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', 50,000). Dates from 1300 onwards are based on what is probably better evidence, from historic records.
Figures for 1891 onwards are for [[Greater London]] in its 2001 limits (Greater London did not exist until 1965). Figures before 1971 have been reconstructed by the Office for National Statistics based on past censuses in order to fit the 2001 limits. Figures from 1981 onward are midyear estimates (revised as of 2004), which are more accurate than the censuses themselves, known to underestimate the population of London.
==Historical places of note in London==
* [[London Bridge]]
* [[Tower of London]]
* [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]]
* [[Buckingham Palace]]
* [[St. Paul's Cathedral]]
* [[Westminster Abbey]]
==External links==
*[http://www.motco.com/MAP/ Motco.com map database] - very detailed historical maps
*[http://chr.org.uk/anddidthosefeet.pdf Roman London - "In their own words"] <small>([[Portable_Document_Format|PDF]])</small> A literary companion to the [[prehistory]] and [[archaeology]] of London by ''[[Kevin Flude]]''
*[http://books.guardian.co.uk/firstchapters/story/0,6761,544022,00.html London: The Biography] First chapter of the book online by ''[[Peter Ackroyd]]''
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09341a.htm Londone] - Article in the 1908 Catholic Encyclopedia
* [http://www.knowledgeoflondon.com/ 'Knowledge of London with The History of London']
[[Category:History of London|*]]
[[Category:Roman Britain]]
[[Category:Roman sites in England]]
[[cs:Dějiny Londýna]]
[[de:Geschichte Londons]]
[[fr:Histoire de Londres]]
[[he:היסטוריה של לונדון]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Londen]]
[[nb:Londons historie]]
[[sk:Dejiny Londýna]]
{{Link FA|he}}</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>History of astronomy</title>
<id>14021</id>
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<id>40458002</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T18:28:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Brian0918</username>
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<comment>add pic</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{histOfScience}}
[[Image:Table of Astronomy, Cyclopaedia, Volume 1, p 164.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Table of astronomy, from the 1728 ''[[Cyclopaedia]]'']]
[[Astronomy]] is probably the oldest of the [[natural science]]s, dating back to [[ancient history|antiquity]], with its origins in the religious practices of [[pre-history]]: vestiges of these are still found in [[astrology]], a discipline long interwoven with astronomy, and not completely separate from it until about 1750&#8209;1800 in the [[Western World]]. Early astronomy involved observing and predicting the motions of [[visual perception|visible]] [[celestial sphere|celestial]] objects, especially [[star]]s and [[planet]]s. An example of this early astronomy might involve a study of the [[relationships]] between the "[[height|apparent height]]" of the [[noon]] [[Sun]], with respect to the changing [[pattern]]s of [[night]]time [[star]]s. Eventually [[natal chart|astrological charts]] were drawn up by cultures around the world using the raw astronomical data collected.
Ancient astronomers were able to differentiate between stars and planets, as stars remain relatively fixed over the [[century|centuries]] while planets will move an appreciable amount during a comparatively short time.
==Ancient history==
Early [[culture]]s identifed celestial objects with [[mythology|god]]s and [[spiritual being|spirit]]s. They related these objects (and their movements) to phenomena such as [[rain]], [[drought]], [[season]]s, and [[tide]]s. It is generally believed that the first "professional" astronomers were [[priest]]s ([[Magi]]), and that their understanding of the "[[heaven]]s" was seen as "[[divinity|divine]]", hence astronomy's ancient connection to what is now called astrology. Ancient constructions with astronomical [[alineation]]s (such as [[Stonehenge]]) probably fulfilled both astronomical and [[religion|religious]] [[social function|function]]s.
[[Calendar]]s of the world have usually been set by the Sun and Moon (measuring the [[day]], [[month]] and [[year]]), and were of importance to [[agriculture|agricultural]] societies, in which the harvest depended on planting at the correct time of year. The most common [[Gregorian calendar|modern calendar]] is based on the Roman calendar, which divided the year into twelve months of alternating thirty and thirty-one days apiece. In [[46 BC]] [[Julius Caesar]] instigated [[Julian calendar|calendar reform]] and created the [[leap year]].
==India==
''See also:'' [[Hindu astronomy]]
There are astronomical references of chronological significance in the [[Vedas]]. Some Vedic notices mark the beginning of the year and that of the [[vernal equinox]] in Orion; this was the case around 4500 BC. Fire altars, with astronomical basis, have been found in the third millennium cities of India. The texts that describe their designs are conservatively dated to the first millennium BC, but their contents appear to be much older.
[[Yajnavalkya]] (perhaps [[1800 BC]]) described the motions of the Sun and the Moon in his book [[Shatapatha Brahmana]], and also advanced a 95-year cycle to synchronize the motions of the Sun and the Moon.
The ''Vedanga Jyotisha'', a text on [[Vedic astrology]] that has been dated to [[1350 BC]], was written by [[Lagadha]]. It describes rules for tracking the motions of the Sun and the Moon, and also develops the use of [[geometry]] and [[trigonometry]] for astronomical uses.
Around [[500]] CE, [[Aryabhata]] presented a mathematical system that took the Earth to spin on its axis and considered the motions of the planets with respect to the Sun. He also made an accurate approximation of the Earth's [[circumference]] and [[diameter]], and also discovered how the [[lunar eclipse]] and [[solar eclipse]] happen for the first time. He gives the [[radius]] of the planetary [[orbit]]s in terms of the radius of the Earth/Sun orbit as essentially their periods of rotation around the Sun. He was also the earliest to discover that the orbits of the planets around the Sun are [[ellipse]]s. [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Aryabhata_I.html]
[[Brahmagupta]] (598-668) was the head of the astronomical observatory at [[Ujjain]] and during his tenure there wrote a text on astronomy, the ''[[Brahmasphutasiddhanta]]'' in [[628]]. He was the earliest to use algebra to solve astronomical problems. He also develops methods for calculations of the motions and places of various planets, their rising and setting, conjunctions, and the calculation of eclipses of the Sun and the Moon.
[[Bhaskara]] (1114-1185) was the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain, continuing the mathematical tradition of Brahmagupta. He wrote the ''Siddhantasiromani'' which consists of two parts: ''Goladhyaya'' (sphere) and ''Grahaganita'' (mathematics of the planets). He also calculated the time taken for the Earth to orbit the sun to 9 decimal places.
Other important astronomers from India include [[Madhava of Sangamagrama|Madhava]], [[Nilakantha Somayaji]] and [[Jyeshtadeva]], who were members of the [[Kerala school]] of astronomy and mathematics from the [[14th century]] to the [[16th century]]. They were responsible for founding [[calculus]] and modern [[mathematical analysis]], along with a number of other developments.
==Mesopotamia==
===Sumer===
===Chaldea, Babylonia===
==Mesoamerica==
===Maya civilization===
The [[Maya civilization|Maya]] calculated the [[solar year]] to somewhat greater accuracy than the [[Gregorian calendar]]. They made detailed tables for calculating phases of the Moon and the movements of Venus for centuries in the past or future. Astronomy and the measurement of time were vitally important components of Mayan religion.
The Maya also carefully tracked the phases of the Moon and the motions of the [[Seven Lights of the Earth|naked eye planets]]. To the ancient Maya, [[Venus]] was the patron of war and many recorded battles are timed to the motions of this planet. [[Mars]] is also mentioned in preserved astronomical [[codex|codices]] and early [[Maya mythology|mythology]].
==East Asia==
===China===
Ancient Chinese astronomy dates back more than two millennia. Chinese astronomers were to be able to predict comets and eclipses precisely. Any inaccuracy and the Emperor would order the astronomer to be beheaded.
==Ancient Greece==
[[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[philosopher]]s thought of several models to explain the movements of stars, planets, the Sun and the Moon. [[Eratosthenes]], using the angles of shadows created at widely-separated regions, estimated the circumference of the [[Earth]] with great accuracy. [[Hipparchus (astronomer)|Hipparchus]] made a number of important contributions, including the first measurement of [[precession]] and the compilation of the first star catalog. [[Ptolemy]] later referred to this work in his important ''[[Almagest]],'' which had a lasting effect on astronomy up to the [[Renaissance]].
==Korea==
[[Image:Cheomseongdae_Observatory_gyeongju.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Cheomsongdae]], world's first [[Astronomical observatory]].]]
East Asia's first astronomical observatory was developed in kingdom of [[Silla]], one of [[Three Kingdoms of Korea]]. It literally means ''Star-gazing Tower'' in Korean. It was constructed under [[Queen Seondeok of Silla]]'s reign during the 7th century. It still survives to this day. [[http://www.indiana.edu/~easc/resources/korea_slides/science/9-1.htm]
==Middle ages==
Greeks made some important contributions to astronomy, but the progress was mostly stagnant in [[Middle Ages|medieval]] [[Europe]], while it flourished in the [[Arab]] world and priests in distant parishes needed elementary astronomical knowledge for calculating the exact date of the Easter. The Arabic world under [[Islam]] had become highly cultured, and many importan |
time that the earliest [[English language|English]]-speaking settlers arrived, the area has also been known as '''The Forks''', because it is situated at the confluence of the north and south branches of the [[Kalamazoo River]]. The ''Festival of the Forks'' has been celebrated annually since [[1967]], celebrating Albion's ethnic heritage.
The presence of several major manufacturers through its history has given Albion the reputation of a factory town, though the presence of several major educational institutions has given small town Albion an intellectual character. [[Albion College]] is a nationally renowned private liberal arts college with a student population of about 1,950. Albion is [[Sister city]] to [[Noisy-le-Roi]], France.
==History==
The first white settler, [[Tenney Peabody]], arrived in [[1833]].
As local legend goes, Peabody's wife decided to name the city after [[Albion, Oswego County, New York]] where another prominent pioneer, [[Jesse Crowell]], came from. The city was almost named ''Peabodyville'', but Albion was the preferred choice.
Crowell arrived in [[1835]] and established the Albion Company to lay out the plan for the village and to sell property to other pioneers as they arrived. He became the first postmaster in [[1838]]. Albion incorporated as a village in [[1855]] and as a city in [[1885]].
In 1835, [[Methodist Episcopal Church|Methodist Episcopal]] settlers established Albion College, which was known by a few other names before 1861 when the college was fully authorized to confer four-year degrees on both men and women. The first classes were held in Albion in [[1843]].
The forks of the Kalamazoo River provided power for [[Watermill|mills]] and Albion quickly became a mill town as well as an agricultural market. A railroad line arrived in [[1852]], fostering the development of other industries.
Albion was named an [[All-America City Award|All-America City]] in [[1973]] by the [[National Civic League]]. It celebrated winning the award on [[May 15]], [[1974]] when the Governor of Michigan, [[William Milliken]], and many dignitaries came to town. However, in [[1975]] the closure of a major factory cut the celebration short and new challenges were created overnight.
Since that time citizens have mobilized, with support from the Albion Community Foundation founded in [[1968]], and the Albion Volunteer Service Organization founded in the 1980s with support from Albion College to address the challenge of diminishing economic opportunity.
== Law and government ==
Albion has a [[Council-manager government|Council-Manager]] form of government. City residents elect a Mayor and City Council members from six districts. The council in turn selects a City Manager to handle day-to-day affairs of the city. The mayor presides over and is a voting member of the council. Council members are elected to four-year terms, staggered every two years. A mayor is elected every two years.
== Geography ==
[[Image:MIMap-doton-Albion.PNG|right|Location of Albion, Michigan]]
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 11.7 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (4.5 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]). 11.6 km&sup2; (4.5 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 0.1 km&sup2; (0.04 mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 0.89% water. Albion is positioned 42.24 degrees north of the equator and 84.75 degrees west of the prime meridian.
== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]][[Geographic references#2|<sup>2</sup>]] of [[2000]], there are 9,144 people, 3,252 households, and 2,061 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 791.6/km&sup2; (2,050.2/mi&sup2;). There are 3,591 housing units at an average density of 310.9/km&sup2; (805.1/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 61.05% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 33.22% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.36% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.69% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 1.61% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 3.07% from two or more races. 4.55% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.
There are 3,252 households out of which 31.4% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.0% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 21.8% have a female householder with no husband present, and 36.6% are non-families. 31.9% of all households are made up of individuals and 13.6% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.44 and the average family size is 3.07.
In the city the population is spread out with 25.8% under the age of 18, 19.7% from 18 to 24, 23.0% from 25 to 44, 18.2% from 45 to 64, and 13.4% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 29 years. For every 100 females there are 83.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 76.2 males.
The median income for a household in the city is $30,245, and the median income for a family is $37,399. Males have a median income of $35,956 versus $22,975 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $14,165. 20.0% of the population and 15.0% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 27.6% of those under the age of 18 and 13.9% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
==See also==
* [[U.S. Highway 12|Old U.S. 12]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.albionmich.com/ Albion Michigan Home Page]
* [http://www.albionmich.com/history/histor_notebook/TOCsubj.htm Historical Albion Michigan]
* [http://www.ci.albion.mi.us/ City of Albion]
* [http://www.albionenews.com/ Albion E-News]
* [http://www.forks.org/ Albion E-Directory]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|42.2464|-84.7569}}
[[Category:All-America City]]
[[Category:Calhoun County, Michigan]]
[[Category:Cities in Michigan]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Anointing of the Sick</title>
<id>2348</id>
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<id>35490047</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T03:00:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michael Hardy</username>
<id>4626</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Anointing of the Sick''' is one of the [[sacrament]]s of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], and the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Churches]], and is also administered in some [[Protestantism|Protestant]] Churches. [[Anglicans]] are divided on the issue, as many consider it a sacrament, but the rest agree that it is at least a [[sacramentals|sacramental]].
Apart from the use of one or other of the synonyms "anointing" and "unction", the sacrament, in which a priest anoints a seriously sick person with oil blessed specifically for that purpose, has also been known as the holy oil of the sick, the unction or blessing of consecrated oil, the unction of God, the office of the unction, and so on. The ([[Greek language|Greek]] name is {{polytonic|Εὐχέλαιον}} (Euchelaion), derived from {{polytonic|εὐχή}} (prayer) and {{polytonic|ἔλαιον}} (oil).
In past centuries, when the sacrament was in fact conferred only on those in ''immediate'' danger of [[death]], it came to be known in the West as "Extreme Unction", i.e. "Final Anointing". It was then conferred only as one of the "Last Rites". The other "Last Rites" are Confession (if the dying person is physically unable to confess, at least absolution, conditional on the existence of contrition, is given), and the [[Eucharist]], which when administered to the dying is known as "[[Viaticum]]", a word whose original meaning in [[Latin language|Latin]] was "provision for a journey". The normal order of administration, unless there is imminent danger of death, is first Confession, then Anointing, then Viaticum.
The chief [[Bible|Biblical]] text for anointing of the sick is the [[Epistle of James]]:
:''Are any among you sick? They should call for the elders of the church and have them pray over them, anointing them with oil in the name of the Lord. And their prayer offered in faith will heal the sick, and the Lord will make them well. And anyone who has committed sins will be forgiven.''
:::::James 5:14-15
The Catholic Church sees the effects of the sacrament as follows. As the sacrament of Marriage gives grace for the married state, the sacrament of Anointing of the Sick gives grace for the state into which people enter through sickness. Through the sacrament is given a gift of the Holy Spirit that renews confidence and faith in God and strengthens against temptations to discouragement and anguish at the thought of death. It thus leads to spiritual healing and, sometimes, bodily healing as well.
The 2004 dictionary of the Greek language by George D. Babiniotis ({{polytonic|Γεώργιος Δ. Μπαμπινιώτης}}) states that this sacrament of the Greek Orthodox Church "is customary in cases of sickness or when someone thinks he is having ill luck."
==Form==
In the Catholic Church, the special olive oil used (Oil of the Sick) is blessed by the bishop of the diocese at the Chrism Mass he celebrates on [[Holy Thursday]] or on a day close to it. However, in case of necessity, the priest administering the sacrament may bless the oil within the framework of the celebration. The Eastern Orthodox Church follows a similar discipline.
In Protestant Churches and in the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], any [[elder (religious)|elder]] or minister may consecrate the oil they use for anointing the sick.
Anointing of the Sick can be administered on an individual basis according to the individual person's needs, at home or in a hospital, usually (in the case of Catholics) in connection with Confession and administration of Holy Communion. It can also be given to a group: Catholic [[parish]]es often offer a communal |
Ionia. The contention for Homer, in short, began at a time when his real history was lost, and he had become a sort of mythical figure, an eponymous hero, or personification of a great school of poetry.
An interesting confirmation of this view from the negative side is furnished by the city which ranked as chief among the Asiatic colonies of Greece, viz. [[Miletus]]. No legend claims for Miletus even a visit from Homer, or a share in the authorship of any Homeric poem. Yet [[Arctinus of Miletus]] was said to have been a disciple of Homer, and was certainly one of the earliest and most considerable of the Cyclic poets. His ''Aethiopis'' was composed as a sequel to the Iliad; and the structure and general character of his poems show that he took the Iliad as his model. Yet in his case we find no trace of the disputed authorship which is so common with other Cyclic poems. How has this come about? Why have the works of Arctinus escaped the attraction which drew to the name of Homer such epics as the Cypria, the Little Iliad, the Thebaid, the Epigoni, the Taking of Oechalia and the Phocais. The most obvious account of the matter is that Arctinus was never so far forgotten that his poems became the subject of dispute. We seem through him to obtain a glimpse of an early post-Homeric age in Ionia, when the immediate disciples and successors of Homer were distinct figures in a trustworthy tradition when they had not yet merged their individuality in the legendary Homer of the Epic Cycle.
==Homeric studies==
{{main|Homeric scholarship}}
The study of Homer is one of the very oldest topics in all scholarship or science, and goes back to antiquity. Purely in terms of quantity it is one of the largest of all literary sub-disciplines: the annual publication output rivals that on [[Shakespeare]]. The aims and achievements of Homeric studies have changed over the course of the millennia; in the last few centuries they have revolved around the process by which the Homeric poems came into existence and were transmitted down to us, first orally, and later in writing.
Some of the main trends in modern Homeric scholarship have been, in the 19th and early 20th centuries, ''Analysis'' and ''Unitarianism'' (see [[Homeric question]]), which were schools of thought that emphasised on the one hand the inconsistencies, on the other the artistic unity, in Homer; and in the 20th century and later ''Oral Theory'', which is the study of the mechanisms and effects of oral transmission, and ''Neoanalysis'', which is the study of the relationship between Homer and other early epic material.
==Homeric dialect==
{{main|Homeric Greek}}
==Homeric style==
The cardinal qualities of the style of Homer have been pointed out once for all by [[Matthew Arnold]]. The translator of Homer, he says, should above all be penetrated by a sense of four qualities of his author: that he is eminently rapid; that he is eminently plain and direct, both in the evolution of his thought and in the expression of it, that is, both in his syntax and in his words; that he is eminently plain and direct in the substance of his thought, that is, in his matter and ideas; and, finally, that he is eminently noble (''On Translating Homer'', p. 9).
The peculiar rapidity of Homer is due in great measure to his use of the [[hexameter]] verse. It is characteristic of early literature that the evolution of the thought, that is, the grammatical form of the sentence is guided by the structure of the verse; and the correspondence which consequently obtains between the rhythm and the grammar, the thought being given out in lengths, as it were, and these again divided by tolerably uniform pauses produces a swift flowing movement, such as is rarely found when the periods have been constructed without direct reference to the metre. That Homer possesses this rapidity without falling into the corresponding faults, that is, without becoming either jerky or monotonous, is perhaps the best proof of his unequalled poetical skill. The plainness and directness, both of thought and of expression, which characterize Homer were doubtless qualities of his age; But the author of the ''Iliad'' (like [[Voltaire]], to whom Arnold happily compares him) must have possessed this gift in a surpassing degree. The ''Odyssey'' is in this respect perceptibly below the level of the Iliad.
Rapidity or ease of movement, plainness of expression and plainness of thought, these are not the distinguishing qualities of the great epic poets, [[Virgil]], [[Dante]], [[Milton]]. On the contrary, they belong rather to the humbler epico-lyrical school for which Homer has been so often claimed. The proof that Homer does not belong to that school, that his poetry is not in any true sense ballad-poetry is furnished by the higher artistic structure of his poems, and as regards style by the fourth of the qualities distinguished by Arnold, the quality of nobleness. It is his noble and powerlul style, sustained through every change of idea and subject, that finally separates Homer from all forms of ballad-poetry and popular epic.
But while we are on our guard against a once common error, we may recognize the historical connection between the Iliad and Odyssey and the ballad literature which undoubtedly preceded them in Greece. It may even be admitted that the swift-flowing movement, and the simplicity of thought and style, which we admire in the Iliad are an inheritance from the earlier lays, such as Achilles and Patroclus sang to the lyre in their tent. Even the hexameter verse may be assigned to them. But between these lays and Homer we must place the cultivation of [[epic poetry]] as an art. The pre-Homeric lays doubtless furnished the elements of such a poetry, but they must have been refined and transmuted before they formed poems like the Iliad and Odyssey.
Like the French epics, such as the [[Chanson de Roland]], Homeric poetry is indigenous, and is distinguished by this fact, and by the ease of movement and the simplicity which result from it, from poets such as Virgil, Dante and Milton. It is also distinguished from them by the comparative absence of underlying motives or sentiment. In Virgil's poetry a sense of the greatness of [[Roman Empire|Rome]] and Italy is the leading motive of a passionate rhetoric, partly veiled by the chosen delicacy of his language. Dante and Milton are still more faithful exponents of the religion and politics of their time. Even the French epics are pervaded by the sentiment of fear and hatred of the [[Saracens]]. But in Homer the interest is purely dramatic. There is no strong antipathy of race or religion; the war turns on no political event; the capture of Troy lies outside the range of the Iliad. Even the heroes are not the chief national heroes of Greece. The interest lies wholly (so far as we can see) in the picture of human action and feeling.
==Historicity of the Iliad==
''See main article [[Historicity of the Iliad]].''
Another significant question regards the poems' possible historical basis. The commentaries on the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'' written in the [[Hellenistic]] period began exploring the textual inconsistencies of the poems. Modern classicists continue the tradition.
The excavations of [[Heinrich Schliemann]] in the late [[19th century]] began to convince scholars there was a historical basis for the [[Trojan War]]. Research (pioneered by the aforementioned Parry and Lord) into oral epics in [[Serbo-Croatian]] and [[Turkic languages]] began to convince scholars that long poems could be preserved with consistency by oral cultures until someone bothered to write them down. The [[decipherment]] of [[Linear B]] in the [[1950s]] by [[Michael Ventris]] and others, convinced scholars of a linguistic continuity between [[13th century BC]] [[Mycenae|Mycenaean]] writings and the poems attributed to Homer.
==References==
{{1911}}
==Selected Bibliography==
===Editions===
(texts in Homeric Greek)
*[[Wikisource:el:ΙΛΙΑΣ|Ilias in Wikisource]]
*[[Wikisource:el:ΟΔΥΣΣΕΙΑ|Odyssee in Wikisource]]
*[[Demetrius Chalcondylas]] ''editio princeps'', Florence, [[1488]]
*the [[Aldine editions]] (1504 and 1517)
*Wolf (Halle, 1794-1795; Leipzig, 1804 1807)
*Spitzner (Gotha, 1832-1836)
*Bekker (Berlin, 1843; Bonn, 1858)
*La Roche (Odyssey, 1867-1868; Iliad, 1873-1876, both at Leipzig)
*Ludwich (Odyssey, Leipzig, 1889-1891; Iliad, 2 vols., 1901 and 1907)
*W. Leaf (Iliad, London, 1886-1888; 2nd ed. 1900-1902)
*Merry and Ridciell (Odyssey i.-xii., 2nd ed., Oxford, 1886)
*Monro (Odyssey xiii.-xxiv. with appendices, Oxford, 1901)
*Monro and Allen (Iliad), and Allen (Odyssey, 1908, Oxford).
*D.B. Monro and T.W. Allen 1917-1920, ''Homeri Opera'' (5 volumes: ''Iliad'' = 3rd edition, ''Odyssey'' = 2nd edition), Oxford. ISBN 0198145284, ISBN 0198145292, ISBN 0198145314, ISBN 0198145322, ISBN 0198145349
*H. van Thiel 1991, ''Homeri Odyssea'', Hildesheim. ISBN 3487094584 1996, ''Homeri Ilias'', Hildesheim. ISBN 3487094592
*M.L. West 1998-2000, ''Homeri Ilias'' (2 volumes), Munich/Leipzig. ISBN 3598714319, ISBN 3598714351
*P. von der Mühll 1993, ''Homeri Odyssea'', Munich/Leipzig. ISBN 3598714327
===English translations===
*[[Alexander Pope]] (1688&ndash;1744)
**''The Iliad'' ([[1720]]). [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6130 Free eBook] at [[Project Gutenberg]]
**''The Odyssey'' ([[1725]]), The Heritage Press (1942) ASIN B000BAX1AK; Easton Press (1978) ASIN B000BTSKL6; Wildside Press (2002) ISBN 1587156741. [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/3160 Free eBook] at Project Gutenberg
*[[Samuel Butler]] (1835&ndash;1902)
**''The Iliad'', W.J. Black (1942) ASIN B0007HYRDM; AMS Press (1968) ASIN B0006C6IQ2 [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2199 Free eBook] at Project Gutenberg
**''The Odyssey'', W.J. Black (1944) ASIN B0007HYREQ ASIN B000BSH1OE; AMS Press (1968) ASIN B0006C6IPS; IndyPublish.com (2001) ISBN 1404322388 [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1727 Free eBook] at Project Gutenberg
*[[Andrew L |
rs of massive unemployment in France, which has led to three consequences reducing the size of the working population: about 10% of the active population is without a job; students delay as long as possible their entry into labour market; and finally the French government gives various incentives to workers to retire in their early 50s, though these are now receding.
As many economists have stressed repeatedly over the years, the main issue with the French economy is not an issue of productivity. In their opinion, it is an issue of structural reforms, in order to increase the size of the working population in the overall population. [[Liberal theory of economics|Liberal]] and [[Keynesian economics|Keynesian]] economists have different answers to that issue. Lower working hours and the reluctance to reform the labour market are mentionned as weak spots of the French enonomy.
With over 75 million foreign tourists in 2003, France is [[World Tourism Rankings|ranked]] as the first tourist destination in the world, ahead of [[Spain]] (52.5 million) and the [[United States]] (40.4 million). It features cities of high cultural interest (Paris being the foremost), beaches and seaside resorts, [[ski]] resorts, and rural regions that many enjoy for their beauty and tranquillity (green tourism).
France has an important aerospace industry led by the European consortium [[Airbus]] and is the only European power (excluding Russia) to have its own national [[spaceport]] (''[[Centre Spatial Guyanais]]''). France is also the most energy independent Western country due to heavy investment in nuclear power, which also makes France the smallest producer of [[Greenhouse gas|carbon dioxide]] among the seven most industrialised countries in the world. Large tracts of fertile land, the application of modern technology, and EU subsidies have combined to make France the leading agricultural producer in Europe.
Since the end of the Second World War the government made efforts to integrate more and more with [[Germany]], both economically and politically. Today the two countries form what is often referred to as the "core" countries in favour of greater integration of the European Union.
{{seealso|List of French companies}}
{{OECD}}
==Demographics==
[[Image:Lyon toits 01.jpg|thumb|270px|View over the old city of [[Lyon]]]]
{{main|Demographics of France}}
Since prehistoric times, France has been a crossroads of trade, migrations, and invasions. Four basic European ethnic stocks - pre-Celtic, Celtic (Gallic and Breton), Latin, and Germanic (Franks, Visigoths, Burgundians, Vikings) - have blended over the centuries to make up its present population. Besides these "historic" populations, new populations have migrated to France since the 19th century: [[Belgian people|Belgians]], [[Italian people|Italians]], [[Spanish people|Spaniards]], [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]], [[Poles]], [[Armenian people|Armenians]], Jews from Eastern Europe and the Maghreb, Arabs and Berbers from the Maghreb, Black Africans, and [[Chinese|Chinese people]], to list only the most prominent. It is currently estimated that about 40% of the French population descends in varying amounts from these different waves of migrations, making France the most ethnically diverse country of Europe, despite the still popular stereotypes of France as an essentially Gallic country. Nevertheless, the immigrants from other European countries have an easier time blending in, while the 'non-European' groups tend to assimilate at a slower pace, because of greater cultural barriers and social discrimination which is, according to left-wing thought, tied to economic [[exploitation]].
===Population===
Starting with the 19th century, the historical evolution of the population in France has been extremely atypical in the [[Western World]]. Unlike the rest of Europe, France did not experience a strong population growth in the 19th century and first half of the 20th century. On the other hand, it experienced a much stronger growth in the second half of the 20th century than the rest of Europe or indeed its own growth in the previous centuries.
After 1974, France's population growth stalled, and reached its nadir in the 1990s with only 0.39% annual growth, being now more in tune with the rest of Europe, which has entered demographic decline. However, first results from the 2004 French census have greatly surprised demographers. The census revealed that population growth rebounded significantly after the 1999 census, something nobody had anticipated. Between 1999-2003, annual population growth was 0.58%. In 2004, population growth was 0.68%, almost reaching North American levels. 2004 was the year with the highest increase in French population since 1974. France is now well ahead of all other European countries (except for the [[Republic of Ireland]]). In 2003, France's natural population growth (excluding immigration) was responsible for almost all the natural growth in European population: the population of the [[European Union]] increased by 216,000 inhabitants (without immigration), of which 211,000 was the increase in France's population alone, and 5,000 was the increase in all the other countries of the EU combined. In 2004 the natural increase in France's population reached 256,000, but figures for other European countries are not available yet.
These unexpected results bear great consequences for the future. At the moment, France is the third most populous country of Europe, behind [[Russia]] and [[Germany]]. By 2050, demographers initially thought the population of metropolitan France would be 64 million inhabitants, but they now agree that their estimates were too conservative, being based on the 1990s growth rate of population. Demographers now estimate that by 2050 metropolitan France's population will be 75 million, at which time it will be the most populated country of the European Union, above Germany (71 million), the United Kingdom (59 million), and Italy (43 million) ([http://www.eubusiness.com/Factsfig/050512112010.5up5dlv7], [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/7935921/site/newsweek/?rf=nwnewsletter%20',true], [http://www.linternaute.com/actualite/savoir/06/demographie/exception-francaise.shtml]). If these estimates become reality, it may fundamentally alter the balance of power in [[Brussels]]. It would be the first time since the 1860s that France is the nation with the largest population within Europe (Russia excluded). In mid-2004 the EU had 460 million inhabitants, 13.6% of whom were living in France (including overseas ''départements''). By 2050 it is estimated that the population of the European Union (of the current 25 members) will have declined to 445 million inhabitants, of whom 17.5% will be living in France.
According to the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|UNHCR]], the number of people seeking [[refugee|political asylum]] in France rose by around 3 % between 2003 and 2004, while in the same period, the number of asylum applications submitted in the [[United States]] fell by about 29 %. France thereby replaced the United States as the world's top destination for asylum-seekers in 2004.
A perennial political issue concerns [[rural depopulation]]. Over the period 1960-1999 fifteen rural ''départements'' experienced a decline in population. In the most extreme case, the population of [[Creuse]] fell by 24%.
===Languages===
The sole official language of France is [[French language|French]]. However, several [[Languages of France|regional languages]] (including [[Alsatian language|Alsatian]], [[Basque language|Basque]], [[Breton language|Breton]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Corsican language|Corsican]], [[Flemish (linguistics)|Flemish]], [[Franco-Provençal]] dialects, [[Gascon]], [[West Central German|Lorraine German]] dialect, [[Norman language|Norman]], [[Occitan language|Occitan]], and some [[Oïl languages|Oïl]] dialects - e.g., [[Picard language|Picard]]) are also occasionally understood and spoken, mostly by elderly people. Also several [[creole languages]] are spoken in overseas departments. However, the French government and state school system discouraged the use of any of those languages until recently. These historical regional languages have been known as ''[[patois]]'', though this has been considered depreciative. They are now taught at some schools, though French remains the only official language in use by the government, local or national. Some languages spoken by immigrants are also frequently spoken, especially in large cities: [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Maghreb Arabic]], several [[Berber languages]], several languages of [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], several [[Chinese spoken language|spoken variants of Chinese]] (most notably [[Wu (linguistics)|Wu]], [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]], [[Min Nan]], and [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]]), [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], and [[Khmer language|Khmer]] are the most frequently spoken.
====Statistics====
At the 1999 census, [[INSEE]] sampled 380,000 adult people all across [[Metropolitan France]], and asked them questions about their family situation. One of the questions was about the languages that their parents spoke with them before the age of 5. This is the first time serious statistics were computed about the proportion of mother tongues in France. The results were published in ''Enquête familiale, Insee, 1999''.
Here is a list of the nine most prominent mother tongues in France based on ''Enquête familiale''. It is important to read the [[Languages of France#Important notes to understand the table|notes at the Languages of France article]] in order to correctly interpret the numbers.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! || Language||Thousands of adults||| Percentage of adult population
|- style="text-align:center;"
| 1
| [[French language|French]]
| 39,360
| 86%<br><small>(the real figu |
t;
trampoline<br>
TRANDIR<br>
TRANQUIL<br>
TRANS<br>
transaction<br>
Transaction Application Language '''DONE'''<br>
Transaction Processing Facility<br>
transceiver '''DONE'''<br>
TRANSCODE<br>
transducer<br>
transfer syntax<br>
transfinite induction '''DONE'''<br>
transformation '''DONE'''<br>
transient<br>
transistor '''DONE'''<br>
Transistor-Transistor Logic<br>
TRANSIT<br>
transitive '''DONE'''<br>
transitive closure<br>
transit network<br>
Translation Look-aside Buffer<br>
Transmission Control Protocol '''DONE'''<br>
transparent<br>
Transport Driver Interface<br>
transport layer<br>
Transport Layer Interface<br>
Transport Level Interface<br>
Transport Service Access Point<br>
[[transputer]] '''DONE''' as [[INMOS Transputer]]<br>
TRANS-USE<br>
trap <br>
trap door<br>
trap-door function<br>
trash<br>
Trash-80<br>
traveling salesman problem '''DONE'''<br>
travelling salesman problem '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
trawl<br>
tree<br>
tree-killer<br>
TREET<br>
TREETRAN<br>
Tree Transformation Language<br>
treeware<br>
Trellis<br>
Trellis Code Modulation<br>
Trident<br>
trigger<br>
trigger finger<br>
TRIGMAN<br>
trillion '''DONE'''<br>
Trilogy<br>
triple DES '''DONE'''<br>
tri state<br>
trit<br>
Triton '''DONE'''<br>
Triton II '''DONE'''<br>
Triton VX '''DONE'''<br>
Trivial File Transfer Protocol '''DONE'''<br>
TRO<br>
troff '''DONE'''<br>
troglodyte<br>
troglodyte mode<br>
Trojan horse '''DONE'''<br>
TROLL <br>
troll '''DONE'''<br>
TRON<br>
tron<br>
Trouble Came Back<br>
TRS<br>
TRS-80 '''DONE'''<br>
True BASIC<br>
true colour<br>
true hacker<br>
TrueType '''DONE'''<br>
Trumpet<br>
TRUSIX<br>
truth table '''DONE'''<br>
TS<br>
TSAP<br>
TSEE<br>
TSIA<br>
Tsim<br>
TSL-1<br>
TSO<br>
TSP<br>
TSR '''DONE'''<br>
TSV<br>
tt<br>
TTD<br>
TTFN<br>
TTL '''DONE'''<br>
TTS<br>
[[TTY|tty]] '''DONE'''<br>
TTYL<br>
TUB<br>
TUBA<br>
tube<br>
tube time<br>
Tuckals<br>
Tui<br>
Tuki<br>
tunafish<br>
tune<br>
tunnelling<br>
TUPLE<br>
tuple '''DONE'''<br>
tuple calculus<br>
Tuple Space Smalltalk<br>
tupling<br>
Turbo C '''DONE'''<br>
Turbo Debugger<br>
turbo nerd<br>
Turbo Pascal '''DONE'''<br>
Turbo Prolog '''DONE'''<br>
Turing<br>
Turing Machine<br>
Turingol<br>
Turing Plus<br>
Turing tar-pit<br>
Turing test '''DONE'''<br>
turist<br>
TURN<br>
turn-key<br>
TUTOR<br>
TUXEDO<br>
TV '''DONE'''<br>
tv '''DONE'''<br>
tw<br>
[[TWAIN]] '''DONE'''<br>
tweak<br>
tweening<br>
tweeter<br>
TWENEX '''DONE'''<br>
Twente Compiler Generator System<br>
Twentel<br>
twiddle<br>
TWIG<br>
twilight zone<br>
twink<br>
twinning<br>
twip<br>
twirling baton<br>
twisted pair '''DONE'''<br>
twisted pair only '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
twm<br>
.twmrc<br>
two-binary, one-quaternary '''DONE'''<br>
twonkie<br>
two-phase commit<br>
twos complement<br>
two-to-the-N<br>
two-valued logic<br>
TX-0<br>
TXL<br>
TYMCOM-X<br>
TYMNET<br>
Tymshare, Inc.<br>
type<br>
type assignment<br>
type class<br>
typed lambda-calculus<br>
TypedProlog<br>
typeface '''DONE'''<br>
type inference<br>
type scheme<br>
typo<br>
typographical error<br>
TYPOL<br>
TZ<br>
tz<br>
ua<br>
UAN<br>
UART '''DONE'''<br>
UAW<br>
UBASIC<br>
UBD<br>
ubiquitous computing '''DONE'''<br>
uC++<br>
UCB '''DONE'''<br>
U-Code<br>
UCS '''DONE'''<br>
UCSD Pascal '''DONE'''<br>
UCX<br>
udb<br>
UDF '''DONE'''<br>
UDMA '''DONE'''<br>
UDP '''DONE'''<br>
uemacs<br>
UFO<br>
ug<br>
UGLIAC<br>
UHELP<br>
UI<br>
uid<br>
UIDL<br>
UIL<br>
UIMS<br>
UIMX<br>
UIS<br>
uk<br>
UKC<br>
UKERNA<br>
UKUUG<br>
ULCC<br>
Ulm's Modula-2 System<br>
ULP<br>
Ultra64<br>
Ultra-ATA<br>
Ultra DMA<br>
Ultra-SCSI<br>
Ultrix<br>
um<br>
UMB<br>
UMB Scheme<br>
UMDL<br>
UML '''DONE'''<br>
uML '''DONE'''<br>
UMTS '''DONE'''<br>
unary '''DONE'''<br>
UNC<br>
UNCL<br>
UNCOL<br>
uncompression<br>
uncountable '''DONE'''<br>
uncurrying<br>
undefined external reference<br>
underflow<br>
Undernet<br>
underscore<br>
under the hood<br>
undocumented feature '''DONE'''<br>
U-NET Limited<br>
unfold<br>
unfold/fold<br>
UNI<br>
Unicode '''DONE'''<br>
UniCOMAL<br>
unicos<br>
Uniface<br>
unification<br>
Unified Han<br>
Unified Modeling Language '''DONE'''<br>
unifier<br>
UNIFORM<br>
Uniform Naming Convention<br>
Uniform Resource Citation<br>
Uniform Resource Locater<br>
Uniform Resource Locator<br>
Uniform Resource Name<br>
Uniform Resource Number<br>
Unify<br>
unify<br>
Unify Corporation<br>
Unihan<br>
uninstaller<br>
uninteresting<br>
Uninterruptible Power Supply '''DONE'''<br>
Unipalm Group plc<br>
Unipress Software, Inc.<br>
uniprocessor<br>
UNIQUE<br>
Unique ID Listing<br>
unique key<br>
unique sales point<br>
UNISAP<br>
Unisys Corporation '''DONE'''<br>
United Technologies Research Cente<br>
Unit Separator<br>
UNITY<br>
Univac '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
Universal algebra '''DONE'''<br>
Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter<br>
Universal Character Set<br>
Universal Communications X<br>
Universal Debugger<br>
Universal Disk Format<br>
universal quantifier '''DONE'''<br>
Universal Resource Identifier<br>
Universal Resource Locator<br>
Universal Serial Bus '''DONE'''<br>
universal thunk<br>
Universal Time '''DONE'''<br>
Universal Time Coordinated '''DONE'''<br>
University of Arizona'''DONE''' <br>
University of California at Berkeley '''DONE'''<br>
University of Durham '''DONE'''<br>
University of East London<br>
University of Edinburgh '''DONE'''<br>
University of Hawaii<br>
University of Iceland<br>
University of London Computing Centre<br>
University of Michigan '''DONE'''<br>
University of Michigan Digital Library Project<br>
University of Minnesota '''DONE'''<br>
University of Nijmegen '''DONE'''<br>
University of Pennsylvania '''DONE'''<br>
University of Tasmania<br>
University of Twente<br>
Unix '''DONE'''<br>
Unix box<br>
Unix brain damage<br>
Unix conspiracy<br>
Unix International<br>
Unixism<br>
Unix man page<br>
Unix manual page<br>
Unix System V<br>
Unix to Unix Copy<br>
UnixWare<br>
Unix weenie<br>
Unix wizard<br>
unnormalised<br>
unproto<br>
unshar<br>
unshielded twisted pair<br>
unswizzle<br>
unwind-protect<br>
unwind the stack<br>
UN*X<br>
unzip<br>
up dowon<br>
uparrow<br>
uparrow<br>
UPenn<br>
upgradability<br>
upgrade<br>
upgradeability<br>
upload '''DONE'''<br>
UPMAIL Tricia Prolog<br>
upper bound '''DONE'''<br>
Upper Layer Protocol<br>
upper memory block<br>
Upper Side-Band modulation<br>
UPS '''DONE'''<br>
upstream<br>
upthread<br>
upward closure<br>
Uranus<br>
urban legend '''DONE'''<br>
URC<br>
urchin<br>
URI '''DONE'''<br>
URL '''DONE'''<br>
URL forwarding<br>
URL redirection<br>
URN<br>
URouLette<br>
US '''DONE'''<br>
us '''DONE'''<br>
usability '''DONE'''<br>
USAModSim<br>
usa.net<br>
US-ASCII<br>
USB '''DONE'''<br>
USE<br>
Usenet '''DONE'''<br>
Usenet news '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
Usenetter '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
USENIX<br>
user '''DONE'''<br>
user base<br>
User Brain Damage<br>
User Datagram Protocol '''DONE'''<br>
user-friendly '''DONE'''<br>
user id<br>
user identifier<br>
user interface '''DONE'''<br>
user interface copyright<br>
User Interface Language<br>
user name '''DONE'''<br>
User Network Interface<br>
user-obsequious<br>
user-unctuous<br>
Use the Source Luke<br>
USG Unix<br>
usim<br>
USL<br>
USP<br>
USR<br>
usr<br>
US Robotics<br>
U.S. Robotics, Inc.<br>
USSA<br>
UTC '''DONE'''<br>
UTF '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
UTF-8 '''DONE'''<br>
utility-coder<br>
UTOPIST<br>
UTP <br>
UTRC<br>
UTSL<br>
uucp<br>
UUCPNET<br>
uudecode<br>
uuencode<br>
UUNET PIPEX<br>
UUPC<br>
uy<br>
uz<br>
V<br>
V.21<br>
V.22<br>
V.22bis<br>
V.23<br>
V.24<br>
V.25<br>
V.28<br>
V.32<br>
V.32bis<br>
V.32ter<br>
V.34<br>
V.35<br>
V.42<br>
V.42bis<br>
V.90&l |
nternet]]
[[la:Interrete]]
[[lv:Internets]]
[[lt:Internetas]]
[[lb:Internet]]
[[li:Internet]]
[[hu:Internet]]
[[mk:Интернет]]
[[ms:Internet]]
[[nl:Internet]]
[[nds:Internet]]
[[ja:インターネット]]
[[no:Internett]]
[[nn:Internett]]
[[os:Интернет]]
[[pl:Internet]]
[[pt:Internet]]
[[ro:Internet]]
[[rm:Internet]]
[[ru:Интернет]]
[[sa:आन्तरजालम्]]
[[scn:Internet]]
[[simple:Internet]]
[[sk:Internet]]
[[sl:Internet]]
[[sr:Интернет]]
[[su:Internét]]
[[fi:Internet]]
[[sv:Internet]]
[[tl:Internet]]
[[ta:இணையம்]]
[[tt:Päräwez]]
[[th:อินเทอร์เน็ต]]
[[tpi:Intanet]]
[[tr:Internet (özel isim)]]
[[uk:Інтернет]]
[[uz:Internet]]
[[vi:Internet]]
[[vo:Vüresod]]
[[wa:Daegntoele]]
[[yi:אינטערנעץ]]
[[zh:互联网]]
[[fiu-vro:Internet]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Indo-European</title>
<id>14540</id>
<revision>
<id>40855390</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T13:08:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.7.247.176</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>French article link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Indo-European}}
'''Indo-European''' is a linguistic term, referring to
*the family of [[Indo-European languages]]
**the associated speakers, the [[Indo-Europeans]]
*the academic field of [[Indo-European studies]]
*sometimes, for brevity, to Proto-Indo-European:
**the [[Proto-Indo-European language]]
**the associated hypothetical speakers or hypothetical [[ethnic group]], the [[Proto-Indo-Europeans]]
==See also==
*[[Pre-Indo-European]]
[[Category:Indo-European|*]]
{{dab}}
[[ca:Indoeuropeu]]
[[eu:Indoeuropera]]
[[fr:Indo-européen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Indo-Iranian languages</title>
<id>14541</id>
<revision>
<id>40705349</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T12:55:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Pali]] to [[Pāli]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language family
|name=Indo-Iranian
|region=[[South Asia]]
|familycolor=Indo-European
|child1=[[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] / Sanskrit
|child2=[[Iranian languages|Iranian]]}}
{{Indo-European}}
The '''Indo-Iranian languages''' are the language links between [[India]] and [[Iran]]. The term [[Aryan]] is often used to refer to the Indo-Iranian languages. According to some Aryan migration theories, speakers of the [[Proto-Indo-Iranian language]], who referred to themselves as [[Aryans]], settled east and south of the [[Caspian Sea]] in [[Northern India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Iran]] and [[Afghanistan]]. Their expansion is believed to have been connected with the invention of the [[chariot]].
[[Indo-Aryan languages]]:
* [[Sanskrit]]
* [[Angika language]]
* [[Assamese language]]
* [[Bengali language]]
* [[Bhojpuri language]]
* [[Dhivehi language]] / [[Mahl language]]
* [[Gujarati language]]
* [[Hindi language]]
* [[Magadhi language]]
* [[Maithili language]]
* [[Marathi language]]
* [[Nepali language]]
* [[Oriya language]]
* [[Pāli|Pali]]
* [[Punjabi language]]
* [[Romany language]] - the language of [[Roma and Sinti]]
* [[Sindhi language]]
* [[Singhalese language]]
* [[Urdu]]
[[Dardic languages]]:
* [[Dameli language]]
* [[Domaaki language]]
* [[Gawar-Bati language]]
* [[Kalasha language]]
* [[Kashmiri language]]
* [[Khowar language]]
* [[Kohistani language]]
* [[Ningalami language]]
* [[Pashayi language]]
* [[Phalura language]]
* [[Shina language]]
* [[Shumashti language]]
[[Nuristani languages]]:
* [[Ashkun language]]
* [[Kamviri language]]
* [[Kati language]] ([[Bashgali]])
* [[Prasuni language]] ([[Wasi-Weri]])
* [[Tregami language]]
* [[Waigali language]] ([[Kalasha-Ala]])
[[Iranian languages]]:
*Eastern Iranian
**Northeastern
*** [[Scythian languages|Scythian language]] (extinct)
**** [[Saka|Saka language]] (extinct)
*** [[Avestan language]] (extinct)
*** [[Ossetic|Ossetian language]]
*** [[Sogdian]] (extinct), [[Yagnobi]]
*** [[Bactrian]] (extinct)
**Southeastern
*** [[Pashto language]]
*** [[Pamiri]]
*Western Iranian
**Northwestern
*** [[Dari (Zoroastrian)|Dari language of Zoroastrians]]
*** [[Balochi language]]
*** [[Talysh language]]
*** [[Kurdish language]]
**Southwestern ("Persid")
*** [[Old Persian]] (extinct), [[Pahlavi]] (extinct), [[Persian language]] (including [[Dari (Afghanistan)|Dari]], [[Tajik language|Tajik]])
*** [[Tat language]]
==See also==
* [[Language families and languages]]
* [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Wiktionary:Indo-Iranian_Swadesh_lists Indo-Iranian Swadesh list]
{{ie-lang-stub}}
[[Category:Indo-Iranian languages|*]]
[[Category:Iranian peoples]]
[[ast:Llinguas indoiranias]]
[[bs:Indoiranski jezici]]
[[bg:Индо-ирански езици]]
[[ca:Llengües indoiranianes]]
[[cs:Indoíránské jazyky]]
[[da:Indoiranske sprog]]
[[de:Indoiranische Sprachen]]
[[es:Lenguas indo-iranias]]
[[fr:Langues indo-iraniennes]]
[[he:שפות הודו-איראניות]]
[[nl:Indo-Iraanse talen]]
[[ja:インド・イラン語派]]
[[pl:Języki indoirańskie]]
[[pt:Línguas indo-iranianas]]
[[ro:Limbile indo-iraniene]]
[[sv:Indoiranska språk]]
[[zh:印度-伊朗语族]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IMR</title>
<id>14542</id>
<revision>
<id>31957651</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-19T11:03:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jsmethers</username>
<id>614213</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''IMR''' is a [[three-letter abbreviation]] with multiple meanings, including:
*[[Infant mortality rate]]
*[[Norwegian Institute of Marine Research]]
*[[Institutional Mode of Representation]]
*[[IMR-2]] and [[IMR-3]] armoured engineer vehicle (''Inzhenernae Maschina Razgrazhdeniya'', &#1048;&#1053;&#1046;&#1045;&#1053;&#1045;&#1056;&#1053;&#1067;&#1045; &#1052;&#1040;&#1064;&#1048;&#1053;&#1067; &#1056;&#1040;&#1047;&#1043;&#1056;&#1040;&#1046;&#1044;&#1045;&#1053;&#1048;&#1071;, literally "Engineer Vehicle Obstacle-Clearing") [http://www.milparade.com/Soderzhaniye.pdf †]
*[[IMR (demogroup)|IMR]] is an Israeli [[demogroup]] also known as Immortals.
* [[Interrupt|Interrupt Mask Register]], in [[computer science]] is used to disable interrupts.
{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Industry</title>
<id>14543</id>
<revision>
<id>41817743</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T23:09:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.134.95.239</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of this term, see [[Industry (disambiguation)]]''
An '''industry''' is generally any grouping of [[business]]es that share a common method of generating profits, such as the "music industry", the "automobile industry", or the "cattle industry". It is also used specifically to refer to an area of [[economics|economic]] production focused on [[manufacturing]] which involves large amounts of [[capital (economics)|capital]] investment before any [[profit]] can be realized, also called "heavy industry.". As-of 2004, [[Financial services]] is the largest industry (or category of industries) in the world in terms of earnings.
Industry in the second sense became a key sector of production in [[Europe]]an and [[North America]]n countries during the [[Industrial Revolution]], which upset previous [[mercantile]] and [[feudal]] economies through many successive rapid advances in technology, such as the development of [[steam engine]]s, [[power loom]]s, and advances in large scale [[steel]] and [[coal]] production. Industrial countries then assumed a [[capitalism|capitalist]] economic policy. [[Railroad]]s and [[Steamboat|steam-powered ship]]s began speedily integrating previously impossibly-distant world markets, enabling private [[company (law)|companies]] to develop to then-unheard of size and [[wealth]]. Following the Industrial Revolution, perhaps a third of world's economic output is derived from manufacturing industries&mdash;more than [[agriculture]]'s share, but now less than that of the [[service]] sector.
In [[economics]] and [[urban planning]], ''industrial'' is an intensive type of land use and economic activity involved with [[manufacturing]] and production.
==See also==
* [[Primary sector of industry]]
* [[Secondary sector of industry]]
* [[Tertiary sector of industry]]
* [[Quaternary sector of industry]]
* [[Industrial policy]]
* [[Adam Smith]]
* [[capitalism]]
* [[communism]]
* [[economics]]
* [[Industrial archaeology]]
* [[Marxism]]
* [[political economy]]
* [[Industrial process]]
[[Category:Industry| ]]
[[bg:Промишленост]]
[[br:Industri]]
[[ca:Indústria]]
[[da:Industri]]
[[de:Industrie]]
[[et:Tööstus]]
[[es:Industria]]
[[eo:Industrio]]
[[fa:صنعت]]
[[fr:Industrie]]
[[it:Industria]]
[[he:תעשייה]]
[[lb:Industrie]]
[[mk:Индустрија]]
[[nl:Industrie]]
[[ja:産業]]
[[no:Industri]]
[[pl:Przemysł (ekonomia)]]
[[pt:Indústria]]
[[ro:Industrie]]
[[ru:Промышленность]]
[[scn:Gnustrìa]]
[[simple:Industry]]
[[sl:Industrija]]
[[sr:Индустрија]]
[[sh:Industrija]]
[[fi:Teollisuus]]
[[sv:Industri]]
[[zh:産業]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Indridae</title>
<id>14544</id>
<revision>
<id>40005134</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T12:52:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>UtherSRG</username>
<id>33145</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>avoid disambig</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink
| name = Indridae
| image = P verreauxi Grandidier.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[Verreaux's Sifaka]] (''Propithecus verreauxi'')
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Primate]]s
| subordo = [[Strepsirrhini]]
| infraordo = [[Lemuriformes]]
| superfamilia = [[Lemuroidea]]
| familia = '''Indridae'''
| familia_authority = [[Gilbe |
amplifiers for economic reasons, but valve amplifiers remain popular for guitar amplification, for "high end" [[hi-fi]] systems and analog production and replay equipment in [[recording studio]]s.
Valve amplifiers are widely, but not always correctly, associated with the [[valve sound]]. Some claim this sound has more to do with the circuit topology and circuit design of the amplifier, than to the use of valves rather than transistors as the active gain devices. In the earlier years of audio, [[vacuum tube]]s filled the active device role.
=== Transistor amplifiers ===
:''Main articles: [[transistor]], [[bipolar junction transistor]], [[MOSFET]]''
The essential role of this active element is to magnify an input signal to yield a significantly larger output signal. The amount of magnification (the "forward gain") is determined by the external circuit design as well as the active device.
Many common active devices in transistor amplifiers are [[bipolar junction transistor]]s ([[BJT]]s) and [[metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor]]s ([[MOSFET]]s).
Allpications are numerous, some common examples are audio amplifiers in a home stereo or PA system, RF high power generation for semiconductor equipment, to RF and Microwave amplification in a cell phone.
=== Operational amplifiers (op-amps) ===
:''Main articles: [[operational amplifier]], [[instrumentation amplifier]]''
An operational amplifier is a solid state integrated circuit amplifier which employs external feedback for control of its transfer function or [[gain]]
===Musical instrument amplifiers===
See main page: [[instrument amplifier]].
===Audio amplifier===
An audio amplifier is usually used to amplify signals such as music or speech.
{{Main|Audio amplifier}}
=== Carbon microphone ===
One of the first devices to amplify signals was the carbon [[microphone]]. By channeling a large electric current through the compressed [[carbon]] granules in the microphone, a small sound signal could produce a much larger electric signal. The carbon microphone was extremely important in early telecommunications until other types of amplifiers were available.
== Other amplifier types ==
=== Magnetic amplifier ===
{{main|magnetic amplifier}}
A '''magnetic amplifier''' is a [[transformer]]-like device that makes use of the saturation of magnetic materials to produce amplification. It is a non-electronic electrical amplifier with no moving parts. The [[bandwidth]] of magnetic amplifiers extends to the tens of kilohertz.
An [[Amplidyne]] or [[Rototrol]] is a rotating machine like an [[electrical generator]] that provides amplification of electrical signals by conversion of mechanical energy to electrical energy.
=== Optical amplifiers ===
{{main|Optical amplifier}}
'''Optical amplifiers''' amplify [[light]], through the process of [[stimulated emission]].
=== Miscellaneous types ===
*There are also mechanical amplifiers, such as the automotive [[servomechanism|servo]] used in [[brake|braking]].
*[[Relays]] can be included under the above definition of amplifiers, although their transfer function is not [[linear]] (that is, they are either open or closed).
*Another type of amplifier is the [[fluidic amplifier]], based on the [[fluidic triode]].
See also: [[electronic amplifier]], [[low noise amplifier]], [[preamplifier]], [[satellite dish|satellite]] [[in-line]] amplifier.
==External links==
* [http://www.hamradio.co.in/circuit/60_watts_rf_amplifier.php 60 Watt RF Amplifier] Solid state RF power amplifier using IRF840. Simple and easy to construct. IRF840 can handle a maximum power output of 125 Watts.
* [http://www.audiocircuit.com The Audio Circuit] — Information on and user reviews of [[loudspeaker]]s, [[headphone]]s, amplifiers, and playback equipment.
* [http://www.stereo411.com/forum/viewforum.php?f=14 Stereo411.com Amplifier Forum] — Talk about amplifiers and other hi-fi related topics.
[[Category:Amplifiers]]
[[da:Forstærker]]
[[de:Verstärker (Technik)]]
[[fi:Vahvistin]]
[[fr:Amplificateur]]
[[it:Amplificatore]]
[[ja:&#12450;&#12531;&#12503;]]
[[nl:Versterker]]
[[pl:Wzmacniacz]]
[[ru:&#1059;&#1089;&#1080;&#1083;&#1080;&#1090;&#1077;&#1083;&#1100; &#1079;&#1074;&#1091;&#1082;&#1086;&#1074;&#1099;&#1093; &#1095;&#1072;&#1089;&#1090;&#1086;&#1090;]]
[[sv:förstärkare]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Astable</title>
<id>3215</id>
<revision>
<id>40630162</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T23:08:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>35.11.33.239</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''astable''' [[multivibrator]] is an [[electronic circuit]] that has two states, neither one which is stable. The circuit therefore behaves as an [[oscillator]]. The time spent in each state is usually controlled by the charging (or discharging) of a [[capacitor]] through a [[resistor]].
There are several types of astables, and they can be made in many different ways. Some are made from [[NOR]] gates while others are made from dedicated timer chips.
==See also==
*[[bistable]] multivibrator, [[monostable]] multivibrator.
[[Category:Digital electronics]]
[[da:Astabil multivibrator]]
[[es:Astable]]
An astable multivibrator is an electronic circuit that has two states, neither one OF which is stable. The circuit therefore behaves as an oscillator. The time spent in each state is usually controlled by the charging (or discharging) of a capacitor through a resistor. There are several types of astables, and they can be made in many different ways. Some are made from NOR gates while others are made from dedicated timer chips.</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Adalbert Apostle of the Slavs</title>
<id>3216</id>
<revision>
<id>15901577</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MichaelTinkler</username>
<id>18</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirecting to Adalbert of magdeburg</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Adalbert of Magdeburg]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Army of Darkness</title>
<id>3217</id>
<revision>
<id>41357625</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T20:57:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.105.67.19</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the 1993 Evil Dead film "Army of Darkness". For the wrestling team, go to [[The Army of Darkness]].
{{Infobox Film |
name = Army of Darkness |
image = Army of Darkness poster.jpg |
director = [[Sam Raimi]] |
producer = [[Dino De Laurentiis]]<br>[[Sam Raimi]]<br>[[Bruce Campbell]] |
writer = [[Sam Raimi]]<br>[[Ivan Raimi]] |
starring = [[Bruce Campbell]]<br>[[Embeth Davidtz]]<br>[[Bridget Fonda]] |
movie_music = [[Danny Elfman]]<br>Joe DoLuca]] |
distributor = [[Universal Studios|Universal Pictures]] |
released = [[February 19]], [[1993]] ([[United States|USA]]) |
runtime = 81 min. |
language = [[English language|English]] |
imdb_id = 0106308 |
music = |
awards = |
budget = $11,000,000 |
preceded_by = ''[[Evil Dead II]]''|
}}
'''''Army of Darkness''''' (also known as '''''Medieval Dead''''') ([[1993]]) is the third installment of the ''[[Evil Dead]]'' film trilogy, written and directed by [[Sam Raimi]] and starring [[Bruce Campbell]]. This movie takes a more humorous bent than its predecessors.
The advertising [[tagline]] was "Trapped in Time. Surrounded by Evil. Low on Gas."
The movie had a considerably higher budget than the prior two ''Evil Dead'' films. The budget was estimated to be around $11 million; ''[[Evil Dead II]]'' had a budget of $3.5 million and ''[[The Evil Dead]]'' a budget of $350,000.
At the box office, the film was not a big success, only grossing $11,501,093 domestically. After its video release, however, it has obtained an ever-growing cult following, along with the other two films in the trilogy.
The movie has become a [[cult film|cult classic]], and quotes and tributes have even found their way into video games such as ''[[Duke Nukem 3D]]'', ''[[Blood (computer game)|Blood]]'', [[Warcraft III]] and [[World of Warcraft]].
==Plot==
{{spoiler}}
The protagonist, [[Ash Williams|Ash]] (Campbell), who discovered the [[Necronomicon]] ex Mortis, or "Book of the Dead" that unleashed demonic forces in the previous films ''[[The Evil Dead]]'' and ''[[Evil Dead II]]'', is sucked into a time vortex with his [[Oldsmobile]], an event caused by reading the spell to defeat the demons. He ends up in England in AD 1300, where he is believed to be the "Hero From The Sky," the man destined to deliver mankind to salvation from the "Deadites," or the undead.
The only way to return to his time and stop the Deadites is to retrieve the Necronomicon, which contains both spells. While preparing for this, Ash becomes romantically involved with a local woman, Sheila ([[Embeth Davidtz]]).
When Ash is unable to recall the precise words needed to safely retrieve the Necronomicon, he inadvertently unleashes the forces of the Deadites, who are led by an evil clone of Ash.
Despite causing the predicament faced by the humans, Ash initially demands to be returned to his own time. When Sheila is captured by a flying Deadite, he becomes determined to lead the humans against the Deadite army. Reluctantly the people agree to join Ash.
Using scientific knowledge from the future from chemistry and engineering books in the trunk of his Oldsmobile, Ash successfully leads the humans to defeat the Deadites and save Sheila. Subsequently he is sent back to the present but once again he is unab |
876]] - [[George Macaulay Trevelyan]], English historian (d. [[1962]])
*[[1884]] - [[Robert J. Flaherty]], American filmmaker (d. [[1951]])
*[[1886]] - [[Van Wyck Brooks]], American historian and critic (d. [[1963]])
*[[1898]] - [[Katharine Cornell]], American actress (d. [[1974]])
*[[1901]] - [[Chester Morris]], American film actor (d. [[1970]])
*[[1903]] - [[Edgar Bergen]], American ventriloquist (d. [[1978]])
*[[1904]] - [[George F. Kennan]], American political policy-maker (d. [[2005]])
*[[1909]] - [[Hugh Beaumont]], American actor (d. [[1982]])
*1909 - [[Jeffrey Lynn]], American actor (d. [[1995]])
*[[1915]] - [[Jim O'Hora]], American college football coach (d. [[2005]])
*[[1921]] - [[Araucaria (compiler)|Araucaria]], British crossword compiler
*1921 - [[Vera-Ellen]], American actress (d. [[1981]])
*[[1926]] - [[John Schlesinger]], English film director (d. [[2003]])
*[[1927]] - [[June Brown]], British actress
*1927 - [[Tom Kennedy]], American game show host
*[[1929]] - [[Gerhard Hanappi]], Austrian footballer (d. [[1980]])
*[[1931]] - [[Otis Blackwell]], American songwriter and singer (d. [[2002]])
*[[1932]] - [[Harry Goz]], American actor (d. [[2003]])
*1932 - [[Ahmad Tejan Kabbah]], [[President of Sierra Leone]]
*[[1935]] - [[Sonny Bono]], singer, music producer, television producer, and U.S. Congressman (d. [[1998]])
*[[1936]] - [[Jill Kinmont]], American skier
*[[1937]] - [[Yuri Manin]], Russian mathematician
*[[1938]] - [[John Corigliano]], American composer
*1938 - [[Barry Primus]], American actor
*[[1941]] - [[Kim Jong-il]], North Korean leader
*[[1944]] - [[Richard Ford]], American novelist
*[[1945]] - [[Jeremy Bulloch]], English actor
*1945 - [[Frank Welker]], American voice actor
*[[1950]] - [[Peter Hain]], British politician
*[[1951]] - [[William Katt]], American actor
*[[1953]] - [[Lanny McDonald]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1954]] - [[Michael Holding]], West Indian fast bowler [[cricket]]
*[[1954]] - [[Iain Banks]], Scottish author
*[[1955]] - [[Margaux Hemingway]], American actress and model (d. [[1996]])
*[[1957]] - [[LeVar Burton]], American actor
*1957 - [[James Ingram]], American singer
*[[1958]] - [[Ice-T]], American rapper, songwriter, and actor
*1958 - [[Lisa Loring]], American actress
*[[1959]] - [[John McEnroe]], American tennis player
*[[1960]] - [[Pete Willis]], English guitarist ([[Def Leppard]])
*[[1961]] - [[Andy Taylor]], English musician ([[Duran Duran]])
*[[1963]] - [[Dave Lombardo]], Cuban drummer ([[Slayer]])
*[[1964]] - [[Bebeto]], Brazilian footballer
*1964 - [[Christopher Eccleston]], English actor
*[[1967]] - [[John Valentin]], baseball player
*[[1968]] - [[Warren Ellis]], comic book writer
*[[1970]] - [[DJ Wallis]], fitness competitor
*[[1972]] - [[Jerome Bettis]], American football player
*1972 - [[Taylor Hawkins]], American musician ([[Foo Fighters]])
*[[1973]] - [[Cathy Freeman]], Australian athlete
*[[1975]] - [[Nanase Aikawa]], Japanese singer
*[[1976]] - [[Kyo (musician)|Kyo]], Japanese singer ([[Dir en grey]])
*[[1977]] - [[Ian Clarke]], Irish computer programmer
*1977 - [[Ahman Green]], American football player
*[[1979]] - [[Valentino Rossi]], Italian motorcycle racer
*[[1980]] - [[Ashley Lelie]], American football player
<!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Deaths==
*[[1247]] - [[Heinrich Raspe]], Landgrave of Thuringia (b. [[1204]])
*[[1279]] - King [[Afonso III of Portugal]] (b. [[1210]])
*[[1391]] - [[John V Palaeologus]], [[Byzantine Emperor]] (b. [[1332]])
*[[1531]] - [[Johannes Stöffler]], German mathematician and astronomer (b. [[1452]])
*[[1560]] - [[Jean du Bellay]], French Catholic cardinal and diplomat
*[[1710]] - [[Esprit Fléchier]], French writer and Bishop of Nîmes (b. [[1632]])
*[[1721]] - [[James Craggs the Younger]], English politician (b. [[1686]])
*[[1754]] - [[Richard Mead]], English physician (b. [[1763]])
*[[1898]] - [[Thomas Bracken]], New Zealand poet (b. [[1843]])
*[[1899]] - [[Félix Faure]], President of France (b. [[1841]])
*[[1907]] - [[Giosue Carducci]], Italian writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1835]])
*[[1912]] - St. [[Nikolai of Japan]], Eastern Orthodox priest (b. [[1836]])
*[[1917]] - [[Octave Mirbeau]], French writer (b. [[1848]])
*[[1919]] - [[Vera Kholodnaya]], Russian film star (b. [[1893]])
*[[1928]] - [[Eddie Foy]], American singer and dancer (b. [[1856]])
*[[1932]] - [[Ferdinand Buisson]], French pacifist, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1841]])
*[[1967]] - [[Antonio Moreno]], Spanish-born actor (b. [[1887]])
*[[1970]] - [[Francis Peyton Rous]], American pathologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1879]])
*[[1974]] - [[John Garand]], Canadian rifle engineer and manufacturer (b. [[1888]])
*[[1975]] - [[Morgan Taylor]], American athlete (b. [[1903]])
*[[1977]] - [[Carlos Pellicer]], Mexican poet (b. [[1897]])
*[[1978]] - [[E. Roland Harriman]], American financier (b. [[1895]])
*[[1980]] - [[Erich Hückel]], German physicist (b. [[1895]])
*[[1990]] - [[Keith Haring]], American artist (b. [[1958]])
*[[1992]] - [[Angela Carter]], English writer (b. [[1940]])
*1992 - [[Jânio Quadros]], Brazilian politician (b. [[1917]])
*1992 - [[Herman Wold]], Swedish statistician (b. [[1908]])
*[[1996]] - [[Roger Bowen]], American actor (b. [[1932]])
*1996 - [[Edmund G. Brown]], Governor of California (b. [[1905]])
*1996 - [[Brownie McGhee]], American singer (b. [[1915]])
*[[2000]] - [[Karsten Solheim]], Norwegian-born engineer and inventor (b. [[1911]])
*[[2001]] - [[Bob Buhl]], baseball player (b. [[1928]])
*2001 - [[William Masters]], American gynecologist and sexologist (b. [[1915]])
*[[2002]] - [[Walter Winterbottom]], England football manager (b. [[1913]])
*[[2003]] - [[Eleanor "Sis" Daley]], wife of Chicago mayor [[Richard J. Daley]] (b. [[1907]])
*[[2004]] - [[Shirley Strickland]], Australian athlete (b. [[1925]])
*2004 - [[Doris Troy]], American singer (b. [[1937]])
*[[2005]] - [[Nicole DeHuff]], American actress (pneumonia) (b. [[1975]])
*[[2006]] - [[Johnny Grunge]], American professional wrestler (b. [[1966]])
*2006 - [[Ernie Stautner]], German-born American football player (b. [[1925]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Lithuania]] - [[National Day|Independence Day]] ([[1918]])
*[[Kyoto Protocol]] Day ([[2005]])
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/16 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060216.html NY Times: On this day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&day=16 On this day in Canada]
----
[[February 15]] - [[February 17]] - [[January 16]] - [[March 16]] -- [[Historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:16 Februarie]]
[[an:16 de frebero]]
[[ar:16 فبراير]]
[[ast:16 de febreru]]
[[be:16 лютага]]
[[bg:16 февруари]]
[[bs:16. februar]]
[[ca:16 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 16]]
[[co:16 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:16. únor]]
[[csb:16 gromicznika]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 16]]
[[cy:16 Chwefror]]
[[da:16. februar]]
[[de:16. Februar]]
[[el:16 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[eo:16-a de februaro]]
[[es:16 de febrero]]
[[et:16. veebruar]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 16]]
[[fi:16. helmikuuta]]
[[fo:16. februar]]
[[fr:16 février]]
[[fy:16 febrewaris]]
[[ga:16 Feabhra]]
[[gl:16 de febreiro]]
[[he:16 בפברואר]]
[[hr:16. veljače]]
[[hu:Február 16]]
[[ia:16 de februario]]
[[id:16 Februari]]
[[io:16 di februaro]]
[[is:16. febrúar]]
[[it:16 febbraio]]
[[ja:2月16日]]
[[jv:16 Februari]]
[[ka:16 თებერვალი]]
[[ko:2월 16일]]
[[ku:16'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lb:16. Februar]]
[[lt:Vasario 16]]
[[mk:16 февруари]]
[[ms:16 Februari]]
[[nap:16 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:16 februari]]
[[nn:16. februar]]
[[no:16. februar]]
[[oc:16 de febrièr]]
[[os:16 февралы]]
[[pam:Pebreru 16]]
[[pl:16 lutego]]
[[pt:16 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:16 februarie]]
[[ru:16 февраля]]
[[scn:16 di frivaru]]
[[sco:16 Februar]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 16.]]
[[simple:February 16]]
[[sk:16. február]]
[[sl:16. februar]]
[[sq:16 Shkurt]]
[[sr:16. фебруар]]
[[sv:16 februari]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 16]]
[[th:16 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[tl:Pebrero 16]]
[[tr:16 Şubat]]
[[tt:16. Febräl]]
[[uk:16 лютого]]
[[vi:16 tháng 2]]
[[wa:16 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 16]]
[[zh:2月16日]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>February 18</title>
<id>11363</id>
<revision>
<id>42034579</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:00:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.62.25.245</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Births */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=18}}
|}
'''February 18''' is the 49th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 316 days remaining (317 in [[leap year]]s).
==Events==
*[[4th millennium BC|3102 BC]] - [[epoch (reference date)|Epoch]] (origin) of the [[Kali Yuga]]- [[Krishna|Lord Krishna]] leaves his mortal coil.
*[[1229]] - The [[Sixth Crusade]]: [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor]] signs a ten-year [[truce]] with [[al-Kamil]], regaining [[Jerusalem]], [[Nazareth]], and [[Bethlehem]] with neither military engagements nor support from the [[papacy]].
*[[1478]] - [[George, Duke of Clarence|George]], [[Duke of Clarence]], convicted of [[treason]] against his older brother [[Edward IV of England]], is privately [[execution (legal)|executed]] in the [[Tower of London]].
*[[1685]] - [[Fort St. Louis]] is established by a [[Frenchman]] at [[Matagorda Bay]] thus forming the basis for [[France]]'s claim to [[Texas]].
*[[1797]] - [[Trinidad]] is surrendered to a [[British]] fleet under the command of [[Sir Ralph Abercromby]].
*[[1814]] - [[Battle of Montereau]] occurs.
*[[1841]] - The first ongoing [[filibuster (legislative tactic)|filibuster]] in the [[United States Senate]] begins and lasts until [[March 11]].
*[[1856]] - The [[Know-Nothing movement|American Party]] (''Know-Nothings'') c |
ers of vessels loading in the [[United States|United States of America]] are forbidden by an act of Congress, commonly called the Harter Act, passed in the year [[1893]], to insert in their contracts of affreightment any clause exempting the shipowner from liability for the negligence of his servants; but it is at the rame time enacted that, provided all reasonable skill and care has been exercised by the shipowner to make the vessel seaworthy and fit for the voyage at its commencement, the shipowner shall not be liable for any loss caused by the negligence of the master or crew in the navigation of the vessel, or by perils of the sea or certain other causes set forth in the act.
*It is now very usual to insert in the bills of lading of [[United Kingdom|British]] vessels loading in the United States a reference to the Harter Act, incorporating its provisions so as to make them terms and conditions of the bill of lading.
The difficulty of construing the terms of bills of lading with regard to the excepted perils, often expressed in obscure and inexact language, has given rise to much litigation, the results of which are recorded in the law reports. Where such difficulties arise the question must be, What is the true and natural meaning of the language used by the parties? This question is not governed by the general rules which we have endeavouted to explain: but the words of the contract must always be considered with reference to these rules, which are founded upon the well-established customs of merchants recognized and formulated by the courts of law.
(9) The bill of lading sometimes contains a clause as to the shipowner's lien. Without any express provision for it the shipowner has by the common law a lien for freight. If it is desired to give the shipowner a lien for demurrage (see below) or other charges, it must be expressly provided for. The lien is the right of the shipowner to retain the goods carried until payment has been made of the freight or the demurrage, or other charge for which a lien has been given. The lien may be waived, and is lost by delivery of the goods, or by any dealing with the consignee which is inconsistent with a right of the shipowner to retain possession of the goods until payment has been made. The shipowner may preserve his lien by landing the goods and retaining them in his own warehouse, or by storing them in a public warehouse, subject to the conditions required by the Merchant Shipping Act [[1894]].
=== Charter-parties. ===
Charter-parties are, as we have already explained, either for a voyage or for a period of time. (1) A charter-party for a voyage is a formal agreement made between the owner of the vessel and the charterers by which it is agreed that the vessel ''being tight, staunch and strong, and every way fitted for the voyage,'' shall load at a certain named place a full cargo either of goods of a specified description or of general merchandise, and being so loaded shall proceed with all possible despatch either to a specified place or to a place to be named at a specified port of call, and there deliver the cargo to the charterers or their assigns. There are clauses which provide for the amount of freight to be paid and the manner and time of payment; for the time, usually described as lay days, to be allowed for loading and discharging, and for the demurrage to be paid if the vessel is detained beyond the lay days; usually also a clause requiring ''the cargo to be brought to and taken from alongside at merchant's risk and expense''; a clause that the master shall sign bills of lading for the cargo shipped either at the same rate of freight as is payable under the charter-party or very commonly at any rate of freight (but in this case with a stipulation that, if the total bill of lading freight is less than the total freight payable under the charter-party, the difference is to be paid by the charterers to the master before the sailing of the vessel); and there is usually vhat is called the cesser clause, by which the charterer's liability under the charter-party is to cease on shipment of the cargo, the shipowner taking a lien on the cargo for freight, dead freight and demurrage. The charter-party is made subject to exceptions similar to those which are found in bills of lading. There are also usually clauses providing for the commissions to be paid to the brokers on signing the charter-party, the ''address'' commission to be paid to the agents for the Vessel at the port of discharge, and other matters of detail. The clauses in charter-parties vary, of course, indefinitely, but the above is probably a sufficient outline of the ordinary form of a charter-party for a voyage.
What has been said with regard to bills of lading as to the voyage, the place of delivery, the exceptions and excepted perils, and the liability of the shioowner and his lien applies equally to charter-parties. lt may be desirable to add a few words on demurrage, dead Freight, and on the cesser clause.
Demurrage is, properly speaking, a fixed sum per day or per hour agreed to be paid by the charterer for any time during which the vessel is detained in loading or discharging over and above the time allowed, which is, as we have said, usually described as the lay days. Sometimes the number of days during which the vessel may be kept on demurrage at the agreed rate is fixed by the charter-party. If no demurrage is provided for by the charter-party, and the vessel is not loading or discharging beyond the lay days, the shipowner is entitled to claim damages in respect of the loss which he has suffered by the detention of his ship; or, if the vessel is detained beyond the fixed number of demurrage days, damages for detention will be recoverable. Sometimes there is no time fixed by the charter-party for loading or discharging. The obligation in such cases is to load or discharge with all despatch that is possible and reasonable in the circumstances; and if the loading or discharging is not done with such reasonable despatch, the shipowner will be entitled to claim damages for detention of his ship. The rate of demurrage (if any) will generally be accepted as the measure of the damages for detention, but is not necessarily the true measure. When the claim is for detention and not demurrage the actual loss is recoverable, which may be more or may be less than the agreed rate of demurrage. The contract usually provides that Sundays and holidays shall be excepted in counting the lay days, but unless expressly stipulated this exception does not apply to the computation of the period of detention after the lay days have expired.
Dead freight is the name gaven to the amount of freight lost, and therefore recoverable by the shipowner from the charterer as damages if a full and complete cargo is not loaded in accordance with the terms of the charter-party.
The cesser clause has come into common use because very frequently the charterers are not personally interested in the cargo shipped. They may be agents merely, or they may have chartered the vessel as a speculation to make a profit upon the bill of lading freight. The effect of the clause is that when the charterers have shipped a full cargo they have fulfilled all their obligations, the shipowner discharging them from all further liability and taking instead a lien on the cargo for payment of all freight, demurrage or dead freight that may be payable to him. It has become an established rule for the construction of the cesser clause that, if the language used will permit it, the cesser of liability is assumed to be co-extensive only with the lien given to the shipowner; or, in other words, the charterers are released from those liabilities only for which a lien is given to the shipowner. The shipowner is further secured by the stipulation already referred to, that if the total freight payable under the bills of lading is less than the full chartered freight the difference shall be paid to the shipowner before the vessel sails. A difficulty which sometimes arises, notwithstanding these precautions, is that although an ample lien is given by the charter-party, the terms of the bills of lading may be insufficient to preserve the same extensive lien as against the holder of the bills of lading. The shippers under the bills of lading, if they are not the charterers, are not liable for the chartered freight, but only for the bill of lading freight; and unless the bill of lading expressly reserves it, they are not subject to a lien for the chartered freight. The master may guard against this difficulty by refusing to sign bills of lading which do not preserve the shipowner's lien for his full chartered freight. But he is often put into a difficulty by a somewhat improvident clause in the charter-party requiring him to sign bills of lading as presented. See Kruger v. Moel Tryvan, [[1907]] A. C. 272.
(2) A time charter-party is a contract between the shipowner and charterers, by which the shipowner agrees to let and the charterers to hire the vessel for a specified term for employment, either generally in any lawful trade or upon voyages within certain limits. A place is usually named at which the vessel is to be re-delivered to the owners at the end of the term, and the freight is payable until such re-delivery; the owner almost always pays the wages of the master and crew, and the charterers provide coals and pay port charges; the freight is usually fixed at a certain rate per gross register ton per month, and made payable monthly in advance, and provision is made for suspension of hire in certain cases if the vessel is disabled; the master, though he usually is and remains the servant of the owner, is required to obey the orders of the charterers as regards the employment of the vessel, they agreeing to indemnify the owners from all liability to which they may be exposed by the master signing bills of lading or otherwi |
[http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/rommel.htm The Forced Suicide of Field Marshall Rommel, 1944]
*[http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/blitzkrieg.htm Excerpts from Rommel's account of the blitzkrieg, 1940]
* [http://one35th.com/rommel/gallery0.htm Erwin Johannes Eugen Rommel]
* [http://www.prominentpeople.co.za/people/5php Prominent People - Erwin Rommel]
* [http://pedg.org/panzer/public/website/gen1.htm Erwin (Johannes Eugen) Rommel, The Desert Fox / Der Wustenfuchs] at Achtung Panzer!
{{GFMofWWII}}
{{RKDiamonds}}
[[Category:1891 births|Rommel, Erwin]]
[[Category:1944 deaths|Rommel, Erwin]]
[[Category:Natives of Baden-Württemberg|Rommel, Erwin]]
[[Category:Field Marshals of Nazi Germany|Rommel, Erwin]]
[[Category:German generals|Rommel, Erwin]]
[[Category:German World War II people|Rommel, Erwin]]
[[Category:Military writers|Rommel, Erwin]]
[[Category:Military people who committed suicide|Rommel, Erwin]]
[[ar:إيرفن رومل]]
[[bg:Ервин Ромел]]
[[ca:Erwin Rommel]]
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[[da:Erwin Rommel]]
[[de:Erwin Rommel]]
[[es:Erwin Rommel]]
[[fr:Erwin Rommel]]
[[gl:Erwin Rommel]]
[[id:Erwin Rommel]]
[[it:Erwin Rommel]]
[[he:ארווין רומל]]
[[ka:რომელი, ერვინ]]
[[lb:Erwin Rommel]]
[[nl:Erwin Rommel]]
[[ja:エルヴィン・ロンメル]]
[[no:Erwin Rommel]]
[[pl:Erwin Rommel]]
[[pt:Erwin Rommel]]{{Link FA|pt}}
[[ru:Роммель, Эрвин]]
[[simple:Erwin Rommel]]
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[[zh:埃尔温·隆美尔]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Exeter (disambiguation)</title>
<id>9517</id>
<revision>
<id>35930159</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-20T08:18:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Blnguyen</username>
<id>435516</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Place names */ add another in Sa, AUS</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Exeter''' is the name of a number of places and other entities around the world, taking their names directly or indirectly from the city of [[Exeter]] in [[Devon]], [[England]]:
==Place names==
*''In [[Australia]]'':
**[[Exeter, New South Wales]]
**[[Exeter, South Australia]]
**[[Exeter, Tasmania]]
**[[Exeter, South Australia]]
*''In [[Canada]]'', [[Exeter, Ontario]]
*''In the [[United Kingdom]]'', [[Exeter|Exeter, Devon]]&mdash;the original location
* ''In the [[United States of America]]'':
**[[Exeter, California ]]
**[[Exeter, Illinois]]
**[[Exeter, Maine]]
**[[Exeter, Missouri]]
**[[Exeter, Nebraska]]
**[[Exeter, New Hampshire]]&mdash;the town
**[[Exeter (CDP), New Hampshire]]&mdash;the [[census-designated place]] comprised mainly of the town
**[[Exeter, New York]]
**[[Exeter, Pennsylvania]]
**[[Exeter, Rhode Island]]
**[[Exeter, Wisconsin]]
**three different places called [[Exeter Township, Pennsylvania]]:
***[[Exeter Township, Berks County, Pennsylvania]]
***[[Exeter Township, Luzerne County, Pennsylvania]]
***[[Exeter Township, Wyoming County, Pennsylvania]]
==Others==
The name may also refer to:
*[[Exeter College, Oxford]]
*[[Phillips Exeter Academy]], a private secondary school in the [[United States of America]]
*The [[University of Exeter]] in [[England]]
*Any of several [[Royal Navy]] ships named [[HMS Exeter]]
*The [[Duke of Exeter]]
*The [[Earl of Exeter]]
*The [[Marquess of Exeter]]
*The [[Exeter Book]], an [[Old English language|Old English]] codex.
{{disambig}}
[[de:Exeter (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[sl:Exeter (razločitev)]]
[[sv:Exeter (olika betydelser)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Edmund Husserl</title>
<id>9518</id>
<revision>
<id>41993228</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:26:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rayana fazli</username>
<id>824188</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Pages about Husserl */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Philosopher |
<!-- Scroll down to edit this page -->
<!-- Philosopher Category -->
region = Western Philosophers |
era = [[20th-century philosophy]] |
color = #B0C4DE |
<!-- Image and Caption -->
image_name = EdmundHusserl.jpg |
image_caption = Edmund Husserl |
<!-- Information -->
name = Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl |
birth = [[April 8]], [[1859]] ([[Prostejov|Prost&#283;jov]], [[Moravia]], [[Czech Republic]]) |
death = [[April 26]], [[1938]] ([[Freiburg]], [[Germany]]) |
school_tradition = [[Phenomenology]] |
main_interests = [[Epistemology]], [[Mathematics]] |
influences = [[Franz Brentano]], [[Carl Stumpf]] |
influenced = Eugen Fink, [[Kurt Gödel]], [[Martin Heidegger]], [[Maurice Merleau-Ponty]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], [[Edith Stein]] |
notable_ideas = Epoché, Natural Standpoint, [[Noema]], [[Noesis]] |
}}
'''Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl''' ([[April 8]] [[1859]] - [[April 26]] [[1938]], [[Freiburg]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[philosopher]], known as the "father" of [[phenomenology]].
Husserl was born into a [[Jew]]ish family in [[Prostejov|Prost&#283;jov]] (Prossnitz), [[Moravia]], [[Czech Republic]] (then part of the [[Austrian Empire]]). A pupil of [[Franz Brentano]] and [[Carl Stumpf]], Husserl came to influence, among others, [[Edith Stein]] (St. Teresa Benedicta of the Cross), Eugen Fink, [[Martin Heidegger]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], and [[Maurice Merleau-Ponty]]. [[Hermann Weyl]]'s interest in [[intuitionistic logic]] and [[impredicativity]] appear to have resulted from contacts with Husserl. In 1887 he converted to [[Christianity]] and joined the [[Lutheran Church]]. He taught philosophy at Halle as a tutor (''Privatdozent'') from 1887, then at Göttingen as professor from 1901, and at Freiburg im Breisgau from 1916 until he retired in 1928. Following his "retirement," he continued his research and writing by using the library at Freiburg, until barred therefrom because of his Jewish heritage under the rectorship of his former pupil and intended protege, Heidegger.
==Life and works==
===Husserl's studies and early works===
Husserl initially studied [[mathematics]] at the universities of [[Leipzig]] ([[1876]]) and [[Berlin]] ([[1878]]), under [[Karl Weierstrass]] and [[Leopold Kronecker]]. In [[1881]] he went to [[Vienna]] to study under the supervision of [[Leo Königsberger]] (a former student of Weierstrass), obtaining the Ph.D. in [[1883]] with the work ''Beiträge zur Variationsrechnung'' ("Contributions to the Calculus of Variations").
In [[1884]], he began to attend [[Franz Brentano]]'s lectures on [[psychology]] and [[philosophy]] at the University of Vienna. Brentano so impressed Husserl that he decided to dedicate his life to philosophy. In [[1886]] Husserl went to the [[University of Halle]] to obtain his [[habilitation]] with [[Carl Stumpf]], a former student of Brentano. Under his supervision he wrote ''Über den Begriff der Zahl'' (On the concept of Number; [[1887]]) which would serve later as the base for his first major work the [[Edmund Husserl/Philosophie der Arithmetik|Philosophie der Arithmetik]] (''Philosophy of Arithmetic'', [[1891]]).
In these first works he tries to combine mathematics, psychology and philosophy with as main goal to provide a sound foundation for mathematics. He analyses the psychological process needed to obtain the concept of number and then tries to build up a systematical theory on this analysis. To achieve this he uses several methods and concepts taken from his teachers. From Weierstrass he derives the idea that we generate the concept of number by counting a certain collection of objects. From Brentano and Stumpf he takes over the distinction between ''proper'' and ''improper'' presenting. In an example Husserl explains this in the following way: if you are standing in front of a house, you have a proper, direct presentation of that house, but if you are looking for it and ask for directions, then these directions (e.g. the house on the corner of this and that street) are an indirect, improper presentation. In other words, you can have a proper presentation of an object if it is actually present, and an improper (or symbolic as he also calls it) if you only can indicate that object through signs, symbols, etc. On Husserl the [[philosophy of mathematics|philosopher of mathematics]] and rival of [[Frege]], see Hill and Rosado Haddock (2000). Husserl's 1901 ''Logical Investigations'' is considered the starting point for the formal theory of wholes and their parts known as [[mereology]] (Simons 1987).
Another important element that Husserl took over from Brentano is [[intentionality]], the notion that the main characteristic of [[consciousness]] is that it is always [[Intentionality|intentional]]. While often simplistically summarised as "aboutness" or the relationship between mental acts and the external world, Brentano defined it as the main characteristic of ''psychical phenomena'', by which they could be distinguished from ''physical phenomena''. Every mental phenomenon, every psychological act has a content, is directed at an object (the ''intentional object''). Every belief, desire etc. has an object that they are about: the believed, the wanted. Brentano used the expression "intentional inexistence" to indicate the status of the objects of thought in the mind. The property of being intentional, of having an intentional object, was the key feature to distinguish psychical phenomena and physical phenomena, because physical phenomena lack intentionality altogether.
===The Elaboration of Phenomenology===
Some years after the publication of his main work, the ''[[Edmund Husserl/Logische Untersuchungen|Logische Untersuchungen]]'' (''Logical Investigations''; first edition, 1900-1901) Husserl made some key conceptual elaborations which led him to assert that in order to study the structure of consciousness, one woul |
res packets of shot, a single slug, a sabot, or a specialty round (tear gas, [[Bolo Shell]], lead powder, etc.). Rifles are often built for accuracy and long range and are aimed, while shotguns are usually designed to quickly hit a moving target and are instead "pointed". Rifles have a very small impact area but a long range and high accuracy. Shotguns have a large impact area with considerably less range and accuracy. However, the larger impact area can compensate for reduced accuracy, since shot spreads during flight; consequently, in hunting, shotguns are used for flying game.
Rifles and shotguns are commonly used for hunting and often to defend a home or place of business. Usually, large game are hunted with rifles (although shotguns can be used&mdash;deer hunting with a shotgun is possible with the use of [[buckshot]], sabots or slugs) while birds are hunted with shotguns. Shotguns are sometimes preferred for defending a home or business due to their wide impact area, multiple wound tracks (when using buckshot), shorter range, and reduced penetration of walls, which significantly reduces the likelihood of unintended harm, although the [[handgun]] is also commonly preferred.
[[Image:Shotgunslaidout.jpg|thumb|One pump-action and two semi-automatic [[shotgun]]s, 20 boxes of shotgun shells, a target thrower, and three boxes of clay targets.]]
There are a variety of types of rifles and shotguns based on the method they are reloaded. Bolt-action and lever-action rifles are manually manipulated. Manual manipulation of the bolt or the lever causes the spend cartridge to be removed, the firing mechanism recocked, and a fresh cartridge inserted. These two types of action are almost exclusivly used by rifles.
Slide-action (commonly called 'pump-action') rifles and shotguns are manually cycled by shuttling the foregrip of the firearm back and forth. This type of action is typically used by shotguns, but several major manufacturers make rifles as well.
Automatic and semi-automatic rifles and shotguns both use either recoil or propellent gases to operate the firing mechanism that extracts and loads cartridges and recocks the firing mechanism. Semi-automatics employ an interrupter mechanism to only fire one shot per pull of the trigger, while full-automatics do not have such a system and fire multiple shots with a single pull of the trigger.
Both rifles and shotguns also come in break-action varieties that do not have any kind of reloading mechanism at all but must be hand-loaded after each shot. Both rifles and shotguns come in single- and double-barreled varieties; however due to the expense and difficulty of manufacturing double-barreled rifles are rare. Double-barreled rifles are typically intended for African big-game hunts where the animals are dangerous, ranges are short, and speed is of the essence. Very large and powerful calibers are normal for these types of guns.
Rifles have been in nationally featured marksmanship events in Europe and the United States since at least the 18th century, when rifles were first becoming widely available&mdash;one of the earliest purely "American" rifle-shooting competitions took place in 1775, when Daniel Morgan was recruiting sharpshooters in Virginia for the impending [[American War of Independence|war with England]]. In some countries, rifle marksmanship is still a matter of national pride. Some specialized rifles in the larger calibers are claimed to have an accurate range of up to about one mile, although most have considerably less effective range. In the second half of the 20th century, competitive shotgun sports became perhaps even more popular than riflery, largely due to the motion and immediate feedback in activities such as skeet, trap and sporting clays.
[[Image:Gatling_gun_1865.jpg|thumb|An 1865 [[Gatling gun]].]]
===Machine guns===
A [[machine gun]] is a fully automatic firearm used almost exclusively by the military. Although not widely fielded until World War I, early machine guns were being used by the military in the late 19th century (e.g., the [[Gatling gun]]). They are primarily defensive weapons, mainly because of the difficulties involved in moving and placing them, and their inherent lack of accuracy. In contrast, light machine guns (such as the U.S. military's [[M249 Squad Automatic Weapon]] (SAW) and the [[M60 machine gun]], both of which are small-caliber weapons) are often wielded by a single infantryman; they provide a high rate of fire typically used as either suppressing fire or covering fire during infantry movement. Machine guns are also often mounted on vehicles or helicopters, and have often been used since World War II as offensive weapons in fighter aircraft and tanks (e.g., for air combat or suppressing fire for ground troop support).
[[Image:Maschinenpistolen_Thompson_A1.jpg|thumb|A replica of the 1928 [[Thompson submachine gun]].]]
A [[submachine gun]] is a machine gun that fires cartridges that would otherwise be used in a [[handgun]]. Probably the most well-known example of a submachine gun is the [[Thompson submachine gun]] (the "Tommy Gun" of gangster movies), which fires [[.45 ACP]] cartridges. Other well-known examples are the Israeli Uzi, the British Sten, and the German MP5, all of which implement the [[9 mm Luger Parabellum]], and the U.S.'s [[M3 Grease Gun]] which fires .45 ACP.
In United States law, a Machine Gun is defined (in part) by The [[National Firearms Act]] of 1934, [[United States]] code '''Title 26, Subtitle E, Chapter 53, Subchapter B, Part 1, § 5845''' as:
''"... any weapon which shoots ... automatically more than one shot, without manual reloading, by a single function of the trigger."''
In the United States, purchases of machine guns manufactured after 1986 by civilians were banned by the [[Firearm Owners Protection Act]] (FOPA), passed in that year. Importation of machine guns for civilian sale in the U.S. was banned by the [[Gun Control Act of 1968]]. Machine guns manufactured prior to 1986 or imported prior to 1968 can still be legally transferred to civilians who pay a substantial tax to the [[BATFE]] and pass a background investigation. In addition, "transferable" machine guns must have been registered with the [[BATFE]] prior to 1986. Machine Gun parts kits (which do not include a functional [[receiver (firearms)|receiver]]) can be transferred without restriction. Permission must be received from [[BATFE]] to move a machine gun between states.
[[Image:AK47.jpg|thumb|[[Mikhail Kalashnikov|Kalashnikov]]'s [[AK-47]] assault rifle.]]
One of the most popular, most produced and most used machine guns in the world is the [[Soviet]] [[AK-47]]. It served in the Soviet army as standard infantry weapon issue, as well as in many other east-block states. It is still used as standard military equipment in some former Warsaw Pact countries, as well as being used by many criminal or terrorist organizations worldwide. A semi-automatic version of this firearm is available in many locales where fully-automatic weaponry is not available.
==Loading and firing mechanisms==
[[Image:Cannon_pic.jpg|thumb|A small, cast-iron field cannon.]]
===Cannon===
The [[cannon]] is loaded with gunpowder and the cannonball through the muzzle, while a fuse is placed at the rear. This fuse is lighted, causing the gunpowder to ignite and propel the cannonball. Most cannons were land- or ship-based guns, although hand cannons also existed. In military use, the standard cannon was tremendously powerful, while hand cannon was somewhat useless. In the 19th century, the muzzle-loaded cannon was made obsolete by the breech-loaded artillery piece with a rifled barrel.
===Muzzleloader===
[[Muzzle-loading]] muskets (smooth-bored long guns) were among the first small arms developed. The firearm was loaded through the muzzle with gunpowder, optionally some wadding and then a bullet (usually a solid lead ball, but musketeers could shoot stones when they ran out of bullets). Greatly improved muzzleloaders (usually rifled instead of smooth-bored) are manufactured today and have many enthusiasts, many of whom hunt large and small game with their guns. Muzzleloaders have to be manually reloaded after each shot; a skilled archer could fire multiple arrows faster than most early muskets could be reloaded and fired, although by the mid-18th century, when muzzleloaders became the standard small armament of the military, a well-drilled soldier could fire six rounds in a minute using prepared cartridges in his musket. Before then, effectiveness of muzzleloaders was hindered by both the low reloading speed and, before the firing mechanism was perfected, the very high risk posed by the weapon to the person attempting to fire it.
One interesting solution to the reloading problem was the "Roman Candle Gun". This was a muzzleloader in which multiple charges and balls were loaded one on top of the other, with a small hole in each ball to allow the subsequent charge to be ignited after the one ahead of it was ignited. It was neither a very reliable nor popular firearm, but it enabled a form of "automatic" fire long before the advent of the machine gun.
http://www.scotwars.com/html/equip_firearms2.htm#3
====Matchlock====
[[Matchlock]]s were the first and simplest small arms firing mechanisms developed. Using the matchlock mechanism, the powder in the gun barrel was ignited by a piece of burning cord called a "match". The match was wedged into one end of an S-shaped piece of steel. As the trigger (often actually a lever) was pulled, the match was brought into the open end of a "touch hole" at the base of the gun barrel, which contained a very small quantity of gunpowder, igniting the main charge of gunpowder in the gun barrel. The match usually had to be relit after each firing.
====Wheellock====
The [[wheellock]] action, a successor |
images also were taken to be used in the [[collectible card game|CCG]] [[Ani-Mayhem]].
==Major Characters==
{{spoiler}}
[[Image:bgcsuits.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Knight Sabers in their Battle Armor.]]
Note: all character information is for the original OVA series. There are some differences in character background for ''BGC 2040''.
===Sylia Stingray===
An enigmatic billionaire, and the founder of the Knight Sabers. Sylia runs and operates the Silky Doll [[Lingerie]] shop, which is more of a front for the Knight Sabers. Sylia frequently engages in close combat with boomers. Sylia is the daughter of Dr. Katsuhito Stingray, the man who invented boomers. Several questions about Sylia and her origins are raised in the series, but never answered. Some fans believe that Sylia is a boomer herself, or at least enhanced with boomer technology. The comic by [[Adam Warren]] "Bubblegum Crisis: Grand Mal" revolves around Warren's idea that Sylia has an enhanced brain. Suzuki Toshio of Artmic has been quoted as saying that Sylia has an augmented brain, and is said to have approved of Warren's comic.
Original OVA voice actress: [[Yoshiko Sakakibara]].
===Nene Romanova===
A perky hacker, employed as a dispatcher for the [[AD Police]]. She is also a member of the Knight Sabers. Nene does little fighting, focusing on sensor ops, battlefield communications, [[ECM]] and ECCM.
From the AIC 15th Anniversary artbook, which includes both artwork and descriptive text, the following information regarding Nene was translated (with conversions from metric to imperial added):
*Height: 1.56 m (5 ft 1 in)
*Weight: 48 kg (105.84 lb)
*Born: 2014-08-31
*Age (Series Start): 18
*Three Sizes: 80&ndash;60&ndash;85 cm (31&ndash;24&ndash;33 in) (these are also the measurements of the voice actress that voiced Nene)
*Blood Type: O Type
*Personality: (English approximation) A little naïve. A big space case and a follower of each new fad.
*Interest/Taste/Hobby: Eating cake after showering
*Special Skill: Computer hacking
*Birthplace: Tokyo [though the Anniversary Artbook describes this as "conjecture"]
*Explanatory Notes: Nene oversees the gathering and analysis of the Knight Saber's Military Intelligence.
These are not the only stats regarding Nene. The ones derived from the BGC crash game, "Crime Wave", state the following:
*DoB: August 31, 2014
*Height: 1.56 m (5 ft 1 in)
*Weight: 42 kg
*Chest: 84 cm (33 in)
*Waist: 58 cm (23 in)
*Hips: 86 cm (34 in)
Nene was rated, in the 15th Anniversary book, as the second best in the top ten list of favorite AIC female characters. Catty from [[Gall Force]] took the top spot.
Original OVA voice actress: [[Hiramatsu Akiko]]
===Linna Yamazaki===
Works various jobs including [[aerobics]] instructor, Linna once hoped to pursue a career in professional [[dance|dancing]]. She is a member of the Knight Sabers, focusing on combat. Compared to the other major characters, Linna got very little character development in the original series. However in ''BGC 2040'' Linna was perhaps the most developed character.
Original OVA voice actress: [[Tomizawa Michie]]
===Priscilla S. Asagiri===
Priss, as she is most often called, is a rather angry, violent person. She is a member of the Knight Sabers, specializing in close combat. She is the lead singer in the rock band "Priss and the Replicants", a reference to the movie ''Blade Runner''.
Priss' voice actress in the original OVA is, in real life, a singer in the rock band which performed much of the music for ''Bubblegum Crisis''.
Original OVA voice actress: Oomori Kinuko
===Inspector Leon McNichol===
AD Police officer. Leon is a dedicated cop, with a tendency to rush in without thinking. He is a skilled [[powered armor]] pilot, one of the AD Police force's aces in its K-11 and K-12S powered suits. He has a crush on Priss, which she does not like since she has reasons to despise the AD Police. As the series progresses he discovers that she is a Knight Saber, but does nothing with that knowledge. Priss and Leon's relationship grows closer during the series, and in a [[side story]] audio drama, she confesses that she loves him.
Original OVA voice actor: [[Toshio Furukawa]]
===Deputy Inspector Daley Wong===
AD Police officer. Daley is Leon's partner, and a highly skilled investigator. Daley is also openly [[homosexuality|homosexual]], which is worth noting because at the time the original OVA was produced male homosexual characters were quite rare in anime. Also notable is the ease and comfort of Daley and Leon's working relationship: Daley flirts openly with the heterosexual Leon, and Leon often reciprocates with good humor. Daley is not developed much in the series. He is, however, portrayed to be loyal and highly competent both as Leon's underling and as a commander in his own right (in the final episode he is shown commanding a squad of K-11 powered armor). Daley's sense of humor is very dry and understated.
Original OVA voice actor: [[Kenyuu Horiuchi]]
===Brian J Mason/Largo===
Executive in Genom. The primary villain of the first three episodes, Mason is the man who killed Dr. Stingray and stole his boomer technology. As with Sylia, certain mysteries are created around Mason which are never resolved in the series. It is generally accepted that Mason somehow transferred his personality into a boomer body some time prior to his death. Most likely he succeeded in transferring his memories in the ultimate boomer, thus creating a God-like being (as you'd call one person able to blast down 8 Genom major branch in a single instant) with the mind and the dreams of a man. Largo resurfaces to become the primary villain of episodes 5 and 6.
See "The Mason/Largo Theory" at http://www.ravensgarage.com/garage/maslargo.htm for more details on how Mason may have transferred his consciousness to Largo.
Original OVA voice actor: [[Shuuichi Ikeda]]. Largo: Kazuyuki Sogabe
==A Review of Powered Armor Present in the Series==
{{spoiler}}
===K-11 Combat Armor===
The K-11 series of powered armor units was developed by the military, but has since been purchased and employed by policing organizations in order to combat the growing Boomer problems. The ADP utilized the K-11 for operations against more powerful and dangerous boomers, such as the Bu-12b, which is a full combat model. The K-11 was eventually replaced with the improved K-12S model.
Noted by the USSD as inferior to the Knight Saber's hard suits, the K-11 was introduced to the viewers in the first episode, though only via a line-art diagram displayed on a monitor.
The K-11 makes its return in episode 3 of the OVA series, where a pair are used to stop a rampaging Bu-12b heavy combat boomer. While both suits were destroyed [and presumably, both operators killed or incapacitated], the boomer rampage was halted through their operators' selfless actions. The difficulty of combatting a powerful boomer like the Bu-12b was compounded by the need to minimize collateral damage, as the battle took place in a built-up area.
The K-11 is used in the same way as the Knight Saber's hard suits; a soldier or police officer is inside the armor and the arms and legs of the person are placed in the respective armor parts. This means that the K-11 is directly controlled via the users body- if the user moves his arm, for example, the armor follows the movement.
'''K-11 Specifications'''
The K-11 is equipped with a large conventional rifle, capable of penetrating heavy armor at close range, though its efficacy at longer ranges appeared to be low. It could be considered an autocannon, as the series depicted it firing at a low rate of fire, but continuously.
The armor of the K-11 is not proof against the powerful cannon that equips the heavy Bu-12b, but had some resistance versus the associated machine gun, which suggests at least light armor protection.
Equipped with a pair of flight wings [in a back pack] and lift thrusters [mounted in the legs], the K-11 has a hover capability, though not high above the ground, and likely cannot leave ground effect flight. For deployment, it can be air-dropped via transport helicopter, and uses a parachute to slow its descent.
==Crew==
The original character designs were done by [[Kenichi Sonoda]], a [[manga]] artist most known for his [[Gunsmith Cats]] series. He was selected after [[Amano Yoshitaka]] declined to participate in the development of the series.
Directors: [[Katsuhito Akiyama]], [[Hiroaki Goda]], and [[Masami Obari]].
==Awards==
The series was nominated for the [[Squiddy Award]] for Favorite Limited Series in 1994.
==See also==
*[[Knight Sabers]]
*[[AD Police]]
*[[Boomer (anime term)]]
*[[Megatokyo]]
==External links==
*[http://daedalnexus.net/bubblegum/ Megatokyo 2033: BUBBLEGUM CRISIS]
*[http://www.knightsabers.de/ Bubblegum Crisis: The Story of the Knight Sabers] (same as above, but in german and with better pics)
*[http://robkelk.ottawa-anime.org/bgc-faq.html Another Bubblegum Crisis FAQ]
*[news:alt.fan.bgcrisis The newsgroup <tt>alt.fan.bgcrisis</tt>]
*[http://groups.google.com/groups?safe=images&ie=ISO-8859-1&as_ugroup=alt.fan.bgcrisis&lr=&hl=en The newsgroup <tt>alt.fan.bgcrisis</tt> via Google Groups]
*[http://bgcc.thecrisiscenter.net The Bubblegum Crisis Center]
*[http://www.squiddies.org/ The Squiddy Awards homepage]
{{Bubblegum_crisis}}
[[Category:Anime series]]
[[Category:Manga series]]
[[Category:Bubblegum crisis|*]]
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[[sv:Bubblegum Crisis]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bugtraq</title>
<id>4743</id>
<revision>
<id>40941492</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T00:40:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdh</username>
<id>48146</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
|
would later be used in the Rancidmeat port, and later, the xDuke port.
Currently the most prominent port is [[Jonathon Fowler]]'s JFDuke3D, which in December 2003 received backing from the original author of [[Build]], programmer [[Ken Silverman]]. Fowler, in cooperation with Ken, released a new version of JFDuke3D using [[Build engine#Polymost|Polymost]], an [[OpenGL]]-enhanced renderer for Build, which allows hardware acceleration and 3D model support, along with 32 bit color high resolution textures.
Silverman has since helped Jonathon Fowler with a large portion of other engine work, including updating the network code and continuing to maintain various other aspects of the engine. Projects such as the ''Duke 3D High Resolution Pack'' [http://hrp.planetduke.gamespy.com/] were started in order to take advantage of the various engine improvements and attempt to update Duke's graphical resources almost to the level of modern games. Plans are still in the works to include additional engine features as time goes on.
===EDuke and Other Ports===
The first port aimed at expanding features for mod authors was an experimental port called CDuke, authored by Colourless. It cleaned up and enhanced some unused code in the original source designed to allow translucent sector-based water and other "sector over sector" effects. The implementation wasn't perfect, but showed promise. CDuke also was the first port to demonstrate voxels within Duke 3D, which had been seen in other Build Engine games. The port ceased production shortly after it was released.
Around May of 2003, not long after the release of the Duke Nukem 3D [[source code]], [[Blood (computer game)|Blood]] project manager Matt Saettler released the [[source code]] for both EDuke 2.0 and EDuke 2.1. EDuke is a branch of ''Duke Nukem 3D'' that was officially released by 3D Realms; it focused primarily on enhancing the CON scripting language in ways that allowed those modifying the game to do much more with the scripting system than originally possible. A few ports emerged (most notably WinEDuke and EDuke 2.1.1), but it wasn't until the release of EDuke32 (a merging and extension of EDuke and JFDuke3D) that EDuke became a prominent community focus. EDuke32 has seen consistent and frequent releases (often allowing the community to taste experimental new engine features weeks before the next JFDuke3D release), and thanks to the work of Richard Gobeille (TerminX) it has drawn a greater interest to the modding community.
==Console ports==
[[Image:Duke_Nukem_3D_Genesis.png|250px|thumb|The elusive Mega Drive port]]In [[1997]], ''Duke Nukem 3D'' was ported to all the major consoles of the time; the [[PlayStation]] version, ''Duke Nukem: Total Meltdown'', included six extra levels and slightly inferior graphics when compared to the PC version.[http://psx.ign.com/objects/002/002194.html]
The [[Sega Saturn]] version retained the original name and lacked extra levels, but used a true 3D engine as opposed to the 2.5D engine that all other Duke Nukem console ports used. Other features that are exclusive to the Saturn version are [[Lightmaps]] as opposed to sector-based lighting, and dynamic colored lighting. It was also capable of using the [[Sega NetLink]] for online gaming. [http://www.sega-saturn.com/saturn/software/duke3d.htm]
The [[Nintendo 64]] version, ''Duke Nukem 64'', had a split screen 4-player mode as well as bi-linear filtered textures, however it was still at its core a 2.5D engine and was not capable of true 3D architecture. In addition the game was considerably censored, with most of the sexually suggestive material removed.
In [[1998]], it was also ported to the [[Mega Drive]] (Sega Genesis) by [[Tec Toy]] [http://www.mobygames.com/game/genesis/duke-nukem-3d]. The obscurity of this port (it was only released in [[Brazil]]) has frequently led to it being mistaken for an unlicensed "hack". It is not based off any other game made for the [[Mega Drive]], instead it was programmed from the ground up by TecToy. The legality of the port is currently unknown, with 3D Realms not giving a clear answer.
Additionally, a version of ''Duke Nukem 3D'' was also released for the [[Game.com]], [[Tiger Electronics|Tiger]]'s short lived [[Handheld game console|handheld]] system. Due to the console's hardware limitations, this version was not a true first person shooter but instead a sort of "dungeon crawl".
==Successors==
===Duke Nukem Forever===
Today, the long-promised sequel, ''[[Duke Nukem Forever]]'', is still in production after 9 years of development. ''Duke Nukem Forever'' last made a public appearance at the [[E3]] of 2001, where a video trailer of the game was released, citing again the "When It's Done" release date. However, even that recent appearance no longer represents the true state of the game, which, according to 3D Realms President George Broussard, has been rebuilt from the ground up at least twice.
===Sin===
The game ''[[Sin (computer game)|Sin]]'' is considered by some a [[spiritual sequel]] to ''Duke Nukem 3D''. Like ''Duke Nukem 3D'', ''Sin'' features a vocal main-character, over-the-top guns, hideous monsters, large-breasted women, and a realistic near-future setting. [[Ritual Entertainment]], ''Sin's'' developer, was founded by several members of the ''Duke Nukem 3D'' team.
==Crew and cast==
[[Todd Replogle]], Allen H. Blum III, [[George Broussard]], Greg Malone, [[Ken Silverman]], Mark Dochtermann, Jim Dose, [[Richard Gray]], Chuck Jones, Stephen Hornback, Dirk Jones, James Storey, David Demaret, Douglas R. Wood, Lee Jackson, [[Robert Prince]], [[Lani Minella]], [[Jon St. John]], Robert M. Atkins, Michael Hadwin
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.3drealms.com/duke3d/ Official ''Duke Nukem 3D'' homepage]
* [http://www.planetduke.com/ Planet Duke (GameSpy)]
* {{moby game|id=/duke-nukem-3d|name=''Duke Nukem 3D''}}
* [http://forums.3drealms.com/ubbthreads/postlist.php?Cat=0&Board=dukesource 3D Realms Duke Nukem 3D Source Boards]
Ports allowing you to play [[multiplayer]] games of ''Duke Nukem 3D'' (via LAN or Internet):
* [http://jonof.edgenetwork.org/index.php?p=jfduke3d JFDuke3D] -- JonoF's ''Duke Nukem 3D'' port (cross-platform)
* [http://eduke32.com/ EDuke32] -- TerminX's ''EDuke'' port (cross-platform)
* [http://www.rancidmeat.com/project.php3?id=1 Duke3d_w32] -- Bargle's ''Duke Nukem 3D'' port (Windows)
* [http://duke3d.m-klein.com xDuke] -- xDuke's Duke3d_w32 based ''Duke Nukem 3D'' port (Windows)
Other useful items:
* [http://www.dukesterx.net Dukester X] -- Manage multiplayer games of ''Duke Nukem 3D'' on the Internet; supports the Duke3d_w32 and JFDuke3D ports.
* [http://hrp.planetduke.gamespy.com/ The Duke Nukem 3D High Resolution Pack] -- Art and models to enhance your playing experience when using either JFDuke3D or EDuke32.
Duke3D fan-site:
* [http://www.planetduke.com/amc Mikko Sandt's Duke Nukem 3D Page]
{{DNgames}}
{{Buildgames}}
[[Category: Banned computer and video games]]
[[Category:Comedy computer and video games]]
[[Category:Linux games]]
[[Category:DOS games]]
[[Category:First-person shooters]]
[[Category:1996 computer and video games]]
[[Category:Satire]]
[[Category:DOS games converted into Windows games]]
[[Category:Sega Genesis games]]
[[Category:Sega Saturn games]]
[[Category:Apple Macintosh games]]
[[Category:PlayStation games]]
[[Category:GP2X games]]
[[cs:Duke Nukem 3D]]
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[[zh:&#27585;&#28781;&#20844;&#29237;3D]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Daredevil (Marvel Comics)</title>
<id>8570</id>
<revision>
<id>42030740</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T09:08:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>144.134.7.113</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Enemies */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Superherobox| <!--Wikipedia:WikiProject Comics-->
image=[[Image:DD82Variant.jpg|250px]]
|caption=Daredevil<br>Art by [[Steve McNiven]], 2006.
|comic_color=background:#ff8080
|character_name=Daredevil
|real_name=Matthew Michael Murdock
|publisher=[[Marvel Comics]]
|debut=''Daredevil'' #1 (April 1964)
|creators=[[Stan Lee]]<br>[[Bill Everett]]
|alliance_color=background:#ffc0c0
|status=Incarcerated
|alliances=
|previous_alliances=[[Defenders (comics)|Defenders]], [[S.H.I.E.L.D.]]
|aliases=The Man Without Fear, Scarlet Swashbuckler
|relatives=Jack Murdock (father, deceased), Sister Maggie (estranged mother), [[Milla Donovan]] (estranged wife)
|powers=Superhuman senses (exc. blindness), "radar sense", can read standard text by touch, expert acrobat and martial artist.|}}
'''Daredevil''' ([[alter ego]] '''Matthew Murdock''') is a [[fictional character|fictional]] [[superhero]] in the [[Marvel Comics]] [[Marvel universe|universe]]. Created by writer [[Stan Lee]] and artist [[Bill Everett]]{{fn|1}} in ''Daredevil'' #1 (April 1964), he is notable as being among the few [[disability|disabled]] superheroes.<!--Way back in the 1940s, the Golden Age Daredevil was originally mute, and Dr. Mid-Nite was blind. Marvel's DD is one of the few, but not one of the first. Marvel's own Prof. X even precedes him.-->
Although ''Daredevil'' had been home to the work of many comic-book legends — [[Jack Kirby]], [[Wallace Wood]], [[John Romita Sr.]], and [[Gene Colan]], among others — it was not until [[Frank Miller]]'s entrance on the title in the late 1970s that ''Daredevil'' was regarded as either popular or influential. The introduction of drastic change, following Miller's example, become the title's hallmark: "This is the book where the audience is built into expecting something unique. Every run on ''Daredevil'' has been a unique statement from that person and a lot of chances were taken." ([[Brian Michael Bendis]]) [ht |
a notoriously lavish gourmet, and spent huge quantities of money on film sets providing an uneatably large quantity and quality of delicacies, especially meat, for the cast and crew.
==Awards==
*1951- Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival for Rashomon
*1954- Silver Lion at the Venice Film Festival for Seven Samurai
*1976- Academy Award: Best Foreign Language Film for Dersu Uzala
*1980- Golden Palm at the Cannes Film Festival for Kagemusha
*1982- Career Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival
*1984- Legion d'Honneur
*1990- Honorary Academy Award
==Filmography==
[[Image:derzuuzala.jpg|thumb|450px|[[Maxim Munzuk]] as Dersu Uzala (left) and [[Yury Solomin]] as [[Vladimir Arsenyev]] (right) in the [[1975]] film ''[[Dersu Uzala]]''.]]
*''[[Sugata Sanshiro (1943 film)|Sanshiro Sugata]]'' (1943)
*''[[The Most Beautiful]]'' (1944)
*''[[Sanshiro Sugata Part II]]'' aka ''Judo Saga 2'' (1945)
*''[[They Who Step on the Tiger's Tail]]'' (1945)
*''[[No Regrets for Our Youth]]'' (1946)
*''[[One Wonderful Sunday]]'' (1946)
*''[[Drunken Angel]]'' (1948)
*''[[The Quiet Duel]]'' (1949)
*''[[Stray Dog (film)|Stray Dog]]'' (1949)
*''[[Scandal (1950 film)|Scandal]]'' (1950)
*''[[Rashomon (film)|Rashomon]]'' (1950)
*''[[Hakuchi (film)|The Idiot]]'' (1951)
*''[[Ikiru]]'' aka ''To Live'' (1952)
*''[[The Seven Samurai]]'' (1954)
*''[[Record of a Living Being]]'' aka ''I Live in Fear'' (1955)
*''[[Throne of Blood|The Throne of Blood]]'' aka ''Spider Web Castle'' (1957)
*''[[The Lower Depths]]'' (1957)
*''[[The Hidden Fortress]]'' (1958)
*''[[The Bad Sleep Well]]'' (1960)
*''[[Yojimbo (film)|Yojimbo]]'' aka ''The Bodyguard'' (1961)
*''[[Tsubaki Sanjūrō|Sanjuro]]'' (1962)
*''[[High and Low]]'' aka ''Heaven and Hell'' (1963)
*''[[Red Beard]]'' (1965)
*''[[Dodesukaden]]'' (1970)
*''[[Dersu Uzala (1975 film)|Dersu Uzala]]'' (1975)
*''[[Kagemusha]]'' aka ''Shadow Warrior'' (1980)
*''[[Ran (1985 film)|Ran]]'' (1985)
*''[[Dreams (1990 film)|Dreams]]'' aka ''Akira Kurosawa's Dreams'' (1990)
*''[[Rhapsody in August]]'' (1991)
*''[[Madadayo]]'' aka ''Not Yet'' (1993)
==Further reading==
* Mitsuhiro Yoshimoto ''Kurosawa: Film Studies and Japanese Cinema'' ISBN: 0822325195
* Akira Kurosawa. ''Something Like An Autobiography''. Vintage Books USA, 1983. ISBN 0394714393
* Stephen Prince. ''The Warrior's Camera''. Princeton University Press, 1999. ISBN 0691010463
* Donald Richie, Joan Mellen. ''The Films of Akira Kurosawa''. University of California Press, 1999. ISBN 0520220374
* Stuart Galbraith IV. ''The Emperor and the Wolf: The Lives and Films of Akira Kurosawa and Toshiro Mifune''. Faber & Faber, 2002. ISBN 0571199828
== See also ==
* [[Cinema of Japan]]
==External links==
* {{imdb name|id=0000041|name=Akira Kurosawa}}
*[http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/02/kurosawa.html Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database]
*[http://www.japan-zone.com/modern/kurosawa_akira.shtml Profile at Japan Zone]
*[http://www2.tky.3web.ne.jp/~adk/kurosawa/AKpage.html Akira Kurosawa Database]
*[http://www.boheme-magazine.net/july03/ikiru.html Bohème Magazine] ''Ikiru'': The Art of Living
*[http://www.quad4x.net/yojinbo/ Japanese Film - Kurosawa]
*[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/gperf/shows/kurosawa/kurosawa.html Great Performances: Kurosawa (PBS)]
{{kurosawa}}
[[Category:1910 births|Kurosawa, Akira]]
[[Category:1998 deaths|Kurosawa, Akira]]
[[Category:Japanese film directors|Kurosawa, Akira]]
[[Category:People from Tokyo|Kurosawa, Akira]]
[[ar:أكيرا كوروساوا]]
[[bs:Akira Kurosawa]]
[[ca:Akira Kurosawa]]
[[cs:Akira Kurosawa]]
[[da:Akira Kurosawa]]
[[de:Akira Kurosawa]]
[[et:Akira Kurosawa]]
[[es:Akira Kurosawa]]
[[eo:KUROSAWA Akira]]
[[fr:Akira Kurosawa]]
[[ko:구로사와 아키라]]
[[id:Akira Kurosawa]]
[[it:Akira Kurosawa]]
[[he:אקירה קורוסאווה]]
[[kn:ಅಕಿರಾ ಕುರೋಸಾವಾ]]
[[ka:კუროსავა აკირა]]
[[hu:Kuroszava Akira]]
[[nl:Akira Kurosawa]]
[[ja:黒澤明]]
[[no:Akira Kurosawa]]
[[pl:Akira Kurosawa]]
[[pt:Akira Kurosawa]]
[[ro:Akira Kurosawa]]
[[ru:Куросава, Акира]]
[[fi:Akira Kurosawa]]
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[[tr:Akira Kurosawa]]
[[uk:Акіро Куросава]]
[[zh:黑澤明]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ancient civilization</title>
<id>873</id>
<revision>
<id>15899386</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-03T03:13:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>195.149.37.94</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Ancient history]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ancient history]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ancient Egypt</title>
<id>874</id>
<revision>
<id>42054072</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:06:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>207.203.140.254</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{AID}}
'''Ancient Egypt''' was a [[civilization]] located along the Lower [[Nile]], reaching from the [[Nile Delta]] in the north to as far south as [[Jebel Barkal]] at the time of its greatest extension (15th century BC). It lasted for three [[millennia]], from ''circa'' [[3200 BC]] to [[343 BC]], ending when [[Artaxerxes III]] conquered [[Egypt]]. As a civilization based on [[irrigation]] it is the quintessential example of a [[hydraulic empire]].[[Image:Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.01.jpg |thumb|right|450px|[[Khafre's Pyramid]] ([[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|4th dynasty]]) and [[Great Sphinx of Giza]] (c.[[2600 BC]] or perhaps earlier)]]
==Background==
[[Image:Map Ancient Egypt.png|thumb|right|275px|Map of Ancient Egypt]]Egypt is a [[transcontinental nation]] located mostly in [[North Africa]], with the [[Sinai Peninsula]] lying in [[Asia]]. The country has shorelines on the [[Mediterranean Sea]], the [[Red Sea]], the [[Gulf of Suez]] and the [[Gulf of Aqaba]]. It borders [[Libya]] to the west; [[Sudan]] to the south; and the [[Gaza Strip]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] and [[Israel]] to the east. Ancient Egypt was divided into two kingdoms, known as [[Upper and Lower Egypt]]. The [[Nile]] river flows northward from a southerly point to the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]]. The Nile river, around which much of the population of the country clusters, has been the lifeline for Egyptian culture since the [[Stone Age]] and [[Naqada]] cultures.
The area around the Nile was called Kemet ("the black land", in [[Ancient Egyptian]] ''Kmt''), the name for the dark soil deposited by the Nile floodwaters. In contrast, the desert was called Deshret ("the red land", in [[Ancient Egyptian]] ''Dsrt''), c.f. [[Herodotus]]: "Egypt is a land of black soil.... We know that [[Libya]] is a redder earth" (Histories, 2:12). The vowels within the consonants K-M-T are not known with certainty. [[Coptic language|Coptic]], however, provides some indication.
Nomadic hunter-gatherers began living along the Nile during the [[Pleistocene]]. Traces of these early peoples appear in the form of artifacts and rock carvings along the terraces of the Nile and in the oases. By about 6000 B.C., organized agriculture and large building construction had appeared in the Nile Valley.
==People==
Many theories have been proposed regarding the origins of early Egyptians, a subject still imbued with controversy today. [[Controversy over race of Ancient Egyptians]] has more information about this subject.
Egyptian society was a merging of [[Berbers|North]] and [[Northeast Africa]]n as well as [[Southwest Asia]]n peoples. Modern [[genetic genealogy|genetics]] reveals {{ref|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.348}} {{ref|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.349}} that the Egyptian population today is characterized by [[Haplogroup#Y chromosome DNA haplogroups|paternal]] lineages common to [[Berbers|North Africans]] primarily, and to some [[Near East]]ern peoples. Studies based on the [[Haplogroup#Mitochondrial DNA haplogroups|maternal]] lineages closely links modern Egyptians with people from modern [[Ethiopia]] {{ref|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.350}}, {{ref|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.351}}. The ancient Egyptians themselves traced their origin to a land they called [[Land of Punt|Punt]], or "Ta Nteru" ("Land of the Gods"), which most Egyptologists locate in the area encompassing the [[Ethiopian Highlands]].
A recent bioanthropological study on the dental morphology of ancient Egyptians confirms dental traits most characteristic of [[Berbers|North African]] and to a lesser extent [[Southwest Asia]]n populations. The study also establishes biological continuity from the [[Predynastic Egypt|predynastic]] to the post-pharaonic periods. Among the samples included is skeletal material from the [[Gallery of Fayum mummy portraits|Hawara tombs of Fayum]], which was found to most closely resemble the [[Badarian]] series of the predynastic {{ref|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.352}}, {{ref|www.world-science.net.353}}. A study based on stature and body proportions suggests that [[Nilotic]] or tropical body characteristics were also present in some later groups {{ref|Zakrzewski}} as the Egyptian empire expanded southward.
[[Jean-François Champollion|Champollion the Younger]], who deciphered the [[Rosetta Stone]], claimed in ''Expressions et Termes Particuliers'' that ''kmt'' referred to a 'negroid' population. Modern day professional Egyptologists, anthropologists, and linguists, however, overwhelmingly agree that the term referred to the dark soil of the Nile Valley rather than the people, which contrasted with ''dSrt'' or the "red land" of the [[Sahara]] desert.
In c. 450 BC, [[Herodotus]] wrote, "the Colchians are Egyptians... on the fact that they are swarthy (''melanchrôs'') and wooly-haired (''oulothrix'')" (Histories Book 2:104). ''Melanchros'' was also used by [[Homer]] to describe the sunburnt complexion of [[Odysseus]] (Od. 16.176).
Although analyzing the hair of ancient Egyptian [[Mummy|mummies]] from the Late [[Middle Kingdom]] has revealed evidence of a stable diet {{ref|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.354}}, mummies from circa [[3200 BC]] show signs of severe [[anemia]] and [[Hematolo |
0 barrels per day; to date no exploitable site has been identified. An agreement between [[Argentina]] and the [[United Kingdom|UK]] in 1995 seeks to defuse licensing and sovereignty conflicts that would dampen foreign interest in exploiting potential oil reserves.
'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br>''lowest 10%:''
NA%
<br>''highest 10%:''
NA%
'''Industries:'''
wool and fish processing; sale of stamps and coins
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
NA%
'''Electricity - production:'''
12 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
<br>''fossil fuel:''
100%
<br>''hydro:''
0%
<br>''nuclear:''
0%
<br>''other:''
0% (1998)
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
11 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Agriculture - products:'''
fodder and vegetable crops; sheep, dairy products
'''Debt - external:'''
$NA
'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$1.7 million (1995)
'''Exchange rates:'''
Falkland pound per US$1 - 0.6092 (January 2000), 0.6180 (1999), 0.6037 (1998), 0.6106 (1997), 0.6403 (1996), 0.6335 (1995); note - the Falkland pound is at par with the [[Pound Sterling]]
==See also==
*[[Falkland Islands Holdings]]
{{South America in topic|Economy of}}
[[Category:Economy of the Falkland Islands]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Falkland Islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in the Falkland Islands</title>
<id>10694</id>
<revision>
<id>40448331</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T16:59:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{South America in topic|Communications in}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
NA
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
Cable & Wireless launched "Touch" a GSM 900 mobile service during December 2005. Roaming will be available during mid 2006.
'''Telephone system:'''
<br>''domestic:''
Telephone penetration by household is over 100%. Services in Stanley are delivered via fibre optic and copper; in the remainder of the Islands the service is delivered via wireless technology
<br>''international:''
satellite earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]]) with links through the [[United Kingdom]] to other countries
'''IDD Code''' 500
'''[[Radio]] broadcast stations:'''
AM 2, FM 7, shortwave 0
The [[Falkland Islands Broadcasting Service]] (FIBS) operates a radio network in conjunction with the [[BBC]] [[BBC World Service|World Service]], while the [[British Forces Broadcasting Service]] (BFBS) operates two networks of its own.
'''Radios:'''
1,000 (1997)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
2
1 operated by the BFBS live since [[1997]], which carries a compilation of the [[United Kingdom]] domestic channels. BFBS TV1 is freely available to non-military audiences, while BFBS TV2 is only available in the Mount Pleasant military base.
A local subscription service, [http://www.ktv.co.fk KTV], carries [[satellite television|satellite]] channels such as [[ESPN]], [[Discovery Channel|Discovery]] [[CNN International]] and [[Turner Classic Movies]] (from the [[United States]]) and [[BBC World]] from the [[United Kingdom]].
'''Televisions:'''
1,008 (2001) -
'''[[Internet Service Providers]] (ISPs):'''
[http://www.cwfi.co.fk Cable and Wireless] provide the [http://www.horizon.co.fk Horizon] service - penetration over 80%
'''[[Country codes|Country code (TLD)]]:''' FK
:''See also :'' [[Falkland Islands]]
{{South America in topic|Communications in}}
[[Category:Communications by country|Falkland Islands]]
[[Category:Communications in the Falkland Islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in the Falkland Islands</title>
<id>10695</id>
<revision>
<id>40449665</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T17:12:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{South America in topic|Transportation in}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''Railways:'''
None
'''Highways:'''
<br>''total:''
348 km
<br>''paved:''
83 km
<br>''unpaved:''
265 km
'''Ports and harbours:'''
Stanley
'''Merchant marine:'''
none (1999 est.)
'''Airports:'''
5 (1999 est.)
'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
2
<br>''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
1
<br>''under 914 m:''
1 (1999 est.)
'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
3
<br>''under 914 m:''
3 (1999 est.)
:''See also :'' [[Falkland Islands]]
'''By plane'''
FIGAS plane on the airstrip at Sea Lion IslandTraveling between islands in the Falklands is generally done using the Falkland Islands Government Air Service (FIGAS). The planes are Britten Norman Islander aircraft, capable of carrying eight passengers plus pilot. Be aware, however, that passenger load may be reduced depending on the condition of the airstrips being visited; outside of Stanley, all airstrips in the Falklands are either dirt strips or grassy fields. Be prepared for slight delays while livestock is cleared from airstrips prior to takeoff/landing!
Flights leave twice daily from the airstrip just outside of Stanley and travel to a variety of locations throughout the country. Baggage is limited to 14 kg per person (strictly enforced), with a charge of £0.60 per additional kilogram, space permitting. Note that unless the plane is flying to an island with a very poor landing strip there are almost never space constraints that would prevent traveling with a few extra kilos of baggage.
Reservations are required for travel and should be booked at least 24 hours in advance. Booking reservations can be done either by calling the airport (Tel: 27219). Flight schedules are announced the night before departure and are also available via a fax service; most lodges will post the schedule as soon as it is announced.
Fares vary by destination, but sample fares from November 2004 were:
*Stanley to Sea Lion Island: £47.67
*Sea Lion Island to Saunders Island: £54.16
*Saunders Island to Pebble Island: £21.12
*Pebble Island to Stanley: £53.57
'''By boat'''
While it is theoretically possible to get around the Falklands by boat, as of October 2004 there was no regular service available to tourists traveling in small groups (contrary to reports in guide books, the Golden Fleece does not taxi passengers around the islands). For large groups it may be possible to charter a boat in advance, thus providing a great way to visit some of the less-traveled islands (be aware that per-passenger landing fees are charged on many of the islands; contact the island's owner before visiting).
Large cruise ships are the most common means for people to visit the Falklands, and most will make several landings at various islands. Note that aside from Stanley all landings from cruise ships are done using zodiacs, and in many cases the lack of docking areas will require a quick wade from the zodiac onto shore.
'''By taxi'''
Within Stanley there are two taxi services that can be hired for travel throughout the town and surrounding areas, including the Mt. Pleasant airport.
'''By Landrover'''
Landrover rental may be possible from Stanley. Contact either the Falkland Islands Company or Stanley Services for information. Roads in Stanley are paved, but elsewhere road conditions range from well-maintained dirt roads to boggy mud streams. Unless your travels specifically require having your own vehicle, renting a Landrover is neither necessary nor a particularly good idea.
{{South America in topic|Transportation in}}
[[Category:Falkland Islands]]
[[Category:Transport in British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of the Falkland Islands</title>
<id>10696</id>
<revision>
<id>41766539</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T16:22:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gflores</username>
<id>153556</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{| cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" border="1" style="float:right"
|-
| bgcolor="#ff2222" align="center" colspan="2" | '''Falkland Islands Defence Forces'''
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" |[[Image:Triserv-600.jpg|150px|]]<br> The tri-service badge: [[Royal Navy]], [[British Army]]<br> and [[Royal Air Force]].
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" | '''Expenditure'''
|-
| [[Pound sterling|Sterling]] figure <br>estimate (FY04/05)
| &pound;365 million (part of [[United Kingdom|UK]] [[Military of the United Kingdom|defence]] <br>expenditure)
|-
| [[United States dollar|US Dollar]] figure <br>(FY04/05)
| $657 million
|-
| Percent of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] <br>(2004)
| Approximately 0.03% of [[United Kingdom|UK]] [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]
|-
|}
The '''Falkland Islands''' are an overseas territory of the [[United Kingdom]] and as such rely on the UK for guarantee of their security. The other UK territories in the [[South Atlantic]], [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]], fall under the protection of the [[British forces]] on the Falklands (known as '''Falkland Islands Defence Forces''', '''British Forces Falkland Islands''' or the '''Falklands Garrison'''), which includes commitments from the [[British Army]], [[Royal Air Force]] and [[Royal Navy]].
The maintenance of only a token military force before the [[Falklands War]] allowed [[Argentina]] to start that conflict by easily capturing the islands. Following the reclamation of the territory in [[1982]], the UK invested heavily in the defence |
T = +6|
cctld = [[.bd]] |
calling_code = 880 - [[Bangladesh Calling SubCodes|SubCodes]]|
nationality = Bangladeshi |
footnotes = |
}}
The '''People's Republic of Bangladesh''' is a South Asian country bordering [[India]], [[Myanmar]] and the [[Bay of Bengal]]. Together with the [[West Bengal]] state of India, it comprises the ethno-linguistic region of [[Bengal]]. The name ''Bangladesh'' is written as বাংলাদেশ and pronounced {{IPA2|'baŋlad̪eʃ}}. It means "Country of Bengal" but the origin of the word ''Bangla'' (Bengal) is obscure.
The borders of Bangladesh were demarcated during the [[Partition of India|partition]] of [[British India]] in 1947 when it became the eastern wing of [[Pakistan]], separated by 1,000 miles (1,600&nbsp;[[kilometre|km]]). Despite their common religion, the ethnic and linguistic gulf between east and west was compounded by the ruling west's neglect and persecution. This resulted in the independence of Bangladesh in 1971, after a bloody [[Bangladesh Liberation War|war]] supported by India. In its 35 years of independence marked by political turmoil and corruption, Bangladesh has had 13 different heads of government, two of them assassinated, and at least four [[Military coups in Bangladesh|coups]]. The last two political transitions were lawful.
Bangladesh is belied by its modest land area (only 10% bigger than [[Greece]] but with 14 times the population). Its population ranks [[List of countries by population|7]]th in the world, but its area is ranked 100th. It is 3rd among Muslim-majority nations, though it has a slightly smaller Muslim population than the Muslim minority in India. After a handful of city-states and small island nations, it is the [[List of countries by population density|most densely populated country]] in the world. Geographically dominated by the fertile [[Ganges Delta|Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta]] the country has annual [[monsoon]] floods, and [[cyclone]]s are also common. Bangladesh is one of the founding members of [[SAARC|South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]](SAARC), [[BIMSTEC]], and a member of the [[OIC]] and the [[D-8]].
==History==
{{main|History of Bangladesh}}
Remnants of [[civilization]] in the greater [[Bengal]] region date back three millennia when the region was settled by [[Dravidian people|Dravidians]] and [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burmans]]. It mostly fractured into unaffiliated units, ruled by various foreign and domestic kingdoms and empires. After the arrival of [[Indo-Aryans]], Bengal was ruled by Hindu [[Gupta Empire]] from the [[4th century|4th]] through [[6th century|6th]] centuries [[Common Era|CE]]. Then, a dynamic Bengali [[Shashanka]] erected an impressive but short-lived kingdom. With the 8th century [[Buddhist]] [[Pala dynasty]], the region reached its most ascendent moment, but retreated during the 12th century [[Sena dynasty]].
[[Islam]] was introduced to Bengal in the 12th century by [[Sufi]] missionaries, and subsequent Muslim conquests help spread Islam throughout the region. [[Bakhtiyar Khalji|Bakhtiar Khilji]], a Turkic general, defeated [[Lakshman Sen]] of the Sena dynasty and conquered large parts of Bengal. The region was ruled by local rulers like [[Isa Khan]] and the fabled ''Baro Bhuiyans'' for the next few hundreds years. By the 16th century, [[Mughal]] empire controlled Bengal and [[Dhaka]] became an important provincial center of Mughal administration as the seat of the [[Nawab]].
European traders began to arrive in late 15th century and by late 18th century the [[British East India Company]] gained control of Bengal following the [[Battle of Plassey]] in 1757. The bloody rebellion of 1857 known as the [[Sepoy Mutiny]] resulted in transfer of authority to the [[British Crown| crown]], with a British [[viceroy]] running the administration. A pattern of economic exploitation continued as famine racked the subcontinent many times, including at least two major famines in Bengal. Between 1905 and 1911, an abortive attempt was made to divide the province of Bengal into two zones, with [[Dhaka]] being the capital of the eastern zone.
When the British left, Bengal was partitioned along religious lines, the [[West Bengal|western part]] going to India, while the eastern part joined [[Pakistan]] as a province called [[East Bengal (province)|East Bengal]], with its capital in [[Dhaka]]. In 1950, land reform was accomplished in East Bengal through the abolition of the feudal [[zamindari]] system. The [[Language Movement]] of 1952 was the first sign of friction between the two wings of Pakistan. In 1955, the province's name was changed to [[East Pakistan]]. Troubles in East Pakistan continued to rise. The Bengali [[Awami League]] agitated for autonomy, and in 1966, its president [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]] was jailed. The upper levels of Pakistan's government and military were dominated by the feudal classes from the west, even though the economic and demographic weight of the east was equal or greater.
[[Image:TIMEfreedomofBangladesh.jpg|left|thumb|A ''[[TIME magazine|TIME]]'' magazine issue covering the newly independent Bangladesh.]]
In 1970, a massive [[1970 Bhola cyclone|cyclone]] devasted coastal East Pakistan, and the central government responded poorly. The anger was compounded when [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]], whose [[Awami League]] fairly won a majority in Parliament in the 1970 elections, was blocked from taking office. After staging compromise talks with Mujib, President Yahya Khan arrested him and on [[March 25]],[[1971]] launched an all-out [[Operation Searchlight|military assault]] on East Pakistan. Yahya's methods were extremely bloody, as he intended to intimidate the Bengalis into total submission. His slaughter of unarmed innocents was one of the worst [[genocides]] in world history, similar in scale to that of [[Khmer Rouge]] in [[Cambodia]] [http://www.gendercide.org/case_bangladesh.html]. Chief targets included [[intellectual]]s and Hindus. Ten million [[refugee]]s fled to neighbouring India. Rough estimates of those massacred range from several hundred thousand to 3 million [http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat2.htm#Bangladesh],
[http://www.virtualbangladesh.com/history/holocaust.html], [http://www.negotiation.com/bangladeshi-independence.html].
The [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] lasted for 9 months. The [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] [[Mukti Bahini]] and Bengali regulars eventually received decisive support from the [[Indian Armed Forces]] in December 1971. Under the command of [[Jagjit Singh Aurora|Lt. General J.S. Arora]], the [[Indian army]] achieved a decisive victory over Pakistan, taking over 90,000 prisoners of war in the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]].
[[Image:Map Bangladesh RoadRail.png|thumb|right|250px|Bangladesh - also showing Rail and Road links.]]
After independence, Bangladesh initially became a parliamentary democracy, with Mujib as the Prime Minister. In the 1973 parliamentary elections, Awami League gained an absolute majority. A nationwide famine occurred during 1973 and 1974. On [[January 25]], [[1975]], Mujib became President and initiated one party rule with his newly formed [[BAKSAL]]. All but four Government [[newspaper]]s were banned. On [[August 15]], [[1975]], Mujib and his family were assassinated by mid-level military officers. A series of bloody coups and counter-coups in the following three months culimated in the ascent to power by General [[Ziaur Rahman]]. Under Zia, foreign relations improved, but at the same time, Zia removed [[secularism]] and [[socialism]] as the basic principles of the [[Constitution of Bangladesh|constitution]], replacing them with "Complete Faith and Trust in Allah" and "Social justice". Zia founded [[Bangladesh Nationalist Party]] (BNP) which won the 1978 election. However, amid declining popularity, he was assassinated in 1981 by elements of the military. Bangladesh's next major ruler was General [[Hossain Mohammad Ershad]] who gained power in a bloodless coup in 1982. He made [[Islam]] the state religion. He ruled from 1982 until 1990, when he was ousted in a popular uprising.
Since then, Bangladesh has reverted to parliamentary democracy. Zia's widow [[Khaleda Zia]] rose to head the BNP and the country from 1991 to 1996 and again from 2001. She maintains a bitter rivalry with one of Mujib's surviving daughter [[Sheikh Hasina]] who heads the Awami League and was in power from 1996 to 2001.
Though extremely poor and ruled mostly by corrupt politicians, Bangladesh has remained a Muslim democracy. It is the only country in the world where power is handed over to members of the [[Caretaker|civil society]] for three months, who run the general elections and transfer the power to people's representatives. This system was adopted to the constitution in 1996.
==Government==
{{main|Government of Bangladesh}}
{{National symbols of Bangladesh}}
[[Image:Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban (Roehl).jpg|left|thumb|250px|[[Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban]], designed by [[Louis I. Kahn]], houses the National Parliament of Bangladesh]]
Bangladesh is a [[Parliamentary democracy]]. The [[President of Bangladesh|President]] is the [[head of state]], a largely ceremonial post. The real power is held by the [[Prime Minister of Bangladesh|Prime Minister]], who is [[head of government]]. The president is elected by the legislature every five years and has normally limited powers that are substantially expanded during the tenure of a [[caretaker government]], mainly in controlling the transition to a new government.
The prime minister is ceremonially appointed by the president and must be a member of parliament (MP) commanding the confidence of the majority of other MPs. The [[cabinet]] is composed of [[minister]]s selected by the prime minister and appointed by the president.
The [[unicameral]] Bangladeshi [[parliament]] is the House of the Nation or [[Jatiyo |
ericaV1-180.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Cover to ''Captain America'' #180 (Dec. 1974). Captain America assumes the "Nomad" identity. Art by [[Gil Kane]].]]
The most notable stories often had a political tone to them. For example, during [[Steve Englehart]]'s stint as writer, Rogers encountered his revived 1950s counterpart and dealt with the Marvel Universe's version of the [[Watergate scandal]]. This last story so severely disillusioned Rogers that he abandoned his Captain America identity in favour of one called [[Nomad (comics)|Nomad]] only to reassume it to face the menace of the [[Red Skull]], this time as a symbol of America's ideals rather than its government.
During this time, several men tried to assume the Captain America identity, all without success. Jack Monroe, cured of his mental instability, would, years later, take up the Nomad alias. (''Captain America'' #176&ndash;#183, 1974&ndash;1975). For a time before and during this period, Rogers also gained (temporarily as it turned out) super strength.
====1980s====
In the 1980s, in a story written by [[Mark Gruenwald]], Rogers chose to resign his identity rather than submit to the orders of the United States government and took the alias of "The Captain" instead. This extended story arc was intended to illustrate the difference of Captain America's beliefs from his replacement who was intended to illustrate the jingoistic attitude that the popular movie character [[Rambo]] embodied and which Rogers did not share. During this period, the role of Captain America was assumed by John Walker, the former Super-Patriot. When Rogers returned to his Captain America identity, Walker became the [[John Walker (comics)|USAgent]] (''Captain America'' #332&ndash;#351, 1987&ndash;1989).
====1990s====
Some time after returning to the position of Captain America, Rogers narrowly avoided the explosion of a [[methamphetamine]] lab, but it triggered a chemical reaction between the drug and the Super-Soldier serum in his system. To combat this reaction, the serum was removed from his system, and now Rogers had to train constantly to maintain his physical condition. The storyline was partly prompted by reader concerns that Captain America was effectively the beneficiary of [[steroid]] treatments. A [[retcon]] was then introduced to establish that the serum was not a drug, because if it were, Rogers' body would have metabolized it out of his system some time ago. It was revealed that the "serum" was in fact a virus that had affected a biochemical and genetic change, explaining how the Red Skull (who now inhabited a body [[cloning|cloned]] from Rogers' cells) also had the formula in his body.
However, because of his altered biochemistry which took the form of the "serum" in his blood work, Rogers's body began to deteriorate due to overuse of the "serum". For a time, he had to wear a powered [[exoskeleton]] to keep moving and eventually had to be placed again in suspended animation. During this time, he was given a transfusion of blood from the Red Skull, which cured his condition and stabilized the Super-Soldier serum/virus in his system. Captain America returned both to crime fighting and the Avengers (''Captain America'' #425&ndash; 454, 1994&ndash;1996).
====2000s====
Eventually, Rogers went public with his identity again, and established a residence in the [[Red Hook, Brooklyn|Red Hook]] neighborhood of [[Brooklyn, New York]]. He discovered that Bucky was brought back to life and used by Russians, as the [[Bucky#Winter Soldier|Winter Soldier]].
==Powers and abilities==
Rogers in the regular Marvel Universe has no superhuman powers. However, as a result of the Super-Soldier serum, he was transformed from a frail young man into a "nearly perfect" specimen of human development and conditioning, making him able to lift (press) 800 lbs over his head with extreme effort. He has also been depicted curling 500 lbs numerous times in a workout routine. Captain America is as strong, fast, agile, and durable as it is possible for a human being to be without being considered superhuman. The formula enhances all of his metabolic functions and also prevents the build-up of fatigue poisons in his muscles, giving him endurance far in excess of an ordinary human being.
Mentally, his battle experience and training has also made him an expert tactician and an excellent field commander, with his teammates frequently deferring to his orders in battle. Rogers's reflexes and senses are also extraordinarily keen. He has mastered [[boxing]], [[jiu jitsu]] and [[judo]], combined with his virtually superhuman gymnastic ability into his own unique fighting style. Years of practice with using his indestructible shield has made it practically an extension of his own body, and he is able to aim and throw it with almost unerring accuracy and [[ricochet]] the shield to hit multiple targets; all told, he is one of the finest hand-to-hand combatants in the Marvel Universe.
===Weapons and equipment===
Captain America has used [[Captain America's shield|many shields]] over the years, the most traditional of which is an indestructible [[discus]]-shaped shield made from a vibranium/steel alloy. This alloy was accidentally created and never duplicated, although efforts to reverse engineer it resulted in the creation of [[adamantium (comics)|adamantium]].
His costume is made of a fire-retardant material. He also wears a light weight "duralumin" [[chainmail]] beneath his costume for added protection. As a member of the Avengers, Rogers has his Avengers priority card, which also serves as a communications device, on his person at all times.
==Alternate Captain Americas==
===Ultimate Captain America===
The [[Ultimate Marvel Universe]] version of Captain America has superpowers, is more reactionary than his counterpart and is more prone to violent solutions as well as morally old-fashioned.
In this version, Steve Rogers was a frail volunteer who underwent months of steroid treatment, surgery, and the Super-Soldier formula to become Captain America. Bucky was a childhood friend who followed him on his missions as a photographer and not a costumed sidekick. Rogers' last mission as Captain America sent him deep into [[Nazi Germany]] to stop a prototype hydrogen bomb created with alien technology. He caused the rocket carrying the bomb to explode, but fell into the freezing cold Arctic Ocean; rather than die from [[hypothermia]], Rogers fell into [[suspended animation]] until a fishing trawler pulled him out of the water 57 years later. Bucky survived the war, and, thinking that Rogers had been killed in action, married Rogers' fiancée, Gail.
Rogers became one of the first members of the [[Ultimates]], S.H.I.E.L.D.'s answer to battle [[Posthuman (Human evolution)|posthuman]] [[terrorism]]. He began adjusting to life in the 21st century, although he still longed for older times and values, spending much time with Bucky and Gail (now senior citizens) as well as going to WWII veterans' reunions. Recently, events made it appear that Captain America was the one who had repeatedly betrayed the team over the course of the past year. The real traitor has since been revealed to be [[Ultimate Black Widow|the Black Widow]].
Rogers is at least as skilled in combat as his [[Earth-616]] counterpart. In addition, his strength is superhuman rather than just at peak human levels. In the Ultimate Universe, Bruce Banner became the [[Ultimate Hulk|Hulk]] as a result of his experiments to recreate the Super-Soldier serum. Despite the Hulk being one of the strongest characters in the Ultimate Universe, Rogers was able to defeat Banner in hand-to-hand combat, bringing the Hulk down and out of the fight for a moment. In addition, Rogers was also able to defeat [[Henry Pym]] in melee combat while Pym was in his Giant Man form, a size almost 60 feet high.
===Others===
*In the ''[[Spider-Ham]]'' comic books, the funny animal version of Captain America is Steve Mouser, an anthropomorphic cat that works for the Daily Beagle, who is also secretly Captain Americat.
*In a recent ''[[House of M]]'' crossover issue, another alternate Steve Rogers was featured, one who lived through World War II and was not frozen.
*In the [[Mutant X (comics)|Mutant X]] universe, Captain America joined [[Havok| Havok's]] team of superheroes called '''The Six''' in order to protect mutants from a deranged [[Nick Fury]] and [[SHIELD]]. He was '''not''' Steve Rogers, but his successor and, in fact, was a mutant. This version was killed after a re-awakend [[Beyonder]] attempted to infuse his body with enormous amounts of energy.
*Most infamous perhaps, was [[Rob Liefeld]]'s disastrous take on the character as part of the [[Heroes Reborn]] event.
*Other alternate Captain Americas include several seen in issues of ''[[What If (comics)|What If]]'', a comic featuring tales of alternate realities.
==Appearances in other media==
===Movies===
[[Image:Captainamerica2.jpg|250px|right|thumb|[[Matt Salinger]] playing Captain America in the 1991 movie]]
A 1944 movie [[serial]] called ''Captain America'' portrayed the hero as a district attorney named Grant Gardner and arbitrarily removed many other important elements of the character, such as his shield and his sidekick, Bucky. The 1966 syndicated [[animated TV series]] ''Marvel Super-Heroes'' included "Captain America" segments. The primitive animation was largely composed of stills photostatted from Jack Kirby art.
A direct-to-video movie, ''Captain America'' (1991), starring [[Matt Salinger]], earned highly negative reviews. It depicted the hero's battle against the [[Red Skull]], who in the film was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[fascism|fascist]] rather than a German [[Nazi]]. Rumours of a new Captain America movie have circulated since 2005, but have thus far not produced anything concrete.
In 2005 [[Variety |
r the elections, [[Cordell Hull]], the longest-serving Secretary of State in American history, retired and was succeeded by [[Edward Stettinius Jr.]].
After the Yalta conference, relations between the western Allies and Stalin deteriorated rapidly, and so did Roosevelt's health. When he addressed Congress on his return from Yalta, many were shocked to see how old, thin and sick he looked. He spoke from his wheelchair, an unprecedented concession to his physical incapacity. But he was still mentally fully in command. "The Crimean Conference," he said firmly, "ought to spell the end of a system of unilateral action, the exclusive alliances, the spheres of influence, the balances of power, and all the other expedients that have been tried for centuries &mdash; and have always failed. We propose to substitute for all these, a universal organization in which all peace-loving nations will finally have a chance to join." Many in his audience doubted that the proposed United Nations would achieve these objectives, but there was no doubting the depth of Roosevelt's commitment to these ideals, which he had inherited from [[Woodrow Wilson]].
Roosevelt is often accused of being naively trusting of Stalin, but in the last months of the war he took an increasingly tough line. During March and early April he sent strongly worded messages to Stalin accusing him of breaking his Yalta commitments over Poland, Germany, [[prisoners of war]] and other issues. When Stalin accused the western Allies of plotting a separate peace with Hitler behind his back, Roosevelt replied: "I cannot avoid a feeling of bitter resentment towards your informers, whoever they are, for such vile misrepresentations of my actions or those of my trusted subordinates."
[[Image:Franklin Roosevelt funeral procession 1945.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Roosevelt's funeral procession.]]
On March 30, Roosevelt went to Warm Springs to rest before his anticipated appearance at the April 25 [[San Francisco]] founding conference of the United Nations. Among the guests was [[Lucy Page Mercer Rutherfurd|Lucy Mercer]], his lover from 30 years previously (by then Mrs. Lucy Rutherfurd), and the artist [[Elizabeth Shoumatoff]], who was painting a portrait of him. On the morning of [[April 12]] he was sitting in a leather chair signing letters, his legs propped up on a stool, while Shoumatoff worked at her easel. Just before lunch was to be served, he dropped his pen and complained of a sudden headache. Then he slumped forward in his chair and lost consciousness. A doctor was summoned and he was carried to bed; it was immediately obvious that he had suffered a massive [[cerebral hemorrhage]]. At 3:31 pm he was pronounced dead. The painting by Shoumatoff was not finished and is known as the [[Unfinished Portrait]].
Roosevelt's death was greeted with shock and grief across the U.S. and around the world. At a time when the press did not pry into the health or private lives of presidents, his declining health had not been known to the general public. Roosevelt had been President for more than 12 years, much longer than any other person, and had led the country through some of its greatest crises to the brink of its greatest triumph, the complete defeat of Nazi Germany, and to within sight of the defeat of Japan as well. Although in the decades since his death there have been many critical reassessments of his career, few commentators at the time had anything but praise for a commander-in-chief who had been robbed by death of a victory which was only a few weeks away. On [[May 8]], the new president, [[Harry S. Truman]], who turned 61 that day, dedicated [[V-E Day]] to Roosevelt's memory, paying tribute to his commitment towards ending the war in Europe.
==Administration and Cabinet 1933-1945==
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;" align="left"
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|'''OFFICE'''||align="left"|'''NAME'''||align="left"|'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|[[President of the United States|President]] || '''[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]''' || 1933-1945
|-
|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] || '''[[John Nance Garner]]''' || 1933-1941
|-
| || '''[[Henry A. Wallace]]''' || 1941-1945
|-
| || '''[[Harry S. Truman]]''' || 1945
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|[[United States Secretary of State|State]] || '''[[Cordell Hull]]''' || 1933-1944
|-
| || '''[[Edward Stettinius, Jr.|Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.]]''' || 1944-1945
|-
|[[United States Secretary of War|War]] || '''[[George Dern|George H. Dern]]''' || 1933-1936
|-
| || '''[[Harry Hines Woodring|Harry H. Woodring]]''' || 1936-1940
|-
| || '''[[Henry L. Stimson]]''' || 1940-1945
|-
|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Treasury]] || '''[[William Hartman Woodin|William H. Woodin]]''' || 1933-1934
|-
| || '''[[Henry Morgenthau, Jr.]]''' || 1934-1945
|-
|[[Attorney General of the United States|Justice]] || '''[[Homer Stille Cummings|Homer S. Cummings]]''' || 1933-1939
|-
| || '''[[Frank Murphy|William F. Murphy]]''' || 1939-1940
|-
| || '''[[Robert H. Jackson]]''' || 1940-1941
|-
| || '''[[Francis Biddle|Francis B. Biddle]]''' || 1941-1945
|-
|[[United States Postmaster General|Post]] || '''[[James Farley|James A. Farley]]''' || 1933-1940
|-
| || '''[[Frank Comerford Walker|Frank C. Walker]]''' || 1940-1945
|-
|[[United States Secretary of the Navy|Navy]] || '''[[Claude A. Swanson]]''' || 1933-1939
|-
| || '''[[Charles Edison]]''' || 1940
|-
| || '''[[Frank Knox]]''' || 1940-1944
|-
| || '''[[James Forrestal|James V. Forrestal]]''' || 1944-1945
|-
|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Interior]] || '''[[Harold L. Ickes]]''' || 1933-1945
|-
|[[United States Secretary of Agriculture|Agriculture]] || '''[[Henry A. Wallace]]''' || 1933-1940
|-
| || '''[[Claude R. Wickard]]''' || 1940-1945
|-
|[[United States Secretary of Commerce|Commerce]] || '''[[Daniel Calhoun Roper|Daniel C. Roper]]''' ||1933-1938
|-
| || '''[[Harry Hopkins|Harry L. Hopkins]]''' || 1939-1940
|-
| || '''[[Jesse Holman Jones|Jesse H. Jones]]''' || 1940-1945
|-
| || '''[[Henry A. Wallace]]''' || 1945
|-
|[[United States Secretary of Labor|Labor]] || '''[[Frances Perkins|Frances C. Perkins]]''' || 1933-1945
|-
|}
<br clear="all">
==Supreme Court appointments==
President Roosevelt appointed nine Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]. [[George Washington]] appointed eleven. By 1941. eight of the nine Justices were Roosevelt appointees.
In 1937, Roosevelt proposed the Judiciary Reorganization Bill of 1937 (called the [[Court packing Bill]] by its opponents). The proposal gave the President the power to appoint an extra Supreme Court Justice for every sitting Justice over the age of 70. The bill caused a deep division in the Democratic party, as newly reelected Vice president [[John Nance Garner]] led the opposition. The proposal was defeated.
*[[Hugo Black]] (AL) [[August 19]], [[1937]]-[[September 17]], [[1971]]
*[[Stanley Forman Reed]] (KY) [[January 31]], [[1938]]-[[February 25]], [[1957]]
*[[Felix Frankfurter]] (MA) [[January 30]], [[1939]]-[[August 28]], [[1962]]
*[[William O. Douglas]] (CT) [[April 17]], [[1939]]-[[November 12]], [[1975]]
*[[Frank Murphy]] (MI) [[February 5]], [[1940]]-[[July 19]], [[1949]]
*[[Harlan Fiske Stone]] (Chief Justice, NY) [[July 3]], [[1941]]-[[April 22]], [[1946]]
*[[James Francis Byrnes]] (SC) [[July 8]], [[1941]]-[[October 3]], [[1942]]
*[[Robert H. Jackson]] (NY) [[July 11]], [[1941]]-[[October 9]], [[1954]]
*[[Wiley Blount Rutledge]] (IA) [[February 15]], [[1943]]-[[September 10]], [[1949]]
==Legacy==
Roosevelt's legacies to the U.S. were a greatly expanded role for government in the management of the economy, increased government regulation of companies to protect the environment and prevent corruption, a Social Security system which allowed senior citizens to be able to retire with income and benefits, a nation on the winning side of World War II (with a booming wartime economy), and a coalition of voters supporting the Democratic Party which would survive intact until the 1960s and in part until the 1980s, when it was finally shattered by [[Ronald Reagan]], a Roosevelt Democrat in his youth who became a conservative Republican. Internationally, Roosevelt's monument was the United Nations, an organization which offered at least his hope of an end to the international anarchy which led to two world wars in his lifetime.
Majority support for the essentials of the Roosevelt domestic program survived their author by 35 years. The Republican administrations of [[Dwight Eisenhower]] and [[Richard Nixon]] did nothing to overturn the Roosevelt-era social programs. It was not until the administration of Ronald Reagan (1981-1989) that this was reversed, although Reagan made clear that though he wanted to greatly scale back many of FDR's programs, he would keep them intact (especially Social Security). [[Bill Clinton]], with his program of [[welfare reform]], was the first Democratic president to repudiate elements of the Roosevelt program. Nevertheless, this has not undermined Roosevelt's posthumous reputation as a great president. A 1999 survey of academic historians by [[CSPAN]] found that historians consider [[Abraham Lincoln]], [[George Washington]], and Roosevelt the three greatest presidents by a wide margin.[http://www.americanpresidents.org/survey/historians/performance.asp]. A 2000 survey by ''[[The Washington Post]]'' found Washington, Lincoln, and Roosevelt to be the only "great" Presidents. Roosevelt is the sixth most [[Gallup's List of Widely Admired People|admired]] person in the 20th century, according to [[Gallup]]. Roosevelt's face can be found on the obverse of the [[dime (U.S. coin)|dime]].
==Media==
{{m |
ilt in [[Madison, Wisconsin]], between 1947 and 1950.
Wright was awarded the [[Royal Institute of British Architects|RIBA]] [[Royal Gold Medal]] in 1941.
[[Image:FallingwaterCantilever570320cv.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Fallingwater]], one of the most famous of Frank Lloyd Wright's works]]
His most famous private residence was constructed from 1935 to 1939&mdash;[[Fallingwater]]&mdash;for Mr. and Mrs. E.J. Kaufmann Sr., at [[Bear Run, Pennsylvania]]. It was designed according to Wright's desire to place the occupants close to the natural surroundings, with a stream and waterfall running under part of the building. The construction is a series of [[cantilever]]ed balconies and terraces, using limestone for all verticals and concrete for the horizontals. The house cost $155,000, including the architect's fee of $8,000. Kaufmann's own engineers argued that the design was not sound. They were overruled by Wright, but workmen secretly added extra steel to the horizontal concrete elements. There is a difference of opinion as to whether Wright's original design would have withstood the test of time. In 1994, Robert Silman and Associates examined the building and developed a plan to restore the structure. In the late 1990s, steel supports were added under the lowest cantilever until a detailed structural analysis could be done. In March 2002, [[post-tensioned concrete|post-tensioning]] of the lowest terrace was completed.
Wright practiced what is known as [[organic architecture]], an architecture that evolves naturally out of the context, most importantly for him the relationship between the site and the building and the needs of the client. Wright's creations took his concern with organic architecture down to the smallest details. From his largest commercial commissions to the relatively modest Usonian houses, Wright conceived virtually every detail of both the external design and the internal fixtures, including furniture, carpets, windows, doors, tables and chairs, light fittings and decorative elements. He was one of the first architects to design and supply custom-made, purpose-built furniture and fittings that functioned as integrated parts of the whole design, and he often returned to earlier commissions to redesign internal fittings. His Prairie houses use themed, coordinated design elements (often based on plant forms) that are repeated in windows, carpets and other fittings. He made innovative use of new building materials such as precast concrete blocks, glass bricks and zinc cames (instead of the traditional lead) for his leadlight windows, and he famously used [[Pyrex]] glass tubing as a major element in the Johnson's Wax building. Wright was also one of the first achitects to design and install custom-made electric light fittings, including some of the very first electric floor lamps, and his very early use of the then-novel spherical glass lampshade (a design previously not possible due to the physical restrictions of gas lighting).
One of his projects, [[Monona Terrace]], originally designed in 1937 as City and County Offices for [[Madison, Wisconsin]], was completed in 1997 on the original site, using a variation of Wright's final design for the exterior with the interior design altered by its new purpose as a convention center. The "as-built" design was carried out by Wright's apprentice [[Tony Puttnam]]. Monona Terrace was accompanied by controversy throughout the sixty-years between the original design and the completion of the structure.
Wright's personal life was a colorful one that frequently made headlines. He married three times: Catherine Lee Tobin in 1889, Miriam Noel in 1922, and Olga Milanov Hinzenberg (Olgivanna) in 1928. Olgivanna had been living as a disciple of Armenian mystic [[G. I. Gurdjieff]], and her experiences with Gurdjieff influenced the formation and structure of Wright's [[Taliesin Fellowship]] in 1932. The meeting of Gurdjieff and Wright is explored in [[Robert Lepage|Robert Lepage's]] ''The Geometry Of Miracles''. Olgivanna continued to run the Fellowship after Wright's death, until her own death in [[Scottsdale, Arizona]] in 1985. Despite being a high-profile architect and almost always in demand, Wright would find himself constantly in debt thanks in part to his lavish lifestyle. In one instance Wright was over $1,000 in debt, and reportedly would borrow $1,500 from a friend only to spend more than half of it on clothes, gifts, and trips.
[[Image:Wfm guggenheim exterior.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum]], [[Upper East Side]], New York]]
Wright died on [[April 9]], [[1959]], having designed an enormous number of significant projects including the [[Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum]] in [[New York City]], a building which occupied him for 16 years (1943&ndash;[[1959|59]]) and is probably his most recognized masterpiece. The building rises as a warm beige spiral from its site on [[Fifth Avenue]]; its interior is similar to the inside of a seashell. Its unique central geometry was meant to allow visitors to experience [[Guggenheim]]'s collection of nonobjective geometric paintings with ease by taking an elevator to the top level and then viewing artworks by walking down the slowly descending, central spiral ramp. Unfortunately, when the museum was completed, a number of important details of Wright's design were ignored, including his desire for the interior to be painted off-white. Furthermore, the Museum currently designs exhibits to be viewed by walking up the curved walkway rather than walking down from the top level.
[[Image:FrankLloydWright1966USstamp.jpg|thumb|left|1966 U.S. postage stamp honoring Frank Lloyd Wright]]
Wright built 362 houses. About 300 survive [[as of 2005]]. Three have been lost to forces of nature: the waterfront house for W. L. Fuller in [[Pass Christian, MS]], which was destroyed by [[Hurricane Camille]] in August 1969, the [[Louis Sullivan Bungalow]] of [[Ocean Springs, Mississippi]], which was destroyed by [[Hurricane Katrina]] in 2005, and the [[James Charnley Bungalow]] of [[Ocean Springs, Mississippi]], which was also gutted by Hurricane Katrina in 2005. The [[Ennis House]] in California has also been damaged by earthquake and rain-induced ground movement. While a number of the houses are preserved as museum pieces and millions of dollars are spent on their upkeep, other houses have trouble selling on the open market due to their unique designs, generally small size and outdated features. As buildings age their structural deficiencies are increasingly revealed, and Wright's designs have not been immune from the passage of time. Some of his most daring and innovative designs have required major structural repair, and the soaring cantilevered terraces of Fallingwater are but one example. (A common joke was once how "[[Fallingwater]]" is falling ''into'' the water.) Some of these deficiencies can be attributed to Wright's pushing of materials beyond the state of the art, others to sometimes less than rigorous engineering, and still others to the natural wear and tear of the elements over time.
Many speculate that the character of [[Howard Roark]], an architect in [[Ayn Rand]]'s book ''[[The Fountainhead]]'', is based, at least in part, on Frank Lloyd Wright. Rand, a Wright client herself, however, denied this.
In 1992 The [[Madison Opera]] in [[Madison, Wisconsin]] commissioned and premiered the opera [[Shining Brow]], by composer [[Daron Hagen]] and librettist [[Paul Muldoon]] based on events early in Wright's life. The work has since received numerous revivals. In 2000, [[Work Song: Three Views of Frank Lloyd Wright]], a [[play]] based on the relationship between the personal and working aspects of Wright's life, debuted at the [[Milwaukee Repertory Theater]].
One of Wright's sons, Frank Lloyd Wright Jr., known as [[Lloyd Wright]], was also a notable architect in Los Angeles. Lloyd Wright's son, (and Wright's grandson) Eric Lloyd Wright, is currently an architect in [[Malibu, California]].
==Quotations==
[[image:wfm_rosenbaum_house_interior.jpg|thumb|right|The interior of the [[Rosenbaum House]]]]
&#8220;A doctor can bury mistakes, an architect can only advise their client to plant vines.&#8221;
&#8220;I don't need to sign in, I'm the architect.&#8221; &#8211; in response to a patron at Unity Temple asking him to add his name to the entry record.
&#8220;Continuously nature shows him the science of her remarkable economy of structure in mineral and vegetable constructions to go with the unspoiled character everywhere apparent in her forms.&#8221;
&#8220;Give me the luxuries of life and I will gladly do without the necessities.&#8221;
&#8220;Form follows function &#8211; that has been misunderstood. Form and function should be one, joined in a spiritual union.&#8221;
"That's how you can tell it's a roof." -- in response to complaints about roof leaks in his buildings
==Works==
[[Image:Robie House.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Robie House]] on the [[University of Chicago]] campus]]
===1880s===
* [[Hillside Home School I]], [[Spring Green, Wisconsin]], 1887
* [[Frank Lloyd Wright Home and Studio]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1889
=== 1890s ===
* [[Louis Sullivan Bungalow]], [[Ocean Springs, Mississippi]], 1890 Destroyed by [[Hurricane Katrina]]
* [[James Charnley Bungalow]], [[Ocean Springs, Mississippi]], 1890 Gutted by [[Hurricane Katrina]], with much of the structure moved 3 to 4 feet from its foundation. Restoration would be in the millions if possible. Pictures at [http://www.franklloydwrightinfo.com/Katrina.html]]
* [[James Charnley Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1891
* [[William Storrs MacHarg Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1891
* [[Warren McArthur Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1892
* [[George Blossom Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1892
* [[Robert G. Emmond Residence]], [[LaGrange, Illinois]], 1 |
</contributor>
<comment>hardly a famous shock, champ at home beating prem</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FA Cup.jpg|right|frame|The FA Cup - this is the fourth trophy, in use since 1992, and identical in design to the third trophy introduced in 1911. The trophy shares its name with the competition.]]
The '''Football Association Challenge Cup''', commonly known as the '''FA Cup''', is the main "knockout" cup competition in [[England|English]] [[Football (soccer) |football]], run by and named after [[The Football Association]].
The FA Cup is the oldest football [[competition]] in the world. As such its prestige as the sport's premier domestic cup competition is without par around the world. As it involves clubs of all standards playing against each other, there is great scope for "giant-killers" from the lower divisions to eliminate top clubs from the tournament. A record 674 teams have entered the [[FA Cup 2005-06|FA Cup in 2005-2006]]. In comparison, the [[League Cup]], a lower prestige English football knockout tournament, can only have the 92 members of [[the Football League]] (who organise the competition) and [[FA Premier League]] compete.
The name "FA Cup" usually refers to the English men's tournament. The equivalent competition for women's teams is the [[FA Women's Cup]]. The women's cup has a much lower public profile than the men's, in common with all [[women's football (soccer)|women's football]] in England. Many nations also have similar competitions, inspired by this legendary tournament.
[[Arsenal F.C.]] are the current holders of the trophy, although they have been eliminated from the 2005-2006 Cup by [[Bolton Wanderers]].
== Format ==
The competition is a [[knockout tournament]] with pairings drawn completely at random - there are no [[Single-elimination_tournament#Seeding|seeds]]. The draw also determines which team will play at home. If a match is drawn, there is a replay at the ground of the other team. Drawn replays are now settled with [[extra time]] and [[Penalty shootout (football)|penalty shootouts]], though in the past further replays were possible, and some ties took as many as six matches to settle.
Traditionally the final is played at [[London]]'s [[Wembley Stadium]]. However, due to extensive redevelopment of Wembley, finals have been played at the [[Millennium Stadium]] in [[Cardiff]] since 2001. Although early venues include [[the Oval|Kennington Oval]] and [[Crystal Palace National Sports Centre|Crystal Palace]] [http://www.groundtastic.ukgateway.net/images/Postcards%20Pics/Crystal%20Palace.jpg], this was the first time the final had been played outside of England (it should be noted that Welsh sides such as [[Cardiff City F.C.]] do participate in the cup). The FA had hoped that the 2006 final would take place at the rebuilt Wembley stadium, but the FA Cup final on [[May 13]], [[2006]] will be played at the Millennium Stadium, because the builders have failed to guarantee that it will be completed on time.
The semi-finals are contested at neutral venues; in the past these have usually been the home grounds of teams not involved in that semi-final, such as [[Old Trafford (football)|Old Trafford]] in [[Manchester]], [[Villa Park, England|Villa Park]] in [[Birmingham]] and [[Hillsborough (stadium)|Hillsborough]] in [[Sheffield]]. However, in [[2005]] both semi-finals were held at the Millennium Stadium, which may be repeated in 2006. In future years it is expected that all semi-finals will be played at the new Wembley Stadium.
The competition begins in August with the Extra-Preliminary Qualifying Round contested by clubs occupying a low position in the [[English football league system]], which any FA affiliated club meeting a basic standard of ability and ground facilities may enter. 644 clubs entered the competition in the 2003/04 season, a (then) record 660 for 2004/05 (the old record was 656 in 1921/22), and new record of 674 for 2005/06. Following the Extra-Preliminary Qualifying Round is a Preliminary Qualifying Round, four Qualifying Rounds, and six Rounds of the competition proper, followed by the Semi-Finals and the Final. All of [[FA Premier League]] and [[The Football League|Football League]] clubs may enter. Non-league clubs may also enter if they competed in the previous season's [[FA Trophy]] or [[FA Vase]] and are deemed to be playing in an "acceptable" league for the current season. All clubs entering the competition must have a suitable and safe [[stadium]] capacity.
Clubs higher up the [[English football league system]] are given byes to certain rounds. For example, clubs playing in the [[Conference North]] or [[Conference South]] are given a bye to Second Qualifying Round, while those from the [[Conference National]] are given a bye to the Fourth Qualifying Round. Clubs from [[Football League One]] and [[Football League Two]] are given a bye into the First Round proper in November, and [[Football League Championship]] and [[FA Premier league|Premier League]] teams are given a bye into the Third Round, traditionally held in the first weekend in January. The Final is played at the end of the season in May.
Since the foundation of The Football League, [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]] in [[1901]] have been the only non-league winners of the FA Cup. They were then playing in the [[Southern Football League|Southern League]] and were only elected to the Football League in [[1908]]. At that time the Football League consisted of only two 18-team divisions; Spurs's victory then would be comparable to a team near the bottom of the third level of the English football pyramid (currently League One) winning today.
The winning team qualifies by right for the first round of the [[UEFA Cup]]. If the winners also qualify for the [[UEFA Champions League|Champions League]] by merit of league position, the losing finalist qualifies for the UEFA Cup in their place. If both finalists qualify for the Champions League, an extra UEFA Cup place is given on the basis of Premier League position.
==Trophies==
[[Image:Littletinidol.jpg|thumb|right|The first FA Cup trophy]]
At the end of the final, the winning team is presented with a trophy, also known as the "FA Cup", which they hold until the following year's final. Traditionally, at Wembley finals, the presentation was made at the Royal Box, with players, led by the captain, mounting a staircase to a gangway in front of the box and returning by a second staircase on the other side of the box. At Cardiff the presentation has been made on a podium on the pitch. The cup is decorated with ribbons in the colours of the winning team; a common riddle asks, "What is always taken to the Cup Final, but never used?" (The answer is, "the losing team's ribbons"). Individual members of the teams playing in the final are presented with winners' and losers' medals.
The present FA Cup trophy is the fourth. The first, the 'little tin idol', was used from the inception of the Cup in 1871-2 until it was stolen from a [[Birmingham]] shop window belonging to [[William Shillcock]] while held by [[Aston Villa F.C.|Aston Villa]] on [[September 11]], [[1895]]. It was never seen again and is presumed to have been melted down. The second trophy was a replica of the first, and was last used in [[1910]] before being presented to the FA's long-serving president [[Arthur Fitzgerald Kinnaird, 11th Lord Kinnaird|Lord Kinnaird]]. It was sold at [[Christie's]] on [[May 19]] 2005 for [[Pound sterling|£]]420,000 (£478,400 including auction fees and taxes) to [[David Gold]], the chairman of [[Birmingham City F.C.|Birmingham City]]. A new, larger, trophy was bought by the FA in [[1911]] designed and manufactured by Fattorini's of [[Bradford]] and won by [[Bradford City A.F.C.|Bradford City]] in its first outing, the only time a team from Bradford has reached the final. This trophy still exists but is now too fragile to be used, so an exact replica was made and has been in use since the [[1992]] final. Therefore, though the FA Cup is the oldest domestic football competition in the world, its ''trophy'' is not the oldest; that title is claimed by the [[Scottish Cup]].
== Sponsorship ==
Since the start of the 1994-95 season, the FA Cup has been sponsored. However, to protect the identity of the famous competition, the name has never changed from "The FA Cup", unlike in sponsorship deals for the [[League Cup]]. Instead, the competition has been known as "The FA Cup sponsored by ..."
From the 2006/2007 season it will formally be known as "The FA Cup sponsored by [[E.ON]]" after the German energy company signed a 4 year sponsorship deal <sup>[http://home.skysports.com/list.asp?hlid=359925&CPID=1&clid=&lid=2&title=New+sponsor+for+FA+Cup]</sup>.
*1994-95 to 1997-98 [[Littlewoods]]
*1998-99 to 2001-02 [[AXA]]
*2002-03 to 2005-06 The FA Partners: [[Carlsberg]], [[McDonald's]], [[Nationwide Building Society|Nationwide]], [[Pepsi-Cola|Pepsi]], [[Umbro]]
*2006-07 to 2009-10 [[E.ON]]
==Giant-Killers==
The FA Cup has a long tradition of lower-division and non-league teams becoming "giant-killers" by defeating highly-ranked opponents. There are various famous giant killing feats, and every club will remember their own successes. However, the most famous results are arguably those of:
*[[Yeovil Town F.C.|Yeovil Town]] in 1948-49, who reached the fifth round while in the [[Southern League (football)|Southern League]]. In latter years they defeated League opposition many other times, before winning promotion to the Football League in 2003.
*[[A.F.C. Bournemouth|Bournemouth and Boscombe Athletic]] who beat [[Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.|Wolves]] and [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]] in 1957, before losing to [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] in a closely fought quarter-final match |
provided regulatory insulation, and analysis of blood-vessel structures that are typical of endotherms within dinosaur bone. Skeletal structures suggest that theropods and other dinosaurs had active lifestyles better suited to an endothermic cardiovascular system, while sauropods exhibit fewer endothermic characteristics. It is certainly possible that some dinosaurs were endothermic while others were not. Scientific debate over the specifics continues.{{ref|parsons}}
Complicating the debate is the fact that warm-bloodedness can emerge based on more than one mechanism. Most discussions of dinosaur endothermy tend to compare them to average birds or mammals, which expend energy to elevate body temperature above that of the environment. Small birds and mammals also possess [[thermal insulation|insulation]], such as [[fat]], [[fur]], or [[feather]]s, which slows down heat loss. However, large mammals, such as elephants, face a different problem due to their relatively small ratio of surface area to volume ([[Haldane]]'s principle). This ratio compares the volume of an animal with the area of its skin: as an animal gets bigger, its surface area increases more slowly than its volume. At a certain point, the amount of heat radiated away through the skin drops below the amount of heat produced inside the body, forcing animals to use additional methods to avoid overheating. In the case of elephants, they are hairless, and have large ears which increase their surface area, and have behavioral adaptations as well (such as using the trunk to spray water on themselves and mud wallowing). These behaviors increase cooling through evaporation.
Large dinosaurs would presumably have had to deal with similar issues; their body size would dictate that they lost heat relatively slowly to the surrounding air, and so could have been what are called [[gigantothermy|bulk endotherms]], animals that are warmer than their environments through sheer size rather than through special adaptations like those of birds or mammals. However, so far this theory fails to account for the vast number of dog- and goat-sized dinosaur species which made up the bulk of the ecosystem during the Mesozoic period.
===Feathered dinosaurs and the bird connection===
{{main|Feathered dinosaurs}}
Birds and non-avian dinosaurs share many features. Birds share over a hundred distinct anatomical features with [[theropod]] dinosaurs, which are generally accepted to have been their closest ancient relatives.{{ref|casepoint}}
'''Feathers'''
[[Image:Archaeopteryx-model.jpg|thumb|240px|right|A model of ''[[Archaeopteryx|Archaeopteryx lithographica]]'' on display at the [[Oxford University Museum of Natural History]].]]
''[[Archaeopteryx]]'', the first good example of a "feathered dinosaur", was discovered in 1861. The initial specimen was found in the [[Solnhofen limestone]] in southern Germany, which is a ''[[Lagerstätten|lagerstätte]]'', a rare and remarkable geological formation known for its superbly detailed fossils. Archaeopteryx is a [[transitional fossil]], with features clearly intermediate between those of modern reptiles and birds. Brought to light just two years after Darwin's seminal ''[[The Origin of Species]]'', its discovery spurred the nascent debate between proponents of [[evolutionary biology]] and [[creationism]]. This early bird is so dinosaur-like that, without a clear impression of feathers in the surrounding rock, specimens are commonly mistaken for ''[[Compsognathus]]''.
Since the 1990s, a number of additional [[feathered dinosaurs]] have been found, providing even stronger evidence of the close relationship between dinosaurs and modern birds. Most of these specimens were unearthed in the [[Liaoning]] province in northeastern [[China]], which was part of an island continent during the Cretaceous period. Though feathers have been found only in the [[Lagerstätten|lagerstätte]] of the [[Yixian Formation]] and a few other places, it is possible that dinosaurs elsewhere in the world were also feathered. The lack of widespread fossil evidence for feathered dinosaurs may be due to the fact that delicate features like skin and feathers are not often preserved by [[fossil]]ization and thus are absent from the fossil record.
The feathered dinosaurs discovered so far include ''[[Beipiaosaurus]]'', ''[[Caudipteryx]]'', ''[[Dilong paradoxus|Dilong]]'', ''[[Microraptor]]'', ''[[Protarchaeopteryx]]'', ''[[Shuvuuia]]'', ''[[Sinornithosaurus]]'', ''[[Sinosauropteryx]]'', and ''[[Jinfengopteryx]]''. Dinosaur-like birds like ''[[Confuciusornis]]'', which are anatomically closer to modern avians, have also been discovered. All of these specimens come from the same formation in northern China. The [[dromaeosauridae]] family in particular seems to have been heavily feathered, and at least one dromaeosaurid, ''[[Cryptovolans]]'', may have been capable of flight.
'''Skeleton'''
[[Image:TRex3a.jpg|250px|left|thumb|''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'' skeleton at the [[Field Museum of Natural History]].]]
Because feathers are often associated with birds, feathered dinosaurs are often touted as the [[missing link]] between birds and dinosaurs. However, the multiple skeletal features also shared by the two groups represent the more important link for [[paleontologist]]s. Furthermore, it is increasingly clear that the relationship between birds and dinosaurs, and the evolution of flight, are more complex topics than previously realized. For example, while it was once believed that birds evolved from dinosaurs in one linear progression, some scientists, most notably [[Gregory S. Paul]], conclude that dinosaurs such as the [[dromaeosaur]]s may have evolved from birds, losing the power of flight while keeping their feathers in a manner similar to the modern ostrich and other [[ratite]]s.
Comparison of bird and dinosaur skeletons, as well as [[cladistics|cladistic analysis]], strengthens the case for the link, particularly for a branch of theropods called [[maniraptor]]s. Skeletal similarities include the [[neck]], [[pubis]], [[wrist]] (semi-lunate [[carpal]]), [[arm]] and [[pectoral girdle]], [[shoulder blade]], [[furcula|clavicle]] and [[keel (bird)|breast bone]].
'''Reproductive biology'''
[[Image:Trex skull.gif|250px|thumb|''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'' skull at [[Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh|Carnegie Museum Natural History]].]]
A discovery of features in a ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'' [[skeleton]] recently provided even more evidence that dinosaurs and birds evolved from a common ancestor and, for the first time, allowed paleontologists to establish the sex of a dinosaur. When laying eggs, female birds grow a special type of bone in their limbs. This [[medullary bone]], which is rich in calcium, forms a layer inside the hard outer bone that is used to make eggshells. The presence of endosteally-derived bone tissues lining the interior marrow cavities of portions of the ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'' specimen's hind limb suggested that ''T. rex'' used similar reproductive strategies, and revealed the specimen to be female.
A dinosaur embryo was found without teeth, suggesting that some parental care was required to feed the young dinosaur. It is also possible that the adult dinosaurs regurgitated into a young dinosaur's mouth to provide sustenance, a behavior that is also characteristic of numerous modern bird species.
'''Lungs'''
Large meat-eating dinosaurs had a complex system of air sacs similar to those found in modern birds, according to an investigation which was led by [[Patrick O'Connor]] of [[Ohio University]]. The lungs of theropod dinosaurs(carnivores that walked on two legs and had birdlike feet) likely pumped air into hollow sacs in their [[skeleton]]s, as is the case in birds. "What was once formally considered unique to birds was present in some form in the ancestors of birds", O'Connor said. The study was funded in part by the [[National Science Foundation]].{{ref|lungs}}
'''Heart and sleeping posture'''
Modern [[computerized tomography]] (CT) scans of dinosaur chest cavities (conducted in 2000) found the apparent remnants of complex four-chambered hearts, much like those found in today's mammals and birds. A recently discovered [[Troodontidae|troodont]] fossil demonstrates that the dinosaurs slept like certain modern birds, with their heads tucked under their arms.{{ref|sleepingdino}} This behavior, which may have helped to keep the head warm, is also characteristic of modern birds.
'''Gizzard'''
Another piece of evidence that birds and dinosaurs are closely related is the use of [[gizzard]] stones. These stones are swallowed by animals to aid digestion and break down food and hard fibres once they enter the stomach. When found in association with [[fossil]]s, gizzard stones are called [[gastrolith]]s. Because a particular stone could have been swallowed at one location before being carried to another during migration, paleontologists sometimes use the stones found in dinosaur stomachs to establish possible [[migration]] routes.
===Evidence for Cenozoic dinosaurs===
In 2002, paleontologists Zielinski and Budahn reported the discovery of a single [[hadrosauridae|hadrosaur]] leg bone fossil from [[El Ojo]], South America. The formation in which the bone was discovered has been dated to the early [[Paleocene]] epoch approximately 64.5 million years ago. If the bone was not re-deposited into that [[stratum]] by weathering action, it would provide evidence that some dinosaur populations may have survived at least a half million years into the Cenozoic Era.{{ref|fassett2002}}
===Bringing dinosaurs back to life===
[[image:trex.mending.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A worker on scaffolding services the head of a full-size [[Audio-Animatronics|animatronic]] model of ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]''.]]
There has been much speculation about the use of technology to bring dinosaurs back to life. In [[Michael Crichton]]'s book ''[[Jurassic Park]]'', whi |
[European Broadcasting Union]] as a successor to WAV. BWF allows [[metadata]] to be stored in the file. See: European Broadcasting Union: Specification of the Broadcast Wave Format - A format for audio data files in broadcasting. EBU Technical document 3285, July [[1997]]. This format is the primary recording format used in many professional Audio Workstations used in the Television and Film industry. Stand-alone file based multi-track recorders from [http://www.sounddevices.com Sound Devices], [http://www.zaxcom.com Zaxcom], [http://www.hhb.co.uk/hhb/usa/ HHB USA], [http://fostex.com Fostex], and [http://aaton.com Aaton] all use BWF as their preferred file format for recording multi-track audio files with SMPTE Time Code reference. This standardized Time Stamp in the Broadcast Wave File allows for easy synchronization with a separate picture element.
Since the [[1990s]], movie theatres have upgraded their sound systems to [[surround sound]] systems that carry more than two channels. The most popular examples are [[Advanced Audio Coding]] or AAC (used by [[Apple_Computer|Apple]]&nbsp;'s [[iTunes]]) and [[Dolby Digital]], also known as AC-3. Both codecs are copyrighted and encoders/decoders cannot be offered without paying a licence fee. The most popular multi-channel format is called 5.1, with 5 ''normal'' channels (front left, front middle, front right, back left, back right) and a [[subwoofer]] channel to carry low frequencies only (the human ear cannot distinguish where the low frequencies come from).
It is a common misconception that 5.1 Surround sound includes 2 rear speakers. In fact, a 5.1 setup includes what Dolby call Surround speakers, and are actually placed at the sides of the listener. [http://www.dolby.com/consumer/home_entertainment/roomlayout.html] &nbsp;
"6.1" setups do however, include a single rear speaker placed at the rear centre, behind the listener - Dolby calls this setup Dolby Digital EX .[http://www.dolby.com/resources/tech_library/index.cfm] &nbsp;
A 7.1 setup has the usual front 3 (front Left, front Centre, front Right), 2 Surround sound speakers situated to the left and right of the listener, and 2 rear speakers (rear Left and rear Right); with the usual Sub-woofer for bass - Dolby call this .1 / Sub speaker by the term LFE (Low-Frequency Effects).
==See also==
*[[Audio data compression]]
*[[Container format]]
==External links==
* [http://www.fileinfo.net/filetype/audio Audio File Types] Definitions of audio file extensions
* [http://www.mega-nerd.com/libsndfile/ libsndfile], an [[LGPL|LGPLd]] library that can read and write many audio file formats
* [http://www.apple.com/itunes/import.html] - iTunes file format AAC
* [http://www.bwfwidget.com BWF-Widget Pro] Utility for working with Broadcast Wave Files. Metadata reader/editor and BWF Playback with SMPTE Time Code.
[[Category:Computer file formats]]
[[Category:Music file formats]]
[[de:Audiodatei]]
[[zh:音频文件格式]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Audio data compression</title>
<id>2318</id>
<revision>
<id>39236548</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T19:27:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>80.240.215.61</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>External links section was added and updated</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''Note: This article is about audio data compression, which reduces the data rate of digital audio signals. This should not be confused with [[audio level compression]] which reduces the dynamic range of audio signals, or [[companding]], which uses both compression and complementary dynamic range expansion as a noise reduction technique.''
'''Audio compression''' is a form of [[data compression]] designed to reduce the size of audio data files. Audio compression algorithms are typically referred to as ''audio [[codec]]s''. As with other specific forms of data compression, there exist many "[[Lossless data compression|lossless]]" and "[[Lossy data compression|lossy]]" algorithms to achieve the compression effect.
== Lossless compression ==
As with [[image compression]], both lossy and lossless compression algorithms are used in audio compression. As file storage and communications bandwidth have become less expensive and more available, the popularity of lossless formats such as [[FLAC]] has increased sharply, as people are choosing to maintain a permanent archive of their audio files. The primary users of lossless compression are [[audio engineer|audio engineers]], audiophiles and those consumers who want to preserve the full quality of their audio files, in contrast to the quality loss from lossy compression techniques such as [[Vorbis]] and [[MP3]]. Of course, virtually every user will use both schemes for some files, or maintain both lossy and lossless versions, as their needs require.
It is difficult to maintain all the data in an audio stream and achieve substantial compression. First, the vast majority of sound recordings are highly complex and random, recorded from the real world. As one of the key methods of compression is to find patterns and repetition, more random data such as audio doesn't compress well. In a similar manner, [[photo]]graphs compress less efficiently with lossless methods than simpler computer-generated images do. But interestingly, even computer generated sounds can contain very complicated [[waveform]]s that present a challenge to many compression algorithms. This is due to the nature of audio waveforms, which are generally difficult to simplify without a (necessarily lossy) conversion to frequency information, as performed by the human ear.
The second reason is that values of audio [[sample (signal)|sample]]s change very quickly, so generic data compression [[algorithm]]s don't work well for audio, and strings of consecutive bytes don't generally appear very often. However, [[convolution]] with the filter [-1 1] (that is, taking the first difference) tends to slightly [[white noise|whiten]] ([[decorrelate]], make flat) the spectrum, thereby allowing traditional lossless compression at the encoder to do its job; integration at the decoder restores the original signal. Codecs such as [[FLAC]], [[Shorten]] and [[TTA]] use [[linear prediction]] to [[List_of_digital_estimation_techniques|estimate]] the spectrum of the signal. At the encoder, the estimator's inverse is used to whiten the signal by removing spectral peaks while the estimator is used to reconstruct the original signal at the decoder.
Lossless audio codecs have no quality issues, so the usability can be estimated by
* Speed of compression and decompression
* Degree of compression
* Software and hardware support
For comparisons of lossless audio codecs, see [http://wiki.hydrogenaudio.org/index.php?title=Lossless_comparison hydrogenaudio.org wiki comparison]; [http://members.home.nl/w.speek/comparison.htm Speek's comparison] (note the other links as well); [http://web.inter.nl.net/users/hvdh/lossless/All.htm this graph] from [http://web.inter.nl.net/users/hvdh/lossless/lossless.htm Hans Heiden's site] and [http://www.firstpr.com.au/audiocomp/lossless/ Robin Whittle's 2003 comparison of several algorithms and discussion of Rice coding].
== Lossy compression ==
Lossy audio compression is used in an extremely wide range of applications. In addition to the direct applications (mp3 players or computers), digitally compressed audio streams are used in most video DVDs; digital television; streaming media on the [[internet]]; satellite and cable radio; and increasingly in terrestrial radio broadcasts. Lossy compression typically achieves far greater compression than lossless compression (data of 5-20% of the original stream, rather than 50-60%), by simplifying the complexities of the data. Given that bandwidth and storage are always limited, the trade-off of reduced audio quality is clearly outweighed for some applications where users wish to transmit or store more information. (For example, one can fit a lot more songs on their iPod using lossy than using lossless compression; and a DVD might hold several audio tracks using lossy compression in the space needed for one lossless audio track.)
In both lossy and lossless compression, information redundancy is reduced, using methods such as coding, pattern recognition and linear prediction to reduce the amount of information used to describe the data. For example, suppose you wanted to record twenty house numbers along one side of a street, each of which goes up by 2. If the first address was 14461, or five digits, the uncompressed stream would require 20 times 5 bytes, or 100 bytes, to store. You could recode that to take advantage of the repetition and simply say begin at 14461, increase by 2, repeat 19 times. Now the data are losslessly captured in just 8 bytes!
The innovation of lossy audio compression was to use [[psychoacoustics]] to recognize that not all data in an audio stream is perceived by the human ear. Most lossy compression reduces perceptual redundancy by first identifying sounds which are considered perceptually irrelevant, that is, sounds that are very hard to hear. Typical examples include high frequencies, or sounds that occur at the same time as other louder sounds. Those sounds are coded with decreased accuracy or not coded at all.
To illustrate this by continuing with the example, suppose the data were more complex, so the difference between two house numbers was 4 in one instance, between the tenth and eleventh houses. Lossless coding would require something like this: begin at 14461, increase by 2, repeat 9 times, increase by 4, increase by 2, repeat 8 times. So 10, rather than 8 bytes, are needed to store the data. But if your model of lossy compression determines that difference was not relevant for the application, it might simplify the data to ignore the variation and increase the compression. However, some data a |
bai Metro|metro system]] in Mumbai is being constructed. [[Delhi Metro]] started operations on [[December 24]] [[2004]]. Presently three metro lines are operational in Delhi and two more are under construction. The cost of each metro line is estimated to be around 2.2 billion [[USD]]. Delhi Metro Corporation expects to transport 2.5 million passengers everyday by the end of [[2006]]. Rapid transit systems are proposed in [[Noida]], [[Goa]], [[Thane]], [[Pune]] and [[Ahmedabad]]. These proposed rapid transit systems are likely to be approved in the coming days.
==Long distance transport ==
=== Railways ===
[[Image:Darjeeling Himalayan Railway.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The [[Darjeeling Himalayan Railway]]]]
{{main articles|[[Rail transport in India]] and [[Indian Railways]]}}
India's rail network is the longest of any country. Trains run at an average of around 50-60 km/hour, which means that it can take more than two days to get from one corner of the country to another. Rail operations throughout the country are run by the state-owned company, Indian Railways. The rail network traverses through the length and breadth of the country, covering a total length of around 63,000 km (39,000 miles). Out of this a total 16,693 km of track has been electrified till now and 12,617 km have double tracks.
Indian Railways uses three type of gauges : [[Broad Gauge]], Metre Gauge and [[Narrow Gauge]]. Broad gauge at 1.676 m is one of the widest gauge used anywhere in the world. IR is in the process of converting all the metre gauge (14,406km) into broad gauge. Narrow gauge (3,106 km of track) with a width of 0.610 m to 0.762 m is restricted to very few places.
==== Railway links with adjacent countries ====
* [[Transportation in Pakistan|Pakistan]] - Operational (Attari-Wagha)
* [[Transportation in China|China]] - non existent
* [[Transportation in Myanmar|Myanmar]] - non existent
* [[Transportation in Bangladesh|Bangladesh]] - yes, freight only
* [[Transportation in Nepal|Nepal]] - up to border town
* [[Transportation in Bhutan|Bhutan]] - proposed
* [[Transportation in Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]] - non existent. Formerly up to India's closest point to Sri Lanka.
=== Highways ===
[[Image:National_highway_network_map.png|thumb|The Network of National Highways in India]]
{{main|Indian highways}}
India has a well developed network of National Highways connecting all the major cities and state capitals. Most highways are 2 laned, while in some better developed areas they may broaden to 4 lanes. Close to big cities, highways can even be 8 laned.
All the highways are metalled. In most developed states the roads are smooth, however in less developed states and in sparsely populated areas, highways are riddled with potholes. Very few of India's highways are concretised, the most notable being the Mumbai-Pune Expressway.
[[Image:MumbaiPuneExpressway.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The [[Mumbai-Pune Expressway]]]]
Highways form the economic backbone of the country. Highways have facilitated development along the route and many towns have sprung up along major highways.
In recent years construction has commenced on a nationwide system of multi-lane highways, including the [[Golden Quadrilateral]] expressways which link the largest cities in India.
A bus service [[Srinagar]] (India controlled, [[Jammu and Kashmir]]) - [[Muzaffarabad]] ([[Pakistan]] controlled, [[Azad Kashmir]], part of what India calls [[PoK]]), with one bus service every two weeks, at the same time in both directions, opened on [[7 April]] [[2005]].
Length: total - 3,319,644 km; paved - 1,517,077 km; unpaved - 1,802,567 km (1999 est.)
=== Waterways ===
India has an extensive network of '''inland waterways''' in the form of [[rivers]], [[canals]], [[backwaters]] and [[stream|creeks]]. The total navigable length is 14,500 km, out of which about 5200 km of river and 485 km of canals can be used by mechanised crafts. Freight transportation by waterways is highly underutilised in India compared to other large countries like [[USA]], [[China]] and [[European Union]]. The total cargo moved (in tonne kilometers) by the inland waterway was just 0.1% of the total inland traffic in India, compared to the 21% figure for [[USA]]. Cargo transportation in an organised manner is confined to a few waterways in [[Goa]], [[West Bengal]], [[Assam]] and [[Kerala]].
Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) is the statutory autority in charge of the waterways in India. It does the function of building the necessary infrastructure in these waterways, surveying the economic feasibility of new projects and also administration and regulation.
The following waterways have been declared as National Waterways till now.
*National Waterway 1 - [[Allahabad]] [[Haldia]] stretch of the [[Ganga]] [[Bhagirathi]] [[Hooghly]] river system (1620 km) in October 1986.
*National Waterway 2 - [[Saidiya]] [[Dhubri]] stretch of the [[Brahmaputra]] river system (891 km) in September 1988.
*National Waterway 3 - [[Kollam]] Kottapuram stretch of West Coast Canal (168 km) along with Champakara canal (14 km) and Udyogmandal canal (23 km) in February 1993.
=== Pipelines ===
Length of pipelines for crude oil 3,005 km; petroleum products 2,68 km; natural gas 1,700 km (1995)
=== Ports and harbours ===
[[Image:Gateway of India.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Ferries]] docking at the [[Gateway of India]], Mumbai]]
The [[ports]] are the main gateway of trade. In India about 95% of the [[trade]] by quantity and 77% by value take place through the ports. There are 12 major ports and about 180 minor and intermediate ports in India. The total amount of traffic handled at the major port in 2003-2004 was 345 [[megatonne|Mt]] and the minor ports together handled about 115 Mt.
The major ports are Calcutta, Haldia, [[Paradip]], Visakhapatanam, [[Ennore Port|Ennore]], [[Chennai Port|Chennai]], Tuticorin, Cochin, [[New Mangalore Port|New Mangalore]], Mormugao,[[JNPT]], [[Mumbai Port|Mumbai]] and [[Kandla]]. The distinction between major and minor ports is not based on the amount of cargo handled. The major ports are managed by port trusts which are regulated by the central government. They come under the purview of the Major Port Trusts Act, 1963. The minor ports are regulated by the respective state governments and many of these ports are private ports or captive ports.
==== Merchant marine ====
===Total===
321 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 6,647,268 GRT/11,074,025 DWT
===Ships by type===
Bulk 124, cargo 69, chemical tanker 14, combination bulk 1, combination ore/oil 4, container 15, liquified gas 10, passenger/cargo 5, petroleum tanker 75, short-sea passenger 2, specialized tanker 2 (1999 est.)
=== Air travel ===
[[Image:Airindia.longshot.arp.750pix.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Air India's [[Boeing 747-400]]]]
India's booming economy has created a large middle-class population in India. Five years back, [[air transport|air travel]] was a dream for the majority of the Indian population. But rapid economic growth has made air travel more and more affordable in India. [[Air India]], India's flag carrier, presently operates a fleet 42 aircraft and plays a major role in connecting India with the rest of the world. Several other foreign [[airlines]] connect Indian cities with other major cities across the globe.
[[Jet Airways]], [[Indian Airlines]], [[Air Sahara]] and [[Alliance Air]] are the most popular brands in domestic air travel in order of their market share. These airlines connect more than 80 cities across India. However, a large section of country's air transport system remains untapped.
[[Image:Kingfisher airlines a380.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Kingfisher's new [[Airbus A380]]]]
India's vast unutilized air transport network has attracted several investments in the Indian air industry in the past few years. More than half a dozen [[low-cost carrier]]s entered the Indian market in [[2004]]-[[2005|05]]. Major new entrants include [[Air Deccan]], [[Kingfisher Airlines]], [[SpiceJet]], [[GoAir]], [[Paramount Airlines]] and [[IndiGo Airlines]]. To meet India's rapidly increasing demand for air travel, Air India recently purchased more than 68 jets from [[Boeing]] for 7.5 billion [[USD]] while [[Indian Airlines]] purchased 43 jets from [[Airbus]] for 2.5 billion [[USD]]. Jet Airways, India's largest private carrier, has invested billions of dollars to increase its fleet. This trend is not restricted to traditional air carriers in India. IndiGo Airlines purchased 100 [[Airbus A320]]s worth 6 billion [[USD]] during the [[Paris Air Show]]; the highest by any Asian domestic carrier. Kingfisher Airline became the first Indian air carrier in [[June 15]] [[2005]] to order [[Airbus A380]] aircraft. The total deal with Airbus was worth 3 billion [[USD]].
====Airports====
[[Image:Indira-Gandhi-Airport-(big).jpg|right|thumb|250px|The [[Indira Gandhi International Airport]] in [[Delhi]] is one of the busiest airports in [[South Asia]].]]
More than 20 international airports are located within the Republic of India. These include: [[Begumpet Airport]], [[Hyderabad]]; [[Calicut International Airport]], [[Calicut]]; [[Chatrapati Shivaji International Airport]], Mumbai; [[Chennai International Airport]], Chennai; [[Cochin International Airport Limited]], [[Kochi, India|Cochin]]; [[HAL Airport]], [[Bangalore]]; [[Indira Gandhi International Airport]], [[Delhi]]; [[Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport]], [[Kolkata]]; [[Raja Sansi International Airport]], [[Amritsar]]; [[Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport]], [[Ahmedabad]] and [[Trivandrum International Airport]], [[Trivandrum]]. The Indira Gandhi International Airport and the Chatrapati Shivaji International Airport handle more than half of the air traffic in [[South Asia]]. Besides these airports several other domestic airports are located in India.
In total, there are more than 334 ([[2002]] est.) civilian airports in India - 238 with paved runways and 108 with unpaved runways.
===== |
the range in 1997, and the radical [[Audi TT|TT]] coupe and roadster were debuted in 1998 based on the same underpinnings. Another interesting model introduced was the [[Mercedes Benz|Mercedes-Benz]] A-Class competitor, the [[Audi A2|Audi A2]]. The model sold relatively well in Europe, however Audi decided not to develop a new model and it has since been discontinued as of 2004.
The engines available throughout the range were now a 1.4 L, 1.6 L and 1.8 L 4 cylinder, 1.8 turbo, 2.6 L and 2.8 L V6, 2.2 L turbo-charged 5 cylinder and the 4.2 L V8. The V6's were replaced by new 2.4 and 2.8 L 30V V6's in 1998, with marked improvement in power, torque and smoothness. Further engines were added along the way, including a 3.7 L V8 and 6.0 L W12 for the A8.
At the turn of the century, Audi introduced the [[direct shift gearbox]] (DSG), a manual transmission driveable like an automatic transmission. The system includes dual electrohydraulically controlled clutches instead of a [[torque converter]]. This is implemented in some [[Volkswagen Golf]], [[Audi A3]] and [[Audi TT|TT]] models. The engine range was continually upgraded, with a 2.7 L twin turbo V6 being offered in the Audi S4, A6 and allroad, the 2.8 L V6 was replaced by a 3.0 L unit.
New models of the A3, A4, A6 and A8 have been introduced, with the 1.8 L engine now 2.0 L and the 3.0 L V6 is now 3.1 L in size. Audi has now introduced [[FSI|FSI]] on some of their engines, including the 1.6 L 4 cylinder, a new 2.0 L (Audi was the first manufacturer in the world to utilize a turbo charger and FSI on the same powerplant), and the 3.1 L V6. This is a direct fuel-injection technique that Audi had also used on its diesel engines since the early 1980s.
As a premium member of the VW Group, technologies are frequently first introduced to the mass market with Audi vehicles before being 'trickled down' to more value oriented brands such as VW, [[SEAT]] and [[Škoda Auto|Škoda]]. Recent examples of this include DSG and FSI.
Audi now has an impressive range of cars, engines and transmissions available, which continue to lead the way and introduce new technologies into the market.
==Models==
===Production cars===
* [[Audi A2|A2]]
* [[Audi A3|A3]]
** [[Audi S3|S3]]
* [[Audi A4|A4]]
** [[Audi S4|S4]]
** [[Audi RS4|RS4]]
* [[Audi A6|A6]]
** [[Audi S6|S6]]
** [[Audi RS6|RS6]]
* [[Audi Q7|Q7]]
* [[Audi A8|A8]]
** [[S8]]
* [[Audi TT|TT]]
===Historical models===
* [[Audi 50]]
* [[Audi 80|Audi 80/90/4000]]
* [[Audi 100|Audi 100/200/5000]]
* [[Audi Quattro]]
* [[Audi V8]]
* [[Audi UrS4/S6]]
* model
===Future models===
''The following is a list of models Audi ostensibly plans to offer in the future.''
* [[Audi A5|A5]]
* [[Audi RS4|RS4]]
* [[Audi Q5|Q5]]
* [[Audi R8 Road Car (2006-).|R8]]
===Concepts===
''The following is a partial list of [[concept car]]s.''
* [[Audi RSQ]] designed exclusively for the 2004 film [[I, Robot (movie)|I, Robot]].
* [[Audi Allroad Quattro Concept]]
* [[Audi Shooting Brake]], design study for the next generation TT
* [[Audi Avus Quattro]]
* [[Audi Quattro Spyder]]
* [[Audi Avantissimo]]
* [[Audi Pikes Peak]]
* [[Audi Nuvolari Quattro]]
* [[Audi Le Mans Quattro]]
* [[Audi Roadjet]]
==See also==
{{commons|Audi}}
* [[Audi Centre of Excellence]]
* [[Audi Driving Experience]]
* [[Austin Audi Club]]
==External links==
* [http://www.audi.com Official website]
* [http://www.audiworld.com AudiWorld.com Enthusiast Website]
* [http://www.fourtitude.com Fourtitude.com Enthuiast Forum]
* [http://www.audiclubna.org Audi Club North America - The Official Audi Owners Club for North America.]
* [http://www.joestracing.de Joest Racing]
* [http://audi100.selbst-doku.de/Main/EnglishHomepage Audi100.Selbst-Doku.De - most complete english/german Audi 100, 5000, A6 info site]
* [http://www.audiforums.com Audi Forums] Enthusiast forums, recalls, TSBs, photo galleries, and general tech help.
* [http://www.audi-forums.com Audi Forum]
* [http://www.automotoportal.com/ Automotive industry portal with Audi news]
{{Audi}}
[[Category:Audi|Audi]]
[[Category:Bavaria]]
[[Category:German automobile manufacturers]]
[[Category:Luxury car manufacturers]]
[[Category:Saxony]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Aircraft</title>
<id>849</id>
<revision>
<id>42156837</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:52:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rogerd</username>
<id>205136</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.57.130.124|24.57.130.124]] ([[User talk:24.57.130.124|talk]]) to last version by Blimpguy</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:jal.747.newcolours.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|350px|A [[Japan Airlines]] [[Boeing]] [[Boeing 747-400|747-400]]. This is a wide-bodied long-haul '''aircraft''']]
An '''aircraft''' is any [[machine]] capable of [[Earth's atmosphere|atmospheric]] [[flight]].
<!--English word "aircraft" is singuar and plural with no "s". See also the link to Wiktionary below.-->
==Categories and classification==
Aircraft fall into two broad categories:
===Heavier than air===
Heavier than air [[aerodyne]]s, including [[autogyro]]s, [[helicopter]]s and variants, and conventional [[fixed-wing aircraft]] (airplanes or aeroplanes). Fixed-wing aircraft generally use an [[internal-combustion engine]] in the form of a [[piston engine]] (with a [[propeller]]) or a [[Turbine|turbine engine]] ([[Jet engine|jet]] or [[turboprop]]), to provide [[thrust]] that moves the craft forward through the air. The movement of air over the airfoil produces [[lift (force)|lift]] that causes the aircraft to fly. Exceptions are [[glider]]s which have no engines and gain their thrust, initially, from [[winch]]es or tugs and then from gravity and thermal currents. For a glider to maintain its forward speed it must descend in relation to the air (but not necessarily in relation to the ground). Helicopters and autogyros use a spinning rotor (a ''rotary wing'') to provide lift; helicopters also use the rotor to provide thrust. The abbreviation [[VTOL]] is applied to aircraft other than helicopters that can take off or land vertically. [[STOL]] stands for Short Take Off and Landing.
===Lighter than air===
[[image:yellow.balloon.takesoff.in.bath.arp.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A hot air balloon takes off from Royal Victoria Park, Bath, England]]
[[Lighter than air]] [[aerostat]]s: [[hot air balloon]]s and [[airship]]s. Aerostats use [[buoyancy]] to float in the air in much the same manner as ships float on the water. In particular, these aircraft use a relatively low density gas such as [[helium]], [[hydrogen]] or heated air, to displace the air around the craft. The distinction between a balloon and an airship is that an airship has some means of controlling both its forward motion and steering itself, while balloons are carried along with the wind.
===Types of aircraft===
:''See also: [[List of aircraft]]''
There are several ways to classify aircraft. Below, we describe classifications by design, propulsion and usage.
====By design====
[[image:Size-comparison.jpg|thumb|right|350px|A size Comparation of some of the largest airplanes in the world. The Airbus A380-800, the Boeing 747-400 (largest airliner to date) The Antonov An-225 (aircraft with the greatest payload) and the Hughes H-4 "Spruce Goose" (largest airplane in the world) designed by the famous [[Howard Hughes]] ]]
A first division by design among aircraft is between lighter-than-air, '''aerostat''', and heavier-than-air aircraft, '''aerodyne'''.
Examples of lighter-than-air aircraft include non-steerable [[balloon]]s, such as [[hot air balloon]]s and [[gas balloon]]s, and steerable [[airship]]s (sometimes called dirigible balloons) such as [[blimp]]s (that have non-rigid construction) and [[rigid airship|rigid airships]] that have an internal frame. The most successful type of rigid airship was the [[Zeppelin]]. Several accidents, such as the [[Hindenburg disaster|Hindenburg]] fire at [[Lakehurst]], NJ, in [[1937]] led to the demise of large rigid airships.
In heavier-than-air aircraft, there are two ways to produce lift: aerodynamic lift and engine lift. In the case of aerodynamic lift, the aircraft is kept in the air by wings or rotors (see [[aerodynamics]]). With engine lift, the aircraft defeats gravity by use of [[vertical]]
Examples of engine lift aircraft are [[rocket]]s, and [[VTOL]] aircraft such as the [[Hawker-Siddeley Harrier]].
Among aerodynamically lifted aircraft, most fall in the category of [[fixed-wing aircraft]], where horizontal airfoils produce [[lift (force)|lift]], by profiting from airflow patterns determined by [[Bernoulli's equation]] and, to some extent, the [[Coanda effect]].
The forerunner of these type of aircraft is the [[Kite flying|kite]]. Kites depend upon the tension between the cord which anchors it to the ground and the force of the [[wind]] currents. Much aerodynamic work was done with kites until test aircraft, wind tunnels and now computer modelling programs became available.
In a "conventional" configuration, the lift surfaces are placed in front of a control surface or [[tailplane]]. The other configuration is the [[canard]] where small horizontal control surfaces are placed forward of the wings, near the nose of the aircraft. Canards are becoming more common as [[supersonic]] [[aerodynamic]]s grows more mature and because the forward surface contributes lift during straight-and-level flight.
The number of lift surfaces varied in the pre-[[1950]] period, as [[biplane]]s (two wings) and [[triplane]]s (three wings) were numerous in the early days of aviation. Su |
</page>
<page>
<title>Frigg</title>
<id>11353</id>
<revision>
<id>40948241</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T01:35:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FlaBot</username>
<id>228773</id>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: it Removing: zh</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FriggSpinning.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Frigg spinning the clouds]]
In [[Norse mythology]], '''Frigg''' (''[[Edda]]s'') or '''Frigga''' (''[[Gesta Danorum]]'') was said to be "foremost among the goddesses," <sup>[[#Notes|1]]</sup> the wife of [[Odin]], queen of the [[Æsir]], and goddess of the sky. One of the [[Ásynjur]], she is a goddess of marriage, motherhood, fertility, love, household management, and domestic arts. Her primary functions in the Norse mythological stories are as wife and mother, but these are not her only functions. She has the power of prophecy although she does not tell what she knows <sup>[[#Notes|2]]</sup>, and is the only one other than Odin who is permitted to sit on his high seat [[Hlidskjalf]] and look out over the universe. She also participates in the [[Wild Hunt]] ([[Asgardreid]]) along with her husband. Frigg's children are [[Baldr]], [[Höðr]] and, in an English source, [[Wecta]]; her stepchildren are [[Hermóðr]], [[Heimdall]], [[Tyr]], [[Vidar]], [[Váli (son of Odin)|Váli]], and [[Skjoldr]]. [[Thor]] is either her brother or a stepson. Frigg's companion is [[Eir]], the gods' doctor and goddess of healing. Frigg's attendants are [[Hlín]] (a goddess of protection), [[Gná]] (a messenger goddess), and [[Fulla]] (a fertility goddess). It is unclear whether Frigg's companions and attendants are simply different aspects of Frigg herself (cf. [[avatar]]). According to the poem ''[[Lokasenna]]'' Frigg is the daughter of [[Fjorgyn]] (masculine version of "Earth," cf. feminine version of "Earth," Thor's mother), her mother is not identified in the stories that have survived.
==Attributes==
In [[Scandinavia]], the [[constellation]] called "[[Orion's belt|Orion's Belt]]" in English is known as "Frigg's [[Distaff]]" (''Friggerock''). Some have pointed out that the constellation is on the celestial equator and have suggested that the stars rotating in the night sky may have been associated with Frigg's spinning wheel. <sup>[[#Notes|3]]</sup> She is said to have woven or spun the clouds.
Frigg's name means "love" or "beloved one" and was known among many northern European cultures with slight name variations over time: e.g. '''Frea''' in southern Germany, '''Frija''' or '''Friia''' in Old High German, '''Friggja''' in Sweden, "Frigga" in English, and '''Frika''' in Wagner's operas. <sup>[[#Notes|4]]</sup> It has been suggested that "[[Holda|Frau Holle]]" of [[German folklore]] is a survival of Frigg. <sup>[[#Notes|5]]</sup>
Frigg's hall in Asgard is [[Fensalir]], which means "Marsh Halls." <sup>[[#Notes|6]]</sup> This may mean that marshy or boggy land was considered especially sacred to her but nothing definitive is known. The goddess [[Saga (mythology)|Saga]], who was described as drinking with Odin from golden cups in her hall "Sunken Benches," may be Frigg by a different name.
{|
|-
! style="background:#efefef;" | Symbols associated with Frigg:
|-
| Keys
|-
| Distaff
|-
| Drop spindle (spinning wheel)
|-
| Mistletoe
|}
==Stories about Frigg==
===The Death of Baldr===
The most famous story about Frigg has her in the role of mother. Frigg especially loved her son Baldr, and with a mother's concern she set about trying to protect him after he had a prophetic dream of his own death. She had everything in the world promise not to harm him, but did not extract a promise from mistletoe. The gods soon made a game of throwing things at Baldr and watching them bounce off without hurting him. In [[Snorri Sturluson]]'s version of the story, Baldr's brother Höðr is blind and can't join in on the fun. [[Loki]] made a dart out of mistletoe and put it into Höðr's hand, offering to guide his aim so he can participate in the game of throwing things at Baldr. Rather than bouncing off, the dart kills Baldr.
Even though Frigg must have known that Baldr was doomed, both through one of Baldr's prophetic dreams and her own foreknowlege, she tries to alter his fate. Even after he dies she doesn't give up and tries to arrange to have him ransomed from the underworld. According to some versions of the story, mistletoe became sacred to Frigg as a result of its failure to give Frigg its oath.
===The Winnilers and the Vandals===
In this story, Frigg is shown in the role of wife, but one who knows how to get her own way even though her husband thinks he is in charge. The [[Winnilers]] and the [[Vandals]] were two warring tribes. Odin favored the Vandals, while Frigg favored the Winnilers. After a heated discussion, Odin swore that he would grant victory to the first tribe he saw the next morning upon awakening-- knowing full well that the bed was arranged so that the Vandals were on his side. While he slept, Frigg told the Winniler women to comb their hair over their faces to look like long beards so they would look like men and turned the bed so the Winniler women would be on Odin's side. When he woke up, Odin was surprised to see the disguised women first and asked who these long bearded men were, which was where the tribe got its new name, the Langobards. Odin kept his oath and granted victory to the Winnilers (now known as the [[Lombards]]), and eventually saw the wisdom of Frigg's choice.
===Vili and Ve===
In this story, Frigg has the role of sacred queen much like the role of queens during certain periods in ancient Egypt, where the king was king by virtue of being the queen's husband. As the story goes, Odin went wandering for a very long time without coming back. Finally, everyone assumed he was dead or otherwise never going to return. After quite some time had passed, Frigg "married" Odin's two brothers, [[Vili]] and [[Ve]], who ruled in Odin's place. Eventually, Odin came back to rule and Frigg returned to his side as his wife.
==Connection between Frigg and Freya==
Frigg is the highest goddess of the [[Æsir]], while [[Freya]] is the highest goddess of the [[Vanir]]. Many arguments have been made both for and against the idea that Frigg and Freya are really the same goddess, avatars of one another. <sup>[[#Notes|7]]</sup>
Some arguments are based on linguistic analysis, others on the fact that Freya wasn't known in southern Germany, only in the north, and in some places the two goddesses were considered to be the same, while in others they were considered to be different. <sup>[[#Notes|8]]</sup> There are clearly many similarities between the two: both had flying cloaks of falcon feathers and engaged in shape-shifting, Frigg was married to Odin while Freya was married to [[Óðr]], both had special necklaces, both had a personification of the Earth as a parent, both were called upon for assistance in childbirth, etc. On the other hand, they sometimes appear at the same time in the same text.
There is also an argument that Frigg and Freya are part of a triad of goddesses (together with either [[Hnoss]] or [[Iðunn]]) associated with the different ages of womankind. The areas of influence of Frigg and Freya don't quite match up with the areas of influence often seen in other goddess triads. This may mean that the argument isn't a good one, or it may tell us something interesting about northern European culture as compared to Celtic and southern European culture.
Finally, there is an argument is that Frigg and Freya are similar goddesses from different pantheons who were first conflated into each other and then later seen as separate goddesses again. (See also Wikipedia entry for [[Frige]].) This is consistent with the theological treatment of some Greek, Roman, and Egyptian deities in the late classical period.
==Maidservants==
Frigg had 11 maidservants: Fulla, Hlín, Gná, Lofn, Sjöfn, Syn, Gefjon, Snotra, Eir, Vár, and Vör, who helped the goddess in her role as goddess of marriage and justice. They are sometimes considered to be various aspects of Frigg herself rather than distinct beings. Other times 12 maidservants are listed.
==Notes==
<!--Note 1-->
# Sturluson, Snorri. Prose Edda, [[Gylfaginning]].
<!--Note 2-->
# Sturluson, Snorri. Prose Edda, [[Skáldskaparmál]]. "She will tell no fortunes, yet well she knows the fates of men."
<!--Note 3-->
# Krupp, E. C. (Jan. 1996). The thread of time. ''Sky and Telescope''. '''91'''(1), 60.
<!--Note 4-->
# Claims of a connection between Frau Holle and Frigg can be traced back at least to Jacob Grimm. However, some recent scholarship suggests that the linguistic evidence connecting Frau Holle with Frigg is based on a mistaken translation from Latin. Smith, John B. (Aug. 2004). Perchta the Belly-Slitter and Her Kin: A View of Some Traditional Threatening Figures, Threats and Punishments. ''Folklore''. '''115'''(2), 167, 169.
<!--Note 5-->
# Simek, Rudolf (1993). ''Dictionary of Northern Mythology,'' page 81. Trans. Angela Hall. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer.
<!--Note 6-->
# Simek, pages 93-94. ''Also:'' Lindow, John (2001). ''Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs,'' pages 128-130. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
<!--Note 7-->
# Davidson, Hilda Ellis. (1998). ''Roles of the Northern Goddess,'' page 10. London: Routlege. ''Also:'' Grundy, Stephen, Freyja and Frigg, pages 56-67; Nasstrom, Brit-Mari. Freyja, a goddess with many names, pages 68-77. Billington, Sandra & Green, Miranda (Eds.) (1996). ''The Concept of the Goddess.'' London: Routlege.
<!--Note 8--&g |
al year]] is now very close to 365.2421875 days i.e. 27s/year shorter. However, relative to the [[vernal equinox]] year, important for the determination of the date of Christian [[Easter]], the older [[Aloysius Lilius|Lilius]] definition of the year is and will be a very good value. The ''vernal equinox year'' and the ''mean tropical year'' have falsely been seen as identical even by many erudite persons of the 20th century.
* The approximation of the year in the old [[Persian calendar]] attributed to [[Omar Khayyám]] is 365.24<font style="text-decoration: overline">24</font> days, which is very close to the vernal equinox year, but requires a 33-year cycle.
* The definition of [[Milutin Milanković]], used in the "[[revised Julian calendar]]", is 365.24<font style="text-decoration: overline">22</font> days, which is very close to the mean tropical year, but uses unequal long-period cycles.
==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03738a.htm ''The Catholic Encyclopedia,'' s.v. "General Chronology"]
{{featured article}}
[[Category:Calendars]]
[[Category:Christian history]]
[[Category:Chronology]]
[[Category:Latin religious phrases]]
[[da:Anno Domini]]
[[de:Anno Domini]]
[[el:M.X.]]
[[es:Era cristiana]]
[[fi:Jälkeen Kristuksen]]
[[fr:Anno Domini]]
[[ga:Anno_Domini]]
[[he:ספירת הנוצרים]]
[[ja:西暦]]
[[la:Anno Domini]]
[[nl:Anno Domini]]
[[pl:N.e.]]
[[pt:A.C.]]
[[sw:Baada ya Kristo]]
[[th:คริสต์ศักราช]]
[[vi:Công Nguyên]]
[[zh:公元]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AV</title>
<id>1404</id>
<revision>
<id>41960714</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T22:16:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>McCart42</username>
<id>71251</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>add approval voting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''AV''' may mean:
*Adult video, see [[Pornography]]
*[[AltaVista]], a search engine
*[[Alterac Valley]], a [[player versus player]] [[instance dungeon]] in the [[MMORPG]] ''[[World of Warcraft]]''
*Alternative Vote, see [[Instant-runoff voting]]
*[[Angela Via]], a singer
*[[Anguilla]] ([[List of FIPS country codes|FIPS 10-4 code]] and obsolete [[NATO country code|NATO digram]])
*[[Antelope Valley]], a desert region of northern [[Los Angeles County, California]], in the [[United States|US]]
*Anti-virus, see [[Anti-virus software]]
*[[Artificial vagina]], a sex-toy
*[[Audio-visual]], see [[Video]]
*Authorised Version or [[King James Version of the Bible]]
*[[Avatar (virtual reality)]], a representation of a user in virtual reality
*Avenue, see [[Road]] ('''Ave.''' is more frequent)
*[[Average]]
*[[Avianca]]; AV is the [[IATA]] code for this airline
*[[Arcade Volleyball]], an [[MS-DOS]] [[Computer and video games|computer game]]
*[[Approval Voting]]
'''Av''' may mean:
* [[Av (month)|Av]], a month in the Hebrew calendar
'''aV''' may mean:
*[[atto]][[volt]], an SI unit of electromotive force
'''av''' may mean:
*[[Avar language]]; [[ISO 639-1]] code for this language
{{2LCdisambig}}
[[de:AV]]
[[ko:AV]]
[[it:Av]]
[[ja:AV]]
[[sl:AV]]
[[zh:AV]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amino group</title>
<id>1406</id>
<revision>
<id>40631827</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T23:19:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hede2000</username>
<id>284384</id>
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<minor />
<comment>+da:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[chemistry]], especially in [[organic chemistry]] and [[biochemistry]], an '''amino group''' is an [[ammonia]]-like [[functional group]] composed of a [[nitrogen]] and two [[hydrogen]] atoms covalently linked.
:-{{nitrogen}}{{hydrogen}}<sub>2</sub>
It is a basic functional group that can give the [[free electron pair]] of the nitrogen atom to the proton of an [[acid]]. In this process, it becomes positively charged.
A compound containing an amino group is called an [[amine]].
==See also==
* [[Amino acid]]
* [[Amino Communications]]
* [[Amino Software]]
{{organic-compound-stub}}
[[Category:Functional groups]]
[[ca:Grup amino]]
[[da:Amin]]
[[de:Aminogruppe]]
[[es:Grupo amino]]
[[eo:Aminogrupo]]
[[ja:&#12450;&#12511;&#12494;&#22522;]]
[[ko:아미노기]]
[[pl:Grupa aminowa]]
[[ru:Аминогруппа]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antony van Leeuwenhook</title>
<id>1407</id>
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<id>15899892</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T13:59:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
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<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alcuin</title>
<id>1408</id>
<revision>
<id>40414027</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T10:30:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Xareu bs</username>
<id>380341</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Raban-Maur Alcuin Otgar.jpg|thumb|[[Rabanus Maurus]] (left), supported by Alcuin (middle), presents his work to Otgar of Mainz ]]
'''Flaccus Albinus Alcuinus''' or '''Ealhwine''' (c. [[735]]-[[May 19]], [[804]]) was a [[Monasticism|monk]] from [[York, England]]. He was related to [[Willibrord]], [[Anglo-Saxon]] [[missionary]] to the [[Frisian]]s and the first [[bishop of Utrecht]], whose biography he afterwards wrote.
Alcuin of York had a long career as a teacher and scholar first at the school at York (now known as St Peters School, York, founded AD [[627]]) and lastly as [[Charlemagne]]'s leading advisor on ecclesiastical and educational affairs. From [[796]] until his death he was [[abbot]] of the great [[monastery]] of [[Martin of Tours|St. Martin of Tours]].
He was educated at the cathedral school of York, under the celebrated master [[Ethelbert of York]], with whom he also went to [[Rome]] seeking [[manuscript]]s. When [[Ethelbert]] was appointed [[Archbishop of York]] in [[766]], Alcuin succeeded him in the headship of the episcopal school. He again went to [[Rome]] in [[780]], to fetch the ''[[pallium]]'' for Archbishop [[Eanbald I of York]], and at [[Parma]] met Charlemagne. Charlemagne persuaded him to come to his court and gave him the possession of the great abbeys of [[Ferrieres]] and [[Saint-Loup]] at [[Troyes]].
From [[782]] to [[790]], Alcuin had as pupils the king of the Franks, his kinsmen, the young men sent for their education to the court, and the young [[cleric]]s attached to the palace chapel; he was the life and soul of the Academy of the palace, and we have still, in the ''Dialogue of Pepin (son of Charlemagne) and Alcuin'', a sample of the intellectual exercises in which they indulged. One surviving tool of the drive to reform [[education]] is Charlemagne's circular letter ''De Litteris Colendis'', "On the Study of Letters", which Alcuin wrote.
In [[790]] Alcuin went back to England, to which he had always been greatly attached, and dwelt there for some time; but Charlemagne invited him back to help in the fight against the [[Adoptionism|Adoptionist]] [[heresy]], which was at that time making great progress in Toledo [[Spain]], the old capital town of the [[Visigoths]] and still a major city for the Christians under Islamic rule in Spain. He is believed to have had contacts with [[Beato de Liébana]], from the [[Kingdom of Asturias]], who fighted against Adoptionism. At the [[Council of Frankfurt]] in [[794]], Alcuin upheld the [[orthodox]] doctrine, and obtained the condemnation of the ''heresiarch'' [[Felix of Urgel]]. After this victory he again went back to England, but on account of the disturbances which broke out there, and which led to the death of King [[Ethelred]] ([[796]]), he left it forever. Charlemagne had given him the great abbey of St. Martin at Tours, where he was to pass his last years.
He made the abbey school into a model of excellence, and many students flocked to it; he had many manuscripts copied, the [[calligraphy]] of which is of outstanding beauty. He wrote many letters to his friends in England, to [[Arno, bishop of Salzburg]], and above all to Charlemagne. These letters, of which 311 are extant, are filled mainly with pious meditations, but they further form a mine of information as to the literary and social conditions of the time, and are the most reliable authority for the history of [[humanism]] in the [[Carolingian]] age. He also trained the numerous monks of the abbey in piety, and it was in the midst of these pursuits that he died.
Alcuin is the most prominent figure of the [[Carolingian Renaissance]], in which three main periods have been distinguished: in the first of these, up to the arrival of Alcuin at the court, the [[Italy|Italian]]s occupy the central place; in the second, Alcuin and the Anglo-Saxons are dominant; in the third, which begins in [[804]], the influence of the [[Visigoth]] [[Theodulf]] is preponderant.
Alcuin transmitted to the [[Franks]] the knowledge of Latin culture which had existed in England. We still have a number of his works. His letters have already been mentioned; his [[poetry]] is equally interesting. Besides some graceful epistles in the style of [[Fortunatus]], he wrote some long poems, and notably a whole history in verse of the church at York: ''Versus de patribus, regibus et sanctis Eboracensis ecclesiae''.
We owe to him, too, some manuals used in his educational work; a [[grammar]] and works on [[rhetoric]] and [[dialectics]]. They are written in the form of [[dialogue]]s, and in the two last the interlocutors are Charlemagne and Alcuin. He also wrote several [[theological]] treatises: a ''De fide Trinitatis'', commentaries on the [[Bible]], etc.
[[Alcuin College]], part of the [[University of York]], is named after him.
== Further reading ==
*''Alcuin and the Rise of the Ch |
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<ip>213.5.21.158</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Saga''' (嵯峨天皇, ''Saga tennō'') ([[786]]&ndash;[[842]]) was the 52nd [[Emperor of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He was the second son of [[Emperor Kammu]], and younger brother of [[Emperor Heizei]], his predecessor. He ruled from [[809]] to [[823]].
Saga was a scholar of the [[Chinese language|Chinese]] classics and, according to legend, the first Japanese emperor to drink [[tea]]. He was renowned as a skillful [[calligraphy|calligrapher]]. Saga succeeded to the throne after the retirement of Heizei due to illness, and soon after his enthronement was himself ill. This gave Heizei an opportunity to foment a rebellion, which Saga put down in a bloody civil war.
Saga was a supporter of the [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monk [[Kukai]] and helped him to establish the [[Shingon]] School of Buddhism by granting him the [[Toji]] temple in the capital Heian-ky&#333; (present day [[Kyoto]]).
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[[Category:786 births|Saga]]
[[Category:842 deaths|Saga]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Saga]]
[[Category:Japanese calligraphers]]
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[[fr:Empereur Saga]]
[[it:Saga imperatore del Giappone]]
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[[pt:Imperador Saga do Japão]]
[[zh:&#23919;&#23784;&#22825;&#30343;]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Emperor Junna</title>
<id>10436</id>
<revision>
<id>22552370</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-04T16:05:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jefu</username>
<id>256366</id>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Junna''' (淳和天皇 ''Junna Tennō'') ([[786]]-[[840]]) was the 53rd [[Emperor of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He was a son of [[Emperor Kammu]].
After the rebellion of [[Emperor Heizei]] he became the crown prince of [[Emperor Saga]]. He reigned from [[823]] to [[833]].
{{japan-bio-stub}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Emperor Saga]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | after=[[Emperor Nimmyo|Emperor Nimmyō]] | years=823-833}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:786 births|Junna]]
[[Category:840 deaths|Junna]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Junna]]
[[de:Junna]]
[[it:Junna imperatore del Giappone]]
[[ja:&#28147;&#21644;&#22825;&#30343;]]
[[zh:&#28147;&#21644;&#22825;&#30343;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emperor of Kogon Japan</title>
<id>10437</id>
<revision>
<id>24821049</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-05T16:26:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Reedy Boy</username>
<id>449918</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>updated redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Emperor Kogon]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Komyo</title>
<id>10438</id>
<revision>
<id>25227720</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-10T21:43:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gryffindor</username>
<id>206678</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Komyo''' can refer to:
#[[Emperor Kōmyō]], the second Northern [[Emperor of Japan]], or pretender.
#[[Empress Komyo|Empress Consort Kōmyō]], the consort of [[Emperor Shomu|Emperor Shōmu]].
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emperor Suko</title>
<id>10439</id>
<revision>
<id>28960539</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-22T04:45:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jefu</username>
<id>256366</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Sukō''' (崇光天皇 ''Sukō Tennō'') ([[May 25]], [[1334]] &ndash; [[January 31]], [[1398]]) was the third of [[Northern Court (Japan)|Ashikaga Pretenders]] during the [[Nanboku-cho|Nanboku-cho|Period of the Northern and Southern Courts]]. He claimed the throne from [[November 18]], [[1348]] until [[November 26]], [[1351]]. His personal name was originally '''Masuhito''' (益仁;), but was later changed to '''Okihito''' (興仁).
==Genealogy==
His father was the [[Northern Court (Japan)|Northern Pretender]] [[Emperor Kogon|Emperor Kōgon]]. His predecessor, [[Emperor Komyo|Emperor Kōmyō]] was his uncle, the younger brother of Emperor Kōgon.
*Lady-in-waiting: Niwata (Minamoto) ?? (庭田（源）資子)
**First son: Imperial Prince Fushimi-no-miya Yoshihito (伏見宮栄仁親王) (First Fushimi-no-miya)
**Second son: Prince Okinobu (興信法親王) (Buddhist Priest)
*Court Lady: Lady Yasukuku-dono (安福殿女御)
*Consort: Sanjō ?? (三条局)
**First daughter: ?? (瑞室)
**Third son: Prince Kōsuke ?? (弘助法親王) (Buddhist Priest)
==Life==
In [[1348]], he became [[Crown Prince]]. In the same year, he became Northern Emperor upon the abdication of [[Emperor Komyo|Emperor Kōmyō]]. Although [[Emperor Kogon|Emperor Kōgon]] ruled as [[Cloistered rule|cloistered Emperor]], the rivalry between [[Ashikaga Takauji]] and [[Ashikaga Tadayoshi]] began, and in [[1351]], Takauji returned to the allegiance of the Southern Court, forcing Emperor Sukō to abdicate. This was intended to reunify the Imperial Line. However, the peace soon fell apart, and in [[1352]], the Southern Dynasty evacuated Kyoto, abducting with them Retired (Northern) Emperors [[Emperor Kogon|Emperor Kōgon]] and [[Emperor Komyo|Emperor Kōmyō]] as well as Sukō and the Crown Prince, Imperial Prince Naohito, the son of Emperor Kōgon. Because of this, Takauji made [[Emperor Kogon|Emperor Kōgon]]'s second son Imperial Prince Iyahito emperor (First Fushimi-no-miya).
Returning to Kyoto in [[1357]], Emperor Sukō's son Imperial Prince Yoshihito began to work with the [[Shogunate| Bakufu]] to be named Crown Prince, but the Bakufu instead decided to make Emperor Go-Kōgon's son (the future [[Emperor Go-En'yu|Emperor Go-En'yú]]) Crown Prince instead.
In [[1398]], Emperor Sukō died. But, 30 years after his death, in 1428, his great-grandson Hikohito (彦仁), as the adopted son of [[Emperor Go-Komatsu]], became [[Emperor Go-Hanazono]], fulfilling Sukō's dearest wish.
==[[Japanese era name|Eras]] during his reign==
(Northern)
*[[Jowa|Jōwa]]
*[[Kan'o|Kan'ō]] or Kannō
(Southern)
*[[Shohei|Shōhei]]
==Southern Court Rivals==
*[[Emperor Go-Murakami]]
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Emperor Komyo|Emperor Kōmyō]] | title=[[Northern Court (Japan)|Northern Pretender]] | after=[[Emperor Go-Kogon|Emperor Go-Kōgon]] | years=1348-1351}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1334 births|Suko of Japan]]
[[Category:1398 deaths|Suko of Japan]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Suko]]
[[ja:&#23815;&#20809;&#22825;&#30343;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emperor Go-Kogon</title>
<id>10440</id>
<revision>
<id>31364779</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-14T19:52:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.196.4.226</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Go-Kōgon''' (後光厳天皇 ''Go-Kōgon Tennō'') ([[April 14]], [[1336]] &ndash; [[March 12]], [[1374]]) was the fourth of the [[Northern Court (Japan)|Ashikaga Pretenders]] during the [[Nanboku-cho|Period of the Northern and Southern Courts]]. He claimed the throne from [[September 25]], [[1352]] to [[April 9]], [[1371]]. His personal name was '''Iyahito''' (弥仁).
==Genealogy==
He was the second son of the [[Northern Court (Japan)|Northern Pretender]] [[Emperor Kogon|Emperor Kōgon]], and brother of his predecessor, [[Emperor Suko|Emperor Sukō]]. His mother was ?? (秀子), daughter of Sanjō ?? (三条公秀)
*Lady-in-waiting: Nakako (仲子), daughter of Hirohashi (Fujiwara) Kanetsuna (広橋（藤原）兼綱)
**Second son: Imperial Prince Ohito (緒仁親王) ([[Emperor Go-En'yu|Emperor Go-En'yū]])
**Fifth son: Imperial Prince ?? (熈永親王)
**Twelfth son: Prince ?? (尭仁法親王) (Buddhist Priest)
*Consort: ?? (右衛門佐局)
**First son: Imperial Prince Akihito? (亮仁入道親王) (Buddhist Lay Priest)
**Seventh son: Prince ?? (覚増法親王) (Buddhist Priest)
*Consort: Adopted daughter of &#332;gimachi ?? (正親町実継)
**Fourth son: Prince ?? (覚叡法親王) (Buddhist Priest)
**Eighth son: Prince Dōen (道円入道親王) ()
*Consort: Daughter of ?? (橘知繁)
**Tenth son: Prince ?? (明承法親王) (Buddhist Priest)
*Consort: Unknown
**Third son: Prince ?? (行助入道親王) (Buddhist Lay Priest)
**Fifth son: Prince ?? (寛守法親王) (Buddhist Priest)
**Eleventh son: Prince ?? (聖助法親王) (Buddhist Priest)
**Thirteenth son: Prince ?? (寛教入道親王) (Buddhist Lay Priest)
**First daughter: Imperial Princess ?? (治子内親王)
**Second daughter: Imperial Princess ?? (見子内親王)
==Life==
In [[1351]], [[Ashikaga Takauji]] briefly returned to the allegiance of the Southern Dynasty, causing the Southern Court to briefly consolidate control of the Imperial Line. However, this peace fell apart in [[1352]]. On this occasion, the Southern Court abducted Retired (Northern) Emperors [[Emperor Kogon|Emperor Kōgon]] and [[Emperor Komyo|Emperor Kōmyō]] as well as [[Emperor Suko|Emperor Sukō]] and the Crown Prince, Imperial Prince Naohito, the son of [[Emperor Kogon|Emperor Kōgon]], from [[Kyoto]] to Yoshino, producing a state of affairs in which there was no [[Emperor of Japan|Emperor]] in Kyoto.
Because of this, Imperial Prince Iyahito became emperor in [[1352]] with the support of [[Ashikaga Yoshiakira]].
During this period, the [[Nanboku-cho|Era of the Northern and Southern Courts]], because of the antagonism between the two competing dynasties, public order in Kyoto was disturbed. The Southern Court repeatedly recaptured Kyoto. [[Emperor Go-Kogon|Emperor Go-Kōgon]] was forced to repeatedly flee from Kyoto to [[Omi Province|Ōmi]] and other places. Around the time that [[Ashikaga Yoshimitsu]] was named [[Shogun|Shōgun]] |
3 | nat=England | pos=DF | name= [[Sol Campbell]]}}
{{Fs player | no=24 | nat=Spain | pos=GK | name= [[Manuel Almunia]]}}
{{Fs player | no=25 | nat=Togo | pos=FW | name= [[Emmanuel Adebayor]]}}
{{Fs player | no=27 | nat=Cote d'Ivoire| pos=DF | name= [[Emmanuel Eboué]]}}
{{Fs player | no=28 | nat=Cote d'Ivoire| pos=DF | name= [[Kolo Touré]]}}
{{Fs player | no=29 | nat=Sweden | pos=MF | name= [[Sebastian Larsson]]}}
{{Fs player | no=32 | nat=England | pos=MF | name= [[Theo Walcott]]}}
{{Fs player | no=33 | nat=Denmark | pos=FW | name= [[Nicklas Bendtner]]}}
{{Fs player | no=34 | nat=England | pos=DF | name= [[Matthew Connolly]]}}
{{Fs player | no=36 | nat=Switzerland| pos=MF | name= [[Johan Djourou]]}}
{{Fs player | no=37 | nat=England | pos=DF | name= [[Ryan Garry]]}}
{{Fs player | no=38 | nat=England | pos=DF | name= [[Kerrea Gilbert]]}}
{{Fs player | no=40 | nat=England | pos=GK | name= [[Michael Jordan (footballer)|Michael Jordan]]}}
{{Fs player | no=41 | nat=Italy | pos=FW | name= [[Arturo Lupoli]]}}
{{Fs player | no=42 | nat=Italy | pos=GK | name= [[Vito Mannone]]}}
{{Fs player | no=44 | nat=England | pos=MF | name= [[Fabrice Muamba]]}}
{{Fs player | no=45 | nat=Ireland | pos=FW | name= [[Anthony Stokes (footballer)|Anthony Stokes]]}}
{{Fs end}}
===Players out on loan===
{{Fs start}}
{{Fs player | no=30 | nat=France | pos=FW | name= [[Jeremie Aliadière]] | other=at [[Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.|Wolves]], until end of season}}
{{Fs player | no=31 | nat=England | pos=DF | name= [[Justin Hoyte]] | other=at [[Sunderland A.F.C.|Sunderland]], season-long}}
{{Fs player | no=39 | nat=England | pos=GK | name= [[Mark Howard (goalkeeper)|Mark Howard]] | other=at [[Falkirk F.C.|Falkirk]], until end of season}}
{{Fs player | no=43 | nat=England | pos=MF | name= [[Ryan Smith (footballer)|Ryan Smith]] | other=at [[Leicester City]], season-long}}
{{Fs blank column}}
{{Fs end}}
==Famous players==
{{details|List of Arsenal F.C. players}}
''Listed according to year of Arsenal first-team debut (year in parentheses):''
* 1920s: [[Jimmy Brain]] (1924), [[Joe Hulme]] (1926) [[Eddie Hapgood]] (1927), [[David Jack]] (1928), [[Cliff Bastin]] (1929), [[Alex James (footballer)|Alex James]] (1929).
* 1930s: [[Leslie Compton]] (1930), [[Ted Drake]] (1934), [[Wilf Copping]] (1934), [[George Swindin]] (1936), [[Reg Lewis]] (1938).
* 1940s: [[Walley Barnes]] (1946), [[Jimmy Logie]] (1946), [[Joe Mercer]] (1946), [[Laurie Scott (footballer)|Laurie Scott]] (1946), [[Doug Lishman]] (1948).
* 1950s: [[Cliff Holton]] (1950), [[Dave Bowen]] (1951), [[Jack Kelsey]] (1951), [[Jimmy Bloomfield]] (1954), [[David Herd (footballer)|David Herd]] (1954).
* 1960s: [[George Armstrong (footballer)|George Armstrong]] (1962), [[Bob Wilson (footballer)|Bob Wilson]] (1963), [[John Radford]] (1963), [[Frank McLintock]] (1964), [[Bob McNab]] (1966), [[Pat Rice]] (1967), [[Charlie George]] (1969), [[Ray Kennedy]] (1969).
* 1970s: [[Liam Brady]] (1973), [[Frank Stapleton]] (1975), [[David O'Leary]] (1975), [[Pat Jennings]] (1977), [[Graham Rix]] (1977).
* 1980s: [[Kenny Sansom]] (1980), [[Tony Adams (footballer)|Tony Adams]] (1983), [[David Rocastle]] (1985), [[Paul Merson]] (1986), [[Michael Thomas]] (1986), [[Lee Dixon]] (1988), [[Nigel Winterburn]] (1988).
* 1990s: [[David Seaman]] (1990), [[Ian Wright]] (1991), [[Dennis Bergkamp]] (1995), [[Patrick Vieira]] (1996), [[Marc Overmars]] (1997), [[Fredrik Ljungberg]] (1998), [[Thierry Henry]] (1999).
* 2000s: [[Ashley Cole]] (2000), [[Lauren]] (2000), [[Robert Pirès]] (2000), [[Sol Campbell]] (2001), [[Kolo Toure]] (2002), [[Francesc Fàbregas]] (2003), [[José Antonio Reyes]] (2004), [[Robin Van Persie]] (2004).
==Managers==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Manager
!Period
|-
|[[Sam Hollis]]||August 1894 – July 1897
|-
|[[Thomas Mitchell (football manager)|Thomas Mitchell]]||August 1897 – March 1898
|-
|[[George Elcoat]]||March 1898 – May 1899
|-
|[[Harry Bradshaw]]||August 1899 – May 1904
|-
|[[Phil Kelso]]||July 1904 – February 1908
|-
|[[George Morrell]]||February 1908 – May 1915
|-
|[[Leslie Knighton]]||May 1919 – June 1925
|-
|[[Herbert Chapman]]||June 1925 – January 1934
|-
|[[Joe Shaw (footballer)|Joe Shaw]]*||January – June 1934
|-
|[[George Allison]]||June 1934 – May 1947
|-
|[[Tom Whittaker (footballer)|Tom Whittaker]]||June 1947 – October 1956
|-
|[[Jack Crayston]]||October 1956 – May 1958
|-
|[[George Swindin]]||July 1958 – May 1962
|-
|[[Billy Wright (footballer)|Billy Wright]]||May 1962 – June 1966
|-
|[[Bertie Mee]]||June 1966 – May 1976
|-
|[[Terry Neill]]||July 1976 – December 1983
|-
|[[Don Howe]]||December 1983 – March 1986
|-
|[[Steve Burtenshaw]]*||March – May 1986
|-
|[[George Graham (footballer)|George Graham]]||June 1986 – February 1995
|-
|[[Stewart Houston]]*||February – May 1995
|-
|[[Bruce Rioch]]||June 1995 – August 1996
|-
|[[Stewart Houston]]*||August – September 1996
|-
|[[Pat Rice]]*||September 1996
|-
|[[Arsène Wenger]]||September 1996 – present
|}
''<nowiki>*</nowiki> denotes [[caretaker manager]].''
==Club captains==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Captain
!Period
|-
|[[James Jackson (footballer)|Jimmy Jackson]]||1904 – 1905
|-
|[[Terry Neill]]||1962 – 1967
|-
|[[Frank McLintock]]||1967 – 1973
|-
|[[Alan Ball (footballer)|Alan Ball]]||1973 – 1975
|-
|[[Eddie Kelly]]||1975 – 1976
|-
|[[Pat Rice]]||1976 – 1980
|-
|[[John Hollins]]|| 1980 – 1981
|-
|[[David O'Leary]]||1981 – 1983
|-
|[[Graham Rix]]||1983 – 1986
|-
|[[Kenny Sansom]]||1986 – 1988
|-
|[[Tony Adams (footballer)|Tony Adams]]||1988 – 2002
|-
|[[Patrick Vieira]]||2002 – 2005
|-
|[[Thierry Henry]]||2005 – present
|}
{{listdev}}
==Honours==
* '''[[Football League First Division|First Division]] and [[FA Premier League|Premier League]]'''{{ref|premierleague}}''' titles: 13'''
**1931, 1933, 1934, 1935, 1938, 1948, 1953, 1971, 1989, 1991, 1998, 2002, 2004
* '''[[FA Cup]]s: 10'''
**1930, 1936, 1950, 1971, 1979, 1993, 1998, 2002, 2003, 2005
* '''[[League Cup]]s: 2'''
**1987, 1993
* '''[[UEFA Cup|Inter-Cities Fairs Cup]] (predecessor of the [[UEFA Cup]]): 1'''
**1970
* '''[[Cup Winners' Cup|European Cup Winners' Cup]]: 1'''
**1994
*Three "[[The Double|Doubles]]": 1971, 1998, 2002
*One Domestic Cup Double: 1993
Arsenal's tally of thirteen League Championships is the third highest in English football, after [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] and [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]], while the total of ten FA Cups is the second highest, after Manchester United. Arsenal have one of the best top-flight records in history, having finished below fourteenth only seven times, and never below twentieth. In addition, they are one of only five clubs to have won the FA Cup twice in succession.
==Footnotes==
<!-- How to add a footnote:
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1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9.
2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately precedes yours in the article body.
4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step 3. No need to re-number anything!
5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference: see [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for a how-to.
NOTE: It is important to add footnotes in the right order in the list!
-->
#{{note|henrynorris}} It has been alleged that Arsenal's promotion, on historical grounds rather than merit, was thanks to underhand actions by the then Arsenal chairman, [[Henry Norris|Sir Henry Norris]] (see [[History of Arsenal F.C.]] for more details). No firm proof has ever been offered, though Chapter Two of ''Rebels for the Cause'' (listed below) and [http://www.emiratesstadium.info/serv01.htm this webpage] present plenty of supporting evidence. An investigation by ''[[Four Four Two]]'' magazine reported that financial irregularities had taken place.
#{{note|georgegraham}} Graham was banned for a year by the Football Association for his involvement in the scandal after he admitted he had received an "unsolicited gift" from Hauge. As one of the few football corruption cases where wrongdoing was proven, it is often referenced in the press (e.g. in this [http://politics.guardian.co.uk/columnist/story/0,9321,915368,00.html ''Observer'' article]), and is given a detailed treatment in ''Broken Dreams'' by Tom Bower (ISBN 0743440331).
#{{note|trademark}} {{cite web | title=''Arsenal v. Reed'' in the Court of Appeal | work=Michael Simkins LLP | url=http://www.simkins.co.uk/ebulletins/DAFArsenalReed.aspx | accessdate=December 14 | accessyear=2005 }}
#{{note|newcrest}}{{cite web | title=Arsenal go for a makeover | work=BBC News website | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/a/arsenal/1795444.stm | accessdate=October 14 | accessyear=2005}}
#{{note|minorities}} {{cite web | title=Soccer violence declining say fans | work=BBC News website | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sport/football/1844962.stm | accessdate=October 13 | accessyear=2005 }}
#{{note|fanbase}} {{cite web | title=Arsenal named the Premiership's fastest-growing brand | work=Brand Republic | url=http://www.brandrepublic.com/bulletins/br/article/490179/arsenal-named-oremiership | accessdate=October 13 | accessyear=2005 }}
#{{note|ofex}} {{cite web|title=OFEX Company Profile: Arsenal Holdings plc| work=OFEX website | url=http://www.ofex.com/cgi-bin/profile.cgi?ISIN=GB0030895238|accessdate=December 23|accessyear=2005}}
#{{note|afc-accounts}} {{cite web | title=Arsenal FC Statement of Accounts & Annual Report 2004/2005 | work=OFEX website | url=http://www.ofex.com/cgi-bin/reports.cgi?action=DisplayReport&report=arsenal2005.pdf | accessdate=December 23 | accessyear=2005}}
#{{note|lansdowne}} {{cite web | title=Arsenal fans fear takeover as share p |
History of South America]]
[[bn:ইকুয়েডোরের ইতিহাস]]
[[ca:Història de l'Equador]]
[[de:Geschichte Ecuadors]]
[[es:Historia del Ecuador]]
[[fr:Histoire de l'Équateur]]
[[ja:エクアドルの歴史]]
[[pt:História do Equador]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Ecuador</title>
<id>9336</id>
<revision>
<id>40430963</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T14:22:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Brian0918</username>
<id>90640</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/205.236.31.29|205.236.31.29]] ([[User talk:205.236.31.29|talk]]) to last version by *drew</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ec-map.png|300px|thumb|Map of Ecuador]]
[[Image:Ecuador bridgeoverthePastazas2.JPG|thumb|Bridge over the river Pastazas between Puyo and Macas, Ecuador]]
[[Image:EcuadorianAndesAboveCloads.jpg|thumb|Ecuadorian highland. Photo: Roar Johansen]]
[[Image:Imbabura des del sud.JPG|thumb|220px|Mount Imbabura (Ecuador) from south-east]]
[[Image:Imbabura Ecuador.jpg|thumb|Imbabura, Imbabura Province, Ecuador]]
[[Image:Ecuador aguablanca sulfur laguna.jpg|thumb|Sulfur laguna on the site of AguaBlanca, Machalilla National Park, Ecuador]]
[[Image:Ecuador ParamosnearAmbato.JPG|thumb|200px|Paramo meadows near Ambato, Ecuador]]
[[Image:Ecuador Pastazas near Banos.JPG|thumb|Pastazas river near Baños, Ecuador]]
[[Image:Ecuador Chimborazo fromnorthwest.JPG|thumb|The volcano Chimborazo from the Northwest]]
'''[[Ecuador]]''' is a country in Western [[South America]], bordering the [[Pacific Ocean]] at the [[Equator]] (for which the country is named), between [[Colombia]] and [[Peru]]. Ecuador is one of the smaller countries in South America. Located on the west coast and straddling the equator, Ecuador has a total area of about 280,000 square kilometers, which includes the Galápagos Islands. Roughly the size of the state of Colorado, Ecuador encompasses a wide range of natural formations and climates, from the desertlike southern coast to the snowcapped peaks of the Andes Mountains to the plains of the Amazon River Basin.
Ecuador is bounded on the west by the Pacific Ocean, on the north by Colombia, and on the east and south by Peru. Ecuador continues to contest the boundary with Peru, which was established by the Protocol of Peace, Friendship, and Boundaries (Rio Protocol) of 1942 and ceded to Peru a large portion of territory east of the Andes.
{{coor dm|2|00|S|77|30|W|type:country}}
==Area==
* total: 283,560 km&sup2;
* land: 276,840 km&sup2;
* water: 6,720 km&sup2;
: ''note:'' includes [[Galápagos Islands]]
==Land boundaries==
* total: 2,010 km
* border countries: [[Colombia]] 590 km, [[Peru]] 1,420 km
* Coastline: 2,237 km
== Maritime claims==
* continental shelf: claims continental shelf between mainland and Galapagos Islands
* territorial sea: 200 nm
==Cities==
* Capital: [[Quito]] (population 1.4 million)
* Other cities: [[Guayaquil]] (2.0 million)
* [[Cuenca (Ecuador)|Cuenca]] (0.41 million 2001)
* [[San Juan de Ambato|Ambato]] (0.28 million 2001)
* [[Portoviejo]] (0.23 million 2001)
* [[Machala]] (0.21 million 2001)
* [[Loja, Ecuador|Loja]] (0.14 million 2001)
==Geographical regions==
Ecuador is divided into three continental regions--the Costa, Sierra, and Oriente--and one insular region--the Galápagos Islands. The continental regions extend the length of the country from north to south and are separated by the Andes Mountains. The Galápagos Islands, officially called the Archipiélago de Colón, are located 1,000 kilometers west of the Ecuadorian coast within 1 south of the equator.
===[[Galápagos Islands]]===
An island archipelago in the [[Pacific Ocean]] about 1,000 km west of the mainland; famed for the studies by [[Charles Darwin]] that led to his theory of [[natural selection]] as a means of [[evolution]].
===La Costa (the coast)===
The western coastal area of Ecuador, bordering the [[Pacific Ocean]], rising from coastal plain with many [[mangrove|mangroves]], although many of these have now been destroyed by [[shrimp farming]], to the foothills of the [[Andes]] Mountains to the east; many [[banana]], [[cacao]] and [[coffee]] plantations, as well. [[Guayaquil]], located on the southern part of the coast is the biggest city of the country, with some beautiful beaches and an ocean port. In the north coast of Ecuador the port of Balao in [[Esmeraldas (city)|Esmeraldas]] is used for oil export and the port of [[Manta]] is used by the [[United States Air Force]] as a control point for narcotics traffic control.
===La Sierra (the highlands)===
The central belt of Ecuador that includes the high [[Andes]] Mountains, inland from the coast; with volcanoes and mountain peaks that sport year-round snow on the [[equator]]; many areas long since deforested by agriculture; a number of cut-flower growing operations; at a certain altitude zone may be found the [[cloud forest|cloud forests]].
The northern Ecuadorian Andes are divided into three parallel [[cordillera]]s that run in what is similar to an S shape from north to south: the western, central and eastern cordilleras. The cordilleras were formed earlier in the [[Cenozoic]] era (the current geological era), as the [[Nazca Plate]] has [[subduction|subduct]]ed underneath the [[South American Plate]] and has raised the mountain range. In the south, the cordilleras are not well defined.
[[Quito]], the capital city, is located in a high mountain valley on the foothills of the [[Pichincha (volcano)|Pichincha]]. The town of [[Baños]] features [[hot spring]]s swimming pools on the foothills of the [[Tungurahua]] in the Central Cordillera. The road from Baños to Puyo has long been known for its narrowness, curves and sheer drops (only one lane in some places, in one area, actually cut into the side of a cliff so that the cliff roofs over it). The most important east-west road across the Andes is the road from Quito to Lago Agrio, which is unpaved for most of its length yet is heavily traveled by tractor-trailers -- and the Trans-Ecuadorian Oil Pipeline serves as the guardrail for long stretches of this road!
====Notable Mountains and Volcanoes====
* [[Mount Chimborazo|Chimborazo]] (6,267 m) extinct volcano, the furthest point from the earth's center
* [[Cotopaxi]] (5,897 m) one of the world's highest active volcanoes ([[Ojos del Salado]], in Chile, at 6,887 is the highest active volcano in the world)
* [[Tungurahua]] (5,023 m)
* [[Pichincha (volcano)|Pichincha]] (4,784 m) volcano overlooking Quito
Partial, incomplete table of volcanoes in the north of the Ecuadorian Andes, from north to south
{| border cellspacing=0
| West || Interandean || Center || East
|-
| Chiles<br>Yanaurcu<br>[[Pichincha (volcano)|Pichincha]]<br>Atacazo<br>[[Corazón]]<br>Carihuairazo<br>[[Mount Chimborazo|Chimborazo]] || Imbabura<br>Mojanda<br>Ilaló<br>Pasochoa<br>[[Rumiñahui]]<br> || [[Cayambe (volcano)|Cayambe]]<br>Saraurcu<br>Pambamarca<br>Filocorrales<br>[[Antisana]]<br>Sincholahua<br>[[Cotopaxi]]<br>[[Tungurahua]]<br>[[El Altar|Altar]]|| Soche<br>Sumaco<br>[[Reventador]]<br>[[Sangay]]
|}
===El [[Oriente (Ecuador)|Oriente]] (the East)===
Much of the Oriente is [[tropical moist broadleaf forest]] (Spanish: ''la selva''), on the east slopes of the [[Andes]] Mountains and descending into the [[Amazon Basin]], with strikingly different upland rainforest with steep, rugged ridges and cascading streams (can be seen around [[Puyo]]) and lowland rainforest. The oil fields are located in the Amazon basin, headquartered at [[Lago Agrio]]; some of the rainforest has been seriously damaged in this region and environmental degradation is severe, with catastrophic oil pollution in some areas. Some 38% of Ecuador's land is forested[http://rainforests.mongabay.com/deforestation/2000/Ecuador.htm], and despite a 1.5% annual deforestation rate remains one of the most [[biodiversity|biodiverse]] locations on the planet. The Oriente is also home to a large number of Ecuador's indigenous groups, notably the lowland [[Quechua]], [[Siona]], [[Secoya]], [[Huaorani]], and [[Cofán]].
In addition, Ecuador still lays claim to a large area of lowland rainforest to the east of this region, although Peru invaded it years ago and has held it ever since.
==Drainage==
Almost all of the rivers in Ecuador rise in the Sierra region and flow east toward the Amazon River or west toward the Pacific Ocean. The rivers rise from snowmelt at the edges of the snowcapped peaks or from the abundant precipitation that falls at higher elevations. In the Sierra region, the streams and rivers are narrow and flow rapidly over precipitous slopes. Rivers may slow and widen as they cross the hoyas yet become rapid again as they flow from the heights of the Andes to the lower elevations of the other regions. The highland rivers broaden as they enter the more level areas of the Costa and the Oriente.
In the Costa region, the Costa Externa has mostly intermittent rivers that are fed by constant rains from December through May and become empty riverbeds during the dry season. The few exceptions are the longer, perennial rivers that flow throughout the Costa Externa from the Costa Internal and the Sierra on their way to the Pacific Ocean. The Costa Internal, by contrast, is crossed by perennial rivers that may flood during the rainy season, sometimes forming swamps.
The Guayas River system, which flows southward to the Gulf of Guayaquil, constitutes the most important of the drainage systems in the Costa Internal. The Guayas River Basin, including land drained by its tributaries, is 40,000 square kilometers in area. The sixty-kilometer-long Guayas River forms just north of Guayaquil out of the confluence of the |
different from the relationship for human beings. In Spanish, a cheetah is always ''un guepardo'' (masculine) and a zebra is always ''una cebra'' (feminine), regardless of their biological sex. If it becomes necessary to specify the sex of the animal, an adjective is added, as in ''un guepardo hembra'' (a female cheetah). Individualized names for the male and the female of a species are more frequent when they refer to common pets or farm animals. E.g., English ''horse'' and ''mare'', French ''chat'' (male cat) and ''chatte'' (female cat).
=== Personal names ===
Personal [[names]] often have characteristic culture-specific forms that identify the gender of the bearer. For example, in an English-speaking culture, ''John'' (masculine) and ''Joan'' or ''Jane'' (feminine) are gendered variants on the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] name of [[John the Evangelist]]. Again, this is natural gender, and not necessarily grammatical gender.
For [[Russian language|Russian]] gender-related tradition of personal naming, see [[Names in Russian Empire, Soviet Union and CIS countries]].
== Noun classes in specific linguistic families ==
<!-- language families sorted alphabetically -->
=== [[Algonquian languages]] ===
The [[Ojibwe language]] and other members of the [[Algonquian languages]] distinguish between animate and inanimate classes. Some sources argue that the distinction is between things which are powerful and things which are not. All living things, as well as sacred things and things connected to the Earth are considered powerful and belong to the "animate" class. Still, the assignment is somewhat arbitrary, as "raspberry" is animate, but "strawberry" is inanimate.
=== [[Athabaskan languages]] ===
In [[Navajo language|Navajo]] ([[Southern Athabaskan]]) nouns are classified according to their animacy, shape, and consistency. [[Morphology (linguistics)|Morphologically]], however, the distinctions are not expressed on the nouns themselves, but on the verbs of which the nouns are the subject or direct object. For example, in the sentence ''Shi’éé’ tsásk’eh bikáa’gi dah siłtsooz'' "My shirt is lying on the bed", the verb ''siłtsooz'' "lies" is used because the subject ''shi’éé’'' "my shirt" is a flat, flexible object. In the sentence ''Siziiz tsásk’eh bikáa’gi dah silá'' "My belt is lying on the bed", the verb ''silá'' "lies" is used because the subject ''siziiz'' "my belt" is a slender, flexible object. See [[Navajo language#Classificatory Verbs]] for more discussion.
[[Koyukon]] ([[Northern Athabaskan]]) has a more intricate system of classification. Like Navajo, it has classificatory verb stems that classify nouns according to animacy, shape, and consistency. However, in addition these verb stems, Koyukon verbs have what are called ''gender prefixes'' that further classify nouns. That is, Koyukon has two different systems that classify nouns: '''(a)''' a classificatory verb system and '''(b)''' a gender system. To illustrate, the verb stem ''-tonh'' is used for enclosed objects. When ''-tonh'' is combined with different gender prefixes, it can result in ''daaltonh'' which refers to objects enclosed in boxes or ''etltonh'' which refers to objects enclosed in bags.
=== [[Australian Aboriginal languages]] ===
The [[Dyirbal language]] is well known for its system of four noun classes, which tend to be divided along the following semantic lines:
* I &mdash; animate objects, men
* II &mdash; women, [[water]], [[fire]], [[violence]]
* III &mdash; edible [[fruit]] and [[vegetable]]s
* IV &mdash; miscellaneous (includes things not classifiable in the first three)
The class usually labeled "feminine", for instance, includes the word for fire and nouns relating to fire, as well as all dangerous creatures and phenomena. This inspired the title of the [[George Lakoff]] book ''Women, Fire and Dangerous Things'' (ISBN 0226468046).
The [[Ngangikurrunggurr language]] has noun classes reserved for canines, and hunting weapons, and the [[Anindilyakwa language]] has a noun class for things that reflect light. The [[Diyari language]] distinguishes only between female and other objects. Perhaps the most noun classes in any Australian language are found in [[Yanyuwa language|Yanyuwa]], which has 16 noun classes.
=== [[Caucasian languages]] ===
Of the [[Caucasian languages]], some members of the [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian]] family, and almost all of the [[Northeast Caucasian languages]], manifest noun class. In the Northeast Caucasian family, only [[Lezgi language|Lezgi]], [[Udi language|Udi]], and [[Aghul language|Aghul]] do not have noun classes. Some languages have only two classes, while the [[Bats language]] has eight. The most widespread system, however, has four classes: male, female, animate beings and certain objects, and finally a class for the remaining nouns. The [[Andi language]] has a noun class reserved for insects.
Among Northwest Caucasian languages, [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]] shows a human male/human female/non-human distinction. [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]] shows some inflections along the same lines, but only in some instances, and in some of these instances inflection for noun class is not even obligatory.
In all Caucasian languages that manifest class, it is not marked on the noun itself but on the dependent verbs, adjectives, pronouns and prepositions.
An entire [http://www.beautyinchaos.com/sex website] has been devoted to exploring the possibilities of inanimate genders in Caucasian languages.
=== [[Indo-European languages]] ===
In Indo-European languages, genders typically include '''feminine''', '''masculine''' and '''neuter'''. [[Latin]] has these three, but in many of [[Romance languages|its modern descendants]], such as [[French language|French]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]], the neuter gender has all but disappeared, though a few words, especially pronouns with no clear gender such as "cela" in French, have been assigned by some grammarians to a neuter gender. In Spanish, there exists a "neuter singular" gender whose only nouns are adjectives used as abstract nouns. (''eg'' "lo único" = "the only thing"; "lo mismo" = "the same thing"). [[Romanian language|Romanian]] has preserved all three genders from [[Latin]], but the neuter gender is a combination of the other two, in the sense that neuter nouns in the singular behave like masculine nouns, while in the plural they behave like feminine nouns; as a consequence, adjectives, pronouns, and pronominal adjectives only have two forms, both in the singular and in the plural.
In other languages, feminine and masculine have merged into a '''common''' gender with a neuter gender, for example, in [[Danish language|Danish]]. [[English language|English]] generally exhibits gender only in third-person singular pronouns (as with '''he''', '''she''', and '''it'''), with the masculine and feminine genders used only for persons or higher animals, sometimes objects in colloquial speech as in 'Isn't she a beauty?'. Other languages may group genders differently: [[Slavic languages]] further divide the masculine gender into '''animate''' and '''inanimate''' groups (the extent varies between individual languages, and some of them also apply the distinction in the feminine plural); The Spanish constructions for direct objects are different for humans and for objects, although its Latin-influenced grammar tradition doesn't usually count this as a noun class distinction; the [[Nostratic language]], a theoretical language that gave rise to the Indo-European languages and other language families, is believed by its proponents to have had '''human''', '''animal''', and '''object''' as grammatical genders.
In common nouns, grammatical gender is usually only peripherally related to sex. For example, in Spanish, the word '''hijo''' (son) is masculine and '''hija''' (daughter) is feminine, as one might expect. This is called '''[[natural gender]]''', or sometimes '''logical gender'''. Other times, there are elaborate (and mostly incomplete) rules to define the gender of a word. For example, in [[German language|German]], nouns ending in '''-ung''' (corresponding to '''-ing''' in English) are feminine, and car brand names are masculine. Words with the '''-lein''' and '''-chen''' ending (meaning little, young) are neuter, thus the grammatical genders of '''Mädchen''' (girl) and '''Fräulein''' (young woman) are neuter. In some local dialects of German, all nouns for female persons have been shifted to the neuter gender, but the female gender remains for some words denoting objects. All this is language-specific. In Latin, the word ''Sol'' (Sun) was masculine and the word ''Luna'' (Moon) was feminine (as in French, Spanish, Italian), but in German (and Germanic languages in general), the opposite occurs. The learner of a language thus must regard the gender as part of the noun, and memorize accordingly to use the language correctly. A frequent recommendation is to memorize the definite article and the noun as a unit.
In Indo-European languages that assign genders to all nouns, the genders often correspond roughly to [[declension]]s that govern the way the nouns are inflected. In Latin, for example, almost all of the ''-a'' stem nouns of the first declension are feminine; the main exceptions are a handful of nouns that identify typically male roles like ''nauta'', "sailor," ''agricola'', "farmer," and ''poeta'', "poet". Likewise, almost all of the ''-o'' stem nouns of the second declension that end in ''-us'' in the [[nominative]] [[noun case|case]] are masculine; those ending in ''-um'' are neuter. Names of places and trees are feminine though, like ''ulmus'', "elm," or ''Ægyptus'', "Egypt." Most other Indo-Eu |
. Comparison of gross and net ratings for unchanged engines show a variance of anywhere from 40 to 150 horsepower. The [[Chrysler]] [[426 Hemi]], for example, in 1971 carried a 425 hp gross rating (often considered to be underrated) and a net rating of 375 hp.
==== hp (DIN) ====
This is the power measured according to the German standard DIN 70020. It is measured at the flywheel, and is in practical terms equivalent to the SAE net figure. However, be aware that DIN "horsepower" may in fact be expressed in PS (Pferdestärke) - see "Metric horsepower" below.
==== SAE-certified horsepower ====
In [[2005]], the [[Society of Automotive Engineers]] introduced a new test procedure ([http://www.sae.org/certifiedpower J2723]) for engine horsepower and [[torque]]. The procedure eliminates some of the areas of flexibility in power measurement, and requires an independent observer present when engines are measured. The test is voluntary, but engines completing it can be advertised as "SAE-certified".
Many manufacturers began switching to the new rating immediately, often with surprising results. The rated output of [[Cadillac]]'s [[supercharged|supercharger]] [[GM Premium V engine#Supercharged|Northstar]] V8 jumped from 440&nbsp;hp (328&nbsp;kW) to 469&nbsp;hp (350&nbsp;kW) under the new tests, while the rating for [[Toyota Motor Corporation|Toyota]]'s [[Toyota Camry|Camry]] 3.0&nbsp;L ''[[Toyota MZ engine#1MZ-FE|1MZ-FE]]'' V6 fell from 210&nbsp;hp (157&nbsp;kW) to 190&nbsp;hp (142&nbsp;kW). The first engine certified under the new program was the 7.0&nbsp;L [[GM LS engine#LS7|LS7]] used in the 2006 [[Chevrolet Corvette]] Z06. Certified power rose slightly from 500&nbsp;hp (373&nbsp;kW) to 505&nbsp;hp (377&nbsp;kW).
=== Drawbar horsepower (dbhp) ===
''Drawbar horsepower'' is the power a [[railroad]] [[locomotive]] has available to haul a [[train]] or an agricultural tractor to pull an implement. This is a measured figure rather than a calculated one. A special [[railroad car]] called a [[dynamometer]] car coupled behind the locomotive keeps a continuous record of the [[drawbar]] pull exerted, and the speed. From these, the power generated can be calculated. To determine the maximum power available, a controllable load is required; this is normally a second locomotive with its brakes applied, in addition to a static load.
If the drawbar force is measured [[pounds-force]] (<math>F / {\rm lbf}</math>) and speed is measured in miles per hour (<math>v / ({\rm mi/h})</math>), then the drawbar power in horsepower (<math>P / {\rm hp}</math>) is:
:<math>P / {\rm hp} = {[F / {\rm lbf}] [v / ({\rm mi/h})] \over 375}</math>.
Example: How much drawbar power is needed to pull a cultivator load of 2025 pounds-force through medium soil at 5 miles per hour?
<math>P / {\rm hp} = {{2025 \times 5 } \over 375} = 27</math>.
The constant "375" is because 1 hp = 375 lbf·mi/h. If other units are used, the constant is different. When using a coherent system of units, such as [[SI]] (watts, newtons, and metres per second), no constant is needed, and the formula becomes <math>P = Fv</math>.
=== Shaft horsepower (shp) ===
''Shaft horsepower'' is the power delivered to the [[propellor]] shaft of a [[ship]] or [[turboprop]] airplane. This may be measured, or estimated from the indicated horsepower given a standard figure for the losses in the transmission (typical figures are around 10%).
=== Effective horsepower (ehp) ===
''Effective horsepower'' is the power converted to useful work. In the case of a vehicle this is the power actually turned into forward motion.
===Summary for a ship===
Indicated horsepower (theoretical capability of the engine)
:minus frictional losses within the engine (bearings, rods, etc), equals
Brake horsepower (power delivered directly by the engine)
:minus frictional losses in the transmission (bearings, gears, etc.), equals
Shaft horsepower (power delivered to the shaft)
:minus shaft losses (slip, [[cavitation]], etc), equals
Effective horsepower
== RAC horsepower (taxable horsepower) ==
This measure was instituted by the [[Royal Automobile Club]] in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and used to denote the power of early [[20th century]] British [[automobile|cars]]. Many cars took their names from this figure (hence the [[Austin Motor Company|Austin]] Seven and [[Riley (automobile)|Riley]] Nine), while others had names such as "40/50hp", which indicated the RAC figure followed by the true measured power.
Taxable horsepower does not reflect developed horsepower; rather, it is a calculated figure based on the engine's bore size, number of cylinders, and a (now archaic) presumption of engine efficiency. As new engines were designed with ever-increasing efficiency, it was no longer a useful measure, but was kept in use by UK regulations which used the rating for [[tax horsepower|tax purposes]].
:<math>RAC h.p. = {D^2 * n}/2.5 \,</math>
:where
: ''D'' is the diameter (or bore) of the cylinder in inches
: ''n'' is the number of cylinders
This is equal to the displacement in cubic inches divided by 10π then divided again by the stroke in inches. [http://www.designchambers.com/wolfhound/wolfhoundRACHP.htm]
Since taxable horsepower was computed based on bore and number of cylinders, not based on actual displacement, it gave rise to engines with 'undersquare' dimensions, i.e. relatively narrow bore, but long stroke; this tended to impose an artificially low limit on rotational speed ([[rpm]]), hampering the true power output and efficiency of the engine.
The situation persisted for several generations of four- and six-cylinder British engines: for example, [[Jaguar (car)|Jaguar's]] 3.8-litre XK engine had six cylinders with a bore of 87 mm (3.43 inches) and a stroke of 106 mm (4.17 inches), where most American automakers had long since moved to oversquare (wide bore, short stroke) V-8s.
== Metric horsepower ==
=== PS ===
This unit (German: ''Pferdestärke'' = horse strength) is no longer a lawful unit, but is still commonly used in Europe, South America and Japan, especially by the automotive and motorcycle industry. It was adopted throughout continental Europe with designations equivalent to the English "horse power", but mathematically different from the British unit. It is defined by the ''Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt'' (PTB)[http://www.ptb.de/] in [[Braunschweig (city)|Braunschweig]] as exactly:
: 1 PS = 75 [[kilopond|kp]]·m/s = 735.49875 W = 0.9863201652997627 hp (SAE)
The PS was adopted by the [[DIN|Deutsches Institut für Normung (DIN)]], and subsequently, by the automotive industry throughout most of Europe. (In the nineteenth century, however, the French did not use this German unit, but had one of their own, the [[Poncelet]].) In 1992, the PS was rendered obsolete by EEC directives, where it was replaced by the kilo[[watt]] as the official power measuring unit, but in situations where horsepower was used for commercial and advertising purposes, it continued to be used, as customers are not familiar with the usage of kilowatts for combustion engines.
The European and Japanese automotive industries may use "horsepower" or "hp" (rather than "PS" or "CV", etc.) when referring to metric horsepower in their press-releases or in the media.
=== pk ===
A Dutch ''paardekracht'' equals the German ''Pferdestärke'' hence
: 1 pk = 735.49875 W
=== CV ===
Often the French name for the Pferdestärke. Also a French unit for [[tax horsepower]], short for ''chevaux vapeur'' ("steam horses") or ''cheval-vapeur'', hence [[Citroën 2CV]].
In Italian ("Cavalli"), Spanish ("Caballos"), and Portuguese ("Cavalos"), 'CV' is the equivalent to the German 'PS'.
=== ch ===
This is a French unit for automobile power. The symbol ch is short for ''chevaux'' ("horses"). Some sources give it as 735.5 W, but it is generally used interchangeably with the German 'PS'.
== Boiler horsepower ==
A '''boiler horsepower''' is used for boilers in [[power station|power plants]]. It is equal to 33,475 [[Btu]]/h (9.8095 kW), which is the energy rate needed to evaporate 34.5 lb (15.65 kg) of water at 212 [[degree Fahrenheit|°F]] (100 [[degree Celsius|°C]]) in an hour.
== Electrical horsepower==
The '''electrical horsepower''' is used by the electrical industry for electric motors and is defined to be exactly 746 W (at 100% efficiency).
==Relationship with torque==
For a given [[torque]], the equivalent power may be calculated. The standard equation relating torque in [[foot-pound]]s, rotational speed in [[RPM]] and horsepower is:
:<math>P / {\rm hp} = {[\tau / ({\rm ft \cdot lbf})] [\omega / ({\rm r/min})] \over 5252}</math>.
This is based on Watt's definition of the mechanical horsepower. The constant 5252 is rounded; the exact value is 16,500/π. See [[torque#Relationship between torque and power|torque]].
==History of the term "horsepower"==
The term "horsepower" was invented by [[James Watt]] to help market his improved [[steam engine]]. He had previously agreed to take royalties of one third of the savings in coal from the older [[Thomas Newcomen|Newcomen]] steam engines[http://www.pballew.net/arithm17.html]. This royalty scheme did not work with customers who did not have existing steam engines but used horses instead. Watt determined that a horse could turn a mill wheel 144 times in an hour (or 2.4 times a minute). The wheel was 12 feet in radius, thus in a minute the horse travelled 2.4 × 2π × 12 feet. Watt judged that the horse could pull with a [[force]] of 180 pounds (just assuming that the measurements of mass were equivalent to measurements of force in pounds-force, which were not well-defined unit |
which EEE is sometimes called 'Java pollution')
The last example was the subject of a widely-publicized lawsuit between Microsoft and [[Sun Microsystems]], which was settled.
The phrase "embrace, extend and extinguish" should be reserved for the particular strategy outlined above. Therefore, in the subject ''[[Java programming language|Java]] vs. [[.NET Framework|.NET]]'', EEE would not strictly apply either because .NET is marketed under the Microsoft brand name. However, a [[J Sharp|J#]] language is positioned in .NET as a way to lure Java programmers to the .NET Framework.
Some observers suspect that Microsoft intends to use EEE with the [[C Sharp|C# programming language]], by first getting many users for the [[European Computer Manufacturers Association|ECMA]]-standard version of the language, which was intentionally designed as a successor to the popular C programming language, then later adding proprietary extensions and removing support for the standards-based version. However, at the present time Microsoft has not deviated therefore those suspicions may be unfounded.
Another example is the [[C++]] programming language. First, Microsoft tried to extend it as [[Managed Extensions for C++|Managed C++]] in Visual C++.NET; however, this attempt was met with a lot of resistance as the managed extensions were poorly implemented and aesthetically unappealing. Because of the poor reception, Microsoft made a second attempt at extending C++, this time calling it [[C++/CLI]]. It remains to be seen whether these new extensions, first implemented in [[Visual Studio 2005]], will gain wide acceptance. The other issue with Microsoft's C++ implementation appears to be the removal of many originally strict errors and warnings that appear in other, more standards compliant compilers such as the open-source GCC compiler. The omission of these errors frequently causes strange portability problems and compiler failures when porting C++ code, even if it does not contain any Microsoft-specific code.
The purported effectiveness of EEE lies in [[network effect]], the idea that the value of a product to a potential customer increases as the number of customers who already use that product increases. In the first edition of ''[[The Road Ahead]]'', [[Bill Gates]] explains in detail his plans to use the network effect to Microsoft's advantage.
==Self-limitation of EEE==
If true, Microsoft's "embrace, extend, and extinguish" strategy seems to have had limited usefulness. It has affected HTML, mostly through the alterations to the Document Object Model in [[Internet Explorer]]. One flaw in this strategy is that incompatible enhancements generally create customer pushback, especially when those enhancements have limited usefulness.
==See also==
*[[Open system (computing)]]
*[[Open standard]]
*[[Open format]]
*[[OpenDocument]]
*[[Network effect]]
*[[Vendor lock-in]]
*[[Path dependency]]
==External links==
*[http://zdnet.com.com/2100-11-512681.html?legacy=zdnn 1998 accusation of Microsoft's desire to apply 'extend, embrace and extinguish' competition to Intel]
*[http://forum.redlers.com/viewtopic.php?t=14 Forum Debate] a lively & informative ongoing debate over open vs. closed systems, open vs. closed standards, and the OpenDocument format (ODF)
[[Category:Microsoft]]
[[es:Adoptar, extender y extinguir]]
[[lt:EEE]]
[[it:Abbraccia, estendi ed estingui]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Earth Sciences basic topics</title>
<id>9984</id>
<revision>
<id>15907832</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-27T23:16:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*#redirect [[Earth science]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Earth science]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of basic economical topics</title>
<id>9985</id>
<revision>
<id>31111336</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-12T22:52:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Go for it!</username>
<id>571592</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>moved [[Economics basic topics]] to [[List of basic economical topics]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">These should be the most basic topics in the field--topics about which we'd like to have articles soon. Please see [[the most basic encyclopedia article topics]] for general instructions on constructing this list, and consult [[complete list of encyclopedia topics]]
[[Macroeconomics]] -- [[Microeconomics]]
[[Development economics]] -- [[Econometrics]] -- [[Economic history]] -- [[Financial economics]] -- [[Industrial organization]] -- [[International economics]] -- [[Labor economics]] -- [[Law and Economics]] -- [[Mathematical economics]] -- [[Monetary economics]] -- [[Political economy]] -- [[Public economics]] -- [[Platform economics]]
I started a page defining the important concept of [[network effect]].
We should discuss population studies and the work of [[Thomas Malthus]] - not sure what branches are the right ones for this? [[Development economics]]? [[Macroeconomics]]? [[Economic history]]?</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of basic education topics</title>
<id>9986</id>
<revision>
<id>33565390</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-02T05:59:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cdc</username>
<id>132820</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[List of education topics]] - this has same content as that</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of education topics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of basic engineering topics</title>
<id>9987</id>
<revision>
<id>39755780</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T17:33:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Krash</username>
<id>219529</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>dab "Drafting"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Below is a list of basic topics in '''[[engineering]]''' -- topics which will help the beginner become familiar with the field of chemistry. For a comprehensive list, see [[List of engineering topics]].
*[[fasteners]]
*[[hand tools]]
*[[machine tools]]
*[[measuring]] -- [[measurement]]
*[[materials]] -- [[material science]]
**[[corrosion]]
*[[engineering and science contrasted]]
*[[quality]] -- [[validation]] -- [[quality control]]
*[[design]]
**[[drawings]] -- [[drawing]] -- [[CAD]] -- [[Technical drawing|drafting]]
**[[cost]]
*[[planning]] -- [[teamwork]] -- [[management]] -- [[peopleware]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of basic entertainment topics</title>
<id>9988</id>
<revision>
<id>31147473</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-13T03:56:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Go for it!</username>
<id>571592</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">Below is a list of basic topics in '''[[entertainment]]''' -- topics which will help the beginner become familiar with the field of entertainment. For a comprehensive list, see [[List of entertainment topics]].
See also, the:
* List of cooking topics, see: [[Cooking|cooking]], [[Cuisine|cuisines]]
* [[List of basic dance topics]]
* [[List of basic gaming topics]]
* [[List of basic hobby topics]]
* [[List of basic literary topics]]
* [[List of basic film-related topics]]
* [[List of basic musical topics]]
* [[List of basic operatic topics]]
* [[List of basic recreation topics]]
* [[List of basic sports topics]]
* List of [[Television|television]] subcategories
* [[List of basic theatrical topics]]
----
'''A'''
[[Acrobatics]] -- [[Aerial acts]] -- [[Animal training]] -- [[Annie Fratellini]] -- [[Applause]] -- [[Archaos (circus)|Archaos]] -- [[Austin Miles]] --
'''B'''
'''C'''
[[Celebrity]] -- [[Chat]] -- [[Chinese yo-yo]] -- [[Circus (performing art)|Circus]] -- [[Cirque du Soleil]] -- [[Clown]] -- [[Comedian]] -- [[Comedy]] -- [[Contact juggling]] -- [[Contortion]] -- [[Corde lisse]] --
'''D'''
[[Devil Sticks]] -- [[Diabolo]] --
'''E'''
[[Emmett Kelly]] --
[[Equilibristics]]
'''F'''
[[Fire breathing]] -- [[Fire eating]] --
'''G'''
[[Geisha]] -- [[German wheel]] --
'''H'''
[[Hand-to-hand balancing]] -- [[Hoola hoop]] -- [[Human cannonball]] -- [[Humor]] -- [[Horse-Riding]] --
'''I'''
[[Internet humor]] -- [[Ice-Skating]] --
'''J'''
[[Juggling]] --
'''K'''
[[Knife throwing]] --
'''L'''
[[List of people who have won an Emmy, a Grammy, an Oscar and a Tony Award]] --
'''M'''
[[Magic (illusion)|Magic]] -- [[Mime]] --
'''N'''
[[New Media]] --
'''O'''
[[Old Grey Whistle Test]] -- [[Old time radio]] --
'''P'''
[[Performing arts]] -- [[Plate spinning]] -- [[P.T. Barnum]] --
'''Q'''
'''R'''
[[Radio]] -- [[Radio programming]] -- [[Ringling Brothers and Barnum and Bailey Circus]] -- [[Rock opera]] -- [[Rodeo clown]] --
'''S'''
[[Sex business]] -- [[Stars in Their Eyes]] -- [[Show business]] -- [[Showstopper]] -- [[Side show]] -- [[Spanish Web]] -- [[Stilting]] -- [[Sword swallowing]] -- [[Skating]] -- [[Show-Jumping]] --
'''T'''
[[Teen idol]] -- [[Tightrope walking]] -- [[Trapeze]] --
'''U'''
[[Unicycle]] --
'''V'''
[[Ventriloquism]] --
'''W'''
'''X, Y, Z'''
[[Zip the Pinhead]] --
[[Category:Wikipedia missing topics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of ethnic groups</title>
<id>9992</id>
<revision>
<id>42122612</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:42:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Steppenfox</username>
<id>251258</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* R */ fixed Roma link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This is list of names of [[ethnic group]]s.
A group can have several names (e.g., names in [[English language|English]] and in a native language, obsolete names, v |
de:Liste der Biographien/O]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of people by name: P</title>
<id>3905</id>
<revision>
<id>29532116</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-28T23:15:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jerzy</username>
<id>21860</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/84.252.23.28|84.252.23.28]] ([[User talk:84.252.23.28|talk]]) to last version by LeonardoRob0t</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{List of people P}}
{{Index only| a person}}
<!--
This comment exists to keep this permanently short page (like others that should never include names, within the tree whose root is
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<page>
<title>List of people by name: Q</title>
<id>3906</id>
<revision>
<id>37659628</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-01T11:02:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jerzy</username>
<id>21860</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Baba g|Baba g]] ([[User talk:Baba g|talk]]) to last version by Jerzy</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{List of people}}
== People named Q ==
* [[Arthur Quiller-Couch|Q]], pen name of Arthur Quiller-Couch
==Qa - Qi==
*[[Moammar Al Qadhafi|Qadhafi, Moammar Al]], Libyan soldier & politician
*[[Mohammed Qalamuddin|Qalamuddin, Mohammed]], (fl. 2000), Afghani politician
*[[Laisenia Qarase|Qarase, Laisenia]], (b. 1941), Fijian politician
*[[Dwight Muhammad Qawi|Qawi, Dwight Muhammad]], (born 1953), boxer & trainer
*[[Concubine Qi|Qi, Concubine]], (died 194 BC)
*[[Qi Empress]], (d. 1369 or '70), Mongolian/Chinese empress-consort
*[[Qianlong]], Chinese emperor
*[[Qian Xuantong]], (1887-1939), phonetician
*[[Qin Shi Huang]], Chinese ruler
==Qu==
===Qua===
*[[Domenico Quaglio the Younger|Quaglio, Domenico, the Younger]], (1787-1837), painter
*[[Dennis Quaid|Quaid, Dennis]], actor
*[[Randy Quaid|Quaid, Randy]], comedian, actor
*[[Darlene Quaife|Quaife, Darlene]], Canadian writer
*[[Mary Quant|Quant, Mary]], (born 1934), British fashion designer
*[[David Quantick|Quantick, David]], (born 1961), British writer
*[[Paul Quantrill|Quantrill, Paul]], (b. 1968), Canadian baseball player
*[[William Quantrill|Quantrill, William]], (1837-1865), American soldier
*[[Johann Joachim Quantz|Quantz, Johann Joachim]], (1697-1773), composer
*[[Bernard Quaritch|Quaritch, Bernard]], (1819-1899), German-born British book dealer
*[[Francis Quarles|Quarles, Francis]], (1592-1644), poet
*[[Don Quarrie|Quarrie, Don]], (born 1951), Jamaican athlete
*[[Paul Quarrington|Quarrington, Paul]], Canadian writer
*[[Jerry Quarry|Quarry, Jerry]], (1945-1999), boxer
*[[Juda Quastel|Quastel, Juda]], (1899-1987), British-Canadian biochemist
*[[Anthony Quayle|Quayle, Anthony]], actor
*[[James Danforth Quayle|Quayle, James Danforth "Dan"]], (born 1947), American politician
===Qud===
*[[Ibn Qudamah|Qudamah, Ibn]], Islamic scholar
===Que===
*[[Ellery Queen|Queen, Ellery]], mystery writer pseudonym
*[[Ivy Queen|Queen, Ivy]], (born 1972), Puerto Rican-born musician
*[[Eca de Queiróz|Queiróz, Eca de]], novelist
*[[Harry Quelch|Quelch, Harry]], (1858-1913), politician & union leader
*[[Erasmus Quellinus II|Quellinus, Erasmus, II]], (1607-1678), painter
*[[Raymond Queneau|Queneau, Raymond]], (1903-1976), poet
*[[August Querfurt|Querfurt, August]], (1696-1761), painter
*[[Francois Quesnay|Quesnay, Francois]], economist
*[[Mae Questel|Questal, Mae]], (1908-1998), American actress
*[[Adolphe Quetelet|Quetelet, Adolphe]], (1796-1874), Belgian astronomer
*[[Milly Quezada|Quezada, Milly]], Merengue singer
*[[Manuel L. Quezon|Quezon, Manuel L.]], [[president of the Philippines]]
=== Qui ===
==== Quib - Quil ====
*[[James E. Quibell|Quibell, James E.]], (1867–1935), British Egyptologist
*[[Richard Quick|Quick, Richard]], (fl. 1990s), American swimming coach
*[[Ludwig Quidde|Quidde, Ludwig]], (1858-1941), German historian & activist
*[[Al Quie|Quie, Albert H]], (b. 1923), American politician
*[[Carroll Quigley|Quigley, Carroll]], (1910-1977), American historian
*[[Derek Quigley|Quigley, Derek]], New Zealand politician
*[[Thomas J. Quigley|Quigley, Thomas]], (1905-1960), American academic administrator & religious leader
*[[Daniel Quillen|Quillen, Daniel]], (born 1940), American mathematician
*[[Arthur Quiller-Couch|Quiller-Couch, Arthur]], (1863-1944), British writer
==== Quin ====
*[[Henry B. Quinby|Quinby, Henry]], (1846-1924), American businessman & politician
*[[Thomas de Quincey|Quincey, Thomas de]]
*[[Jan Maurits Quinckhardt|Quinckhardt, Jan Maurits]], (1688-1772), painter
*[[Richard Quine|Quine, Richard]], film director
*[[W. V. O. Quine|Quine, Willard V.]], (1908-2000), philosopher
*[[Karen Ann Quinlan|Quinlan, Karen Ann]], (1954-1985)
*[[Anthony Quinn|Quinn, Anthony]], (1915-2001), Mexican-born American actor
*[[Colin Quinn|Quinn, Colin]], American comedian
*[[Glenn Quinn|Quinn, Glenn]], (1970-2002), actor
*[[Julia Quinn|Quinn, Julia]], American novelist
*[[Micky Quinn|Quinn, Micky]], (born 1962), English football player
*[[Niall Quinn|Quinn, Niall]], (born 1966), Irish football player
*[[A. J. Quinnell|Quinnell, A.J.]], (1940-2005) British author
*[[Denise Quiñones|Quinones, Denisse]], (born 1980), beauty queen <!-- [[Miss Universe]] [[2001]] -->
*[[Ismael Quintana|Quintana, Ismael]], (born 1937), Puerto Rican singer
*[[A.B. Quintanilla|Quintanilla, A.B.]], (born c. 1965), musician
*[[Omar Quintanilla|Quintanilla, Omar]], (born 1981), baseball player
*[[Selena Quintanilla|Quintanilla, Selena]], (1971-1995), singer
*[[Quintillus]], (d. 270), Roman Emperor <!-- (270-275) --- supposed reign conflicts w/ his WP bio -->
==== Quir - Quiv ====
*[[Jacopo della Quircia|Quircia, Jacopo della]], (1374-1438), painter
*[[Eldipio Quirino|Quirino, Elpidio]], (fl. 1950s), Filipino politician <!-- President of Philippines 1948-1953 -->
*[[Pauline Quirke|Quirke, Pauline]], British actress
*[[Vidkun Quisling|Quisling, Vidkun]], (1887-1945), Norwegian politician
*[[Robin Quivers|Quivers, Robin]], (born 1952), talk show host
=== Quo ===
*[[Quo Tai-chi]], (1889-1952), Taiwan Chinese diplomat <!-- representing [[Republic of China|Nationalist China]] -->
*[[Françoise Sagan|Quoirez, Françoise]], (b. 1935), French author
<!-- It would be silly to have a section for one person, except that Q-U followed by a consonant is so confusing to English-speakers as to be likely to be misread -->
=== Qut ===
*[[Sayyid Qutb|Qutb, Sayyid]], (1906-1966)
[[de:Liste der Biografien/Q]]
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<page>
<title>List of people by name: R</title>
<id>3907</id>
<revision>
<id>22191569</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-30T18:39:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LeonardoRob0t</username>
<id>389639</id>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Modifying: de</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{List of people R}}
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<page>
<title>List of people by name: S</title>
<id>3908</id>
<revision>
<id>33014956</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-28T17:36:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FlaBot</username>
<id>228773</id>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: simple</comment>
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<page>
<title>List of people by name: T</title>
<id>3909</id>
<revision>
<id>22191545</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-30T18:39:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LeonardoRob0t</username>
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|
Wetland sites on the moor include Colliford Lake, a large reservoir and Dozmary Pool.
==See also==
*[[Beast of Bodmin]]
*[[Cornwall]]
*[[Geology of the United Kingdom]]
==External links==
* [http://www.cornwall365.co.uk/cornwall/places,12,Bodmin-Moor.html Photos of Bodmin Moor]
* [http://www.countryside.gov.uk/LivingLandscapes/finest_countryside/aonbs/aonb_cornwall.asp Cornwall AONB]
[[Category:Arthurian legend]]
[[Category:Hills of Cornwall]]
[[kw:Goen Brenn]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Berkeley, California</title>
<id>4860</id>
<revision>
<id>42150341</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:45:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tmangray</username>
<id>959486</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:berkeleyfromclaremont800x600.jpg|thumbnail|280px|Berkeley as seen from the [[Claremont Canyon Regional Preserve]].]]
'''Berkeley''' is a city on the east shore of [[San Francisco Bay]] in [[Northern California|northern]] [[California]], in the [[United States]]. Its neighbors to the south are the cities of [[Oakland, California]] and [[Emeryville, California]]. To the north is the city of [[Albany, California|Albany]] and the unincorporated [[Kensington, California| Kensington]]. The eastern city limits coincide with the county line which generally follows the ridgeline of the Berkeley Hills. Berkeley is located in [[Alameda County, California|Alameda County]].
Berkeley is the site of the [[University of California, Berkeley]], the flagship campus of the [[University of California]], and the [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]], [[Lawrence Hall of Science]], [[Space Sciences Laboratory]], and [[Mathematical Sciences Research Institute]], which are on the campus grounds. Adjacent to the University campus is the [[Graduate Theological Union]].
[[Image:Berkeley in Alameda County.png|thumb|right|280px|The City of Berkeley highlighted within [[Alameda County]].]]
==History==
The site of today's City of Berkeley was the territory of the Chochen/Huichin band of the [[Ohlone]] people when the first Europeans arrived. Remnants of their existence in the area include pits in various rock formations which were used to grind acorns from native [[oak]] trees, and a [[shellmound]] now mostly leveled and covered up along the shoreline of [[San Francisco Bay]] at the mouth of [[Strawberry Creek]]. Other artifacts were discovered in the 1950's in the downtown area during the remodeling of a commercial building, near the course of the same Strawberry Creek.
The first people of European ancestry (most of whom were actually of mixed ancestry and born in America) arrived with the [[De Anza Expedition]] of 1776, which is today noted by signage on U.S. [[Interstate 80]] which runs along the San Francisco Bay shoreline of Berkeley.
The De Anza Expedition resulted in the establishment of the Spanish [[Presidio of San Francisco]] at the entrance to San Francisco Bay (the "[[Golden Gate]]") which is due west of Berkeley. Among the soldiers serving at the Presidio was one [[Luís María Peralta|Luís Peralta]]. For his services to the [[King of Spain]], he was granted a vast extent of land on the east shore of San Francisco Bay (the "contra costa") for a ranch, including that portion which now comprises the City of Berkeley.
Luis Peralta named his holding "[[Rancho San Antonio (Peralta Grant)|Rancho San Antonio]]". The primary activity of the ranch was the raising of cattle for meat and hides, but hunting and farming were also pursued. Eventually, he gave portions of his ranch to each of his four sons. Most of the portion that is now Berkeley was the domain of his son Domingo, the rest being held by his son Vicente. No artifact survives of the ranches of Domingo or Vicente, although their names have been preserved in the naming of Berkeley streets (Vicente, Domingo, and Peralta). However, the legal title to all land in the City of Berkeley remains based on the original Peralta land grant.
The Peraltas' Rancho San Antonio continued after [[Alta California]] passed from Spanish to Mexican sovereignty as a result of the [[Mexican War of Independence]].
However, the advent of U.S. sovereignty as a result of the [[Mexican War]], and especially, the [[Gold Rush]], saw the Peralta's lands quickly encroached on by squatters and diminished by dubious legal proceedings. The lands of the brothers Domingo and Vicente were quickly reduced to reservations close to their respective ranch homes. The rest of the land was surveyed and parceled out to various American claimants.
Politically, the area that became Berkeley was initially part of a vast [[Contra Costa County]], but shortly, Alameda County was created by division of Contra Costa County.
The area of Berkeley was at this period mostly a mix of open land, farms and ranches, with a small though busy wharf by the Bay. It was not yet "Berkeley", but merely the northern part of the "Oakland Township" subdivision of Alameda County.
In [[1866]], the private [[College of California]] located in the city of Oakland sought out a new site. They picked a location north of Oakland along the foot of the Contra Costa Hills (later called the Berkeley Hills) astride Strawberry Creek, and at about an elevation of 500 feet above the Bay, commanding a fantastic view of the Bay Area and the Pacific Ocean through the Golden Gate.
According to the ''Centennial Record of the University of California'', "In 1866...at [[Founders' Rock]], a group of College of California men were watching two ships standing out to sea through the [[Golden Gate]]. One of them, Frederick Billings, was reminded of the lines of [[George Berkeley|Bishop Berkeley]], 'westward the course of empire takes its way,' and suggested that the town and college site be named for the eighteenth-century British philosopher and poet."
The College of California's "College Homestead Association" laid out a plat and street grid which became the basis of Berkeley's modern street plan. Their plans to raise funds though fell far short of their desires, and collaboration was then begun with the State of California, culminating in [[1868]] with the creation of the public [[University of California]].
As construction began on the new site, more residences began to be constructed in the vicinity of the new campus. At the same time, a settlement of residences, saloons, and various industries had also been growing up around the wharf on the bayshore called "Ocean View".
By the 1870's the [[Transcontinental Railroad]] had reached its terminus in Oakland. In [[1876]], a branch line of the [[Central Pacific Railroad]] was laid from Oakland into what is now downtown Berkeley. That same year, the main line of the transcontinental railroad into Oakland was re-routed, putting the right-of-way along the bayshore through Ocean View.
In [[1878]], the people of Ocean View and the area around the University campus, together with the local farmers incorporated themselves as the Town of Berkeley. The first elected trustees of the Town were the slate of the [[Workingman's Party]] who were particularly favored in the working class area of the former Ocean View, now called "West Berkeley". The area near the University became known as "East Berkeley".
The modern age came quickly to Berkeley, no doubt due to the influence of the University. [[Electric light]]s were in use by [[1888]]. The [[telephone]] had already come to town. Electric [[streetcar]]s soon replaced the [[horsecar]]. A silent film of one of these early streetcars in Berkeley can be seen at the [[Library of Congress]] website: [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?papr:8:./temp/~ammem_6OV4::@@@mdb=mcc,gottscho,detr,nfor,wpa,aap,cwar,bbpix,cowellbib,calbkbib,consrvbib,bdsbib,dag,fsaall,gmd,pan,vv,presp,varstg,suffrg,nawbib,horyd,wtc,toddbib,mgw,ncr,ngp,musdibib,hlaw,papr,lhbumbib,rbpebib,lbcoll,alad,hh,aaodyssey,magbell,bbcards,dcm,raelbib,runyon,dukesm,lomaxbib,mtj,gottlieb,aep,qlt,coolbib,fpnas,aasm,scsm,denn,relpet,amss,aaeo,mffbib,afc911bib,mjm,mnwp,rbcmillerbib,molden,ww2map,hawp,omhbib,rbaapcbib,mal,ncpsbib,ncpm,lhbprbib,ftvbib,afcreed,aipn,cwband,flwpabib,wpapos,cmns,psbib,pin,coplandbib,cola,tccc,curt,mharendt,lhbcbbib,eaa,haybib,mesnbib,fine,cwnyhs,svybib,mmorse,afcwwgbib,mymhiwebib,uncall,mfd,afcwip,mtaft,manz,llstbib,fawbib,berl,fmuever,cdn,upboverbib,mussm,cic,afcpearl,awh,awhbib,sgp,wright,lhbtnbib,afcesnbib,hurstonbib,mreynoldsbib,spaldingbib,sgproto|"A Trip To Berkeley, California"]
Berkeley's slow growth ended abruptly with the [[1906 San Francisco Earthquake|Great San Francisco Earthquake of 1906]]. The city and other parts of the East Bay somehow managed to escape even moderate damage from the massive temblor, and hundreds if not thousands of refugees flowed across the Bay. Rapid growth continued right up to the [[Crash of 1929]]. The [[Great Depression]] hit Berkeley hard, but not as hard as many other places in the U.S. thanks in part to the University.
The next big growth occurred with the advent of [[World War II]] when large numbers of people moved into the Bay Area to work in the many war industries. One who moved out, but played a big role in the outcome of the War was U.C. Professor and Berkeley resident [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]].
The postwar years saw moderate growth of the City, but events on the U.C. campus began to build up to the recognizeable activism of the sixties. In the 1950's, [[McCarthyism]] induced the University to demand a loyalty oath from its professors, many of whom refused to sign any such oath on the principle of freedom of thought. In 1960, a U.S. House committee ([[HUAC]]) came to San Francisco to investigate the influence of communists in the Bay Area. Their inquisition |
d [[upper class]] man (presumably a retired barrister from the QC appellation in his name) tells mostly unintelligible stories at the fireside. Occasionally, his speech becomes intelligible for a short while, containing strange phrases such as "the whole thing was made completely out of rubber" or "Snakes! Snakes!".
:''... I'm afraid I was very, very drunk.''
* '''[[Brilliant Kid]]''', a parody of British Children's TV presenters who walks through a series of peculiar backgrounds describing various innocuous, everyday things as 'brilliant!'
* '''The Hearty Hiker'''. This is a character who thoroughly enjoys rambling. He once met a disturbed garage attendant and was chased down the road by said attendant, who was shouting: "STUCK DOWN A HOLE! IN THE MIDDLE OF THE NIGHT! WITH AN OWL!"
* '''[[The 13th Duke of Wybourne]]''', posh, rumpled dinner jacketed, cigar smoker, finds himself in unsuitable places
:''Me, the 13th Duke of Wybourne, here? In a student nurses' halls of residence? With my reputation? What do they take me for?''
* '''Archie''' the pub bore. Talks to people in the pub, and when they mention their profession, no matter what it is, he always claims to have had the same profession.
:Oldest game in the world... thirty years man and boy...
* '''[[Ron Manager]]''', nonsense talking football pundit. Doesn't actually know very much about football.
:''It's a far cry from small boys in the park, jumpers for goalposts. Isn't it? Mmmmm. Marvellous.''
* '''Unlucky Alf''', the lonely old pensioner for whom nothing ever goes right. Often heard to utter the phrase "Awww bugger!"
* The "monster" who terrorizes a young woman in her bed in the middle of the night with betting tips. His physical appearance is based on [[Nosferatu]], his voice and catchphrase is taken from football agent [[Eric Hall]].
:''Monster, monster!''
* '''Chris the Crafty Cockney''', claims to be an incurable kleptomaniac ("I'll nick anything me"). He is left alone with something valuable, and invariably steals it - including a child's [[Pokemon]] cards, the takings from a friend's market stall, and even a police car. Often says that he's "a little bit woah, a little bit wayyy, a little bit whooosh!"
===Charlie Higson & Paul Whitehouse===
* '''Bob Fleming''' (Higson), the host of ''Country Matters'', who has an extremely bad cough, along with his friends; sneezing Jed Thomas; hiccupping Murtagh Blethyn; and, of course, Clive Tucker (Whitehouse), the man who can't stop saying "ARSE!".
* '''Ted & Ralph''' - country squire Lord Ralph Mayhew (Higson) attempts to strike up an intimate relationship with his estate worker Ted (Whitehouse).
:'''Note''': These two characters starred in their own made-for-TV movie ''[[Ted and Ralph]]'' in 1998, which starred Whitehouse, Higson and other Fast Show regulars. Whitehouse also put in a cameo appearance as Rowley Birkin QC.
* '''The Offroaders''', Simon Bush (Higson) and Lyndsay Mottram (Whitehouse), filmed by their friend Baz while they try impressive extreme sports, but fail to hide the fact that they are disastrously hopeless at such pursuits.
:''Gripped'', ''Sorted'', ''Let's off-road'', and after one less than successful venture into [[bushcraft]], ''I am the mushroom god!''
===Mark Williams===
* '''Jesse''' and his strange diets, fashion tastes and experiments.
:''This week, I have been mostly eating ... TARAMASALATA!''
:''This week, I aren't been 'ungry.''
:''This season, I shall be mostly wearing ... A THONG!''
* ''' 'You Ain't Seen Me, Right?' ''' is scruffily dressed, and always appears in passing, pausing only to dispense his eponymous warning.
* ''' 'I'll Get Me Coat' ''' always says, wears or otherwise does something inappropriate for the social situation in which he finds himself. Shocked, other characters stare at him before he delivers his line and ends the sketch.
* '''Patrick Nice''', a man who may or may not stumble into amazing circumstances on a regular basis, but remains very calm. Wins lottery twice in a row, and sees R.E.M. perform an impromptu concert at the ceremony where his son is awarded the Nobel Prize for chemistry.
:''...and I was rummaging around in the attic and I found the original copy of the Bible. Which was nice.''
:''...and unfortunately I left my fingerprints all over the handle, so it looks like I'll be going down for the next 15 years. Which is a shame.''
===Simon Day===
* '''Competitive Dad''', who criticises his children for not being as good at something as he is.
* '''Dave Angel, Eco-Warrior''', who's into saving the planet (with a somewhat dubious methodology), [[Mike Oldfield]] records, and [[swinging]]. A parody of a late-night magazine program presented by [[Mike Reid (entertainer)|Mike Reid]].
* '''Carl Hooper,''' Australian presenter of '''''That's Amazing''''', a spoof on pop-science shows.
* '''Billy Bleach''', pub know-it-all who gets it all wrong. (This character starred in his own series, 'Grass' which was shown on [[BBC Three]].)
* '''John Actor''', who plays Inspector Monkfish, the tough uncompromising cop ("You - fetch a body bag, you - find the murder weapon, and you - get your knickers on and get me a cup of tea!")
===Arabella Weir===
* '''No Offence''', a rude South African department store cosmetics sales woman.
* '''Insecure Woman''', who appears in a variety of different locations, sometimes bizarre (including as a [[traffic warden]], [[High Court of Justice|High Court]] [[judge]] and the fairy on top of a [[Christmas tree]].) She constantly irritates people with demands for reassurance about her looks: "Should I have put my hair up?" "Do you think I should have chosen different earrings?" "Does my bum look big in this?" At one point she frightens away a mugger with repeated questions about his opinion of the shoes she's wearing.
* '''Trudi,''' advertised during a break in Chanel 9 Neus, releasing her album, ''Greatest Hits Von Trudi'', which included the hits "Sminky Pinky Pee-Pee Snah," "Meth-Eth-Eth-Eth-Eth-Eth" and "Chris Waddle."
* '''Flirty Woman''', who acts in harsh and professional, "no-nonsense" way in front of female friends and colleagues but transforms into a giggling, ditzy, stereotypical "bimbo" whenever she is introduced to a man.
===John Thomson===
* '''Brilliant Kid's Father''', who walks around moaning about everyday things that are 'rubbish', which seems to include everything and everybody except [[Des Lynam]] and [[Elvis]].
* '''Chip Cobb, the Deaf Stuntman''', who mishears normal things as instructions to perform some dangerous stunt ("We just need to reset the wire ..." "Set meself on fire? OK!")
* '''Louis Balfour''', presenter of '''''Jazz Club''''' (a very obvious parody of [[Old Grey Whistle Test|The Old Grey Whistle Test]]).
:''mmmmm, Nice!''
* '''Professor Denzil Dexter''' of the [[University of Southern California]] and his various bizarre scientific experiments.
===Caroline Aherne===
* '''Checkout Girl''', who comments on every purchase. ''"Microwave meal for one? Living on your own, are you? Awwwwwwwwwwwww."''
* '''"Our" Janine Carr''', teenage mum with a unique world outlook. She refuses to reveal who the father of her baby is because "it's not fair to grass on your headmaster" and, even though she claims to be a vegetarian, she thinks it's perfectly acceptable to eat sausage rolls given that "there's no such animal as a sausage"
* '''Poula Fisch''', weather presenter on "Chanel 9" (see '''Mixed performances''' below).
===Jeff Harding===
* '''Ed Winchester''', an [[United States of America|American]] TV presenter, presumably of travelogues, who only gets to introduce himself.
:''Hi, I'm Ed Winchester.'', except for the one episode in which he said "Hi! I'm Ed Winchester. And I'd like to take a moment of your time to talk to you about the love of our Lord Jesus Christ..."
:In one episode, someone ''else'' ([[Felix Dexter]]) actually introduced himself as Ed Winchester. He then followed with "No I'm not. I don't know why I just said that."
:Another episode saw several other (presumably) American presenters follow Ed with similar introductions ("I'm Ramone Valentino..." ) before Ed squeezes in with "...and I'm Ed Winchester"
===Mixed performances===
* '''''Chanel 9''''', a [[Mediterranean]] television channel with low production values based on a combination of [[language]]s (but mostly [[Italian language|Italian]]).
:''Bono Estente, Hethethethethethe hethethethethethetheth, Sminki-pinki, [[Chris Waddle]]. [[Boutros Boutros-Ghali|Boutros Boutros Gali]].'' ''Bono Estente'' is the standard greeting; ''Boutros Boutros Ghali'' is used as the goodbye.
:Also on ''Chanel 9'':
:* Meterologicos (the weather forecast) presented by Poula Fisch (perhaps a reference to former weather presenter [[Michael Fish]]), played by Aherne; the weather is (almost) always the same everywhere: hot ("Scorchio!"). One occasion when the weather was "Cumulio" resulted in mourning from the whole channel; on another occasion a forecast of "[[cumulonimbus|nimbocumulus]]!" sparked urgent, excited investigative reportage.
:* Advertisements for the 'Gizmo', an orange pump-action device (which is actually a plastic [[trap|plumbing trap]] attached to the end of a squeeze mop). A number of these are advertised by bikini-clad women for a multitude of different purposes, in spite of the fact that the device is always exactly the same. Its features are described in terms of evocative phrases like "Novello proboscis - molto molto kinagrophos". The device is usually described as being "Un action pumpo".
:* Advertisements for cheesy peas.
: ''You like Cheese!? You like Peas!? Then you'll love Cheesy-Peas!!''
:* '' |
te. In [[1942]], Carver received the Roosevelt Medal for Outstanding Contribution to Southern Agriculture.
==Death and afterwards==
[[Image:George Washington Carver 1998 stamp.jpg|thumb|1998 stamp]]
Upon returning home one day, Carver took a bad fall down a flight of stairs; he was found unconscious by a maid who took him to a hospital. Carver died [[January 5]], [[1943]] at the age of 79 from complications (anemia) resulting from this fall.
On his grave was written the simplest and most meaningful summary of his life.
''He could have added fortune to fame, but caring for neither, he found happiness and honor in being helpful to the world''
On [[July 14]], [[1943]] {{ref|3}}, President [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] dedicated $30,000 for the [[George Washington Carver National Monument]] west-south-west of Diamond, Missouri - an area where Carver had spent time in his childhood. This dedication marks the first national monument dedicated to an African-American. At this 210 acre [[national monument]], there is a [[Bust (sculpture)|bust]] of Carver, a 3/4 mile nature trail, a museum, the 1881 Moses Carver house, and the Carver cemetery.
Carver appeared on US commemorative stamps in 1948 and 1998 and was depicted on a commemorative half-dollar from 1951 to 1954. The ''[[USS George Washington Carver (SSBN-656)]]'' is also named in his honor.
In 1977, Carver was elected to the [[Hall of Fame for Great Americans]]. In 1990, Carver was inducted into the [[National Inventors Hall of Fame]]. Iowa State University awarded Carver the [[Doctor of Humane Letters]] in 1994. On [[February 15]], [[2005]], an episode of [[Modern Marvels]] included scenes from within Iowa State University's Food Sciences Building and about Carver's work. Many people honor George Washington Carver to this day.
==George Washington Carver in Films==
In the [[2002]] movie ''[[Undercover Brother]]'', Conspiracy Brother, played by [[Dave Chapelle]], laments how black people don't get credit for anything. To make his point, he claims, "Did you know that George Washington Carver made the first [[computer]] from a peanut?"
==See also==
*[[African-American history]]
*[[Boll Weevil]]
*[[Carver Academy]]
*[[List of people on stamps of the United States]]
==References==
*McMurry, L. O. Carver, George Washington. American National Biography Online Feb. 2000
* {{note|1}} Pages 9-10 of ''George Washington Carver: Scientist and Symbol'' by Linda McMurray, 1982. (ISBN 0195032055)
* {{note|2}} Page 10 of ''George Washington Carver: Scientist and Symbol'' by Linda McMurray, 1982. (ISBN 0195032055)
* {{note|3}} http://www.nps.gov/gwca/index.htm
*Carver, George Washington. "1897 or Thereabouts: George Washington Carver's Own Brief History of His Life." George Washington Carver National Monument.
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.tuskegee.edu/global/story.asp?s=1107203&ClientType=Print Tuskegee University, Carver tribute]
*[http://www.lib.iastate.edu/spcl/gwc/home.html Iowa State University, The Legacy of George Washington Carver]
{{botanist|Carver|Carver, George Washington}}
{{Persondata
|NAME=Carver, George Washington
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=botanist
|DATE OF BIRTH=1865
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Diamond, Missouri]], [[United States of America]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[January 5]], [[1943]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Tuskegee, Alabama]], [[United States of America]]
}}
[[Category:1860s births|Carver, George Washington]]
[[Category:1943 deaths|Carver, George Washington]]
[[Category:African American inventors|Carver, George Washington]]
[[Category:American botanists|Carver, George Washington]]
[[Category:Christians in science|Carver]]
[[Category:Iowa State University|Carver, George Washington]]
[[Category:Mycologists|Carver, George Washington]]
[[Category:People from Alabama|Carver, George Washington]]
[[Category:People from Missouri|Carver, George Washington]]
[[Category:Phi Beta Sigma brothers|Carver, George Washington]]
[[Category:Spingarn Medal winners|Carver, George Washington]]
[[de:George Washington Carver]]
[[fr:George Washington Carver]]
[[nl:George Washington Carver]]
[[simple:George Washington Carver]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Grok</title>
<id>12998</id>
<revision>
<id>42068590</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:26:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>201.252.82.247</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Grok''' (pronounced ''grock'') is a verb roughly meaning "to understand completely" or more formally "to achieve complete [[intuitive understanding]]". It was [[neologism|coined]] by [[science fiction]] [[writer]] [[Robert A. Heinlein]] in his [[novel]] ''[[Stranger in a Strange Land]]'', where it is part of the fictional [[Martian]] language and introduced to [[English language|English]] speakers by a man raised by Martians.
It should be made clear that there is no exact definition for grok; it is a fictional word intended not to be "understood completely".
In the Martian tongue, it literally means "to drink" but is used in a much wider context. A character in the novel (not the primary user) defines it:
:"''Grok'' means to understand so thoroughly that the observer becomes a part of the observed&mdash;to merge, blend, intermarry, lose identity in group experience. It means almost everything that we mean by religion, philosophy, and science&mdash;and it means as little to us (because we are from Earth) as color means to a blind man."
Using the broad meaning above, the term gained real-world currency as [[slang]] among [[counterculture]] groups including [[hippie]]s. A popular [[t-shirt]] and [[bumper sticker]] slogan for [[1970s]] [[Trekkie]]s was ''I grok [[Mr. Spock|Spock]]'' (often showing the [[Star Trek]] character using the [[Vulcan salute]]). Today it is chiefly used by science-fiction fans, [[geek]]s and some [[Paganism|pagans]], particularly those belonging to the [[Church of All Worlds]], but is attested and understood more widely.
==TV Character==
Grok was also a very gentle, green, giant alien in the Argentinean show La Ola Verde. He was the sidekick of Flavia Palmiero. He was big-footed, had a round, bulbous nose, and green hair that looked somewhat like tentacles. He had a very deep voice, called children "terraquitos" (lil' earthlings), and would award "stars" for good actions such as brushing your teeth.
==See also==
* [[Groklaw]]
* [[Grok Magazine]] '''Grok''' is Australia's biggest student magazine, with 10,000 copies per issue (6 issues per year) distributed on the Curtin Bentley campus in Western Australia - and to hundreds of street points across the Perth metro area. Grok is written and produced by Curtin University students and published by the Curtin Student Guild.
* [[Gestalt psychology]]
==External links==
* [http://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~clgroks/page2.html Groks and the Vanguard of Science], essay from [http://www.groks.net/ Berkeley Groks] science radio program
* [http://catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/G/grok.html Grok definition] in the [[Jargon File]]
* [http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Stranger_in_a_Strange_Land WikiQuote on Stranger in a Strange Land] includes many uses of ''grok''
[[Category:Science fiction themes]]
[[Category:Robert A. Heinlein]]
[[cs:Grokovat]]
[[it:Grok]]
[[nl:Grokken]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>German Commander-in-Chief for Submarines</title>
<id>12999</id>
<revision>
<id>15910643</id>
<timestamp>2004-05-19T07:21:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cyrius</username>
<id>35616</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Karl Dönitz]] per VfD consensus</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Karl Dönitz]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Grammatical Mood</title>
<id>13000</id>
<revision>
<id>15910644</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Grammatical_mood]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Grammatical mood</title>
<id>13002</id>
<revision>
<id>41884124</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T10:01:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>195.122.110.8</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{linguistics}}
In [[linguistics]], many [[grammar]]s have the concept of '''grammatical mood''', which describes the relationship of a [[verb]] with reality and intent. Many languages express distinctions of mood through [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], by changing ([[Inflection|inflecting]]) the form of the verb.
Because modern [[English language|English]] does not have all of the moods described below, and has a very simplified system of verb inflection as well, it is not straightforward to explain the moods in English. Note, too, that the exact sense of each mood differs from language to language.
Grammatical mood per se is not the same thing as [[grammatical tense]] or [[grammatical aspect]], although these concepts are conflated to some degree in many languages, including English and most other modern Indo-European languages, insofar as the same word patterns are used to express more than one of these concepts at the same time.
Currently identified moods include conditional, imperative, indicative, injunctive, negative, optative, potential, subjunctive, and more. [[Infinitive]] is a category apart from all these [[Finite verb|finite forms]], and so are [[gerund]]s and [[participle]]s. Some [[Uralic]] [[Samoyedic]] languages have over ten moods. The original [[Indo-European]] inventory of moods was indicative, subjunctive, optative, and imperative. Not every Indo-European language has each of these moods, but the most conservativ |
id>632</id>
<revision>
<id>39241965</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T20:13:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kjkolb</username>
<id>107439</id>
</contributor>
<comment>removed pipe link as per MoS</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Aberdeen''' may refer to:
=== Places ===
In [[Scotland]]:
* [[Aberdeen]], a major port city in north-east Scotland
In [[Australia]]:
* [[Aberdeen, New South Wales]]
In [[Canada]]:
* [[Aberdeen Centre]], an Asian-themed shopping mall in Richmond, British Columbia.
* [[Aberdeen, British Columbia]] - two locations:
** [[Aberdeen, Fraser Valley Regional District, British Columbia]]
** [[Aberdeen, Thompson-Nicola Regional District, British Columbia]]
* [[Aberdeen, New Brunswick]]
* [[Aberdeen, Nova Scotia]]
* [[New Aberdeen, Nova Scotia]]
* [[Aberdeen Bay, Nunavut]]
* [[Aberdeen Lake, Nunavut]]
* [[Aberdeen, Ontario]] - two locations:
** [[Aberdeen, Ontario (Grey County)]]
** [[Aberdeen, Ontario (Prescott and Russell County)]]
* [[Aberdeen Township, Ontario]]
* [[Macdonald, Merideth and Aberdeen Additional, Ontario]]
* [[Sheen-Esher-Aberdeen-et-Malakoff, Quebec]]
* [[Aberdeen, Saskatchewan]]
* [[Aberdeen No. 373, Saskatchewan]]
In [[China]]:
* [[Aberdeen Harbour, Hong Kong]]
In [[South Africa]]:
* [[Aberdeen, South Africa]]
In the [[United States]]:
* [[Aberdeen, Arkansas]]
* [[Aberdeen, California]]
* [[Aberdeen, Florida]]
* [[Aberdeen, Georgia]]
* [[Aberdeen, Idaho]]
* [[Aberdeen, Indiana]]
* [[Aberdeen, Kentucky]]
* [[Aberdeen, Massachusetts]]
* [[Aberdeen, Maryland]]
* [[Aberdeen, Mississippi]]
* [[Aberdeen, Montana]]
* [[Aberdeen Township, New Jersey]]
* [[Aberdeen, North Carolina]]
* [[Aberdeen, Ohio]]
* [[Aberdeen, Pennsylvania]]
* [[Aberdeen, South Dakota]]
* [[Aberdeen, Texas]]
* [[Aberdeen, Washington]]
* [[Aberdeen, West Virginia]]
=== Other ===
* [[Aberdeen (band)]], an American rock band.
* [[Aberdeen (movie)]], a movie (2000) directed by [[Hans Petter Moland]], starring [[Stellan Skarsgård]] and [[Lena Headey]].
*[[Aberdeen City (band)]]
* [[Aberdeen Proving Ground]], a [[U.S. Army]] installation in [[Maryland]].
{{disambig}}
[[cs:Aberdeen]]
[[de:Aberdeen (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[et:Aberdeen (täpsustus)]]
[[fr:Aberdeen (homonymie)]]
[[gl:Aberdeen]]
[[pl:Aberdeen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Algae</title>
<id>633</id>
<revision>
<id>42158817</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:14:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.103.121.196</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>added link to Cyanosite, the premier webserver for bluegreen algae</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about an organism. See [[algae programming language]] for a [[programming language]] in [[computing]].''
[[Image:Laurencia.jpg|300px|thumb|right|A seaweed (''Laurencia'') up close: the "branches" are multicellular and only about 1 mm thick. Much smaller algae are seen growing attached to the structure extending upwards in the lower right quarter]]
'''Algae''' (singular ''alga'') encompass several different groups of living organisms that capture light energy through [[photosynthesis]], converting inorganic substances into simple sugars using the captured energy. Algae have been traditionally regarded as simple [[plant]]s, and some are closely related to the [[embryophyte|higher plant]]s. Others appear to represent different [[protist]] groups, alongside other organisms that are traditionally considered more animal-like (that is, [[protozoa]]). Thus algae do not represent a single evolutionary direction or line, but a level of organization that may have developed several times in the early history of life on earth.
Algae range from single-celled organisms to multi-cellular organisms, some with fairly complex differentiated form and (if marine) called [[seaweed]]s. All lack [[leaf|leaves]], [[root]]s, [[flower]]s, and other organ structures that characterize higher plants. They are distinguished from other [[protozoa]] in that they are [[autotrophic|photoautotrophic]], although this is not a hard and fast distinction as some groups contain members that are [[mixotrophic]], deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by [[osmotrophy]], [[myzocytosis|myzotrophy]], or [[phagocytosis|phagotrophy]]. Some unicellular species rely entirely on external energy sources and have reduced or lost their photosynthetic apparatus.
All algae have photosynthetic machinery ultimately derived from the [[cyanobacteria]], and so produce [[oxygen]] as a by-product of photosynthesis, unlike non-cyanobacterial photosynthetic bacteria.
Algae are usually found in damp places or bodies of water and thus are common in terrestrial as well as aquatic environments. However, terrestrial algae are usually rather inconspicuous and far more common in moist, tropical regions than dry ones, because algae lack vascular tissues and other adaptions to live on land. Algae can endure dryness and other conditions in symbiosis with a fungus as [[lichen]].
The various sorts of algae play significant roles in aquatic ecology. Microscopic forms that live suspended in the water column&mdash;called '''[[phytoplankton]]'''&mdash;provide the food base for most marine [[food chain]]s. In very high densities (so-called [[algal bloom]]s) these algae may discolor the water and outcompete or poison other life forms. [[Seaweed]]s grow mostly in shallow marine waters. Some are used as human food or harvested for useful substances such as [[agar]] or fertilizer. The study of algae is called [[phycology]] or algology.
== Relationships among algal groups ==
=== Prokaryotic algae ===
Traditionally the [[cyanobacteria]] have been included among the algae, referred to as the ''cyanophytes'' or ''Blue-green Algae'', (the term "algae" refers to any aquatic organisms capable of photosynthesis)[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/bacteria/cyanolh.html], though some recent treatises on algae specifically exclude them. [[Cyanobacteria]] are some of the oldest organisms to appear in the [[fossil record]], dating back about 3.8 billion years ([[Precambrian]]). Ancient cyanobacteria likely produced much of the [[oxygen]] in the Earth's atmosphere.
[[Cyanobacteria]] can be unicellular, colonial, or filamentous. They have a [[prokaryote|prokaryotic]] cell structure typical of bacteria and conduct photosynthesis directly within the [[cytoplasm]], rather than in specialized organelles. Some filamentous [[blue-green algae]] have specialized cells, termed heterocysts, in which [[nitrogen fixation]] occurs.
[http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/e42/42a.htm]
=== Eukaryotic algae ===
All other algae are [[eukaryote]]s and conduct photosynthesis within membrane-bound structures (organelles) called [[chloroplast]]s. Chloroplasts contain DNA and are similar in structure to cyanobacteria, presumably representing reduced cyanobacterial [[endosymbiotic theory|endosymbionts]]. The exact nature of the chloroplasts is different among the different lines of algae, reflecting different endosymbiotic events. There are three groups ([[Archaeplastida]]) that have ''primary'' chloroplasts:
* [[Green alga]]e, together with [[embryophyte|higher plant]]s
* [[Red alga]]e
* [[Glaucophyte]]s
In these groups, the chloroplast is surrounded by two membranes and probably developed through a single endosymbiosis. The chloroplasts of red algae have a more or less typical cyanobacterial pigmentation, while those of the green alga have chloroplasts with chlorophyll ''a'' and ''b'', the latter found in some cyanobacteria and not most. Higher plants are pigmented similarly to green algae and probably developed from them.
Two other groups of algae have green chloroplasts containing chlorophyll ''b'':
* [[Euglenid]]s and
* [[Chlorarachniophyte]]s.
These are surrounded by three and four membranes, respectively, and were probably retained from an ingested green alga. Those of the chlorarchniophytes contain a small nucleomorph, which is the remnant of the alga's [[cell nucleus|nucleus]]. It has been suggested that the euglenid chloroplasts only have three membranes because they were acquired through [[myzocytosis]] rather than [[phagocytosis]].
The remaining algae all have chloroplasts containing chlorophylls ''a'' and ''c''. The latter chlorophyll type is not known from any prokaryotes or primary chloroplasts, but genetic similarities with the red algae suggest a relationship there. These groups include:
* [[Heterokont]]s (e.g., golden algae, diatoms, brown algae)
* [[Haptophyte]]s (e.g., coccolithophores)
* [[Cryptomonad]]s
* [[Dinoflagellate]]s
In the first three of these groups ([[Chromista]]), the chloroplast has four membranes, retaining a nucleomorph in cryptomonads, and they likely share a common pigmented ancestor. The typical dinoflagellate chloroplast has three membranes, but there is considerable diversity in chloroplasts among the group, as some members have acquired theirs from different sources. The [[Apicomplexa]], a group of closely related parasites, also have [[plastid]]s though not actual chloroplasts, which appear to have a common origin with those of the dinoflagellates.
Note many of these groups contain some members that are no longer photosynthetic. Some retain plastids, but not chloroplasts, while others have lost them entirely.
== Forms of algae ==
Most of the simpler algae are unicellular [[flagellate]]s or [[amoeboid]]s, but colonial and non-motile forms have developed independently among several of the groups. Some of the more common organizational levels, more than one of which may occur in the [[Biological life cycle|life cycle]] of a species, are:
* ''Colonial'' - small, regular groups of motile cells
* ''Capsoid'' - individual non-motile cells embedded in [[mucilage]]
* ''Coccoid'' - individual non-motile cells with cell walls
* ''Palmelloid'' - |
ribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2005 est.)
===Age structure===
:0-14 years: 46% (male 1,479,941/female 1,450,808)
:15-64 years: 51.3% (male 1,617,864/female 1,653,331)
:65 years and over: 2.6% (male 66,199/female 102,466) (2005 est.)
===Median age===
:Total: 16.6 years
:Male: 16.27 years
:Female: 16.95 years (2005 est.)
===Population growth rate===
:2.22% (2005 est.)
===Birth rate===
:39.66 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Death rate===
:17.43 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Net migration rate===
:0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Sex ratio===
:At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
:Under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
:15-64 years: 0.98 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.65 male(s)/female
:Total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2005 est.)
===Infant mortality rate===
:Total: 69.29 deaths/1,000 live births
:Male: 75.87 deaths/1,000 live births
:Female: 62.5 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)
===Life expectancy at birth===
:Total population: 43.5 years
:Male: 42.91 years
:Female: 44.12 years (2005 est.)
===Total fertility rate===
:5.81 children born/woman (2005 est.)
===HIV/AIDS===
:Adult prevalence rate: 6% (2003 est.)
:People living with HIV/AIDS: 250,000 (2003 est.)
:Deaths: 25,000 (2003 est.)
===Major infectious diseases===
:Degree of risk: very high
:Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever
:Vectorborne disease: malaria (2004)
===Nationality===
:Noun: Burundian(s)
:Adjective: Burundian
===Ethnic groups===
:Hutu (Bantu) 85%, Tutsi (Hamitic) 14%, Twa (Pygmy) 1%, Europeans 3,000, South Asians 2,000
===Religions===
:Christian 67% (Roman Catholic 62%, Protestant 5%), indigenous beliefs 23%, Muslim 10%
===Languages===
:Kirundi (official), French (official), Swahili (along Lake Tanganyika and in the Bujumbura area)
===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
:Total population: 51.6%
:Male: 58.5%
:Female: 45.2% (2003 est.)
==References==
{{CIA WFB 2005}}
{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}
[[Category:Burundi]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Burundi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Burundi</title>
<id>3697</id>
<revision>
<id>35513063</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T07:10:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Acntx</username>
<id>104025</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{election burundi}}
In November 1995, the presidents of [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], [[Uganda]], and [[Zaire]] (currently [[Democratic Republic of Congo]]) announced a regional initiative for a negotiated peace in Burundi facilitated by former Tanzanian President [[Julius Nyerere]]. In July 1996, former Burundian President [[Pierre Buyoya|Buyoya]] returned to power in a bloodless coup. He declared himself president of a transitional republic, even as he suspended the National Assembly, banned opposition groups, and imposed a nationwide curfew. Widespread condemnation of the coup ensued, and regional countries imposed economic sanctions pending a return to a constitutional government. Buyoya agreed in 1996 to liberalize political parties. Nonetheless, fighting between the army and [[Hutu]] militias continued. In June 1998, Buyoya promulgated a transitional constitution and announced a partnership between the government and the opposition-led National Assembly. After facilitator Julius Nyerere's death in October 1999, the regional leaders appointed [[Nelson Mandela]] as [[Facilitator]] of the [[Arusha]] peace process. Under Mandela the peace process has revived and important progress has taken place.
<br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
{{CIA}}
'''Principal Government Officials'''<br>
President - see [[Presidents of Burundi]]<br>
First Vice President of the National Assembly<br>
Second Vice President of the National Assembly<br>
Speaker of the National Assembly<br>
Minister of Defense<br>
Minister of External Relations and Cooperation<br>
Minister of Internal Affairs and Security<br>
Ambassador to the United Nations
'''Country name:'''
<br>''conventional long form:''
Republic of Burundi
<br>''conventional short form:''
Burundi
<br>''local long form:''
Republika y'u Burundi
<br>''local short form:''
Burundi
'''Data code:'''
BY
'''Government type:'''
republic
'''Capital:'''
[[Bujumbura]]
'''Administrative divisions:'''
15 provinces; Bubanza, Bujumbura, Bururi, Cankuzo, Cibitoke, Gitega, Karuzi, Kayanza, Kirundo, Makamba, Muramvya, Muyinga, Ngozi, Rutana, Ruyigi
<br>''note:''
there may be a new province named Mwaro
'''Independence:'''
[[1 July]] [[1962]] (from UN trusteeship under Belgian administration)
'''National holiday:'''
Independence Day, [[1 July]] (1962)
'''Constitution:'''
[[13 March]] [[1992]]; provided for establishment of a plural political system; supplanted on [[6 June]] [[1998]] by a Transitional Constitution which enlarged the National Assembly and created two vice presidents
'''Legal system:'''
based on German and Belgian civil codes and customary law; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
'''Suffrage:'''
Universal adult; elections under transitional regime not yet held.
'''Executive branch:'''
<br>''chief of state:''
The President; see [[Presidents of Burundi]].
<br>''cabinet:''
Council of Ministers appointed by president
'''Legislative branch:'''
unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (121 seats; note - new Transitional Constitution expanded the number of seats from 81 to 121 in 1998; members are elected by popular vote on a proportional basis to serve five-year terms)
'''Judicial branch:'''
Supreme Court or Cour Supreme
'''Political parties and elections'''
Multi-party system introduced after 1998. FRODEBU (the [[Front for Democracy in Burundi]], predominantly Hutu with some Tutsi membership)([[Jean Minani]], president) and UPRONA (the [[National Unity and Progress Party(Burundi)|National Unity and Progress Party]], predominantly Tutsi with some Hutu membership) ([[Luc Rukingama]], president), are national, mainstream parties. Other Tutsi and Hutu opposition parties and groups include, among others, PARENA (the Party for National Redress, Tutsi), ABASA (the Burundi African Alliance for the Salvation, Tutsi), PRP (the People's Reconciliation Party, Tutsi), CNDD/FDD (the National Council for the Defense of Democracy/Front for the Defense of Democracy, now consisting of two groups, Hutu), PALIPEHUTU (the Party for the Liberation of the Hutu People, Hutu) and FROLINA/FAP (the Front for the National Liberation of Burundi/Popular Armed Forces, Hutu).
<br>''note:''
opposition parties, legalized in March 1992, include Burundi African Alliance for the Salvation or ABASA [leader NA]; Rally for Democracy and Economic and Social Development or RADDES [Cyrille SIGEJEJE, chairman]; Party for National Redress or PARENA [Jean-Baptiste BAGAZA]; Socialist Party of Burundi or PSB [leader NA]; People's Reconciliation Party or PRP [leader NA]
{{Burundi National Assembly election, 2005}}
{{Burundi Senate election, 2005}}
'''Political pressure groups and leaders:'''
Loosely organized Tutsi militias
'''International organization participation:'''
ACCT, ACP, AfDB, CCC, CEEAC, CEPGL, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
'''Flag description:''' The [[flag of Burundi]] is divided by a white diagonal cross into red panels (top and bottom) and green panels (hoist side and outer side) with a white disk superimposed at the center bearing three red six-pointed stars outlined in green arranged in a triangular design (one star above, two stars below)
:''See also :'' [[Burundi]]
{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Burundi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Burundi</title>
<id>3698</id>
<revision>
<id>38981706</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T22:49:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Briaboru</username>
<id>284038</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}{{Economy of Burundi table}}
'''Burundi''' is a [[landlocked]], resource-poor country with an underdeveloped manufacturing sector. The mainstay of the Burundian economy is [[agriculture]], accounting for 58% of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] in [[1997]]. Agriculture supports more than 90% of the labour force, the majority of whom are subsistence farmers. Although Burundi is potentially self-sufficient in food production, the ongoing civil war, [[overpopulation]], and [[soil erosion]] have contributed to the contraction of the subsistence economy by 25% in recent years. Large numbers of [[internally displaced person]]s have been unable to produce their own food and are largely dependent on international humanitarian assistance. Burundi is a net food importer, with food accounting for 17% of imports in 1997.
The main [[cash crop]] is [[coffee]], which accounted for 78.5% of exports in 1997. This dependence on coffee has increased Burundi's vulnerability to seasonal yields and international coffee prices. Coffee is the largest state-owned enterprise. In recent years, the government has tried to attract private investment to this sector, with some success. Efforts to privatize other publicly held enterprises have stalled. Other principal exports include tea and raw cotton.
Little industry exists except the processing of agricultural exports. Although potential wealth in [[petroleum]], [[nickel]], [[copper]], and other natural resources is being explored, the uncertain security situation has prevented meaningful investor interest. Industrial development also is hampered by Burundi's distance from the sea and high transport costs. [[Lake Tanganyika]] remains an important tra |
n-religious households(i.e., Al-Juhl). Druze religion does not allow them to intermarry with [[Muslims]], [[Jews]], or members of any other religions. However, these rules are often disregarded in modern societies.
It is also known that Druze believe in five cosmic principles, represented by the five colored Druze star: intelligence/reason (green), soul (red), word (yellow), precedent (blue) and [[immanence]] (white). These virtues take the shape of five different spirits which, until recently, have been continuously reincarnated on Earth as prophets and philosophers including [[Adam and Eve|Adam]], [[Pythagoras]], [[Akhenaten]], and many others. The Druze believe that, in every time period, these 5 principles were personified in 5 different people who came down together to Earth to teach humans the true path to God and [[nirvana]], but that with them came 5 other individuals who would lead people away from the right path into 'darkness'.
The Druze believe in prophets like [[Adam]], [[Noah]], [[Abraham]], [[Sarah]], [[Jacob]], [[Moses]], [[Solomon]], [[John the Baptist]], [[Jesus Christ]], and [[Mohammad]]. But in contrast to members of the other monotheistic faiths, they elevate [[Jethro]], the [[father-in-law]] of [[Moses]], to status of major prophet. They also believe in the wisdom of classical Greek [[philosopher]]s such as [[Plato]]. In addition, they have an array of "wise men" that founded the religion in the [[11th century]]. Individual [[prayer]] does not exist. Druze are not required to follow the Muslim duties of prayer, fasting, nor make pilgrimage to [[Mecca]], but they may do so, especially if it is dangerous for them if they do not.
=== Uqqal and juhhal ===
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Sheikh_druze.jpg|thumb|200px|Druze Sheikh (member of the uqqal)]] -->
The Druze are split into two groups. The inner group are called ''uqqal'' (عقال), "Knowledgeable Initiates". Male ''uqqal'' grow moustaches, shave their heads, and wear dark clothing with white turbans. The outer group, called ''juhhal'' (جهال), "the Ignorant", are not granted access to the secret Druze holy literature. Between 10&ndash;20% of Druze are ''uqqal''. The remainder tend to form the Druze political and military leadership and generally distance themselves from religious issues. Women are considered especially suitable to become uqqal. They are even regarded to be spiritually superior to men, a belief that greatly contrasts with the surrounding Christian and Muslim communities.
One of the Druze's holy books is called the "''Hikma'' Book" or the "Book of Wisdom", largely compiled by a mysterious figure called [[Muqtana|al-Muqtana]]. It is written in several volumes and compiled in [[chapter]]s each covering a specific issue. They denounce materialism, especially materialism relative to religion. Druze places of worship are usually very modest, and their religious figures (''ajaw&#299;d'') lead very modest lifestyles. Prayer is usually conducted discreetly, among family and friends. There is little official hierarchy in the religious community, except for the ''[[Shaykh]] al-'Aqel'', whose role is more political and social than religious. A religious figure is admired for his wisdom and lifestyle.
Druze women, who are uqqal, can opt to wear a ''mand&#299;l'' or transparent loose white [[veil]], especially in the presence of religious figures. They wear the mandeel on their head to cover their hair and wrap it around their mouth and sometimes over their nose as well. They wear black shirts and long skirts covering their legs to their ankles. They are considered equal to men in all aspects and are thought to be spiritually more suited to becoming members of the ''uqqal'' than men.
Today contradictory literature surrounds the Druze, mainly due to adopted beliefs that were used to protect them from persecutors and due to the rumors and stories of outsiders. For example, it is still unclear to most outsiders whether the Druze follow the same traditions of fasting as Muslims in the month of [[Ramadan]]. This is because the Druze have followed these traditions for centuries in order to protect themselves. Many orthodox Druze hold that they should not follow these traditions, but should follow a different fasting tradition still practiced by religious figures instead. The Druze have other fasting traditions, such as fasting during the ten days before [[Eid ul-Adha]], the last night of which is spent in prayer. The Druze fast is more difficult than the traditional [[Ramadan]] fast in that only one light meal is allowed in the evening.
==Notes==
#''Identity Repertoires among Arabs in Israel'', by Muhammad Amara and Izhak Schnell; ''Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies'', Vol. 30, 2004
==External links==
* [http://www.druze.com/ American Druze Society - National]
* [http://www.druze.org/ American Druze Society - Michigan]
* [http://www.druzestudies.org/ Institute of Druze Studies]
* [http://www.druze.org.il/ Druze Online Network in Hebrew]
* [http://www.europeandruzesociety.com/ European Druze Society]
* [http://www.druzenet.org/ Druzenet: English Publications]
* [http://www.druze.net/ Canadian Druze Society]
* [http://www.mmouka.com www.mmouka.com]
* [http://www.druzehistoryandculture.com/ Articles about Druze]
* [http://59.1911encyclopedia.org/D/DR/DRUSES.htm 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica article]
* [http://faculty-staff.ou.edu/L/Joshua.M.Landis-1/Joshua_Landis_Druze_and_Shishakli.htm Rise and fall of the Syrian Druze]
* [http://www.druzecafe.com/ Meeting Druze from all over the world]
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/druse.htm Druse, Druze, Mowahhidoon] described at the OCRT site
[[Category:Islam]]
[[Category:Abrahamic religions]]
[[Category:Druze| ]]
[[Category:Israeli society]]
[[Category:Religion in Lebanon]]
[[Category:Lebanese society]]<!-- should be in both because it is both a Lebanon based religion and a key community in Lebanon-->
[[Category:Mystery religions]]
[[Category:Syrian society]]
[[ar:موحدون دروز]]
[[ca:Drusos]]
[[de:Drusen]]
[[es:Drusos]]
[[eo:Druzoj]]
[[fr:Druzes]]
[[hr:Druzi]]
[[he:דרוזים]]
[[nl:Druzen]]
[[ja:ドゥルーズ派]]
[[pl:Druzowie]]
[[pt:Druzo]]
[[ru:Друзы]]
[[sl:Druzi]]
[[sv:Druser]]
[[tr:Dürzilik]]
[[wa:Druzes]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>December 12</title>
<id>8633</id>
<revision>
<id>42010956</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:06:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rklawton</username>
<id>754622</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Events */ added Keiko here (RIP)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''December 12''' is the 346th day (347th in leap years) of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]], with 19 days remaining.
{{DecemberCalendar}}
==Events==
*[[627]] - [[Battle of Nineveh (627)|Battle of Nineveh]]: A [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] army under Emperor [[Heraclius]] defeated Emperor [[Khosrau II]]'s [[Persians|Persian]] forces, commanded by General Rhahzadh.
*[[1098]] - [[First Crusade]]: Massacre of [[Ma'arrat al-Numan]] - [[Crusaders]] breach the town's walls and massacre about 20,000 inhabitants. After finding themselves with insufficient food, they resort to [[cannibalism]].
*[[1531]] - Apparition of [[Our Lady of Guadalupe]] to Juan Diego in [[Mexico City]].
*[[1719]] - The ''[[Boston Gazette]]'' is published for the first time.
*[[1781]] - [[American Revolutionary War]]: [[Second Battle of Ushant]] - A [[Royal Navy]] squadron, commanded by Rear Admiral [[Richard Kempenfelt]] in ''[[HMS Victory]]'', defeats a [[France|French]] fleet.
*[[1870]] - [[Joseph H. Rainey]] of [[South Carolina]] becomes the first black [[Congress of the United States|U.S. congressman]].
*[[1897]] - [[Belo Horizonte]], the first [[planned city]] of [[Brazil]], is inaugurated.
*[[1901]] - [[Guglielmo Marconi]] receives the first [[trans-Atlantic]] [[radio]] signal at [[Signal Hill, Newfoundland and Labrador|Signal Hill]] in [[St John's, Newfoundland]].
*[[1903]] - The city of [[Fairfield, California]] is incorporated.
*[[1911]] - [[Delhi]] replaces [[Calcutta]] as the capital of [[India]].
*[[1915]] - President of the [[Republic of China]], [[Yuan Shikai]], reinstates the monarchy and proclaims himself [[Emperor of China]].
*[[1917]] - In [[Nebraska]], Father [[Edward J. Flanagan]] founds [[Boys Town]] as a farm village for wayward boys.
*[[1925]] - The [[Majlis of Iran]] votes to crown [[Reza Pahlavi|Reza Khan]] as the new [[Shah of Persia]].
*[[1936]] - [[Xi'an Incident]]: The [[Generalissimo]] of the [[Republic of China]], [[Chiang Kai-shek]] was kidnapped by [[Zhang Xueliang]].
*[[1937]] - [[Panay incident]]: [[Imperial Japan|Japanese]] aircraft shell and sink US gunboat ''[[Panay]]'' on the [[Yangtze River]] in [[China]].
*[[1939]] - [[Winter War]]: [[Battle of Tolvajärvi]] - [[Finland|Finnish]] forces defeat those of the [[Soviet Union]] in their first major victory of the conflict.
*[[1940]] - Approximately 70 people are killed in the Marples Hotel, [[Fitzalan Square]], [[Sheffield]] as a result of a German air raid.
*[[1941]] - [[Timeline of World War II|World War II]]: [[Great Britain]] declares war on [[Bulgaria]].
*[[1942]] - A fire in a hostel in [[St. John's, Newfoundland]] kills 100 people.
*[[1946]] - A fire at a [[New York City]] ice plant spreads to a nearby tenement killing 37 people.
*[[1948]] - [[Malayan Emergency]]: [[Batang Kali Massacre]] - 14 members of the [[Scots Guards]] stationed in [[Malaysia]] allegedly massacre 24 unarmed civilians and set fire to the village.
*[[1950]] - [[Paula Ackerman]], the first woman appointed to perform [[rabbi]]nical functions in the [[United States]], leads the congregation in her first services.
*[[1963]] - [[Kenya]] gains its independence from the [[United Kingdom]].
*[[1964]] - Prime Minister [[Jomo Kenyatta]] became the first [[Heads of State of Kenya|President]] |
nd selection process, was chosen as the first human test subject. He received injections and oral ingestions of a chemical formula that was termed the Super-Soldier Serum, which had been developed by the scientist Dr. Emil Erskine (who was code-named "Dr. Reinstein"). Rogers was then exposed to a controlled burst of "Vita-Rays" that activated and stabilized the chemicals in his system. Although the process was arduous physically, it successfully altered his physiology from its relatively frail form to the maximum of human efficiency, including greatly enhanced musculature and reflexes.
[[Image:Captainamerica5.jpg|thumb|200px|''Captain America'' Vol. 5, #5, together with fellow [[Invaders (comics)|Invaders]] [[Namor the Sub-Mariner]] and the [[Human Torch (Golden Age)|Human Torch]]. Art by [[Steve Epting]].]]
At this moment, a Nazi [[secret agent|spy]] revealed himself and shot Erskine. Because the scientist had committed the crucial portions of the Super-Soldier formula to memory, it could not be duplicated. Rogers killed the spy in retaliation (retconned in the 1960s so that the spy accidentally killed himself by fleeing headlong into an "electrical omniverter") and vowed to oppose the enemies of America. The [[United States]] government, making the most of its one super-soldier, reimagined him as a superhero who served both as a [[counter-intelligence]] agent and a [[propaganda]] symbol to counter Nazi [[Germany]]'s head of terrorist operations, the [[Red Skull]]. To that end, Rogers was given a costume modeled after the [[American flag]], a [[Captain America's shield|bulletproof shield]], a personal [[sidearm]] and the codename Captain America. He was also given a cover identity as a clumsy [[infantry]] private at Camp LeHigh in Virginia. Barely out of his teens himself, Rogers then made friends with the teenage camp [[mascot]], [[Bucky|James Buchanan "Bucky" Barnes]].
Barnes accidentally learned of Roger's [[secret identity|dual identity]] and offered to keep the secret if he could become Captain America's [[sidekick]]. Rogers agreed, and trained Barnes appropriately. By this time Rogers had met President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], who presented him with a new shield made from a chance mixture of [[iron]], [[vibranium]] and an unknown catalyst. The alloy was indestructible, yet the shield was light enough to use as a [[discus]]-like weapon that could be angled to return to him. (In several stories, due to writer error, the shield was described as an [[adamantium (comics)|adamantium]]-vibranium alloy.) It proved so effective that the sidearm was dropped. Throughout World War II, Captain America and Bucky fought the Nazi menace both on their own and as members of the superhero team [[Invaders (comics)|the Invaders]] (beginning with 1970s comics), which after the war evolved into the [[All-Winners Squad]] (in 1940s comics).
Rogers was not the first to be given the Super Soldier formula. It was revealed years later that while Rogers was still being assessed, some military members of the project felt that a non-soldier was not the right candidate and secretly gave Erskine's incomplete formula to Clinton McIntyre. However, this made McIntyre violently insane, and he had to be subdued and placed in cold storage. The criminal organization [[Advanced Idea Mechanics|AIM]] would later revive McIntyre as the homicidal [[Protocide]]. (''Captain America Annual'', 2000).
A beta version of the formula was given to [[Isaiah Bradley]], who became the only survivor of a group of [[African-American]] soldiers that "Reinstein" and the military experimented on in 1942. After the last two members of his group were killed, Bradley stole the costume meant for Rogers and wore it on a suicide mission to destroy the Nazi super-soldier effort at a German concentration camp. Bradley was captured, but eventually rescued and [[court martial]]ed. He was imprisoned for 17 years in [[United States Disciplinary Barracks|Leavenworth]] until he was pardoned by President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower]]. By the time of his release, the long-term effects of the formula turned Bradley into a hulking, sterile giant with the mentality of a 7-year-old. Rogers would not find out about Bradley until decades later (''Truth: Red, White and Black'', 2003). The [[Patriot (comics)|Patriot]], a member of the [[Young Avengers]], has been revealed to be the grandson of Isaiah Bradley.
According to files in the Weapons Plus Program, a clandestine government organization devoted to the creation of superhumans to combat and eventually exterminate mutants, Rogers was "Weapon I", the first generation living weapon. Following his disappearance, the following installments of the Weapon Plus Program moved on to new attempts to create the ultimate weapon, experimenting on animals, racial minorities, criminals and eventually mutants, with results such as [[Wolverine (comics)|Wolverine]], [[Deadpool]] and [[Fantomex]] (''New X-Men'' #145, October 2003).
In the closing days of World War II in 1945, Captain America and Bucky tried to stop the villainous [[Baron Zemo]] from destroying an experimental drone plane. Zemo launched the plane with an armed explosive device on it, with Rogers and Barnes in hot pursuit. They reached the plane just before it took off, but when Bucky tried to defuse the bomb, it exploded in mid-air. The young man was believed killed, and Rogers was hurled into the freezing waters of either the North Atlantic or the English Channel (accounts differ). Neither his body or Bucky's were found, and both were presumed dead.
====Late 1940s&ndash;1950s - After Steve Rogers====
Fearing a blow to morale if the news of Captain America's demise was revealed, President [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] asked William Naslund, the Golden Age patriotic costumed hero known as the Spirit of '76, to assume the role, with a young man named Fred Davis as Bucky. They continued to serve in the same roles after the war with the [[All-Winners Squad]], until Naslund was fatally injured in a battle with the [[android]] Adam II in 1946 (''What If?'' #4, August 1977). With Naslund's death, Jeff Mace, also known as the Golden Age [[Jeffrey Mace|Patriot]], took over as Captain America, with Davis continuing to act as Bucky. However, Davis was shot and injured in 1948 and forced to retire. Mace then teamed up with Betsy "Golden Girl" Ross, and sometime before 1953 gave up his Captain America identity to marry her. Mace contracted [[cancer]] and died some decades later (''Captain America'' #285, September 1983).
In 1953, an unnamed man who idolized Captain America and had done his American History Ph.D. thesis on Rogers discovered some Nazi files in a warehouse in Germany, one of which apparently contained the lost formula for the Super Soldier serum. He took it to the United States government on the condition that they use it to make him the fourth Captain America. Needing a symbol for the [[Korean War]], they agreed, and the man underwent plastic surgery to look like Steve Rogers, even assuming that name. However, the war ended and the project never went forward. "Rogers" found a teaching job at the Lee School, where he met Jack Monroe, a young orphan who also idolized Captain America. They decided to use the formula on themselves and became the new Captain America and Bucky, this time fighting the so-called [[Communism|Communist]] scourge (''Young Men'' #24&ndash;28, Dec. 1953&ndash;May 1954). These stories were written by [[Stan Lee]] with art by a young [[John Romita Sr.]]
"Rogers" and Monroe did not know of and therefore did not undergo the "Vita-Ray" process, however. The imperfect implementation of the formula in their systems made them [[paranoia|paranoid]], and by the middle of 1954 they were irrationally attacking anyone they perceived to be a Communist. In 1955 the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] placed them in suspended animation. The 1950s Captain America and Bucky would be revived years later after the return of Steve Rogers, go on another rampage, and be defeated by the man they had modeled themselves after (''Captain America'' #153, Sept. 1972).
====1960s&ndash;1970s - The return of Steve Rogers====
[[Image:Avengers4.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''Avengers'' Vol. 1, #4 (March 1964), art by [[Jack Kirby]].]]
In ''[[Avengers (comics)|Avengers]]'' #4 (March 1964), the Avengers discovered Steve Rogers's body in the North Atlantic, his costume under his soldier's uniform and still carrying his shield. Rogers had been preserved in a block of ice since 1945, which melted after the block was thrown back into the ocean by the Sub-Mariner, enraged that an Arctic tribe was worshipping the frozen figure. When Rogers revived, he related his last, failed mission in the closing days of the war. Rogers accepted membership in the Avengers, and although he soon adjusted to modern times well enough to eventually assume leadership of the team, he was plagued by guilt for not being able to prevent Bucky's death. He also undertook missions for the national security agency [[S.H.I.E.L.D.]], which was commanded by his old war comrade [[Nick Fury]].
Captain America was once again given his own series (now in its fifth incarnation), which has lasted decades longer than its original run. The book initially enjoyed the artwork of Jack Kirby as well as a short run by [[Jim Steranko]], and many of the industry's top artists and writers have worked on the book. It was in a storyline during the book's initial series that Rogers met and trained an [[African American]], Sam Wilson, who became the superhero known as the [[Falcon (comics)|Falcon]]. The Falcon was one of the few black superheroes in comic books at that time, and it began a long association between the two characters that has continued to the present day.
[[Image:CaptainAm |
Israeli couscous is said to have been developed in response to the wave of Jewish immigrants from various parts of the Middle East after the state gained independance in 1948. Wheat was relatively abundant at the time, but [[rice]] was scarce. The new pasta was meant to provide a rice substitute for those immigrants from eastern Arab countries and from Persia, where rice was the staple grain.
==See also==
{{cookbook|Couscous}}
*[[Moroccan cuisine]]
==External links==
* [http://www.couscousdari.com Couscous DARI - History and origin of Couscous - Couscous recipes]
* [http://mybookofrai.typepad.com/cuisinealgerienne/ Algerian recipes plus photos] Author is a chef instructor at The California School of Culinary Arts, Le Cordon Bleu. He was born in Lyon, France to Algerian parents.
* [http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199806/couscous-the.measure.of.the.maghrib.htm Couscous - The Measure of the Maghrib]
* [http://www.geocities.com/tdcastros/Historyserver/papers/cuscus.htm Couscous]
* [http://www.cliffordawright.com/history/couscous_history.html History of Couscous]
* [http://mybookofrai.typepad.com/my_weblog/2005/07/the_march_of_co.html "The March of Couscous" article written by Farid Zadi.] Traces how couscous was taken to different countries from its origins in North Africa.
[[Category:Cereals]]
[[Category:Maghreb]]
[[Category:Moroccan cuisine]]
[[Category:Pasta]]
[[bg:Кускус]]
[[ca:Cuscús]]
[[de:Kuskus]]
[[eo:Kuskuso]]
[[fr:Couscous]]
[[nl:Couscous]]
[[he:קוסקוס]]
[[ja:クスクス]]
[[pl:Kuskus (kasza)]]
[[pt:Cuscuz]]
[[sl:Kuskus]]
[[fi:Kuskus]]
[[sv:Couscous]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Constantius II</title>
<id>6746</id>
<revision>
<id>40599410</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T19:06:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bastin8</username>
<id>154626</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Great Britain</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Constantius_II_337_361.jpg|thumb|right|emperor Constantius II]]
'''Constantius II''', [[Roman Emperor]] ([[7 August]], [[317]] - [[3 November]], [[361]], reigned [[337]] - [[361]]), was the second of the three sons of [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]] and [[Fausta]].
He was born in [[Sirmium]] (in [[Illyricum]]) and named [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]. When his father died in 337, he led the massacre of his relatives decended from the second marriage of [[Constantius I Chlorus]] and [[Flavia Maximiana Theodora|Theodora]], leaving himself, his older brother [[Constantine II (emperor)|Constantine II]], his younger brother [[Constans]] and two cousins ([[Julian the Apostate]] and his brother [[Gallus Caesar|Gallus]]) as the only surviving adult males related to Constantine. The three brothers divided the [[Roman Empire]] between them according to their father's will. Constantine II received [[Great Britain]], [[Gaul]] and [[Spain]]; Constans ruled [[Italy]], [[Africa]], and the [[Illyria|Illyrian provinces]]; and Constantius ruled [[Constantinople]] and the East.
This division changed when Constantine II died in [[340]], trying to overthrow Constans in Italy, and Constans become sole ruler in the Western half of the empire. The division changed once more in [[350]] when Constans was killed in battle by forces loyal to the usurper [[Magnentius]]. Until this time Constantius was preoccupied with fighting the [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanid Empire]], and he was forced to elevate his cousin Gallus to Caesar to assist him while he turned his attention to this usurper.
Constantius eventually met and crushed Magnentius in the [[Battle of Mursa Major]], one of the bloodiest battles in Roman history, in [[351]]. Magnentius committed suicide in [[353]], and Constantius soon after put his cousin Gallus to death. However, he still could not handle the military affairs of both the Eastern and German frontiers by himself, so in [[355]] he elevated his last remaining relative, [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]], to Caesar. As Julian was hailed Augustus by the army in Gaul, Constantius saw no alternative but to face the usurper with violent force.
As the two armies sought engagement, Constantius died from a fever near [[Tarsus in Cilicia|Tarsus]] on November 3, 361, and Julian was hailed Augustus in the whole of the Roman empire.
Constantius took an active part in the affairs of the [[Christianity|Christian]] church, frequently taking the side of the [[Arianism|Arians]], and he called the [[Council of Rimini]] in [[359]].
Constantius married twice, first to Eusebia Augusta and second to Faustina, who gave birth to a posthumous daughter, Constantia, who later married Emperor [[Gratian]].
== External links ==
{{Commons|Constantius II}}
* DiMaio, Michael, and Robert Frakes, [http://www.roman-emperors.org/constaii.htm "Constantius II,"] ''De Imperatoribus Romanis'' site.
{{Roman Emperor|Prev=[[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]]|CoEmperor=with [[Constans]] and [[Constantine II (emperor)|Constantine II]]|Next=[[Julian the Apostate|Julian]]|years=337&ndash;361}}
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</page>
<page>
<title>Constans</title>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article discusses Constans, the Roman emperor. For Constans "II", usurper and mythical king of Britain, see [[Constans, son of Constantine]].''
[[Image:Constans_coin.jpg|thumb|Bronze coin bearing the profile of Constans]]
'''Flavius Julius Constans''' ([[320]] - [[January 18]], [[350]]), was a [[Roman Emperor]] who ruled from [[337]] to [[350]]. Constans was the third and youngest son of [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine the Great]] and [[Fausta]], Constantine's second wife.
From 337, he was a joint ruler with his brothers [[Constantius II]] and [[Constantine II (emperor)|Constantine II]]. Constantine II attempted to take advantage of his youth and inexperience by invading [[Italy]] in [[340]], but Constans defeated Constantine II at [[Aquileia]], where the older brother died.
The writer [[Julius Firmicus Maternus]] mentioned that Constans visited [[Roman Britain|Britain]] in the early months of [[343]], but did not explain why. The speed of his trip, paired with the fact he crossed the [[English Channel]] during the dangerous winter months, suggests it was in response to a military emergency of some kind.
In [[350]], the general [[Magnentius]] declared himself emperor with the support of the troops on the [[Rhine]] frontier, and later the entire Western portion of the Roman Empire. Constans lacked any support beyond his immediate household, and was forced to flee for his life. Magnentius' supporters cornered him in a fortification in southeastern [[Gaul]], where he was killed.
== External links ==
{{Commons|Constans}}
{{Roman Emperor | Prev=[[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]] | CoEmperor=with [[Constantius II]]<br/> and [[Constantine II (emperor)|Constantine II]] | Next=[[Constantius II]] | years=337-350}}
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</page>
<page>
<title>Cheerleading</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cheerleaders.jpg|thumb|right|Cheerleaders warming up for competition]]
'''Cheerleading''' is an activity that uses organized routines made up of elements from dance and/or [[gymnastics]] to cheer on sports teams at games and matches, and/or as a competitive sport. A cheerleading performer is a cheerleader.
==History==
Cheerleading came about at [[Princeton University]] in the 1880s with the crowd chant, "Rah rah rah, tiger tiger tiger, sis sis sis, boom boom boom ahhhhhhh, Princeton Princeton Princeton!" as a way to encourage school spirit at football games. A few years later, Princeton graduate Thomas Peebles, introduced the idea of organized crowd chanting to the University of Minnesota in 1884. But it was not until 1898 that University of Minnesota student Johnny Campbell stood in front of the crowd, and directed them in a chant, making Campbell the very first cheerleader. Soon after that, the [[University of Minnesota]] organized a "yell leader" squad of 4 male students.
Although it is estimated that 90% of today's cheerleading participants are female, cheerleading started out as an all-male activity. Females started to participate in cheerleading in the [[1920s]], due to limited availability of female collegiate sports. By the [[1940s]], it was a largely female activity.
Cheerleading is most closely associated with [[American football]], and to a lesser degree [[basketball]]. Sports such as [[football (soccer)|soccer]] and [[wrestling]] rarely have cheerleaders, while sports like [[baseball]] have none at all.
In [[1948]], Lawrence "Herkie" Herkimer formed the National Cheerleading Association (NCA) as a way to hold che |
of Marlborough|Duke of Marlborough]], leading English, Dutch, and German troops, decisively defeated a French army led by the [[François de Neufville, duc de Villeroi|duc de Villeroi]] at Ramillies-Offus, near [[Namur (city)|Namur]], on the bank of the river Mehaigne in [[Brabant]]. This victory cleared the French from the [[Spanish Netherlands]], and led to the capture of the cities of [[Antwerp]], [[Bruges]], and [[Ghent, Belgium|Ghent]].
The two armies were evenly matched, with about 50,000 men apiece. The battle began when the English attacked, over the Little Geete, the French left. The French reserve was drawn away to meet the English attack. While this was going on on the French left, the French cavalry was able to defeat the Allied cavalry on the right. Marlborough ordered his right wing cavalry to move to his left to stabilize the cavalry battle there. He also ordered his battalions on his right to withdraw to their original positions. When the Allied then launched an attack against the French center and left, the French reserve was not in a position to stop the attack, having been drawn away early in the battle. The French attempted to form a second line, but it did not hold. The French were routed, and the battle ended with the Allied capturing 5,600 prisoners.
[[Category:1706]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Brian Kernighan</title>
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<comment>changed K&R C to point to book</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Brian W. Kernighan''' (pronounced ''Ker'-ni-han''; the 'g' is silent; born [[1942]]) is a [[computer scientist]] who worked at the [[Bell Labs]] and contributed to the design of the pioneering [[AWK programming language|AWK]] and [[AMPL programming language|AMPL]] [[programming language]]s.
Kernighan's name became widely known through co-authorship of the first book on the [[C programming language]] with [[Dennis Ritchie]]. Kernighan has said that he had no part in the design of the C language: "It's entirely Dennis Ritchie's work". He authored many [[Unix]] programs, including [[ditroff]].
The "K" of [[The C Programming Language (book)|K&R C]] and the "K" in the name AWK derive from "Kernighan."
He was born in [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]] and received his [[Bachelor's degree]] in [[Engineering Physics]] from the [[University of Toronto]]. He received his Ph.D. in [[electrical engineering]] from [[Princeton University]], where since [[2000]] he has held a professorship in the department of computer science.
==Writings==
*''[[Software Tools]]'' ([[1976]] with [[P. J. Plauger]])
*''[[The C Programming Language (book)|The C Programming Language]]'' ("K&R") ([[1978]] with [[Dennis Ritchie]])
*''[[The Elements of Programming Style (book)|The Elements of Programming Style]]'' ([[1982]] with [[P. J. Plauger]])
*''[[The Unix Programming Environment]]'' ([[1984]] with [[Rob Pike]])
*''[[The AWK Programming Language]]'' ([[1988]] with [[Peter J. Weinberger]])
*''[[The Practice of Programming]]'' ([[1999]] with [[Rob Pike]])
== External links ==
*[http://www.cs.princeton.edu/~bwk/ Brian Kernighan's home page at Princeton U.]
*[http://cm.bell-labs.com/who/bwk/ Brian Kernighan's home page at Bell Labs]
*[http://www.lysator.liu.se/c/bwk-on-pascal.html "Why Pascal is Not My Favorite Programming Language"] &ndash; By Brian Kernighan, AT&T Bell Labs, [[2 April]] [[1981]]
*[http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~mihaib/kernighan-interview/index.html An Interview with Brian Kernighan] &ndash; By Mihai Budiu, for ''PC Report Romania'', August 2000
*[http://www.linuxjournal.com/article.php?sid=7035 Interview with Brian Kernighan] &ndash; By Aleksey Dolya, for ''Linux Journal'', July 2003.
[[Category:1942 births|Kernighan, Brian]]
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<page>
<title>BCPL</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''BCPL''' ('''Basic Combined Programming Language''') is a [[computer]] [[programming language]] that was designed by [[Martin Richards]] of the [[University of Cambridge]] in [[1966]]; it was originally intended for use in writing [[compiler]]s for other languages. Although not widely used now, it was very influential, because [[Dennis Ritchie]] would later develop the widely-used [[C programming language]] from BCPL.
BCPL was a response to difficulties with its predecessor [[Combined Programming Language|CPL]], created during the early [[1960s]]; Richards created BCPL by "removing those features of the full language which make compilation difficult". The first compiler implementation, for the [[IBM 7094]] under [[CTSS]], was written while Richards was visiting [[Project MAC]] at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] in the spring of [[1967]]. The language was first described in a paper presented to the [[1969 Spring Joint Computer Conference]].
The language is clean, powerful, and portable. It therefore proved possible to write small and simple compilers for it; reputedly some compilers could be run in 16 [[kilobyte]]s. In addition, the Richards compiler, itself written in BCPL, was easily portable. BCPL was therefore a popular choice for [[bootstrapping]] a system.
A major reason for the compiler's portability lay in its structure. It was split into two parts: the front end parsed the source and generated [[O-code machine|O-code]] for a [[virtual machine]], and the backend took the O-code and translated it into the code for the target machine. Only 1/5th of the compiler's code needed to be rewritten to support a new machine, a task that usually took between 2 and 5 [[man-month]]s. Soon afterwards this structure became fairly common practice, cf. [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]] or [[Java programming language|Java]], but the Richards BCPL compiler was the first to define a virtual machine for this purpose.
The language is unusual in having only one [[data type]]: a [[word (computer science)|word]], a fixed number of bits, usually chosen to align with the architecture's machine word. This choice later proved to be a significant problem when BCPL was used on machines in which the smallest addressable item was not a word, but a [[byte]].
The interpretation of any value was determined by the operators used to process the values. (For example, + added two values together treating them as [[integer]]s; ! indirected through a value, effectively treating it as a pointer.) In order for this to work, the implementation provided no [[type checking]]. The [[Hungarian Notation]] was developed to help programmers avoid inadvertent type errors.
It is reputedly the language in which the original [[hello world program]] was written. The first [[MUD]] was also written in BCPL [http://www.mudconnect.com/mud_intro.html].
Several operating systems were written partially or wholly in BCPL (for example, [[TRIPOS]] or [[AmigaOS#Kickstart|Amiga Kickstart]]). BCPL was also the initial language used in the seminal [[Xerox PARC]] [[Alto (computer)|Alto]] project, the first modern [[personal computer]]; among many other influential projects, the ground-breaking [[Bravo (software)|Bravo]] [[document preparation system]] was written in BCPL.
By 1970, implementations existed for the [[Honeywell 635]] and [[Honeywell 645|645]], the [[IBM 360]], the [[TX-2]], the [[CDC 6400]], the [[Univac 1108]], the [[Programmed Data Processor|PDP-9]], the [[KDF 9]] and the [[Atlas 2]]. In 1979 implementations existed for at least 25 architectures; in 2001 it sees little use.
The philosophy of BCPL can be summarised by quoting from the book ''BCPL, the language and its compiler'':
:''The philosophy of BCPL is not one of the tyrant who thinks he knows best and lays down the law on what is and what is not allowed; rather, BCPL acts more as a servant offering his services to the best of his ability without complaint, even when confronted with apparent nonsense. The programmer is always assumed to know what he is doing and is not hemmed in by petty restrictions.''
The design, and philosophy, of BCPL strongly influenced [[B programming language|B]], which in turn influenced [[C programming language|C]]. C is now the language of choice for [[systems programming]].
== Sources ==
* Martin Richards, ''[http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/who/dmr/bcpl.html The BCPL Reference Manual]'' (Memorandum M-352, Project MAC, Cambridge, July, 1967)
* Martin Richards, ''BCPL - a tool for compiler writing |
an [[Jeremy Bentham]], the "founder" of [[Utilitarianism]], regarded animals as a serious object of moral concern, arguing that they evinced at least some response to pleasure and pain, and thus, the effect a certain course of action would have on animals was directly relevant{{smref|Ben}}. More recently, [[Peter Singer]] has argued that it is unreasonable that we do not treat animals in the same way we are inclined to treat human beings{{smref|Sing}}.
Some [[environmentalism | environmentalists]] and [[ecocentric | ecocentrists]] hold that the entire environment or ecosystem to be the relevant object of concern. Thus, an action can only be considered acceptable if it has a positive (or at least non-negative) impact on the environment a particular ecosystem. Theoretically, even the entire universe might be the relevant object of concern, the best action being the one that brings the most value into the universe, whatever that value might be.
==Varities of Consequentialism==
Consequentialism is a nefariously multi-headed beast, capable of adopting quite a variety of guises. Nevertheless, there are certain consequentialist theories that form paradigms against which other forms of consequentialism may be understood.
===Utilitarianism===
{{main|Utilitarianism}}
[[Utilitarianism | Hedonistic Utilitarianism]] is, historically, the paradigmatic example of a consequentialist moral theory. It holds that right action stems from the maximization of happiness for all agents. "Happiness" on this account is defined as the maximization of pleasure and the minimization of pain. Thus, this form of utilitarianism holds that the resulting happiness determines the value of any action, and, further, that what matters is the aggregate happiness; the happiness of everyone and not the happiness of any particular person.
[[John Stuart Mill]], in his exposition of hedonistic utilitarianism, proposed a hierarchy of pleasures, meaning that the pursuit of certain kinds of pleasure it placed higher than the pursuit of other pleasures. Thus he hoped to alleviate problems such as someone deriving pleasure from killing.
Contemporary utilitarians, such as [[Peter Singer]] are generally concerned to maximise the satisfaction of preferences, hence the expression "[[preference utilitarianism]]".
===Ethical Egoism===
{{main|Ethical egoism}}
[[Ethical egoism]] can be understood as a consequentialist theory according to which the consequences for the individual agent are taken to matter most. Thus, egoism may license actions which are good for the agent, but are detrimental to general welfare. However, some advocates of egoism, most notably [[Ayn Rand]], have argued that the pursuit of selfish gains ultimately works out best for everyone.
===Rule Consequentialism===
Rule consequentialism is a theory that is sometimes seen as an attempt to reconcile [[deontology]] and consequentialism.
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==Consequentialism contrasted with other moral theories==
===Deontology===
Consequentialism is often contrasted with [[Deontological ethics|deontology]]. Deontological theories tend to focus on kinds of actions rather than the particular consequences of those actions. Consequently, a deontologist might argue that we should stick to our duty regardless of the consequences. Thus, [[Kant]] famously argued that we had a moral duty to tell some one planning a murder where their would-be victim is.
However, consequentialist and deontological theories are not necessarily mutually exclusive. For example, Sen advances a theory that claims that what is to be maximized is the obedience to moral rules{{smref|Sch1}}. In the same volume, Scanlon advances the idea that human rights, which are commonly considered a "deontological" concept, can only be justified with reference to the consequences of having those rights{{smref|Sch1}}. Similarly, Nozick argues for a theory that is mostly consequentialist, but incorporates inviolable "side-constraints" which restrict the sort of actions agents can contemplate doing{{smref|Sch1}}.
===Virtue Ethics===
Consequentialism can also be contrasted with [[Aretaic turn|aretaic]] moral theories such as [[virtue ethics]]. In fact, Anscombe's paper which coined the term "consequentialism" also began the discussion of [[aretaic turn]] theories in modern analytic philosophy.
Whereas consequentialist theories, by definition, posit that consequences of action should be the primary focus of moral theories, [[Aretaic turn|aretaic moral theory]] insists that character rather than the consequences of actions should be the focal point. The contention is that consequentialist theories tend to totally disregard the development of moral ''character''. Thus, [[Phillipa Foot]], in an influential paper, argues that consequences in themselves have no moral content, unless that content has been provided by a virtue such as benevolence{{smref|Sch1}}.
However, this distinction is not absolute. Consequentialist theories can consider character in several ways:
* Effects on character may be regarded as a relevant consequence.
* Virtues might be seen as leading to the best consequences.
* The maximization of virtue (or a particular virtue) might itself be the goal of a consequentialist theory.
==Criticisms of Consequentialism==
Consequentialism has been criticized on several counts. According to [[G.e._Moore|G.E. Moore]] in ''Principia Ethica''{{smref|Mor}}, consequentialism (or at least classical utilitariansim) commits "the [[naturalistic fallacy]]" by assuming that "the good" can be adequately defined by some "natural" property or set of natural properties. This, he claims, can be demonstrated because for any X a consequentialist might propose as being innately good we can always ask "But is X good?" Thus we must have a tacit ''understanding'' of moral goodness that is different from any possible natural property or set of such properties.
==Bibliography==
*{{note|Ben}}{{cite book | title = An Introduction to the Principles of Moral Legislation | year = 1996 |author = Bentham, Jeremy | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | id = ISBN 0198205163 | url = http://www.la.utexas.edu/research/poltheory/bentham/ipml/ipml.toc.html}}
*{{note|Dar}}{{cite book | title = Consequentialism | year = 2002 | author = Darwall, Stephen (Ed.) | publisher = Blackwell | location = Oxford | id = ISBN 0631231080}}
*{{note|Hon}}{{Citepaper | Author = Honderich, Ted | Title = Consequentialism, Moralities of Concern and Selfishness | PublishYear = 2003 | URL = http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~uctytho/ted9.htm}}
*{{note|Mor}}{{cite book | title = Principia Ethica | year = 1903 | author = Moore, G. E. | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | id = ISBN 052144848 | url = http://fair-use.org/g-e-moore/principia-ethica}}
*{{note|Sch1}}{{cite book | title = Consequentialism and Its Critics | year = 1988 | author = Scheffler, Samuel (Ed.) | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | id = ISBN 0198750730}}
*{{note|Sch2}}{{cite book | author = Scheffler, Samuel | title = The Rejection of Consequentialism: A Philosophical Investigation of the Considerations Underlying Rival Moral Conceptions | year = 1994 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | id = ISBN 0198235119}}
*{{note|Sing}}{{cite book | title = Unsanctifying Human Life | author = Singer, Peter | editor = Helga Kuhse, ed. | year = 2002 | publisher = Blackwell | location = Oxford | id = ISBN 0631225072}}
==See also==
*[[Ethics]]
*[[Egoism]]
*[[Utilitarianism]]
*[[Ethics and evolutionary psychology|Ethical fitnessism]]
*[[Deontological ethics|Deontology]]
*[[Virtue ethics]]
*[[Altruism (ethical doctrine)|Altruism]]
===Famous Consequentialists===
*[[Jeremy Bentham]]
*[[R.M. Hare]]
*[[Amartya Sen]]
*[[Henry Sidgwick]]
*[[Peter Singer]]
*[[John Stuart Mill]]
==External links==
*Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consequentialism/ Consequentialism]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consequentialism-rule/ Rule Consequentialism]
*[http://www.utilitarianism.com/ Utiliarianism Resources]
[[Category:Meta-ethics]]
[[Category:Ethics]]
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<page>
<title>Conscription</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{conscription}}
'''Conscription''' is a general term for involuntary labor demanded by some established authority, but it is most often used in the specific sense of government policies that require (very often, male only) citizens to serve in their [[military|armed forces]]. It is known by various names &mdash; for example, the most recent conscription program in the [[United States]] was known colloquially as "'''[[Conscription in the United States|the draft]]'''". Many nations do not ''maintain'' conscription forces, instead relying on a volunteer or professional military most of the time, although many of these countries still reserve the possibility of conscription for wartime and "crises" of supply.
(Historically, "conscription" has also sometimes been used as a general term for non-military [[Involuntary servitude|involuntary labour]] demanded by some established authority; for example, [[Old Testament]] commentaries use the term to describe the levies of labour used to build the Temple.)
In the [[United Kingdom]], [[Australia]], [[Canada]] and elsewhere the term ''conscription'' is generally used only during wartime. [[National Service]] was the term used during peace-time in t |
others|Engelbart, Doug]]
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<page>
<title>Diamond</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Brillanten.jpg|thumb|250px|A scattering of round-brilliant cut diamonds shows off the many reflecting facets.]]
<!--First paragraph: Chemistry and Material Properties, Introduction, Industry Size-->
'''Diamond''' is one of the two best known forms (or ''[[allotropy|allotropes]]'') of [[carbon]], whose [[hardness]] and high [[Dispersion (optics)|dispersion]] of light make it useful for industrial applications and [[Jewellery|jewelry]] (the other equally well known [[allotropes of carbon|allotrope]] is [[graphite]]). Diamonds are specifically renowned as a [[mineral]] with superlative physical qualities - they make excellent [[abrasive]]s because they can only be scratched by other diamonds, which also means they hold a polish extremely well and retain [[luster]]. About 130 million [[Carat (mass)|carats]] (26,000 kg) are mined annually, with a total value of nearly [[US dollar|USD $]]9 [[billion]].
<!--Second paragraph: Etymology and Applications-->
The name "diamond" derives from the [[Greek language|ancient Greek]] ''adamas'' (&#945;&#948;&#940;&#956;&#945;&#962;; "invincible"). They have been treasured as [[gem]]s since their use as religious [[icon]]s in [[India]] at least 2,500 years ago&mdash;and usage in [[drill bit]]s and [[engraving]] tools also dates to early human history. Popularity of diamonds has risen since the 19th century because of improved cutting and polishing techniques, and they are commonly judged by the "four Cs": ''carat'', ''clarity'', ''color'', and ''cut''. Although nearly four times the mass of natural diamonds are produced as [[synthetic diamond]] each year, the vast majority of synthetic diamond production remains small, imperfect diamonds suitable only for industrial-grade use, with gem-quality synthetic diamonds only recently becoming available.
<!--Third paragraph: Mining and Distribution-->
Most natural diamonds originate from central and southern [[Africa]], although significant sources of the mineral have been discovered in [[Canada]], [[Russia]], [[Brazil]], and [[Australia]].
They are generally mined from [[volcanic pipe]]s, which are deep in the Earth where the high pressure and temperature enables the formation of the crystals. The mining and distribution of natural diamonds are subjects of frequent controversy&mdash;such as with concerns over the sale of ''[[conflict diamond|conflict diamonds]]'' by African [[paramilitary]] groups. There are also allegations that the [[De Beers|De Beers Group]] misuses its dominance in the industry to control supply and manipulate price via [[monopoly|monopolistic]] practices.
==Material properties==
[[Image:Diamond unit cell.PNG|thumb|The [[unit cell]] of the diamond crystal.]]
{{main|Material properties of diamond}}
''See also: [[Crystallographic defects in diamond]]''
Diamond is a [[transparency (optics)|transparent]] [[crystal]] of pure [[carbon]] consisting of [[tetrahedron|tetrahedrally]] bonded carbon atoms. Humans have been able to adapt diamonds for many uses because of the material's exceptional physical characteristics. Most notable among these properties are the extreme [[hardness]] of diamond, its high [[dispersion (optics)|dispersion]] index, and high thermal conductivity. These properties form the basis for most modern applications of diamond.
===Mechanical properties===
====Crystal structure====
Diamonds typically crystallize in the face-centered [[cubic crystal system]] and consist of [[tetrahedron|tetrahedrally]] bonded carbon atoms. The [[crystal structure#unit cell|unit cell]] of diamond has a two atom basis at (0,0,0) and (1/4,1/4,1/4), which means half of the atoms are at lattice points and the other half are offset by (1/4,1/4,1/4), where 1 is the length of a side of the unit cell.
The tetrahedral arrangement of atoms in a diamond crystal is the source of many of diamond's properties. [[Graphite]], another [[allotrope]] of carbon, has a [[rhombohedral]] crystal structure and as a result shows dramatically different physical characteristics — contrary to diamond, graphite is a very soft, dark gray, opaque mineral. Other elements of the [[carbon group]] such as [[silicon]] have forms analogous to diamond.
[[Lonsdaleite]] is a [[polymorph]] of diamond (and a distinct mineral species) that crystallizes with hexagonal symmetry; it is rarely found in nature, but is characteristic of [[synthetic diamond]]s. A [[cryptocrystal]]line variety of diamond is called [[carbonado (diamond)|carbonado]]. A colorless, grey or black diamond with a tiny radial structure is a [[spherulites|spherulite]].
====Hardness====
[[Image:Diamsm.gif|framed|The diamond crystal bond structure gives the gem its [[hardness]] and differentiates it from [[graphite]].]]
Diamond is the [[hardness|hardest]] known naturally occurring material, scoring 10 on the relative [[Mohs scale of mineral hardness]] and having an absolute hardness value of between 167 and 231 [[gigapascal]]s in various tests. Diamond's hardness has been known since antiquity, and is the source of its name. However, [[aggregated diamond nanorods]], an [[Carbon#Allotropes|allotrope]] of [[carbon]] first synthesized in 2005, are now believed to be even harder than diamond.
The hardest diamonds in the world are diamonds from the New England area in New South Wales, [[Australia]]. These diamonds are generally small, perfect to semiperfect octahedra and are used to polish other diamonds. Their hardness is considered to be a product of the crystal growth form, which is single stage growth crystal. Most other diamonds show more evidence of multiple growth stages, which produce inclusions, flaws and defect planes in the crystal lattice all of which affect their hardness (Taylor et al. 1990).
Industrial use of diamonds has historically been associated with their hardness; this property makes diamond the ideal material for cutting and grinding tools. It is one of the most known and most useful of more than 3,000 known minerals. As the hardest known naturally occurring material, diamond can be used to polish, cut, or wear away any material, including other diamonds. Common industrial adaptations of this ability include diamond-tipped drill bits and saws, or use of diamond powder as an [[abrasive]]. Other specialized applications also exist or are being developed, including use as [[semiconductor]]s: some blue diamonds are natural semiconductors, in contrast to most other diamonds, which are excellent electrical [[insulator]]s. Industrial-grade diamonds are either unsuitable for use as gems or synthetically produced, which lowers their price and makes their use economically feasible. Industrial applications, especially as [[drill bit]]s and [[engraving]] tools, also date to ancient times.
The hardness of diamonds also contributes to its suitability as a [[gemstone]]. Because it can only be scratched by other diamonds, it maintains its polish extremely well, keeping its luster over long periods of time. Unlike many other gems, it is well-suited to daily wear because of its resistance to scratching&mdash;perhaps contributing to its popularity as the preferred gem in an [[engagement ring]] or [[wedding ring]], which are often worn every day.
====Toughness====
Unlike hardness, which only denotes resistance to scratching, diamond's [[toughness]] is only fair to good. Toughness relates to a material's ability to resist breakage from forceful impact. As with any material, the macroscopic geometry of a diamond contributes to its resistance to breakage. Diamonds cut into certain particular shapes are therefore more prone to breakage than others.
====Color====
Diamonds occur in a variety of transparent [[hue]]s &mdash; colorless, [[white]], steel, [[blue]], [[yellow]], [[orange (colour)|orange]], [[red]], [[green]], [[pink]], [[brown]]&mdash;or colored [[black]]. Diamonds with a detectable hue to them are known as ''colored diamonds''. Colored diamonds contain impurities or structural defects that cause the coloration, while pure or nearly pure diamonds are transparent and colorless. Most diamond impurities replace a carbon atom in the [[crystal lattice]]. The most common impurity, [[nitrogen]], causes a yellowish or brownish tinge.
====Thermodynamic stability====
At surface air pressure (one atmosphere), diamonds are not as stable as graphite, and so the decay of diamond is thermodynamically favorable ([[Gibbs free energy|&Delta;''G'']]&nbsp;=&nbsp;&minus;2.99&nbsp;kJ&nbsp;/&nbsp;mol). Diamonds will burn at approximately 800 degrees [[Celsius]], providing that enough oxygen is available. This was shown in the late 18th century, and previously described during [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] times. However, owing to a very large kinetic energy barrier, diamonds are [[metastable]]; under [[Standard temperature and pressure|normal conditions]], it would take an extremely long time (possibly more than the age of the Universe) for diamond to decay into graphite.
===Electromagnetic properties===
[[Image:Prism rainbow schema.png|framed|Diamonds exhibit high dispersion of visible light.]]
====Optical properties====
Diamonds exhibit a high [[disp |
le-cell recording.''
* ''Direct brain stimulation.''
* ''Animal models.''
* ''Lesion patients.''
==Key findings==
'''Cognitive science''' has much to its credit. Among other accomplishments, it has given rise to models of human [[cognitive bias]] and [[risk]] perception, and has been influential in the development of [[behavioral finance]], part of [[economics]]. It has also given rise to a new theory of the [[philosophy of mathematics]], and many theories of [[artificial intelligence]], [[persuasion]] and [[coercion]]. It has made its presence firmly known in [[philosophy of language]] and [[epistemology]] - a modern revival of rationalism - as well as constituting a substantial wing of modern [[linguistics]].
Discovery of systemic human [[cognitive bias]], usually credited to [[Amos Tversky]] and [[Daniel Kahneman]], 1967. Basis of [[behavioral finance]].
Assertion of equivalence of [[Euler's identity]] (basis of complex analysis in mathematics) with basic cognitive processes, [[George Lakoff]] and [[Rafael E. Núñez]], 2000. Basis of the [[cognitive science of mathematics]].
==Notable researchers in cognitive science and related fields==
* By Respective Areas
<table cellspacing=5>
<tr><th>Psychology</th><th>Philosophy</th><th>Neuroscience</th>
<th>Linguistics</th><th>Computer Science</th></tr>
<tr>
<td valign=top>
* [[Leon Festinger]]
* [[Lawrence Barsalou]]
* [[Lera Boroditsky]]
* [[Robert Goldstone]]
* [[Daniel Kahneman]]
* [[James McClelland]]
* [[George A. Miller]]
* [[Steven Pinker]]
* [[Jonathan Potter]]
* [[Eleanor Rosch]]
* [[Linda B. Smith]]
* [[Anne Treisman]]
</td>
<td valign=top>
* [[David Chalmers]]
* [[Patricia Churchland]]
* [[Paul Churchland]]
* [[Andy Clark]]
* [[Daniel Dennett]]
* [[Jerry Fodor]]
* [[Stephen Laurence]]
* [[Colin McGinn]]
* [[Roger Penrose]]
* [[Karl Popper]]
* [[John Searle]]
* [[Stephen Stich]]
* [[Paul Thagard]]
* [[Tim van Gelder]]
</td>
<td valign=top>
* [[Antonio Damasio]]
* [[John Carew Eccles|John Eccles]]
* [[Gerald Edelman]]
* [[Andrew and Alexander Fingelkurts]]
* [[Michael Gazzaniga]]
* [[Christof Koch]]
* [[Brenda Milner]]
* [[Karl Pribram]]
* [[Vilayanur S. Ramachandran]]
* [[Olaf Sporns]]
</td>
<td valign=top>
* [[Noam Chomsky]]
* [[Alan Prince]]
* [[Ray Jackendoff]]
* [[George Lakoff]]
</td>
<td valign=top>
* [[David Kirsh]]
* [[Douglas Hofstadter]]
* [[Marvin Minsky]]
* [[Seymour Papert]]
* [[Roger Schank]]
* [[Herbert Simon]]
* [[Alan Turing]]
</td>
</tr>
<tr><th colspan=4>Other/Misc Categories</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>
* [[Margaret ('Maggie') Boden]]
* [[Kenneth Craik]]
* [[Friedrich Hayek]]
* [[Christopher Longuet-Higgins]]
* [[Edwin Hutchins]]
* [[Rafael E. Núñez]]
</td></tr></table>
==See also==
* [[psychology]]
* [[neuroscience]]
* [[Neural Darwinism]]
* [[Society of Mind theory]]
* [[cognitive science of mathematics]]
* [[cognitive bias]]
* [[cognitive linguistics]]
* [[cognitive neuropsychology]]
* [[cognitive neuroscience]]
* [[notation bias]]
* [[neural network]]
* [[neuropsychology]]
* [[computational neuroscience]]
* [[simulated consciousness]]
* [[artificial consciousness]]
* [[List_of_publications_in_biology#Cognitive science| Important publications in cognitive science]]
* [[List of cognitive scientists]]
* [[List of institutions granting degrees in cognitive science]]
==External links==
===Education===
* [http://career.berkeley.edu/Major/CogSci.stm Berkeley's "What can I do with a major in cognitive science?"]
===Definitions===
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cognitive-science/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Cognitive Science]
* [http://www.aiknow.net aiKnow: Cognitive Artificial Intelligence]
* [http://cognet.mit.edu/ MIT CogNet]
===List of People===
* [http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/cogsci.html List of leading thinkers in cognitive science]
==References==
* Baumgartner, P., et. al. Eds. (1995). ''Speaking Minds: Interviews With Twenty Eminent Cognitive Scientists.'' Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
* Bechtel, W. et. al. Ed. (1999). ''A Companion to Cognitive Science. Blackwell Companions to Philosophy''. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers.
* Damasio, A. R. (1994). ''Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason and the Human Brain.'' New York: Grosset/Putnam.
* Gardner, H. (1985). ''The Minds New Science.'' New York: Basic Books.
* Gazzaniga, M. S. Ed. (1996). ''Conversations in the Cognitive Neurosciences.'' New York: The MIT Press.
* Lakoff, G and Johnson, M. (1999). ''Philosophy In The Flesh.'' New York: Basic Books.
* Luger, G. (1994). ''Cognitive science : the science of intelligent systems''. San Diego: Academic Press.
* Thagard, P. (2nd, 2005). ''Mind : Introduction to Cognitive Science''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press.
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<title>Copula</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''For copula functions in probability and statistics, see [[copula (statistics)]].''
The word '''copula''' originates from the [[Latin]] [[noun]] for a "link or tie" that connects two different things. In [[linguistics]], a copula is a word that is used to link the [[subject]] of a [[sentence (linguistics)|sentence]] with a [[predicate (grammar)|predicate]] (a subject [[complement]] or an [[adverbial]]). Though it might not itself express any action or condition, it serves to equate (or associate) the subject with the predicate.
A copula is sometimes (though not always) a [[verb]] or a verb-like part of speech. In English [[primary education]] grammar courses, a copula is often called a '''linking verb'''.
The term is generally used to refer to the main copular verb in the language: in the case of English, this is "'''to be'''". It can also be used to refer to all such verbs in the language: in that case, English copulas include, "to be", "to become", "to get", "to feel", and "to seem". ''Fall'' can be a copulative verb, as in "The zebra fell victim to the lion." See: [[List of English copulas]].
==The copula in English==
===Use===
We can identify several sub-uses of the copula:
*Identity: "I only want to ''be'' myself." "When the area behind the dam fills, it will ''be'' a lake." "The Morning Star ''is'' the Evening Star." "Boys ''will be'' boys." "I ''yam'' what I yam" ([[Popeye]]).
*Class membership. To belong to a set or class: "She could ''be'' married." "Dogs ''are'' canines." "Moscow ''is'' a large city." Depending on one's point of view, all other uses can be considered derivatives of this use, including the following non-copular uses in English, as they all express a [[Subset|subset]] relationship.
*Predication (property and relation attribution): "It hurts to '''be''' blue." "Will that house '''be''' big enough?" "The hen '''is''' next to the cockerel." "I '''am''' confused." Such attributes may also relate to temporary conditions as well as inherent qualities: "I will '''be''' tired after running." "Will you '''be''' going to the play tomorrow?" (see below)
The verb "to be" also has some non-copular uses, including:
*As an auxiliary verb:
**To form the passive voice: "I '''was''' told that you wanted to see me"
**To add continuous aspect to tenses: "It is raining"
*Meaning "to exist": "I want only to '''be''', and that is enough." "There's no sense in making a scientific inquiry about what species the Loch Ness Monster is, without first establishing that the Loch Ness Monster indeed ''is.''"
Note that the auxiliary verb function derives from the copular function; and, depending on one's point of view, one can still interpret the verb as a copula and the following verbal form as being adjectival.
===Conjugation===
As in most [[Indo-European language]]s, the English copula is the most irregular verb, due to constant use. Most English verbs (traditionally known as "[[weak verb]]s") have just four separate forms, e.g. "start", "starts", "starting", "started". A large minority of verbs (traditionally known as "[[strong verb]]s") have five separate forms, e.g. "begin", "begins", "beginning", "began", "begun". "To be" is a very special case in having eight forms: "be", "am", "is", "are", "being&qu |
ich he expressed himself.
Huxley's [[satirical]], [[dystopia]]n, and [[utopia]]n novels seldom fail to stimulate thought. The same may be said for his essays and essay collections. Perhaps his main message is the tragedy that frequently follows from [[egocentrism]], self-centredness, and selfishness.
==Films==
Huxley wrote many [[screenplay]]s, and many of his novels were later adapted for film or [[television]].
Notable works include the original screenplay for [[The_Walt_Disney_Company|Disney]]'s animated ''[[Alice in Wonderland (1951 film)|Alice in Wonderland]]'', two productions of ''[[Brave New World]]'', one of ''[[Point Counter Point]]'', one of ''[[Eyeless in Gaza]]'', and one of ''[[Ape and Essence]]''. He was one of the screenwriters for the 1940 version of ''[[Pride and Prejudice (1940 movie)|Pride and Prejudice]]'' and co-wrote the screenplay for the 1944 version of ''[[Jane Eyre (1944 movie)|Jane Eyre]]'' with [[John Houseman]]. Director [[Ken Russell]]'s [[1971]] film ''[[The Devils (film)|The Devils]]'', starring [[Vanessa Redgrave]], is adapted from Huxley's ''[[The Devils of Loudun]]'', and a 1990 made-for-television film adaptation of ''Brave New World'' was directed by [[Burt Brinckeroffer]]
==Selected works==
===Novels===
*''[[Crome Yellow]]'' ([[1921]])
*''[[Antic Hay]]'' ([[1923]])
*''[[Those Barren Leaves]]'' ([[1925]])
*''[[Point Counter Point]]'' ([[1928]])
*''[[Brave New World]]'' ([[1932]])
*''[[Eyeless in Gaza]]'' ([[1936]])
*''[[After Many a Summer]]'' ([[1939]])
*''[[Time Must Have a Stop]]'' ([[1944]])
*''[[Ape and Essence]]'' ([[1948]])
*''[[The Genius and the Goddess]]'' ([[1955]])
*''[[Island (novel)|Island]]'' ([[1962]])
===Short stories===
*''[[Limbo]]'' ([[1920]])
*''[[Mortal Coils]]'' ([[1922]])
*''[[Brief Candles]]'' ([[1930]])
*''[[Two or Three Graces]]''
*''[[Little Mexican]]''
*''[[The Young Arquimedes]]''
*''[[Jacob's Hands; A Fable]]'' (Late [[1930s]])
===Poetry===
*''[[The Burning Wheel]]'' ([[1916]])
*''Jonah'' ([[1917]])
*''[[The Defeat of Youth]]'' ([[1918]])
*''[[Leda]]'' ([[1920]])
*''[[Arabia Infelix]]'' ([[1929]])
*''[[The Cicadias and Other Poems]]'' ([[1931]])
===Travel writing===
*''[[Along The Road]]'' ([[1925]])
*''[[John 18:38|Jesting Pilate]]'' ([[1926]])
*''[[Beyond the Mexique Bay]]'' ([[1934]])
===Essays===
*''[[Do What You Will]]'' ([[1929]])
*''[[The Olive Tree (Essay)|The Olive Tree]]'' ([[1936]])
*''[[The Art of Seeing]]'' ([[1942]])
*''[[Tomorrow and Tomorrow and Tomorrow]]'' ([[1952]])
*''[[The Doors of Perception]]'' ([[1954]])
*''[[Heaven and Hell (essay)|Heaven and Hell]]'' ([[1956]])
*''[[Brave_New_World#Brave New World Revisited|Brave New World Revisited]]'' ([[1958]])
*''[[Literature and Science]]'' ([[1963]])
===Philosophy===
*''[[Ends and Means]]'' ([[1937]])
*''[[The Perennial Philosophy]]'' ([[1944]]) ISBN 006057058X
===Biography===
*''[[Grey Eminence]]'' ([[1941]])
*''[[The Devils of Loudun]]'' ([[1952]])
===Children's literature===
*''[[The Crows of Pearblossom]]'' ([[1967]])
===Collections===
*''[[Text and Pretext]]'' ([[1933]])
* ''[[Collected Short Stories]]'' ([[1957]])
* ''[[Moksha: Writings on Psychedelics and the Visionary Experience]]'' ([[1977]])
== Quotes ==
*On [http://www.cybernation.com/quotationcenter/quoteshow.php?type=author&id=4470 truth]: "Great is truth, but still greater, from a practical point of view, is silence about truth. By simply not mentioning certain subjects... totalitarian propagandists have influenced opinion much more effectively than they could have by the most eloquent denunciations."
*On the [[New World Order]][http://www.cybernation.com/quotationcenter/quoteshow.php?type=author&id=4470] (1959): "And it seems to me perfectly in the cards that there will be within the next generation or so a pharmacological method of making people love their servitude, and producing … a kind of painless concentration camp for entire societies, so that people will in fact have their liberties taken away from them but will rather enjoy it, because they will be distracted from any desire to rebel by propaganda, brainwashing, or brainwashing enhanced by pharmacological methods."
*On [http://www.cybernation.com/quotationcenter/quoteshow.php?type=author&id=4470 social organizations]: "One of the many reasons for the bewildering and tragic character of human existence is the fact that social organization is at once necessary and fatal. Men are forever creating such organizations for their own convenience and forever finding themselves the victims of their home-made monsters."
==Trivia==
*He was six feet four and a half inches tall;
*Studied ballet for several years;
*Was [[George_Orwell|George Orwell's]] [[French language|French]] teacher for a term at [[Eton College|Eton]].
*Is shown on the cover of [[The Beatles]] album [[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]] as number 18, in the top right hand corner.
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.yoism.org/?q=node/143 Video interviews of Huxley] from the 1950's, exploring ''Brave New World'', ''Island'', and psychedelics
* [http://movies2.nytimes.com/gst/movies/movie.html?v_id=158613 The Gravity of Light]].
* {{isfdb name | id=Aldous_Huxley | name=Aldous Huxley}}
* {{gutenberg author | id=Aldous_Huxley | name=Aldous Huxley}}
* [http://huxley.net/bnw/index.html Brave New World], the complete book
* [http://somaweb.org/ SomaWeb: Extensive Aldous Huxley bibliography and links to online material]
* [http://island.org/ Island Web: Creating a New Culture as Inspired by the Ideas of Aldous Huxley] Website of the Island Foundation
* [http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/VideoTest/hux1.ram The Ultimate Revolution] (talk at [[University of California, Berkeley|UC Berkeley]], March 20, 1962)
[[Category:Polymaths|Huxley, Aldous]]
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[[Category:English essayists|Huxley, Aldous]]
[[Category:English satirists|Huxley, Aldous]]
[[Category:English short story writers|Huxley, Aldous]]
[[Category:English travel writers|Huxley, Aldous]]
[[Category:Psychedelic advocates and proponents|Huxley, Aldous]]
[[Category:Human Potential Movement|Huxley, Aldous]]
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar2|ADA|Ada}}
Meanings of '''Ada''':
=== People ===
* Variant [[transliteration]] of [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] [[Adah]].
* [[Ada Lovelace|Ada, Lady Lovelace]]
* Ada, sister of [[Charlemagne]], for whom the [[Ada Gospels]] at Trier were produced.
* [[Ada of Caria|Ada]], [[satrap]] of [[Caria]], deposed by her brother [[Idrieus]], restored by [[Alexander the Great]]
=== Places ===
* [[Ada, Afghanistan]]
* [[Ada, Saskatchewan]], [[Canada]]
* [[Ada, Ghana]]
* [[Ada, Greece]]
* [[Ada, Nigeria]]
* [[Ada, Serbia]]
*[[Ada, Oregon]], USA (historical)
*[[Ada County, Idaho]], USA
*[[Ada Division, Oklahoma]], USA
*[[Ada, Alabama]], USA
*[[Ada, Arkansas]], USA
*[[Ada, Kansas]], USA
*[[Ada, Louisiana]], USA
*[[Ada, Michigan]], USA
*[[Ada, Minnesota]], USA
*[[Ada, Ohio]], USA
*[[Ada, Oklahoma]], USA
*[[Ada, Virginia]], USA
*[[Ada, Wisconsin]], USA
*[[Ada, West Virginia]], USA
*[[Ada Township, Michigan]], USA
*[[Ada Township, North Dakota]], USA
*[[Ada Township, South Dakota]], USA
===[[Acronym_and_initialism|Initialism]]s===
* [[Aeronautical Development Agency]] of [[India]]'s Ministry of Defence
* [[Air Defense Artillery]] a branch of the [[United States Army]]
* [[American Decency Association]]
* [[American Dental Association]]
* [[American Diabetes Association]]
* [[American Dietetic Association]]
* [[Americans For Democratic Action]]
* [[Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990|Americans with Disabilities Act]]
* [[Aotearoa Digital Arts]] - http://ada.waikato.ac.nz/
* [[United_States_Attorney|Assistant district attorney]]
* Average Daily Attendance
=== Other ===
* [[Ada programming language]]
* ''[[Ada (orchid)|Ada]]'', a genus of [[orchid]]s
* The short title of ''[[Ada or Ardor: A Family Chronicle]]'', a novel by [[Vladimir Nabokov]] (1969).
* [[Ada (demon)|Ada]], A [[demon]], after which [[Adasaurus]] was named.
* [[Ada (film)|Ada]] , A film directed by [[Daniel Mann]], with [[Susan Hayward]] y [[Dean Martin]].
* means "father" in Sindarin Elvish
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< |
e everyone on the team is observing everybody else. There were however officials such as the nine archons, who while seemingly a board carried out very different functions from each other.
There were in fact some limitations on who could hold office. Age restrictions were in place with thirty (and in some cases forty) years as a minimum, rendering something like a third of the adult citizen body ineligible at any one time. An unknown proportion of citizens were also subject to disenfranchisement ([[Atimia (loss of citizen rights)|atimia]]), excluding some of them permanently and others temporarily (depending on the type). Furthermore, all citizens selected were reviewed before taking up office (''dokimasia'') at which they might be disqualified. Competence does not seem to have been the main issue, but rather, at least in the 4th century BC, whether they were loyal democrats or had oligarchic tendencies. After leaving office they were subject to a scrutiny (''euthunai'', literally 'straightenings') to review their performance. Both of these processes were in most cases brief and formulaic, but they opened up in the possibility, if some citizen wanted to take some matter up, of a contest before a jury court. In the case of a scrutiny going to trial, there was the risk for the former officeholder of suffering severe penalties. Finally, even during his period of office, any officeholder could be impeached and removed from office by the assembly. In each of the ten "main meetings" (''kuriai ekklesiai'') a year, the question was explicitly raised in the assembly agenda: were the office holders carrying out their duties correctly?
No office appointed by lot could be held twice by the same individual. The only exception was the boule or council of 500. In this case, simply by demographic necessity, an individual could serve twice in a lifetime. This principle extended down to the secretaries and undersecretaries who served as assistants to magistrates such as the archons. To the Athenians it seems what had to be guarded against was not incompetence but any tendency to use office as a way of accumulating ongoing power.
The powers of officials were precisely defined and their capacity for imitative limited. They administered rather than governed. When it came to penal sanctions, no officeholder could impose a fine over fifty drachmas fine. Anything higher had to go before a court.
===Elected===
Something like a hundred officials were elected rather than chosen by lot. There were two main categories in this group: those required to handle large sums of money, and the 10 generals, the ''[[strategoi]]''. One reason that financial officials were elected was that any money [[embezzled]] could be recovered from their estates; election in general strongly favoured the rich, but in this case wealth was virtually a prerequisite.
Generals were elected not only because their role required expert knowledge but also because they needed to be people with experience and contacts in the wider Greek world where wars were fought. In the [[5th century BC]], principally as seen through the figure of [[Pericles]], the generals could be among the most powerful people in the state. Yet in the case of Pericles it is wrong to see his power as coming from his long series of annual generalships (each year along with nine others). His office holding was rather an expression and a result of the influence he wielded. That influence was based on his relation with the assembly, a relation that in the first instance lay simply in the right of any citizen to stand and speak before the people. Under the [[4th century|4th century]] version of democracy the roles of general and of key political speaker in the assembly tended to be filled by different persons. In part this was a consequence of the increasingly specialised forms of warfare practiced in the later period.
Elected officials too were subject to review before holding office and scrutiny after office. And they too could be removed from office any time the assembly met. In one case from the [[5th century BC]] the 10 treasurers of the [[Delian]] league (the ''hellenotamiai'') were accused at their scrutinies of misappropriation of funds. Put on trial, they were condemned and executed one by one until before the trial of the tenth and last an error of accounting was discovered, allowing him to go free. ([[Antiphon]] 5.69-70)
==Individualism in Athenian democracy==
Another interesting insight into Athenian democracy comes from the law that excluded from decisions of war those citizens who had property close to the city walls - on the basis that they had a personal interest in the outcome of such debates because the practice of an invading army was at the time to destroy the land outside the walls. A good example of the contempt the first democrats felt for those who did not participate in politics can be found in the modern word 'idiot' that finds its origins in the ancient Greek word {{polytonic|&#x1f30;&#948;&#953;&#x1f7d;&#964;&#951;&#962;}} (idi&#333;t&#275;s) meaning a private person, a person who is not actively interested in politics; such characters were talked about with contempt and the word eventually acquired its modern meaning.
==Criticism of the democracy==
Athenian democracy has had many critics, both ancient and modern. Modern critics are more likely to find fault with the narrow definition of the citizen body, but in the ancient world the complaint if anything went in the opposite direction. Ancient authors were almost invariably from an elite background for whom giving poor and uneducated people power over their betters seemed a reversal of the proper, rational order of society. For them the ''demos'' in democracy meant not the whole people, but the people as opposed to the elite. Instead of seeing it as a fair system under which 'everyone' has equal rights, they saw it as the numerically preponderant poor tyrannising over the rich. They viewed society like a modern stock company: democracy is like a company where all shareholders have an equal say regardless of the scale of their holding; one share or ten thousand, it makes no difference. They regarded this as manifestly unjust. In Aristotle this is categorised as the difference between 'arithmetic' and 'geometric' (i.e. proportional) equality. Democracy was far from being the normal style of governance and the beliefs on which it was based were in effect a minority opinion. Those writing in later centuries generally had no direct experience of democracy themselves.
To its ancient detractors the democracy was reckless and arbitrary. They had some signal instances to point to, especially from the long years of the Peloponnesian war.
*In 406 BC, after years of defeats in the wake of the annihilation of their vast invasion force in Sicily, the Athenians at last won a naval victory at [[Battle of Arginusae| Arginusae]] over the Spartans. After the battle a storm arose and the eight [[strategoi|generals]] in command failed to collect survivors: the Athenians sentenced all of them to death. Technically, it was illegal, as the generals were tried and sentenced together, rather than one by one as Athenian law required. [[Socrates]] happened to be the citizen presiding over the assembly that day and refused to cooperate, though to little effect. Standing against the idea that it was outrageous for the people to be unable to do whatever they wanted. Later they repented the executions, but made up for it by executing those who had accused the generals before them. (A long account in [[Xenophon]] ''Hellenica'' 1.7.1-35)
*Years earlier, the ten treasurers of the [[Delian league]] (''Hellenotamiai'') had been accused of embezzlement. They were tried and executed one after the other until, when only one was still alive, the accounting error was discovered and that last surviving treasurer was acquitted. Perfectly legal in this case, but an example of the extreme severity with which the people could punish those who served them. ([[Antiphon]] 5.69-70)
*In 399 BC [[Socrates]] himself was put on trial and executed for 'corrupting the young and believing in strange gods'. His death gave Europe its first ever intellectual hero and martyr, but guaranteed the democracy an eternity of bad press at the hands of his disciple [[Plato]]. In the [[Gorgias]] written years later Plato has [[Socrates]] contemplating the possibility of himself on trial before the Athenians: he says he would be like a doctor prosecuted by a pastry chef before a jury of children.
Two right wing coups briefly interrupted democratic rule during the Peloponnesian war, both named by the numbers in control: the Four Hundred in 411 BC and the [[Thirty Tyrants|Thirty]] in 404 BC. The focus on number speaks to the drive behind each of them: to reduce the size of the electorate by linking the franchise with property qualifications. Though both ended up as rogue governments and did not follow through on their constitutional promises, they began as responses from the Athenian elite to what they saw as the inherent arbitrariness of government by the masses. (Plato in the ''Seventh Epistle'' does remark that the Thirty made the preceding democratic regime look like a Golden Age.)
Whether the democratic failures should be seen as systematic, or as a product of the extreme conditions of the Peloponnesian war, there does seem to have been a move toward correction. A new version of democracy was established from 403 BC, but it can be linked with both earlier and subsequent reforms ([[graphe paranomon]] 416 BC; end of assembly trials 355 BC). For the first time a conceptual and procedural distinction was made between laws and decrees. Increasingly, responsibility was shifted from the assembly to the courts, with laws being made by jurors and all assembly decisions becoming reviewable by courts. That is to say, the mass meeting of all citiz |
onfiguration''', and either in the front or top action variety (valves pointing up or to the front, respectively). Some players find this uncomfortable, as the fourth valve is operated with the pinky finger of the right hand. On more upscale '''side-valve''' instruments, the fourth valve is operated with the left hand, which also contributes to a more natural overall playing position.
Modern compensating systems are effective and have almost no detrimental effect on a well-made euphonium's tone or response. As they are complex to design and produce, the price of a compensated instrument is usually at least 30 per cent higher than that of a similar non-compensating model. Its main intonation advantages are in the crucial octave below the second partial in the instrument's lower register.
== Name recognition and misconceptions ==
The euphonium is possibly the least popularly-known Western instrument of all, probably due to its scarcity of performance venues (see below). Most non-musician members of the general public in the United States do not recognize the name "euphonium," and so it must be described as a small tuba or compared to a [[baritone horn]].
Despite great confusion (especially in the United States), the euphonium and the baritone are '''two different instruments'''. Though they play in the same register, the baritone is significantly smaller in appearance, has a more masked tone, and most importantly, is ''cylindrical-bore'', like trumpets and trombones. See [http://www.dwerden.com/eu-articles-bareuph.cfm David Werden's website] for an excellent and thorough discussion of the differences between a euphonium and a baritone.
The so-called American-style euphonium, featuring three valves on the front of the instrument and a curved forward-pointing bell, was predominant in American school bands throughout most of the twentieth century and was almost universally labeled a "baritone" by both band directors and composers; this is probably responsible for much of the baritone/euphonium confusion. This instrument is definitively a euphonium because its bore is conical, though smaller than that of the modern euphonium.
== History and development ==
The euphonium, the baritone, the saxhorn family, and the German '''Bariton''' and '''Tenorhorn''' all trace their descent to the [[ophicleide]] and ultimately to the '''[[Serpent (instrument)|serpent]]'''. The euphonium is alleged to have been invented, as a valved instrument replacing the ophicleide, by Herr Sommer of Weimar in 1843, though Carl Moritz in 1838 and Adolphe Sax in 1843 have also been credited. The "British-style" compensating euphonium was developed by David Blaikley in 1874, and has been in use in Britain ever since.
A creation unique to the United States was the '''double-belled euphonium''', featuring a second smaller bell in addition to the main one; the player could switch bells for certain passages or even for individual notes by use of a fifth valve, operated with the left hand. Ostensibly, the smaller bell was intended to emulate the sound of a trombone (it was cylindrical-bore) and was possibly intended for performance situations in which trombones were not available. The extent to which the difference in sound and timbre was apparent to the listener, however, is up for debate. '''Harry Whittier''' of the Patrick S. Gilmore band introduced the instrument in 1888, and it was used widely in both school and service bands for several decades. '''Harold Brasch''' (see "List of important players" below) brought the British-style compensating euphonium to the United States c. 1939, but the double-belled euphonium may have remained in common use even into the 1950's and 60's. In any case, they have become rare (they were last in instrumental catalogues in the late 1960's), and are generally unknown to younger euphonium players. They are chiefly known now through their mention in the song "Seventy-six Trombones" from the musical ''The Music Man'' by [[Meredith Willson]].
== Performance venues and professional job opportunities ==
The euphonium has historically been and largely still is exclusively a '''wind band''' instrument; thus, the most common forums in which it can be found are [[concert band|concert bands]] and [[brass band|brass bands]], where it is frequently featured as a solo instrument. Because of this, the euphonium has been called the "king of band instruments," or the "[[cello]] of the band," because of its similarity in timbre and ensemble role to the stringed instrument. Euphoniums typically have extremely important parts in many marches (such as those by [[John Philip Sousa]]), and in brass band music of the British tradition. The euphonium may also be found in [[marching band|marching bands]], though it is often replaced by its smaller, easier-to-carry cousin, the '''marching baritone''' (which has a similar bell and valve configuration to a trumpet).
Other performance venues for the euphonium may include the tuba-euphonium quartet or larger tuba-euphonium ensemble, the brass quintet where it can supply the tenor voice (though the [[trombone]] is much more common), or in mixed brass ensembles. It should be noted that though these are legitimate performance venues, (paid) professional jobs in these areas are almost non-existent; they are much more likely to be semi-professional or amateur in nature. Most of the United States's military [[service bands]] include a tuba-euphonium quartet made up of players from the band that occasionally performs in its own right.
The euphonium is not traditionally an orchestral instrument and thus is not and has never been common in symphony orchestras. However, there are a handful of works, mostly from the late Romantic period, in which composers wrote a part for '''baryton''' (German) or '''tenor tuba''', and these are universally played on euphonium, frequently by the principal trombone player. In addition, the euphonium is sometimes used in older orchestral works as a replacement of its predecessors, such as the [[Wagner tuba]], the bass trumpet, or the [[ophicleide]]. At the bottom of the article are some of the well-known orchestral works in which the euphonium is commonly used (whether or not the composer originally specified it).
Finally, while the euphonium was not historically part of the standard jazz [[big band]] or combo, the instrument's technical facility and large range make it well-suited to a jazz solo role, and a jazz euphonium niche has been carved out over the last 40 or so years, largely starting with the pioneer '''Rich Matteson''' (see "List of important players" below). Jazz euphoniums are most likely to be found in tuba-euphonium groups, though modern [[funk]] or [[rock (music)|rock]] bands occasionally feature a brass player doubling on euphonium, and this trend is growing.
Thus, unlike most other Western instruments, euphoniumists cannot count on a career in symphony orchestras or jazz bands. Due to this dearth of performance opportunities, aspiring euphonium players in the United States are in an inconvenient position when seeking future employment. Often, college players must either obtain a graduate degree or a doctorate and go on to teach at the college level, or, in the United States, audition for one of the major or regional military [[service bands]]. Because these bands are relatively few in number and the number of euphonium positions in the bands is small (2-4 in most service bands), job openings do not occur very often and when they do are highly competitive; the last opening for a euphonium player in a service band in the United States was in the Air Force's Heartland of America Band [http://www.offutt.af.mil/Assoc_Units/Band/homepage.html] in May 2004. A career strictly as a solo performer, unaffiliated with any university or performing ensemble, has not yet been achieved by any euphoniumist. Steven Meade (England) is an exception.
Note that in Britain, the strongest euphonium players are most to likely find a position in a [[brass band]], but ironically, even though they often play at world-class levels, the members of the top brass bands are, in most cases, unpaid amateurs.
== College situation ==
Ue a generation or two ago, most colleges with music programs now allow students to major on euphonium. However, due to the small number of euphonium students at most schools (2-4 is common), it is possible, and even likely, that they will study with a professor whose major instrument is not euphonium. Often tubas and euphoniums will be combined into a studio taught by one professor, and at small schools they may be grouped with trombones as well, taught by one low brass professor. At present, Dr. Brian Bowman of the University of North Texas is the only full-time, euphonium-only professor in the United States. Usually, of course, universities will require professors in this situation to have a high level of proficiency on all the instruments they teach, and some of the best college euphonium studios are taught by non-euphonium players.
Below are some of the United States's largest and most successful college euphonium studios, along with their teachers. These studios are likely to be larger than most, and either have one or more graduate students or have sent alumni on to graduate study elsewhere. Their professors are usually accomplished and widely respected artists in their own right, and students from these schools will have been invited either to amateur competitions such as the '''Falcone Festival''' or the '''International Tuba-Euphonium Conference''', or to the finals rounds of recent military band auditions.
*[[Arizona State University]] (Sam Pilafian, tuba)
*[[Crane School of Music]] at [[SUNY Potsdam]] (Charles Guy, tuba and euphonium)
*[[Capital University]] (Tom Zugger, trombone and euphonium)
*[[Delta State University]] |
estlers in the [[1990s]]. Doink began as a [[heel (professional wrestling)|heel]] wrestler in the [[evil clown]] [[archetype]], but later Doinks portrayed the character as a [[babyface (professional wrestling)|babyface]] who loved to entertain the children in the crowd.
*[[Homey the Clown]], a character from the ''[[In Living Color]]'' television program, whose famous [[catch phrase]] was "Homey don't play dat", played by [[Damon Wayans]].
* [[Captain Spaulding]], from the horror films [[House of 1000 Corpses]] and [[The Devil's Rejects]].
* [[Frenchy the Clown]] of the national lampoon comic "Evil clown comics" series.
* [[Jack Point]], from the [[Judge Dredd Megazine]]'s [[The Simping Detective]] series. Undercover Judge who dresses like a clown in order to appear crazy enough to fit in. Also conceals several weapons within clown gear.
* [[Obnoxio the Clown]] was the mascot of [[Crazy (magazine)|Crazy Magazine]].
*[[Shakes the Clown]] the title character of the movie of the same name. ''Shakes the Clown'' was called ''"the [[Citizen Kane]] of [[alcoholism|alcoholic]] clown movies"'' by the ''New York Times''.
* [[It (monster)|Pennywise the Clown]], a character from [[Stephen King]]'s ''It''.
*[[Violator (comics)|Violator]], a villain from the comic series [[Spawn (comics)|Spawn]], takes the 'human' form of a clown.
*[[Yucko the Clown]], from the [[Howard Stern]] radio show and [[Stankervision]]
== Quotes ==
"Clowns are the pegs on which circuses hang." - P.T. Barnum
"A clown is like asprin, only he works twice as fast." - Groucho Marx
== Bibliography ==
Poor Clown by Charlie Rivel
Behind My Greasepaint by Coco
Bert Williams - A Biography of the Pioneer Black Comedian by Eric Ledell Smith
The Book Of Clown by George Speaght
Bring On The Clowns by Beryl Hugil
Clown, My Life In Tatters and Smiles by Emmett Kelly and F. Beverly Kelly
The Clown In Times (Volumes 1-6) by Bruce Johnson
Clowns by Douglas Newton
Clowns by John Towsen
Clowns Of The Hope - Tradition Keepers and Delight Makers by Barton Wright
Felix Adler by Anne Aull Bowber
The Fool and His Scepter by William Willeford
Fools and Jesters At The English Court by John Southworth
Greasepaint Matadors - The Unsung Heroes of Rodeo by Jeanne Joy Hatnagle-Taylor
Grimaldi - King of Clowns by Richard Findlater
Grock - King of Clowns by Grock
Here Come The Clowns by Lowell Swortzell
Jest In Time: A Clown Chronology by Bruce Johnson
Life's A Lark by Grock
A Ring, A Horse And A Clown by John H. McConnell
Russian Clown by Oleg Popov
The Tramp Tradition by Bruce Johnson
Hammond, J. Woven Gods: Female Clowns and Power in Rotuma. (book review) [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3030/is_199703/ai_n7673867]
Handelman, D. MODELS AND MIRRORS: Towards an Anthropology of Public Events [http://www.berghahnbooks.com/title.php?rowtag=HandelmanModels]
Little, K. Clown Performance in the European One-Ring Circus. Culture, 1981. 2(1):61-72.[http://www.publicanthropology.org/Archive/AnthCACult1981.htm
Rudlin, J. Commedia Dell'Arte; An Actors Handbook[http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0415047706/103-1596974-4168650?v=glance&n=283155]
==External links==
* [http://www.jeffraz.com/conservatory/ The Clown Conservatory at the San Francisco Center for Circus Arts]
* [http://www.ichof.org/ The International Clown Hall of Fame]
* [http://www.clown-ministry.com/ Clown Ministry]
* [http://www.clownresourcedirectory.com/ Clown Resource Directory]
* [http://www.clown-shoes.com/ Clown Shoes Information]
* [http://theodorachildrenstru.smartchange.org/ Clown Doctors]
* [http://snpp.com/other/papers/eac.paper.html Homer Simpson: Classic Clown]
[[Category:Clowning]]
[[Category:Circus skills]]
[[Category:Entertainment occupations]]
[[cs:Klaun]]
[[de:Clown]]
[[es:Payaso]]
[[eo:Klaŭno]]
[[fr:Clown]]
[[id:Badut]]
[[nl:Clown]]
[[ja:道化師]]
[[pt:Palhaço]]
[[ru:Клоун]]
[[sv:Clown]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Coffea</title>
<id>5930</id>
<revision>
<id>40868411</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T15:21:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Curps</username>
<id>44727</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/168.184.220.4|168.184.220.4]] ([[User talk:168.184.220.4|talk]]) to last version by 68.148.198.0</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article discusses the coffee plant; for information on the beverage, see [[coffee]].''
{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = ''Coffea''
| image = Coffee_Tree.JPG
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = ''[[Coffea arabica]]'' trees in [[Brazil]]
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Gentianales]]
| familia = [[Rubiaceae]]
| genus = '''''Coffea'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
''[[Coffea arabica]]'' - Arabica Coffee<br/>
''[[Coffea benghalensis]]'' - Bengal coffee<br/>
''[[Coffea canephora (robusta)|Coffea canephora]]'' - Robusta coffee<br/>
''[[Coffea congensis]]'' - Congo coffee<br/>
''[[Coffea excelsa]]'' - Liberian coffee<br/>
''[[Coffea gallienii]]'' <br/>
''[[Coffea bonnieri]]'' <br/>
''[[Coffea mogeneti]]'' <br/>
''[[Coffea liberica]]'' - Liberian coffee<br/>
''[[Coffea stenophylla]]'' - Sierra Leonian coffee
}}
'''''Coffea''''' ('''coffee''') is a genus of ten species of [[flowering plant]]s in the family [[Rubiaceae]]. They are [[shrub]]s or small [[tree]]s, native to subtropical [[Africa]] and southern [[Asia]]. Seeds of this plant are the source of a [[stimulant|stimulating]] [[beverage]] called [[coffee]]. The seeds are called "beans" in the trade. Coffee beans are widely cultivated in [[tropical]] countries in plantations for both local consumption and export to [[temperate]] countries. Coffee bean ranks as one of the world's major [[commodity]] crops and is the major export product of some countries. In fact, coffee ranks third only to cocoa and oil in terms of legally-traded products worldwide.
== Botany ==
[[Image:Detail of Coffea canephora branch and leaves.jpg|thumbnail|200px|left|Robusta Coffee]]
When grown in the [[tropics]] coffee is a vigorous bush or small tree easily grown to a height of 3&ndash;3.5 m (10&ndash;12 feet). It is capable of withstanding severe pruning. It cannot be grown where there is a winter frost. Bushes grow best at high elevations. To produce a maximum yield of coffee berries (800-1400 kg per [[hectare]]), the plants need substantial amounts of water and fertilizer.
There are several species of ''Coffea'' that may be grown for the beans, but ''Coffea arabica'' is considered to have the best quality. The other species (especially ''Coffea canephora (robusta)'') are grown on land unsuitable for ''[[Coffea arabica]]''. The tree produces red or purple fruits ([[drupe]]s, or "coffee berries"), which contain two seeds (the "coffee beans", although not true [[beans]]). In about 5-10% of any crop of coffee cherries, the cherry will contain only a single bean, rather than the two usually found. This is called a '[[peaberry]]' and contains a distinctly different flavor profile to the normal crop, with a higher concentration of the flavors, especially acidity, present due to the smaller sized bean. As such, it is usually removed from the yield and either sold separately (such as in New Guinea Peaberry), or discarded.
The coffee tree will grow fruits after 3&ndash;5 years, for about 50&ndash;60 years (although up to 100 years is possible). The blossom of the coffee tree is similar to [[jasmine]] in color and smell. The fruit takes about nine months to ripen. Worldwide, an estimate of 15 billion coffee trees are growing on 100,000 km&sup2; of land.
Coffee is used as a food plant by the [[larva]]e of some [[Lepidoptera]] species including [[Turnip Moth]] and some members of the genus ''[[Endoclita]]'' including ''E. damor'' and ''E. malabaricus''.
== Processing==
[[Image:Espresso-roasted coffee beans.jpg|thumb|left|Fresh, dark-roasted coffee beans (approximately 11 mm &times; 8 mm &times; 5 mm)]]
{{see details|Processing of coffee}}
After picking, the coffee beans are pulped (usually using a mechanical [[pulper]]) to remove the bulk of the soft flesh, and then the beans are [[ferment]]ed (by one of several means most often wet fermentation in water for 10 to 36 hours), then washed (to remove the last of the sticky mucilage not removed by fermentation) and dried (usually in the sun). This process is time-consuming, expensive and, for most growers, labour-intensive. Coffee at this stage is known as '''milled beans'''.
Once the raw coffee beans arrive in their destination country, they are roasted at around 200°C. This darkens their color and alters the internal chemistry of the beans and therefore their flavor and aroma. An important aspect to this is the caramelization of the fruit sugars. Blending can occur before or after roasting and is often performed to ensure a consistent flavor.
===Problems of maintaining quality during bean production===
[[Image:Coffee Immature.jpg|thumb|right|Coffee ([[Coffea arabica]]) branch with immature fruit - Brazil]]
Achieving consistently excellent milled beans is not easy. Problems include:
* Pests on the bushes (e.g., in [[Hawaii]], [[scale insect|scale insects]] and [[coconut mealy bugs]])
* Poor pruning regimes (e.g., too many verticals that allow the bush to attempt too much and so produce inferior cherries)
* Poor fertiliser regimes (e.g., too little [[iron]] or insufficient nutriment for what are demanding plants)
* Bad picking (e.g., picking all the berries on a branch rather than those that are bright red, or picking the berries very late)
* Bad [[fermentation]] that produces unpleasant taints in the flavor
* Diluti |
Queensland]] in [[1891]]. The [[Balmain, New South Wales]] branch of the party also claims to be the oldest in Australia. The party as a serious electoral force dates from [[1893]] in Queensland, [[1894]] in New South Wales, and later in the other colonies. In [[1899]], [[Anderson Dawson]] formed a minority Labour government in [[Queensland]], the first in the world, which lasted one week.
After [[Australian Federation|Federation]], the Federal Parliamentary Labor Party (informally known as the [[caucus|Caucus]]) first met on the [[8 May]] [[1901]] at [[Parliament House, Melbourne]], the meeting place of the first Federal Parliament. This is now taken as the founding date of the federal Labor Party, but it was some years before there was any significant structure or organisation at a national level. (The formal name '''Australian Labor Party''' was adopted in [[1908]].)
The ALP during its early years was distinguished by its rapid growth and success at a national level, first forming a minority national government under [[Chris Watson]] in April [[1904]], and forming its first majority government under [[Andrew Fisher]] in [[1910]]. The state branches were also successful, except in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], where the strength of [[Alfred Deakin|Deakinite]] [[liberalism]] inhibited the party's growth. The first majority Labor state governments were formed in [[New South Wales]] and [[South Australia]] in [[1910]], in [[Western Australia]] in [[1911]] and in [[Queensland]] in [[1915]]. Such success eluded equivalent social democratic and labour parties in other countries for many years.
One of the party's early innovations was the establishment of a federal [[arbitration]] system for the resolution of industrial disputes, which formed the basis of the industrial relations system for many decades.
The party was historically committed to [[socialist]] economic policies, but this term was never clearly defined, and no Labor government ever attempted to implement "socialism" in any serious sense. Labor supported national wage fixing and a strong welfare system, it did not [[nationalisation|nationalise]] private enterprise. The single exception to this was [[Ben Chifley]]'s attempt to nationalise the private banks in the [[1940s]], but this was ruled unconstitutional by the [[High Court of Australia]]. The commitment to nationalisation was dropped by [[Gough Whitlam]].
In the [[1970s]] and beyond, the party, through the efforts of [[Gough Whitlam]] and his supporters within the party, gave up its theoretical commitment to socialism and became a [[social democrat]]ic party. (Some references to [[democratic socialism]] still remain in the party's constitution, but they are generally regarded as a relic). Indeed, during the [[1980s]] the party was responsible for the introduction of many economic policies such as [[privatization|privatisation]] of government enterprises (such as the [[Commonwealth Bank]], which was itself established by an earlier Labor government), and [[deregulation]] of many previously tightly-controlled industries, which are normally the province of [[conservative]] governments.
From its formation until the 1950s Labor and its affiliated unions were the strongest defenders of the [[White Australia Policy]], which banned all non-European migration to Australia. This policy was partly motivated by 19th-century theories about "racial purity" (shared by most Australians at this time), and partly by fears of economic competition from low-wage labour. In practice the party opposed all migration, on the grounds that immigrants competed with Australian workers and drove down wages, until after [[World War II]], when the [[Ben Chifley|Chifley]] government launched a major immigration program. The party's opposition to non-European immigration did not change until after the retirement of [[Arthur Calwell]] as leader in [[1967]]. Subsequently Labor has become an advocate of [[multiculturalism]], although some of its trade union base continue to oppose high immigration levels.
The Labor Party has suffered three major splits:
*In [[1915]] over the issue of conscription, when Prime Minister [[Billy Hughes]] supported the introduction of [[conscription]], while the majority of the party opposed it. After failing to persuade the Australian voters to support a [[referendum]] approving of conscription which bitterly divided the country in the process, Hughes and his followers were expelled from the Labor Party. He formed the [[Nationalist Party of Australia]] in alliance with the conservatives and remained Prime Minister until [[1923]].
*In [[1931]] over economic issues revolving around how to handle the [[Great_Depression|depression]]. The ALP was split between those who believed in radical policies such as NSW Premier [[Jack Lang (Australia)|Jack Lang]], who wanted to repudiate Australia's debt to British bondholders, proto-[[Keynesian economics|Keynesians]] such as federal Treasurer [[Ted Theodore]], and believers in orthodox finance such as Prime Minister [[James Scullin]] and a senior minister in his government, [[Joseph Lyons]]. In [[1931]] Lyons left the party and joined the conservatives, becoming Prime Minister in [[1932]].
*The [[1954]] split on [[communism]]. During the [[1950s]] the issue of communism and support for communist causes or governments caused great internal conflict in the Labor party and the trade union movement in general. During the 1950's, staunchly [[anti-Communist]] [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] members (Catholics being an important traditional support base) became suspicious of Communist infiltration of unions and formed Industrial Groups to gain control of them, fostering intense internal conflict. After Labor's loss of the [[1954]] election, federal leader [[H.V. Evatt|Dr H.V. Evatt]] blamed the subversive activities of the "Groupers" for the defeat. They were expelled from the ALP and formed the [[Democratic Labor Party]] (DLP) whose intellectual leader was [[B.A. Santamaria]]. The DLP was heavily influenced by [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] social teachings and had the support of the Catholic Archbishop of [[Melbourne]], [[Daniel Mannix]]. The DLP helped the [[Liberal Party of Australia]] remain in power for almost two decades but was successfully undermined by the [[Gough Whitlam|Whitlam]] Labor Government during the [[1970s]] and ceased to exist as a parliamentary party after the [[1974]] election.
The Labor Party thus served as a development ground for several conservative leaders. Conservative Prime Ministers [[Joseph Cook]], [[Billy Hughes]] and [[Joseph Lyons]] were all ex-members of the Labor Party, with both Hughes and Lyons holding very senior positions in the party (Prime Minister and Premier respectively). Non-Labor premiers such as [[William Holman]] also began their careers in the Labor Party.
Labor, like parties of the broad centre in most countries, draws criticism from both left and right. Critics from the left say Labor has abandoned its traditional base and values and that its policies are indistinguishable from those of the conservative parties. Right-wing critics accuse Labor of sticking to a tired, union-dominated ideology. Many members of the party are critical of the role of the factions and of union leaders, who they accuse of colluding to stifle party democracy. The party has also been criticised for accepting political donations from real estate interests, particularly in NSW, and for its links to gambling industries.
Through its membership of the [[Socialist International]], the ALP is affiliated with other democratic socialist, social democratic and labour parties in many countries.
==ALP federal leaders==
* [[Chris Watson]] 1901-08 (Prime Minister 1904)
* [[Andrew Fisher]] 1908-15 (Prime Minister 1908-09, 1910-13, 1914-15)
* [[Billy Hughes]] 1915-16 (Prime Minister 1915-23, expelled from Labor Party 1916)
* [[Frank Tudor]] 1916-22
* [[Mathew Charlton]] 1922-28
* [[James Scullin]] 1928-35 (Prime Minister 1929-32)
* [[John Curtin]] 1935-45 (Prime Minister 1941-45)
* [[Ben Chifley]] 1945-51 (Prime Minister 1945-49)
* [[H.V. Evatt|Dr H.V. Evatt]] 1951-60
* [[Arthur Calwell]] 1960-67
* [[Gough Whitlam]] 1967-77 (Prime Minister 1972-75)
* [[Bill Hayden]] 1977-83
* [[Bob Hawke]] 1983-91 (Prime Minister 1983-91)
* [[Paul Keating]] 1991-96 (Prime Minister 1991-96)
* [[Kim Beazley]] 1996-2001
* [[Simon Crean]] 2001-03
* [[Mark Latham]] 2003-05
* [[Kim Beazley]] 2005-
[[List of ALP federal leaders by time served]]
==Current ALP State Premiers / Territory Chief Ministers==
* [[Peter Beattie]] (Premier of [[Queensland]])
* [[Steve Bracks]] (Premier of [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]])
* [[Mike Rann]] (Premier of [[South Australia]])
* [[Clare Martin]] (Chief Minister of the [[Northern Territory]])
* [[Jon Stanhope]] (Chief Minister of the [[Australian Capital Territory]])
* [[Paul Lennon]] (Premier of [[Tasmania]])
* [[Morris Iemma]] (Premier of [[New South Wales]])
* [[Alan Carpenter]] (Premier of [[Western Australia]])
==Past ALP State Premiers and Territory Chief Ministers==
<!--Please note these are PAST PREMIERS: do NOT put present day Premiers in here-->.
'''New South Wales'''
* [[Bob Carr]] ([[1995]]&ndash;[[2005]])
* [[Barrie Unsworth]] ([[1986]]&ndash;[[1988|88]])
* [[Neville Wran]] ([[1976]]&ndash;[[1986|86]])
* [[Jack Renshaw]] ([[1964]]&ndash;[[1965|65]])
* [[Robert Heffron]] ([[1959]]&ndash;[[1964|64]])
* [[Joseph Cahill]] ([[1952]]&ndash;[[1959|59]])
* [[James McGirr]] ([[1947]]&ndash;[[1952|52]])
* [[William McKell]] ([[1941]]&ndash;[[1947|47]])
* [[Jack Lang (Australia)|Jack Lang]] ([[1925]]&ndash;[[1927|27]], [[1930]]&ndash;[[1932|32]])
* [[James Dooley (Australian politician)|James Dooley]] ([[1921]]&ndash;[[1921|21]], [[1921]]&ndash;[[1922|22]])
* [[John Storey]] ([[1920]]&ndash;[[1921|21]])
* [[William Holman]] |
ish/Danish) from Old West Norse was the change of the [[diphthong]] ''æi'' (Old West Norse ''ei'') to the [[monophthong]] ''e'', as in ''stæin'' to ''sten''. This is reflected in runic inscriptions where the older read ''stain'' and the later ''stin''. There was also a change of ''au'' as in ''dauðr'' into ''ø'' as in ''døðr''. This change is shown in runic inscriptions as a change from ''tauþr'' into ''tuþr''. Moreover, the ''øy'' (Old West Norse ''ey'') diphthong changed into ''ø'' as well, as in the Old Norse word for "island".
From [[1100]] and onwards, the dialect of Denmark began to diverge from that of Sweden. The innovations spread unevenly from Denmark which created a series of minor dialectal boundaries, [[isogloss]]es, ranging from [[Zealand]] to [[Svealand]].
Some famous authors of works in Danish are [[existentialism|existential]] [[philosopher]] [[Søren Kierkegaard]], prolific [[fairy tale]] author [[Hans Christian Andersen]], and playwright [[Ludvig Holberg]]. Three [[20th century]] Danish authors have become [[Nobel Prize]] laureates in [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Literature]]: [[Karl Adolph Gjellerup]] and [[Henrik Pontoppidan]] (joint recipients in [[1917]]) and [[Johannes Vilhelm Jensen]] (awarded [[1944]]).
Danish was once widely spoken in the northeast counties of England. Many Danish derived words such as gate (gade) for street, still survive in [[Yorkshire]] and other parts of eastern England colonized by Danish [[Vikings]]. The city of [[York]] was once the Danish settlement of Jorvik.
The first translation of the [[Bible]] in Danish was published in [[1550]].
==Geographical distribution==
Danish is the [[official language]] of [[Denmark]], one of two official languages of [[Greenland]] (the other is [[Greenlandic language|Greenlandic]]), and one of two official languages of the [[Faroe Islands|Faeroes]] (the other is [[Faroese language|Faeroese]]). In addition, there is a small community of Danish speakers in [[Schleswig]], the portion of [[Germany]] bordering Denmark, where it is an officially recognized and protected [[regional language]]. Furthermore, it is one of the official languages of the [[European Union]].
== Dialects ==
Standard Danish (''rigsdansk'' or ''rigsmål'') is the language based on dialects spoken in and around the capital of [[Copenhagen]]. Unlike Swedish and Norwegian, Danish does not have more than one regional speech norm. More than 20% of all Danish speakers live in the metropolitan area and most government agencies, institutions and major businesses keep their main offices in Copenhagen, something that has resulted in a very homogeneous national speech norm. Though [[Oslo]] and [[Stockholm]] are quite dominant in terms of speech standards, cities like [[Bergen, Norway|Bergen]], [[Gothenburg]] and the [[Malmö]]-[[Lund]] region are large and influential enough to create secondary regional norms, making the standard language more varied than is the case with Danish. The general agreement is that Standard Danish is based on a form of Copenhagen dialect, but the specific norm is, as with most language norms, difficult to pinpoint for both laymen and linguists. More distinct "genuine" [[dialect]]s still exist in smaller communities, but most speakers in these areas generally speak a regionalized form of Standard Danish. Usually an adaption of the local dialect to ''rigsdansk'' is spoken, though code-changing between the neutralized norm and a distinct dialect is common.
Danish dialects are divided into three general dialect groups:
*''Østdansk'' ("Eastern Danish)
*''Ødansk'' ("Island Danish")
*''Jysk'' ("Jutlandish")
Historically, Eastern Danish includes what is today considered Southern Swedish dialects like [[Scanian (linguistics)|Scanian]] and the dialect spoken on the island of [[Bornholm]] in the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] between the coasts Sweden and Germany. The background for this lies in the loss of originally Danish provinces like [[Blekinge]], [[Halland]] and [[Skåne]] to Sweden in 1658. While many similarities can be found in Southern Swedish and the Bornholm-dialect, they are more similar to the modern national standards than to each other. The Bornholm-dialect has also maintained a distinction between three [[grammatical gender]]s, rather than just two in Standard Danish and lacks the diphthongs used in the standard language.
==Sound system==
{{main|Danish phonology}}
The sound system of Danish is in many ways unique among the world's languages. It is quite prone to considerable reduction and [[assimilation (linguistics)|assimilation]] of both consonants and vowels even in very formal standard language. A rare feature is the presence of a prosodic feature called ''[[stød]]'' in Danish (lit. "push; thrust"), absent in some southern dialects. This is a form of laryngealization or [[creaky voice]], occasionally realized as a [[glottal stop]] (especially in emphatic pronunciation). It can be the only distinguishing feature between certain words, thus creating [[minimal pair]]s (e.g. ''bønder'' "peasants" with stød vs. ''bønner'' "beans" without). The distribution of stød in the lexicon is obviously related to the distribution of the common Scandinavian [[tone (linguistics)|tonal]] word accents found in most dialects of [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]], including the national [[standard language]]s. Most linguists today believe that stød is a development of the word accents, rather than the other way round. Stød generally occurs in words that have "accent 1" in Swedish and Norwegian and that were monosyllabic in [[Old Norse]], while no-stød occurs in words that have "accent 2" in Swedish and Norwegian and that were polysyllabic in Old Norse.
Unlike the neighboring Continental Scandinavian languages, the [[prosody]] of Danish does not have phonemic pitch. [[stress (linguistics)|Stress]] is phonemic in and distinguishes words
such as ''billigst'' ['bilist] "cheapest" and ''bilist'' [bi'list] "car driver".
===Vowels===
{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode"
|-
| rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]
! colspan="2" | [[Central vowel|Central]]
! colspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]
|- align=center
| unrounded
| rounded
| unrounded
| rounded
| unrounded
| rounded
|- align=center
|[[Close vowel|Close]]<br>(high)
| i
| y
|
|
|
| u
|- align=center
|[[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| e
| ø
|
|
|
| o
|- align=center
|[[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|
|
| ə
|
|
|
|- align=center
|[[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
|ɛ
|œ
|ɐ
|
|
|ɔ
|- align=center
| [[Open vowel|Open]]<br>(low)
|a
|
|
|
|ɑ
|ɒ
|}
Modern Standard Danish has 26 vowel [[phoneme]]s, out of which all but two can be both long and short, [[Schwa]] and {{IPA|/ɐ/}}. The long and short realizations often differ in [[vowel#Articulation|quality]] and there are several [[allophones]] that differ if they occur together with an /r/. For example, /ø/ is lowered when it occurs either before or after /r/ and /a/ is pronounced {{IPA|[ɛ]}} when it's long.
===Consonants===
{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; text-align: center; font-size: 105%;"
|-
!
! colspan="2" | [[Bilabial]]
! colspan="2" | [[Labiodental|Labio]]-</br>[[labiodental|dental]]
! colspan="2" | [[Alveolar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Alveolar|Alveolo]]-</br>[[palatal|palatal]]
! colspan="2" | [[Palatal]]
! colspan="2" | [[Velar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Uvular|Uvu]]-</br>[[Pharyngeal|pharyngeal]]
! colspan="2" | [[Glottal]]
|-
|[[Plosive]]s
| {{IPA|pʰ}}
| {{IPA|b}}
| colspan="2" |
| {{IPA|tˢ}}
| {{IPA|d}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| {{IPA|kʰ}}
| {{IPA|g}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|-
|[[Nasal]]s
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|m}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|n}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|ŋ}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|-
|[[Fricative]]s
| colspan="2" |
| {{IPA|f}}
|
| {{IPA|s}}
|
| colspan="2" | ( {{IPA|ɕ}} )
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| {{IPA|h}}
|
|-
|[[Approximant]]s
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|v}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|ð}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|j}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|r}}
| colspan="2" |
|-
| [[Lateral consonant|Lateral<br>approximant]]
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|l}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|}
{{IPA|/b, d, g/}} are [[phonation|devoiced]] in all contexts. {{IPA|/v, ð/}} often have slight frication, but are usually pronounced as [[approximant]]s. No distinction between {{IPA|/pʰ~b/}} and /{{IPA|tˢ~d/}} is made in certain contexts, such as after {{IPA|/s/}}, between short vowels and in word-final position. Hence ''lappe'' and ''labbe'' are rendered {{IPA|[labə]}}. The combination of {{IPA|/sj/}} is realized as a [[voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative|alveolo-palatal fricative]], {{IPA|[ɕ]}}, making it possible to postulate a tentative {{IPA|/ɕ/}}-phoneme in Danish. {{IPA|/r/}} can be described as "tautosyllabic", meaning that it take the form of either a phonetic consonant or vowel. At the |
t Curae]]'' (1150), both works on natural history and curative powers of various natural objects, which are together known as ''[[Liber subtilatum]]'' ("The book of subtleties of the Diverse Nature of Things"). These works were uncharacteristic of Hildegard's writings, including her correspondences, in that they were not presented in a visionary form and don't contain any references to divine source or revelation. However, like her religious writings they reflected her religious philosophy-that man was the peak of God's creation and everything was put in the world for man to use.
Her scientific views were derived from the ancient Greek cosmology of the four elements-fire, air, water, and earth -- with their complementary qualities of heat, dryness, moisture, and cold, and the corresponding four humours in the body -- choler (yellow bile), blood, phlegm, and melancholy (black bile). Human constitution was based on the preponderance of one or two of the humours. Indeed, we still use words "choleric", "sanguine", "phlegmatic" and "melancholy" to describe personalities. Sickness upset the delicate balance of the humours, and only consuming the right plant or animal which had that quality you were missing could restore the healthy balance to the body. That is why in giving descriptions of plants, trees, birds, animals, and stones, Hildegard is mostly concerned in describing that object's quality and giving its medicinal use. Thus, "Reyan (tansy) is hot and a little damp and is good against all superfluous flowing humours and whoever suffers from catarrh and has a cough, let him eat tansy. It will bind humors so that they do not overflow, and thus will lessen."
She collected her visions into three books: the first and most important ''[[Scivias]]'' ("Know the Way") completed in [[1151]], ''[[Liber vitae meritorum]]'' ("Book of Life's Merits") and ''[[De operatione Dei]]'' ("Of God's Activities") also known as ''[[Liber divinorum operum]]'' ("Book of Divine Works"). In these volumes, written over the course of her life until her death in 1179, she first describes each vision, then interprets them. The narrative of her visions was richly decorated under her direction, presumably drawn by other nuns in the convent, while transcription assistance was provided by the monk [[Volmar]] (see illustration) with pictures of the visions. Her interpretations are usually quite traditionally Catholic in nature. Her vivid description of the physical sensations which accompanied her visions have been diagnosed by neurologists (including popular author [[Oliver Sacks]]) as symptoms of [[migraine]]; however others have seen in them merely colorful illustrations of the prevailing church doctrine of her time, which she supported, rather than actual visions. The book was celebrated in the [[Middle Ages]] and printed for the first time in [[Paris]] in [[1513]].
Hildegard's writings are also unique for they provide the earliest description of sexual pleasure from the point of view of a woman.
''"When a woman is making love with a man, a sense of heat in her brain, which brings with it sensual delight, communicates the taste of that delight during the act and summons forth the emission of the man's seed. And when the seed has fallen into its place, that vehement heat descending from her brain draws the seed to itself and holds it, and soon the woman's sexual organs contract, and all the parts that are ready to open up during the time of menstruation now close, in the same way as a strong man can hold something enclosed in his fist.
She also wrote that strength of semen determined the sex of the child, while the amount of love and passion determine child's disposition. According to Hildegard, the worst case scenario occurs when the seed is weak and parents feel no love, leading to a bitter daughter.
Conversely Hildegard's visionary writings maintain that virginity is the highest level of the spiritual life. There are many instances both in her letters and visions which decry the mis-use of carnal pleasures. In Scivias Book II Vision Six.78,
''"God united man and woman, thus joining the strong to the weak, that each might sustain the other. But these perverted adulterers change their virile strength into perverse weakness, rejecting the proper male and female roles, and in their wickedness they shamefully follow Satan, who in his pride sought to split and divide Him Who is indivisible. They create in themselves by their wicked deeds a strange and perverse adultery, and so appear polluted and shameful in My sight..."
''"...a woman who takes up devilish ways and plays a male role in coupling with another woman is most vile in My sight, and so is she who subjects herself to such a one in this evil deed..."
''"...And men who touch their own genital organ and emit their semen seriously imperil their souls, for they excite themselves to distraction; they appear to Me as impure animals devouring their own whelps, for they wickedly produce their semen only for abusive pollution..."
''"...When a person feels himself disturbed by bodily stimulation let him run to the refuge of continence, and seize the shield of chastity, and thus defend himself from uncleanness." (translation by Mother Columba Hart and Jane Bishop).
== Divine Harmonies ==
Music was extremely important to Hildegard. She describes it as the means of recapturing the original joy and beauty of paradise. According to her, before the Fall, Adam had a pure voice and joined angels in singing praises to God; after the [[The Fall of Man|Fall]], earthly music was invented and musical instruments created in order to worship God appropriately.
Hildegard wrote [[hymn]]s and [[Sequence (music)|sequence]]s in honor of saints, virgins and Mary. She wrote in the plainchant tradition of a single vocal melodic line, the predominant method of liturgical singing in the 12th century.
Currently her music is undergoing a popular revival and enjoying public success. One group, ''[[Sequentia (music group)|Sequentia]]'', recorded virtually all of Hildegard's musical output in time for the 900th anniversary of her birth in 1998, including examples of Hildegard's metaphorical writing, imbued with vibrant descriptions of color and light, that occur in her visionary writings.
== Significance ==
Hildegard was a powerful woman for the [[Middle Ages]]. She communicated with Popes such as [[Eugenius III]], [[Anastasius IV]], statesmen such as [[Abbot Suger]], German emperors such as [[Frederick I Barbarossa]], and on one occasion with St. [[Bernard of Clairvaux]] who although he reportedly advanced her work at the Synod of Trier 1147/48, seemed to have little regard for her as evidenced from the one letter from him she received. Nevertheless many Abbots and Abbesses asked her for prayers and opinions on various matters. She traveled widely, giving public speeches, a rarity for a woman of the time.
Hildegard was one of the first saints for which the [[canonization]] process was officially applied, but the process took so long that all four attempts at canonization (the last was in [[1244]], under [[Pope Innocent IV]]) were not completed, and remained at her [[beatification]]. However, she was already called a [[saint]] by the people before the canonization attempts. As a result of the long-standing devotion of the people to Hildegard, her name was taken up in the Roman [[martyrology]] at the end of the [[16th century]] without a formal canonization process, earning her the title of saint. Her [[feast day]] is [[September 17]]. The shrine with the relics of Hildegard is in her second monastery in Eibingen near Rüdesheim (on the Rhine).
==Notes==
*{{fnb|1}} Hildegard of Bingen was often referred to as an [[abbess]], or Mother Superior, by the many who wrote to her, although she was never officially recognized as such by officials in her own [[archdiocese]].
==Bibliography==
*[[Scivias]] seu Visiones (1141-51)
*Liber divinorum operum simplicis hominis (1163-73/74)
*Liber vitae meritorum (1158-63)
*Solutiones triginta octo quaestionum
*Explanatio [[Rule of St Benedict|Regulae S. Benedicti]]
*Explanatio Symboli [[Saint Athanasius|S. Athanasii]]
*Vita [[Saint Rupert|S. Ruperti]]
*Vita [[Saint Disibod|S. Disibodi]]
*Physica, sive Subtilitatum diversarum naturarum creaturarum libri novem
*Hymnodia coelestis.
*[[Lingua Ignota|Ignota lingua]], cum versione Latina
*Tractatus de sacramento altaris.
*[[homily|Homeliae]] LVIII in Evangelia.
*Libri simplicis et compositae medicinae.
==Sources==
Editions and manuscripts of Hildegard's works
*Wiesbaden, Hessische Landesbibliothek, Hs. 2 (Riesen Codex) or [[Wiesbaden Codex]] (ca. 1180-85)
*Dendermonde, Belgium, St.-Pieters-&-Paulusabdij Cod. 9 (Villerenser codex) (ca. 1174/75)
*Hildegardis Bingensis, ''Epistolarium pars prima I-XC'' edited by L. Van Acker, Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Mediaevalis CCCM 91A (Turnhout: Brepols, 1991)
*Hildegardis Bingensis, ''Epistolarium pars secunda XCI-CCLr'' edited by L. Van Acker, Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Mediaevalis CCCM 91A (Turnhout: Brepols, 1993)
*Hildegardis Bingensis, ''Epistolarium pars tertia CCLI-CCCXC'' edited by L. Van Acker and M. Klaes-Hachmoller, Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Mediaevalis XCIB (Turnhout: Brepols, 2001)
*Hildegardis Bingensis, ''Scivias''. A. Führkötter, A. Carlevaris eds., Corpus Christianorum Scholars Version vols. 43, 43A. (Turnhout: Brepols, 2003)
*Hildegardis Bingensis, ''Liber vitae meritorum''. A. Carlevaris ed. Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Mediaevalis CCCM 90 (Turnhout: Brepols, 1995)
*Hildegardis Bingensis, ''Liber divinorum operum''. A. Derolez and P. Dronke eds., Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Mediaevalis CCCM 92 (Turnhout: Brepols, 1996)
*Friedrich Wilhelm Emil Roth, "Glossae Hildigardis", in: Elias |
i]].
*[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/2.10/godwin.if_pr.html Meme, Counter-meme], Mike Godwin, ''Wired'' 2.10, October 1994—Godwin discusses his Law
*[http://www.eff.org/Net_culture/Folklore/Humor/godwins.law EFF page on Godwin's Law and reformulations]
*[http://www.adl.org/presrele/HolNa_52/2881_52.asp ADL calls added definition of ''nazi'' offensive]
* Mike Godwin runs [http://www.godwinslaw.org a blog called "Godwin's Law."]
* Usenet posting: [http://groups.google.com/groups?selm=21000%40gryphon.COM Richard Sexton's original post] (Oct 1989)
*[http://www.journalfen.net/community/jurisimprudence Jurisimprudence: a listing of various fandom and Internet debate laws similar to Godwin's Law]
* [[Reason magazine]], [[14 July]] [[2005]]. "[http://www.reason.com/hod/dw071405.shtml Hands Off Hitler!: It's time to repeal Godwin's Law]".
*[http://www.voicesofunreason.com/fullthread$9042 Breaking Godwin's Law]
*[http://morsehellhole.blogspot.com/2006/01/taqueria-entre-amigos-leaves-bills.html Westgard's Law]: a corollary of Godwin's Law regarding the First Amendment
[[Category:Adages]]
[[Category:Adolf Hitler]]
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[[Category:Internet culture]]
[[Category:Nazism]]
[[cs:Godwinův zákon]]
[[de:Godwins Gesetz]]
[[eo:Leĝo de Godwin]]
[[es:Ley de Godwin]]
[[fi:Godwinin laki]]
[[fr:Loi de Godwin]]
[[he:חוק גודווין]]
[[nl:Wet van Godwin]]
[[no:Godwins lov]]
[[pl:Prawo Godwina]]
[[pt:Lei de Godwin]]
[[ru:Закон Годвина]]
[[sv:Godwins lag]]</text>
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<revision>
<id>34629070</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-10T16:47:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chobot</username>
<id>259798</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: ko</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Groningen''' is the name of several places:
*[[Groningen (province)]], a province of [[the Netherlands]]
*[[Groningen (city)]], a city in the Netherlands, capital of the above mentioned province
*[[Groningen, Suriname]], a city in [[Suriname]]
*[[Groningen, Minnesota]], a place in the [[United States of America]]
Similar names:
*[[Gröningen]], a town in [[Saxony-Anhalt]], [[Germany]].
*[[Groeningen (North Brabant)]], a city in [[North Brabant]] province in the Netherlands
{{disambig}}
[[de:Groningen (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[fy:Grins]]
[[ko:흐로닝언]]
[[li:Greuninge]]
[[nl:Groningen]]
[[nds:Groningen]]
[[pt:Groningen]]
[[tr:Groningen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Galego language</title>
<id>12658</id>
<revision>
<id>15910330</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-09T12:57:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>UtherSRG</username>
<id>33145</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Galician language]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Goidelic</title>
<id>12659</id>
<revision>
<id>15910331</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-13T20:54:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gilgamesh</username>
<id>47947</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Goidelic moved to Goidelic languages</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Goidelic languages]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gibberish language</title>
<id>12660</id>
<revision>
<id>15910332</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gibberish]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Goya (disambiguation)</title>
<id>12662</id>
<revision>
<id>29776048</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-01T05:41:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KaiserbBot</username>
<id>624606</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation: WWII</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Goya''' may refer to one of the following.
*[[Francisco Goya]], a Spanish [[artist]].
*''[[Goya (opera)|Goya]]'', an opera by [[Gian-Carlo Menotti]] based on the life of Francisco Goya.
*[[Goya, Corrientes|Goya]], an [[Argentina|Argentine]] city in the [[Corrientes Province]].
*[[Goya (ship)|Goya]], a German ship, [[World War II|WWII]], which sunk in April 16, 1945, killing ca. 6,000 people.
*[[Bitter melon|Goya]], an [[Okinawa]]n vegetable.
*[[Goya Dress]], a British rock trio.
*[[Goya Foods]] (company).
* [[Goya Awards]], or ''The Goyas'', Spain's main national film awards.
<!--
*'''''Goya''''', a biography book by [[Lion Feuchtwanger]]
*'''''Goya''''', a biography book by [[Robert Hughes]]
-->
{{disambig}}
[[de:Goya]]
[[es:Goya]]
[[eo:Goya]]
[[fr:Goya]]
[[pl:Goya]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Green Bay Packers</title>
<id>12663</id>
<revision>
<id>41861877</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T05:18:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Iyobi</username>
<id>929781</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Nickname and uniforms */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''Note: Basketball teams from [[Chicago Packers|Chicago]] and [[Anderson Packers|Anderson]] once used the name Packers as well.''
{{NFL team | name = Green Bay Packers
| logo = GreenBayPackers_100.png
| founded = 1919
| city = Green Bay, Wisconsin
| colors = Dark Green, Gold, and White
| coach = [[Mike McCarthy]]
| owner = A [[public company]]
| general manager = Ted Thompson
| song = [[Go! You Packers! Go!]]
| stations = WTMJ (620 AM) ([[Milwaukee, Wisconsin|Milwaukee]]); WNFL (1440 AM) and WIXX (101.1 FM) ([[Green Bay, Wisconsin|Green Bay]])
| announcers = Wayne Larrivee and Larry McCarren
| hist_yr = 1919
| hist_misc2 =
:* Unofficial names: [http://www.packers.com/history/fast_facts/nickname_origin/]
:** Indian Packers (1919)
:** Acme Packers (1921)
| nicknames = The Pack
| affiliate_old =
Independent (1919-1920)<br>
| NFL_start_yr = 1921
| division_hist =
*Western Division (1933-1949)
*National Conference (1950-1952)
*Western Conference (1953-1969)
**Central Division (1967-1969)
*'''[[National Football Conference]] (1970-present)'''
**[[NFC Central]] (1970-2001)
**'''[[NFC North]] (2002-present)'''
| no_league_champs = 14
| no_sb_champs = 1
| no_conf_champs = 8
| no_div_champs = 12
| league_champs =
*'''[[List of NFL champions|NFL Championships]] (11)'''<br>1929, 1930, 1931, 1936, 1939, 1944, 1961, 1962, 1965, 1966, 1967
*'''[[List of Super Bowl champions|AFL-NFL Super Bowl Championships]] (2)'''<br>1966&nbsp;([[Super Bowl I|I]]), 1967&nbsp;([[Super Bowl II|II]])
| sb_champs = 1996&nbsp;([[Super Bowl XXXI|XXXI]])
| conf_champs =
*'''NFL Western:''' 1960, 1961, 1962, 1965, 1966, 1967
*'''NFC:''' 1996, 1997
| div_champs =
*'''NFL West:''' 1936, 1938, 1939, 1944
*'''NFL Central:''' 1967
*'''NFC Central:''' 1972, 1995, 1996, 1997
*'''NFC North:''' 2002, 2003, 2004
| stadium_years =
*[[Hagemeister Park]] (1919-1922)
*[[Bellevue Park]] (1923-1924)
*[[City Stadium (Green Bay)]] (1925-1956)
*'''[[Lambeau Field]] (1957-present)'''
Split games between [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin|Milwaukee]] and Green Bay (1933-1994)
*[[Borchert Field]] (1933-1935)
*[[Wisconsin State Fair Park]] (1934-1951)
*[[Marquette Stadium]] (1952)
*[[Milwaukee County Stadium]] (1953-1994)
}}
The '''Green Bay Packers''' are a professional [[American football]] team based in [[Green Bay, Wisconsin]]. They currently belong to the [[NFC North|Northern Division]] of the [[National Football Conference]] (NFC) in the [[National Football League]] (NFL). The team is sometimes affectionately referred to as simply 'The Pack'.
The Packers are the last remaining example of the "small town teams" that comprised a majority of the NFL during the 1920s. Green Bay is by far the smallest [[media market]] to be the home of a [[North America]]n [[major professional sports league]] (though their fanbase includes [[Milwaukee]], the rest of [[Wisconsin]], and beyond).
Founded in 1919, the Packers joined the NFL in 1921 during the league's second season. The team currently holds the record for the most NFL league championships with 12: nine [[List of Super Bowl champions|NFL Championships]] prior to the [[Super Bowl]] era, [[Super Bowl I]], [[Super Bowl II]], and [[Super Bowl XXXI]]. The team also holds the distinction of winning the first two [[Super Bowl|AFL-NFL Championship Games]] that were held before the [[AFL-NFL Merger]], later referred to as [[Super Bowl I]] and [[Super Bowl II|II]].
The Packers are currently the only [[Public company|publicly owned]] major league level professional sports team in the [[United States]] (although other teams, such as the [[Atlanta Braves]], the [[Chicago Cubs]], and the [[New York Rangers]] are directly owned by publicly traded companies). Currently, a total of 4,749,925 [[Stock|shares]] are owned by 111,921 [[stockholder]]s - none of whom receives any [[dividend]]. [http://www.packers.com/stockholders/]
:'''Helmet design:''' Yellow background with green/white/green striping, green facemask, white "G" in a green oval logo on both sides
==Franchise history==
The Green Bay Packers were founded on [[August 11]], [[1919]] by [[Curly Lambeau]] and [[George Whitney Calhoun]]. Lambeau solicited funds for uniforms from his employer, the [[Indian Packing Company]]. He was given $500 for uniforms and equipment, on the condition that the team be named for its sponsor.
The Packers became a professional franchise in 1921. Financial troubles plagued the team and the franchise was lost the same year. The Packers found new backers the next year and regained the franchise. The financial backers, known as the "Hungry Five," formed the [[Green Bay Football Corporation]].
The Packers are now the only publicly owned company with a board of directors in |
ins entry to Heaven.
==History==
Both [[Richard Rodgers]] and [[Oscar Hammerstein II]] said that ''Carousel'' was the favorite of their works together. They broke new ground in musical theater storytelling with their extended music/dialogue scenes, such as "If I Loved You" and, hauntingly, the "Soliloquy" (where Billy imagines his future child). The final anthem "[[You'll Never Walk Alone (song)|You'll Never Walk Alone]]" has taken on a life of its own; a graduation standard, it is also customarily sung by fans at English football matches, especially those of [[Liverpool F.C.]]
A [[1956]] movie version starred [[Shirley Jones]] and [[Gordon MacRae]]. This movie also had an appearance by a young [[Cheryl Holdridge]], who would later gain fame on the [[Mickey Mouse Club]]. The movie also had an appearance by [[Jacques d'Amboise]], a principal dancer with the [[New York City Ballet]], as the charismatic carousel barker in the [[ballet]].
==Musical Numbers==
:::ACT ONE
Prologue. An Amusement Park on the New England Coast
*"The Carousel Waltz"
Scene One. A Tree-lined Path Along the Shore
*"You're a Queer One, Julie Jordan"
*"Mister Snow"
*"[[If I Loved You]]"
Scene Two. Nettie Fowler's Spa on the Ocean Front
*"June Is Bustin' Out All Over"
*"Mister Snow (reprise)"
*"When the Children Are Asleep"
*"Blow High, Blow Low"
*"Soliloquy"
:::ACT TWO
*"Entr'acte"
Scene One. On an Island Across the Bay
*"A Real Nice Clambake"
*"Geraniums in the Winder"
*"A Man Who Thinks He's Good"
*"[[What's the Use of Wond'rin'?]]"
Scene Two. Mainland Waterfront
*"[[You'll Never Walk Alone (song)|You'll Never Walk Alone]]"
Scene Three. Up There in Heaven
*"The Highest Judge of All"
Scene Four. Down Here on a Beach
*"Ballet: Billy Makes a Journey"
Scene Five. Outside Julie's Cottage
*"If I Loved You (reprise)"
Scene Six. Outside the Schoolhouse
*"Finale: You'll Never Walk Alone (reprise)"
*"Exit Music"
== External links ==
{{wikiquotepar|Carousel}}
* {{imdb title|id=0049055|title=Carousel (1956)}}
* {{imdb title|id=0190291|title=Carousel (1967) (TV)}}
[[ja:&#22238;&#36578;&#26408;&#39340; (&#12511;&#12517;&#12540;&#12472;&#12459;&#12523;)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Contract</title>
<id>7567</id>
<revision>
<id>41007472</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T13:00:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Enochlau</username>
<id>36424</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.197.217.86|68.197.217.86]] ([[User talk:68.197.217.86|talk]]) to last version by AndyJones</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{ContractLaw}}
A '''contract''' is a "promise" or an "agreement" that is enforced or recognised by the law. In the [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]], contracts are considered to be part of the general [[law of obligations]]. This article describes the law relating to contracts in [[common law]] jurisdictions.
== Comparison of contract and tort law ==
[[Law of obligations|The law of obligations]] has traditionally been divided into contractual obligations, which are ''voluntarily undertaken'' and ''owed to a specific person or persons'', and obligations in [[tort]] ''which are based on the wrongful infliction of harm to certain protected interests'', primarily imposed by the law, and typically owed to a wider class of persons.
Recently it has been accepted that there is a third category, restitutionary obligations, based on the [[unjust enrichment]] of the defendant at the plaintiff’s expense. Contractual liability, reflecting the constitutive function of contract, is generally for failing to make things better (by not rendering the expected performance), liability in tort is generally for action (as opposed to omission) making things worse, and liability in restitution is for unjustly taking or retaining the benefit of the plaintiff’s money or work [Beatson (1998)'' Anson’s Law of Contract'', 27th ed. (Oxford: OUP), pg. 21].
==Scope of common law contract law==
Basic [[common law]] contract law addresses four sets of issues:
#When and how is a contract formed?
#When may a party escape [[obligation]]s of a contract (such as a contract formed under [[duress]] or because of a misrepresentation)?
#What is the meaning and effect to be given to the terms of a contract?
#What is the remedy to be given for breach of a contract?
'''Contract formation''': There must be an agreement which consists of an [[offer and acceptance]], [[consideration]] (see also [[consideration under English law]]) and contractual intention for a simple contract to exist: i.e. it is not a deed - otherwise no consideration is needed.
Subject to the ''sine qua non'' of Contract Formation, other ingredients that make up a contract include:
:* Form - In some cases, certain formalities (that is, writing) must be observed.
:* [[Capacity (law)|Capacity]] - The parties must be legally capable of entering into a contract.
:*Consent - The agreement must have been entered into freely. Consent may be vitiated by duress or undue influence.
:* Legality - The purpose of the agreement must not be illegal or contrary to [[public policy]].
A contract which possesses all of the above ingredients is said to be valid. The absence of an essential element will render the contract either void, voidable or unenforceable
In some situations, a [[collateral contract]] may exist.
'''Meaning and effect of contract terms''': Many contract disputes involve a disagreement between the parties about what terms in the contract require each party to do or refrain from doing. Hence, many rules of contract law pertain to interpretation of terms of a contract that are vague or ambiguous. The [[parol evidence rule]] limits what things can be taken into account when trying to interpret a contract.
'''[[Privity]]:''' In general, only parties to a contract may sue for the breach of a contract.
==Validity of contracts==
For a contract to be [[valid]], it must meet the following criteria:
* '''Mutual agreement''' - (see main article [[offer and acceptance]]): There must be an express or implied agreement. The essential requirement is that there be evidence that the parties had each from an objective perspective engaged in conduct manifesting their assent, and a contract will be formed when the parties have met such a requirement. (Notice that the objective manifestation requirement means that one need not actually have assented so long as a reasonable person would believe that assent had been granted.) For a contract based on offer and acceptance to be enforced, the terms must be capable of determination in a way that it is clear that the parties assent was given to the same terms. The terms, like the manifestation of assent itself, are determined objectively.
*'''Consideration''': There must be [[consideration]] (see also [[consideration under English law]]) given by all the parties, meaning that every party is conferring a benefit on the other party or himself sustaining a recognizable detriment, such as a reduction of the party's alternative courses of action where the party would otherwise be free to act with respect to the subject matter without any limitation. Consideration need not be adequate, e.g. agreeing to buy a car for a penny may constitute a binding contract. (q.v. Chappell & Co Ltd v Nestle Co Ltd [1959] 2 All ER 701. (UK common law))
*'''Competent, Adult ([[Sui Juris]]) Parties''': Both parties must have the [[capacity (law)|capacity]] to understand the terms of the contract they are entering into, and the consequences of the promises they make. For example, animals, minor children, and mentally disabled individuals do not have the capacity to form a contract, and any contracts with them will be considered [[Void contract|void]] or [[Voidable contract|voidable]]. Although [[corporation|corporations]] are technically [[legal fiction|legal fictions]], they are considered [[person|persons]] under the law, and thus fit to engage in contracts.
:For adults, most jurisdictions have statutes declaring that the capacity of parties to a contract is presumed, so that one resisting enforcement of a contract on grounds that a party lacked the capacity to be bound bears the burden of persuasion on the issue of capacity.
*'''Proper Subject Matter''': The contract must have a [[lawful purpose]]. A contract to commit murder in exchange for money will not be enforced by the courts. It is void ''[[ab initio]]'', meaning "from the beginning."
*'''Mutual Right to Remedy''': Both parties must have an equal right to remedy upon breach of the terms by the other party
*'''Mutual Obligation to Perform''': Both parties must have some obligation to fulfill to the other. This can be distinct from '''consideration''', which may be an initial inducement into the contract.
==Written contracts==
Contrary to common wisdom, an informal exchange of promises can still be binding and legally as valid as a written contract. A spoken contract is often called an "[[oral contract]]", not a "verbal contract." Any contract that uses words, spoken or written, is a verbal contract. Thus, all oral contracts and written contracts are verbal contracts. This is in contrast to a "non-verbal, non-oral contract," also known as "a contract implied by the acts of the parties."
[[Courts]] in the [[United States]] have generally ruled that if the parties have a meeting of the minds (i.e., the same intent), consideration is paid or given by the parties, and they act as though there was a formal, written and signed contract, then a contract exists. How |
Blue,' the singer stands hitchhiking on the side of a road in the rain, thinking about his dues," writes [[National Public Radio]]'s Tim Riley. "By the end of the second verse, he's driven with his lover to the West Coast and abandoned the relationship along with the car. From there, the song is a tableau of encounters that conveys an atmosphere of detachment from both his lover and the people they knew together."
In an interview taken in 1985, Dylan said that "'Tangled Up in Blue'...was another one of those things where I was trying to do something that I didn't think had ever been done before. In terms of trying to tell a story and be a present character in it without it being some kind of fake, sappy attempted tearjerker. I was trying to be somebody in the present time, while conjuring up a lot of past images...I wanted to defy time, so that the story took place in the present and the past at the same time. When you look at a painting, you can see any part of it, or see all of it together. I wanted that song to be like a painting."
In "Simple Twist of Fate" the narrator experiences what he feels is a passionate one-night stand, but when he wakes up the next morning, he sits in an empty room, wondering if the woman he had the night before is thinking about him at all.
As described by Riley, "'Lily, Rosemary and the Jack of Hearts' is an intricately evasive allegory about romantic facades that hide criminal motives, and the way one character's business triggers a series of recriminations from people he doesn't even know."
Riley writes that "'Shelter from the Storm'...accepts bitterness and solitude as a necessary price for buying into love's illusions, the inward scorn that repays innocence."
==Outtakes and alternate versions==
Tim Riley describes "Up to Me" as "another buried treasure that becomes a sublime cover on [[Roger McGuinn]]'s ''Cardiff Rose'' (1976)...its armload of self-referencing touches operate as blueprints for ''Blood on the Tracks''' major themes of obession, denial, and melancholy humor. 'Up to Me' works as both the engine of feeling underlying the album and one of the sliest self-references Dylan ever gets up the nerve to sing: 'How my lone guitar played sweet for you that old-time melody / And the harmonica around my neck, I blew it for you, free... / You know it was up to me.'" A serious contender for the album, it was omitted due to an overabundance of material. It was later issued on 1985's ''[[Biograph]]''.
''Blood on the Tracks'' also produced one of Dylan's most popular bootlegs, a replicated version of the acetate test pressings created for the album's original configuration. With both the original 'New York' master takes and the Minneapolis re-recordings made available for comparison, there's been much debate among critics and fans alike over Dylan's decision to replace five songs on ''Blood on the Tracks'' with the Studio 80 re-recordings.
Riley argues that Dylan "was probably right to chuck the New York tracks for the Minneapolis band, not only because with new players the songs get a refreshingly naive surface that rubs up against their world-weary outlook, but because Dylan's singing in New York is so soft it sounds swallowed - a whole record of that couldn't have carried the same load."
Critic [[Robert Christgau]] wrote, "The first version of this album struck me as a sellout to the memory of Dylan's pre-electric period; this [revised edition], utilizing unknown Minneapolis studio musicians who impose nothing beyond a certain anonymous brightness on the proceedings, recapitulates the strengths of that period."
Critic Paul Nelson would later describe the Minneapolis band in ''[[Rolling Stone Magazine]]'' as "that wonderful pseudonymous band from Minnesota, who clearly have an affinity for Dylan and his music."
However, Clinton Heylin argues that the Studio 80 version of "You're a Big Girl Now" was "a mere reflection of the ghost of a pale shadow of its New York self" while the Studio 80 version of "If You See Her, Say Hello" was "subjected to a number of minor changes and one line - 'If you're making love to her' became 'If you get close to her' - that stepped back from the intimacy and real hurt in the original." Though he concedes that Studio 80 versions of "Lily, Rosemary and the Jack of Hearts" and "Tangled Up in Blue" "may have the edge on the New York takes," he also criticizes the Studio 80 version of "Idiot Wind," arguing that although "the rewrites made for a more poetic lyric, they worked at the expense of the song's sense, which, when aligned to its Minneapolis performance, is overwrought, and belies all the underlying sorrow rippling through the original vocal."
"I really thought that what Paul Griffin and I did [at the September 19th session] was far superior to what was used on the final version of the album," Tony Brown later said. "Nothing can touch our version of 'Idiot Wind.' And I remember getting out of the sessions and telling people how great these new songs were."
==Aftermath==
When ''Blood on the Tracks'' was first released, critical reception was somewhat mixed. ''[[Crawdaddy]]'' reviewer Jim Cusimano disparaged the album for its "instrumental incompetence" while ''[[NME]]'''s Nick Kent described "the accompaniments [as] often so trashy they sound like mere practise takes." ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' reviewer Jon Landau, arguably Dylan's most vocal critic throughout his early career, wrote that "the record itself has been made with typical shoddiness. The accompanying musicians have never sounded more indifferent...To compare the new album to ''[[Blonde on Blonde]]'' at all is to imply that people will treasure it as deeply and for as long. They won't...''Blood on the Tracks'' will only sound like a great album for a while. Like most of Dylan, it is impermanent."
Despite harsh reviews by critics like Landau and Kent, ''Blood on the Tracks'' still received its fair share of positive reviews upon its release. ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' published a four page debate between supporters and detractors of the album, while critic Paul Williams called it "the best album of the last five years ''by anybody''."
"Dylan's new stance is as disconcerting as all the previous ones," wrote [[Robert Christgau]], "but the quickest and deepest surprise is in the music itself. By second hearing its loveliness is almost literally haunting, an aural déjà vu. There are moments of anger that seem callow, and the prevailing theme of interrupted love recalls adolescent woes, but on the whole this is the man's most mature and assured record." Christgau then gave the album an A rating.
When ''[[The Village Voice]]'' conducted its prestigious [[Pazz & Jop]] Critics Poll for 1975, ''Blood on the Tracks'' managed to place at #4; Dylan and [[The Band]]'s ''[[The Basement Tapes]]'' reached #1, having been issued later that year.
The general public was also receptive to ''Blood on the Tracks''; the album became his second consecutive American chart-topper and his sixth in the United Kingdom (''Pat Garrett'' excepted).
Decades later, any negative assessments of the album were very much in the minority. One of the most celebrated albums in rock history, in [[1997]] ''Blood on the Tracks'' was named the 11th greatest album of all time in a 'Music of the Millennium' poll conducted by [[HMV]], [[Channel 4]], ''[[The Guardian]]'' and [[Classic FM (UK)|Classic FM]]. In [[1998]] [[Q_(magazine)|''Q'' magazine]] readers placed it at number 45, while in [[2003]] the [[TV network]] [[VH1]] placed it at number 29. It is number 16 on [[Rolling Stone]]'s list of the "500 Greatest Albums of All Time". It most recently was number 5 on XPN's top 885 albums of all time, and number 4 on [[Pitchfork Media]]'s Top 100 Albums of The 1970s.
Critic Bill Wyman would later call '''Blood on the Tracks'' "[Dylan's] only flawless album and his best produced; the songs, each of them, are constructed in disciplined fashion, written and rewritten, formed in a way his songs almost never are. It is his kindest album and most dismayed, and seems in hindsight to have achieved a sublime balance between the logorrhea-plagued excesses of his mid-'60s output and the self-consciously simple compositions of his post-accident years."
Clinton Heylin would also write that Dylan had reinvented "his whole approach to language. Gone were the surrealistic turns of phrase on ''[[Blonde on Blonde]]'', gone was the 'wild mercury sound' surounding those mystical words. In their place was a uniformity of mood, a coherence of sound, and an unmistakable maturity to the voice...He had never sung better.
"''Blood on the Tracks'' was not only markedly superior to the juvenile angst of ''[[Another Side of Bob Dylan]]'', Dylan's last 'confessional' album, but the album of a man in his mid-thirties, coming to terms with all the water that has passed under the old bridge. For the first time he was confronting the previous decade as a survivor, willing to reminisce about a time when 'revolution was in the air,' while insisting that his primary concerns lay elsewhere."
As Heylin writes, Dylan would continue to mine the "rich vein of language struck on ''Blood on the Tracks''" when he composed "Abandoned Love" soon after. Around the same time, Dylan wrote another new song titled "One More Cup of Coffee." Both songs would set the stage for his next album, one that marked another dramatic change in his musical direction.
==Track listing==
===Side 1===
#"[[Tangled Up in Blue]]" - 5:40
#"Simple Twist of Fate" - 4:18
#"You're a Big Girl Now" - 4:36
#"[[Idiot Wind]]&q |
of Azov as possible pre-Proto-Indo-Europeans.
Other theories exist, often with a [[nationalism|nationalistic]] flavour, sometimes bordering on [[national mysticism]], typically positing the development ''in situ'' of the proponents' respective homes. One prominent example of such are the Indian theories that derive [[Vedic Sanskrit]] from the [[Indus valley civilization]], postulating that Vedic Sanskrit is essentially identical to Proto-Indo-European, and that all other dialects must ultimately trace back to the early Indus valley civilization of ca. 3000 BC. This theory is not widely accepted by scholars. See [[Indo-Aryan migration]] for a discussion. Another example may be the [[Paleolithic Continuity Theory]] proposed by Italian theorists that derives Indo-European from the European [[Paleolithic]] cultures.
==Sound changes==
{{main|Indo-European sound laws}}
As the Proto-Indo-European language broke up, its sound system diverged as well, according to various [[sound law]]s in the daughter languages. Notable among these are [[Grimm's law]] in [[Proto-Germanic]], loss of prevocalic ''*p-'' in [[Proto-Celtic]], loss of prevocalic ''*s-'' in [[Proto-Greek]], [[Brugmann's law]] in [[Proto-Indo-Iranian]], as well as [[Satemization]] treated above. [[Grassmann's law]] and [[Bartholomae's law]] may or may not have been still common Indo-European.
==References==
* {{cite book | last = Watkins | first = Calvert | title = The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots | publisher = Houghton Mifflin | year = 2000 | id = ISBN 0618082506 }}
* [[August Schleicher]], ''A Compendium of the Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European Languages'' (1861/62).
* Leszek Bednarczuk (red.), ''Języki indoeuropejskie''. PWN. Warszawa. 1986 (in Polish). <!-- is this a book? -->.
==See also==
* [[Language family]]
* [[Indo-European studies]]
* [[Proto-Indo-European language]]
* [[List of Indo-European roots]]
* [[List of Indo-European languages]]
* [[List of languages]]
== External links ==
;Databases
* [http://www.indoeuropean.nl The Indo-European Database]
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90017 IE language family overview (SIL)]
* [http://languageserver.uni-graz.at/ls/group?id=4 Indo-European] at the LLOW-database
* [http://www.utexas.edu/cola/depts/lrc/iedocctr/ie.html Indo-European Documentation Center] at the [[University of Texas at Austin]]
;Evolution
* [http://www.ship.edu/%7Ecgboeree/indoeuropean.html The Evolution of the Indo-European Languages, by Dr. C. George Boeree].
* [http://www.HJHolm.de A possible Homeland of the Indo-European Languages] by Hans J. Holm
* [http://www.psych.auckland.ac.nz/psych/research/Evolution/Gray&Atkinson2003.pdf Gray & Atkinson, article on PIE Phylogeny]
;Lexicon
* [http://www.bartleby.com/61/IEroots.html Indo-European Roots, from the American Heritage Dictionary].
* [http://www.geocities.com/protoillyrian Indo-European Root/lemmas] (by Andi Zeneli)
[[Category:Indo-European languages|*]]
[[Category:language families]]
[[af:Indo-Europese tale]]
[[ang:Indo-Europisc geþéodu]]
[[ar:هندوأوروبية]]
[[bg:Индоевропейски езици]]
[[be:Індаэўрапейскія мовы]]
[[bs:Indoevropski jezici]]
[[br:Yezhoù Europa]]
[[ca:Llengües indoeuropees]]
[[cs:Indoevropská jazyková rodina]]
[[cy:Ieithoedd Indo-Ewropeaidd]]
[[da:Indoeuropæiske sprog]]
[[de:Indogermanische Sprachfamilie]]
[[et:Indoeuroopa keeled]]
[[el:Ινδοευρωπαϊκές γλώσσες]]
[[es:Lenguas indoeuropeas]]
[[eo:Hindeŭropa lingvaro]]
[[fa:زبانهای هندواروپایی]]
[[fo:Indo-evropeisk mál]]
[[fr:Langues indo-européennes]]
[[fy:Yndo-Jeropeeske talen]]
[[ga:Cine teangeolaíoch Ind-Eorpach]]
[[gl:Linguas indoeuropeas]]
[[ko:인도유럽어족]]
[[hr:Indoeuropska jezična porodica]]
[[io:Indo-Europana linguaro]]
[[id:Indo-Eropa]]
[[it:Lingue indoeuropee]]
[[he:שפות הודו-אירופיות]]
[[kw:Yethow Eyndo-Europek]]
[[ku:Zimanmalbata hind û ewropî]]
[[la:Linguae Indoeuropaeae]]
[[lv:Indoeiropieši]]
[[jbo:xinjoiro'o bangu]]
[[hu:Indoeurópai nyelvcsalád]]
[[nl:Indo-Europese talen]]
[[nds:Indoeuropääsche Spraken]]
[[ja:インド・ヨーロッパ語族]]
[[no:Indo-europeiske språk]]
[[oc:Categoria:Lengas indo-europèas]]
[[pl:Języki indoeuropejskie]]
[[pt:Línguas indo-européias]]
[[ro:Limbile indo-europene]]
[[ru:Индоевропейские языки]]
[[se:Indoeurohpálaš gielat]]
[[sl:Indoevropski jeziki]]
[[fi:Indoeurooppalaiset kielet]]
[[sv:Indoeuropeiska språk]]
[[th:ภาษากลุ่มอินโด-ยูโรเปียน]]
[[vi:Hệ ngôn ngữ Ấn-Âu]]
[[tr:Hint-Avrupa dil ailesi]]
[[uk:Індоєвропейські мови]]
[[zh:印欧语系]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Illinois</title>
<id>14849</id>
<revision>
<id>42014454</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:43:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Antandrus</username>
<id>57658</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.252.244.45|68.252.244.45]] ([[User talk:68.252.244.45|talk]]) to last version by Artemisboy</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the U.S. State}}
{{US state |
Name = Illinois |
Fullname = State of Illinois |
Flag = Illinois state flag.png |
Flaglink = [[Flag of Illinois]] |
Seal = Illinois state seal.png |
Map = Map of USA highlighting Illinois.png |
Nickname = Land of Lincoln, The [[Prairie]] State |
Motto = State sovereignty, national union |
Capital = [[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]] |
LargestCity = [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] |
Governor = [[Rod Blagojevich]] (D)|
Senators = [[Richard Durbin]] (D)
[[Barack Obama]] (D) |
PostalAbbreviation = IL |
OfficialLang = [[English language|English]]|
AreaRank = 25<sup>th</sup> |
TotalArea = 149,998 |
LandArea = 143,968 |
WaterArea = 6,030 |
PCWater = 4.0 |
PopRank = 5<sup>th</sup> |
2000Pop = 12,419,293 |
DensityRank = 11<sup>th</sup> |
2000Density = 86.27 |
AdmittanceOrder = 21<sup>st</sup> |
AdmittanceDate = [[December 3]], [[1818]] |
TimeZone = [[Central Standard Time Zone|Central]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-6/[[Daylight saving time|-5]] |
Latitude = 36°58'N to 42°30'N |
Longitude = 87°30'W to 91°30'W |
Width = 340 |
Length = 629 |
HighestElev = 376 |
MeanElev = 182 |
LowestElev = 85 |
ISOCode = US-IL |
Website = www.illinois.gov
}}
'''Illinois''' ([[IPA chart for English|pronounced]] {{IPA|[ˌɪ.lɨˈnɔɪ̯]}} or "ill-i-NOY") was the [[U.S. state|21st state]] to join the [[United States]], located in the former [[Northwest Territory]]. Its name was given by the state's [[France|French explorers]] after the indigenous [[Illiniwek]] people, a [[consortium]] of [[Algonquian]] tribes that thrived in the area. The word ''Illiniwek'' means simply the "men," i.e. "people."
The [[capital]] of Illinois is [[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]], while its largest city is [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]]. The U.S. postal abbreviation for the state is '''IL'''.
The [[USS Illinois|USS ''Illinois'']] was named in honor of this state.
== History ==
{{main|History of Illinois}}
===Pre-[[Christopher Colombus|Columbian]]===
[[Cahokia]], the urban center of the pre-Columbian [[Mississippian culture]], was located near present-day [[Collinsville, Illinois]]. That civilization vanished circa 1400&ndash;1500 for unknown reasons. The next major power in the region was the [[Illiniwek]] Confederation or Illini, a political alliance among several tribes. The Illiniwek gave Illinois its name. The Illini suffered in the seventeenth century as [[Iroquois]] expansion forced them to compete with several tribes for land. The Illini were replaced in Illinois by the [[Potawatomi]], [[Miami_tribe|Miami]], [[Sauk]], and other tribes.
===European exploration===
[[France|French]] explorers [[Jacques Marquette]], [[Society of Jesus|S.J.]], and [[Louis Joliet]] explored the [[Illinois River]] in 1673. As a result of their exploration, Illinois was part of the French empire until 1763, when it passed to the [[United Kingdom|British]] as a result of the [[French and Indian War]]. [[George Rogers Clark]] claimed the [[Illinois Country]] for the [[Virginia|Commonwealth of Virginia]] during his military campaigns there in 1778. The area was ceded to the new United States in 1783 and became part of the [[Northwest Territory]].
===The 1800s===
The [[Illinois-Wabash Company]] was an early claimant to much of Illinois. The [[Illinois Territory]] was created on [[February 3]], [[1809]]. In 1818, Illinois became the 21st U.S. state. Early U.S. settlement began in the south part of the state and quickly spread northward, driving out the native residents. With the 1832 [[Black Hawk War]], the last native tribes were driven out of northern Illinois.
The winter of 1830-1831 is called the "[[Winter of the Deep Snow]]". A sudden, deep snowfall blanketed the state, making travel impossible for the rest of the winter. Travelers lucky enough to find shelter had to stay where they were. Many others perished. Several severe winters followed, including the "[[Winter of the Sudden Freeze]]". On [[December 20]], [[1836]], a fast-moving cold front passed through, freezing puddles in minutes, killing many travelers who could not reach shelter. The adverse weather resulted in crop failures in the northern part of the state. The southern part of the state shipped food north and this may have contributed to its name: "[[Little Egypt|Egypt]]", after the [[Biblical]] story of Joseph in Egypt supplying grain to his brothers.
As early as [[1840]], Illinois was called the "[[Sucker State]]".
Illinois is known as the "Land of [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]]" because it is here that the 16th [[President of |
gral solutions of simulataneous Diophantine equations of first degree, a problem with important applications in astronomy.
Aryabhata describes the algorithm in just two stanzas of ''Aryabhatiya''. His cryptic verses were elaborated by [[Bhaskara I]] ([[6th century]]) in his commentary ''Aryabhatiya Bhasya''. Bhaskara I illustrated Aryabhata's rule with several examples including 24 concrete problems from astronomy. Without the explanation of Bhaskara I, it would have been difficult to interpret Aryabhata's verses. Bhaskara I aptly called the method ''kuttaka'' (pulversisation). The idea in kuttaka was later considered so important by the Indians that initially the whole subject of algebra used to be called ''kuttaka-ganita'', or simply ''kuttaka''.
[[Brahmagupta]] ([[628]]) handled more difficult Diophantine equations - he discovered [[Pell's equation]], and in his ''Samasabhavana'' he laid out a procedure to solve Diophantine equations of the second order, such as 61x<sup>2</sup> + 1 = y<sup>2</sup>. These methods were unknown in the west, and this very equation was posed as a problem in [[1657]] by the [[France|French]] mathematician [[Pierre de Fermat]] - however, its solution was found only seventy years later by [[Euler]]. Meanwhile, many centuries ago, the solution to this equation was recorded by [[Bhaskara II]] ([[1150]]), using a modified version of Brahmagupta's method, and also found the solution to [[Pell's equation]].
=== 17th and 18th centuries ===
In [[1637]], [[Pierre de Fermat]] scribbled on the margin of his copy of ''[[Arithmetica]]'': "The equation a<sup>n</sup> + b<sup>n</sup> = c<sup>n</sup> has no solutions for any n higher than two." And then he wrote, intriguingly: "I have discovered a truly marvelous proof of this, which, however, the margin is not large enough to contain." This proof however eluded mathematicians for centuries. It became famous as [[Fermat's last theorem]], but it wasn't until [[1994]] that it was proven by [[British]] mathematician [[Andrew Wiles]].
In [[1657]], Fermat attempted the Diophantine equation 61x<sup>2</sup> + 1 = y<sup>2</sup> (solved by Brahmagupta over 1000 years earlier). The equation was eventually solved by [[Euler]] in the early [[18th century]], who also solved a number of other diophantine equations.
=== Hilbert's tenth problem ===
In [[1900]], in recognition of their depth, Hilbert proposed the solvability of all Diophantine problems as the tenth of his [[Hilbert's problems|celebrated problems]]. In 1970, a novel result in [[mathematical logic]] known as [[Matiyasevich's theorem]] settled the problem negatively: in general Diophantine problems are unsolvable.
The point of view of '''Diophantine geometry''', which is the application of [[algebraic geometry]] techniques in this field, has continued to grow as a result; since treating arbitrary equations is a dead end, attention turns to equations also having a geometric meaning. The central idea of Diophantine geometry is that of a '''rational point''', namely a solution to a polynomial equation or system of [[simultaneous equations]], which is a vector in a prescribed [[field (mathematics)|field]] ''K'', when ''K'' is ''not'' [[algebraically closed]].
=== Modern research ===
One of the few general approaches is through the [[Hasse principle]]. [[Infinite descent]] is the traditional method, and has been pushed a long way.
The depth of the study of general Diophantine equations is shown by the characterisation of [[Diophantine set]]s as [[recursively enumerable set|recursively enumerable]].
The field of [[Diophantine approximation]] deals with the cases of ''Diophantine inequalities'': variables are still supposed to be integral, but some coefficients may be irrational numbers, and the equality sign is replaced by upper and lower bounds.
==Exponential Diophantine equations==
If a Diophantine equation has as an additional variable or variables some integer(s) occurring as [[exponent]]s, it is an '''exponential Diophantine equation'''. Such equations do not have a general theory; particular cases such as [[Mihăilescu's theorem]] have been tackled.
== External links ==
*[http://mathworld.wolfram.com/DiophantineEquation.html Diophantine Equation]. From [[MathWorld]] at [[Wolfram Research]].
*[http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/DiophantineEquation.html Diophantine Equation]. From [[PlanetMath]].
[[Category:Diophantine equations|*]]
[[ca:Equació diofàntica]]
[[de:Diophantische Gleichung]]
[[et:Diofantiline võrrand]]
[[es:Ecuación diofántica]]
[[eo:Diofanta ekvacio]]
[[fa:معادله سیاله]]
[[fr:Équation diophantienne]]
[[ko:디오판토스 방정식]]
[[it:Equazione diofantea]]
[[he:משוואה דיופנטית]]
[[nl:Diophantische vergelijkingen]]
[[no:Diofantisk ligning]]
[[pl:Równanie diofantyczne]]
[[ru:Диофантово уравнение]]
[[sl:Diofantska enačba]]
[[fi:Diofantoksen yhtälö]]
[[sv:Diofantisk ekvation]]
[[zh:丟番圖方程]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Diophantus</title>
<id>9110</id>
<revision>
<id>42082895</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:35:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Marshman</username>
<id>16734</id>
</contributor>
<comment>copy edits</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Diophantus-cover.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Cover of the 1621 edition of Diophantus' ''Arithmetica'', translated into [[Latin]] by [[Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac]].]]
'''Diophantus of Alexandria''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: '''&#916;&#953;&#972;&#966;&#945;&#957;&#964;&#959;&#962; &#8001; &#913;&#955;&#949;&#958;&#945;&#957;&#948;&#961;&#949;&#973;&#962;''' circa [[200]]/[[214]] &ndash; circa [[284]]/[[298]]) was a [[Hellenized]] [[Babylonian]] [[mathematician]] in [[Alexandria]], [[Egypt]]. <!--He was born around, the exact dates are unkown, 200 A.D. and lived to around 280 A.D.-->
He was known for his study of [[equation]]s with [[variable]]s which take on [[rational number|rational value]]s and these [[Diophantine equation|Diophantine equations]] are named after him. Diophantus is sometimes known as the "father of [[Algebra]]" perhaps because his unusual syncopated notation seems reminiscient of the fully symbolic algebra that would develop much later. His most famous work is the Arithmetica --- originally thirteen Greek books, of which only seven survive today in extant Greek manuscripts. Many Diophantine problems from these books have been found in Arabic sources. An additional four books of the Arithmetica, apparently from the six books lost in Greek, have been discovered in an Arabic manuscript in the early 1970s. Diophantus also wrote a treatise on polygonal numbers, of which part survives.
The ''[[editio princeps]]'' of Diophantus was published in 1575 by [[Xylander]], and editions of Arithmetica exerted a profound influence on the development of algebra in Europe in the late sixteenth and through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
[[Image:Diophantus-II-8-Fermat.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Problem II.8 in the ''Arithmetica'' (edition of 1670), annotated with Fermat's comment which became [[Fermat's last theorem]].]]
In [[1637]], while reviewing his copy of Diophantus' ''[[Arithmetica]]'' [[Pierre de Fermat]] wrote his famous "[[Fermat's last theorem|Last Theorem]]" in the margins of his copy of [[Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac|Bachet]]'s 1621 edition of the Arithmetica. Although this original copy is lost today, Fermat's son edited the next edition of Diophantus, published in 1670. Although the text is otherwise inferior to the 1621 edition, Fermat's annotations --- including his famous "Last Theorem" --- were printed in this version.
Although little is known about his life, some biographical information can be computed from his epitaph (see links below). He lived in Alexandria and he died when he was 84 years old.
A 5th and 6th century math puzzle involving Diophantus' age:
He was a boy for one-sixth of his life.
After one-twelfth more, he acquired a beard.
After another one-seventh, he married.
In the fifth year after his marriage his son was born.
The son lived half as many years as his father.
Diophantus died 4 years after his son.
How old was Diophantus when he died?
The answer can be obtained by letting ''x'' be the length of Diophantus' life and solving the equation:
:<math>x = {x\over 6} + {x\over 12} + {x \over 7} + 5 + {x \over 2} + 4</math>
which yields:
:<math>x = {75x\over 84} + 9</math>
and so ''x'' = 84. And, since Diophantus' son lived half as long as Diophantus, his son's age at death was 42.
== External links ==
* [http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Diophantus.html Diophantus of Alexandria] by J. J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson
* [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/DiophantussRiddle.html Diophantus's Riddle] Diophantus' epitaph, by E. Weisstein
* Larry Freeman (2005), [http://fermatslasttheorem.blogspot.com/2005/05/diophantus-of-alexandria.html Fermat's Last Theorem Blog] Covers topics in the history of Fermat's Last Theorem from Diophantus of Alexandria to Andrew Wiles.
== Sources ==
*T.L. Heath, ''Diophantos of Alexandria: A Study in the History of Greek Algebra'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1885, 1910
*P.L. Tannery, ''Diophanti Alexandrini Opera omnia: cum Graecis commentariis'', Lipsiae: In aedibus B.G. Teubneri, 1893-1895
*P. Ver Eecke, ''Diophante d’Alexandrie: Les Six Livres Arithmétiques et le Livre des Nombres Polygones'', Bruges: Desclée, De Brouwer, 1926
*Jacques Sesiano, ''Books IV to VII of Diophantus’ Arithmetica in the Arabic translation attributed to Qusṭā ibn Lūqā'', Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, [[1982]]. ISBN 0387906908
[[Category:Ancient Greek mathematicians|Diophantus of Alexandria]]
[[Categor |
="left"|''[[Who Is It]]''
|align="left"|''[[Medúlla]]''
|align="center"|'''#26'''
|-
|align="left"|March 2005
|align="left"|''[[Triumph of a Heart]]''
|align="left"|''[[Medúlla]]''
|align="center"|'''#31'''
|}
Björk has had three Top 10 singles and seven Top 20 singles in the UK. All of her chart-eligible singles have charted within the Top 40, aside from [[Hunter]], which is on [[Homogenic]].
The first single from Homogenic, [[Jóga]], had a limited release of 3000 copies, meaning that it did not chart.
[[Play Dead]] was not included on the initial release of Debut. After the release of the single, [[Debut]] was re-issued with the song as a bonus 12th track in the UK and Europe.
[[Oceania]], from [[Medúlla]], was released only as a radio-single and did not have a full commercial single release.
A third single from [[Medúlla]], [[Where is the Line]], was pencilled in for release. But because of the release of the [[Drawing Restraint 9]] soundtrack and the [[Army of Me: Remixes and Covers]] album it did not make sense to market all these projects together. It was decided to give the DR9 soundtrack maximum exposure. [http://4um.bjork.com]
== Partial discography ==
:''See [[Björk discography]] or Official Website for an extensive listing of [[albums (music)|albums]] and [[singles (music)|singles]].''
=== With [[The Sugarcubes]] ===
* [[1988 in music|1988]] - ''[[Life's Too Good]]''
* [[1989 in music|1989]] - ''[[Here Today, Tomorrow, Next Week!]]''
* [[1992 in music|1992]] - ''[[Stick Around for Joy]]''
* [[1992 in music|1992]] - ''[[It's It]]''
* [[1998 in music|1998]] - ''[[The Great Crossover Potential]]''
=== Solo studio albums ===
* [[1977 in music|1977]] - ''[[Björk (album)|Björk]]''
* [[1990 in music|1990]] - ''[[Gling-Gló]]'' (with [[Björk Guðmundsdóttir & Tríó Guðmundar Ingólfssonar|Tríó Guðmundar Ingólfssonar]])
* [[1993 in music|1993]] - ''[[Debut (Björk)|Debut]]''
* [[1995 in music|1995]] - ''[[Post (album)|Post]]''
* [[1997 in music|1997]] - ''[[Homogenic]]''
* [[2000 in music|2000]] - ''[[Selmasongs: Music From the Motion Picture Soundtrack Dancer in the Dark]]''
* [[2001 in music|2001]] - ''[[Vespertine]]''
* [[2004 in music|2004]] - ''[[Medúlla (album)|Medúlla]]''
* [[2005 in music|2005]] - ''[[Drawing Restraint 9 (album)|Drawing Restraint 9]]'' [Original Soundtrack]
=== Other releases ===
* [[1997 in music|1997]] - ''[[Telegram (album)|Telegram]]'' [Remix album]
* [[2002 in music|2002]] - ''[[Björk's Greatest Hits (album)|Björk's Greatest Hits]]''
* [[2002 in music|2002]] - ''[[Family Tree (album)|Family Tree]]'' [Box Set]
* [[2002 in music|2002]] - ''[[Vespertine Live - Royal Opera House]]'' [DVD]
* [[2002 in music|2002]] - ''[[Later - 1995-2001 seven TV appearances]]'' [DVD]
* [[2003 in music|2003]] - ''[[The Live: 1993-2002]]'' [Box Set]
* [[2005 in music|2005]] - ''[[Army of Me: Remixes and Covers]]''
== Television ==
* [[1987]] - ''[[Glerbrot]]'' character: María. ([[Ríkisútvarpíð]]) - National Icelandic Television.
== Films / Shortcuts ==
* [[1987]] - ''[[The Juniper Tree]]'', character: Margit. ([[Rhino Home Video]])
* [[1994]] - ''[[Prêt-à-Porter (film)|Prêt-à-Porter]]'', featuring Björk as a model.
* [[2000]] - ''[[Dancer in the Dark]]'', character: Selma Jezková. ([[Zentropa Entertainment]])
* [[2005]] - ''[[Drawing Restraint 9]]'', character is known as the "Guest." ([[Matthew Barney]])
* [[2006]] - ''[[Anna and the Moods]]'', Björk performs the voice of Anna Young. ([[CAOZ Ltd.]])
== Bibliography ==
* [[1984]] - ''[[Um Úrnat frá Björk]]'' (free distribution)
* [[2001]] - ''[[Björk (libro)|Björk]]'' ([[Little-i]])
* [[2003]] - ''[[Björk Live Book]]''
== Related bibliography ==
* ''Post'', by [[Sjón]] Sigurðsson/Björk Ltd. Bloomsbury (1995).
* ''Björk - The Illustrated Story'', by Paul Lester. Hamlyn (1996).
* ''Björk - An Illustrated Biography'', by Mick St. Michael. Omnibus Press (1996).
* ''Björk Björkgraphy'', by Martin Aston. Simon & Schuster (1996).
* ''Björk'', Colección Imágenes de Rock, N°82, by Jordi Bianciotto. Editorial La Máscara (1997).
* ''Dancer in the Dark'', by Lars von Trier. Film Four (2000).
* ''Lobster or Fame'', by Ólafur Jóhann Engilbertsson. Bad Taste (2000).
* ''Army of She'', by Evelyn McDonnell. Random House (2001).
* ''Human Behaviour'', by Ian Gittins. Carlton (2002).
* ''Bjork: There's More to Life Than This: The Stories Behind Every Song'', by Ian Gittins. Imprint (2002).
* ''Wow and Flutter'', by Mark Pytlik. ECW (2003).
==See also==
* [[Björk Guðmundsdóttir & Tríó Guðmundar Ingólfssonar]]
* [[List of best-selling music artists]]
* [[List of Number 1 Dance Hits (United States)]]
* [[List of artists who reached number one on the US Dance chart]]
==External links==
{{commons|Björk}}
{{wikiquote}}
* '''[http://www.bjork.com Official Website]'''
* [http://bandnews.org/band/Bj%F6rk Björk News]
* [http://www.bjork.com/facts/lyrics/ Björk Lyrics]
* [http://unit.bjork.com/77island/ 77ísland - Complete Björk Discography]
* [http://www.bjorkish.net Björkish.net], news, specials videos, photographs and forums.
* [http://www.sofftchevaliers.net/ Sofftchevaliers.net], French website.
* [http://le-cafe-de-jemenvol.zikforum.com/ Jemenvol], French forum / News
* [http://www.bjork.digimer.pl Björk Digimer], it features MP3 and MIDI samples of Björk's entire music career.
* [http://www.therestisnoise.com/2004/10/alex_ross_bjrk.html Björk's Saga], an in-depth article on Björk from [[The New Yorker]], [[August 30]], [[2004]] by their music critic Alex Ross
* [http://sekkur.com/bbu/index.php/ Björk By Us] A Great Forum Where You Can Find Nice People To Chat With
* [http://www.aifob.tk/ All is Full of Björk], Latinamerican fansite frequently updated including downloads and a forum.
* [http://www.bjorkonline.com/unplugged/unplugged.html MTV Unplugged (1994)], songs recorded during a presentation on MTV.
* [http://www.bjork.com.br/abjork BjörkJsnet], lots of information in English and Portuguese.
* [http://home4.inet.tele.dk/olrik/bjork/disco/ Björk's Purple Lodge Discography], discography including videos and other releases.
* [http://www.bjoerk.ch bjoerk.ch], fan site with image gallery.
* [http://www.b-j-o-r-k.com b-j-o-r-k.com], fan site including downloads, icons, images, and a forum.
* [http://www.allbjork.com/ allbjork.com]
* [http://bjorklossless.goudwater.nl/ Bjork Hub] share non-commercial live recordings
* {{imdb name|id=0001951|name=Björk}}
* [http://bjork.mainac.net/ bjorkmanic.net]
* [http://4um.bjork.com/ 4um] Official Björk discussion forum
* [http://www.askmen.com/women/singer/51_bjork.html Bjork on AskMen.com]
* [http://boogiebjork.tk/ www.BoogieBjörk.tk] Mexican fansite for Spanish-speaking Björk fans.
[[Category:1965 births|Bjork]]
[[Category:Electronic musicians|Bjork]]
[[Category:Female singers|Bjork]]
[[Category:Icelandic actors|Bjork]]
[[Category:Icelandic musicians|Bjork]]
[[Category:Icelandic people|Bjork]]
[[Category:Icelandic songwriters|Bjork]]
[[Category:Icelandic vocalists|Bjork]]
[[Category:Living people|Bjork]]
[[Category:Trip hop artists|Bjork]]
[[Category:One Little Indian Records artists]]
{{Link FA|es}}
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[[eo:Björk]]
[[es:Björk]]
[[fi:Björk]]
[[fr:Björk]]
[[he:ביורק]]
[[hu:Björk]]
[[is:Björk Guðmundsdóttir]]
[[it:Björk]]
[[ja:ビョーク]]
[[ko:비에르크]]
[[nl:Björk]]
[[no:Björk]]
[[pl:Björk]]
[[pt:Björk]]
[[ru:Бьорк]]
[[sv:Björk Guðmundsdóttir]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Beavis and Butt-head</title>
<id>3427</id>
<revision>
<id>42069628</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:37:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>152.163.100.139</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Memorable One-offs */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox television |
| show_name = Beavis and Butt-Head
| image = [[Image:hugegulp.jpeg]]
| caption = Beavis (right) and Butt-Head.
| rating = {{TV-14}}
| format = [[Situation comedy|Sitcom]]<br />[[Animation]]
| runtime = 18-20 minutes
| creator = [[Mike Judge]]
| starring = [[Mike Judge]]<br />[[Tracy Grandstaff]]<br />[[Adam Welsh]]<br />
| country = [[United States|USA]]
| network = [[MTV]]/[[MTV2]]
| first_aired = [[March 4]], [[1993]]
| last_aired = [[November 28]] [[1997]]
| num_episodes = 199 (65 shows)
| imdb_id = 0105950
|}}
'''''Beavis and Butt-Head''''' is an [[United States|American]] [[animated television series]] that originally aired on the [[cable television]] channel [[MTV]] from 1993 to 1997 and can now be seen in syndication on [[MTV2]]. Each show contains short cartoons centering on a pair of post-pubescent teenagers by the names of Beavis and Butt-Head who live and go to school in the fictional town of Highland, which seems to be somewhere in the American [[Southwest]]. These cartoons are broken up by short breaks in which Beavis and Butt-Head watch music videos and usually poke fun at them.
{{spoiler}}
==Origins==
The Beavis & Butt-Head characters were created by [[Mike Judge]]. Judge has said that he imagined Beavis and Butt-Head as slacker students at the real-life Highland High School on Coal Avenue in [[Albuquerque]], [[New Mexico]], where he lived. Specifically, he first created Butt-Head as his idea of the archetypal slacker high school student, incorporating the look, name, and voice of a friend who invited anyone to kick him in the rear-end, and calling himself "Iron-butt."
When attempting to conceive the look for a companion to Butt-Head, it is rumored that Judge combined the look of a nerdy classmate he knew from high school and his own bad artistic rendering of [[Barry Manilow]]. He named him "Beavis," (though unconfirmed by Judge, considered by some to be a slang word for "penis") and modeled the voice after his own interpret |
, there are heavy first registration taxes for private cars (from 35%-100% of the value of the vehicle) and [[petrol]] in Hong Kong averages around US$1.55 per [[litre]], of which around half the cost is taxes. To obtain a driver's licence in Hong Kong is a costly and time consuming affair. There are waiting lists to do the driving tests and a full (private car) driver's licence valid for 10 years costs around US$115. Hong Kong recognizes most foreign drivers licenses. For long term expatriates residing in Hong Kong it issues a Hong Kong drivers license with presentation of a valid license from their home country.
== Ferries ==
[[image:hkstarferry.JPG|thumb|250px|''Meridian Star'' of Hong Kong Star Ferry.]]
[[image:Ferry from Discovery Bay Hong Kong.JPG|thumb|250px|A little girl peering out of a ferry from [[Discovery Bay]]]]
===Internal routes===
Most ferry services are provided by licensed ferry operators. [[As of 2003|As of September 2003]], there were 27 regular licensed passenger ferry services operated by 11 licensees, serving [[Islands of Hong Kong|outlying islands]], new towns and inner-[[Victoria Harbour]]. Two of the routes operated by the [[Star Ferry]] are franchised. Additionally, 78 "[[kai-to]]" ferries are licensed to serve remote coastal settlements.
The following companies operate ferry services in Hong Kong:
'''[[Star Ferry]]''':
* [[Central and Western district|Central]] to [[Tsim Sha Tsui]]
* [[Wanchai]] to [[Tsim Sha Tsui]]
* [[Central and Western district|Central]] to [[Hung Hom]]
* [[Wanchai]] to [[Hung Hom]]
* Harbour Tour (Circular between [[Tsim Sha Tsui]], [[Central and Western district|Central]], [[Wan Chai]], and [[Hung Hom]])
'''[[New World First Ferry]]''':
* [[Central and Western district|Central]] to [[Cheung Chau]], [[Mui Wo]], and [[Peng Chau]]
* [[Tsim Sha Tsui]], [[Mui Wo]], [[Cheung Chau]] (Weekends Only)
* [[Peng Chau]], [[Mui Wo]], [[Chi Ma Wan]], and [[Cheung Chau]]
* [[North Point]] to [[Hung Hom]] and [[Kowloon City]]
* [[Tuen Mun]] to [[Tung Chung]]
'''[[Hong Kong & Kowloon Ferry]]''':
* [[Lamma Island]] to [[Central and Western district|Central]] and [[Aberdeen, Hong Kong|Aberdeen]]
'''[[HKR International Limited]]''':
* [[Discovery Bay]] to [[Central and Western district|Central]]
'''[[Park Island Transport Company Ltd.]]''':
* [[Ma Wan]] to [[Central and Western district|Central]]
* [[Ma Wan]] to [[Tsuen Wan]]
===External routes===
Fastferry [[hydrofoil]] and [[catamaran]] service is available at all times of the week between Hong Kong and [[Macau]].
[[TurboJet (company)|TurboJet]] provides 24-hour services, connecting Central and Macau. Its highest frequency is 15 minutes. It also provides the following regular services:
* [[Hong Kong International Airport]] to [[Baoan International Airport|Shenzhen Airport]] / Macau / [[Guangzhou]] (East River Guangzhou Ferry Terminal)
* Tsim Sha Tsui to Guangzhou
* Macau to Shenzhen Airport
* Tsim Sha Tsui to [[Macau]]
New World First Ferry ([[Macau]]) provides an 17-hour service daily between Tsim Sha Tsui and Macau, with the highest frequency of 30 minutes.
[[Chu Kong Passenger Transport]] (CKS) connects Hong Kong to cities in [[Guangdong]] province, [[China]], including [[Zhuhai]] ([[Jiuzhou]]), [[Shenzhen]] ([[Shekou]]), [[Zhongshan]], [[Lianhua Shan]] ([[Panyu]]), [[Jiangmen]], [[Gongyi]], [[Sanbu]], [[Gaoming]], [[Heshan]], [[Humen]], [[Nanhai]], [[Shunde]], [[Doumen]], [[Zhaoqing]].
==Ports and harbours==
[[Image:Victoria_harbour_from_np.jpg|thumb|250px||Victoria Harbour]]
:''Main articles: [[Port of Hong Kong]] and [[Victoria Harbour]]''
The port of Hong Kong has always been a key factor in the development and prosperity of the special administrative region, which is strategically located on the Far East trade routes and is in the geographical centre of the fast-developing Asia-Pacific Basin. The sheltered harbour provides good access and a safe haven for vessels calling at the port from around the world .In terms of tonnage of shipping using its facilities, cargo handled and the number of passengers carried, Hong Kong is undoubtedly one of the major ports of the world.
The [[Victoria Harbour]] is one of the busiest ports in the world. An average of 220,000 ships visit the harbour each year, including both oceanliners and river vessels, for both goods and passengers. The [[Port of Hong Kong|container port in Hong Kong]] is one of the busiest in the world. The [[Kwai Chung]] Terminal operates 24 hours a day. Together with other facilities in Victoria Harbour, they handled more than 20 million [[TEU]]s in 2003. Some 400 container liners serve Hong Kong weekly, connecting to over 500 destinations around the world.
==Airports==
[[Image:Hong Kong International Airport.jpg|thumb|250px|Inside [[Hong Kong International Airport]]]]
:''Main article: [[Hong Kong International Airport]]''
Hong Kong has one active international [[airport]] since the famous former [[Kai Tak International Airport|Hong Kong International Airport]] at Kai Tak was retired in favour of the recently constructed [[Hong Kong International Airport]], also known as Chek Lap Kok International Airport. The airport now serves as a transport hub for [[Southeast Asia]], and as the hub for [[Cathay Pacific Airways]], [[Dragonair (airline)|Dragonair]] and [[Air Hong Kong]]. Ferry services link the airport with several [[pier]]s in [[Pearl River Delta]], where immigrations and customs are exempted.
The airport is the third busiest airport for passenger traffic in [[Asia]], and the world's second busiest airport for cargo traffic in [[2003]]. In terms of international traffic, the airport is the third busiest for passenger traffic and the busiest for cargo since its operation in [[1998]]. It is popular with travellers &mdash; from [[2001]] to [[2005]] Hong Kong International Airport has been voted the world's best airport in an annual survey of several million passengers worldwide by [[Skytrax]]. In [[2000]], the airport also won an award as the 'Asia/Pacific's leading airport' at the 7th [[World Travel Awards]].
According to the [[Guinness Book of World Records|Guinness World Records]], the [[terminal|passenger terminal]] of the HKIA is the worlds’ largest airport terminal building, with a covered area of 550,000m<sup>2</sup>. The [[Airport Core Programme]] is the most expensive airport project.
[[Shek Kong Airfield]], located near [[Yuen Long]], is a military [[airfield]] for the [[People's Liberation Army]],which is of limited operating capabilities due to surrounding terrains. The only aircraft operating on the airfield are PLA's [[Z-9]] helicopters, which is the license-built version of the [[Eurocopter Dauphin]].
==Heliports==
Hong Kong has three [[heliports]]. One heliport is located in the [[Hong Kong-Macau Ferry Terminal, Hong Kong|Hong Kong-Macau Ferry Terminal]], by the [[Shun Tak Centre]], in [[Sheung Wan]], on [[Hong Kong Island]]. Another is located in Southwest Kowloon, near [[Kowloon (MTR)|Kowloon station]]. The other is located inside [[Hong Kong International Airport]].
[[East Asia Airlines]] operates regular [[helicopter]] service between the [[Macau Ferry Terminal]] in [[Macau]] and the Shun Tak Centre. There are around 16 flights daily. Flights take approximately 20 minutes in the eight-seater aircraft.
There are also a number of [[helipad|helipads]] across the territory, including the roof of the [[The Peninsula Hong Kong|Peninsula Hotel]], which is the only rooftop helipad in the territory, excluding the rooftop heliport of Shun Tak Centre and those in hospitals, and [[Cheung Chau|Cheung Chau Island]], between [[Beaches of Hong Kong|Tung Wan Beach]] and [[Kwun Yam Beach]].
== Bridges and tunnels ==
[[Image:P1010280.JPG|thumb|250px|Toll plaza of Cross Harbour Tunnel at [[Hung Hom]], [[Kowloon]]]]
[[Image:Bridge1.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Tsing Ma Bridge]] at night]]
:''Main article: [[Tunnels and bridges in Hong Kong]]''
There are 15 vehicular [[tunnel|tunnels]] (3 under construction) in Hong Kong. They include three cross-harbour tunnels and nine road tunnels.
The cross-harbour tunnels, connecting [[Hong Kong Island]] and [[Kowloon Peninsula]] across [[Victoria Harbour]], are:
* [[Cross Harbour Tunnel]] ([[1972]])
* [[Eastern Harbour Crossing]] (also Eastern Harbour Tunnel) ([[1989]])
* [[Western Harbour Crossing]] ([[1997]])
The other road tunnels are:
* [[Aberdeen Tunnel]] ([[1982]],[[1983]])
* [[Airport Tunnel]] ([[1982]]) (Toll-free)
* [[Cheung Tsing Tunnel]] ([[1997]]) (Toll-free)
* [[Discovery Bay Tunnel Link]] ([[2000]])
* [[Lion Rock Tunnel]] ([[1967]],[[1978]])
* [[Shing Mun Tunnels]] ([[1990]])
* [[Tai Lam Tunnel]] ([[1998]])
* [[Tate's Cairn Tunnel]] ([[1991]])
* [[Tseung Kwan O Tunnel]] ([[1990]])
* [[Nam Wan Tunnel]] (under construction)
* [[Eagle's Nest Tunnel]] (under construction)
* [[Sha Tin Heights Tunnel]] (under construction)
Major [[Bridge|bridges]] include:
* [[Tsing Yi Bridge]], early cross-channel bridge
* [[Tsing Ma Bridge]], part of the [[Lantau Link]] (Toll-free towards Lantau, double fare towards Tsing Yi)
* [[Kap Shui Mun Bridge]], part of the [[Lantau Link]]
* [[Ting Kau Bridge]] (Toll-free)
* [[Stonecutters Bridge]] (under construction)
* [[Hong Kong-Shenzhen Western Corridor]] (under construction)
* [[Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macau Bridge]] (Proposed)
==Gondola lifts==
Gondola lifts in Hong Kong:
* [[Ocean Park, Hong Kong|Ocean Park]], [[Hong Kong Island]] - Cable car from [[Nam Long Shan]] Headland to [[Wong Chuk Hang]] within the Park
* [[Lantau Island]] - [[Ngong Ping 360]], a 5.7 km cableway from [[Tung Chung (MTR)|Tung Chung]] [[MTR]] station to Ngong Ping Terminal near [[Po Lin Monastery]] (under construction and expected to complete in early [[2006]])
==See also==
[[Image:Old Bailey Street in Hong Kong.JPG|thumb|250px|Old Bailey Street in [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]]]]
* [[Victoria Harbour crossings]]
* [[Hong Kong Link]]
* [[Hong Kong bus route num |
ords]]'' (1960)
* ''[[An Experiment in Criticism]]'' (1961)
* ''[[A Grief Observed]]'' (1961; first published under the [[pseudonym]] «N. W. Clerk»)
* ''Selections from [[Layamon]]'s [[Brut]]'' (ed. G L Brook, 1963 ''Oxford University Press'') introduction
* ''[[The Discarded Image]]: An Introduction to Medieval and Renaissance Literature'' (1964)
* ''[[God in the Dock]]: Essays on Theology and Ethics'' (1970), = ''[[Undeceptions]]'' (1971) — all included in ''Essay Collection'' (2000)
* ''[[Studies in Medieval and Renaissance Literature]]'' ([[1966]]) — not included in ''Essay Collection'' (2000)
* ''[[Spenser's Images of Life]]'' (ed. [[Alastair Fowler]], [[1967]])
* ''[[Letters to an American Lady]]'' ([[1967]])
* ''[[Selected Literary Essays]]'' ([[1969]]) — not included in ''Essay Collection'' (2000)
* ''[[Of Other Worlds]]'' ([[1982]]; essays) — with one essay not included in ''Essay Collection''
* ''[[All My Road Before Me]]: The Diary of C. S. Lewis 1922-27'' ([[1993]])
* ''[[Essay Collection]]: Literature, Philosophy and Short Stories'' ([[2000]])
* ''[[Essay Collection]]: Faith, Christianity and the Church'' ([[2000]])
* ''[[Collected Letters]], Vol. I: [[Family Letters 1905-1931]]'' ([[2000]])
* ''[[Collected Letters]], Vol. II: [[Books, Broadcasts and War 1931-1949]]'' ([[2004]])
=== Fiction ===
* ''[[The Pilgrim's Regress]]'' ([[1933]])
* '''[[Space Trilogy]]'''
** ''[[Out of the Silent Planet]]'' ([[1938]])
** ''[[Perelandra]]'' ([[1943]])
** ''[[That Hideous Strength]]'' ([[1946]])
* ''[[The Screwtape Letters]]'' ([[1942]])
* ''[[The Great Divorce]]'' ([[1945]])
* '''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]'''
** ''[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]'' ([[1950]])
** ''[[Prince Caspian]]'' ([[1951]])
** [[The Voyage of the Dawn Treader|''The Voyage of the'' Dawn Treader]] ([[1952]])
** ''[[The Silver Chair]]'' ([[1953]])
** ''[[The Horse and His Boy]]'' ([[1954]])
** ''[[The Magician's Nephew]]'' ([[1955]])
** ''[[The Last Battle]]'' ([[1956]])
* ''[[Till We Have Faces]]'' ([[1956]])
* ''[[Screwtape Proposes a Toast]]'' ([[1961]]) (an addition to ''The Screwtape Letters'')
* ''[[Letters to Malcolm: Chiefly on Prayer]]'' ([[1964]])
* ''[[The Dark Tower (1977 novel)|The Dark Tower]] and other stories'' ([[1977]])
* ''[[Boxen: The Imaginary World of the Young C. S. Lewis]]'' (ed. Walter Hooper, [[1985]])
=== Poetry ===
* ''[[Spirits in Bondage]]'' ([[1919]]; published under [[pseudonym]] «Clive Hamilton»)
* ''[[Dymer]]'' ([[1926]]; published under [[pseudonym]] «Clive Hamilton»)
* ''[[Narrative Poems]]'' (ed. Walter Hooper, [[1969]]; includes ''Dymer'')
* ''[[The Collected Poems of C. S. Lewis]]'' (ed. Walter Hooper, [[1994]]; includes ''Spirits in Bondage'')
== Books about C. S. Lewis ==
* Chad Walsh, ''C. S. Lewis: Apostle to the Skeptics''. Macmillan, 1949.
* Clyde S. Kilby, ''The Christian World of C. S. Lewis''. Eerdmans, 1964.
* Jocelyn Gibb (ed.), ''Light on C. S. Lewis''. Geoffrey Bles, 1965.
* Joe R. Christopher & Joan K. Ostling, ''C. S. Lewis: An Annotated Checklist of Writings about him and his Works''. Kent State University Press, n.d. (1972). ISBN 0873381386
* Peter J. Schakel, ed. ''The Longing for a Form: Essays on the Fiction of C. S. Lewis''. Kent State University Press, 1977. ISBN 0873382048
* [[Humphrey Carpenter]], ''The Inklings: C. S. Lewis, J. R. R. Tolkien, Charles Williams and their friends''. George Allen & Unwin, 1978. ISBN 0048090115
* Chad Walsh, ''The Literary Legacy of C. S. Lewis''. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1979. ISBN 0156527855.
* [[Walter Hooper]], ''Through Joy and Beyond: A Pictorial Biography of C. S. Lewis''. Macmillan, 1982. ISBN 0025536702
* Peter J. Schakel. ''Reason and Imagination in C. S. Lewis: A Study of "Till We Have Faces."'' Available on line [http://hope.edu/academic/english/schakel/tillwehavefaces/index.html]. Eerdmans, 1984. ISBN 0802819982
* John Beversluis, ''C. S. Lewis and the Search for Rational Religion''. Eerdmans, 1985. ISBN 0802800467
* [[George Sayer]], ''Jack: C. S. Lewis and His Times''. Macmillan, 1988. ISBN 0333433629
* G. B. Tennyson (ed.), ''Owen Barfield on C.S. Lewis''. Wesleyan University Press, 1989. ISBN 081955233X.
* A. N. Wilson, ''C. S. Lewis: A Biography''. W. W. Norton, 1990. ISBN 0393323404
* Peter J. Schakel and Charles A. Huttar, ed. ''Word and Story in C. S. Lewis.'' University of Missouri Press, 1991. ISBN 082620760X
* [[James Como]], ''C. S. Lewis at the Breakfast Table and Other Reminiscences''. New edition, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1992. ISBN 0156232073
* George Watson (ed.), ''Critical Essays on C. S. Lewis''. Scolar Press, 1992. ISBN 085957853
* Susan Lowenberg, ''C. S. Lewis: A Reference Guide 1972-1988''. Hall & Co., 1993. ISBN 0816118469
* Kathryn Lindskoog, ''Light in the Shadowlands: Protecting the Real C. S. Lewis''. Multnomah Pub., 1994. ISBN 0880706953
* [[Douglas Gresham]], ''Lenten Lands: My Childhood with Joy Davidman and C.S. Lewis''. HarperSanFrancisco, 1994. ISBN 0060634472
* Michael Coren, ''The Man Who Created Narnia: The Story of C.S. Lewis''. Eerdmans Pub Co, Reprint edition 1996. ISBN 0802838227
* [[Walter Hooper]], ''C. S. Lewis: A Companion and Guide''. HarperCollins, 1996. ISBN 0006278000
* Jeffrey D. Schultz and John G. West, Jr. (eds.), ''The C.S. Lewis Readers' Encyclopedia''. Zondervan Publishing House, 1998. ISBN 0310215382
* [[James Como]], Branches to Heaven: The Geniuses of C. S. Lewis, Spence, 1998.
* [[Colin Duriez]] and [[David Porter]], ''The Inklings Handbook: The Lives, Thought and Writings of C. S. Lewis, J. R. R. Tolkien, Charles Williams, Owen Barfield, and Their Friends''. 2001, ISBN 1902694139
* [[Roger Lancelyn Green]] & [[Walter Hooper]], ''C. S. Lewis: A Biography''. Fully revised & expanded edition. HarperCollins, 2002. ISBN 0006281648
* Peter J. Schakel, ''Imagination and the Arts in C. S. Lewis: Journeying to Narnia and Other Worlds.'' University of Missouri Press, 2002. ISBN 082621407X
* Joseph Pearce, ''C. S. Lewis and the Catholic Church''. Ignatius Press, 2003. ISBN 0898709792
* [[Colin Duriez]], ''Tolkien and C.S. Lewis: The Gift of Friendship''. Paulist Press, 2003. ISBN 1587680262
* Bruce L. Edwards, ''Not a Tame Lion: The Spiritual World of Narnia''. Tyndale. 2005.
* Bruce L. Edwards, ''Further Up and Further In: Understanding C. S. Lewis’s The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe''. Broadman and Holman, 2005.
* Markus Mühling, "A Theological Journey into Narnia. An Analysis of the Message beneath the Text", Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2005, ISBN 3525604238
* [[James Como]], Remembering C. S. Lewis (3rd ed. of C. S. Lewis at the Breakfast Table), ''. Ignatius, 2006
* David Hein and Edward Hugh Henderson, eds., ''Captured by the Crucified: The Practical Theology of Austin Farrer''. New York and London: T & T Clark / Continuum, 2004. A study of Lewis's close friend the theologian [[Austin Farrer]], this book also contains material on Farrer's circle, "the Oxford Christians," including C. S. Lewis.
* [[Douglas Gresham]], ''Jack's Life: A Memory of C.S. Lewis''. Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2005. ISBN 0805432469
* Victor Reppert, ''C.S. Lewis's Dangerous Idea: In Defense of the Argument from Reason''. InterVarsity Press, 2003. ISBN 0830827323
== See also ==
* [[Christian apologetics]] (field of study concerned with the defence of Christianity)
* [[The Inklings]]
* [[Pauline Baynes]]
== External links ==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|En-CSLewis.ogg|2005-11-20}}
{{wikiquote}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=C.+S.+Lewis | name=C. S. Lewis}}
* [http://www.cslewis.org/ C.S. Lewis Foundation]
* [http://www.wheaton.edu/learnres/wade/] Marion E. Wade Center at [[Wheaton College, Illinois|Wheaton College]] has the world’s largest collection of Lewis' works and works about him
*[http://www.rapidnet.com/~jbeard/bdm/exposes/lewis/cs-lewis.htm RapidNet.com &mdash; C. S. Lewis FAQ]
* [http://personal.bgsu.edu/~edwards/lewis.html C. S. Lewis & The Inklings: Bruce Edwards' site full of resources and insights into Lewis and friends]
* [http://personal.bgsu.edu/~edwards/news.html C. S. Lewis Blog: Bruce Edwards' on Lewis and sundry matters]
* [http://cslewis.drzeus.net Into the Wardrobe: a Web site devoted to C. S. Lewis]
* [http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/people/lewis.htm ReligionFacts.com: C.S. Lewis] Fast facts, timeline, summary of works
* [http://www.mrrena.com/Lewis.shtml In Lenten Lands]
* [http://www.narniafans.com/ NarniaFans.com — C.S. Lewis News, Database, and Community]
* [http://www.thestonetable.com/ The Stone Table — The latest C.S. Lewis News, Reviews and Community]
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/questionofgod/ PBS | The Question of God] A look at the lives of C.S. Lewis and of Sigmund Freud, analysing the «question of God»
* [http://ic.net/~erasmus/RAZ26.HTM C.S. Lewis: 20th-Century Christian Knight]
* [http://www.scriptoriumnovum.com/l.html C.S. Lewis Chronicles] A Compendium of Information about Lewis
* [http://www.aslan.demon.co.uk/cslfaq.htm The alt.books.cs-lewis FAQ]
* [http://www.cslewis.com/ C.S. Lewis Classics] a website by HarperCollins Publishers
* {{isfdb name|id=C._S._Lewis|name=C. S. Lewis}}
* [http://www.tektonics.org/jesusclaims/trilemma.html The Trilemma. Lord Liar or Lunatic?] Defending one of Lewis’s most famous arguments
* [http://atheism.about.com/od/cslewisnarnia/a/jesustrilemma.htm Lord, Liar, or Lunatic: C.S. Lewis and the Jesus Trilemma] Arguing against the Trilemma argument.
* [http://www.solcon.nl/arendsmilde/cslewis/reflections/e-definitivebiography.htm Sweetly Poisonous in a Welcome Way: Reflections on a Definitive Biography] A detailed critique of A.N. Wilson’s CSL biography
* [http://www.cslewis.org/ C.S. Lewis Foundation] Dedicated to Christian scholarship and artistiac expression within the contemporary university
* [http://findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=1455 FindAGrave C.S.Lewis]
* [http://www.theherald.co.uk/goingout/52082.html Herald article o |
y, James adopted a severe stance towards sodomy. His book on kingship, ''[[Basilikon Doron]]'', lists sodomy among those “horrible crimes which ye are bound in conscience never to forgive.”
An Italian text published anonymously in [[1652]] by Antonio Rocco, ''L'Alcibiade fanciullo a scola'', was about a teacher's successful attempt to persuade the much younger [[Alcibiades]] to have sex with him. Although set in ancient Greece, it includes much anacronistic material, especially pertaining to Christian arguments, and denounces the story of Sodom and Gomorrah as a fiction made up by the Hebrew elders. [http://www.glbtq.com/literature/rocco_a.html]
In France a similar text, ''[[Histoire de Dom Bougre, Portier des Chartreux]]'', written in [[1741]], mocks biblical injunctions and extols same-sex love, as does Voltaire's ''The Bible finally explained'' ([[1776]]). It was followed by the Marquis de Sade who in his ''Dialogue entre un prêtre et un moribond'' of [[1782]] denounces religion (and other morality codes) as "man-made." In England the pseudo-Byronian poem "Don Leon" (written in the voice of Byron but of uncertain authorship, published in [[1866]]) vehemently denounced the abusive treatment inflicted on homosexuals as based on a dubious tale.
::I grant that casuists the Bible quote,
::And tell us how God’s tardy vengeance smote
::[[Lot (Biblical)|Lot's]] native town with brimstone from the sky,
::To punish this impure delinquency,
::Unmindful that the drunkard's kiss defiled
::(Whilst yet the embers smoked), his virgin child.
::But reason doubts the Jewish prophet’s tale.
==The Modern Controversy==
{{ActiveDiscuss}}
===Prolegomenal issues===
There are several theological issues which have been considered extensively by Christian thinkers long before the contemporary debate about homosexuality which have become issues in the debate, or which influence the positions taken.
====The basis of theology====
Many of the debates among Christians relate to, or derive from, differences in what is taken as providing authoritative information about God and his will, or more generally which kinds of arguments should be persuasive for Christians.
In traditional Christianity Scripture is understood as the central authority, and in some traditions as the only truly definitive authority (a position called [[Sola scriptura|Sola Scriptura]]). [[Exegesis]], or the reasoned study of the text to discover its own meaning, is a central concern, especially for believers in Sola Scriptura. The classic formulation of Sola Scriptura regards "good and necessary deduction" from Scripture as authoritative; what these deductions might be is a frequent subject of controversy. [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13635b.htm] [http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/history/chicago.stm.txt] [http://www.mbrem.com/bible/sufficn.htm]
Additional authorities are accepted by other traditions. Catholics and Eastern Orthodox regard [[Sacred Tradition]] and [[Ecumenical council]]s as additional authorities, and the ordinary [[Magisterium]] is authoritative in Catholic theology [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15006b.htm]. [[Methodism]] derives doctrine from the [[Wesleyan Quadrilateral]], which consists of Scripture, tradition, reason, and experience. [http://wesley.nnu.edu/wesleyan_theology/theojrnl/16-20/20-01.htm] There are also differing positions about continuing revelation (see [[Cessationism]]).
[[Liberal Christianity|Liberal Christians]] consider the Bible a document of the human authors' beliefs and feelings about God at the time of its writing, which may reflect a heightened spiritual consciousness, or which may simply be primitive and wrong; liberal Christians often dismiss Biblical teachings, especially accounts of miracles such as the [[Virgin Birth]]. [http://www.hyattcarter.com/shall_the_fundamentalists_win.htm]
====Choice and free will====
The existence and nature of [[free will]] is a topic in [[philosophy of mind]] and theology. Incompatibilism is the view that determinism is at odds with free will, while compatibilism holds the two are not contradictory. Compatibilists such as [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]] generally claim that a person acts freely only in the case where the person willed the act and the person could (hypothetically) have done otherwise ''if the person had decided to''; what matters, Hobbes believed, is that choices are the results of desires and preferences, and are not overridden by force. (See [[Compatibilism and incompatibilism]].) [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/freewill/] [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/compatibilism/]
In the history of theology, debates about the issue have happened between [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] and [[Pelagius]] [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/1510.htm], [[Martin Luther]] and [[Erasmus]], and the [[Calvinism|Calvinists]] and [[Arminianism|Arminians]] [http://www.apuritansmind.com/Creeds/ArminianArticles.htm] [http://www.reformed.org/documents/canons_of_dordt.html]. At the [[Councils of Orange]], [[Western Christianity]] officially adopted a form of compatibilist determinism known as [[original sin]], according to which the sin of [[Adam and Eve]] has corrupted the whole human race such that humans are unable to refrain from sin, yet remain accountable, and cannot even desire holiness apart from Divine intervention [http://www.reformed.org/documents/canons_of_orange.html]. However, belief in free will remains popular and many even regard free will as a basic doctrine of Christianity.
Among incompatibilists, the question of how voluntary homosexuality is, and what voluntariness might mean in this context, is a central concern in considering its morality. The [[Roman Catholic Church]] regards homosexual intercourse rather than attraction sinful, although the attraction is still considered as a temptation to sin [http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19861001_homosexual-persons_en.html]. The [[ex-gay]] movement believes that homosexual orientation is also a choice, or changeable, and claims cases of people who have ceased to be homosexual [http://www.exodus.to/exodus_faqs_success.shtml#homosexual]. However, no long-term, scientific peer-reviewed study has been conducted as to the effectiveness of [[reparative therapy]]. Most [[psychology|psychologists]] do not consider sexual orientation chosen (although there are notable exceptions; see [[Robert Skinner]], for example), and many homosexuals report that they do not experience homosexuality as a choice [http://www.apa.org/pubinfo/answers.html].
===Liberal Christian views===
===Conservative Christian views===
== Positions of specific denominations ==
{{CAH}}
{{main|List of Christian denominational positions on homosexuality}}
The many [[List of Christian denominations|Christian denominations]] vary in their position on homosexuality, from seeing it as sinful, through being divided on the issue, to seeing it as moral. Among those that see it as sinful, there is further variance regarding whether it is the homosexual ''orientation'' that is immoral, or only homosexual ''acts''.
==See also==
* [[Religion and homosexuality]]
* [[History of Early Christianity and Homosexuality]]
* [[Homosexuality in the Roman Catholic priesthood]]
== References ==
*Bates, Stephen (2004). ''A Church at War: Anglicans and Homosexuality''. [http://www.ibtauris.com I.B. Tauris]. ISBN 1850434808.
*Boswell, John (1980). ''Christianity, social tolerance, and homosexuality: Gay people in Western Europe from the beginning of the Christian era to the fourteenth century''. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226067106
*Crompton, Louis, et al.; ''Homosexuality and Civilization'' Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2003. ISBN 067401197X
*Gagnon, Robert A.J. (2002). ''The Bible and Homosexual Practice: Texts and Hermeneutics''. Abingdon Press. ISBN 0687022797
*Harvey, John F., O.S.F.S. (1996). ''The Truth about Homosexuality: The Cry of the Faithful, introduction by Benedict J. Groeschel, C.F.R.''. [http://www.ignatius.com Ignatius Press]. ISBN 0898705835.
*[[Daniel A. Helminiak|Helminiak, Daniel A.]] (2000). "Frequently Asked Questions About Being Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, or Transgender and Catholic" Dignity USA. <<http://www.dignityusa.org/faq.html>>
*[[Hildegard of Bingen]], "Scivias," Columba Hart and Jane Bishop, translators; New York: Paulist Press, 1990
*Johansson, Warren "Whosoever Shall Say To His Brother, Racha." ''Studies in Homosexuality, Vol XII: Homosexuality and Religion and Philosophy.'' Ed. Wayne Dynes & Stephen Donaldson. New York & London: Garland, 1992. pp. 212-214
*Saletan, William (Nov. 29, 2005). [http://www.slate.com/id/2131019/nav/tap1/ "Gland Inquisitor"]. ''[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]''.
== External links ==
* [http://www.soulforce.org Soulforce] Activists for gay rights in Christian denominations.
* [http://www.robgagnon.net/ RobGagnon.net] Author and seminary professor's site with many resources, arguing that homosexual behavior is sinful
* [http://cas.indwes.edu/botany_glen/collhomosexualitychurch.html Homosexuality in the Thought of the Church]
* Two-part series by Joseph P. Gudel, ''Christian Research Journal'':
# [http://www.equip.org/free/DH055-1.htm Homosexuality: Fact and Fiction]
# [http://www.equip.org/free/DH055-2.htm That which is unnatural: Homosexuality in Society, the Church, and Scripture]
* [http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/feedback/2004/0206.asp Christian response to a homosexual claiming biblical/Christian support for his views]
* [http://www.answersingenesis.org/Home/Area/feedback/2005/0218.asp The disingenuous and anti-Christian nature of "gay rights" rhetoric]
* [http://www.cathedralofhope.com/homosexuality/ Homosexuality and Christianity] does not see homosexuality as a moral sin.
* [http://www.freeingthespirit.org/Hom |
cer saluting with the bell guard at face level and back to en garde position, however, in recent fencing, a great deal of variance has emerged, with some fencers merely raising the blade toward their salutee, while others have incorporated elaborate motions, such as flourishes or crossing motions. Opponents start in the middle of the piste, 4 metres apart, in the en garde position.
A [[referee]] (formerly called president of jury, or director) presides over the contest, called a "bout." The referee's duties include keeping score, keeping time (sabre is usually fenced untimed because it moves very quickly), keeping track of right-of-way, awarding points and maintaining the order of the bout. Often, another person will keep score or time. He or she stands on one side of the piste, watching the bout.
There are many types of modern fencing bouts, but in the two most common formats, the first fencer to score either 5 or 15 touches is declared the winner.
Modern fencing also includes the addition of cards/flags (or penalties). In foil and sabre, yellow cards are awarded for bodily contact between opponents - the penalty going to the aggressor. Two yellow cards equals one red card, and a touch for the opponent. Black cards can mean disqualification and are given out for overtly aggressive actions such as beating one's opponent with the pommel of the sword as well as breaches of [[etiquette|protocol]] such as failure to salute.
It is also possible to fence "in the round," meaning that the bout takes place in a circular or square area instead of on a strip, and fencers can circle in addition to moving forward or backward. This style of fencing is mostly practised today by the [[Society for Creative Anachronism|SCA]] and does not exist in [[FIE]] tournaments.
== Footwork ==
The most commonly used footwork is the advance and retreat. Other types of footwork include the cross-advance and cross-retreat.
Generally, feet are placed a shoulder-width apart at right angles to each other. The front foot (the right foot for a right-handed fencer, the left foot for a left-handed fencer) faces the opponent, and the back foot faces to the left (or to the right for a left-handed fencer). The fencer's knees should be slightly bent to allow for more mobility. The feet are reversed if one is left-handed. This allows for fairly easy advances and retreats, while allowing the side of the torso to face the opponent. This makes one's target area less open to attack by the opponent. This is called the ''en garde'', or on-guard, position.
To execute an advance, the front foot is moved forward, landing with the heel and rolling forward. Then the back foot is raised and moved forward so that the fencer returns to the ''en garde'' position. The process is reversed for a retreat. During this process, the back foot does not move forward of the front. However, in a cross-advance (also known as a cross-step advance or crossover advance), the back foot moves forward of the front, and then the front foot is moved forward so that the fencer returns to the ''en garde'' position. The reverse is called a cross-retreat. These steps allow the fencer to gain or close distance more quickly, but it is not as stable or as versatile as a standard advance or retreat.
Variations and portions of the above movements can also be used by themselves. For example, a check-step forward is performed by moving the back foot as in a retreat, then performing an entire advance. This maneuver can trick your opponent into thinking you are retreating, when in reality you want to close distance.
Other footwork actions include the appel (French for "call"), which is a stomp of the front foot; and the jump (also know as a ''balestra''), which is a small jump forward used in conjunction with a variety of attacks.
Good footwork is essential to the performance of a fencer. Although fencing is the sport of bladework, it is very much a game of distance, and having superior footwork can easily determine the outcome of a bout. Even expert fencers almost always include a session of footwork drills in their practice sessions, some more so than bladework exercises.
== Electronic scoring equipment ==
Electronic scoring is used in all major national and international, and most local, competitions. At Olympic level, it was first introduced to épée in [[1936]], to foil in [[1957]], and to sabre in [[1988]]. There are, however, still traditionalists within the fencing community who have fundamental objections to the practice (discussed later on in this section).
The central unit of the scoring system is commonly known as "the box". In the simplest version both fencers' weapons are connected to the box via long retractable cables. The box normally carries a set of lights to signal when a touch has been made. (Larger peripheral lights are also often used.) In foil and sabre, because of the need to distinguish on-target hits from off-target ones, special conductive clothing must be worn. This includes a jacket of conducting ([[lamé]]) cloth (for both weapons) and (in the case of sabre) a conducting mask and cuff ([[manchette]]).
Recently, reel-less gear has been adopted for sabre at top competitions, including the Athens Olympics. In this system, which dispenses with the spool (by using the fencer's own body as a grounding point), the lights and detectors are mounted directly on the fencers' masks. For the sake of the audience, clearly visible peripheral lights triggered by wireless transmission may be used. However, the mask lights must remain as the official indicators, as FIE regulations prohibit the use of wireless transmitters in official scoring equipment, to prevent cheating. Plans for reel-less épée and foil have not yet been adopted because of technical complications.
In the case of foil and épée, hits are registered by depressing a small push-button on the end of the blade. In foil, the hit must land on the opponent's lame to be considered on-target. (On-target hits set off coloured lights; off-target hits set off white lights.) At high level foil and épée competitions, grounded conductive pistes are normally laid down to ensure that bouts are not disrupted by accidental hits on the floor. In sabre, an on-target hit is registered whenever a fencer's blade comes into contact with the opponent's [[lamé]] jacket, cuff or mask. Off-target hits are not registered at all in sabre. It has been proposed that a similar arrangement (non-registration of off-target hits) be adopted for foil. This proposal is due to be reviewed at the 2007 [[FIE]] Congress. In épée the entire body is on-target, so the subject of off-target hits does not arise (unless you count the hits which miss the opponet etirely and land on an ungrounded section of the floor - needless to say doing so on purpose is considered cheating). Finally the competitors weapons are always grounded so hits agains an opponent's blade or coquille do not register.
In foil and sabre, despite the presence of all the gadgetry, it is still the referee's job to analyse the phrase and, in the case of simultaneous hits, to determine which fencer had the right of way.
"Electric" fencing has not been without its problems. One of the most talked about has been the registration of glancing hits in foil. Traditionally, a valid, "palpable" hit could only be scored, if the point were fixed on the target in such a manner, as would be likely to pierece the skin, had the weapon been sharp. However, the electric foil point (the push-button on the end of the blade) lacks directionality, so hits which arrive at a very high angle of incidence can still register. In the 1980s, this lead to a growing popularity of hits delivered with a whip-like action (commonly known as "the flick"), bending the blade around the opponent's parry. Many saw this as an unacceptable deviation from tradion. In fact, the disputes over the flick grew so bitter that a number of traditionalist advocated (and still continue to advocate) complete abandonment of electronic scoring as something detrimental to fencing as an art. In 2004-2005 the [[FIE]] brought in rule changes to address such concerns. The dwell time (the length of time the point has to remain depressed in order to register a hit) was increased from 1 millisecond to 15 milliseconds. This change has been rather controversial. While it has not eliminated the flick altogether, it has made it technically trickier thereby denting its popularity. However, there have been some serious problems with apparently "palpable" hits not registering. Moreover, the imperative to make clear "square-on" hits has lead to a number of unforeseen results, which, it has been argued, have made foil less rather than more classical. The following have been reported:
* Unwillingness to attack, leading to long periods of inactivity and loss of certain visually striking (but risky) manoeuvres;
* Loss of popularity of the more sophisticated and technically demanding compound actions;
* A rise in the number of renewed offensive actions (at the expense of counter-ripostes) delivered with a decidedly unclassical pumping action;
* A rise in the number of counterattacks with avoidance (at the expense of ripostes);
* Increased popularity of unorthodox "cowering" on-guard positions among young fencers;
* Hard hitting.
Having said that, every one of the above claims is a subject of dispute.
In sabre, the inadequacy of existing sensors has made it necessary to dispense with the requirement that a cut must be delivered with either the leading or the reverse edge of the blade and that, once again, it must arrive with sufficient force to have caused an injury, had the blade been sharp (but not to actually injure your opponent with a blunt weapon!). At present, any contact between the blade and the opponent's target is counted as a valid hit. Some |
en Keller]]
[[ca:Helen Keller]]
[[de:Helen Keller]]
[[es:Helen Keller]]
[[eo:Helen KELLER]]
[[fr:Helen Keller]]
[[ko:헬렌 켈러]]
[[he:הלן קלר]]
[[mk:Хелен Келер]]
[[nl:Helen Keller]]
[[nds:Helen Keller]]
[[ja:ヘレン・ケラー]]
[[no:Helen Keller]]
[[pl:Helen Keller]]
[[pt:Helen Keller]]
[[sr:Хелен Келер]]
[[fi:Helen Keller]]
[[sv:Helen Keller]]
[[tl:Helen Keller]]
[[ta:ஹெலன் கெல்லர்]]
[[zh:海倫·凱勒]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>History of Poland -- World War II 1939-1945</title>
<id>14256</id>
<revision>
<id>28020159</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-11T12:24:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Susvolans</username>
<id>94325</id>
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<comment>update redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[History of Poland (1939–1945)]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Haddocks eyes</title>
<id>14257</id>
<revision>
<id>30131807</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-04T18:26:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AnonMoos</username>
<id>21047</id>
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<comment>/* Naming */ more accurate wording from book</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This is a [[poetry|poem]] by [[Lewis Carroll]] from '''[[Through the Looking-Glass]]'''. It is sung by the [[White Knight]] in chapter eight to the tune that he claims to be his own invention, but which Alice recognizes as ''[[My Heart and Lute|I give thee all, I can no more]]''.
By the time Alice heard it, she was already getting tired of poetry.
It is a parody of ''Resolution and Independence'' by [[William Wordsworth]].
==Naming==
The White Knight explains the rather confusing naming for the song.
*The song's name is called ''Haddocks' Eyes''
*The song's name really is ''The Aged Aged Man''
*The song is called ''Ways and Means''
*The song really is ''A-sitting On a Gate''
This complicated set of names has been used as a metaphor for the [[use-mention distinction]].
==The Poem==
:I'll tell thee everything I can:
::There's little to relate.
:I saw an aged aged man,
::A-sitting on a gate.
:"Who are you, aged man?" I said,
::"And how is it you live?"
:And his answer trickled through my head,
::Like water through a sieve.
:He said "I look for butterflies
::That sleep among the wheat:
:I make them into mutton-pies,
::And sell them in the street.
:I sell them unto men," he said,
::"Who sail on stormy seas;
:And that's the way I get my bread --
::A trifle, if you please."
:But I was thinking of a plan
::To dye one's whiskers green,
:And always use so large a fan
::That they could not be seen.
:So, having no reply to give
::To what the old man said,
:I cried "Come, tell me how you live!"
::And thumped him on the head.
:His accents mild took up the tale:
::He said "I go my ways,
:And when I find a mountain-rill,
::I set it in a blaze;
:And thence they make a stuff they call
::Rowlands' Macassar-Oil --
:Yet twopence-halfpenny is all
::They give me for my toil."
:But I was thinking of a way
::To feed oneself on batter,
:And so go on from day to day
::Getting a little fatter.
:I shook him well from side to side,
::Until his face was blue:
:"Come, tell me how you live," I cried,
::"And what it is you do!"
:He said "I hunt for haddocks" eyes
::Among the heather bright,
:And work them into waistcoat-buttons
::In the silent night.
:And these I do not sell for gold
::Or coin of silvery shine,
:But for a copper halfpenny,
::And that will purchase nine.
:"I sometimes dig for buttered rolls,
::Or set limed twigs for crabs:
:I sometimes search the grassy knolls
::For wheels of Hansom-cabs.
:And that's the way" (he gave a wink)
::"By which I get my wealth--
:And very gladly will I drink
::Your Honour's noble health."
:I heard him then, for I had just
::Completed my design
:To keep the [[Menai Suspension Bridge|Menai bridge]] from rust
::By boiling it in wine.
:I thanked him much for telling me
::The way he got his wealth,
:But chiefly for his wish that he
::Might drink my noble health.
:And now, if e'er by chance I put
::My fingers into glue,
:Or madly squeeze a right-hand foot
::Into a left-hand shoe,
:Or if I drop upon my toe
::A very heavy weight,
:I weep, for it reminds me so
:Of that old man I used to know--
:Whose look was mild, whose speech was slow
:Whose hair was whiter than the snow,
:Whose face was very like a crow,
:With eyes, like cinders, all aglow,
:Who seemed distracted with his woe,
:Who rocked his body to and fro,
:And muttered mumblingly and low,
:As if his mouth were full of dough,
:Who snorted like a buffalo--
:That summer evening long ago,
::A-sitting on a gate.
==Upon the Lonely Moor==
In [[1856]], Carroll published the following poem anonymously under the name ''Upon the Lonely Moor''. The two poems are quite obviously related.
:I met an aged, aged man
:Upon the lonely moor:
:I knew I was a gentleman,
:And he was but a boor.
:So I stopped and roughly questionned him,
:"Come, tell me how you live!"
:But his words impressed my ear no more
:Than if it were a sieve.
:He said, "I look for soap-bubbles,
:That lie among the wheat,
:And bake them into mutton-pies,
:And sell them in the street.
:I sell them unto men," he said,
:"Who sail on stormy seas;
:And that's the way I get my bread -
:A trifle, if you please."
:But I was thinking of a way
:To multiply by ten,
:And always, in the answer, get
:The question back again.
:I did not hear a word he said,
:But kicked that old man calm,
:And said, "Come, tell me how you live!"
:And pinched him in the arm.
:His accents mild took up the tale:
:He said, "I go my ways,
:And when I find a mountain-rill,
:I set it in a blaze.
:And thence they make a stuff they call
:Rowland's Macassar Oil;
:But fourpence-halfpenny is all
:They give me for my toil."
:But I was thinking of a plan
:To paint one's gaiters green,
:So much the color of the grass
:That they could ne'er be seen.
:I gave his ear a sudden box,
:And questioned him again,
:And tweaked his grey and reverend locks,
:And put him into pain.
:He said, "I hunt for haddock's eyes
:Among the heather bright,
:And work them into waistcoat-buttons
:In the silent night.
:And these I do not sell for gold,
:Or coin or silver-mine,
:But for a copper-halfpenny,
:And that will purchase nine.
:"I sometimes dig for buttered rolls,
:Or set limed twigs for crabs;
:I sometimes search the flowery knolls
:For wheels of hansom cabs.
:And that's the way" (he gave a wink)
:"I get my living here,
:And very gladly will I drink
:Your Honour's health in beer."
:I heard him then, for I had just
:Completed my design
:To keep the Menai bridge from rust
:By boiling it in wine.
:I duly thanked him, ere I went,
:For all his stories queer,
:But chiefly for his kind intent
:To drink my health in beer.
:And now if e'er by chance I put
:My fingers into glue,
:Or madly squeeze a right-hand foot
:Into a left-hand shoe;
:Or if a statement I aver
:Of which I am not sure,
:I think of what strange wanderer
:Upon the lonely moor.
==See also==
*[[Nonsense verse]]
==References==
*'''[[Through the Looking-Glass]]''' by [[Lewis Carroll]]
*''[[The Annotated Alice]]'', Martin Gardner ISBN 0-713-99417-7
*[http://www.alice-in-wonderland.net/?alice7.html Lenny's Alice in Wonderland Site]
[[Category:British poems]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hannukah</title>
<id>14258</id>
<revision>
<id>15911824</id>
<timestamp>2005-02-28T11:27:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Evertype</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hanukkah]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Chanukah</title>
<id>14259</id>
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<timestamp>2005-02-28T11:04:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Evertype</username>
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<comment>Chanukah moved to Hanukkah</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Hanukkah]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Hoosier</title>
<id>14260</id>
<revision>
<id>41747757</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T13:26:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dogface</username>
<id>18290</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Origin of the word */ Added link to poem.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''Hoosier''' {{IPA|/ˈhu.ʒɚ/}}is a resident or native of the [[U.S. state]] of [[Indiana]]. The term is commonly accepted and employed at all levels of discourse by Hoosiers themselves, and is considered neither derogatory nor informal. The word ''Indianan'', as either noun or adjective, is rarely used by or about natives of Indiana. Deriving from common usage, "Hoosiers" is the team name for [[Indiana Hoosiers|Indiana University athletic teams]], and a movie starring [[Gene Hackman]], about an Indiana high school basketball team that was also called ''[[Hoosiers]]''.
==Origin of the word==
According to the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'', the [[etymology]] of the word is unknown, but it has been in use since at least [[1826]]. According to [[Bill Bryson]], there are many suggestions for the derivation of the word "Hoosier," but none is universally accepted.
It first came into general usage in the 1830s. John Finley of Richmond wrote a poem, [http://www.waynet.org/facts/hoosiersnest.htm ''The Hoosier's Nest''], which was used as the "Carrier's Address" of the ''Indianapolis Journal'', [[January 1]], [[1833]]. As it came into common usage, the debates about the term's origin began.
Some common hypotheses are:
===Frontier slang===
The most common belief is that the term was a greeting. When approaching a ma |
oic nature; Bernini captures the heroic moment.
<table align="right"><tr><td>
[[Image:Ratto_di_proserpina.PNG|thumb|right|''Ratto di Proserpina'']]<br>
[[image:apollo&daphne.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''Apollo and Daphne'', iconic image of baroque interest in dynamic compositions (Galleria Borghese, Rome)]]
</td></tr></table>
Bernini's first architectural project was the magnificent bronze [[baldachin]] ([[1624]]-[[1633]]), the canopy over the high altar of [[St. Peter's Basilica]], and the [[façade]] for the church of [[Santa Bibiana]] (1624). In 1629, before the Baldacchino was complete, [[Urban VIII]] put him in charge of all the ongoing architectural works at St Peter's. He was given the commission for the Basilica's [[Tomb of Pope Urban VIII|tomb]]s of the Barberini Pope and, years later, [[Pope Alexander VII]] Chigi. The [[Throne of Saint Peter|Chair of Saint Peter]] (''Cathedra Petri''), in the apse of St. Peter's, is one of his [[masterpiece]]s.
Bernini's sculptural output was immense and varied. Among his other best-known sculptures: the ''[[Ecstasy of St Theresa]]'', in the Cornaro Chapel, [[Santa Maria della Vittoria]], and the now-hidden [[Constantine, Scala Regia (Bernini)|Constantine]], at the base of the [[Scala Regia]] (which he designed). He helped design the [[Ponte Sant'Angelo]], sculpting two of the angels, soon replaced by copies, of his own, while the others were made by his pupils based on his designs.
At the end of April [[1665]], at the height of his fame and powers, he traveled to Paris, remaining there until November. Bernini's popularity even abroad was shown by the fact he could hardly walk in Paris without the street being lined by crowds of people pointing at him.
This trip, encouraged by Father Oliva, general of the [[Jesuits]], was a reply to the repeated requests for his works by King [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]]. Here Bernini presented some (ultimately rejected) designs for the east front of the [[Louvre]]; his adventurous concave-convex facades was discarded in favor of the more stern and classic proposals of native [[Claude Perrault]]. Bernini soon became unpopular in the French court for he praised the art and architecture of Italy at the expense of that of France. For example, he said that a painting by [[Guido Reni]] was worth more than all of Paris. The sole work remaining from time in Paris is a [[bust of Louis XIV (Bernini)|bust]] of [[Louis XIV]] which set the standard for the royal portraits for a century.
==Architecture==
Bernini's architectural conceits include the [[piazza]] and colonnades of [[St. Peter's Basilica|St Peter's]]. He planned several Roman palaces: [[Palazzo Barberini]] (from 1630 on which he worked with [[Borromini]]); [[Palazzo Ludovisi]] (now Palazzo Montecitorio); and [[Palazzo Chigi]].
Bernini did not build many churches from scratch, preferring instead to concentrate on the embellishment of pre-existing structures. He fulfilled three commissions in the field; his stature allowed him the freedom to design the structure and decorate the interiors in coherent designs. Best known is the small oval baroque church of [[Sant'Andrea al Quirinale]] which includes the statue of [[Saint Andrew|St. Andrew the Apostle]] soaring high above the aedicule framing the high altar. Bernini also designed churches in [[Castelgandolfo]] ([[San Tommaso da Villanova]]) and [[Ariccia]] ([[Santa Maria Assunta (Ariccia)|Santa Maria Assunta]]).
==Fountains in Rome==
[[image:Berndavi.JPG|thumb|left|''David'' for Cardinal Scipione Borghese (1623-24), (Galleria Borghese, Rome)]]
True to the decorative dynamism of Baroque, Roman [[fountain]]s, part public works and part Papal monuments, were among his most gifted creations. Bernini's fountains are the [[Triton Fountain|Fountain of the Triton]] and [[Fountain of the Bees]]. The [[Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi]] in the [[Piazza Navona]] is a masterpiece of spectacle and political allegory. One anecdote tells that one of the Bernini's river gods shields his gaze, horrified by the adjacent facade of [[Sant'Agnese in Agone]] church designed by his equally talented, but less politically successful, rival [[Francesco Borromini]]. However, the fountain was built several years before the façade of the church was completed.
==Marble portraiture==
Bernini also revolutionized marble busts, lending glamorous dynamism to once stony stillness of portraiture. Starting with the immediate pose, leaning out of the frame, of bust of [[Monsignor Pedro de Foix Montoya]] at [[Santa Maria di Monserrato]], Rome. The once-gregarious Cardinal [[Bust of Scipione Borghese (Bernini)|Scipione Borghese]] is frozen in conversation. The portrait of his alleged mistress, [[Costanza Buonarelli]], does not portray divinity or royalty; but a woman in a moment of disheveled privacy, captured in conversation or surprise.
In his sculpted portraiture for more regal patrons, Bernini fashioned the windswept marble vestments and cascades of hair of [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]]'s portrait would suffice to elevate any face to royalty. Similar exuberance glorifies the bust of Francesco I d'Este.
==Other works==
Another of Bernini's sculptures is known affectionately as ''Bernini's Chick'' by the Roman people. It is located in the Piazza della Minerva, in front of the church [[Santa Maria sopra Minerva]]. Pope [[Alexander VII]] decided that he wanted an ancient Egyptian [[obelisk]] to be erected in the [[piazza]] and commissioned Bernini to create a sculpture to support the obelisk. The sculpture of an [[elephant]] was finally created in [[1667]] by one of Bernini's students, [[Ercole Ferrata]]. One of the most interesting features of this elephant is its smile. To find out why it is smiling, the viewer must head around to the rear end of the animal and to see that its muscles are tensed and its tail is shifted to the left. Bernini sculpted the animal as if it were defecating. The animal's rear is pointed directly at the office of Father Domenico Paglia, a Dominican friar, who was one of the main antagonists of Bernini and his artisan friends, as a final salute and last word.
[[Image:BerniniBaciccio1665.jpg|thumb|Bernini in 1665, painted by [[Giovanni Battista Gaulli|Baciccio]]]]
The death of his constant patron Urban VIII in 1644 released a horde of Bernini's rivals and marked a change in his career, but [[Innocent X]] set him back to work on the extended [[nave]] of St Peter's and commissioned the Four Rivers fountain in Piazza Navona. At the time of Innocent's death in 1655 Bernini was the aribiter of public taste in Rome. He died in Rome in 1680, and was buried in the [[Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore]].
Two years after his death, Queen [[Christina of Sweden]], then living in Rome, commissioned [[Filippo Baldinucci]] to write his biography, (translated in 1996 as ''The life of Bernini'').
Bernini's works are featured in [[Dan Brown]]'s novel ''[[Angels and Demons]]'' as markers and [[Altars of Science]].
==Selected works==
===Sculpture===
* [[Bust of Giovanni Battista Santoni]] (c. 1612) <small>- Marble, life-size, [[Santa Prassede]], [[Rome]]
* ''[[Martyrdom of St. Lawrence (Bernini)|Martyrdom of St. Lawrence]]'' (1614-1615) <small>- Marble, 66 x 108 cm, [[Contini Bonacossi Collection]], [[Florence]]
* ''[[The Goat Amalthea with the Infant Jupiter and a Faun]]'' ([[1615]]) <small>- Marble, [[Galleria Borghese]], [[Rome]]</small>
* ''[[St. Sebastian (Bernini)|St. Sebastian]]'' (c. 1617) <small>- Marble, [[Thyssen Bornemisza Museum]], [[Madrid]]</small>
* ''[[A Faun Teased by Children]]'' (1616-1617) <small>- Marble, height 132,1 cm, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], [[New York]]</small>
* ''[[Aeneas, Anchises, and Ascanius]]'' (1618-1619) <small>- Marble, height 220 cm, [[Galleria Borghese]], [[Rome]]
* ''[[Damned Soul (Bernini)|Damned Soul]]'' (1619) <small>- [[Palazzo di Spagna]], [[Rome]]</small>
* ''[[Blessed Soul (Bernini)|Blessed Soul]]'' (1619) <small>- [[Palazzo di Spagna]], [[Rome]]</small>
*''[[Apollo and Daphne (Bernini)|Apollo and Daphne]]'' (1622-1625) <small>- Marble, height 243 cm, [[Galleria Borghese]], [[Rome]]</small>
* [[St. Peter's Basilica|St. Peter's Baldachin]] ([[1624]]) <small>- Bronze, partly gilt, [[St. Peter's Basilica|Basilica di San Pietro]], [[Vatican City]]</small>
* ''[[Charity with Four Children (Bernini)|Charity with Four Children]]'' (1627-1628) <small>- Terracotta, height 39 cm, [[Vatican Museums|Museo Sacro]], [[Vatican Palace|Musei Vaticani]], Vatican</small>
* ''[[David (Bernini)|David]]'' (1623-1624) <small>- Marble, height 170 cm, [[Galleria Borghese]], [[Rome]]</small>
* [[Piazza di Spagna|Fontana della Barcaccia]] (1627-1628) <small>- Marble, [[Piazza di Spagna]], [[Rome]]</small>
* ''[[Bust of Monsignor Pedro de Foix Montoya]]'' (c. 1621) <small>- Marble, life-size, [[Santa Maria di Monserrato]], [[Rome]]</small>
* ''[[Neptune and Triton (Bernini)|Neptune and Triton]]'' ([[1620]]) <small>- Marble, height 182,2 cm, [[Victoria and Albert Museum]], [[London]]</small>
* ''[[The Rape of Proserpina (Bernini)|The Rape of Proserpina]]'' (1621-1622) <small>- Marble, height 295 cm, [[Galleria Borghese]], [[Rome]]</small>
* [[Fontana del Tritone]] (1624-1643) <small>- Travertine, over life-size, [[Piazza Barberini]], [[Rome]]</small>
* [[Tomb of Pope Urban VIII]] (1627-1647) <small>- Golden bronze and marble, figures larger than life-size, [[St. Peter's Basilica|Basilica di San Pietro]], [[Vatican City]]</small>
* ''[[Bust of Thomas Baker (Bernini)|Bust of Thomas Baker]]'' ([[1638]]) <small>- Marble, height 81,6 cm, [[Victoria and Albert Museum]], [[London]]</small>
[[Image:Blessed Ludovica Albertoni.jpg|thumb|250px|"Blessed Ludovica Albertoni" |
tories it may be broadcast [[Free to air]] on Sky News Active. However Fox News is currently being broadcast Free to air on Sky Digital channel 510 since 1st March 2006, it is unclear whether this is a permanent arrangement.
===Canada===
On [[December 14]], [[2000]], the [[Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission]] (CRTC) approved '''Fox News Canada''' on behalf of the [[Global Television Network]], for broadcast in [[Canada]]. Fox News Canada was to be a domestic Canadian version of Fox News. [http://www.crtc.gc.ca/archive/ENG/Decisions/2000/DB2000-565.htm] The channel, or ''specialty television service,'' was never implemented by Fox, and the deadline for commencement of the service expired on [[November 24]], [[2004]]. That same day, a similar licence was granted to [[Rogers Communications]] for "MSNBC Canada", which went to air in September, 2001. During this period, it was stated by supporters of Fox News that the station was being "banned in Canada," ignoring its CRTC licence. The CRTC's previous refusal to grant Fox News an outright license had been contested by some Canadians, as well as American fans of the channel, who believed the decision to be politically motivated. A further outcry occurred when the CRTC allowed the controversial Qatar-based news channel [[Al Jazeera]] to be broadcast on Canadian airwaves while still banning Fox News.
On [[June 18]], [[2003]], the [[Canadian Cable Telecommunications Association]] (CCTA), an organization representing approximately 90 cable companies in Canada, applied to add Fox News, ESPN, HBO, and other non-domestic programming to the CRTC's ''Lists of Eligible Satellite Services'' on a digital basis. In their application the CCTA duly noted that, absent a change in CRTC policy, some of the channels were likely to be ineligible for addition to the lists as some were partially or totally competitive with licensed Canadian programming. Some Canadian channels additionally might hold exclusive rights. In a lengthy response, the CRTC stated that "the Commission considers that CCTA has not raised sufficient question as to the validity of the existing policy, or sufficient argument or evidence as to the benefits of its proposed approach, to warrant a policy review at this time" and noted that "CCTA has not provided the information generally required for the Commission to consider requests to add services to the Lists. Accordingly, the Commission is not in a position to examine whether it would be appropriate to authorize for distribution any of the specific services noted in CCTA’s request" ([http://www.crtc.gc.ca/archive/ENG/Letters/2003/lb031107.htm]).
The CCTA applied on [[April 15]], [[2004]] solely to add Fox News, along with the [[NFL Network]]. [http://www.ccta.com/english/View.asp?t=&x=150&id=331] CCTA's acting president Michael Hennessy said that the previous "bulk approach... ...was just too big", adding it raised "significant issues" with respect to broadcast rights and competition with existing domestic services ([http://www.friends.ca/News/Friends_News/archives/articles04160401.asp]) On [[November 18]], [[2004]] the CRTC announced that a digital license would be granted to Fox News ([http://www.crtc.gc.ca/archive/ENG/Notices/2004/pb2004-88.htm]). In its proposal, Fox News stated, with reference to Fox News Canada, that "Fox News does not intend to implement this service and therefore will not meet the extended deadline to commence operations" ([http://www.crtc.gc.ca/archive/ENG/Notices/2004/pb2004-45.htm]). On [[December 16]], [[2004]], Rogers Communications became the first Canadian cable or satellite provider to broadcast Fox News, with other companies following suit within the next several days.
===Australia===
In [[Australia]] Fox News Channel is broadcast on the three major Pay-TV providers, [[Austar]], [[Optus Television]] and [[Foxtel]]. Foxtel is 25% owned by News Corporation. The Australian syndication previously featured some local programming, including a [[John Laws]] current affairs programme in place of "Fox & Friends". Currently, it is a direct feed of the US broadcast.
===Brazil===
Since [[2002]] Fox News has been broadcast to [[Brazil]], but the commercials are replaced with weather forecasts (except for their own ads). It is broadcast by [[Sky Brazil]] (satellite operator, a joint-venture between [[News Corporation]] and [[Globopar]]) and in the digital packages of [[Net Serviços de Comunicação S/A|NET]] (cable television operator, a joint-venture between [[Telmex]] and [[Globopar]]).
===New Zealand===
In [[New Zealand]], Fox News is broadcast on the [[Prime Television (New Zealand)|Prime]] terrestrial network's nightime period. Because of the late time zones in the U.S., Fox News only gets to broadcast their late night programming, notably "Fox and Friends." Local advertisements and weather maps replace U.S. advertising. The weather map temperatures are, of course, presented in degrees Celsius.
===Other countries===
Fox News Channel is also carried in more than 40 countries including [[Argentina]], [[Bahamas]], [[Barbados]], [[Belize]], [[Bermuda]], [[Cambodia]], [[Cayman]], [[Chile]], [[Colombia]], [[Costa Rica]], [[Denmark]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Finland]], [[Grenada]], [[Germany]], [[Guam]], [[Guatemala]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Iceland]], [[Indonesia]], [[Israel]], [[Italy]], [[Jamaica]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyz Republic]], [[Macau]], [[Malaysia]], [[Maldives]], [[Mexico]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Nigeria]], [[Norway]], [[Pakistan]], [[Palau]], [[Panama]], [[Peru]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Philippines]], [[Russia]], [[Singapore]], [[Saint Kitts]], [[Saint Lucia]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Thailand]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], and [[Venezuela]]. (Service to [[Japan]] stopped in the summer of [[2003]] it can be seen at Americable (Distributor for American Bases http://americablejapan.com, Mediatti (Kadena Air Base) http://www.mccokinawa.com/cable and Muracam TV http://www.muracam-tv.com.)
==References==
# {{note|ruplib}} {{cite web
| url = http://www.newyorker.com/online/content/articles/030526on_onlineonly01
| title = "Broadcast News"
| publisher = [[The New Yorker]]
| accessdate = November 29
| accessyear = 2005
}}
# {{note|numview}} {{cite web
| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/3148015.stm
| title = "War coverage lifts News Corp"
| publisher = [[The British Broadcasting Corporation]]
| accessdate = November 29
| accessyear = 2005
}}
# {{cite book
| first = Scott
| last = Collins
| title = Crazy Like a Fox: The Inside Story of How Fox News Beat CNN
| id = ISBN 1591840295
}}
== External links ==
*[http://www.foxnews.com Official Site]
*[http://www.newscorp.com/ News Corporation] - Fox's parent company.
*[http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/A/htmlA/ailesroger/ailesroger.htm Museum of Broadcast Communications: Ailes, Roger]
*[http://www.newshounds.us/ ''News Hounds''] - Watchdog blog critical of Fox News Channel.
*[http://www.outfoxed.org/ ''Outfoxed: Rupert Murdoch's War on Journalism''] - The critical documentary's website.
*[http://cgi.omroep.nl/cgi-bin/streams?/tv/vpro/tegenlicht/bb.20041024.rm?title=Bekijk%20hier%20de%20uitzending%20OUTFOXED Outfoxed] streaming [[Dutch language|Dutch]] VPRO [http://www.vpro.nl/programma/tegenlicht/afleveringen/19365659/ documentary] by [http://www.vpro.nl/programma/tegenlicht/service_info/19361409/ Tegenlicht]. Introduction, several seconds, in Dutch with story itself in English and Dutch [[subtitles]]; 50 min. Broadband internet needed.
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/usa/story/0,12271,1319955,00.html Guardian Unlimited special report: Fox - the naked truth], October 5, 2004, Zoe Williams, [[The Guardian]]
*[http://rawstory.com/news/2006/Fox_executives_donate_generously_to_Santorum_0228.html Fox executives funnel cash to Santorum, GOP]
*[http://www.cbc.ca/fifth/sticksandstones.html The Fifth Estate: Sticks and Stones], [[CBC]] - Bob McKeown investigates Fox News for The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, 45 min.
*[http://www.fauxnewschannel.com/ "The Most Powerful Smell in News"] - Origin of the "Faux News" logo.
{{News Corporation}}
[[Category:1996 establishments]]
[[Category:Foreign television channels broadcasting in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Fox News Channel| ]]
[[ang:Fox News]]
[[de:Fox News Channel]]
[[eo:Fox News]]
[[fr:Fox News Channel]]
[[ja:FOXニュース]]
[[nl:Fox News Channel]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Freeciv</title>
<id>11122</id>
<revision>
<id>41916173</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:24:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Csabo</username>
<id>119695</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Description */ fixed Solaris link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox CVG| title = Freeciv
|image = [[Image:Freeciv Client.png|Freeciv icon]]
|developer = The [[Freeciv]] developers
|publisher = The [[Freeciv]] project
|designer =
|engine =
|released = [[November 5|Nov 5]], [[2005]] (2.0.7)
|genre = [[turn-based game|Turn-based]] [[strategy computer game|strategy]]
|modes = [[Multiplayer]], [[single player]]
|ratings =
|platforms = [[Linux]], [[Mac OS X]], [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]
|media = [[Download]] only
|requirements =
|input = [[Computer keyboard|Keyboard]], [[mouse]]
}}
[[Image:Freeciv-cvs-sep-27.png|thumb|right|256px|''Freeciv'' CVS snapshot from September 27, 2005, with the new Amplio tileset.]]
'''Freeciv''' is a multiplayer, [[turn-based game|turn-based]] [[strategy computer game]], inspired by [[Sid Meier]]'s commercial ''[[Civilization video game|Civilization]]'' series. It is [[free software]] under the [[GNU General Public License]] and developed collaboratively&mdash;[[source code|code]], graphics, sounds etc. have been contributed by many people from around the wor |
e=Fred Savage}}
*[http://www.teenidols4you.com/pictures.html?g=Actors&pe=fredsavage Picture Gallery]
*[http://www.nndb.com/people/345/000026267/ Fred Savage] at [[NNDB]]
*{{tvtome person|id=6414|name=Fred Savage}}
*[http://www.worldpokertour.com/players/?x=profile&poker-player=4942 World Poker Tour Profile]
[[Category:1976 births|Savage, Fred]]
[[Category:American child actors|Savage, Fred]]
[[Category:American film actors|Savage, Fred]]
[[Category:American television actors|Savage, Fred]]
[[Category:American television directors|Savage, Fred]]
[[Category:Chicagoans|Savage, Fred]]
[[Category:Jewish American actors|Savage, Fred]]
[[Category:Law & Order: Special Victims Unit actors|Savage, Fred]]
[[Category:Living people|Savage, Fred]]
[[Category:Sigma Alpha Epsilon brothers|Savage, Fred]]
[[de:Fred Savage]]
[[fr:Fred Savage]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Futurians</title>
<id>11531</id>
<revision>
<id>35429847</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-16T18:51:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Konczewski</username>
<id>635320</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Futurians''' were an influential group of [[science fiction]] [[science fiction fandom|fans]], [[science fiction editors|editors]] and [[science fiction authors|writers]]. They were a major force in the development of science fiction writing and [[science fiction fandom]] in the years [[1937]]-[[1945]].
The Futurians were based in [[New York]].
As described in [[Isaac Asimov]]'s autobiography ''[[In Memory Yet Green]]'', the Futurians spun off from the [[Queens Science Fiction Society]] (headed by [[Sam Moskowitz]], later an influential SF editor and historian) over ideological differences. Asimov does not specify the differences but hints that they were political in character. Other sources indicate that [[Donald A. Wollheim]] was pushing for a more left wing direction with a goal of leading fandom toward a political ideal, all of which Moskowitz resisted. As a result, Wollheim broke off and began the [[Futurians]].
==Members include==
* [[Isaac Asimov]]
* [[James Blish]]
* [[Hannes Bok]]
* [[Dan Burford]]
* [[Chet Cohen]]
* [[Dirk Wylie|Harry Dockweiler]] (a.k.a. Dirk Wylie)
* [[Virginia Kidd]]
* [[Damon Knight]]
* [[Cyril Kornbluth]]
* [[Walter Kubilius]]
* [[David Kyle]]
* [[Robert A.W. Lowndes]]
* [[Judith Merril]]
* [[John Michel]]
* [[Leslie Perri]]
* [[Frederik Pohl]]
* [[Larry Shaw (fan)|Larry Shaw]]
* [[Richard Wilson (fan)|Richard Wilson]]
* [[Donald A. Wollheim]]
==References==
* ''The Futurians'' by Damon Knight (1977)
* ''The Way The Future Was'' by Frederik Pohl (1978)
* ''In Memory Yet Green'' by Isaac Asimov (1979)
== See also ==
* [[Second Fandom]]
==External links==
* http://ebbs.english.vt.edu/20th/etudes/anderson/futurians.html
* [http://media-in-transition.mit.edu/science_fiction/profiles/pohl.html Frederik Pohl profile with several paragraphs on the Futurians]
* [http://www.sff.net/people/diccon/FOXTROT.HTM Fancyclopedia II: F] (see the entries under FUTURIANS, and FUTURIAN HOUSES)
[[Category:Fandom]]
[[Category:Science fiction organizations]]
[[fr:The Futurians]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>First Fandom</title>
<id>11532</id>
<revision>
<id>40363617</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:51:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''First Fandom''' is an association of experienced [[science fiction fandom|science fiction fans]].
In [[1958]] a number of fans at [[Midwestcon]] realized amid table-talk that they all had been active in fandom for more than 20 years. This inspired the creation of an organization for longstanding fans under the initial chairmanship of [[Robert A. Madle]]. Originally only those fans who were known to have been active in fandom before the cutoff date [[January 1]], [[1938]] were eligible. Such fannish activity (or "[[fanac]]") including writing to letter columns in [[science fiction]] [[magazine]]s, having been published in [[fanzine]]s, or having participated in science fiction oriented clubs, or just generally doing fannish things.
The term itself is an oblique reference to [[Olaf Stapledon]]'s classic science fiction epic ''[[Last and First Men]]''. In this book the stages of mankind are enumerated. Thus early [[1950s|'50s]] historians of fandom began to label successive generations of fans as First Fandom, Second Fandom, Third Fandom, and so forth... all the way to Seventh Fandom and beyond.
Currently the organization allows several classes of membership. For example, a ''Dinosaur'' is a member who was active before the first [[Worldcon]] (World Science Fiction Convention) held on [[July 4]], [[1939]], while ''Associate Membership'' requires provable activity in fandom for more than three decades.
There is an analogous informal society in [[Finnish fandom]] called the ''Dinosaur Club''; the cutoff being the first major Finnish [[Convention|con]] [[Kingcon]].
==External links==
* [http://www.firstfandom.org.hosting.domaindirect.com/ First Fandom website]
[[Category:Fandom]]
[[de:First Fandom]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Four-poster</title>
<id>11535</id>
<revision>
<id>15909279</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-23T00:37:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>165.247.183.38</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>disambiguating Roman</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Archaeologists refer to two different structures as a '''four-poster''' . The first is a type of stone setting found uniquely within the [[British Isles]]. They date from the [[Bronze Age]] and, as the name suggests, usually consist of four stones. Late [[Bronze Age]], [[Iron Age]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] four-posters are square arrangements of [[posthole]]s, around 2-4m square. Some are thought to have supported a raised granary whilst others have been shown to have supported haystacks. Other theories include that they were chicken sheds, workshops, beehives watchtowers or platforms for exposing the dead. Four posters are commonly found at [[hillfort]] and [[farm]] sites.
== Bronze Age four posters ==
It is widely accepted that the four-poster tradition grew out of the [[recumbent-stone circle]] tradition of [[Aberdeenshire (traditional)|Aberdeenshire]] at the very start of the [[Bronze Age]]. The earliest ancestors of the four-poster are found in the hills north of Inverurie, where gross extremities in the scale of recumbent-stone circles have been found ranging from very large (50 metres diameter) to very small (5 metres diameter). In some of the smallest, the setting consists of six or eight stones, one within 45 degrees of south being only slightly bulkier or special compared with the others. In most of these, a clear rectangle appears stones if only the four largest stones are considered.
The builders of the four-posters -- with their traditions in tow -- travelled south-west, heading for the metal-rich southern regions of [[Ireland]]. Around [[Perthshire]], about 200 kilometres away from Aberdeen, an extremely dense cluster of four-posters occurs. Many believe that it was here, in the fertile valleys of Strathtay and Strathmore, that the four-posters became refined into neat squares, averaging [[1 E1 m²|12 square metres]] in internal area, placed on neat levelled mounds with [[cist]]s or cremations near the north east stone. Situations were chosen both for their proximity to communities (although this is less the case than with earlier monuments) and for the views they commanded. The south west remains the focal point, with alignments on nearby notches in hills close to the major southern moonset frequently occurring. It should be noted that four-posters are hardly exact astronomical observatories, they should be thought of more as a memento of home for Bronze Age travellers who were ill-equipped to undertake workings on the size of the grand [[recumbent-stone circle]]s of the soon distant north east.
Quite why there are so many four-posters in [[Perthshire]] isn't quite clear. It is possible the tradition was carried on by the local community after the travellers had left, or that longterm trade led to the blurring of cultures. Either way, there isn't a single four-poster in the next 300 kilometres to [[Ireland]], suggesting the journeymen picked up pace and hurried down to the cultural crossroads of [[Machrie Moor]] on the [[Isle of Arran]], in the vicinity of which several four-posters have been found and excavated. Once on [[Ireland]] but outside the south west there are two confirmed four-posters, both on the east coast, suggesting a route down that side of the island, to the region around [[County Cork]], where another proliferation occurs. The radiocarbon dates for remains from this group are later than those for the others in [[Scotland]] which confirms the progression in construction.
It seems a reversion to some old habits takes place here, the southern or south west stone becoming higher and thicker, like a miniature recumbent from the [[recumbent-stone circle]]s. Another stone was added, whilst the two stones furthest away from the 'recumbent' became higher and thinner like the 'portal' stones of the Aberdeenshire circles yet on the wrong side! Eventually, the design was consolidated into what is known as the [[Munster stone cirle]] tradition.
[[Category:British archaeology]]
[[Category:Monument types]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fianna Fáil</title>
<id>11536</id>
<revision>
<id>40985607</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T07:57:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>remov |
mp>2006-02-25T23:04:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mdmanser</username>
<id>270941</id>
</contributor>
<comment>tidied and moved statistics on participation table</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Cwc.gif|right|frame|Cricket World Cup 2007 logo]]
The [[International Cricket Council|ICC]] '''Cricket World Cup''' is the world championship of [[one-day cricket]], a tournament held quadrenially between all [[Test cricket|Test]]-playing nations, as well as several representatives from other [[cricket]]-playing nations who qualify through a series of qualifying matches. The next tournament will be held in the [[West Indies]] in [[2007]].
==History==
The Cricket World Cup was first held in 1975 in [[England]], with eight teams participating: [[Australian cricket team|Australia]], [[English cricket team|England]], the [[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]], [[Pakistani cricket team|Pakistan]], [[Indian cricket team|India]], and [[New Zealand cricket team|New Zealand]] (the six Test nations at the time), with [[Sri Lankan cricket team|Sri Lanka]] and a composite team from [[East African cricket team|East Africa]]).
The first three tournaments were held in England. N. K. P. Salve, President of the [[Board of Control for Cricket in India|Indian Cricket Board]] recounts the awarding of hosting rights for the [[1987]] World Cup in his book ''The Story of the Reliance Cup''. According to Salve, he was given two tickets for the [[1983]] World Cup final at [[Lord's Cricket Ground|Lord's]]. When India unexpectedly qualified for the final, he requested two additional tickets from the [[Marylebone Cricket Club|MCC]] for friends who had just arrived from India. The MCC refused his request. Following this rebuff, Salve campaigned heavily amongst associate members of the [[International Cricket Council]] to form a bloc of voters, who ultimately awarded the hosting of the 1987 World Cup jointly to India and Pakistan.
Since 1987, the hosting of the World Cup been shared by the major cricket playing regions of the world - [[England]], the [[Indian subcontinent]], [[Australasia]], [[Southern Africa]] and the [[West Indies]]. The tournaments have been based mainly in the local superpowers, though matches are held in all regional cricketing nations.
The World Cup is held in high esteem amongst fans, players, and administrators, unlike many of the myriad of one-day tournaments held around the world each year. It has been the scene of some of the major developments in the way one-day cricket is played.
==Début of National Teams==
*1975 - [[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|20px]] [[Australian cricket team|Australia]] [[Image:East_African_Cricket_Council.gif|20px]] [[East African cricket team|East Africa]]<sup>([[#1|1]])</sup> [[Image:Flag_of_England.svg|20px]] [[English cricket team|England]] [[Image:India_flag_large.png|20px]] [[Indian cricket team|India]] [[Image:New zealand_flag_large.png|20px]] [[New Zealand cricket team|New Zealand]] [[Image:Pakistan_flag_large.png|20px]] [[Pakistani cricket team|Pakistan]] [[Image:Sri_lanka_flag_large.png|20px]] [[Sri Lankan cricket team|Sri Lanka]] [[Image:West_Indies_Cricket_Board_Flag.png|20px]] [[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]]
*1979 - [[Image:Flag_of_Canada.svg|20px]] [[Canadian cricket team|Canada]]
*1983 - [[Image:Zimbabwe_flag_large.png|20px]] [[Zimbabwean cricket team|Zimbabwe]]
*1992 - [[Image:Flag of South Africa.svg|20px]] [[South African cricket team|South Africa]]
*1996 - [[Image:Kenya_flag_large.png|20px]] [[Kenyan cricket team|Kenya]] [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px]] [[Netherlands cricket team|Netherlands]] [[Image:Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg|20px]] [[United Arab Emirates cricket team|United Arab Emirates]]
*1999 - [[Image:Flag of Bangladesh.svg|20px]] [[Bangladeshi cricket team|Bangladesh]] [[Image:Flag_of_Scotland.svg|20px]] [[Scottish cricket team|Scotland]]
*2003 - [[Image:Namibia_flag_large.png|20px]] [[Namibian cricket team|Namibia]]
*2007 - [[Image:Bermuda_flag_large.png|20px]] [[Bermudian cricket team|Bermuda]] [[Image:Flag_of_Ireland.svg|20px]] [[Irish cricket team|Ireland]]
<div id="1"><sup>'''1'''</sup> The East African team no longer exists, but at the time represented the countries of Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia.
==Teams' Participations==
Includes appearances in the upcoming 2007 World Cup.
{| style=border-collapse:collapse border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5
|- align=center bgcolor=#efefef
!rowspan=2 width=100|Team
!rowspan=2 width=40|Appearances
!rowspan=2 width=50|Record streak
!rowspan=2 width=60|First appearance
!rowspan=2 width=60|Latest appearance
!rowspan=2 width=280|Best result
!colspan=5|Statistics
|- bgcolor=#EFEFEF
!width=30|Played
!width=30|Won
!width=30|Lost
!width=30|Tie
!width=30|NR
|- align=center style="background:#f5f5f5;"
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|20px]] [[Australian cricket team|Australia]]
|9||9||1975||2007||Champions (1987, 1999, 2003)||58||40||17||1||0
|- align=center style="background:#f5f5f5;"
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Image:West_Indies_Cricket_Board_Flag.png|20px]] [[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]]
|9||9||1975||2007||Champions (1975, 1979)||48||31||16||0||1
|- align=center style="background:#f5f5f5;"
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Image:India_flag_large.png|20px]] [[Indian cricket team|India]]
|9||9||1975||2007||Champions (1983)||55||31||23||0||1
|- align=center style="background:#f5f5f5;"
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Image:Pakistan_flag_large.png|20px]] [[Pakistani cricket team|Pakistan]]
|9||9||1975||2007||Champions (1992)||53||29||22||0||2
|- align=center style="background:#f5f5f5;"
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Image:Sri_lanka_flag_large.png|20px]] [[Sri Lankan cricket team|Sri Lanka]]
|9||9||1975||2007||Champions (1996)||46||17||27||1||1
|- align=center style="background:#f5f5f5;"
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Image:Flag_of_England.svg|20px]] [[English cricket team|England]]
|9||9||1975||2007||Runners-up (1979, 1987, 1992)||50||31||18||0||1
|- align=center style="background:#f5f5f5;"
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Image:New zealand_flag_large.png|20px]] [[New Zealand cricket team|New Zealand]]
|9||9||1975||2007||Semifinals (1975, 1979, 1992, 1999)||52||28||23||0||1
|- align=center style="background:#f5f5f5;"
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Image:Zimbabwe_flag_large.png|20px]] [[Zimbabwean cricket team|Zimbabwe]]
|7||7||1983||2007||Super Six (1999, 2003)||42||8||31||0||3
|- align=center style="background:#f5f5f5;"
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Image:Flag of South Africa.svg|20px]] [[South African cricket team|South Africa]]
|5||5||1992||2007||Semifinals (1992, 1999)||30||19||9||2||0
|- align=center style="background:#f5f5f5;"
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Image:Kenya_flag_large.png|20px]] [[Kenyan cricket team|Kenya]]
|4||4||1996||2007||Semifinals (2003)||20||5||14||0||1
|- align=center style="background:#f5f5f5;"
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Image:Flag of Bangladesh.svg|20px]] [[Bangladeshi cricket team|Bangladesh]]
|3||3||1999||2007||Round 1||11||2||8||0||1
|- align=center style="background:#f5f5f5;"
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Image:Flag_of_Canada.svg|20px]] [[Canadian cricket team|Canada]]
|3||2||1979||2007||Round 1||9||1||8||0||0
|- align=center style="background:#f5f5f5;"
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px]] [[Netherlands cricket team|Netherlands]]
|3||2||1996||2007||Round 1||11||1||10||0||0
|- align=center style="background:#f5f5f5;"
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Image:Flag_of_Scotland.svg|20px]] [[Scottish cricket team|Scotland]]
|2||1||1999||2007||Round 1||5||0||5||0||0
|- align=center style="background:#f5f5f5;"
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Image:Bermuda_flag_large.png|20px]] [[Bermudian cricket team|Bermuda]]
|1||1||2007||2007||-||0||0||0||0||0
|- align=center style="background:#f5f5f5;"
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Image:Flag_of_Ireland.svg|20px]] [[Irish cricket team|Ireland]]
|1||1||2007||2007||-||0||0||0||0||0
|- align=center style="background:#f5f5f5;"
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Image:Namibia_flag_large.png|20px]] [[Namibian cricket team|Namibia]]
|1||1||2003||2003||Round 1||6||0||6||0||0
|- align=center style="background:#f5f5f5;"
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Image:Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg|20px]] [[United Arab Emirates cricket team|United Arab Emirates]]
|1||1||1996||1996||Round 1||5||1||4||0||0
|- align=center style="background:#f5f5f5;"
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Image:East_African_Cricket_Council.gif|20px]] [[East African cricket team|East Africa]]
|1||1||1975||1975||Round 1||3||0||3||0||0
|}
==West Indies 2007==
* 16 teams will contest the next Cricket World Cup finals to be held in the [[Caribbean|West Indies]] in Spring 2007.
* These teams are the 10 Test cricket playing countries plus [[Kenyan cricket team|Kenya]] and the five qualifiers from the [[ICC Trophy]] held in [[Ireland]] in 2005: [[Scottish cricket team|Scotland]], [[Irish cricket team|Ireland]], [[Bermudan cricket team|Bermuda]], [[Canadian cricket team|Canada]], [[Dutch cricket team|Netherlands]].
* The teams have been split into the following groups for the first round:
Pool I: [[Australian cricket team|Australia]], [[South African cricket team|South Africa]], [[Dutch cricket team|Netherlands]], [[Scottish cricket team|Scotland]]
Pool II: [[Sri Lankan cricket team|Sri Lanka]], [[Indian cricket team|India]], [[Bangladeshi cricket team|Bangladesh]], [[Bermudan cricket team|Bermuda]]
Pool III: [[New Zealand cricket team|New Zealand]], [[English cricket team|England]], |
quot;). The airbase was used by the US military as a stopping point for American aircraft crossing the Atlantic on the way to theatres of operation in Europe and Africa. After the end of WW-2, and American departure, the airbase fell into disuse.
With the "space race" and the "cold war" Americans began a return in [[1956]]. Wideawake airfield was expanded in the mid 1960's. The runway, with its strange hump, was extended, widened, and improved to allow its use by large aircraft, and acts as an emergency runway for the [[Space Shuttle]]. Ascension Island continues to serve as an important link in the American space projects. The [[NASA]] established a tracking station on Ascension Island in [[1967]], but has since abandonded it. The [[BBC]] installed a relay station for broadcasts to South America and Africa.
In [[1982]], Ascension was used as a staging post for the British Task Force during the [[Falklands War]]. The [[Royal Air Force]] deployed a fleet of [[Avro_Vulcan|Vulcan]] bombers at the airfield. The opening shots of the British offensive were launched from Ascension by Vulcans in [[Operation Black Buck]]. The RAF also used the base to supply the Task Force. The increase in air traffic during the war saw Wideawake being classed as the busiest airfield in the world for a short period. The Royal Navy's fleet stopped at Ascension for refuelling on the way. Following the war, the British retained an increased presence on the island, establishing [[RAF Ascension Island]], and providing a refuelling stop for the regular airlink between [[RAF Brize Norton]] in Oxfordshire, and [[RAF Mount Pleasant]] in the [[Falkland Islands]].
==Politics==
Ascension is a dependency of Saint Helena, an overseas territory of the United Kingdom. Executive authority is vested in [[Queen Elizabeth II|The Queen]], who is represented by the [[Governor of Saint Helena]]. As the Governor resides in [[Jamestown]], Saint Helena, an [[Administrator of Ascension Island|Administrator]] is appointed to represent the Governor on Ascension Island.
In [[2002]], changes in the constitutional arrangements for Ascension Island, saw the first Island Council being elected.
Ascension also has its own suite of local laws, based on the law of Saint Helena, and the UK.
==Geography==
[[Image:Ascension Island Map.jpg|thumb|250px|Map of Ascension Island]]
The main island has an area of approximately 35 [[square mile]]s (91&nbsp;km²)<!-- From http://www.ascension-island.gov.ac/ascension.htm -->. A volcanic peak rising from just west of the [[mid-Atlantic Ridge]], much of the island is a wasteland of lava flows and cinder cones; no less than 44 distinct craters have been identified. While it was barren with very few plants as recently as [[1843]], Ascension Island's [[Green Mountain]] is now one of the few large-scale [[artificial forest]]s, and is gradually growing with each year. Its highest point is at 2,817&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|feet]] (859&nbsp;[[metre|m]]).
Ascension's climate is subtropical, with temperatures at the coast ranging from about 68 to 88 [[Fahrenheit]] (20&ndash;31&nbsp;°C), and about 10 degrees cooler at the highest point. Rain showers may occur at any time during the year, but tend to be heavier between January and April.
==Demographics==
There is no indigenous population on the Island, although around 1,100 people live there as of 2005. The military and civilian contractors of the United States and the United Kingdom, along with citizen workers imported from Saint Helena, make up the bulk of the population. The United States of America has around 150 people who service the US Air Force facilities on the island and at Wideawake airfield. [[RAF Ascension Island]] is made up of 200 staff. Other residents include some British government employees including the island's British Administrator.
There are five settlements, the capital being '''[[Georgetown]]''':
#Georgetown (pop. 560)
#Cat Hill (Main Base, the U.S. base, pop. 150)
#The Residency
#Traveller's Hill (Wideawake, the Royal Air Force base, pop. 200)
#Two Boats Village
Additionally, there are some cottages on Green Mountain.
It is difficult to gain an entry to Ascension Island as one needs the written permission of the Administrator. Additionally, it is a near-impossibility to take up permanent residence. Employment is a requirement to stay on the island. The UK government has asserted that no inhabitant of Ascension Island has a "right to abode." It is a point now in dispute by Council members, long time employees, and their family members, as noted in the local newspaper "The Islander."
==Economy==
[[Image:Stamp_Ascension_1937_1.5p.jpg|200px|thumb|View of "The Pier", 1938]]
The main economic activity on the island is centered around the military bases at Wideawake Airfield. SERCO Ltd manages the airport with ESS Ltd providing catering and domestic facilities. A former feature of Ascension was the permanently moored 70,000 tonne tanker offshore run by the Maersk which served as a bulk fuel facility but in December 2002 this was replaced by an on-shore Petroleum Supply Depot under military management
The Island also hosts many communications and relay stations, exploiting the Island's strategic position in the middle of Atlantic Ocean. Both the [[BBC]] and [[Cable and Wireless]] have communications posts there.
The main export item is [[Postage stamps of Ascension Island|Ascension Island postage stamps]], first issued in [[1922]]. Typically 5 to 6 sets of stamps are issued each year.
Very limited tourism exists, mostly for sportfishing. Further restricting access is the inaccessability of the island to transport, and restrictive permissions required for entry.
==Transport==
[[Image:Ascension_Island_Location.jpg|200px|thumb|Ascension Island Location]]
The Island has a regular airlink with the United Kingdom and the Falkland Islands, with weekly flights to [[RAF Brize Norton]], west of [[London]] and to [[RAF Mount Pleasant]] in the [[Falkland Islands]]. Although these are operated by the Royal Air Force, civilians are permitted to fly at their own expense. The United States maintains a weekly flight between the Island and [[Patrick Air Force Base]] in [[Florida]]. Past UK and US governments have reached an agreement to allow civilan aircraft to land on Ascension Island. It was a move designed to improve tourist links-- and islanders economy--although no services have yet taken place, and the possibility of this is being reconsidered.
The [[RMS Saint Helena|RMS ''Saint Helena'']] operates between Ascension Island and Saint Helena on a scheduled basis, and provides a connection to [[Cape Town]] and [[Cardiff]]. The US military service their base and facilities with a regular supply ship and air transport.
Within Ascension, there is no public transport and no taxis, any visitors requiring transport are required to hire a car. There are about 25 miles (40 km) of roads on the island. <!-- cia.gov -->
== Flora and Fauna==
The protected [[Green turtle]] is perhaps the most notable of the wildlife, coming ashore to lay their eggs on the beaches from January to May. [[Sooty tern]] or "Wideawake Bird" nests in great seashore lava "fairs," along with [[booby|boobies]], [[petrel]]s, [[noddie]]s, [[Ascension frigate bird]]s, and [[boatswain bird]]s. On land are found [[canary|canaries]], [[francolin]]s, [[mynah]]s, [[sparrow]]s, and [[waxbill]]s. A variety of mammals have been introduced: donkey, sheep, cats and rats among others. Reptiles consist of two species of lizards. In summer flies are problematic. Crowning Green Mountain is a lush halo of bamboo, while on one flank is a large stand of tall pine trees. A few wild flowers narrowly abound [[periwinkle]], cactus is present with land crabs in several large colonies near the sea and mountains.
Offshore, there is a variety of open-ocean fish, including [[shark]]s, [[wahoo]], [[tuna]], [[bonita]], [[barracuda]], [[marlin]], [[blackfish]] and [[sailfish]].
== References ==
*[http://www.ascension-island.gov.ac/ Official Ascension Island Government site]
{{Global Volcanism Program}}
==External links==
*[http://www.astronautix.com/sites/ascnsion.htm Rocket launches from Ascension]
*[http://geosciences.ou.edu/~bweaver/Ascension/ai.htm Barry Weaver home page of Ascension Islands]
[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/sh.html]
{{British dependencies}}
[[Category:Saint Helena]]
[[Category:Ascension Island|*]]
[[Category:Mountains and hills of British overseas territories]]
[[ast:Islla Ascensión]]
[[de:Ascension]]
[[es:Isla Ascensión]]
[[fr:Ascension (île)]]
[[gl:Illa de Ascensión]]
[[ko:어센션 섬]]
[[nl:Ascension]]
[[ja:アセンション島]]
[[no:Ascension]]
[[pl:Wyspa Wniebowstąpienia]]
[[pt:Ascensão]]
[[sl:Ascension]]
[[sv:Ascension]]
[[zh:阿森松岛]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Athanasian Creed</title>
<id>2416</id>
<revision>
<id>41251027</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T01:50:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Paolo</username>
<id>14755</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>it interwiki</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Athanasian Creed''' (''Quicunque vult'') is a statement of [[Christianity|Christian]] doctrine traditionally ascribed to [[Athanasius of Alexandria|St. Athanasius]], Archbishop of [[Alexandria]], who lived in the [[4th century]]. However most of today's historians agree that in all probability it was originally written in [[Latin]], not in [[Greek language|Greek]], and probably originated in Gaul around 500; if so, then Athanasius cannot have been the original author. Its [[theology]] is closely akin to that found in the writing of Western theologians, especially [[Ambrose of Milan]].
It was designed to overcome [[Arianism]]. Liturgically, this Creed was recited at the Sunday Office of [[P |
ation Victorian Classroom
*Provost Skene's House
*Tolbooth Museum
*Doonies Farm
*Marischal College
*Aberdeen Arts Centre
*The Lemon Tree
*[[Pittodrie|Pittodrie football stadium]]
* The Aberdeen Central Public Library contains more than 60,000 volumes.
* His Majesty's Theatre (1906) is a fine granite theatre which provides a home for popular entertainments.
It has a 1,500 capacity and is one of the most beautiful major touring theatres in Britain.
* Doonies Farm has one of the largest collections in Scotland of endangered breeds of farm animals. Open to the public, the farm is nationally recognized as a breeding centre for rare breeds and is situated on the old coast road between the Bay of Nigg and Cove.
==Parks and open spaces==
'''Duthie Park''' 50 acres (202,000 m²)), situated on Riverside Drive, was named after and gifted to the city by Miss Elizabeth Crombie Duthie of Ruthrieston in 1881 and opened by Princess Beatrice on [[27 September]] [[1883]]. It
occupies an excellent site on the north bank of the Dee and includes extensive gardens, a rose hill, boating pond, bandstand, and play area as well as the David Welch Winter Gardens. First opened in 1899, the Winter Gardens were rebuilt in 1970 following storm damage and extended. They are Europe's largest indoor gardens and one of the most visited in Scotland.
'''Victoria Park''' 13 acres (53,000 m²) opened in 1871, is a beautiful park situated in the north-western area. There is a conservatory used as a seating area and a fountain made of 14 different granites, presented to the people by the granite polishers and master builders of Aberdeen.
'''Westburn Park''' 13 acres (53,000 m²) opposite Victoria Park, caters for football and tennis, has a children's cycle track and a play area. An open section of the Westburn runs through the park.
'''Stewart Park''' (15 acres (61,000 m²) opened in 1894. The park was named after a former Lord Provost of the city, Sir David Stewart; a section is reserved for [[cricket]] and [[football (soccer)|football]].
'''Hazlehead Park''' is a large, heavily wooded park on the outskirts of the city. It is popular with sports enthusiasts, walkers, naturalists and picnickers. Around the park are football pitches, two golf courses, pitch and putt course, a horseriding school and woods for walking. The park has a significant collection of sculpture by a range of artists and heritage items which have been rescued from various places within the city. It also features Scotland's oldest maze, first planted in 1938.
'''Aberdeen Beach/Queen's Links''' is a well-loved and extremely popular recreational area of the city, visited by holidaymakers and city residents all year round. The area is well provided with sporting and recreational facilities, including the Beach Leisure Centre and the Lynx Ice Arena, cafes, restaurants, a fun fair, a multiplex cinema, a nightclub and other attractions.
'''Johnston Gardens''' is also a great park worth visiting. Situated behind Queen's Road and just beside Nellfield Terrace. It hosts many different types of flowers and plants which have been renowned for their beauty. Johnston Gardens also won many 'Britain in Bloom' competitions. Aberdeen itself has won the title of best city 'In Bloom' for 9 nine years in a row.
'''Seaton Park''' (270,000 m²) is located in the north of the city and was purchased by the Council in 1947 from Major Hay. Beside the park's south gates stands St Machar's Cathedral. There are flowerbeds and a walled garden beside the old stables, which have been converted for housing. The Cathedral Walk is always a resplendent sight in midsummer and one of the most popular with visitors to the city. Seaton Park is also an access point for the River Don and there is a walk from the park to the city boundary.
'''[[Union Terrace Gardens]]''' forms a popular rendezvous location in the heart of the city.
==Statues==
Adjacent to [[Union Terrace Gardens]] stands a colossal bronze statue of [[William Wallace]], by W. G. Stevenson. Also nearby these same gardens are a bronze statue of [[Robert Burns]] and [[Charles Marochetti]]'s seated figure of [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha|Prince Albert]].
In front of Robert Gordon's College is the bronze statue, by T. S. Burnett, of [[Charles George Gordon|General Gordon]]. At the head of Queen's Road stands the bronze statue of Queen Victoria, erected in 1893 by the royal tradesmen of the city. Near the Cross stands the granite statue of George Gordon, 5th Duke of Gordon.
There is a 70 ft (21 m) high [[obelisk]] of [[Peterhead]] granite, originally erected in the square of Marischal College, to the memory of Sir James McGrigor (1778-1851), the military surgeon and director-general of the Army Medical Department, who was thrice elected lord [[rector]] of the College. In the [[1890s]] when the College was extended, the obelisk was moved to the Duthie Park.There is also a statue commemorating Lord Byron in Aberdeen Grammar School in the front grounds.
==Bridges==
The Dee is crossed by a number of bridges, from west to east:
*Bridge of Dee
*King George VI Bridge
*Railway bridge
*Wellington Suspension Bridge
*Queen Elizabeth II Bridge
*Victoria Bridge
Until 1832, the only access to the city from the south was the Bridge of Dee. It consists of seven semicircular ribbed arches, is about 30 ft (10 m) high, and was built early in the [[16th century]] by Bishops Elphinstone and Dunbar. It was nearly all rebuilt 1718-1723, and in 1842 was widened from 14 to 26 ft (4 to 8 m). This was the site of a battle in 1639 between the Royalists under Viscount Aboyne and the Covenanters who were led by the Marquis of Montrose.
The Bridge of Don has five granite arches, each 75 ft (23 m) in span, and was built 1827-1832. A little to the west is the Auld [[Brig o' Balgownie]], a picturesque single arch spanning the deep black stream, said to have been built by [[Robert I of Scotland|King Robert I]], and celebrated by [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron]] in the tenth canto of "[[Don Juan]]".
==Harbour==
[[Image:Aberdeen Harbour.jpg|thumb|right|A ship in Aberdeen Harbour.]]
Aberdeen Harbour is the principal commercial port in northern Scotland and an international port for general cargo, roll-on/roll-off and container traffic.
Originally, the defective harbour, with a shallow sand and gravel bar at its entrance, retarded the trade of Aberdeen, but under various acts since 1773 it was greatly deepened. The north pier, built partly by [[John Smeaton]] [[1770s|1775-1781]], and partly by [[Thomas Telford]] [[1810s|1810-1815]], extends nearly 3,000 ft (1000 m) into the [[North Sea]] and raised the bar. A wet dock of 29 acres (117,000 m²) and with 6000 ft (1800 m) of quay, was completed in 1848 and called Victoria Dock in honour of the queen's visit to the city in that year. Adjoining it is the Upper Dock. By the [[Harbour Act of 1868]], the Dee near the harbour was diverted from the south at a cost of £80,000, and 90 acres (364,000 m²) of new ground, in addition to 25 acres (101,000 m²) formerly made up, were provided on the north side of the river for the Albert Basin (with a graving dock), quays and warehouses. A 1050 ft (320 m) long concrete [[breakwater]] was constructed on the south side of the stream as a protection against south-easterly gales. On Girdleness, the southern point of the bay, a [[lighthouse]] was built in 1833. Thirty-two people were drowned in the harbour on [[5 April]] [[1876]], in the [[River Dee Ferry Boat Disaster]]. Aberdeen Harbour was the first publicly limited company in the United Kingdom. A harbour in [[Hong Kong]] has been named [[Aberdeen Harbour]], supposedly by ex-patriots from the Scottish city.
==Industry==
Owing to the variety and importance of its chief industries Aberdeen is one of the most prosperous cities in Scotland. Very durable grey granite was [[quarry|quarried]] at Rubislaw quarry for more than 300 years, and blocked and dressed paving "setts", kerb and building stones, and monumental and other ornamental work of granite have long been exported from the district to all parts of the world. Quarrying finally ceased in 1971.
This, though once the predominant industry, was surpassed by the deep-sea fisheries, which derived a great impetus from improved technologies throughout the twentieth century. Lately, however, catches have fallen due to overfishing in previous years, and the use of the harbour by oil support vessels. Aberdeen remains an important fishing port, but the catch landed there is now eclipsed by the more northerly ports of [[Peterhead]] and [[Fraserburgh]]. The [[Fisheries Research Service]] is based in Aberdeen, including its headquarters and a marine research lab.
Most of the leading pre-1970s industries date from the [[18th century]], amongst them [[wool]]lens (1703), [[linen]] (1749), and [[cotton]] (1779). These gave employment to several thousands of operatives. The [[paper]]-making industry is one of the most famous and oldest in the city, paper having been first made in Aberdeen in 1694. [[Flax]]-[[spinning]] and [[jute]] and [[comb]]making factories also flourished, along with successful [[foundry|foundries]] and engineering works.
In the days of wooden ships [[ship-building]] was a flourishing industry, the town being noted for its fast [[clipper]]s, many of which established records in the "[[tea]] races". The introduction of trawling revived this to some extent, and despite the distance of the city from the [[iron]] fields there was a fair yearly output of iron vessels. The last major shipbuilder in Aberdeen, Hall Russells, closed in the late 1980's.
With the discovery of significant oil deposits in the North Sea during the late [[twentieth century]], Aberdeen became the centre of [[Europe]]'s [[petroleum]] industry, with the port serving [[oil rig]]s off-shore. The number of jobs created by the energy industry in and around Aberdeen has been estimated at |
t Smallbrook Junction.
==History of the Isle of Wight==
''Main article: [[History of the Isle of Wight]].''
Much of the land now making up the Isle of Wight was deposited during the late [[Cretaceous]], at times part of a large river [[valley]] complex which consisted of much of the current southern coast of [[England]]. The swamps and ponds of the region at that time made the island excellent for the preservation of fossils, and means that it is now one of the richest locations for finding [[dinosaur]]s in [[Europe]] (for more information see the [[dinosaurs of the Isle of Wight]] article).
The Isle of Wight became an island sometime after the end of the last [[Ice Age]] when [[post-glacial rebound]] caused the land level to sink, the [[Solent]] flooding and separating the island from the mainland. The island was part of [[Celt]]ic Britain and known to the Romans as ''Vectis'', captured by [[Vespasian]] in the [[Roman invasion of Britain|Roman invasion]]. After the Roman era the Isle of Wight was settled by the [[Jutes]], a [[Germanic tribe]], in the early stages of the [[Anglo-Saxon]] invasions. The latter's corruption of ''Vectis'' into ''Wiht'' (the [[Latin]] ''v'' was pronounced [w]) is the root of the island's name.
[[Image:Charles I memorial.jpg|left|thumb|150px|Memorial to [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] at [[Carisbrooke Castle]]]]
The [[Norman Conquest]] created the position of [[Lord of the Isle of Wight]]. [[Carisbrooke Priory]] and the fort of [[Carisbrooke Castle]] were founded. The island did not come under full control of the crown until it was sold by the dying last Norman Lord, Lady Isabella de Fortebus, to [[Edward I of England|Edward I]] in [[1293]]. The Lordship thereafter became a Royal appointment with a brief interruption when [[Henry de Beauchamp, 1st Duke of Warwick]] was crowned King of the Isle of Wight, [[Henry VI of England|King Henry VI]] assisting in person at the ceremony, placing the crown on his head. He died in [[1445]], aged 22. With no male heir, his regal title expired with him.
[[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], who developed the [[Royal Navy]] and its permanent base at [[Portsmouth]], fortified the island at Yarmouth, East & West Cowes and Sandown, sometimes re-using stone from dissolved monasteries as building material. Sir Richard Worsley, Captain of the Island at this time, successfully commanded the resistance to the last of the French attacks in [[1545]]. Much later on after the [[Spanish Armada]] in [[1588]] the threat of Spanish attacks remained, and the outer fortifications of Carisbrooke Castle were built between [[1597]] and [[1602]]. During the [[English Civil War]] [[Charles I of England|King Charles]] fled to the Isle of Wight believing he would receive sympathy from the governor Robert Hammond. Hammond was appalled, and incarcerated the king in Carisbrooke Castle.
[[Image:Osborne-house1.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Osborne House]] and its magnificent grounds are now open to the public]]
[[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] made [[Osborne House]] on the Isle of Wight her summer home for many years, and as a result it become a major holiday resort for members of European royalty, whose many houses could later claim descent from her through the widely flung marriages of her offspring. During her reign in [[1897]] the World's first [[radio]] station was set up by [[Guglielmo Marconi|Marconi]] at the Needles battery at the western tip of the Island.
In [[1904]] a mysterious illness began to kill [[honeybee]] colonies on the island, and had nearly wiped out all hives by [[1907]] when the [[disease]] jumped to the mainland, and decimated [[beekeeping]] in the [[British Isles]]. Called the Isle of Wight Disease, the cause of the mystery ailment was not identified until [[1921]] when it was traced to the [[mite]] ''[[Acarapis woodi]]''. The disease (now called [[Acarine Disease]]) frightened many other nations because of the importance of bees in [[pollination]] of many food plants. Laws against importation of honeybees were passed, but this merely delayed the eventual spread of the parasite to the rest of the world.
The [[Isle of Wight Festival]] could describe several events, but usually the term refers to one very large [[Isle of Wight Festival|rock festival]] that took place near [[Afton Down]], West Wight in [[1970]], following two smaller concerts in [[1968]] and [[1969]]. The [[1970]] show was notable for being the last public performance by [[Jimi Hendrix]] before his death and the number of attendees reaching, by many estimates 600,000[http://movies.msn.com/movies/movie.aspx?m=32552] despite only 50,000 tickets being sold and overtaking the attendance at [[Woodstock]] in the previous year. The festival was revived in [[2002]] and is now an annual event - with other, smaller musical events of many different genres across the Island becoming associated with it.
==Politics==
''Main article: [[Politics of the Isle of Wight]]''
The Isle of Wight is a [[Ceremonial counties of England|Ceremonial]] and [[Metropolitan and non-metropolitan county|Administrative]] county and as it has no district councils (only the county council) it is effectively a [[Unitary authority|Unitary]] county, though not officially. It is unique in England in this way - all other Unitary areas are single districts with no county council, while the Isle of Wight is the other way round. It also has a single [[Member of Parliament]], and is by far the most populous [[constituency]] in the UK (more than 50% above the average of English constituencies).
[[Image:iwclogo1.gif|thumb|100px|right|[[Isle of Wight Council]] logo]]
As a constituency of the [[House of Commons]] it is traditionally a battleground between the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservatives]] and the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]]. The current MP, [[Andrew Turner]] is a Conservative, and his predecessor Dr [[Peter Brand]] was a Liberal Democrat.
The [[Isle of Wight Council]] election of [[2005]] was a landslide victory for the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] party, displacing the long serving "Island First" group; a coalition of [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]] and independents.
==Language and dialect==
The distinctive Isle of Wight accent is a somewhat stronger version of the traditional Hampshire [[dialect]], featuring the dropping of some [[consonant]]s and an emphasis on longer [[vowel]]s. This is similar to the [[West Country]] drawl heard in south-western England, but less removed in sound from the [[Estuary English]] of the South East. The spread of the latter in general, together with continuing immigration, means the broader accent is more prevalent in the older population.
The island also has its own lexical style. Some words like ''grockel'' (visitor) and ''nipper/nips'' (addressing a younger person) are commonly used and are shared with neighbouring regions. Others are unique, for example ''overner'' (a mainlander who has settled on the island), Other words are more obscure, being little used outside some of the families long resident on the island, such as ''mallishag'' (meaning [[caterpillar]]) and ''nammit'' (meaning food).
==Industry and agriculture==
The largest industry on the Isle of Wight is tourism, but the Island has a strong agricultural heritage, including sheep, dairy farming and arable crops. Traditional agricultural commodities are more difficult to market off the Island because of transport costs, but Island farmers have managed to successfully exploit some specialist markets. The high price of these products overcomes the transport costs. One of the most successful agricultural sectors at present is crops grown undercover, particularly salad crops including tomatoes and cucumbers. The Isle of Wight has a longer growing season than much of [[Britain]], and this also favours such crops. [[Garlic]] has been successfully grown in [[Newchurch, Isle of Wight|Newchurch]] for many years, and is even exported to [[France]]. This has led to the establishment of an annual [[Garlic Festival]] at Newchurch, which is one of the largest events of the Island's annual calendar. The favourable climate has led to the success of [[vineyard]]s, including one of the oldest in the British Isles, at Adgestone near [[Sandown]] [http://www.english-wine.co.uk/]. [[Lavender]] is also grown for its oil [http://www.lavender.co.uk/].
The making of sailcloth, boats and other connected maritime industry has long been associated with the island, although somewhat diminished in recent years. Although they have reduced the extent of the plants and workforce, including the sale of the main site, [[GKN plc|GKN]] operate what was once the [[British Hovercraft Corporation]] a subsidiary of, and latterly when manufacturing focus changed known as, [[Westland Aircraft]]. Prior to its purchase by Westland, it was the independent [[Saunders-Roe]]. It remains one of the most notable historical firms; having produced many of the [[flying boats]], and the world's first [[hovercraft]]. The island's major manufacturing activity today is in composite materials including a large manufacturer of wind turbine blades, Vesta's.
Bembridge airfield on the island is the home of [[Britten-Norman]], manufacturers of the world famous [[Britten-Norman Islander | Islander]] and [[Britten-Norman Trislander|Trislander]] aircraft. This is shortly to become the site of the European assembly line for [[Cirrus Design | Cirrus]] light aircraft.
A major contribution to the local economy comes from the world-famous international [[sailing]] [[regatta]], [[Cowes Week]], which is held every August and attracts over a hundred thousand visitors to the island. Other major sailing events are held at Cowes, including the [[Admiral's Cup]] held biennially in July and the [[Commodores' Cup]] in August.
In [[2005]], [[Northern Petroleum]] began exploratory drilling for [[petroleum|oil |
Transport Commission]]. Although BR was a single entity, it was divided into six (later five) regional authorities in accordance with the existing areas of operation. Though there were no initial changes to the service, usage increased and the network became profitable. Regeneration of track and stations was completed by 1954. In the same year, changes to the British Transport Commission, including the privatisation of road haulage, ended the coordination of transport in the UK. Rail revenue fell and in 1955 the network again ceased to be profitable. The mid-[[1950s]] saw the rapid introduction of diesel and electric rolling stock, however the expected transfer back from road to rail did not occur and losses began to mount.
The desire for profitability led to a major reduction in the network during the mid-[[1960s]] after the [[Stedeford Committee]], chaired by Dr [[Richard Beeching]], reviewed the railway network (also known as the "[[Beeching axe]]"). Many branch lines, particularly in rural areas, were closed because they were deemed inefficient. The closure of stations serving rural communities removed much feeder traffic from the main line passenger services. The closure of many freight depots that had been used by larger industries such as [[coal]] and [[iron]] led to almost all freight transferring to road haulage. This neutralised any savings made by the closures, and the network began to decline again. The closures were extremely unpopular with the general public at that time, and remain so today.
Although passenger services experienced a brief renaissance with the introduction of high-speed inter-city trains in the [[1970s]], the decline of the rail network continued. Passenger levels have fluctuated since this time, increasing during periods of economic growth and falling during recessions. The [[1980s]] saw severe cuts in government funding and above-[[inflation]] increases in fares. The service became more cost-effective but increasingly unreliable. In the early [[1990s]] the five geographical Regions were replaced by a Sector organisation, where passenger services were organised into Inter City, Network SouthEast, Other Provincial Services sectors, etc. This new organisation showed promise of being a more efficient organisation of the railways, but within a couple of years of its implementation the structure was fragmented by the [[privatisation]] process.
[[Privatisation of British Rail|Railway operations were privatised]] during [[1994]]-[[1997]]. Ownership of the track and infrastructure passed to a company called [[Railtrack]], whilst passenger operations were franchised to individual private sector operators (originally there were 25 franchises) and the freight services sold outright (6 companies were set up, but 5 of these were sold to the same buyer). The government claimed that privatisation would see an improvement in passenger services: this outcome has not yet been realised, although passenger levels initially increased to the level they had been at in the late-1980s. A series of major rail accidents after privatisation &mdash; at [[Ladbroke Grove rail crash|Ladbroke Grove]], [[Hatfield rail crash|Hatfield]], [[Potters Bar rail crash|Potters Bar]], and [[Great Heck rail crash|Selby]] &mdash; caused widespread loss of confidence in the safety of rail travel.
After the Hatfield crash, speed limits were drastically reduced throughout Britain and train travel was seriously disrupted for months. Railtrack came close to [[bankruptcy]] due to the enormous cost of additional safety measures and was effectively re-nationalised, when ownership of the railway system was transferred to the newly-created "not for profit" company limited by guarantee, [[Network Rail]] on [[October 3]], [[2002]]. Most of the private rail companies are heavily subsidised but much of the investment has not gone into regeneration or modernisation. However, the government has resisted public pressure to return the network to the [[public sector]].
==Geography & infrastructure==
Great Britain is an island roughly triangular with an acute apex. The capital, [[London]], is in the south-east. Main railway lines radiate from London in many directions; the major lines are discussed elsewhere (''see linkbox, below'').
At the end of September 2003 the first part of the [[Channel Tunnel Rail Link]], a high speed link to the [[Channel Tunnel]] and on to [[France]] and [[Belgium]], was completed, significantly adding to the rail infrastructure of the country. The rest of the link, from north Kent to [[St Pancras railway station]] in London, is planned to open in 2007. A major programme of remedial work on the [[West Coast Main Line]] is ongoing.
{{Seealso|List of railway lines in Great Britain}}
==Passenger services==
Passenger train services in the UK are, in the main, structured on the basis of regional franchises awarded by the [[Department for Transport]] (DfT) to [[List of UK Train Operating Companies|Train Operating Companies]]. There were initially 25 such franchises from April 2004, but the number of different operating companies is smaller as some firms including FirstGroup, National Express and Stagecoach have more than one franchise. In addition some franchises have since been combined. There are a number of local or specialised rail services franchised by local government or operated on an 'open access' basis outside the franchise arrangements. Examples include the [[Heathrow Express]] and [[Hull Trains]].
In the 2002&ndash;3 operating year, franchised services provided 976 million journeys totalling 39.7 billion passenger kilometres of travel, which was an increase over 1986&ndash;7 of 32% in journeys (from 738 million) and 29% in passenger kilometres (from 30.8 billion). On the other hand, taking a longer term view the number of journeys in 2002&ndash;3 was lower than for the 1950&ndash;60 period; the passenger kilometres figure, after being a flat from 1965&ndash;1995, surpassed the 1947 figure for the first time in 1998, and continues to rise steeply.
The key index used to assess passenger train performance is the ''Public Performance Measure'' which combines figures for punctuality and reliability. Performance against this metric has been expecially poor since mid-2000. From a base of 90% of trains arriving on time in 1998, the measure dipped to 75% in mid 2001, and by the end of the 2002&ndash;3 period, had only recovered to 80%.
The real increase in rail fares after accounting for [[inflation]] over the 1995&ndash;2004 period was 4.7%.
Average rolling stock age &mdash; thought to be an indicator of passenger comfort &mdash; fell slightly from the third quarter of 2001&ndash;2 to the third quarter of 2003&ndash;4, from 20.7 years old, to 19.3 years old.
See [[List of UK Train Operating Companies]]
==Freight services==
There are four main freight operating companies, the largest of which is [[English, Welsh and Scottish Railway]] (EWS). There are also several smaller independent operators including [[Mendip Rail]]. Types of freight carried include ''[[intermodal freight transport|intermodal]]'' &mdash; in essence containerised freight &mdash; and coal, metals, oil, and construction material. Freight services have been in steady decline since the [[1950s]], although the [[Department for Transport]]'s ''Transport Ten Year Plan'' calls for an 80% increase in rail freight measured from a 2000&ndash;1 base.
Statistics on freight are specified in terms of the weight of freight lifted, and the ''net tonne kilometre''. being freight weight multiplied by distance carried. 87 million tonnes of freight was lifted in the 2002&ndash;3 period, against 138 million tonnes in 1986&ndash;7, a decrease of 37%. 18.7 billion net rail kilometres of freight movement were recorded in 2002&ndash;3, against 16.6 billion in 1986&ndash;7, an increase of 13%.
A symbolic loss to the UK rail freight industry was the custom of the [[Royal Mail]], which from 2004 is discontinuing use of its 49-train fleet, and switching to road haulage after a near 170 year preference for trains. Red liveried [[mail train]]s have long been part of the tradition of the UK railways, not least because of the film ''[[Night Mail]]'', for which [[W. H. Auden]] wrote the poem of the same name.
{{Britishfreightoperators}}
==Leasing services==
<div style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-style:italic;">[[Image:Class 47 railway locomotive - Fragonset Black livery - Victoria Water railway station - 280404.jpg|thumbnail|none|Class 47 railway locomotive, hired from Fragonset Railways, Virginia Water railway station, April 2004 ]]</div>
A proportion of the rolling stock of [[British Rail]] was sold off to companies that lease or hire stock to passenger and freight operators, as well as to [[National Rail]] and railway maintenance companies. Leasing is relatively commonplace in public transportation, since it enables operating companies to avoid the complication associated with raising sufficient capital to purchase assets; instead, assets are leased and paid for from ongoing revenue.
There are three major leasing companies, and a number of smaller operations:
===Leasing Companies===
* '''[[Angel Trains]]''', owned by the [[Royal Bank of Scotland]], and which claims to be the biggest rolling stock company in Britain, with some 5,000 assets. [http://www.angeltrains.co.uk/ website]
* '''[[HSBC Rail]]''' a lessor of domestic passenger rolling stock, owned by [[HSBC]].
* '''[[Porterbrook]]''', owned by the [[Abbey National]] Group, which leases some 3,500 locomotives, trains and freight wagons. [http://www.porterbrook.co.uk/english/frame.html website]
===Spot-Hire Companies===
*'''[[Cotswold Rail]]''', a spot-hire company with a stock of [[British Rail Class 08|Class 08]] shunting locomotives, and [[British Rail Class 47|C |
same event</comment>
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'''[[August 31]]''' is the 243rd day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (244th in leap years), with 122 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1056]] - [[List of Byzantine Emperors|Byzantine Empress]] [[Theodora (11th century)|Theodora]] dies suddenly without children to succeed the [[throne]], ending the [[Macedonian dynasty]]
*[[1864]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[United States|Union]] forces led by General [[William T. Sherman]] launch an assault on [[Atlanta, Georgia]].
*[[1876]] - [[Ottoman sultan]] [[Murat V]] is deposed and succeeded by his brother [[Abd-ul-Hamid II]].
*[[1886]] - [[Charleston earthquake | Earthquake]] kills 100 in [[Charleston, South Carolina]]
*[[1888]] - Mary Ann Nicholls is murdered. She is perhaps the first of [[Jack the Ripper]]'s victims
*[[1895]] - John Brallier is paid [[US$]]10 plus expenses to play football for the [[Latrobe, Pennsylvania]] YMCA, making him the first professional [[American football|football]] player.
*[[1897]] - [[Thomas Edison]] patents the [[Kinetoscope]], the first movie projector.
*[[1907]] - [[England]], [[Russia]] and [[France]] form the [[Triple Entente]] [[military alliance|alliance]].
*[[1914]] - [[Ecuador]] becomes a signatory to the [[Buenos Aires Convention|Buenos Aires]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]].
*[[1915]] - [[Brazil]] becomes a signatory to the [[Buenos Aires Convention|Buenos Aires]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]].
*[[1920]] - [[Polish-Bolshevik War]]: A decisive Polish victory in the [[Battle of Komarów]].
*1920 - First [[news radio]] program broadcast in [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]], [[Michigan]].
*[[1939]] - [[Nazi Germany]] mounts a staged [[Gleiwitz incident|attack on Gleiwitz radio station]], giving them an excuse to attack [[Poland]] the following day, starting [[European Theatre of World War II|World War II in Europe]].
*[[1943]] - The [[USS Harmon (DE-678)|USS ''Harmon'']], the first [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] ship to be named for a black person, is commissioned.
*[[1945]] - The [[Liberal Party of Australia]] is founded by [[Robert Menzies]].
*[[1957]] - The [[Federation of Malaya]] gains its independence from the [[United Kingdom]].
*[[1962]] - [[Trinidad and Tobago]] become independent.
*[[1965]] - The [[Aero Spacelines Super Guppy]] [[Aircraft]] makes its first flight.
*[[1978]] - [[William Harris (terrorist)|William]] and [[Emily Harris]], founders of the [[Symbionese Liberation Army]], plead guilty to the [[1974]] kidnapping of newspaper heiress [[Patricia Hearst]].
*[[1980]] - The [[Solidarity]] [[trade union]] is formed in Poland.
*[[1985]] - [[Richard Ramirez]], the "Night Stalker" [[serial killer]], is arrested in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], [[California]].
*[[1986]] - An [[Aeroméxico]] [[Douglas DC-9]] collides with a [[Piper Cherokee|Piper PA-28]] over [[Cerritos, California|Cerritos]], [[California]], killing 67 in the air and 15 on the ground.
*1986 - The [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] passenger liner ''[[Admiral Nakhimov (ship)|Admiral Nakhimov]]'' sinks in the Black Sea after colliding with the bulk carrier ''Pyotr Vasev'', killing 398.
*[[1989]] - [[Buckingham Palace]] officials confirm that [[Anne, Princess Royal|Princess Anne]] and [[Captain]] [[Mark Phillips]] are separating.
*[[1991]] - [[Kyrgyzstan]] declares its independence from the [[Soviet Union]].
*[[1992]] - [[Pascal Lissouba]] is inaugurated as the [[Republic of the Congo|President]] of the [[Republic of the Congo]] after a [[Republic of the Congo presidential election, 1992|multiparty presidential election]], ending a long history of one-party oppressive rule under the [[Congolese Workers Party]].
*[[1994]] - The [[Provisional Irish Republican Army]] declares a [[ceasefire]].
*[[1997]] - [[Diana, Princess of Wales|Diana]], [[Prince of Wales|Princess of Wales]], dies in a [[Car accident|car crash]] in [[Paris]].
*[[1998]] - [[North Korea]] reportedly launchs ''[[Kwangmyongsong]]'', its first [[artificial satellite|satellite]].
*[[1999]] - The first of a series of [[Russian Apartment Bombings]] in [[Moscow]], killing one person and wounding 40 others.
*[[2004]] - [[Mel Gibson]]'s film ''[[The Passion of the Christ]]'' is released on [[DVD]] and [[VHS]] in stores across the [[United States]], selling approximately 4.1 million copies by the end of the day.
*[[2005]] - A [[Baghdad bridge stampede|stampede]] on [[Al-Aaimmah bridge]] in [[Baghdad]] kills 1,199 people.
==Births==
*[[12]] - Gaius [[Caligula]], [[Roman Emperor]] (d. [[41]])
*[[161]] - [[Commodus]], [[Roman Emperor]] (d. [[192]])
*[[1569]] - [[Jahangir]], Mughal Emperor of India (d. [[1627]])
*[[1663]] - [[Guillaume Amontons]], French physicist and instrument maker (d. [[1705]])
*[[1721]] - [[George Hervey, 2nd Earl of Bristol]], British statesman (d. [[1775]])
*[[1811]] - [[Theophile Gautier]], French poet and novelist (d. [[1872]])
*[[1821]] - [[Hermann von Helmholtz]], German physician (d. [[1894]])
*[[1834]] - [[Amilcare Ponchielli]], Italian composer (d. [[1886]])
*[[1870]] - [[Maria Montessori]], Italian educator (d. [[1952]])
*[[1878]] - [[Frank Jarvis]], American athlete (d. [[1933]])
*[[1879]] - [[Alma Mahler]], wife of [[Gustav Mahler]], [[Walter Gropius]], and [[Franz Werfel]] (d. [[1964]])
*[[1880]] - Queen [[Wilhelmina I of the Netherlands]] (d. [[1962]])
*[[1885]] - [[DuBose Heyward]], American playwright (d. [[1940]])
*[[1897]] - [[Fredric March]], American actor (d. [[1975]])
*[[1903]] - [[Arthur Godfrey]], American television host (d. [[1983]])
*[[1907]] - [[Ramon Magsaysay]], [[President of the Philippines]] (d. [[1957]])
*1907 - [[William Shawn]], American editor (d. [[1992]])
*[[1908]] - [[William Saroyan]], American novelist and playwright (d. [[1981]])
*[[1913]] - Sir [[Bernard Lovell]], British radio astronomer
*[[1914]] - [[Richard Basehart]], American actor (d. [[1984]])
*[[1916]] - [[Daniel Schorr]], American journalist
*[[1918]] - [[Alan Jay Lerner]], American composer (d. [[1986]])
*[[1924]] - [[Buddy Hackett]], American actor and comedian (d. [[2003]])
*[[1928]] - [[James Coburn]], American actor (d. [[2002]])
*[[1931]] - [[Noble Willingham]], American actor (d. [[2004]])
*[[1935]] - [[Frank Robinson]], baseball player and manager
*1935 - [[Eldridge Cleaver]], American political activist (d. [[1998]])
*[[1938]] - [[Martin Bell]], British journalist and politician
*[[1945]] - [[Van Morrison]], Irish musician
*1945 - [[Itzhak Perlman]], Israeli violinist
*[[1948]] - [[Lowell Ganz]], American screenwriter
*1948 - [[Rudolf Schenker]], German guitarist ([[Scorpions (band)|Scorpions]])
*[[1949]] - [[Richard Gere]], American actor
*1949 - [[H. David Politzer]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1953]] - [[György Károly]], Hungarian author
*[[1956]] - [[Masashi Tashiro]], Japanese television performer
*[[1958]] - [[Edwin Moses]], American athlete
*[[1961]] - [[Anri]], [[J-pop|Japanese Singer]]
*[[1968]] - [[Todd Carty]], British actor
*[[1970]] - [[Deborah Gibson]], American singer
*1970 - [[Queen Rania]], Queen of Jordan and wife of King Abdullah II
*[[1972]] - [[Chris Tucker]], American actor
*[[1977]] - [[Jeff Hardy]], American professional wrestler
*1977 - [[Craig Nicholls]], Australian singer, songwriter, and guitarist ([[The Vines]])
*[[1982]] - [[José Manuel Reina Páez|Jose Reina]], Spanish footballer
==Deaths==
*[[651]] - [[Saint Aidan of Lindisfarne]], Irish bishop and missionary
*[[1056]] - [[Theodora (11th century)|Theodora]], Byzantine Empress (b. [[981]])
*[[1234]] - [[Emperor Go-Horikawa]] of Japan (b. [[1212]])
*[[1372]] - [[Ralph Stafford, 1st Earl of Stafford]], English soldier (b. [[1301]])
*[[1422]] - King [[Henry V of England]] (b. [[1387]])
*[[1645]] - [[Francesco Bracciolini]], Italian poet (b. [[1566]])
*[[1654]] - [[Ole Worm]], Danish physician (b. [[1588]])
*[[1688]] - [[John Bunyan]], English writer (b. [[1628]])
*[[1741]] - [[Johann Gottlieb Heineccius]], German jurist (b. [[1681]])
*[[1772]] - [[William Borlase]], English naturalist (b. [[1695]])
*[[1782]] - [[George Croghan]], American colonist
*[[1795]] - [[François-André Danican Philidor]], French chess player (b. [[1726]])
*[[1799]] - [[Nicolas-Henri Jardin]], French architect (b. [[1720]])
*[[1814]] - [[Arthur Phillip]], British admiral, first Governor of New South Wales (b. [[1738]])
*[[1867]] - [[Charles Baudelaire]], French poet (b. [[1821]])
*[[1920]] - [[Wilhelm Wundt]], German psychologist (b. [[1832]])
*[[1941]] - [[Marina Tsvetaeva]], Russian poet (b. [[1892]])
*[[1963]] - [[Georges Braque]], French painter (b. [[1882]])
*[[1967]] - [[Ilya Ehrenburg]], Russian writer (b. [[1891]])
*[[1969]] - [[Rocky Marciano]], American boxer (b. [[1923]])
*[[1973]] - [[John Ford]], American film director (b. [[1894]])
*[[1978]] - [[John Wrathall]], [[President of Rhodesia]] (b. [[1913]])
*[[1979]] - [[Sally Rand]], American dancer and actress (b. [[1904]])
*[[1985]] - [[Frank Macfarlane Burnet]], Australian biologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1899]])
*[[1986]] - [[Henry Moore]], English sculptor (b. [[1898]])
*1986 - [[Urho Kekkonen]], [[President of Finland]] (b. [[1900]])
*[[1997]] - [[Diana, Princess of Wales]] (vehicular collision) (b. [[1961]])
**[[Dodi Fayed]], Egyptian-born film producer (vehicular collision) (b. [[1955]])
*[[2002]] - [[Lionel Hampton]], American vibraphone player (b. [[1908]])
*2002 - [[George Porter]], English chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1920]])
*[[2004]] - [[Carl Wayne]], English singer (b. [[1943]])
*[[2005]] - [[Józef Rotblat]], Polish physicist, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1908]])
*2005 - [[Michael Sheard]], British actor (b. [[1940]])
==Holidays and observances==
* [[Calendar of Saints]] - Saint [[Aidan of Lindisfarne]], [[San Abbondio]], Saint [[Raymond Nonnatus]]
* [[Moldova]]: D |
''Anglesey, Mother of Wales'' (Welsh: ''Môn, Mam Cymru''). This gave it substantial strategic importance during the struggles between the English kings and the Welsh princes.
[[Image:Brittania Bridge Train crossing 3.JPG|left|thumb|200px|Britannia Bridge from the east along the [[Menai Strait]] ]]
Anglesey has many small towns scattered all around the island, making it quite evenly populated. [[Beaumaris, Wales|Beaumaris]] (Welsh: ''Biwmares''), to the south of the island, features [[Beaumaris Castle]], built by [[Edward I of England|Edward I]] as part of his campaign in North Wales. The town of [[Newborough, Anglesey|Newborough]] (Welsh: ''Niwbwrch''), created when the townfolk of Llanfaes were relocated to make way for the building of Beaumaris Castle, includes the site of [[Llys Rhosyr]], another of the courts of the mediaeval Welsh princes and which features one of the oldest courtrooms in the United Kingdom. Beaumaris acts as a [[yachting]] centre for the region with many boats mored in the bay or off Gallows point. [[Llangefni]] is located in the centre of the island and is also the island's administrative centre. The town of [[Menai Bridge]] (Welsh: ''Porthaethwy'') expanded when the first bridge to the mainland was being built, in order to accommodate workers and construction. Up until that time Porthaethwy had been one of the principal ferry crossing points from the mainland. A short distance from this town lies [[Bryn Celli Ddu]], a [[Stone Age]] burial mound. The town of [[Amlwch]] is situated in the northeast of the island and was once largely industrialised, having grown during the 18th century supporting the [[copper]] mining industry at Parys Mountain.
The island also has the village with the longest official place name in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch]]. Other towns and settlements include [[Cemaes]], [[Benllech]], [[Pentraeth]], [[Gaerwen]], [[Dwyran]], [[Bodedern]] and [[Rhosneigr]]. The [[Anglesey Sea Zoo]] is a local tourist attraction, providing a look at and descriptions of local marine [[wildlife]] from [[European lobster|lobsters]] to [[conger eel]]s. All the [[fish]] and [[crustacean]]s on display are caught around the island and are placed in reconstructions of their natural [[habitat (ecology)|habitat]]. They also make [[salt]] (evaporated from the local sea water) and commercially breed lobsters, for food, and [[oyster]]s, for pearls, both from local stocks.
The island's entire rural coastline had been designated an [[Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty]] and features many sandy beaches, especially along its eastern coast between the towns of Beaumaris and Amlwch and along the western coast from [[Ynys Llanddwyn]] through [[Rhosneiger]] to the little bays around Carmel Head. Tourism is now the most significant economic activity on the island. Agriculture provides the secondary source of income for the island's economy, with the local dairies being amongst the most productive in the region. There is also a nuclear power station, at [[Wylfa]] Head on the north coast.
Major industries are restricted to Holyhead which supports an [[aluminium]] smelter and the [[Amlwch]] area where the [[Wylfa]] nuclear power station is located close to a [[bromine]] extraction plant. There are a wide range of smaller industries, mostly located in industrial and business parks especially at [[Llangefni]] and [[Gaerwen]]. These industries include an [[Slaughterhouse|abbatoir]] and fine chemicals manufacture as well as factories for timber production, aluminium smelting, fish farming , and food processing.
The island is also on one of the major routes from the mainland of Great Britain to [[Ireland]], via [[ferry|ferries]] from [[Holyhead]], off the west of Anglesey on [[Holy Island, Anglesey|Holy Island]], to [[Dún Laoghaire]] and [[Dublin]] Port.
There are a few lakes mostly in the west, such as Cors cerrig y daran, but rivers are few and small. There are two large water supply reservoirs operated by Dwr Cymru . These are [[Llyn Cefni]] in the centre of the island, which is fed by the headwaters of the [[River Cefni|Afon Cefni]], and [[Llyn Alaw]] to the north of the island. [[Llyn Llywenan]] is the largest natural lake on the island.
The climate is humid but generally equable due the effects of the [[gulf stream]] bathing the island. The land is of variable quality and it may have been more fertile in the past.
''See the [[list of places in Anglesey]] for all villages, towns and cities''.
==Ecology and Conservation==
Much of Anglesey is covered with relatively intensive cattle and sheep farming aided by modern agro-chemicals. In these areas there is little of ecological conservation worth. However there are a number of important wet-land sites which have protected status. In addition the several lakes all have significant ecological interest including their support for a wide range of aquatic and semi-aquatic bird species. In the west, the [[Malltraeth]] marshes are believed to be supporting an occasional visiting [[Bittern]] and the nearby estuary of the [[River Cefni|Afon Cefni]] supports a bird population made internationally famous by the paintings of [[Charles Tunnicliffe]].
The sheer cliff faces at South Stack near Holyhead provide nesting sites for huge numbers of [[Auk|auks]] including [[Puffin]]s, [[Razorbill]]s and [[Guillemot]]s together with [[Chough]]s and [[peregrine_falcon|Peregrine falcons]].
Three sites on Anglesey are important for breeding terns - see [[Anglesey tern colonies]].
Almost the entire coastline of Anglesey is designated an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty [http://www.sos.bangor.ac.uk/aerial/index.htm]
==Culture==
Anglesey hosted the [[National Eisteddfod]] in [[1999]].
==Geology==
The geology of Anglesey is notably complex and is frequently used for geology [[field trip]]s by schools and colleges. Younger strata in Anglesey rest upon a foundation of very old [[pre-Cambrian]] rocks that appear at the surface in four areas:
#a western region including Holyhead and [[Llanfaethlu]],
#a central area about [[Aberffraw]] and [[Trefdraeth]],
#an eastern region which includes [[Newborough, Anglesey|Newborough]], [[Caerwen]] and [[Pentraeth]] and
#a coastal region at [[Glyn Garth]] between [[Menai Bridge]] and [[Beaumaris]].
These [[pre-Cambrian]] rocks are [[schist|schists]] and [[slate|slates]], often much contorted and disturbed. The general line of strike of the formations in the island is from north-east to south-west. A belt of [[granitic|granitic rocks]] lies immediately north-west of the central pre-Cambrian mass, reaching from [[Llanfaelog]] near the coast to the vicinity of [[Llanerchymedd]]. Between this granite and the pre-Cambrian of Holyhead is a narrow tract of [[Ordovician]] slates and grits with Llandovery beds in places; this tract spreads out in the north of the island between [[Dulas Bay]] and Carmel Point. A small patch of Ordovician strata lies on the northern side of Beaumaris. In parts, these Ordovician rocks are much folded, crushed and metamorphosed, and they are associated with schists and altered volcanic rocks which are probably pre-Cambrian. Between the eastern and central pre-Cambrian masses [[carboniferous]] rocks are found. The carboniferous [[limestone]] occupies a broad area south of [[Lligwy Bay]] and [[Pentraeth]], and sends a narrow spur in a south-westerly direction by [[Llangefni]] to [[Malltraeth|Malltraeth sands]]. The limestone is underlain on the north-west by a red basement conglomerate and yellow [[sandstone]] (sometimes considered to be of Old Red Sandstone age). Limestone occurs again on the north coast about [[Llanfihangel]] and [[Llangoed]]; and in the south-west round Llanidan on the border of the [[Menai Strait]]. [[Puffin Island]] is made of carboniferous limestone. [[Malltraeth|Malltraeth marsh]] is occupied by coal measures, and a small patch of the same formation appears near [[Tall-y-foel]] Ferry on the [[Menai Strait]]. A patch of [[granite|granitic]] and [[felsite|felsitic]] rocks form [[Parys Mountain]], where copper and iron ochre have been worked. [[Serpentine]] (Mona Marble) is found near [[Llanfairynneubwll]] and upon the opposite shore in [[Holyhead]]. There are abundant evidences of glaciation, and much boulder clay and drift sand covers the older rocks. Patches of brown sand occur on the south-west coast.
==Politics==
Anglesey (together with Holy Island) is one of the thirteen [[traditional counties of Wales]]. In medieval times, before the conquest of Wales in [[1283]], ''Môn'' often had periods of temporary independence as it was frequently bequeathed to the heirs of kings as a [[sub kingdom]] of [[Kingdom of Gwynedd|Gwynedd]]. The last times this occurred were for a few years after 1171 following the death of [[Owain Gwynedd]] when the island was inherited by [[Rhodri ab Owain Gwynedd]] and again between 1246 - c.1255 when it was given to [[Owain Goch]] as his share of the kingdom. Following the conquest of Wales by [[Edward I of England|Edward I]] it was created a county under the terms of the [[Statute of Rhuddlan]] of 1284. Prior to this it had been divided into the ''[[cantref|cantrefi]]'' of:
* [[Cantref Aberffraw|Aberffraw]]
* [[Cantref Rhosyr|Rhosyr]]
* [[Cantref Cemais|Cemais]]
In 1974 it formed a district of the new large [[Administrative counties of Wales|administrative county]] of [[Gwynedd]], until in the 1996 reform of local government it was restored as an administrative county. The county council is a [[unitary authority]] and is named "Isle of Anglesey County Council / Cyngor Sir Ynys Môn". While there is currently a majority of independent councillors, the council is under no overall control, as the members do not generally divide along party lines. The only party group on the council is that of [[Plaid Cymru]]. There are five non-partisan groups on the council, containing a mix of party a |
o are both infertile to have children with at least some of their DNA in their offspring. Some families have high hopes for reproductive cloning. ''How to Build a Human'', a documentary by [[BBC]] and [[Discovery Channel]], illustrated the prospects by showing an American family that wants to make a clone of their third child, who, although genetically healthy, had serious mental and physical deficiencies due to complications at birth and is expected to die soon. Other people hope to clone their already deceased children. Jonathan Colvin, in an [http://archives.cbc.ca/IDCC-1-75-738-4506/science_technology/cloning/ interview] on the [[CBC]], expressed his desire to clone himself while repairing his genetic defect ([[cystic fibrosis]]), thereby creating a version of himself free of the fatal disease.
==The current law on human cloning==
In 1998, 2001, and 2003 the US [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] voted whether to ban all human cloning, both reproductive and therapeutic. Each time, divisions in the Senate over therapeutic cloning prevented either competing proposal (a ban on both forms or reproductive cloning only) from passing. President [[George W. Bush]] is opposed to human cloning in any form. Some states ban both forms of cloning, while some others outlaw only reproductive cloning.
Current regulations prohibit federal funding for research into human cloning, which effectively prevents such research from occurring in public institutions and private institution such as universities which receive federal funding. However, there are currently no laws in the United States which ban cloning completely, and any such laws would raise difficult [[U.S. Constitution|Constitutional]] questions similar to the issues raised by [[abortion]].
The [[British government]] introduced legislation in order to allow licensed therapeutic but not reproductive cloning in a debate in January [[2001]] after an amendment to the [[Human Embryology Act]]. However on [[November 15]], [[2001]] opposition groups won a High Court legal challenge that effectively blocked cloning of embryos for therapeutic purposes. They discovered a loophole which allows reproductive cloning to be performed also. Anti-abortion groups say that a new debate is necessary because of recent technologies having been developed that might circumvent the need for embryonic cloning. The government overruled this attempt at the beginning of March [[2002]] and currently therapeutic cloning is allowed under license of the [[Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority]]. The first known licence was granted on [[August 11]], [[2004]] to researchers at the [[University of Newcastle]] to allow them to investigate treatments for [[diabetes]], [[Parkinson's disease]] and [[Alzheimer's disease]].
Australia has prohibited human cloning, though a government committee is still reviewing issues related to therapeutic cloning and the creation of human embryos for stem cell research.
Organizations devoted to cloning humans, such as the [[Raelites]]' Las Vegas-based Clonaid, as well as Antinori and Zavos, are very hard to control. Many think these groups would shift their operations to other countries should mainstream legislation impede their operations, as many [[Least developed countries|less-developed nations]] have no such ban on cloning, so human cloning experiments could (theoretically) be easily shifted to more viable areas.
On [[December 12]], [[2001]] the [[United Nations General Assembly]] began elaborating an international convention against the reproductive cloning of human beings. Lawrence Goldstein, professor of cellular and molecular medicine at the University of California at San Diego, claims that the United States, unable to pass a national law, forced [[Costa Rica]] to start this debate in the UN over the international cloning ban. In February 2005 a vaguely worded and non-binding ''United Nations Declaration on Human Cloning'' was finally adopted. [http://www.un.org/law/cloning/]
The European Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine prohibits human cloning in one of its additional protocols, but this protocol has been ratified only by [[Greece]], [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]. The [[Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union]] explicitly prohibits reproductive human cloning, though the Charter currently carries no legal standing. The proposed [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe|European Constitution]] would, if ratified, make the charter legally binding for the institutions of the [[European Union]].
==Human cloning in fiction==
Human cloning has long been a subject of speculation in [[science fiction]]. Science fiction writers have depicted human cloning for many purposes: obtaining comic effects from the presence of duplicate characters; issuing warnings about (supposed) scientific hubris; and presenting alternative social perspectives. Despite this variety, the image of human cloning in science fiction is most often negative. For example, cloning may be introduced into a narrative to highlight social issues of sameness and conformity.
More specifically, science fiction speculation has included:
* the use of cloning for "spare parts" for transplantation, typically with accelerated growth of the cloned parts
* transferring one's mind into a younger clone body, as a way of achieving immortality
* clones somehow having a [[telepathy|telepathic]] affinity for one another
Apart from the first, these ideas are currently pure speculation. However, telepathy has been reported by many indentical twins, for example seemingly unfounded anxiety of one twin, when the other who is far away is in trouble. If there is a genuine basis for these reports, the same could conceivably apply to artificial clones.
[[The 6th Day]] is a 2000 action movie about human cloning.
[[The Island %282005 film%29]] is a 2005 action movie about clones "manufactured" and then slaughtered in order to supply the humans with spare body parts.
'905' off of the album [[Who Are You]] is a 1978 song by [[The Who]] about human cloning.
In the popular new 12 1 hour episode series [[ReGenesis]], a series that deals with [[immunology]], messiahnic cloning, terrorism and ethics, one of the characters is revealed to be an illegal experimental clone, with similarities to Dolly in his stability.
==See also==
*[[Transhumanism#Brave_New_World_argument|''Brave New World'' argument]]
[[Category:Biotechnology]]
{{no references}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of Asia</title>
<id>14097</id>
<revision>
<id>40150848</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T15:05:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jagged 85</username>
<id>468111</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* [[History of East Asia]] */ Added Macau</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|history of Eurasia}}
[[Image:Asia 1892 amer ency brit.jpg|thumb|300px|Map of Asia, 1892]]
The '''history of Asia''' can be seen as the collective history of several distict peripheral coastal regions, [[East Asia]], [[South Asia]], and the [[Middle East]] linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian [[steppe]].
The coastal periphery was the home to some of the world's earliest known civilizations, with each of the three regions developing early civilizations around fertile river valleys. The civilizations in [[Mesopotamia]], the [[Indus Valley]], and [[China]] shared many similarities and likely exchanged technologies and ideas such as mathematics and the wheel. Other notions such as that of writing likely developed individually in each area. Cities, states and then empires developed in these lowlands.
The steppe region had long been inhabited by mounted nomads, and from the central steppes they could reach all areas of the Asian continent. The earliest known such central expansion out of the steppe is that of the [[Indo-European]]s which spread their languages into the Middle East, India, and in the [[Tocharians]] to the borders of China. The northern part of the continent, covering much of [[Siberia]] was also inaccessible to the steppe nomads due to the dense forests and the [[tundra]]. These areas were very sparsely populated.
The centre and periphery were kept separate by mountains and desserts. The [[Caucasus Mountains|Caucasus]], [[Himalayas|Himalaya]], [[Karakum Desert]], and [[Gobi Desert]] formed barriers that the steppe horsemen could only cross with difficulty. While technologically and culturally the city dwellers were more advanced, they could do little militarily to defend against the mounted hordes of the steppe. However, the lowlands did not have enough open grasslands to support a large horsebound force. Thus the nomads who conquered states in China, India, and the Middle East were soon forced to adapt to the local societies.
==History by country==
===[[History of the Middle East]]===
* [[History of Iraq]]
**[[History of Mesopotamia]]
* [[History of Iran]]
**[[History of Persia]]
* [[History of the Levant]]
**[[History of Israel]]
**[[History of Jordan]]
**[[History of Lebanon]]
**[[History of Palestine]]
**[[History of Syria]]
* [[History of Saudi Arabia]]
* [[History of Turkey]]
**[[Anatolia|History of Anatolia]]
===[[History of South Asia]]===
* [[History of India]]
**[[History of the Republic of India]]
**[[History of South India]]
**[[History of Assam]]
* [[History of Pakistan]]
**[[Historical regions of Pakistan]]
**[[Mehrgarh|History of Mehrgarh]]
**[[Indus Valley Civilization|History of the Indus Valley]]
* [[History of Bengal]]
**[[History of Bangladesh]]
***[[East Bengal (province)|History of East Bengal]]
***[[East Pakistan|History of East Pakistan]]
* [[History of Bhutan]]
* [[History of Nepal]]
* [[History of Sri Lanka]]
* [[History of Tibet]]
===[[History of East Asia]]===
* [[History of China]]
**[[History of the People's Republic of China]]
***[[History of H |
y low to the ground (for grazing), and that the very long tail served as a counterbalance for the long neck. Others think the animal could stand on its hind legs.
[[Image:Diplodocus_carnegii_statue.jpg|frame|left|A statue of ''Diplodocus carnegiei'' taken in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]].]]
So far Diplodocus is the longest dinosaur found with a complete skeleton at 27m (90 feet).
[[Category:Jurassic dinosaurs]]
[[Category:Sauropods]]
[[bg:Диплодок]]
[[de:Diplodocus]]
[[es:Diplodocus]]
[[fr:Diplodocus]]
[[gl:Diplodocus]]
[[it:Diplodocus]]
[[he:דיפלודוקוס]]
[[nl:Diplodocus]]
[[pl:Diplodok]]
[[pt:Diplodoco]]
[[sk:Diplodocus]]
[[fi:Diplodocus]]
[[sv:Diplodocus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dinosauria</title>
<id>8291</id>
<revision>
<id>15906300</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dinosaur]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Delphi programming language</title>
<id>8292</id>
<revision>
<id>42054154</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:07:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Craig Stuntz</username>
<id>26101</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Pros and cons */ rv neologism; Google for "prototype polymorphism" produces 7 hits; #1 is this article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Delphi3-4-6.JPG|Right|thumb|350px|Delphi has been released in many versions, including older versions which have been released in magazines for non-profit application use]]</div> '''Delphi''' is a [[programming language]], first introduced in the [[Borland Delphi|Borland Delphi Integrated Development Environment]] (IDE). The Delphi language, formerly known as ''[[Object Pascal]]'', is a derivative of [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]], with [[object-oriented]] extensions. It originally targeted only [[Microsoft Windows]], but now builds native applications for [[Linux]] and the Microsoft [[.NET Framework]] as well. Through the open source [[Free Pascal]] project, the Delphi language can target even more platforms such as [[Mac OS X]] and [[Windows CE]].
On February 8 [[2006]] it was announced [http://www.borland.com/us/company/news/Tod_Nielsen_customer_shareholder_letter_02-08-06.html ] that [[Borland]] would be divesting itself of their IDE product lines, which includes Delphi.
==Programming language and toolkit==
The main distinguishing features of Delphi and [[Kylix programming tool|Kylix]] from other IDEs are the Delphi language, the [[Visual Component Library|VCL]]/[[CLX]] (Visual Component Library), strong emphasis on database connectivity, and a large number of third party components.
*delegation of [[interface (computer science)|interface]] implementation to a field or property of the class
*implementation of message handlers by tagging a method of a class with the integer constant of the message to handle
*[[Component object model|COM]] independent interfaces with [[reference counting|reference counted]] class implementations
*can be compiled into native [[x86]] code or managed [[.NET Framework|.NET]] code
==Pros and cons==
Delphi exhibits the following advantages:
*[[Rapid Application Development]] (RAD)
*based on a well-designed language
*a large community on [[Usenet]] and the [[World Wide Web|web]] (e.g. news://forums.borland.com and [http://info.borland.com/newsgroups/ng_delphi.html Borland's web access to Delphi newsgroups])
*can compile to a single executable, simplifying distribution and reducing dll versioning issues
*many VCL and third-party components (usually available with full [[source code]]) and tools (documentation, debug tools, etc.)
*quick optimizing compiler and ability to use assembler code
*multiple platform native code from the same source code
*high level of source compatibility between versions
* [http://crosskylix.untergrund.net/ CrossKylix] - a third-party toolkit which allows you to compile native Kylix/Linux applications from inside the Windows Delphi IDE, hence easily enabling dual-platform development and deployment
* [http://crossfpc.untergrund.net/ CrossFPC] - a sister project to CrossKylix, which enables you to cross-compile your Windows Delphi applications to multi-platform targets - supported by the [[Free Pascal]] compiler - without ever leaving the Delphi IDE
* class helpers to bridge functionality available natively in the Delphi RTL, but not available in a new platform supported by Delphi
The following are disadvantages:
*the language's [[object orientation]] features only class and interface-based [[Polymorphism_in_object-oriented_programming|polymorphism]]
*partial single vendor lock-in (Borland alone can set the language standard, the compatibles have to follow)
*limited cross-platform capability for Delphi itself. Compatibles provide more architecture/OS combinations
*access to platform and third party libraries require header files to be translated to Pascal
*documentation of platforms and techniques hard to find in Pascal language (e.g., access to COM and WIN32, when compared to VB/MSVC)
Trivia:
* The largest software manufacturer in the world, Microsoft, chose the chief programmer of Delphi, [[Anders Hejlsberg]], to develop [[C Sharp|C#]] (based on two of today's most popular programming languages, [[C++]] and [[Java programming language|Java]]), the principal C++/Java-like language for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows']] [[.NET Framework|.NET]] platform.
==Clones and alternatives==
While not being a direct substitute for the entire product Delphi itself, there are a number of efforts that strive to be more or less language compatible and take Delphi code to places where Delphi and Kylix itself can not reach.
These can get Delphi code running in ways not possible with Delphi (such as supporting different operating systems, free distribution and educational use, and allowing examination of the compiler source) and allow for some vendor independence. These are generally used educationally and to get the server parts of Delphi apps running on non-mainstream operating systems; most had Linux support years before Kylix.
*[http://www.bloodshed.net/devpascal.html Bloodshed Dev-Pascal] A very polished graphical 32-bit Windows editor (though not RAD) as a frontend for both GNU Pascal and Free Pascal.
*[[Free Pascal]] A commandline compiler that aims source compatibility with the core feature set of both the Turbo Pascal and Delphi dialects. The current version is 2.0(.2), which are highly Delphi6/7 compatible. Operates on most [[x86]] operating systems. Supports [[Linux]], [[Mac OS]] and [[Mac OS X]] (including an [[Xcode]] implementation) on [[PowerPC family]], and [[Linux]] on [[AMD64]]. [[SPARC]] and [[ARM architecture|Acorn RISC Machine]] (ARM) architectures are working and formally released but not 100% end-user ready yet.
**[[Lazarus_(software)|Lazarus]] [http://lazarus.freepascal.org] is an effort to build a RAD on top of Free Pascal. The internal classes hierarchy can base itself on several [[Widget_toolkit|graphical toolkits]]. The main toolkits are [[GTK+|GTK1]] and [[Windows API|Win32]], and GTK2 has already come a long way. Occasionally people want [[Qt (toolkit)|Qt]] and [[wxWidgets]], but an apparent lack of interest prevents the implementation of these toolkits.
**[http://crossfpc.untergrund.net/ CrossFPC] - a free toolkit to integrate the [[Free Pascal]] compiler, targeting various OS and hardware platforms, into the Windows Delphi IDE. See more about it from [http://www.codecomments.com/Kylix/message541921.html this mailing list discussion].
*[http://www.gnu-pascal.de GNU Pascal] (Separately distributed part of the [[GNU Compiler Collection]]) While formally not aimed at the Borland dialects of Pascal, it does contain a Borland Pascal compatibility mode, and is very slowly absorbing Delphi language features, though not yet directly suitable for recompiling large bodies of Delphi code. It is the most prolific compiler in terms of operating systems and processors though, and therefore deserves mentioning as a last resort.
*[http://www.carlo-kok.com/ InnerFuse] is a Delphi interpreter for embedding in applications. It is rumoured to work with several of the alternatives too.
*[http://sibyl.netlabs.org OpenSibyl] is another effort to build a RAD on top of Free Pascal. However it is geared towards OS/2, and still in initial stages.
*[http://www.dcs.gla.ac.uk/~wpc/reports/compilers/compilerindex/Doc2.html Vector Pascal] Vector Pascal is a language targeted at SIMD instruction sets such as the MMX and the AMD 3d Now, supporting all Intel and AMD processors, as well as the Sony Playstation 2 Emotion Engine.
*[[Virtual Pascal]] is a x86 32-bit Turbo Pascal and Delphi compatible compiler mainly aimed at OS/2 and Windows, though it developed a DOS+Extender and an experimental Linux cross-compiler too. The compiler is stuck on the level of about Delphi V2, and the site hasn't changed significantly in two years, and development of Virtual Pascal has stopped. Nevertheless, of the free alternatives, it is still the one with the best polished IDE and debugger though Free Pascal is getting nearer and nearer.
*[http://www.dwp42.org/ WDOSX] is a [[Windows API|Win32 API]]-emulating [[DOS extender]] that can be used to get Delphi console applications running on plain DOS.
*[http://www.winsoft.sk/pstudio.htm Winsoft Pocket Studio] aims to compile stripped down Delphi code to PDAs.
==Documentation==
Delphi Developer documentation from Borland:
* [http://info.borland.com/techpubs/delphi/ Delphi Developer's Guide]
* Object Pascal Language Guide
**[http://info.borland.com/techpubs/delphi/delphi5/ Delphi 5 "Object Pascal Language Guide"]&nbsp;&nbsp;([ftp://ftp.borland.com/pub/delphi/techpubs/delphi5/oplg.zip PDF], [ftp://ftp |
*[http://www.egglescliffe.org.uk/physics/particles/parts/parts1.html Feynman Diagrams and Forces Between Particles.] Explains the attractive and repulsive EM interactions in terms of Feynman diagrams.
[[Category:Nuclear physics]]
[[es:Interacción electromagnética]]
[[ja:電磁相互作用]]
[[pl:Oddziaływanie elektromagnetyczne]]
[[sl:Elektromagnetna interakcija]]
[[fi:Sähkömagneettinen vuorovaikutus]]
[[zh:電磁力]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ERP</title>
<id>9712</id>
<revision>
<id>40011473</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T14:01:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pbb</username>
<id>440410</id>
</contributor>
<comment>ERP, not EPR</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''ERP''' is a [[TLA]] (three-letter acronym) that may stand for:
*'''European Recovery Program''', more commonly known as the [[Marshall Plan]]
*'''[[Effective radiated power]]''', a term used in radio communications for calculating the power of a communications system in terms of its gains and losses.
*'''[[People's Revolutionary Army (Argentina)|Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo]]''' in Spanish, or People's Revolutionary Army in English, an Argentine armed insurgent group.
*'''[[Event-related potential]]''', also known as '''Event-related brain potential''', a method used in psychology for analysing brain waves recorded from an [[Electroencephalography|EEG]]. It has been used to prescribe glasses for individuals who could not communicate with a physician.
* '''[[Enterprise resource planning]]''' systems (ERPs) are [[management information systems]] that integrate and automate many of the business practices associated with the operations or production aspects of a company.
*[[Early redemption penalty]]
*[[Early retirement plan]]
*[[Earth rotation parameters]]
*[[Effective refractory period]]
*[[Electronic road pricing]]
*[[Elite Roleplaying]]
*[[Emergency response plan]]
*[[Emergency response program]]
*[[Employee retirement plan]]
*[[Environmental resource permit]]
*[[Environmental resource planning]]
*[[Error recovery procedure]]
*[[Estimated retail price]]
*[[Estonian Reform Party]]
*[[Exposure and Response Prevention]] (see [[OCD]])
*[[Extended refit period]]
*[[Exterior router protocol]]
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:ERP]]
[[es:ERP]]
[[ja:ERP]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ernest Thayer</title>
<id>9713</id>
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<id>38562400</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T03:13:32Z</timestamp>
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<ip>67.160.193.99</ip>
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<comment>/* References */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wikisource author}}
'''Ernest Lawrence Thayer''' ([[August 14]], [[1863]] - [[August 21]], [[1940]]) was an [[United States|American]] writer and poet who wrote "[[Casey at the Bat]]".
Thayer was born in [[Lawrence, Massachusetts|Lawrence]], [[Massachusetts]] and raised in [[Worcester, Massachusetts|Worcester]]. He graduated ''[[magna cum laude]]'' in [[philosophy]] from [[Harvard University|Harvard]] in [[1885]], where he was a member of [[Delta Kappa Epsilon]] (DKE) fraternity and editor of the ''[[Harvard Lampoon]]''. Its business manager, [[William Randolph Hearst]], also a member of DKE, hired Thayer as humour columnist for the ''[[San Francisco Examiner]]'' 1886-88.
Thayer&rsquo;s last piece, dated [[June 3]], [[1888]], was a ballad entitled "Casey" ("Casey at the Bat").
It took two decades for the poem to make Thayer famous, as he was hardly the boastful type and had signed the June 3 poem with the nickname "Phin". Two mysteries remain about the poem: who, if anyone, was the model for the title character and whether Thayer had a real-life "Mudville" in mind when he included Mudville as the poem's mythical town. On [[March 31]], [[2004]], Katie Zezima of ''[[The New York Times]]'' penned an article called "In 'Casey' Rhubarb, 2 Cities Cry 'Foul!'" on the competing claims of two towns to such renown: [[Stockton, California|Stockton]], [[California]], and [[Holliston, Massachusetts|Holliston]], Massachusetts.
As far as whether there was any model for the title character, Thayer later dispelled the notion that any single living baseball player was an influence. However, late [[1880s]] [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] star [[King Kelly|Mike "King" Kelly]] is odds-on the most likely model for Casey's baseball situations. Besides being a native of a town close to Boston, Thayer, as a ''San Francisco Examiner'' baseball reporter in the offseason of 1887-88, covered exhibition games featuring Kelly. In November [[1887]], some of his reportage about a Kelly at-bat has the same ring as Casey's famous at-bat in the poem. A 2004 book by Howard W. Rosenberg, ''Cap Anson 2: The Theatrical and Kingly Mike Kelly: U.S. Team Sport's First Media Sensation and Baseball's Original Casey at the Bat'', reprints a [[1905]] Thayer letter to a Baltimore scribe who was inquiring about the poem's roots. In the letter, Thayer singled out Kelly, who had died in [[1894]], as having shown "impudence" in claiming to have written it. Rosenberg argues that if Thayer still felt offended, Thayer may have steered later comments away from connecting Kelly to it. Kelly had also performed in vaudeville, and recited the poem dozens of times, possibly butchering it to Thayer's dismay. Incidentally, the first public performance of the poem was on August 14, 1888, by actor De Wolf Hopper, on Thayer's 25th birthday.
Thayer's recitation of it at a Harvard class reunion in [[1895]] may seem trivial except that it helps solve the mystery, which lingered into the [[20th century]], of who had written it. In the mid-[[1890s]], Thayer contributed several other comic poems for Hearst's ''New York Journal'' and then turned to make his livelihood by overseeing his family's mills in Worcester.
The New York Times' obituary of Thayer{{ref|obit}} quotes comedian Wolf Hopper, who helped make the poem famous:
:"Thayer indubitably wrote 'Casey,' but he could not recite it.... I have heard many other give 'Casey.' Fond mamas have brought their sons to me to hear their childish voices lisp the poem, but Thayer's was the worst of all. In a sweet, dulcet Harvard whisper he implored 'Casey' to murder the umpire, and gave this cry of mass animal rage all the emphasis of a caterpillar wearing rubbers crawling on a velvet carpet. He was rotten."
He moved to [[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]] in [[1912]], where he married Rosalind Buel Hammett and retired. Thayer died in 1940, at age 77.
==References==
*{{note|obit}} E. L. Thayer's obituary, The New York Times, [[August 22]], [[1940]], p. 19
[[Category:1861 births|Thayer, Ernest]]
[[Category:1940 deaths|Thayer, Ernest]]
[[Category:American writers|Thayer, Enest]]
[[Category:English-language poets|Thayer, Ernest]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>List of English language poets</title>
<id>9714</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-01T15:07:47Z</timestamp>
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<username>Ndorward</username>
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<minor />
<comment>/* St-Sy */ -- removed false birth/death dates for Keston Sutherland</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Poets who wrote or write much of their [[poetry]] in the [[English language]]. {{listdev}}
[[#A|A]] [[#B|B]] [[#C|C]] [[#D|D]] [[#E|E]] [[#F|F]] [[#G|G]] [[#H|H]] [[#I-J|I]] [[#I-J|J]] [[#K|K]] [[#L|L]] [[#M|M]] [[#N-O|N]] [[#N-O|O]] [[#P|P]] [[#Q|Q]] [[#R|R]] [[#S|S]]
[[#T-V|T]] [[#T-V|U]] [[#T-V|V]] [[#W|W]] [[#Y-Z|X]] [[#Y-Z|Y]] [[#Y-Z|Z]] __NOTOC__
==A==
*[[Harold Acton]] (1904-1994)
*[[Gilbert Adair]] (born 1944)
*[[Arthur Henry Adams]] (1872-1936)
*[[Robert Adamson]]
*[[Fleur Adcock]] (born 1934)
*[[Joseph Addison]] (1672-1719)
*[[Mark Akenside]] (1721-1770)
*[[James Alexander Allan]] (1889-1956)
*[[Leslie Holdsworthy Allen]] (1879-1964)
*[[Ethel Anderson]] (1883-1958)
*[[Bruce Andrews]] (born 1948)
*[[Maya Angelou]] (born 1928)
*[[Rae Armantrout]] (born 1947)
*[[Simon Armitage]] (born 1963)
*[[Matthew Arnold]] (1822-1888)
*[[John Ashbery]] (born 1927)
*[[Thomas Ashe]] (1836-1889)
*[[Thea Astley]] (1925-2004)
*[[Edwin Atherstone]] (1788-1872)
*[[Margaret Atwood]] (born 1939)
*[[Dorothy Auchterlonie]] (1915-1991)
*[[W. H. Auden]] (1907-1973)
*[[Albert Gordon Austin]] (1918-1990)
*[[Pam Ayres]] (born 1947)
*[[Robert Ayton]] (1570-1638)
*[[Robert Ayton|Sir Robert Ayton]] (1570-1638)
*[[William Edmonstone Aytoun]] (1813-1865)
==B==
===Ba===
*[[Joanna Baillie]] (1762-1851)
*[[Kevin Bailey (poet)|Kevin Bailey]] (born 1953}
*[[David Ball]]
*[[Jesse Ball]] (1978-)
*[[Lex Banning]] (born 1921)
*[[Amiri Baraka]] (born 1934)
*[[David Baratier]] (born 1970)
*[[Anna Laetitia Barbauld]] (1743-1825)
*[[John Barbour]] (died 1395)
*[[Les Barker]] (born 1947)
*[[Richard Barnefield]] (1574-1627)
*[[Djuna Barnes]] (1892-1982)
*[[William Barnes]] (1801-1886)
*[[Ken Barratt]]
*[[Bernard Barton]] (1784-1849)
*[[David Bates (poet)|David Bates]] (1809-1870)
*[[H.E. Bates]] (1905-1974)
*[[James K. Baxter]] (1926-1972)
*[[Arthur Bayldon]] (1865-1958)
*[[William Baylebridge]] (1883-1942)
===Be-Bo===
*[[Francis Beaumont]] (1586-1616)
*[[Bruce Beaver]] (1928-2004)
*[[Aphra Behn]] (1640-1689)
*[[Gwendolyn B. Bennett]]
*[[Asa Benveniste]]
*[[Bill Berkson]]
*[[Charles Bernstein]] (born 1950)
*[[Anselm Berrigan]]
*[[Edmund Berrigan]]
*[[Ted Berrigan]]
*[[Wendell Berry]] (1934-)
*[[John Berryman]] (1914-1972)
*[[Joop Bersee]] (born 1958)
*[[John Betjeman]] (1906-1984)
*[[Maurice Biggs]] (born 1915)
*[[Gary Bills]] (born 1964)
*[[Elizabeth Bishop]] (1911-1979)
*[[Samuel Bishop]] (1731-1795)
*[[Thomas Blacklock]] (1721-1791)
*[[Peter Bladen]] (1922-2001)
*[[William Blake]] (1757-1827)
*[[Susanna Blamire]] (1747-1794)
*[[John Blight]] (1913-1995)
*[[Mathilde Blind]] ( |
s have led to better designed lauter tuns capable of quicker and more complete extraction of the sugars from the grain.
The false bottom in a lauter tun has thin (0.7 to 1.1 mm) slits to hold back the solids and allow liquids to pass through. The solids, not the false bottom, form a filtration medium and hold back small solids, allowing the otherwise cloudy mash to run out of the lauter tun as a clear liquid. The false bottom of a lauter tun is today made of wedge wire, which can provide a free-flow surface of up to 12% of the bottom of the tun.
The run off tubes should be evenly distributed across the bottom, with one tube servicing about 1 m&sup2; of area. Typically these tubes have a wide, shallow cone around them to prevent drastic forces from compacting the grain directly above the outlet. In the past the run-off tubes flowed through swan-neck valves into a wort collection grant. While visually stunning, this system led to a lot of oxygen uptake. Such a system has mostly been replaced either by a central wort-collection vessel or the arrangement of outlet ports into concentric zones, with each zone having a ring-shaped collection pipe. Brewhouses in plain public view, particularly those in [[brewpub]]s, often maintain the swan-neck valves and grant for their visual effect.
A quality lauter tun has rotating rake arms with a central drive unit. Depending on the size of the lauter tun, there can be between two and six rake arms. Cutting blades hang from these arms. The blade is usually wavy and has a plough-like foot. Each blade has its own path around the tun and the whole rake assembly can be raised and lowered. Attached to each of these arms is a flap which can be raised and lowered for pushing the spend grains out of the tun. The brewer, or better yet an automated system, can raise and lower the rake arms depending on the turbidity (cloudiness) of the run-off, and the tightness of the grain bed, as measured by the pressure difference between the top and bottom of the grain bed.
There must be a system for introducing sparge water into the lauter tun. Most systems have a ring of spray heads that insure an even and gentle introduction of the sparge water. The watering system should not beat down on the grain bed and form a channel.
Large breweries have self-closing inlets on the bottom of the tun through which the mash is transferred to the lauter tun, and one outlet, also on the bottom of the tun, into which the spent grains fall after lautering is complete. Craft breweries often have manways on the side of the mash tun for spent grain removal, which then must be helped along to a large extent by the brewer.
Some small breweries use a combination mash/lauter tun, in which the rake system cannot be implemented because the mixing mechanism for mashing is of higher importance. The stirring blades can be used as an ersatz rake, but typically they cannot be moved up and down, and would disturb the bed too much were they used deep in the grain bed.
====Mash Filter====
A mash filter is a plate-and-frame filter. The empty frames contain the mash, including the spent grains, and have a capacity of around one [[hectoliter]]. The plates contain a support structure for the filter cloth The plates, frames, and filter cloths are arranged in a carrier frame like so: frame, cloth, plate, cloth, with plates at each end of the structure. Newer mash filters have bladders that can press the liquid out of the grains between spargings. The grain does not act like a filtration medium in a mash filter.
===Boiling===
Boiling the won extracts, called [[wort]], ensures its sterility, and thus prevents a lot of infections. During the boil, hops are added, which contribute their bitter aromas and flavor compounds to the beer, and, along with the heat of the boil, causes proteins in the wort to coagulate and the [[pH]] of the wort to fall. Finally, the vapors produced during the boil volatilize off flavors, including [[dimethyl sulfide]] precursors.
The boil must be conducted so that is it even and intense. The boil lasts between 60 and 120 minutes, depending on its intensity, the hop addition schedule, and volume of wort the brewer expects to evaporate.
====Boiling equipment====
The simplest boil kettles are direct-fired, with a burner underneath. These can produce a vigorous and favorable boil, but are also apt to scorch the wort where the flame touches the kettle, causing caramelization and making clean up difficult.
Most breweries use a steam-fired kettle, which uses steam jackets in the kettle to boil the wort. The steam is delivered under pressure by an external boiler.
State-of-the-art breweries today use many interesting boiling methods, all of which achieve a more intense boiling and a more complete realization of the goals of boiling.
Many breweries have a boiling unit outside of the kettle, sometimes called a calandria, through which wort is pumped. The unit is usually a tall, thin cylinder, with many tubes upwards through it. These tubes provide an enormous surface area on which vapor bubbles can nucleate, and thus provides for excellent volitization. The total volume of wort is circulated seven to twelve times an hour through this external boiler, insuring that the wort is evenly boiled by the end of the boil. The wort is then boiled in the kettle at [[atmospheric pressure]], and through careful control the inlets and outlets on the external boiler, an overpressure can be achieve in the external boiler, raising the boiling point a few Celsius degrees. Upon return to the boil kettle, a vigorous vaporization occurs. The higher temperature due to increased vaporization can reduce boil times up to 30%. External boilers were originally designed to improve performance of kettles which did not provide adequate boiling effect, but have since been adopted by the industry as a sole means of boiling wort.
Modern brewhouses can also be equiped with internal calandria, which requires no pump. It works on basically the same principle as external units, but relies on convection to move wort through the boiler. This can prevent overboiling, as a deflector above the boiler reduces foaming, and also reduces evaporation. Internal calandria are generally difficult to clean.
====Energy recovery====
Boiling wort takes a lot of energy, and it is wasteful to let this energy escape into the atmosphere. The simplest was to recover this energy is with a kettle vapor condenser (German: ''Pfaduko'', from the really long word '''Pfa'''nnen'''du'''nst'''ko'''ndensator). A kettle vapor condenser is often nothing more than a plate heat exchanger.
====Whirlpool====
At the end of the boil, the wort is set into a whirlpool. The so-called teacup effect forces the more dense solids (coagulated proteins, vegetable matter from hops) into a cone in the center of the whirlpool tank.
In most large breweries, there is a separate tank for whirlpooling. These tanks have a large diameter to encourage settling, a flat bottom, a tangential inlet near the bottom of the whirlpool, and an outlet on the bottom near the outer edge of the whirlpool. A whirlpool should have no internal protrusions that might slow down the rotation of the liquid. The bottom of the whirlpool is often slightly sloped towards the outlet. Newer whirlpools often have "[[Denk ring]]s" suspended in the middle of the whirlpool. These rings are aligned horizontally and have about 75% of the diameter of the whirlpool. The Denk rings prevent the formation of secondary eddies in the whirlpool, encouraging the formation of a cohesive trub cone in the middle of the whirlpool.
Smaller breweries often use the brewkettle as a whirlpool.
====Wort cooling====
After the whirlpool, the wort must be brought down to fermentation temperatures before yeast is added. In modern breweries this is achieved through a plate [[heat exchanger]]. A plate heat exchanger has many ridged plates, which form two separate paths. The wort is pumped into the heat exchanger, and goes through every other gap between the plates. The cooling medium, usually water, goes through the other gaps. The ridges in the plates ensure turbulent flow. A good heat exchanger can drop 95 &deg;C wort to 20 &deg;C while warming the cooling medium from about 10 &deg;C to 80 &deg;C. The last few plates often use a cooling medium which can be cooled to below the [[freezing point]], which allows a finer control over the wort-out temperature, and also enables cooling to around 10 &deg;C. After cooling, oxygen is often dissolved into the wort to revitalize the yeast and aid its reproduction.
===Fermenting===
Fermentation, as a step in the brewing process, starts as soon as yeast is added to the cooled wort. This is also the point at which the product is first called beer. It is during this stage that sugars won from the [[malt]] are metabolized into [[ethanol|alcohol]] and [[carbon dioxide]]. Fermentation tanks come in all sorts of forms, from enormous tanks which can look like [[storage silo]]s, to five [[gallon]] glass [[carboy]]s in a homebrewer's closet.
Most breweries today use cylindroconical vessels, or CCVs, have a conical bottom and a cylindrical top. The cone's [[aperture]] is typically around 60&deg;, an angle that will allow the yeast to flow towards the cones apex, but is not so steep as to take up too much vertical space. CCVs can handle both fermenting and conditioning in the same tank. At the end of fermentation, the yeast and other solids which have fallen to the cones apex can be simply flushed out a port at the apex.
Open fermentation vessels are also used, often for show in brewpubs, and in Europe in wheat beer fermentation. These vessels have no tops, which makes harvesting top fermenting yeasts very easy. The open tops of the vessels make the risk of infection greater, but with proper cleaning procedures and careful protocol about who ent |
pts at reform which created, especially in France, geographical confusion in the administration. Also during the eighteenth century, the tyrannical spirit of the European powers and, still more, the spirit of the age lessened the number of recruits and the fervour of religious life. The French Revolution ruined the order in France, and the crises which more or less rapidly followed considerably lessened or wholly destroyed numerous provinces.
==Contemporary Period==
[[Image:OP_Caracas.jpg |right|thumb|300px|Spanish Mendicant friars from the Order of Preacher at Saint Thomas Aquinas' School, Caracas, Venezuela, 1952]]
The contemporary period of the history of the Preachers begins with the different restorations of provinces undertaken after the revolutions which had destroyed the Order in several countries of the Old World and the New. This period begins more or less early in the [[nineteenth century]], and it cannot be traced down to the present day without naming religious who are still living and whose activity embodies the present life of the Order. The revolutions not having totally destroyed certain of the provinces, nor decimated them, simultaneously, the Preachers were able to take up the laborious work of restoration in countries where the civil legislation did not present insurmountable obstacles. During this critical period the number of Preachers seems never to have sunk below 3,500. The statistics for 1876 give 3,748 religious, but 500 of these had been expelled from their convents and were engaged in [[parochial]] work. The statistics for 1910 give a total of 4,472 religious both nominally and actually engaged in the proper activities of the Order. They were distributed in twenty-eight provinces and five congregations, and possessed nearly 400 convents or secondary establishments.
In the revival movement France held a foremost place, owing to the reputation and convincing power of the orator, [[Henri-Dominique Lacordaire]] (1802-1861). He took the habit of a Friar Preacher at Rome (1839), and the province of France was canonically erected in 1850. From this province were detached the province of [[Lyons]], called Occitania (1862), that of [[Toulouse]] (1869), and that of [[Canada]] (1909). The French restoration likewise furnished many labourers to other provinces, to assist in their organization and progress. From it came the master general who remained longest at the head of the administration during the nineteenth century, Père [[Vincent Jandel]] (1850-1872). Here should be mentioned the province of St. Joseph in the United States. Founded in 1805 by Father [[Dominic Fenwick]], afterwards first Bishop of [[Cincinnati, Ohio]] (1821-1832), this province has developed slowly, but now ranks among the most flourishing and active provinces of the order. In 1910 it numbered seventeen convents or secondary houses. In 1905, it established a large house of studies at [[Washington, D.C.]], called the [[Dominican House of Studies]].
The province of France (Paris) has produced a large number of preachers, several of whom became renowned. The conferences of Notre-Dame-de-Paris were inaugurated by Père Lacordaire. The Dominicans of the province of France furnished most of the orators: Lacordaire (1835-1836, 1843-1851), [[Jacques Monsabré]] (1869-1870, 1872-1890), [[Joseph Ollivier]] (1871, 1897), [[Thomas Etourneau]] (1898-1902). Since 1903 the pulpit of Notre Dame has again been occupied by a Dominican. Père [[Henri Didon]] (d. 1900) was one of the most esteemed orators of his time. The province of France displays greater intellectual and scientific activity than ever, the chief centre being the house of studies at present situated at [[Kain]], near [[Tournai, Belgium]], where are published ''L'Année Dominicaine'' (founded 1859), ''La Revue des Sciences Philosophiques et Theologiques'' (1907), and ''La Revue de la Jeunesse'' (1909).
The province of the [[Philippines]], the most populous in the order, is recruited from Spain, where it has several preparatory houses. In the Philippines it has charge of the [[University of Manila]], recognized by the government of the [[United States]], two colleges, and six establishments; in [[China]] it administers the missions of North and South [[Fo-Kien]], in the Japanese Empire, those of [[Formosa]] (now Taiwan) and [[Shikoku]], besides establishments at [[New Orleans]], at [[Caracas, Venezuela]] and at [[Rome]]. The province of Spain has seventeen establishments in the Peninsula and the [[Canaries]], as well as the missions of [[Urubamba, Peru]]. Since 1910 it has published at [[Madrid]] an important review, ''La Ciencia Tomista.'' The province of Holland has a score of establishments, and the missions of [[Curaçao]] and [[Puerto Rico]]. Other provinces also have their missions. That of Piedmont has establishments at [[Istanbul|Constantinople]] and [[Izmir|Smyrna]]; that of Toulouse, in [[Brazil]]; that of Lyons, in [[Cuba]], that of [[Ireland]], in [[Australia]] and [[Trinidad and Tobago]]; that of [[Belgium]], in the Belgian Congo (now [[Congo]]), and so on.
Doctrinal development has had an important place in the restoration of the Preachers. Several institutions besides those already mentioned have played important parts. Such is the Biblical school at [[Jerusalem]], open to the religious of the Order and to secular clerics, and which publishes the ''Revue Biblique.'' The faculty of theology of the [[University of Freiburg]], confided to the care of the Dominicans in 1890, is flourishing and has about 250 students. The [[Collegium Angelicum]], established at Rome (1911) by [[Hyacinth Cormier]] (master general since 1902), is open to regulars and seculars for the study of the sacred sciences. To the reviews mentioned above must be added the ''Revue Thomiste,'' founded by Père [[Thomas Coconnier]] (d. 1908), and the ''Analecta Ordinis Prædicatorum'' (1893). Among the numerous writers of the order in this period are: Cardinals [[Thomas Zigliara]] (d. 1893) and [[Zephirin González]] (d. 1894), two esteemed philosophers; Father [[Alberto Guillelmotti]] (d. 1893), historian of the Pontifical Navy, and Father [[Heinrich Denifle]], one of the most famous writers on medieval history (d. 1905).
In 1910 the order had twenty archbishops or bishops, one of whom, [[Andreas Frühwirth]], formerly master general (1892-1902), was Apostolic ''[[nuncio]]'' at [[Munich]] (Sanvito, ''Catalogus omnium provinciarum sacri ordinis praedicatorum,'' Rome, 1910; ''Analecta O. P.,'' Rome, 1893--; ''L'Année Dominicaine,'' Paris, 1859-- ). In the last two publications will be found historical and bibliographical information concerning the history of the Preachers during the contemporary period.
==Mottos==
[[Image:OP_sello.gif |right|thumb|100px|]]
1. ''Laudare, Benedicere, Praedicare''
:To praise, to bless and to preach
(from the Roman Missal, ''Preface of the Blessed Virgin Mary'')'''
2. ''Veritas''
:Truth
3. ''Contemplare et Contemplata Aliis Tradere''
:To study and to hand on the fruits of study (or, to contemplate and to hand on the fruits of contemplation)
==List of Dominicans==
''See also: [[:Category:Dominicans]]''
Important Dominicans include:
*St. [[Thomas Aquinas]]
*St. [[Dominic de Guzman|Dominic]]
*St. [[Albertus Magnus]]
*St. [[Catherine of Siena]]
*St. [[Rose of Lima]]
*[[Bartolome de las Casas]]
*[[Tomas de Torquemada]]
*[[Giordano Bruno]]
*[[Bernard Gui]]
*[[Andrew of Longjumeau]]
*[[Girolamo Savonarola]]
*[[Edward Fenwick]], first Bishop of Cincinnati, OH
*[[John Bromyard]]
*[[Nicolau Aymerich]]
*[[Meister Eckhart]]
*[[Jean-Baptiste Henri Lacordaire]]
*[[Timothy Radcliffe]]
*[[Felix Faber]]
*[[Joseph Sadoc Alemany]]
*[[Albert Nolan]]
*[[Vincent McNabb]]
<!--
''To be integrated in the article:''
:[[Albigensians]]
:[[sister]]s
:tertiaries
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==External links==
* [http://www.op.org/ Order of Preachers Homepage] - Available in English, French and Spanish
* [http://english.op.org/ The English Dominicans]
* [http://www.australia.op.org/ Australian Dominicans]
* [http://www.opwest.org/ Western Province Dominicans USA]
* [http://www.op-stjoseph.org/ Eastern Province Dominicans USA]
* [http://www.domcentral.org/ Central Province Dominicans USA]
* [http://www.opsouth.org/ Southern Province Dominicans USA]
Dominican Nuns
* [http://www.op.org/usaopnuns/ Conference of U.S. Dominican Nuns]
Dominican Sisters
* [http://www.op.org/international/english/Links/categories/sisters.htm Dominican Apostolic Sisters Worldwide]
* [http://www.nashvilledominican.org Dominican Sisters of St. Cecilia]
* [http://www.sistersofmary.org Dominican Sisters of Mary, Mother of the Eucharist]
* [http://www.sanrafaelop.org/ Dominican Sisters of San Rafael, California]
* [http://www.sinsinawa.org/ Sinsinawa Dominican Sisters]
* [http://www.racinedominicans.org/ Racine Dominican Sisters]
Other
* [http://torch.op.org/ Dominican Preaching Online]
==See also==
* [[Chinese Rites controversy]]
{{Catholic order}}
[[Category:Dominican Order| ]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tō-bêng-hōe]]
[[da:Dominikanerordenen]]
[[de:Dominikaner]]
[[es:Dominicos]]
[[fr:Ordre des frères prêcheurs]]
[[he:דומיניקנים]]
[[id:Ordo Dominikan]]
[[it:Ordine dei Frati Predicatori]]
[[nl:Dominicanen]]
[[ja:ドミニコ会]]
[[no:Dominikanerordenen]]
[[pl:Dominikanie]]
[[pt:Ordem dos Pregadores]]
[[ro:Ordinul dominican]]
[[ru:Доминиканцы]]
[[sk:Dominikánsky rád]]
[[sv:Dominikanerorden]]
[[uk:Домініканці]]
[[zh:多明我会]]</text>
</revision>
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<page>
<title>Saint Dominic</title>
<id>8974</id>
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<id>18066483</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-03T12:46:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdr</username>
<id>55814</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Dominic]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dominic]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dominions</title>
<id>8975</id>
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<id>29519450</id>
<timestamp>2005-11 |
arters which killed 58 French troops. Seven months after the U.S. withdrew its forces from Lebanon a second attack upon the [[United States]] [[embassy]] annex in Beirut in September 1984 killed 20 people including two Americans.[http://newssearch.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/september/20/newsid_2525000/2525197.stm].
Elements of the group have been linked to involvement in kidnapping, detention and [[torture]] of American and other Western [[hostage]]s in Lebanon by groups such as [[Islamic Jihad]] who claimed the hostage-takings were in retaliation to the detentions, hostage-taking and torture by the Israeli ally [[South Lebanon Army]] (SLA).
There may also have been (attempted) terrorist attacks against Hezbollah. According to [[Bob Woodward]]'s book ''Veil: The Secret Wars of the CIA'', the CIA asked the Saudis to co-ordinate and carry out the assassination of Hezbollah's spiritual leader [[Mohammad Hussein Fadlallah|Fadlallah]]. The Saudis for their part hired an ex-[[Special Air Service|SAS]] contact who coordinated and carried out the failed assassination attempt that left 80 civilians dead when the apartment building was reduced to rubble by a car bomb. The operation cost the Saudis $3 million and was conditional on it remaining a secret, which it didn't for long.
====Alleged Terrorism====
Using names like the Organization of the Oppressed on Earth and the Revolutionary Justice Organization, Hezbollah is also believed by the United States to have kidnapped and tortured to death{{fact}} U.S. Marine [[Colonel William R. Higgins]] and the CIA Station Chief in Beirut, [[William Francis Buckley|William Buckley]], and to have kidnapped around 30 other Westerners between 1982 and 1992, including the American journalist [[Terry Anderson]], British journalist [[John McCarthy (journalist)|John McCarthy]], the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]'s special envoy [[Terry Waite]] and Irish citizen [[Brian Keenan (writer/hostage)|Brian Keenan]]. Hezbollah was accused by the US government of being responsible for the [[April 1983 U.S. Embassy bombing|April 1983 bombing of the U.S. Embassy in Beirut]] that killed 63; of being behind the [[1983 Beirut barracks bombing|suicide truck bombings]] that killed 241 U.S. Marines in their barracks in Beirut in October 1983; of bombing the replacement U.S. Embassy in East Beirut on [[September 20]], [[1984]], killing 20 Lebanese and two American soldiers; and of carrying out the 1985 hijacking of [[TWA Flight 847]] en route from Athens to Rome. Hezbollah denies involvement in these attacks.
===The South Lebanon period (1990-2000)===
The continued existence of Hezbollah's military wing after 1990 violates the [[Taif Agreement]] that ended the [[Lebanese civil war]], which requires the "disbanding of all Lebanese and non-Lebanese militias" and requires the government to "deploy the Lebanese army in the border area adjacent to Israel." The Lebanese government did not try to disarm the Hezbollah during the 1990-2000 period, justifying its position by the fact that Hezbollah was fighting for the liberation of the south, then occupied by Israel.
====Conflict in South Lebanon====
South Lebanon was occupied by Israel between 1982 and 2000. Hezbollah, along with the mainly leftist and secular groups in the Lebanese National Resistance Front, fought a guerilla war against Israel and the Israeli proxy [[South Lebanon Army]]. The National Resistance Front militias disarmed in accordance with the Taif Accords, but Hezbollah, which had become by far the largest and most effective of the resistance organisations, did not. The fighting culminated during [[Operation Grapes of Wrath]] in April 1996 when Israel launched an assault and air-campaign against Hezbollah. The campaign failed and resulted in the Israelis killing more than 100 civilians in a bombardment of a United Nations base at [[Qana]].
In January 2000, Hezbollah assassinated the commander of the South Lebanon Army's Western Brigade, Colonel Aql Hashem, at his home in the security zone. Hashem had been responsible for day to day operations of the SLA.[http://www.asylumlaw.org/docs/lebanon/ind01b_lebanon_ca.pdf]
In May 2000, Israel withdrew its army from south Lebanon. This was widely considered a victory for Hezbollah and boosted its popularity in Lebanon. The move did not end the conflict because Hezbollah is still contesting Israel's control of the [[Shebaa farms]] region.
Hezbollah's role in the Israeli withdrawal from southern Lebanon gained the organization respect in Lebanon, particularly among the country's large [[Shi'a]] community. The Shi'a is the single largest religious group in Lebanon, probably comprising at least 40% of the three million citizens (see [[Demographics of Lebanon]]). The [[List of Presidents of Lebanon|President of Lebanon]], [[Emile Lahoud]], said: "For us Lebanese, and I can tell you a majority of Lebanese, Hezbollah is a national resistance movement. If it wasn't for them, we couldn't have liberated our land. And because of that, we have big esteem for the Hezbollah movement." [http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/04/18/60minutes/main550000.shtml].
However, others in Lebanon, particularly the [[Christian]] community, criticize the movement as extremist and divisive. [[Michel Aoun]], a prominent Christian parliamentarian, has repeatedly called for Hezbollah's disarmament. [[Saad Hariri]] and his [[Sunni]] bloc also favor disarmament, though with more equivocation than Aoun. [[Walid Jumblatt]], the paramount [[Druze]] leader, supports Hezbollah retaining its arms, though at times he has suggested that Hezbollah could be folded into the Lebanese military. Overall, many prominent Lebanese politicians resist international pressure to disarm Hezbollah, saying that Hezbollah is an internal Lebanese issue. The common fear among Lebanese is that the army might disintegrate if the attempt were made to disarm Hezbollah without its consent.{{fact}}
====Alleged Terrorism====
''Note: Hezbollah has been suspected or accused of complicity in the following attacks although they deny involvement.''
*On [[February 16]], [[1992]] [[Abbas al-Musawi]], Hezbollah's secretary was killed by a rocket launched by an Israeli helicopter. On [[March 17]] [[1992]], the [[Israeli Embassy attack in Buenos Aires|Israeli embassy in Buenos Aires was car-bombed]]. Responsibility for the attack that killed 29 people was claimed by a group that identified itself as [[Islamic Jihad]]. The stated motive was retaliation for Israel's assassination of [[Abbas al-Musawi]].
*On [[July 18]], [[1994]] a Jewish community center in [[Argentina]] was bombed ([[AMIA Bombing]]) killing 85 people. A Lebanon-based group called "Partisans of God" claimed to be the author of the attack. The Argentinean government formally charged [[Imad Mughniyah]] as a suspect in both attacks, and in October 2005, Argentinean courts [http://www.dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?edition_id=1&categ_id=2&article_id=19952 formally charged] Hezbollah member [[Ibrahim Hussein Berro]] with the attack.
*On [[July 19]], [[1994]] a Panamanian flight was bombed in the ([[Alas Chiricanas bombing]]) leaving 21 people dead, incluing 12 Jews. The bombing was claimed by an unknown group called [[Ansar Allah]].
*On [[July 26]], [[1994]] eight days after the AMIA Bombing in Argentina, a car bomb exploded outside the Israeli embassy in [[London]], injuring 14 people. Thirteen hours later a similar car bomb exploded outside a Jewish charity in North London.
===Hezbollah after the Israeli withdrawal===
On [[May 22]], [[2000]], Israel withdrew from [[Lebanon]] to the UN-agreed Israeli border, and their pullout was certified by the UN as complete[http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2000/20000618.sc6878.doc.html]. However, Hezbollah claims the [[Shebaa Farms]], a 28 sq. km. area, which is still occupied by Israel, to be Lebanese territory, and on that basis has continued to attack Israeli forces in that area. The UN recognizes the Shebaa farms as part of the Golan Heights, and thus occupied Syrian (and not Lebanese) territory.
Israel continues to fly over Lebanese territory, eliciting condemnation from the UN Secretary-General's representative in Lebanon. Hezbollah's anti-aircraft fire has on some occasions landed within the northern border region of Israel, inciting condemnation from the UN Secretary-General [http://www.un.org/apps/sg/sgstats.asp?nid=449]. On [[November 7]], [[2004]], Hezbollah responded to what it described as repeated Israeli violations of Lebanese airspace by flying an [[Unmanned Aerial Vehicle|unmanned drone aircraft]] over northern [[Israel]].[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/3990773.stm]
Hezbollah abducted three [[IDF]] [[soldier]]s during an October 2000 attack in Shebaa Farms, and sought to obtain the release of 14 Lebanese prisoners, some of whom had been held since 1978. On [[January 25]], [[2004]], Hezbollah and Israel agreed on an exchange of prisoners. The prisoner swap was carried out on [[January 29]]: 30 Lebanese and Arab prisoners, the remains of 60 Lebanese militants and civilians, 420 Palestinian prisoners, and maps showing Israeli mines in South Lebanon were exchanged for an Israeli businessman and army reserve colonel kidnapped in 2001 and the remains of the three IDF soldiers mentioned above, who may have been killed during the Hezbollah operation.
On [[July 19]], [[2004]], a senior Hezbollah official, [[Ghaleb Awwali]], was assassinated in a car bombing in [[Beirut]]. Hezbollah blamed Israel; credit was claimed, and then retracted, by a previously unheard of [[Sunni]] group called [[Jund Ash Sham]], while Israel denied involvement[http://archives.tcm.ie/breakingnews/2004/07/19/story157767.asp]. According to [[Al-Arabiya]], unidentified Lebanese police also identified the group as a cover for Israel[http://quote.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000087&sid=aGFhFUAb_8d0&refer=top_worl |
ent Forth
*[[Joy programming language|Joy]] A Forth-like language that includes dynamic typing, lists, garbage collection, and similar high-level features.
*[[PostScript]]
*[[RPL programming language|RPL]] A programming language for Hewlett-Packard calculators, with similarities to FORTH.
*[[Sy language]]
==Dialects==
*[[51-FORTH]]
*[[Bashforth]]
*[[Color Forth|colorForth]]
== External links ==
{{wikibookspar||Programming:Forth}}
*[http://www.taygeta.com/forth/dpans.html ANSI Forth Standard] -- Appendix F is the index to the standard words.
*[http://www.complang.tuwien.ac.at/forth/threading/ Execution speed of threading]
*[http://www.forth.org/compilers.html Forth Compilers Page]
*[http://www.ultratechnology.com/ Forth Chips Page - will reappear - site is being reorganised] -- Forth in hardware
=== Books, tutorials, and classes ===
* [http://www.forth.com/forth/forth-books.html Forth books] for sale, by Elizabeth Rather and others at FORTH, Inc.
* [http://www.mpeltd.demon.co.uk/arena/ProgramForth.pdf Programming Forth] by Stephen Pelc, MPE (draft version, on-line)
* [http://www.complang.tuwien.ac.at/forth/gforth/Docs-html/Tutorial.html Gforth tutorial]
* [http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/551.jvn.fall01/primer.htm A Beginner's Guide to Forth] by Julian Noble (on-line tutorial)
* [http://www.forth.com/forth/forth-classes.html Forth programming classes] at FORTH, Inc. or on-site
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/013843087X/ Starting Forth] [http://home.earthlink.net/~lbrodie/forth.html Leo Brodie's], introduction to Forth — a classic. (out of print)
* [http://thinking-forth.sourceforge.net Thinking Forth], Leo Brodie's book about Forth programming methodology (on-line, creative commons license)
* [http://www.ece.cmu.edu/~koopman/stack_computers/index.html Stack Computers], by Philip Koopman, Jr. A book about stack-based computers, including the Novix NC4016 and the Harris RTX series, both Forth-based [[central processing unit|CPU]]s
=== Freely available Forth implementations ===
* [http://www.amresearch.com amrFORTH] -- 8051 Tethered Forth for Windows/OSX/Linux/*BSD
* [http://pfe.sourceforge.net/ PFE] -- Portable Forth Environment
* [http://www.jwdt.com/~paysan/gforth.html Gforth] -- GNU Forth Language Environment
* [http://www.jwdt.com/~paysan/bigforth.html bigFORTH] -- x86 native code Forth with MINOS GUI
* [http://ccreweb.org/software/kforth/kforth.html kForth] -- Small Forth Interpreter written in C++
* [http://sourceforge.net/projects/spf/ SPF] -- OpenSource Forth for Win32 and Linux. This is a ANS94 compliant Forth with optimising compiler and fast subroutine threading code
* [http://www.retroforth.org/ RetroForth] -- Public Domain, for DOS, Linux, FreeBSD, Windows or standalone use -- has a wiki
* [http://www.softsynth.com/pforth/ pForth] -- PD portable Forth in 'C' for embedded systems or desktops.
* [http://jasonwoof.org/herkforth herkforth] -- A colored forth which runs on a simple virtual machine -- has a wiki
* [http://www.strotmann.de/twiki/bin/view/APG/LangForth TWiki's Forth page] -- includes a list of implementations for many [[Home computer|homecomputers]].
* [http://home.hccnet.nl/a.w.m.van.der.horst/ciforth.html Computer Intelligence Forth] -- an assembler-based ISO-Forth
* [http://www.eforth.com.tw/academy eForth] by C.H.Ting
* [http://www.powermops.org/ Mops] -- an object-oriented Forth dialect for the Macintosh based on the formerly commercial Neon
* [http://www.win32forth.org/ Win32Forth] -- Forth for Microsoft Windows 98/2000/XP
* [http://www.inventio.co.uk/cfdos.htm/ colorForth] for the PC, downloader / source reader program.
* [http://ronware.org/reva/ Reva] a small fast x86 Forth implementation for Linux and Windows by Ron Aaron
* [http://4im.atspace.com 4IM] small simple fast 16bits standalone and DOS Forth system; 32 bits Linux and Windows (portable C version), featuring GUI library bindings.
* [http://www.ucalc.com/forth.txt uCalc Forth] uCalc Language Builder source code for a small Win32 Forth.
=== Commercial Forth implementations ===
* [http://www.forth.com/ Forth, Inc.] -- The original purveyor of Forth systems. Supplier of books on Forth, Forth for [[Microsoft Windows]] and cross-compilers for many microcontrollers. Links to many tutorials and historical articles.
* [http://www.mpeltd.demon.co.uk/software.htm MicroProcessor Engineering Limited] (MPE) -- for [[Microsoft Windows]] with cross compilers to many different processors.
* [http://www.quartus.net/products/forth/ Quartus Forth] -- for the [[Palm OS]], has a wiki at http://quartus.net/cgi-bin/twiki/view/Main/
* [http://home.iae.nl/users/mhx/i4faq.html iForth] -- for [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Linux]] and [[MS-DOS]]
* [http://www.macforth.com/ MacForth] -- for [[Mac OS]]
=== Historical Forth implementations ===
* [http://www.strotmann.de/twiki/bin/view/APG/LangForth Information on Forth for 8-bit Home-Computer (Atari, Apple, ZX-80, ...)]
* [http://volksforth.sf.net volksFORTH] a 16bit Forth System for MS-DOS, Atari Portfolio, CP/M, Atari ST, Amstrad CPC, Apple 1/Replica 1, Atari XL/XE, Commdore PET, C=64, C-16, Plus 4
* [http://ground.ecn.uiowa.edu/apple2/apple8/Languages/graforth.shk GraFORTH] -- Forth for the Apple <nowiki>][</nowiki> with AV primitives (ShrinkIt archive)
* [http://theforthsource.com/ MVP Forth ] with source code available from Mountain View Press
=== Forth communities ===
* [http://wiki.forthfreak.net/ Forth-specific wiki]
* [http://www.forth.org/ Forth Interest Group]
* [http://www.forth.org.ru/ Russian Forth Interest Group]
* [http://www.forth-ev.de/ Forth Gesellschaft e.V. (german)]
* [http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?ForthLanguage The original Wiki's Forth page]
* One can meet on [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]], irc.freenode.net, channel #forth. To connect from Europe, irc.eu.freenode.net is preferred.
* [http://forth.bespin.org/ #forth IRC channel website]
* [news:comp.lang.forth comp.lang.forth] Forth newsgroup, where many professional and amateur Forth programmers lurk and post.
=== History of Forth ===
* [http://www.colorforth.com/HOPL.html Forth, the Early Years] by Chuck Moore
* [http://www.forth.com/resources/evolution/index.html The Evolution of Forth] by C. H. Moore, E. D. Rather, and D. R. Colburn. Presented at the ACM SIGPLAN History of Programming Languages Conference (HOPL II, April, 1993). Published in ACM SIGPLAN Notices, Volume 28, No. [[3 March]] [[1993]].
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<text xml:space="preserve">Count '''Francesco Algarotti''' ([[11 December]], [[1712]] &ndash; [[3 May]], [[1764]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[philosopher]] and art critic.
He was born in [[Venice]]. He studied at [[Rome]] and [[Bologna]], and at the age of twenty went to [[Paris]], where he became friendly with [[Voltaire]] and produced his ''Neutonianismo per le dame'', a work on optics. Voltaire called him his "cher cygne de Padoue" ("dear swan of Padua"). Returning from a journey to [[Russia]], he met [[Frederick the Great]] who made him a count of [[Prussia]] in 1740 and court chamberlain in 1747; they are said to have been lovers. [[Augustus III of Poland]] also honoured him with the title of councillor. In 1754, after seven years' residence partly in [[Berlin]] and partly in [[Dresden]], he returned to [[Italy]], living at Venice and then at [[Pisa]], where he died. Frederick the Great erected to his memory a monument on the [[Campo Santo]] at Pisa. He was "one of the first ''beaux esprits'' of the age," a man of wide knowledge, a connoisseur in art and music, and the friend of most of the leading authors of his time.
His chief work on art is the ''Saggi sopra le belle arti'' ("Essays on the Fine Arts"). Among his other works were ''Poems'', ''Travels in Russia'', ''Essay on Painting'', and ''Correspondence''.
==References==
*{{1911}}
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[ |
nt levels of description of the given system. For a quantum system with a discrete set of microstates, if <math>E_i</math> is the energy of microstate ''i'', and <math>p_i</math> is its probability that it occurs during the system's fluctuations, then the entropy of the system is
: <math>S = -k_B\,\sum_i p_i \ln \,p_i</math>
<div style=" width: 320px; float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px; padding: 1em; font-size: 90%">
'''Entropy changes for systems in a canonical state'''
A system with a well-defined temperature, ie one in thermal equilibrium with a thermal reservoir, has a probability of being in a microstate ''i'' given by [[Boltzmann's distribution]].
Changes in the entropy caused by changes in the external constraints are then given by:
:<math> dS = -k_B\,\sum_i dp_i \ln p_i</math>
:<math> \,\,\, = -k_B\,\sum_i dp_i (-E_i/k_BT -\ln Z)</math>
:<math> \,\,\, = \sum_i E_i dp_i / T </math>
:<math> \,\,\, = \sum_i [d (E_i p_i) - (dE_i) p_i] / T </math>
where we have twice used the conservation of probability, ''&sum; dp<sub>i</sub>=0'' .
Now, ''&sum;<sub>i</sub> d (E<sub>i</sub> p<sub>i</sub>)'' is the expectation value of the change in the total energy of the system.
If the changes are sufficiently slow, so that the system remains in the same microscopic state, but the state slowly (and reversibly) changes, then ''&sum;<sub>i</sub> (dE<sub>i</sub>) p<sub>i</sub>'' is the expectation value of the work done on the system through this reversible process, ''dw<sub>rev</sub>''.
But from the first law of thermodynamics, ''&delta;E = &delta;w +&delta;q''. Therefore,
:<math>dS = \frac{\delta\langle q_{rev} \rangle}{T}</math>
In the [[thermodynamic limit]], the fluctuation of the macroscopic quantities from their average values becomes negligible; so this reproduces the definition of entropy from classical thermodynamics, given above.
</div>
The quantity <math>k_B</math> is a [[physical constant]] known as [[Boltzmann constant|Boltzmann's constant]], which, like the entropy, has units of [[heat capacity]]. The [[logarithm]] is [[Dimensionless number|dimensionless]].
This definition is valid including far away from equilibrium. Other definitions assume that the system is in [[thermal equilibrium]], either as an [[isolated system]], or as a system in exchange with its surroundings. The set of microstates on which the sum is to be done is called a [[statistical ensemble]]. Each [[statistical ensemble]] (micro-canonical, canonical, grand-canonical, etc.) describes a different configuration of the system's exchanges with the outside, from an [[isolated]] system to a system that can exchange one more quantity with a reservoir, like energy, volume or molecules. In every ensemble, the [[thermodynamic equilibrium|equilibrium]] configuration of the system is dictated by the maximization of the entropy of the union of the system and its reservoir, according to the [[second law of thermodynamics]] (see the [[statistical mechanics]] article).
Note the above expression of the statistical entropy is a discretized version of [[Shannon entropy]]
=== Boltzmann's principle ===
In Boltzmann's definition, entropy is a measure of the number of possible microscopic states (or '''microstates''') of a system in [[thermodynamic equilibrium]], consistent with its macroscopic thermodynamic properties (or '''macrostate'''). To understand what microstates and macrostates are, consider the example of a [[gas]] in a container. At a microscopic level, the gas consists of a [[Avogadro's number|vast number]] of freely moving [[atom]]s, which occasionally collide with one another and with the walls of the container. The microstate of the system is a description of the [[position]]s and [[momentum|momenta]] of all the atoms. In principle, all the physical properties of the system are determined by its microstate. However, because the number of atoms is so large, the motion of individual atoms is mostly irrelevant to the behavior of the system as a whole. Provided the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium, the system can be adequately described by a handful of macroscopic quantities, called "thermodynamic variables": the total [[energy]] ''E'', [[volume]] ''V'', [[pressure]] ''P'', [[temperature]] ''T'', and so forth. The macrostate of the system is a description of its thermodynamic variables.
There are three important points to note. Firstly, to specify any one microstate, we need to write down an impractically long list of numbers, whereas specifying a macrostate requires only a few numbers (''E'', ''V'', etc.). However, and that is the second point, the usual [[thermodynamic equations]] only describe the macrostate of a system adequately when this system is in equilibrium; non-equilibrium situations can generally ''not'' be described by a small number of variables. For example, if a gas is sloshing around in its container, even a macroscopic description would have to include, e.g., the velocity of the fluid at each different point. Actually, the macroscopic state of the system will be described by a small number of variables only if the system is at global [[thermodynamic equilibrium]]. Thirdly, more than one microstate can correspond to a single macrostate. In fact, for any given macrostate, there will be a huge number of microstates that are consistent with the given values of ''E'', ''V'', etc.
We are now ready to provide a definition of entropy. Let ''&Omega;'' be the number of microstates consistent with the given macrostate. The entropy ''S'' is defined as
:<math>S = k_B \ln \Omega \,\!</math>
where ''k<sub>B</sub>'' is [[Boltzmann constant|Boltzmann's constant]].
The statistical entropy reduces to Boltzman's entropy when all the accessible microstates of the system are equally likely. It is also the configuration corresponding to the maximum of a system's entropy for a given set of accessible [[microstates]], in other words the macroscopic configuration in which the disorder (or lack of information) is maximal. As such, according to the [[second law of thermodynamics]], it is the [[thermodynamic equilibrium|equilibrium]] configuration of an [[isolated]] system. Boltzman's entropy is the expression of entropy at thermodynamic equilibrium in the micro-canonical ensemble.
This postulate, which is known as Boltzmann's principle, may be regarded as the foundation of [[statistical mechanics]], which describes thermodynamic systems using the statistical behaviour of its constituents. It turns out that ''S'' is itself a thermodynamic property, just like ''E'' or ''V''. Therefore, it acts as a link between the microscopic world and the macroscopic. One important property of ''S'' follows readily from the definition: since ''&Omega;'' is a [[natural number]] (1,2,3,...), ''S'' is either ''zero'' or ''positive'' (this is a property of the [[logarithm]].)
=== Disorder and the second law of thermodynamics ===
We can view ''&Omega;'' as a measure of the disorder in a system. This is reasonable because what we think of as "ordered" systems tend to have very few configurational possibilities, and "disordered" systems have very many. As an illustration of this idea, consider a set of 100 [[coin]]s, each of which is either [[coin flipping|heads up or tails up]]. The macrostates are specified by the total number of heads and tails, whereas the microstates are specified by the facings of each individual coin. For the macrostates of 100 heads or 100 tails, there is exactly one possible configuration, corresponding to the most "ordered" state in which all the coins are facing the same way. The most "disordered" macrostate consists of 50 heads and 50 tails in any order, for which there are 100891344545564193334812497256 ([[combination|100 choose 50]]) possible microstates.
Even when a system is entirely isolated from external influences, its microstate is constantly changing. For instance, the particles in a gas are constantly moving, and thus occupy a different position at each moment of time; their momenta are also constantly changing as they collide with each other or with the container walls. Suppose we prepare the system in an artificially highly-ordered equilibrium state. For instance, imagine dividing a container with a partition and placing a gas on one side of the partition, with a vacuum on the other side. If we remove the partition and watch the subsequent behavior of the gas, we will find that its microstate evolves according to some chaotic and unpredictable pattern, and that on average these microstates will correspond to a more disordered macrostate than before. It is ''possible'', but ''extremely unlikely'', for the gas molecules to bounce off one another in such a way that they remain in one half of the container. It is overwhelmingly probable for the gas to spread out to fill the container evenly, which is the new equilibrium macrostate of the system.
This is an illustration of a principle that we will prove rigorously in a [[#Entropy change in heat engines|subsequent section]], known as the [[second law of thermodynamics|Second Law of Thermodynamics]]. This states that
:''the total entropy of any isolated thermodynamic system tends to increase over time, approaching a maximum value''.
Since its discovery, the idea that disorder tends to increase has been the focus of a great deal of thought, some of it confused. A chief point of confusion is the fact that the Second Law applies only to ''isolated'' systems. For example, the [[Earth]] is not an isolated system because it is constantly receiving energy in the form of [[sunlight]]. Nevertheless, it has b |
s cannot escape the public eye, and risk being followed by fans or [[paparazzi]]. As well, [[Child actor|child celebrities]] are notorious for having poor [[emotion|emotional]] health in adulthood, and often turn to drug abuse when their celebrity fades (as it usually does). As adults, celebrities may suffer from [[Hollywood marriage]]s which quickly end in [[separation]] or [[divorce]].
Some participants in [[reality television]] shows have admitted that they appeared on these programs with the goal in mind of attaining celebrity. Most often, they achieve only "fleeting celebrity" with no social or economic value. However for those with career ambitions in the media, it can be an ideal start as a fastlane to fame as an actor or presenter. For example, the Australian Big Brother semifinalist [[Blair McDonough]] landed a major part in the worldwide-broadcasted family soap [[Neighbours]] (even some plot elements mimicking his BB performance).
[[Celebrity culture]], once restricted to [[royal family|royalty]] and mythical figures, has pervaded many sectors of society including business, publishing, and even academia (the [[Scilebrity|scilebrities]]).
Only a small proportion of individuals in any profession can achieve true celebrity. For those who do, the benefits can be substantial-- in the form of speaking fees, book advances, and high-paying "consulting" jobs from firms seeking access.
However, celebrity has its disadvantages as well. Academics and business leaders who become well-known often lose credibility with their peers (or at least perceive that they do). This does not necessarily have to be the case, particulary if they are somewhat selective about the non-specialist appearances they make. This was proven in 2005 when canon law professor Rik Torfs, who otherwise would have stood no chance, proved to be a very witty, erudite and original guest in political and general backgound programs on Flemish TV and in leading quality newspaper [[De Standaard]], was voted a close second by the academic community in the election of a new rector (active chancellor) of [[Katholieke Universiteit Leuven]], one of the major universities in [[Belgium]].
In many fields, such as the arts and publishing, a moderate measure of celebrity (being "established") is necessary before individuals are able to "get respect". Most non-famous individuals in these sectors are poorly-compensated, though they may be as talented or more so than well-compensated, famous people in the same field.
==Celebrity structure==
Each nation or cultural community (linguistic, ethnic, religious) has its own largely independent celebrity system, e.g. individuals who are extremely well known in India, might be unknown abroad, except with the Indian diaspora.
Subnational entities or regions will also have their own 'celebrity system'. This will be largest and most independent in distinct regions such as [[Quebec]] and [[Puerto Rico]]. Locally, regional newscaters, politicians or community leaders could be consdiered celebrities: for example, [[Lin Sue Cooney]] is a well known television reporter in [[Arizona]], but she is not that well known in other areas. Singers, actors (especially working in their native language) and other media celebrities from say the Netherlands are much more likely to be famous in equally Dutch-speaking Flanders, and vice-versa, than anywhere else.
Thus celebrity is relative, depending on [[geography|geographic]] [[scale]]. A celebrity will be known only by those audiences that are reached by the media in which the celebrity features. In a smaller country, linguistic or cultural community, a figure will be less likely to gain worldwide celebrity. [[Shakira]] is an example of someone who was known largely in the [[Spanish Language|Spanish]]-speaking world before increasing her global fame through [[English language]]-versions of her songs.
Some celebrities can be considered 'global' - that is, they are known across the world. These will almost all be high-powered religious or political figures, [[Hollywood]] actors, globally successful [[pop music|pop musicians]] and successful [[sports]] stars.
Many people will refer to celebrities as ''[[A-List]]'', ''B-List'', ''C-List'', ''D-List'' or ''Z-List''. These indicate a placing wihtin the hierarchy, though due to differing levels of celebrity in different regions, it is difficult to place people within one bracket. In addition to this, these 'lists' do not actually exist; they are concepts whose definition will change from person to person.
==Professions that offer celebrity==
[[Image:Yuri Gagarin official portrait.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Kosmonaut]] - [[Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin]].]]
Some professional activities, by the nature of being high-paid, highly exposed, and difficult to get into, automatically confer celebrity. For example, [[movie star]]s and television [[actor]]s are almost invariably celebrities. High-ranking [[politician]]s, [[List of television reporters|television reporters]], television show hosts, [[supermodels]],
[[astronaut]]s, and major-league [[athlete]]s are also celebrities.
Some [[film director|film]] and [[theatre director]]s, [[Film producer|producer]]s, [[artist]]s, [[musician]]s, [[author]]s, [[trial lawyer]]s and [[journalist]]s are celebrities, but the vast majority are not, or much less than their real importance in the business. Some people in these professions strive to avoid celebrity, while others seek it.
Any person who is able to get his or her own television show (or section) will usually become a celebrity: this includes [[chef]]s, [[gardener]]s, and [[interior decorator]]s on shows like ''[[Trading Spaces]]'' and ''[[While You Were Out]]''. However fame based on one program may often prove short-lived after it is discontinued.
==Celebrity families==
Individuals can achieve celebrity, but there are also many celebrity families, such as various royal families (often interest in these will be highest when scandal is involved, as with the [[House of Windsor]]) and artistic 'dynasties' e.g. the Barrymore, Cassidy ([[David Cassidy|David]] and [[Shaun Cassidy]]), the [[Osmonds]], [[The Osbournes|Osbournes]], Quintanilla, [[Redgrave]], Sheen/Estevez, Stiller, Mistry, [[Jackson]] and Baldwin families, as well as the [[Bush political family|Bushes]], [[Clinton#Family of Bill Clinton|Clintons]], Luke Ellis's family and [[Kennedy family|Kennedys]] and some sports families.
==Celebrity resentment==
Because celebrities have fame comparable to that of [[royal family|royalty]] or [[gods]] in the past, some people exhibit curiosity about their private affairs. Due to the high visibility of celebrities' personal lives, their failures are often made public. Therefore, "celebrities" are usually viewed as exhibiting worse personal behavior and having worse moral values than most people. Whether this is true or not is questionable, because the exact meaning of the word "celebrity" is difficult to define, not all celebrities exhibit bad behaviour, and, sometimes, the acts that a celebrity does reflect social trends that non-celebrities might also do. A case in point may be the behavior of non-celebrities on [[Reality television]].
Some have argued that the notion of ''celebrity'' is self-reinforcing and ultimately vacuous: some celebrities are not famous for their accomplishments, but merely famous for their fame and presumed fortune. For example, [[Paris Hilton]] would not be a public figure without her [[wealth]], but her family's prominence has created and reinforces her fame. Hilton is in some senses a special case; she is famous at least in part for being an example of the perceived negative or shallow aspects of celebrity life, and some believe she is going out of her way to fill that role and gather further attention. But in many ways, figures like Hilton and other 21st century celebrities are just occupying celebrity [[niche]]s previously occupied by stars of earlier generations.
==Literature==
''High Visibility'', by Irving J. Rein, Philip Kotler, and Martin Stoller, studies the phenomenon of celebrity. To them, celebrity requires not only fame, but fame with an evident monetary value.
==See also==
*[[:Category:Lists of celebrities]]
*[[Celebrity branding]]
==External links==
*[http://www.verydodgy.com/celebs/ verydodgy.com celebs] - A good selection of female celeb pictures.
*[http://www.babe100.com/ Babe100.com] - For the Promotion of Beautiful Babes, also has profiles, movie, game and product reviews.
*[http://www.cutehoneys.com/ Cute Honeys] Female celebrity database, offers profiles, biographies, pictures, and links. (no ads)
*[http://www.knowyourceleb.com/ Huge collection of celebrity profiles & pictures]
*[http://www.nilacharal.com/enter/celeb/index.html Good collection of celebrity profiles]
*[http://www.celebrityworld.tv/ CelebrityWorld.tv] - Huge collection of Celebrity photos and their biographies.
*[http://www.celebrityculture.net/ Academic website for the study of Celebrity]
*[http://www.celebritiesfans.com/ Celebrities Fans] Huge Celebrity Database, including addresses, photographs, biographies, and merchandisings.
*[http://www.celebmint.com/ Celebmint] Huge Celebrity News and Celebrity Photos + gossip news
*[http://www.whosaliveandwhosdead.com/ Who's Alive and Who's Dead] Comprehensive list of living and dead celebrities
*[http://www.celebsbiography.com/ Celebrity Biography] List of celebrity biographies
*[http://www.aceshowbiz.com/ AceShowBiz] Celebrity database and resource.
*[http://www.celebopedia.com/ Celebopedia] A celebrity encyclopedia with over 1300 profiles.
*[http://www.celebsoup.com/ Celebsoup] Celebrity News
*[http://www.tao-of-tattoos.com/celebrity-tattoos.html Celebrities and their Tattoos] Celebrity Tattoos
*[http://www.platinum-celebs.com/ Platinum Celebs] Offers large database with celeb pictures.
*[http://www.celebrity-ltd.com/ Cele |
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''''Annals of Mathematics''''' (ISSN 0003-486X), often just called '''''Annals''''', is a bimonthly [[mathematics research journal]] published by [[Princeton University]] and the [[Institute for Advanced Study]]. It ranks amongst the most prestigious mathematics journals in the world by criteria such as refereeing intensity.
It started out as ''The Analyst'' in 1874, but was discontinued in 1883 and renamed in 1884 under the new direction of [[Ormond Stone]] of the [[University of Virginia]]. It moved to [[Harvard University|Harvard]] in [[1899]] before reaching its current home in Princeton in [[1911]].
An important period for the journal was 1928-1958 with [[Solomon Lefschetz]] as editor. During this time, ''Annals'' became an increasingly well-known and respected journal. The rise of ''Annals'', in turn, stimulated American mathematics.
Princeton University continued to publish the ''Annals'' on its own until [[1933]], when the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] took joint editorial control. Since [[1998]] it has been available in an electronic edition, alongside its regular print edition.
The current editors of the ''Annals of Mathematics'' are:
* [[Jean Bourgain]], Institute for Advanced Study
* [[Phillip Griffiths]], Institute for Advanced Study
* [[David Gabai]], Princeton University
* [[Nick Katz]], Princeton University
* [[Peter Sarnak]], Princeton University
* [[Yakov Sinai]], Princeton University
==External links==
* [http://www.math.princeton.edu/~annals/ The official website of Annals of Mathematics]
[[Category:Mathematical journals]]
[[es:Annals of Mathematics]]
[[ko:수학연보]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andrei Sakharov</title>
<id>2786</id>
<revision>
<id>42131174</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:51:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dacoutts</username>
<id>690986</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Turn to activism */ International Humanist Award</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Sakharov 1943.jpg|thumb|right|Andrei Sakharov, 1943]]
'''Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov''' ({{lang-ru|Андре́й Дми́триевич Са́харов}}, [[May 21]] [[1921]] &ndash; [[December 14]] [[1989]]), was an eminent [[Russian SFSR|Soviet]] [[Nuclear physics|nuclear]] [[physicist]], [[dissident]] and [[human rights]] activist. Sakharov was an advocate of [[civil liberties]] and reforms in the [[Soviet Union]].
==Life and career==
Born in [[Moscow]] in [[1921]], he entered [[Moscow State University]] in [[1938]]. Following evacuation in [[1941]] during the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|"Great Patriotic War"]], he graduated in [[Ashkhabad]], in today's [[Turkmenistan]]. He was then assigned laboratory work in [[Ulyanovsk]]. He returned to Moscow in [[1945]] to study at the Theoretical Department of [[FIAN]] (the Physical Institute of the [[Russian Academy of Sciences|Soviet Academy of Sciences]]). He received his [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] in [[1947]].
[[Image:1958 Sakharov Kurchatov.jpg|thumb|Andrei Sakharov and [[Igor Kurchatov]], 1958]]
On [[World War II]]'s end, Sakharov researched [[cosmic ray]]s. In mid-1948 he participated in the [[Soviet atomic bomb project]] under [[Igor Kurchatov]]. The first Soviet atomic device was tested on [[August 29]], [[1949]]. After moving to [[Sarov]] in 1950, Sakharov played a key role in the next stage, the development of the [[hydrogen bomb]]. The first Soviet device was tested on [[August 12]], [[1953]]. In 1953, he received his [[Doctor of Science|D.Sc.]] degree, was elected a full member of the [[Russian Academy of Science|Soviet Academy of Sciences]], and was awarded the first of his three [[Hero of Socialist Labor]] titles. Sakharov continued to work at Sarov, helping on the first genuine Soviet H-bombs, tested in 1955, and the 50MT '[[Tsar Bomba]]' of October 1961, the most powerful device ever exploded.
He also proposed an idea for a controlled [[nuclear fusion]] reactor, the [[tokamak]], that is still the basis for the majority of work in the area. Sakharov, in association with [[Igor Tamm]], proposed confining extremely hot ionized [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] by [[torus]] shaped [[magnetic field]]s for controlling [[thermonuclear fusion]]. This led to the development of the tokamak device.
Sakharov proposed the idea of [[induced gravity]] as an alternative theory of [[quantum gravity]].
===Turn to activism===
From the late-[[1950s]] Sakharov had become concerned about the moral and political implications of his work. Politically active during the [[1960s]], Sakharov was against [[nuclear proliferation]]. Pushing for the end of atmospheric tests, he played a role in the [[1963]] [[Partial Test Ban Treaty]], signed in Moscow. In 1965 he returned to fundamental science and began working on [[cosmology]] but continued to oppose political discrimination.
{| border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="2" style="float; width:25%; border: solid 1px #aaa; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;" align="right"
| [[Image:Sakharov timemag 1101770221 400.jpg|120px|]]
| [[Image:Sakharov timemag 1101900514 400.jpg|120px|]]
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;" |<small>Sakharov on the cover of [[Time (magazine)|TIME magazine]]: February 21, 1977 and May 14, 1990</small>{{ifdc|February_28}}
|}
The major turn in Sakharov’s political evolution started in [[1967]], when [[anti-ballistic missile]] defense became a key issue in US–Soviet relations. In a secret detailed letter to the Soviet leadership of [[July 21]], [[1967]], Sakharov explains the need to "''take the Americans at their word''" and accept their proposal "for a bilateral rejection by the USA and the Soviet Union of the development of antiballistic missile defense", because otherwise an arms race in this new technology would increase the likelihood of nuclear war. He also asked permission to publish his manuscript (accompanied the letter) in a newspaper to explain the tricky danger of this kind of defense. The government ignored his letter and refused to let him initiate a public discussion of ABM in the Soviet press.
In May [[1968]] he completed an essay, ''Reflections on Progress, Peaceful Coexistence, and Intellectual Freedom'', where the anti-ballistic missile defense is featured as a major threat of world nuclear war. After this essay was circulated in [[samizdat]] and then published outside the Soviet Union, Sakharov was banned from all military-related research and Sakharov returned to FIAN to study fundamental theoretical physics. In [[1970]] he was one of the founders of the [[Moscow Human Rights Committee]] and came under increasing pressure from the regime. He married a fellow human rights activist, [[Yelena Bonner]], in 1972.
[[Image:Sakharov statue-dcp0660.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Statue of Andrey Sakharov in Sakharov Square in [[Yerevan]] at night. Copyright (c) 2004, Raffi Kojian, Armeniapedia.org]]
In [[1973]] he was nominated for the [[Nobel Peace Prize]]. He won the prize in [[1975]], although he was not allowed to leave the Soviet Union to collect it. His wife read his speech at the acceptance ceremony.
Sakharov's ideas on social development led him to put forward the principle of human rights as a new basis of all politics. In his works he declared that "the principle 'what is not prohibited is allowed' should be understood literally", denying the importance and validity of all moral or cultural norms not codified in the laws. He was arrested on [[January 22]] [[1980]], following his public protests against the [[Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan]] in [[1979]] and was sent to [[internal exile]] to a city of [[Nizhny Novgorod| Gorky]], now [[Nizhny Novgorod]], a [[closed city]] that was inaccessible to foreign observers.
Between [[1980]] to [[1986]], Sakharov was kept under tight Soviet police surveillance. In his memoirs he mentions that their apartment in Gorky was repeatedly subjected to searches and heists. He remained isolated but unrepentant until December 1986 when he was allowed to return to Moscow as [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] initiated the policies of [[perestroika]] and [[glasnost]].
In 1988 Sakharov was given the International Humanist Award by the [[International Humanist and Ethical Union]].
He helped to initiate the first independent legal political organizations and became prominent in the Soviet Union's growing political opposition. In April 1989, Sakharov was elected to the new parliament, the [[Congress of People's Deputies|All-Union Congress of People's Deputies]] and co-led the democratic opposition.
Sakharov died of a [[Myocardial infarction|heart attack]] in 1989 at the age of 68, and was interred in the Vostryakovskoye Cemetery in Moscow.
==Influence==
The [[Sakharov Prize]], established in [[1985]] and awarded annually by the [[European Parliament]] for people and organizations dedicated to human rights and freedoms, was named in his honor.
===Popular fiction===
Sakharov and the "Sakharov Drive" were featured in [[Arthur C. Clarke]]'s novel ''[[2010: Odyssey Two]]''. One of the [[USS Enterprise (NCC-1701-D)|Enterprise-D]] shuttlecraft in ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'' was also named for him.
==References==
* Sakharov, Andrei, "''Facets of a Life''". 1991.
* Babenyshev, Alexander, "''On Sakharov''". Russia, 1981.
* Lozansky, Edward D., "''Andrei Sakharov and Peace''". 1985.
* Drell, Sidney D., and Sergei P. Kapitsa, "''Sahkarov Remembered''". 1991
* Gorelik,Gennady, with Antonina W. Bouis, "''The World of Andrei Sakharov: A Russian Physicist's Path to Freedom''". Oxford University Press |
[[Nichola Holt]], contestant in [[Big Brother UK series 1]] and porn actress
*[[1972]] - [[Hani Hanjour]], [[September 11, 2001]] pilot and terrorist
*[[1973]] - [[Brittany Andrews]], American model and actress
*[[1975]] - [[Joe Perry (snooker player)|Joe Perry]], English snooker player
*[[1977]] - [[Michael Klim]], Australian swimmer
*[[1979]] - [[Taizo Sugimura]], Japanese politician
*[[1982]] - [[Shani Davis]], American speed skater
==Deaths==
*[[586]] - [[Radegund]], queen of [[Clotaire I]]
*[[900]] - [[Zwentibold]], last King of Lotharingia (b. [[870]])
*[[1382]] - [[Eleanor of Aragon]], queen of [[John I of Castile]] (b. [[1358]])
*[[1523]] - [[Gerard David]], Flemish painter
*[[1617]] - [[Johann Jakob Grynaeus]], Swiss protestant clergyman (b. [[1540]])
*[[1667]] - [[Jeremy Taylor]], Irish author and bishop (b. [[1613]])
*[[1686]] - [[Louis Maimbourg]], French-born historian (b. [[1610]])
*[[1744]] - [[John Cruger]], Dutch-born Mayor of New York (b. [[1678]])
*[[1749]] - [[Johann Elias Schlegel]], German critic and poet (b. [[1719]])
*[[1755]] - [[Francesco Durante]], Italian composer (b. [[1684]])
*[[1826]] - [[René Laënnec]], French physician (b. [[1781]])
*[[1863]] - [[Eugène Delacroix]], French painter (b. [[1798]])
*[[1865]] - [[Ignaz Semmelweis]], Austro-Hungarian physician (b. [[1818]])
*[[1910]] - [[Florence Nightingale]], English nurse (b. [[1820]])
*[[1912]] - [[Jules Massenet]], French composer (b. [[1842]])
*[[1917]] - [[Eduard Buchner]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1860]])
*[[1946]] - [[H. G. Wells]], English writer (b. [[1866]])
*[[1958]] - [[Otto Witte]], acrobat and King of Albania (b. [[1868]])
*[[1965]] - [[Ikeda Hayato]], [[Prime Minister of Japan]] (b. [[1899]])
*[[1984]] - [[Tigran Petrosian]], Georgian chess player (b. [[1929]]).
*[[1989]] - [[Tim Richmond]], American race car driver (b. [[1955]])
*[[1994]] - [[Elias Canetti]], Bulgarian-born writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1905]])
*[[1995]] - [[Jan Kresadlo|Jan K&#345;esadlo]], Czech-born writer (b. [[1926]])
*1995 - [[Mickey Mantle]], baseball player (b. [[1931]])
*[[1996]] - [[David Tudor]], American pianist and composer (b. [[1926]]).
*[[1999]] - [[Jaime Garzón]], [[Colombia]]n [[journalist]] and [[comedian]], murdered (b. [[1960]])
*[[2003]] - [[Ed Townsend]], American songwriter and producer (b. [[1929]]).
*[[2004]] - [[Julia Child]], American chef and television personality (b. [[1912]])
*[[2005]] - [[David Lange]], [[Prime Minister of New Zealand]] (b. [[1942]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Roman festivals]] - [[Vertumnalias]] in honor of [[Vertumnus]], and also Diana, on the [[Aventine]] hill
*[[Calendar of saints|RC saints]] - [[Pontian|Pontianus]] and [[Hippolytus (writer)|Hippolytus]], [[Radegund|Radegunde]] (help against the pox), [[Cassian|Cassianus of Imola]] (patron of shorthand-writers)
*[[International Lefthanders Day]]
* In Brasil, Friday [[13 August]] (''agosto'') is considered to be especially filled with sorrow (''desgosto'')
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/13 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[August 12]] - [[August 14]] - [[July 13]] - [[September 13]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:13 Augustus]]
[[ar:13 أغسطس]]
[[an:13 d'agosto]]
[[ast:13 d'agostu]]
[[bg:13 август]]
[[be:13 жніўня]]
[[bs:13. august]]
[[ca:13 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 13]]
[[cv:Çурла, 13]]
[[co:13 d'aostu]]
[[cs:13. srpen]]
[[cy:13 Awst]]
[[da:13. august]]
[[de:13. August]]
[[et:13. august]]
[[el:13 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:13 de agosto]]
[[eo:13-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 13]]
[[fo:13. august]]
[[fr:13 août]]
[[fy:13 augustus]]
[[ga:13 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:13 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 13일]]
[[hr:13. kolovoza]]
[[io:13 di agosto]]
[[id:13 Agustus]]
[[ia:13 de augusto]]
[[ie:13 august]]
[[is:13. ágúst]]
[[it:13 agosto]]
[[he:13 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:13 Agustus]]
[[ka:13 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:13 zélnika]]
[[ku:13'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 13]]
[[lb:13. August]]
[[li:13 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 13]]
[[mk:13 август]]
[[ms:13 Ogos]]
[[nap:13 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:13 augustus]]
[[ja:8月13日]]
[[no:13. august]]
[[nn:13. august]]
[[oc:13 d'agost]]
[[pl:13 sierpnia]]
[[pt:13 de Agosto]]
[[ro:13 august]]
[[ru:13 августа]]
[[sco:13 August]]
[[sq:13 Gusht]]
[[scn:13 di austu]]
[[simple:August 13]]
[[sk:13. august]]
[[sl:13. avgust]]
[[sr:13. август]]
[[fi:13. elokuuta]]
[[sv:13 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 13]]
[[tt:13. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 13]]
[[th:13 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:13 tháng 8]]
[[tr:13 Ağustos]]
[[uk:13 серпня]]
[[wa:13 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 13]]
[[zh:8月13日]]
[[pam:Agostu 13]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Avicenna</title>
<id>1130</id>
<revision>
<id>41797752</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:45:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zmmz</username>
<id>944720</id>
</contributor>
<comment>consistent with britannica, columbia, merriam-webster etc.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AvicennaPersian.jpg|thumb|The works of Avicenna, the greatest of the medieval Islamic physicians, played a crucial role in the [[European Renaissance]].]]
'''Abū ‘Alī al-Ḥusayn ibn ‘Abd Allāh ibn Sīnā''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: '''أبو علي الحسين بن عبد الله بن سينا''') often refered to by his [[Latinized]] name '''Avicenna''' was a [[Persian]] [[Muslim]] [[physician]], [[philosopher]], and [[scientist]] who was born in [[980]] in [[Kharmaithen]] near [[Bukhara]], now in [[Uzbekistan]] (then [[Iran]]), and died June [[1037]] in [[Hamadan]], [[Iran]].
He was the [[author]] of 450 books on a wide range of subjects. Many of these concentrated on [[philosophy]] and [[medicine]]. He is considered by many to be "the father of modern medicine." [[George Sarton]] called Ibn Sina "the most famous scientist of [[Islam]] and one of the most famous of all races, places, and times." His most famous works are ''[[The Book of Healing]]'' and ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', also known as the ''Qanun'' (full title: ''al-qanun fil-tibb'').
==Early life==
His life is known to us from authoritative sources. An autobiography covers his first thirty years, and the rest are documented by his disciple al-Juzajani, who was also his secretary and his friend.
He was born in 370 (AH) / 980 (AD) in Afshana, his mother's home, a small city now part of [[Uzbekistan]] (then part of the Islamic [[Caliphate]]) and his Father from [[Balkh]] now part of [[Afghanistan]] (then also part of the Islamic [[Caliphate]]). His native language was Persian. His father, an official of the Samanid administration, had him very carefully educated at Bukhara. Although traditionally influenced by the [[Ismaili]] branch of Islam, his independent thought was served by an extraordinary intelligence and memory, which allowed him to overtake his teachers at the age of fourteen.
[[Ibn Sina]] was put under the charge of a tutor, and his precocity soon made him the marvel of his neighbours; he displayed exceptional [[intellect]]ual behaviour and was a [[Child prodigy|child prodigy]] who had memorized the [[Koran]] by the age of 10 and a great deal of [[Arabic poetry]] as well. From a greengrocer he learned [[arithmetic]], and he began to learn more from a wandering scholar who gained a livelihood by curing the sick and teaching the young.
However he was greatly troubled by [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] problems and in particular the works of [[Aristotle]]. So, for the next year and a half, he also studied [[philosophy]], in which he encountered greater obstacles. In such moments of baffled inquiry, he would leave his books, perform the requisite ablutions, then go to the [[mosque]], and continue in prayer till light broke on his difficulties. Deep into the night he would continue his studies, stimulating his senses by occasional cups of goat's milk, and even in his dreams problems would pursue him and work out their solution. Forty times, it is said, he read through the ''Metaphysics'' of [[Aristotle]], till the words were imprinted on his memory; but their meaning was hopelessly obscure, until one day they found illumination, from the little commentary by [[Farabi]], which he bought at a bookstall for the small sum of three dirhems. So great was his joy at the discovery, thus made by help of a work from which he had expected only mystery, that he hastened to return thanks to God, and bestowed alms upon the poor.
He turned to [[medicine]] at 16, and not only learned medical theory, but by gratuitous attendance on the sick had, according to his own account, discovered new methods of [[treatment]]. The teenager achieved full status as a physician at age 18 and found that "Medicine is no hard and thorny science, like [[mathematics]] and [[metaphysics]], so I soon made great progress; I became an excellent doctor and began to treat patients, using approved remedies." The youthful physician's fame spread quickly, and he treated many patients without asking for payment.
His first appointment was that of physician to the [[emir]], who owed him his recovery from a dangerous illness ([[997]]). Ibn Sina's chief reward for this service was access to the royal [[library]] of the [[Samanids]], well-known patrons of scholarship and scholars. When the library was destroyed by fire not long after, the enemies of Ibn Sina accused him of burning it, in order for ever to conceal the sources of his knowledge. Meanwhile, he assisted his father in his financial labours, but still found time to write some of his earliest works.
When Ibn Sina was 22 years old, he lost his father. The [[Samanid dynasty]] came to its end in December [[1004]]. Ibn Sina seems to have declined the offers of [[Mahmud of Ghazni]], and Ibn Sina proceeded westwards to [[Urgench]] in the modern [[Uzbekistan]], where the [[vizier]], regarded as a friend of scholars, gave him a small monthly stipend. The pay was small, however, |
land|Oxford]], he marched west in pursuit of [[Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex]], who was invading the Royalist stronghold of [[Cornwall]]. [[Charles I of England|Charles]]'s army vastly outnumbered that of Devereux, and had the advantage of surprise. On [[September 2]] [[1644]], [[Charles I of England|Charles]]'s army attacked the rear of Essex's force and quickly surrounded it at [[Lostwithiel]] in Cornwall, 30 miles west of [[Plymouth]], attacking from both the north and the east at the same time. Lostwithiel was strategically important during the [[English Civil War]] since it held the key to [[Fowey]], at the time a major seaport.
Devereux and most of his cavalry managed to escape, but virtually all of the infantrymen, about 8,000, and the artillery fell into the King's hands. Only Major-General [[Philip Skippon]] and a few of his men succeeded in fighting their way out. Charles wheeled about and marched toward [[London]].
This setback for Parliament in [[Cornwall]], and the last major victory for the Royalists, was reversed by [[Sir Thomas Fairfax]] leading the [[New Model Army]] at or near [[Tresillian Bridge]], close to [[Truro]] on [[March 12]] [[1645]].
[[Category:Battles of the English Civil Wars|Lostwithiel]]
[[Category:History of Cornwall]]
{{battle-stub}}
{{UK-hist-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Berne (disambiguation)</title>
<id>4161</id>
<revision>
<id>39118246</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T21:01:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vir</username>
<id>876895</id>
</contributor>
<comment>edits per [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style (disambiguation pages)]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Bern]]''' may refer to:
* [[Bern]] (or '''Berne'''), the name of the capital of [[Switzerland]] and of the surrounding [[Canton of Bern]]. The city houses the [[University of Berne]].
* [[Bern (district)]], a Swiss administrative district.
* [[Berne, Germany]], a town in [[Lower Saxony]], [[Germany]]
'''Berne''' (or '''Bern''') is also the name of these places in the [[United States]]:
* [[Berne, Indiana]]
* [[Bern, Kansas]]
* [[Berne, New York]]
* [[Bern, Wisconsin]]
* [[Bern Township, Pennsylvania]]
* [[New Bern, North Carolina]]
'''Berne''' is somtimes also used as shorthand for:
*[[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works]]
*[[Convention on the conservation of European wildlife and natural habitats|Berne Convention on the conservation of European wildlife and natural habitats]]
* Bern, the name of the Kingdom of Bern in the [[Fire Emblem]] [[videogame series]].
{{disambig}}
[[de:Berne (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[fr:Berne]]
[[pl:Berne (ujednoznacznienie)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Beeb</title>
<id>4162</id>
<revision>
<id>37255900</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-29T20:50:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rapido</username>
<id>272421</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>added Beeb magazine</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
The word '''Beeb''' usually refers to one of the following, as a [[nickname]]:
*The [[BBC|British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)]] (sometimes called ''the Beeb'', or ''Auntie Beeb'') attributed to [[Kenny Everett]]
*The [[BBC Micro]] home computer from 1982, built for the BBC by Acorn Computers Ltd
[[Beeb (magazine)|Beeb]] was also a weekly children's magazine published in 1985.
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bertrand Russell</title>
<id>4163</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42021681</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T07:11:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andrew Norman</username>
<id>137672</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.98.248.47|68.98.248.47]] ([[User talk:68.98.248.47|talk]]) to last version by NorkNork</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Philosopher |
<!-- Scroll down to edit this page -->
<!-- Philosopher Category -->
region = Western Philosophers |
era = [[20th-century philosophy]] |
color = #B0C4DE |
<!-- Image and Caption -->
image_name = Bertrand Russell.jpg |
image_caption = Bertrand Russell |
<!-- Information -->
name = Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell |
birth = [[1872]] [[May 18]] ([[Trellech]], [[Wales]], [[United Kingdom]]) |
death = [[1970]] [[February 2]] ([[Penrhyndeudraeth]], [[Wales]], [[United Kingdom]]) |
school_tradition = [[Analytic philosophy]] |
main_interests = [[Ethics]], [[Epistemology]], [[logic]], [[mathematics]], [[philosophy of language]], [[philosophy of science]], [[religion]] |
influences = [[Euclid]], [[David Hume|Hume]], [[G.E. Moore]], [[Alfred North Whitehead]], [[Ludwig Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein]] |
influenced = [[Ludwig Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein]], [[A. J. Ayer]], [[Rudolf Carnap]], [[Kurt Gödel]], [[Karl Popper]], [[W. V. Quine]]|
notable_ideas = [[Logical atomism]], [[knowledge by acquaintance]] and [[knowledge by description]], [[Russell's paradox]], [[Russell's teapot]]. |
}}
'''Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell''', [[Order of Merit|OM]], [[Fellow of the Royal Society|FRS]] ([[18 May]] [[1872]] &ndash; [[2 February]] [[1970]]), was an influential British [[mathematical logic|logician]], [[philosopher]], and [[mathematician]], working mostly in the [[20th century]]. A prolific [[writer]], Bertrand Russell was also a populariser of [[philosophy]] and a commentator on a large variety of topics, ranging from very serious issues to the mundane. Continuing a family tradition in [[politics|political]] affairs, he was a prominent [[liberalism|liberal]] as well as a [[socialist]] and [[anti-war]] [[activism|activist]] for most of his long life. Millions looked up to Russell as a prophet of the [[creativity|creative]] and [[rationality|rational]] life; at the same time, his stances on many topics were extremely controversial.
Born at the height of [[United Kingdom|Britain]]'s [[economics|economic]] and political ascendancy, he died of [[influenza]] nearly a century later when the [[British Empire]] had all but vanished; its power dissipated in two victorious, but debilitating [[world war]]s. As one of the world's best-known [[intellectual]]s, Russell's voice carried enormous [[morality|moral]] [[authority]], even into his early 90s. Among his other political activities, Russell was a vigorous proponent of [[nuclear disarmament]] and an outspoken [[critic]] of the [[Vietnam War|American war in Vietnam]].
In [[1950]], Russell was made a [[Nobel Prize|Nobel Laureate]] in [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Literature]] "in recognition of his varied and significant writings in which he champions [[humanitarian]] ideals and [[freethought|freedom of thought]]".
==Biography==
Bertrand Russell was born on [[18 May]] [[1872]] at [[Trellech]], [[Monmouthshire]], [[Wales]], into an [[aristocratic]] [[English people|English]] family. His paternal grandfather, [[John Russell, 1st Earl Russell]], had been the British [[Prime Minister]] in the [[1840s]] and [[1860s]], and was the second son of [[John Russell, 6th Duke of Bedford]]. The Russells had been prominent for several centuries in Britain, and were one of Britain's leading [[Whig]] (Liberal) families. Russell's mother Kate (née Stanley) was also from an aristocratic family, and was the sister of [[Rosalind Howard]], Countess of Carlisle. Russell's parents were quite radical for their times&mdash;Russell's father, [[Viscount Amberley]], was an atheist and consented to his wife's affair with their children's tutor, the [[biologist]] [[Douglas Spalding]]. Both were early advocates of [[birth control]] at a time when this was considered scandalous. [[John Stuart Mill]], the [[Utilitarianism|Utilitarian]] philosopher, was Russell's [[Godparent|godfather]].
Russell had two siblings: [[Frank Russell, 2nd Earl Russell|Frank]] (nearly seven years older than Bertrand), and Rachel (four years older). In June [[1875]] Russell's mother died of [[diphtheria]], followed shortly by Rachel, and in January [[1876]] his father died of [[bronchitis]] following a long period of [[clinical depression|depression]]. Frank and Bertrand were placed in the care of their staunchly [[Victorian morality|Victorian]] grandparents, who lived at [[Pembroke Lodge, Richmond Park|Pembroke Lodge]] in [[Richmond Park]]. The first Earl Russell died in [[1878]], and his widow the Countess Russell (née Lady Frances Elliot) was the dominant family figure for the rest of Russell's childhood and youth. The countess was from a [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[Presbyterian]] family, and successfully petitioned a British [[court]] to set aside a provision in Amberley's [[will (law)|will]] requiring the children to be raised as agnostics. Despite her religious conservatism, she held progressive views in other areas (accepting [[Darwinism]] and supporting [[Irish Home Rule]]), and her influence on Bertrand Russell's outlook on [[social justice]] and standing up for principle remained with him throughout his life. However, the atmosphere at Pembroke Lodge was one of frequent prayer, emotional repression and formality - Frank reacted to this with open rebellion, but the young Bertrand learned to hide his feelings.
Russell's [[adolescence]] was very lonely, and he often contemplated [[suicide]]. He remarked in his autobiography that his keenest interests were in sex, religion and mathematics, and that only the wish to know more mathematics kept him from suicide. He was educated at home by a series of tutors, and he spent countless hours in his grandfather's library. His brother Frank introduced him to [[Euclid]], which transformed Russell's life. |
lower level minor league teams began play in 1997; the expansion draft was held that year as well.
'''Early success and a World Series championship'''
The Diamondbacks' first major league game was played against the [[Colorado Rockies]] on [[March 31]], [[1998]], at [[Chase Field]] (then known as Bank One Ballpark). The Rockies won, 9-2, with [[Andy Benes]] on the mound for the Diamondbacks, and [[Travis Lee]] being the first player to hit, score, homer and drive in a run. Over 50,000 fans were in attendance.
In their first five seasons of existence, the Diamondbacks won three division titles (1999, [[2001]], & 2002) and one [[World Series]]. In 1999, Arizona won over 100 games in only its second season to win the [[National League]] West division. They lost to the [[New York Mets]] in the first round of playoffs.
Colangelo fired Showalter after a relatively disappointing 2000 season, and replaced him with [[Bob Brenly]], the former Giants catcher and coach, who had up to that point been working as a color analyst on Diamondbacks television broadcasts.
In 2001, the team was led by two of the most dominant pitchers in all of baseball: [[Randy Johnson]] and [[Curt Schilling]]. Arizona had postseason victories over the [[St. Louis Cardinals]] (3-2 in the [[National League Division Series|NLDS]]) and the [[Atlanta Braves]] (4-1 in the [[National League Championship Series|NLCS]]) to advance to the World Series where, in one of the most exciting series ever, they beat the reigning champions, the [[New York Yankees]], 4 to 3, to become the youngest expansion franchise to win the championship.
An estimated crowd of 300,000 celebrated at the Diamondbacks victory parade, held at Bank One Ballpark and the surrounding downtown Phoenix streets on November 7, 2001. This was the first major professional sports championship for the state of Arizona and the first for a team (in the four major North American professional sports leagues) owned or controlled by Colangelo, whose basketball Suns made it to the [[NBA Finals]] in [[1976 NBA Finals|1976]] and [[1993 NBA Finals|1993]] but lost both times. (Colangelo's [[Arizona Rattlers]] won the [[Arena Football League]] championship in 1994 and 1997.)
For a detailed look at the 2001 series please see [[2001 World Series]].
'''Tough times and the end of the Colangelo era'''
By the 2004 season, however, the Diamondbacks had dropped to a dismal 51-111 record, the worst in [[Major League Baseball]] that year, despite [[Randy Johnson|Johnson]] pitching a [[perfect game]] on [[May 18]] of that season. [[Bob Brenly|Brenly]] was fired partway through the season and was replaced on an interim basis by coach [[Al Pedrique]].
By this time Colangelo and the other partners were embroiled in a dispute over the financial health and direction of the Diamondbacks. He resigned his managing general partner post in the late summer of 2004.
Colangelo sold his controlling interest in the Arizona Diamondbacks team to a new group of investors lead by [[Jeff Moorad]], a former sports agent with several MLB players as clients, including key members of the Diamondbacks. Moorad was subsequently named CEO of the team and became its primary public face.
Following the 2004 season, the Diamondbacks also hired [[Wally Backman]] to be the team's manager. Backman was formerly manager of the Class A [[California League]] [[Lancaster JetHawks]], one of the Diamondbacks' [[minor-league baseball|minor-league]] affilliates. Backman was fired after management learned of legal troubles and improprieties in Backman's past, and former [[Seattle Mariners]] manager and Giants catcher [[Bob Melvin]] became the new manager after a ten-day tenure for Backman.
Following the Backman incident, the Diamondbacks spent heavily on free agents in order to build a contender. The club signed 3B [[Troy Glaus]], P [[Russ Ortiz]], SS [[Royce Clayton]], and 2B [[Craig Counsell]], among others. Then, they traded [[Randy Johnson]] to the [[New York Yankees|Yankees]], while acquiring [[Javier Vazquez]], [[Brad Halsey]] and [[Shawn Green]] in a three-team trade that included the [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Dodgers]], and sent [[Shea Hillenbrand]] to the [[Toronto Blue Jays|Blue Jays]]. Finally, they traded [[Casey Fossum]] to the [[Tampa Bay Devil Rays|Devil Rays]] for [[José Cruz, Jr.]].
The Diamondbacks, led by Melvin, finished the 2005 season with a disappointing record of 77 wins and 85 losses. However, this was actually good enough for second place in the woefully weak NL West, five games behind the [[San Diego Padres]].
The Diamondbacks were considered by some to be the favorite to win the division after spending big money on the aforementioned free agents; however, injuries hurt the team's chances of reaching its expected potential.
Starting pitcher [[Russ Ortiz|Ortiz]] was out for some time which really hurt the pitching staff. [[Troy Glaus|Glaus]] played with a hurt knee all season. Of all the free agents that signed before the season, no one had a better season than first baseman [[Tony Clark]]. Clark started the season as a bench player and ended the season starting and being an important part of the team. Clark was rewarded with a new contract at the end of the season.
In [[October]] [[2005]] the Diamondbacks hired 35 year old [[Josh Byrnes]] to replace the out-going Joe Garagiola, Jr. as [[General Manager]]. Garagiola took a position in [[Major League Baseball]]'s main offices in New York City.
==Current events==
'''Off-season moves and propsects for the 2006 season'''
Section coming soon.
==Quick facts==
:'''Founded:''' 1998 ([[National League]] expansion)
:'''Uniform colors:''' Purple, Teal, Black, and Copper
:'''Logo design:''' an "A" with one leg of the "A" alternating triangles to suggest a [[Western Diamondback Rattlesnake]]. An alternate logo is a script "D" in the shape of a snake.
:'''Playoff appearances''' (3): 1999, [[2001]], [[2002]]
:'''General Manager''' [[Josh Byrnes]]
==[[Baseball Hall of Fame]]rs==
*''none''
==Retired Numbers==
None, although the team has not reissued the number 38 of [[Curt Schilling]] or the number 51 of [[Randy Johnson]] since they left.
==Current roster==
{{:Arizona Diamondbacks roster}}
==Minor league affiliations==
* '''AAA:''' [[Tucson Sidewinders]], [[Pacific Coast League]]
* '''AA:''' [[Tennessee Smokies]], [[Southern League]]
* '''Advanced A:''' [[Lancaster JetHawks]], [[California League]]
* '''A:''' [[South Bend Silver Hawks]], [[Midwest League]]
* '''Short A:''' [[Yakima Bears]], [[Northwest League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[Missoula Osprey]], [[Pioneer League]]
==See also==
*[[Arizona Diamondbacks/Award winners and league leaders|Diamondbacks award winners and league leaders]]
*[[Arizona Diamondbacks/Team records|Diamondbacks statistical records and milestone achievements]]
*[[Arizona Diamondbacks/Players of note|Diamondbacks players of note]]
*[[Arizona Diamondbacks/Broadcasters|Diamondbacks broadcasters and media]]
*[[Arizona Diamondbacks/Managers and ownership|Diamondbacks managers and ownership]]
== External links ==
*[http://arizona.diamondbacks.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/ari/homepage/ari_homepage.jsp Arizona Diamondbacks official web site]
*[http://www.dbackfans.com Unofficial Fan site for the Arizona Diamondbacks]
*[http://www.azsnakepit.com AZ Snake Pit - an Arizona Diamondbacks blog]
{{MLB Team Arizona Diamondbacks}}
{{MLB}}
[[Category:Arizona Diamondbacks|*]]
[[Category:Major League Baseball teams]]
[[de:Arizona Diamondbacks]]
[[fr:Diamondbacks de l'Arizona]]
[[ja:アリゾナ・ダイヤモンドバックス]]
[[pt:Arizona Diamondbacks]]
[[sv:Arizona Diamondbacks]]
[[zh:亞利桑那響蛇尾]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Aesthetics</title>
<id>2130</id>
<revision>
<id>41961108</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T22:19:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Naconkantari</username>
<id>676502</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/209.241.118.76|209.241.118.76]] ([[User talk:209.241.118.76|talk]]) to last version by DryaUnda</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Aesthetics''' is the study or philosophy of beauty.
==Definition==
The noun ''aesthetic'' means "that which appeals to the senses". Thus, the aesthetics of mathematics are the properties of mathematics that appeal to the senses, as opposed to the content, structures, and utility of the science itself.
Aesthetics is also the domain of philosophy that ponders beauty and art. An aesthetic (also ''esthetic'' or ''æsthetic'') is the concept of a particular school of philosophy that appraises beauty and art by certain standards, e.g. ''the aesthetic of minimalism''.
The adverb ''aesthetically'' signifies a sensory effect. Aesthetically pleasing sculptures, therefore, are scupltures that please the senses.
''Aesthetics'' derives from the German ''Ästhetik'' or French ''esthétique'', both from the Greek ''αἰσθητική'', meaning a perceiver or a sensitive person. The word ''Aesthetics'' was not widely used in English until the beginning of the 19th Century, as referenced by J. H. Bernard's 1892 translation of Immanuel Kant's ''the Critique of the Power of Judgment''.
==Aesthetics in history and philosophy==
{{main|History of aesthetics (pre-20th-century)}}
Although thinkers and sages have pondered beauty and art for thousands of years, the subject of Aesthetics wasn’t set apart as an independent philosophical discipline until the 18th Century by German philosophers. Before this period authors viewed the study as inseparable from other main topics, such as ethics in the Western tradition and religion in the Eastern tradition.
===Ancient Greece===
Greek philosophers initially felt that aesthetically appealing objects were beautiful in and of themselves. [[Plato]] felt that beautiful objects incorporated proportion, harmony and unity among their parts. Similarly in the "M |
raph]], either in liquid or gaseous form. This will provide the requisite information about how the molecules are structured that are needed to produce the taste. The compound can then be artificially mass-produced for the market, although it is often difficult to produce an exact match to the original flavor.
Many of the compounds used to produce artificial flavor belong to a chemical category of [[esters]]. The list of known flavoring agents includes hundreds of molecular compounds, and the flavor chemist ([[flavorist]]) can often mix these together to produce many of the common flavors. Food manufacturers are often reluctant informing consumers about the source from where the flavor is obtained and whether it has been produced with the incorporation of substances such as animal by-products [[glycerin]], [[gelatin]] the like and the use of alcohol in the flavors. [[Muslims]], Orthodox [[Jews]] and [[Hindus]] adhere to religious laws, and [[vegans]] to personal morals, that restrict the use of animal by-products and alcohol in foods unless subject to overseeing and inspection by their respective religious authority or less-strict or circumstantial moral belief.
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" style="margin-left:10%;"
!Chemical
!Odour
|-
|[[Isoamyl acetate]]
|[[Banana]]
|-
|[[Cinnamic aldehyde]]
|[[Cinnamon]]
|-
|Ethyl propionate
|[[Fruit]]y
|-
|[[Limonene]]
|[[Orange (fruit)|Orange]]
|-
|Ethyl-(E,Z)-2,4-decadienoate
|[[Pear]]
|-
|[[Allyl hexanoate]]
|[[Pineapple]]
|-
|[[Methyl salicylate]]
|[[Wintergreen]]
|}
[[Flavor enhancer]]s are also used to augment the taste of foods.
The compounds used to produce artificial flavors are almost identical to those that occur naturally, and a natural origin for a substance does not necessarily imply that it is safe to consume. In fact, artificial flavors are considered somewhat safer to consume than natural flavors. Natural flavors may contain toxins from their sources while artificial flavors are typically more pure and are required to undergo more testing before being sold for consumption.
==Legal definition (U.S.)==
According to the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, a natural flavor is "the essential oil, oleoresin, essence or extractive, protein hydrolysate, distillate, or any product of roasting, heating or enzymolysis, which contains the flavoring constituents derived from a spice, fruit or fruit juice, vegetable or vegetable juice, edible yeast, herb, bark, bud, root, leaf or any other edible portions of a plant, meat, seafood, poultry, eggs, dairy products, or fermentation products thereof, whose primary function in food is flavoring rather than nutritional." [http://frwebgate1.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/waisgate.cgi?WAISdocID=230673388281+1+0+0&WAISaction=retrieve] An artificial flavor is one that does not meet the specifications listed above.
== See also ==
{{Wiktionary}}
* [[Aroma compound]]
* [[Cooking]]
* [[Seasoning]]
* [[Flavor text]]
* [[Flavonoid]]
* [[Food additive]]
* [[Preservative]]
* [[Monosodium glutamate]], commonly known as MSG
* [[E number]]
* [[Flavonoid]]
* [[Fragrance oil]]
==External links==
*[http://www.monell.org/ Monell Chemical Senses Center]
*[http://www.fantastic-flavour.com/ Fantastic Flavours commercial site]
*[http://www.fks.com/flavors/tech/Science%20of%20Flavor%20Creation.asp The Science in artificial flavor creation]
*[http://science.howstuffworks.com/question391.htm How Stuff Works "How do artificial flavors work?"]
*[http://www.fantastic-flavor.com/ What's in Flavors "Flavor creation and science"]
*[http://www.rense.com/general7/whyy.htm Why McDonald's Fries Taste So Good] An extract from the book ''[[Fast Food Nation]]''.
[[fr:Goût]] [[simple:Flavor]]
{{food-stub}}
[[Category:Food science]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FielDs</title>
<id>10593</id>
<revision>
<id>15908394</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Field]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FrisianLanguage</title>
<id>10594</id>
<revision>
<id>15908395</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frisian language]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Film Theory</title>
<id>10595</id>
<revision>
<id>15908396</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Film theory]]
</text>
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<page>
<title>Frisian language</title>
<id>10596</id>
<revision>
<id>41602207</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T12:40:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ML</username>
<id>297412</id>
</contributor>
<comment>denmark removed until its frisian speakers are mentioned on article or cited other sources</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This page covers the Frisian language or languages, as spoken in the North of The Netherlands and Germany. For other uses, see [[Frisian language (disambiguation)]].''
{{Infobox Language
|name=Frisian
|nativename=Frysk, Fräisk, Frasch
|familycolor=Indo-European
|states=[[Netherlands]], [[Germany]]
|region=[[West Europe]], [[North Europe]].
|speakers=360,000–750,000 (''approximate figure including all variants'')
|fam2=[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|fam3=[[West Germanic languages|West]]
|fam4=[[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo-Frisian]]
|nation=[[Netherlands]] (One of the official languages in [[Friesland]])
|iso1=fy|iso2=fry
|lc1=fry|ld1=Frisian (generic)|ll1=none
|lc2=frr|ld2=Northern Frisian|ll2=North Frisian language
|lc3=fri|ld3=Western Frisian|ll3=West Frisian language
|lc4=stq|ld4=Saterfriesisch|ll4=Saterland Frisian language}}
'''Frisian''' is a [[Germanic language|Germanic]] language, or group of closely related languages, spoken by around half a million members of an [[ethnic group]] living on the southern fringes of the [[North Sea]] in the [[Netherlands]] and [[Germany]]. The ancient Frisians figured prominently in North European history. They were especially noted as traders and raiders during the [[Viking Age]]. After [[Scots language|Scots]], Frisian is the closest related living language to [[English language|English]] (not including English dialects and pidgins).
== Division==
There are three varieties of Frisian: [[West Frisian language|West Lauwers Frisian]], [[Saterland Frisian language|Saterland Frisian]], and [[North Frisian language|North Frisian]]. Some linguists consider these three varieties, despite their mutual unintelligibility, to be dialects of one single Frisian language, while others consider them to be three separate languages, as do their speakers. Of the three, especially the North Frisian language is further segmented into several strongly diverse dialects. [[Stadsfries]] is a [[mixed language]].
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=== West Lauwers Frisian ===
-->
=== Speakers ===
Most Frisian speakers live in the [[Netherlands]], primarily in the province of [[Fryslân]], since 1997 officially using its Frisian name, where the number of native speakers is about 350,000. An increasing number of Dutch native speakers in the province of Friesland are able to speak the language. In [[Germany]], there are about 2,000 speakers of Frisian in the [[Saterland]] region of [[Lower Saxony]]; the Saterland's marshy fringe areas have long protected Frisian speech there from pressure by the surrounding [[Low German]] and [[German language|standard German]].
In the [[Nordfriesland]] (Northern Frisia) region of the German province of [[Schleswig-Holstein]], there are 10,000 Frisian speakers. While many of these Frisians live on the mainland, most are found on the islands, notably [[Sylt]], [[Föhr]], [[Amrum]], and [[Heligoland]]. The local corresponding Frisian dialects are still in use.
=== Status ===
Frisian is officially recognised and protected as a [[minority language]] in Germany and is one of the two official languages in the Dutch province of Fryslân. [[ISO 639]] codes 'fy' and 'fry' were assigned to the collective Frisian languages.
==History ==
===Old Frisian===
{{main|Old Frisian}}
In the early [[Middle Ages]] the Frisian lands stretched from the area around [[Bruges]], in what is now [[Belgium]], to the river [[Weser]], in northern [[Germany]]. At that time, the Frisian language was spoken along the entire southern [[North Sea]] coast. Today this region is sometimes referred to as Great Frisia or Frisia Magna, and many of the areas within it still treasure their Frisian heritage, even though in most places the Frisian languages have been lost.
Originally, Frisian was the language closest related to [[English language|English]], but after at least five hundred years of being subjected to the influence of [[Dutch language|Dutch]], modern Frisian bears a greater similarity to Dutch than to English; one must also take into account the centuries-long drift of English away from Frisian. Thus the modern languages are unintelligible to each other today, partly due to the marks which [[Low Franconian languages]] (such as Dutch) and [[Low German]] have left on Frisian, and partly due to the vast influence some languages (in particular [[French language|French]]) have had on English throughout the centuries.
[[Old Frisian]], however, did bear a striking similarity to [[Old English language|Old English]]. This similarity was reinforced in the late [[Middle A |
st the commands of their leader's with convinction in its success invariably has a higher morale than an army that doubts its every move. The British in the naval battle of [[Trafalgar]], for example, owed its success to the reputation of celebrated admiral [[Lord Nelson]].
== Types of battle ==
[[Image:Battle of Gettysburg, by Currier and Ives.png|thumb|right|300px|''The [[battle of Gettysburg]], Pa. July 3d. 1863'', by Currier and Ives]]
Battles can be fought on land, sea, or by the modern age, in the air. [[Naval battle]]s have occurred since before the [[5th century BC]]. Air battles have been far less common, due to its late conception, the most prominent being the [[Battle of Britain]] in [[1940]]. However since the [[World War II|Second World War]] land or sea battles have come to rely on air support. Indeed, during the [[Battle of Midway]], five [[aircraft carrier]]s were sunk without either fleets coming in to direct contact.
There are numerous types of battle. A "battle of encounter" is a [[meeting engagement]] where the opposing sides collide in the field without either having prepared their attack or defence. The goal of a "battle of attrition" is to inflict greater loss on the enemy than you suffer yourself; many battles of the First World War were intentionally ([[Battle of Verdun|Verdun]]) or unintentionally ([[Battle of the Somme (1916)|Somme]]) attrition battles. A "battle of breakthrough" aims to pierce the enemy's defences, thereby exposing the vulnerable flanks which can be turned. A "battle of encirclement" &mdash; the ''Kesselschlacht'' of the German ''[[Blitzkrieg]]'' &mdash; surrounds the enemy in a [[salients, re-entrants and pockets|pocket]]. A "battle of envelopment" involves an attack on one or both [[flank]]s; the classic example being the double-envelopment of the [[Battle of Cannae]]. A "battle of annihilation" is one in which the defeated party is destroyed in the field, such as the [[France|French]] fleet at the [[Battle of the Nile]].
A "decisive battle" is one of particular importance; often by bringing hostilities to an end, such as the [[Battle of Hastings]], or as a turning point in the fortunes of the [[belligerent]]s, such as the [[Battle of Stalingrad]]. A decisive battle can have [[political]] as well as military impact, changing the balance of power or boundaries between countries. The concept of the "decisive battle" became popular with the publication in [[1851]] of [[Edward Creasy]]'s ''[[The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World]]''. British [[military historian]]s [[J.F.C. Fuller]] (''The Decisive Battles of the Western World'') and [[B.H. Liddell Hart]] (''Decisive Wars of History''), among many others, have written books in the style of Creasy's work.
== The differences among land battles throughout history ==
There is an obvious difference in the way battles have been fought throughout time. Early battles were probably fought between rival hunting bands as disorganized mobs. However, during the [[Battle of Kadesh]], the first documented battle, in 1275 BC, actual discipline was instilled in both armies. This continued through the Ancient Times and the [[Middle Ages]]. However, during the many wars of the [[Roman Empire]], [[barbarians]] continued using mob tactics. As the [[Age of Enlightenment]] dawned, armies began to fight in highly diciplined lines. Each would follow the orders from their officers and fight as a single unit instead of individuals. Each army was successively divided into [[regiments]], [[battalions]], [[Company (military unit)|companies]], and [[platoons]]. These armies would march, line up, and fire in divisions. [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]], on the other hand, did not fight in lines and utilizing instead guerrilla tactics. The [[Americans|United States of America]] during the [[American Revolution]] also followed suit. Europe, during the [[Napoleonic Wars]], continued using diciplined lines, continuing into the [[American Civil War]]. A new style, during [[World War I]], known as [[trench warfare]], developed nearly half a decade later. This also lead to [[radio]] for communication between batallions. Chemical warfare also emerged with the use the use of poisonous gas during [[World War I]] and the [[Austro-Prussian War]]. By [[World War II]], the use of the smaller divisions, platoons and companies, became much more important as precise operations became vital. Instead of the locked trench warfare of World War I, during World War II, a dynamic network of battles developed where small groups encountered other platoons. As a result, elite squads became much more recognized and distinguishable. Vehicle warfare also developed with an astonishing pace with the advent of the [[tank]], replacing the archaic cannons of the Enlightenment Age. Artillery has since gradually replaced the use of frontal troops. Modern battles now continue to resemble that of World War II, though prominent innovations have been added. Indirect combat through the use of aircraft and missiles now comprise of a large portion of wars in place of battles, where battles are now mostly reserved for capturing cities.
== The difference of naval battles throughout history ==
One significant difference of modern naval battles as opposed to earlier forms of combat is the use of [[marines]], which introduced amphibious warfare. Today, a marine is actually an infantry regiment that sometimes fights soley on land and is no longer tied to the navy. A good example of an old naval battle is the [[Battle of Salamis]]. Most ancient naval battles were fought by fast ships using the [[battering ram]] to sink oppsing feets or steer close enoguh for boarding in hand-to-hand combat. Troops were often actually used to storm enemy ships as used by [[ancient Rome|Romans]] and [[pirates]]. This tactic was usually used by civilizations that could not beat the enemy with ranged weaponry. Another invention in the late [[Middle Ages]] was the use of [[Greek fire]] by the Byzantines, which was used to light enemy fleets on fire. Empty demolition ships utilized the tactic to crash into opposing ships and set it afire with an explosion. After the invention of cannons, naval warfare became useful as support units for land warefare. During the [[19th Century]], the development of mines led to a new type of naval warfare. The [[ironclad]], first used in the [[American Civil War]], resistant to cannons, soon made the wooden ship obsolete. The invention of a [[U-Boat]], that is, submarine, during [[World War I]] by the [[Germany|Germans]] brought naval warefare to both above and below the surface. With the development of aircraft during [[World War II]], battles were fought in sky as well as below the ocean. [[Aircraft carriers]] have since become the central unit in naval warfare, acting as a mobile base for lethal aircraft.
== Aerial battles throughout history ==
Although the use of aircraft has for the most part always been used as a supplement to land or naval engagements, since their first major military use in World War I aircraft have increasingly taken on larger roles if warfare. During World War I, the primary use was for reconaissance, and small-scale bombardment, using ineffectual hand-dropped bombs. Aircraft began becoming much more prominent in the [[Spanish Civil War]] and especially World War II. Aircraft design began specializing, primarily into two types: bombers, which carried explosive payloads to bomb land targets or ships; and fighter-interceptors, which were used to either intercept incoming aircraft or to escort and protect bombers (engagements between fighter aircraft were known as [[dog fights]]. Some of the more notable aerial battles in this period include the [[Battle of Britain]] and the [[Battle of Midway]].
Another important use of aircraft came with the development of the [[helicopter]], which first became heavily used during the Vietnam War, and still continues to be widely used today to transport and augment ground forces.
Today, direct engagements between aircraft are rare - the most modern fighter-interceptors carry much more extensive bombing payloads, and are used to bomb precision land targets, rather than to fight other aircraft. Anti-aircraft batteries are used much more extensively to defend against incoming aircraft than interceptors. Despite this, aircraft today are much more extensively used as the primary tools for both army and navy, as evidenced by the prominent use of helicopters to transport and support troops, the use of aerial bombardment as the "first strike" in many engagements, and the replacement of the battleship with the aircraft carrier as the center of most modern navies.
== Battle naming ==
[[Image:Battle of Gibraltar 1607.jpg|thumb|left|300px|''[[Battle of Gibraltar]]'' of [[1607]] by [[Hendrick Cornelisz Vroom]].]]
Battles are almost invariably named after some feature of the battlefield [[geography]], such as the name of a town, forest or river. Occasionally battles are named after the date on which they took place, such as [[The Glorious First of June]]. In the [[Middle Ages]] it was considered important to settle on a suitable name for a battle which could be used by the [[chronicler]]s. For example, after [[Henry V of England]] defeated a French army on [[25 October]], [[1415]], he met with the senior French [[herald]] and they agreed to name the battle after the nearby [[castle]] and so it was called the [[Battle of Agincourt]]. In other cases, the sides adopted different names for the same battle, such as the [[Battle of Gallipoli]] which is known in Turkey as the [[Battle of Çanakkale]]. Some place names have become [[synonymous]] with the battles that took place there, such as [[Passchendaele]], [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]] or [[Battle of the Alamo|the Alamo]]. [[Mi |
ag athl iocc|[[Vladimir Dratchev]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vadim Sashurin]]|BLR}}
|-
|1997
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ricco Groß]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Oleg Ryzhenkov]]|BLR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ludwig Gredler]]|AUT}}
|-
|1999
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sven Fischer]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ricco Groß]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vadim Sashurin]]|BLR}}
|-
|2000
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Wolfgang Rottmann]]|AUT}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ludwig Gredler]]|AUT}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Luck]]|GER}}
|-
|2001
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Paavo Puurunen]]|FIN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vadim Sashurin]]|BLR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ilmars Bricis]]|LAT}}
|-
|2003
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Halvard Hanevold]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vesa Hietalahti]]|FIN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ricco Groß]]|GER}}
|-
|2004
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Raphaël Poirée]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Tomasz Sikora]]|POL}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|-
|[[Biathlon World Championship 2005|2005]]
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Roman Dostal]]|CZE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Michael Greis]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ricco Groß]]|GER}}
|}
=== Sprint (10 km) ===
This event was first held in [[1974]].
{| class="wikitable" cellspacing="1"
! Year
! style="background:gold" width="210" | Gold
! style="background:silver" width="210" | Silver
! style="background:#cc9966" width="210" | Bronze
|-
|1974
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Juhani Suutarinen]]|FIN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Günther Bartnick]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Torsten Wadman]]|SWE}}
|-
|1975
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Nikolay Kruglov Sr.|Nikolay Kruglov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Elisarov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Klaus Siebert]]|GDR}}
|-
|1976
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Tikhonov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Elisarov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Nikolay Kruglov Sr.|Nikolay Kruglov]]|URS}}
|-
|1977
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Tikhonov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Nikolay Kruglov Sr.|Nikolay Kruglov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Ushakov]]|URS}}
|-
|1978
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Ullrich]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eberhard Rösch]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Klaus Siebert]]|GDR}}
|-
|1979
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Ullrich]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Odd Lirhus]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Luigi Weiss]]|ITA}}
|-
|1981
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Ullrich]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Erkki Antila]]|FIN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Yvon Mougel]]|FRA}}
|-
|1982
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eirik Kvalfoss]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Ullrich]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vladimir Alikin]]|URS}}
|-
|1983
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eirik Kvalfoss]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Peter Angerer]]|FRG}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alfred Eder]]|AUT}}
|-
|1985
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank-Peter Rötsch]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eirik Kvalfoss]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Johann Passler]]|ITA}}
|-
|1986
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Valeriy Medvedtsev]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Peter Angerer]]|FRG}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Franz Schuler]]|AUT}}
|-
|1987
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank-Peter Rötsch]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Matthias Jacob]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[André Sehmisch]]|GDR}}
|-
|1989
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Luck]]|FRG}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eirik Kvalfoss]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Juri Kazhkarov]]|URS}}
|-
|1990
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Mark Kirchner]]|FRG}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eirik Kvalfoss]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sergei Tchepikov]]|URS}}
|-
|1991
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Mark Kirchner]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Luck]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eirik Kvalfoss]]|NOR}}
|-
|1993
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Mark Kirchner]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Jon Åge Tyldum]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sergei Tarasov]]|RUS}}
|-
|1995
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Patrice Bailly-Salins]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Pavel Muslimov]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ricco Gross|Ricco Groß]]|GER}}
|-
|1996
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vladimir Dratchev]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Viktor Maigourov]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[René Cattarinussi]]|ITA}}
|-
|1997
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Wilfried Pallhuber]]|ITA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[René Cattarinussi]]|ITA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Oleg Ryzhenkov]]|BLR}}
|-
|1999
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Luck]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Patrick Favre]]|ITA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frode Andresen]]|NOR}}
|-
|2000
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frode Andresen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Pavel Rostovtsev]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[René Cattarinussi]]|ITA}}
|-
|2001
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Pavel Rostovtsev]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Rene Cattarinussi]]|ITA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Halvard Hanevold]]|NOR}}
|-
|2003
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ricco Groß]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Zdenek Vitek]]|CZE}}
|-
|2004
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Raphaël Poirée]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ricco Groß]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|-
|[[Biathlon World Championship 2005|2005]]
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sven Fischer]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ilmars Bricis]]|LAT}}
|}
=== Pursuit (12.5 km) ===
This event was first held in [[1997]].
{| class="wikitable" cellspacing="1"
! Year
! style="background:gold" width="210" | Gold
! style="background:silver" width="210" | Silver
! style="background:#cc9966" width="210" | Bronze
|-
|1997
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Viktor Maigourov]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sergei Tarasov]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|-
|1998
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vladimir Dratchev]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Raphaël Poirée]]|FRA}}
|-
|1999
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ricco Gross|Ricco Groß]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Luck]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sven Fischer]]|GER}}
|-
|2000
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Luck]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Pavel Rostovtsev]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Raphaël Poirée]]|FRA}}
|-
|2001
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Pavel Rostovtsev]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Raphaël Poirée]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sven Fischer]]|GER}}
|-
|2003
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ricco Groß]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Halvard Hanevold]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Paavo Puurunen]]|FIN}}
|-
|2004
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ricco Groß]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Raphaël Poirée]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|-
|[[Biathlon World Championship 2005|2005]]
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sergei Tchepikov]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sven Fischer]]|GER}}
|}
=== Mass start (15 km) ===
This event was first held in [[1999]].
{| class="wikitable" cellspacing="1"
! Year
! style="background:gold" width="210" | Gold
! style="background:silver" width="210" | Silver
! style="background:#cc9966" width="210" | Bronze
|-
|1999
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sven Fischer]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vladimir Dratchev]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|-
|2000
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Raphaël Poirée]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Pavel Rostovtsev]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|-
|2001
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Raphaël Poirée]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sven Fischer]]|GER}}
|-
|2002
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Raphaël Poirée]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sven Fischer]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frode Andresen]]|NOR}}
|-
|2003
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sven Fischer]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Raphaël Poirée]]|FRA}}
|-
|2004
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Raphaël Poirée]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Lars Berger]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sergei Konovalov]]|RUS}}
|-
|[[Biathlon World Championship 2005|2005]]
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sven Fischer]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Raphaël Poirée]]|FRA}}
|}
=== Relay (4 &times; 7.5 km) ===
This event was first held unofficially in [[1958]] and officially in [[1966]]. The 1959 to 1965 contests were three legs only.
{| class="wikitable" cellspacing="1"
! Year
! style="background:gold" width="210" | Gold
! style="background:silver" width="210" | Silver
! style="background:#cc9966" width="210" | Bronze
|-
|1958
|{{SWE}}
|{{URS}}
|{{NOR}}
|-
|1959
|{{URS}}
|{{SWE}}
|{{NOR}}
|-
|1961
|{{FIN}}
|{{URS}}
|{{SWE}}
|-
|1962
|{{URS}}
|{{FIN}}
|{{NOR}}
|-
|1963
|{{URS}}
|{{FIN}}
|{{NOR}}
|-
|1965
|{{NOR}}
|{{URS}}
|{{POL}}
|-
|1966
|{{NOR}}
|{{POL}}
|{{SWE}}
|-
|1967
|{{NOR}}
|{{URS}}
|{{SWE}}
|-
|1969
|{{URS}}
|{{NOR}}
|{{FIN}}
|-
|1970
|{{URS}}
|{{NOR}}
|{{GDR}}
|-
|1971
|{{URS}}
|{{NOR}}
|{{POL}}
|-
|1973
|{{URS}}
|{{NOR}}
|{{GDR}}
|-
|1974
|{{URS}}
|{{FIN}}
|{{NOR}}
|-
|1975
|{{FIN}}
|{{URS}}
|{{POL}}
|-
|1977
|{{URS}}
|{{FIN}}
|{{GDR}}
|-
|1978
|{{GDR}}
|{{NOR}}
|{{FRG}}
|-
|1979
|{{GDR}}
|{{FIN}}
|{{URS}}
|-
|1981
|{{GDR}}
|{{FRG}}
|{{URS}}
|-
|1982
|{{GDR}}
|{{NOR}}
|{{URS}}
|-
|1983
|{{URS}}
|{{GDR}}
|{{NOR}}
|-
|1985
|{{URS}}
|{{GDR}}
|{{FRG}}
|-
|1986
|{{URS}}
|{{GDR}}
|{{ITA}}
|-
|1987
|{{GDR}}
|{{URS}}
|{{FRG}}
|-
|1989
|{{URS}}
|{{GDR}}
|{{NOR}}
|-
|1990
|{{ITA}}
|{{FRA}}
|{{FRG}}
|-
|1991
|{{GER}}
|{{URS}}
|{{NOR}}
|-
|1993
|{{ITA}}
|{{RUS}}
|{{GER}}
|-
|1995
|{{GER}}
|{{FRA}}
|{{BLR}}
|-
|1996
|{{RUS}}
|{{GER}}
|{{BLR}}
|-
|1997
|{{GER}}
|{{NOR}}
|{{ITA}}
|-
|1999
|{{BLR}}
|{{RUS}}
|{{NOR}}
|-
|2000
|{{RUS}}
|{{NOR}}
|{{GER}}
|-
|2001
|{{FRA}}
|{{BLR}}
|{{NOR}}
|-
|2003
|{{GER}}
|{{RUS}}
|{{BLR}}
|-
|2004
|{{GER}}
|{{NOR}}
|{{FRA}}
|-
|[[Biathlon World Championship 2005|2005]]
|{{NOR}}
|{{RUS}}
|{{AUT}}
|}
=== Team ===
This event was held from [[1989]] to 1998.
{| class="wikitable" cellspacing="1"
! Year
! style="background:gold" width="210" | Gold
! style="background:silver" width="210" | Silver
! style="background:#cc9966" width="210" | Bronze
|-
|1989
| |
on [[April 9]], 1999.
By the time the divorce was final, Agassi was dating the German tennis legend Steffi Graf. With only their mothers as witnesses, they were married at his home on [[October 22]], 2001. Their son, [[Jaden Gil Agassi|Jaden Gil]], was born 6 weeks prematurely on [[October 26]] that year. Their daughter, [[Jaz Elle Agassi|Jaz Elle]], was born on [[October 3]] [[2003]].
Agassi's older sister Rita married the former tennis legend [[Pancho Gonzales]]. In 1995, when Gonzales died in Las Vegas, Andre paid for his brother-in-law's funeral.
Andre has participated in many charity organizations, and founded the Andre Agassi Charitable Association, which assists the youth of Las Vegas. In 1995, he has won 1995's ATP Arthur Ashe's Humanitarian award in recognition of his efforts helping disadvantaged youth in LA.
The Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation has always and will continue to fund organizations which offer programs that consistently carry out the mission of the Foundation. The Foundation's mission is to provide educational and recreational institutions and activities for abandoned, abused, and at-risk kids. The following organizations are fine examples:
===The Andre Agassi Boys & Girls Club===
In 1997, Agassi opened the Boys & Girls Club, a 25,000-square-foot facility that features an indoor basketball court, outdoor tennis courts, a computer lab, library and teen centre. It sees as many as 400 children a day in the summer and well over 2,000 during the year.
Its junior tennis team, Team Agassi, includes mostly players with no previous tennis experience. As of January 2006, the team boasted four nationally ranked players as well as a number of regionally ranked players. Coached by Tim Blenkiron, the group practices regularly, attends study sessions, and often travels to play in various tournaments. The program also encourages members to respect each other and appreciate the challenges of winning and losing.
A basketball program, the Agassi Stars, began in 2000. Headed by Coach Jermone Riley, the Stars are required to attend study hall sessions, write to universities they might be interested in attending, and balance athletics and education.
The Foundation hopes to make these programs a college recruiting ground for kids with academic as well as athletic potential. In a community where drugs and gangs are prevalent forces, the Agassi Club promotes learning and gives kids a safe place to go after school.
== Ethnicity question ==
Agassi's ethnicity, beyond being an American citizen, has been a subject of discussion by fans around the world. His father Mike Agassi is of [[Armenian people|Armenian]] and [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] ethnicity from the state of Iran, and there have been attempts to "claim" Agassi by both the Armenian and Iranian communities in the United States and abroad. Agassi has often seemed somewhat ambivalent, for example, joking after his "All-Armenian" match against [[Sargis Sargsian]] at the US Open in 2004, "Well, I'm only half-Armenian" [http://www.boston.com/sports/other_sports/tennis/articles/2004/09/07/armenian_supremacy_for_agassi?mode=PF], though he agreed to appear in a [[PBS]] documentary about [http://www.wliw.org/productions/armenian.html Armenian-Americans]. His father has written in his book, ''The Agassi Story'', about his experience of being an outsider in Muslim Iran, but Andre has also shown interest in the Iranian aspect of his heritage, in February 2005 expressing a desire to visit Iran, which holds "a special place" in his heart.[http://www.payvand.com/news/05/feb/1171.html]
==Quotes==
About Pete Sampras' retirement: "You grow up with a guy, you compete against him for so long, he's such a big part of your career, something that's pretty special, so you do have that sense of personal regret that he's not around any more. You miss having that around."
During the 2005 US Open: "I've been motivated by overcoming challenge and overcoming the hurdles and obstacles that face me. There still is plenty out there to get motivated by."
(from [[Mats Wilander]], asked to name the top 5 tennis players of all time; he placed Agassi, Sampras, Federer, and Borg in the top 4 (in no order) and tied McEnroe, Lendl, and Connors for fifth place): ON AGASSI: “He has some limitations, like he can’t serve and volley, yet he has won all four Slams. He has a very high energy level, quite like Borg. He is on fifth gear from the very first point. There is some abnormality in his eyes, otherwise he wouldn’t have had such a phenomenal return. He sees the ball like none else and just guides it wherever he wants to. He’s just played a Grand Slam final at 35, that tells me he wasted the first five years of his career, otherwise he couldn’t have lasted this long. No one has done more to tennis than Agassi and Borg.”
==Video games==
* ''[[Andre Agassi Tennis]]'' for the [[SNES]], [[Sega Genesis]], [[Game Gear]], and [[Mobile phone]]
* ''[[Agassi Tennis Generation]]'' for [[PlayStation 2|PS2]] and [[Game Boy Advance|GBA]]
* ''[[Smash Court Pro Tournament]]'' for PS2
==Grand Slam record==
[[Australian Open]]
*'''Singles champion: 1995, 2000, 2001, 2003
*Singles semi-finalist: 1996, 2004
*Singles quarter-finalist: 2005
[[French Open]]
*'''Singles champion: 1999
*Singles finalist: 1990, 1991
*Singles semi-finalist: 1988, 1992
*Singles quarter-finalist: 1995, 2001, 2002, 2003
*Doubles quarter-finalist: 1992
[[Wimbledon]]
*'''Singles champion: 1992
*Singles finalist: 1999
*Singles semi-finalist: 1995, 2000, 2001
*Singles quarter-finalist: 1991, 1993
[[U.S. Open (tennis)|U.S. Open]]
*'''Singles champion: 1994, 1999
*Singles finalist: 1990, 1995, 2002, 2005
*Singles semi-finalist: 1988, 1989, 1996, 2003
*Singles quarter-finalist: 1992, 2001, 2004
==Grand Slam finals==
===Wins (8)===
'''Year''' '''Championship''' '''Opponent in Final''' '''Score in Final'''
1992 Wimbledon Goran Ivanišević 6-7, 6-4, 6-4, 1-6, 6-4
1994 US Open Michael Stich 6-1, 7-6, 7-5
1995 Australian Open Pete Sampras 4-6, 6-1, 7-6, 6-4
1999 French Open Andrei Medvedev 1-6, 2-6, 6-4, 6-3, 6-4
1999 US Open Todd Martin 6-4, 6-7, 6-7, 6-3, 6-2
2000 Australian Open Yevgeny Kafelnikov 3-6, 6-3, 6-2, 6-4
2001 Australian Open Arnaud Clement 6-4, 6-2, 6-2
2003 Australian Open Rainer Schuettler 6-2, 6-2, 6-1
===Runner-ups (7)===
'''Year''' '''Championship''' '''Opponent in Final''' '''Score in Final'''
1990 French Open Andres Gomez 6-3, 2-6, 6-4, 6-4
1990 US Open Pete Sampras 6-4, 6-3, 6-2
1991 French Open Jim Courier 3-6, 6-4, 2-6, 6-1, 6-4
1995 US Open Pete Sampras 6-4, 6-3, 4-6, 7-5
1999 Wimbledon Pete Sampras 6-3, 6-4, 7-5
2002 US Open Pete Sampras 6-3, 6-4, 5-7, 6-4
2005 US Open Roger Federer 6-3, 2-6, 7-6, 6-1
==Famous matches==
* US Open quarterfinal 1989: defeated [[Jimmy Connors]] 6-1, 4-6, 0-6, 6-3, 6-4. Agassi's first five-set win. At one point during a changeover, Agassi joked to his box that he was losing sets on purpose to prove that he could win in five. The previous time he played Connors was at the 1988 US Open quarterfinal in which he beat Connors convincingly and did not lose a set.
* French Open final 1990: lost to [[Andrés Gómez]] 6-3, 2-6, 6-4, 6-4. Agassi's first Grand Slam final.
* US Open final 1990: lost to [[Pete Sampras]] 6-4, 6-3, 6-2. The first of five Grand Slam finals contested by the top two players of their generation.
* French Open final 1991: lost to [[Jim Courier]] 6-3, 4-6, 6-2, 1-6, 4-6. Blew 2 sets to 1 lead after rain delay. Many questioned if Agassi had the heart to win a major championship.
* Wimbledon final 1992: defeated [[Goran Ivanišević]] 6-7(8), 6-4, 6-4, 1-6, 6-4. Agassi's first Grand Slam title occurring at the tournament no one thought he could ever win. Still his only Wimbledon championship.
* Wimbledon quarterfinal 1993: lost to Pete Sampras 6-2, 6-2, 3-6, 3-6, 6-4. The first of only two 5-set matches between the two (The other was the 2000 Australian Open semis).
* US Open 4th Round 1994: defeated [[Michael Chang]] 6-1, 6-7(3), 6-3, 3-6, 6-1. Outlasts Chang en route to becoming the first unseeded man to win the US Open championship in 28 years. Knocked off five seeded players along the way. First US Open title.
* Australian Open 1995 final: defeated Pete Sampras 4-6, 6-1, 7-6(6), 6-4. Agassi's only Grand Slam Final victory over Sampras.
* Atlanta Summer Olympics Gold Medal Match 1996: defeated [[Serge Bruguera]] 6-2, 6-3, 6-1. Demolished two-time French Open Champion to achieve important personal goal of winning an Olympic Gold Medal.
* French Open 1st round: lost to [[Marat Safin]] 7-5, 5-7, 2-6, 6-3, 2-6 in what was the Russian's first Grand Slam match. Safin's win foreshadowed his win over Pete Sampras in the 2000 US Open final.
* French Open final 1999: defeated [[Andrei Medvedev]] 1-6, 2-6, 6-4, 6-3, 6-4. A spectacular come-from-behind victory that completed his career Grand Slam at the "advanced" age of 29, and his return to the top of tennis after being as low as #141. Referred to as the "Miracle in Paris". Agassi has stated that he considers this his greatest moment on a tennis court.
* US Open final 1999: defeated [[Todd Martin]] 6-4, 6-7(5), 6-7(2), 6-3, 6-2. Another come-from-behind thriller.
* Australian Open 2000 semi-final: defeated Pete Sampras 6-4, 3-6, 6-7(0), 7-6(5), 6-1. En route to his second Australian Open crown. [[Tennis Magazine]] stated: "''T |
ged eccentricity and semi-major axis length, for instance), but it will still be an ellipse (or a degenerate ellipse: a circle or a line). Similarly, any [[oblique projection]] onto a plane results in a conic section. If the projection is a closed curve on the plane, then the curve is an ellipse or a degenerate ellipse.
== Reflection property ==
Assume an elliptic [[mirror]] with a light source at one of the foci. Then all rays are [[reflection|reflected]] to a single point &mdash; the second focus. Since no other curve has such a property, it can be used as an alternative definition of an ellipse.
== Ellipses in physics ==
[[India]]n astronomer [[Aryabhata]] discovered that the orbits of the planets around the sun are [[ellipses]] in [[499]], which he described in his book, the ''Aryabhatiya'' [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Aryabhata_I.html].
In the [[17th century]], [[Johannes Kepler]] explained that the [[orbit]]s along which the [[planet]]s travel around the [[Sun]] are ellipses, which is [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion|Kepler's first law]]. Later, [[Isaac Newton]] explained this as a corollary of his [[law of universal gravitation]].
More generally, in the gravitational [[two-body problem]], if the two bodies are bound to each other (i.e., the total energy is negative), their orbits are [[similar]] ellipses with the common [[barycenter]] being one of the foci of each ellipse. Interestingly, the orbit of either body in the reference frame of the other is also an ellipse, with the other body at one focus.
The general solution for a [[harmonic oscillator]] in two or more [[dimension]]s is also an ellipse, but this time with the origin of the force located at the center of the ellipse.
[[Albert Einstein]] also used the ellipse to prove his theory of relativity by using an elliptical shaped mass. Einstein's contributions to modern physics may not have been discovered if it were not for ellipses.
==Ellipses in computer graphics==
Drawing an ellipse is a common graphics primitive in standard display libraries, such as the [[QuickDraw]] and [[GDI]] interfaces on the Macintosh and Windows systems. Often such libraries are limited and can only draw an ellipse with either the major axis or the minor axis horizontal.
[[Jack Bresenham]] at IBM is most famous for the invention of 2D drawing primitives, including line and circle drawing, using only fast integer operations such as addition and branch on carry bit. An efficient generalization to draw ellipses was invented in 1984 by [[Jerry Van Aken]] (IEEE CG&A, Sept. 1984). A more challenging task is to perform these drawing operations with antialiasing, to create a smooth-looking curve. The curve drawing algorithms of [[Xiaolin Wu]] (SIGGRAPH 91) are an example.
== See also ==
* [[Ellipsoid]], a higher dimensional analog of an ellipse
* [[Spheroid]], the ellipsoids obtained by rotating an ellipse about its major or minor axis.
* [[Super ellipse]], a generalization of an ellipse that can look more rectangular
* [[Hyperbola]]
* [[Parabola]]
* [[Orbit]]
* [[Oval (geometry)]]
* [[true anomaly|True]], [[eccentric anomaly|eccentric]], and [[mean anomaly|mean anomalies]]
[[Category:Conic sections]]
[[ar:قطع ناقص]]
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[[ja:楕円]]
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[[zh:椭圆]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Extension</title>
<id>9278</id>
<revision>
<id>40785190</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T00:21:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>YolanCh</username>
<id>370806</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+ [[fr:]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{disambig}}
* In [[metaphysics]], '''extension''' is the [[property]] of taking up [[space]]; see [[Extension (metaphysics)]].
* In [[semantics]] (with applications to both [[philosophy]] and [[mathematics]]), '''extension''' is the [[set]] of things to which a [[property]] applies; see [[Extension (semantics)]].
* In [[dentistry]], [[enamel extension]].
* In [[general semantics]], extension is a process that, as in this mathematical example, starts with unique individuals, and gives them unique names, e.g., I, II, III, etc., or 1, 2, 3, etc. The next step if needed generalizes or passes beyond extension to infinite-valued higher-order abstractions like 'numbers', and so on. The passing from lower-order abstractions (presented extensionally) to higher orders, e.g., from '1, 2, 3, etc.,' to 'numbers,' is said to follow the 'natural order of evaluation,' so that when one talks about order, extension is implied, and when one talks about extension, order is implied. An example of reversed order is when a particular higher-order abstraction such as race, e.g., 'white', 'black' etc., is projected onto the individuals comprising it. The individuals (each uniquely different by extension, no matter what is being discussed) comprise the 'race' (which exists only on higher-orders), not the other way around. See [http://esgs.free.fr/de/ext.htm extensional devices.]
* In [[mathematics]], an '''extension''' of some structure is another structure which contains the original structure.
** For the extension of a [[group (mathematics)|group]] or [[algebra over a field|algebra]], see [[extension (algebra)]].
** For the extension of a [[first-order_logic|predicate]], see [[extension (predicate logic)]].
** For the extension of a [[field (mathematics)|field]], see [[field extension]].
** For the extension of a [[operator norm|bounded linear operator]], see [[continuous linear extension]].
** In [[model theory]], a model B is an [[extension (model theory)|extension]] of a model A (and A is a [[submodel]] of B) iff the [[universe (model theory)|universe]] of A is a subset of the universe of B and the [[interpretation (model theory)|interpretations]] of the nonlogical symbols of A are the restrictions of the interpretations of the same symbols of B to the universe of A.
* In [[anatomy]], '''extension''' is one of the [[Anatomical terms of motion|movements]] of a [[joint]] such as the [[knee]].
* [[Extension (geology)]]
* [[Extension (telephone)]]
* In computing:
** For the programming concept, see [[extension (computing)]].
** For the [[Apple Computer|Apple]] [[Mac OS]] implementation of operating system extensions, see [[Extension (Mac OS)|Extension]]. For problems with same, see [[extension conflict]].
** For the last part of a [[filename]], see [[filename extension]].
** For the addons for the [[Mozilla Firefox|Firefox]] [[Web Browser]], see [[Extension (Mozilla)]]
* In [[community development]], '''extension''' involves the building of community capacity by outsiders. Examples are health or [[agricultural extension]]. See [[extension agency]].
* [[Electricity]] and [[electronics]]: [[Extension cable]].
* [[Hair extensions]] are strands of human hair placed onto a persons hair in order to elongate or thicken existing hair.
* In [[education]], an '''extension course, program, or school''' is [[continuing education]].
* [[Extension, BC]] is a small former coal-mining village near [[Nanaimo]], BC, Canada.
* In [[cheerleading]], an "extension" is a stunt comprising of a flyer being held in the air by the bases' fully extended arms.
[[de:Extension]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Elephant</title>
<id>9279</id>
<revision>
<id>42053614</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:02:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CaptainVindaloo</username>
<id>808575</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Elephant
| image = Elephantreaching.jpg
| image_width = 300px
| image_caption = African (Savannah) Elephant reaching for leaves, in Kenya
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| subphylum = [[Vertebrate|Vertabrata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Proboscidea]]
| familia = '''Elephantidae'''
| familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1821
| subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]] and [[Species]]
| subdivision =
* ''[[Loxodonta]]''
** ''[[Loxodonta cyclotis]]''
** ''[[Loxodonta africana]]''
* ''[[Elephas]]''
** ''[[Elephas maximus]]''
** ''[[Elephas recki]]'' [[extinction|†]]
* ''[[Stegodon]]'' †
* ''[[Mammuthus]]'' †
}}
'''Elephantidae''' (the '''elephants''') is a [[family (biology)|family]] of [[animal]]s, and the only remaining family in the [[order (biology)|order]] [[Proboscidea]]. '''Elephantidae''' has three living [[species]]: the [[Savannah Elephant]] and [[Forest Elephant]] (which were collectively known as the African Elephant) and the [[Asian Elephant]] (formerly known as the Indian Elephant). Other species have become [[extinct species|extinct]] since the last [[ice age]], which ended about 10,000 years ago.
Elephants are the [[Giant animals|largest]] land animals and largest land [[mammal]]s alive today. The elephant's [[gestation]] period is 22 months, the longest of any land animal. At birth it is common for an elephant calf to weigh 120 kg (265 lb). An elephant may live as long as 70 years. The largest elephant ever recorded was shot in [[Angola]] in 1974. It was male and weighed [[1 E4 kg|12,000 kilograms]] (26,400 lb). The smallest elephants, about the size of a calf or a large pig, were a pre-historic variant that lived on the island of [[Crete]] until 5000 BC, possibly 3000 BC. Their scattered skulls, featuring a single large trunk-hole at the front, formed the |
and challenge the man to take responsibility for his use of violence.
Work with men who use violence and abuse toward family members can be seen in Victoria, Australia where a unique combination of voluntary and mandated (court or police referred) programs exist as well as a statewide telephone counselling, information and referral service for men exists. see: No To Violence (NTV) the Male Family Violence Prevention Association. [http://www.ntv.net.au] However, there are no equivalent services in Victoria for women who use violence or abuse, nor any support services at all for abused men. The absence of such services leads to circular claims that no such services are required, and to similarly circular claims that the available services represent proof that violence is exclusively 'male'.
==Police==
From the perspective of the police, who are often the first to investigate domestic violence incidents, one of the problems is that the definitions of domestic violence include acts that are not themselves crimes. The London Metropolitan Police has nevertheless compiled a list of the crimes [http://www.met.police.uk/enoughisenough/strategy.htm#footnotes] which typically can occur when domestic violence occurs. They are:
*[[Murder]]/[[attempted murder]]
*[[Manslaughter]]
*[[Rape]]
*[[Indecent assault]]
*[[Grievous bodily harm]]/wounding
*[[Actual bodily harm]]
*Common [[assault]]
*[[Threat]]s to kill
*[[Affray]]
*Threatening behaviour
*[[Harassment]]
*[[Blackmail]]
*[[False imprisonment]]
*[[Kidnapping]]
*[[Criminal damage]]
*[[Malicious communications]]
*[[Witness intimidation]]
*[[Obstructing the course of justice]]
*[[Conspiracy to pervert the course of justice]]
The UK Crown Prosecution Service publishes guidange for prosecution in cases of alleged domestic violence. [http://www.cps.gov.uk/publications/docs/DomesticViolencePolicy.pdf]
==Risk assessment==
Policy in the UK since the start of the millennium has been to make a risk assessment when there is a reported incident of domestic violence in order to determine the likelihood of serious harm or further serious harm occurring, regardless of whether an actual crime has been committed. Further proceedings are then based on the outcome of the risk assessment. Some are concerned at the [[jurisprudence]] of this approach, because it allows punitive action to be taken against an alleged prepetrator without recourse to a fair trial. The charity [[Women's Aid]] proposes that such risk assessments should always be conducted on fathers who wish to see their children after parental separation even where there has been no history of domestic violence:
:''Women's Aid is concerned that there is no mention'' [in a recent government Green Paper] ''of the development of clear protocols to ensure that these measures'' [new measures to ensure family continuity] ''are not used in cases where there is a known history '''or future risk''' of domestic violence.'' [http://www.womensaid.org.uk/policy&consultations/consultationresponses/Parental_separation_full_response.htm]
==Domestic violence and culture==
=== Wife beating in Islam ===
Sheikh Muhammad Kamal Mustafa, [[imam]] of the mosque of the city of Fuengirola, Costa del Sol, [[Spain]], in his book ''The Woman in Islam'' writes, of the status of violence against wives on the part of husbands in Islamic [[Sharia]] law, stating that it is permissible in some instances.
<blockquote>
"The wife-beating must never be in exaggerated, blind anger, in order to avoid serious harm [to the woman]." He adds, "It is forbidden to beat her on the sensitive parts of her body, such as the face, breast, abdomen, and head. Instead, she should be beaten on the arms and legs," using a "rod that must not be stiff, but slim and lightweight so that no wounds, scars, or bruises are caused." Similarly, "[the blows] must not be hard." [http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=37690]
</blockquote>
Mustafa noted in his book that the aim of the beating was to cause the woman to feel some emotional pain, without humiliating her or harming her physically. According to him, physical blows must be the last resort to which a husband turns in punishing his wife, and is, according to the [[Qur'an]] (Chapter 4, Verse 34), the husband's third step when the wife is rebellious: First, he must reprimand her, without anger. Next, he must distance her from the conjugal bed. Only if these two methods fail should the husband turn to beating.
Sheikh Yousef Qaradhawi, head of the [[European Council for Fatwa and Research]], has advocated "non-painful" beating of wives: "it is permissible for [the husband] to beat her lightly with his hands, avoiding her face and other sensitive parts. In no case should he resort to using a stick or any other instrument that might cause pain and injury."
Dr. Muhammad Al-Hajj, lecturer on Islamic faith at the [[University of Jordan]] (Amman) states: "Hard beatings are those that leave marks on the body or on the face. Thus, beating on the face is prohibited, because the face is a combination of the features of beauty, as it is said. It is forbidden to beat the face, it is forbidden to administer blows that leave fractures or wounds; this is what our sages have said in their books."
While some Muslims interpret the Qu'ran to allow the beating of wives, many other Muslims interpret the scripture to say "leave" the wife, not beat her. [http://www.answering-christianity.com/beating_no.htm]
''See also: [[Rania al-Baz]]''
==External links and resources==
*[http://www.ndvh.org/index.php National Domestic Violence Hotline (US)]
*[http://www.bullyonline.org/related/family.htm Bullying in the Family]
*[http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/crime-victims/reducing-crime/domestic-violence/?version=1 UK Home Office on DV]
*[http://www.dca.gov.uk/family/abfldomviol.htm CASC Guidelines]
* Haugen, David, ''Domestic Violence: Opposing Viewpoints'', Greenhaven, 2005.
* Ghiglieri, Micheal, P., ''The Dark Side of Man: Tracing the Origins of Male Violence'', Perseus Books, 1999.
* Dutton, Donald, ''The Batterer: A Psychological Profile'', Basic Books, 1997.
For resources, interpretations, and discussion of Domestic Violence in Islam please see [http://www.progressiveislam.org ProgressiveIslam.Org's] section on [http://progressiveislam.org/women/index.php/Violence_against_Women Violence against Women] in their [http://progressiveislam.org/women/index.php/Main_Page Women's Health Project]
<!--Categories-->
[[Category:Violence]]
[[Category:Domestic violence| ]]
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[[zh:家庭暴力]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Decca Navigator System</title>
<id>8949</id>
<revision>
<id>40913031</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T21:20:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sicooke</username>
<id>179049</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Origins */ Removed link to Decca Radar - see discussion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Decca Navigator Mk 12.jpg|thumb|300px|Decca Navigator Mk 12]]
The '''Decca Navigator System''' was a [[hyperbola|hyperbolic]] [[radio navigation]] system (also known as [[Multilateration|multilateration]]) and first deployed during [[World War II|World War 2]] when the Allied forces needed a system which could be used to achieve accurate landings. As was the case with [[Loran C]], its primary use was for ship navigation in coastal waters. The system was deployed extensively in the North Sea and was used by helicopters operating to [[oil platform]]s.
It has now been superseded by systems such as the American [[GPS]] system and the planned European [[Galileo positioning system]].
It was deployed in the [[United Kingdom]] after World War 2 and later used in many areas around the world. Decca employees used to joke that DECCA was an acronym for ''Dedicated Englishmen Causing Chaos Abroad''.
== Principles of Operation ==
=== Overview ===
[[Image:Crude loran diagram.PNG|thumb|right|''The Decca Navigator principle.'' <br> The difference between the phase of the signal received from station A (Master) and B (Slave) is constant along each hyperbolic curve. The focii of the hyperbola are at the transmitting stations, A and B.]]
The Decca Navigator System consisted of a number of land-based stations organised into ''chains''. Each chain consisted of a Master station and three (occasionally two) Slave stations, termed Red, Green and Purple. Each station transmitted a continuous wave signal that, by comparing the [[phase]] difference of the signals from the Master and one of the Slaves, resulted in resulted in a set of hyperbolic ''lines of position'' called a ''pattern''. As there were three Slaves there were three patterns, termed Red, Green and Purple. The patterns were drawn on nautical charts as a set of hyperbolic lines in the appropriate colour. Receivers identified which [[hyperbola]] they were on and a position could be plotted at the intersection of the [[hyperbola]] from different patterns, usually by using the pair with the best angle of cut.
=== Detailed Principles of Operation ===
When two stations transmit at the same [[phase-locked]] [[frequency]], the difference in phase between the two signals is constant along a hyperbolic path. Rather than all stations transmitting at the same frequency, each chain was allocated a nominal frequency, 1f, and the stations transmitted at a harmonic of this base frequency, as follows:
{| border="1" align="center" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse;border:1px solid gray;font-size:95%"
|- style="background:#efefef;"
! Station!! Harmonic !! Frequency (kH |
the "[[tabula rasa]]". At the Cabaret Voltaire we began by shocking common sense, public opinion, education, institutions, museums, good taste, in short, the whole prevailing order.''
A single issue of ''Cabaret Voltaire'' was the first publication to come out of the movement.
After the cabaret closed down, activities moved to a new gallery, and Ball left Europe. Tzara began a relentless campaign to spread Dada ideas. He bombarded French and Italian artists and writers with letters, and soon emerged as the Dada leader and master strategist. The [[Cabaret Voltaire (Zürich)|Cabaret Voltaire]] has by now re-opened, and it's still in the same place in the Niederdorf.
Zürich Dada, with Tzara at the helm, published the art and literature review ''Dada'' beginning in July 1917, with five editions from Zürich and the final two from Paris.
When World War I ended in 1918, most of the Zürich Dadaists returned to their home countries, and some began Dada activities in other cities.
====Origin of the word ''Dada''====
The origin of the name ''Dada'' is unclear. Some believe that it is a nonsensical word. Others maintain that it originates from the [[Romania]]n artists [[Tristan Tzara]] and [[Marcel Janco]]'s frequent use of the words ''da, da'', meaning ''yes, yes'' in the [[Romanian language]]. Others believe that a group of artists assembled in [[Zürich]] in 1916, wanting a name for their new movement, chose it at random by stabbing a [[French language|French]]-[[German language|German]] dictionary with a paper knife, and picking the name that the point landed upon. ''Dada'' in French is a child's word for ''[[hobby-horse]]''. In French the colloquialism, ''c'est mon dada'', means ''it's my hobby''.
According to the Dada ideal, the movement would not be called ''Dadaism'', much less designated an ''art movement''.
===Berlin===
The groups in [[Germany]] were not as strongly ''anti-art'' as other groups. Their activity and art was more political and social, with corrosive manifestos and propaganda, biting satire, large public demonstrations and overt political activities.
In February 1918, [[Richard Huelsenbeck]] gave his first Dada speech in [[Berlin]], and produced a Dada manifesto later in the year. [[Hannah Höch]] and [[George Grosz]] used Dada to express post-World War I [[Communism|communist]] sympathies. Grosz, together with [[John Heartfield]], developed the technique of [[photomontage]] during this period. The artists published a series of short-lived political journals, and held an International Dada Fair in 1920.
The Berlin group saw much in-fighting; [[Kurt Schwitters]] and others were excluded from the group. Schwitters moved to [[Hanover]] where he developed his individual type of Dada, which he dubbed ''[[Kurt Schwitters|Merz]]''.
The Berlin group published periodicals such as ''Club Dada'', ''Der Dada'', ''Everyman His Own Football ([[Jedermann_sein_eigner_Fussball|Jedermann sein eigner Fussball]])'', and ''Dada Almanach''.
===Cologne===
In [[Cologne]] (Köln), [[Max Ernst]], [[Johannes Theodor Baargeld]] and [[Arp]] launched a controversial Dada exhibition in 1920 which focused on nonsense and anti-bourgeois sentiments.
===New York===
Like Zürich, [[New York]] was a refuge for writers and artists from [[World War I]]. Soon after arriving from France, [[Marcel Duchamp]] and [[Francis Picabia]] met American artist [[Man Ray]] after arriving only days apart in June of 1915. By 1916 the three of them became the center of radical anti-art activities in the United States. American [[Beatrice Wood]], who had been studying in France, soon joined them. Much of their activity centered in [[Alfred Stieglitz]]'s gallery, 291, and the studio of [[Walter Arensberg|Walter and Louise Arensberg]].
The New Yorkers did not label themselves ''Dada,'' nor did they issue manifestos or organize riotous events. However, they issued challenges to art and culture through publications such as ''The Blind Man'', ''Rongwrong'', and ''New York Dada'' in which they criticized the traditionalist basis for ''museum'' art. New York Dada lacked the disillusionment of European Dada. New York Dada was driven by a sense of irony and humor.
During this time Duchamp began exhibiting ''[[readymade]]s'' (found objects) such as a bottle rack, and got involved with the [[Society of Independent Artists]]. In 1917 he submitted his famous ''[[Fountain (Duchamp)|Fountain]]'', a urinal signed R. Mutt, to the Society of Independent Artists show only to have the piece rejected. First an object of scorn within the arts community, it has since been canonized, ironically, and often considered a watershed work of modern art; the committee presiding over Britain's prestigious [[Turner Prize]] in 2004, for example, called it "the most influential work of modern art."[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/4059997.stm "Duchamp's urinal tops art survey"]
Picabia's travels tied New York, Zürich and Paris groups together. For seven years he also published the Dada periodical ''391'' in [[Barcelona, Spain|Barcelona]], New York City, Zürich, and Paris from 1917 through 1924.
By 1921, most of the original players moved to Paris where Dada experienced its last major incarnation (see [[Neo-Dada]] for later activity).
===Paris===
The French [[avant-garde]] kept abreast of Dada activities in Zürich with regular communications from [[Tristan Tzara]] (whose pseudonym means "sad in country," a name chosen to protest the treatment of Jews in his native Romania), who exchanged letters, poems, and magazines with [[Guillaume Apollinaire]], [[André Breton]], [[Max Jacob]], and other French writers, critics and artists.
Dada in Paris surged in 1920 when many of the originators converged there. Inspired by Tzara, Paris Dada soon issued manifestos, organized demonstrations, staged performances and produced a number of journals (the final two editions of ''Dada'', ''Le Cannibale'', and ''Littérature'' featured Dada in several editions.)
The first introduction of Dada artwork to the Parisian public was at the [[Salon des Indépendants]] in [[1921]]. [[Jean Crotti]] exhibited works associated with Dada including a work entitled, ''Explicatif'' bearing the word ''Tabu''.
===The Netherlands===
In [[The Netherlands]] the Dada movement centered mainly around [[Theo van Doesburg]], most well known for establishing the [[De Stijl]] movement and magazine of the same name. Van Doesburg mainly focused on poetry, and included poems from many well-known Dada writers in ''De Stijl'' such as [[Hugo Ball]], [[Hans Arp]] and [[Kurt Schwitters]]. Van Doesburg became a friend of Schwitters, and together they organized the so-called ''Dutch Dada campaign'' in [[1923]], where Van Doesburg promoted a leaflet about Dada (called ''What is Dada?''), Schwitters read his poems, [[Vilmos Huszàr]] demonstrated a mechanical dancing doll and Van Doesburg's wife, Nelly, played [[avant-garde]] compositions on piano.
Van Doesburg wrote Dada poetry himself in ''De Stijl'', although under a pseudonym, I.K. Bonset, which was only revealed after his tragic death in [[1931]]. 'Together' with I.K. Bonset, he also published a short-lived Dutch Dada magazine called ''Mécano''.
==Poetry, music and sound==
Not strictly a visual arts or literary movement, Dada influence reached into sound and music. Kurt Schwitters developed what he called ''sound poems'' and composers such as [[Erwin Schulhoff]], [[Hans Heusser]] and [[Albert Savinio]] wrote ''Dada music'', while members of [[Les Six]] collaborated with Dada movement members and their pieces played at Dada gatherings.
In the very first Dada Publication, [[Hugo Ball]] describes a "balalaika orchestra playing delightful folk-songs." African music was common at dada gatherings, signaling a return to nature.
==Legacy==
While broad, the movement was unstable. By 1924, Dada was melding into [[surrealism]], and artists had gone on to other ideas and movements, including [[Socialist realism|socialist realism]] and other forms of [[Modernism|modernism]].
By the dawn of [[World War II]], many of the European Dadaists had fled or emigrated to the [[United States]]. Some died in death camps under Hitler, who disliked the kind of [[Degenerate art|radical art]] that Dada represented. The movement became less active as post-World War II optimism led to new movements in art and literature.
In [[1967]], a large Dada retrospective was held in [[Paris, France]].
At the same time that the Zürich Dadaists made noise and spectacle at the [[Cabaret Voltaire (Zürich)|Cabaret Voltaire]], [[Vladimir Lenin]] wrote his revolutionary plans for [[Russia]] in a nearby apartment. He was unappreciative of the artistic revolutionary activity near him. [[Tom Stoppard]] used this coincidence as a premise for his play ''[[Travesties]]'' (1974), which includes Tzara, Lenin, and [[James Joyce]] as characters.
The [[Cabaret Voltaire]] fell into disrepair until it was occupied by a group claiming to be [[neo-Dadaists]], led by [[Mark Divo]], in January to March of [[2002]]. Many of their activities received as much public attention as the original Dada movement. After their eviction the Cabaret Voltaire, Zürich became a museum dedicated to the history of Dada.
Some have seen the [[Synaesthesia events]] as reflecting, or even superseding, dada.
==Early practitioners==
For a more complete list of Dadaists, see [[List of Dadaists]].
* [[Guillaume Apollinaire]] - France
* [[Hans Arp]] - Switzerland, France and Germany
* [[Hugo Ball]] - Switzerland
* [[Johannes Baader]] - Germany
* [[Arthur Cravan]] - United States
* [[Jean Crotti]] - France
* [[Theo van Doesburg]] - The Netherlands
* [[Marcel Duchamp]] - France and United States
* [[George Grosz]] - Germany
* [[Max Ernst]] - Germany
* [[Raoul Hausmann]] - Germany
* [[Emmy Hennings]] - Switzerland
* [[Richard Huelsenbeck]] - Switzerland and Germany
* [[Marcel Janco]] - Switzerland (born |
f individually. It follows that it is more economically efficient to allow a troubled company to continue running, cancel some of its debts, and give ownership of the newly reorganized company to the creditors whose debts were cancelled; in this way, jobs are saved, assets are retained, the engine of profitability which is the business is maintained rather than being dismantled, and, hopefully, the business's creditors end up with more money than they would in a Chapter 7 liquidation.
==Details==
All creditors who register with the court can be heard by the court, which is responsible for determining whether the plan of reorganization complies with the purposes of the bankruptcy law and provides for fair and equitable treatment of all parties in interest. Priority of claims is determined by Section 507 of the Bankruptcy Code, but as a general rule secured creditors, such as some banks and [[bond (finance)|bondholders]], have a higher-priority claim on the proceeds of the sale of corporate assets than unsecured creditors, such as vendors who have not been paid for products they previously delivered to the company (and who don't have any collateral for their claim). Once a business files for Chapter 11 bankruptcy, its creditors are not allowed to attempt to collect previously incurred debts except through the bankruptcy court. Under some circumstances, the creditors or the [[United States Trustee]] can ask the court either to convert the case to a liquidation under Chapter 7, or to appoint a trustee to manage the debtor's business. The court will grant a motion to convert to Chapter 7 or appoint a trustee if either of these actions is in the best interest of all creditors (appointment of a trustee also requires some wrongdoing or gross mismanagement on the part of existing management, and is relatively rare).
Typical debts and contracts cancelled in a Chapter 11 bankruptcy include unsecured loans and, if cancelling them would be financially favorable to the company, [[labor union|union]] contracts, supply or operating contracts (with both vendors and customers) and long-term real estate leases.
Once Chapter 11 is filed, the company may "emerge" from bankruptcy within a few months or within several years, depending on the size and complexity of the bankruptcy. All debtors filing Chapter 11 cases are required to propose a plan of reorganization: if the debtor fails to make a proposal, the court may consider proposals from creditors. If no plan of reorganization is approved by the court (this process is called ''confirmation'') then the court may either convert the case to a liquidation under Chapter 7 or, if in the best interests of the creditors and the estate, the case may be dismissed resulting into a return to the status quo before bankruptcy.
If the company's stock is publicly traded, a Chapter 11 filing generally causes it to be delisted from its primary stock exchange it if was listed on the [[New York Stock Exchange]], the [[American Stock Exchange]], or the [[NASDAQ]]. On the NASDAQ the identifying fifth letter "Q" at the end of a stock symbol indicates the company is in bankruptcy (formerly the "Q" was placed in front of the pre-existing stock symbol; a celebrated example was [[Penn Central]], whose symbol was originally "PC" and became "QPC" after the company filed Chapter 11 in 1970).
Individuals may also file Chapter 11, but due to the complexity and expense of the proceeding, this option is rarely chosen by debtors who are eligible for Chapter 7 or [[Chapter 13, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 13]] relief.
==Criticism==
Some critics have claimed that Chapter 11 bankruptcy is excessively lenient in giving a needless "escape hatch' to the incompetent management of a failing company, damaging the efficiency of the economy as a whole and allowing poor managers to continue managing. It is unusual for the management of a company in Chapter 11 to be fired, as it is usually assumed that the present management team knows far more about the company and its customers than would a new set of management. These critics note that in Europe, bankruptcy law is far less lenient for failing companies.
Another efficiency criticism is that a company undergoing Chapter 11 bankruptcy is effectively operating under the "protection" of the court until it emerges, in some cases giving the bankrupt company a great advantage against its competitors. The most-cited current example is the [[airline industry]] in the United States; [[as of 2006]], over half the industry's [[seating capacity]] is on airlines that are in Chapter 11. <ref>{{cite web | title = Delta and Northwest airlines both file for bankruptcy | url = http://money.cnn.com/2005/09/14/news/fortune500/bankruptcy_airlines/ | accessdate = November 17 | accessyear = 2005 }}</ref> These airlines have been able to stop making debt payments, freeing up cash to expand routes or weather a price war against competitors &mdash; all with the bankruptcy court's approval. This is especially important in the airline industry as fixed capital costs for the airplanes (and the debt on those costs) make up such a large part of the airlines' expenditures.
==Statistics==
===Largest bankruptcy===
The largest bankruptcy in history was of the US telecommunications corporation [[Worldcom|Worldcom, Inc.]], which listed over 103 billion dollars in assets as of its Chapter 11 filing in 2002; the bankruptcy was triggered by the discovery that in the previous several years, the company had fraudulently overreported its assets by an estimated 12 billion dollars.
=== 2003 Statistics ===
Bankruptcy filings by individuals:
* [[Chapter 7, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 7]] filings: 1,156,284
* Chapter 11 filings: 959
* [[Chapter 13, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 13]] filings: 468,562
Bankruptcy filings by businesses:
* [[Chapter 7, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 7]] filings: 21,008
* Chapter 11 filings: 9,185
* [[Chapter 12, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 7]] filings: 698
* [[Chapter 13, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 13]] filings: 5,201
The total number of bankruptcies rose 7.4 percent over the previous twelve months. These totals were for the 12-month period ending [[September 30]], [[2003]].
''Source: [http://www.uscourts.gov/Press_Releases/fy03bk.pdf November 14, 2003 News Release, Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts''.] (PDF file)
=== 2004 Statistics ===
Total bankruptcies:
* [[Chapter 7, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 7]] filings: 1,153,865
* Chapter 11 filings: 10,368
* [[Chapter 12, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 12]] filings: 238
* [[Chapter 13, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 13]] filings: 454,412
Bankruptcy cases filed in federal courts fell 2.6 percent in fiscal year 2004 according to the
Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts. During the 12-month period ending September 30, 2004, 1,618,987 bankruptcies were filed, down from the 1,661,996 bankruptcy cases filed in fiscal year 2003.
''Source: [http://www.uscourts.gov/Press_Releases/fy04bk.pdf December 3, 2004 News Release, Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts''.] (PDF file)
== See also ==
* [[Chapter 7, Title 11, United States Code]]
* [[Chapter 12, Title 11, United States Code]]
* [[Chapter 13, Title 11, United States Code]]
* [[Administration#Legal use in the United Kingdom]]
== References ==
<references />
== External links ==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4342900.stm US changes bankruptcy protection laws], via [[BBC News]].
* [http://uscode.house.gov/download/pls/Title_11.ZIP Complete Title 11 (ZIP file)], via www.house.gov
* [http://www.bankruptcydata.com/Research/15_Largest.htm 15 Largest Corporate Bankruptcies], via www.bankruptcydata.com
* [http://www.faqfarm.com/Q/FAQ/1784 Bankruptcy FAQ question and answer forum], via www.faqfarm.com
[[Category:United States bankruptcy law]]
[[de:Chapter 11]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Conjugation</title>
<id>7280</id>
<revision>
<id>41253676</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T02:15:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LinguistAtLarge</username>
<id>534915</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Added detail to the Grammatical conjugation bullet</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The word '''conjugation''' has several meanings:
*[[Grammatical conjugation]] is the modification of a [[verb]] from its basic form.
**In many [[language|languages]], such as [[latin language|Latin]] and [[spanish language|Spanish]], verbs have complex conjugation rules; in other languages, such as [[english language|English]], verb conjugation is much simpler. See: [[Latin conjugation]], [[Spanish conjugation]] and [[English verb|The English verb]].
*In [[biology]], conjugation is transmission of [[DNA]] between [[cell (biology)|cells]] by contact other than fusion. Various forms of conjugation exist in different groups, such as [[bacterium|bacteria]] (see [[bacterial conjugation]]) and [[ciliate]]s. The term is derived from the use of the word for [[marriage]].
*[[Marriage]] -- derived from "joining together" or "playing together".
*In [[mathematics]]:
**[[complex conjugation]] is the operation which multiplies the imaginary part of a [[complex number]] by -1; more generally see [[conjugate element (field theory)]].
** if ''a'' is an element of a [[group (mathematics)|group]], then the [[map (mathematics)|map]] ''f''(''x'') = ''axa''<sup>-1</sup> is called conjugation by ''a''. See [[inner automorphism]], [[conjugacy class]], [[conjugate closure]], and [[conjugation of isometries in Euclidean space]]
** in [[differential geometry]], [[Glossary of Riemannian and metric geometry|Conjugate point]]s
** an operation on [[Latin square]]s
** in [[probability theory]], [[conjugate prior]]
*In [[quantum phys |
Battle of Actium resulted in the loss of Mark Antony's army, and then his defeat, and the taking of Egypt by the Roman Empire. Also the battle ended the era of Roman Republic and began the time of the Roman Empire.
An account of the battle appears in [[Virgil]]'s [[Aeneid]].
==References==
* {{1911}}
*[[Military Heritage]] published a feature about the Battle of Actium, involving Mark Antony, Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (aka Octavian) (Julius Caesar's 18-year old adopted son and heir), and Cleopatra of Egypt (Joseph M. Horodyski, Military Heritage, August 2005, Volume 7, No. 1, pp 58 to 63, and p. 78), ISSN 1524-8666.
==External links==
* [http://luna.cas.usf.edu/~murray/actium/brochure.html The Actium Project]
[[Category:31 BC]]
[[Category:Battles of the Roman Republic|Actium 31 BC]]
[[Category:Naval battles|Actium 31 BC]]
[[Category:Julio-Claudian Dynasty]]
[[af:Slag van Actium]]
[[bg:Битка при Акциум]]
[[cs:Bitva u Actia]]
[[da:Søslaget ved Actium]]
[[de:Schlacht bei Actium]]
[[es:Batalla de Actium]]
[[eo:Batalo de Aktio]]
[[fr:Bataille d'Actium]]
[[ko:악티움 해전]]
[[hr:Bitka kod Akcija]]
[[ms:Pertempuran Actium]]
[[nl:Slag bij Actium]]
[[ja:&#12450;&#12463;&#12486;&#12451;&#12454;&#12512;&#12398;&#28023;&#25126;]]
[[no:Slaget ved Actium]]
[[pl:Bitwa pod Akcjum]]
[[pt:Batalha de Áccio]]
[[sv:Slaget vid Actium]]
[[uk:Битва при Акції]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Zebra Danio</title>
<id>5009</id>
<revision>
<id>41733649</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T10:32:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>That Guy, From That Show!</username>
<id>419920</id>
</contributor>
<comment>migrate {{web reference}} (deprecated) to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Zebra Danio
| image = Zebra.jpeg
| image_width = 250px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Actinopterygii]]
| ordo = [[Cypriniformes]]
| familia = [[Cyprinidae]]
| genus = '''''[[Danio]]'''''
| species = '''''D. rerio'''''
| binomial = ''Danio rerio''
| binomial_authority = ([[Francis Hamilton-Buchanan|Hamilton-Buchanan]], [[1822]])
}}
The '''Zebra Danio''' or '''Zebrafish''' (''Brachydanio rerio'' or ''Danio rerio'') is a [[tropical]] [[fish]], commonly kept in [[aquarium|aquaria]] and used for scientific research, belonging to the minnow family ([[Cyprinidae]]). The fish is named for its five uniformly, pigmented, horizontal [[blue]] stripes on the side of the body; all extending to the [[anal fin]] onto the end of [[caudal fin]] rays of its tail. Zebra Danios are of no economic importance in commercial fisheries as a [[food fish]], but very commonly known and popular in the [[aquarium]] trade. They are hardy fish and considered good for beginner aquarists. This species has been called one of the "bread and butter" fishes because of its ease of keeping, continued popularity and its favorable price and availability.
Originating in Eastern [[India]] as well as in [[Pakistan]], [[India]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Nepal]] and [[Myanmar]], it grows to about 2 [[inch]]es (6 [[centimetre|cm]]) and lives for around 5 years. The zebra danio, in its native range, commonly inhabits streams, canals, ditches, ponds and also occurs in slow-moving to stagnant standing water bodies, particularly [[rice paddy|rice fields]]. In the aquarium trade, there are long-finned and other color forms of this danio, including a "Leopard" danio.
Like other danios it is [[omnivore|omnivorous]] and a peaceful fish that gets along well with other fish of similar size in [[aquarium|community tanks]]. A schooling fish, it prefers to be in groups of six or more. Zebra Danios prefer water with a 6.0&ndash;8.0 [[pH]], a water hardness of up to 5.0&ndash;19.0 [[dGH]], and a temperature range of 64&ndash;74 °[[Fahrenheit|F]] (18&ndash;24 °[[Celsius|C]]).
The males have gold stripes between the blue stripes and females have silver stripes instead of gold. An egg-scatterer, danios produce around 100 eggs in a single [[spawning]]. They are considered one of the easiest aquarium fish to breed.
Other fish also share the name [[zebrafish]].
== Diseases ==
Zebra Danio are susceptible to [[Oodinium]], or [[Velvet disease]].
== Feeding ==
Zebra Danios are omnivorous. In the wild, these fish consume various small aquatic [[insects]], [[crustacean]]s, [[worms]] as well as [[plankton]]. For this reason, they can be used to reduce [[mosquito]] [[larvae]] populations in [[pond]]s and ditches. For zebra danios living in aquaria, live/frozen flaked foods are suitable, especially [[brine shrimp]] and [[sinking tablets]]. When conditioning zebras for breeding, it's advisable to feed them plenty of fresh foods.
== Model organism for development and genetics==
Zebra Danios serve as a common and useful [[model organism]] for studies of [[vertebrate]] development and gene function because they reproduce very easily, passing from the egg to the larvae stage in less than three days. For genetic research groups, the zebrafish is an excellent test subject and is used in many labs to replace or to supplement higher vertebrate models, such as rats and mice. ''Danio rerio'' is one of the few species of fish to have been flown into space (See [[Animals in space]]). Aided by the transparency of the embryo, if researchers modify the fish's genotype at the egg stage they can see resulting changes in organ shape or dynamics barely three days later. The arrival of zebrafish as a major model for studying developmental biology co-incided with a large scale [[Mutation|mutagenesis screen]]. The scholarly journal [http://dev.biologists.org/ Development] devoted an issue to research using the fish in celebration of this landmark. <sup>[http://dev.biologists.org/content/vol123/issue1/]</sup> A common [[reverse genetics]] technique is to knock down [[gene expression]] or modify [[Splicing_(genetics)|splicing]] in zebrafish using [[Morpholino]] antisense technology; the journal [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/jhome/68503812 Genesis] devoted an issue to research using Morpholino oligos<sup>[http://www.wiley.com/legacy/products/subject/life/anatomy/genesis_morpholino.html]</sup>, mostly in <i>Danio rerio</i>.
The results of genetic engineering in these fishes have been used to produce the [[Glofish]], an aquarium pet with fluorescent pigments. Other varieties include ''golden'', ''sandy'' and ''long fin'' fish.
In December 2005, a study of the ''golden'' strain identified the gene responsible for the unusual pigmentation of this strain as [[SLC24A5]], a solute carrier that appears to be required for [[melanin]] production, and confirmed its function with a Morpholino knockdown. The [[Orthologue|orthologous]] gene was then characterized in humans and a one base pair difference was found to segregate strongly between fair skinned Europeans and dark skinned Africans. <sup>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16357253&query_hl=38&itool=pubmed_docsum]</sup> This important study featured on the cover of the academic journal [[Science (journal)|Science]] and demonstrates the power of zebrafish as a model organism in the relatively new field of [[comparative genomics]].
==Zebra danios as an introduced species==
Zebra danios have been [[introduced species|introduced]] and become established in [[Japan]] and the [[United States]]. The fish has also been sighted in [[Colombia]], presumably escaped from an [[aquarium]] fish rearing facility and into local waters.
==Former Names and Synonyms==
*Barilius rerio
*Cyprinus chapalio
*Brachydanio rerio
*Cyprinus rerio
*Danio lineatus
*Nuria rerio
*Perilampus striatus
== See also ==
*[[Danionin]]s
*[[List of freshwater aquarium fish species]]
*[[Leopard Danio]]
== External links ==
*[http://zfin.org/cgi-bin/webdriver?MIval=aa-ZDB_home.apg The Zebrafish Information Network]
*[http://www.danios.info/Contents/species/danio1.asp Danio rerio]
== References ==
*{{ITIS|ID=163699|taxon=Danio rerio|year=2004|date=12 November}}
*{{FishBase species alt|ID=4653|taxon=Danio rerio|year=2004|month=October}}
*{{cite book
| author=Lambert, Derek J
| title=Freshwater Aquarium Fish
| publisher= Edison, New Jersey: Chartwell Books
| year=1997
| pages=Page 19
| id = ISBN 0-7858-0867-1}}
*{{cite web|author=Sharpe, Shirlie|title=Zebra Danio|work=Your Guide to Freshwater Aquariums|url=http://freshaquarium.about.com/cs/cyprinids2/p/zebradanio.htm|accessdate=December 15|accessyear=2004}}
*[http://zfin.org/ Zebrafish information network]
{{Model Organisms}}
[[Category:Model organisms]]
[[Category:Cold-water aquarium fish]]
[[Category:Danios]]
[[de:Zebrabärbling]]
[[fr:Poisson zèbre]]
[[hu:Zebradánió]]
[[nl:Zebravis]]
[[ja:ゼブラフィッシュ]]
[[pl:Danio pręgowany]]
[[fi:Seeprakala]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Blind Cave Tetra</title>
<id>5010</id>
<revision>
<id>15903254</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-17T23:20:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tkinias</username>
<id>9855</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Mexican tetra]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Balance</title>
<id>5011</id>
<revision>
<id>42017081</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T06:13:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bawtyshouse</username>
<id>869435</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">For meanings of the word '''balance''', see:
{{wiktionarypar|balance}}
*[[Sense of balance]] (equilibrium), which maintains physical balance in humans and animals
*[[Balance (public media coverage of politics)]]
*[[Weighing scale]]
*[[Balance beam]], gymnastics appara |
arginalization]] of its inhabitants.
The mass death of [[Native American (Americas)|Native American]]s from slavery, disease and war led to severe changes in the population and ethnic identity of America's inhabitants. The slave labor of Americans killed by European incursions was replaced by that of sub - Saharan [[Africa]]n peoples through the [[slave trade]]. Native populations became increasingly minor as the European and African slave populations grew rapidly. The dominance of [[white people]]s continued through the period of widespread independence from European rule, begun in the late [[18th century]] by the [[United States]]
==See also==
*[[Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas]]
*[[Population history of American indigenous peoples]]
*[[Pre-Columbian_trans-oceanic_contact]]
[[Category:History by region|Americas]]
[[Category:History of North America]]
[[Category:History of South America]]
[[ca:Història d'Amèrica]]
[[es:Historia de América]]
[[eo:Historio de Ameriko]]
[[fa:تاریخ آمریکای باستان]]
[[fr:Histoire de l'Amérique]]
[[ko:아메리카의 역사]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of Africa</title>
<id>14099</id>
<revision>
<id>41695363</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T02:53:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>204.52.215.107</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Sub-Saharan Africa */ rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The following is an outline of [[Africa]]n [[history]], followed by a list of articles about the history of particular places in Africa.
=== Evolution of hominids and ''Homo sapiens'' in Africa===
''Main article: [[Human evolution]]''
Africa was the birthplace of both the [[Homininae|hominin]] subfamily and the genus ''[[homo (genus)|Homo]]'', including eight species of which only ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' remains.
According to the latest [[Paleontology|paleontological]] and [[Archeology|archaeological]] evidence, hominids were already in existence at least five million years ago. These animals were still very much like their close cousins, the great African apes, but had adopted a [[biped]]al form of locomotion, giving them a crucial advantage in the struggle for survival, as this enabled them to live in both forested areas and on the open [[savanna]], at a time when Africa was drying up, with savannah encroaching on forested areas.
By 3 million years ago several [[Australopithecus|australopithecine]] hominid species had developed throughout [[Southern Africa|southern]], [[East Africa|eastern]] and [[central Africa]].
The next major evolutionary step occurred approximately 2 million years ago, with the advent of ''[[Homo habilis]]'', the first species of hominid capable of making tools. This enabled ''H. habilis'' to begin eating meat, using his stone tools to scavenge kills made by other predators, and harvest cadavers for their bones and marrow. In hunting, ''H. habilis'' was probably not capable of competing with large predators, and was still more prey than hunter, although he probably did steal eggs from nests, and may have been able to catch small [[game (food)|game]], and weakened larger prey (cubs and older animals).
Around one million years ago ''[[Homo erectus]]'' had evolved. With his relatively large brain (1,000 [[cubic centimetre|cc]]), he mastered the African plains, fabricating a variety of [[stone tool]]s that enabled him to become a hunter equal to the top predators. In addition ''Homo erectus'' mastered the art of making [[fire]], and was the first hominid to leave Africa, colonizing the entire [[Old World]], and later giving rise to ''[[Homo floresiensis]]''.
The fossil record shows ''Homo sapiens'' living in southern and eastern Africa between 100,000-150,000 years ago. The earliest human exodus [[Single-origin hypothesis|out of Africa]] and within the continent is indicated by linguistic and cultural evidence, and increasingly by computer-analyzed [[genetics|genetic]] evidence (see also [[Cavalli-Sforza]]).
==Neolithic prehistoric cultures==
===North Africa===
''Main article: [[Sahara#History|History of the Sahara]]''
[[Neolithic]] rock engravings, or '[[petroglyph]]s' and the [[megalith]]s in the [[Sahara]] desert of [[Libya]] attest to early hunter-gatherer culture in the dry grasslands of North Africa during the glacial age. The region of the present [[Sahara]] was an early site for the practice of [[agriculture]] (Wavy-line ceramics). However, after the [[desertification]] of the Sahara, settlement in North Africa became concentrated in the valley of the [[Nile]], where the pre-literate [[Nome (Egypt)|Nomes of Egypt]] laid a base for the culture of [[ancient Egypt]]. Archeological findings show that primitive tribes lived along the [[Nile]] long before the dynastic history of the pharaohs began. By 6000 B.C., organized agriculture had appeared.
===Sub-Saharan Africa===
Linguistic evidence suggests the [[Bantu]] people (e.g. [[Xhosa]] and [[Zulu]]) have emigrated southwestward into former [[Khoisan]] ranges and displaced them. <!--when did this happen ? (paleolithic or neolithic)--> Bantu populations used a distinct suite of crops suited to tropical Africa, including [[cassava]] and [[yam (vegetable)|yams]]. This farming culture is able to support more persons per unit area than hunter-gatherers. The traditional Bantu range goes from the northern deserts right down to the temperate regions of the south, in which the Bantu crop suite fails from frost. Their primary weapons historically <!-- up until when? --> were [[Bow (weapon)|bow]]s and stabbing [[spear]]s with [[shield]]s.
[[Ethiopia]] had a distinct, ancient culture with an intermittent history of contact with [[Eurasia]] after the diaspora of hominids out of Africa. It preserved a unique language, culture and crop system. The crop system is adapted to the dry northern highlands and does not partake of any other area's crops. The most famous member of this crop system is [[coffee]], but one of the more useful plants is [[sorghum]], a dry-land grain.
Ancient cultures also existed all along the [[Nile]], and in modern-day [[Ghana]] <!-- and much more... -->.
==History of North Africa (3500 B.C. - 1500 A.D.)==
=== Ancient Egypt ===
''Main articles: [[History of Ancient Egypt]], [[Kush]]''
Africa's earliest evidence of written history was in [[Ancient Egypt]], and the [[Egyptian calendar]] is still used as the standard for dating [[bronze age]] and [[iron age]] cultures throughout the region.
In about 3100 B.C., [[Egypt]] was united under a ruler known as Mena, or [[Menes]], who inaugurated the first of the 30 dynasties into which Egypt's ancient history is divided: the [[Old Kingdom|Old]], [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]]s and the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]]. The pyramids at [[Giza]] (near [[Cairo]]), which were built in the [[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|Fourth dynasty]], testify to the power of the pharaonic religion and state. The [[Great Pyramid]], the tomb of [[Pharaoh]] [[Khufu]] (also known as Cheops), is the only surviving monument of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]]. Ancient Egypt reached the peak of its power, wealth, and territorial extent in the period called the New Empire (1567-1085 B.C.).
The Egyptians reached [[Crete]] around 2000 BC and were invaded by [[Indo-European]]s and [[Hyksos]] Semites. They defeated the invaders around 1570 BC and expanded into the [[Aegean sea|Aegean]], [[Sudan]], [[Libya]], and much of the [[Levant]], as far as the [[Euphrates]].
The importance of Ancient Egypt to the development of Africa has been disputed. The earlier generation of Western [[Africanist]]s generally saw Egypt as a Mediterranean civilization with little impact on the rest of Africa. The more recent historians based in Africa take a very different view seeing Egypt as important to the development of African civilization as Greece was to the development of European. It has been demonstrated that Egypt had considerable contact with [[Ethiopia]] and the upper [[Nile]] valley, south of the [[cataracts of the Nile]] in [[Nubia]]n [[Kush]]. Links and connections to the Sahel and West Africa have been proposed, but are as of yet unproven.
=== Phoenician, Greek and Roman colonization ===
Separated by the 'sea of sand', the Sahara, [[North Africa]] and [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] have been linked by fluctuating [[trans-Saharan trade]] routes. Phoenician, Greek and Roman history of North Africa can be followed in entries for the [[Roman Empire]] and for its individual provinces in the [[Maghreb]], such as [[Mauretania]], [[Africa (province)|Africa]], [[Tripolitania]], [[Cyrenaica]], [[Aegyptus (province)|Aegyptus]] etc.
In Northern Africa Ethiopia has been the only state which throughout historic times has (except for a brief period during [[World War II]]) maintained its independence. Countries bordering the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] were colonised and settled by the [[Phoenicia]]ns before 1000 BC. [[Carthage]], founded about [[814 BC]], speedily grew into a city without rival in the Mediterranean. The Phoenicians subdued the [[Berber]] tribes who, then as now, formed the bulk of the population, and became masters of all the habitable region of North Africa west of the [[Great Syrtis]], and found in commerce a source of immense prosperity.
Greeks founded the city of [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]] in Libya around [[631 BC]]. [[Cyrenaica]] became a flourishing colony, though being hemmed in on all sides by absolute desert it had little or no influence on inner Africa. The Greeks, however, exerted a powerful influence in Egypt. To [[Alexander the Great]] the city of [[Alexandria]] owes its foundation ([[332 BC]]), and under the Hellenistic dynasty of the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemies]] attempts were made to penetrate southward, and in this way was obtained some knowledge of Ethiopia.
The three powers of Cyrenaica, Egypt and Carthage were eventually supplanted b |
mergency services overload instantly. Every area in the world has earthquakes and tornadoes, and the most common disasters are floods and severe storms. Common mass emergencies include [[flood]], [[hurricane]], [[tsunami]] or [[earthquake]]. These can all create mass emergencies, and thus CERTs have a mission everywhere.
For example, in a city with 100,000 people, usually only five fire stations and two police stations are staffed, with perhaps forty [[firefighter]]s, ten fire trucks and thirty [[police]] on duty. This is adequate for normal emergencies, rescues and crimes. In normal rescues, rescuers out number victims four to one, and can respond in minutes. A typical rescue is completed in a half hour.
In the above community, if a mass emergency traps or injures just two percent of the inhabitants, there are instantly 2,000 victims, many with injuries. The telephones will fail from overload. Roads, bridges, electricity and other services may fail, hampering emergency services, and interfering with fuel and material supplies.
If only professionals respond to that mass emergency and there are 2000 victims, there will be 1000 hours of rescues, divided by ten trucks, or about 100 hours. As many as three quarters of the victims could die while waiting for rescue. After an hour and a half, untreated victims of [[shock]] would begin to die. After one day, trapped children would begin to die of thirst. After two days, trapped adults and shut-ins would begin to die of thirst. Most of these deaths could be prevented by simple rescue and first-aid procedures. This is a heartbreaking situation for all concerned.
In these environments CERTs are far more effective than untrained civilians. With less than 40 hours of training, an volunteer emergency responder becomes qualified to perform about 95% of needed emergency services. This means that 95% of the rescues and life-saving [[triage]] and [[first-aid]] procedures can be completed in the "golden day," the first 24 hours when rescues and first-aid are most likely to succeed.
Physical fitness is not required for most CERT training or emergency activities. CERT members are instead trained to avoid hazards, and assign strenuous tasks to younger or fit members of the team.
In a major emergency, the community needs mass emergency services. Although amateurs are not able to work as skillfully as professionals, they are immensely better than nothing.
==CERT organization==
A [[local government]], usually a city, attempts to recruit a CERT in each neighborhood. Most governments with CERTs maintain a full-time community-service person as liaison to the volunteers who form the rest of the organization.
CERTs provide their own personnel, supplies, tools, organization and equipment, but they are activated by, trained by, promoted by and liaise with the government. They are temporary volunteer government workers, usually organized as auxiliaries to the fire department. In some areas, (such as [[California]]) during declared disasters, registered, activated CERT members are eligible for worker's compensation for on-the-job injuries.
The Federal Emergency Managment Agency (FEMA) reccomends that the standard, ten-person team be comprised as follows:
* Team Leader. (1 person)
* Fire Suppression Team (2 people)
* Search and Rescue Team (2 people)
* Medical Triage Team (2 people)
* Medical Treatment Team (2 people)
The city directly liaises with the neighborhood CERT team leader through the CERT's organic communication team. In wealthy areas the communications may be by amateur radio, or dedicated telephone or fire-alarm networks. In poor areas, relays of bicycle-equipped runners can effectively carry mail between the teams and the city's emergency operations center.
==CERT Team Member Roles ==
* '''CERT Team Leader.''' If there is only one CERT team on-scene, is also the Incident Commander until the arrival of competent authority. Makes initial assessment of the scene and determines appropriate course of action for team members; checks team members prior to deployment to ensure they are safe and equipped for the operation; determines safe or unsafe working environment; assigns team member roles if not already assigned; designates triage area, treatment area, morgue, and vehicle traffic routes; coordinates and directs team operations; determines logistical needs (water, food, medical supplies, transportation, equipment, etc.) and determines ways to meet those needs through team members or citizen volunteers on the scene; collects and writes reports on the operation and victims; ensures team accountability; communicates and coordinates with the Incident Commander.
* '''Fire Suppression Team (2).''' Work under the supervision of the Team Leader to suppress small fires in designated work areas or as needed; when not accomplishing their primary mission, assist the search and rescue team or triage team; assist in evacuation and transport as needed; assist in the triage or treatment area as needed, other duties as assigned; communicate with Team Leader.
* '''Search and Rescue Team (2).''' Work under the supervision of the Team Leader, searching for and providing rescue of victims as is prudent under the conditions; when not accomplishing their primary mission, assist the Fire Suppression Team, assist in the triage or treatment area as needed; other duties as assigned; communicate with Team Leader.
* '''Medical Triage Team (2).''' Work under the supervision of the Team Leader, providing START triage for victims found at the scene; marking victims with category of injury per the standard operating procedures; when not accomplishing their primary mission, assist the Fire Suppression Team if needed, assist the Search and Rescue Team if needed, assist in the Medical Triage Area if needed, assist in the Treatment Area if needed, other duties as assigned; communicate with Team Leader.
* '''Medical Treatment Team (2).''' Work under the supervision of the Team Leader, providing medical treatment to victims within the scope of their training. This task is normally accomplished in the Treatment Area, however, it may take place in the affected area as well. When not accomplishing their primary mission, assist the Fire Suppression Team as needed, assist the Medical Triage Team as needed; other duties as assigned; communicate with the Team Leader.
In the short term, CERTs perform data gathering, especially to locate mass-casualties requiring professional response, or situations requiring professional rescues, simple fire-fighting tasks (e.g. small fires, turning off gas), light search and rescue, damage evaluation of structures, [[triage]] and [[first aid]]. In the longer term, CERTs may assist in evacuation residents, or assist with setting up a neighborhood shelter.
==The Community Emergency Response==
===Step 1: Self Rescue===
Each individual reaches into their grab-and-go bag, gets a flashlight, and puts on their shoes. It's very tempting to check the family first, but glass on the floor can instantly create a casualty if one is bare-foot.
To prevent their injury, children should be trained to wait for a parent unless they see fire or feel heat. The family should establish an outside meeting place, and evacuation methods from every room.
California's experience with earthquakes suggests that every family member should have a "grab and go" bag, attached to their bed. It has to be attached to the bed, because in earthquakes (and perhaps other emergencies), bags in closets or under beds were lost when furniture moved and structures failed.
The bag has to include shoes and a flashlight. The most common injury in surprise emergencies is a foot injury, when people try to run on broken glass. The most common problem is a power or lighting failure, and a flashlight is an immense help to self-rescue at night.
Many people pack an entire personal emergency kit in the grab and go bag, but a shopping bag with shoes and a flashlight is enough to start.
===Step 2: Family Rescue===
Turn off gas only if you suspect a leak (the dials on the meter may be turning rapidly or you may smell the telltale odor of gas). Only your utility company can turn the gas back on once it has been turned off. If you suspect a gas leak, turn off the electricity also to prevent a fire or explosion. Then rescue other family members. Do not re-enter a burning building.
FEMA advises that families prepare a kit of essential items that they will need to survive for up to 72 hours after an emergency or disaster. The following items are recommended for you kit:
* Water, one gallon of water per person per day, for drinking and sanitation
* Food, at least a three-day supply of non-perishable food
* Battery-powered radio and a NOAA Weather Radio with tone alert, and extra batteries for both
* Flashlight and extra batteries
* First Aid kit
* Whistle to signal for help
* Dust mask or cotton t-shirt, to help filter the air
* Moist towelettes for sanitation
* Wrench or pliers to turn off utilities
* Can opener for food (if kit contains canned food)
* Plastic sheeting and duct tape to shelter-in-place
* Unique family needs, such as daily prescription medications, infant formula or diapers, and important family documents
* Garbage bags and plastic ties for personal sanitation
* Emergency reference material such as a first aid book or a print out of this information
* Rain gear
* Mess kits, paper cups, plates and plastic utensils
* Cash or traveler's checks, change
* Paper towels
* Fire Extinguisher
* Tent
* Compass
* Matches in a waterproof container
* Signal flare
* Paper, pencil
* Medicine dropper
* Feminine supplies
* Personal hygiene items
* Disinfectant
* Household chlorine bleach
You should learn where to turn off your home's gas, electric and water service. If this requires tools, attach them to the service box, or place them in your kit.
[http://www.rea |
The success of this book, as well as the rise in [[adventure tourism|adventure-based recreation]], has drawn many [[hikers]], [[mountain bike|mountain-bikers]], and [[off-road]] enthusiasts to the area, but activities are limited within park boundaries: camping, foot hiking (along designated trails), and driving only along marked roads.
The opening scenes of the movie ''[[Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade]]'' were filmed at the park.
==Reference==
* ''The National Parks: Index 2001–2003''. Washington: [[United States Department of the Interior|U.S. Department of the Interior]].
==External links==
{{Commons|Arches National Park|Arches National Park}}
* [http://www.nps.gov/arch/index.htm Arches National Park Official site]
* {{Wikitravel}}
*[http://www.terragalleria.com/parks/np.arches.html Photos of Arches National Park - Terra Galleria]
*[http://www.entradautah.com/arches Arches National Park]
*[http://www.UntraveledRoad.com/USA/Parks/Arches.htm Photographic virtual tour of Arches National Park]
{{Geolinks-US-cityscale|38.750555|-109.566944|10}}
{{National parks of the United States}}
[[Category:Archaeological sites in the United States]]
[[Category:Grand County, Utah]]
[[Category:National Parks of the United States]]
[[Category:Natural arches]]
[[Category:Utah landmarks]]
[[da:Arches Nationalpark]]
[[de:Arches-Nationalpark]]
[[es:Parque Nacional Arches]]
[[fr:Arches National Park]]
[[pl:Park Narodowy Arches]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Analog signal</title>
<id>993</id>
<revision>
<id>39666041</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T00:58:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>144.139.85.151</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''analog''' or '''analogue''' signal is any variable signal [[continuous function|continuous]] in both time and amplitude. It differs from a [[digital signal]] in that small fluctuations in the signal are meaningful. Analog is usually thought of in an [[electricity|electrical]] context, however mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, and other systems may also use analog signals.
The word "analog" implies an [[analogy]] between cause and effect, voltage in and voltage out, current in and current out, sound in and frequency out.
An analog signal uses some property of the medium to convey the signal's information. For example, an [[aneroid barometer]] uses rotary position as the signal to convey pressure information. Electrically, the property most commonly used is [[voltage]] followed closely by [[frequency]], [[Current (electricity)|current]], and [[electric charge|charge]].
Any information may be conveyed by an analog signal, often such a signal is a measured [[response]] to changes in physical phenomena, such as [[sound]], [[light]], [[temperature]], [[position]], or [[pressure]], and is achieved using a [[transducer]].
For example, in an analog sound recording, the variation in [[pressure]] of a [[sound]] striking a [[microphone]] creates a corresponding variation in the voltage amplitude of a current passing through it. An increase in the volume of the sound causes the fluctuation of the current's voltage amplitude to increase while keeping the same rhythm.
The primary disadvantage of analog signalling is that any system has [[Noise (physics)|noise]]&mdash;that is, random variations&mdash;in it. As the signal is copied and re-copied, or transmitted over long distances, these random variations become dominant. Electrically these losses are lessened by shielding, good connections, and several cable types such as coax and twisted pair.
The effects of [[signal noise|noise]] make signal loss and distortion impossible to recover, since amplifying the signal to recover attenuated parts of the signal amplifies the noise as well.
Another method of conveying an analog signal is to use [[modulation]]. In this, some base signal (e.g., a [[sinusoidal]] [[carrier wave]]) has one of its properties modulated: [[amplitude modulation]] involves altering the amplitude of a sinusoidal voltage [[wave]]form by the source information, [[frequency modulation]] changes the [[frequency]]. Other techniques, such as changing the [[phase (waves)|phase]] of the base signal also work.
Analog circuits do not involve [[quantisation]] of information into digital format. The concept being measured over the circuit, whether sound, light, pressure, temperature, or an exceeded limit, remains from end to end.
[[Clock]]s with hands are called analog; those that display digits are called digital. However, many analog clocks are actually digital since the hands do not move in a smooth continuous motion, but in small steps every second or half a second, or every minute with a loud CLUNK.
See [[digital]] for a discussion of ''digital vs. analog''.
Sources: Some of an earlier version of this article was originally taken from [[Federal Standard 1037C]] in support of [[MIL-STD-188]].
==See also==
* [[Analog computer]]
* [[Analog to digital converter]]
* [[Digital to analog converter]]
* [[Analog television]]
* [[Analog synthesizer]]
* [[Analog photocopier]]
* [[telautograph|Analog fax machine]]
[[Category:Sound]]
[[Category:Electronic design]]
[[da:Analog]]
[[de:Analogsignal]]
[[es:Señal analógica]]
[[eo:Analoga]]
[[fr:Analogique]]
[[ko:아날로그]]
[[it:Analogico]]
[[nl:Analoog]]
[[ja:アナログ]]
[[pt:Sinal analógico]]
[[ru:Аналоговый сигнал]]
[[fi:Analoginen]]
[[zh:模拟信号]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arecales</title>
<id>994</id>
<revision>
<id>25086937</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-08T21:44:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eugene van der Pijll</username>
<id>22016</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect order to monotypic member family</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Arecaceae]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>And Then There Were None</title>
<id>999</id>
<revision>
<id>41684029</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T01:16:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Carfanatic</username>
<id>589587</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AndThenThereWereNoneDVDCover.jpg|right|thumb|The 1945 film version, showing (left to right) [[Barry Fitzgerald]], [[June Duprez]] and [[Walter Huston]].]]
'''''And Then There Were None''''' (also known as '''''Ten Little Indians''''' and originally as '''''Ten Little Niggers''''') is a [[detective fiction|detective novel]] by [[Agatha Christie]] first published in [[1939]].
==Plot==
{{spoiler}}
The story focuses on ten strangers who are all (but one) brought, by misleading information, to an [[Burgh Island|island]] off the coast of [[Devon]], in southern [[England]].
The characters are:
*Vera Claythorne, a young teacher in a third class school
*Philip Lombard, a down-on-his luck explorer/mercenary
*William Blore, a retired police inspector, now a private investigator
*Dr. Edward Armstrong, a private physician
*Justice Lawrence Wargrave, a bitter, cynical retired judge
*Emily Brent, an elderly spinster and a religious zealot of extreme proportions
*Rogers, the butler
*General Macarthur, a lonely, retired army man
*Mrs. Rogers, the housekeeper, Rogers' wife
*Anthony Marston, a reckless playboy
On their first night, the ten realize that they have been brought to the island under false pretenses, but now have no means of getting away. A mysterious gramophone recording informs them that all ten of them are guilty of "murders," though in this case the killings cannot be dealt with by law.
On the first night, Anthony Marston dies of posioning. In the morning, Mrs. Rogers fails to wake up and it is determined that she probably had a fatal overdose of sleeping drugs. At lunch the next day, General Macarthur is found dead by a blow to the back of his head. After searching the island for the murderer or possible hiding spots, the survivors realize that the murderer can only be one of them, and whoever it is, is playing a game - killing them in manners poetically similar to a nursery rhyme, and also removing one of ten little figurines in the dining room after each death. The survivors have a meeting and discover that none of them have an alibi for any of the deaths.
The next morning Rogers is found dead in the woodshed, having been killed with a giant axe that was nearby. Later that day, Emily Brent dies from an injection of [[potassium cyanide]]. The five remaining - Dr. Armstrong, Justice Wargrave, Philip Lombard, Vera Claythorne, and Inspector Blore - become increasingly paranoid. Later, Justice Wargrave is found dead, having been shot through the head. That night, Dr. Armostrong leaves the house, and when the rest of the survivors search for him they cannot find him.
Vera, Inspector Blore, and Philip Lombard go outside. Blore decides to go back to the house to get some sustinance, and a dull thud is heard. When Vera and Philip check to see what happened, they find Blore crushed to death by a heavy marble clock. They assume Doctor Armstrong did it and decide to stay out of the house. The two survivors get back to the beach only to find Armstrong's body washed up on the shore. Vera and Lombard they realise that they are the only two left. Even though they could not possibly have mudered the Inspector, the never ending suspicion has driven them to a breaking point and they assume each other as the murderers. Philip Lombard reaches for he revolver, only to discover that Vera Claythorne pickpoketed it. She shoots him and then returns to the house, thinking she is finally safe. When Vera gets to her room, she discovers a noose hanging there, and having been finally driven crazy by the entire experience, she hangs herself, thus fullfilling the rhyme upon which the murders were based.
So, by the novel's end, all ten guests are dead, leaving a "[[locked room mystery]]." A police investigation, though thorough, cannot |
llen County, Indiana|Allen]]|
leader_title = [[Mayor]] |
leader_name = [[Graham Richard]] (D)|
area_note = |
area_magnitude = 1 E9 |
area_total = 204.92 |
area_land = 204.48 |
area_water = 0.4 |
population_as_of = 2004 |
population_note = |
population_total = 219,351 |
population_density = 1,072.73|
timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time|EST]] |
utc_offset = &minus;5 |
timezone_DST = [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]] |
utc_offset_DST = &minus;4 |
latitude = 41&deg;4'42" N |
longitude = 85&deg;7'36" W |
website = [http://www.cityoffortwayne.org/ City of Fort Wayne] |
footnotes = |
}}
'''Fort Wayne''' is a [[city]] and the [[county seat]] of [[Allen County, Indiana|Allen County]] in northeastern [[Indiana]], [[United States|USA]]. As of the [[2004]] update of the [[United States Census, 2000|2000 census]], the city had a total population of 219,351 and a metropolitan population of 502,141. It is named after a U.S. military fort established in [[1794]] by Gen. [["Mad" Anthony Wayne]] where the [[St. Joseph River (Maumee River)|St. Joseph River]] and [[St. Marys River (Indiana)|St. Marys River]] join to form the [[Maumee River]].
==History==
Historically the site was known as [[Kekionga]], the traditional capital of the [[Miami tribe|Miami nation]]. In the [[1680s]], [[France|French]] traders established a trading post at the location because it was the main portage between the [[Great Lakes (North America)|Great Lakes]] via the Maumee River and the [[Mississippi River]] via the nearby Little River branch of the [[Wabash River]].
The French built the first fort on the site, [[Fort Miamis]], in 1697 as part of a group of forts built between [[Quebec]], [[Canada]] and [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]]. Forts Miamis was replaced by Fort St. Philippe in 1722.
Increasing tension between France and the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|United Kingdom]] developed over the territory. In [[1760]], after defeat by British forces in the [[French and Indian War]], the area was ceded to the [[British Empire]]. The fort was renamed "Fort Miami."
In [[1763]], various Native American nations rebelled against British rule and retook the fort as part of [[Pontiac's Rebellion]]. The Miami regained control of Kekionga, a rule that lasted for more than 30 years.
On [[October 22]], [[1794]], under the command of General [[Anthony Wayne]], the [[United States]] army captured the Wabash-Erie portage from the Miami and built a new fort near the three rivers. Fort Wayne was named for the general.
Eventually, the portage was replaced by the [[Wabash and Erie Canal]] in [[1833]]. Fort Wayne's significance as a waterway portage lost national prominence as the [[railroad]] system developed in the United States. For nearly a century it was an important railroad center between New York and Chicago.
On [[February 22]], [[1840]], the growing city incorporated as the City of Fort Wayne.
Most of the population growth occurred in the 19th century with immigration from Germany and Ireland. The large numbers of Roman Catholic and Lutheran churches reflect this. German-language newspapers were published into the 20th century.
Interesting Fact: Some inhabitants of Fort Wayne over the years have casually joked about how General [[Anthony Wayne]] only stayed in Fort Wayne for 4 days before departing.
[[Image:Fort-wayne-indiana-courthouse.jpg|thumb|300px|Allen County courthouse.]]
== Law and government ==
Fort Wayne has an elected [[mayor]], [[city clerk|clerk]] and [[city council]]-style of government.
===Executive - mayor===
Fort Wayne's mayor is [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]] [[Graham Richard]], who has served in the post since January 2000. He was elected to a second term in 2003.
*See, [[List of Fort Wayne, Indiana mayors]]
===City clerk===
[[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]] [[Sandra Kennedy]] has been Fort Wayne's city clerk since 1983.
===Representatives - common council===
The Fort Wayne Common Council is a nine-member legislative group that serve four-year terms. Six of the members represent specific districts; three are elected city-wide as at-large council members. The council elected on [[November 4]], [[2003]] will serve until [[December 31]], [[2007]]:
*John N. Crawford: At-Large, [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
*Samuel J. Talarico, Jr: At-Large, [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
*John Shoaff: At-Large, [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
*Tom Smith: 1st District, [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
*Donald J. Schmidt: 2nd District, [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
*Tom Didier: 3rd District, [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
*Thomas E. Hayhurst: 4th District, [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
*Tim Pape: 5th District, [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
*Glynn A. Hines: 6th District, [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
==Geography==
Modern Fort Wayne is set in a productive agricultural area, but has always been an important transportation hub. Founded at the confluence of three rivers, the city was the summit of the [[Wabash_and_Erie_Canal|Wabash-Erie Canal]]. Fort Wayne also sits at the high point between two [[Watersheds of Indiana|Indiana watersheds]]; hence its nickname, "Summit City."
Current Fort Wayne straddles [[Interstate 69]], and is served by [[Norfolk Southern]], [[Conrail]] and [[CSX]] [[rail transport|rail lines]] as well as [[Fort Wayne International Airport]] and Smith Field regional airport.
===Physical geography===
For a regional "summit," Fort Wayne is fairly flat. There are some local wetlands and gravel pits. West of the St. Joseph's River and St. Mary's River is part of the Tipton Till Plain, with deep dark brown soil. Land east of there is the former [[Black Swamp]], a soil heavy with clay that forms deep cracks in August and must be plowed in the fall because it's too wet in the spring.
===Major parks===
Fort Wayne's first park, the 0.2 acre (800&nbsp;m&sup2;) Old Fort Park, was established in [[1863]]. The newest park, the 170 acre (690,000&nbsp;m&sup2;) Salomon Farm Park, was established in [[1995]]. As of 2005, the city had 87 parks covering 2,199.55 acres (8.9&nbsp;km&sup2;).
* Buckner Farm Park
* [[Foellinger-Freimann Botanical Conservatory]]
* Foster Park
* Franke Park, the city's largest at 316.4 acres (1.3 km²), home to the [[Fort Wayne Children's Zoo]]
* Freimann Square
* Historic Old Fort
* Hurshtown Reservoir
* Japanese Garden
* [[Johnny Appleseed Park]], including the gravesite of [[Johnny Appleseed]]
* Lakeside Park
* Lindenwood Nature Preserve
* McMillen Park
* [[Little Turtle]] Memorial
* Shoaff Park
==Economy==
In the mid-[[20th century]], Fort Wayne was a major manufacturing center of the northeastern United States. Major employers included [[General Electric]] (which was a merger of many electric companies including Fort Wayne's Jenny Electric), [[International Harvester]] (left Fort Wayne in [[1983]]), and Tokheim gasoline pumps (sold in [[2003]]). Phelps Dodge, Rea Wire, and Essex Wire comprised the largest concentration of [[copper]] and [[enamel wire]] manufacturing in the world. In the latter half of the 20th century, shifts in manufacturing patterns led to the reduction of the number of manufacturing plants and jobs, and Fort Wayne could be counted among the relatively stagnant "[[rust belt]]" cities of the northeast.
In recent decades growth based on a more diverse economy has resumed. [[General Motors]] opened the Truck and Bus Assembly operation in the [[1980s]]. Fort Wayne employs many in the transportation and logistics sector, with Sirva, the [[Norfolk_Southern_Railway]], along with its subsidiaries [http://www.triplecrownsvc.com/ Triple Crown Services] (supplying intermodal services) and [http://www.trnswrks.com/ TransWorks] (supplying carrier and shipper transportation tools), and Kitty Hawk Air Cargo combining for more than 2,500 local jobs. [[National defense]] is also an increasingly important component of the local economy, with [[ITT]] and [[Raytheon]] employing more than 1,000 people each.
Mid-Size businesses have also shown growth throughout the Fort Wayne area. Insurance companies such as K&K Insurance, Brotherhood Mutual Insurance Company, and Insurance & Risk Management, one of Indiana’s largest private insurance companies, have their headquarters in the Fort Wayne area. The finance sector has grown in recent years as well, having accounting firms such as Baden Gage and Schroeder and the bank headquarters of Star Financial Group. Recently the city had lost almost 1,000 jobs due to the sale of Waterfield Mortgage Company.
A secure area at the [[Fort Wayne International Airport]] (formerly known as Baer Field) houses the [[Indiana Air National Guard]]'s 122nd Fighter Wing, which flies the [[F-16]] fighter.
While the homegrown [[Lincoln National Corporation]] has changed names and relocated its headquarters to [[Philadelphia]], Lincoln Financial still employs about 1,500 professionals in the city and contributes millions of dollars annually to local charities and civic causes.
== Demographics ==
[[Image:US-IN-Allen County Municipalities.png|thumb|right|300px|Fort Wayne is the largest city in Allen County, Indiana. This map shows its relations with nearby municipalities and major roadways. Unincpororated towns are marked with a dark red dot.]]
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there were 205,727 people, 83,333 households, and 50,666 families residing in the city. In 2003, the Census Bureau revised the population of Fort Wayne upward to 220,486 to reflect neighborhood annexation after 2000.
On [[January 1]], 2006 an additional annexation of 13 square miles of suburban Aboite Township into the City of Fort Wayne became effective. It brought in approximately 30,000 additional people, boosting the city's overall population |
RL last accessed [[February 23]], [[2006]].</ref>
==Magic==
The game tends to favour the use of magic in combat, as spells are the only weapons that work from a distance (there are no [[bow (weapon)|bows]]). The player character automatically gains a spell with each [[Level up|level-up]], and can permanently gain another using the corresponding book (found or purchased), until he learns all the 30 spells that he can learn. (The maximum level is also 30.) There are two opposing pairs of elements: cold vs. [[fire]], and [[lightning]] vs. [[acid]]/[[poison]]. (The player has no acid/poison attacks.) The spells are divided into seven categories:
*'''Attack Spells'''
**'''Magic Arrow''': The basic magical attack, weak and non-elemental, affecting one target monster.
**'''Cold Bolt''', '''Lightning Bolt''', '''Fire Bolt''': More powerful, elemental attacks, also affecting one target monster. Against an elementally neutral monster, fire is stronger than lightning, which is stronger then cold.
**'''Cold Ball''', '''Ball Lightning''', '''Fireball''': Affect a 3x3 area. Do damage equivalent to the corresponding bolt in the center square, and half as much damage in the eight adjacent squares. As with the bolts, fire is stronger than lightning which is stronger than cold. May hurt the player, but nevertheless be worthwhile.
**'''Sleep Monster''': Puts one target monster to sleep. Some monsters and all bosses are immune and all will wake in about ten minutes or when attacked.
**'''Slow Monster''': Slows the target monster's movement and attacks to half. Bosses are immune. A second cast reduces the speed to 1/3, a third to 1/4, etc. Some monsters, like devils, will never move at less than half the player’s speed.
**'''Transmogrify Monster''': The monster targeted will change into any creature, selected at random. Bosses cannot be transmogrified, and monsters will not become bosses. Percentage health is preserved.
*'''Defense Spells'''
**'''Shield''': Temporarily increases the player's armour value by 5. Casting the spell multiple times will cause the bonus to stack additively, but it will reach a limit.
**'''Resist Cold''', '''Resist Fire''', '''Resist Lightning''': Temporarily decreases by half the damage the player sustains from these elemental attacks. The damage is further halved with each additional cast.
*'''Healing Spells'''
**'''Heal Minor Wounds''', '''Heal Medium Wounds''', '''Heal Major Wounds''': Respectively heal 20%, 40% and 60% of the user's max health or 8/16/24 hp, whichever is higher.
**'''Healing''': Restores the player to full hit points.
**'''Neutralize Poison''': Stops poisoning. Although the spell has the same [[mana]] cost as '''Heal Medium Wounds''', it is effective against any strength of poisoning, even that inflicted by Green Dragons. It will not heal any damage inflicted by the poison prior to the spell's use.
*'''Movement Spells'''
**'''Phase Door''', '''[[Teleport]]''': Both move the player to random locations on the same floor, but '''Teleport''' is longer-range.
**'''Levitation''': Makes the player impervious to non-magical traps. That is, everything except glyphs of warding and teleporter traps.
**'''Rune of Return''': Carries the player from the dungeon to town, or from town to the deepest visited level of the dungeon. After casting this spell, the user will need to wait a while before being teleported.
*'''[[Divination]] Spells'''
**'''Clairvoyance''': Fills in the player's map of a 10x10 area anywhere on the floor, including any traps and [[secret passage|secret doors]].
**'''Detect Objects''': Reveals all movable items on the floor, except those carried by monsters.
**'''Detect Traps''': Reveals all traps within 10 tiles, and has a decreasing chance to reveal more distant traps.
**'''Detect Monsters''': Reveals all monsters on the floor for 30 minutes. (A map can only be displayed for the current floor.) Carries from floor to floor should the user move vertically.
**'''Identify''': Reveals enchantments/curses or lack thereof on an object, and reveals the number of charges of a wand or staff. Identifying an unknown object increases its resale value, ''unless'' it turns out to be cursed or worthless. (A merchant will refuse to buy unidentified objects if too many have been junk.)
*'''Miscellaneous Spells'''
**'''Remove Curse''': Makes a cursed object "uncursed," meaning that the player can take it off. Normally, cursed items cannot be removed once put on. Its negative effects are not removed, and it is still worthless.
**'''Light''': Reveals a room, or a 3x3 area of corridor, including any monsters or objects that may be within it. (Rooms and corridors are distinguished not by structure, but by different types of floors with different colours and descriptions.)
*'''Non-Character Spells''' (which can only be cast by items such as scrolls and wands)
**'''Create Traps''': Fills the floor squares adjacent to the player (up to eight) with traps. If the player then casts '''Detect Traps''' and '''Levitation''', he can usually disarm the traps with minimal danger, and gain experience for disarming them. Cast only by cursed items.
**'''Clone Monster''': Creates a healthy duplicate of the monster; effective even on [[boss (video games)|bosses]]. Some players use it to gain more experience and treasure against monsters which usually carry a high experience value and a lot of treasure. Cast only by cursed items.
**'''Teleport Away''': Similar to '''Teleport''', but affects a target monster rather than the player.
**'''Haste Monster''': Reverse of '''Slow Monster'''. Cast only by cursed items.
**'''Summon Monster''', '''Summon Undead''' (not listed in the Spell Directory): Create a random monster in the space next to the caster.
==Items and the Inventory System==
''Castle'' has a very sophisticated inventory system, limiting a player's load based on weight (measured in [[gram]]s) and bulk (measured in [[cubic centimetre]]s) rather than number of items, and allowing the character to use different types of containers as packs. The item types are as follows:
*'''Containers'''
**'''Packs''' and '''Bags''' (small, medium and large), each having a weight and bulk of their own plus that of their contents, and a maximum weight and bulk.
**'''Chests''' (small, medium and large), which occupy their maximum bulk regardless of how full they are.
**'''Belts''', which have a fixed number of slots in addition to the maximum weight and bulk. The Utility Belt and Wand Quiver Belt have specialty slots that can hold only specific types of items. Potions, Scrolls, Books and Wands can only be activated when on the belt, worn in place of a belt, or carried in the Free Hand.
**'''Purses''', which work the same way as packs, with high capacity, but can only carry money.
**'''Enchanted Packs of Holding''' (small, medium and large), the only magical containers, which weigh less and take up less space than their contents. Enchanted Packs repel each other magnetically, so unlike all other containers, they will not nest.
*'''Wearable items'''
**Suits of '''Armour''' of many types, such as Leather Armour, Studded Leather, Chain Mail, Splint Mail, Plate Mail, Plate Armour, Elven Chain Mail and Meteoric Steel Plate Armour.
**'''Shields''' made of several materials (Wooden, Iron, Steel, Meteoric Steel), each of which can be small, medium or large.
**'''Helmets''' in Leather, Iron, Steel and Meteoric Steel. A Helmet of Detect Monsters also exists.
**'''Bracers''' and '''Gauntlets'''. Enchanted bracers will always increase armour class, enchanted gauntlets will increase strength, dexterity, armour class or both chance to hit and damage.
**'''[[Boot]]s''', which add a small amount of Armour Value, and if enchanted, can also increase the player's speed or cause him to levitate. Cursed boots will slow the player down. All boots are made of leather, unlike some other RPGs which include chain boots, etc.
**'''[[Cloak]]s''', which are worn under armour and provide a small amount of Armour Value. Enchanted Capes of Protection are cloaks with an even higher Armour Value.
**'''[[Finger ring|Ring]]s''' and '''[[Amulet]]s'''. Enchanted rings will raise one attribute or armour class, enchanted amulets will increase the resistance to an element or undead stat draining. Cursed amulets will limit your carrying capacity ("Cursed amulet of burden") or will reduce your resistance to an element.
**Many types of '''weapons''', with a wide variety of possible enchantments and curses, but all reaching only into adjacent squares (no bows etc.) The strongest weapons are two-handed swords, which can not be wielded while you hold a shield. The second strongest are bastard swords.
**'''[[Staff (stick)|Staffs]]''', which can function both as wands and as weapons. The spells staffs can cast are different to those a wand can cast.
*'''Items to be Activated'''
**'''[[Potion]]s''' and '''[[Scroll]]s''', with a wide variety of magical effects. Healing spells, '''Detect Objects''', '''Detect Monsters''' and '''Detect Traps''' can be performed by both potions and scrolls; '''Levitation''' is performed only by a potion; and other spells in the game only by scrolls. In addition, Scrolls of Map Quadrant and Map Level exist, and some special potions restore Mana or allow the character to gain experience or permanently increase attributes.
**'''[[Book]]s''', each containing a spell that the player can learn. A player will instantly recognize a book for a spell he already knows, and so will always learn something new from an unidentified spellbook.
**'''[[Wand]]s''', which cast a spell and have a certain number of charges.
**'''Scraps of [[parchment]]''', at three key points in the story, each displaying a message when Activated (read), after which they disappear (crumble or burst into flames).
Almost every item in the game can be normal, cursed or enchanted, with curses and enchantments working the same way as in [[NetHack]]. Although items |
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