University Press (November 1, 2001), 480 pages, ISBN 0195147111
*''Mingus: A Critical Biography'' by Brian Priestley, Da Capo Press (April 1, 1984), 340 pages, ISBN 0306802171
*''Tonight At Noon: A Love Story'' by Sue Graham Mingus, Da Capo Press; Reprint edition (April, 2003), 272 pages, ISBN 0306812207. Written by his widow.
*''Charles Mingus - More Than a Fake Book'' by Charles Mingus, Hal Leonard Corporation (November 1, 1991), 160 pages, ISBN 0793509009. Includes 2 CDs, photos, discography, music transcriptions, a Mingus comic book promoting his anti-bootlegging project, etc.
*''Mingus/Mingus : Two Memoirs'' by Janet Coleman, Al Young, Limelight Editions (August 1, 2004), 164 pages, ISBN 0879101490
==Movies==
*In 1959, Mingus provided the music for [[John Cassavetes]]'s gritty New York City film, ''Shadows''.
*In 1968, Thomas Reichman directed the documentary ''Mingus: Charlie Mingus 1968''.
*''Charles Mingus: Triumph of the Underdog'' is a 78 minute long [[documentary film]] on Charles Mingus directed by Don McGlynn and released in [[1998]].
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.mingusmingusmingus.com/ Official website]
[[Category:1922 births|Mingus, Charles]]
[[Category:1979 deaths|Mingus, Charles]]
[[Category:African American musicians|Mingus, Charles]]
[[Category:Jazz composers|Mingus, Charles]]
[[Category:Jazz bandleaders|Mingus, Charles]]
[[Category:Jazz bassists|Mingus, Charles]]
[[Category:American jazz pianists|Mingus, Charles]]
[[Category:People from Arizona|Mingus, Charles]]
[[Category:People from Los Angeles|Mingus, Charles]]
[[Category:People with Motor Neuron Disease|Mingus, Charles]]
[[da:Charlie Mingus]]
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[[he:צ'ארלס מינגוס]]
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[[ja:チャールズ・ミンガス]]
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[[sv:Charles Mingus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Centimetre</title>
<id>7669</id>
<revision>
<id>32608080</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-24T17:31:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Silence</username>
<id>84942</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Should redirect to a page on metres in general, the same as [[milimetre]] does.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[metre]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Central Coast</title>
<id>7670</id>
<revision>
<id>32378660</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-22T17:27:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GregorB</username>
<id>179697</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>{{geodis}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">There are a number of places called the '''Central Coast''':
* [[Central Coast, California]]
* [[Central Coast, New South Wales]]
* [[Central Coast, Tasmania]]
{{geodis}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CODATA</title>
<id>7671</id>
<revision>
<id>39562609</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T08:19:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Adrian Buehlmann Bot</username>
<id>723279</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:journal reference|journal reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite journal|cite journal]]}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''CODATA''' ('''Committee on Data for Science and Technology''') was established in [[1966]] as an interdisciplinary committee of the [[International Council of Science]] (ICSU), formerly the International Council of Scientific Unions. It seeks to improve the compilation, critical evaluation, storage, and retrieval of data of importance to [[science]] and [[technology]].
The CODATA Task Group on Fundamental Constants was established in [[1969]]. Its purpose is to periodically provide the international scientific and techn |
<id>279219</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation ([[WP:DPL|you can help!]]): Husband</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Prinz-Eugen-von-Savoyen1.jpg|thumb|Prince Eugen von Savoyen in a contemporary painting]]
'''François-Eugène, Prince of Savoy-Carignan''', known as '''Prinz Eugen von Savoyen''' in German ([[October 16]], [[1663]] &ndash; [[April 24]], [[1736]]) was one of the most brilliant generals in the history of the [[Habsburg Empire]].
He was born to [[Olympia Mancini]] in [[Paris]]. His mother was a niece of the powerful Cardinal [[Mazarin]]. Officially, Eugene was born a prince of the [[House of Savoy]], as an heir to Olympia's [[Marriage|husband]], the Comte de [[Soissons]]. However, it was rumoured that Olympia had actually been been impregnated by the French king, [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]]. She was banished from France during Eugene's childhood as a suspect in a plot to poison her supposed former lover.
As a young [[man]], Eugene was part of the circle of the transvestite [[Abbé de Choisy]]. Eugene was rebuffed from a commission in the French army by Louis XIV, some say because of his mother's disgrace, some because of his slight build, and some because Louis was offended by Eugene's [[cross dressing]]. Whatever the reason, Eugene fled the French [[court]], and volunteered with the Austrian army as an officer in [[1683]]. He maintained a lifelong hatred of Louis XIV, and would spend the rest of his life opposing French ambition in Europe.
For the first part of his career, Eugene faced the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]] on the battlefield, first coming to prominence during the last major [[Battle of Vienna|Turkish offensive]] against the Austrian capital of [[Vienna]] in [[1683]]. By the closing years of the 17th century, he was already famous for securing [[Hungary]] from the Turks. In [[1697]] he crushed the Ottoman army in the [[Battle of Zenta]], and he soon rose to the role of principal Austrian commander during the [[War of the Spanish Succession]].
In the opening shots of that war, Eugene defeated French armies in northern Italy. As the area of French offensive action moved north, and as the war spread to include other nations such as [[England]], Eugene joined forces for the first time with his English counterpart, the [[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough|Duke of Marlborough]]. Together they defeated the French in [[Bavaria]] at the [[Battle of Blenheim]] ([[1704]]). For the next three years he was engaged in fighting in northern [[Italy]] and [[Provence]]. He defeated French armies in [[battle of Turin]] ([[1706]]). In [[1707]] Louis XIV had to withdraw French forces from Italy.
Eugene then moved north to Flanders, where he joined up with Marlborough to win the battles of [[Battle of Oudenarde|Oudenarde]] and [[Battle of Malplaquet|Malplaquet]]. Unfortunately, the follow-up invasion of France that would have ended the war was blunted by the marginal victory of Malplaquet, and the retirement of Britain from the war. After one more year of fighting, Austria signed a favourable peace with France, in 1714.
Also in 1714, Eugene began construction of the [[Belvedere (palace)|Belvedere]], a [[baroque]] palace in the 3rd district of Vienna. Construction of various parts of the palace complex continued until [[1723]]. Despite his obvious thirst for glory through wars, political appointments, and buildings, Eugene never married. Some assume that forgoing the social prestige (and indeed almost necessity) of [[marriage]] points to likely [[homophilia]]. His city mansion in Vienna, the [[Prinz Eugen Palais]] includes [[homoerotic]] carvings on the exterior, and statues of muscular, naked men on the grand staircase, but there is no surviving record of a male relationship. Eugene of Savoy is often referred to as a "[[Mars]] without a [[Venus]]".
[[Image:Wien Prinz Eugen Reiterdenkmal Heldenplatz.jpg|thumb|Monument to Prince Eugen at the [[Heldenplatz]] in Vienna]]
One of the new Austrian possessions after the War of the Spanish Succesion was the former Spanish, now [[Austrian Netherlands]]. Eugene was made [[Governors of the Habsburg Netherlands|governor]] of this area, then later became vicar of the Austrian lands in Italy. Just two years after the end of the war against France, Eugene led the Austrian armies during the [[Austro-Turkish War of 1716-18]]. He achieved a series of decisive victories, including the ''Battle of Belgrade'' that led to the [[Treaty of Passarowitz]]. This temporarily added northern [[Serbia]] and the [[Bosnia Province, Ottoman Empire | Bosnia]]n bank of the [[Sava]] river to the Austrian crown, and ended the Turkish threats to Vienna once and for all. Late in his life, Eugene engaged in one last war, the [[War of the Polish Succession]].
Eugene died in Vienna in 1736, in his sleep, after a night of playing [[cards]] with his old friend, the Countess Balthyany. A legend maintains that a lion in his palace [[zoo]] died the same night. Eugene is buried in a chapel of honor in the [[Cathedral of Saint Stephan]].
At his death, Eugene was one of the wealthiest men in Europe. His fortune passed to his niece, [[Victoria of Savoy Carignano]], whom he had never met. She sold his extensive [[library]] to the Austrian [[emperor]], and it formed the core of what is today the Austrian [[National Library]].
The [[World War I]] British [[Monitor (warship)|monitor]] [[HMS Prince Eugene (1915)|HMS ''Prince Eugene'']], [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]] battleship [[SMS Prinz Eugen|''Prinz Eugen'']], and the [[World War II]] German [[7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen]] and heavy cruiser [[Prinz Eugen]] were named after Eugene of Savoy.
==See also==
*[[Savoy]]
== References ==
*[[Military Heritage]] did a feature about the Muslim Turks versus Christian Nobility 1716 battle and crusade at Peterwardein, and the success of Prince Eugene of Savoy (Ludwig Heinrich Dyck, Military Heritage, August 2005, Volume 7, No. 1, pp 48 to 53, and p. 78), ISSN 1524-8666.
* Henderson, Nicholas. ''Prince Eugene of Savoy''. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1964.
*Johansson, Warren & Percy, William A. [http://williamapercy.com/pub-Outing.htm ''Outing: Shattering the Conspiracy of Silence.''] Harrington Park Press, 1994, p.63
*Mckay, Derek. ''Prince Eugene of Savoy''. London: Thames and Hudson. 1977.
*Nicolle, David and Hook, Christa. ''The Janissaries''. Botley: Osprey Publishing. 2000.
*Setton, Kenneth M. ''Venice, Austria, and the Turks in the Seventeenth Century''. Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society. 1991.
*speech by [[William Warren]] at the Knickerbocker Club for the American Delegation of Savoy Orders, November 2003
[[Category:1663 births|Savoy, Eugene of]]
[[Category:1736 deaths|Savoy, Eugene of]]
[[Category:Governors of the Habsburg Netherlands]]
[[Category:Austrian Field Marshals|Savoy, Eugene of]]
[[Category:Austrian nobility|Savoy, Eugene of]]
[[Category:House of Savoy]]
[[Category:History of Vienna]]
[[Category:Belgrade]]
[[Category:History of Hungary]]
[[Category:History of Vojvodina]]
[[Category:Serbian history]]
[[Category:History of Austria|Savoy, Eugene of]]
[[bs:Eugen Savojski]]
[[cs:Evžen Savojský]]
[[da:Prins Eugen af Savoyen]]
[[de:Eugen von Savoyen]]
[[fr:Eugène de Savoie-Carignan]]
[[hr:Eugen Savojski]]
[[it:Eugenio di Savoia]]
[[hu:Savoyai Jenő]]
[[nl:Eugenius van Savoye]]
[[ja:プリンツ・オイゲン]]
[[pl:Eugeniusz Sabaudzki]]
[[ru:Евгений Савойский]]
[[sl:Evgen Savojski]]
[[sr:Еуген Савојски]]
[[sv:Eugen av Savojen]]</text>
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<title>Extragalactic Astronomy</title>
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<title>Echo and the Bunnymen</title>
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<title>Emanuel Leutze</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Washington Crossing the Delaware.png|thumb|250px|''[[Washington Crossing the Delaware]]'']]
[[Image:Westward the Course of Empire.jpg|thumb|250px|''Westward the Course of Empire Takes its Way'']]
'''Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze''' ([[May 24]], [[1816]] &ndash; [[July 18]], [[1868]]) was a German-born [[United States|American]] [[painter]]. Leutze was born in [[Schwäbisch Gmünd]], [[Württemberg]], [[Germany]], was brought to America as a child, and then returned to Germany as an adult. He is perhaps best-known for his painting ''[[Washington Crossing the Delaware]]''. It is owned by the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], in [[New York]].
At the age of twenty-five he had earned enough to take himself to [[Düsseldorf]] for a course of art study at the [[Düsseldorf School|Royal Academy of Fine Arts]]. Almost immediately he began painting historical subjects; his first work, ''[[Columbus before the Council of Salamanca]]'' was purchased by the [[Düsseldorf Art Union]]. A strong supporter of Europe's [[Revolutions of 1848]], Leutze decided to paint an image that would encourage Europe's liberal reformers with the example of the American Revolution. Using Amer |
5]], [[2005]].
==External links==
* {{imdb name|name=Amitabh Bachchan|id=0000821}}
* [http://www.AmitabhBachchan.net An unofficial Amitabh Bachchan Website]
* [http://www.filmlinc.com/wrt/programs/4-2005/ab05.htm Bachchan film retrospective at Lincoln Center]
* [http://www.bharatmatrimony.com/matrimonyxpress/celeb-speak/indian/bollywood-actor/amitabh-bachchan-01.shtml An interview with Amitabh Bachchan]
[[Category:1942 births|Bachchan, Amitabh]]
[[Category:Living people|Bachchan, Amitabh]]
[[Category:Actors|Bachchan,Amitabh]]
[[Category:Actor-politicians|Bachchan, Amitabh]]
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[[Category:Indian actors|Bachchan,Amitabh]]
[[Category:Indian film actors|Bachchan,Amitabh]]
[[Category:Indian television presenters|Bachchan,Amitabh]]
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[[Category:Padma Shri awardees|Bachchan, Amitabh]]
[[Category:Vegetarians|Bachchan,Amitabh]]
[[de:Amitabh Bachchan]]
[[fa:آمیتاب باچان]]
[[fr:Amitabh Bachchan]]
[[gu:અમિતાભ બચ્ચન]]
[[hi:अमिताभ बच्चन]]
[[nl:Amitabh Bachchan]]
[[sa:अमिताभ बच्चन]]
[[sv:Amitabh Bachchan]]
[[he:אמיטאב באצ'אן]]</text>
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<title>Air Pollution</title>
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<title>Antarctic-Environmental Protocol</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty]]
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<title>Allomorph</title>
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<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Keep this note! Technical term, necessary for wikipedia articles; don't assign for wiktionary -->
''This article is about a lingustic term. See [[Pseudomorph]] for another meaning of the word.''
----
In [[linguistics]] an '''allomorph''' is a variant form of a [[morpheme]]. The meaning remains the same, while the sound can vary.
For example, in the [[English language]] the past tense morpheme is -ed. It occurs in several allomorphs depending on its phonological environment, assimilating voicing of the previous segment or inserting a [[schwa]] when following an alveolar stop:
* as {{IPA|/əd/}} in 'hunted' or 'banded',
* as {{IPA|/d/}} in 'buzzed',
* as {{IPA|/t/}} in 'fished'
Allomorphy can also exist in case distinctions, as in Classic [[Sanskrit]]:
{| class="wikitable"
|+'''Vāk''' (voice)
|-
!
!'''Singular'''
!'''Plural'''
|-
! [[Nominative]]
|{{IPA|/va&#720;k/}}
|{{IPA|/va&#720;&#679;-as/}}
|-
! [[Genitive case|Genitive]]
|{{IPA|/va&#720;&#679;-as/}}
|{{IPA|/va&#720;&#679;-a&#720;m/}}
|-
! [[Instrumental case|Instrumental]]
|{{IPA|/va&#720;&#679;-a&#720;/}}
|{{IPA|/va&#720;g-b&#689;is/}}
|-
! [[Locative case|Locative]]
|{{IPA|/va&#720;&#679;-i/}}
|{{IPA|/va&#720;k-&#642;i/}}
|}
The nominative {{IPA|/va&#720;k/}} is the basic form of the morpheme and, because of Pre-Indic palatalazation of [[velars]] and the merging of {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/o/}} into {{IPA|/a/}} (making the alternation unpredictable on phonetic grounds), morphophonemic variation has occurred that isn’t directly related to phonological processes.
==See also==
* [[Consonant mutation]]
* [[Grassman's Law]]
==Reference==
*{{cite book|title= Principles and Methods for Historical Linguistics |author= Jeffers, Robert J. and Lehiste, Ilse |year=1979|
publisher= MIT press |}}
{{ling-stub}}
[[Category:Linguistic morphology]]
[[de:Allomorph]]
[[nl:Allomorf]]
[[pl:Allomorf]]
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<title>American bias</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cultural_imperialism]]
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<page>
<title>Allophone</title>
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<comment>robot Adding: gl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the sense of "allophone" used in linguistics. For other senses, see [[allophone (disambiguation)]].''
In [[phonetics]], an '''allophone''' is one of several similar [[phone]]s that belong to the same [[phoneme]]. A phone is a sound that has a definite shape as a sound wave, while a phoneme is a basic group of sounds that can distinguish words (i.e. changing one phoneme in a word can produce another word); speakers of a particular language perceive a phoneme as a single distinctive sound in that language. Thus an allophone is a phone considered as a member of one phoneme.
Each allophone is used in a specific phonetic context and many times there is some sort of [[phonology|phonological]] process. Not all phonemes have significantly different allophones, but there are always minor differences in articulation from one piece of speech to the next.
For example, {{IPA|[p&#688;]}} as in ''pin'' and {{IPA|[p]}} as in ''cap'' are allophones for the phoneme /p/ in the [[English language]] because they occur in [[complementary distribution]]. English speakers generally treat these as the same sound, but they are different. The latter is [[unaspirated]] (plain): if plain {{IPA|[p]}} is also found in words such as the second '''p''' in ''paper'' {{IPA|[p&#688;eɪ.pɚ]}} or ''spin'' {{IPA|[spɪn]}}. Outside of contexts that plain '''p''' appears in English, speakers may hear it as '''b''' since English '''b''' is typically unaspirated.
[[Chinese language|Chinese]] treats these two phones differently and the latter is always written as '''b''' in [[pinyin]]; thus, they are not allophones in Chinese.
Similarly, English-speaking people may become aware of the difference between two allophones of the phoneme '''t''' when they consider the pronunciations of the following phrases:
:night rate
:nitrate
==See also==
*[[List of phonetics topics]]
[[Category:Phonetics]]
[[Category:Phonology]]
[[br:Alofonenn]]
[[da:Allofon]]
[[de:Allophon]]
[[es:Alófono]]
[[eo:Alofono]]
[[fr:Allophone]]
[[gl:Alófono]]
[[ko:이음]]
[[it:Allofono]]
[[he:אלופון]]
[[hu:Allofón]]
[[nl:Allofoon]]
[[nn:Allofon]]
[[pl:Alofon]]
[[ru:Аллофон]]
[[sco:Allophones]]
[[fi:Allofoni]]
[[sv:Allofon]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Affix</title>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: gl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''affix''' is a [[morpheme]] that is attached to a base morpheme such as a [[root (linguistics)|root]] or to a [[stem (linguistics)|stem]], to form a word. Affixes may be [[derivation_(linguistics)|derivational]], like English ''-ness'' and ''pre-'', or [[inflection|inflectional]], like English plural ''-s'' and past tense ''-ed''.
==Types of affixes==
Affixes are divided into several types, depending on their position with reference to the root:
* [[Prefix]]es (attached before another morpheme)
* [[Suffix]]es (attached after another morpheme)
* [[Infix]]es (inserted within another morpheme)
* [[Circumfix]]es (attached before and after another morpheme or set of morphemes)
* [[Interfix]]es (semantically empty linking elements in compounds)
* [[Suprafix]]es (also ''superfix'', attached [[suprasegmental]]ly to another morpheme)
* [[Simulfix]]es (also ''transfix'' or ''root-and-pattern morphology'', discontinuous affix interweaved throughout a discontinuous base)
* [[Duplifix]] (little used term referring to affix composed of both a reduplicated and non-reduplicated element, see [[Reduplication#Reduplication and other processes|Reduplication and other processes]])
Affixes are [[bound morpheme]]s by definition. Prefixes and suffixes may be [[separable affix]]es.
There also has been a proposal of a somewhat different type of affix, a ''[[disfix]]'' or ''subtractive morpheme'', which subtracts phonological segments from bases.
Affixes are central to the process of [[concatenation]].
{| class="wikitable"
! affix !! example
|- align="center"
| prefix || <u>''un''</u>do<br>''prefix'' + root
|- align="center"
| suffix || look<u>''ing''</u><br>root + ''suffix''
|- align="center"
| infix <sup>1</sup> || fan<u>''freaking''</u>tastic<br>ro- + ''infix'' + -ot
|- align="center"
| circumfix || [[Kabyle language|Kabyle]]: {{IPA|<u>''θ''</u>issli<u>''θ''</u>}} "bride"<br>(compare to {{IPA|issli}} "groom")<br>''circumfix'' + root + ''circumfix''
|- align="cen |
ical instruction which is founded on a Jewish and probably pre-Christian document, which forms the basis also of the ''Epistle of Barnabas''. The second part consists of vii.-xv., and treats of church ritual and discipline; and the third part is eschatological and deals with the second Advent. The book is variously dated by different scholars: Zahn assigns it to the years A.D. 80-120; Harnack to 120-165; Lightfoot and Funk to 80-100; Salmon to 120. (See Salmon in ''Dict. of Christ. Biog.'' iv. 806-815, also article [[Didache]].)
==== Apostolical Constitutions ====
For the various collections of these ecclesiastical regulations--the Syriac ''Didascalia, Ecclesiastical Canons of the Holy Apostles'', &c.--see separate article [[Apostolical Constitutions]].
=== Epistles ===
==== The Abgar Epistles ====
These epistles are found in Eusebius (''H.E.'' i. 3), who translated them from the Syriac. They are two in number, and purport to be a petition of Abgar Uchomo, king of Edessa, to Christ to visit Edessa, and Christ's answer, promising after his ascension to send one of his disciples, who should "cure thee of thy disease, and give eternal life and peace to thee and all thy people." Lipsius thinks that these letters were manufactured about the year 200. (See ''Dict. Christ. Biog.'' iv. 878-881, with the literature there mentioned.) The above correspondence, which appears also in Syriac, is inwoven with the legend of Addai or Thaddaeus. The best critical edition of the Greek text will be found in Lipsius, ''Acta Apostolorum Apocrypha'', 1891, pp. 279-283. (See also [[Abgar]].)
==== Epistle of Barnabas ====
The special object of this epistle was to guard its readers against the danger of relapsing into Judaism. The date is placed by some scholars as early as 70-79, by others as late as the early years of the emperor Hadrian, 117. The text has been edited by Hilgenfeld in 1877, Gebhardt and Harnack in 1878, and Funk in 1887 and 1901. In these works will be found full bibliographies. (See further [[Barnabas]].)
==== Epistle of Clement ====
The object of this epistle is the restoration of harmony to the church of Corinth, which had been vexed by internal discussions. The epistle may be safely ascribed to the years 95-96. The writer was in all probability the bishop of Rome of that name. He is named an apostle and his work was reckoned as canonical by Clement of Alexandria (''Strom.'' iv. 17. 105), and as late as the time of Eusebius (''H.E.'' iii. 16) it was still read in some of the churches. Critical editions have been published by Gebhardt and Harnack, ''Patr. Apost. Op.'', 1876, and in the smaller form in 1900, Lightfoot, 1890, Funk, 1901. The Syriac version has been edited by Kennet, ''Epp. of St Clement to the Corinthians in Syriac'', 1899, and the Old Latin version by Morin, ''S. Clementis Romani ad Corinthios epistulae versio Latina antiquissima'', 1894.
==== "Clement's" 2nd Ep. to the Corinthians ====
This so-called letter of Clement is not mentioned by any writer before Eusebius (''H. E.'' iii. 38. 4). It is not a letter but really a homily written in Rome about the middle of the 2nd century. The writer is a Gentile. Some of his citations are derived from the Gospel to the Egyptians.
==== Clement's Epistles on Virginity ====
These two letters are preserved only in Syriac which is a translation from the Greek. They are first referred to by Epiphanius and next by Jerome. Critics have assigned them to the middle of the 2nd century. They have been edited by [[Ian Theodor Beelen]], Louvain, 1856.
==== Clement's Epistles to James ====
On these two letters which are found in the Clementine Homilies, see Smith's ''Dict. of Christian Biography'', i. 559, 570, and Lehmann's monograph, ''Die Clementischen Schriften'', Gotha, 1867, in which references will be found to other sources of information.
==== Epistles of Ignatius ====
There are two collections of letters bearing the name of Ignatius, who was martyred between 105 and 117. The first consists of seven letters addressed by Ignatius to the Ephesians, Magnesians, Trallians, Romans, Philadelphians, Smyrnaeans and to Polycarp. The second collection consists of the preceding extensively interpolated, and six others of Mary to Ignatius, of Ignatius to Mary, to the Tarsians, Antiochians, Philippians and Hero, a deacon of Antioch. The latter collection is a pseudepigraph written in the 4th century or the beginning of the 5th. The authenticity of the first collection also has been denied, but the evidence appears to be against this contention. The literature is overwhelming in its extent. See Zahn, ''Patr. Apost. Op.'', 1876; Funk, ''Die apostol. Väter'', 1901; Lightfoot, ''Apostolic Fathers'', 1889.
==== Epistle of Polycarp ====
The genuineness of this epistle stands or falls with that of the Ignatian epistles. See article in Smith's ''Dictionary of Christian Biography'', iv. 423-431; Lightfoot, ''Apostolic Fathers'', i. 629-702; also [[Polycarp]].
==== Pauline Epistles to the Laodiceans and the Alexandrians ====
The first of these is found only in Latin. This, according to Lightfoot (see ''Colossians'', 272-298) and Zahn, is a translation from the Greek. Such an epistle is mentioned in the Muratorian canon. See Zahn, ''op. cit.'' ii. 566-585. The Epistle to the Alexandrians is mentioned only in the Muratorian canon (see Zahn ii. 586-592).
For the ''Third Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians'', and ''Epistle from the Corinthians to Paul'', see under "Acts of Paul" above.
===The Council of Jamnia ===
At least until the [[Council of Jamnia]] in [[92]] AD, [[Jew]]s did not have a single unified [[Biblical canon#Jewish canon|canon]] of Scripture. Some ancient Jewish sects (including the [[Essenes]], as evidenced in the [[Dead Sea scrolls]]) included as Scripture much that modern Jews consider non-canonical. The Council explicitly excluded certain books for reasons that included their late composition or because they were not written in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] (although some parts of the [[Hebrew Bible]] or [[Tanakh]] itself are in [[Biblical Aramaic]]). The word Apocrypha means hidden writing, and it was given to such books by the Jews to distinguish them from the books which they accepted as canonical.
Gentiles continued to use a Greek translation made in the period from the [[3rd century BC|third]] to the [[1st century BC|first]] centuries BC, in [[Alexandria]], [[Egypt]]. This work, which became known as the [[Septuagint]], included several books that were rejected at Jamnia.
While Jews do not accept these books, saying they lack the unction of the prophetic books of the canon, they regard them as consistent, for most part, with the wisdom which rests on the fear of God and loyalty to His law, and some Jews have at various times drawn from them as a legitimate part of Jewish literary creativity, even using elements from them as the basis for two important parts of the Jewish liturgy.
In the [[Mahzor]] (High Holy Day prayer book), a medieval Jewish poet used the book of [[Sirach]] as the basis for a beautiful poem, Ke'Ohel HaNimtah.
A closing [[piyyut]] in the [[Seder Avodah]] section, in the [[Yom Kippur]] Musaf begins:
:"How glorious indeed was the High Priest, when he safely left the Holy of Holies.<br />
:Like the clearest canopy of Heaven was the dazzling countenance of the priest."
<!-- (This can be seen, for example, on page 828 of the Birnbaum edition of the Mahzor.) -->
Mahzor replaces the medieval [[piyyut]] with the relevant section from Ben Sira, which is more direct.
Apocrypha have even formed the basis of the most important of all Jewish prayers, the [[Amidah]] (the Shemonah Esrah). Sirach provides the vocabulary and framework for many of the Amidah's blessings, which were instituted by the men of the Great Assembly. The description of the origins of [[Hanukkah]] is also to be found in the books rejected at Jamnia.
While the texts themselves may not be accepted as canonical, some of their contents are regarded as historical truth. In particular, [[1 Maccabees]] is cited by Jewish scholars as highly reliable history and was used by [[Josephus]] in his history of the Maccabean revolt.
===Majority Christian usage===
The [[Roman Catholic Church]] and the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] Churches (thus the great majority of Christians) accept as part of the Old Testament some books excluded from the Jewish canon. Roman Catholics refer to them as [[deuterocanonical books]], a term first used by [[Sixtus of Siena]] in 1566, signifying that definitive recognition of their canonical status came later than that of the other books. Catholics and Orthodox do not call these books "apocrypha", a term they apply only to other books that fall within the definition given in the first paragraph of this article.
The deuterocanonical books are ''[[Book of Tobit|Tobit]]'', ''[[Book of Judith|Judith]]'', ''[[1 Maccabees]]'', ''[[2 Maccabees]]'', ''[[Wisdom of Solomon]]'', ''[[Sirach|Sirach (Ecclesiasticus)]]'', and ''[[Book of Baruch|Baruch]]'', as well as some parts of ''[[Book of Esther|Esther]]'' and ''[[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]''.
Eastern Orthodox Churches sometimes also consider ''[[3 Maccabees]]'', ''[[4 Maccabees]]'', ''[[1 Esdras]]'' and/or ''[[2 Esdras]]'' to be deuterocanonical and include [[Psalm 151]] with the ''[[Psalms]]'', while the [[Ethiopian Orthodox]] venerate additional books, such as ''[[Jubilees]]'', ''[[Book of Enoch|Enoch]]'', and the ''[[Rest of the Words of Baruch]]''. The inclusion of Enoch is justified on the grounds that the ''Book of [[Jude]]'' quotes it as Scripture. See [http://www.islamic-awareness.org/Bible/Text/Canon/ethiopican.html here] for conflicting accounts on what is actually included in the Ethiopian canon.
Since there was no fixed canon even among Jews until the Council of Jamnia (c. |
==
First-person shooters, often with graphical, brutal and interactive [[violence in video games|video game violence]], are common examples in the debate on the connection between violent video games and real-life violence or violent behaviour.
Lt. Col. [[Dave Grossman (author)|David Grossman]], a former [[United States Military Academy|West Point]] psychology professor, has written several books that pertain to the subject of violence in the media, including ''On Killing'' and ''Stop Teaching Our Kids to Kill''. During heights of video game controversy he has been interviewed on the content of his books, and has repeatedly used the term "murder simulator" to describe first-person shooter games. He argues that video game publishers unethically train children in the use of weapons and, more importantly, harden them emotionally to the act of murder by simulating the killing of hundreds or thousands of opponents in a single typical video game.
Video game violence critics generally agree that violent video games are at least as bad an influence on children as are television shows with the same level of violence and cruelty, and most seem to believe that video games are more threatening to a child's well-being, because the video game player uses the controller to make an on screen character act out the violence personally. It was widely reported that the [[spree killer|spree killers]] in the [[Columbine High School massacre]] were, like many teenagers, fans of first-person shooter games. They had recorded a videotape before the massacre in which they said they looked forward to using their shotguns just as in the game ''[[Doom]]'' (the ''Doom'' levels made by one of the attackers -the most popular being one called "[[Union Aerospace Corporation|UAC]] Labs"- can still be found on the Internet as the [[Harris levels]]). Years later, there was much speculation in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] media that the [[Beltway sniper attacks]] were inspired by first-person shooters and games such as ''[[Grand Theft Auto (series)|Grand Theft Auto]]'' that have first-person shooter elements. There has been much debate around this within and beyond FPS and gaming circles.
It has further been clamed that the system of rewards and punishment in violent video games like ''Doom'' systematically teaches participants to be violent. Opponents to this view hold that such games actually ''prevent'' violent behavior by providing a safe outlet for aggression. Over two hundred studies have been published which examine the effects of violence in entertainment media and which at least partially focus on violence in video games in particular. Some psychological studies have shown a [[correlation]] between children playing violent video games and suffering psychological effects, though the vast majority stop short of claiming behavioral [[Causality|causation]]. [[Craig A. Anderson]] has testified before the U.S. Senate on the issue, and his [[meta-analysis]] of these studies has shown 5 consistent effects: "increased aggressive behavior, thoughts, and affect; increased physiological arousal; and decreased prosocial (helping) behavior". ([http://www.apa.org/science/psa/sb-anderson.html Violent Video Games: Myths, Facts, and Unanswered Questions]) However, some studies explicitly deny that such a connection exists, most notably Anderson and Ford (1986), Winkel et al (1987), Scott (1995), and Ballard and Lineberger (1999). Some studies have shown that children who watch violent television shows and play violent video games have a tendency to act more aggressively on the playground, and some people are concerned that this aggression may presage violent behavior when children grow to adulthood. Common themes in the continuing debate is whether people with violent dispositions prefer violent games or violence in games predispose players to violent behavioural patterns, and the role gender differences plays.
Most FPS games have a voluntary [[ESRB]] rating of ''T'' (for Teen) or ''M'' (for Mature audiences), but sale of these games to children in the [[United States|USA]] was not moderated or enforced until late in [[2003]], when it was announced that a number of major retail outlets such as [[Wal-Mart]] and [[Best Buy]], which account for a large share of video game sales, would begin restricting sales of "M"-rated games to people under the age of 17. There is no national law in the United States prohibiting sale of such games to children, but bills have recently been proposed that would prohibit the sale of games to customers under the ESRB rating's age. [[Video game industry]] professionals oppose such a law, citing that the ESRB is a voluntary rating and similar rated materials are not regulated, such as the [[MPAA film rating system]]'s minumum age for movie patrons.
Controversial [[First Amendment]] lawyer [[Jack Thompson]] is a vocal critic of many FPS games. Thompson has sued several developers over the content of their games, most notably [[Take Two Interactive]]. Thompson is considered to be on something of a crusade against [[Grand Theft Auto: Vice City]], and it's developers, [[Rockstar Games]].
==List of notable titles and development houses==
===Selected list of FPS developers===
This is a short list of developers of first-person shooters who have achieved both critical and popular success, selling many units, developing lucrative intellectual properties into series of titles and/or creating strong followings that transcend the core FPS gaming audience and touched the mainstream media:
* ''[[3D Realms]]:'' 3D Realms is also notable as an old developer, having its beginnings in [[Apogee Software]], a veteran of shareware PC gaming. It has released only two FPS titles: ''[[Duke Nukem 3D]]'' (1996) and ''[[Shadow Warrior]]'' (1997). However, both were very popular &mdash; especially ''Duke Nukem 3D'', which was a smash hit (albeit a controversial one). A sequel to ''Duke Nukem 3D'', ''[[Duke Nukem Forever]]'', has been in development for many years.
* ''[[Bungie Studios]]:'' Bungie is a developer who has trodden outside of the FPS genre on a number of occasions. Their first success in the genre comes from the critically acclaimed ''[[Marathon (computer game)|Marathon]]'' (1994), a game for the [[Apple Macintosh]], notable at the time for having a story and letting the player look up and down, among other things. Their breakthrough to the mainstream FPS world came with the [[Xbox]] flagship title ''[[Halo (computer game)|Halo]]''. And is contiuing that sucess with games like ''[[Halo (computer game)|Halo 3]]'' and ''[[Halo (computer game)|Halo 2 for Vista]]''.
* ''[[Epic Games]] (formerly Epic MegaGames):'' Another developer from the pre-FPS days of computer gaming has not been active in the FPS market as long as some others, but with the release of the widely acclaimed ''[[Unreal]]'' (1998) (which spawned a large series of games, many of them with well supported, thriving mod communities) and with the popularity of the [[Unreal engine]] amongst developers, the company has become a major player in the scene.
* ''[[id Software]]:'' Developers of the extremely successful ''Doom'' (1993) and ''Quake'' (1996) series, they are one of the old school of game developers that has its beginnings in pre-FPS gaming, and is considered by most gamers as the original definer and populizer of the genre. Their technology has also been used in creating many other highly successful games. The developer's involvement with mod communities is limited in comparison to others, but its games have none the less spawned some of the most well known mod types: [[capture the flag]] and ''[[Team Fortress]]'' among them.
* ''[[LucasArts]]:'' LucasArts was a phenomenally successful PC game developer in the 1990s and continues that success today, though perhaps not with the same vigour. It has developed unique franchises and exploited both the ''[[Indiana Jones]]'' and the ''[[Star Wars]]'' IPs. Two of the most successful entries to their ''Star Wars'' collection of titles are ''[[Star Wars: Dark Forces]]'' and ''[[Star Wars Jedi Knight: Dark Forces II]]'', which are recognized by critics as amongst the best ''Star Wars'' and FPS games produced to date.
* ''[[Rare (video game company)|Rare]]:'' Rareware is a recognizable name to console fans for many different titles, but their foray into first-person shooter territory is especially notable because it produced the first successful console FPS: ''[[GoldenEye 007]]'' (1997). It was also one of the most popular titles on the [[Nintendo 64]]. Their next FPS, ''[[Perfect Dark]]'' (2000), was described as a "spiritual sequel" to ''GoldenEye'', based around Rare's own characters and storyline rather than the [[James Bond]] licence. They have since released a second game in the franchise, ''[[Perfect Dark Zero]]'' (2005) for the [[Xbox 360]].
* ''[[Raven Software]]:'' Raven Software is generally most credited for being a pseudo sister company for id Software, since they have been collaborating together from as early as ''Doom''. Since then, Raven has gone to use all of id's game engines for their own creations, which has resulted in ''[[Heretic]]'', ''[[Star Trek: Voyager Elite Force]]'', and the controversial ''[[Soldier of Fortune (computer game)|Soldier of Fortune]]'' games. In 2002 LucasArts employed them to produce the critically acclaimed sequel to ''Jedi Knight'', ''[[Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast]]'' (and later on, the spinoff ''[[Star Wars Jedi Knight: Jedi Academy]]''). Raven's latest game is currently ''[[Quake 4]]''.
* ''[[Red Storm Entertainment]]:'' The developer of the long running ''Rainbow Six'' (1998) series of [[Tom Clancy]] affiliated tactical realism first-person shooters have found great success with this franchise.
* ''[[Valve Software]]:'' Valve's inclusion in this list rests on the immense success of their first game, ''[[Half-Life]]'' |
d by the military at the end of the film.
The movie was considered such a failure that Toho declined to allow any sequels to be made, despite their original plans.
===Millennium Series (ミレニアムシリーズ) 1999–2004===
The [[Mireniamu era (daikaiju eiga)|Millennium Series]] is the official term for the series of Godzilla movies, unofficially called the "[[Shinsei Series]]" (or even the "Alternate Reality Series") by American fans, made after the [[VS Series]] ended with ''[[Godzilla vs. Destoroyah]]''. Unlike the previous two series, this era does not feature a continuous timeline. Only two of the films in this era, ''[[Godzilla Against Mechagodzilla]]'' and ''[[Godzilla: Tokyo SOS]]'', are directly related to one another. The rest follow entirely different timelines. The common theme to this era is that all movies use ''[[Godzilla (1954)]]'' as the jumping-off point.
Since the films are different, the sizes are different in some cases. Godzilla's most prominent size in this series is 55 meters. In the Showa Series he was 50 metres, and in the VS series his size ranged from 80-100 metres. In ''[[Godzilla, Mothra and King Ghidorah: Giant Monsters All-Out Attack]]'' he was 60 meters, and in ''[[Godzilla: Final Wars]]'' he was 100 meters tall. Godzilla was originally supposed to be 50 meters in ''Final Wars'', but budgetary cutbacks in miniature sets forced this size change.
In response to negative fan reaction to the 1998 American Godzilla film, Toho inserted derogatory references to the American film and creature design in two of its Millennium movies. The ''[[Gotham]] attack'' was referred to in the 2001 movie ''[[Godzilla, Mothra and King Ghidorah: Giant Monsters All-Out Attack]]''. The monster that had appeared in New York was not, in fact, Godzilla, but an entirely different yet similar monster.
In ''[[Godzilla: Final Wars]]'' ([[2004 in film|2004]]) a kaiju named [[Zilla]], of identical to design to the American interpretation of Godzilla, attacks Sydney, Australia. It is later killed by the "true" Godzilla from a hit to the tail, and its [[radioactive decay|radioactive]] breath.
===Filmography===
Since 1954, there have been 29 official Godzilla films produced. All of these, with the lone exception of the 23rd, were produced by Toho Studios in Japan. (Please note that the titles listed below are Toho's preferred English titles; for further discussion, see [http://www.tohokingdom.com/web_pages/misc/site_legend.htm Toho Kingdom].)
{| class="wikitable"
!No.
!width="200"|Official Toho Title
!Year
!width="110"|Director
!width="110"|SFX Director
!Monster Co-Stars
!width="200"|Original English Title
|-
|1
|''[[Godzilla (1954 film)|Godzilla]]''
|[[1954 in film|1954]]
|[[Ishiro Honda]]
|[[Eiji Tsuburaya]]
|N/A
|''[[Godzilla, King of the Monsters]]''
|-
|2
|''[[Godzilla Raids Again]]''
|[[1955 in film|1955]]
|[[Motoyoshi Oda]]
|[[Eiji Tsuburaya]]
|[[Anguirus]]
|''[[Gigantis the Fire Monster]]''
|-
|3
|''[[King Kong vs. Godzilla]]''
|[[1962 in film|1962]]
|[[Ishiro Honda]]
|[[Eiji Tsuburaya]]
|[[King Kong]], [[Oodako|Giant Octopus]]
|''[[King Kong vs. Godzilla]]''
|-
|4
|''[[Mothra vs. Godzilla]]''
|[[1964 in film|1964]]
|[[Ishiro Honda]]
|[[Eiji Tsuburaya]]
|[[Mothra]]
|''[[Mothra vs. Godzilla|Godzilla vs. The Thing]]''
|-
|5
|''[[Ghidorah, the Three-Headed Monster]]''
|[[1964 in film|1964]]
|[[Ishiro Honda]]
|[[Eiji Tsuburaya]]
|[[King Ghidorah]], [[Mothra]], [[Rodan]]
|''[[Ghidrah, the Three-Headed Monster]]''
|-
|6
|''[[Invasion of Astro-Monster]]''
|[[1965 in film|1965]]
|[[Ishiro Honda]]
|[[Eiji Tsuburaya]]
|[[King Ghidorah]], [[Rodan]]
|''[[Godzilla vs. Monster Zero]]''
|-
|7
|''[[Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster|Ebirah, Horror of the Deep]]''
|[[1966 in film|1966]]
|[[Jun Fukuda]]
|[[Eiji Tsuburaya]]
|[[Ebirah]], [[Mothra]], [[Ookondoru|Giant Condor]]
|''[[Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster]]''
|-
|8
|''[[Son of Godzilla]]''
|[[1967 in film|1967]]
|[[Jun Fukuda]]
|[[Eiji Tsuburaya]]<br>[[Sadamasa Arikawa]]
|[[Kamacuras]], [[Kumonga]], [[Minya|Minilla]]
|''[[Son of Godzilla]]''
|-
|9
|''[[Destroy All Monsters]]''
|[[1968 in film|1968]]
|[[Ishiro Honda]]
|[[Sadamasa Arikawa]]
|[[Anguirus]], [[Baragon]], [[Gorosaurus]], [[King Ghidorah]], [[Kumonga]], [[Manda]], [[Minya|Minilla]], [[Mothra]], [[Rodan]], [[Varan]]
|''[[Destroy All Monsters]]''
|-
|10
|''[[All Monsters Attack]]''
|[[1969 in film|1969]]
|[[Ishiro Honda]]
|[[Ishiro Honda]]
|[[Gabara]], [[Minya|Minilla]]
|''[[Godzilla's Revenge]]''
|-
|11
|''[[Godzilla vs. Hedorah]]''
|[[1971 in film|1971]]
|[[Yoshimitsu Banno]]
|[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]
|[[Hedorah, the Smog Monster|Hedorah]]
|''[[Godzilla vs. Hedorah|Godzilla vs. The Smog Monster]]''
|-
|12
|''[[Godzilla vs. Gigan]]''
|[[1972 in film|1972]]
|[[Jun Fukuda]]
|[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]
|[[Anguirus]], [[Gigan]], [[King Ghidorah]]
|''[[Godzilla on Monster Island]]''
|-
|13
|''[[Godzilla vs. Megalon]]''
|[[1973 in film|1973]]
|[[Jun Fukuda]]
|[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]
|[[Anguirus]], [[Gigan]], [[Jet Jaguar]], [[Megalon]]
|''[[Godzilla vs. Megalon]]''
|-
|14
|''[[Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla]]''
|[[1974 in film|1974]]
|[[Jun Fukuda]]
|[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]
|[[Anguirus]], [[King Caesar]], [[Mechagodzilla]]
|''[[Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla|Godzilla vs. The Cosmic Monster]]''
|-
|15
|''[[Terror of Mechagodzilla]]''
|[[1975 in film|1975]]
|[[Ishiro Honda]]
|[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]
|[[Mechagodzilla]], [[Titanosaurus (Godzilla)|Titanosaurus]]
|''[[Terror of Mechagodzilla]]''
|-
|16
|''[[The Return of Godzilla]]''
|[[1984 in film|1984]]
|[[Koji Hashimoto]]
|[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]
|[[Shockirus]]
|''[[Godzilla 1985]]''
|-
|17
|''[[Godzilla vs Biollante|Godzilla vs. Biollante]]''
|[[1989 in film|1989]]
|[[Kazuki Omori]]
|[[Koichi Kawakita]]
|[[Biollante]]
|''[[Godzilla vs. Biollante]]''
|-
|18
|''[[Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah]]''
|[[1991 in film|1991]]
|[[Kazuki Omori]]
|[[Koichi Kawakita]]
|[[King Ghidorah|Dorat]], [[Godzillasaurus]], [[King Ghidorah]], [[King Ghidorah|Mecha-King Ghidorah]]
|''[[Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah]]''
|-
|19
|''[[Godzilla vs. Mothra]]''
|[[1992 in film|1992]]
|[[Takao Okawara]]
|[[Koichi Kawakita]]
|[[Battra]], [[Mothra]]
|''[[Godzilla and Mothra: The Battle for Earth]]''
|-
|20
|''[[Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla II]]''
|[[1993 in film|1993]]
|[[Takao Okawara]]
|[[Koichi Kawakita]]
|[[Godzilla Junior|Baby Godzilla]], [[King Ghidorah|Mecha-King Ghidorah]], [[Mechagodzilla]], [[Rodan]], [[Mechagodzilla|Super Mechagodzilla]]
|''[[Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla II]]''
|-
|21
|''[[Godzilla vs. SpaceGodzilla]]''
|[[1994 in film|1994]]
|[[Kensho Yamashita]]
|[[Koichi Kawakita]]
|[[Godzilla Junior|Little Godzilla]], [[Moguera]], [[Mothra]], [[Space Godzilla]]
|''[[Godzilla vs. SpaceGodzilla]]''
|-
|22
|''[[Godzilla vs. Destoroyah]]''
|[[1995 in film|1995]]
|[[Takao Okawara]]
|[[Koichi Kawakita]]
|[[Destoroyah]], [[Godzilla Junior]]
|''[[Godzilla vs. Destoroyah]]''
|-
|23
|''[[Godzilla (1998 film)|Godzilla]]''
|[[1998 in film|1998]]
|[[Roland Emmerich]]
|[[Volker Engel]]
|baby "Godzillas"
|''[[Godzilla (1998 film)|Godzilla]]''
|-
|24
|''[[Godzilla 2000: Millennium]]''
|[[1999 in film|1999]]
|[[Takao Okawara]]
|[[Kenji Suzuki]]
|[[Orga]]
|''[[Godzilla 2000]]''
|-
|25
|''[[Godzilla vs. Megaguirus|Godzilla X Megaguiras]]''
|[[2000 in film|2000]]
|[[Masaaki Tezuka]]
|[[Kenji Suzuki]]
|[[Megaguirus]], [[Meganula]], [[Meganulon]]
|''[[Godzilla vs. Megaguirus]]''
|-
|26
|''[[Godzilla, Mothra and King Ghidorah: Giant Monsters All-Out Attack|Godzilla, Mothra, King Ghidorah: Giant Monsters All-Out Attack]]''
|[[2001 in film|2001]]
|[[Shusuke Kaneko]]
|[[Makoto Kamiya]]
|[[Baragon]], [[King Ghidorah]], [[Mothra]]
|''[[Godzilla, Mothra and King Ghidorah: Giant Monsters All-Out Attack]]''
|-
|27
|''[[Godzilla Against Mechagodzilla|Godzilla X Mechagodzilla]]''
|[[2002 in film|2002]]
|[[Masaaki Tezuka]]
|[[Yûichi Kikuchi]]
|[[Mechagodzilla]]
|''[[Godzilla Against Mechagodzilla]]''
|-
|28
|''[[Godzilla: Tokyo SOS|Godzilla, Mothra, Mechagodzilla: Tokyo SOS]]''
|[[2003 in film|2003]]
|[[Masaaki Tezuka]]
|[[Eiichi Asada]]
|[[Kameba|Kamoebas]], [[Mechagodzilla]], [[Mothra]]
|''[[Godzilla: Tokyo S.O.S.]]''
|-
|29
|''[[Godzilla: Final Wars]]''
|[[2004 in film|2004]]
|[[Ryuhei Kitamura]]
|[[Eiichi Asada]]
|[[Anguirus]], [[Ebirah]], [[Gigan]], [[Hedorah, the Smog Monster|Hedorah]], [[Kamacuras]], [[King Ghidorah|Keizer Ghidorah]], [[King Caesar]], [[Kumonga]], [[Manda]], [[Minya|Minilla]], [[Monster X]], [[Mothra]], [[Rodan]], [[Zilla]]
|''[[Godzilla: Final Wars]]''
|}
Yoshimitsu Banno, director of ''Godzilla vs. Hedorah'', has acquired permission to make a 40-minute film for [[IMAX]] theaters, and has secured close to complete funding.
{| class="wikitable"
!No.
!width="200"|Title
!Year
!width="110"|Director
!width="110"|SFX Director
!Monster Co-Stars
|-
|1
|''[[Godzilla 3D to the MAX]]''
|[[2007 in film|2007]]
|[[Yoshimitsu Banno]]
|[[Eiichi Asada]]
|[[Hedorah|Deathla]]
|-
|}
==Other media==
===Television===
Putting the Godzilla films' suits and effects crew to further use were several Japanese television shows; ''Ultraman'' and some shows inspired by it used the suits occasionally for cameos but ''Godzilla Island'' primarily followed the further adventures of the kaiju featured in the films.
* ''[[Ultraman]]''
* ''[[Ultra Q]]''
* ''[[Meteor Man Zone]]''
* ''[[Godzilla Island]]''
* ''[[Monster Planet Of Godzilla]]''
The success of the Godzilla franchise has also spawned two U.S. [[Saturday morning cartoons]], both featuring an investigative scientific team who call upon Godzilla as an ally. The series make several homages to the Shōwa films and several antagonist monsters have been inspired by extant Toho creations.
*''[[The Godzilla Power Hour]]''
*''[[Godzilla: The Series]]''
===Comics===
:''Main article: '''[[Godzilla comics]]'''''
Several [[manga]] have been derived from specific Godzilla films, and both [[Mar |
Temple of Doom'', and ''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'', Lucas announced he was finished with the theatrical films, leaving two of his promised sequels unmade. He now has announced his work on the third sequel, ''Indiana Jones IV''. He now denies plans for a fourth sequel, claiming he never intended to do beyond three, but that the fourth film was "a brilliant idea he had." In saying he had a deal for four sequels, one could also speculate that he might not have counted ''The Temple of Doom'' as a sequel, and instead a prequel, which it was. This would leave room open for yet another sequel that is yet to be produced.
*Chapter 28: (unproduced) Based on the fact that ''The Temple of Doom'' could be counted as a prequel, rather than a sequel.
=== Novels ===
Apart from novel adaptations of the movies, and several Young Indiana Jones episodes, there is also a series of original paperback novels about the adventures of Indiana Jones, and another series of novels about Young Indiana Jones for younger readers. In Germany, there was a series of adult novels by author [[Wolfgang Hohlbein]], and in France a Young Indiana Jones series by Joseph Jacobs and Richard Beugne. These are available only in German and French respectively.
'''Young Indiana Jones Novels by Random House'''
*''Young Indiana Jones' Titanic Adventure'' - by [[Les Martin]]
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Pirates Loot'' - by J. N. Fox
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Lost Gold of Durango'' - by Megan Stine and H. William Stine
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Plantation Treasure'' - by William McCay
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Tomb of Terror'' - by Les Martin
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Princess of Peril'' - by Les Martin
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Ghostly Riders'' - by William McCay
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Circle of Death'' - by William McCay
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Journey to the Underworld'' - by Megan Stine and H. William Stine
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Curse of the Ruby Cross'' - by William McCay
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Gypsy Revenge'' - by Les Martin
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Secret City'' - by Les Martin
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Mountain of Fire'' - by William McCay
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Face of the Dragon'' - by William McCay
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Eye of the Tiger'' - by William McCay
'''Young Indiana Jones Novels by Ballantine Books'''
*''The Mata Hari Affair'' - by [[James Luceno]]
'''Indiana Jones Adult Novels by Bantam Books'''
*''Indiana Jones and the Peril at Delphi'' - by Rob MacGregor
*''Indiana Jones and the Unicorn's Legacy'' - by Rob MacGregor
*''Indiana Jones and the Dance of the Giants'' - by Rob MacGregor
*''Indiana Jones and the Seven Veils'' - by Rob MacGregor
*''Indiana Jones and the Genesis Deluge'' - by Rob MacGregor
*''Indiana Jones and the Interior World'' - by Rob MacGregor
*''Indiana Jones and the Sky Pirates'' - by [[Martin Caidin]]
*''Indiana Jones and the White Witch'' - by Martin Caidin
*''[[Indiana Jones and the Philosopher's Stone]]'' - by Max McCoy
*''Indiana Jones and the Dinosaur Eggs'' - by Max McCoy
*''Indiana Jones and the Hollow Earth'' - by Max McCoy
*''Indiana Jones and the Secret of the Sphinx'' - by Max McCoy
'''German novels by Goldmann Verlag'''
*''Indiana Jones und das Schiff der Götter'' (''Indiana Jones And The Ship Of The Gods'') - by [[Wolfgang Hohlbein]]
*''Indiana Jones und die Gefiederte Schlange'' (''Indiana Jones And The Feathered Snake'') - by Wolfgang Hohlbein
*''Indiana Jones und das Gold von El Dorado'' (''Indiana Jones And The Gold Of El Dorado'') - by Wolfgang Hohlbein
*''Indiana Jones und das verschwundene Volk'' (''Indiana Jones And The Vanished People'') - by Wolfgang Hohlbein
*''Indiana Jones und das Schwert des Dschingis Khan'' (''Indiana Jones And The Sword of Genghis Khan'') - by Wolfgang Hohlbein
*''Indiana Jones und das Geheimnis der Osterinseln'' (''Indiana Jones And The Secret Of Easter Island'') - by Wolfgang Hohlbein
*''Indiana Jones und das Labyrinth des Horus'' (''Indiana Jones And The Labyrinth Of Horus'') - by Wolfgang Hohlbein
*''Indiana Jones und das Erbe von Avalon'' (''Indiana Jones And The Legacy Of Avalon'') - by Wolfgang Hohlbein
'''Find Your Fate Adventure Books by Ballantine Books'''
*''Indiana Jones and the Curse of Horror Island'' - by [[R. L. Stine]]
*''Indiana Jones and the Giants of the Silver Tower'' - by R. L. Stine
*''Indiana Jones and the Cult of the Mummy's Crypt'' - by R. L. Stine
*''Indiana Jones and the Cup of the Vampire'' - by Andrew Helfer
*''Indiana Jones and the Legion of Death'' - by Richard Wenk
*''Indiana Jones and the Eye of the Fates'' - by Richard Wenk
*''Indiana Jones and the Dragon of Vengeance'' - by Megan Stine
*''Indiana Jones and the Lost Treasure of Sheba'' - by [[Rose Estes]]
*''Indiana Jones and the Gold of Genghis Khan'' - by Ellen Weiss
*''Indiana Jones and the Ape Slaves of Howling Island'' - by R. L. Stine
=== Comics ===
There was a [[comic book]] published by [[Marvel Comics]] in the early [[1980s]] featuring the talents of [[John Byrne]] among others. Later [[Dark Horse Comics]] produced a number of Indiana Jones Comics. Indy also had a cameo in a [[Star Wars]] story in an issue of the Star Wars Tales comic books.
'''Dark Horse Comics Stories'''
*Indiana Jones and the Shrine of the Sea Devil
*Indiana Jones and the Arms of Gold
*Indiana Jones: Thunder in the Orient
*Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis
*Indiana Jones and the Sargasso Pirates
*Indiana Jones and the Dance of Death
*Indiana Jones and the Golden Fleece
*Indiana Jones and the Spear of Destiny
*Indiana Jones and the Iron Phoenix
'''Marvel Comics The Further Adventures of Indiana Jones Stories'''
*Ikons of Ikammanen
*The Devil's Cradle
*Gateway to Infinity
*Club Nightmare
*Africa Screams
*The Gold Goddess
*The Fourth Nail
*Deadly Rock
*Demons
*The Sea Butchers
*The Search for Abner Ravenwood
*The Cuban Connection
*Beyond the Lucifer Chamber
*End Run
*Dragon by the Tail
*The Secret of the Deep
*Revenge of the Ancients
*Good as Gold
*Trail of the Golden Guns
*Tower of Tears
*Shot by Both Sides
*Fireworks
*Big Game
*Double Play
*Magic, Murder & The Weather
*Something’s Gone Wrong Again
'''''Star Wars'' Tales'''
*''Star Wars'' Tales #19: Into the Great Unknown
=== Video games ===
Various video and computer [[games]] have also been produced. The games include:
*''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark (Atari 2600)|Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'' ([[Atari 2600]])
*''Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom'' (arcade)
*''Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom'' (Nintendo Entertainment System)
*''Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom'' (C64)
*''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade: The Action Game'' (C64, Amiga, Macintosh, PC)
*''[[Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade: The Graphic Adventure]]'' (C64, Amiga, Macintosh, PC)
*''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'' (Nintendo Entertainment System - Taito)
*''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'' (Nintendo Entertainment System - Ubi Soft)
*''The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles'' (Nintendo Entertainment System)
*''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'' (Nintendo Game Boy)
*''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'' (Sega Master System - European release)
*''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'' (Sega Genesis)
*''Instruments of Chaos starring Young Indiana Jones'' (Sega Genesis)
*''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'' (Sega Game Gear)
*''Indiana Jones' Greatest Adventures'' (Super Nintendo Entertainment System)
*''Indiana Jones in Revenge of The Ancients'' (PC)
*''[[Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis]]'' (PC, Amiga, Macintosh, C64) (also a comic book of the same name)
*''Indiana Jones and the Lost Kingdom'' (C64)
*''Indy's Desktop Adventures'' (PC)
*''[[Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine]]'' (PC, Nintendo 64, Nintendo Game Boy Color)
*''[[Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb]]'' (PC, PlayStation 2, Microsoft Xbox)
*Untitled 2007 game; likely of the same title as the 2007 film
=== Attractions ===
[[Image:Indiana_Jones_Stunt_Spectacular.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Action on the set of the ''Indiana Jones'' Epic Stunt Spectacular]]
George Lucas has collaborated with [[Walt Disney Imagineering]] on four occasions to create attractions for [[Walt Disney Parks and Resorts|Disney theme parks]] worldwide:
*The "Indiana Jones et le Temple du Péril" rollercoaster opened at [[Disneyland Paris]] in [[Marne-la-Vallee]], [[France]], in [[1993]].
*The "[[Indiana Jones Adventure|Indiana Jones and the Temple of the Forbidden Eye]]" opened in [[Disneyland]] in [[Anaheim, California]], in [[1995]].
*The "Indiana Jones Epic Stunt Spectacular" show opened at the [[Disney-MGM Studios]] in [[Lake Buena Vista, Florida]] in [[1998]].
*The "[[Indiana Jones Adventure|Indiana Jones and the Temple of the Crystal Skull]]" opened at [[Tokyo DisneySea]] in [[Chiba]], [[Japan]], with the park in [[2001]].
=== Pinball ===
''Indiana Jones: The Pinball Adventure'' (1993, [[Williams (gaming company)|Williams]]), designed by Mark Ritchie, is a widebody [[pinball]] game that features sound clips from all three theatrical films, and features 12 different stages (four stages each based on different scenes from the movies, including three video modes). If you complete all 12 stages, you will enter the game's "Wizard Mode", called ''Eternal Life''.
This was the first game to use Williams/Midway's DCS Sound System, with the music composed by [[Chris Granner]].
== Origins ==
[[Image:Indiana Jones 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Indiana Jones with his famous bull-whip.]]
Indiana Jones, "Obtainer of Rare [[Antiquities]]," is modeled after the strong-jawed heroes of the matinee [[serial]]s and [[pulp magazine]]s that Lucas and Spielberg enjoyed in their childhoods, such as the [[Republic Pictures]] [[serial]]s, and [[Doc Savage]]. The two friends first discussed the project while in [[Hawaii]] during the time of release of the first ''[[Star Wars] |
ciency, which greatly bolsters the Police State government used by Yang, as it removes all negative side effects. The Hive may not use a [[Democracy|Democratic]] government. During development, this faction was named "The Labyrinth" and had a stronger science inclination, before being changed to "The Hive" in the final release. Their founding base, fittingly, is The Hive.
===Lord's Believers===
A [[fundamentalist]] faction wary of secular technology. Led by Sister Miriam Godwinson of the United States. The Believers make planetfall with the technology ''Social Psych''. The Believers' convictions give them a 25% attack bonus as well as increasing the morale of their Probe Teams and increasing the cost of their enemies' probe attacks. Their eagerness to defend their faith allows each colony to support up to four units without a cost of minerals. Because the Believers feel that Chiron is their promised land, ecological tensions are increased and production of resources in fungal squares is decreased. The Believers are also skeptical of secular technology, thus their research rate is decreased by 20% and they may not accumulate any research points in the first ten years on Chiron. The Believers may not use Knowledge as a social engineering choice. While the game was being coded, this faction was named "The Conclave" before being changed to "The Believers" in the final release. Their founding base is New Jerusalem.
===Morgan Industries===
A faction stressing the values of wealth and materialism, and led by self-made mogul Nwabudike Morgan of Namibia. The Morgans make planetfall with the technology ''Industrial Base'' and an additional 100 energy credits. Because they are an industrial [[conglomerate (company)|conglomerate]], they receive an energy bonus in social engineering - an extra unit of energy in each colony, and one energy per square and even larger bonuses if this is combined with social engineering values such as Free Market or Wealth. However, because of the expensive tastes of its followers and the demand for creature comforts, Morganite units have high mineral maintenance costs and colonies cannot exceed population size four until the Hab Complex Facility is built. The Morganites receive extra energy from commerce due to their marketing expertise. They may not choose a Planned economy in social engineering. Their founding base is Morgan Industries.
== Victory conditions ==
There are several victory methods available in ''Alpha Centauri''.
;Cooperative : A Cooperative victory allows multiple allied factions to win the game if one of the factions achieves one of the following methods.
;Military : A military victory occurs when all factions are annihilated or have surrendered to one player. If cooperative victory is enabled then there may be up to three pact brothers and sisters who can share the victory (excluding those who have surrendered).
;Economic : When a player has enough energy reserves (roughly equal to what it would take to mind-control all the remaining cities on planet), he or she can win the game through economic victory by cornering the global energy market. This takes 20 turns to achieve, and can be prevented if during this time the faction's headquarters falls to an enemy.
;Diplomatic : A player achieves diplomatic victory by uniting the Planetary Council behind him or her. To do this, the player must get a certain percentage of the votes, by population, at Planetary Council. The percentage varies based on difficulty level, up to 75% at the highest difficulty (transcendent). If the vote succeeds but remaining factions oppose the decision, they must be eliminated by force to achieve a military victory.
;Transcendence : The transcendence victory is achieved by building the Ascent to Transcendence secret project, which becomes available after the Voice of Planet secret project has been built (by any faction). This concept of a post human era is very closely related to the idea of the [[technological singularity]]. After this project is built the human inhabitants of Chiron leave their material bodies to merge with the emerged planet intelligence.
== Inspirations ==
They are countless but to name just a few, [[Chiron]] (the name of the planet) is the name of the only non-barbaric [[centaur]] in Greek mythology and an important loregiver and teacher for humanity. The native life and singular planet mind of the game draws heavily from [[Frank Herbert]]'s novel ''[[The Jesus Incident]]''. [[Vernon Vinge]]'s ''[[technological singularity|Singularity]]'' is the origin of the Transcendence concept.
The arrival on Chiron is referred to as "Planetfall", which is a term used in many science fiction novels, including [[Robert A. Heinlein]]'s ''Future History'' series and [[Infocom]]'s celebrated comic [[interactive fiction]] adventure ''[[Planetfall]]''.
==Influence==
While not being a direct sequel of ''[[Civilization II]]'', ''Alpha Centauri'' was considered a continuation or a successor of that much acclaimed game, because it had the same general principles as ''Civilization II'' did, and had been made by many of the same people. It was also thematically linked, as the earlier game had ended with mankind leaving Earth to travel to Alpha Centauri, the moment at which ''Alpha Centauri'' begins. ''Alpha Centauri'' was built on the ''Civilization II'' engine modified for [[voxel]] graphics. ''[[Firaxis]]'' made ''Alpha Centauri'' after ''Civilization II'' as a spiritual sequel to the series. At the time, the ''Civilization'' franchise was in dispute since [[Sid Meier]] and [[Brian Reynolds]] had left [[Microprose]] to found [[Firaxis]]. Unable to make ''[[Civilization III]]'', they made ''Alpha Centauri'', instead, beginning the game where the storyline had left off in ''Civilization''.
The magazine ''[[PC Gamer]] US'' awarded ''Alpha Centauri'' a score of 98%, which was the highest score ever given by that magazine&mdash;''Civilization II'' being the previous holder of this record with 97%. In 2004, ''PC Gamer'' gave ''[[Half-Life 2]]'' a score of 98%, making it tied with ''Alpha Centauri''. The magazine also gave ''Alpha Centauri'' Editor's choice and Turn-based strategy game of the year awards in 1999.
''Alpha Centauri'' has also won several Game of the Year awards, including those from ''[[The Denver Post]]'' and ''[[Toronto Sun]]''. It won Turn-based Strategy Game of the year award from [[GameSpot]] as well. The [[Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences]] named ''Alpha Centauri'' best strategy game of the year. In [[2000]] ''Alpha Centauri'' won the [[Origins Award]] for ''Best Strategy Computer Game of 1999''.
In the community of Civilization players, many quotations from ''Alpha Centauri'', which are shown at different points in the gameplay, are also quite popular.
The game has also sparked a trilogy of novels (see below) and a strategy guide by Chris Hartpence ("Velociryx"), which was later printed and published. [[Steve Jackson Games]] also published ''GURPS Alpha Centauri'', an expansion for the [[GURPS]] [[role-playing game]] set in the Alpha Centauri universe.
==Technology==
Unlike comparable games at the time of publishing, Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri employs ([[orthographic]]) [[3D computer graphics|3-D]] [[Rendering (computer graphics)|rendering]] for both the terrain and units. This is made possible by the "Caviar" [[voxel]] library by AnimaTek International (now [http://www.digi-element.com/ Digital Element]), which renders the voxel models and terrain geometry using self-modifying [[assembler]] routines.
==Alpha Centauri A system==
Although the details of the Alpha Centauri A system do not play much of a direct role in the game (apart from &alpha; Cen B's "perihelion" affecting the energy harvest 20 years out of each 80), they are nevertheless documented in the game files<!--- Planets.txt --->. There we learn not only of Chiron's two moons ([[Pholus]] and [[Nessus]]), but also of the mercurian planet [[Eurytion]].
{|{{Prettytable-center}}
|+ [[star|Stellar data]]
|-
! &nbsp; ||style="background:#ffdead;"| [[Sun]] ||style="background:#ffdead;"| [[Alpha Centauri A|&alpha; Cen A]] ||style="background:#ffdead;"| ''(Ratio)''
|-
|align="left"| [[Mass]] ([[kg]]) || 1.99{{e|30}} || 2.15{{e|30}} || ''(1.08)''
|-
|align="left"| [[Luminosity]] ([[watt (unit)|W]]) || 3.89{{e|26}} || 5.63{{e|26}} || ''(1.45)''
|-
|align="left"| [[Radius]] ([[metre|m]]) || 6.96{{e|8}} || 7.59{{e|8}} || ''(1.09)''
|}
{|{{Prettytable-center}}
|+ [[planet|Planetary data]]
|-
! &nbsp; ||style="background:#ffdead;"| [[Earth]] ||style="background:#ffdead;"| Chiron ''(Ratio)'' ||style="background:#ffdead;"| Eurytion ''(Ratio)''
|-
|align="left"| Mass (kg) || 5.98{{e|24}} || 1.10{{e|25}} ''(1.84)'' || 5.16{{e|23}} ''(0.09)''
|-
|align="left"| Equatorial radius (m) || 6.38{{e|6}} || 7.54{{e|6}} ''(1.18)'' || 2.82{{e|6}} ''(0.44)''
|-
|align="left"| [[Semi-major axis]] (m) || 1.50{{e|11}} || 1.60{{e|11}} ''(1.07)'' || 7.06{{e|10}} ''(0.47)''
|-
|align="left"| [[Obliquity]] ([[degree (angle)|°]]) || 23.45 || 2.00 ''(0.09)'' || 0.00 ''(0.00)''
|-
|align="left"| [[Surface]] area ([[square metre|m²]]) || 5.10{{e|14}} || 7.18{{e|14}} ''(1.41)'' || 9.98{{e|13}} ''(0.20)''
|-
|align="left"| [[Gravity]] (m/s²) || 9.81 || 12.85 ''(1.31)'' || 4.33 ''(0.44)''
|-
|align="left"| [[Escape velocity]] (m/s) || 11,184 || 13,947 ''(1.25)'' || 4942 ''(0.44)''
|-
|align="left"| [[Density]] (kg/[[cubic metre|m³]]) || 5,519 || 6,150 ''(1.11)'' || 5,503 ''(1.00)''
|-
|align="left"| Apparent angular radius of sun (°) || 0.27 || 0.27 ''(1.02)'' || 0.62 ''(2.31)''
|-
|align="left"| Period ([[day|d]]) || 365.3 || 388.6 ''(1.06)' |
|
TotalArea = 28,337 |
LandArea = 16,649 |
WaterArea = 11,672 |
PCWater = 41.2 |
PopRank = 42<sup>nd</sup> |
2000Pop = 1,211,537 |
DensityRank = 13<sup>th</sup> |
2000Density = 42.75 |
AdmittanceOrder = 50<sup>th</sup> |
AdmittanceDate = [[August 21]], [[1959]] |
TimeZone = [[Hawaii-Aleutian Standard Time Zone|Hawaii]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-10/ (no daylight saving time) |
Longitude = 154°40'W to 162°W |
Latitude = 18°55'N to 29°N |
Width = n/a |
Length = 2,450 |
HighestElev = 4,207 |
MeanElev = 925 |
LowestElev = 0 |
ISOCode = US-HI |
Website = www.hawaii.gov/
}}
'''Hawaii''' ([[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]]/[[Hawaiian English]]: '''Hawai{{okina}}i''', with the ''[[Okina|{{okina}}okina]]''; also, historically, the '''[[Sandwich Islands]]''') is located in the [[archipelago]] of the [[Hawaiian Islands]] in the [[Pacific Ocean]], {{coor dms|19|28|41|N|155|32|47|W|type:country|region:US}}. Admitted on [[August 21]], [[1959]], Hawai{{okina}}i constitutes the 50th [[U.S. states|state]] of the [[United States]] and is situated 2300 miles from the mainland. It is the [[Extreme points of the United States|southernmost part of that country]]. As of the [[United States 2000 Census|2000 U.S. Census]] it had a population of 1,211,537 people. [[Honolulu, Hawaii|Honolulu]] is the largest city and the state capital.
Hawai{{okina}}i is the most recently admitted state of the United States. In addition to possessing the southernmost point in the United States, it is the only state that lies completely in the [[tropics]]. As one of two states outside the [[continental United States|contiguous United States]] (the other being [[Alaska]]), it is the only state without territory on the mainland of any continent and it is the only state that continues to grow because of active [[lava]] flows, most notably from [[Kilauea|Kīlauea]]. For various reasons, Hawai{{okina}}i is considered the [[endangered species]] capital of the United States. Ethnically, Hawai{{okina}}i is the only state that has a majority group that is non-white (and one of only four in which non-Hispanic whites do not form a majority) and has the largest percentage of [[Asian Americans]].
==Symbols==
The state constitution and various other measures of the Hawai{{okina}}i State Legislature established official symbols meant to embody the distinctive culture and heritage of Hawai{{okina}}i. These include a [[List of U.S. state birds|state bird]], [[state flower]], [[state gem]], [[state mammal]], and [[state tree]]. The ''humuhumunukunukuāpua'a'' or [[reef triggerfish]] was the [[state fish]], but in 2006, the authorizing legislation was found to have expired.
Included are the two statues representing Hawai{{okina}}i in the [[United States Capitol]]; those of King [[Kamehameha I]] and [[Father Damien]].
The primary symbol is the state flag, ''[[Flag of Hawaii|Ka Hae Hawai{{okina}}i]]'', influenced by the British [[Union Flag]] and features eight horizontal stripes representing the eight major Hawaiian Islands. The constitution declares the [[state motto]] to be ''Ua Mau ke Ea o ka {{okina}}Āina i ka Pono'', a pronouncement of King Kamehameha III meaning, "The life of the land is perpetuated in righteousness." It was also the motto of the kingdom, republic and territory. The official languages are [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] and [[Hawaiian English]]. [[Hawaiian Pidgin]] is an unofficial language. The [[state song]] is ''[[Hawai'i pono'ī|Hawai{{okina}}i pono{{okina}}ī]]'', written by [[Kalakaua|King Kalākaua]] and composed by [[Henri Berger]]. ''[[Hawaii Aloha|Hawai{{okina}}i Aloha]]'' is the unofficial state song, often sung in official state events.
<center><gallery>
Image:Nene.neck.arp.600pix.jpg|[[Hawaiian goose]]<br>''Nēnē''<br>State Bird
Image:Humuhumunukunukuapuaa.jpg|[[Reef triggerfish]]<br>''Humuhumunukunukuāpua'a''<br> Former State Fish
Image:Maohauhele.jpg|[[Hawaiian hibiscus]]<br>''Ma{{okina}}o hau hele''<br>State Flower
Image:Aleuritesmoluccana1web.jpg|[[Candlenut]]<br>''Kuku{{okina}}i''<br>State Tree
Image:Humpback Whale underwater shot.jpg|[[Humpback whale]]<br>''Koholā kuapi{{okina}}o''<br>State Mammal
Image:Fatherdamienstatue2.jpg|[[Father Damien Statue]]<br>State Capitol
Image:Kamehamehastatue.jpg|[[Kamehameha Statue]] in Hilo, Hawaii<br>(also at Ali{{okina}}iolani Hale, Oahu, Hawaii; Kohala, Hawaii; and Washington, D.C.)
</gallery></center>
==Geography==
{{main|Hawaiian Islands}}
Hawaii is the only U.S. state that is completely surrounded by water. It is one of two states that does not share a border with another U.S. state ([[Alaska]] being the other).
Nineteen islands and atolls extending across a distance of 2,400 km (1,500 mi) comprise the Hawaiian Archipelago. The main islands are the eight high islands at the southeastern end of the island chain. These islands are, in order from the northwest to southeast, Ni{{okina}}ihau, Kaua{{okina}}i, O{{okina}}ahu, Moloka{{okina}}i, Lāna{{okina}}i, Kaho{{okina}}olawe, Maui and the Island of Hawai{{okina}}i.
{{ussm|hawaii.png|hi}}
All of the Hawaiian Islands were formed by [[volcano]]es arising from the sea floor through a vent described in geological theory as a [[hotspot (geology)|hotspot]]. The theory maintains that as the [[tectonic plate]] beneath much of the Pacific Ocean moves in a northwesterly direction, the hot spot remains stationary, slowly creating new volcanoes. This explains why only volcanoes on the southern half of the Island of Hawai{{okina}}i are presently active.
The last volcanic eruption outside the Island of Hawai{{okina}}i happened at [[Haleakala|Haleakalā]] on Maui in the late 18th century. The newest volcano to form is [[Loihi Seamount|Lō{{okina}}ihi]], deep below the waters off the southern coast of the Island of Hawai{{okina}}i.
The isolation of the Hawaiian Islands in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, and the wide range of environments to be found on high islands located in and near the tropics, has resulted in a vast array of [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] [[flora (plants)|flora]] and [[fauna (animals)|fauna]]. The volcanic activity and subsequent [[erosion]] created impressive geological features. Those conditions make [[Mount Waialeale|Mount Wai{{okina}}ale{{okina}}ale]] the third wettest place on earth; it averages 11.7 m (460 in) of rain annually.
The movement of the Hawaiian royal family from the Island of Hawai{{okina}}i to Maui and subsequently to O{{okina}}ahu explains why certain population centers exist where they do today. The largest city, [[Honolulu, Hawaii|Honolulu]], was the one chosen by King Kamehameha III as the capital of his kingdom because of the natural harbor there, the present-day [[Honolulu Harbor]].
Other large cities and towns include [[Hilo, Hawaii|Hilo]], [[Kahului, Hawaii|Kahului]] and [[Lihue, Hawaii|Līhu{{okina}}e]].
<center><gallery>
Image:Niihausatellite.jpg|[[Niihau|Ni{{okina}}ihau]]
Image:Kauai from space oriented.jpg|[[Kauai|Kaua{{okina}}i]]
Image:Oahu.jpg|[[Oahu|O{{okina}}ahu]]
Image:Maui.jpg|[[Maui]]
Image:Molokaifromsatellite.jpg|[[Molokai|Moloka{{okina}}i]]
Image:Lanaisatellite.jpg|[[Lanai|Lāna{{okina}}i]]
Image:Kahoolawesatellite.jpg|[[Kahoolawe|Kaho{{okina}}olawe]]
Image:STS61A-50-57.jpg|[[Hawaii (island)|Hawai{{okina}}i]]
</gallery></center>
==Climate==
''Main article: [[Hawaiian Islands]]''
The climate of Hawai{{okina}}i is atypical for a tropical area and regarded as more subtropical than the latitude would suggest because of the moderating effect of the surrounding ocean. Temperatures and humidity tend to be less extreme, with summer high temperatures seldom reaching above the upper 80's (°F) and winter temperatures (at low elevation) seldom dipping below the mid-60's. Snow, although not usually associated with tropics, falls at high elevations on Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa on the Big Island in some winter months. Snow only rarely falls on Maui's Haleakala.
Local climates vary considerably on each island, grossly divisible into [[windward]] (''ko{{okina}}olau'') and [[leeward]] (''{{okina}}ewa'') areas based upon location relative to the higher mountains. Windward sides face the Northeast Trades and receive much more rainfall; leeward sides are drier: less rain and less cloud cover. This fact is utilized by a tourist industry sitting resorts on sunny, leeward coasts.
==History==
''Main article: [[History of Hawaii|History of Hawai'i]]''
===Hawaiian antiquity===
''Main article: [[Ancient Hawaii|Ancient Hawai{{okina}}i]], [[Hawaiian mythology]], [[Polynesian mythology]]''
[[Anthropology|Anthropologists]] believe that [[Polynesians]] from the [[Marquesas Islands|Marquesas]] and [[Society Islands]] first populated the Hawaiian Islands in approximately 300 AD, followed by [[Tahiti]]an settlers in approximately 1300 AD who conquered and eliminated the original inhabitants of the islands. These Tahitian conquerors preserved memories of their migrations orally through [[genealogy|genealogies]] and [[folk tale]]s, like the stories of [[Hawaiiloa|Hawai{{okina}}iloa]] and [[Paʻao|Pa{{okina}}ao]]. Relations with other Polynesian groups were sporadic during the early migratory periods, and Hawai{{okina}}i grew from small settlements to a complex society in near isolation.
Voyaging between Hawai'i and the South Pacific apparently ceased with no explanation several centuries before the arrival of the Europeans. Local chiefs called [[alii|ali{{okina}}i]] ruled their settlements and fought to extend their sway and defend their communities from predatory rivals. Warfare was endemic. The general trend was toward chiefdoms of increasing size, even encompassing whole islands |
based Conrad Birdie that he was named an honorary member of the National Association of Amateur Elvis Impersonators.
* Elvis's favorite female singer was [[Anne Murray]] and he recorded a version of "Snowbird".
* Elvis was a practitioner of [[karate]][http://www.tracyskarate.com/Stories/was_elvis_really_a_black_belt.htm].
* Elvis had a cousin named Earl Stevenson, a former U.S. Marine sergeant.
* Elvis was a member of [[Tau Kappa Epsilon]].
* On his 70th birthday, [[Larry King]] wondered how Elvis would look today. To this, [[Aaron Brown]] responded: "Probably like all those Elvis impersonators".
* Estimates of Elvis's height range from 5'11" to 6'2". It is unclear from photographs of him being measured for the Army in 1958 whether he was wearing his boots at the time. While he certainly appeared quite tall on stage, he often wore built up shoes. Most estimates agree Elvis was around 6'0" even.
* The [[2002]] [[Disney Channel|Disney]] animated feature [[Lilo and Stitch]] contains more Elvis songs than any film in which Elvis himself ever starred. The film's closing sequence also features a montage of photographs, one of which portrays the film's main characters posed before the gates of [[Graceland]]. The film also broke several rules related to Elvis in films which included using his photo, shortening his songs for time and dressing up like him. However, the Graceland estate allowed the producers this degree of freedom.
==See also==
*[[Elvis Presley's Sun recordings]]
*[[Best-selling artist of all-time]]
*[[List of best-selling music artists]]
*[[List of songs about or referencing Elvis Presley]]
*[[List of actors who have played Elvis Presley]]
*[[Elvis impersonator]]
*[[Elvis sightings]]
*[["Tagish" Elvis Presley]]
*[[24 Hour Church of Elvis]]
*[[Elvis-A-Rama Museum]]
*''[[Elvis and Me]]''
==Further reading==
*[http://users.pandora.be/davidneale/elvis/books/ List of more than 380 books relating to Elvis Presley]
*Authors of important works on Presley include
**[[Peter Guralnick]] — his books are considered the definitive work on Presley yet he did not interview all close with Elvis.
**[[Alanna Nash]] — award winning book by the [[Society of Professional Journalists]]' 1994 National Member of the Year
**[[Albert Goldman]] — reviled by fans for his harsh criticisms of Presley
**[[Elaine Dundy]] — author of "''[[Elvis and Gladys]]''," called "Nothing less than the best Elvis book yet" by the [[Boston Globe]] and [[Kirkus Reviews]], "The most fine-grained Elvis bio ever."
**Michael T. Bertrand - "''Race, Rock, and Elvis''" by [[Tennessee State University]] assistant professor of history. [http://www.press.uillinois.edu/s05/bertrand.html University of Illinois Press]. (2000), ISBN 0-252-02586-5. The book examines the emergence of rock 'n' roll in a social and regional context.
**Louis Cantor - "''Dewey and Elvis - The Life and Times of a Rock 'n' Roll Deejay''" by a professor emeritus of history at [[Indiana University]] who grew up in [[Memphis, Tennessee]] and attended high school with Presley. - [[University of Illinois Press]] (2005) ISBN 025202981X
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.elvis.com/ Elvis.com] - the site is owned by Elvis Presley Enterprises, which is a subsidiary of CKX, Inc ([[NASDAQ]]: {{ndaq|CKXE}}).
* [http://www.elvis.ro Elvis] - Elvis Aaron Presley
* {{imdb name|id=0000062|name=Elvis Presley}}
* [[FBI]] [[Freedom of Information Act]] files on Elvis: [http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/presley.htm foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/presley.htm]
<!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] -->
{{Persondata
|NAME=Presley, Elvis Aron
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Presley, Elvis Aaron
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=American singer, song producer and actor; "The King of Rock 'n' Roll"
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[January 8]], [[1935]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Tupelo, Mississippi]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[August 16]], [[1977]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Memphis, Tennessee]]
}}
[[Category:1935 births|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:1977 deaths|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:American film actors|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:American pop singers|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:American rock singers|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:American country singers|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:Cause of death disputed|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:Drug-related deaths|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:Elvis Presley| ]]
[[Category:Dead people rumoured to be living|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 40s|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:Gospel singers|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:Identical twins|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:American male singers|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:American karateka|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:People from Mississippi|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:Truck drivers|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:Blue eyed soul|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:Rockabilly musicians|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:Sun Records artists|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:United States Army soldiers|Presley, Elvis]]
[[ar:إلفيس بريسلي]]
[[bg:Елвис Пресли]]
[[ca:Elvis Presley]]
[[cs:Elvis Presley]]
[[cy:Elvis Presley]]
[[da:Elvis Presley]]
[[de:Elvis Presley]]
[[es:Elvis Presley]]
[[eo:Elvis PRESLEY]]
[[fa:الویس پریسلی]]
[[fr:Elvis Presley]]
[[hr:Elvis Presley]]
[[io:Elvis Presley]]
[[id:Elvis Presley]]
[[it:Elvis Presley]]
[[he:אלביס פרסלי]]
[[lt:Elvis Presley]]
[[hu:Elvis Presley]]
[[nl:Elvis Presley]]
[[ja:エルヴィス・プレスリー]]
[[no:Elvis Presley]]
[[nn:Elvis Presley]]
[[pl:Elvis Presley]]
[[pt:Elvis Presley]]
[[ro:Elvis Presley]]
[[ru:Пресли, Элвис Арон]]
[[scn:Elvis Presley]]
[[simple:Elvis Presley]]
[[sk:Elvis Presley]]
[[sl:Elvis Presley]]
[[sr:Елвис Присли]]
[[fi:Elvis Presley]]
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[[tr:Elvis Presley]]
[[zh:埃爾維斯·皮禮士利]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Edmonton (disambiguation)</title>
<id>9289</id>
<revision>
<id>33962822</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-05T11:23:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CambridgeBayWeather</username>
<id>294180</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Updated</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">More than one place has the name '''Edmonton'''. You may be looking for one of these:
* [[Edmonton, Alberta]], Canada—capital of Alberta
* [[Edmonton, London]], England
* [[Edmonton, Kentucky]], USA
* [[Edmonton, Queensland, Australia]]
==See also==
* [[List of airports in the Edmonton area]]
{{disambig}}
[[fr:Edmonton (homonymie)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economic subjectivism</title>
<id>9290</id>
<revision>
<id>39967913</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T04:02:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dullfig</username>
<id>234882</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Marginalism is not the only subjective theory of value</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Subjective theory of value]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Einstein</title>
<id>9292</id>
<revision>
<id>15907193</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-05T03:11:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eloquence</username>
<id>52</id>
</contributor>
<comment>we don't need no stinking disambig. page for a link to an article that doesn't exist</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Albert Einstein]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Establishing Shot</title>
<id>9293</id>
<revision>
<id>15907194</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Establishing shot]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>The Evil Dead</title>
<id>9294</id>
<revision>
<id>42103878</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:24:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sean Black</username>
<id>294714</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
name = The Evil Dead |
image = Evil Dead poster.jpg |
director = [[Sam Raimi]] |
producer = [[Sam Raimi]]<br>[[Bruce Campbell]]<br>[[Robert Tapert]] |
writer = [[Sam Raimi]] |
starring = [[Bruce Campbell]] |
movie_music = [[Joe LoDuca]] |
distributor = [[New Line Cinema]] |
released = [[October 15]], [[1981]] ([[United States|USA]]) |
runtime = 85 min. |
language = [[English language|English]] |
imdb_id = 0083907 |
music = |
awards = |
budget = $350,000 |
followed_by = ''[[Evil Dead II]]'' |
}}
'''''The Evil Dead''''' (also known as '''''The Book of The Dead ''''', '''''Sam Raimi's The Evil Dead''''' and '''''The Evil Dead, the Ultimate Experience in Grueling Terror''''') is a [[1981]] [[horror film]] directed and written by [[Sam Raimi]], starring [[Bruce Campbell]]. It is considered a classic of the genre.
== Plot summary ==
{{spoiler}}
The story is simple: Five college students venture into the [[Tennessee]] woods to spend a weekend of fun in an isolated cabin. Instead, the teenagers find the [[Book of the Dead]] otherwise known as the [[Necronomicron]]. They find and play a tape recording of demonic incantations from the Book, and unknowingly open a portal to the netherworld. The characters are then killed off in a somewhat disjointed sequence of scenes of extremely intense, bloody and "realistic"-looking violence, and the film ends with the apparently invisible evil spirit bearing down on the last survivor, [[Ash Williams|Ashley J. Williams]] better known as "Ash."
==Trivia==
*The movie was filmed in Morristown, |
. The Business Volume (BV) turns the PV into the local currency, after removing items such as [[value added tax]] (which obviously cannot be part of the profit). The [[commission]] level is applied to the BV in determining the monthly payments to be received as commission.
As in most MLM businesses, a person wishing to join Amway is "sponsored" by an existing IBO. This involves the new IBO purchasing an "Amway Opportunity Kit" or "Business Pack" and completing the appropriate forms. The kit also contains literature and some starter product. IBOs must pay a yearly fee to remain in Amway, although they are not required to buy a minimum amount of products.
Amway claims to have 4 million distributors worldwide who have renewed at least once, including 500,000 in the U.S. [[Japan]] represents a very fast-growing market with 1 million distributors. Recently, Amway received permission to establish a network in [[China]] and have done sales of over 2 Billion U.S. dollars in 2004. (It should be noted that Amway cannot conduct Chinese operations as it typically does elsewhere due to a ban on direct sales).
Training organizations exist to offer a variety of business services to IBOs as well as their prospective business partners. This includes training [[seminar]]s, CDs and literature. Often, public meetings are made available as a way of helping present the concept to prospects.
Amway's distributors are organized hierarchically, and the corporation employs a system of ''pin levels'' to reward successful distributors (so-called because attainees are awarded a stick pin to indicate their level.) Higher-level distributors act as mentors to newer distributors, organize regular meetings of their group and (controversially) may derive most of their profit from the sale of motivational tools to them. "Crosslining," or associating with people from a different "leg" or distributor chain, is generally discouraged.
===Pin Levels===
Pin levels reflect the level an IBO has reached in the Amway business. As such they are an indication of both the size of an IBO's group and their income, and by extension the IBO's knowledge and expertise in the field. Top pin level IBOs may have groups numbering hundreds or thousands of people, and are in high demand. They also command respect and adulation from their group. High pin levels are named after precious metals or gems to convey a sense of the wealth that they are supposed to represent.
The lowest pin levels reflect successively higher volumes of PV sold through the IBO's group, and are named after the percentage bonus that each level pays.
The first significant pin level is that of ''Platinum'' (formerly known as a ''Direct''.) The term Direct came from distributors beginning to get products sent to them directly from the corporation after attaining this level, as opposed to previously having bought them via their "sponsoring" distributor. (These days the "Direct" concept is defunct, as all IBOs order their product direct from Amway.) This level requires the IBO's group to be moving 7,500 PV (or 10,000 PV in some countries) of product per month, and the Amway recruitment plan customarily shows that such a group will have a total of 70-100 people; although in practice that number is often larger. The income at the Platinum level, generally speaking, is approximately the same as the average full-time wage in the IBO's country of origin, although this will depend on a number of factors including business structure, volume of retail sales versus group sales, and the total PV turnover. Variations typically range from half to over double the average full-time wage.
A significant pin level is that of ''Diamond''. This level requires that six people the IBO has sponsored have themselves reached the Platinum level (or higher). The remuneration at Diamond is (generally) a "six-figure" passive annual income, and advertised to represent financial freedom for the IBO. Almost all IBOs aspire to this pin level because of this "freedom" aspect.
(Note that it cannot merely be assumed that the income of a Diamond IBO is a simple 6x multiple of the income of a Platinum, since there are several other ranks between Direct and Diamond, and monetary bonuses are paid as a result of having attained these as well.)
The highest level is ''Crown Ambassador''. This level used to require at least twenty legs, each at least at the Platinum level. Amway has recently introduced a system called FAA Points, where it is possible to become a Crown Ambassador with only 9 legs - however each needs to have a Diamond within that leg. This is helping to create much more stable sustainable businesses.
Only a small number of people in the world have attained this pin level, and they are in constant demand for recruitment, training and motivational speaking engagements. The remuneration at the Crown Ambassador level runs into the millions annually.
Other pin levels include ''Ruby'' (15,000 PV per month), ''Emerald'' (three Platinum legs), and ''Executive-'', ''Double-'' and ''Triple Diamond'' (nine and twelve and 15 Platinum legs respectively - or with differing numbers of FAA Points.)
On top of the remuneration for PV moved through their group, an IBO may be entitled to additional monetary incentives. These bonuses are paid for meeting growth targets, extraordinary recruitment number, etc and can represent a significant portion of an IBO's income.
Alticor recently started a program that makes it possible to attain the Crown Ambassador level with only 9 legs. If all of the 9 legs are Diamonds, the IBO receives 27 FAA points as every Diamond counts for 3 FAA points. This allows for greater earnings than with the "old-fashioned way." Additionally, approximately 80 FAA-points would guarantee a 7 figure bonus (USD) per year.
==="Crown Ambassador"===
By way of their seniority most Crown Ambassadors sit on various Amway [[board of directors|boards]], deciding business policy which affect all IBOs worldwide. Most also run, or contribute heavily to, their own motivational organizations.
[[Dexter Yager]], one of the biggest landowners in [[Charlotte, North Carolina]], considered a legend by some within the Amway organization, is probably the most famous American Crown Ambassador. He created a training system of functions, [[book]]s of the month, and [[tape]]s. This has been done by a number of other organizations, such as Network 21 which is the most international of the business systems which run parallel to Amway.
===Lines of Sponsorship===
A line of sponsorship (LOS or [[line of affiliation]]) is an essential organizational concept in Amway organizations. Status is determined by where one is on the hierarchical continuum within the LOS. Those [[upline]] have higher status and those and [[downline]] have less status. [http://www.mlmsurvivor.com/stewart_v_gooch4.htm] A given IBO signs an agreement upon registration that says he/she will not switch LOS ([[Crossline]]). [http://www.quixtar.com/Documents/IWOV/VIS/010-EN/PDFs_Redstar90104/IBO_Support/Registration/LA1037H_Registration.pdf] Some of Amway LOS have included: [[TEAM (company)|TEAM]] (formerly Team of Destiny), [[InterNET]], [[BWW]], [[WorldWide Dream Builders]] (WWDB), [[Alliance Net Solutions]] (ANS), [[Empire]], [[True North]], [[eFinity]], [[InterNet Associates]] (INA), [[International Connection]], [[International Leadership Development]] (ILD), [[MarkerMan Productions]] (MMP), [[ProAlliance]], [[Interbiz]], [[IBO Alliance]], and [[GlobalNet]].[http://whataboutquixtar.com/forum/index.php?sid=7a767a537c21a12c6a3d4db1dbb75114]
==Controversy==
Amway (and its online incarnation, [[Quixtar]]) have been controversial for years because of allegations that these companies are [[pyramid scheme]]s. Critics claim that most of the products sold by Amway are to the Independent Business Owners (IBOs) themselves for personal consumption rather than to retail consumers who aren't enrolled as IBOs. Buying products from Amway or Quixtar gives IBOs points and they are paid back on the number of points that they generate from personal consumption. It is claimed to be a business opportunity and hence an existing IBO can help others to get an IBO number and divert their buying habit from other stores to Amway or Quixtar. Thus the business grows as a greater number of people join the group. The share of profit is based on the leverage that an IBO has.
Typically, IBOs spend a large amount of money on tapes, books, and seminars (known as "tools" in AMO parlance) which are ostensibly "required" to "hone the business skills of the IBOs". These are not provided by Amway itself but organizations often described as [[Amway Motivational Organization]]s (AMO) in general run by people in the higher ranks of the organization. Claims regarding the support material range from "can be of help to an IBO " to "are absolutely required" to "build a big business". However, undercover investigations like one done by [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/4375477/ MSNBC Dateline] in [[April 2003]] suggest that most of the money being earned by these successful individuals was coming from the hidden "tools" business rather than through selling the company products. Critics also claim that the materials are specifically geared towards encouraging IBOs to continue working for a non-economic return, rather than improving their actual business skills.
[[Dexter Yager]]'s organization, the International Dreambuilders' Association/Digital Alliance (usually simply referred to by the abbreviation IDA) is arguably the largest and best-known of the AMOs, and is probably the one most commonly associated with Amway.
==Political causes/Culture==
Commentators have often (but not strictly accurately) identified Amway as supporting the [[Un |
e legend he was brought up from the depths of [[Lake Titicaca]] by the sun god [[Inti]]. In another he was the son of [[Viracocha|Tici Viracocha]]. However commoners were not allowed to speak the name of Viracocha, which is possibly an explanation for the need for two foundation legends.
In one myth [[Manco Capac]] was the brother of [[Pachacamac]], both were sons of the sun god [[Inti]] who is also known as [[Apu Punchau]]. Manco Capac himself was worshiped as a fire and sun god. According to the Inti legend, Manco Capac and his siblings were sent up to the earth by the sun god and emerged from the cave of [[Pacaritambo]] carrying a golden staff, called ‘[[tapac-yauri]]’. They were instructed to create a Temple of the Sun in the spot where the staff sank into the earth, they traveled to Cusco via underground caves, and built a temple in honor of the sun god Inti, their father. During the journey to Cuzco, one of Manco’s brothers, and possibly one of his sisters, were turned to stone (''[[huaca]]''). In another version of this legend, instead of emerging from a cave in Cuzco, the siblings instead emerged from the waters of [[Lake Titicaca]].
In the Tici Virachocha legend, Manco Capac was the son of [[Viracocha|Tici Viracocha]] of [[Pacari-Tampu]] (today [[Pacaritambo]], 25 km south of Cuzco). He and his brothers (''[[Ayar Anca]]'', ''[[Ayar Cachi]]'' and ''[[Ayar Uchu]]'') and sisters ([[Mama Ocllo]], ''[[Mama Huaco]]'', ''[[Mama Raua]]'' and ''[[Mama Cura]]'') lived near [[Cuzco]] at Paccari-Tampu, and united their people and ten [[ayllu]] they encountered in their travels to conquer the tribes of the Cuzco Valley. This legend also incorporates the golden staff, which is thought to have been given to Manco Capac by his father. Accounts vary, but according to some versions of the legend, the young Manco jealously betrayed his older brothers, killed them, and became the sole ruler of Cuzco.
===Islam===
[[Image:Islam.png|thumb|right|150 px|The calligraphic representation of the name of [[Allah]], identified as the one true creator [[God]] in [[Islam]] and the other [[Abrahamic religion|Abrahamic]] faiths.]]
<!--
Should [[Creation according to Genesis]] and [[creationism]] link as a "Main article:" reference here, as for Christianity and Judaism (above)?
-->
In Islam all creation is attributed to [[Allah]] (the [[proper name]] for [[God]] in [[Arabic language|Arabic]]), the one and only God for [[Muslim]]s. He is clearly identified as the "first cause" at numerous places in the [[Qur'an]]. Three instances follow:
''(13:16) … Say: Allah is the Creator of all things, and He is the One, the Supreme''
''(57:3) … He is the First and the Last and the Manifest and the Hidden, and He is Knower of all things''
''(112:1) … Say: He, Allah, is One''
''(112:2) … Allah is He on Whom all depend''
Referring to the first cause argument the [[Qur'an]] addresses the non-believers:
''(52:35) … Or were they created without a (creative) agency? Or are they the creators?''
''(52:36) … Or did they create the heavens and the earth? Nay, they are sure of nothing.''
===Japan===
The god [[Izanagi]] and goddess [[Izanami]] churned the ocean with a spear to make a small island of curdled salt. Two deities went down to the island, mixed there, and bore main islands, deities, and forefathers of Japan. See the [[Japanese mythology#Creation myth|creation myth section]] of the article on [[Japanese mythology]].
===Jainism===
According to Jain beliefs, the [[universe]] was never created, nor will it ever cease to exist. It is eternal but not unchangeable, because it passes through an endless series of cycles. Each of these upward or downward cycles is divided into six world ages ([[yugas]]). The present world age is the fifth age of one of these "cycles", which is in a downward movement. These ages are known as "Aaro" as in "''Pehela Aara''" or First Age, "''Doosra Aara''" or Second Age and so on. The last one is the "''Chhatha Aara''" or Sixth Age. All these ages have fixed time durations of thousands of years.
When this reaches its lowest level, even Jainism itself will be lost in its entirety. Then, in the course of the next upswing, the Jain religion will be rediscovered and reintroduced by new leaders called ''Tirthankaras'' (literally "Crossing Makers" or "Ford Finders"), only to be lost again at the end of the next downswing, and so on.
(see: [[Jainism#Universal History and Jain Cosmology|univers history section]] in the [[Jainism]] article.)
===Judaism===
{{main articles|[[Creation according to Genesis]] [[Creation (theology)]]}}
While the scriptural narrative for the creation account in Judaism is contained in the first chapters of [[Genesis]], the notion of "[[Tzimtzum]]", or God's retraction to make way for space and time, is a core element to the Jewish approach to the First Cause notion, as explored by Rabbi [[Moses Maimonides]].
===Mayan===
The [[Maya civilization|Maya]] of [[Mesoamerica]] creation story is recounted in the book "[[Popol Vuh]]". In the beginning there is only sky and sea, personified as a [[trinity]] of gods called Heart-of-Sky. They decide that they want someone to praise them. They begin by saying "Earth", which appears on demand from the sea. This is followed by mountains and trees, and Heart-of-Sky establish that "our work is going well". Next for creation are the creatures of the forest: birds, deer, jaguars and snakes. They are told to multiply and scatter, and then to speak and "pray to us". But the animals just squawk and howl. They are consequently humbled and will become servants to whoever will worship Heart-of-Sky. So Heart-of-Sky try to make some more respectful creatures from mud. But the results are not great, and they allow the new race to be washed away. They call upon their grandparents, who suggest wood as an appropriate medium. But the wooden people are just mindless robots, so Heart-of Sky set about the destruction of this new race by means of a rain-storm. This causes the animals to turn against the wooden people; even their pots and querns rebel, and crush the peoples' faces. The wooden people escape to the forests and are turned into monkeys. Heart-of-Sky then make yet another attempt at creating a suitably respectful race, and finally succeed by fashioning humans out of maize-corn dough.
===Māori===
The [[Māori]] [[Maori creation story|creation myth]] tells how heaven and earth were once joined as Ranginui, the Sky Father, and Papatuanuku, the Earth Mother, lay together in a tight embrace. They had many children who lived in the darkness between them. The children wished to live in the light and so separated their unwilling parents. Ranginui and Papatuanuku continue to grieve for each other to this day. Rangi's tears fall as rain towards Papatuanuku to show how much he loves her. When mist rises from the forests, these are Papa's sighs as the warmth of her body yearns for him and continues to nurture mankind.
===Navajo===
Holy Supreme Wind being created by the mists of lights arose through the darkness to animate and bring purpose to the myriad Holy People, supernatural and sacred in the different three lower worlds All these things were spiritually created in the time before the earth existed and the physical aspect of man did not exist yet, but the spiritual did. In the first world the insect people started fighting with one another and were instructed to by the Holy People to depart. They journey to the second world and lived for a time in peace. Eventually they fought with each other and were instructed to depart. They journeyed to the third world and suceeded in not fighting with one another and their bodies were transformed from the insect forms to human forms. First man and First woman physically appear in the narrative here by being formed from ears of white and yellow corn, but they were also created back in the begining. There is a separation of male and female humans because each did not appreaciate the contributions of the other, and this laid the ground work for the appearance of the Monsters that would start to kill of the people in the next world. Coyote also appears and steals the baby of water monster, who brings a great flood in the third world which primarily forces the humans as well as Holy People to journey to the surface of the fouth world through a hollow reed. Some things are left behind and some things are brought to help the people re-created the world each time they entered a new one. Death and the Monsters are born into this world as is Changing Woman who gives birth to the Hero Twins, called "Monster Slayer" and "Child of the Waters" who had many adventures in which they helped to rid the world of much evil. Earth Surface People, mortals, were created in the fourth world, and the gods gave them ceremonies, which are still practiced today.
===Norse===
[[Odin]] and his brothers used [[Ymir]]'s body to create the universe. This universe comprises of nine worlds. They placed the body over the void called [[Ginnungagap]]. They used his flesh for creating the earth and his blood for the sea. His skull, held up by four [[dwarves]] (Nordri ''North'', Sudri ''South'', Austri ''East'', and Vestri ''West''), was used to create the heaven. Then using sparks from [[Muspelheim]], the gods created the sun, moon and stars. While [[Ymir]]'s eyebrows were used to create a place where the human race could live in; a place called [[Midgard]]. The first humans, [[Ask and Embla]], were created from logs. [http://www.timelessmyths.com/]
===Polynesian===
{{sectstub}}
(see [[Polynesian mythology]])
====Hawaiian====
See [[Maui (mythology)]] and [[Kumulipo]].
===Randomness===
Some philosophers like [[Hakim Bey]] and [[occult|occultists]] like [[Peter Carroll]] think [[randomness]], [[ |
se regions receive minimal precipitation, they should be designated as specifically different from the simple definition of a desert: a place where evaporation exceeds precipitation.
That said, there are different forms of deserts. Cold deserts can be covered in [[snow]]; such locations don't receive much precipitation, and what does fall remains frozen as snow pack; these are more commonly referred to as [[tundra]] if a short season of above-freezing temperatures is experienced, or as an [[ice cap]] if the temperature remains below freezing year-round, rendering the land almost completely lifeless.
Most non-polar deserts are hot because they have little [[water]]. Water tends to have a cooling, or at least a moderating, effect in environments where it is plentiful. In some parts of the world deserts are created by a [[rain shadow]] effect in which air masses lose much of their moisture as they move over a [[mountain range]]; other areas are arid by virtue of being very far from the nearest available sources of moisture (this is true in some middle-latitude landmass interior locations, particularly in [[Asia]]).
Deserts are also classified by their geographical location and dominant weather pattern as trade wind, mid-latitude, rain shadow, coastal, monsoon, or [[polar desert]]s. Former desert areas presently in non-arid environments are paleodeserts, and extraterrestrial deserts exist on other planets.
===Montane deserts===
[[Montane]]deserts are arid places with a very high [[altitude]]; the most prominent example is found north of the [[Himalaya]], in parts of the [[Kunlun Mountains]] and the [[Tibetan Plateau]]. Many locations within this category have elevations exceeding 3,000 meters (9,843 feet) and the thermal regime can be [[hemiboreal]]. These places owe their profound aridity (the average annual precipitation is often less than 40mm) to being very far from the nearest available sources of moisture.
==Desert features==
[[Sand]] covers only about 20 percent of Earth's deserts. Most of the sand is in [[sand sheet]]s and sand seas&mdash;vast regions of undulating dunes resembling ocean waves "frozen" in an instant of time. In general, there are 6 forms of deserts:
* Mountain and basin deserts;
* Hamada deserts, which comprise of a plateaux landforms;
* Regs which consist of rock pavements;
* Ergs which are formed by sand seas;
* Intermontane Basins; and
* Badlands which are located at the margins of arid lands comprising of clay-rich soil.
Nearly 100 percent of desert surfaces are plains where [[eolian deflation]]&mdash;removal of fine-grained material by the wind&mdash;has exposed loose gravels consisting predominantly of [[pebble]]s but with occasional [[cobble]]s.
The remaining surfaces of arid lands are composed of exposed [[bedrock]] outcrops, desert soils, and [[fluvial deposit]]s including [[alluvial fan]]s, [[playa]]s, desert [[lake]]s, and oases/oasis. Bedrock outcrops commonly occur as small mountains surrounded by extensive erosional plains.
There are several different types of dunes. Barchan dunes are produced by strong winds blowing across a level surface and are crescent shaped. Longitudinal or seif dunes are dunes that are parallel to a strong wind that blows in one general direction. Transverse dunes run are a right angle to the constant wind direction. Star dunes are star-shaped and have several ridges that spread out around a point.
[[Oasis|Oases]] are vegetated areas moistened by [[spring (water)|springs]], [[well]]s, or by [[irrigation]]. Many are artificial. Oases are often the only places in deserts that support crops and permanent habitation.
===Soils===
[[Image:Dessication.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Ground in the desert tends to crack due to the dryness.]] [[Soil]]s that form in arid climates are predominantly mineral soils (classified as [[Aridisols]]) with low organic content such as salt. The repeated accumulation of water in some soils causes distinct salt layers to form. [[Calcium carbonate]] precipitated from solution may cement sand and gravel into hard layers called "[[calcrete]]" that form layers up to 50 meters thick.
[[Caliche]] is a reddish-brown to white layer found in many desert soils. Caliche commonly occurs as nodules or as coatings on mineral grains formed by the complicated interaction between water and [[carbon dioxide]] released by plant roots or by decaying organic material.
===Vegetation===
Most desert plants are drought- or salt-tolerant, such as [[xerophyte]]s. Some store water in their leaves, roots, and stems. Other desert plants have long [[tap root]]s that penetrate the water table, anchor the soil, and control erosion. The stems and leaves of some plants lower the surface velocity of sand-carrying winds and protect the ground from erosion.
Deserts typically have a plant cover that is sparse but enormously diverse. The [[Sonoran Desert]] of the American Southwest has the most complex desert vegetation on Earth. The giant [[saguaro cactus|saguaro cacti]] provide nests for desert birds and serve as "trees" of the desert. Saguaro grow slowly but may live 200 years. When 9 years old, they are about 15 centimeters high. After about 75 years, the cacti develop their first branches. When fully grown, saguaro are 15 meters tall and weigh as much as 10 tons. They dot the Sonoran and reinforce the general impression of deserts as cacti-rich land.
Although cacti are often thought of as characteristic desert plants, other types of plants have adapted well to the arid environment. They include the [[pea]] family and [[sunflower]] family. Cold deserts have grasses and shrubs as dominant vegetation.
===Water===
[[Image:Moving sand simulator questacon.jpg|thumb|left|The shifting sands simulator at [[Questacon]], Canberra]]
Rain does fall occasionally in deserts, and desert storms are often violent. A record 44 millimeters of rain once fell within 3 hours in the Sahara. Large Saharan storms may deliver up to 1 millimeter per minute. Normally dry stream channels, called [[arroyo (creek)|arroyos]] or [[wadi]]s, can quickly fill after heavy rains, and [[flash flood]]s make these channels dangerous.
Though little rain falls in deserts, deserts receive runoff from ephemeral, or short-lived, streams fed by rain and snow from adjacent highlands. These streams fill the channel with a slurry of mud and commonly transport considerable quantities of sediment for a day or two. Although most deserts are in basins with closed, or interior drainage, a few deserts are crossed by 'exotic' rivers that derive their water from outside the desert. Such rivers infiltrate soils and evaporate large amounts of water on their journeys through the deserts, but their volumes are such that they maintain their continuity. The [[Nile River]], the [[Colorado River (U.S.)|Colorado River]], and the [[Yellow River]] are exotic rivers that flow through deserts to deliver their sediments to the sea.
Lakes form where rainfall or meltwater in interior drainage basins is sufficient. Desert lakes are generally shallow, temporary, and salty. Because these lakes are shallow and have a low bottom gradient, wind stress may cause the lake waters to move over many square kilometers. When small lakes dry up, they leave a salt crust or [[hardpan]]. The flat area of clay, silt, or sand encrusted with salt that forms is known as a playa. There are more than a hundred playas in North American deserts. Most are relics of large lakes that existed during the last [[ice age]] about 12,000 years ago. [[Lake Bonneville]] was a 52,000-square-kilometer lake almost 300 meters deep in Utah, Nevada, and Idaho during the Ice Age. Today the remnants of Lake Bonneville include Utah's [[Great Salt Lake]], [[Utah Lake]], and [[Sevier Lake]]. Because playas are arid land forms from a wetter past, they contain useful clues to climatic change.
When the occasional precipitation does occur, it erodes the desert rocks quickly and powerfully. Wind is the other factor that erodes deserts- they are constant yet slow.
The flat terrains of hardpans and playas make them excellent race tracks and natural runways for airplanes and spacecraft. Ground-vehicle speed records are commonly established on [[Bonneville Speedway]], a race track on the Great Salt Lake hardpan. Space shuttles land on [[Rogers Lake Playa]] at [[Edwards Air Force Base]] in California.
==Mineral resources==
Some [[mineral]] deposits are formed, improved, or preserved by geologic processes that occur in arid lands as a consequence of climate. [[Ground water]] [[leaching|leach]]es [[ore]] minerals and redeposits them in zones near the [[water table]]. This leaching process concentrates these minerals as ore that can be mined.
Evaporation in arid lands enriches mineral accumulation in their lakes. Playas may be sources of mineral deposits formed by evaporation. Water evaporating in closed basins precipitates minerals such as [[gypsum]], salts (including [[sodium nitrate]] and [[sodium chloride]]), and [[borate]]s. The minerals formed in these [[evaporite]] deposits depend on the composition and temperature of the saline waters at the time of deposition.
Significant evaporite resources occur in the [[Great Basin Desert]] of the United States, mineral deposits made forever famous by the "20-mule teams" that once hauled borax-laden wagons from [[Death Valley]] to the [[railroad]]. [[Boron]], from [[borax]] and borate evaporites, is an essential ingredient in the manufacture of glass, ceramics, enamel, agricultural chemicals, water softeners, and pharmaceuticals. Borates are mined from evaporite deposits at [[Searles Lake]], California, and other desert locations. The total value of chemicals that have been produced from Searles Lake substantially exceeds [[US dollar|US$]]1 [[billion]].
The [[Atacama Desert]] of [[South America]] is unique among the deserts of the world in its great abundance of saline minerals. |
a halt, throttle to idle, wheels locked. The thrust vector is set to 90 degrees and the throttle brought up to maximum. The aircraft leaves the ground rapidly. The throttle is trimmed until a hover state is achieved at the desired altitude. During the ascent and hover, the reaction control system is continuously adjusted to maintain position over the patch of ground, much as it is with a helicopter. The aircraft has to face into the wind when taking off in this way. A side wind causes the aircraft to pitch away from the lee side. This would alter the thrust vector away from vertical and cause the aicraft to slew sideways. This is hard to control and very dangerous. In severe cases the aircraft can [[settling with power|settle with power]] while moving to the side. While taking off in windy conditions is always more difficult when within ground effect, it is easier to maintain heading away from the ground effect as the tailplane tends to stabilise the heading into the wind. At hover, the thrust vector is slowly returned to horizontal while the altitude and [[angle of attack]] is maintained in a specified range. At or shortly after normal take off airspeed, the thrust vector is set to horizontal and thrust is usually trimmed back to control acceleration.
The STOL procedure involves proceeding with normal take off and then applying a specified thrust vector (less than 90 degrees) at a specified runway speed below normal take off speed. For lower take off speeds, the thrust vector applied is greater. The vector and thrust is then then trimmed appropriately until take off airspeed is achieved. Several procedures have been described for different runway lengths.
In forward flight mode, the harrier is at an advantage compared with fixed wing aircraft in that in the event of stalling, recovery is possible by quickly adjusting the thrust vector and throttle. For STOL and VTOL landing, it is necessary to drop below the normal stall speed and apply this method (against all the instincts of the trained fixed wing pilot). The thrust vector control allows for the engine knozzles to be adjusted to a maximum stop of 98 degrees. This facilitates backward motion as needed but is not normally applied during VTOL as the heading into the wind tends to require some forward thrust via attitude control to maintain a fixed hovering position.
== Service History ==
The Sea Harrier which is based on the GR3 played a key role in the [[United Kingdom|British]] victory in the [[Falklands War]]. The Sea Harriers operated as air defence for the fleet. A total of twenty Sea Harriers were deployed from the carriers [[HMS Hermes (R12)|HMS ''Hermes'']] and [[HMS Invincible (R05)|''Invincible'']]. They inflicted serious losses on the Argentine air force destroying 23 aircraft in air-to-air combat. In all, three Sea Harriers were lost to ground fire, but none was lost to enemy aircraft.
The Harrier GR.3 operated by the RAF also saw combat during the Falklands War. They operated from ''Hermes'' and provided close air support to the ground forces but could not destroy the [[Port Stanley]] runway. If the Sea Harriers had been lost they would have filled the gaps but this was not needed.
The RAF Harriers would not see further combat, the Hawker Siddeley airframes would be replaced by the larger [[RAF Harrier II|Harrier II]] developed by McDonnell Douglas.
The Sea Harrier, now upgraded to FRS2, also saw combat during the Bosnia conflict, with one aircraft being shot down by [[Serbia]]n defences in 1994. During the [[Kosovo War]], combat air patrols were flown, but no weapons were fired. The Sea Harrier also made operational patrols over [[Iraq]] during the 12 years of enforcing no-fly zones.
The Sea Harrier and Harrier GR.7 forces were merged to formed [[Joint Force Harrier]] in 2000. With the retirement of the Sea Harrier by 2006 the RAF and RN will share the upgraded GR.9 fleet until the introduction of the [[F-35]] Joint Strike Fighter.
===RAF service===
'''Squadrons'''
*[[No. 1 Squadron RAF]]
*[[No. 3 Squadron RAF]]
*[[No. IV Squadron RAF]]
'''Locations'''
*[[RAF Cottesmore]]
*[[RAF Wittering]]
==Films and Video Games==
{{Commons|Hawker Siddeley Harrier}}
A two-seat version of the Harrier was seen in the [[James Bond]] movie ''[[The Living Daylights]]''.
An AV-8B was featured in the [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] movie ''[[True Lies]]''.
In the video game [[Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty]], a Harrier was under terrorist control. The player gets an opportunity to shoot it down.
A [[Flight sim]] in development for PC, [http://www.thunder-works.com Jet Thunder], fully features the British Harrier and Sea Harrier used in [[Falklands War]].
In [[Command & Conquer: Red Alert 2]], the Allies have the ability to construct Harriers once an Airforce Command HQ has been built.
An aircraft modelled on the Harrier and AV-8B, named the "Hydra", is available in the [[video game]] [[Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas]] and can be flown in both VTOL and CTOL configurations.
In the anime [[Burn Up Excess]], Ruby, one of the main antagonists, pilots a Harrier in several episodes as her primary means of long-distance transport.
== External links ==
*[http://www.naval-history.net/F63braircraftlost.htm Harriers lost in the Falklands]
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{| cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin:4px; border:2px solid #cccccc;width:43%; font-size:72%;" align="center"
!bgcolor="#cccccc" colspan="3" align="center" style="border-bottom:1px solid"|Variants
|-
|align="center"|'''Hawker Siddeley Harrier''' - [[BAE Sea Harrier]] - [[RAF Harrier II]] - [[AV-8B Harrier II]]
|-
|}
</font>
<br style="clear: both">
{{airlistbox}}
[[Category:British fighter aircraft 1960-1969]]
[[Category:VTOL aircraft]]
[[de:Hawker Siddeley Harrier]]
[[fr:Hawker Siddeley Harrier]]
[[id:Hawker-Siddeley Harrier]]
[[ja:ハリアー_(航空機)]]
[[nl:Hawker Siddeley Harrier]]
[[no:Hawker Siddeley Harrier]]
[[pl:Harrier]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hawker Harrier</title>
<id>14315</id>
<revision>
<id>28762153</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-19T17:25:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alai</username>
<id>147115</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>sort stub</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''For the [[VTOL]] jet, see [[Hawker-Siddeley Harrier]]''
The '''Hawker Harrier''' was an experimental biplane torpedo bomber aircraft built to a specification issued in the [[1920s]].
It was a two seater powered by a Bristol Jupiter VIII armed with one [[Vickers machine gun]] and one [[Lewis gun]] carrying either one [[torpedo]] or a maximum of 1,000 lb (~500 kg) of bombs.
{{bomber-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Houston street</title>
<id>14316</id>
<revision>
<id>15911878</id>
<timestamp>2005-02-14T13:23:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SPUI</username>
<id>113059</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Houston Street (Manhattan)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hergé</title>
<id>14317</id>
<revision>
<id>38944433</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T18:14:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hot & Cold</username>
<id>893085</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Biography
|subject_name=Herg&eacute;
|image_name=Georgesremi.jpg
|image_caption=
|date_of_birth=[[May 23]], [[1907]]
|place_of_birth=[[Brussels, Belgium]]
|date_of_death=[[March 3]], [[1983]]
|place_of_death=[[Brussels, Belgium]]}}
'''Georges Remi''' ([[May 23]], [[1907]] &ndash; [[March 3]], [[1983]]), better known by the [[pen name]] '''Hergé''', was a [[Belgium|Belgian]] [[comics]] [[writer]] and [[artist]]. "Hergé" is the French pronunciation of "R.G.", the reverse of his initials. His best-known and most substantial work is [[Tintin|''The Adventures of Tintin'']], which he wrote and illustrated from [[1929]] until his death in [[1983]], which left the twenty-fourth Tintin adventure, ''[[Tintin and Alph-Art|Tintin and Alph-art]]'', unfinished. His work remains a strong influence on comics, particularly in Europe. He was inducted into the [[Eisner_Award#The_Will_Eisner_Award_Hall_of_Fame|Comic Book Hall of Fame]] in [[2003]].
The notable qualities of the ''Tintin'' stories include their vivid humanism, a realistic feel produced by meticulous and wide-ranging research, and Hergé's ''[[ligne claire]]'' drawing style.
Other series that Hergé wrote and drew include ''[[Jo, Zette and Jocko]]'' and ''[[Quick & Flupke]]'' (''Quick et Flupke'').
==Biography==
===Childhood and early career===
Georges Remi was born in [[1907]] in [[Etterbeek]], in [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]] to middle class parents, Alexis and Elisabeth Remi. His four years of [[elementary education|primary schooling]] coincided with [[World War I]] ([[1914]]&ndash;[[1918]]), during which Brussels was occupied by the [[German Empire]]. Georges, who displayed an early affinity for drawing, filled the margins of his earliest schoolbooks with doodles of the German invaders. Except for a few drawing lessons which he would later take at Ecole Saint-Luc, he never had any formal training in the [[visual arts]].
In 1920, he began studying in the "collège Saint-Boniface", a secondary school where the teachers were catholic priests. Georges joined the [[Guidisme et Scoutisme en Belgique|Boy Scouts]] troop of the school, where he was given the totemic name "Renard curieux" (Curious fox). His first drawings were published in ''Jamais assez'', the school's Scout paper, and, from 1923, in Le Boy-Scout Belge, the Scout monthly |
tory]] by the impact of "Great men", ie: highly influential individuals, either from personal charisma, genius intellects, or great political impact.
For example, a scholarly follower of the Great Man theory would be likely to study the [[Second World War]] by focusing on the big personalities of the conflict &mdash; [[Winston Churchill|Sir Winston Churchill]], [[Hirohito]], [[Adolf Hitler]], [[Benito Mussolini]], [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]], [[Stalin]], etc. &mdash; and view all of the historical events as being tied directly to their own individual decisions and orders.
It is often linked to 19th century philosopher and historian [[Thomas Carlyle]], who commented that "The history of the world is but the biography of great men." This theory is usually contrasted with a theory that talks about events occurring in the fullness of time, or when an overwhelming wave of smaller events cause certain developments to occur.
A staunch opponent of the great man theory in its own time was [[Leo Tolstoy]], who devoted the entire last (non-fictional) part of ''[[War and Peace]]'' to debunking it, using [[Napoleonic wars]] as an example.
Today the great man theory is out of favour. Most historians today believe that [[economic]], [[societal]], [[environment|environmental]], and [[technology|technological]] factors are far more important to history than the decisions made by any individual. In general there is a belief that history which only follows around "great men", especially when "greatness" is determined primarily by political status, is a shallow view of the past, and additionally one which excludes entire groups of people from being part of "history", including [[labour (economics)|labor]] forces, [[ethnic minorities]], [[cultural minorities]], and, as the name "Great ''men''" would suggest, women. As such, "Great man history" is, within the historical profession today, usually used as a [[pejorative]] term, like the phrase "[[dead white males]]".
This has spread to other fields such a [[literary criticism]] where the [[New Historicism]] of [[Stephen Greenblatt]] argues that societies create works of art, not just authors.
When this theory is applied to [[film theory]], this theory tends to explain [[History of cinema|film history]] and the evolution of film almost exclusively in terms of "Great Men", with some notable [[film director|director]]s. It however, neglects the efforts of crews, assistants and outside constraints. It could be described as the film history equivalent to the [[Star system (film)|star system]] or the [[auteur theory]].
==References==
§ [[Thomas Carlyle]], ''On Heroes, Hero-Worship and the Heroic in History'' (1843)
[[Category:Historiography]]
Chris Krygier, "Great Men in Theory and Practice: A Study of Three Great Dons" (2005)</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Great Pyramid of Giza</title>
<id>12224</id>
<revision>
<id>42117068</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:59:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>209.30.155.185</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Dating evidence */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Pyramide Kheops.JPG|right|thumb|333px|The Great Pyramid]]
The '''Great Pyramid of [[Giza]]''' ({{coor dms|29|58|41|N|31|07|53|E|type:landmark_region:EG_scale:5000}}) is the oldest and last remaining of the [[Seven Wonders of the World]]. It is generally believed the Great Pyramid was built as the tomb of [[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|Fourth dynasty]] [[ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] '''king [[Khufu (pharaoh)|Khufu]]''' (also known under his Greek name ''Cheops'' and believed to have reigned from 2606-2583 BC), after whom it is sometimes called '''Khufu's Pyramid''' or the '''Pyramid of Khufu'''. Traditionally, the architect of the pyramid was [[Hemon]], a relative of Khufu{{citeneeded}}.
==Age and location==
Believed by mainstream egyptologists to have been constructed in approximately 20 years, the most widely accepted estimate for its date of completion is c. 2580 BC. This date is loosely supported by archæological findings which have yet to reveal a civilization (of sufficient population size or technical ability) older than the fourth dynasty in the area.
[[Image:PyramidDatePalms.JPG|thumb|333px|Great Pyramid of Giza from a 19th century [[stereopticon]] card [[photo]].]]
The Great Pyramid is the oldest and largest of the three pyramids in the [[Giza Necropolis]] adjacent to the outskirts of modern [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]] in Africa. It is the main part of a complex setting of buildings that included a special walkway, two temples, three small pyramids (called the queens' pyramids), boat pits (with boats buried inside) and mastabas for the nobles. One of these small pyramids contains the tomb of queen [[Hetepheres]] (discovered in 1925), sister and wife of Sneferu and the mother of Khufu.
There was a town for the workers, including a cemetery, bakeries, a beer factory and a copper smelting complex. More buildings and complexes are being discovered by the The Giza Mapping Project.
A few hundred metres south-west of the Great Pyramid lies the slightly smaller [[Pyramid of Khafre]], one of Khufu's successors who is believed to have built the [[Great Sphinx of Giza|Great Sphinx]], and a few hundred metres further south-west is the [[Pyramid of Menkaure]], Khafre's successor, which is about half as tall. Khafre's pyramid appears the tallest in some photographs as it is somewhat steeper and built on higher terrain.
===Dating evidence===
An astronomical study, by Kate Spence (see below), suggests a date of 2467 BC. (Nature (vol 408, p 320))
In 1984, the Edgar Cayce Foundation, endeavoring to research the claim that the pyramids were at least 10,000 years old, funded the "David H. Koch Pyramids Radiocarbon Project". The project took organic material from several places in the core of the Great Pyramid as well as other 4th Dynasty pyramids and locations so as to try and date their radiocarbon. This yielded results averaging 374 years earlier than the date accepted by egyptologists but much more recent than 10,000 years ago. A second dating in 1995 with new but similar material obtained dates ranging between 100-400 years earlier than those indicated by the historic record. This raised interesting questions concerning the origin and date of the wood. Massive quantities of wood were used and burned, so to reconcile the earlier dates the authors of the study theorize that possibly "old wood" was used, assuming that wood was harvested from any source available, including old construction material from all over Egypt. It is also known that King Sneferu imported wood from Lebanon. Project scientists based their conclusions on the evidence that some of the material in the 3rd Dynasty pyramid of Pharaoh Djoser and other monuments had been recycled, concluding that the construction of the pyramids marked a major depletion of Egypt's exploitable wood. Dating of more short-lived material around the pyramid (cloth, small fires, etc) yielded dates nearer to those indicated by historical records. The authors insist more evidence is need to settle this issue. (Archeology "[http://www.archaeology.org/9909/abstracts/pyramids.html Dating the Pyramids ]" Volume 52 Number 5, September/October 1999 by members of the David H. Koch Pyramids Radiocarbon Project")
== Construction and internal layout ==
At construction, the Great Pyramid was 280 Egyptian [[Ancient Egyptian weights and measures|Old Royal Cubits]] tall ([[1 E2 m|146.5 metres]] or 481 feet), but with [[erosion]] and the theft of its topmost stone (the so-called pyramidion) its current height is 455.21 ft, approximately 138.75&nbsp;m. As has been proven by papyrus documents, each base side measured in antiquity 440 (20.63 inch) royal [[cubit]]s. Thus, the base was originally 231&nbsp;m on a side and covered approximately [[1 E4 m²|53,000 square metres]] with an angle of 51.7 degrees&mdash;close to the ideal for a stable pyramidal structure. Today each side has an approximate length of about 230.36 meters, well within the precision of that measurement. The reduction in size and area of the structure into its current rough-hewn appearance is due to the absence of its original polished casing stones, some of which measured up to two and a half meters thick and weighed upwards of 15 tonnes.
In the 14th century (1301 AD), a massive earthquake loosened many of the outer casing stones, many of which were carted away by [[Bahri dynasty|Bahri Sultan]] [[An-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din al-Hasan]] in 1356 in order to build mosques and fortresses in nearby Cairo; the stones can still be seen as parts of these structures to this day. Later explorers reported massive piles of rubble at the base of the pyramids left over from the continuing collapse of the casing stones which were subsequently cleared away during continuing excavations of the site. Nevertheless, many of the casing stones around the base of the Great Pyramid can be seen to this day in situ displaying the same workmanship and precision as has been reported for centuries.
The first precision measurements of the pyramid were done by [[William Matthew Flinders Petrie|Sir Flinders Petrie]] in 1880–82 and published as "[http://www.ronaldbirdsall.com/gizeh/ The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh]". Almost all reports are based on his measurements. Petrie found the pyramid is oriented 4' West of North and the second pyramid is similarly oriented. Petrie also found a different orientation in the core and in the casing ( – 5' 16" ± 10"). Petrie suggested a redetermination of North was made after the contruction of the core, but a mistake was made, and the casing was built with a different orientation. This deviation from the north in the core, corresponding to the posi |
t, did not come with any built-in commands for dealing with files or disks. The Apple II disk operating system, known simply as DOS, thus intercepted all input typed by the user to determine whether it was a DOS command. Similarly, all output was scrutinized for a Control-D character (ASCII 4), which BASIC programs would send before printing a disk command to get DOS's attention. ProDOS followed this lead, although the BASIC command interpreter was placed in a separate program called BASIC.SYSTEM.
* Neither Apple nor Microsoft ever made source code for Applesoft BASIC available. However, Glen Bredon included a program with his Merlin assembler that would generate a copy of a BASIC disassembly from the ROMs in a user's computer, cleverly skirting copyright law.
* Both Integer BASIC and Applesoft used the technique of ''tokenizing'' to reduce the memory requirements of programs and to speed their interpretation. As code was entered, BASIC keywords would be converted to single-byte tokens; the process was reversed when the program was listed. Integer BASIC used characters with codes above 127 for normal text and codes below 128 for tokens; Applesoft used exactly the reverse.
* Due to Applesoft BASIC's slow performance, BASIC compilers were much sought-after tools for BASIC programmers. The first, Microsoft's The AppleSoft Compiler (TASC), was actually written in Applesoft and then used to compile itself. A later product, the Einstein Compiler, was somewhat more sophisticated and offered better performance both in compilation and in execution. The ultimate BASIC compiler was the Beagle Compiler, published by [[Beagle Bros]]; it integrated closely with ProDOS (the current Apple II OS at the time of its reelase), compiled programs in seconds rather than minutes, and achieved superior code execution performance. However, unlike previous compilers, the Beagle Compiler did not truly compile BASIC programs to machine code, but rather converted them to a highly optimized pseudo-code that was interpreted by a runtime module.
== See also ==
* [[Chinese BASIC]]: A Chinese-localized version of Applesoft BASIC.
[[Category:Apple II software]]
[[Category:BASIC dialects]]
[[Category:Microsoft BASIC]]
[[ko:애플소프트 베이직]]
[[nl:Applesoft BASIC]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Asterix</title>
<id>2101</id>
<revision>
<id>41878007</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T08:31:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Saxifrage</username>
<id>152389</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Revisionist explanations */ copy edit</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article refers to the French cartoon character "Asterix". For the symbol named "Asterisk" and its related uses, see [[Asterisk (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Asterix-Asterix.gif|frame|right|"A shrewd, cunning little warrior; all perilous missions are immediately entrusted to him."]]
'''Asterix''' ([[French language|French]]: '''Astérix''') is a [[fictional character]], created in [[1959]] as the [[hero]] of a [[List of Asterix volumes|series of volumes]] of [[France|French]] [[comic book]]s by [[René Goscinny]] (stories) and [[Albert Uderzo]] (illustrations). Uderzo has continued the series since the death of Goscinny in [[1977]].
The books have been translated into many languages, including dialects and even [[Latin]] and [[Ancient Greek]]. They are probably the most popular [[Franco-Belgian comics|French comic]] in the world, and familiar to people of all ages in most European countries. Asterix is less well known in the [[United States]] and [[Japan]], which both have strong comic book traditions of their own.
The key to the success of the series is that it contains comic elements for all ages: young children like the fist-fights and other visual gags, while adults can appreciate the cleverness of the allusions and [[pun]]s that sparkle throughout the texts.
Note: the names of the characters contain puns, and vary with translation into other languages. This article uses the names from the English-language translations of [[Anthea Bell]] and [[Derek Hockridge]]. For the French names see [[Asterix#Major recurring characters|below]].
Several books have been made into films, mostly animated, some with live actors. See [[List of Asterix films and videogames]].
==Setting and characters==
Asterix lives around [[50 BC]] in a fictional village in northwest [[Armorica]] (a region of ancient [[Gaul]] mostly identical to modern [[Brittany]]). This village is celebrated amongst the Gauls as the only part of that country not yet conquered by [[Julius Caesar]] and his [[Roman legion]]s. The inhabitants of the village gain superhuman strength by drinking a magic [[potion]] prepared by the [[Druidry|druid]] Getafix (French: Panoramix). The village is surrounded by the ocean on one side, and four Roman garrisons on the other, intended to keep a watchful eye and ensure that the Gauls do not get up to mischief.
A recurring plot in many of the Asterix books concerns the attempts by the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]]s to prevent the druid from making the potion, or trying to get the secret recipe for their own use. Such attempts are invariably foiled by the heroes of the books - the agile, clever and pint-sized Asterix and his clumsy, oversized, but extremely strong and good-hearted best friend, [[Obelix]].
The humour encountered in the Asterix comics is typically French, often centring on puns, caricatures, and [[tongue-in-cheek]] [[stereotype]]s of contemporary [[Europe]]an nations and [[List of regions in France|French regions]]. Much of the humour in the initial Asterix books was French-specific, which delayed the translation of the book into other languages for fear of losing the joke and the spirit of the story. Some translations have actually added local humour: in the [[italian language|Italian]] translation, the Roman legionnaires are made to speak in 20th-century Roman slang. The newer albums share a more universal humour, both written and visual.
In spite of (or perhaps because of) this [[stereotyping]] and notwithstanding some alleged streaks of French [[chauvinism]], it has been very well received by European and Francophone cultures around the world.
Allegations of chauvinism are ironic considering that Uderzo is of Italian descent, and Goscinny was of Ukrainian-Polish Jewish descent.
==Humour==
===Stereotypes and allusions===
Everywhere they visit, Asterix and Obelix encounter people and things borrowed and caricatured from 20th century real life. In the early album ''[[Asterix and the Goths]]'', for instance, the [[Goths]] are represented as [[militarism|militaristic]] and regimented, reminiscent of late nineteenth and early twentieth century [[Germany|Germans]]. The helmets worn by these Goths even resemble the German [[Pickelhaube]] helmets worn up to [[World War I]] and one of their leaders bears an uncanny resemblance to [[Otto von Bismarck]]. The [[United Kingdom|British]] are shown as polite and phlegmatic, drinking warm [[beer]] or hot [[water]] with a drop of milk (before the first [[tea]] has been brought to what would become [[England]] by Asterix); they boil all their food and serve it with mint sauce, and they drive their chariots on the wrong side of the road. [[Iberian Peninsula|Spain]] is the cheap country down south where people from the [[Northern Europe|North]] vacation. All the tribes represented are treated humorously as prototypes for their modern counterparts, and many aspects of them are satirised. However, the French are not exempt from satire, and almost all of the peoples Asterix meets are portrayed positively, even the Romans. The only tribe depicted completely unflatteringly is the Goths, possibly a result of the Second World War.
Some caricatures of the traits of certain French regions are also used: the people from [[Normandy]] smother their food in cream and cannot give a straight answer; the people from [[Marseille]] play [[boules]] and exaggerate matters, and [[Corsica]]ns don't like to do any work, are easily angered and have long-standing [[vendetta]]s that they settle violently, and make cheese that smells so bad that it actually becomes an explosive.
Minor characters often resemble famous people or fictional characters, usually caricatures of existing French people of the same era, particularly from television and the spectacles. In ''[[Obelix and Co.]]'', for example, the young Roman bureaucrat is a caricature of a young [[Jacques Chirac]], and it includes two Roman legionaries drawn to the likeness of [[Stan Laurel]] and [[Oliver Hardy]]. In ''[[Asterix and the Falling Sky]]'', the super-clones are a caricature of [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]]. Those characters usually stick out visually, by not having the round, oversized noses otherwise typical of Uderzo's style.
Other side characters allude to people related to the place Asterix is visiting. Notable examples include a very [[Elizabeth Taylor]]-like Cleopatra in ''[[Asterix and Cleopatra]]''; Britain's most famous bards in the story ''[[Asterix in Britain]]'', who are four in number and look remarkably like [[the Beatles]]; a pair of Belgian warriors in ''[[Asterix in Belgium]]'' who resemble and also speak like Thomson and Thompson of [[Tintin]]-fame; and both [[Don Quixote]] and [[Sancho Panza]] are depicted in ''[[Asterix in Spain]]''. More recently, this spoofing has occasionally extended to major characters as well: in ''[[Asterix and the Black Gold]]'', a Roman spy is a young [[Sean Connery]] named Dubbelosix drawn in [[James Bond]] style, and in ''[[Asterix and Obelix All at Sea]]'', the leader of the escaped slaves (named Spartakis, being Greek) is based on [[Kirk Douglas]]' [[Spartacus]]. In ''[[Asterix and the Cauldron]]'', the head of the theatre is Laurensolivius, based on the actor [[Laurence Olivier]].
The stories also feature allusions to major artisti |
mpt to send mail to other systems.
'''BBS software''' was used to interact with human callers to the system. BBS software would allow dial-in users to use the system's message bases and write mail to others, locally or on other BBS's. Mail directed to other BBS's would later be routed and sent by the mailer, usually after the user had finished using the system. BBS's would often allow users to exchange files, play games, and interact with other users in a variety of ways.
A '''scanner/tosser''' application, such as [[Squish (fidonet)|Squish]], would normally be invoked when a BBS user had entered a new fidonet message that needed to be sent, or when a mailer had received new mail to be imported into the local messages bases. This application would be responsible for handling the packaging of incoming and outgoing mail, moving it between the local system's message bases and the mailer's inbound and outbound directories. The scanner/tosser application would generally be responsible for basic routing information, determining which systems to forward mail to.
In later times, '''message readers''' that were independent of BBS software were also developed. Often the System Operator of a particular BBS would use a devoted message reader, rather than the BBS software itself, to read and write FidoNet and related messages. In some cases FidoNet nodes, or more often FidoNet points, ''had'' no public bulletin board attached, and existed only for the transfer of mail for the benefit of the node's operator.
The original ''Fido BBS'' software, and much other original fidonet-supporting software, is no longer functional on modern systems. This is for several reasons, including problems related to the [[Y2K bug]]. In many cases, the original authors have left the [[Bulletin board system|BBS]] or [[shareware]] community, and the software, much of which was [[closed source]], has been rendered [[abandonware]]. Alternative software had been designed to be [[interoperable]] with the same [[standardization|standards]], however, and thus the network is still accessible.
== Disputes ==
Recently, as the size and extent of FidoNet has dwindled, disputes have arisen within the remaining membership, including its Coordinator infrastructure having become fragmented at the higher levels. This has, in the most part, been due to disputes resulting from the actions of the Z2C, former IC located in Zone 2 (Europe).
One particular dispute arose in 2004 when [[Ward Dossche]], then International Coordinator (IC) as well as the Zone 2 Coordinator, refused to acknowledge a vote by other Zone Coordinators to hold an election for a new IC, thus replacing him with Malcom Miles, at that time the Zone 3 Coordinator. Dossche argued, to no avail, that because 89% of FidoNet nodes were within Zone 2, his own vote should be worth 89% of the collective and therefore decisive over the other five coordinators.
Since FidoNet's Zone Coordinators acting as a Council ([[ZCC]]), per Fidonet's '''Policy 4.07''', always have the last say in any controversial disputes; Ward Dossche' declaration appointing himself IC of Fidonet was summarily overruled and he was replaced as IC by a 5 to 1 vote of the ZC's. Meanwhile the other 5 Zones recognize Malcom Miles, Z3C as the newly Elected International Coordinator.
FIDONEWS. the official publication for the network has been edited by various people in various contries. The current editor is under increasing pressure to resign and appoint a replacement, as the publication seldom has new content and the current editor appears to discourage participation and submissions from Zone 1. See links below for documentation by one participant
== FidoNet availability ==
While the use of Fidonet has dropped dramatically compared with its use up to the mid-1990s, it is still particularly popular in [[Russia]]. Some BBS's, including those that are now available for users with [[Internet]] connections via [[telnet]], also retain their Fidonet netmail and echomail feeds.
Some of FidoNet's echomail conferences are available via gateways with the Usenet news hierarchy. There are also mail gates for exchanging messages between Internet and FidoNet. Widespread net abuse and [[e-mail spam]] on the Internet side has caused some gateways (such as the former 1:1/31 [[IEEE]] fidonet.org gateway) to become unusable or cease operation entirely.
== See also ==
*[[FidoNews]]
*[[UUCP]]
==External links==
* [http://www.fidonet.org/ International FidoNet Home Page]
* [http://www.fidonet.us/ Alternate Fidonet Home Page]
* [http://www.fidonet.ro/ Fidonet Parody Page]
* [http://www.wps.com/ Tom Jennings' homepage-Fidonet founder]
* [http://www.fidotel.com/fidonews FidoNews, a weekly newsletter]
* [http://www.fidonet.us/neweditor.html Time for a new Fidonews Editor?]
* [http://www.ftsc.org/ FidoNet Technical Standards Committee Home Page]
* [http://fidonet.sensationcontent.com/ FidoNet Echomail Archive]
* [http://www.tlchost.net/echolist/ International Echolist Home Page]
* [http://www.fidonet.us/fidoring/sitelist.html Fidonet WebRing]
* [http://f75.n5004.z2.fidonet.net/ IP-only 2:5004/75 fidonet node site. Points wanted]
* [http://conecta2.thebbs.org/pucela_bbs/ FidoNet and BBS's in Spanish (Spain, Argentina, Mexico, ...)]
* [http://www.fidonet.ph/ Fidonet Philippines]
* [http://livejournal.com/~fidonet/66544.html Fidonet URL list]
[[Category:Bulletin board systems]]
[[Category:Computer networks]]
[[Category:FidoNet|*]]
[[da:FidoNet]]
[[de:FidoNet]]
[[es:FidoNet]]
[[it:FidoNet]]
[[lt:Fidonet]]
[[hu:FidoNet]]
[[nl:FidoNet]]
[[pl:Fidonet]]
[[pt:Fidonet]]
[[ru:Фидонет]]
[[fi:FidoNet]]
[[zh:FidoNet]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Film formats</title>
<id>11443</id>
<revision>
<id>15909188</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-29T16:47:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Brion VIBBER</username>
<id>51</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>De-pluralized</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Film format]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Falsification</title>
<id>11444</id>
<revision>
<id>22946435</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-10T01:20:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ceyockey</username>
<id>150564</id>
</contributor>
<comment>brutally slashed article down to its disambiguation roots</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Falsification''' may mean:
*the act of proving that a theory has the property of [[falsifiability]]
*[[Forgery]], the act of producing something that lacks authenticity with the intent to commit fraud or deception
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fatherland</title>
<id>11445</id>
<revision>
<id>40677031</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T05:55:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Deltabeignet</username>
<id>195366</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rm POV tag, as complaints seem to have been answered</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''Alternative meanings:'' [[Fatherland (novel)|Fatherland ''(novel)]].'' Fatherland movie directed by [[Ken Loach]]
'''Fatherland''' is the nation of one's "fathers" or "forefathers." It can be viewed as a [[nationalism|nationalist]] concept, insofar as it relates to nations. (Compare to [[motherland]] and [[homeland]].)
Groups that refer to their native country as a "fatherland" (or rather, translations of this English word in their languages), or, arguably, associate it primarily with paternal concepts include:
* [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], [[Italians]], [[Spaniard]]s, and [[Latin America]]ns as ''Patria'', the rootword for [[patriotism]].
* the French, as ''Patrie'' (as in the [[national anthem]] [[la Marseillaise]])
* the [[Greeks]] as ''patrida''
* the [[Armenians]], as ''Hayrenik'' (as in the national anthem [[Mer Hayrenik]])
* the [[Poland|Poles]], as ''Ojczyzna'' (but there is also ''macierz'', that is ''Motherland'', although it is seldom used)
* the [[Germany|Germans]], as ''das Vaterland'' (as in the national anthem [[Das Lied der Deutschen]])
* the [[Netherlands|Dutch]], as ''Vaderland''
* the [[Kazakhs]] as ''atameken''
* the [[Russia|Russians]], as ''Otechestvo'' or ''Otchizna'', although ''Rodina'', that is ''Motherland'', is more common.
* the [[Serbs]] as ''otadzbina''
* the [[Danes]] as ''fædreland''
* the [[Finns]] as ''isänmaa''
* the [[Lithuanians]] as ''tėvynė''
* the [[Frisians]] as ''heitelân''
* the [[Czechs]] as ''otčina''
* the [[Swedes]] as ''fäderneslandet''
Note for German, however, that "''das''" is grammatically neuter since the German word "''Land''" is neuter." ''Die Heimat'' (the homeland) is grammatically feminine. ''Vaterland'' has been used since the 12th century with the meaning "native country". An adjective ''vaterländisch'' has been used since the 18th century, meaning something like patriotic or nationalistic. ''Mutterland'' ([[motherland]]) means a mother country in contrast to its colonies.
==See also:==
* [[national anthem]]
==External links==
*[http://www.caucasus.dk/chapter2.htm#_Toc448816639 Nationalism and Ethnicity - A Theoretical Overview]
*[http://www.pganuszko.freeuk.com/dissertation/begin.htm The problem of German identity...]
*[http://www.mises.org/nsande/pt1iich1.asp Nation, State, and Economy: The Nationality Principle in Politics: Liberal or Pacifistic Nationalism, Ludwig von Mises]
*[http://www.friesian.com/history/anthems.htm National anthems] ("Allons enfants de la Patrie", "Bl&uuml;he, deutsches Vaterland")<br>
*[http://www.germanlife.com/Archives/1998/9808_02.html Origins of the German State, Robert Selig, German Life]
[[Category:Nationalism]]
[[de:Vaterland]]
[[pl:Ojczyza]]
[[fi:Isänmaa]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Friedrich V</title>
< |
assumes the throne under his identity while the real king leads a bawdy life as Lurkalot (cf '''''Blackadder the Third''''').
Most strikingly, the fourth and final ''Up ...'' film, ''Up the Front'', sees Howerd's character reborn as 'Private Lurk' and fighting in the [[First World War]] (cf '''''Blackadder Goes Forth''''').
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{imdb title|id=0084988|title=The Black Adder (1983)}}
* {{imdb title|id=0088484|title=Blackadder II (1986)}}
* {{imdb title|id=0092324|title=Blackadder the Third (1987)}}
* {{imdb title|id=0137390|title=Blackadder: The Cavalier Years (1988)}}
* {{imdb title|id=0094754|title=Blackadder's Christmas Carol (1988)}}
* {{imdb title|id=0096548|title=Blackadder Goes Forth (1989)}}
* {{imdb title|id=0212579|title=Blackadder: Back & Forth (1999)}}
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/comedy/blackadder/ BBC Comedy: Black Adder 1485–1917]
* [http://www.episodeworld.com/show/Black_Adder Black Adder] at EPisodeWorld.com
* [http://www.blackadderhall.com/ Blackadder Hall]
* [http://www.sitcom.co.uk/blackadder/ British Sitcom Guide]
* [http://s3.invisionfree.com/ProDeoEtRege/index.php 'The Blackadder Society' Forum] (transcripts)
* {{dmoz|Regional/Europe/United_Kingdom/Arts_and_Entertainment/Television/Programmes/Comedy/Blackadder/|{{PAGENAME}}}}
* [http://blackadder.powertie.org/ Powertie: A Blackadder Reference Site]
* [http://www.tvtome.com/BlackAdder/ TV Tome: Blackadder]
* [http://www.howardgoodall.co.uk/tvthemes/Blackadder.htm Lyrics and music] for the theme song on the composer's web site
* [http://www.lunaestas.com/blackadder Queenie's Cunning Page], a fan site
* [http://booksmusicfilmstv.com/Comedy/Blackadder.htm Blackadder - An Appreciation]
[[Category:British television sitcoms|Blackadder]]
[[Category:BBC television programmes]]
[[Category:Blackadder]]
[[Category:Shakespeare on film]]
[[de:Blackadder]]
[[he:הפתן השחור]]
[[nl:Blackadder]]
[[nn:Svarte Orm]]
[[pl:Czarna Żmija (serial)]]
[[fi:Musta kyy]]
[[sv:Svarte Orm]]
{{featured article}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Boii</title>
<id>4327</id>
<revision>
<id>41543349</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T01:27:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JLaTondre</username>
<id>394292</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* References */ fix category</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Map Gaul.gif|thumb|A map of [[Gaul]] showing the relative position of the [[Boii]] tribe.]]
'''Boii''' is the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] name of three ancient [[Celtic tribes]], living in Transalpine [[Gaul]] (modern [[France]]), [[Cisalpine Gaul]] (northern [[Italy]]), and [[Bohemia]], [[Moravia]] and western [[Slovakia]]. The [[Europe]]an region of Bohemia owes its name to the Boii.
Historians in the [[19th century|19th]] and earlier [[20th century|20th centuries]] also sometimes linked the Boii to the origins of the [[Bavarian]]s (Lat. ''Baioari''), although that particular link is seldom accepted today.
Despite the derivation of the name, the ancient Boii should neither be confused with the present-day inhabitants of what it now the state of [[Bavaria]] in [[Germany]], nor with those of Bohemia in the [[Czech Republic]]. An argument can be made for an early intermixing with [[Etruscans]] from [[Italy]]; however, the same argument can also be made for the [[Celt]]ic tribes in any area they inhabited.
Sometime between [[205 BC|205]] and [[184 BC]], T. Maccius [[Plautus]] refers to the Boii in his work, ''[[Captivi]]'':
:But now he is not a [[Sicilian]] — he is a Boian; he has got a Boian woman.
Another reference to Boii is dated sometime between [[100 BC|100]] and [[44 BC]], when [[Julius Caesar]] refers to the Boii in his work, ''[[De Bello Gallico]]''. written c. 50 BC:
:They persuade the [[Rauraci]], and the [[Tulingi]], and the [[Latobrigi]], their neighbours, to adopt the same plan, and after burning down their towns and villages, to set out with them: and they admit to their party and unite to themselves as confederates the Boii, who had dwelt on the other side of the [[Rhine]], and had crossed over into the Norican territory, and assaulted [[Noreia]].
It seems quite clear that Caesar here refers to the historic [[Cimbrian War]] of c. 115 - 101 BC, during which the Cimbri and Teutones attacked the Roman frontier. The [[Cimbri]] were led by the king [[Boiorix]] whose name means "King of the Boii". Thus it appears we are dealing with a confederation of the Cimbri and Boii led by the Boii King as over lord. That the Boii survived until the time of Caesar (50 years after the Cimbrian War) indicates that, perhaps, the Roman propaganda of their crushing defeat against the barbarians may be overstated. The inferred motive is clear: Roman propaganda would not allow the barbarians to inflict two crushing defeats on their forces without returning the favor.
Sometime between [[59 BC]] and AD [[17]], in volume 21 of his work ''[[Ab Urbe Condita (book)|Ab Urbe Condita]]'', [[Livy]] says that it was a Boii that offered to show [[Hannibal]] the way across the [[Alps]].
:When, after the action had thus occurred, his own men returned to each general, [[Publius Cornelius Scipio | Scipio]] could adopt no fixed plan of proceeding, except that he should form his measures from the plans and undertakings of the enemy: and Hannibal, uncertain whether he should pursue the march he had commenced into [[Italy]], or fight with the Roman army which had first presented itself, the arrival of ambassadors from the Boii, and of a petty prince called [[Magalus]], diverted from an immediate engagement; who, declaring that they would be the guides of his journey and the companions of his dangers, gave it as their opinion, that Italy ought to be attacked with the entire force of the war, his strength having been no where previously impaired.
==References==
*T. Maccius Plautus, The ''Captiva'' and the ''Mostellaria'', as published by Project Gutenberg, as published [[1 January]] [[2005]] (EBook #7282) http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/7282 Accessed [[29 January]] [[2005]].
*Caius Julius Caesar, ''De Bello Gallico'' and Other Commentaries, as published by Project Gutenberg, [[9 January]] [[2004]] (EBook #10657) http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/10657 Accessed [[29 January]] [[2005]].
*Titus Livius, ''The History of Rome; Books Nine to Twenty-Six'', as published by Project Gutenberg, [[1 February]] [[2004]] (eBook #10907) http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/10907 Accessed [[31 January]] [[2005]].
*http://www.ualberta.ca/~kmacfarl/CLASS_355/9.LivyI.html. ''Says Livy wrote his famous work over 45 years from c. 29 BC - 17 AD.''
[[Category:Ancient Gauls]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]]
[[br:Boied]]
[[cs:Bojové]]
[[de:Boier]]
[[fr:Boïens]]
[[it:Boi]]
[[la:Boii]]
[[nl:Boii]]
[[ru:Бойи]]
[[fi:Boijit]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Boehmen</title>
<id>4328</id>
<revision>
<id>15902603</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-31T20:18:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>removed old article fragment</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bohemia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Backgammon</title>
<id>4329</id>
<revision>
<id>42016222</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T06:02:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.107.103.17</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */ Spammer at bkgm.org altered link - fixed</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!--Please do not add advertising links to this page. They will be deleted immediately. Wikipedia does not advertise commercial websites. Thank you.-->[[Image:Backgammon_board.jpg|right|thumb|230px|Close-up of modern backgammon set.]]
[[Image:Backgammon-set from American civil war.jpeg|right|thumb|230px|Backgammon set, 19th century]]
'''Backgammon''' is a [[board game]] for two players. Each player has fifteen pieces (''checkers'' or ''men'') which move between twenty-four triangles (''points'') according to the roll of two dice. The objective of the game is to be first to ''bear off'', that is, to move all fifteen checkers off the board.
==History==
Backgammon is the oldest known recorded game. Traditionally, it was believed to have originated in ancient [[Egypt]], [[Sumeria]], or [[Mesopotamia]] in the [[Persian empire]] (present-day [[Iran]]). However, more recent conclusive evidence indicates that the game originated on the eastern borders of Iran, near Afghanistan.<small>[http://www.chn.ir/en/news/?id=4212&section=2 (e.g.)]</small> The Iranian chancellor and thinker of the [[Sassanid Empire]] [[Bozorgmehr]] is said to have created the ancient version of the game. In English, the word backgammon is believed to be derived from "back" plus the Middle English word "gamen" (game).
[[Tabula]] was a form of backgammon played by the ancient Romans. It was called tabula, which means 'table' or 'board', since it was played on a special board. Tabula bears some similarity to Egyptian [[Senet]], which dates back to at least 3000 BC.
The game of [[Tabula]] was similar to modern-day Backgammon in that the same board was used with fifteen pieces alloted to each player with the object of the game being to be the first to bear off all fifteen pieces. It differed in that the game began with no pieces on the board so that these first had to be entered by the roll of the dice. Likewise, three dice were used instead of two. Finally, both players entered the board from the same table and moved around the board in the same counterclockwise direction.
==Rules==
Backgammon is a simple game with deep strategic elements. It does not take long to learn to play, although obscure situatio |
on.{{fact}}
* '''[[Postpartum depression]]''' (also known as ''postnatal depression'') &ndash; About ten percent of new mothers experience some form of depression after childbirth.{{fact}} When it occurs, the onset is typically within three months after delivery, and it may last for several months. About two new mothers out of a thousand have depression so severe it includes [[hallucination]]s or [[delusion]]s.
* '''Living with a depressed person''' &ndash; Those living with someone suffering from depression experience increased [[anxiety]], and life disruption, increasing the possibility of also becoming depressed.
* '''Social environment''' &ndash; [[Evolution|Evolutionary theory]] suggests that depression is a protective mechanism: if an individual is involved in a lengthy fight for dominance of a social group and is clearly losing, depression causes the individual to back down and accept the submissive role. In doing so, the individual is protected from unnecessary harm. In this way, depression maintains the social hierarchy.
* '''Other evolutionary theories''' &ndash; Another evolutionary theory is that the cognitive response that produces modern day depression evolved as a mechanism that allows people to assess whether they are in pursuit of an unreachable goal. Still others claim that depression can be linked to [[Perfectionism (psychology)|perfectionism]]. People that accept satisfactory outcomes [[in lieu]] of "the best" outcome tend to lead happier lives. {{fact}}
== Treatment ==
[[depression treatment|Treatment of depression]] varies broadly, and is different for each individual. Various types and combinations of treatments may have to be tried. There are two primary modes of treatment, typically employed in conjunction with one another: [[medication]] and [[psychotherapy]]. A third treatment, [[electro-convulsive therapy]] (ECT) may be used where chemical treatment fails.
Other alternative treatments used for depression include exercise and the use of vitamins, herbs, or other nutritional supplements.
The effectiveness of treatment often depends on factors such as the amount of optimism and hope the sufferer is able to maintain, the control s/he has over stressors, the severity of symptoms, the amount of time the sufferer has been depressed, the results of previous treatments, and the degree of support of family, friends, and significant others.
While treatment is generally effective, there are some cases where the condition fails to respond. Treatment-resistant depression requires a full assessment which may lead to the addition of psychotherapy, higher medication doses, changes of medication or combination therapy, a trial of [[ECT]]/electroshock, or even a change in the diagnosis with subsequent treatment changes. Although this process helps many, some people's symptoms continue unabated.
In emergency situations with suicidal persons, [[psychiatric hospital|psychiatric hospitalization]] is used simply to keep suicidal people safe until they cease to be dangers to themselves. Another treatment program is [[partial hospitalization]], in which the patient sleeps at home but spends the day, either five or seven days a week, in a psychiatric hospital setting in intense treatment. This treatment usually involves [[group therapy]], [[psychotherapy|individual therapy]], [[psychopharmacology]], and academics (in child and adolescent programs).
=== Medication ===
Medication which relieves the symptoms of depression has been available for several decades. These drugs are listed in order of historical development. Typical first line therapy for depression is the use of an SSRI type drug, such as [[sertraline]] (Zoloft).
''[[Monoamine oxidase inhibitor]]s'' (MAOIs) such as Nardil may be used if other antidepressant medications are ineffective. Because there are potenially fatal interactions between this class of medication and certain foods and drugs, they are rarely prescribed anymore. A new MAOI has recently been introduced. [[Moclobemide]] (Manerix), known as a [[reversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase A]] (RIMA), follows a very specific chemical pathway and does not require a special diet.
''[[Tricyclic antidepressant]]s'' are the oldest, and include such medications as [[amitriptyline]] and [[desipramine]]. They are used less commonly now, due to side-effects which may include increased [[heart]] rate, drowsiness, dry mouth, and [[memory]] impairment. Most importantly, they have a high potential to be lethal in moderate overdose. The reason why tricyclic antidepressants are still used is their high potency, especially in severe cases of clinical depression.
''[[Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor]]s'' (SSRIs) comprise the current standard family of antidepressants. It is thought that one cause of depression is that an inadequate amount of [[serotonin]], a chemical which the brain uses to transmit signals between nerve cells, is produced. These drugs are said to work by preventing the reabsorption of serotonin by the nerve cell, thus maintaining the levels the brain needs to function effectively, although two researchers recently demonstrated that this is a marketing technique rather than a scientific portrayal of how the drugs actually work. [http://medicine.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0020392]. Recent research indicates that these drugs may interact with transcription factors known as "clock genes"[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15994025&query_hl=24] that may be important for the addictive properties of drugs of abuse and possibly in obesity[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16094306&query_hl=27][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16288309&query_hl=24].
This family of drugs includes [[fluoxetine]] (Prozac), [[paroxetine]] (Paxil), [[escitalopram]] (Lexapro), and [[sertraline]] (Zoloft). These antidepressants typically have fewer adverse side effects than the tricyclics or the MAOIs, though such effects as drowsiness, dry mouth, and decreased ability to function sexually may occur.
''[[Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor]]s'' such as [[reboxetine]] (Edronax) act via [[norepinephrine]] (Also known as ''noradrenaline''). NeRIs are thought to have a positive effect on concentration and motivation in particular.
''[[Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor]]s'' (SNRIs) such as [[venlafaxine]] (Effexor) and [[duloxetine]] (Cymbalta) are a newer form of anti-depressant which work both on noradrenaline and on serotonin. They typically have similar side-effects to the SSRIs although there may be a withdrawal syndrome on discontinuation which may require a tapering of the dose.
On [[28 February]] [[2006]], the [[United States]] [[Food and Drug Administration]] approved Emsam, a [[transdermal patch|transdermal]] MAOI patch developed by the [[Great Britain|British]] company Somerset Pharmaceuticals, to be marketed in the U.S. by [[Bristol-Myers Squibb]] [http://today.reuters.co.uk/news/newsArticle.aspx?type=healthNews&storyID=2006-02-28T215305Z_01_WEN1717_RTRIDST_0_HEALTH-DEPRESSION-DC.XML&archived=False].
==== Dietary supplements ====
''[[5-HTP]]'' supplements are claimed to provide more raw material to the body's natural serotonin production process. There is a reasonable indication that 5-HTP may not be effective for those who haven't already responded well to an SSRI.
''[[S-adenosyl methionine]]'' (SAM-e) is a derivative of the amino acid [[methionine]] that is found throughout the human body, where it acts as a methyl donor and participates in other biochemical reactions. It is available as a prescription antidepressant in Europe, and an over-the-counter dietary supplement in the United States. Clinical trials have shown SAM-e to be as effective as standard antidepressant medication, with many fewer side effects.{{ref|oldref_2}},{{ref|oldref_3}} Its mode of action is unknown.
''[[Omega-3 fatty acids]]'' (found naturally in [[oily fish]], [[flax seed|flax seeds]], [[hemp|hemp seeds]], [[walnut|walnuts]], [[canola oil]] etc.) have also been found to be effective while used as a dietary supplement (although only fish-based omega-3 fatty acids have shown anti-depressant efficacity) [http://www.mcmanweb.com/article-15.htm].
''[[Magnesium]]'' has gathered some attention [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15567428][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15577090].
====Essential nutrients====
''[[Zinc]]'', an optimal level of which has had an antidepressant effect in studies [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16491668][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16382189].
==== Augmentor drugs ====
Some antidepressants have been found to work more effectively in some patients when used in combination with another drug. Such "augmentor" drugs include [[tryptophan]] (Tryptan) and [[buspirone]] (Buspar).
''[[Tranquillizer]]s and [[sedative]]s'', typically the [[benzodiazepine]]s, may be prescribed to ease anxiety and promote sleep. Because of their high potential for fostering dependence, these medications are intended only for short-term or occasional use. Medications are often employed not for their primary function, but to exploit what are normally [[side effect]]s. [[Quetiapine]] fumarate (Seroquel) is designed primarily to treat [[schizophrenia]] and bipolar disorder, but a frequently-reported side-effect is [[somnolence]]. Hence, this non-addictive drug can be used in place of an addic |
m every four years since mid-career), and has cemented their position as one of the most popular recording and live performance artists of all time.
Also in 2006, they have announced that their upcoming single release "Suffer Well" will also be sung in Simlish as it is featured on The Sims 2 "Open For Business" PC game soundtrack along with accompanying video (the group featured as Sims). Of course, the conventional video and single will be done in English. They join other 80's Techno stars, Kajagoogoo and Howard Jones in the PC game as musical contributors with their performances in Simlish.
===Live supporting musicians===
*Hildia Campbell (Backing [[vocals|vocals]], 1993 - 1994)
*Samantha Smith (Backing [[vocals|vocals]], 1993 - 1994)
*[[Daryl Bamonte]] ([[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], 1994)
*Dave Clayton ([[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], 1997)
*[[Christian Eigner]] ([[drums]], recent songwriting, 1997 - present)
*[[Peter Gordeno]] ([[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], occasional [[bass guitar|bass]], 1998 - present)
*Jordan Bailey (Backing [[vocals|vocals]], 1998 - 2001)
*Janet Ramus (Backing [[vocals|vocals]], 1998)
*Georgia Lewis (Backing [[vocals|vocals]], 2001)
==Discography==
:Main article: ''[[Depeche Mode discography]]''
[[Image:DepecheModeSOFADera.jpg|frame|right|The band members of Depeche Mode, circa 1993]]
==See also==
* [[Depeche Mode Tours]]
* [[:Category:Depeche Mode videos|Depeche Mode videos]]
* [[Martin Gore#Depeche Mode songs with Martin on lead vocals|Depeche Mode songs with Martin Gore on lead vocals]]
* [[List of Rock Instrumentals#Depeche Mode|Depeche Mode instrumentals]]
* [[Best selling music artists]] - World's top selling music artists chart.
*[[List of number-one dance hits (United States)]]
*[[List of artists who reached number one on the US Dance chart]]
== References ==
* [http://www.depechemode.com/ The official Depeche Mode website]
* [http://www.depeche-mode.com/ Empty World 3]
* [http://www.depechemodeforum.com/ depechemodeforum.com]
* [http://www.clipland.com/Search?Where=mvd-all&What=depeche+mode List of Music Videos]
== External links ==
* [http://www.depechemode.com/ The official Depeche Mode website]
* [http://www.davegahan.com/ Dave Gahan's ''Paper Monsters'' website]
* [http://www.martingore.com/ Martin Gore's ''Counterfeit²'' website]
* [http://archives.depechemode.com/lyrics/ Depeche Mode lyrics]
* [http://www.depechemode.sk/ Depeche Mode Sk/Cz - A Slovak Depeche Mode website]
* [http://www.depechemodeforum.com/ depechemodeforum.com, the international fanforum]
* [http://www.modefan.com/ modefan.com - for the fans, by the fans]
* [http://www.depechemode.gr/ Official Greek website]
* [http://www.depechemode.de/ Official German website]
* [http://depechemode.extra.hu/ DeMo (Hungarian Depeche Mode archives - English/Magyar)]
* [http://www.violator.it/ 'violator dot it' Depeche Mode Website for excited devotes]
* [http://www.depeche-mode.ru/ Unofficial Russian Depeche Mode Site]
* [http://www.depechemode.ru/ Some Great Pages / Russian Depeche Mode Site]
* [http://www.depechemode.ro/ Depeche Mode Romania - Fan Club For The Masses]
* [http://www.depechemode.dk/ Fan Danish Depeche Mode site]
* [http://music-city.org/discography.php?artist=Depeche+Mode General information about Depeche Mode music, news and forum]
* [http://www.depmod.com/ depmod.com The Most comprehensive DM discography on the net, with collector's forum]
* [http://www.sacreddm.net/ Sacred DM - the online Depeche Mode archive (400+ articles and interviews 1981- )]
* [http://www.hellenicviolation.tk/ Hellenic Violation ◊ A Greek Depeche Mode site]
* [http://www.depeche-mode.com/ Empty World 3]
* [http://www.depeche-mode.org/ Bulgarian Depeche Mode Fan Site]
* [http://www.depechemodeitalia.com/ Depeche Mode Italian Fansite]
* [http://www.devotional.tk/ Greek Depeche Mode tribute]
* [http://www.depechemode.cz/ Czech Depeche mode website]
* [http://www.depeche-mode-world.de/ depeche-mode-world.de]
* [http://www.my-personal-mode.com/ Personal Depeche Mode > a malaysian violation]
* [http://dmoz.org/Arts/Music/Bands_and_Artists/D/Depeche_Mode/ DMoz.org category on Depeche Mode]
* [http://depeche-mode.ru/index.php?chapter=band&topic=history The band history in Russian]
* [http://www.erasure.se/Depechemode - A Swedish Fan Site!]
* [http://www.depechemode.pl - DMPL - Depeche Mode Website from Poland]
* [http://www.depechemode.tv/ Depechemode.tv - The Blackest Celebration on the Planet]
* [http://www.depechemodetr.com/ Depeche Mode Türkiye / Turkish Depeche Mode Portal]
* [http://www.playingtheangel.com/ Playing The Angel dot com - Depeche Mode collaborative Fan site - reviews, data bank articles and more]
* [http://forum.modecelebration.com/ Modecelebration - Depeche Mode french forum]
* [http://www.depechemode-forum.pl/ Polskie Forum Depeche Mode / Polish Depeche Mode Fans Forum]
* [http://www.fanseiten.biz/Musik/Bands-Interpreten/Depeche_Mode/ Directory with German Fansites about Depeche Mode]
* [http://www.depechemode.lv/ Latvian Depeche Mode Fan Site]
[[Category:Rock music groups]]
[[Category:Electronic music groups]]
[[Category:Goth]]
[[Category:House music groups]]
[[Category:Rhythmic Top 40 acts|Depeche Mode]]
[[Category:Alternative musical groups]]
[[Category:New Wave groups]]
[[Category:Synth pop]]
[[Category:Synth rock]]
[[Category:Post-punk]]
[[Category:English musical groups]]
[[Category:1980s music groups]]
[[Category:1990s music groups]]
[[Category:2000s music groups]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Discordian</title>
<id>8535</id>
<revision>
<id>15906519</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Discordianism]]
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<page>
<title>Differential cryptanalysis</title>
<id>8536</id>
<revision>
<id>36631552</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-25T11:50:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Matt Crypto</username>
<id>50457</id>
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<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.199.202.97|203.199.202.97]] ([[User talk:203.199.202.97|talk]]) to last version by Matt Crypto</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Differential cryptanalysis''' is a general form of [[cryptanalysis]] applicable primarily to [[block cipher]]s, but also to [[stream cipher]]s and [[cryptographic hash function]]s. In the broadest sense, it is the study of how differences in an [[input]] can affect the resultant difference at the [[output]]. In the case of a block cipher, it refers to a set of techniques for tracing differences through the network of transformations, discovering where the [[cipher]] exhibits non-[[randomness|random]] behaviour, and exploiting such properties to recover the secret [[key (cryptography)|key]].
==Origins of differential cryptanalysis==
The discovery of differential cryptanalysis is generally attributed to [[Eli Biham]] and [[Adi Shamir]] in the late [[1980]]s, who published a number of attacks against various block ciphers and hash functions, including a theoretical weakness in the [[Data Encryption Standard]] (DES). It was noted that DES is surprisingly resilient to differential cryptanalysis, in the sense that even small modifications make it much more susceptible; this suggested that the designers at [[IBM]] knew of this in the [[1970s]]. Indeed, parties involved in the creation of [[Data Encryption Standard]] have since admitted that defending against differential cryptanalysis was a design goal ([[Don Coppersmith]], 1994). It would appear that the [[National Security Agency]] (NSA), who also had some input into the design, were well aware of the technique before its rediscovery at IBM, and did not want the attack to become public knowledge; this was the reason the design process was kept secret. Within IBM, differential cryptanalysis was known as the "T-attack", or "Tickling attack" [http://groups.google.com/groups?selm=4v0jrv%24kf%40ground.cs.columbia.edu].
While DES was designed with resistance to differential cryptanalysis in mind, other contemporary ciphers proved to be vulnerable. An early target for the attack was the [[FEAL]] block cipher. The original proposed version with four rounds (FEAL-4) can be broken using only eight [[Chosen-plaintext attack|chosen plaintext]]s, and even a 31-round version of FEAL is susceptible to the attack.
==A description of the attack==
Differential cryptanalysis is usually a [[chosen plaintext attack]], meaning that the attacker must be able to obtain encrypted [[Encryption|ciphertext]]s for some set of [[plaintext]]s of his choosing. The scheme can successfully cryptanalyze DES with an effort on the order 2<sup>47</sup> chosen plaintexts. There are, however, extensions that would allow a [[known plaintext attack|known plaintext]] or even a [[ciphertext-only attack]]. The basic method uses pairs of plaintext related by a constant ''difference''; [[Subtraction|difference]] can be defined in several ways, but the [[Exclusive or|eXclusive OR (XOR)]] operation is usual. The attacker then computes the differences of the corresponding ciphertexts, hoping to detect statistical patterns in their distribution. In the basic attack, one particular ciphertext difference is expected to be especially frequent; in this |
near most modern cities. As well as reducing travel times, the ease of driving on them reduces accident rates, though the speeds involved also tend to increase the severity and death rate of the [[Collision#Traffic|collision]]s (or [[crash]]es) that do still happen.
===Frontage roads===
[[Image:I-80 Eastshore Fwy.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Interstate 80]] is a major urban freeway in the [[San Francisco Bay Area]] (seen here near [[Berkeley, California]]). The frontage road on the far right typically becomes just as congested as the main freeway.]]
Because abutters do not have the right of access that they would have for an ordinary public road, the authority undertaking construction of a freeway is frequently required to provide alternate means of access to those landowners. This is frequently accomplished, in areas lacking a dense surface street network, by construction of two uncontrolled roads parallel to and on either side of the freeway, known as [[frontage road]]s. These often are designed with one-way traffic flow, but not always.
In [[Texas]], where this pattern is perhaps at its zenith, such roads are frequently constructed in anticipation of a future freeway corridor, as many as ten years in advance, in order to influence development patterns on the adjoining land. Frontage roads are also often constructed in more densely-developed areas as a means to provide convenient direct access to and from the parallel freeway while minimizing the need for interchanges at every major cross street. However, some traffic studies have indicated that this particular type of access and the development that ensues generally causes significant traffic congestion and disrupts flows along major freeways. These studies prompted concern for TxDOT, which formally adopted a major shift in frontage road [http://www.abilenetx.com/comp/www.abilenecompplan.com/abilene_comp/documentframeset3fcd.html?docname=http://www.abilenecompplan.com:80/abilene_comp/docs/FrontageRoad.pdf policy] (2002) by stating that ''no new frontage roads will be built along any proposed limited-access freeways'', thus ending a long-standing pattern of freeway-induced development in Texas. Access issues will continue to be assessed on a local basis, and frontage roads could still be constructed if warranted by traffic studies.
===Collector lanes===
[[Image:401atDVP.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Highway 401]] through the [[Greater Toronto Area]] uses a collector-express system to divide traffic.]]
The successor to frontage/service roads in urban freeways is the [[Local lane|collector-express]] system; the lanes accessing (often closely-spaced) interchange ramps are known as [[collector/distributor road]]s. Newer suburban freeways are designed with interchanges spaced far apart such that neither service roads or collector lanes are needed.
== History ==
The concept of limited-access automobile highways dates back to the [[New York City]] area [[Parkway]] system, which began to be constructed in [[1907]]&ndash;[[1908]]. Designers elsewhere also researched these ideas, especially in [[Germany]], where the [[Autobahn]] became the first national freeway system.
The term "freeway" first surfaced in the mid-1930s in proposals for the improvement of the New York City parkway network{{ref|yordan}}{{ref|bernstein}}. However, the first true freeway in the United States is generally considered to be the [[Pennsylvania Turnpike]], which opened on [[October 1]], [[1940]]. The Turnpike was so advanced for its time that tourists even had picnics in the median (that is, after it was already open to traffic) and local [[entrepreneur]]s did a brisk business in souvenirs{{ref|patton}}. It was designed so that straightaways could handle maximum speeds of 102 miles per hour, and curves could be taken as fast as 90.
Shortly thereafter, on [[December 30]], [[1940]], [[California]] opened its first freeway, the [[Arroyo Seco Parkway]] (now called the Pasadena Freeway) which connected [[Pasadena, California|Pasadena]] with [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]. And in 1944, [[Michigan]] opened its first freeway, the [[Davison Freeway]], within [[Detroit]]. Meanwhile, traffic in Los Angeles continued to deteriorate and local officials began planning the huge freeway network for which the city is now famous{{ref|hill}}.
Today, many freeways in the United States belong to the extensive [[Interstate highway]] system (most of which was completed between 1960 and 1990). Almost all interstates are freeways, but the earlier [[United States highway]] system and the highway systems of [[U.S. state]]s also have many sections that are limited-access (though these systems are mostly composed of uncontrolled roads). Only a handful of sections of the Interstate system are not freeways, such as [[Interstate 81|I-81]] as it crosses the American span of the 2-lane Thousand Islands Bridge.
== Controversy ==
[[image:traffic06.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Rush hour]] on [[I-45]], downtown Houston.]]
Freeways have been heavily criticized by environmentalists and preservationists for the noise, pollution, and economic shifts they bring. Additionally, they have also been criticized by the driving public for the inefficiency with which they handle peak hour traffic{{ref|mccreery}}{{ref|coulombe}}.
Often, rural freeways open up vast areas to economic development, generally raising property values. But mature freeways in urban areas are quite often a source of lowered property values, contributing to the deleterious effects of [[urban blight]]. One major problem is that even with overpasses and underpasses, freeways tend to divide neighborhoods &mdash; especially impoverished ones where residents are less likely to own a car that could easily take them around the freeway{{ref|spivak}}.
For these reasons, almost no new urban freeways have been built in the U.S. since 1970. Some have even been demolished and reclaimed as boulevards, notably in [[San Francisco]] ([[Interstate 480 (California)|Embarcadero Freeway]]) and [[Milwaukee]] ([[Park East Freeway]]). The outcome of a FHWA case study{{ref|fhwastudy}} involving the West Side Highway in Manhattan proposes that the current elevated highway be replaced with a new, at-grade boulevard with integrated pedestrian facilities. This case study is suggested as a precedent for areas where a typical, elevated urban freeway is not desirable and/or effective at handling impacted traffic.
Some argue that freeway expansion is self-defeating, in that expansion will just generate more traffic. That is, even if traffic congestion is initially shifted from local streets to a new or widened freeway, people will begin to run errands and commutes to more remote locations which took too long to reach in the past. Over time, the freeway and its environs will become congested again as both the average number and distance of trips increase. This is the debated [[induced demand]] [[hypothesis]]{{ref|cervero}}{{ref|martin}}.
Pro-freeway advocates point out that properly designed and maintained freeways are aesthetically pleasing, convenient, and safe, at least in comparison to the uncontrolled roads they replace or supplement. Freeways expand recreation, employment and education opportunities for individuals{{ref|vanhengel}} and open new markets to [[small business]]es. And for many, uncongested freeways are fun to drive.
At present, freeway expansion has largely stalled in the [[United States]], due to a multitude of factors that converged in the [[1970]]s: higher [[due process]] requirements prior to taking of private [[property]], increasing land values, increasing costs for construction materials, local opposition to new freeways in urban cores, the passage of the [[National Environmental Policy Act]] (which imposed the requirement that each new project must have an [[environmental impact statement]] or report), and falling [[gas tax]] revenues as a result of the nature of the flat-cent tax (it is not automatically adjusted for inflation) and the [[tax revolt]] movement{{ref|taylor}}. Dramatic improvements in vehicle gas mileage have also reduced gas tax revenues.
== Recent developments ==
Outside the U.S., many countries continue to rapidly expand their freeway networks. Examples include: [[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[Chile]], [[China]], [[France]], [[India]], [[Israel]], [[Mexico]], [[Malaysia]], [[Pakistan]], the [[Philippines]], [[Spain]] and [[Taiwan]]. Australia and France in particular have been innovative in using the newest tunneling technologies to bring freeways into high-density downtowns ([[Sydney]] and [[Melbourne]]) and historic rural areas ([[Versailles]]). China already has the world's second largest freeway network in terms of total kilometers and will probably overtake the U.S. well before the end of the 21st century.
In Australia, the city of [[Adelaide]] pioneered the concept of a dedicated reversible freeway.
The M2 expressway runs toward the city in the morning and out of the city in the evening. Its ramps are designed so that they can double as on- or off-ramps, depending upon the time of day. Gates and electronic signage prevent motorists from driving in the wrong direction.
Meanwhile, major progress has been made in making existing U.S. freeways and expressways more efficient. Experiments include the addition of [[high-occupancy vehicle lane]]s (HOV lanes) to discourage driving solo, and building new roads with [[train]] tracks down the [[Central reservation|median]] (or overhead). California's [[Caltrans]] has been very innovative in squeezing HOVs into limited right-of-way (by elevating them), and in building special HOV-only ramps so that HOVs can switch freeways or exit the freeway without having to merge across regular traffic. Many states have added truck-only ramps or lanes on heavily congested routes, so that cars need not weave around slow-moving big rigs.
[[Intelligent transportatio |
ust, another rainy season begins in September and lasts through November, before the longer harmattan season sets in to complete the cycle.
The extent of drought and rainfall varies across the country. To the south of the Kwahu Plateau, the heaviest rains occur in the [[Axim]] area in the southwest corner of Ghana. Farther to the north, [[Kumasi]] receives an average annual rainfall of about 1,400 millimeters, while [[Tamale]] in the drier northern savanna receives rainfall of 1,000 millimeters per year. From [[Takoradi]] eastward to the [[Accra Plains]], including the lower [[Volta]] region, rainfall averages only 750 millimeters to 1,000 millimeters a year.
Temperatures are usually high at all times of the year throughout the country. At higher elevations temperatures are more comfortable. In the far north, temperature highs of 31°C are common. The southern part of the country is characterized by generally humid conditions. This is particularly so during the night, when 95 to 100 % humidity is possible. Humid conditions also prevail the northern section of the country during the rainy season. During the harmattan season, however, humidity drops as low as 25 percent in the north.
== Terrain ==
The terrain consists mostly low plains with the [[Kwahu Plateau]] in the south-central area. Half of the country lies less than 152 meters (500 ft) above sea level, and the highest point is 883 meters (2,900 ft). The 537 kilometer (334 mi) coastline is mostly a low, sandy shore backed by plains and scrub and intersected by several rivers and streams, most of which are navigable only by [[canoe]]. A [[tropical rain forest]] belt, broken by heavily forested hills and many streams and rivers, extends northward from the shore, near the [[Côte d'Ivoire]] frontier. This area, known as the "Ashanti," produces most of the country's [[cocoa]], [[minerals]], and [[timber]]. North of this belt, the country varies from 91 to 396 meters (300 to 1,300 ft) above sea level and is covered by low bush, park-like [[savanna]], and grassy plains.
'''Irrigated land:'''
60 km² (1993 est.)
==Geographical regions==
Ghana is characterized in general by low physical [[relief]]. Indeed, the [[Precambrian]] rock system that underlies most of the nation has been worn down by erosion almost to a plain. The highest elevation in Ghana, [[Mount Afadjato]] in the [[Akwapim-Togo]] Ranges, rises only 880 meters above sea level.
There are, nonetheless, five distinct geographical regions. Low plains stretch across the southern part of the country. To their north lie three regions--the Ashanti Uplands, the Akwapim-Togo Ranges, and the Volta Basin. The fifth region, the high plains, occupies the northern and northwestern sector of the country (see fig. 4). Like most West African countries, Ghana has no natural harbors. Because strong surf pounds the shoreline, two artificial harbors were built at [[Takoradi]] and [[Tema]] (the latter completed in 1961) to accommodate Ghana's shipping needs.
===Low Plains===
The low plains comprise the four subregions of the coastal savanna, the [[Volta Delta]], the [[Accra Plains]], and the [[Akan Lowlands]]. A narrow strip of grassy and scrubby coast runs from a point near [[Takoradi]] in the west to the [[Togo]] border in the east. This coastal savanna, only about eight kilometers in width at its western end, stretches eastward through the Accra Plains, where it widens to more than eighty kilometers, and terminates at the southeastern corner of the country at the lower end of the [[Akwapim-Togo Ranges]].
Almost flat and featureless, the Accra Plains descend gradually to the gulf from a height of about 150 meters. The topography east of the city of Accra is marked by a succession of ridges and spoonshaped valleys. The hills and slopes in this area are the favored lands for cultivation. Shifting cultivation is the usual agricultural practice because of the swampy nature of the very lowlying areas during the rainy seasons and the periodic blocking of the rivers at the coast by sandbars that form lagoons. A plan to irrigate the Accra Plains was announced in 1984. Should this plan come to reality, much of the area could be opened to large-scale cultivation.
To the west of Accra, the low plains contain wider valleys and rounded low hills, with occasional rocky headlands. In general, however, the land is flat and covered with grass and scrub. Dense groves of coconut palms front the coastline. Several commercial centers, including Winneba, Saltpond, and Cape Coast, are located here. Although Winneba has a small livestock industry and palm tree cultivation is expanding in the area away from the coast, the predominant occupation of the coastal inhabitants is fishing by dug-out canoe.
The Volta Delta, which forms a distinct subregion of the low plains, extends into the [[Gulf of Guinea]] in the extreme southeast. The delta's rock formation--consisting of thick layers of [[sandstone]], some [[limestone]], and [[silt]] deposits--is flat, featureless, and relatively young. As the delta grew outward over the centuries, sandbars developed across the mouths of the Volta and smaller rivers that empty into the gulf in the same area, forming numerous lagoons, some quite large, making road construction difficult. To avoid the lowest-lying areas, for example, the road between Accra and Keta makes an unusual detour inland just before reaching Ada and finally approaches Keta from the east along the narrow spit on which the town stands. This notwithstanding, road links with Keta continue to be a problem. By 1989 it was estimated that more than 3,000 houses in the town had been swallowed by flooding from the lagoon. In addition, about 1,500 other houses were destroyed by erosion caused by the powerful waves of the sea.
Ironically, it is this flat, silt-composed delta region with its abundance of water that supports [[shallot]], [[maize|corn]], and [[cassava]] cultivation in the region. Moreover, the sandy soil of the delta gave rise to the [[copra]] industry. [[Salt]]-making, from the plentiful supply in the dried beds of the lagoons, provides additional employment. The main occupation of the delta people, however, continues to be fishing, an industry that supplies dried and salted fish to other parts of the country.
The largest part of the low plains is the Akan Lowlands. Some experts prefer to classify this region as a subdivision of the [[Ashanti Uplands]] because of the many characteristics they share. Unlike the uplands, however, the height of the Akan Lowlands is generally between sea level and 150 meters. Some ranges and hills rise to about 300 meters, but few exceed 600 meters. The lowlands that lie to the south of the Ashanti Uplands receive the many rivers that make their way to the sea.
The Akan Lowlands contain the basins of the [[Densu River]], the [[Pra River]], the [[Ankobra River]], and the [[Tano River]], all of which play important roles in the economy of Ghana. The Densu River Basin, location of the important urban centers of [[Koforidua]] and [[Nsawam]] in the eastern lowlands, has an undulating topography. Many of the hills here have craggy summits, which give a striking appearance to the landscape. The upper section of the Pra River Basin, to the west of the Densu, is relatively flat; the topography of its lower reaches, however, resembles that of the Densu Basin and is a rich cocoa and food-producing region. The valley of the Birim River, one of the main tributaries of the Pra, is the country's most important diamond-producing area.
The Ankobra River Basin and the middle and lower basins of the Tano River to the west of the lowlands form the largest subdivision of the Akan Lowlands. Here annual rainfall between 1,500 and 2,150 millimeters helps assure a dense forest cover. In addition to timber, the area is rich in minerals. The Tarkwa goldfield, the diamond operations of the [[Bonsa Valley]], and high-grade manganese deposits are all found in this area. The middle and lower Tano basins have been intensely explored for oil and natural gas since the mid-1980s. The lower basins of the Pra, Birim, Densu, and Ankobra rivers are also sites for palm tree cultivation.
===Ashanti Uplands===
Comprising the Southern Ashanti Uplands and the Kwahu Plateau, the Ashanti Uplands lie just north of the Akan Lowlands and stretch from the Côte d'Ivoire border in the west to the elevated edge of the Volta Basin in the east. Stretching in a northwest-to-southeast direction, the Kwahu Plateau extends 193 kilometers between Koforidua in the east and Wenchi in the northwest. The average elevation of the plateau is about 450 meters, rising to a maximum of 762 meters. The relatively cool temperatures of the plateau were attractive to Europeans, particularly missionaries, who founded many well-known schools and colleges in this region.
The plateau forms one of the important physical divides in Ghana. From its northeastern slopes, the Afram and Pru Rivers flow into the Volta River, while from the opposite side, the Pra, Birim, Ofin, Tano, and other rivers flow south toward the sea. The plateau also marks the northernmost limit of the forest zone. Although large areas of the forest cover have been destroyed through farming, enough deciduous forest remains to shade the head waters of the rivers that flow from the plateau.
The Southern Ashanti Uplands, extending from the foot of the Kwahu Plateau in the north to the lowlands in the south, slope gently from an elevation of about 300 meters in the north to about 150 meters in the south. The region, however, contains several hills and ranges as well as several towns of historical and economic importance, including Kumasi, Ghana's second largest city and former capital of the Asante (also seen as Ashanti--see Glossary) empire (see The Precolonial Period , ch. 1). Obuasi and Konongo, two of the country's gold-mining centers, are also located here. The region is the country's chief pro |
quot;the gothic subculture". "Gothic", when used as an adjective, can potentially refer to anything dark or horrifying, or something influenced by medieval [[Gothic art]], and not necessarily to something associated with modern gothic subculture.
==Origins and influences==
[[Image:Goth-p1010510.jpg|thumb|200px|left| Long or eccentric hair and black leather [[trench coat]]s are features that are sometimes associated with a gothic look.]]
===Original subculture===
By the late 1970s, there were a small number of [[post punk]] bands in [[Britain]] labeled "gothic." However, it was not until the early 1980s that [[gothic rock]] became its own [[Music genre|subgenre]] within [[post-punk]] and that followers of these bands started to come together as a distinctly recognisable group or movement. The opening of the [[Batcave (London nightclub)|Batcave]] in [[London]]'s [[Soho]] in July 1982 might be seen as marking the emergence of this scene (which had briefly been labeled [[positive punk]] by the [[New Musical Express]])[[http://www.scathe.demon.co.uk/batcave.htm]]. As one of the most famous meeting points for early goths, it lent its name to the term "Batcaver," used to describe old-school goths.
Independent of the British scene, the late 1970s and early 1980s saw [[death rock]] branch off from American punk [[http://www.alicebag.com/dinahcancerinterview.html]].
===Etymology and Gothic horror literature===
Goth was originally the name of a [[Germanic tribe]], the [[Goths]], who played an important role in the fall of the western [[Roman Empire]]. Like another similar tribe, the [[Vandals]], the name "goth" later became pejorative synonymous with "[[barbarian]]" and being uncultured. During the [[Renaissance]] period in [[Europe]], medieval [[architecture]] was retrospectively labeled [[gothic architecture]], and was considered ugly and barbaric in contrast to the pure lines of [[classical architecture]]. In Britain by the late 1700s, however, nostalgia for the medieval period destroyed by the [[Reformation]] led people to become fascinated with medieval gothic ruins (even building fake ruins). This was often combined with an interest in medieval [[romance]]s, [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] religion and the supernatural. Enthusiasts for [[gothic revival architecture]] in Britain were led by [[Horace Walpole]], and were sometimes nicknamed goths, the first positive use of the term in the modern period.
It was the [[gothic novel]] of the early [[nineteenth century]], a genre founded by Walpole, that was responsible above all else for the term ''gothic'' being associated with a mood of [[Horror (emotion)|horror]], morbidity, darkness and the supernatural. These stories established what became horror stereotypes by featuring [[graveyard]]s, ruined [[castle]]s or [[church]]es, [[ghost]]s, [[vampire]]s, [[nightmares]], [[curse]]d families, being [[Burial|buried alive]] and [[melodrama|melodramatic]] plots.
[[Image:Nd7.jpg|thumb|200px|Big hair, tight black jeans, and odd thrift store clothing are standards of goth and post-punk fashion]]
Certain elements in the dark, atmospheric music and dress of the [[post punk]] scene were clearly "gothic" in this sense, exemplified in the names of [[post punk]] bands like "[[UK Decay]]" or [[Southern Death Cult]]. It was the use of "gothic" as an adjective in describing the music and its followers, which led to the term "goth" being given to the subculture.
In [[Germany]], members of the goth subculture were called ''[[Grufties]]'' (engl. ''"vault creatures"'' or ''"tomb creatures"'') in the '80s and early '90s. They were generally a fusion between the goth style & the [[New Wave music|New wave]] subculture.
===Early influences from Gothic literature and cinema===
[[Image:Goth-p1010691.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Gothic woman with elaborate clothing of black [[lace]] and skull-shaped jewelery]]
The influence of the [[gothic novel]] on the goth subculture originally came second hand, through the popular imagery of [[horror films]] and television. In particular, the imagery surrounding male and female vampires had a significant influence on the evolution of [[gothic fashion]]. A notable element in the [[gothic novel]] was the brooding figure of the gothic [[villain]], which developed into the [[Byronic hero]], a key precursor to the male goth image. The most famous gothic villain is the [[vampire]], [[Dracula]], but it was the iconic portrayal of [[Bela Lugosi]], rather than [[Bram Stoker]]'s original novel, which appealed to early goths, who were attracted by Lugosi's aura of camp menace. Some people even credit [[Bauhaus]]' first single "[[Bela Lugosi's Dead]]", with the start of the Gothic movement, though there are other contenders.
The concept of the [[femme fatale]], which appeared in [[romanticism|romantic]] literature as well as in the [[gothic novel]], went on to become a vital image for female goths. In cinema the femme fatale style adopted by silent movie actress [[Theda Bara]] (whose first name is an anagram for "death"), nicknamed the [[vamp]], established the look for pale predatory women in later films, and was eventually adopted by [[Siouxsie Sioux]].
The powerful imagery of horror movies began in German expressionist cinema in the twenties then passed onto the [[Universal]] films of the thirties, then to camp horror B films such as ''[[Plan 9 From Outer Space]]'' and then to [[Hammer Film Productions|Hammer Horror]] films. By the 1960s, [[television|TV]] series, such as ''[[The Addams Family]]'' and ''[[The Munsters]]'', used these stereotypes for camp comedy.
Some of the early [[gothic rock]] and [[death rock]] artists adopted traditional horror movie images, and also drew on horror movie soundtracks for inspiration. Their audiences responded in kind by further adopting appropriate dress and props. Use of standard horror film props like swirling smoke, rubber bats, and cobwebs were used as goth club décor from the beginning in The Batcave. Such references in their music and image were originally [[tongue-in-cheek]], but as time went on, bands and members of the subculture took the connection more seriously. As a result, morbid, [[supernatural]], and [[occult]] themes became a more noticeably serious element in the subculture. The interconnection between horror and goth was highlighted in its early days by ''[[The Hunger]]'', a 1983 vampire film, starring [[David Bowie]], which featured gothic rock group Bauhaus performing "[[Bela Lugosi's Dead]]" in a nightclub. In 1993, [[Whitby]] became the location for what became the UK's biggest goth festival as a direct result of being featured in [[Bram Stoker]]'s ''Dracula''.
The word "gothic" in the literary sense is a broad term. It is hard to predict which direction gothic literature will take in the twenty-first century, but there is interest in many to adapt the old gothic influences and renew them. Gothic fiction before [[Edgar Allan Poe]], [[Algernon Blackwood]], and [[H. P. Lovecraft]] wasn't generally seen as frightening, particularly by today's gothic standards, though there were major authors who showed gothic sensibilities, such as [[Charles Dickens]] with his ghost story "[[A Christmas Carol]]." As the gothic scene evolved, familiarity with gothic literature became a significant part of the subculture for some goths. Dropping "Poe," "Lovecraft," and the other heralding names became just as symbolic and popular as dressing all in black leather, wearing the hair long and dyed black, adorning oneself with dark jewelry and body art, and carrying around a Tim Burton lunchbox.
A significant literary influence on the contemporary goth scene was not only the older gothic writers, but also [[Anne Rice]]'s re-imagining of the idea of the [[vampire]]. Rice's characters were depicted as struggling with eternity and loneliness, while their ambivalent sexuality had deep attractions for many goth readers, making her works very fashionable in the eighties. Movies based on her books have been filmed in recent years - notably ''[[Interview with the Vampire]]'', which starred Brad Pitt, and the more recent ''[[Queen of the Damned]]'', in which goths appear directly and indirectly. The first film, in particular, helped encourage the spread of Victorian style fashions in the subculture. Rice's novels influenced [[Poppy Z. Brite]]'s vampire novels. Brite, who is familiar with the goth scene, distinctively refers to it in her novels as the location of where her vampires hunt. Both Brite and Rice are connected to [[New Orleans]], often seen as a gothic mecca.
One reason "gothic" is such a broad term is because its content and themes can vary greatly. For example, as aforementioned, some gothic writers like Brite and Rice utilize erotic themes while other writers, such as [[Rod Serling]], do not use an erotic undercurrent at all. Works that vastly differ from one another in these and many more ways still share the category of gothic literature, such as Serling's '''[[Night Gallery]],'' [[Macey Baggett Wuesthoff]]'s ''[[Sacrifice]]'', [[Washington Irving]]'s [["The Legend of Sleepy Hollow]]" and [[Joseph Armstead]]'s ''[[Darkness Fears]]'' and Moon-Chosen series.
==Goth after post-punk==
[[Image:cainprofile.jpg|thumb|200px|German goth, wearing a punk band t-shirt.]]
After the demise of [[post punk]], goth continued to evolve, both musically and visually. This caused variations in style ("types" of goth). Local scenes also contribute to this variation. By the 1990s, Victorian fashion saw a renewed popularity in the goth scene, drawing on the mid-19th century [[gothic revival]] and the morbid outlook of the [[Victorians]] (partly owing to the state of national mourning which developed in response to [[ |
ts of beliefs in the same way that the theorems of first order logic are criteria for the rationality of sets of beliefs. Many authors regard degrees of belief as extensions of the classical truth values (true and false).
The Bayesian approach has been explored by [[Harold Jeffreys]], [[Richard Threlkeld Cox|Richard T. Cox]], [[Edwin Thompson Jaynes|Edwin Jaynes]] and [[I. J. Good]]. Other well-known proponents of Bayesian probability have included [[John Maynard Keynes]] and [[B.O. Koopman]].
==Varieties of Bayesian probability==
The terms ''subjective probability'', ''personal probability'', ''epistemic probability'' and ''logical probability'' describe some of the schools of thought which are customarily called "Bayesian". These overlap but there are differences of emphasis. Some of the people mentioned here would not call themselves Bayesians.
Bayesian probability is supposed to measure the degree of belief an individual has in an uncertain proposition, and is in that respect subjective.
Some people who call themselves Bayesians do not accept this subjectivity. The chief exponents of this ''objectivist'' school were [[Edwin Thompson Jaynes]] and [[Harold Jeffreys]]. Perhaps the main objectivist Bayesian now living is James Berger of Duke University. Jose Bernardo and others accept some degree of subjectivity but believe a need exists for "[[reference priors]]" in many practical situations.
Advocates of '''logical (or objective epistemic) probability''', such as [[Harold Jeffreys]], [[Rudolf Carnap]], [[Richard Threlkeld Cox]] and [[Edwin Thompson Jaynes|Edwin Jaynes]], hope to codify techniques whereby any two persons having the same information relevant to the truth of an uncertain proposition would calculate the same probability. Such probabilities are not relative to the person but to the epistemic situation, and thus lie somewhere between subjective and objective. However, the methods proposed are controversial. Critics challenge the claim that there are grounds for preferring one degree of belief over another in the absence of information about the facts to which those beliefs refer. Another problem is that the techniques developed so far are inadequate for dealing with realistic cases.
==Bayesian and frequentist probability==
The Bayesian approach is in contrast to the concept of ''[[frequency probability]]'' where probability is held to be derived from observed or defined frequency distributions or proportions of populations, with the usefulness of probability narrowly limited to such scenarios. The difference has many implications for the methods by which [[statistics]] is practiced when following one model or the other, and also for the way in which conclusions are expressed.
For example, Laplace estimated the mass of Saturn using Bayesian methods. However, on the frequency interpretation of probability the [[Probability theory|laws of probability]] cannot be applied to this problem. This is because the mass of Saturn isn't a well defined random experiment or sample. From what population is the mass of Saturn taken? In what sense is Saturn picked at random from that population? Similarly, when comparing two hypotheses and using the same information, frequency methods would typically result in the rejection or non-rejection of the original hypothesis with a particular degree of [[Confidence interval|confidence]], while Bayesian methods would yield statements that one hypothesis was more probable than the other or that the expected loss associated with one was less than the expected loss of the other.
The rejection of the classical notion of probability, and the development of the theory of statistics and probability based narrowly on the [[Frequency probability|frequency interpretation]] was pursued by some of the most influential figures in statistics during the first half of the twentieth century, including [[Ronald A. Fisher|R.A. Fisher]], [[Egon Pearson]] and [[Jerzy Neyman]]. At the same time, the mathematical foundation of probability in measure theory via the [[Lebesgue integration|Lebesgue integral]] was elucidated by [[A. N. Kolmogorov]] in the book ''Foundations of the Theory of Probability'' in [[1933]]. In the years to [[1950]] these two approaches almost completely eclipsed the previous broader classical interpretation. However since that time, and continuing into the present day, the work of Savage, Koopman, [[Abraham Wald]], and others, has led to renewed broader acceptance of the alternative, Bayesian point of view.
== Applications of Bayesian probability ==
Today, there are a variety of applications of Bayesian probability that have gained wide acceptance. Some schools of thought emphasise [[Cox's theorem]] and Jaynes' [[principle of maximum entropy]] as cornerstones of the theory, others (e.g., Ramsey, di Finetti) approach it from the point of view of a [[Dutch book|Dutch book argument]], still others may claim that Bayesian methods are more general and give better results in practice than [[frequency probability]]. See [[Bayesian inference]] for applications and [[Bayes' theorem|Bayes' Theorem]] for the mathematics.
Some philosophers of science regard [[Bayesian inference]] as a model of the [[scientific method]]. That is, updating probabilities via [[Bayes' theorem]] is similar to the scientific method insofar as one starts with an initial set of beliefs about the relative plausibility of various [[hypothesis|hypotheses]], collects new information (for example by conducting an [[experiment]]), and then adjusts the original set of beliefs in the light of the new information to produce a more refined set of beliefs. However, this view is controversial. Similarly, [[Bayes factor]]s have been employed in discussions of [[Occam's Razor]].
Bayesian techniques have recently been applied to filter out [[e-mail spam]]. A Bayesian spam filter uses a reference set of emails identified by the user as spam to identify common features of spam emails. The filter then uses the identified features to discriminate between spam and legitimate email. See [[Bayesian inference]] and [[Bayesian filtering]].
==Probabilities of probabilities==
One criticism levelled at the Bayesian probability interpretation has been that a single probability assignment cannot convey how well grounded the belief is—i.e., how much [[evidence]] one has. Consider the following situations:
#You have a box with white and black balls, but no knowledge as to the quantities
#You have a box from which you have drawn ''n'' balls, half black and the rest white
#You have a box and you know that there are the same number of white and black balls
The Bayesian probability of ''the next ball drawn is black'' is 0.5 all three cases. To reflect difference in evidential support one can assign probabilities to these probabilities (so-called ''metaprobabilities'') in the following manner:
:1. You have a box with white and black balls, but no knowledge as to the quantities
::Letting <math>\theta = p</math> represent the statement that the probability that the next ball is black is <math>p</math>, a Bayesian might assign a uniform Beta prior distribution:
::<math>\forall \theta \in [0,1]</math>
::<math>P(\theta) = \Beta(\alpha_B=1,\alpha_W=1) = \frac{\Gamma(\alpha_B + \alpha_W)}{\Gamma(\alpha_B)\Gamma(\alpha_W)}\theta^{\alpha_B-1}(1-\theta)^{\alpha_W-1} = \frac{\Gamma(2)}{\Gamma(1)\Gamma(1)}\theta^0(1-\theta)^0=1</math>
::Assuming that the ball drawing is modelled as a binomial sampling distribution, the posterior distribution, <math>P(\theta|m,n)</math>, after drawing ''m'' additional black balls and ''n'' white balls is still a Beta distribution, with parameters <math>\alpha_B=1+m</math>, <math>\alpha_W=1+n</math>. An intuitive interpretation of the parameters of a Beta distribution is that of ''imagined counts'' for the two events. For more information, see [[Beta distribution]].
:2. You have a box from which you have drawn N balls, half black and the rest white
::Letting <math>\theta = p</math> represent the statement that the probability that the next ball is black is <math>p</math>, a Bayesian might assign a Beta prior distribution, <math>\Beta(N/2+1,N/2+1)</math>. The maximum aposteriori (MAP) estimate of <math>\theta</math> is <math>\theta_{MAP}=\frac{N/2+1}{N+2}</math>, precisely Laplace's rule of succession.
:3. You have a box and you know that there are the same number of white and black balls
::In this case a Bayesian would define the prior probability <math>P(\Theta)=\delta(\frac{1}{2})</math>.
Because there is no room for metaprobabilities on the frequency interpretation, frequentists have had to find different ways of representing difference of evidential support. [[Cedric Smith]] and [[Arthur Dempster (mathematician)|Arthur Dempster]] each developed a theory of [[upper and lower probabilities]]. [[Glenn Shafer]] developed Dempster's theory further, and it is now known as [[Dempster-Shafer theory]].
== See also ==
* [[Frequency probability]]
* [[Uncertainty]]
* [[Inference]]
* [[Bayesian inference]]
* [[Doomsday argument]] for a controversial use of Bayesian inference
* [[MaxEnt thermodynamics]] - Bayesian view of thermodynamics
== External links and references ==
* [http://www.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk/mackay/itila/book.html On-line textbook: Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms], by David MacKay, has many chapters on Bayesian methods, including introductory examples; arguments in favour of Bayesian methods (in the style of [[Edwin Thompson Jaynes|Edwin Jaynes]]); state-of-the-art [[Monte Carlo method]]s, [[message-passing method]]s, and [[Calculus of variations|variational methods]]; and examples illustrating the intimate connections between Bayesian inference and [[data compression]].
* |
e flat top steel-string guitars are constructed and voiced more for classical-like [[fingerpicking]] and less for chordal accompaniment. Luthiers such as '''Kevin Ryan''', '''Stefan Sobell''', and '''George Lowden''' have increasingly focused their attention on the needs of fingerstylists and have developed unique guitars for this style of playing.
[[Category:Guitars]]
[[bg:Акустична китара]]
[[de:Akustische Gitarre]]
[[es:Guitarra acústica]]
[[he:גיטרה אקוסטית]]
[[it:Chitarra acustica]]
[[ja:アコースティック・ギター]]
[[ko:포크기타]]
[[nl:Akoestische gitaar]]
[[pl:Gitara akustyczna]]
[[ru:Классическая гитара]]
[[sv:Akustisk gitarr]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Antipope John XXIII</title>
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<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Knights Templar]] to [[Knights Templar (military order)]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Johannes XXIII Gegenpapst.jpg|thumb|Antipope John XXIII]]'''Antipope John XXIII''', [[antipope]] of the [[Pisa]]n party ([[1410]]&ndash;[[1415]]), (about [[1370]] &ndash; [[November 22]], [[1419]]), was born as '''Baldassare Cossa'''.
Cardinal Baldassare Cossa was one of the seven [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]]s who, in May of [[1408]], deserted [[Pope Gregory XII]], and, with those belonging to the obedience of [[Antipope Benedict XIII]], convened the [[Council of Pisa]], of which Cossa became the leader. They elected [[Pope Alexander V]] in [[1409]]. Cossa succeeded him a year later.
[[Edward Gibbon]] asserts in ''[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'' that John XXIII was charged with [[piracy]], [[murder]], [[rape]], [[sodomy]], and [[incest]], with the more serious charges being suppressed. Of course, this needs to be viewed in the light of the political situation of the time, as the charges were likely trumped up; note the similarity to the charges against the [[Knights Templar (military order)|Knights Templar]].
He should not be confused with [[Pope John XXIII]] of the [[20th century]]. The fact that for more than 500 years there was no Pope named John (vs. 23 in 1400 years) is probably due to the controversial figure this (anti)Pope represented. When Pope John XXIII was elected, there was some confusion as to whether or not he would be ''John XXIII'' or ''John XXIV''. John then declared that he was John XXIII to put this question to rest. The decision of the 20th century Pope John XXIII not to be named John XXIV as might be expected serves as a confirmation of the antipope status of this first John XXIII. It should be noted, however, that the numbering of the Popes called John is debatable; for example, Gibbon refers to the Antipope John as John XXII.
The [[North America]]n student [[fraternity]] [[Kappa Sigma]] claims that its origins stem from Cossa's governorship of [[Bologna]], where his campaign of assault and robbery against the students of the [[University of Bologna]] led to a secret organization under the teacher [[Manuel Chrysoloras]] for mutual protection against Cossa's brigands.
After the events of the [[Council of Constance]] (1415), he was freed from prison in Germany by Martin V in 1418 and later died as cardinal bishop of [[Tusculum]] in 1419.
[[Category:1370s births|John XXIII]]
[[Category:1419 deaths|John XXIII]]
[[Category:Antipopes|John 23]]
[[bg:Йоан XXIII (антипапа)]]
[[cs:Jan XXIII. (vzdoropapež)]]
[[de:Johannes XXIII. (Gegenpapst)]]
[[fr:Jean XXIII (antipape)]]
[[it:Antipapa Giovanni XXIII]]
[[ja:ヨハネス23世 (対立教皇)]]
[[no:Johannes XXIII (motpave)]]
[[pl:Antypapież Jan XXIII]]
[[pt:Antipapa João XXIII]]
[[sv:Johannes XXIII (motpåve)]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Astounding (magazine)</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Astounding Stories''''' was a seminal [[science fiction]] [[magazine]] founded in [[1930]] and initially published by [[Street & Smith]]. ''Astounding Stories of Super-Science'', first edited by [[Harry Bates (author)|Harry Bates]], is generally considered the forum where modern [[science fiction]] was created. It has changed names repeatedly, most importantly in 1938 to ''Astounding Science-Fiction'', and then in the 1960s to '''''Analog Science Fiction and Science Fact''''', under which name it is still published. The word "and" was sometimes replaced in the logo by a pseudo-[[mathematical symbol]] comprising a horizontal right-pointing arrow piercing an inverted U-shape. The symbol, apparently invented by Campbell, was said to mean "analogous to."
[[Image:Astounding Grey Lensman.png|thumb|180px|left|"Grey Lensman" by [[E. E. Smith]] in ''Astounding'', Oct. 1939]]
Following 8 years of publication under two different editors, the magazine's helm was assumed by [[John W. Campbell]], who took over in [[1937]]. Campbell retitled it ''Astounding Science-Fiction'' and brought an unprecedented insistence on placing equal emphasis on both words of "science fiction." No longer satisfied with gadgetry and action alone, Campbell demanded that his writers think out how science and technology might really develop in the future - and, most important, how those changes would affect the lives of human beings.
The new sophistication soon made ''Astounding'' the undisputed leader in the field. Campbell later began to think the old title was too "sensational" or "juvenile" to reflect what the magazine was actually doing, so he initially de-emphasized the word "Astounding" by having it printed in narrow script above the bold words "SCIENCE FICTION," and then renamed the magazine ''Analog'' in [[1960]]. Over the course of a year the title logo was changed; the large initial "A" stayed the same while the letters "stounding" were faded down and the letters "nalog" faded up on top of them. Bibliographers often abbreviate the magazine as ''ASF'', which can of course stand for either title.
[[Ben Bova]] took over as editor after Campbell died suddenly in [[1971]], and was himself succeeded by [[Stanley Schmidt]] in [[1978]].
Due to the economics of the magazine publishing industry (i.e. not much money in the budget), ''Analog'' frequently prints material from previously unknown authors, and has launched the careers of popular contributors within the genre (e.g. [[Orson Scott Card]]'s ''[[Ender's Game]]'' in the [[1970s]], and early work by [[Harry Turtledove]] in the [[1980s]].)
Each year, ''Analog'' conducts a readers' poll—called the Analytical Laboratory, or AnLab—to determine the favorite stories, articles and cover art published in the magazine in the previous year. Many recipients of the AnLab Award have gone on to receive the much-coveted [[Hugo Award]].
[[Image:AnalogOctober1972.jpg|thumb|October 1972 issue of ''Analog'']]
==Editors==
*[[Harry Bates (author)|Harry Bates]], January [[1930]] - March [[1933]]
*[[F. Orlin Tremaine]], October [[1933]] - October [[1937]]
*[[John W. Campbell]], October [[1937]] - December [[1971]]
*[[Ben Bova]], January [[1972]] - November [[1978]]
*[[Stanley Schmidt]], December [[1978]] to present
==External link==
*[http://www.analogsf.com/ Analog Science Fiction and Fact official web site]
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[[Category:United States magazines]]
[[Category:Science fiction magazines]]</text>
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<title>Ap</title>
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<timestamp>2005-04-26T00:53:14Z</timestamp>
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<id>174177</id>
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<comment>AP --> Associated Press</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Associated Press]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Antonio Salieri</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-27T18:41:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>131.130.135.193</ip>
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<comment>/* Biography */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:salieri.jpg|thumb|Antonio Salieri]]
'''Antonio Salieri''' ([[August 18]], [[1750]] &ndash; [[May 7]], [[1825]]), born in [[Legnago]], [[Italy]], was a [[composer]] and [[Conducting|conductor]], as well as one of the most important and famous musicians of his time.
== Biography ==
Raised in a prosperous family of merchants, Salieri studied [[violin]] and [[harpsichord]] with his brother Francesco, who was a student of [[Giuseppe Tartini]]. After the early death of his parents, he moved to [[Padua]], then to [[Venice]], where he studied [[thoroughbass]] with Giovanni Battista Pescetti. There he met Florian Leopold Gassmann in 1766, who invited him to attend the court of [[Vienna]] and there trained him in composition based on [[Johann Joseph Fux|Fux]]'s ''Gradus ad Parnassum''. He remained in Vienna for the remainder of his life. In 1774, after Gassmann's death, Salieri was appointed court composer by [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Joseph II]]. He met his wife, Therese von Helfersdorfer, in 1774. (The couple went on to have eight children.) Salieri became Imperial Royal [[Kapellmeister]] in 1788, a post which he held till 1824. He was president of the "Tonkünstler-Societät" (society of musical artists) from 1788 to 1795, vice-president after 1795, and in charge of its concerts until 1818.
He attained an elevated social stand |
;\Psi^{(S)}_{n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N} (x_1, x_2, \cdots x_N)</math></td>
<td><math>\equiv \lang x_1 x_2 \cdots x_N; S | n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; S \rang</math></td>
</tr><tr><td></td>
<td><math>= \sqrt{\frac{\prod_j N_j!}{N!}} \sum_p \psi_{p(1)}(x_1) \psi_{p(2)}(x_2) \cdots \psi_{p(N)}(x_N)</math></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><math>\Psi^{(A)}_{n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N} (x_1, x_2, \cdots x_N) </math></td>
<td><math>\equiv \lang x_1 x_2 \cdots x_N; A | n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; A \rang</math></td>
</tr><tr><td></td>
<td><math>= \frac{1}{\sqrt{N!}} \sum_p \mathrm{sgn}(p) \psi_{p(1)}(x_1) \psi_{p(2)}(x_2) \cdots \psi_{p(N)}(x_N)</math></td>
</tr>
</table>
where the single-particle wavefunctions are defined, as usual, by
:<math>\psi_n(x) \equiv \lang x | n \rang </math>
The most important property of these wavefunctions is that exchanging any two of the coordinate variables changes the wavefunction by only a plus or minus sign. This is the manifestation of symmetry and antisymmetry in the wavefunction representation:
:<math>
\Psi^{(S)}_{n_1 \cdots n_N} (\cdots x_i \cdots x_j\cdots) =
\Psi^{(S)}_{n_1 \cdots n_N} (\cdots x_j \cdots x_i \cdots)
</math>
:<math>
\Psi^{(A)}_{n_1 \cdots n_N} (\cdots x_i \cdots x_j\cdots) = -
\Psi^{(A)}_{n_1 \cdots n_N} (\cdots x_j \cdots x_i \cdots)
</math>
The many-body wavefunction has the following significance: if the system is initially in a state with quantum numbers ''n''<sub>1</sub>, ..., n<sub>N</sub>, and we perform a position measurement, the probability of finding particles in infinitesimal volumes near ''x''<sub>1</sub>, ''x''<sub>2</sub>, ..., ''x''<sub>N</sub> is
:<math> N! \; \left|\Psi^{(S/A)}_{n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N} (x_1, x_2, \cdots x_N) \right|^2 \; d^{3N}\!x </math>
The factor of ''N''! comes from our normalizing constant, which has been chosen so that, by analogy with single-particle wavefunctions,
:<math> \int\!\int\!\cdots\!\int\; \left|\Psi^{(S/A)}_{n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N} (x_1, x_2, \cdots x_N)\right|^2 d^3\!x_1 d^3\!x_2 \cdots d^3\!x_N = 1 </math>
Because each integral runs over all possible values of ''x'', each multi-particle state appears ''N''! times in the integral. In other words, the probability associated with each event is evenly distributed across ''N''! equivalent points in the integral space. Because it is usually more convenient to work with unrestricted integrals than restricted ones, we have chosen our normalizing constant to reflect this.
Finally, it is interesting to note that that antisymmetric wavefunction can be written as the [[determinant]] of a [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrix]], known as a [[Slater determinant]]:
:<math>\Psi^{(A)}_{n_1 \cdots n_N} (x_1, \cdots x_N)
= \frac{1}{\sqrt{N!}} \left|
\begin{matrix}
\psi_{n_1}(x_1) & \psi_{n_1}(x_2) & \cdots & \psi_{n_1}(x_N) \\
\psi_{n_2}(x_1) & \psi_{n_2}(x_2) & \cdots & \psi_{n_2}(x_N) \\
\cdots & \cdots & \cdots & \cdots \\
\psi_{n_N}(x_1) & \psi_{n_N}(x_2) & \cdots & \psi_{n_N}(x_N) \\
\end{matrix}
\right|
</math>
== Statistical properties ==
=== Statistical effects of indistinguishability ===
The indistinguishability of particles has a profound effect on their statistical properties. To illustrate this, let us consider a system of ''N'' distinguishable, non-interacting particles. Once again, let ''n<sub>j</sub>'' denote the state (i.e. quantum numbers) of particle ''j''. If the particles have the same physical properties, the ''n<sub>j</sub>'''s run over the same range of values. Let ''&epsilon;''(''n'') denote the [[energy]] of a particle in state ''n''. As the particles do not interact, the total energy of the system is the sum of the single-particle energies. The [[partition function (statistical mechanics)|partition function]] of the system is
:<math> Z = \sum_{n_1, n_2, \cdots n_N} \exp\left\{ -\frac{1}{kT} \left[ \epsilon(n_1) + \epsilon(n_2) + \cdots \epsilon(n_N) \right] \right\} </math>
where ''k'' is [[Boltzmann's constant]] and ''T'' is the [[temperature]]. We can [[factorization|factorize]] this expression to obtain
:<math> Z = \xi^N </math>
where
:<math> \xi = \sum_n \exp\left[ - \frac{\epsilon(n)}{kT} \right] </math>
If the particles are identical, this equation is incorrect. Consider a state of the system, described by the single particle states [''n<sub>1</sub>'', ..., ''n<sub>N</sub>'']. In the equation for ''Z'', every possible permutation of the ''n'''s occurs once in the sum, even though each of these permutations is describing the same multi-particle state. We have thus over-counted the actual number of states.
If we neglect the possibility of overlapping states, which is valid if the temperature is high, then the number of times we count each state is approximately ''N''!. The correct partition function is
:<math> Z = \frac{\xi^N}{N!} </math>
Note that this "high temperature" approximation does not distinguish between fermions and bosons.
The discrepancy in the partition functions of distinguishable and indistinguishable particles was known as far back as the [[19th century]], before the advent of quantum mechanics. It leads to a difficulty known as the [[Gibbs paradox]]. [[Willard Gibbs|Gibbs]] showed that if we use the equation ''Z = &xi;<sup>N</sup>'', the [[entropy (thermodynamics)|entropy]] of a classical [[ideal gas]] is
:<math>S = N k \ln \left(V\right) + N f(T)</math>
where ''V'' is the [[volume]] of the gas and ''f'' is some function of ''T'' alone. The problem with this result is that ''S'' is not [[Extensive variable|extensive]] - if we double ''N'' and ''V'', ''S'' does not double accordingly. Such a system does not obey the postulates of [[thermodynamics]].
Gibbs also showed that using ''Z'' = &xi;<sup>''N''</sup>/''N''! alters the result to
:<math>S = N k \ln \left(\frac{V}{N}\right) + N f(T)</math>
which is perfectly extensive. However, the reason for this correction to the partition function remained obscure until the discovery of quantum mechanics.
=== Statistical properties of bosons and fermions ===
There are important differences between the statistical behavior of bosons and fermions, which are described by [[Bose-Einstein statistics]] and [[Fermi-Dirac statistics]] respectively. Roughly speaking, bosons have a tendency to clump into the same quantum state, which underlies phenomena such as the [[laser]], [[Bose-Einstein condensate|Bose-Einstein condensation]], and [[superfluid|superfluidity]]. Fermions, on the other hand, are forbidden by the Pauli exclusion principle from sharing quantum states, giving rise to systems such as the [[Fermi gas]].
We can illustrate the differences between the statistical behavior of fermions, bosons, and distinguishable particles using a system of two particles. Let us call the particles A and B. Each particle can exist in two possible states, labelled |0> and |1>, which have the same energy.
We let the composite system evolve in time, interacting with a noisy environment. Because the |0> and |1> states are energetically equivalent, neither state is favored, so this process has the effect of randomizing the states. (This is discussed in the article on [[quantum entanglement]].) After some time, the composite system will have an equal probability of occupying each of the states available to it. We then measure the particle states.
If A and B are distinguishable particles, then the composite system has four distinct states: |0>|0>, |1>|1>, |0>|1>, and |1>|0>. The probability of obtaining two particles in the |0> state is 0.25; the probability of obtaining two particles in the |1> state is 0.25; and the probability of obtaining one particle in the |0> state and the other in the |1> state is 0.5.
If A and B are identical bosons, then the composite system has only three distinct states: |0>|0>, |1>|1>, and 2<sup>&minus;1/2</sup>(|0>|1> + |1>|0>). When we perform the experiment, the probability of obtaining two particles in the |0> state is now 0.33; the probability of obtaining two particles in the |1> state is 0.33; and the probability of obtaining one particle in the |0> state and the other in the |1> state is 0.33. Note that the probability of finding particles in the same state is relatively larger than in the distinguishable case. This demonstrates the tendency of bosons to "clump."
If A and B are identical fermions, there is only one state available to the composite system: the totally antisymmetric state 2<sup>&minus;1/2</sup>(|0>|1> - |1>|0>). When we perform the experiment, we inevitably find that one particle is in the |0> state and the other is in the |1> state.
The results are summarized in Table 1:
<center> <table border=1> <caption>Table 1: Statistics of two particles</caption> <tr> <th>Particles</th> <th>Both 0</th> <th>Both 1</th> <th>One 0 and one 1</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Distinguishable</td> <td align=center>0.25</td> <td align=center>0.25</td> <td align=center>0.5</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Bosons</td> <td align=center>0.33</td> <td align=center>0.33</td> <td align=center>0.33</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Fermions</td> <td align=center>0</td> <td align=center>0</td> <td align=center>1</td> |
iculed in 1964 for being hopelessly old-fashioned. Yet he energized a conservative grass roots movement which sixteen years later nominated and elected his supporter [[Ronald Reagan]], a [[conservative]] widely seen as in the Goldwater mold. Less than a year after Reagan's election (and continuously to the end of his life), however, Goldwater harshly criticized the alleged influence of the [[Christian Right]] on the [[Factions in the Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party.]]
==Personal background==
Goldwater was born in [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] in 1909, when Arizona was known as the [[Arizona Territory]]. His grandfather was an immigrant from [[Poland]] who founded a department store chain, [[Goldwater's Department Store]]. His father was born [[Judaism|Jewish]] and converted to the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|Episcopal Church]] to marry his fiancée. The family name had been changed from ''Goldwasser'' to ''Goldwater'' at least as early as the 1860 Census in [[Los Angeles, California]]. The family's department store made the Goldwaters comfortably rich. Goldwater graduated from Staunton Military Academy and attended the [[University of Arizona]] for one year, where he joined the [[Sigma Chi]] fraternity.
His father died in 1929 and Goldwater took over the family business. He had progressive business ideas yet was also anti-union, but the strain of running the business become too much. Goldwater had nervous breakdowns in 1937 and 1939. He began to drink heavily, a health issue he never completely overcame.
With the onset of WWII, Goldwater was commissioned in the [[United States Army Air Forces| Air Force]]. He tried but was unable to get a combat flying assignment. He did get an assignment to the Ferry Command, a newly formed unit that delivered aircraft and supplies to war zones all over the world; he spent most of the war flying between the United States and India, via the Azores and North Africa or South America, Nigeria and Central Africa. He flew "the hump" over the Himalayas to deliver supplies to China. He remained in the reserves after the war, retiring at the rank of [[Major General]]. He had flown 165 different types of aircraft by that time.
Goldwater's son, [[Barry Goldwater, Jr.]], served as a [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House]] member from [[California]] from [[1969]] to [[1983]].
Goldwater was also an avid [[amateur radio]] operator, call sign K7UGA [http://wireless2.fcc.gov/UlsApp/UlsSearch/license.jsp?licKey=262314].
==Political career==
Goldwater entered Phoenix politics in [[1949]]. He first won a Senate seat in [[U.S. Senate election, 1952|1952]], when he upset veteran Democratic Senate majority leader [[Ernest McFarland]]. He defeated McFarland again in 1958, but in 1964 ran for president and not for reelection.
The two issues Goldwater became most associated with were reform of the corruption in labor unions, and anti-Communism. He was an active supporter of the [[Conservative coalition]] in Congress. His work on labor issues led to major reforms passed by Congress in 1957, and an all-out campaign by the [[AFL-CIO]] to defeat his reelection bid in 1958. He voted against the censure of McCarthy in 1954, but he was much more careful than McCarthy, and never charged anyone with secretly being a Communist agent. Goldwater emphasized his strong opposition to the spread of worldwide communism in his 1960 book ''[[Conscience of a Conservative|The Conscience of a Conservative]]'', which became a bible in conservative circles.
Goldwater had a controversial record on [[civil rights]]. Locally he was a supporter of the Arizona [[NAACP]] and was involved in desegregating the Arizona [[United States National Guard|National Guard]]. As a Senator, he was a supporter of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1957]] and [[Civil Rights Act of 1960|1960]]. However, he opposed the much more comprehensive [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] on the grounds that it was an inappropriate extension of the federal commerce power to private citizens in order to "legislate morality" and restrict the rights of employers. Although conservative Southern Democrats were the main opponents to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and previous civil rights legislation, his opposition to the Act strongly boosted Goldwater's standing among white southerners.
In 1964, he fought and won a bitterly contested multi-candidate race for the GOP presidential nomination. His main challenger was New York Governor [[Nelson A. Rockefeller]], whom he defeated in the California primary. His nomination was challenged by more moderate Republicans who thought his hardline foreign policy stances would come back to haunt him. He lost to [[Lyndon Johnson]] in a landslide, and the Republican party suffered a significant setback nationally, losing many seats in both houses of Congress. Goldwater carried only his home state and five "Deep South" states.
He remained popular in Arizona and in [[U.S. Senate election, 1968|1968 Senate election]] he was elected to an open seat. He served three more terms and retired in 1987, serving as chair of the Senate Intelligence and Armed Services Committees in his final term. Despite his reputation as a firebrand in the [[1960s]], by the end of his career he was considered a stabilizing influence in the Senate, and one of its most respected members of either party. However, Goldwater remained staunchly anti-communist and hawkish on military issues: he led the unsuccessful fight against ratification of the [[Panama Canal Treaty]] in the 1970s, which ceded U.S. control of the canal to the government of [[Panama]]. Goldwater brought suit to challenge the constitutionality of President [[Jimmy Carter]]'s Panama Canal policies in the famous [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] case of ''[[Goldwater v. Carter]]''. His most important legislative achievement was the [[Goldwater-Nichols Act]] which reorganized the senior command structure of the military.
Goldwater was a supporter of Wisconsin Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]] to the bitter end (one of only 22 Senators who voted against McCarthy's censure), developed a deep friendship with President John F. Kennedy and a lasting dislike for Lyndon B. Johnson, whom he said "used every dirty trick in the bag", and Richard Nixon, whom he later called "the most dishonest individual I have ever met in my life" (though he was a key ally of Nixon during Nixon's administration, Goldwater felt deeply betrayed by [[Watergate]]). Goldwater tended to have a caustic wit that cost him popularity in the Republican Party. He once characterized the policies of the Eisenhower administration as a "dime-store new deal". President Eisenhower once said to him "Barry, you speak too quick and too loud".
==[[U.S. presidential election, 1964]]==
Before Goldwater, the Republican Party was not clearly committed to conservatism, as the Northeastern liberalism of [[Nelson Rockefeller]] and [[Margaret Chase Smith]] remained vital in the party. He alarmed even some of his fellow partisans with his brand of staunch [[Conservatism#Fiscal conservatism|fiscal conservatism]] and militant [[anti-Communism]]. He was viewed by many traditional Republicans as too far to the [[Right wing|right]] to win a national election and moderate Republicans drafted [[Governor of Pennsylvania|Pennsylvania Governor]] [[William Scranton]] to challenge Goldwater. Scranton won the support of several state delegations but failed to win the nomination. After securing the nomination, Goldwater boldly declared in his acceptance speech at the [[1964]] Republican Convention that "…Extremism in the defense of liberty is no vice. And let me remind you also that moderation in the pursuit of justice is no virtue." (This paraphrase of remarks by [[Cicero]] was included at the suggestion of [[Harry V. Jaffa]], though the speech was primarily written by [[Karl Hess]].) Due to Johnson's popularity, however, Goldwater held back from attacking the president directly: he did not even mention Johnson by name in his convention speech.
Earlier comments followed Goldwater throughout his campaign. Once he called the [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower]] administration "a dime store [[New Deal]]," and the former president never fully forgave him. Eisenhower did, however, film a TV commercial with Goldwater. When Eisenhower voted for Goldwater in November, he remarked that he had voted not specifically for Goldwater, but rather for the Republican Party. In December 1961, Goldwater told a news conference that "sometimes I think this country would be better off if we could just saw off the [[Eastern Seaboard]] and let it float out to sea." That comment came back to haunt him during the campaign in the form of a Johnson television commercial, as did remarks about making [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] voluntary and selling the [[Tennessee Valley Authority]].
The Goldwater campaign launched the careers of several important conservative figures. [[Ronald Reagan]], once a Democrat, gave a stirring nationally-televised speech, "A Time for Choosing," in support of Goldwater, which launched his own political career [http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/reaganatimeforchoosing.htm]. Conservative activist [[Phyllis Schlafly]], best known for her fight against the [[Equal Rights Amendment]], first became known for writing a pro-Goldwater book, "A Choice, Not an Echo," attacking the liberal Republican establishment.
One of the less politically charged Goldwater campaign slogans, used mainly on bumper stickers, read simply "Au H<sub>2</sub>O 64" (combining the [[chemical symbol]]s for [[gold]] and [[water]]).
Goldwater was painted as a dangerous figure by the Johnson campaign, which countered Goldwater's slogan "In your heart, you kno |
ograms were broadcast in [[Khmer language|Khmer]], [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], [[French language|French]], [[English language|English]], [[Lao language|Lao]], and [[Thai language|Thai]]. With [[Vietnam]]ese assistance, television broadcasting was instituted on a trial basis in December 1983 and then regularly at the end of [[1984]]. As of March 1986, Television Kampuchea (TVK) operated two hours an evening, four days a week in the [[Phnom Penh]] area only. There were an estimated 52,000 television sets as of early 1986. In December 1986, Vietnam agreed to train Cambodian television technicians. The following month, the [[Soviet Union]] agreed to cooperate with Phnom Penh in the development of electronic media. Cambodian viewers began to receive Soviet television programs after March 1987, through a satellite ground station that the Soviet Union had built in Phnom Penh.
Beginning in [[1979]], the [[Heng Samrin]] regime encouraged people to read official journals and to listen to the radio every day. Widespread illiteracy and a scarcity of both print media and radio receivers, however, meant that few Cambodians could follow the government's suggestion. But even when these media were available, "cadres and combatants" in the armed forces, for example, were more interested in listening to music programs than in reading about "the situation and developments in the country and the world or articles on good models of good people."
==Telecommunications==
Postal, telegraph, and telegram services under the Ministry of Communications, Transport, and Posts were restored throughout most of the country in the early 1980s. Radio communications were frequent; the Voice of the Kampuchean People broadcast ten hours daily from Phnom Penh in the late 1980s. An estimated 171,000 radio sets existed in the country in 1984 (the last year for which data were available). Cambodia's only television station began broadcasting, with Vietnamese assistance, in December 1984. Color transmissions began in July 1986.
In January 1987, the Soviet-aided [[Intersputnik]] space communications station began operation in Phnom Penh and established two-way telecommunication links between the Cambodian capital and the cities of [[Moscow]], [[Hanoi]], [[Vientiane]], and [[Paris]]. The completion of the earth satellite station (built on the grounds of Phnom Penh's old [[Roman Catholic]] cathedral), restored the telephone and telex links among Phnom Penh, Hanoi, and other [[socialism|socialist]] countries for the first time since [[1975]]. Although telecommunications services were limited to the government, these advances in communications helped break down the country's isolation, both internally and internationally.
'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
21,800 (mid-1998)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
34,880 (1998)
'''Telephone system:'''
adequate landline and/or cellular service in [[Phnom Penh]] and other provincial cities; rural areas have little telephone service
<br>''domestic:''
NA
<br>''international:''
adequate but expensive landline and cellular service available to all countries from Phnom Penh and major provincial cities; satellite earth station - 1 [[Intersputnik]] ([[Indian Ocean]] region)
'''[[Radio]] [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 7, FM 3, shortwave 3 (1999)
'''Radios:'''
1.34 million (1997)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
5 (1999)
'''Televisions:'''
94,000 (1997)
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
2 (1999)
'''[[Country codes|Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' KH
[[Category:Communications in Cambodia| ]]
[[bg:&#1050;&#1086;&#1084;&#1091;&#1085;&#1080;&#1082;&#1072;&#1094;&#1080;&#1080; &#1074; &#1050;&#1072;&#1084;&#1073;&#1086;&#1076;&#1078;&#1072;]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Transportation in Cambodia</title>
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<comment>/* Railways */ bypass redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">War and continuing fighting severely damaged [[Cambodia]]'s transportation system&mdash;a system that had been inadequately developed in peacetime. The country's weak infrastructure hindered emergency relief efforts and created tremendous problems of procurement of supplies in general and of distribution. Cambodia received Soviet technical assistance and equipment to support the maintenance of the transportation network.
==Railways==
* total - 603 km
* narrow gauge - 603 km 1000mm gauge
Cambodia had two rail lines, both originating in [[Phnom Penh]], totaling about 612 kilometers of single, one-meter-gauge track. The French built the first line, which runs from Phnom Penh to [[Poipet]] on the Thai border, between 1930 and 1940. Assistance from France, West Germany, and China, between 1960 and 1969, supported the construction of the second line, which runs from Phnom Penh to [[Sihanoukville]] at the southern coast. Rail service ceased during the war, but resumed in the early 1980s. Guerrilla activities, however, continued to disrupt service.
=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===
* [[Transportation in Thailand|Thailand]] - yes
* [[Transportation in Laos|Laos]] - no
* [[Transportation in Vietnam|Vietnam]] - no
==Highways==
* total - 35,769 km
* paved - 4,165 km
* unpaved - 31,604 km (1997 est.)
Of the current total, only about 20 percent of the roads and highways were covered with asphalt and were in passable condition; about 50 percent of the roads were made of crushed stone, gravel, or improved earth; and the remaining approximately 30 percent were unimproved earth or were little more than tracks. In 1981 Cambodia opened a newly repaired section of National Route 1, which runs southeast from Phnom Penh to the Vietnamese border. The road, which suffered damage during the war years, was restored most probably by Vietnamese army engineers. In the late 1980s, Cambodia's road network was both underutilized and unable to meet even the modest demands placed upon it by an unindustrialized and agrarian society (see fig. 8.). Commercial vehicles, such as trucks and buses, were insufficient in number and lacked spare parts necessary to keep them running. Road construction and maintenance were ignored by a financially hard-pressed government, while insurgents regularly destroyed bridges and rendered some routes unsafe for travel.
==Waterways==
The nation's extensive inland waterways were important historically in domestic trade. The [[Mekong]] and the [[Tonle Sap River]]s, their numerous tributaries, and the Tonle Sap provided avenues of considerable length, including 3,700 kilometers navigable all year by craft drawing 0.6 meters and another 282 kilometers navigable to craft drawing 1.8 meters. In some areas, especially west of the Mekong River and north of the Tonle Sab River, the villages were completely dependent on waterways for communications. Launches, junks, or barges transported passengers, rice, and other food in the absence of roads and railways.
According to the Ministry of Communications, Transport, and Posts, Cambodia's main ferry services crossing the Basak River and the middle Mekong River at Neak Luong (Phumi Prek Khsay), Tonle Bet, Sre Ambel, Kampong Cham, and Stoeng Treng were restored in 1985. The major Mekong River navigation routes also were cleared for traffic.
==Seaports and harbors==
Cambodia has two major ports, Phnom Penh and [[Sihanoukville]], also known as Kampong Som, and five minor ones. Phnom Penh, located at the junction of the [[Basak River|Basak]], the Mekong, and the Tonle Sab rivers, is the only [[river port]] capable of receiving 8,000-ton ships during the wet season and 5,000-ton ships during the dry season. It remains an important port for international commerce as well as for domestic communications.
Sihanoukville, Cambodia's only seaport, reopened in late 1979. It had been built in 1960 with French assistance. In 1980 some 180 Soviet dockworkers, having brought with them forklifts and trucks, were reportedly working at Kampong Som as longshoremen or as instructors of unskilled Cambodian port workers. By 1984 approximately 1,500 Cambodian port workers were handling 2.5 tons of cargo per day. According to official statistics, Sihanoukville had handled only 769,500 tons in the four prior years (1979 to 1983), a level that contrasted sharply with the port's peacetime capacity of about 1 million tons of cargo per year.
==Merchant marine==
* total - 211 [[ship]]s (1,000 [[GRT]] or over) totaling 953,105 [[GRT]]/1,345,766 [[DWT]]
* ships by type - bulk 20, [[cargo]] 166, combination bulk 1, container 5, livestock carrier 2, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 2, refrigerated cargo 7, roll-on/roll-off 6 (1999 est.)
* note - a flag of convenience registry; includes ships of 8 countries: [[Aruba]] 1, [[Cyprus]] 7, [[Egypt]] 1, [[South Korea]] 1, [[Malta]] 1, [[Panama]] 1, [[Russia]] 5, [[Singapore]] 1 (1998 est.)
==Airports==
19 (1999 est.)
The country possesses twenty-six airfields, of which only thirteen were usable in the mid-1980s. Eight airfields had permanent-surface runways. Pochentong International Airport near Phnom Penh is the largest airport; it also serves as the main base for the renascent Cambodian Air Force (see Kampuchean, or Khmer, People's Revolutionary Armed Forces, ch. 5). Cambodia opened a new Soviet-built airfield at Ream near Kampong Saom in late 1983. There are additional secondary airports in Siemreab and in Batdambang.
Air Kampuchea was established in 1982 and flew only one route-- from Phnom Penh to Ho Chi Minh City in Vietnam. In 1984 commercial air service was inaugurated between Phnom Penh and Hanoi with the |
cic surgery researcher [[Jerry Leaf]] at [[Alcor Life Extension Foundation | Alcor]] to develop a medical model for cryonics procedures. Prior to [[Jerry Leaf | Leaf]] and [[Mike Darwin |Darwin]], cryonics preparation was little more than a mortuary procedure in which [[cryoprotectant]] chemicals were substituted for embalming fluid. [[Jerry Leaf | Leaf]] and [[Mike Darwin | Darwin]] showed that [[CPR]] and medications applied immediately after [[cardiac arrest]], followed by cardiopulmonary bypass and thoracic surgery for access to major blood vessels, could greatly reduce [[ischemia | ischemic]] injury (injury caused by stopped blood flow) in cryonics patients. They created the cryonics procedure now known as a “standby”, in which a stabilization team stands by to institute life support procedures at the bedside of a cryonics patient as soon as possible after the heart stops.
Cryonics received new support in the 1980s when MIT engineer [[Eric Drexler]] started publishing papers and books foreseeing the new field of [[molecular nanotechnology]]. His 1986 book, [[Engines of Creation]], included an entire chapter on cryonics applications[http://www.foresight.org/EOC/EOC_Chapter_9.html]. Cryonics advocates saw the nascent field of nanotechnology as vindication of their long held view [http://www.foresight.org/EOC/EOC_References.html#0156] that molecular repair of injured tissue was theoretically possible.
Nanotechnology has also been the cause of controversy within the cryonics field, with some cryonics advocates arguing that sophisticated preservation methods aren’t necessary because “nanotechnology is necessary and sufficient” for cryonics to work. Critics countered that believing nanotechnology is necessary and sufficient without regard to preservation quality is more religion than science. The simultaneous advent of [[Jerry Leaf | Leaf]] and [[Mike Darwin | Darwin’s]] medical model of cryonics, and the nanotechnology repair paradigm, polarized cryonics into two schools of thought [http://www.alcor.org/Library/html/MythOfTheGoldenScalpel.html] that persist to the present day. One school tends to believe that simple inexpensive procedures administered by morticians are sufficient, while the other advocates monitoring and maintaining viability by contemporary medical methods as far as possible into the procedure, with reversible [[suspended animation]] as an ultimate goal.
In the late 1980s a nexus of favorable circumstances, including technical progress, support from nanotechnology experts, and effective communications, led to a period of rapid growth, especially of [[Alcor Life Extension Foundation | Alcor]]. [[Alcor Life Extension Foundation | Alcor’s]] membership expanded ten-fold within a decade, with a 30% annual growth rate between 1988 and 1992.
[[Alcor Life Extension Foundation | Alcor ]] was disrupted by political turmoil in 1993 when a group of activists left to start the [http://www.cryocare.org/index.cgi CryoCare Foundation], and associated for-profit companies CryoSpan, Inc. (headed by Paul Wakfer) and [http://www.cryocare.org/index.cgi?subdir=bpi&url=bpi.html BioPreservation, Inc.] (headed by [[Mike Darwin]]). [[Mike Darwin | Darwin]] and collaborators made many technical advances during this time period, including a [http://www.alcor.org/Library/html/braincryopreservation1.html landmark study] documenting high quality brain preservation by freezing with high concentrations of glycerol. CryoCare ceased operations in 1999 when they were unable to renew their service contract with BioPreservation. CryoCare’s two patients stored at CryoSpan were transferred to [[Alcor Life Extension Foundation | Alcor]]. Several [[American Cryonics Society | ACS]] patients stored at CryoSpan were transferred to [[Cryonics Institute | CI]].
There have been numerous, often transient, for-profit companies involved in cryonics. For-profit companies were often paired or affiliated with non-profit groups they served. Some of these companies, with non-profits they served in parentheses, were Cryonic Interment, Inc. (CSC), Cryo-Span Corporation (CSNY), Cryo-Care Equipment Corporation (CSC and CSNY), Manrise Corporation ([[Alcor Life Extension Foundation | Alcor]]), CryoVita, Inc. ([[Alcor Life Extension Foundation | Alcor]]), BioTransport, Inc. ([[Alcor Life Extension Foundation | Alcor]]), [http://www.transtime.com/ Trans Time, Inc.] (BACS), Soma, Inc. (IABS), CryoSpan, Inc. (CryoCare and [[American Cryonics Society | ACS]]), BioPreservation, Inc. (CryoCare and [[American Cryonics Society | ACS]]), [http://www.suspendedinc.com/ Suspended Animation, Inc.] ([[Alcor Life Extension Foundation | Alcor]] and [[Cryonics Institute | CI]]). Only Trans Time and Suspended Animation still exist. Apparently none of the companies were ever profitable. The cryonics field seems to have largely consolidated around the two non-profit groups, [[Alcor Life Extension Foundation | Alcor]] and [[Cryonics Institute]] (CI), both deriving significant income from bequests and donations.
As research in the 1990s revealed the damaging effects of freezing in greater detail, there was a trend to use higher concentrations of glycerol [[cryoprotectant]] to prevent freezing injury. In 2001 Alcor began using [[vitrification]] (a technology borrowed from mainstream organ preservation research) in an attempt to completely prevent ice formation during cold preservation. Because [[vitrification]] technology could then only be applied to the head, heads and bodies were sometimes separated to optimize preservation of the brain, causing much public confusion.
In 2005 Alcor began applying [[vitrification]] (or [http://www.alcor.org/Library/html/newtechnology.html attempted vitrification]) treatment to the whole body simultaneously without removal of the head. In the same year, the Cryonics Institute began using a [http://www.cryonics.org/reports/CI69.html new procedure] in which the head is vitrified while still attached to the body, which is frozen without any [[cryoprotectant]].
When the baseball star [[Ted Williams]] was [[cryopreservation | cryopreserved]] by [[Alcor Life Extension Foundation|Alcor]] in 2002 a family dispute arose as to whether Ted had really wanted to be [[cryopreservation | cryopreserved]]. Following a July, 2003 [[Sports Illustrated]] article claiming that Alcor had mishandled Ted Williams{{ref|Note4}}{{ref|Note5}}{{ref|Note6}}, Alcor had to fight for its existence in the [[Arizona]] legislature.{{ref|Note7}} At minimum, Alcor could have been denied use of the [[Uniform Anatomical Gift Act]], which could have impaired its ability to gain rapid access to cryonics patients. Despite not being responsible for Ted Williams, the media blitz resulted in the [[Cryonics Institute]] (CI) being placed under a "Cease and Desist" order by the State of [[Michigan]] for six months. Finally the Michigan government decided to regulate CI as a [[cemetery]].
[[Alcor Life Extension Foundation|Alcor]] currently maintains about 70 cryonics patients in [[Scottsdale, Arizona]] and the [[Cryonics Institute]] has about the same number of cryonics patients in its Clinton Township, [[Michigan]] facility. There are no cryonics service providers outside of the United States, although there are support groups in [[Europe]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]] and the [[United Kingdom]].
==Culture==
===Cryonics in mass culture===
Procedures similar to cryonics have been featured in innumerable [[science fiction]] stories to aid space travel, or as means to transport a character from the past into the future. In addition to accomplishing whatever the character's primary task is in the future, he or she must cope with the strangeness of a new world, which may contain only traces of their previous surroundings. This prospect of alienation is often cited as a major reason for the unpopularity of cryonics.
Relatively few stories have been published concerning the primary objective and definition of cryonics, which is medical time travel. Novels with this theme include the national best-seller ''[[The First Immortal]]'' by [[James Halperin]], ''[[The Age of the Pussyfoot]]'' by [[Fred Pohl]], ''[[Chiller]]'' by Sterling Blake (aka [[Gregory Benford]]), ''[[Tomorrow and Tomorrow]]'' by [[Charles Sheffield]], ''Ralph’s Journey'' by David Pizer, and ''Formerly Brandewyne'' by Jude Liebermann. The novel ''Fiasco'' by [[Stanislaw Lem]] raised the question of whether a person [[cryopreservation | cryopreserved ]] for centuries and then revived with amnesia is still the same person. A 1931 short story by [[Neil R. Jones]] called ''[[The Jameson Satellite]]'' has been credited with giving [[Robert Ettinger]] the seed of the idea of cryonics when he was a teenager.
Movies featuring time travel for medical purposes include the [[Woody Allen]] comedy, ''[[Sleeper (film)|Sleeper]]'', and the films ''[[Late for Dinner]]'' and ''[[Vanilla Sky]]''. Although not about cryonics per se, the [[Ron Howard]] film ''[[Cocoon (film)|Cocoon]]'' has been [http://www.alcor.org/cryonics/cryonics8508.txt hailed] by cryonics advocates as expressing the values motivating cryonics better than any other film.
On television, producer [[David E. Kelley]] wrote well-researched and essentially accurate portrayals of cryonics for the T.V. shows ''[[L.A. Law]]'' ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0624130/ 1990 episode]), ''[[Picket Fences]]'' (
[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0674696/ 1994 episode]), and ''[[Boston Legal]]''
([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0530525/ 2005 episode]). In each case, there was a dying plaintiff petitioning a court for the right to elective [[cryopreservation]]. The episode "[[The Neutral Zone (TNG episode)|The Neutral Zone]]" from the first season of ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'' also featured three [[cryopreservation | cryopreserved]] people in an ancient spacecraft. They had legally died in the 20th century, but were viable and recov |
]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Bayezid I</title>
<id>4241</id>
<revision>
<id>39934805</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T22:54:17Z</timestamp>
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<username>TimBentley</username>
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<comment>Corrected link to disambiguation page. ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation_pages_with_links|you can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beyazid I.jpg|frame|Bayezid I]]
''' Bayezid I ''' ([[Turkish language|Turkish]]: ''Bayezıt'', nicknamed ''Yıldırım'', "the Thunderbolt"; [[Arabic language|Arabic]]: بايزيد الأول; ca [[1354]]&ndash;[[1403]]) was the [[sultan]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]] from [[1389]] to [[1402]]. He ascended to the throne following the assassination of his father [[Murad I]] and immediately had his younger brother [[Yakub]] strangled to prevent him from staging a coup.
In revenge for the assassination of [[Murad I]] in the first [[Battle of Kosovo]], Bayezid massacred the [[Serbian]] prisoners responsible. He then took as a wife the daughter of the [[King]] of [[Serbia]], allying himself with Serbs and enabling his offspring to claim [[Serbia]] as a dynastic privilege. He appointed [[Stephen Bulcovic]] as [[Serbian]] leader, and granted [[Serbia]] considerable autonomy. After this victory he started drinking alcohol but stopped after social unrest about his conduct.
In [[1391]] Bayezid laid siege to [[Constantinople]], the capital of the [[Byzantine empire]]. On the demand of the [[Byzantine]] emperor [[John V Palaeologus]] a new [[crusade]] was organized to defeat him. This proved unsuccessful: in [[1396]] the [[Christianity|Christian]] allies, under the leadership of the [[Hungary|Hungarian]] King and [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor|Sigismund]], were defeated in the [[Battle of Nicopolis]]. The siege of [[Constantinople]] thus continued, lasting until [[1401]]. At one point, the Emperor even fled from the city. Salvation for the [[Byzantine empire]], assaulted by Bayezid's Ottomans, came unexpectedly from the [[Mongol]] declaration of war on [[Bayezid]].
In [[1400]], the Central Asian warlord [[Timur Lenk]] had succeeded in rousing the local kingdoms that had been conquered by the [[Ottoman Empire|Turks]] to join him in his attack on [[Bayezid]]. In the fateful [[Battle of Ankara]], on [[July 20]], [[1402]], [[Bayezid]] was captured by [[Timur]]. His sons however escaped, and fled to [[Serbia]] until [[Timur]] died. Some contemporary reports claimed that [[Timur]] kept [[Bayezid]] chained in a cage as a trophy. Likewise, there are many stories about [[Bayezid]]'s captivity, including one that describes how [[Timur]] used him as a footstool. Another one describes how Timur made [[Bayezid]]'s [[Serbian]] wife dance naked at his court. However, these accounts are thought to be false, as writers from [[Timur]]'s court reported that [[Bayezid]] was treated well, and that [[Timur]] even mourned his death. Likewise, [[Timur]]'s own history with other rulers demonstrated that he was true to his word when he later claimed to have aimed at re-establishing [[Bayezid]] on the [[Ottoman]] throne. One year later, [[Bayezid]] died &mdash; some accounts claim that he committed [[suicide]].
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<page>
<title>Bayezid II</title>
<id>4242</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beyazid II.jpg|frame|Sultan Beyazid II]]
'''Bayezid II''' ([[1447]]/[[1448|48]] &ndash; [[May 26]], [[1512]]) ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: بايزيد الثاني) was the [[sultan]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]] from [[1481]] to [[1512]].
Bayezid was born in [[Demotika]] in [[Thrace]]. The son of [[Mehmed II]] the Conqueror, Bayezid ascended the Ottoman throne in 1481. Like his father, Bayezid was a patron of western and eastern culture and unlike many other Sultans, worked hard to ensure a smooth running of domestic politics, which earned him the epithet of "the Just". Throughout his reign, Bayezid engaged in numerous campaigns to conquer the [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]]-held despotate of [[Morea]], accurately defining this region as the key to future Ottoman naval power in the Eastern [[Mediterranean]]. The last of these wars ended in [[1501]] with Bayezid in control of the main citadels of [[Mistra]] and [[Monemvasia]].
Bayezid's overriding concern was the quarrel with his brother [[Cem]], who claimed the throne and sought military backing from the [[Knights of St John]] in [[Rhodes]]. Eventually the Knights handed Cem over to [[Pope Clement VII]]. The Pope thought of using Cem as a tool to drive the Turks out of Europe, but as the Papal Crusade failed to come to fruition, Cem was left to fester and die in a Neapolitan prison.
Rebellions in the east, such as that of the [[Kizil Bash]], plagued much of Bayezid's reign and were often backed by the [[Shah]] of [[Iran|Persia]], [[Ismail of Persia|Ismail]], who was eager to promote [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'ism]] to undermine the authority of the Ottoman state. Ottoman authority in [[Anatolia]] was indeed seriously threatened during this period, and at one point Bayezid's grand [[vizier]], Ali Pasha, was killed in battle against rebels.
Bayezid also sent out the Ottoman navy to Spain in 1492 to safely bring Jews, who were fleeing the Spanish Inquisition, to Ottoman lands.
On [[September 14]], [[1509]], Constantinople was devastated by an earthquake. Bayezid's final years saw a succession battle between his sons [[Selim I|Selim]] and Ahmed. Ahmed, the older of the two claimants had won a battle against the Karaman Turks and their Safavid allies in Asia Minor and now marched on [[Constantinople]] to exploit his triumph. Fearing for his safety, Selim staged a revolt in Thrace but was defeated by Bayezid and forced to flee to the [[Crimea]] ([[1511]]). At this point, Bayezid developed fears that Ahmed might in turn kill him to gain the throne and refused to allow his son to enter Constantinople.
Selim returned from the Crimea and, with support from the [[Janissary|Janissaries]], defeated and killed Ahmed. Bayezid then [[abdication|abdicated]] the throne on [[April 25]], [[1512]]. He departed for retirement in his native Demotika, but he died along the way, and is buried next to [[Bayezid Mosque]] in [[Istanbul]].
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[[Category:1447 births|Beyazid II]]
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<page>
<title>Boxing</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:35:46Z</timestamp>
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<comment>Revert to revision 41986749 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Boxing (disambiguation)]] or [[Boxer (disambiguation)]]''
[[Image:Boxing080905.jpg|thumb|450px]]
'''Boxing''', nicknamed the "sweet science" and also called '''pugilism''' or '''prizefighting''', is a sport where two participants of similar weight attack each other with their fists in a series of one to three-minute intervals called "rounds". In both Amateur and Professional divisions, the combatants (called boxers or fighters) avoid their opponent's punches whilst trying to land punches of their own. Points are awarded for clean, solid blows to the legal area on the front of the opponent's body above the waistline, with hits to the head and torso especially valuable. The fighter with the most points after the scheduled number of rounds is declared the winner. Victory may also be achieved if the opponent is knocked down and unable get up before the referee counts to ten (a Knockout, or KO) or if the opponent is deemed too injured to continue (a Technical Knockout, or TKO).
==Origins==
[[Image:NAMA Akrotiri 2.jpg|thumb|200px|Youths boxing in a [[Minoan]] fresco on the Greek island of Santorini]]
Earliest evidence suggests that boxing was prevalent in North Africa during 4000 BC and the Mediterranean in 1500 BC.
A [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] ruler named Thesus, who ruled around 900 B.C., was entertained by men who would be seated in front of each other and beat another with their fists until one of them was killed. In time, the fighters fought on their feet and wore gloves (not padded) and wrappings on their arms below the elbows, but were otherwise naked when competing. First accepted as an Olympic sport (the ancient Greeks called it Pygme/ Pygmachia) in 688 BC, participants in the ancient games t |
Sodom, The Flats] (Ithaca NY Community Profile)
== Books set (at least partially) in Ithaca ==
*[[Lolita]] by [[Vladimir Nabokov]] (schoolgirl dialog captured on Ithaca city buses)
*[[War Between the Tates]] by [[Alison Lurie]] ('Corinth University', a thinly-disguised portrait of Cornell)
*[[Been Down So Long It Looks Like Up to Me]] by [[Richard Fariña]] ('Mentor University', same as above)
*[[The Widening Stain]] by [[Morris Bishop]]
*[[The Names of the Dead]] by [[Stewart O'Nan]]
*[[Enchantment (novel)|Enchantment]] by [[Orson Scott Card]] (partially set in Ithaca and fictional nearby towns)
*Various [[Kurt Vonnegut]] books have Ithaca references
*[[Fool on the Hill]] by [[Matt Ruff]]
*[[The Emigrants (book)]] by [[W.G. Sebald]]
*[[Tess of the Storm Country]] by [[Grace White]]
==Notable residents and natives==
*[[A.R. Ammons]], resident, [[poet]], [[Cornell University|Cornell]] [[Professor]]
*[[Hans Bethe]], resident, [[physicist]], Nobel Prize winner, Cornell Professor, head of theoretical division of the [[Manhattan Project]]
*[[Adam C. Engst]], native, resident, publisher of [[TidBITS]] and Take Control ebook series
*[[Richard Feynman]], resident, [[physicist]], Cornell Professor, Nobel Prize winner
*[[Greg Graffin]], resident, musician, lead singer of Bad Religion
*[[Alex Haley]], native, author of ''[[Roots: The Saga of an American Family]]'' and the ''[[Autobiography of Malcolm X]]''
*[[Karel Husa]], resident, composer
*[[David Lehman]], resident, [[poet]]
*[[Mary McDonnell]], native, actor in [[Dances With Wolves]], [[Independence Day]], and others
*[[Vladimir Nabokov]], resident, Cornell Professor, author (most famously of ''[[Lolita]]'')
*[[Roy H. Park]], resident, media executive, founder of Park Communications and the Park Foundation
*[[Hank Roberts]], resident, cellist and composer
*[[Carl Sagan]], resident, astronomer, Cornell Professor, popularizer of science, and author and host of ''[[Cosmos: A Personal Voyage|Cosmos]]''
*[[Rod Serling]], resident, professor, screenwriter, creator and host of ''[[The Twilight Zone]]''
*[[Steve Squyres]], resident, [[astronomer]], Cornell Professor, Principal Investigator of the [[Mars Exploration Rover Mission]]
*[[Steven Stucky]], resident, classical American composer, Cornell Professor, Pulitzer Prize winner
*[[David Foster Wallace]], native, [[novelist]]
*[[E.B. White]], resident, [[novelist]], author of [[Charlotte's Web]] and co-author of [[The Elements of Style]]
*[[Robert R. Wilson]], resident, [[physicist]], head of the [[Cyclotron]] group of the [[Manhattan Project]]
*[[Paul Wolfowitz]], native, academic, [[Deputy Secretary of Defense]] (2001-2005), President of the [[World Bank]] (2005-)
==Points of interest==
* [[Cornell Plantations]]
* [[Cornell University]]
* [[Ithaca College]]
* [[F.R. Newman Arboretum]]
* [http://www.priweb.org/ Paleontological Research Institution's Museum of the Earth]
==Nearby Parks, Major Trails, and Outdoor Recreation==
The Ithaca area is home to beautiful outdoor recreation, including an extensive system of pedestrian, hiking, skiing, snowmobile, and bicycling trails. See [[Trails in Ithaca, New York]].
==External links==
*{{wikitravelpar|Ithaca}}
*[http://www.sciencenter.org/SaganPW/ Carl Sagan Planet Walk]
*[http://home.hetnet.nl/~fatcat/railways.htm History of Ithaca railways]
*[http://home.hetnet.nl/~fatcat/street.htm History and Remnants of the Ithaca trolley system]
*[http://www.ithacadirectory.com Ithaca Website Directory]
== See Also ==
* [[List of Registered Historic Places in New York]]
{{New York}}
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<page>
<title>Ivy League</title>
<id>14975</id>
<revision>
<id>42128650</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:30:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.33.186.150</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" style="margin:0.5em;"
!colspan="2" align=center bgcolor="#006600" | <font color="#FFFFFF">'''Ivy League'''
|-
|colspan="2" align=center | [[Image:IvyLeague 100.png|Ivy League]]
|-
!colspan="2" align=center bgcolor="#006600" | <font color="#FFFFFF">'''Data'''
|-
|Established || 1954
|-
|Members || 8
|-
|Continent || [[North America]]
|-
|Country || [[United States]]
|-
|University type || [[Private school|Private]]
|-
|Other names || Ancient Eight
|-
|}
The '''Ivy League''' [[athletic conference]], founded in 1954, consists of eight private [[university|institutions of higher education]] located in the eastern [[United States]]. The term, with its connotations of academic excellence, selectivity in admissions, and a certain amount of [[academic elitism]], dates back to at least 1935{{ref|early_usage}}.
On [[December 3]], [[1937]], the first major effort to formally organize the league was made by editors of seven student-run dailies at universities in the Eastern United States. They made a concerted effort for "the formation of an Ivy League" by simultaneously running an editorial, entitled "Now Is the Time", after having held one-month-long discussions about the proposal{{ref|student_effort_to_organize}}.
All of the Ivy League institutions share some general characteristics: They are among the most prestigious and selective schools in the [[United States|U.S.]], they consistently place close to the top of [[college and university rankings]]; they rank within the top one percent of the world's academic institutions in terms of financial endowment; they attract top-tier students and faculty; and they have relatively small undergraduate populations, ranging between 4,078 for [[Dartmouth College]] and 13,700 for [[Cornell University]] and modestly sized graduate student populations, ranging between 1,666 for Dartmouth and 14,692 for [[Columbia University|Columbia]]. Seven of the eight schools ([[Cornell University]] being the exception) were founded during America's colonial period. Ivy League institutions, therefore, account for seven of the [[Colonial colleges|nine colleges]] chartered before the American Revolution. The Ivies also are all located in the [[U.S. Northeast|Northeast]] region of the [[United States]]. Notably, the Ivies also prohibit the offering of athletic scholarships to students in most cases; this ban differentiates Ivy teams from those of schools that permit students to receive scholarships to attend or to join a team.
The Ivy League institutions are [[private school|privately]] owned and controlled. Although many of them receive funding from the federal or state governments to pursue research, only [[Cornell University|Cornell]] has state-supported academic units, termed [[statutory college]]s, that are an integral part of the institution. Several other prestigous American instituitons are considered to be of Ivy League caliber including [[Stanford University]], [[Duke University]], [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], [[Caltech]], and [[Rice University]], among others.
==Members==
The members of the Ivy League are<!-- in alphabetical order-->:
{| class="wikitable"
!Institution
!Location
!School type
!Current religious affiliation
!Founding religious affiliation
!Full time enrollment
!Founded
|-
|[[Brown University]]
|[[Providence, Rhode Island]]
|Private
|Nonsectarian
|[[Baptist]] ([[Sabbatarianism|Sabbatarian]])
|7,595
|1764 as ''College of Rhode Island''
|-
|[[Columbia University|Columbia University]]
|[[New York City|New York, New York]]
|Private
|Nonsectarian
|[[Anglicanism|Anglican]]
|23,813
|1754 as ''[[King's College]]''
|-
|[[Cornell University]]
|[[Ithaca, New York]]
|Private
|Nonsectarian
|Nonsectarian
|20,299
|1865
|-
|[[Dartmouth College]]
|[[Hanover, New Hampshire]]
|Private
|Nonsectarian
|[[Puritan]] / [[Congregational church|Congregationalist]]
|5,744
|1769
|-
|[[Harvard University]]
|[[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]
|Private
|Nonsectarian
|[[Puritan]] / [[Congregational church|Congregationalist]]; sided with the [[Unitarian]]s in their 1825 split from Congregationalists
|19,779
|1636 as ''New College'', named ''[[Harvard College]]'' in 1638
|-
|[[Princeton University]]
|[[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton Borough and Princeton Township, New Jersey]]
|Private
|Nonsectarian
|[[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]]
|6,831
|1746 as ''College of New Jersey''
|-
|[[University of Pennsylvania]]
|[[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]]
|Private
|Nonsectarian
|[[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]]
|23,305
|1740
|-
|[[Yale University]]
|[[New Haven, Connecticut]]
|Private
|Nonsectarian
|[[Puritan]] / [[Congregational church|Congregationalist]]
|11,359
|1701 as ''Collegiate School''
|}
==Shields and mottos==
<gallery>
Image:Brown Coat of Arms.png|[[Brown University|Brown]] <br> ''In deo speramus'' <br> ("In God we hope")
Image:Cu-shield.png|[[Columbia University|Columbia]] <br> ''In lumine Tuo videbimus lumen'' <br> ("In Thy light shall we see light")
Image:Cornell_emblem.png|[[Cornell University|Cornell]] <br> "I would found an institution where any person can find instruction in any study"
Image:Dartmouth Shield.png|[[Dartmouth College|Dartmouth]] <br> ''Vox clamantis in deserto'' <br> ("The voice of one crying out in the wilderness")
Image:Harvard_shield-University.png|[[Harvard University|Harvard]] <br> ''Veritas'' <br> ("Truth")
Image:PennArms.png|[[University of Pennsylvania|Penn]] <br> ''Leges sine moribus vanae'' <br> ("Laws without morals are useless")
Image:PrincetonShield.gif|[[Princeton University|Princeton]] <br> ''Dei sub numine viget'' <br> ("Under God's power she flourishes")
Image:Official Yale Shi |
pounds in [[aqueous]] [[solution]] (usually [[ionic]]) exchange elements or ions to form different compounds:
:: NaCl (aq) + AgNO<sub>3</sub> (aq) → NaNO<sub>3</sub> (aq) + AgCl (cr)
*[[Combustion]], in which any combustible substance combines with an oxidizing element, usually oxygen, to generate heat and form oxidized, usually less complex products:
::C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>8</sub> (g) + 12O<sub>2</sub> (g) → 10CO<sub>2</sub> (g) + 4H<sub>2</sub>O (l)
::[[methylene sulfide|CH<sub>2</sub>S]] + 6 [[fluorine|F<sub>2</sub>]] &rarr; [[carbon tetrafluoride|CF<sub>4</sub>]] + 2 [[hydrogen fluoride|HF]] + [[sulfur hexafluoride|SF<sub>6</sub>]] + heat
Some branches of chemistry include any minor changes in [[chemical conformation]] in the reaction types, while others consider these changes merely as physical properties of a compound.
The collision of more than two particles into the ordered structure necessary to perform chemical transformations is extremely unlikely; which is why ternary reactions in practice are not observed. A chemical reaction may require three or more reagents, but the process can generally be decomposed into a stepwise series or a set of [[stepwise reaction]]s of the above.
[[list of reactions|The large diversity of chemical reactions]] makes it difficult to establish simple criteria for functional (as opposed to mechanistic) classification. However, some kinds of reactions have similarities which make it possible to define some larger groups. A few examples are:
* [[Organic reaction]]s encompass several different kinds of reactions involving compounds which have [[carbon]] as the main element in their molecular structure. These reactions occur mostly according to, within, by, or via [[functional group]]s. Reactions in [[petrochemistry]] aren't always classified as organic.
* [[Redox reaction]]s involve augmenting or decreasing the electrons associated with a particular atom. according to its [[oxidation number]].
* [[Combustion]], in which a substance reacts with an oxidizing element, such as [[oxygen]] gas.
Reactions are also classified according to their mechanism:
*Reactions of ions, e.g. [[disproportionation]] of [[hypochlorite]]
*Reactions with reactive ionic intermediates, e.g. reactions of [[enolate]]s
*[[Radical]] reactions, e.g. combustion at high temperature
*Reactions of [[carbene]]s
==Thermochemistry==
''See main article'': [[Thermochemistry]].
[[Thermochemistry]] deciphers whether a specific chemical reaction can or cannot occur. [[Thermodynamics]] (or what is now known as [[equilibrium thermodynamics|equilibrium thermodynamics]]) understands the reaction in terms of the initial and final states of the reaction mixture.
Reactions very seldom occur directly. Usually, reactants must collide to form an [[activated complex]]. This complex has a higher internal energy than the original reactants combined, having gained some from the [[kinetic energy]] of the reactant substances' collision. This energy allows for the rearrangement of bonds which constitutes the reaction. In some reactions, the reactants may pass through several [[reactive intermediates]] before becoming products.
Thermodynamics does not attempt to figure out the process by which a reaction occurs. This field of study is taken up by the field of [[chemical kinetics]]. Another question "How fast is the reaction?" is also left completely unanswered by it. [[Chemical kinetics]] attempts to put all these phenomena into perspective.
=== Chemical equilibrium ===
Every chemical reaction is, in theory, reversible. In a ''forward reaction'' the substances defined as [[reactant]]s are converted to [[product (chemistry)|products]]. In a ''reverse reaction'' products are converted into reactants.
[[Chemical equilibrium]] is the state in which the forward and reverse reaction rates are equal, thus preserving the amount of reactants and products. However, a reaction in equilibrium can be driven in the forward or reverse direction. This is done by changing the reaction conditions such as temperature or pressure. [[Le Chatelier's principle]] can be used to predict whether products or reactants will be formed.
Although all reactions are reversible to some extent, some reactions can be classified as irreversible. An ''irreversible reaction'' is one that "goes to completion." This phrase means that nearly all of the reactants are used to form products. These reactions are very difficult to reverse even under extreme conditions.
=== Exothermic reactions ===
[[image:ac_com.png|400px|thumb|right|A sketch of an exothermic reaction]]
According to energy balance criteria, that is, chemical reaction equilibria criteria, any [[closed system]] will tend to minimize its [[free energy]]. Without any outside influence, any reaction mixture, too, will try to do the same. For many cases, an analysis of the [[enthalpy]] of the system will give a decent account of the energetics of the reaction mixture.
The enthalpy of a reaction is calculated using standard [[reaction enthalpy|reaction enthalpies]] and the [[Hess' law of constant heat summation]]. Many of these enthalpies may be found in beginners' books on thermodynamics.
For example, consider the combustion of [[methane]] in [[oxygen]]:
:CH<sub>4</sub> + 2&nbsp;O<sub>2</sub> &rarr; CO<sub>2</sub> + 2&nbsp;H<sub>2</sub>O
By calculating the amounts of energy required to break all the bonds on the left ("before") and right ("after") sides of the equation using collected data, it is possible to calculate the energy difference between the reactants and the products. This is referred to as &Delta;''H'', where &Delta; (Delta) means difference, and ''H'' stands for [[enthalpy]], a measure of energy which is equal to the heat transferred at constant pressure. &Delta;''H'' is usually given in units of [[Joule|kilojoules]] (kJ) or in [[Calorie|kilocalories]] (kcal).
If &Delta;''H'' is negative for the reaction, then energy has been released often in the form of heat. This type of reaction is referred to as an [[exothermic reaction]] (literally, outside heat, or throwing off heat). An exothermic reaction is more favourable and thus more likely to occur. An example reaction is [[combustion]], known from everyday experience, since burning gas in air produces heat.
=== Endothermic reactions ===
A reaction may have a positive &Delta;''H''. If a reaction has a positive &Delta;''H'', it consumes energy as the reaction moves towards completion. This type of reaction is called an [[endothermic reaction]] (literally, inside heat, or absorbing heat).
The above rule, "Exothermic reactions are favourable", is usually true. However, there may be situations where exothermic reactions may not be favourable. This happens when the stability obtained due to loss of enthalpy is off set by a corresponding decrease in [[entropy]] (a measure of disorder).
The exact rule is that a reaction is favourable when the [[Gibbs free energy]] of that reaction is negative where &Delta;''G'' = &Delta;''H'' &minus; ''T''&Delta;''S''; &Delta;''G'' being the change in Gibbs free energy, &Delta;''H'' being the change in enthalpy, and &Delta;''S'' is the change in entropy
A reaction is called [[spontaneous process|spontaneous]] if its thermodynamically favoured, by that meaning that it causes a net increase on [[entropy]]. Spontaneous reactions (in opposition to non-spontaneous reactions) do not need external perturbations (such as energy supplement) to happen. In a system at chemical equilibrium, it is expected to have larger concentrations of the substances formed by the spontaneous direction of the process.
Thus, in a global [[isolated system]] (which it strictly isn't, see [[entropy]]), spontaneous reactions may be understood to occur without [[Intelligence_%28trait%29|human]] interference. Most spontaneus reactions in this system are exothermic (such as [[rust]]ing) or [[metamorphism]], thus increasing the global entropy, though [[photosynthesis]] is an important exeption (in a global system).
==Chemical kinetics==
''See main article:'' [[Chemical kinetics]].
The [[reaction rate|rate]] of a chemical reaction is a measure of how the [[concentration]] of the involved substances changes with time. Analysis of reaction rates is important for several applications, such as in [[chemical engineering]] or in [[chemical equilibrium]] study. Rates of reaction depends basically on:
*[[Reactant]] [[concentration]]s, which usually make the reaction happen at a faster rate if raised,
*[[Surface Area]], the amount of the substance being used,
*[[Pressure]], By increasing the pressure, you squeeze the molecules together so you will increase the frequency of collisions between the molecules.
*[[Activation energy]], which is defined as the amount of energy required to make the reaction start and carry on spontaneously. Higher activation energy implies that a reaction will be harder to start and, therefore, slower.
*[[Temperature]], which hastens reactions if raised, because higher temperature means that the involved species will have more energy, thus making the reaction easier to happen,
*The presence or absence of a [[catalyst]]. Catalysts are substances which increases the speed of a reaction by lowering the [[activation energy]] needed for the reaction to take place. A catalyst is not destroyed or changed during a reaction, so it can be used again.
Reaction rates are related to the [[concentrations]] of substances involved in reactions, as quantified by the [[mass action|law of mass action]]. Reactions whose rates are independent of reactant concentrations are called [[zero-order reaction]]s.
==See also==
*[[List of reactions]]
*[[Lis |
ed until [[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]] invented the microscope in the late seventeenth century, so barrier methods employed prior to that time could not know of the details of conception. Asian women may have used oiled paper as a [[cervical cap]], and Europeans may have used beeswax for this purpose. The [[condom]] appeared sometime in the seventeenth century, initially made of a length of animal intestine. It was not particularly popular, nor as effective as modern [[latex]] condoms, but was employed both as a means of contraception and in the hopes of avoiding [[syphilis]], which was greatly feared and devastating prior to the discovery of [[antibiotic]] drugs. <!-- (''time references and more details pending'') -->
Various [[abortifacient]]s have been used throughout human history, but are not considered by some to be birth control. Some of
these were effective, some were not; those that were most effective also had major side effects. One abortifacient reported to have low levels of side effects - silphium - was harvested to extinction around the first century CE{{ref|silphium}}. The ingestion of certain poisons by the female can disrupt the reproductive system; women have drunk solutions containing [[mercury (element)|mercury]], [[arsenic]], or other toxic substances for this purpose. The Greek [[gynaecologist]] [[Soranus]] in the second century AD suggested that women drink water that blacksmiths had used to cool metal. The herbs [[tansy]] and [[pennyroyal]] are well-known in folklore as abortive agents, but these also "work" by poisoning the woman. Levels of the active chemicals in these herbs that will induce a miscarriage are high enough to damage the liver, kidneys, and other organs, making them very dangerous. However, in those times where risk of maternal death from postpartum complications was high, the risks and side effects of toxic medicines may have seemed less onerous. Some herbalists claim that black cohosh tea will also be effective in certain cases as an abortifacient.
Presenters at a family planning conference told a tale of Arab traders inserting small stones into the [[uterus]]es of their camel in order to prevent pregnancy, a concept very similar to the modern [[IUD]]. Although the story has been repeated as truth, it has no basis in history and was meant only for entertainment purposes{{ref|camel}}. The first interuterine devices (which occupied both the vagina and the uterus) were first marketed around 1900. The first modern intrauterine device (contained entirely in the uterus) was described in a German publication in 1909, although the author appears to have never marketed his product{{ref|IUD}}.
The Rhythm Method (with a rather high method failure rate of 10% per year) was developed in the early twentieth century, as researchers discovered that a woman only ovulates once per menstrual cycle. Not until the mid-20th century, when scientists better understood the functioning of the menstrual cycle and the hormones that controlled it, were [[oral contraceptives]] and modern methods of [[fertility awareness]] (also known as [[natural family planning]]) developed.
==Birth control methods==
[[Image:ThreeColoredRolledUpCondoms.jpg|thumb|right|Three colored condoms]]
* [[celibacy]], or [[sexual abstinence]] (some may consider these be more properly called ''alternatives'' to birth control)
* non-vaginal [[human sexual behavior|sex]], such as
**Sex without [[sexual penetration|penetration]] ("[[outercourse]]")
**[[Anal sex]] or [[oral sex]]
* Withdrawal, i.e. [[coitus interruptus]]
* Barrier methods, often combined with [[spermicide]]s
** [[Condom]] (male and female)
** [[Diaphragm (contraceptive)|Diaphragm]]
** [[Lea's shield]]
** [[Cervical cap]]
** [[Contraceptive sponge]]
* Chemical methods
** Combined estrogen & progesterone:
*** [[Oral contraceptive|Combined oral contraceptive pill]] ("The Pill")
*** [[Contraceptive patch]]
*** [[Vaginal ring|Contraceptive vaginal ring]]
*** [[Lunelle]] (monthly injection)
** Progesterone used alone:
*** [[Progesterone only pill]] (POP)
*** [[Depo Provera]] (injection every three months)
*** [[Implant (medicine)|Implant]]s (such as [[Norplant]] or [[Implanon]])
(Most combined pills and POPs may also be taken in high doses as [[emergency contraception]], also known as the morning after pill.)
* Intrauterine methods
** [[Intrauterine Device]] ("IUD") which may also be used for emergency contraception
** [[IntraUterine System]] ("IUS")
* [[Fertility Awareness Method]]s aka [[Natural family planning]]
* [[Lactational Amenorrhea Method]]
* [[Abortion]] methods
** [[Abortion#Surgical abortion|Surgical abortion]]
** [[Chemical abortion]]
** [[Abortifacient|Herbal abortifacients]]
* Surgical [[sterilization (surgical procedure)|sterilization]]
** [[Tubal ligation]] for women
** [[Vasectomy]] for men
* Experimental [[male contraceptive]]s (future alternatives to condoms and vasectomy)
===Protection against sexually-transmitted infections===
Not all methods of birth control offer protection against [[sexually-transmitted infection]]s. Abstinence from all forms of [[Human sexual behavior|sexual behavior]] will protect against the ''sexual'' transmission of these infections. The male [[latex]] condom offers some protection against some of these diseases with correct and consistent use, as does the female condom, although the latter has only been approved for [[vaginal sex]]. The female condom may offer greater protection against sexually-transmitted infections that pass through skin to skin contact, as the outer ring covers more exposed skin than the male condom, and can be used during anal sex to guard against sexually-transmitted infections, though knowledge of the product is important in order to ensure its effectiveness.
The remaining methods of birth control do not offer significant protection against the sexual transmission of these diseases.
However, so-called sexually-transmitted infections may also be transmitted '''non-sexually''', and therefore, abstinence from sexual behavior does not guarantee 100% protection against sexually-transmitted infections. For example, [[HIV]] may be transmitted through contaminated needles which may be used in [[tattoo]]ing, [[body piercing]], or [[Injection (medicine)|injections]]. Health-care workers have acquired HIV through occupational exposure to accidental injuries with needles (PMID 12602690).
==Religious and cultural attitudes toward birth control==
===Christianity===
{{main|Christian views on contraception}}
Since the 1930 approval of contraception (in limited circumstance) by the [[Anglican Communion]], most Protestant groups have come to approve the use of modern contraceptives when couples do not desire children.
Like pre-20th century Protestantism, the [[Catholicism|Catholic Church]] is morally opposed to contraception and orgasmic acts outside of the context of marital intercourse. In some circumstance, the Catholic Church does approve of preventing pregnancy by use of [[natural family planning]], but all artificial forms of contraception are condemned.
=== Islam ===
The [[Qur'an]] does not make any explicit statements about the morality of contraception, but contains statements encouraging procreation. Various interpretations have been set forth over time, and at the time of this writing, discussions on the [[WWW|web]] can be found easily that take various positions. Early [[Muslim]] literature discusses various contraceptive methods, and a study sponsored by the [[Egypt|Egyptian government]] concluded that not only was ''azl'' ([[coitus interruptus]]) acceptable from a moral standpoint, but any similar method that did not produce [[sterility]] was also acceptable.
:''"It is permissible to use condoms so long as this does not cause any harm and so long as both husband and wife consent to their use, because this is similar to ''‘azl'' (''coitus interruptus'' or “withdrawal”). But it reduces the sensation of pleasure, which is the right of both partners, and reduces the chance of conception, which is also the right of both partners. Neither one of them is allowed to deprive the other of these rights. And Allaah is the course of strength." - islamic-paths.org, Sex and Sexuality in Islam - Condoms (2005) [http://www.islamic-paths.org/Home/English/Issues/Sexuality/Condoms.htm]''
However, there are several schools of thought on this as well as other issues concerning Islamic [[morality]]. In [[Iran]], an Islamic country, contraceptive methods are not only taught to married couples, but also encouraged to youngsters through posters and advertisements.
=== Judaism ===
The Jewish view on birth control currently varies between the [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]], [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]], and [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] branches of Judaism. Among Orthodox Judaism, use of birth control has been considered only acceptable for use in limited circumstances. Conservatives, while generally encouraging its members to follow the traditional Jewish views on birth control has been more willing to allow greater acceptations regarding its use to fit better within modern society. Reform Judaism has generally been the most liberal with regard to birth control allowing individual followers to use their own judgment in what, if any, birth control methods they might wish to employ.
Among traditional interpretations of the [[Torah]], active prevention of [[pregnancy]] is in violation of the commandment "be fruitful and multiply" ([[Genesis]] 1:22). Some [[Rabbi|Rabbinic authorities]] further consider the possibility (generally not accepted) that a union that by definition cannot lead to [[pregnancy]] would amount to "spilling seed", the sin of [[Onan]] ([[Genesis]] 38:9).
The option of contraception is raised by the [[Talmud]] (tractate Yevamot 12b), where the use of a [[pessary]] is discus |
basis of belief in existence of [[cyclops]], one-eyed [[giant (mythology)|giants]], which are featured in [[Homer]]'s [[Odyssey]].
Recent findings of [[animal]] remains in central [[China]] show [[Prehistory|Prehistoric]] humans ate elephants. The elephant is now a protected [[animal]], and keeping one as a pet is prohibited around the world.
==Zoology==
[[Image:Comparative_view_of_the_human_and_elephant_frame,_Benjamin_Waterhouse_Hawkins,_1860.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Comparative view of the human and elephant frames, c1860.]]
===African Elephant===
{{main articles|[[Savanna Elephant]] and [[Forest elephant]]}}
The mammals of the genus ''Loxodonta'', often known collectively as African elephants, are found in several regions throughout the continent after which they are named. In recent years, ''Loxodonta'' has received the attention of the world because of its dwindling numbers. Today there are approximately 600,000 African elephants in the world. Some believe this represents a stable population and that measures to protect them are unnecessary. Others argue that while elephants are locally overabundant in certain areas, it is impossible to ignore the fact that the overall population has dropped by a staggering amount. As recently as [[1979]] there were an estimated 1.3 million African elephants. One decade later, only around 600,000 remain. This decline is attributed primarily to [[poaching]], or illegal hunting, and habitat loss.
African elephants are distinguished from Asians in several ways. The most noticeable difference is the [[ear]]s. Africans' ears are much larger and are shaped like the continent of their origin. The African elephant is typically larger than the Asian and has a concave back. Both males and females have external tusks and are usually less hairy than their Asian cousins.
Until the late 20th century, scientists recognized one species of African elephants, ''Loxodonta africana'', and two subspecies, or races, within the species. Recent [[DNA analysis]] has led scientists to reclassify the two races as distinct species.
Today, ''Loxodonta africana'' refers specifically to the Savanna Elephant, the largest of all the elephants. In fact, it is the largest land animal in the world, standing on average 13 feet (4 meters) at the shoulder and weighing approximately 15,400 pounds (7,000 kilograms). Most often, Savanna Elephants are found in open [[grassland]]s, [[marsh]]es, and lakeshores. They range over most of Africa [[Sub-Saharan Africa|south of the Sahara]] Desert.
The other, less numerous species is the Forest Elephant, recently reclassified as ''Loxodonta cyclotis''. Compared with the Savanna Elephant, its ears are usually smaller and rounder, and its tusks are also thinner and straighter. The Forest Elephant can weigh up to 10,000 lb (4,500 kg) and stand about 10 feet (3 m) tall. Much less is known about these animals than their savanna cousins because environmental and political obstacles make them very difficult to study. Normally they inhabit the dense [[African rainforest|forests]] of central and western Africa, though occasionally they do inhabit the edges of forests and overlap [[Territory (animal)|territories]] with bush elephants.
===Asian Elephant===
{{main|Asian elephant}}
Today scientists estimate the world population of Asian elephants, or ''Elephas maximus'', to be approximately 40,000, less than one-tenth the number of African elephants. Perhaps the Asian elephants' decline has been less noticeable because it has been more gradual. The causes of this decline are much the same as that of the African.
[[Image:Re-exposure of elephant - lahugala park1.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Right|Elephant In Sri Lanka]]
As with the ''Loxodonta'', there are distinct subspecies of ''Elephas maximus''. In general, the Asian elephant is smaller than the African. It has smaller ears, shaped like the subcontinent of India, and typically only the males have large external tusks. An Asian elephant can also be distinguished by the large bulges of depigmentation on the skin.
The first subspecies is the [[Sri Lankan elephant|Sri Lankan Asian elephant]] (''Elephas maximus maximus''). Found only on the island of Sri Lanka, a small country off the southeast coast of India, it is the largest of the Asians. There are an estimated total of only 3,000-4,500 members of this subspecies left today in the wild, although no accurate census has been carried out in the recent past. Large males can weigh upward to 12,000 pounds and stand over 11 feet tall. Sri Lankan males have very large cranial bulges, and both sexes have more areas of depigmentation than are found in the other Asians. Typically their ears, face, trunk, and belly have large concentrations of pink-speckled skin. There is an [[Orphanage]] for elephants in [[Pinnawala]] [[Sri Lanka]], which gives shelter to disabled, injured elephants. This program plays a large role to protect the Sri Lankan Elephant from [[extinction]].
Another subspecies, the [[Indian elephant|mainland Asian elephant]] (''Elephas maximus indicus'') makes up the bulk of the Asian elephant population. Numbering approximately 36,000, these elephants are lighter gray in colour, with depigmentation only on the ears and trunk. Large males will ordinarily weigh only about 11,000 pounds but are as tall as the Sri Lankan. The mainland Asian can be found in 12 Asian countries, from India to Indonesia. It prefers forested areas and transitional zones, between forests and grasslands, where greater food variety is available.
The smallest of all the elephants is the [[Sumatran elephant|Sumatran Asian elephant]] (''Elephas maximus sumatranus''). Population estimates for this group range from 33,000 to 53,000 individuals. It is very light gray and has less depigmentation than the other Asians, with pink spots only on the ears. Mature Sumatrans will usually only measure about 10 feet at the shoulder and weigh less than 9,000 pounds. An enormous animal nonetheless, it is considerably smaller than its other Asian (and African) cousins and exists only on the island of Sumatra, usually in forested regions and partially wooded habitats.
===Body characteristics===
====Elephant Calves====
Elephant social life, in many ways, revolves around breeding and raising of the calves. A female will usually be ready to breed around the age of thirteen, at which time she will seek out the most ''fit'' male to mate with. The word ''fitness'', in an ecological sense, means the animal best suited to survive in its environment and pass on its genes. Females want to breed with the bigger, stronger, and, most importantly, older males. In this way, they are assuring that their offspring will have the best possible chance of survival.
After a twenty-two-month pregnancy, the mother will give birth to a calf that will weigh about 250 lbs. and stand over 2½ feet tall. Elephants have a very long childhood. They are born with fewer survival instincts than many other animals. Instead, they must rely on their elders to teach them the things they need to know. The ability to pass on information and knowledge to their young has always been a major asset in the elephant's struggle to survive. Today, however, the pressures humans have put on the wild elephant populations, from poaching to habitat destruction, mean that the elderly often die at a younger age, leaving fewer teachers for the young.
All members of the tightly knit female group participate in the care and protection of the young. Since everyone in the herd is related, there is never a shortage of baby-sitters. In fact, a new calf is usually the center of attention for all herd members. All the adults and most of the other young will gather around the newborn, touching and caressing it with their trunks. The baby is born nearly blind and at first relies, almost completely, on its trunk to discover the world around it.
====Allomothers====
After the initial excitement dies down, the mother will usually select several full-time baby-sitters, or "allomothers", from her group. According to Cynthia Moss, a well-known researcher, these allomothers will help in all aspects of raising the calf. They walk with the young as the herd travels, helping the calves along if they fall or get stuck in the mud. The more allomothers a baby has, the more free time its mother has to feed herself. Providing a calf with nutritious milk means the mother has to eat more nutritious food herself. So, the more allomothers, the better the calf's chances of survival.
====Trunk====
[[Image:Lightmatter elephanttrunk.jpg|thumb|200px|An elephant can use its trunk for a variety of purposes. This one is wiping its eye.]]
The proboscis, or trunk, is perhaps the elephant's most distinctive feature. It is a fusion of the nose and upper lip, elongated and specialized to become the elephant's most important and versatile appendage. The trunk is basically used to manipulate objects. To facilitate this, African elephants are equipped with two fingerlike projections at the tip of their trunk, while Asians have only one. According to biologists, the elephant's trunk is said to have over forty thousand individual muscles in it, making it sensitive enough to pick up a single blade of grass, yet strong enough to rip the branches off a tree.
Most herbivores (plant eaters, like the elephant) are adapted with teeth for cutting and tearing off plant materials. However, except for the very young or infirm, elephants always use their trunks to tear up their food and then place it in their mouth. They will graze on grass or reach up into trees to grasp leaves, fruit, or entire branches. If the desired food item is too high up, the elephant will wrap its trunk around the tree or branch and shake its food loose or sometimes simply knock the tree down altogether.
The trunk is also used for drinking. Elephants suck water up into the trunk (up to fifteen quarts [14.2 liters] at a time) and then blow it into t |
very French borrowings when first used in English, even accused by some of being foreign phrases used where English alternatives would suffice, but today their French origin is largely forgotten. The accent on "élite" has disappeared from most publications today, but [[Time Magazine|''Time'']] magazine still uses it. For some words such as "soupçon" however, the only spelling found in English dictionaries (the [[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]] and others) uses the diacritic.
[[Italic type|Italic]]s, with appropriate accents, are generally applied to foreign terms that are uncommonly used in or have not been assimilated into English: for example, ''[[adiós]]'', ''[[coup d'état]]'', ''[[crème brûlée]]'', ''[[pièce de résistance]]'', ''[[raison d'être]]'', ''[[über]]'' (''[[Übermensch|übermensch]]''), ''[[vis-à-vis]]''.
It is also possible to use a [[diaeresis]] to indicate a syllable break, but again this is often left out or a hyphen used instead. Examples: coöperate (or co-operate), daïs, naïve, noël, reëlect (or re-elect). One publication that still uses a diaeresis to indicate a syllable break is the ''[[The New Yorker|New Yorker]]'' magazine.
Written accents are also used occasionally in [[poetry]] and scripts for [[drama]]tic performances to indicate that a certain normally unstressed syllable in a word should be stressed for dramatic effect, or to keep with the meter of the poetry. This use is frequently seen in archaic and pseudoarchaic writings with the "-ed" suffix, to indicate that the "e" should be fully pronounced, as with ''cursèd''.
In certain older texts (typically in [[Commonwealth English]]), the use of [[ligature (typography)|ligatures]] is common in words such as archæology, œsophagus, and encyclopædia. Such words have [[Latin]] or [[Greek language|Greek]] origin. Nowadays, the ligatures have been generally replaced in Commonwealth English by the separated letters "ae" and "oe" ("archaeology", "oesophagus") and in [[American English]] by "e" ("esophagus"). However, the spellings "oeconomy" and "oecology" are now generally replaced by "economy" and "ecology" in Commonwealth English, making these spellings the same as in American English.
The two major English language keyboard layouts, namely United States and United Kingdom, normally do not fully permit these accents to be typed into the computer. However, the United States-International and United Kingdom-International keyboard layouts permit such accents to be keyed in. See [[British and American keyboards]], [[keyboard layouts]]
==See also==
* [[English literature]]
* [[Formal written English]]
* [[List of languages]]
* [[Common phrases in various languages]]
===Dialects===
* [[American and British English differences]]
* [[English speaking Europe]]
* [[Australian English]]
* [[New Zealand English]]
* [[Canadian English]]
* [[General American]]
* [[List of dialects of the English language]]
* [[Indian English]]
===Pronunciation===
* [[Australian English phonology]]
* [[Received Pronunciation]]
* [[General American]]
* [[International Phonetic Alphabet for English]]
* [[List of words of disputed pronunciation]]
* [[Non-native pronunciations of English]]
* [[Anglophone pronunciation of foreign languages]]
* [[Phonemic differentiation]]
* [[Regional accents of English speakers]]
* [[Rhotic and non-rhotic accents]]
* [[:Category:Splits and mergers in English phonology]]
===Social, cultural or political===
* [[Anglophone]]
* [[Anglosphere]]
* [[Anglo-Saxon]]
* [[English as a lingua franca for Europe]]
* [[English as an additional language]]
* [[English on the Internet]]
* [[Foreign language influences in English]]
* [[Languages in the United States]]
* [[Lists of English words of international origin]]
===Grammar===
* [[Declension in English|English declension]]
* [[English plural]]
* [[English verbs|English verb conjugation]]
* [[Initial-stress-derived noun]]
* [[Present progressive tense]]
===Usage===
* [[Dictionary]]
* [[Like]]
* [[List of archaic English words and their modern equivalents]]
* [[List of unusual English words]]
* [[Longest word in English]]
* [[Misspelling]]
* [[Gender-neutral language]]
* [[Singular they]]
* [[Siamese twins (English language)]]
* [[English spelling reform]]
==External links==
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=eng Ethnologue report for English]
* [http://www.eslbase.com/ TEFL] - Teaching English as a Foreign Language
* http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/routesofenglish/index.shtml BBC - Radio 4 - Routes of English]
* [http://www.englishtenseswithcartoons.com/ Short Descriptions of the English Tenses]
* [http://www.ego4u.com/ English Grammar Online] - free exercises, explanations, games and teaching materials on English as a foreign language
* [http://www.english.hb.pl Pako's English] - articles and advice for English learners
* [http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en Learning English Online] - grammar, vocabulary, exercises, exams - English as a second language
* [http://www.LanguageMonitor.com/ LanguageMonitor] - Watchdog on contemporary English usage
* [http://www.lonympics.co.uk/top10englishspeakingcountriesinpopulation.htm ] The 10 largest countries in the world, that in the main speak English as their main tounge.
* [http://www.whatdoesthatmean.com/ What Does That Mean?] A wiki based lexicon of English idioms from around the world
* [http://st-takla.org/Learn_Languages/03_Learn-English-Lessons-Taaleim-engelizy-Free/Learn-English_00-Index-El-Fehres.html Learn English Online for Arabic users]
*[http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/AmerLangs American Languages: Our Nation's Many Voices Online]
* [http://www.espindle.org/fun_facts.html Anecdotes about the English language] For those struggling with the peculiarities of the English language - you deserve a laugh!
* [http://cla.calpoly.edu/~jrubba/morph/morph.over.html An overview of the English morphological system]
* [http://www.antimoon.com/how/howtolearn.htm How to learn English] – A method of acquiring English as a second/foreign language
==Dictionaries==
* [http://www.oed.com Oxford English Dictionary] – The definitive record of the English language
* [http://dicts.info/dictlist1.php All free English dictionaries] – Collection of many free English dictionaries
* [http://dictionary.cambridge.org Cambridge Dictionary]
* [http://dictionary.titiland.com/ Titiland English Dictionary]
* [http://www.freelang.net/dictionary/french.html Freelang - French-English Dictionary made by Bertrand Cornu]
* [http://www.ldoceonline.com Longman English Dictionary]
* [http://www.dictionary.com Dictionary.com]
* [[Dictionary of American Regional English]][http://polyglot.lss.wisc.edu/dare/dare.html]
==Further reading==
*Baugh AC and Cable T. ''A history of the English language'' (5th ed), Routledge, 2002 (ISBN 0415280990)
*[[David Crystal|Crystal, David]] (1997). ''English as a Global Language'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521530326.
*Crystal, D. ''The Cambridge encyclopedia of the English language'' (2nd ed), Cambridge University Press, 2003 (ISBN 0521530334)
*Halliday, MAK. ''An introduction to functional grammar'' (2nd ed), London, Edward Arnold, 1994 (ISBN 0340557826)
*McArthur, T (ed). ''The Oxford Companion to the English Language'', Oxford University Press, 1992 (ISBN 019214183X)
*Robinson, Orrin, "Old English and Its Closest Relatives", Stanford Univ Press, 1992 (ISBN 0-8047-2221-8)
{{Official EU languages}}
[[Category:English language|English language]]
[[Category:Languages of Canada]]
[[Category:Languages of Fiji]]
[[Category:Languages of Guam]]
[[Category:Languages of Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Languages of India]]
[[Category:Languages of New Zealand]]
[[Category:Languages of Singapore]]
[[Category:Languages of the Philippines]]
[[Category:Languages of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Languages of the United States]]
{{Link FA|no}}
[[af:Engels (taal)]]
[[als:Englische Sprache]]
[[am:እንግሊዝኛ]]
[[an:Idioma anglés]]
[[ang:Nīwu Englisc sprǣc]]
[[ar:لغة إنجليزية]]
[[ast:Inglés]]
[[be:Ангельская мова]]
[[bg:Английски език]]
[[br:Saozneg]]
[[bs:Engleski jezik]]
[[ca:Anglès]]
[[cs:Angličtina]]
[[cv:Aкăлчaн чĕлхи]]
[[cy:Saesneg]]
[[da:Engelsk (sprog)]]
[[de:Englische Sprache]]
[[el:Αγγλική γλώσσα]]
[[eo:Angla lingvo]]
[[es:Idioma inglés]]
[[et:Inglise keel]]
[[eu:Ingeles]]
[[fa:زبان انگلیسی]]
[[fi:Englannin kieli]]
[[fr:Anglais]]
[[ga:Béarla]]
[[gl:Lingua inglesa]]
[[gu:અંગ્રેજી ભાષા]]
[[he:אנגלית]]
[[hi:अंग्रेज़ी]]
[[hu:Angol nyelv]]
[[hy:Անգլերեն]]
[[ia:Anglese]]
[[id:Bahasa Inggris]]
[[ilo:Pagsasao nga English]]
[[io:Angliana linguo]]
[[is:Enska]]
[[it:Lingua inglese]]
[[iu:ᖃᓪᓗᓈᑎᑐᑦ]]
[[ja:英語]]
[[jv:Basa Inggris]]
[[ka:ინგლისური ენა]]
[[ko:영어]]
[[ku:Zimanê îngilîzî]]
[[kw:Sowsnek]]
[[la:Lingua Anglica]]
[[lb:Englesch]]
[[li:Ingels]]
[[ln:Lingɛlɛ́sa]]
[[lt:Anglų kalba]]
[[lv:Angļu valoda]]
[[mg:Anglisy fiteny]]
[[mk:Англиски јазик]]
[[ms:Bahasa Inggeris]]
[[nah:Inglestlahtoli]]
[[nds:Ingelsch]]
[[nl:Engels]]
[[nn:Engelsk språk]]
[[no:Engelsk språk]]
[[nv:Bilagáana bizaad]]
[[oc:Anglés]]
[[pi:Āngalabhāsā]]
[[pl:Język angielski]]
[[pt:Língua inglesa]]
[[ro:Limba engleză]]
[[ru:Английский язык]]
[[sco:Inglis leid]]
[[se:Eaŋgalsgiella]]
[[sh:Engleski jezik]]
[[simple:English language]]
[[sk:Angličtina]]
[[sl:Angleščina]]
[[sq:Gjuha Angleze]]
[[sr:Енглески језик]]
[[sv:Engelska]]
[[sw:Kiingereza]]
[[ta:ஆங்கிலம்]]
[[th:ภาษาอังกฤษ]]
[[tl:Wikang Ingles]]
[[tpi:Tok Inglis]]
[[tr:İngilizce]]
[[uk:Англійська мова]]
[[vi:Tiếng Anh]]
[[zh:英语]]
[[zh-min-nan:Eng-gí]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eigenvectors</title>
<id>9250</id>
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<timestamp>2005-10-07T16:31:40Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#RED |
of the moon phase. Consecutive days may be grouped into other periods such as the [[week]].
Because the number of days in the ''tropical year'' is not a whole number, a solar calendar must have a different number of days in different years. This may be handled, for example, by adding an extra day ([[29 February]]) in [[leap year]]s. The same applies to months in a lunar calendar and also the number of months in a year in a lunisolar calendar. This is generally known as [[intercalation]]. Even if a calendar is solar, but not lunar, the year cannot be divided entirely into months that never vary in length.
Cultures may define other units of time, such as the [[week]], for the purpose of scheduling regular activities that do not easily coincide with months or years.
==Other calendar types==
===Complete and incomplete calendars===
Calendars may be either complete or incomplete. Complete calendars provide a way of naming each consecutive day, while incomplete calendars do not. The early Roman calendar, which had no way of designating the days of the winter months other than to lump them together as "winter", is an example of an incomplete calendar, while the Gregorian calendar is an example of a complete calendar.
===Pragmatic, theoretical and mixed calendars===
Calendars may be pragmatic, theoretical, or mixed.
A ''pragmatic calendar'' is based on observation; examples are the religious Islamic calendar and the old religious Jewish calendar in the time of the Second Temple. Such a calendar is also referred to as an ''observation-based'' or ''astronomical'' calendar. The advantage of such a calendar is that it is perfectly and perpetually accurate. The disadvantage is that working out when a particular date would occur is difficult.
A ''theoretical calendar'' is one that is based on a strict set of rules; an example is the current Jewish calendar. Such a calendar is also referred to a ''rule-based'' or ''arithmetical'' calendar. The advantage of such a calendar is the ease of working out when a particular date occurs. The disadvantage is imperfect accuracy. Furthermore if the calendar is very accurate, its accuracy perishes slowly over time owing to changes in Earth's rotation. This limits the lifetime of an accurate theoretical calendar to a few thousand years. After then, the rules would need to be modified from observations made since the invention of the calendar, resulting in a mixed calendar.
A ''mixed calendar'' combines the features of both pragmatic and theoretical calendars. Mixed calendars usually begin as theoretical calendars, but are adjusted pragmatically
when some type of asynchrony becomes apparent; the shift from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar is such an example.
The Gregorian calendar, as a final example, is complete, solar, and mixed.
==Uses==
The primary practical use of a calendar is to identify days: to be informed about and/or to agree on a future event and to record an event that has happened. Days may be significant for civil, religious or social reasons. For example, a calendar provides a way to determine which days are religious or civil [[holiday]]s, which days mark the beginning and end of business accounting periods, and which days have legal significance, such as the day taxes are due or a contract expires. Also a calendar may, by identifying a day, provide other useful information about the day such as its season.
Calendars are also used as part of a complete [[timekeeping]] system: date and [[time of day]] together specify a moment in [[time]]. In the modern world, written calendars are no longer an essential part of such systems, as the advent of accurate [[clock]]s has made it possible to record time independently of astronomical events.
==Currently used calendars==
Calendars in widespread use today include the [[Gregorian calendar]], which is the ''[[de facto]]'' international standard, and is used almost everywhere in the world for civil purposes, including in [[China]] and [[India]] (along with the [[Indian national calendar]]). The [[Hebrew calendar]] is the official calendar of [[Israel]]'s government, but the Gregorian calendar is much more widely used in Israel's business and day-to-day affairs. The [[Iranian calendar|Persian calendar]] is used in [[Iran]] and [[Afghanistan]]. The [[Islamic calendar]] is used by [[Muslim]]s the world over. The [[Chinese calendar|Chinese]], [[Hebrew calendar|Hebrew]], [[Hindu calendar|Hindu]], and [[Julian calendar|Julian]] calendars are widely used for religious and/or social purposes.
Even where there is a commonly used calendar such as the Gregorian calendar, alternate calendars may also be used, such as a [[fiscal calendar]].
==See also==
*[[List of calendars]]
*[[Iranian calendar]]
*[[Bahá'í calendar]]
*[[Bengali calendar]]
*[[Gregorian calendar]]
*[[Julian calendar]]
*[[Liturgical year]]
*[[Calendar of saints]]
*[[Christian calendar]]
*[[Christian era]]
*[[Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar]]
*[[Calculating the day of the week]]
*[[Cycle studies]]
*[[Runic calendar]]
*[[French Republican Calendar]]
*[[Wall calendar]]
*[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Calendars]]
*[[Zoroastrian calendar]]
*[[iCalendar]]
*[[hCalendar]]
*[[Calendar reform]]
*[[Perpetual Calendar]]
==Sources==
* ''Calendrical Calculations''; Nachum Dershowitz and Edward M. Reingold; Cambridge University Press, 1997; ISBN 0-521-56474-3; [http://emr.cs.iit.edu/home/reingold/calendar-book/second-edition/ Book Info]; [http://emr.cs.iit.edu/home/reingold/calendar-book/Calendrica.html Online Calculator]
* ''Mapping Time, the calendar and its history''; E G Richards; Oxford University Press, 1998; ISBN 0-19-850413-6
* ''A comparative Calendar of the Iranian, Muslim Lunar,and Christian Eras for Three Thousand Years''; Ahmad Birashk; Mazda Publishers, 1993; ISBN 0-939214-95-4
* ''The Comprehensive Hebrew Calendar''; Arthur Spier; Feldheim Publishers, 1986; ISBN 0-87306-398-8
* ''High Days and Holidays in Iceland''; Árni Björnsson; Mál og menning, 1995; ISBN 9979-3-0802-8
* ''Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac''; P. Kenneth Seidelmann, ed.; University Science Books, 1992; ISBN 0-935702-68-7; [http://astro.nmsu.edu/~lhuber/leaphist.html Chapter 12: Calendars by L. E. Doggett]
* ''Sun, Moon, and Sothis''; Lynn E. Rose; Kronos Press, 1999; ISBN 0-917994-15-9
* ''Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der Tibetischen Kalenderrechnung''; Dieter Schuh; Franz Steiner Verlag GMBH, 1973
==External links==
{{wiktionary}}
*[http://www.tondering.dk/claus/calendar.html Frequently Asked Questions about Calendars]
*[http://88.1911encyclopedia.org/C/CA/CALENDAR.htm 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica entry]
*[http://webexhibits.org/calendars/calendar.html Various calendars] described as part of the [http://webexhibits.org/calendars/index.html Calendars through the Ages] online exhibit
*[http://www.abcalendar.com Event Calendar] based on Wikipedia Content
*[http://kalender-365.de/calendar.php Perpetual Calendar 1800 - 2400]
*[http://babymed.com/fertility-tools/calendar/calendar.asp Interactive Fertility and Pregnancy Calendar]
*[http://www5a.biglobe.ne.jp/~accent/calendar/index.htm Perpetual Calendar]
*[http://www.timeanddate.com/calendar/ Current calendar].
*[http://www.datedex.com/results.asp DateDex: Selected events on selected dates]
*[http://physics.nist.gov/GenInt/Time/ancient.html ''Ancient Calendars'' NIST website]
*[http://www.dcsi.net/~denmarks/yearlycalendar.html Yearly perpetual calendar]
*[http://www.dcsi.net/~denmarks/datecalc.html Date calculator]
[[Category:Calendars|*]]
[[ang:Gerímbóc]]
[[ar:&#1578;&#1602;&#1608;&#1610;&#1605;]]
[[ast:Repurtoriu]]
[[bg:&#1050;&#1072;&#1083;&#1077;&#1085;&#1076;&#1072;&#1088;]]
[[be:&#1050;&#1072;&#1083;&#1103;&#1085;&#1076;&#1072;&#1088;]]
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[[da:Kalender]]
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[[es:Calendario]]
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[[fa:&#1711;&#1575;&#1607;&#1588;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585;&#1740;]]
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[[he:&#1500;&#1493;&#1495; &#1513;&#1504;&#1492;]]
[[la:Calendarium]]
[[lt:Kalendorius]]
[[hu:Naptár]]
[[mi:Maramataka]]
[[nl:Kalender]]
[[ja:&#26278;]]
[[no:Kalender]]
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[[ru:&#1050;&#1072;&#1083;&#1077;&#1085;&#1076;&#1072;&#1088;&#1100;]]
[[sl:Koledar]]
[[sr:&#1050;&#1072;&#1083;&#1077;&#1085;&#1076;&#1072;&#1088;]]
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[[th:ปฏิทิน]]
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[[uk:&#1050;&#1072;&#1083;&#1077;&#1085;&#1076;&#1072;&#1088;]]
[[zh:&#21382;&#27861;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Physical cosmology</title>
<id>5378</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-22T06:42:47Z</timestamp>
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<comment>rv addition of spamlink</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|The page is about the physics subject. For other uses of the word, see [[Cosmology]].}}
{{Cosmology}}
'''Cosmology''', as a branch of [[astrophysics]], is the study of the large-scale structure of the [[universe]] and is concerned with fundamental questions about its formation and evolution. Cosmology involves itself with studying the motions of the celestial bodies and the [[firs |
ea|apneic]] episodes, sweating, [[hypothermia]], somnolence, [[hypotonia]], refusal to feed, and seizures or "spells". Hypoglycemia can resemble [[asphyxia]], [[hypocalcemia]], [[sepsis]], or [[heart failure]].
In both young and old patients, the brain may habituate to low glucose levels, with a reduction of noticeable symptoms despite neuroglycopenic impairment. In insulin-dependent diabetic patients this phenomenon is termed ''hypoglycemia unawareness'' and is a significant clinical problem when improved [[glycemic control]] is attempted. Another aspect of this phenomenon occurs in [[glycogen storage disease|type I glycogenosis]], when chronic hypoglycemia before diagnosis may be better tolerated than acute hypoglycemia after treatment is underway.
Nearly always, hypoglycemia severe enough to cause seizures or unconsciousness can be reversed without obvious harm to the brain. Cases of death or permanent neurologic damage occurring with a single episode have usually involved prolonged, untreated unconsciousness, interference with breathing, severe concurrent disease, or some other type of vulnerability. Nevertheless, brain damage or death has occasionally resulted from severe hypoglycemia.
==Determining the cause==
Hundreds of conditions can cause hypoglycemia. Common causes by age are listed below. While many aspects of the [[medical history]] and [[physical examination]] may be informative, the two best guides to the cause of unexplained hypoglycemia are usually
# the '''circumstances'''
# a '''critical sample''' of blood obtained at the time of hypoglycemia, before it is reversed.
===The circumstances of hypoglycemia provide most of the clues to diagnosis===
'''Circumstances''' include the age of the patient, time of day, time since last meal, previous episodes, nutritional status, physical and mental development, drugs or toxins (especially insulin or other diabetes drugs), diseases of other organ systems, family history, and response to treatment. When hypoglycemia occurs repeatedly, a record or "diary" of the spells over several months, noting the circumstances of each spell (time of day, relation to last meal, nature of last meal, response to carbohydrate, and so forth) may be useful in recognizing the nature and cause of the hypoglyemia.
An especially important aspect is whether the patient is seriously ill with another problem. Severe disease of nearly all major organ systems can cause hypoglycemia as a secondary problem. [[Hospital]]ized patients, especially in [[intensive care unit]]s or those prevented from eating, can suffer hypoglycemia from a variety of circumstances related to the care of their primary disease. Hypoglycemia in these circumstances is often multifactorial or even iatrogenic. Once identified, these types of hypoglycemia are readily reversed and prevented, and the underlying disease becomes the primary problem.
Apart from determining nutritional status and identifying whether there is likely to be an underlying disease more serious than hypoglycemia, the physical examination of the patient is only occasionally helpful. [[Macrosomia]] in infancy usually indicates [[congenital hyperinsulinism|hyperinsulinism]]. A few [[syndrome]]s and [[inborn error of metabolism|metabolic diseases]] may be recognizable by clues such as [[hepatomegaly]] or [[micropenis]].
Response to treatment, especially the amount of carbohydrate needed to reverse or prevent recurrence of hypoglycemia, may provide important clues as well. When 15-30 grams of sugar or starch are given by mouth, a low blood glucose will usually rise by 18-36 mg/dl (1-2 mmol/l) within 5-10 minutes, relieving hypoglycemic symptoms within 10 minutes. This oral treatment is only practical if the person is conscious. A person who is unconscious may be treated with a Glucagon kit, available by prescription and recommended for people using insulin. It may take longer to recover from severe hypoglycemia with unconsciousness or seizure even after restoration of normal blood glucose. When a person has not been unconscious, failure of carbohydrate to reverse the symptoms in 10-15 minutes increases the likelihood that hypoglycemia was not the cause of the symptoms. When severe hypoglycemia has persisted in a hospitalized patient, the amount of glucose required to maintain satisfactory blood glucose levels becomes an important clue to the underlying etiology. Glucose requirements above 10 mg/kg/minute in infants, or 6 mg/kg/minute in children and adults are strong evidence for hyperinsulinism. In this context this is referred to as the ''glucose infusion rate'' (GIR). Finally, the blood glucose response to [[glucagon]] given when the glucose is low can also help distinguish among various types of hypoglycemia. A rise of blood glucose by more than 30 mg/dl (1.7 mmol/l) suggests [[hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia|insulin excess]] as the probable cause of the hypoglycemia.
===In less obvious cases, a "critical sample" may provide the diagnosis===
In the majority of children and adults with recurrent, unexplained hypoglycemia, the diagnosis may be determined by obtaining a sample of blood during hypoglycemia. If this '''critical sample''' is obtained ''at the time of hypoglycemia, before it is reversed'', it can provide information that would otherwise require a several-thousand-dollar [[hospital]] admission and unpleasant starvation testing. Perhaps the most common inadequacy of [[emergency department]] care in cases of unexplained hypoglycemia is the failure to obtain at least a basic sample before giving glucose to reverse it.
Part of the value of the critical sample may simply be the proof that the symptoms are indeed due to hypoglycemia. More often, measurement of certain hormones and metabolites at the time of hypoglycemia indicates which organs and body systems are responding appropriately and which are functioning abnormally. For example, when the blood glucose is low, [[hormone]]s which raise the glucose should be rising and [[insulin]] secretion should be completely suppressed.
The following is a brief list of hormones and metabolites which may be measured in a critical sample. Not all tests are checked on every patient. A "basic version" would include insulin, cortisol, and electrolytes, with C-peptide and drug screen for adults and growth hormone in children. The value of additional specific tests depends on the most likely diagnoses for an individual patient, based on the circumstances described above. Many of these levels change within minutes, especially if glucose is given, and there is no value in measuring them after the hypoglycemia is reversed. Others, especially those lower in the list, remain abnormal even after hypoglycemia is reversed, and can be usefully measured even if a critical specimen is missed. Although interpretation in difficult cases is beyond the scope of this article, for most of the tests, the primary significance is briefly noted.
*[[Glucose]]: needed to document actual hypoglycemia
*[[Insulin]]: any detectable amount is abnormal during hypoglycemia, but physician must know assay characteristics
*[[Cortisol]]: should be high during hypoglycemia if pituitary and adrenals are functioning normally
*[[Growth hormone]]: should rise after hypoglycemia if pituitary is functioning normally
*[[Electrolyte]]s and [[total carbon dioxide]]: electrolyte abnormalities may suggest renal or adrenal disease; mild acidosis is normal with starvation hypoglycemia; usually no acidosis with hyperinsulinism
*[[Liver enzymes]]: elevation suggests liver disease
*[[Ketone]]s: should be high during fasting and hypoglycemia; low levels suggest hyperinsulinism or fatty acid oxidation disorder
*[[Beta-hydroxybutyrate]]: should be high during fasting and hypoglycemia; low levels suggest hyperinsulinism or fatty acid oxidation disorder
*[[Free fatty acids]]: should be high during fasting and hypoglycemia; low levels suggest hyperinsulinism; high with low ketones suggests fatty acid oxidation disorder
*[[Lactic acid]]: high levels suggest sepsis or an inborn error of gluconeogenesis such as glycogen storage disease
*[[Ammonia]]: if elevated suggests hyperinsulinism due to glutamate dehydrogenase deficiency, Reye syndrome, or certain types of liver failure
*[[C-peptide]]: should be undetectable; if elevated suggests hyperinsulinism; low c-peptide with high insulin suggests exogenous (injected) insulin
*[[Proinsulin]]: detectable levels suggest hyperinsulinism; levels disproportionate to a detectabe insulin level suggest insulinoma
*[[Ethanol]]: suggests alcohol intoxication
*[[Toxicology screen]]: can detect many drugs causing hypoglycemia, especially for [[sulfonylurea]]s
*[[Insulin antibodies]]: if positive suggests repeated insulin injection or antibody-mediated hypoglycemia
*[[Urine organic acids]]: elevated in various characteristic patterns in several types of [[organic aciduria]]
*[[Carnitine]], free and total: low in certain disorders of fatty acid metabolism and certain types of drug toxicity and pancreatic disease
*[[Thyroxine]] and [[TSH]]: low T4 without elevated TSH suggests hypopituitarism or malnutrition
*[[Acylglycine]]: elevation suggests a disorder of fatty acid oxidation
*[[Epinephrine]]: should be elevated during hypoglycemia
*[[Glucagon]]: should be elevated during hypoglycemia
*[[IGF-1]]: low levels suggest hypopituitarism or chronic malnutrition
*[[IGF-2]]: low levels suggest hypopituitarism; high levels suggest non-pancreatic tumor hypoglycemia
*[[ACTH]]: should be elevated during hypoglycemia; unusually high ACTH with low cortisol suggests Addison's disease
*[[Alanine]] or other plasma [[amino acid]]s: abnormal patterns may suggest certain inborn errors of amino acid metabolism or gluconeogenesis
===Further diagnostic steps depend on the initial evidence===
When suspected hypoglycemia recurs and a critical specimen has not been obtained, the diagnostic evaluation may tak |
o be responsible for their favorite video ever when they mistakenly thought the song "Stars" was over long before the actual end of the song. Beavis became hyper with joy saying "Yeah!, [[Megadeth]] !" while watching the video "Sweating Bullets" and Butt-Head told Beavis that Dave Mustaine's singing voice was similar to Beavis's speaking voice. [[White Zombie (band)|White Zombie]], [[Type O Negative]], [[Onyx (band)|Onyx]], the [[Violent Femmes]], the [[Beastie Boys]], [[Suicidal Tendencies]] and [[Pantera]] were also among the few groups for whom Beavis and Butt-Head expressed appreciation, and the two groups that earn their fondest reviews are [[Gwar]] and the [[Butthole Surfers]]. Beavis voiced his estimation that every video should be like a Gwar video. The video which the duo declared to be officially the 'best ever' was Ministry's 'Just One Fix'. During [[William S. Burroughs]]' appearance in that video Beavis declares 'Even the old guy is cool!' Ironically, a large number of fans of the group [[Army of Lovers]] attest to having discovered the group from the appearance of a video of theirs on Beavis and Butt-Head, in which both of the boys expressed frustration with the frequent shifts between scenes they deeply enjoyed and scenes they found disturbing. Beavis and Butt-Head treat [[Lemmy Kilmister]], of [[Motörhead]] fame, like a V.I.P. whenever he appears. One occasion of this was when Lemmy walked into a [[Ramones]] video and Beavis says to Butt-Head, "Whoa! Butt-Head, look! It's Lemmy! It's Lemmy! What's he doing there?!" Butt-Head responded, "He's Lemmy, dumbass. He can walk into any video he wants."
Beavis and Butt-Head had especially severe reactions when confronted with videos they found particularly awful. As soon as Butt-Head realized he was watching a [[Michael Bolton]] video, he announced that he had [[incontinence|soiled]] his pants. The ultimate put-down was to simply look at each other, each with a look of horror and then switch the channel without saying a word. Only [[Vanilla Ice]]'s "Ice Ice Baby" and [[Milli Vanilli]] were considered so egregious as to deserve this fate. (Although in a later episode, they did watch another Vanilla Ice video, giving it the full round of criticism.)
The duo would occasionally engage in physical humor during the videos. These antics ranged from simple comic violence, such as slapping, punching, and kicking one another, to the duo's memorable dances, which ranged from a few simple arm motions, to one dance where Butt-Head jumps back and forth across the room.
==Beavis and Butt-Head: The movie==
[[Image:Buttmovie.jpg|right|thumb|Poster for ''Beavis and Butt-Head Do America'']]
''[[Beavis and Butt-Head Do America]]'', was released in [[1996]]. The movie features the voices of [[Bruce Willis]], [[Demi Moore]], [[Cloris Leachman]], [[Robert Stack]], [[Eric Bogosian]], [[Richard Linklater]], [[Greg Kinnear]] (in an uncredited role), and [[David Letterman]] (credited as [[Earl Hofert]]). The film's plot follows Beavis and Butt-Head on a journey to retrieve their stolen television set. They travel across the [[United States]] and become involved in a biological weapon smuggling scheme that they remain unaware of throughout the film. The journey takes them to [[Washington, D.C.]] where they meet [[Bill Clinton|President Clinton]] (voiced by Dale Reeves). Tom Anderson, David Van Driessen and Principal McVicker have cameos.
{{spoiler}}
In the film, Beavis and Butt-Head befriend two characters who are older look-alikes of themselves. A scene that follows shows the [[FBI]], running 'samples' left by Beavis and Butt-Head in Mr. Anderson's camper through a national prison sperm bank, establishing these characters as possible fathers of the duo (the show alluded to Beavis and Butt-Head being illegitimate and having never known their fathers). In the next scene, one of the older look-alike characters (voiced by Letterman) tells Beavis and Butt-Head a story about how "he scored with these two chicks" fifteen years ago when they were in Beavis &amp; Butt-Head's hometown of Highland as roadies for [[Mötley Crüe]]. He then dismisses the other look-alike's claim of having sex with either woman, and is met with no rebuttal. This scene leads to some debate as to whether or not it is revealed that Beavis and Butt-Head are actually biological half-brothers, and that the two have lived their entire lives unaware of this fact. Nevertheless, Beavis and Butt-Head appear oblivious to these clues that point out that they have finally met their father(s).
==''The Beavis and Butt-Head Experience'' album==
A CD appeared, named ''[[The Beavis and Butt-Head Experience]]'' featuring many hard rock and heavy metal bands, such as [[Megadeth]] and [[Nirvana (band)|Nirvana]]. Moreover, Beavis and Butt-Head do a duet with [[Cher]] on "I Got You Babe" and a track by themselves named "Come to Butt-Head". The track with Cher also resulted in a music video, which hints strongly at the end that Butt-Head "scored" with Cher (after telling Beavis to leave).
==Other appearances==
[[Image:Buttcomic.jpg|right|thumb|Beavis and Butt-Head reading a Beavis and Butt-Head comic.]]
[[Image:Bbliveaction.jpg|right|thumb|Two characters resembling the duo on ''[[Step By Step]]''. Some like to consider this a live-version cameo of the "actual" characters.]]
* Beavis and Butt-Head made an "appearance" on the Late Show with Dave Letterman. Prior to this, creator Mike Judge was a guest on the same show, and showed Dave a brief short in which Beavis & Butt-Head were drawn with the physical characteristics of [[Paul Shaffer]] and Letterman.
* The characters were presenters during the [[1997 in film|1997]] [[Academy Awards]] telecast.
* Beavis and Butt-Head have also appeared in a comic book series released by [[Marvel Comics]], and many video games, like ''Virtual Stupidity'', ''Bunghole in One'' and ''Beavis and Butt-Head Do U''.
* They appear in voice only in the live-action film ''[[Airheads]]''. When a radio DJ is taking call-ins, Beavis and Butt-Head call. Mike Judge supplied the voices himself for the movie.
*On an episode of the ABC sitcom ''[[Step by Step]]'', there are two male actors who resemble Beavis and Butt-Head and act like them too.
* On a [[Christmas]]-themed episode of [[Saturday Night Live]], the characters appeared on the show's [[Weekend Update]] sketch and conversed with [[Norm MacDonald]]. Situated outside of [[Rockefeller Center]], Butt-Head was dressed to resemble [[Santa Claus]] while Beavis donned a [[Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer]] costume.
* In the [[1999 in film|1999]] [[Hugh Grant]] film ''[[Notting Hill]]'', Beavis and Butt-Head's image is seen on a [[stained glass window]].
* Butt-Head made a brief cameo in the MTV animated series [[The Head]].
* Beavis & Butt-Head appeared on the MTV series ''[[Celebrity Deathmatch]]'', in which both men fought each other. Beavis wins the fight when he becomes Cornholio. Their voices were not performed by [[Mike Judge]].
* On the [[Adult Swim]] sketch show ''[[Robot Chicken]]'', a featured parody of the Cartoon Network animated series ''[[Teen Titans (animated series)|Teen Titans]]'' has Beavis and Butt-Head joining the team. Their attitude lands them and the team in trouble. They are chauvinistic to [[Starfire (comics)|Starfire]] and insult [[Raven (comics)|Raven]]'s [[goth]]ic nature. They also sing the theme song from the ''[[Batman (TV series)|Batman]]'' television series when [[Robin (comics)|Robin]] is around. Mike Judge did not voice the duo in this parody.
* Beavis & Butt-Head presented an award at the 2005 [[MTV Video Music Awards]].
* On the 2005 ''MTV Video Music Awards'', Beavis and Butt-Head appeared in a couple of Viewers Choice award skits, saying to "Vote to put Beavis and Butt-Head back on MTV!". The duo have made appearances at other VMAs during the series' run.
* In an episode of the TV show [[Friends]] [[Joey Tribbiani]] and [[Chandler Bing]] dedicate themselves to not leaving two overstuffed recliners situated in front of a large TV, they are shown at one point watching Beavis and Butt-Head and inadvertently imitating them.
* Beavis and Butt-Head also appear in an episode of [[Saturday Night Live]]'s [[TV Funhouse]], where Colin Powell is depicted fielding questions from teens on a MTV talk show. As he becomes increasingly irritated by the teenagers he begins to imagine that the whole audience has morphed into dozens of chuckling Beavis and Butt-Heads.
* Beavis and Butt-Head appear in the movie [[Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery]], when Dr. Evil has threatened the [[United Nations]] and attempts to end transmission, but has trouble ending it, so he accidentally switches to Beavis and Butt-Head, in which Beavis (Apparently referring to [[Total Recall]]) enthusiastically says, "Check it out, Butt-Head, this chick has three boobs!" Butt-Head replies, "How many butts does she have?"
* A similar pair of characters, named "Porkhead and Wiener", appeared on the fictional network MVT (Music Video Television) in some episodes of [[Night Stand with Dick Dietrick]].
* In the [[Tiny Toon Adventures]] Spring Break Special, [[furry]] versions of Beavis and Butt-head called Beaver and Bighead appear at the beginning and end of the special. Beaver, as his name implies, is a [[beaver]], while Bighead appears to be a [[pig]]. When the Tiny Toons head for Florida at the beginning, Beaver and Bighead appear for the first time, hitchhiking. Beaver assumes that their ride is coming, but Bighead corrects him, and goes on to say that the Tiny Toons "stink". Beaver and Bighead are then flattened by the bus. They again appear at the end, warning parody versions of [[Ren and Stimpy]] that they're about to be hit by the Tiny Toons bus, which is returning to Ac |
. It's tradition. We don't want tradition. We want to live in the present, and the only history that is worth a tinker's damn is the history we make today."
*"The international financiers are behind all war. They are what is called the International Jew -- German Jews, French Jews, English Jews, American Jews. I believe that in all these countries except our own the Jewish financier is supreme... Here, the Jew is a threat."
*"Nothing is particularly hard, as long as you divide it into small jobs."
*"Anyone who stops learning is old, whether at twenty or eighty. Anyone who keeps learning stays young. The greatest thing in life is to keep your mind young."
== See also ==
* [[Berry College]]
* ''[[Brave New World]]'', a fictional story about a future world built around [[Fordism]]
* [[Detroit, Toledo and Ironton Railroad]]
* [[Edison and Ford Winter Estates]]
* [[Fair Lane]]
* [[Fordlândia]]
* [[William B. Mayo]]
* [[Dodge v. Ford Motor Company]]
* [[Ragtime (novel)|Ragtime]], a 20's era novel that includes Ford in parts of the story
==Notes==
<!-- Instructions for adding a footnote:
NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnote3]] for details.
1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9.
2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately proceeds yours in the article body.
4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step3.
5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference will not work: you must insert two uniquely named footnotes.
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-->
#{{note|Ford1}} Ford, ''My Life and Work'', 22; Nevins and Hill, ''Ford: The Times, the Man, the Company'' (TMC), 54-55.
#{{note|Ford2}} Ford, ''My Life and Work'', 22-24; Nevins and Hill, ''Ford TMC'', 58.
#{{note|Ford3}} Ford, ''My Life and Work'', 24; Edward A. Guest "Henry Ford Talks About His Mother," ''American Magazine'', July, 1923, 11-15, 116-120.
#{{note|Black}} Wallace 2003, p. 123.
#{{note|Senate}} [http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/Senator_Condemned_for_Excessive_Campaign_Expenditures.htm Senator "Condemned" for Excessive Campaign Expenditures], United States Senate, Historical Minutes.
#{{note|Odyssey}}[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/btford.html Henry Ford], A Science Odyssey, People and Discoveries.
#{{note|Detroit}} ''Detroit News'', July 31, 1938.
#{{note|FordFound}} [http://www.fordfound.org/about/faq_other.cfm FAQ], Ford Foundation.
<!--READ ME!! PLEASE DO NOT JUST ADD NEW NOTES AT THE BOTTOM. See the instructions above on ordering. -->
== References ==
{{wikiquote}}
* Lee, Albert; ''Henry Ford and the Jews''; Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 1980; ISBN 0-81-282701-5
* Baldwin, Neil; ''Henry Ford and the Jews: The Mass Production of Hate''; PublicAffairs, 2000; ISBN 1-58-648163-0
* Ford, Henry and Crowther, Samuel; ''My Life and Work'', 1922
* Wallace, Max ''The American Axis: Henry Ford, Charles Lindbergh, and the Rise of the Third Reich''; ISBN 0312335318
* Bryan, Ford R. ''Henry's Lieutenants'', 1993; ISBN 0-8143-2428-2
* {{cite journal | author=Daniel M. G. Raff and Lawrence H. Summers | title=Did Henry Ford Pay Efficiency Wages? | journal=Journal of Labor Economics | year=October 1987 | volume=5 | issue=4 | pages=S57-S86}}
* ''The Nation'', January 24, 2000.
* Levinson, William A. ''Henry Ford's Lean Vision: Enduring Principles from the First Ford Motor Plant'', 2002; ISBN 1-56327-260-1
* Ford, Henry and Crowther, Samuel; ''Today and Tomorrow'', 1926
* Ford, Henry and Crowther, Samuel; ''Moving Forward'', 1930
* Bennett, Harry, as told to Paul Marcus. ''Ford: We Never Called Him Henry'', 1951
* Sorensen, Charles E., with Samuel T. Williamson. ''My Forty Years with Ford'', 1956; ISBN 0915299364
* Higham, Charles, ''Trading With The Enemy'' 1983
* [http://www.hfha.org/ The Henry Ford Heritage Association]
* [http://www.detnews.com/2001/hometech/0112/12/d01-364560.htm Review of] Henry Ford and the Jews
* [http://www.kuhistory.com/proto/story.asp?id=42 Article about the 1916 Peace Ship expedition]
* Full text of ''[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/7213 My Life and Work]'' from [[Project Gutenberg]]
** [http://www.opendepth.com/node/545 My Life and Work], adapted from the Gutenberg Project version, with contextual links to Wikipedia.
* [http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/llt/51/pauwels.html American Corporate Support for Nazis]
* [http://www.quotationsbook.com/authors/2560/Henry_Ford Notable quotations and speech excerpts]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Henry+Ford+(1863-1947) | name=Henry Ford}}
[[Category:1863 births|Ford, Henry]]
[[Category:1947 deaths|Ford, Henry]]
[[Category:Anti-Semitic people|Ford, Henry]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Ford, Henry]]
[[Category:Automotive pioneers|Ford, Henry]]
[[Category:Business leaders|Ford, Henry]]
[[Category:Ford executives|Ford, Henry]]
[[Category:International Motorsports Hall of Fame|Ford, Henry]]
[[Category:Irish-Americans|Ford, Henry]]
[[Category:People from Michigan|Ford, Henry]]
==Timeline==
*1863 Birth of Henry Ford
*1876 Death of Mary Litogot, his mother
*1880 [[Media:1880_census_Ford.gif|US Census]]
*1891 Working at Edison Illuminating Company
*1893 Birth of Edsel Bryant Ford, his son
*1903 Creation of Ford Motor Company
*1905 Death of William Ford, his father
*1916 Marriage of Edsel to Eleanor Lowthian Clay
*1917 Birth of Henry Ford II, his grandson
*1919 Birth of Benson Ford, his grandson
*1943 Death of Edsel Bryant Ford
*1947 Death of Henry Ford
[[ar:هنري فورد]]
[[zh-min-nan:Henry Ford]]
[[bs:Henry Ford]]
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[[uk:Форд Генрі]]
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[[Category:Freemasons|Ford]]
[[Category:Nazi sympathizers]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Human geography</title>
<id>13372</id>
<revision>
<id>42006845</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:29:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rfrisbie</username>
<id>896545</id>
</contributor>
<comment>added social sciences link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Human geography''' is a branch of [[geography]] that focuses on the systematic study of patterns and processes that shape human interaction with the environment, with particular reference to the causes and consequences of the spatial distribution of human activity on the Earth's surface. It encompasses [[human]], [[political]], [[cultural]], [[social]], and [[economics|economic]] aspects of the [[social sciences]]. While the major focus of human geography is not the physical landscape of the Earth (see [[physical geography]]) it is hardly possible to discuss human geography without referring to the physical landscape on which human activities are being played out, and [[environmental geography]] is emerging as an important link between the two.
==Fields of human geography==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Fields of Human Geography!!Related Fields
|-
|[[Behavioral geography]] || [[Psychology]]
|-
|[[Cultural region|Cultural geography]] || [[Anthropology]] and [[Sociology]]
|-
|[[Development geography]] || [[Economic development]]
|-
|[[Economic geography]] || [[Economics]]
|-
|[[Environmental geography]] || [[Environmental science]]
|-
|[[Feminist geography]] || [[Feminism]]
|-
|[[Historical geography]] || [[History]]
|-
|[[Language geography]] || [[Linguistics]]
|-
|[[Marketing geography]] || [[Business]]
|-
|[[Medical geography]] || [[Health Science]]
|-
|[[Military geography]] || [[Geostrategy]]
|-
|[[Political geography]] || [[Political science]] (including [[Geopolitics]])
|-
|[[Population geography]] || [[Demography]]
|-
|[[Regional science]] || [[Regionalisation]]
|-
|[[Religion geography]] || [[Religion]]
|-
|[[Social geography]] || [[Sociology]]
|-
|[[Strategic geography]] || [[Geostrategy]]
|-
|[[Urban geography]] || [[Urban studies]] and [[Urban planning|Planning]]
|-
|}
==See also==
*[[Countries of the world]]
*[[Country]]
*[[Nation]]
*[[Nation-state]]
*[[Personal union]]
*[[Political geography]]
*[[State]]
==External links==
*http://www.collegeboard.com/student/testing/ap/sub_humangeo.html
*http://www.geog.le.ac.uk/cti/hum.html
* [http://www.commoncensus.org CommonCensus Map Project] - Drawing a human-geographic map of the United States based on votes from its website
==References==
* {{cite book | last = Blij | first = H.J. de | coauthors = Murphy, Alexander B. | title = Human Geography: Culture, Society, and Space | edition = 7th edition | publisher = John Wiley & Sons, Inc | year = 2000 | id = ISBN 0-471-44107-4 }}
[[Category:Anthropology]]
[[Category:Human geography|*]]
[[Category:Geography]]
[[Category:Social sciences]]
[[ca:Geografia humana]]
[[es:Geografía humana]]
[[fr:Géographie humaine]]
[[hr:Antropogeografija]]
[[ko:인류지리학]]
[[pl:Antropogeografia]]
[[pt:Geografia humana]]
[[sv:Kulturgeografi]]
[[zh:人文地理學]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Haiti</title>
<id>13373</id>
<revision>
<id>42113690</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:33:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Radix99</username>
<id>903306</id>
</contributor>
|
ld Vanenburg]]
*[[Velibor Vasovic]]
*[[Aron Winter]]
*[[Richard Witschge]]
*[[Jan Wouters]]
|}
==See also==
*[[Dutch Football League teams]]
==External links==
;Official
*[http://www.ajax.nl/ Ajax.nl - Official website of AFC Ajax] (Dutch)
*[http://english.ajax.nl/ Ajax.nl - Official website of AFC Ajax] (English)
;Unofficial
*[http://www.ajaxusa.com/ Ajax USA - American fansite of AFC Ajax] (English)
*[http://www.ajaxamsterdam.de/ AjaxSupporters.de - German fansite of AFC Ajax] (German)
*[http://www.ajaxenfrance.com/ Ajax en France - French fansite of AFC Ajax] (French)
* [http://www.epitch.co.uk/eredivisie/ajax/ Ajax News] (English)
* [http://www.ajaxpoland.com/ Polish Ajax info site] (Polish)
* [http://www.ajaxportal.com/ Ajax Portal] (Hungarian)
*[http://www.superajax.com/ Superajax.com - Russian fansite of AFC Ajax] (Russian)
{{Champions League 2005/06}}
{{Eredivisie}}
[[Category:Dutch football clubs]]
[[Category:Sport in Amsterdam]]
[[Category:Companies listed on the Euronext exchanges]]
[[Category:Companies of the Netherlands]]
[[Category:1900 establishments]]
[[Category:G-14 clubs]]
[[ar:أياكس أمستردام]]
[[bg:Аякс Амстердам]]
[[cs:AFC Ajax]]
[[da:Ajax Amsterdam]]
[[de:Ajax Amsterdam]]
[[es:Ajax Amsterdam]]
[[fr:Ajax Amsterdam]]
[[ko:아약스 암스테르담]]
[[it:AFC Ajax]]
[[he:אייאקס אמסטרדם]]
[[hu:Ajax Amsterdam]]
[[nl:AFC Ajax]]
[[ja:アヤックス・アムステルダム]]
[[no:Ajax Amsterdam]]
[[pl:Ajax Amsterdam]]
[[pt:Ajax de Amsterdão]]
[[ru:Аякс Амстердам (футбольный клуб)]]
[[fi:AFC Ajax]]
[[sv:AFC Ajax]]
[[zh:阿積士]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arthur Stanley Eddington</title>
<id>2274</id>
<revision>
<id>40071290</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T22:49:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DonSiano</username>
<id>215548</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Fundamental theory */ PAM Dirac on numbers</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Eddington 2.jpeg|thumb|200px|One of Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington's papers announced [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s theory of [[general relativity]] to the English-speaking world.]]
Sir '''Arthur Stanley Eddington''', [[Order of Merit|OM]] ([[December 28]], [[1882]] &ndash; [[November 22]], [[1944]]) was arguably the most important [[astrophysics|astrophysicist]] from the early [[20th century]]. The [[Eddington limit]], the natural limit to the [[luminosity]] that can be radiated by accretion onto a compact object, is named in his honour.
He is famous for his work regarding the [[Theory of relativity|Theory of Relativity]]. Eddington wrote an article in 1919, ''Report on the relativity theory of gravitation'', which announced [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s theory of [[general relativity]] to the English-speaking world. Because of [[World War I]], new developments in German science were not well known in England.
==Biography==
===Early years===
Eddington was born in [[Kendal]], [[England]], son of [[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]] parents. His father, Arthur Henry Eddington, taught at a Quaker training college in Lancashire before moving to Kendal to become headmaster of Stramongate School. He died in the [[typhoid]] epidemic which swept England in 1884. His mother, Sarah Ann Stout, came from Darlington and was also from a Quaker family. When his father died, she was left to bring up Arthur and his older sister with relatively little income. The family moved to [[Weston-super-Mare]] where at first Arthur was educated at home before spending three years at a preparatory school.
In 1893 Arthur entered Brymelyn School. He proved to be a brilliant scholar and excelled in mathematics and English literature. His records won him a 60 pounds scholarship in 1898, and was able to attend [[Victoria University of Manchester|Owens College]] in [[Manchester]] once he turned 16 later that year. He spent the first year in a general course, but turned to [[physics]] for the next three years. Eddington was greatly influenced by one of his mathematics teachers, [[Horace Lamb]]. His progress continued to be rapid, winning him several additional scholarships and allowing him to graduate with a B.Sc. with First Class Honours in 1902.
Based on his performance at Owens, he was awarded a 75 pound scholarship at [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity College]], [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]], which he entered in 1903. He graduated with a masters in 1905, and entered the [[Cavendish Laboratory]] researching [[thermionic emission]]. This did not go well so he returned to mathematics, but appeared to not enjoy this very much.
===Astronomy===
[[Image:Eddington 5.jpeg|thumb|250px|Eddington helped to experimentally verify the theory of general relativity by observing the appearance of stars around the region of a solar eclipse.]]
After leaving university later in 1905, Eddington's first full-time position was as the chief assistant to the Astronomer Royal at the [[Royal Greenwich Observatory]]. He was put to work on the detailed analysis [[parallax]] of [[Eros]] on [[photographic plate]]s that had started in 1900. He developed a new statistical method based on the apparent drift of two background stars, winning him the Smith's Prize in 1907.
The prize won him a Trinity College Fellowship. In December 1912 [[George Darwin]], son of [[Charles Darwin]], died suddenly and Eddington was promoted to his chair as the [[Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy]] in early 1913. Later that year, [[Robert Ball]], holder of the theoretical [[Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and Geometry|Lowndean chair]] also died, and Eddington was named the director of the entire [[Cambridge Observatory]] the next year. He was elected a Fellow of the [[Royal Society]] shortly thereafter.
During [[World War I]], Eddington was called up for [[military service]]. Being a member of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) and a [[pacifism|pacifist]], he refused to serve in the army as a [[conscientious objector]], and wanted to be allowed to do alternative service instead. Scientific friends of his solved the problem by successfully arguing to relieve him from military duty because of his importance for science.
[[Image:1919 eclipse negative.jpg|250px|thumb|right|One of Eddington's photographs of the 1919 eclipse, presented in his 1920 paper announcing its success.]]
After the war, Eddington travelled to the island of [[Príncipe]] near Africa to watch the [[solar eclipse]] of [[May 29]] [[1919]]. During the eclipse, he took pictures of the stars in the region around the Sun. According to the theory of [[general relativity]], stars near the Sun would appear to have been slightly shifted because their light had been curved by its gravitational field. This effect is noticeable only during an eclipse, since otherwise the Sun's brightness obscures the stars. Newtonian gravitation predicted half the shift of general relativity.
Eddington's observations confirmed Einstein's theory, and were hailed at the time as a conclusive proof of general relativity over the Newtonian model; the news was reported in newspapers all over the world as a major story. It is also the source of the [[urban rumor]] that only three people understand relativity; when asked by a reporter who suggested this, Eddington jokingly replied "Oh, who's the third?"
However, recent historical examinations of the case have shown that the raw data was inconclusive, and that Eddington was arbitrarily selective in choosing which results to use. For a detailed account, see [[Predictive power#Relativity and the 1919 eclipse|predictive power]].
Eddington also investigated the interior of [[star]]s through theory, and developed the first true understanding of stellar processes. He modelled stars as gas in radiative equilibrium; the star was stabilized by gravity pulling in, and gas pressure (temperature) and radiation pressure pushing out. Noting that the temperatures meant that the atoms in stars would be almost entirely [[ion]]ized, he theorized that they would behave as almost-[[ideal gas]]es, thereby making the mathematics much more tractable.
With these assumptions, he demonstrated that the interior temperature of stars must be millions of degrees. He discovered the mass-luminosity relationship for [[star]]s, he calculated the abundance of hydrogen and he produced a theory to explain the pulsation of [[Cepheid variable]] stars.
In [[1920]], Eddington, on the basis of the precise measurements of atomic weights by [[Francis William Aston|F. W. Aston]], was the first to suggest that stars obtained their energy from [[nuclear fusion]] of [[hydrogen]] to [[helium]]. This was the first suggestion that stars obtained their energy from nuclear fusion, over which he had a long running argument with [[James Jeans]]. Later, in 1938 and 1939, [[Hans Bethe]] introduced the theory for the fusion, which made the process seem rather "natural" and the debate generally ended.
Throughout this period Eddington lectured on relativity, and was particularly well known for his ability to explain the concepts in lay terms as well as scientific. He collected many of these into the ''Mathematical Theory of Relativity'' in 1923, which [[Albert Einstein]] suggested was ''the finest presentation of the subject in any language.''
===Fundamental theory===
During [[1920s]] until his death, he increasingly concentrated on what he called "[[Theory of everything|fundamental theory]]" which was intended to be a unification of [[quantum theory]], [[theory of relativity|relativity]] and [[gravitation]]. At first he progressed along "traditional" lines, but turned increasingly to an almost [[numerology|numerological]] analysis of the dimensionless ratios of fundamental constants. His work was increasingly seen as "crankish", and he became something of a science pariah in his later years.
His basic approach was to combine several fundamental constants in or |
quot;Recent publications"'')
*[http://www.lubee.org Lubee Bat Conservancy]
*[http://www.morcegolivre.vet.br Bats from Brazil]
{{Mammals}}
[[Category:Bats| ]]
[[Category:Pollinator]]
[[ar:خفاش]]
[[an:Apagacandil]]
[[ast:Esperteyu]]
[[cs:Letouni]]
[[cy:Ystlum]]
[[da:Flagermus]]
[[de:Fledertiere]]
[[es:Chiroptera]]
[[eo:Ĥiropteroj]]
[[fa:خفاش]]
[[fr:Chiroptera]]
[[ko:박쥐]]
[[io:Vespertilio]]
[[id:Kelelawar]]
[[it:Chiroptera]]
[[he:עטלפים]]
[[la:Chiroptera]]
[[lt:Šikšnosparniai]]
[[li:Vliermuis]]
[[nl:Vleermuizen]]
[[ja:コウモリ]]
[[pl:Nietoperze]]
[[pt:Morcego]]
[[ru:Рукокрылые]]
[[simple:Bat]]
[[sk:Netopiere]]
[[fi:Lepakot]]
[[tl:Paniki]]
[[tr:Yarasa]]
[[zh:蝙蝠]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Basque people</title>
<id>4660</id>
<revision>
<id>41877875</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T08:29:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>194.153.36.115</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Traditional Basque sports */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|October 2005}}
:''This article is about the Basque people. For other meanings, see [[Basque]].''
{{ethnic group |
group = Basques |
image = [[Image:Ignatius_Loyola.jpg|75px|]][[Image:Louis Daguerre.jpg|75px|]][[Image:Sor_Juana.png|66px|]][[Image:Maurice Ravel.jpeg|121px|]] |
poptime = 7 million (est.) |
popplace = [[Spain]] &ndash; <br>
&nbsp; [[Álava|Araba/Álava]]: 279,000<br>
&nbsp; [[Vizcaya|Bizkaia/Vizcaya]]: 1,160,000<br>
&nbsp; [[Guipúzcoa|Gipuzkoa/Guipúzcoa]]: 684,000<br>
&nbsp; [[Navarra|Nafarroa/Navarra]]: 560,000<br><br>
[[France]]: 730,000 (1993)<br>
[[United States]]: 47,956 (1990)<br>
[[Argentina]]: 3,600,000 have Basque origin (2004, est.)<br>
[[Uruguay]]: 35,000 have Basque origin (2004, est.)<br>
|
langs = [[Basque language|Basque]] [[monoglot]]s: Few.<br>
[[Spanish language|Spanish]] monoglots: 1,525,000 (est.)<br>
[[French language|French]] monoglots: 654,000 (est.)<br>
Basque + Spanish: 600,000 (est.)<br>
Basque + French: 76,200 (1991)<br>
other: ? |
rels = Predominantly [[Roman Catholic]] |
related = (none)|
}}
The '''Basques''' are an [[indigenous people]] who inhabit parts of both [[Spain]] and [[France]]. Basques, being themselves native to [[Navarre]], are predominantly found in an area known as the [[Basque Country]], consisting of four provinces in Spain and three in France, located around the western edge of the [[Pyrenees]] on the coast of the [[Bay of Biscay]]. The Basques are known in local languages as:
*''euskaldunak'' ("Basque speakers") or ''euskotarrak'' ("ethnically Basque people") in [[Basque language|Basque]]
*''Vascos'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (or the older term ''Vascongados'', which strictly speaking applies only to those Basques who live in the three [[provincias Vascongadas]])
*''Basques'' in [[French language|French]]
*''Bascos'' in [[Gascon]]
This article discusses the Basques as an [[ethnic group]] or, as some view them, a [[nation]], rather than other ethnic groups living in the Basque areas. The coverage here of the history of the Basque region focuses on how it bears on the Basques as a people.
==Etymology of the word ''Basque''==
The English word Basque comes from [[French language|French]] ''Basque'' (pronounced {{IPA|/bask/}}), which itself comes from [[Gascon]] ''Basco'' (pronounced {{IPA|/ˈbasku/}}) and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''Vasco'' (pronounced {{IPA|/ˈbasko/}}). These, in turn, come from [[Latin]] ''Vasco'' (pronounced {{IPA|/wasko/}}), plural ''Vascones'' (see History section below). The Latin [[labial-velar approximant]] /w/ typically [[betacism|evolved into]] the [[voiced bilabial plosive]] /b/ in Gascon and Spanish, probably under the influence of Basque and [[Aquitanian language|Aquitanian]] (a language related to old Basque and spoken in [[Gascony]] in [[Classical antiquity|Antiquity]]). This explains the Roman [[pun]] at the expense of the Aquitanians (ancestor of the Gascons): "Beati Hispani quibus vivere bibere est", which translates as "Blessed [[Iberians|Iberian]]s [the Romans considered the Aquitanians akin to the Iberians], for whom living (vivere) is drinking (bibere)".
One frequent theory about the origin of Latin ''Vasco'' is that it derives from Latin ''boscus'' or ''buscus'' meaning "wooded area" (cf. Spanish ''bosque'', forest). Thus ''Vascones'' would mean "those living in the wooded land". However, this fake etymology is now proven wrong, as Latin ''boscus''/''buscus'' only appeared in the [[Middle Ages]], and is probably a corruption of classical Latin ''arbustus'' (meaning "planted with tree", from ''arbor'', "tree"), possibly under the influence of [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] ''busk'' or ''bosk'' (cf. English bush, [[German language|German]] ''Busch''), whose origin is itself unknown.
Another side of that theory sees Latin ''Vasco'' still meaning "of the wooded land", but this time coming from (modern) Basque ''basoko'' where ''baso-'' means forest, and ''-ko'' is the ending denoting possession/genitive. Besides the fact that ''basoko'' is a modern Basque word (it may have been quite a different word 2000 years ago), this etymology once popular among Basque people is now totally discredited by researchers.
To add to the mystery, several coins from the [[1st century BC|1st]] and [[2nd century BC|2nd centuries BC]] were found in the north of Spain, bearing the inscription ''barscunes'' written in the [[Iberian alphabet]]. The place where they were minted is not certain but has been identified as [[Pamplona]] or [[Rocafort]], the area where historians think the ''Vascones'' lived.
Today, it is thought that Latin ''Vasco'' comes from a Basque and Aquitanian root used by these people to call themselves. This root is ''eusk-'', pronounced {{IPA|/ewsk/}}, which is indeed close from Latin {{IPA|/wasko/}}. There was also an Aquitanian people whose name the Romans recorded as [[Auch#The Ausci|Ausci]] (pronounced {{IPA|/awski/}} in Latin), and which also seems to come from the same root.
In modern Basque, Basques call themselves ''euskaldunak'', singular ''euskaldun'', formed from ''euskal-'' (i.e. "Basque (language)") and ''-dun'' (i.e. "one who has"), so ''euskaldun'' literally means a Basque speaker. It should be noted that not all Basques are Basque speakers (''euskaldunak''), and not all Basque speakers are Basque (foreigners who learnt Basque are also ''euskaldunak''). To remedy this inconvenience, a [[neologism]] was coined in the nineteenth century, the word ''euskotar'', plural ''euskotarrak'', which means an ethnically Basque person, whether speaking Basque or not.
These Basque words all originate from the name the Basques use to call their language: ''euskara''. Modern researchers have reconstructed the pronunciation and vocabulary of ancient Basque, and Alfonso Irigoyen proposes that the word ''euskara'' comes from the verb "to say" in ancient Basque, which was pronounced ''enautsi'' (modern Basque ''esan''), and from the suffix ''-(k)ara'' ("way (of doing something)"). Thus ''euskara'' would literally mean "way of saying", "way of speaking". Evidence of this theory is found in the Spanish book ''Compendio Historial'' written in 1571 by the Basque writer [[Esteban de Garibay]], who recorded the native name of the Basque language as "''enusquera''". However, as with most things related to Basque history, this hypothesis is not totally certain.
In the nineteenth century, the Basque nationalist activist [[Sabino Arana]] thought that there was an original root ''euzko'' from ''eguzkiko'' ("of the sun" presuming a [[solar religion]]). From it he created the [[neologism]] [[Euzkadi]] for his purported independent Basque Country. This theory is totally discredited today, the only serious etymology being from ''enautsi'' and ''-(k)ara'', but the neologism Euzkadi, in the regularized spelling [[Euskadi]], is still widely used in Basque and Spanish.
==History==
=== Origin of the Basques ===
The key sources for the early history of the Basques are the classical writers, especially [[Strabo]], who in the 1st century AD reported that the north of modern-day [[Navarre]] and [[Aragon]] (the area immediately east of the modern-day [[autonomous community]] of the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]]) was inhabited by a people known as the Vascones. Although the word ''Vascones'' is clearly related to the modern word "Basque", we do not know for sure if the ''Vascones'' were indeed the ancestors of the modern Basques, or whether they spoke an old form of the [[Basque language]]. Surviving place names and a few personal names tend to suggest they spoke old Basque, but we cannot be sure.
On the territory of the present Basque Country lived three different peoples: the Vardulli, the Caristi, and the Autrigones. Nobody knows if these three peoples were related to the Vascones, or if they spoke a language related to old Basque, as they have left no written records. Some researchers, based on the meager historical evidence we possess, think that they were [[Celtiberian]] peoples, speaking languages not related to old Basque, but we cannot be sure. In fact, the place where a Basque-related language is the best attested is [[Gascony]], in the southwest of France, where the local [[Aquitaine|Aquitanians]] spoke a language which may be related to Basque (this extinct Aquitanian language should not be confused with [[Occitan language|Occitan]], a Romance language spoken in Aquitaine since the beginning of the Middle Ages).
Later in the period of the [[Roman Empire]], the ''Vascones'' seem to have moved west into what is the present Basque Country (while some also clearly stayed in Navarre), either |
e, with its focus on content specialty, curriculum design, and [[pedagogy]], was designed to help prepare expert teachers in various fields. Its well-defined disciplinary focus makes it different from the [[Ed.D.]] (Doctor of Education) while still embracing the Ed.D.'s concern for issues in education. The D.A. continues to be offered in many universities across the United States and in other countries, though a few D.A. programs have since been converted to the Ph.D. model. Still, the D.A. has many steadfast supporters. Other solutions include a re-thinking of the Ph.D. in order to address its perceived shortcomings. [[William Henry Bragg]], the noted physicist, was famously known to have said, "whatever you do, don't do a Ph.D.".
==Etymology==
There are many other doctoral degrees with different designations, e.g. [[Doctor of Arts|D.A.]] (Doctor of Arts), [[D.M.A.]] (Doctor of Musical Arts), [[Ed.D.]] (Doctor of Education), [[Th.D]]. (Doctor of Theology), etc. [[Johns Hopkins University]] was the first university in the [[United States]] to confer doctoral degrees. The first Ph.D. in Business was granted by the [[University of Chicago]] in 1920s.
In the United Kingdom and other universities in the British Commonwealth, Ph.D.s are distinguishable from the [[higher doctorate]]s that outrank them (such as D.Litt. ([[Doctor of Letters]]) or D.Sc. ([[Doctor of Science]]), which are issued by a committee on the basis of a long record of research and publication). They are also distinct from ''professional'' doctorates such as those conferred in medicine, education, engineering and jurisprudence (M.D., Ed.D., Eng.D., D.Jur.). In most universities, professional doctorates involve coursework or a much smaller research component, so the Ph.D. is therefore understood formally to outrank them. However at the ancient British Universities (i.e. [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]]) the M.D. is of a far more ancient origin (medieval) than that of the Ph.D (twentieth century). Hence the M.D. outranks the Ph.D. in the hierarchy of the University. This is regardless of the academic rigor of the comparative theses.
In German speaking countries and most eastern European countries, the corresponding degree is simply called "Doctor" and is further distinguished by subject area with a Latin suffix (e.g. "Dr.med." - doctor medicinæ - which is not equal to a Ph.D., "Dr.rer.nat - doctor rerum naturalium (Doctor of Science), "Dr.phil." - doctor philosophiæ. (For a full list of these titles, see the German entry for [[:de:Doktor|Doktor]]).
While the Ph.D. is the most common doctoral degree, and even often (mis)understood to be synonymous with the term &ldquo;[[doctorate]],&rdquo; the [[U.S. Department of Education]] and the [[U.S. National Science Foundation]] (NSF) recognize numerous doctoral degrees as equivalent, and do not discriminate between them.
Sometimes a university grants an [[honorary degree|honorary Ph.D. or D.A.]], or other doctoral degree, with the added designation of ''[[honoris causa]]'' ([[Latin]] for ''for the sake of honor''), or Dr.h.c.
== See also ==
*[[Doctorate]]
*[[Terminal degree]]
*[[Bachelor's degree]]
*[[Academic degree]]
*[[Graduate student]]
*[[Piled Higher and Deeper]], a [[webcomic]] which satirizes the life of graduate students earning a Ph.D.
*[[J.D.]]
*[[LL.D.]]
*[[Doctor of Arts| D.A.]]
*[[Doctor of Business Administration| DBA]]
*[[Doctor of Education|Ed.D.]]
*[[Doctor of Theology|Th.D.]]
*[[Master's degree]]
*[[MBA]]
*[[M.D.]]
*[[D.P.T]]
*[[Pharm.D.]]
*[[Psy.D.]]
*[[Engineering Doctorate | Eng.D.]]
*[[D.Sc]]
*[[EURODOC]]
*[[Dottorato di ricerca]] (Italian equivalent of Ph.D.)
*[[Dr. univ.]]
*[[C.Phil.]]
==Bibliography==
* Estelle M Phillips and Derek.S. Pugh How to Get a Ph.D.: A Handbook for Students and Their Supervisors ISBN 033520550X,
*MacGillivray, Alex; Potts, Gareth; Raymond, Polly. ''Secrets of Their Success'' (London: New Economics Foundation, 2002)
== External links==
The Curry School of Education University of Virginia has interesting materials including
*[http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/go/heresearch/historydocdegree.htm History of the doctoral degree (PhD) and dissertations]
There is some general information about the history of the PhD in Britain in
*[http://www.economics.soton.ac.uk/staff/aldrich/PhD.htm The Mathematics PhD in the United Kingdom: Notes on its History]
[[Category:Doctoral degrees|Philosophy, Doctor of]]
[[ar:دكتوراه الفلسفة]]
[[da:Ph.d.]]
[[de:Doctor of Philosophy]]
[[es:PhD]]
[[fr:Doctor of Philosophy]]
[[it:PhD]]
[[hu:Tudományos fokozat]]
[[nl:Doctor of Philosophy]]
[[ja:Ph.D.]]
[[no:Filosofiske doktorgrad]]
[[ru:Доктор философии]]
[[sv:Filosofie doktor]]
[[zh:哲學博士]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>DNA virus</title>
<id>8777</id>
<revision>
<id>36547982</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-24T21:17:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Isnow</username>
<id>180201</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+zh</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''DNA virus''' is a [[virus (biology)|virus]] that has [[DNA]] as its [[genetic material]] and does not use an [[RNA]] intermediate during replication. Viruses that either have RNA as their genetic material or use an RNA intermediate during replication are called [[RNA virus]]es. The DNA can either be single-stranded (ssDNA) or double-stranded (dsDNA), the latter being more common.
Single-stranded DNA is usually expanded to double-stranded in infected cells.
==See also==
*[[Mimivirus]]
*[[RNA virus]]
*[[Virus classification]]
[[Category:Virology]][[Category:DNA]]
[[de:DNA-Virus]]
[[et:DNA-viirused]]
[[es:Virus ADN]]
[[fr:Virus à ADN]]
[[nl:DNA-virus]]
[[zh:去氧核糖核酸病毒]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Daniel Ortega</title>
<id>8778</id>
<revision>
<id>42129891</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:40:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mostein01</username>
<id>965787</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| align="right" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="border: 1px solid; margin-left: 1em"
|+ '''Daniel Ortega Saavedra'''
[[Image:415240.jpg|415240.jpg]]
! bgcolor="#efefef" colspan="2" |
|-
! Date of Birth:
| November 11, 1945
|-
! Date of Death:
| &ndash;
|-
! bgcolor="#efefef" colspan="2" | [[President of Nicaragua]]
|-
! Tenure Order:
| Constitutional President
|-
! Term in Office:
| January 10, 1985 &ndash; April 25, 1990
|-
! Predecessor:
| [[Junta of National Reconstruction]]
|-
! Successor:
| [[Violeta Chamorro|Violeta Barrios de Chamorro]]
|}
'''Daniel Ortega Saavedra''' (born [[11 November]] [[1945]]) was the president of [[Nicaragua]] from [[1985]] to [[1990]]. For much of his life he has been an important leader in the [[Sandinista National Liberation Front]] (''Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional'' or ''FSLN'').
==Rise to power==
Ortega was born to a middle-class family in La Libertad, Nicaragua. His parents were active in opposition to the regime of [[Anastasio Somoza Debayle]], and he was arrested for his own political activities as early as age 15. In 1963 he attended the [[University of Central America| University of Central America, Managua]] in [[Managua]] and quickly joined the then-underground FSLN. By 1967 he became a leader in the FSLN, in charge of the urban [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] campaign, but shortly after that he was arrested. He remained in prison until 1974, when he was released in exchange for hostages held by the FSLN. He immediately visited [[Cuba]], a major source of aid for the Sandinistas, and returned to his role as guerrilla commander.
When Somoza was overthrown by the FSLN in July 1979, Ortega became a member of the five-person [[Junta of National Reconstruction]], which also included Sandinista militant [[Moisés Hassan]], novelist [[Sergio Ramírez Mercado]], businessman [[Alfonso Robelo Callejas]], and journalist [[Violeta Barrios de Chamorro]] (associated with the newspaper [[La Prensa]]). The FSLN came to dominate the junta, Robelo and Chamorro resigned, and Ortega became the ''[[de facto]]'' ruler of the country.
In November 1984 Ortega called national elections and won the presidency with 63% of the vote, taking office on January 10, 1985. At the request of the [[United States]], some opposition parties [[boycott|boycotted]] the election, which was immediately denounced as a "sham" by the [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] administration; however, many international observers declared the election to be fair.
For more details on Ortega’s presidency, see [[Sandinista National Liberation Front]].
==Post-1990==
In Nicaragua's 1990 elections, Ortega lost to Violeta Barrios de Chamorro, his former colleague in the Junta. Chamorro was supported by a 14-party anti-Sandinista alliance known as the [[National Opposition Union]] (Union Nacional Opositora, UNO). The various anti-Sandinista guerrilla movements collectively known as the [[Contras]], as well as the United States’ trade [[embargo]] against the country, greatly hurt Ortega’s popularity in this election.
Ortega stood for election again in October 1996 and November 2001, but lost on both occasions. In these elections, a key issue was the allegation of corruption. In Ortega’s last days as president, through a series of legislative acts known as “The [[Piñata]]”, estates that had been seized by the Sandinista government (some valued at millions and even billions US$) became the private property of various FSLN officials, including Ortega himself. It is also alleged that Ortega appropriated national bank funds for his personal account. In reference to these allegations, critics often call Ortega “El Piñatin”.
In 2001, the allegations of corruption a |
n character [[Philip J. Fry]] and the robot character [[Bender Bending Rodriguez|Bender]] attempt to find an apartment together.
The third-season episode "[[Futurama (TV series - season 3)#The Cyber House Rules|The Cyber House Rules]]" includes an optician named "Eye Robot".
The fourth-season episode "[[Futurama (TV series - season 4)#Anthology of Interest 2|Anthology of Interest 2]]" included a segment called "I, Meatbag", in which Bender is transformed into a human being.
The episode of ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'' titled "[[I, Borg (TNG episode)|I, Borg]]" was named after and conceptually based on the I, Robot stories. The episode was about a [[Borg]] Drone that was separated from the Borg Collective, and how it learns how to become an individual.
The [[satire|satirical]] newspaper ''[[The Onion]]'' published an article entitled "I, Rowboat" [http://www.theonion.com/content/node/33568] in which an anthropomorphized [[rowboat]] gives a speech parodying much of the angst experienced by robots in Asimov's fiction, including a statement of the "Three Laws of Rowboatics":
# A Rowboat may not immerse a human being or, through lack of flotation, allow a human to come to harm.
# A Rowboat must obey all commands and steering input given by its human Rower, except where such input would conflict with the First Law.
# A Rowboat must preserve its own flotation as long as such preservation does not conflict with the First or Second Law.
The film [[Bicentennial Man]] includes the Three Laws of robotics as quoted by the protagonist and android, Andrew.
[[Category:1950 books]]
[[Category:Foundation universe books]]
[[Category:Science fiction short story collections by Isaac Asimov]]
[[bg:Аз, роботът]]
[[de:I, Robot]]
[[es:Yo, Robot]]
[[fr:I, Robot]]
[[it:Io, Robot (Asimov)]]
[[he:אנוכי הרובוט]]
[[hu:Én, a robot]]
[[ja:われはロボット]]
[[fi:I, Robot]]
[[sv:Jag, robot]]
[[uk:Я, робот (фільм)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Invictus</title>
<id>14546</id>
<revision>
<id>41700954</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T03:47:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.118.6.39</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Invictus''''' is a short [[poem]] by the [[United Kingdom|British]] poet [[William Ernest Henley]], which is the source of a number of familiar [[cliché]]s and [[quotation]]s. The title is [[Latin]] for "unconquerable." It was first published in [[1875]].
The poem goes:
:::'''Invictus'''
:Out of the night that covers me,<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Black as the Pit from pole to pole,<br>I thank whatever gods may be<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;For my unconquerable soul.
:In the fell clutch of circumstance<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;I have not winced nor cried aloud.<br>Under the bludgeonings of chance<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;My head is bloody, but unbowed.
:Beyond this place of wrath and tears<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Looms but the Horror of the shade,<br>And yet the menace of the years<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Finds, and shall find, me unafraid.
:It matters not how strait the gate,<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;How charged with punishments the scroll,<br>I am the master of my fate:<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;I am the captain of my soul.
In this poem, Henley gave the world the familiar phrases "my head is bloody, but unbowed" and "I am the master of my fate". These lines have been quoted many times by people who may not realize the source. They seem a [[hyperbole|hyperbolic]] epitome of the "stiff upper lip" that [[popular culture]] has made a traditional British virtue, and a comforting image of [[stoicism]] in the face of disaster.
In the climax of the [[1942 in film|1942 film]] ''[[King's Row]]'', the poem is recited by Parris Mitchell ([[Robert Cummings]]) to friend Drake McHugh ([[Ronald Reagan]]) in an effort to overcome the latter's [[clinical depression|depression]] following a permanent injury.
It is also the name of an album by the Heavy Metal band [[Virgin Steele]] who use occasional lines of the poem as lyrics on the album.
Outlaw Country Music singer/songwriter David Allan Coe also named a 1980 album after the poem, calling it "Invictus Means Unconquered," reprinting the poem on the back sleeve, coupled with an original poem apparently intended as an homage, and personal follow-up, to the Henley original.
The poem recently gained further notoriety by being quoted by the [[United States|American]] [[domestic terrorism|terrorist]] [[Timothy McVeigh]], who quoted it in a communiqué released shortly before his [[capital punishment|execution]] for [[murder]] committed in the [[Oklahoma City bombing]].
More recently, [[United States|American]] [[domestic terrorism|terrorist]] [[Eric Rudolph]] alluded to the poem when in court for the 1996 [[Centennial Olympic Park bombing]] in [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], on April 20, 2005, stating, "By the grace of God, I am still here -- a little bloodied, but emphatically unbowed."
This poem was also used in the WB teen drama, One Tree Hill.
The poem is also the motto of BUD/s Class 228, as recorded in "The Warrior Elite: The Forging of SEAL Class 228" by Dick Couch. It represents the indomitable spirit of the class members who finished the grueling Basic Underwater Demolition School training in their quest to become Navy SEALs.
== See also ==
* [[If (poem)|If&mdash;&nbsp;]] by Rudyard Kipling
== External links ==
*[http://www.courttv.com/news/mcveigh_special/finalstatement.html Image of Timothy McVeigh's final statement] given the morning of his execution on [[June 11]], [[2001]].
*[http://www.godofthemachine.com/archives/00000309.html Intellectual discussion on "Invictus", two opposing interpretations.]
[[Category:British poems]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Irish traditional music</title>
<id>14547</id>
<revision>
<id>15912092</id>
<timestamp>2003-11-28T19:51:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TUF-KAT</username>
<id>8351</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[Music of Ireland]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Music of Ireland]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Industry/Tertiary Sector</title>
<id>14548</id>
<revision>
<id>15912093</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-12T18:09:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Tertiary_sector_of_industry]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Tertiary_sector_of_industry]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Industry/Secondary Sector</title>
<id>14549</id>
<revision>
<id>15912094</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T23:07:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Camembert</username>
<id>3113</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Secondary_sector_of_industry]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Industry/Primary Sector</title>
<id>14550</id>
<revision>
<id>15912095</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-12T18:09:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Primary_sector_of_industry]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Primary_sector_of_industry]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Tertiary sector of industry</title>
<id>14551</id>
<revision>
<id>40147857</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T14:29:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Angr</username>
<id>157842</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* See also */ +de:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''service sector''' or the '''service industry''', is one of the three main industrial categories of a developed [[Economics|economy]], the others being the secondary industry ([[manufacturing]] and primary goods production such as [[agriculture]]), and primary industry (extraction such as [[mining]] and [[fishing]]).
The tertiary sector of industry involves the provision of services to other businesses as well as final consumers. Services may involve the [[transport]], [[distribution (business)|distribution]] and sale of goods from producer to a consumer as may happen in [[wholesaler|wholesaling]] and [[retailer|retailing]], or may involve the provision of a service, such as in [[pest control]] or [[entertainment]]. The goods may be transformed in the process of providing the service, as happens in the [[restaurant]] industry. However the focus is on people interacting with people and serving the customer rather than transforming physical goods. For the last 20 years there has been a substantial shift from the other two [[industry]] sectors to the Tertiary Sector in industrialised countries.
The service sector consists of the "soft" parts of the economy such as [[insurance]], [[tourism]], [[banking]], [[retail]] and [[education]]. Others include:
* [[Franchising]]
* [[Restaurants]]
* [[Retailer|Retailing]]
* [[Entertainment]], including the [[Record industry]], [[Music industry]], [[Radio]], [[Television]] and [[Film|Movies]].
* [[News]] [[medium|media]]
* [[Leisure industry]]
* [[Transport]]
* [[Healthcare]]
* [[Consulting]], [[I |
st son, [[Bolesław I the Brave]]. Mentioned instead are his sons by his second wife, Oda. No mention is made, too, of the third son from that marriage, [[Świętopełk]]. In addition, it is not clear why the city of [[Kraków]], which had probably been conquered by Mieszko before the document was drawn up, is mentioned as a borderland and not as part of the "''Shinesghe civitas''." Finally, Mieszko I is not referred to as "''Dagome''" in any other document.
Historians suppose that Bolesław's absence from the document might be explained by an old Slavic custom whereby children received their inheritance as soon as they reached the [[age of majority]]. Thus [[Bolesław I the Brave|Bolesław the Brave]] might have received [[Kraków]] as his part of his father's legacy before the ''Dagome iudex'' had been written.
==Summary text of the ''Dagome iudex''==
* In the Latin:
:''Item in alio tomo sub Iohanne XV papa Dagome iudex et [[Ote]] senatrix et filii eorum: Misicam et Lambertus - nescio cuius gentis homines, puto autem [[Sardinia|Sardos]] fuisse, quoniam ipsi a III iudicibus reguntur - leguntur beato Petro contulisse unam civitatem in integro, que vocatur Schinesghe, cum omnibus suis pertinentiis infra hos affines, sicuti incipit a primo latere longum mare, fine Bruzze usque in locum, qui dicitur Russe et fines Russe extendente usque in Craccoa et ab ipsa Craccoa usque ad flumen Oddere recte in locum, qui dicitur Alemure, et ab ipsa Alemura usque in terram Milze recte intra Oddere et exinde ducente iuxta flumen Oddera usque in predictam civitatem Schinesghe.''
*In English translation:
:"Also in another volume from the times of [[Pope John XV]], Dagome{{ref|Dagome}}, lord{{ref|iudex}}, and [[Oda von Haldensleben|Ote]], lady{{ref|lady}}, and their sons [[Mieszko Mieszkowic|Misico]] and [[Lambert Mieszkowic|Lambert]]{{ref|Lambert}} (I do not know of which nation those people are, but I think they are [[Sardinia|Sardinians]], for those are ruled by three lords{{ref|monk}}) were supposed to give to Saint Peter one state in whole which is called Schinesghe,{{ref|Schinesghe}} with all its lands in borders which run along the long sea{{ref|sea}}, along Prussia to the place called Rus, thence to [[Kraków]] and from said Kraków to the River [[Oder]], straight to a place called Alemure{{ref|Alemure}}, and from said Alemure to the land of [[Milczanie|Milze]], and from the borders of that people to the Oder and from that, going along the River Oder, ending at the earlier mentioned city of Schinesghe."
==Notes==
The following notes are based on interpretations by the Polish historian [[Gerard Labuda]].
:{{ref|Dagome}} "Dagome" is commonly identified as [[Mieszko I]]. However, the question remains open whether this was a misspelling or his Christian name. If the latter, it might correspond to the names "[[Dago]]," "[[Dagon]]" or "[[Dagobert]]."
:{{ref|iudex}} In classical Latin, the term ''iudex'' was used to refer to "a person who is ordered to do some work on behalf of others" and was identical in meaning to the Byzantine ''[[archont]]''. However, in mediaeval Latin ''iudex'' could also mean a sovereign ruler. Princes of [[Slavs|Slavic]] tribes were sometimes referred to as ''iudices''. Nevertheless, some historians claim that this was a misspelling of the Latin ''[[dux]]'' ("duke" or "prince").
:{{ref|lady}} Literally, "old woman." Cf. "[[senate]]."
:{{ref|Lambert}} It is unclear why [[Bolesław I the Brave]], Mieszko's eldest son and his successor, is not mentioned while the children from Mieszko's marriage to Ote are.
:{{ref|monk}} Scribe's note.
:{{ref|Shinesghe}} The origin of the name ''Schinesghe'' is unclear. Some historians argue that it is a corruption of "[[Gniezno]]," then Poland's capital. Others identify it with the town of [[Szczecin]].
:{{ref|sea}} "Long sea": Some historians identify it with the [[Baltic Sea]], others with the province of [[Pomerania]] (the Baltic coast), a part of Poland ca. [[990]].
:{{ref|Alemure}} ''Alemure'' might be the city of [[Olomouc]], in [[Moravia]]. However, this is uncertain.
==See also==
[[Scandinavian connections to Mieszko I]].
[[Category:Historical documents]]
[[Category:History of Poland (966–1385)]]
[[de:Dagome Iudex]]
[[fr:Dagome Iudex]]
[[pl:Dagome Iudex]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>DA</title>
<id>8942</id>
<revision>
<id>41813364</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T22:40:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ContiE</username>
<id>11061</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rm vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary |da}}
'''Da''' may refer to:
* [[Adi Da]], a spiritual leader once known as Da Free John, and Da Love-Ananda
'''DA''' might be an [[acronym]] or [[abbreviation]] for:
* [[DA postal area]]
* [[Air Georgia]] (airline code DA)
* [[Daniel Amos]]
* [[Dark Ages (computer game)]]
* [[Darmstadt]], a town in middle Germany
* [[Dearness allowance]], part of salary calculations in India
* [[Decision analysis]]
* [[Deutsche Alternative]] ([[German Alternative]]), a rightist group.
* [[deviantART]], an online artistic community
* [[Digital-to-analog converter]] (DA or D/A), in recording
* [[Dimensional analysis]]
* [[Directional antenna]], used in AM broadcasting
* [[Danish language]] (ISO 639-1 alpha-2, da)
* [[Doomsday argument]]
* [[Doctor of Arts]] degree
* [[Dopamine]]
* [[Ducktail]], a hairstyle for men.
* [[Dumbledore's Army]] in ''Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix''
* Dalton (Da), the [[atomic mass unit]]
* Degtyarev DA Soviet machine gun, a version of the [[DP-28]]
* District Attorney, a [[United States Attorney]] or [[County attorney]]
* Dura-Ace, a [[Shimano]] racing bicycle groupset
'''Dà''', a Chinese abbreviation for:
* ''Réndà'': [[National People's Congress]]
* ''Guódà'': [[National Congress of the Communist Party of China]]
{{disambig}}
[[eo:Da]]
[[ko:DA]]
[[it:Da]]
[[ja:DA]]
[[pl:DA]]
[[pt:DA]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Derek Walcott</title>
<id>8945</id>
<revision>
<id>41749903</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T13:50:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Myth]] to [[Mythology]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Walcott.jpg|thumb|right|Derek Walcott, courtesy of the Nobel Foundation]]
'''Derek Alton Walcott''' (born [[January 23]], [[1930]]) is a poet, playwright, writer and visual artist who was in the vanguard of the post-colonial school of [[English language]] writing. Born in [[Castries]], [[St. Lucia]], he won the [[Nobel Prize for Literature]] in [[1992]].
His work, which developed independently of the schools of [[magic realism]] emerging in both [[South America]] and [[Europe]] at around the time of his birth, is intensely related to the symbolism of [[Mythology|myth]] and its relationship to [[culture]]. He is best known for his epic poem ''Omeros'', a reworking of [[Homer]]ic story and tradition into a journey around the [[Caribbean]] and beyond to the American West and London.
Walcott founded the [[Trinidad Theatre Workshop]] in 1959, which has produced his plays (and others) since that time, and remains active with its Board of Directors. He also taught at [[Boston University]] where he instructed such poets as [[Glyn Maxwell]].
==Walcott as playwright and theorist==
Walcott has published more than twenty plays. The majority of these plays have been produced by the [[Trinidad Theatre Workshop]], and have also been widely staged elsewhere. Many of them deal, either directly or indirectly, with the liminal status of the West Indies in the postcolonial period. [[epistemology|Epistemological]], [[ontology|ontological]], [[economics|economical]], [[politics|political]], and [[social]] themes make regular appearances in Walcott's plays.
In his [[1970]] essay on art (and specifically theatre) in his native region, ''What the Twilight Says: An Overture'' (published in ''Dream on Monkey Mountain and Other Plays''; see bibliography), Walcott bemoans the lasting effects of over 400 years of colonial rule. He reflects on the West Indies as colonized space, and the problems presented by a region with little in the way of truly indigenous forms, and with little national or nationalist identity. He states: “...we are all strangers here (10). [...] Our bodies think in one language and move in another...”(31). In this mannner, Walcott shifts his poetic language between formal English and [[patois]] to highlight the linguistic dexterity of the Caribbean people. While recognising the profound psychological and material wrongs of the colonial project, Walcott simultaneously celebrates the hybridisation of Antillean cultures. His epic poem ''Omeros'' exposes the complex cultural strains that converge in his native [[Saint Lucia|St. Lucia]], celebrating at once the European, Amerindian, and African heritage shared by the islanders.
Discussions of epistemological effects of colonization inform plays such as ''Ti-Jean and his Brothers''. One of the eponymous brothers (Mi-Jean) is shown to have much information, but to truly know nothing. Every line Mi-Jean recites is rote knowledge gained from the coloniser, and as such is unable to be synthesized and thus is inapplicable to his existence as colonised person.
Walcott's plays weave together a variety of forms; including those of the [[folktale]], [[morality play]], [[allegory]], [[fable]], [[ritual]] and [[Mythology|myth]]; as well as using emblematic and mythological characters to address issues in non-realistic ways.
==Works==
===Poetry collections===
* (1948) ''25 Poems''
* (1949) ''Epitaph for the Y |
name of a U.S. spacestation where the shuttle retrieves oxygen.
==Sources==
*[[Thomas Bulfinch|Thomas Bulfinch's]]'' [[Bulfinch's Mythology|Mythology]]''.
[[Category:Greek mythological people]]
[[da:Daidalos]]
[[de:Daidalos]]
[[el:Δαίδαλος]]
[[es:Dédalo]]
[[eo:Dedalo kaj Ikaro]]
[[fr:Dédale]]
[[it:Dedalo]]
[[he:דדאלוס]]
[[la:Daedalus]]
[[lt:Dedalas]]
[[nl:Daedalus]]
[[ja:ダイダロス]]
[[no:Daidalos]]
[[pl:Dedal]]
[[pt:Dédalo]]
[[ru:Дедал]]
[[sl:Dedal]]
[[sv:Daidalos]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Deception Pass</title>
<id>8259</id>
<revision>
<id>36749705</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T05:07:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>165.121.27.187</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>change "looking west" to "looking east" in photo caption. photo shows pass island in foreground with strawberry island in background framed by Hoypus Point on right and Yokeko Point on left</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Deception Pass 2.JPG|right|thumb|200px|View from bridge looking east]]
'''Deception Pass''' is a narrow pass separating [[Whidbey Island]] from [[Fidalgo Island]], in the northwest corner of [[Washington|Washington State]].
In 1792, Captain [[George Vancouver]] and his navigator and First Mate [[Joseph Whidbey]] mistook Whidbey Island for a peninsula, and named the passage into [[Puget Sound]] for the way the island deceived them.
The pass is bridged by connecting Whidbey Island to the tiny Pass Island with [[Deception Pass Bridge]], and Pass Island to Fidalgo Island with Canoe Pass Bridge. The pass is surrounded by a state park.
Deception Pass is a major tourist destination and is noted for its scenic views and fast flowing tide water changes.
==External links==
*[http://www.parks.wa.gov/parkpage.asp?selectedpark=Deception%20Pass&pageno=1 Deception Pass State Park webpage]
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=48.407212,-122.644501&spn=0.052721,0.116927&t=h&hl=en Google satellite view/map of Deception Pass]
*[http://www.deceptionpassfoundation.org Deception Pass Park Foundation webpage]
[[Image:Deception Pass 1.jpg|center|200px|Tourist sign at Deception Pass]]
{{Washington-geo-stub}}
[[Category:Geography of Washington]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dominoes</title>
<id>8262</id>
<revision>
<id>41728659</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T09:28:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sjorford</username>
<id>24741</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rm bad video link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|"Domino" redirects here&mdash;for other meanings of the word, see [[Domino (disambiguation)]].}}
[[image:Dominoes.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A game of Dominoes]]
'''Dominoes''' (or "dominos") generally refers to the individual or collective gaming pieces making up a ''domino set'' (sometimes called a ''deck'' or ''pack'') or to the [[game]]s played with these pieces. (In the area of mathematical [[tiling]]s and [[polyomino]]es the word domino often refers to any [[rectangle]] formed from joining two squares edge to edge.) Standard domino sets consist of 28 pieces called ''bones'', ''cards'', ''tiles'', ''stones'', ''spinners'' or ''dominoes''. Each bone is a rectangular tile with a line dividing its ''face'' into two square ''ends''. Each end is marked with a number of black ''spots'' (also called ''pips'') or is ''blank''. The spots are generally arranged as they are on six-sided [[dice]], but because there are also blank ends having no spots there are normally seven possible faces. Standard domino sets have ends ranging from zero spots to six spots (''double six set''), but specialized sets might range from zero to nine (''double nine set''), zero to twelve (''double twelve set''), zero to fifteen (''double fifteen set''), or zero to eighteen (''double eighteen set''). The ''back'' side of a domino is generally plain. Dominoes have been made of [[bone]], [[ivory]], [[plastic]], [[metal]] and [[wood]], and occasionally are made of cardstock like that for [[playing cards]]. Dominoes are rather generic gaming devices--just as are playing cards. Many different games can be played with a set of dominoes.
==Domino tiles and suits==
Bones are generally named for the number of spots on the two ends of the bone. A bone with a ''2'' on one end and a ''5'' on the other end is called the ''2-5'', for example. Bones that have different numbers on the two ends are called ''singles'', and bones that have the same number on both ends are called ''doublets'' or ''doubles''. Bones that share a common number of spots on one end are said to be of the same ''suit''. In a double-six set, for example, ''1-0'', ''1-1'', ''1-2'', ''1-3'', ''1-4'', ''1-5'', and ''1-6'' all belong to the suit of one. All singles belong to two suits. The ''1-2'', for example, belongs to the suit of one and the suit of two. All doubles belong to one suit only by this definition. An alternate definition of suit allows all dominoes to have two suits, by counting the set of all doublets as an additional suit.
==The ranks of domino pieces==
The value of each end of a bone is determined by the number of spots on the end, with zero (blank) being the lowest and six being the highest. The rank of a bone is determined by the combined number of pips on the two ends. This rank is sometimes referred to as the bone's ''weight'' so that a higher ranking bone is called a ''heavier'' bone while a lower ranking bone is called ''lighter''.
==Playing a domino piece==
<div style="float:right; width:200px; border:1px; border-style:solid; padding:2px; text-align:center"> [[image:Domino-eg1.jpg]]<br />
''4-6 played on 4-5''</div>
The bones that are face up in play are called the ''layout'', ''chain'', or ''line''. The layout will have one or more ''open ends'' that are available to be played upon. In most games, there are two open ends--one at each end of a line of bones. In some games there may be more, or there may be varying numbers depending upon the circumstances of play. In some games, the first doublet of each hand, often called the "sniff" or "spinner", forms the intersection of a cross in the layout. This usually means that there are four open ends once the doublet has been played.
When only a single bone has been played, the two open ends are generally the two ends of the bone. If Player A played a ''4-5'', for example, there is a ''4'' on one open end and a ''5'' on the other. The next player must usually play a bone with an end that matches one of the open ends. Player B, therefore, must play a bone with either a ''4'' or a ''5'', and the matching ends must touch. If Player B plays the ''4-6'', the new bone is placed with the two ''4'' ends touching so that the new open ends are ''5'' and ''6''. Doubles are placed crosswise and ''sprouted'' (played upon) crosswise. As the layout grows, the two ends of the layout generally form the two playable ends.
==Common domino games==
Most domino games are ''block'' games or ''draw'' games. In draw games, players draw from the boneyard when they have no matching bone. In block games, players pass and forfeit the turn when they have no matching bone. Otherwise, there is no difference. Both generally consist of several hands of dominoes played until one of the players accumulates an agreed upon number of points and wins the series. Points are generally earned only by the first player in each hand to ''go out'' (play his or her last bone, also called ''to domino'') and win the hand. The primary object is thus to play all one's bones before an opponent does.
There are many existing rules for determining which player is the ''leader'' (or ''downer''), the player to make the first play of the hand. In some rules, the lead is determined by lottery. The bones are shuffled face down on the table, and each player draws one bone. The player with the highest double, or heaviest bone, or other agreed upon prize is designated the leader. By this rule, the leader then reshuffles the bones before the final deal. By other rules, the final deal determines the leader. Playing the first bone of a hand is sometimes called ''setting'' the first bone, ''leading'' the first bone, ''downing'' the first bone, or ''posing'' the first bone, and the bone so ''set'', ''led'', ''downed'', or ''posed'' is called ''the set'', ''the lead'', ''the down'', or ''the pose''. After the first hand, the winner of the previous hand is usually the leader for the next. By some rules, however, the lead rotates player to player across hands.
After the final shuffle the bones are dealt; each player in turn draws the number of bones required. The stock of bones left behind is called the ''boneyard'', and the bones therein are said to be ''sleeping''. If the leader was determined by lottery, the leader sets by placing any bone face up on the table. If the leader was not determined by lottery, the player with the highest double leads with that double, and if no player has a double, the hand is reshuffled and redealt.
The next player, and all players in turn, must play a bone with an end that matches one of the open ends of the layout. Play continues until one of the players goes out (and calls "out!" or "domino!") and wins the hand or until all the players are blocked. If all the players are blocked the player with the lightest hand wins.
In block games, players who cannot match on their turn must forfeit the turn by ''knocking'' (passing)--accomplished by rapping twice on the table or by saying, "go" or "pass". In draw games, players who cannot match must draw bones from the boneyard until obtaining a playable bone. According to most rules, the last two bones in the boneyard may not be drawn. If the boneyard is exhausted (only two bones left), the player knocks.
The winning p |
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