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ht of millions of newly unemployed people from rural areas or small towns to the large cities, and thus the development of large urban population centers, led to unprecedented conditions of poverty in the slums that housed workers for the new factories. At the same time, the bourgeois class, at only a small fraction of the proletariat's size, became exceedingly wealthy.
Marx believed that the industrial proletariat would eventually develop [[class consciousness]] and revolt against the bourgeoisie, leading to a more egalitarian [[socialism|socialist]] and eventually [[Communist]] state where the workers themselves would own the means of industrial production.
===Romantic Movement===
{{main|Romanticism}}
Concurrent with the industrial revolution there developed an intellectual and artistic hostility towards the new industrialisation known as the [[Romanticism|Romantic Movement]]. Its major exponents included the artist and poet [[William Blake]], and poets [[William Wordsworth]] ,[[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]], [[Keats]] and [[Percy Bysshe Shelley|Shelley]]. The movement stressed the importance of "nature" in art and language, in contrast to the 'monstrous' machines and factories. In Blake's words they were the, "''Dark satanic mills''" of his poem ''[[And did those feet in ancient time]]''.
==The Second Industrial Revolution==
:''Main article: [[Second Industrial Revolution]]''
The insatiable demand of the [[railroads]] for more durable rail led to the development of the means to cheaply mass-produce [[steel]]. Steel is often cited as the first of several new areas for industrial mass-production, which are said to characterize a "[[Second Industrial Revolution]]", beginning around [[1850]]. This "second" Industrial Revolution gradually grew to include the [[chemical industry|chemical industries]], [[petroleum]] refining and distribution, [[electrical industry|electrical industries]], and, in the twentieth century, the [[automotive industry|automotive industries]], and was marked by a transition of technological leadership from Great Britain to the United States and [[Germany]].
The introduction of [[hydroelectric power]] generation in the [[Alps]] enabled the rapid [[industrialization]] of coal-starved northern Italy, beginning in the 1890s. The increasing availability of economic petroleum products also reduced the relation of coal to the potential for industrialization.
By the 1890s, industrialisation in these areas had created the first giant industrial corporations with often nearly global international operations and interests, as companies like [[United States Steel Corporation|U.S. Steel]], [[General Electric]], and [[Bayer|Bayer AG]] joined the railroads on the world's [[stock market]]s and among huge organisations.
==See also==
*[[Economic history of Britain]]
*[[Industrialization]]
*[[Second Industrial Revolution]]
*[[Revolution]]
*[[Capitalism in the nineteenth century]]
*[[Dialectics of progress]]
*[[Pre-industrial society]]
==Notes==
<sup>1</sup> ''[[The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism]]'', [[Max Weber]], (1904-1905, Eng. trans. 1930)<br>
<sup>2</sup> ''In Praise of Idleness'', [[Bertrand Russell]]<br>
<sup>3</sup> [http://www.historyhome.co.uk/peel/p-health/mterkay.htm The full text of the report published by James Phillips Kay in 1832]
==References==
===General===
*Bernal, John Desmond. ''Science and Industry in the Nineteenth Century'' Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1970.
*Derry, Thomas Kingston and Trevor I. Williams. ''A Short History of Technology : From the Earliest Times to A.D. 1900'' New York : Dover Publications, 1993.
*Hobsbawm, Eric J.. ''Industry and Empire : From 1750 to the Present Day'' . New York : New Press ; Distributed by W.W. Norton,1999.
*Kranzberg, Melvin and Carroll W. Pursell, Jr. editors. ''Technology in Western civilization'' New York, Oxford University Press, 1967.
*Lines, Clifford, ''Companion to the Industrial Revolution'', London, New York etc., Facts on File, 1990, ISBN 0-8160-2157-0
*[[Friedrich Hayek|Hayek, Friedrich ]]: ''Capitalism and the Historians'', The University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-32072-3 (Paperback 1963)
===Causes===
*Landes, David S. ''The Unbound Prometheus : Technical Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present'' 2nd ed. New York : Cambridge University Press, 2003.
*Paul Mantoux, ''The Industrial Revolution in the Eighteenth Century'', First English translation 1928, revised and reset edition 1961.
===Machine tools===
*Norman Atkinson ''Sir Joseph Whitworth'',[[1996]], [[Sutton Publishing]] Limited [[1996]] ISBN 0-7509-1211-1 (hc), ISBN 0-7509-1648-6 (pb)
*John Cantrell and Gillian Cookson, eds., ''Henry Maudslay and the Pioneers of the Machine Age'', [[2002]], Tempus Publishing, Ltd, pb., (ISBN 0-7524-2766-0)
*Rev. Dr. Richard L. Hills, ''Life and Inventions of Richard Roberts, 1789-1864'', Landmark Publishing Ltd, [[2002]], (ISBN 1-84306-027-2)
*Joseph Wickham Roe, ''English and American Tool Builders'', Yale University Press, [[1916]]. Rep. Lindsay Publications Inc., Bradley IL.,[[1987]], (ISBN 0-917914-74-0),(cloth), (ISBN 0-9107914-73-2), paper.
===External links===
*[http://search.dmoz.org/cgi-bin/search?search=industrial+revolution Industrial Revolution links at the Open Directory Project] Has over 50 linked pages on the Industrial Revolution
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook14.html Internet Modern History Sourcebook: Industrial Revolution]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/society_culture/industrialisation/ BBC History Home Page: Industrial Revolution]
*[http://www.makingthemodernworld.org.uk/ National Museum of Science and Industry website: machines and personalities ]
*[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/IndustrialRevolutionandtheStandardofLiving.html ''Industrial Revolution and the Standard of Living''] by Clark Nardinelli - the debate over whether standards of living rose or fell
*[http://mars.acnet.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/wc2/lectures/industrialrev.html An Overveiw of The Industrial Revolution: Industrial Revolution]
{{Industrial Revolution}}
[[Category:Industrial Revolution|*]]
[[Category:Historical eras]]
[[Category:History of Britain]]
[[Category:History of technology]]
[[bg:Индустриална революция]]
[[ca:Revolució industrial]]
[[cy:Y Chwyldro Diwydiannol]]
[[da:Den Industrielle Revolution]]
[[de:Industrielle Revolution]]
[[es:Revolución industrial]]
[[eo:Industria revolucio]]
[[fr:Révolution industrielle]]
[[ko:산업혁명]]
[[id:Revolusi Industri]]
[[he:המהפכה התעשייתית]]
[[hu:Ipari forradalom]]
[[nl:Industriële revolutie]]
[[nds:Industrielle Revolutschoon]]
[[ja:産業革命]]
[[no:Den industrielle revolusjon]]
[[nn:Den industrielle revolusjonen]]
[[pl:Rewolucja przemysłowa]]
[[pt:Revolução Industrial]]
[[simple:Industrial Revolution]]
[[fi:Teollinen vallankumous]]
[[sr:Индустријска револуција]]
[[sv:Industriella revolutionen]]
[[th:การปฏิวัติอุตสาหกรรม]]
[[tr:Sanayi devrimi]]
[[zh:工业革命]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Court of Justice</title>
<id>14918</id>
<revision>
<id>42047639</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:56:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cwoyte</username>
<id>73124</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>undo vandalism bit of edit by [[user:24.140.94.110]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Peace Palace.jpg|thumb|330px|Peace Palace, seat of the ICJ.]]The '''International Court of Justice''' (known colloquially as the '''World Court''' or '''ICJ''') is the principal judicial organ of the [[United Nations]]. Its seat is in the [[Peace Palace]] at [[The Hague]], [[Netherlands]]. Established in [[1945]] by the [[Charter of the United Nations]], the Court began work in [[1946]] as the successor to the [[Permanent Court of International Justice]]. The Statute of the International Court of Justice, similar to that of its predecessor, is the main constitutional document constituting and regulating the Court.{{ref|1}} The ICJ shouldn't be confused with the [[International Criminal Court]] or the [[War Crimes Law (Belgium)]], both of which also potentially have "global" jurisdiction. English and French are its two official languages.
The Court's workload is characterised by a wide range of judicial activity. Its main functions are to settle [[legal]] disputes submitted to it by [[state]]s and to give advisory opinions on legal questions submitted to it by duly authorised international organs and agencies. The number of [[case law|decisions]] made by the ICJ has been relatively small, but there has clearly been an increased willingness to use the Court since the [[1980s]], especially among [[developing countries]], although the [[USA]] withdrew from compulsory jurisdiction in 1986, meaning it only accepts the court's jurisdiction on a case-to-case basis.
==Composition==
The ICJ is composed of fifteen permanent [[judge]]s elected by the [[UN General Assembly]] and the [[UN Security Council]] from a list of persons nominated by the national groups in the [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]]. The election process is set out in Articles 4-12 of the ICJ statute. Judges serve for nine years terms and may be re-elected. Elections take place every three years, with one-third of judges retiring each time, in order to ensure continuity within the court.
Should a judge die in office, the practice has generally been to elect a judge of the same [[nationality]] to complete the term. No two may be nationals of the same country. According to Article 9, the membership of the Court is supposed to represent the "main forms of civilization and of the principal legal systems of the world". Essentially, this has meant [[common law]], [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] and [[socialist law]] (now [[post-communist law]]). Since the [[1960s]] each of the fi |
lost its status as the capital. The [[Algerian]] resistance fighter [[Abd_al-Qadir | Emir Abd el-Kader]] resided here for a while ([[1852]] to [[1855]]), as well as [[Ayatollah Khomeini]] in his first year of exile ([[1963]]) before leaving for [[Nejef]] in [[Iraq]] and later for [[Paris]], and [[Ismail Hakkı Bursevi]] a famous [[Islamic]] scholar and [[Sufi]] is buried here.
== External links ==
* [http://www.turkishclass.com/turkey_pictures_gallery_38 Pictures of Bursa]
* [http://www.turkeyforecast.com/weather/bursa/ Bursa Weather Forecast Information]
{{Districts of Bursa}}
[[Category:Bursa]]
[[Category:Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Cities along the Silk Road]]
[[ar:بورصة (مدينة)]]
[[de:Bursa]]
[[el:Προύσα]]
[[fr:Bursa]]
[[it:Bursa]]
[[nl:Bursa (stad)]]
[[ja:ブルサ]]
[[pl:Bursa]]
[[pt:Bursa]]
[[sv:Bursa]]
[[tr:Bursa şehri]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bahamas</title>
<id>3451</id>
<revision>
<id>42106226</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:41:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.171.79.251</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Country|
| native_name = Commonwealth of The Bahamas
| common_name = the Bahamas
| image_flag = Flag of the Bahamas.svg
| image_coat = Bahamas_coa.png
| image_map = LocationBahamas.png
| national_motto = Forward Upward Onward Together
| national_anthem = [[March On, Bahamaland]]
| official_languages = [[English language|English]]
| capital = [[Nassau, Bahamas|Nassau]]
| latd=24 |latm=4 |latNS=N |longd=77 |longm=20 |longEW=W
| largest_city = [[Nassau, Bahamas|Nassau]]
| government_type= [[Parliamentary democracy]]
| leader_titles = [[British monarchy|Queen]]<br> [[List of Governors-General of the Bahamas|Governor-General]]<br> [[List of Prime Ministers of the Bahamas|Prime Minister]]
| leader_names = [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]]<br>[[Arthur Dion Hanna]]<br> [[Perry Christie]]
| area_rank = 155th
| area_magnitude = 1 E10
| area= 13,940
| areami² = 5,382 <!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
| percent_water = 28%
| population_estimate = 301,790<sup>1</sup>
| population_estimate_year = 2005
| population_estimate_rank = 168th
| population_census= 254,685
| population_census_year= 1990
| population_density = 21
| population_densitymi² = 54.4<!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
| population_density_rank= 152
| GDP_PPP_year= 2005
| GDP_PPP = 5729
| GDP_PPP_rank = 147
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = 17,865
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 41
| HDI_year = 2003
| HDI = 0.832
| HDI_rank = 50th
| HDI_category = <font color="#009900">high</font>
| sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
| established_events = &nbsp;- Date
| established_dates = From the [[United Kingdom]]<br> [[July 10]], [[1973]]
| currency = [[Bahamian dollar]]
| currency_code = BSD
| country_code = bs
| time_zone= [[Eastern Standard Time|EST]]
| utc_offset= &minus;5
| time_zone_DST= [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]]
| utc_offset_DST= &minus;4
| cctld= [[.bs]]
| calling_code = [[Area code 242|1-242]]
| footnotes = <sup>1</sup> Estimates for this country take into account the effects of excess mortality due to [[AIDS]]; this can result in lower [[life expectancy]], higher [[infant mortality]] and [[death]] rates, lower population growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected.
}}
The '''Commonwealth of The Bahamas''' is an independent [[English language|English]]-speaking nation in the [[West Indies]]. An [[archipelago]] of 700 islands and [[cay]]s (which are small islands), the Bahamas is located in the [[Atlantic Ocean]], east of [[Florida]] in the [[United States]], north of [[Cuba]] and the [[Caribbean]], and west of the British dependency of the [[Turks and Caicos Islands]].
== History ==
{{main|History of the Bahamas}}
[[Christopher Columbus]]'s first landfall in the [[New World]] in [[1492]] is believed to have been on the island of [[San Salvador Island|San Salvador]] (also called Watling's Island), in the southeastern Bahamas. He encountered [[Taino]] (also known as [[Lucayan]]) [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Amerindian]]s and exchanged gifts with them.
Taino Indians from both northwestern Hispaniola and northeastern Cuba moved into the southern Bahamas about the 7th century [[Anno Domini|AD]] and became the Lucayans. They appear to have settled the entire archipelago by the 12th century AD. There may have been as many as 40,000 Lucayans living in the Bahamas when Columbus arrived.
The Bahamian Lucayans were deported to Hispaniola as slaves, and within two decades Taino societies ceased to exist as a separate population due to forced labour, warfare, disease, emigration and outmarriage.
Some say the name 'Bahamas' derives from the Spanish for shallow sea - baja mar. Others trace it to the Lucayan word for Grand Bahama Island - ba-ha-ma, or 'large upper middle land'.
After the Lucayans were destroyed, the Bahamian islands were deserted until the arrival of English settlers from Bermuda in 1650. Known as the Eleutherian Adventurers, these people established settlements on the island now called Eleuthera (from the Greek word for freedom).
The Bahamas became a British crown colony in 1718 but remained sparsely settled until the newly independent United States expelled thousands of American tories and their slaves. Many of these [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalists]] were given compensatory land grants in Canada and the Bahamas. Some 8,000 loyalists and their slaves moved to the Bahamas in the late 1700s from New York, Florida and the Carolinas.
The British granted the islands internal self-government in 1964 and, in 1973, Bahamians achieved full independence while remaining a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. Since the 1950s, the Bahamian economy has been based on the twin pillars of tourism and financial services. Today, the country enjoys the third highest per capita income in the western hemisphere.
== Geography ==
{{main|Geography of the Bahamas}}
[[Image:Bf-map.png|frame|right|Map of the Bahamas]]
The Bahamas is an archipelago of some 700 islands and cays covering over 100,000 [[square mile]]s (260,000 [[square kilometre|km²]]) of the Atlantic ocean between Florida and Hispaniola. The archipelago has a total land area of 5,382 square miles (13,939&nbsp;km²)— about 20 percent larger than Jamaica — and a population of some 310,000 concentrated on the islands of New Providence and Grand Bahama.
The largest island is [[Andros, Bahamas|Andros Island]]. The [[Bimini]]s are just 50 [[mile]]s (80 [[kilometre|km]]) east of Florida. The island of [[Grand Bahama]] is home to the second largest city in the country, [[Freeport, Bahamas|Freeport]]. The island of [[Abaco]] is to its east. The most southeastern island is [[Inagua]]. Other notable islands include [[Eleuthera]], [[Cat Island, Bahamas|Cat Island]], [[San Salvador]], [[Acklins]], [[Crooked Island, Bahamas|Crooked Island]], [[Exuma]] and [[Mayaguana]]. [[Nassau, Bahamas|Nassau]] is the capital and largest city, located on [[New Providence]]. The islands have a subtropical climate, moderated by the [[Gulf Stream]].
==Politics==
{{main|Politics of the Bahamas}}
Queen Elizabeth II is the [[head of state]] of the Bahamas, which has remained a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] as a [[Commonwealth Realm]]. She is represented in the Bahamas by a [[Governor-General of the Bahamas|Governor-General]], appointed on the recommendation of the elected government. A multi-party democracy in the British tradition, the Bahamas has a bicameral parliament with an elected assembly and an appointed senate. The country is governed by a cabinet headed by a prime minister. Elections are held every five years.
== Districts ==
{{main|Districts of the Bahamas}}
The districts of the Bahamas provide a system of local government everywhere in the Bahamas except [[New Providence]], whose affairs are handled directly by the central government. The current system dates from [[1996]] when 23 [[district]]s were defined &#8212; a further 8 were added in [[1999]].
== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of the Bahamas}}
The Bahamas is a stable, developing nation with an economy heavily dependent on [[tourism]] and offshore [[banking]]. Tourism alone accounts for more than 60% of [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]] and directly or indirectly employs almost half of the archipelago's labour force. Steady growth in tourism receipts and a boom in construction of new [[hotel]]s, resorts, and residences have led to solid GDP growth in recent years.
[[Manufacturing]] and [[agriculture]] together contribute approximately a tenth of GDP and show little growth, despite government incentives aimed at those sectors. Overall growth prospects in the short run rest heavily on the fortunes of the tourism sector, which depends on growth in the [[United States]], the source of the majority of tourist visitors.
==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of the Bahamas}}
Most of the Bahamian population is black (85%); about 12% is white. The official language is [[English language|English]], spoken by nearly all inhabitants, though many speak a "[[patois]]" form of it. A small number of immigrants also speak [[Creole language|Creole]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
A heavily religious country, there are more places of worship per person in the Bahamas than any other nation in the world. [[Christianity]] is the main religion on the islands, with [[Baptism|Baptists]] forming the largest denomination (about one third), followed by the [[Anglican Church|Anglican]] and [[Roman Catholic]] churches.
A few people, especially in the southern and eastern islands, practice ''[[obeah]]'', a [[spiritism|spiritistic]] religion similar to [[voodoo]]. While well-known throughout the Bahamas, ob |
Sound energy]]: the energy of compression [[waves]]
*[[Potential Energy]]: the energy that an object has due to position; also known as stored energy
**[[Electrical energy]]: the energy stored between charged particles
**[[Chemical energy]]: the stored energy in [[chemical substance]]s
**[[Nuclear energy]]: the stored energy of the atomic nucleus
<!--**[[Biomass energy]]: the energy created by burning plants and dung-->
*[[Radiant energy]]: the energy of [[Electromagnetism|electromagnetic waves]], including light
== Conservation of energy ==
One form of energy can be readily transformed into another; for instance, a battery converts [[chemical energy]] into [[electrical energy]]. Similarly, [[gravitational potential energy]] is converted into the [[kinetic energy]] of moving [[water]] (and a [[turbine]]) in a [[dam]], which in turn is transformed into [[electric energy]] by a [[generator]]. The law of [[conservation of energy]] states that in a [[closed system]] the total amount of energy, corresponding to the sum of a system's constituent energy components, remains constant. Some works, thus some forms of energy, are not easily measured by the unaided observer.
This law follows from [[translational symmetry]] of [[time]], which states the independence of any physical process on the moment it started. Very small variations in energy and time are related through the [[Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle|uncertainty principle]], which allows for brief violations of conservation in a system:
:: <math>\Delta E \Delta t \ge h </math>
== Non-Scientific Energy ==
The term "energy" is widely used in a [[Spirituality|spiritual]] or non-scientific way that cannot be quantified.
To mathematicians, engineers and scientists, the word "energy" has a strict and quantifiable definition. Any usage of the word that violates this definition must be termed [[pseudoscience]]. They argue that the mixing of the non-scientific and scientific definitions of the word creates confusion.
Examples of pseudoscience are [[mysticism]] and [[parapsychology]] in fields such as [[acupuncture]] and [[reiki]]. Paranormal researchers will often refer to "[[psychokinetic]] energy" when attempting to explain [[paranormal]] phenomena or the concept of a [[spirit]] or [[soul]].
==Units==
===SI===
The [[SI]] unit for both '''energy''' and work is the [[joule]] (J), named in honour of [[James Prescott Joule]] and his experiments on the [[mechanical equivalent of heat]]. In slightly more fundamental terms, 1&nbsp;joule is equal to 1&nbsp;[[newton]]-[[metre]] and, in terms of [[SI base unit]]s:
<math>1\ \mathrm{J} = 1\ \mathrm{kg} \left( \frac{\mathrm{m}}{\mathrm{s}} \right ) ^ 2 = 1\ \frac{\mathrm{kg} \cdot \mathrm{m}^2}{\mathrm{s}^2}</math>
An energy unit that is used in [[particle physics]] is the [[electronvolt]] (eV). One&nbsp;eV&nbsp; is equivalent to [[1 E-19 J|1.60217653&times;10<small><sup>&minus;19</sup></small>&nbsp;J]].
In [[spectroscopy]] the unit cm<sup>-1</sup> = 0.0001239 eV is used to represent energy since energy is inversely proportional to wavelength from the equation <math> E = h \nu = h c/\lambda </math>.
(Note that [[torque]], which is typically expressed in newton-metres, has the same dimension and this is not a simple coincidence: a torque of 1 newton-metre applied on 1 radian requires exactly 1 newton-metre=joule of energy.)
===Other units of energy===
In [[cgs]] units, one [[erg]] is 1&nbsp;[[gram|g]]&nbsp;[[centimetre|cm]]<small><sup>2</sup></small>&nbsp;[[second|s]]<small><sup>&minus;2</sup></small>, equal to [[1 E-7 J|1.0&times;10<small><sup>&minus;7</sup></small>&nbsp;J]].
The [[imperial units|imperial]]/[[US customary units|US units]] for both energy and work include the [[foot-pound force]] (1.3558&nbsp;J), the [[British thermal unit]] (Btu) which has various values in the region of 1055 J, and the [[horsepower]]-hour (2.6845 MJ).
The energy unit used for everyday [[electricity]], particularly for utility bills, is the [[kilowatt-hour]] (kW&nbsp;h), and one&nbsp;kW&nbsp;h is equivalent to [[1 E6 J|3.6&times;10<small><sup>6</sup></small>&nbsp;J&nbsp;]] (3600&nbsp;kJ or 3.6&nbsp;MJ; the metric units usually are self-consistent, and this particular one may seem arbitrary; it's not, the metric measurement for time is the second, and there are 3,600 seconds in an hour -- in other words, 1 kW second = 1 kJ, but the kW&nbsp;h is a more convenient unit for everyday use).
The [[calorie]] equals the amount of [[heat]] necessary to raise the [[temperature]] of one [[kilogram]] of [[water]] by 1 [[Celsius]] degree, at a [[pressure]] of 1 [[atmospheric pressure|atm]]. It is equal to [[1 E0 J|4.1868 kJ]]. [[Food energy]] is measured in kilocalories, commonly abbreviated as Calories.
==Transfer of energy==
===Work===
{{main|Mechanical work}}
''Work'' is a defined as a [path integral] of [force] F over distance s:
<math> W = \int \mathbf{F} \cdot \mathrm{d}\mathbf{s}</math>
The equation above says that the work (<math>W</math>) is equal to the integral of the [[dot product]] of the [[force]] (<math>\mathbf{F}</math>) on a body and the [[infinitesimal]] of the body's [[position]] (<math>\mathbf{s}</math>).
===Heat===
{{main|Heat}}
''Heat'' is the common name for [[thermal energy]] of an object that is due to the motion of the [[atoms]] and [[molecules]] that constitute the object. This motion can be [[translational]] (motion of molecules or atoms as a whole); [[vibrational]] (relative motion of atoms within molecules) or [[rotational]] (motion of the atoms of a molecule about a common centre). It is the form of energy which is usually linked with a change in [[temperature]] or in a change in [[phase]] of [[matter]]. In [[chemistry]], heat is the amount of energy which is absorbed or released when atoms are rearranged between various molecules by a [[chemical reaction]].
The relationship between heat and energy is similar to that between work and energy. Heat flows from areas of high [[temperature]] to areas of low temperature. All objects (matter) have a certain amount of internal energy that is related to the random motion of their atoms or molecules. This internal energy is directly proportional to the temperature of the object. When two bodies of different [[temperature]] come in to thermal contact, they will exchange internal energy until the [[temperature]] is equalised. The amount of energy transferred is the amount of heat exchanged. It is a common misconception to confuse heat with internal energy, but there is a difference: the change of the internal energy is the heat that flows from the surroundings into the system plus the work performed by the surroundings on the system. Heat Energy is transferred in three different ways: [[Heat conduction|conduction]], [[convection]] and/or [[Thermal radiation|radiation]].
===Conservation of energy===
The first law of [[thermodynamics]] says that the total inflow of energy into a system must equal the total outflow of energy from the system, plus the change in the energy contained within the system. This law is used in all branches of physics, but frequently violated by quantum mechanics (see [[off shell]]). [[Noether's theorem]] relates the [[conservation of energy]] to the [[time invariance]] of physical laws.
An example of the conversion and [[conservation of energy]] is a [[pendulum]]. At its highest points the [[kinetic energy]] is zero and the [[potential gravitational energy]] is at its maximum. At its lowest point the [[kinetic energy]] is at its maximum and is equal to the decrease of [[potential energy]]. If one unrealistically assumes that there is no [[friction]], the energy will be conserved and the [[pendulum]] will continue swinging forever. (In practice, available energy is '''never''' perfectly conserved when a system changes state; otherwise, the creation of [[perpetual motion]] machines would be possible.)
Another example is a [[Chemical_explosive|chemical explosion]] in which [[potential chemical energy]] is converted to [[kinetic energy]] and [[heat]] in a very short time.
== Relations between different forms of energy ==
All forms of energy: [[thermal energy|thermal]], [[chemical energy|chemical]], [[electrical energy|electrical]], [[radiant energy|radiant]], [[nuclear energy|nuclear]] etc. can be in fact reduced to [[kinetic energy]] or [[potential energy]]. For example [[thermal energy]] is essentially [[kinetic energy]] of [[atoms]] and [[molecules]]; [[chemical energy]] can be visualized to be the [[potential energy]] of [[atoms]] within [[molecules]]; [[electrical energy]] can be visualized to be the [[potential energy|potential]] and [[kinetic energy]] of [[electrons]]; similarly [[nuclear energy]] is the [[potential energy]] of [[nucleons]] in [[atomic nuclei]].
=== Kinetic energy ===
{{main|Kinetic energy}}
[[Kinetic energy]] is the portion of energy related to motion.
:<math>E_k = \int \mathbf{v} \cdot \mathrm{d}\mathbf{p}</math>
The equation above says that the kinetic energy (<math>E_k</math>) is equal to the integral of the [[dot product]] of the [[velocity]] (<math>\mathbf{v}</math>) of a body and the [[infinitesimal]] of the body's [[momentum]] (<math>\mathbf{p}</math>).
For non-[[special relativity|relativistic]] velocities, that is velocities much smaller than the [[speed of light]], we can use the [[Newtonian approximation]]
:<math>E_k = \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} mv^2</math>
where
''E''<sub>k</sub> is [[kinetic energy]]
''m'' is [[mass]] of the body
''v'' is [[velocity]] of the body
|
02. The rotors of this machine contain 40 contacts, compared to the original Enigma's 26.]]
|}
==Surviving Enigmas==
The effort to break the Enigma was not disclosed until the 1970s. Since then, interest in the Enigma machine has grown considerably and a number of Enigmas are on public display in [[museum]]s in the US and Europe. The [[Deutsches Museum]] in [[Munich]] has both the three and four-wheel German military variants, as well as several older civilian versions. There are also examples in the [[NSA]]'s [[National Cryptologic Museum]] at [[Fort Meade]] and at the [[Computer History Museum]] in the United States, at [[Bletchley Park]] in the United Kingdom, the [[Australian War Memorial]] at [[Canberra]] in Australia, as well as a number of other locations in Germany, the US, the UK, and a few other countries in Europe. A number are also in private hands<ref>[http://www.eclipse.net/~dhamer/location.htm]</ref>.
Occasionally, Enigma machines are sold at auction; prices of US$20,000 are not unusual<ref>[http://www.eclipse.net/~dhamer/enigma_p.htm]</ref>.
Replicas of the machine are available in various forms, including an exact reconstructed copy of the Naval M4 model, an Enigma implemented in electronics (Enigma-E), various computer software simulators and paper-and-scissors analogues.
A rare Abwehr Enigma machine, designated G312, was stolen from the Bletchley Park museum on [[1 April]], [[2000]]. In September, a man identifying himself as "The Master" sent a note demanding £25,000 and threatened to destroy the machine if the ransom was not paid. In early October 2000, Bletchley Park officials announced that they would pay the ransom but the deadline set passed with no word from the thief. Shortly after the ransom deadline passed the machine was sent anonymously to BBC journalist [[Jeremy Paxman]], but three rotors were missing. In November 2000, an antiques dealer named Dennis Yates was arrested after telephoning ''[[The Sunday Times]]'' to arrange the return of the missing parts. The Enigma machine was returned to Bletchley park after the incident. In October 2001, Yates was sentenced to ten months in prison after admitting handling the stolen machine and of [[blackmail]]ing Bletchley Park Trust director Christine Large, although he maintained that he was acting as an intermediary for a third party. Yates was released from prison after serving three months.
==Fiction==
[[Robert Harris]]' 1996 novel ''Enigma'' is set against the backdrop of World War II Bletchley Park and cryptologists working to read Enigma. The book was made into the 2001 film, [[Enigma (2001 film)|''Enigma'']], starring [[Kate Winslet]] and [[Dougray Scott]]; the film has been criticized for many historical inaccuracies. An earlier film dealing (somewhat superficially) with the Polish aspects of the subject was the 1979 ''[[Sekret Enigmy]]'' (The Enigma Secret)<ref>[http://imdb.com/title/tt0079878/]</ref>.
[[Neal Stephenson]]'s novel ''[[Cryptonomicon]]'' also features World War II military cryptography, including the Enigma and Bletchley Park.
An [[interactive fiction]] game ''Jigsaw'' by [[Graham Nelson]] contains a puzzle in which the player must decrypt a message with a simplified version of the Enigma. The puzzle is generally accepted as the most annoying in the game, which is perhaps some measure of how hard it was to decrypt messages produced by the original machine(s).
[[Jonathan Mostow]]'s 2000 film [[U-571 (film)|''U-571'']] describes a fictional voyage of American submariners who have hijacked a German submarine to obtain an Enigma machine. Although loosely based on the histories of many German U-boats, the capture of Enigma was first made by the officers and crew of British destroyer [[HMS Bulldog]], who boarded [[U-110]] on [[May 9]], [[1941]] after scuttling charges failed to go off. The capture of an Enigma and a half-used code book is often cited as one of the most important events in the cryptographic battle between the Nazis and the Allies. The machine used in the film was an authentic Enigma obtained from a collector.
[[Friedrich Kittler]]'s 1986 (trans. 1999) [[Gramophone, Film, Typewriter]] examines the use of the Enigma and similar devices in relation to [[Jacques Lacan]]'s [[Symbolic order]].
==See also==
''World War II Era Encryption Devices:''
*[[Sigaba]] (''United States'')
*[[Typex]] (''Britain'')
*[[Lorenz SZ 40/42]] (''Germany'') (Allied code-name: 'Tunny')
*[[Siemens and Halske T52]] (''Germany'') (Allied code-name: 'Sturgeon').
*[[Geheimschreiber]]
==References==
<references/>
* David H. Hamer, Geoff Sullivan and Frode Weierud, "Enigma Variations: an Extended Family of Machines," ''Cryptologia'' 22(3), July 1998. [http://www.eclipse.net/~dhamer/downloads/enigvar1.zip Online version (PDF)].
* Louis Kruh and Cipher Deavours, "The Commercial Enigma: Beginnings of Machine Cryptography," ''Cryptologia'', 26(1), pp. 1&ndash;16, 2002. [http://www.dean.usma.edu/math/pubs/cryptologia/classics.htm Online version (PDF)].
* Tom Perera, The Story of the ENIGMA: History, Technology and Deciphering, 2nd Edition, CD-ROM, 2004, Artifax Books, ISBN 1890024066 [http://w1tp.com/enigma/ecds.htm].
* Arturo Quirantes, "Model Z: A Numbers-Only Enigma Version", ''Cryptologia'' 28(2), April 2004.
* Heinz Ulbricht, Enigma Uhr, ''Cryptologia, 23(3), April 1999, pp. 194&ndash;205
* Philip Marks and Frode Weierud, Recovering the Wiring of Enigma's Umkehrwalze A, ''Cryptologia'' 24(1), January 2000, pp55&ndash;66.
* Philip Marks, "Umkehrwalze D: Enigma's Rewirable Reflector &mdash; Part I", ''Cryptologia'' 25(2), April 2001, pp. 101&ndash;141.
* Philip Marks, "Umkehrwalze D: Enigma's Rewirable Reflector &mdash; Part II", ''Cryptologia'' 25(3), July 2001, pp. 177&ndash;212.
* Philip Marks, "Umkehrwalze D: Enigma's Rewirable Reflector &mdash; Part III", ''Cryptologia'' 25(4), October 2001, pp. 296&ndash;310.
* Christine Large, ''Hijacking Enigma'', 2003, ISBN 0470863471.
* Alan Stripp, "The Enigma Machine: Its Mechanism and Use", in Hinsley and Stripp (eds.) ''Codebreakers: The Inside Story of Bletchley Park'', 1993, pp. 83&ndash;88.
* {{de icon}} Heinz Ulbricht, ''Die Chiffriermaschine Enigma — Trügerische Sicherheit: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Nachrichtendienste'', PhD Thesis, 2005 (in German).
==External links==
{{commons|Enigma machine}}
;Images
* [http://www.jproc.ca/crypto/enigma.html Several images of Enigma]
* [http://w1tp.com/enigma/ Detailed photos of various Enigma models and parts]
* [http://cnm.open.ac.uk/projects/stationx/enigma/index.html Pictures of a four-rotor naval enigma, including Flash (SWF) views of the machine]
;Descriptions
* [http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/enigma/index.htm ''The Enigma cipher machine''], by Tony Sale
*[http://www.mlb.co.jp/linux/science/genigma/enigma-referat/enigma-referat.html ''Enigma &mdash; a very famous story of cryptology'' by Martin Oberzalek]
;Simulators and replicas
* [http://www.enigma-replica.com/ A project to construct an accurate M4 Enigma replica]
* [http://www.xat.nl/enigma-e/index.htm Enigma-E] &mdash; a DIY electronics kit which simulates an Enigma machine
* [http://www.enigmaco.de/ Enigma simulator] ([[Macromedia Flash]])
* [http://users.telenet.be/d.rijmenants/en/enigmasim.htm Enigma simulator, Wehrmacht and Kriegmarine M4] ([[Microsoft Windows]] software)
* [http://homepages.tesco.net/~andycarlson/enigma/enigma_j.html Enigma simulator] ([[Java applet]])
* [http://mckoss.com/Crypto/Enigma.htm Enigma simulator] (Paper cut-out)
* Wiring of the Enigma rotors: [http://www.ellsbury.com/ultraenigmawirings.htm], [http://www.ugr.es/~aquiran/cripto/museo/rotor.htm]
;Miscellaneous
* [http://www.eclipse.net/~dhamer/Enigma1.htm David Hamer's Enigma pages] &mdash; includes a list of known surviving Enigmas and selling prices
* [http://www.superborg.de/enigma001.htm Archives of all german military manuals] &mdash; also for secret manuals of Enigma and Cryptography
* [http://bytereef.org/m4_project.html M4 Message Breaking Project] - a [[distributed computing]] project to break the last few undeciphered messages
* [[Samples of real Enigma messages]]
* [http://news.yahoo.com/s/nf/20060303/bs_nf/41894 Amateur Cracks Secret Nazi Code]
{{Cipher machines}}
[[Category:Cryptography]]
[[Category:Rotor machines]]
[[Category:World War II espionage]]
[[Category:World War II military equipment of Germany]]
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[[tr:Enigma makinesi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Enzyme</title>
<id>9257</id>
<revision>
<id>41808653</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T22:07:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ESkog</username>
<id>88149</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/128.255.203.79|128.255.203.79]] ([[User talk:128.255.203.79|talk]]) to last version by 172.189.191.185</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Triosephosphate_isomerase.jpg|thumb|310px|Ribbon diagram of the '''catalytically perfect enzyme''' [[triosephosphateisomerase|TIM]].]]
An '''enzyme''' is a [[protein]] that [[catalyst|catalyzes]], or speeds up, a [[chemical reaction]]. The word comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ένζυμο, ''énsymo'', which comes from ''én'' ("at" or "in") and ''simo'' ("[[leaven]]" or "[[yeast]]"). Certain [[RNA]]s also have cat |
rg/ Bronx River Art Center]
*[http://www.forgotten-ny.com/ Forgotten New York: Relics of a Rich History in the Everyday Life of New York City]
*Woodlawn Cemetery [http://www.thewoodlawncemetery.org/]
*[http://www.wavehill.org/home/ Wave Hill: New York Public Garden and Cultural Center]
*[http://perrin.olivier.free.fr/new_york_2005/Wave%20Hill%20(Bronx)/index.html Newyork-evasion gallery of photographs of Wave Hill]
*[http://www.bronxhistoricalsociety.org/index86.html The Bronx County Historical Society]
*[http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a2_248.html Why is the Bronx called THE Bronx?] from [[The Straight Dope]]
*Poe Cottage [http://www.museumregister.com/US/NewYork/Bronx/Fordham/PoeCottage.html]
*[http://200thstreet.tripod.com More about 200th Street/Bedford Park Boulevard]
*[http://www.pbase.com/terryballard/the_bronx Bronx photo gallery]
*[http://newyorkbirds.free.fr/bronx/index.php air visit of all the districts of bronx in photographs]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|40.8373|-73.8860}}
{{New York City}}
{{New_York}}
[[Category:All-America City]]
[[Category:Boroughs in New York|Bronx]]
[[Category:New York City|Bronx]]
[[Category:The Bronx| ]]
[[Category:New York counties|Bronx County, New York]]
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[[zh:布朗克斯]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Business Statistics</title>
<id>3339</id>
<revision>
<id>15901681</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Business statistics]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BearShare</title>
<id>3340</id>
<revision>
<id>41771818</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T17:09:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>80.39.139.31</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Software |
name = BearShare |
screenshot = [[Image:BearShare_search_screenshot.png|250px]] |
caption = BearShare's search interface |
developer = Free Peers, Inc. |
latest_release_version = 5.2.1 |
latest_release_date = February 2006 |
operating_system = [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] |
genre = [[peer to peer]] |
license = [[Proprietary software]] |
website = [http://www.bearshare.com www.bearshare.com] |
}}
'''BearShare''' is a popular [[closed source]] [[Gnutella]] client software package from Free Peers, Inc. The software allows its users to share files directly from person to person by using the Gnutella network. It runs under [[Microsoft Windows]] and comes in several versions, including an advertising supported version, a paid pro version with no advertisements, and a Lite (stripped down) free version. The advertising supported version contains [[spyware]] ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spyware#Notable_programs_distributed_with_spyware], but this may be removed with Norton Antivirus.
When it comes to Gnutella clients and participation in the [[Gnutella Developers Forum]] (GDF), BearShare is seen as one of the forerunners alongside [[LimeWire]] due to its wide implementation of GDF proposals and stable networking.
There is bad blood between Free Peers and the developer of [[Shareaza]], [[Michael Stokes]] for naming the network his client introduced [[Gnutella2]], without asking or making any note of it in the GDF. [[Vincent Falco]], main developer of BearShare, threatened to ban connections to Shareaza clients for this action. It should be noted that Gnutella2's specifications were quickly released in full, and Shareaza has since been released under the [[GNU GPL]].
Following the [[June 27]], [[2005]] [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] Decision on the [[MGM Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd.]] case the BearShare support forums have been closed. Most of the forum regulars have gone across to the [http://www.technutopia.com/forum/index.php? Technutopia] forum pages where support is now available for BearShare.
==See also==
*[[Peer-to-peer]] - p2p protocols and clients
==External links==
*[http://www.bearshare.com/ BearShare Official Website] '''Caution: Certain downloads from this website contain adware.'''
*[http://www.mp3newswire.net/stories/2001/bearshare.html Early Review (2001): BearShare]
[[Category:File sharing programs]]
[[Category:Windows software]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Biology</title>
<id>3341</id>
<revision>
<id>42018085</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T06:26:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Brett Wildfeuer</username>
<id>161745</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted Vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!--
''What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in biology, please see [[Wikipedia:biology basic topics]].''
-->
{{portal}}
''Biology'' is the branch of [[science]] dealing with the study of [[life]]. It is concerned with the characteristics, [[scientific classification|classification]], and [[behavior]]s of [[organism]]s, how [[species]] come into existence, and the interactions they have with each other and with the [[natural environment|environment]]. Biology encompasses a broad spectrum of academic fields that are often viewed as independent disciplines. However, together they address phenomena related to living organisms (biological phenomena) over a wide range of scales, from [[biochemistry]] to [[ecology]].
<div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border: 1px solid #CCCCCC; margin:0.5em;">
{| border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0" style="font-size: 85%; border: 1px solid #CCCCCC; margin: 0.3em;"
|valign="top"|[[Image:EscherichiaColi NIAID.jpg|90px|''Escherichia coli'']]
|valign="top"|[[Image:Tree_Fern.jpg|90px|Tree fern]]
|-
|valign="bottom"|[[Image:Goliath_beetle.jpg|90px|Goliath beetle]]
|valign="bottom"|[[Image:Thompson's_Gazelle.jpeg|90px|Gazelle]]
|}
<div style="border: none; width:200px;"><div class="thumbcaption">Biology studies the variety of life ''(clockwise from top-left)'' ''[[E. coli]]'', tree [[fern]], [[gazelle]], Goliath [[beetle]]</div></div></div>
At the organism level, biology has explained phenomena such as [[childbirth|birth]], [[growth]], [[ageing]], [[death]] and [[decomposition|decay]] of living organisms, similarities between the offsprings and parents ([[heredity]]) and flowering of plants have puzzled humanity ever since antiquity. Other phenomena, such as [[lactation]], [[metamorphosis]], [[Egg (biology)|egg-hatching]], [[healing]], and [[tropism]] have been addressed. On a wider scale of time and space, biologists have studied [[domestication]] of animals and plants, the wide variety of living organisms ([[biodiversity]]), changes in living organisms through ages ([[evolution]]), [[extinction]], [[speciation]], [[social behaviour]] among animals, etc.
While [[botany]] encompasses the study of plants, [[zoology]] is the branch of science that is concerned about the study of animals and [[anthropology]] is the branch of biology to study human beings. However, at the [[molecule|molecular]] scale, life is studied in the disciplines of [[molecular biology]], [[biochemistry]], and [[molecular genetics]]. At the next level of the [[cell (biology)|cell]], it is studied in [[cell biology]], and at [[multicellular]] scales, it is examined in [[physiology]], [[anatomy]], and [[histology]]. [[Developmental biology]] studies life at the level of an individual organism's development or [[ontogeny]]. Moving up the scale towards more than one organism, [[genetics]] considers how [[heredity]] works between parent and offspring. [[Ethology]] considers group behavior of more than one individual. [[Population genetics]] looks at the level of an entire [[population]], and [[systematics]] considers the multi-species scale of [[lineage]]s. Interdependent populations and their [[Habitat (ecology)|habitats]] are examined in [[ecology]] and [[evolutionary biology]]. A speculative new field is [[astrobiology]] (or xenobiology), which examines the possibility of life beyond the Earth.
==Principles of biology==
Unlike [[physics]], biology does not usually describe systems in terms of objects which obey immutable physical laws described by [[mathematics]]. Nevertheless, the biological sciences are characterized and unified by several major underlying principles and concepts: universality, evolution, diversity, continuity, genetics, homeostasis, and interactions.
=== Universality: Biochemistry, cells, and the genetic code ===
[[Image:DNA-structure-and-bases.png|thumb|Schematic representation of [[DNA]], the primary [[genetic material]].]]
''Main article:'' [[Life]]
The most salient example of biological universality is that all
living things share a common [[carbon]]-[[Carbon-based|based]] [[biochemistry]] and in particular pass on their [[heredity|characteristics]] via [[genetic material]], which is based on [[nucleic acid]]s such as [[DNA]] and which uses a common [[genetic code]] with only minor variations.
Another universal principle is that all [[organism]]s (that is, all forms of life on Earth except for [[virus]]es) are made of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s. Similarly, all organisms share common developmental processes. For example, in most [[metazoan]] organisms, the basic stages of early [[embryo|embryonic]] development share similar morphological characteristics |
e a greater emphasis on the traditions of capoeira, while newer groups concentrate chiefly on sports-like technique.
== Capoeira in popular culture ==
Capoeira has recently been popularized by the addition of Capoeira in a number of [[Computer and video games|computer games]], giving the sport introductory access to untold millions of teenagers and twenty-something adults.
*Two ''capoeiristas'', [[Eddie Gordo]] and [[Christie Monteiro]], fight in the popular games ''[[Tekken 3]]'', ''[[Tekken 4]]'', and ''[[Tekken 5]]''.
*[[Elena (video game character)|Elena]] fights Capoeira in the game ''[[Street Fighter III]]''.
*In the early [[Fatal Fury]] [[video games]], the characters [[Richard Myer]] and [[Bob Wilson (video game)|Bob Wilson]] used capoeira.
*In the massively multiplayer RPG ''[[World of Warcraft]]'', [[troll]] males perform capoeira moves as a non-combatitive dance emote.
*In addition to characters, several capoeira kicks have appeared in several wrestling games, including the ''[[WWE SmackDown! (video game)|WWE Smackdown!]]'' series.
*In the competitive dancing game ''[[Bust a Groove]]'' for the [[PlayStation]], a pair of aliens named 'Capoeira' are featured as a boss, incorporating the dance into their routine.
*In the [[anime]] and upcoming [[videogame]], ''[[Samurai Champloo]]'', the character [[List of Samurai Champloo characters#Mugen|Mugen]] has a fighting style said to be inspired from capoeira.
*In the video game ''[[The King of Fighters XI]]'', a Japanese female fighter named [[Momoko]] uses Capoeira (a very strange move, since in almost every Japanese-developed fighting games normally Japanese fighters normally use native martials arts).
*In the anime [[Tenjho Tenge]], the character [[Bob Makihara]] uses this style.
[[Image:Bostoncapoeira.JPG|thumb|480px|Capoeiristas outside Faneuil Hall in Boston]]
''[[Only The Strong]]'', a 1993 action film, is considered to be the only Hollywood film that showcases Capoeira from beginning to end. While many Capoeira fans appreciate the film out of a sense of irony, it is generally considered to be a poor quality and cheesy movie which has been rarely used to showcase the sport. More recent and more widely seen movies such as [[2004]]'s successful ''[[Meet the Fockers]]'' and ''[[Ocean's Twelve]]'' both featured capoeira in several short, but memorable scenes. A character of ''[[Tenjho Tenge]]'', Bob, also practices capoeira. Additionally, ex-wrestler turned actor "[[The Rock (entertainer)|The Rock]]" performed a fight scene with several capoeiristas in the film "[[The Rundown]]". The movie ''[[The Quest]]'', starring Jean-Claude Van Damme, had a scene during the tournament of the Golden Dragon, where the Brazilian fighter did an exhibition of capoeira, before his fight. The 1989 movie Rooftops directed by the Academy award winner ''[[Robert Wise]]'' has also featured a number of Capoeira scenes.
[[Catwoman]] also displayed some capoeira moves during some fights scenes. Actress [[Halle Berry]] reportedly followed a thorough training with a brasilian instructor.
Moreover, several pop and rock artists, such as [[Soulfly]], [[Sepultura]], [[Ben Harper]] and [[Gjallarhorn]] have published [[album (music)|album]]s containing one or more tunes featuring the [[berimbau]]. The [[automobile]] company [[Mazda]] has also made a [[Capoeira music|Capoeira song]], ''Zum Zum Zum'', the theme song for their [[Advertising|advertisements]].
[[Breakdancing]], developed in the 1970s, has many analogous moves. Indeed, many Brazilians had immigrated to the [[United States of America|US]], and particularly to [[New York, New York|New York]], by that time, and would practice capoeira in the streets where it was able to influence this new dance form.
One of the [[BBC 'Rhythm & Movement' idents]] introduced to [[BBC One]] in [[2002]] shows a capoeira dance, which raised its profile in the [[United Kingdom]]. While the attention capoeira has received has caused a boom of interest in this martial art, more skeptical capoeiristas have argued that the way it is used in the media is misrepresentative of what capoeira truly is.
Capoeira formed the basis for the martial arts style of the [[Jaffa (Stargate)|Jaffa]] people in the [[Stargate SG-1]] universe. The fighting style was highlighted in the fifth season episode [[The Warrior (Stargate SG-1)|The Warrior]].
In the 2005 Thai action movie [[Tom Yum Goong]], there was a short fight sequence with the main character [[Tony Jaa]] fighting a Capoeira master ([[Lateef Crowder]]), who was one of the three opponents he faced in the temple fight scene. The fight was presented with an interesting contrast considering Tony Jaa's athletic style vs Lateef Crowder's Capoeira skills. Lateef Crowder was reported to have got injured during filming, which is why the fight was cut short in the film.
== Finding a place to play ==
If you are interested in playing capoeira, most major cities throughout the world have at least one club/group to join. Make sure you find out about your group's style and watch a class. Different groups have many differing advantages, so do the research yourself. Some styles are heavily geared towards being clever in the roda whereas others focus more on the physical capabilities of the players. Some groups practice exclusively Angola, while others practice exclusively Regional, so if the style you see isn't what you hoped for, keep looking.
The Southern California hardcore metal scene also uses capoeira as an evolution of the early 80's "slam dancing". With many of the basic traditions of the "roda" and "volta-ao-mundo", the participants engage in capoeira at 144-180+ beats per minute. Notably the fans that follow bands such as "Bleeding Through" and "Audora", dance in this manner.
== Special events ==
Capoeira Regional groups periodically hold ''Batizados'' ("baptisms" into the art of capoeira). Members being "baptized" are normally given a ''corda'' (cord belt) and an ''apelido'' (capoeira [[nickname]], which may already have been given in class before the ''Batizado''). ''Batizados'' are major events to which a number of groups and masters from near and far are normally invited. Sometimes a ''Batizado'' is also held in conjunction with a ''Troca de Corda'' ("change of belts"), in which students already baptized who have trained hard and been deemed worthy by their teachers are awarded higher-ranking belts as an acknowledgment of their efforts. Such ceremonies provide opportunities to see a variety of different capoeira styles, watch ''mestres'' play, and see some of the best of the game. Sometimes they are open to the public.
Batizados and Trocas de Corda do not occur in Capoeira Angola, which does not have a system of belts. However, some contemporary schools of capoeira have combined the study of both arts and may require their students to be learned in the ways of Capoeira Angola before being awarded a higher belt.
== Important Mestres ==
*[[Mestre Bimba]]: founder of the Regional style.
*[[Mestre Pastinha]]: founder of the first organized Angola academy.
Other Capoeira Mestres may be found at [[:Category:Capoeira Mestres]]
For a complete list of all known Capoeira Mestres, see the [http://www.capoeira4all.com/mestres/index.php Mestre Index] at Capoeira4All.com.
== See also ==
* [[capoeira music]]
* [[berimbau]]
* [[Christie Monteiro]]
* [[Eddie Gordo]]
* [[Madame Satã]]
== Books ==
* Almeida B. (1986). ''Capoeira, a Brazilian Art Form: History, Philosophy, and Practice'' (2nd ed.). North Atlantic Books. ISBN 0938190296
* Nestor Capoeira. (2002). ''Capoeira: Roots of the Dance-Fight-Game''. North Atlantic Books. ISBN 1556434049
* Nestor Capoeira. (2003), ''The Little Capoeira Book'' (Revised ed.). North Atlantic Books. ISBN 1556434405
* Lowell L.J. (1992), ''Ring of Liberation : Deceptive Discourse in Brazilian Capoeira''. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226476839
* Röhrig Assunção, Matthias (2004) "Capoeira: The History of Afro-Brazilian Martial Art" Routledge ISBN 0714650315
* Downey, Greg. (2005). "Learning Capoeira: Lessons in Cunning From an Afro-Brazilian Art". Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195176979
* Mansouri, Arno (2005). "Capoeira, Bahia", Editions Demi-Lune. ISBN 2952557101 Bilingual (French and English) Info at www.editionsdemilune.com/bahia
== External links ==
{{commonscat|Capoeira}}
{{wiktionary|capoeira}}
=== General Information ===
*[http://www.capoeira.com/ www.capoeira.com] Capoeira forum
*[http://www.capoeirista.com/ www.capoeirista.com] Information and forums
*[http://www.wu-wien.ac.at/usr/h96b/h9650297/capoeira.html www.wu-wien.ac.at/usr/h96b/h9650297/capoeira.html] Information on basic Capoeira moves
*[http://www.capoeira4all.com/ www.capoeira4all.com] Information on Capoeira history, mestres, moves, and more
*[http://www.planetcapoeira.com/ www.planetcapoeira.com] Website of the Planet Capoeira Magazine
*[http://www.addictinggames.com/capoeirafighter3.html Capoeira Fighter 3] Demonstration of Capoeira, as a fighting game in Flash
=== International school directories ===
*[http://www.capoeirista.com/schools.html www.capoeirista.com schools] (over 1000 schools)
*[http://dmoz.org/Sports/Martial_Arts/Capoeira/Schools_and_Instruction/ dmoz.org schools]
*[http://www.frappr.com/capoeiraschools Capoeira @ Frappr!] - Capoeira group listing and their locations (still populating)
*[http://www.martialhub.com/capoeira/capoeira.html Martialhub.com] Worldwide Capoeira schools and associations listed
[[Category:Brazil|Capoeira]]
[[Category:Brazilian martial arts]]
[[Category:War dances]]
[[Category:Latin American folk dances]]
[[Category:Capoeira]]
{{Link FA|pt}}
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[[bg:Капоейра]]
[[ca:Capoeira]]
[[cs:Capoeira]]
[[da:Capoeira]]
[[de:Capoeira]]
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[[sound engineer|soundman]] for many years; he was also one of the largest suppliers of [[LSD]].
==Touring==
[[Image:gdead5.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Early photo of the band at their communal home in the Haight-Ashbury district of San Francisco, late 60's.]]
The Grateful Dead are well-known for their near constant touring throughout their long career in music. They promoted a sense of community among their fans, who became known as ''[[Deadhead]]s'', many of whom followed their tours for months or years on end. In their early years, the band was also dedicated to their community, the [[Haight-Ashbury]] area of [[San Francisco]], making available free food, lodging, music and health care to all comers; they were the "first among equals in giving unselfishly of themselves to hippie culture, performing 'more free concerts than any band in the history of music'" {{ref|philanthropy}}.
[[Image:gdead1.jpg|frame|right|Original lineup of The Grateful Dead, 1971.]]
With the exception of [[1975]], when the band was on "hiatus" and played only four concerts together, the Grateful Dead toured regularly around the USA from the winter of [[1965]] until [[July 9]], [[1995]]&mdash;with a few detours to [[Canada]], [[Europe]] and three nights at the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] in [[Egypt]] in [[1978]]. (They also appeared at the legendary [[Monterey Pop Festival]] in [[1967]] and the even more famous [[Woodstock Festival]] in [[1969]]; their largest concert audience came in [[1973]] when they played, along with [[The Allman Brothers Band]] and [[The Band]], before an estimated 600,000 people at the [[Summer Jam at Watkins Glen]].)
Their numerous [[studio]] albums were generally collections of new songs that had been initially played in concert. The band was famous for its extended jams, which showcased both individual [[improvisation]] as well as a distinctive "group-mind" improvisation where each of the band members improvised individually, while still blending together as a cohesive musical unit, often engaging in extended improvisational flights of fancy. A hallmark of their concert sets were continuous sets of music where each song would blend into the next (a [[segue]]). Musically this may be illustrated in that the band not only improvised within the form of a song, yet also improvised with the forms.
===Wall of Sound===
The [[Wall of Sound]] was an enormous sound system designed specifically for the Grateful Dead. The band were never satisfied with the house system anywhere they played, so in their early days, soundman [[Owsley Stanley|Owsley "Bear" Stanley]] designed a PA and monitor system for them. Stanley's sound systems were delicate and finicky, and frequently brought shows to a halt with technical issues. After Stanley was placed in jail for LSD production in [[1970]], the group briefly used house PAs, but ultimately found them to be less reliable than the systems conceived by their former soundman. In [[1971]], the band purchased their first solid sound system from [[Alembic Inc]] Studios. Because of this, Alembic would play an integral role in the research, development, and production of the Wall of Sound. The band also welcomed [[Dan Healy]] into the fold on a permanent basis that year; Healy was a superior engineer to Stanley and would mix the Grateful Dead's live sound until [[1993]].
The desire driving the development of the Wall of Sound was for a distortion-free sound system that could serve as its own monitor system. After [[Owsley Stanley]] was released from prison in late 1972, he, along with [[Dan Healey]], Mark Raizene of the Grateful Dead's sound crew, and Ron Wickersham, [[Rick Turner]], and John Curl of [[Alembic Inc]] accomplished this by essentially combining eleven separate sound systems. Vocals, lead guitar, rhythm guitar, and piano each had their own channel and set of speakers. Phil Lesh's bass was quadraphonic, each of the four strings having its own channel and set of speakers. One channel amplified the bass drum, and two channels amplified the other drums and cymbals in stereo. Because each speaker was producing the sound of just one instrument or vocalist, the sound was exceptionally clear and intermodulation distortion between instruments was nonexistent.
The Wall of Sound was designed to act as its own monitor system, and it was therefore assembled behind the band so the members could hear exactly what their audience was hearing. Because of this, a special microphone system had to be designed to prevent feedback. The Dead used matched pairs of condenser microphones spaced 60mm apart and run out-of-phase. The vocalist sang into the top microphone, and the lower mic picked up whatever other sound was present in the stage environment. The signals were summed, the sound that was common to both mics (the sound from the Wall) was cancelled, and only the vocals were amplified.
The Wall of Sound used 89 300-Watt solid state and three 350-Watt tube amplifiers to produce 26,400 total Watts RMS of audio power. It was capable of producing acceptable sound at a quarter mile, and excellent sound for up to six hundred feet, when the sound began to be distorted by wind. It was the largest portable sound system ever built (although "portable" is a relative term). Four semi trucks and 21 crew members were required to haul and set up the 75-ton Wall.
Though the initial framework and a rudimentary form of the system was unveiled in February 1973 (ominously, every speaker tweeter blew as the band began their first number), the Grateful Dead did not begin to tour with the full system until a year later in [[1974]]. The Wall of Sound was very efficient for its day, but it did have its pitfalls in addition to its sheer size. Synthesist [[Ned Lagin]], who toured with the group throughout much of [[1974]], never received his own dedicated input into the system, and was forced to use the vocal subsystem for amplification. Because this was often switched to the vocal mikes, many of Lagin's parts were lost in the mix. The Wall's quadraphonic format never translated well to soundboard tapes made during the period, as the sound was compressed into an unnatural stereo format and suffers from a pronounced tinniness.
The rising cost of fuel and personnel, as well as friction among many of the newer crew members (and associated hangers-on), contributed to the band's [[1974]] "retirement." The Wall of Sound was disassembled, and when the Dead began touring again in [[1976]], it was with a more logistically practical sound system.
''''''[[Image:gdead3.jpg|thumb|125px|left|Two Grateful Dead icons rolled into one]]
=== Steal Your Face ===
In the words of Owsley Stanley:
In 1969 the Dead were renting a warehouse in Novato, California. I was sound man for the band at the time, and lived in Oakland. Bob Thomas, an old friend of mine had just moved from LA to the Bay area and needed a place to stay, and we needed someone to look after the warehouse, which had had a problem with break-ins.
Bob was a superb graphic artist whose work is now familiar to most Deadheads in the form of the Live Dead album cover and the Bear's Choice cover, on which the popular Dancing Bears appeared.
The Dead in those days had to play in a lot of festival style shows where the equipment would all wind up at the back of the stage in a muddle. Since every band used pretty much the same type of gear it all looked alike. We would spend a fair amount of time moving the pieces around so that we could read the name on the boxes. I decided that we needed some sort of marking that we could identify from a distance.
I was in the habit of driving from Oakland to Novato in a little MGTF which had plastic side curtains, which were not very transparent, due to aging of the plastic. One day in the rain, I looked out the side and saw a sign along the freeway which was a circle with a white bar across it, the top of the circle was orange and the bottom blue. I couldn't read the name of the firm, and so was just looking at the shape. A thought occurred to me: if the orange were red and the bar across were a lightning bolt cutting across at an angle, then we would have a very nice, unique and highly identifiable mark to put on the equipment.
At the warehouse I told Bob the idea that I had, and he made a quick sketch. A mutual friend, Ernie Fischbach, who was visiting with Bob, said "Give it to me, I'll show you an easy way to put it on the boxes." Whereupon he proceeded to cut holes in a couple of pieces of stencil paper. One was a circular hole, about 5 1/2 inches in diameter, and the other was a part of a circle 5 inches in diameter. But it was a half circle with a jagged edge. Then he held the stencil to an amp and sprayed a circle of white paint. Then with one side up, the red half circle went on top of the dried white paint and after wiping off the red and turning the stencil over, the blue was applied. This was the first version, and we put it on to all our gear. It helped make it easier to find our stuff in the crunch. I still have an old toolbox with one of the stencils on it.
A few days later I was talking to Bob and suggested that perhaps the words "Grateful dead" could be placed under the circle, using a style of lettering that would appear to be a skull if you saw it from a distance (I guess I was influenced by too many posters of the time). Any way a few hours later he came down from the loft with the design we know and love.
{{fact}}
===Deadheads===
Many of their fans, commonly referred to as Deadheads, would follow the band on tour. In contrast to many other bands, the Grateful Dead encouraged their fans to tape their shows. For many years, almost all of their shows would have dedicated taping sections. The band allowed sharing of tapes of their shows, as long as no [[profit]]s were made on the sale of their show tapes. In the [[1980s]], t |
another rebellion, but David lays siege to a city housing the leader, and wins.
*''sanctuaries source'': a short source which interrupts the narrative in order to recount an episode concerning the capture of the Ark by the Philistines, and their subsequent voluntary return of it. The source demonstrates a bias toward the viewpoint of the Kingdom of Israel.
*''monarchial source'': a source with a pro-monarchial bias and covering many of the same details as the ''republican source''. This source begins with the divinely appointed birth of Samuel (many scholars think it originally referred to Saul, see below). It then describes Saul as leading a war against the Ammonites and hence being chosen by the people to be a king, leading them against the Philistines. David is described as a shepherd boy arriving at the battlefield to aid his brothers, and is overheard by Saul, leading to David challenging Goliath and defeating the Philistines. David's warrior credentials lead to women falling in love with him, including Michal, Saul's daughter, who later acts to protect David against Saul. David eventually gains two new wives as a result of threatening to raid a village, and Michal is redistributed to another husband. At a later point, David finds himself seeking sanctuary amongst the Philistine army and facing the Israelites as an enemy. David is incensed that anyone should have killed Saul, even as an act of mercy, since Saul was anointed by Samuel, and has the individual responsible killed.
*''redactions'': additions by the redactor to harmonise the sources together; many of the uncertain passages may be part of this
*''various'': several short sources, none of which have much connection to each other, and are fairly independent of the rest of the text. Many are poems or pure lists.
The relationship between these sources is uncertain, though it is generally agreed that many of the various shorter sources were embedded into the larger ones before these were in turn [[redaction|redacted]] together. Though a slim majority of scholars disagree, many academics have proposed that several of the sources are continuations of others, such as the jerusalem source, and royal source being in some way continuous with one another, and the prophetic source and sanctuaries source being likewise continuous with each other. Some, most recently [[Richard Elliott Friedman]], have proposed that the sources were originally parts of the same texts as the [[Elohist]], [[Yahwist]], and possibly [[Priestly source|Priestly]], sources of the [[Torah]], with the ''court history of David'' being considered part of the Yahwist text. What is definitely considered likely is that the [[deuteronomist]] is the one which redacted together these sources into the Books of Samuel.
Currently, the verses attributed to these sources are:
*''jerusalem source'': 2 Samuel 5:6-16, 6:9-20
*''republican source'': 1 Samuel 9:1-10:16, 11:1-11, 11:15, 13:1-14:52, 16:14-23, 18:6-11, 18:20-27, 19:11-21:1, 21:11-16, 25:1b-25:43, 28:3-25, 31:1-13, 2 Samuel 1:1-5, 1:8-12, 2:1-3:1, 3:6-33a, 3:34b-5:2, 5:17-25, 21:15-22
*''court history of David'': 2 Samuel 9:1-20:26, 1 Kings 1:1-2:46
*''sanctuaries source'': 1 Samuel 4:1-7:1
*''monarchial source'': 1 Samuel 1:1-3:21, 8:1-22. 10:17-24, 17:1-18:5, 18:12-19, 18:28-19:10, 21:2-10, 22:1-23, 26:1-28:2, 29:1-30:31, 2 Samuel 1:6-7, 1:13-16
*''redactions'': 1 Samuel 2:27-36, 7:2b-16, 11:12-14, 12:1-25, 15:1-35, 2 Samuel 7:1-29
*''various'': 2 Samuel 1:17-27; 3:2-5; 3:33b-34a; 22:1-51; 23:1-7; 23:8-24a; 23:24b-39; 24:1-25
*''uncertain'': 1 Samuel 7:2a, 7:17, 10:25-27, 16:1-13, 23:1-25:1a, 2 Samuel 6:1-8, 6:21-23, 8:1-18, 21:1-14
Within these, there are sometimes what appear to be very minor redactions. For example, 1 Samuel 1:20 explains that Samuel is so called because his mother had ''asked'' Yahweh for him; however ''Samuel'' means ''name of God'', and it is ''Saul'' that means ''asked''; this has suggested to many biblical critics that the narrative originally concerned Saul at this point, a later editor substituting Samuel's name. There are also several points in the [[masoretic text]] that appear more obviously corrupted in comparison to the [[septuagint]] version.
==Tribes and peoples==
Although most traditional interpretations of Jewish history view the ''Israelites'' as the ancestors of both the Kingdom of Israel and that of Judah, which arose only after David's rule, and ''Hebrews'' as an alternative name for them, the text makes a strong distinction between ''Hebrews'', ''Judahites'', and ''Israelites'':
*''Israelites'' consistently refers to Saul's forces. It also is used to refer to the supporters of the rebellions against David's reign, in contrast to his supportes.
*''Judahites'' consistently refers to David's supporters during the rebellions against his rule, in contrast to the rebels.
*''Hebrews'' is consistently used to designate a group that are separate and distinct to the ''Israelites'' and ''Judahites'', and who sometimes take the side of the Philistines against those of Israel and Judah. It is weakly associated with Jonathan initially, and then more strongly with David's band of outlaws.
An additional curiosity is that none of the three terms are ever described as representing groups which were ever part of one another, suggesting that Israel, Judah, and the Hebrews, had always been three distinct groups, rather than divisions that arose from a once united peoples.
When referring to the northern tribes of Israel, [[Gilead]] and [[Jezreel]] are listed amongst three other tribes, rather than being treated strictly as locations. In accordance with evidence of this kind elsewhere, all attributed by scholars to the earliest sources, such as in the [[Song of Deborah]], some scholars have concluded that the tribal system wasn't rigidly the 12 tribes now referred to as '''the''' [[tribes of Israel]], but actually evolved over a period of time. The different tribal structures being visible by virtue of the different dates of sources hypothesised under textual criticism. The four following aspects are usually amongst such proposals:
*Gilead, Jezreel, and Joseph were originally three tribes in the confederation
*Jezreel later split into [[Zebulon]] and [[Issachar]]
*Gilead later split into [[Machir]], [[Gad]], and [[Reuben]]
*Machir later merged with part of Joseph to form [[Manasseh]], while the other part split off to become [[Ephraim]]
==In Islam==
The [[Qur'an]] also contains elements of the books of Samuel. The stories of David and Goliath and the appointment of King Saul are told (see [[Similarities between the Bible and the Qur'an]]).
==External links==
*[[Masoretic text]]:
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt08a01.htm &#1513;&#1502;&#1493;&#1488;&#1500; &#1488; ''Shmuel Aleph'' - Samuel A] ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] - English at Mechon-Mamre.org)
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt08b01.htm &#1513;&#1502;&#1493;&#1488;&#1500; &#1489; ''Shmuel Bet'' - Samuel B] ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] - English at Mechon-Mamre.org)
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et08a01.htm 1 Samuel at Mechon-Mamre] (Jewish Publication Society translation)
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et08b01.htm 2 Samuel at Mechon-Mamre] (Jewish Publication Society translation)
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15751 Shmuel I - Samuel I (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15752 Shmuel II - Samuel II (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org
*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/09_1samuel.htm ''1 Samuel'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/10_2samuel.htm ''2 Samuel'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** {{biblegateway|1|Samuel}}
** {{biblegateway|2|Samuel}}
** [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_English%2C_King_James%2C_1_Samuel ''1 Samuel'' at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)
** [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_English%2C_King_James%2C_2_Samuel ''2 Samuel'' at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)
*Related article:
** [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=131&letter=S&search=Samuel ''Books of Samuel'' article] (Jewish Encyclopedia)
{{eastons}}
[[Category:Nevi'im|Samuel, Books of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Samuel]]
[[zh-min-nan:Sat-bó·-jíⁿ-kì]]
[[ca:Llibres Samuel]]
[[cs:1. kniha Samuelova]]
[[de:1. Buch Samuel]]
[[eo:Samuel (libro unua)]]
[[fr:Premier livre de Samuel]]
[[ko:사무엘 상]]
[[id:1 Samuel]]
[[he:ספר שמואל]]
[[jv:I Samuel]]
[[nl:I en II Samuel]]
[[ja:サムエル記]]
[[ru:Книга Царств]]
[[sk:Knihy Samuelove]]
[[fi:Ensimmäinen Samuelin kirja]]
[[sv:Första Samuelsboken]]
[[zh:撒母耳记]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Book of Revelation</title>
<id>4379</id>
<revision>
<id>42071542</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:57:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Delta x</username>
<id>974625</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */ lks to Dave Armstrong and minor format</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Saint John on Patmos.jpg|thumb|left|Visions [[John the Evangelist]], as depicted in the ''[[Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry]]''. Four [[seraphim]] surround the throne; the [[twenty-four elders]] sit to the left and right. They are dressed in white robes, representing [[purity|pureness]], and have [[Crown (headgear)|crown]]s of [[gold]] on their heads, denoting [[wiktionary:royalty|royalty]] and [[honor]] (Rev 4:4). The book of Revelation does not specifically identify who the twenty-four elders are, though it is thought to be the twelve sons of [[Jacob]] and the twelve [[Disciples of Jesus]].]]
{{Books of the New Testament}}
The book of '''Re |
o about 200 km of bike lanes ([http://www.calgary.ca/docgallery/BU/engineering_services/emaps/bicycle_pathways_map_2002.pdf map]). The pathways connect many of the city's parks, the river valley, residential neighbourhoods, and downtown. Even the [[Calgary International Airport|airport]] is on the path network. Thousands of people make year-round use these paths for walking, running, and cycling to various destinations. Unfortunately, in June 2005, massive flooding destroyed much of the pathway system (including many pedestrian bridges) that was near the Elbow and Bow rivers. An estimate of when repairs will be made is not available yet, but could take years and millions of dollars.
Calgary's system of elevated walkways or [[skyway]]s downtown (known as the [[Plus 15|+15]] system) is the most extensive in the world. These walkways not only serve to connect buildings, but also contain restaurants, shops, and services. The system is 16 kilometres long.
Calgary has an extensive, efficient, and well-maintained street network. Smaller roads are supplemented with a number of major arteries and freeways, the largest of which is the north-south running [[Deerfoot Trail]] ([[Alberta Highway 2|Queen Elizabeth II Highway/Highway 2]]). Other major expressways include [[Glenmore Trail]], [[Macleod Trail]], named for one of the city founders, Colonel [[James MacLeod]], and [[Crowchild Trail]], named for the 1800s [[Blackfoot]] leader [[Chief Crowchild]]. The majority of main expressways and freeways are named '''Trails''', as well as some of the main arterial roads that do not fit in the numbering grid.
Traditionally Calgary's roads were built on a grid system with numbered '''Streets''' (running north-south) and '''Avenues''' (running east-west). The city is divided into four [[quadrant]]s: Northeast, Northwest, Southeast and Southwest, and all street names and addresses end with suffixes corresponding to the quadrant of the city in which they lie (NW, NE, SE or SW). The central point of the quadrant system is the Centre Street Bridge, with Centre Street and Centre Avenue forming the boundaries (although the points vary; most of the south end has Macleod Trail as a boundary, except near [[Chinook Centre]] where Macleod dives westward slightly; in the west end, the Bow River forms the boundary for the most part).
==Industry and employment==
Despite much diversification in recent years, Calgary's economy is still dominated by the oil and gas industry. The larger companies include [[EnCana Corporation|EnCana]], [[Petro-Canada]], [[Shell Canada]], [[Imperial Oil]], [[Suncor Energy]], and [[TransCanada Corporation|TransCanada]].
In 1996, [[Canadian Pacific Railway]] moved its head office to Calgary, and is now among the city's top employers. Furthermore, in 2005, [[Imperial Oil]] moved its headquarters from Toronto to Calgary, relocating roughly 400 families in the process.
Other large employers include the [[Forzani Group]], [[ATCO]], [[Fluor Canada]], [[Shaw Cable]], [[Nortel]] and [[Westjet]]
Office space totals about 50 million square feet in the city (32 million are within the [[Downtown Calgary|downtown commercial core]]).
==Military presence==
[[Image:battalionpark.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Canadian Expeditionary Force|CEF]] Battalions who trained near Signal Hill left a visible mark on the city at [[Battalion Park]]]]Calgary has had an active military garrison since the early years of the 20th Century. [[Lord Strathcona's Horse (Royal Canadians)|Strathcona's Horse]] had one squadron quartered in the city for many years. A local militia regiment was finally raised after several attempts by Lieutenant Colonel William C.G. Armstrong, when the 103rd Regiment (Calgary Rifles) was finally raised. Units of the artillery, engineers and supporting corps also had units in Calgary from time to time. In 1914, several battalions of the Canadian Expeditionary Force were raised in Calgary, notably the [[Calgary Highlanders|10th]] and [[King's Own Calgary Regiment|50th]]. Training took place at nearby Sarcee Camp, which grew enormously during the First World War. The camp later became known as Sarcee Training Area. Nearby [[Battalion Park]] overlooks this area.
In 1920-21, the Canadian military was reorganized, and the 103rd Regiment was split into two seperate regiments, and by 1939 these were known as The [[Calgary Highlanders]] and the [[King's Own Calgary Regiment|Calgary Regiment (Tank)]]. Other supporting units remained in the city as well, and in 1939, many Calgary raised units joined the Canadian Active Service Force overseas. The Highlanders and Calgary Tanks saw active service in the 2nd Division and 1st Armoured Brigade respectively.
By the end of the [[Second World War]], a greatly enlarged Regular Force saw a sizeable military garrison located in Calgary, and regular battalions of the PPCLI and Queen's Own Rifles, as well as Lord Strathcona's Horse (Royal Canadians) were quartered in the city. In 1995, the Regular Force garrison - including the Strathcona's, 1 PPCLI, 1 Service Battalion, 1 MP Platoon, and the headquarters of Land Force Western Area as well as 1st Canadian Brigade Group all moved to Edmonton, leaving a skeleton staff of regular personnel in Calgary to administer the local Militia units.
Permanent military facilities were completed in 1917 with the construction of [[Mewata Armouries]], which then housed reserve units and a squadron of regular cavalry. Currie Barracks became an important training base during the Second World War, and many British Commonwealth Air Training Plan facilities were located in and around the city, including what is today the [[Southern Alberta Institute of Technology]]. Currie Barracks, and nearby Harvie Barracks, were both developed after the war to form '''Canadian Forces Base Calgary ([[CFB Calgary]])'''. A second armoury was built in a Northeast Calgary industrial park in the 1980s. Harvie Barracks (and the adjacent Sarcee Training Area) were returned to the [[Tsuu T'ina Nation]] after the lease expired, and CFB Calgary was closed. Only the headquarters for a reserve brigade and a small Area Support Unit remain.
Despite the closing of CFB Calgary (including both Currie Barracks and Harvey Barracks), the city is still home to a significant military presence, including [[HMCS Tecumseh]] (Naval Reserve), the [[HMCS Tecumseh Band]], and the 746th Communications Squadron (Communications Reserve). Several units of the Army Reserve are located in Calgary, including:
* Headquarters, 41 Canadian Brigade Group (former CFB Calgary)
* [[The King's Own Calgary Regiment (RCAC)]] (Mewata Armouries)
* Regimental Band of The King's Own Calgary Regiment ([[Royal Canadian Armoured Corps|RCAC]])(Museum of the Regiments)
* 33 Field Engineer Squadron ([[Canadian Military Engineers]]) (NE Armouries)
* [[The Calgary Highlanders]] (Mewata Armouries)
* [http://www.calgaryhighlanderpipeband.ca Regimental Pipes and Drums of The Calgary Highlanders] (Mewata Armouries)
* 14 (Calgary) Service Battalion (NE Armouries)
* Calgary Detachment, 15 Field Ambulance ([[Canadian Forces Medical Service]]) (Mewata Armouries)
* Militia Training Detachment Calgary (Mewata Armouries)
Additionally, there are several squadrons of the [[Royal Canadian Sea Cadets]], [[Navy League Cadets]], [[Royal Canadian Army Cadets]], and [[Royal Canadian Air Cadets]] who train at various facilities.
==Local media==
===Newspapers===
* ''[[Calgary Herald]]'' - The largest newspaper in Calgary. Generally conservative, covers more world news than the ''Calgary Sun''. Owned by [[CanWest Global Communications]].
* ''[[Calgary Sun]]'' - A division of SUNMEDIA, a [[Quebecor]] company. [[Tabloid|Compact]] format, focus on local news, sports and entertainment.
* ''[[FFWD (newspaper)|FFWD]]'' - Weekly alternative arts paper.
* ''[[Dose (magazine)|Dose]]'' - Free daily paper published by CanWest Global Communications.
===Radio stations===
====Shortwave====
* 6.030 Mhz - CFVP - A.M. shortwave service of [[CKMX]]. (CFVP = Voice of the Prairies)
====AM====
* 580 - [[CKUA]] - public broadcasting (province-wide frequency)
* 660 - [[CFFR (AM)|CFFR]] - [[oldies]]
* 770 - [[CHQR (AM)|CHQR]] - [[talk radio]]
* 910 - [[CKDQ (AM)|CKDQ]] - [[country music]], broadcasting from [[Drumheller, Alberta|Drumheller]]
* 960 - [[CFAC (AM)|CFAC]] - "[[The Fan]]" sports
* 1010 - [[CBR (AM)|CBR]] - [[CBC Radio One]]
* 1060 - [[CKMX (AM)|CKMX]] - classic [[country music]]
* 1140 - [[CHRB (AM)|CHRB]] - religious programming, broadcasting from [[High River, Alberta|High River]]
====FM====
* 88.1 - C??? - [[Aboriginal Voices]]
* 88.9 - [[CJSI-FM|CJSI]] - ''Shine FM'' [[Christian music]]
* 89.7 - [[CBCX-FM|CBCX]] - [[Espace Musique]]
* 90.9 - [[CJSW-FM|CJSW]] - [[University of Calgary]]
* 91.1 - [[CKDQ-FM|CKDQ]] - ''Q91'' [[country music|country]], broadcasting from [[Drumheller, Alberta|Drumheller]]
* 92.1 - [[CJAY-FM|CJAY]] - ''CJAY92'' [[rock and roll|rock]], alternative, and [[classic rock]]
* 93.7 - [[CKUA]] - [[public broadcasting]]
* 94.7 - [[CHKF-FM|CHKF]] - [[Asian Canadian]] community
* 95.9 - [[CHFM-FM|CHFM]] - ''Lite 96'' [[adult contemporary]]
* 96.9 - [[CKIS-FM|CKIS]] - ''[[Jack FM]]''
* 98.5 - [[CIBK-FM|CIBK]] - ''[[Vibe 98.5]]'' [[contemporary hit radio|CHR]]
* 100.9 - [[CFXL-FM|CFXL]] - ''The Eagle'' [[classic rock]], broadcasting out of [[Okotoks, Alberta|Okotoks]]
* 102.1 - [[CBR-FM|CBR]] - [[CBC Radio Two]]
* 103.1 - [[CIQX-FM|CIQX]] - ''California'' [[easy listening]]/[[jazz]]
* 103.9 - [[CBRF-FM|CBRF]] - [[La Première Chaîne]]
* 105.1 - [[CKRY-FM|CKRY]] - ''Country 105''
* 107.3 - [[CFGQ-FM|CFGQ]] - ''Q-107'' [[classic rock]]
===Television stations===
* 2 (Cable 7) - [[CICT-TV|CICT]], [[Global Television Network|Global]]
* 4 (Cable 3) - [[CFCN-TV|CFCN]], [[CTV Television Network|CTV]]
* 5 (Cable 8) - [[CKAL-TV|CKAL]], [[Citytv]]
* 9 (Cable 6) - [[CBRT-TV|CBRT]], [[CBC Television|CBC]]
* 13 (Cable 13) - [[CIAN-TV |
.
Vague reports by various European explorers suggest that Hawai{{okina}}i was visited by foreigners well before the [[1778]] arrival of [[United Kingdom|British]] [[exploration|explorer]] [[Captain James Cook]]. Historians credited Cook with the discovery after he was the first to plot and publish the geographical coordinates of the Hawaiian Islands. Cook named his discovery the Sandwich Islands in honor of one of his sponsors, [[John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich]].
===Hawaiian kingdom===
''Main article: [[Kingdom of Hawaii|Kingdom of Hawai{{okina}}i]]''
After a series of battles that ended in [[1795]] and peaceful cession of the island of Kaua{{okina}}i in [[1810]], the Hawaiian Islands were united for the first time under a single ruler who would become known as [[Kamehameha I|King Kamehameha the Great]]. He established the [[House of Kamehameha]], a dynasty that ruled over the kingdom until [[1872]]. One of the most important events during those years was the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu|suppression of the Hawaii Catholic Church]].
That led to the [[Edict of Toleration (Hawaii)|Edict of Toleration]] that established [[religious freedom]] in the Hawaiian Islands. The death of the bachelor [[Kamehameha V|King Kamehameha V]] who did not name an [[heir]] resulted in the [[election]] of [[William C. Lunalilo|King Lunalilo]]. After him, governance was passed on to the [[House of Kalakaua|House of Kalākaua]].
Several years into Kalakaua's reign, in response to what was seen as growing royal corruption and maladministration, a group of American and European businessmen in Hawai{{okina}}i, who had for many years participated in Kingdom government at the highest levels, forced [[King Kalākaua]] to sign the [[Bayonet Constitution]] in 1887, which effectively rendered the monarchy powerless. Among other things, it stripped the king of his administrative authorities, eliminated voting rights for all Asians, and required specific income and property requirements for all other American, European and native Hawaiian voters, essentially limiting the electorate to wealthy elite Americans, Europeans and native Hawaiians. [[David Kalakaua|King Kalākaua]] reigned until his death in [[1891]].
His sister, [[Liliuokalani|Lili{{okina}}uokalani]], succeeded him to the throne and ruled until her dethronement in [[1893]]. Her overthrow, by a [[coup d'état]] orchestrated by American and European businessmen, was sparked by the queen's threat to abrogate the constitution. Even though she backed down at the last moment, members of the expatriate community formed a Committee of Safety which mounted a nearly bloodless coup and established a provisional government. On May 30, 1894 a constitutional convention drafted a constitution for a Republic of Hawaii. The Republic was declared on July 4, 1894.
The overthrow of the monarchy was a cataclysmic event in Hawaiian history and is still the subject of much controversy. For further discussion, see [[Overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy]].
During the kingdom era and subsequent republican regime, [[Iolani Palace|{{okina}}Iolani Palace]] &mdash; the only official royal residence in the United States today &mdash; served as the capitol buildings.
<center><gallery>
Image:Kamehamehaportrait.jpg|Kamehameha
Image:Kamehamehaii.jpg|Kamehameha II
Image:Kamehamehaiii.jpg|Kamehameha III
Image:Alexanderliholiho.jpg|Kamehameha IV
Image:Kamehamehav.jpg|Kamehameha V
Image:Williamcharleslunalilo.jpg|Lunalilo
Image:Kalakauapainting.jpg|Kalākaua
Image:Liliuokalani2.jpg|Lili{{okina}}uokalani
</gallery></center>
===Hawaiian territory===
''Main article: [[Territory of Hawaii|Territory of Hawai{{okina}}i]]''
When William McKinley won the presidential election in November of 1896, the question of Hawaii's annexation to the U.S. was again opened. The previous president, Grover Cleveland, was a friend of Queen Liliuokalani. He had remained opposed to annexation until the end of his term, but McKinley was open to persuasion by U. S. expansionists and by annexationists from Hawaii. He agreed to meet with a committee of annexationists from Hawaii, Lorrin Thurston, Francis Hatch and William Kinney. After negotiations, in June of 1897, McKinley signed a treaty of annexation with these representatives of the Republic of Hawaii. The President then submitted the treaty to the U. S. Senate for approval.
Annexation of Hawai'i to the United States was protested by petition drives run by Hui Aloha ‘Aina and Hui Kalai‘aina, that gained nearly 22,000 signatures in opposition to annexation on one petition, and approximately 17,000 signatures in favor of reinstating the monarchy on another. Only the 22,000 signatures opposing annexation were presented to the U.S. in protest, and the other 17,000 claimed signatures have never been uncovered to this date. The validity of the petition that was submitted was criticized at the time by Lorrin Thurston in an [http://libweb.hawaii.edu/digicoll/annexation/petition/pet820.html analysis] which indicated significant fraud.
Despite some opposition in the islands, the [[Newlands Resolution]] was passed by the House [[June 15]], [[1898]], by a vote of 209 to 91, and by the Senate on [[July 6]], [[1898]], by a vote of 42 to 21, formally annexing Hawai{{okina}}i as a U.S. territory in spite of opposition in the Congress [Schamel, Wynell and Charles E. Schamel, 1999][http://www.alohaquest.com/archive/treaty_annexation_1897.htm][http://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/hawaii-petition/]. Although its legality was questioned by some because it was a resolution, not a treaty, both houses of Congress carried the measure with 2/3rd majorities, whereas a treaty would have only required 2/3rds of the Senate (Article II, Sec 2, U.S. Constitution).
In [[1900]], it was granted self-governance and retained {{okina}}Iolani Palace as the territorial capitol building. Though several attempts were made to achieve statehood, Hawai{{okina}}i remained a territory for sixty years. Plantation owners, like those who comprised the so-called [[Big Five (Hawaii)|Big Five]], found territorial status convenient, enabling them to continue importing cheap foreign labor; such immigration was prohibited in various other states of the Union.
The power of the plantation owners was finally broken by activist descendants of original immigrant laborers. Because they were born in a U.S. territory, they were legal U.S. citizens. Expecting to gain full voting rights, they actively campaigned for statehood for the Hawaiian Islands.
In March [[1959]], both houses of Congress passed the Admission Act and U.S. President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] signed it into law. (The act excluded [[Palmyra Atoll]], part of the Kingdom and Territory of Hawai{{okina}}i, from the new state.) On June 27 of that year, a [[plebiscite]] was held asking residents of Hawai{{okina}}i to vote on accepting the statehood bill. Hawai{{okina}}i voted 17 to 1 to accept. On August 21, church bells throughout Honolulu were rung upon the proclamation that Hawai{{okina}}i was the 50th state of the Union.
===Hawaiian statehood===
After statehood, Hawai{{okina}}i quickly became a modern state with a construction boom and rapidly growing economy. The [[Hawaii Republican Party|Hawai{{okina}}i Republican Party]], which was strongly supported by the plantation owners, was voted out of office. In its place, the [[Democratic Party of Hawaii|Democratic Party of Hawai{{okina}}i ]] dominated state politics for forty years. The state also worked toward restoring the native Hawaiian culture. The [[1978 Hawaii State Constitutional Convention|Hawai{{okina}}i State Constitutional Convention of 1978]] heralded what some called a Hawaiian renaissance. Its delegates created programs that sought to revive the indigenous Hawaiian language and culture. In addition, they sought to promote native control over Hawaiian issues by creating the [[Office of Hawaiian Affairs]].
==Languages==
''Main articles: [[Hawaiian language]], [[Hawaiian English]]''
The state of Hawai{{okina}}i has two official languages as prescribed by the [[Constitution of Hawaii|Constitution of Hawai{{okina}}i]] adopted at the [[1978 Hawaii State Constitutional Convention|1978 constitutional convention]]: [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] and [[English language|English]]. Article XV, Section 4 requires the use of Hawaiian in official state business such as public acts, documents, laws and transactions. Standard [[Hawaiian English]], a subset of [[American English]], is also commonly used for other formal business. Hawaiian is legally acceptable in all legal documents, from depositions to legislative bills. The third and fourth most spoken languages are [[Tagalog]] and [[Japanese language|Japanese]], respectively.
===Origins===
Before the arrival of [[Captain James Cook]], the Hawaiian language was purely a spoken language. The first written form of Hawaiian was developed by American [[Protestant]] [[missionaries]] in Hawai{{okina}}i during the early 19th century. The missionaries assigned letters from the English alphabet that roughly corresponded to the Hawaiian sounds. Later, additional characters were added to clarify pronunciation.
The ''[[okina|{{okina}}okina]]'' indicates a [[glottal stop]] while the [[macron]] called ''[[Hawaiian language|kahakō]]'' signifies a long vowel sound. When a Hawaiian word is spelled without any necessary {{okina}}okina and kahakō, it is impossible for someone who does not already know the word to guess at the proper pronunciation.
Omission of the {{okina}}okina and kahakō in printed texts can even obscure the meaning of the word. For example, the word ''lanai'' means stiff-necked. However, when spelled as ''lānai'' it means [[veranda]] while ''Lāna{{okina}}i'' refers to an island. This can be a problem in interpreting 19th century Hawaiian texts recorded in the older orthography. For these reasons, ca |
t-align: right"|4.0
| style="text-align: right"|6,064
|-
| '''[[Docking Compartment]] - Pirs Airlock'''
| 4R
| [[Progress spacecraft|Progress M]]
| [[August 14]],[[2001]]
| style="text-align: right"|4.1
| style="text-align: right"|2.6
| style="text-align: right"|3,900
|-
| '''[[ISS Truss|S0 Truss]]'''
| 8A - [[STS-110]]
| [[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Atlantis]]
| [[April 8]],[[2002]]
| style="text-align: right"|13.4
| style="text-align: right"|4.6
| style="text-align: right"|13,970
|-
| '''[[Mobile Servicing System|Mobile Base System]]''' for Canadarm2
| UF-2 - [[STS-111]]
| [[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]
| [[June 5]],[[2002]]
| style="text-align: right"|5.7
| style="text-align: right"|2.9
| style="text-align: right"|1,450
|-
| '''[[ISS Truss|S1 Truss]]'''
| 9A - [[STS-112]]
| [[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Atlantis]]
| [[October 7]],[[2002]]
| style="text-align: right"|13.7
| style="text-align: right"|3.9
| style="text-align: right"|12,598
|-
| '''[[ISS Truss|P1 Truss]]'''
| 11A - [[STS-113]]
| [[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]
| [[November 24]],[[2002]]
| style="text-align: right"|13.7
| style="text-align: right"|3.9
| style="text-align: right"|12,598
|-
| '''[[External Stowage Platform|External Stowage Platform (ESP-2)]]'''
| LF1 - [[STS-114]]
| [[Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]
| [[July 26]],[[2005]]
| style="text-align: right"|?
| style="text-align: right"|?
| style="text-align: right"|?
|}
'''Launched on periodic resupply missions'''
* [[Multi-Purpose Logistics Module]] (MPLM)
'''Scheduled for launch by [[Space Shuttle|Shuttle]] after return to flight'''
<br>(listed in order of planned launch sequence)
* 4 Truss segments (two port and two starboard)
* [[Node 2]] (launch ~2007)
* [[Columbus (ISS module)|Columbus Laboratory]] (launch ~2007/08)
* [[Japanese Experiment Module]] (JEM), aka KIBO (launch ~2007/08)
* [[Cupola (ISS)|Cupola]] - (launch ~2009)
'''Scheduled for launch by [[Proton rocket]]'''
* [[Multipurpose Laboratory Module]] FGB-2 based - (launch ~2007)
* [[European Robotic Arm]] (ERA) (launch ~2007 together with MLM)
* [[Russian Research Module]] reduced to 1 (launch ~2009)
'''Cancelled elements'''
* [[Node 3]] - cancelled
* [[Centrifuge Accommodations Module]] cancelled (would have been attached to Node 2)
* [[Universal Docking Module]] - cancelled, replaced by (MLM - FGB2)
* [[Docking and Stowage Module]] - cancelled
* [[Habitation Module]] - cancelled
* [[Crew Return Vehicle (CRV)]] - cancelled
* [[Interim Control Module]] - cancelled, no need to replace [[ISS Zvezda|Zvezda]]
* [[ISS Propulsion Module]] - cancelled, no need to replace [[ISS Zvezda|Zvezda]]
'''Uncertain elements'''
* [[Science Power Platform]] planned to be launched by a Shuttle flight, now more likely to be launched by a Proton
'''Visiting spacecrafts'''
* [[Soyuz spacecraft]] for crew rotation and emergency evacuation, replaced every 6 months
* [[Progress spacecraft]] - resupply vehicle
* European (ESA) [[Automated Transfer Vehicle]] (ATV) ISS resupply spacecraft
* Japanese (JAXA) [[H-II Transfer Vehicle]] (HTV) resupply vehicle for KIBO module
* Commercial cargo resupply spacecraft, under the NASA COTS ([[Commercial orbital transportation services]]) program
There is also a large unpressurized [[ISS Truss|truss]] system partially in place that will eventually support the prominent [[ISS Solar Arrays|solar arrays]].
{{ISS modules}}
==Criticism of the ISS==
There are many critics of NASA who view the project as a waste of time and money, inhibiting progress on more useful projects: for instance, the estimated $100 billion USD lifetime cost could pay for dozens of [[unmanned space mission|unmanned scientific missions]] or could be used for space exploration in general or be better spent on problems on Earth. Critics complain that very little high-quality scientific research has been done on the ISS, and that if the station's scientific program had had to compete with other scientific research in the normal process of peer review and grant applications, it would have never been funded. The recent problems of the shuttle program have put the ISS in a precarious position, in which its inhabitants spend most of their time trying to survive, rather than doing scientific research.
So far the costs have been $26 billion, of which the US' share consists mainly of costs related to the Space Shuttle, not expenses NASA incurred by building elements or maintaining the ISS. However, critics say that the main justification for the shuttle program is to service the ISS, while the main justification for the ISS is to give the shuttle somewhere to go. With the cancellation of parts of the ISS, such as the [[Centrifuge Accommodations Module]] or [[Node 3]] and the shift of the [[European Robotic Arm]] and the [[Science Power Platform]] to a launch by a Russian [[Proton rocket]] NASA's ISS expenses excluding Shuttle assembly flight costs are expected to be much lower than the $100 billion figure that is often used in the media.
Advocates of space exploration say that criticism of the ISS project is short-sighted, and that manned space research and exploration have produced billions of dollars of tangible benefits to people on Earth. By some estimates, the indirect economic benefits made from commercialization of technologies developed during [[human spaceflight|manned space exploration]] have returned many times the initial investment to the economy. However, there is no consensus among economists on how to make such an estimate, since it requires speculation as to what the tax money would have accomplished had it remained in the economy. Whether the ISS, as distinct from the wider space program, will be a major contributor in this sense is, thus a subject of debate. More cynical advocates have pointed out that even if its scientific value is nil, it would have still served to force international cooperation at a time of tough [[international politics]].
Two technical aspects of the ISS's design have been heavily criticized: (1) it requires too much maintenance, and in particular too much maintence through risky, expensive EVAs; (2) its orbit is too highly inclined, making it difficult to reach from the Earth's surface in an economical way. The latter decision arose from the political realities of the US's desire to keep Russia involved in the program.
== Space Tourism, weddings and the ISS ==
The ISS has seen the first [[space tourist]], [[Dennis Tito]], who spent 20 million USD to fly aboard a Russian supply mission and the first space wedding when [[Yuri Malenchenko]] on the station married Ekaterina Dmitriev who was in Texas.
==Present status of the ISS==
[[Image:Shuttle_approaching_ISS.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' is seen here approaching the ''International Space Station'']]
After the [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|breakup]] of [[Space Shuttle Columbia|''Columbia'']] on [[February 1]], [[2003]], and the subsequent two and a half year suspension of the US [[Space program]], followed by problems with resuming flight operations in 2005, there remains some uncertainty over the future of the ISS.
Due to weight restrictions and design constraints, payloads intended for the Shuttle - even if ready to fly - cannot be launched to the station on any other available launcher. In addition, assembly work is manpower-intensive, making it difficult to do without the assistance of EVA teams brought up by the Shuttle.
In the meantime, crew exchange has been carried out using the Russian Soyuz spacecraft. Starting with [[Expedition 7]], two-astronaut caretaker crews have been launched, instead of the previous crews of three. However, Soyuz lacks the raw cargo space of the shuttle, and cannot carry a significant amount of material back to earth; because the ISS had not been visited by a shuttle for an extended period, a large amount of waste accumulated which temporarily hindered station operations.
The Space Shuttle Program resumed flight on [[26 July]] [[2005]] with [[STS-114]], the Return to Flight mission of [[Space Shuttle Discovery|''Discovery'']]. This mission to the ISS was intended to both test new safety measures implemented since the Columbia disaster, and to deliver supplies to the station. Although the mission succeeded safely, it was not without risk; foam was shed by the external tank, leading NASA to announce future missions would be grounded until this issue was resolved.
[[image:NASA-Foale-Spacewalk.jpg|thumb|right|Astronaut Michael Foale on a construction EVA outside the ISS in February 2004]]
The second Return to Flight mission, [[STS-121]] was planned for September 2005, but has been delayed until at least May 2006.
==ISS Expeditions==
<!--
!width="125"|Expedition
!width="350"|Crew
!width="175"|Launch<br>date
!width="125"|Flight up
!width="175"|Landing<br>date
!width="125"|Flight down
!width="65"|Duration<br>(Days)
-->
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background-color: #efefef"
!Expedition
!Crew<br><small>(commander in ''italics'')
!Launch date
!Flight up
!Landing date
!Flight down
!Duration<br><small>(days)</small>
|-
![[Expedition 1]]
|''[[William Shepherd]] - U.S.A.''<br>[[Yuri Gidzenko]] - Russia<br>[[Sergei Krikalev]] - Russia
|[[October 31]], [[2000]]<br>07:52:47 UTC
|[[Soyuz TM-31]]
|[[March 21]], [[2001]]<br>07:33:06 UTC
|[[STS-102]]
|style="text-align: right"|140.98
|-
![[Expedition 2]]
|''[[Yuri Usachev]] - Russia''<br>[[Susan Helms]] - U.S.A.<br>[[James Voss]] - U.S.A.
|[[March 8]], [[2001]]<br>11:42:09 UTC
|[[STS-102]]
|[[August 22]], [[2001]]<br>19:24:06 UTC
|[[S |
eport, Louisiana]] and was a hit with the large audience. Following this, Presley was signed to a one-year contract for a weekly performance during which time he was introduced to [[Colonel Tom Parker]]. This helped sales of his records as his releases began to reach the top of the country charts.
===The management of Colonel Tom Parker===
On [[August 15]], [[1955]] Elvis Presley was signed by "Hank Snow Attractions", a management company jointly owned by singer [[Hank Snow]] and [[Colonel Tom Parker]]. Shortly thereafter, Colonel Parker took full control and, recognizing the limitations of Sun Studios, negotiated a deal with [[RCA Records]] on [[November 21]], [[1955]], then immediately established two [[New York City]] recording companies for Presley's music. Understanding the commercial value for any composer having their song recorded by Presley, Parker was able to demand they share their royalties with the singer. A master promoter who wasted no time in marketing Presley's image, Parker licensed everything from guitars to cookware. After being approached by the Hollywood Studios, Parker eventually negotiated a multi-picture seven-year contract that shifted Presley's focus from music to films. Under the terms of his contract, Presley earned a fee for performing plus a percentage of the profits on the films, most of which were huge moneymakers. (See "Movies" section below.) With money seemingly being at the forefront of all decisions made by the Colonel, his success led to his management contract with Elvis being renegotiated to an even 50/50 split between the two. Over the years, much has been written about Colonel Parker, most of it critical. Marty Lacker, a lifelong friend and a member of the [[Memphis Mafia]], says he thought of Parker as a "hustler and scam artist" who abused Elvis's reliance on him. Nonetheless, along with Lamar Fike, and Presley's first cousin Billy Smith, Lacker acknowledged that Parker was a master promoter as recounted in their 1995 book ''Elvis Aron Presley: Revelations from the Memphis Mafia''. In the 2005 television special about her former husband, [[Priscilla Presley]] said she didn't know who else there was at the time in 1955 who could have seized the moment and done the job of marketing Elvis. Parker's definitive biography was written by award-winning journalist [[Alanna Nash]] published in 2003.
===Military service===
On [[December 20]] [[1957]], Presley received his [[Conscription in the United States|draft notice]] for 2-year service with the [[United States Army]]. On [[March 24]], [[1958]], he was inducted into the Army at the Memphis Draft Board. Presley received no special treatment and was widely praised for not avoiding service or serving part time in easy domestic positions such as the Special Services. The media speculated on whether or not two years out of the limelight would damage to his career. During his service, Elvis met his future father-in-law, Walter Alden, who was a [[sergeant]] and in charge of [[public relations]].
Presley sailed to [[Europe]] on the USS ''General George M. Randall'' (AP-115) and served in [[Germany]]. He returned to the United States on [[March 2]] [[1960]] and was honorably discharged on March 5th. [http://www.army.mil/CMH/faq/elvis.htm]
===Comeback===
Many observers (including [[John Lennon]]) later claimed that following Presley's return from military service the quality of his recorded output dropped, although others thought he was still capable of creating records equal to his best (and did so on the infrequent occasions where he was presented with "decent" material at his movie recording sessions). Presley himself became deeply dissatisfied with the direction his career would take over the ensuing seven years, notably the film contract with a demanding schedule that eliminated creative recording and giving public concerts. In [[1960]] the album ''Elvis is Back'' was recorded to mixed reviews by critics and fans. With this drop-off, and in the face of the social upheaval of the [[1960s]] and the [[British Invasion]] spearheaded by [[The Beatles]], Presley's star faded slightly before a triumphant [[television special|televised performance]] later dubbed the ''[[Elvis Presley's '68 Comeback Special|'68 Comeback Special]]''. Aired on the [[NBC]] network on [[December 3]], [[1968]], the show saw him return to his [[rock and roll]] roots. His [[1969]] return to live performances, first in [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]] and then across the country, was noted for the constant stream of sold-out shows, with many setting attendance records in the venues where he performed throughout the country.
===1969 onward===
After seven years off the top of the charts, Presley's song "[[Suspicious Minds]]" hit No. 1 on the Billboard music charts on [[November 1]], [[1969 in music|1969]]. This was the last time any song by Presley hit #1 on the US pop charts while he was still alive, although "Burning Love" got as high as #2 in September [[1972 in music|1972]]. He still reached #1 on charts around the world. For example, "The Wonder Of You" reached #1 in the UK in [[1970]]. The "[[Elvis: Aloha from Hawaii|Aloha from Hawaii]]" concert in January [[1973]] was the first of its kind to be broadcast worldwide via [[satellite]] and his biggest audience ever. The soundtrack album was another #1 disc.
''[[Way Down]]'' was racing up the American [[Country Music]] charts shortly before Presley's death in [[1977]], and hit #1 on that very chart the week he died (Presley recorded a number of country hits in his final years). It also topped the UK pop charts at the same time. Between 1969 and 1977 he gave over 1,000 sold-out performances in Las Vegas and on tour. He was the first artist to have four shows in a row sold to capacity at [[New York]]'s [[Madison Square Garden]]. During the mid-[[1970s]] Presley became increasingly isolated, battling an addiction to prescription drugs and its resulting toll on his appearance, health and performances. Elvis Presley made his last live concert appearance in [[Indianapolis, Indiana]] at the [[Market Square Arena]] on [[June 26]], [[1977]].
===Movies===
In late 1955, Presley made his earliest known film appearance in a documentary entitled ''[[The Pied Piper of Cleveland]]'', a look at the career of [[disc jockey]] Bill Randle. The film, (which reportedly included performance footage of Elvis as well as [[Bill Haley and His Comets]] and other acts), was shown in its entirety only once (in [[Cleveland, Ohio|Cleveland]]) and was never released commercially. The film is currently considered "misplaced" and some Presley researchers maintain it never existed, although there is ample evidence to suggest it did.
Beginning with ''[[Love Me Tender (movie)|Love Me Tender]]'' (opened on [[November 15]], [[1956 in film|1956]]), Presley starred in 31 motion pictures, having signed to multiple long-term contracts on the advice of his manager. These were usually musicals based around Presley performances, and marked the beginning of his transition from rebellious rock and roller to all-round family entertainer. Elvis was praised by all his directors, including the highly respected [[Michael Curtiz]], as unfailingly polite and extremely hardworking.
The movies ''[[Jailhouse Rock (movie)|Jailhouse Rock]]'' ([[1957]]), ''[[King Creole]]'' ([[1958]]), and ''[[Flaming Star]]'' ([[1960]]) are widely regarded as his best among film critics. Among fans, ''[[Blue Hawaii]]'' ([[1961]]) and ''[[Viva Las Vegas]]'' ([[1964]]) are also highly praised.
In addition to his own films, Presley has been the subject of more than seventy films that have his name in the title.
For details on films in which he starred, see the [[List of Elvis Presley films]].
===Gospel roots===
Ironically, for all the controversy surrounding his early career, Elvis Presley's roots in religious music ran deep. In Tupelo, Mississippi, Vernon and Gladys Presley were what was disparagingly referred to as ''[[poor white trash]]'' from the "wrong side of the tracks" at the east end of town. Their [[Great Depression|Depression-era]] home (where Elvis was born in 1935) was a two-room shack on one of several dirt tracks forming a small community off Old Saltillo Road. They belonged to a local [[Assembly of God]] [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] church which played an important role in their lives. For Elvis Presley it provided an environment from which he would instinctively adopt the music, sound and accompanying body movements in his later rock and roll singing performances. The [[African American music|African American form of music]] that became known as [[Rhythm & Blues]] (which also evolved from [[gospel music|gospel songs]]) was also a part of Presley's childhood world and he probably heard it on a regular basis in the [[Blacks|black]] section of Tupelo known as "Shakerag" (which was between Tupelo and East Tupelo, and was demolished in the 1960s as part of an urban renewal project). The church is said to have brought the Presleys, along with the rest of its desperately poor congregation, a message of hope wrapped around "[[fire and brimstone|Hell, fire, and brimstone]]" sermons. For nearly a quarter century the Pentecostal movement was [[interracial]] and during the 1930s and 1940s many of these poor churches did not adopt the growing policy of [[racial segregation]].
Although Vernon Presley's family was Pentecostal and his sister Nash Presley became a minister, his wife Gladys was Elvis's devoutly religious parent. Her uncle Gains Mansell was also a Pentecostal preacher in East Tupelo whose interracial church services began with [[revival meeting]]s held in a tent. Pentecostal church services started, centered and ended with music and everyone was encouraged to "make a joyous noise unto the Lord." According to Presley [[biog |
ukemia).
* [[Congenital heart disease|Congenital heart defects]]
* Increased susceptibility to infection
* Muscular/Skeletal abnormalities, including generally poor muscle tone.
* Respiratory problems
* [[sleep apnea|Obstructive sleep apnea]]
* [[Gastroesophageal reflux disease|Gastroesophageal reflux disease]]
* Obstructed digestive tracts
* [[Thyroid]] dysfunctions ([[hypothyroidism]])
* [[Acute myelogenous leukemia|Acute myeloid leukemia]], although their survival and relapse rate is much better than average
* [[Infertility]] (nearly absolute in males, fertility in females is possible)
* Hearing deficits
* Eye problems ([[cataract]]s, [[strabismus]], near and far sightedness)
* [[Alzheimer's disease]]
There is some evidence that individuals with Down syndrome have a much lower rate of lung cancer than others, as is expected for all cancers caused by [[Tumor suppressor gene|tumor suppressor genes]].
As with all risks, this does not mean that everyone with Down syndrome will get these diseases, nor that an individual will get '''any''' of them. The concentration on wellness in individuals with Down syndrome and increased medical technology has vastly improved the length and quality of life. Current estimates ([http://www.ndss.org/content.cfm?fuseaction=InfoRes.HlthArticle&article=19 7]) give life expectancy in the United States as 55 years, compared to 77 years for the population in general. This life expectancy is a tremendous increase in recent years.
== Medical research ==
Of the inborn differences that affect intellectual capacity, Down syndrome is the most prevalent and best studied. Down syndrome is a term used to encompass a number of [[genetic disorder]]s of which [[Aneuploidy#Trisomy|trisomy]] 21 is the most frequent (95% of cases). Discovered by the Parisian physician Jerome Lejeune in 1959, Trisomy 21 is the existence of the third copy of the [[chromosome]] 21 in cells throughout the body of the affected person. Other Down syndrome disorders are based on the duplication of the same subset of [[gene]]s (e.g., various translocations of chromosome 21). Depending on the actual [[etiology]], the degree of impairment may range from mild to severe. In rare cases trisomy 21 is present in some cell lines but not all, due to an anomalous early cell division in the [[zygote]]. There is evidence that this variant, called '''mosaic Down syndrome''', may produce less developmental delay, on average, than full trisomy 21.
[http://www.imdsa.com]
[http://www.ds-health.com/mosaic.htm 3]
Trisomy 21 results in over-[[expression of genes]] located on chromosome 21. One of these is the [[superoxide dismutase]] gene. Some (but not all) studies have shown that the activity of the superoxide dismutase enzyme ([[SOD]]) is elevated in Down syndrome. SOD converts [[oxygen radicals]] to [[hydrogen peroxide]] and [[water]]. Oxygen radicals produced in cells can be damaging to cellular structures, hence the important role of SOD. However, the hypothesis says that once SOD activity increases disproportionately to [[enzyme]]s responsible for removal of hydrogen peroxide (e.g., [[glutathione peroxidase]]), the cells will suffer from a peroxide damage. Some scientists believe that the treatment of Down syndrome [[neuron]]s with [[free radical]] scavengers can substantially prevent neuronal degeneration. Oxidative damage to neurons results in rapid [[human brain|brain]] aging similar to that of [[Alzheimer's disease]].
Another chromosome 21 gene that might predispose Down syndrome individuals to develop Alzheimer's pathology is the gene that encodes the precursor of the [[amyloid protein]]. Neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid plaques are commonly found in both Down syndrome and Alzheimer's individuals. Layer II of the [[entorhinal cortex]] and the subiculum, both critical for [[memory consolidation]], are among the first affected by the damage. A gradual decrease in the number of nerve cells throughout the [[cortex (neuroanatomy)|cortex]] follows. A few years ago, [[Johns Hopkins University|Johns Hopkins]] scientists created a genetically engineered [[mus musculus|mouse]] called Ts65Dn (segmental trisomy 16 mouse) as an excellent model for studying the Down syndrome. Ts65Dn mouse has genes on chromosomes 16 that are very similar to the human chromosome 21 genes. With this [[animal model]], the exact causes of Down syndrome neurological symptoms may soon be elucidated. Naturally, Ts65Dn research is also likely to highly benefit Alzheimer's research.
While there are a number of commercially promoted dietary supplements on the market, especially in the USA, mainly involving various combinations of vitamins and minerals, none of these have been medically approved for use in the UK for the mass treatment of people with Down syndrome and none appear to lead to any proven lasting benefits. All remain highly controversial.
== Challenges ==
{{section-stub}}
=== Pregnant women with a diagnosis of Down syndrome ===
{{section-stub}}
=== Parents of children with Down syndrome ===
{{section-stub}}
=== Individuals with Down syndrome ===
{{section-stub}}
== Down syndrome's sociology ==
{{NPOV-section}}
Advocates for people with Down syndrome stress that affected individuals have the same [[human right]]s and [[emotion]]s as any other human beings. Down syndrome is considered grounds for [[abortion]] in an increasing number of countries. The number of children born with Down syndrome is decreasing due to the large number of abortions following an early diagnosis of Down syndrome during pregnancy. In a hearing before the German Parliament, doctors stated that 90% of all fetuses [[prenatal diagnosis|prenatally diagnosed]] with Down syndrome are aborted. This number is consistent with the official statistics, wherein 1500 children with Down syndrome should, statistically, have been born per year (at a prevalence rate of 1:600), but only 63 per annum were listed in the 1995 birth register. In the United States numbers are reported to fluctuate between 70-80% of all women diagnosed during pregnancy will opt to terminate the pregnancy because of Down syndrome. Advocates for Down syndrome state this is similar to eugenics and is often based in fear of the unknown. Further, they argue that many parents given the information of a Down diagnosis are not fully informed on the wide range of the disorder or that there is an adoption waiting list full of people who wish to have a child with Down syndrome.
Advocates for people with Down syndrome also point to various factors, such as special education and parental support groups, that make life easier for parents of children with the disorder. There are also great strides being made in education, housing, and social settings to create "Down-friendly" environments. It is argued that many only view people with Down's in the ways of the past, limiting them to sub-standard possibilities in life and ignoring their very real social needs. In most developed countries, since the early 20th century many people with Down syndrome were housed in "mental subnormality" institutions or colonies and excluded from society. However, in the 21st century there is a moving change among parents, educators and other professionals generally advocate a policy of "inclusion", bringing people with any form of mental or physical disability into general society as much as possible. In many countries, people with Down syndrome are educated in the normal school system and there are increasingly higher quality opportunties to mix "special" education with regular education settings.
Despite this change, the reduced abilities of people with Down syndrome pose a challenge to their parents and families. While living with their parents is preferable to institutionalization for most adults with Down syndrome, they often encounter patronising attitudes and discrimination in the wider community. Social views of persons with Down still rest on the pre-intervention days when babies were immediately isolated and lacked proper social interaction and stimulation. The case is there are wide ranges of ability among persons living with Down and many are capable of living "normal" lives with some degree of assistance just as other disabled persons may. This means people with Down syndrome are able to run their own household, apply for a regular job, get a driver's licence and take care of insurances, etc, by themselves. It is preferable to institutional living, the 1980's and 1990's experiments with group homes were not especially successful, and a number of new models are emerging. In the past few years the independent (supported) living model has found favour with UK governments. With Direct Payments, some people are able to employ their own staff. Individuals can take on their own tenancy,or shared ownership and receive support from a skilled caregiver in organizing their own life, studies, career, and outside interests. For an example of a young woman using Direct Payments for this, see [http://caslater.freeservers.com/Karensflat.htm]
== Notable individuals ==
Notable people with Down syndrome include:
* [[Stephane Ginnsz]], actor (''[[Duo (film)]]'') First actor with Down syndrome in the lead part of a motion picture.
* [[Chris Burke (actor)|Chris Burke]], actor (''[[Life Goes On]]'') and autobiographer
* [[Andrea Friedman]], actor (''[[Life Goes On]]''), guest appearances on many other shows
* [[Pascal Duquenne]], actor (''[[Le Huitième Jour]]'' aka The Eighth Day, ''[[Toto le héros]]'' aka Toto the Hero)
* [[Anne de Gaulle]] ([[1928]]-[[1948]]), daughter of [[Charles de Gaulle]]
* [[Miguel Tomasin]], singer with Argentinian avant-rock band [[Reynols]]
== Down syndrome in fiction ==
* [[Bret Lott]]: "[[Jewel (book)|Jewel]]"
* [[Morris West]]: "[[The Clowns of God]]"
* [[Bernice Rubens]]: ''[[A Solitary Grief]]''
* [[Emily Perl Kingsley]]: "[[Welcome |
ati Order in Barcelona, Spain, elaborating the Operative Rite of The Illuminati of Bavaria. This Rite is based on the Rite of the Illuminati and high degrees of [[Scottish Rite]] of 33 degrees.
The System of its Illuminati Grand Master, Gabriel López de Rojas, is the Redism. This system is based on the [[lemma]] ''HOMO EST DEUS'', or "man is god".
Groups describing themselves as Illuminati say they have members and chapters (lodges) throughout the world.
About the time that the Illuminati were outlawed in Bavaria, the Roman Catholic Church prohibited its members from joining Masonic lodges, on pain of excommunication. This was done as a general edict, since the Church believed many lodges to have been infiltrated and subverted by the Illuminati, but was not able to accurately ascertain which ones. This rule was relaxed only in the late 20th century.
== See also ==
* [[Alex Jones (journalist)]] - claims that the governments of today are in collaboration to create a [[New World Order (conspiracy)|New World Order]]
* [[Conspiracy theory]]
* [[Council on Foreign Relations]]
* [[David Icke]] - maintains that the world is ruled by a secret group called "The Elite", or "Illuminati"
* [[Freemasonry]]
* [[Illuminati in popular culture]]
* [[Illuminus]]
* [[Jordan Maxwell]]
* [[New World Order (conspiracy)|New World Order]]
* [[Robert Anton Wilson]]
* [[Secret Society]]
== References ==
*[[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]]:'' "Illuminati"''
*America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones &mdash; Antony C. Sutton (Trine Day, LLC, 2003)
*Behold a Pale Horse &mdash; Cooper, Milton William (Light Technology Publishing, 1991)
*The Cosmic Conspiracy &mdash; Deyo, Stan (Adventures Unlimited Press, Illinois, 1994)
*The Illuminati 666 &mdash; Sutton, Josiah William (Teach Services, Inc, New York, 1983).
*Proof of a Conspiracy Against all the Religions and Governments of Europe &mdash; Robison, John A.M. (New York, 1798)
*They Cast No Shadows: A Collection of essays on the Illuminati, revisionist history and suppressed technology &mdash; [[Brian Desborough|Desborough, Brian]](Writers Club Press/ iUniverse.com, 2002) ISBN 0595219578
*{{cite book | author=Barkun, Michael | title=A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America | publisher=University of California Press, Berkeley | year=2003 | editor= | id=ISBN 0520238052}}
==External links==
*[http://www.atheists.org/Atheism/roots/enlightenment/ ''The Enlightenment, Freemasonry, and The Illuminati'' by Conrad Goeringer]
*[http://thomasinechurch.org/ Thomasine Church]
* [http://100777.com/myron ''The Illuminati and the CFR by Myron Fagan]
* [http://s11.invisionfree.com/Novus_Ordo_Random An Illuminati-based RPG]
* [http://freemasonry.bcy.ca/texts/Illuminati.html ''A Bavarian Illuminati Primer'' by Trevor W. McKeown]
*[http://www.conspiracyarchive.com/ Illuminati Conspiracy Archive]
*[http://anti-masonry.info/alt.illuminati_FAQ.html alt.illuminati FAQ]
*[http://www.luisprada.com/Protected/the_illuminati_and_the_galactic_federation.htm The Illuminati and the Galactic Federation]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07661b.htm The Catholic Encyclopedia entry on Illuminati]
*[http://novusordoseclorum-oai.org O.A.I.]
*[http://www.abovetopsecret.com/forum/thread38424/pg1 Origins of the Illuminati?] A Discussion
*[http://www.abovetopsecret.com/forum/thread70060/pg1 The Illuminati: Who Are They Now?]
*[http://www.rawilson.com/ The Robert Anton Wilson Website]
*[http://www.obeyyourfear.com/ Conspiracy Rock Liverpool music group]
===Groups identifying themselves as Illuminati===
* [http://www.luminist.org Church of Gnostic Luminism]
* [http://www.ordeniluminati.com Orden Illuminati]
* [http://illuminati-order.com The Illuminati Order]
* [http://www.illuminati13.org/ Illuminati Order]
* [http://www.illuminatiorder.net/pages/illuminati/ Illuminati Order USA]
* [http://www.geocities.com/radicalmagi Union of Radical Magi: Illuminism for the 21st Century]
[[Category:Secret societies]]
[[Category:Conspiracy theories]]
[[bg:Илюминати]]
[[da:Illuminati]]
[[de:Illuminatenorden]]
[[et:Illuminaadid]]
[[es:Illuminati]]
[[eu:Illuminati]]
[[fr:Illuminati]]
[[it:Illuminati]]
[[nl:Illuminati]]
[[ja:イルミナティ]]
[[pt:Illuminati]]
[[ru:Иллюминаты]]
[[sl:Iluminati]]
[[fi:Illuminati]]
[[sv:Illuminati]]
[[tr:Illuminati]]
[[zh:光明帮]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Isma'ilis</title>
<id>15008</id>
<revision>
<id>15912524</id>
<timestamp>2003-11-08T11:00:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Minesweeper</username>
<id>7279</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ismaili]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ismailis</title>
<id>15009</id>
<revision>
<id>15912525</id>
<timestamp>2003-10-30T21:09:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>(</username>
<id>7041</id>
</contributor>
<comment>appended text to [[Ismaili]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Ismaili]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Indus</title>
<id>15010</id>
<revision>
<id>41286114</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T07:49:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Spartian</username>
<id>952421</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Indus''' has several meanings:
*The '''Indus''' is a river; the [[Indus River]].
*The '''[[Indus Valley Civilization]]''' was an ancient civilization that grew from the Indus River valley.
*The '''[[Indus script]]''' is an ancient script used in [[India]] and [[Pakistan]].
*At the '''[[Battle of Indus]]''', [[Mingburnu]] of [[Persian Empire|Persia]] fought [[Genghis Khan]].
*The '''[[Indus (constellation)]]''', named after Indus (the Indian), is a southern [[constellation]].
*'''[[Indus Airways]]''' a domestic air carrier, based in India.
*The '''[[Talk:Nelms#The_barque_INDUS|Indus]]''' was a ship used to transport emigrants from England to Australia.
*'''IndUS''' is an Indian youth group.
*'''[[Indus programming language|Indus]]''' is a [[concurrent programming language]]
{{disambig}}
[[he:אינדוס]]
[[nl:Indus]]
[[sk:Indus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Instant-runoff voting</title>
<id>15011</id>
<revision>
<id>42153146</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:13:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>207.105.246.33</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
'''Instant-Runoff Voting''' (IRV), '''Alternative Vote''' (AV), '''Ranked Choice Voting''' (RCV), or the '''Hare system''' is a [[voting system]] normally used for single-winner elections utilizing a ranked ballot. In Australia and New Zealand it is referred to as '''Preferential Voting''' &mdash; although this term may be misleading because it is not the only [[preferential voting]] system.
The term ''instant-runoff'' refers to the way in which IRV ballots are tabulated, as the winner is determined similarly to holding a series of [[runoff election|runoff elections]] with vote choices implied from the alternative preferences listed on the ballot. Instant-runoff voting is mathematically equivalent to the [[Single Transferable Vote]] (STV) method when there is only a single winner, and is therefore sometimes referred to as STV.
IRV was first used in [[Australia]] by the [[self-governing colony]] of [[Queensland]], in [[1893]]. The system gradually spread to other parts of Australia and has been used to elect the [[Australian House of Representatives]] since [[1919]]. IRV is also used to elect the [[President of Ireland]], the [[Papua New Guinea]] National Parliament, and the [[Fiji|Fijian]] [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|House of Representatives]].
== History and usage ==
Instant-Runoff Voting was invented around 1870 by American architect [[William Robert Ware]]. Ware was not a mathematician, thus never subjected his election method to any rigorous analysis. He evidently based IRV on the single winner outcome of the [[Single Transferable Vote]] or STV developed in 1855 originally by [[Carl Andrae]] in [[Denmark]]. It was introduced into [[England]] in 1857 by the [[barrister]] [[Thomas Hare]], where it earned public praise from [[John Stuart Mill]], an English philosopher, member of parliament, and employee of the [[British East India Company|East India Company]].
{{sect-stub}}
=== Current usage ===
IRV is used in Australia for elections to the Federal [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]], for the Legislative Assemblies ("lower houses") of all states and territories except [[Tasmania]] and the [[Australian Capital Territory]], which use regional multi-member constituencies. It is also used for the Legislative Councils ("upper houses") of [[Tasmania]] and [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], although the latter will switch to the multi-member variant from [[2006]].
In the [[Pacific]], IRV is used for the [[Fiji|Fijian]] [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|House of Representatives]]. [[Papua New Guinea]] has also decided to adopt it for future elections, starting in [[2007]]. [[Voting system of Fiji|The Fijian system]] has been modified to allow for both "default preferences", specified by the political party or candidate, and "custom preferences", specified by the voter. Each political party or candidate ranks all other candidates according to its own preference; voters who are happy with that need only to vote for their own preferred candidate, whose preferences will automatically be transferred according to the ranking specified by the candidate. Voters who disagree with the ranking, however, may opt to rank the candidates according to their own preferences. In |
e Innocent II]] to declare himself and the kingdom servants of the Church, swearing to pursue driving the Moors out of the [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberian]] peninsula. Bypassing any king of Castile or León, Afonso declared himself the direct [[liege]]man of the [[Papacy]]. Thus, Afonso continued to distinguish himself by his exploits against the Moors, from whom he wrested [[Santarém, Portugal|Santarém]] and [[Lisbon]] in [[1147]] (see [[Siege of Lisbon]]). He also conquered an important part of the land south of the [[Tagus]] River, although this was lost again to the Moors in the following years.
Meanwhile, King Alfonso VII of Castile (Afonso's cousin) regarded the independent ruler of Portugal as nothing but a rebel. Conflict between the two was constant and bitter in the following years. Afonso became involved in a [[war]], taking the side of the [[Aragon]]ese king, an enemy of Castile. To ensure the alliance, his son [[Sancho I of Portugal|Sancho]] was engaged to [[Dulce Berenguer]], sister of the [[Kings of Aragon|Count of Barcelona]], and princess of Aragon. Finally, in [[1143]], the [[Treaty of Zamora]] established peace between the cousins and the recognition by the Kingdom of Castile and León that Portugal was an independent kingdom.
[[Image:DAfonsoHenriques.jpg|thumb|left|Statue of Afonso Henriques in [[Guimarães]].]]
In [[1169]], Afonso was disabled in an engagement near [[Badajoz]] by a fall from his [[horse]], and made prisoner by the soldiers of the king of León. Portugal was obliged to surrender as his [[ransom]] almost all the conquests Afonso had made in Galicia in the previous years.
In [[1179]] the privileges and favours given to the Roman Catholic Church were compensated. In the [[papal bull]] ''Manifestis Probatum'', [[Pope Alexander III]] acknowledged Afonso as King and Portugal as an independent land with the right to conquer lands from the Moors. With this papal blessing, Portugal was at last secured as a country and safe from any Castilian attempts of annexation.
In [[1184]], in spite of his great age, he had still sufficient energy to relieve his son Sancho, who was besieged in [[Santarém, Portugal|Santarém]] by the Moors. He died shortly after, in [[1185]].
The Portuguese revere him as a hero, both on account of his personal character and as the founder of their [[nation]].
==Afonso's descendants==
Afonso married in 1146 Mafalda or [[Maud of Savoy]] ([[1125]]-[[1158]]), daughter of Amadeo III, Count of Savoy, and [[Mafalda of Albon]].
{| border=1 style="border-collapse: collapse;"
|- bgcolor=cccccc
!Name!!Birth!!Death!!Notes
|-
|colspan=4|'''By [[Maud of Savoy]]''' ([[1125]]-[[1158]]; married in [[1146]])
|-
|Henrique||[[March 5]] [[1147]]||[[1147]]||&nbsp;
|-
|Mafalda||[[1148]]||c. [[1160]]||&nbsp;
|-
|[[Urraca of Portugal|Urraca]]||c. [[1151]]||[[1188]]||married to King [[Ferdinand II of León]]
|-
|[[Sancho I of Portugal|Sancho]]||[[1154]]||[[March 26]] [[1212]]||Succeeded him as 2nd [[List of Portuguese monarchs|King of Portugal]]
|-
|[[Teresa of Portugal (1157-1218)|Teresa]]||[[1157]]||[[1218]]||married to [[Philip I of Flanders]] and after his death to [[Eudes III of Burgundy]]
|-
|João||[[1160]]||[[1160]]||&nbsp;
|-
|Sancha||[[1160]]||[[1160]]||&nbsp;
|-
|colspan=4|'''By [[Elvira Gálter]]'''
|-
|[[Urraca Afonso, Lady of Aveiro|Urraca Afonso]]||c. [[1130]]||?||Natural daughter. Married Pedro Afonso Viegas. Lady of [[Aveiro]].
|-
|colspan=4|'''Other natural offspring'''
|-
|[[Fernando Afonso, Constable of Portugal|Fernando Afonso]]||c. [[1166]]||c. [[1172]]||High-General of the Kingdom ([[Constable of Portugal]])
|-
|[[Pedro Afonso, Master of Aviz|Pedro Afonso]]||c [[1130]]||[[1169]]||A.k.a. Pedro Henriques. 1st Grand-Master of the [[Order of Aviz]].
|-
|[[Afonso of Portugal, Master of the Order of Saint John of Rhodes|Afonso]]||c. [[1135]]||[[1207]]||11th Master of the [[Order of Saint John of Rhodes]].
|-
|[[Teresa Afonso]]||c. [[1135]]||?||Married Fernando Martins Bravo.
|}
==See also==
*[[Portugal]]
*[[History of Portugal]]
*[[Kings of Portugal family tree]]
*[[Timeline of Portuguese history]]
**[[Timeline of Portuguese history (Second County)|Second County of Portugal (11th to 12th Century)]]
**[[Timeline of Portuguese history (First Dynasty)|First Dynasty: Burgundy (12th to 14th Century)]]
{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[House of Burgundy]]|25 July|1109|6 December|1185|[[House of Capet]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Henry, Count of Portugal|Henrique]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Portuguese monarchs|Count of Portugal]]|years=[[1112]]&ndash;[[1139]]|regent1=[[Theresa, Countess of Portugal|Theresa]]|years1=[[1112]]&ndash;[[1126]]}}
{{s-non|reason=Independence<br/>from [[Kingdom of León|León]]&ndash;[[Castile]]}}
|-
{{s-new|reason=Independence<br/>from [[Kingdom of León|León]]&ndash;[[Castile]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Portuguese monarchs|Kings of Portugal]]|years=[[1139]]&ndash;[[1185]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Sancho I of Portugal|Sancho I]]}}
{{end}}
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Portuguese monarchs]]
[[Category:1109 births]]
[[Category:1185 deaths]]
[[bg:Афонсу I (Португалия)]]
[[ca:Alfons I de Portugal]]
[[de:Alfons I. (Portugal)]]
[[eo:Afonso Henriques]]
[[es:Alfonso I de Portugal]]
[[fr:Alphonse Ier de Portugal]]
[[gl:D. Alfonso Henriques]]
[[ia:Afonso Henriques]]
[[it:Don Afonso Henriques]]
[[ja:アフォンソ1世 (ポルトガル王)]]
[[nl:Alfons I van Portugal]]
[[pl:Alfons I Zdobywca]]
[[pt:Afonso I de Portugal]]
[[ru:Афонсу I Завоеватель]]
[[sv:Alfons VI av Portugal]]
[[uk:Афонсо I (король Португалії)]]
[[zh:阿方索一世 (葡萄牙)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Afonso II of Portugal</title>
<id>1658</id>
<revision>
<id>41852524</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T03:50:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.13.246.244</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{House of Burgundy}}
[[Image:AfonsoII-P.jpg|left|Afonso II of Portugal]]
'''Afonso II of Portugal''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /{{IPA|ɐ.'fõ.su}}/; [[English language|English]] ''Alphonzo''), or ''Affonso'' (Archaic Portuguese), ''Alfonso'' or ''Alphonso'' ([[Portuguese-Galician languages|Portuguese-Galician]]) or ''Alphonsus'' ([[Latin language|Latin]] version), known as ''the Fat'' ([[Portuguese language|Port.]] ''o Gordo''), third [[List of Portuguese monarchs|king of Portugal]], was born in [[Coimbra]] on [[April 23]] [[1185]] and died on [[March 25]] [[1223]] in the same city. He was the second but eldest surviving son of [[Sancho I of Portugal]] by his wife, Dulce of Barcelona, princess of Aragon. Afonso succeeded his father in [[1212]].
As a king, Afonso II set a different approach of government. Hitherto, Sancho I his father and [[Afonso I of Portugal|Afonso I]] his grandfather, were mostly concerned with military issues either against the neighbouring [[Castile]] or against the [[Moors]] in the south. Afonso did not pursue territory enlargement policies and managed to insure peace with Castile during his reign. Despite this, some towns, like [[Alcácer do Sal]] in [[1217]], were conquered from the Moors by the particular initiative of noblemen. This does not mean that he was a weak or somehow cowardly man. The first years of his reign were marked instead by internal disturbances between Afonso and his brothers and sisters. The king managed to keep security within Portuguese borders only by outlawing and exiling his kin.
Since military issues were not a government priority, Afonso established the state's administration and centralized power on himself. He designed the first set of Portuguese written laws. These were mainly concerned with [[private property]], civil [[justice]], and [[minting]]. Afonso also sent ambassadors to [[European]] kingdoms outside the [[Iberian Peninsula]] and began amiable [[trade|commercial]] relations with most of them.
Other reforms included the always delicate matters with the pope. In order to get the independence of Portugal recognized by the popes, his grandfather, Afonso I, had to legislate an enormous amount of privileges to the Church. These eventually created a state within the state. With Portugal's position as a country firmly established, Afonso II endeavoured to weaken the power of the [[clergy]] and to apply a portion of the enormous revenues of the [[Catholic church]] to purposes of national utility. These actions led to a serious diplomatic conflict between the pope and Portugal. After being [[excommunicated]] for his audacities by [[Pope Honorius III]], Afonso II promised to make amends to the church, but he died in [[1223]] before making any serious attempts to do so.
===Afonso's descendents===
Afonso married [[Urraca, princess of Castile]], daughter of [[Alfonso VIII of Castile|Alfonso VIII]], [[King of Castile]], and [[Leonora of Aquitaine]], in [[1208]].
{| border=1 style="border-collapse: collapse;"
|- bgcolor=cccccc
!Name!!Birth!!Death!!Notes
|-
|colspan=4|'''By [[Urraca, princess of Castile|Urraca of Castile]]''' ([[1186]]-[[1220]]; married in [[1208]])
|-
|[[Sancho II of Portugal|Sancho II]]||[[September 8]] [[1207]]||[[January 4]] [[1248]]||Succeeded him as 4th [[King of Portugal]]
|-
|[[Afonso III of Portugal|Afonso III]]||[[May 5]] [[1210]]||[[February 16]] [[1279]]||Succeeded his brother Sancho as 5th [[King of Portugal]]
|-
|[[Leonor of Portugal (1211-1231)|Eleanor]]||[[1211]]||[[1231]]||Married King [[Valdemar III of Denmark]]
|-
|[[Ferdinand, Prince of Portugal (1217-1246)|Ferdinand]]||a. [[1217]]||c. [[1243]]||Lord of [[Serpa]]
|-
|Vicente||[[1219]]||[[1219]]||&nbsp;
|-
|colspan=4|'''Natural offspring'''
|-
|[[João Afonso]]||?||[[1234]]||Natural son
|-
|[[Pedro Afonso]]||c. [[1210]]||?||Natural son
|}
===See also===
[[Kings of Portugal family tree]]
==References==
*{{1911}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Sancho I of Portugal|Sancho I]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Portug |
duals that are either male or female, [[hermaphrodite|hermaphroditic]] animals have both male and female reproductive organs.
===Genetic determination===
Most [[mammal]]s, including [[human]]s, are genetically determined as such by the [[XY sex-determination system]] where males have an XY (as opposed to XX) sex [[chromosome]]. During [[reproduction]], a male can give either an X sperm or a Y sperm, while a female can only give an X egg. A Y sperm and an X egg produce a [[boy]], while an X sperm and an X egg produce a [[girl]]. The [[WZ sex-determination system]], where males have a ZZ (as opposed to WZ) sex chromosome may be found in [[bird]]s and some [[insect]]s and other organisms. Members of [[Hymenoptera]], such as [[ant]]s and [[bee]]s, are determined by [[haplodiploidy]], where most males are [[haploid]] and females and some sterile males are [[diploid]].
===Environmental determination===
In some species of reptiles, including [[alligator]]s, sex is determined by the temperature at which the egg is incubated. Other species, such as some [[snail]]s, practice sex change: adults start out male, then become female. In tropical [[clown fish]], the dominant individual in a group becomes female while the other ones are male.
In some [[arthropod]]s, sex is determined by infection. [[Bacterium|Bacteria]] of the genus ''[[Wolbachia]]'' alter their sexuality; some species consist entirely of ZZ individuals, with sex determined by the presence of ''Wolbachia''.
==Mammalian Female==
The mammalian female is characterised by having two copies of the X chromosome as opposed to the male which carries only one X and one smaller Y chromosome. To compensate for the difference in size one of the female's X chromosomes is randomly inactivated in each cell.
Conversely in birds it is the female who is heterozygote and carries a Z and a W chromosome whilst the male carries two Z chromosomes.
===Human Female===
In humans, there are several different components (in addition to genetics) to both biological [[sex]] and [[gender]] identity by which people assign the label "female".
==Symbols==
A common symbol used to represent the female gender is &#x2640; ([[Unicode]]: U+2640), a circle with a small cross underneath. This symbol also represents the planet [[Venus]] and is a stylized representation of the [[Venus (mythology)|goddess Venus']] hand mirror.
==See also==
* [[Feminine side]]
* [[Male]]
* [[Sex-determination system]]
* [[Woman]] and [[girl]], female [[human]]s
*[[Mammal]]
*[[Hermaphrodite]]
*[[Secondary sex characteristic]]
*[[Gestation]]
{{wiktionary}}
[[Category:Gender]]
[[ca:Femella]]
[[de:Weiblich]]
[[eo:femalo]]
[[es:Hembra]]
[[fr:Femelle]]
[[gd:Boireannach]]
[[he:נקבה]]
[[ja:メス]]
[[pl:Samica]]
[[pt:Feminino]]
[[ru:Самка]]
[[simple:Female]]
[[sk:Samica]]
[[su:bikang]]
[[fi:Naaras]]
[[zh:雌性]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Frisian language/vocabulary</title>
<id>11097</id>
<revision>
<id>15908862</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>130.94.122.xxx</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frisian language]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Frisian language/history</title>
<id>11098</id>
<revision>
<id>15908863</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>130.94.122.xxx</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frisian language]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Kite flying</title>
<id>11100</id>
<revision>
<id>41970055</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:23:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sysin</username>
<id>55969</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Practical & cultural uses */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:yokaichi01.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Yokaichi Giant Kite Festival held on the fourth Sunday every May in [[Higashiomi, Shiga]], Japan.]]
'''Kite flying''' is the activity of flying kites.
In this context a '''kite''' is a light, man-made object designed to fly in [[wind]]. The necessary [[Lift (force)|lift]] that makes the kite fly is generated when the kite deflects a portion of the wind downwards. In addition to the lift, this deflection generates horizontal [[drag]] along the direction of the wind. This drag is opposed with the tension of one or more [[rope|lines]] held by the operator of the kite. Kites held with more than one line can be steered by pulling the different lines with different strength.
In addition to kites that are mainly designed for the purpose of flying themselves there are [[power kite|power kites]] or traction kites. These are designed to generate substantial excess lift and a pull that can be applied in related activities such as [[kite surfing]], [[kiteboarding]] or [[kite buggying]].
==Technology==
[[image:kites.jpg|thumb|200px|right|These kites are about 50 feet long each. The rainbow-colored wind sock near the bottom of the picture spins like a turbine.]]
Kite flying requires lightweight, but strong [[twine]], as well as paper or tightly-woven cloth. Kites typically consist of one or more spars (sticks) that hold a sail of [[fabric]] taut. Classic kites use [[bamboo]], [[rattan]], or other strong but flexible [[wood]] for the spars, and use paper or light fabrics such as [[silk]] for the sails. Many modern kites use synthetic materials, such as [[nylon]] or more exotic fabrics for the sails, and [[fiberglass]] or [[Graphite-reinforced plastic|carbon fiber]] for the spars.
Chinese kite designs often emulate flying insects, birds, and other beasts, both real and mythical. The finest Chinese kites are made from split bamboo (usually golden bamboo), covered with silk, and hand painted. On larger kites, clever hinges and latches allow the kite to be disassembled and compactly folded for storage or transport. Cheaper kites are often made from printed [[polyester]] rather than silk.
Kites flown by children are often the of [[geometric kite|geometric]] type. Kites can be designed with many different shapes, forms ,and sizes. They can take the form of historic flat geometric designs, box kites and other aerodynamic forms, or modern sparless inflatable designs.
[[image:squids.jpg|thumb|200px|left|These kites are shaped like an octopus and squid and are more than 40 feet long.]]
Modern acrobatic kites use more than one line to allow fine control of the kite's angle to the wind.
A recent addition to the kite family is the [[rotorkite]]. This type of kite consists of a rotor or rotors much like the rotors found on [[helicopter]]s and [[autogiro]]s. In a proper wind the rotors spin and create lift. This type of kite requires two control lines, one for each hand.
===Practical & cultural uses===
Kites have been used militarily in the past, both for delivery of messages and munitions, and for observation, by lifting an observer above the field of battle, and by using [[kite aerial photography]].
Kites have also been used for scientific purposes, such as [[Benjamin Franklin]]'s famous (but dangerous) experiment proving that [[lightning]] is [[electricity]]. Kites were the precursors to aircraft, and were instrumental in the development of early flying craft. [[Alexander Graham Bell]] experimented with very large man-carrying kites, as did the [[Wright brothers]].
Kite flying is very popular in [[China]], [[Japan]], [[India]], [[Thailand]], and many other countries. In some countries, 'kite fights' are held, in which kite fighters try to snag each other's kites or cut other kites down. In [[Afghanistan]] this is known as ''Gudiparan Bazi.'' Some kite fighters pass their strings through a mixture of ground glass powder and glue. The resulting strings are very abrasive and can sever the competitor's strings. However, this practice is dangerous since the abrasive strings can also injure people.
In recent years, multi-line kite flying has developed into a [[sport kite|sport]], with competitions for precision flying and for the artistic interpretation of music.
[[image:1O20.jpg|333px|thumb|]]
Kite festivals are also held where kites from around the world are displayed in the sky. This picture shows a Chinese dragon kite more than one hundred feet long which flew in the annual [[Berkeley, California]], kite festival in 2000.
The Indian festival of [[Makar Sankranti]] is devoted to kite flying in some areas. This spring festival is celebrated every January 14 (or January 15 on leap years), with millions of people flying kites all over northern [[India]]. The festival is a public holiday in the state of [[Gujarat]].
In [[Greece]], flying kites is a tradition for [[Clean Monday]], the first day of [[lent]].
During the [[taliban]] rule in Afghanistan, kite flying was banned among various other recreations.
==Types of Kites==
*[[flat kite]]
*[[bowed kite]]
*[[Box kite|cellular or box kite]]
*[[geometric kite|diamond or 'geometric' kite]]
*[[scott sled]] (Includes construction directions!)
*[[rogallo wing]]
*[[power kite]]
*[[tetrahedral kite]]
*[[airfoil kite]]
*[[lantern kite]]
*[[weather kite]]
*[[trick kite]]
*[[stunt kite]]
*[[kite tugs]]
*[[rotorkite]]
*[[Indoor Kites]]
*[[Rotating Kites]]
==External links==
{{Commons|Kite}}
*[http://www.aka.kite.org/ American Kitefliers Association]
*[http://www.dynamickites.co.uk/ Buy a kite online at dynamickites.co.uk]
*[http://www.haryana-online.com/kite_flying.htm Fighter kites of India]
*[http://kitehistory.com KiteHistory.com]
*[http://quake.wr.usgs.gov/kap/carrizo/ Processed results of kite aerial photography - USGS San Andreas Fault]
*[http://www.kitefliers.com/ Kitefliers]
*[http://coda.co.za/kites_and_kite_flying/ Kites and Kite Flying]
*[http://www.afghana.com/Entertainment/Gudiparanbazi.htm Gudiparan Bazi]
*[http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/air |
endar year, being unrivaled as a festive season, commercial opportunity, and time of family gathering &mdash; even for those of no or only nominal faith. Easter's relatively modest secular observances place it a distant second or third among the less religiously inclined where Christmas is so prominent.
===North America===
In the [[United States]] and [[Canada]], the Easter holiday has been partially secularized, so that some North American families participate only in the attendant revelry, central to which is decorating [[Easter eggs (decorative)|Easter eggs]] on Saturday evening and hunting for them Sunday morning, by which time they have been mysteriously hidden all over the house and garden. According to the children's stories, the eggs were hidden overnight and other treats delivered by the [[Easter Bunny]] in an Easter basket which children find waiting for them when they wake up. The Easter Bunny's motives for doing this are seldom clarified. Many families in North America will attend [[Sunday Mass]] in the morning and then participate in a feast or party in the afternoon.
===Scandinavia===
In [[Norway]], in addition to skiing in the mountains and painting eggs for decorating, it is tradition to solve murders at Easter. All the major television channels show crime and detective stories (such as ''[[Agatha Christie's Poirot|Poirot]]''), magazines print stories where the readers can try to figure out who did it, and many new books are published. Even the milk cartons change to have murder stories on their sides. Another tradition is [[Yahtzee]] games.
===Central Europe===
In the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Slovakia]], a tradition of whipping is carried out on [[Easter Monday]]. In the morning, males whip females with a special handmade whip called '''''pomlázka''''' (in Czech) or '''''korbáč''''' (in Slovak). The pomlázka/korbáč consists of eight, twelve or even twenty-four withies (willow rods) and is usually from half a meter to two meters long and decorated with coloured ribbons at the end. It must be mentioned that while whipping can be painful, the purpose is not to cause suffering. Rather, the purpose is for males to exhibit their attraction to females; unvisited females can even feel offended. The whipped female gives a coloured [[Easter egg|egg]] to the male as a sign of her thanks and forgiveness. A legend says that females should be whipped in order to keep their health and fertility during whole next year. The females can get revenge in the afternoon when they can pour a bucket of cold water on any male. The habit slightly varies across the Czech Republic. A similar tradition existed in [[Poland]] (where it is called [[Dyngus Day]]), but it is now little more than an all-day waterfight.
In [[Hungary]] (where it is called [[Ducking Monday]]), [[perfume]] or perfumed water is often sprinkled in exchange for an [[Easter egg]].
==Easter controversies==
===Anti-Easter Christians===
Some [[Fundamentalist Christianity|Christian fundamentalists]] reject nearly all the customs surrounding Easter, believing them to be irrevocably tainted with [[paganism]] and [[idolatry]]. Others, like the Sabbatarian [[Church of God]] groups, claim to adhere to a more primitive form of Christianity, and keep a [[Christian Passover]] which lacks most of the practices or symbols associated with Easter and retains more features of the Jewish observance.
===Possible pagan influences on Easter traditions===
[[Image:Easter bunny.jpg|thumb|right|An Easter Bunny]]
In his 'De Temporum Ratione' the [[Venerable Bede]] wrote that the month [[Eostremonat]] was so named because of a goddess, [[Eostre]], who had formerly been worshipped in that month. In recent years some scholars (Ronald Hutton, P.D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Elizabeth Freeman) have suggested that a lack of supporting documentation for this goddess might indicate that Bede assumed her existence based on the name of the month. Others note that Bede's status as "the Father of English History", having been the author of the first substantial history of England ever written, might make the lack of additional mention for a goddess whose worship had already died out by Bede's time unsurprising. The debate receives considerable attention because the name 'Easter' is derived from Eostremonat, and thus, according to Bede, from the pagan goddess Eostre.
[[Jakob Grimm]] took up the question of Eostre in his Deutsche Mythologie of 1835, noting that Ostaramanoth was etymologically related to Eostremonat and writing of various landmarks and customs related to the goddess [[Ostara]] in Germany. Again, because of a lack of written documentation, critics suggest that Grimm took Bede's mention of a goddess Eostre at face value and constructed the goddess Ostara around existing Germanic customs which may have arisen independently. Others point to Grimm's stated intent to gather and record oral traditions which might otherwise be lost as explanation for the lack of further documentation. Amongst other traditions, Grimm connected the 'Osterhase' ([[Easter Bunny]]) and [[Easter Eggs]] to the goddess Ostara/Eostre. He also cites various place names in Germany as being evidence of Ostara, but critics contend that the close etymological relationship between Ostara and the words for 'east' and 'dawn' could mean that these place names referred to either of those two things rather than a goddess.
Bede's ''[[Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum]]'' ("Ecclesiastic History of the English People") contains a letter from [[Pope]] [[Gregory I]] to [[Saint Mellitus]], who was then on his way to [[England]] to conduct missionary work among the [[heathen]] [[Anglo-Saxons]]. The Pope [http://www.englishheathenism.homestead.com/popesletter.html suggests that] converting heathens is easier if they are allowed to retain the outward forms of their traditional pagan practices and traditions, while recasting those traditions spiritually towards Christianity instead of to their indigenous gods (whom the Pope refers to as "devils"), "to the end that, whilst some gratifications are outwardly permitted them, they may the more easily consent to the inward consolations of the grace of God". The Pope sanctioned such conversion tactics as [[Bible|biblically]] acceptable, pointing out that God did much the same thing with the ancient [[Israelite]]s and their pagan sacrifices. This practice might explain the incorporation of Eostre traditions into the Christian holiday.
However, the giving of eggs at spring festivals was not restricted to [[Germanic peoples]] and could be found among the [[Persians]], [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], [[Jews]] and the [[Armenians]]. They were a widespread symbol of rebirth and resurrection and thus might have been adopted from any number of sources.
===Easter as a Sumerian festival===
Some suggest an etymological relationship between Eostre and the [[Sumer]]ian goddess [[Ishtar]] ([http://www.christiananswers.net/q-eden/edn-t020.html] [http://www.lasttrumpetministries.org/tracts/tract1.html] [http://www.pathlights.com/theselastdays/tracts/tract_22n.htm] [http://www.tiral.com/2004/04/the_origins_of_.html]) and the possibility that aspects of an ancient festival accompanied the name, claiming that the worship of [[Bel]] and Astarte was anciently introduced into [[Britain]], and that the hot cross buns of Good Friday and dyed eggs of Easter Sunday figured in the Chaldean rites just as they do now.
At best, any connection between Ishtar and Easter is geographically and linguistically distant, and tangential. In Old English, "Easter" was the name of Goddess of the Dawn, whose festival was observed at the vernal equinox. Her festival is believed to be responsible for the bunnies and the chicks and the Easter eggs - at least as they were celebrated in England.
Otherwise, claiming a connection between Ishtar and Easter ignores the fact that Easter is called "Passover" in almost every other language in the world. (The only exceptions appear to be the languages of those people who first learned Christianity at the hands of English or other Anglophone missionaries.) The Hebrew ''Pesach'' became the Greek ''Paskha'' and the Latin ''Pascha'', and from their became Spanish ''La Pascua'' and ''Las Pascuas'', Scots Gaelic ''An Casca'' ("p" sound mutated to "k" sound), and so on.
There is the additional problem that the very lands where Ishtar was once known have never been known to use a name like "Easter" for this or any other spring holiday.
==Miscellaneous==
===Word for "Easter" in various languages===
====Names related to [[Eostremonat]] ([[Eostre]] Month)====
* [[English language|English]] ''Easter''
* [[German language|German]] ''Ostern''
* [[Samoan language|Samoan]] ''Eseta'' (derived from English)
====Names derived from the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''Pesach'' ([[Passover]])====
* [[Latin]] ''Pascha'' or ''Festa Paschalia''
* [[Greek language|Greek]] ''Πάσχα'' (''Paskha'')
* [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]] ''Paasfees''
* [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''عيد الفصح'' (''ʿĪdu l-Fiṣḥ'')
* [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] ''Пасха'' (''Paskha'')
* [[Catalan language|Catalan]] ''Pasqua''
* [[Danish language|Danish]] ''Påske''
* [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''Pasen''
* [[Esperanto]] ''Pasko''
* [[Finnish language|Finnish]] ''Pääsiäinen''
* [[French language|French]] ''Pâques''
* [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] ''Páskar''
* [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] ''Paskah''
* [[Irish language|Irish]] ''Cáisg''
* [[Italian language|Italian]] ''Pasqua''
* Lower [[Rhine]] [[German language|German]] ''Paisken''
* [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] ''Påske''
* [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] (Philippines) ''Pasko ng Muling Pagkabuhay'' (literally "the Pasch of the Resurrection")
* [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] ''Páscoa''
* [[Romanian language|Romanian]] ''Paşti''
* [[Russian language|Russian]] |
n Mark (1991) Urban process in the Indus Tradition: A preliminary report. In Harappa Excavations, 1986-1990: A multidisciplanary approach to Third Millennium urbanism, edited by Richard H. Meadow: 29-59. Monographs in World Archaeology No.3. Prehistory Press, Madison Wisconsin.
[2] Periods 4 and 5 are not dated at Harappa. The termination of the Harappan tradition at Harappa falls between 1900 and 1500 BCE.
[3] [[Mohenjo-daro]] is another major city of the same period, located in [[Sindh]] province of [[Pakistan]].
==External links==
*Excavations of the city are described at http://www.harappa.com.
*Discussion of Harappan Tradition and extensive Bibliography http://harappa.knows.it.
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Pakistan]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Indus Valley sites]]
[[Category:Bronze Age]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>HavenCo</title>
<id>14150</id>
<revision>
<id>37930612</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T01:11:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kingboyk</username>
<id>411305</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>remove Lackey's dob (he has an article); remove nn redlink</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''HavenCo''' Limited is a data hosting services company founded in [[2000]] which operates from [[Sealand]], an unrecognized self-declared 'sovereign principality' that occupies a man-made former [[World War II|World War 2]] defensive facility originally known as [[Roughs Tower]] located approximately six miles from the coast of [[Suffolk]], southeast [[England]].
On [[August 22]], [[2000]], Michael Bates of Leigh-on-sea, [[Essex]] (who is also known as Prince Michael of Sealand), bought a dormant British company which was renamed HavenCo Limited. It was given the registration number of 04056934 by [[Companies House]], an executive agency of the UK Department of Trade and Industry. The registered office of HavenCo Limited was recorded at 11 Kintyre House, Cold Harbour, London, E14 9NL England. The directors were listed as Michael Roy Bates, a citizen of the United Kingdom, who was named Chief Operating Officer, and [[Ryan Lackey|Ryan Donald Lackey]], a US citizen. Other founders included Sean and Jo Hastings and Avi Freedman. The company later relocated its registration to [[Cyprus]].
HavenCo initially received broad coverage in the international media, appearing on the cover of ''[[Wired Magazine]]'', in over 200 press articles, and in several television reports. In these reports, HavenCo claimed to have established a secure [[colocation]] facility on Sealand, and that it had commenced operations as a [[data haven]]. Detractors claim that these reports gave the impression that HavenCo was registered on Sealand itself, and that the company would issue domain names under the authority of that entity, when in fact it had no entitlement to do so.
The company announced that it had become operational in [[December]] [[2000]] and that its [[Acceptable Use Policy]] prohibited [[child pornography]], [[spamming]], and malicious [[hacking]] - but that all other content was acceptable. It claimed that it had no restrictions on [[copyright]] or [[intellectual property]] for data hosted on its [[server]]s, arguing that as Sealand was not a member of the [[World Trade Organization]] or [[WIPO]], international intellectual property law did not apply. Other services available from HavenCo at the time included IT consulting, systems administration, offshore [[software]] development, and [[electronic mail]] services.
Following the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|9/11]] terrorist attacks Lackey announced that the operation would block initiatives "contrary to international custom and practice". HavenCo claimed that it had experienced few difficulties with any foreign government or organization, although according to detractors, the British government "reacted quietly" by enforcing British laws concerning unlicensed data transmissions to and from Sealand, although it is unclear what is meant by this, and no evidence has been produced in support of these claims.
[[Ryan Lackey]] left HavenCo under acrimonious circumstances in [[2001]], citing disagreements with the Bates family over management of the company. HavenCo itself is still in operation, but the extent of its current business is unknown.
HavenCo resembles [[Neal Stephenson]]'s fictional datahaven in the novel ''[[Cryptonomicon]]'', and various details match up as well &mdash; an investor named Avi, location on an island, affiliation with [[cypherpunk]]s, use of [[cryptography]], etc. However, HavenCo was already in operation before the book was in wide circulation, and the concept of a data haven is a far older idea. The use of small islands as [[tax haven]]s and [[flag of convenience|flags of convenience]] is perhaps a hundred years old, and data havens claim to be an extension of that same theme.
== External links ==
*[http://www.havenco.com/ HavenCo.com] - HavenCo's [[website]]
*[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/8.07/haven.html "Welcome to Sealand. Now Bugger Off."] - A [[Wired.com]] article written by Simson Garfinkel
*[http://news.com.com/2100-1028_3-5059676.html?tag=fd_top "Has 'haven' for questionable sites sunk?"] - A News.com article from [[August 4]], 2003
[[Category:Computer law]]
{{Sealand}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hate site</title>
<id>14151</id>
<revision>
<id>40325671</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T20:58:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Computerjoe</username>
<id>145799</id>
</contributor>
<comment>add npov</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{attention}}
{{npov}}
The term '''"hate site"''' is used by some to refer to [[websites]] that are said to promote hatred. Typically, these sites contain criticism of a specific [[race]], [[religion]], [[sexuality|sexual]] behavior, or nationality.
===What is ''Hate''?===
A popular argument which attempts to define such things as [[vulgar|vulgarity]] and [[pornography]] is "I know it when I see it." This is a subjective argument, however, as what one person considers to be obscene, another may find perfectly acceptable. Generally, however, the intense dislike of a group of people based solely on one or more shared differences, considered [[bigotry]], [[racism]], and many others, could be seen as hate.
===Balance Between Free Speech and Hate===
In the [[United States]], many famous [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] decisions have attempted to create a distinction between ''hate speech'' and ''[[Freedom of speech|free speech]]''. [[Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire]] articulated the [[fighting words|fighting words doctrine]], which held that ''social interest in order and morality'' outweighed an individuals right to speech. [[Beauharnais v. Illinois]] gave further rights to groups to protect themselves from [[Slander and libel|libel]]. [[Miller v. California]] established the [[Miller test]], which is a three part standard for determining what qualifies as ''obscene''.
===Hate on the Internet===
The online gathering of persons with racist, sexist, etc., attitutes can trace its roots to the days of the [[Bulletin board system|Bbs]]. A high level of anonymity allowed users access to others with similar beliefs, without exposing themselves to public scrutiny. With the advent of the [[internet]], these Bbs's shifted to the [[World Wide Web]].
Most of these sites contain [[Internet forum|message forums]], for user interaction, and [[news]] briefs which emphasize a particular viewpoint.
===Freedom of Speech Online===
The introduction of hate sites, along with message boards and easier general access to the internet for the public, led many public officials to question if the same rights of freedom of speech applied online, where the same words and thoughts could reach many more people instantly. Today, there are still attempts to pass laws that would restrict the content available online, including hate sites and pornographic material.
===External links===
{{npov-section}}
====Websites Said to Promote Hatred====
*[http://www.stormfront.org Stormfront]
*[http://www.natvan.com National Alliance]
*[http://www.kkk.com Ku Klux Klan]
====Websites which are considered ''Anti-Hate''====
*[http://www.tolerance.org/hate_internet/index.jsp Tolerance.org]
*[http://www.splcenter.org Southern Poverty Law Center]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hendecasyllable</title>
<id>14153</id>
<revision>
<id>27357118</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-04T15:36:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>80.131.240.181</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>added links to the German and Italian Wiki-content</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hendecasyllable''' [[verse]] (in [[Italian language|Italian]] ''endecasillabo'') is a kind of verse used mostly in [[Italy|Italian]] [[poetry]], defined by its having the last stress on the tenth [[syllable]]. When, as often happens, this stress falls on the last but one syllable, the line has exactly eleven syllables (and the literal meaning of the word is just "of eleven syllables").
The most usual [[stress scheme]]s for an hendecasyllable are stresses on 6th and 10th syllables (''Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita'', [[Dante Alighieri]], first line of ''[[The Divine Comedy]]),'' and on 4th, 7th and 10th syllables (''Un incalzar di cavalli accorrenti'', [[Ugo Foscolo]], ''[[I Sepolcri]]'').
Most classical Italian poems are composed of hendecasyllables, for instance, the main works by [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]], [[Francesco Petrarca]], [[Ludovico Ariosto]], and [[Torquato Tasso]].
It has a role in Italian poetry, and a formal structure, comparable to the [[iambic pentameter]] in [[English language|English]] or the [[alexandrine]] in |
an to drive Basque out from less mountainous areas of this region.
The [[Reconquista]] temporarily counteracted this tendency, when the Christian lords called on northern peoples &mdash; Basques, [[Asturia]]ns and [[Frank]]s &mdash; to colonize the new conquests. Later the Basque language came to be used mainly by peasants, while people in the cities preferred [[Castilian language|Castilian]], [[Gascon language|Gascon]], Navarrese Romance, [[French language|French]] or [[Latin language|Latin]] for high education.
Basque experienced a rapid decline in Navarre during the 1800's. However, after [[Basque nationalism]] took the language as an identity sign, and with the establishment of autonomous governments, it has made a comeback. Basque-language schools have taken the language to areas like [[Encartaciones]] or the [[Navarrese Ribera]] where it may have never been natively spoken in historic times.
==Dialects and official status==
[[Image:Basque Dialects.svg|thumb|330px|Basque dialects|right]]
===Official status===
Historically, Latin or Romance has been the official language.
However, Basque was explicitly recognized in some areas, as the [[fuero|local charter]] of the Basque-[[Reconquista|colonized]] [[Ojacastro]] valley (now in [[Rioja (Spain)|Rioja]]) allowed the inhabitants to use Basque in legal processes in the 13th and 14th centuries.
Today Basque holds co-official language status in the Basque regions of Spain: the full [[Autonomous community of Spain|autonomous community]] of the [[Basque Country]] and some parts of [[Navarre]]. Basque has no official standing in the Northern Basque Country of France and French citizens are barred from officially using Basque in a French court of law. Paradoxically, the use of Basque by Spanish nationals in French courts is allowed (with translation), as Basque is officially recognised on the other side of the frontier.
The positions of the various existing governments, in areas where Basque usage is common, differ with regard to the promotion of Basque. The language has official status in those territories which are within the Basque Autonomous Community where it is spoken and promoted heavily, but only partially in Navarre, which is divided by the law in three distinct language areas (this law is strongly rejected by the Basque-speaking people of Navarre).
===Dialects===
There are six main Basque dialects, comprising [[Biscayan]], [[Guipuzcoan]], and [[High Navarrese]] (in Spain), and [[Low Navarrese]], [[Labourdin]], and [[Souletin]] (in France). The dialect boundaries are not however congruent with political boundaries.
One of the first scientific studies of Basque dialects, in particular the [[auxiliary verb]] forms, was made by [[Louis-Lucien Bonaparte]] (a nephew of [[Napoleon I|Napoleon]]).
===Standardized dialects===
The most widely used standardized dialect is [[Batua]] ("unified" in Basque), which is the language taught in most schools and used on TV. Batua is based largely on the [[Gipuzkoa]] regional dialect, where it is the most used, although it allows use of Northern and Navarrese vocabulary. It is also referred to as Standard Basque.
[[Azkue]]'s ''gipuzkera osotua'' was the first attempt to create a Basque standard in 1935. It did not succeed, not even in Gipuzkoa where Batua is always preferred.
Along with Batua, ''Classical Labourdin'', like [[Pierre Laffite]]'s ''Navarro-Labourdin'' is the standard form of Lapurtera taught in some schools of Lapurdi and used on radio, church and by the newspaper [[Herria]].
A group (''Jakintza Baitha'', "Wisdom House") gathered around the academian [[Federico Krutwig]] preferred to base the standard on the Labourdin of [[Joannes Leyçarraga]]'s Protestant Bible and the first printed books in Basque.
However they got no official or popular support.
The most distinct dialects, Biscayan and Souletin also have a standard form.
===Derived languages===
In the 1500's, Basque sailors mixed many Basque words with a European Atlantic pidgin in their contacts with Iceland.
Several travelling professional groups of Castile used Basque words in their [[jargon]]s: examples are the ''[[gacería]]'', the ''[[mingaña]]'' and the Galician ''[[fala dos arxinas]]''.
<!-- Begin commented out section: to-be-written. Note that the space before each heading is required to avoid interference with section editing, and should be removed once this text is uncommented.
==Sounds==
Description of the sound set of the language. Can include phoneme charts and example words for each phoneme like in [[French language]]. If there is significant discussion here, it is probably best to divide the section into vowels and consonants subsections.
===Vowels===
Vowel chart and discussion of vowels.
===Consonants===
Consonant chart and discussion of consonants.
===Phonology===
Discussion of some major phonological processes, such as important [[allophone]]s or assimilation rules.
===Historical sound changes===
Description of important sound changes in the history of the language. (Maybe this should go under history?)
End commented out section
-->
==Grammar==
Basque is an [[ergative-absolutive language]]. The subject of an [[intransitive verb]] is in the [[absolutive case]] (which is unmarked), and the same case is used for the ''[[direct object]]'' of a [[transitive verb]]. The subject of the transitive verb (that is, the agent) is marked differently, with the [[ergative case]] (shown by the suffix ''-k''). This also triggers main and auxiliary verbal agreement.
The [[auxiliary verb]] which accompanies most main verbs agrees not only with the subject, but with the direct object and the indirect object, if present. Among European languages, this polypersonal system (multiple verb agreement) is only found in Basque and some Caucasian languages. The ergative-absolutive alignment is also unique among European languages, and rather rare worldwide.
Consider the phrase:
:''Martinek egunkariak erosten dizkit.''
:"Martin buys the newspapers for me."
''Martin-ek'' is the agent (transitive subject), so it is marked with the ergative case ending ''-k'' (with an [[epenthesis|epenthetic]] ''-e-''). ''Egunkariak'' has an ''-ak'' ending which marks plural object (plural absolutive, direct object case). The verb is ''erosten dizkit'', in which ''erosten'' is a kind of gerund ("buying") and the auxiliary ''dizkit'' indicates:
* ''di-'' marks a verb with both a direct object and an indirect one, in the present tense;
* ''-zki-'' is the number of the direct object (in this case the newspapers; if it were singular there would be no suffix); and
* ''-t'' is the indirect object mark: "for me".
* in this instance an unmarked or "null case" equates to the "nork", which in most European languages would be the subject.
The phrase:
:"you buy the newspapers for me" would translate as:
:''Zuek egunkariak erosten dizkidazue''
The auxiliary verb is composed as di-zki-da-zue
( equivalent terms in European languages )
*''di-'' = direct object
*''-zki-'' = marks plural of direct object
*''-da-'' = indirect object ( to/for me ) {-t becomes -da- when intercalated.}
*''-zue'' = subject ( you pl. )
A Basque [[noun]] is inflected in 17 different ways for case, multiplied by 4 ways for its definiteness and number. These first 68 forms are further modified based on other parts of the sentence, which in turn are inflected for the noun again. It's been estimated that at two levels of [[recursion]], a Basque noun may have 458,683 inflected forms ([http://acl.ldc.upenn.edu/A/A92/A92-1016.pdf Agirre et al, 1992]).
==Phonology==
Basque has a distinction between [[laminal consonant|laminal]] and [[Apical consonant|apical]] articulation for the alveolar fricatives and affricates. In the laminal consonants the friction occurs across the blade of the tongue, while in apical ones, it occurs at the tip (apex).
The laminal alveolar fricative is made with the tongue tip pointing toward the lower teeth; its affricate counterpart is {{IPA|[ts]}}. These are written with an orthographic ''z'' (''z'', ''tz''). The apical fricative is written ''s'' and is pronounced like the normal ''s'' in Castillian Spanish; that is, the tongue tip points toward the upper teeth. The corresponding affricate is ''ts''. In the westernmost parts of the Basque country, only the apical ''s'' and the alveolar affricate ''tz'' are used.
Basque also features postalveolar sibilants ({{IPA|/&#x0283;/}}, written ''x'', and {{IPA|/t&#x0283;/}}, written ''tx''), sounding like English ''sh'' and ''ch''.
There are two palatal stops, voiced and unvoiced, as well as a palatal nasal and a palatal lateral (the palatal stops are not present in all dialects). These and the postalveolar sounds are typical of diminutives, which are used frequently in child language and [[motherese]] (mainly to show affection rather than size). For example, ''tanta'' "drop" vs. ''ttantta'' {{IPA|/&#x025F;an&#x025F;a/}} "droplet". A few common words, such as ''txakur'' {{IPA|/t&#x0283;akur/}} "dog", use palatal sounds even though in current usage they have lost the diminutive sense; the corresponding non-palatal forms now acquiring an augmentative or pejorative sense: ''zakur'' "big dog". Many dialects of Basque exhibit a derived palatalization effect in which coronal onset consonants are changed into the palatal counterpart after the high front vowel {{IPA|/i/}}. For example, the {{IPA|/n/}} in ''egin'' "to act" becomes palatal when the suffix ''-a'' is added: {{IPA|/egina/}} = {{IPA|[egi&#x0272;a]}} "the action".
The sound represented by ''j'' has a variety of realizations according to the regional dialect: {{IPA|[j, &#x029D;, &#x025F;, &#x0292;, &#x0283;, x]}} (the last one is typical of the Spanish Basque Country).
Th |
, and sports reporting. The on-air announcers and programmers would later be known as disc jockeys.
*[[1920s]] - "Juke-joints" become popular as a place for dancing and drinking to jukebox music.
*[[1927]] - [[Christopher Stone]] becomes the first radio announcer and programmer in the [[United Kingdom]], on the [[BBC]] radio station.
*[[1929]] - Thomas Edison ceases phonograph cylinder manufacture, ending the disc and cylinder rivalry.
*[[1934]] - American commentator [[Walter Winchell]] coins the term "disc jockey" (the combination of "disc", referring to the disc records, and "jockey", which is an operator of a machine) as a description of radio announcer [[Martin Block]], the first announcer to become a star in his own right. While his audience was awaiting developments in the [[Lindbergh kidnapping]], Block played records and created the illusion that he was broadcasting from a ballroom, with the nation’s top dance bands performing live. The show, which he called ''Make Believe Ballroom'', was an instant hit.
*[[1940s]] - [[Musique concrète]] composers utilize portions of sound recordings to create new compositions. This is the first occurrence of [[Sampling (music)|sampling]].
*[[1943]] - [[Jimmy Savile]] launches the world's first DJ dance party by playing [[jazz]] records in the upstairs function room of the Loyal Order of Ancient Shepherd's in [[Otley]], [[England]]. in 1947 he paid a local metal worker to weld two domestic record decks together and became the first DJ to use twin turntables for continuous play.
*[[1947]] - The "Whiskey-A-Go-Go" nightclub opens in [[Paris, France]], considered to be the world's first [[discothèque]], or disco (deriving its name from the French word, meaning a nightclub where the featured entertainment is recorded music rather than an on-stage band). Discos began appearing across Europe and the United States.
*late [[1940s]] to early [[1950s]] - The introduction of [[television]] erodes the popularity of radio's early format, causing it to take on the general form it has today, with a strong focus on music, news and sports.
*[[1950s]] - American radio DJs would appear live at "sock hops" and "platter parties" and assume the role of a human jukebox. They would usually play 45-rpm records featuring hit singles on one turntable, while talking between songs. In some cases, a live drummer was hired to play beats between songs to maintain the dance floor.
*[[1955]] - [[Bob Casey (DJ)|Bob Casey]], a well-known sock hop DJ, introduces the first two-turntable system for the purpose of alternating back and forth between records, creating continuous playback.
*late [[1950s]] - [[Jamaican sound system]]s, a new form of public entertainment, are developed in the [[ghetto|ghettos]] of [[Kingston, Jamaica]]. Promotors, who called themselves DJs, would throw large parties in the streets that centered around the disc jockey, called the "selector". These parties quickly became profitable for the promoters, who would sell admission, food and alcohol, leading to fierce competition between DJs for the biggest sound systems and newest records.
*mid-[[1960s]] - Nightclubs and discotheques continue to grow in Europe and the United States. However, by [[1968]], the number of dance clubs started to decline.
*[[1969]] - American club DJ [[Francis Grasso]] popularizes [[beatmatching]] at [[New York]]'s Sanctuary nightclub. Beatmatching is the technique of creating seamless transitions between back-to-back records with ''matching'' ''beats'', or tempos. Grasso also perfected [[slip-cueing]], the technique of holding a record still while the turntable is revolving underneath, releasing it at the desired moment to create a sudden transition from the previous record.
*late [[1960s]] - Most American discos either closed or were transformed into clubs featuring live bands. Neighborhood block parties that are modeled after Jamaican sound systems gain popularity in Europe and in the [[borough]]s of [[New York City]].
*early [[1970s]] - The [[Vietnam War]], oil crisis, and economic recession has a negative impact on dance clubs and disc jockeys. The total number of clubs and DJs dropped substantially, and most of the dance clubs were underground [[gay]] discos. It should also be noted that electronics company [[Technics]] released a series of direct-drive DJ turntables during this period.
*[[1974]] - [[Jamaica|Jamaican-born]] [[DJ Kool Herc]] - who is widely regarded as the "godfather of hip hop culture" - develops a technique called [[break (music)|breakbeat]] while performing block parties in his [[The Bronx|Bronx]] neighborhood. He would mix back and forth between two identical records to extend the rhythmic instrumental segment, or ''break''. [[Turntablism]], the art of using turntables not only to play music, but to manipulate sound and create original music, is considered to begin at this time.
*[[1974]] - [[Technics]] releases the first [[Technics SL-1200|SL-1200]] turntable, which evolves into the SL-1200 MK2 in [[1979]], currently the industry standard for deejaying.
*[[1974]] - German [[electronic music]] band [[Kraftwerk]] releases the 22-minute song "Autobahn", which takes up the entire first side of that LP. Years later, Kraftwerk would become a significant influence on [[hip hop music|hip hop]] artists such as [[Afrika Bambaataa]] and [[house music]] pioneer [[Frankie Knuckles]].
*mid [[1970s]] - [[Hip hop music]] and culture begins to emerge, originating among urban [[African American]]s and [[Latino]]s in New York City. The four main elements of [[hip hop culture]] are [[Rapping|MCing (rapping)]], DJing, [[graffiti]], and [[breakdance|breakdancing]].
*[[1975]] - [[Disco]] music takes off in the mainstream pop charts in the [[United States]] and [[Europe]], causing discotheques to experience a rebirth.
*[[1975]] - [[Record pool]]s begin, enabling disc jockeys access to newer music from the industry in an efficient method.
*[[1976]] - American DJ, editor, and producer [[Walter Gibbons]] remixes "Ten Percent" by [[Double Exposure]], one of the earliest commercally released 12" singles (aka "maxi-single").
*[[1977]] - Hip hop DJ [[Grand Wizard Theodore]] invents the [[scratching]] technique by accident.
*[[1977]] - New York's [[Studio 54]] nightclub grosses $7 million in its first year of business (which is roughly $21 million in today's dollars after adjusting for inflation). In the same year, the motion picture [[Saturday Night Fever]] popularizes discotheques and becomes one of the top-10 grossing films in history (at the time).
*[[1979]] - The [[Sugar Hill Gang]] release "[[Rapper's Delight]]", the first hip hop record to become a hit. It was also the first real breakthrough for [[sampling (music)|sampling]], as the bassline of [[Chic]]'s "Good Times" laid the foundation for the song.
*[[1979]] - An anti-disco protest in [[Chicago]]'s Comiskey Park marks the major backlash against disco amongst [[rock music]] fans, who preferred guitars and live drums over electronically generated sounds and beats. This is considered to be the year that disco "died", although the music remained popular for several more years, particularly in underground clubs and in Europe, where the subgenres [[Euro Disco]] and [[Italo Disco]] were created.
*[[1981]] - Cable television network [[MTV]] is launched, originally devoted to music videos, especially popular rock music. The term "[[video jockey]]", or VJ, was used to describe the fresh faced youth who introduced the music videos.
*[[1982]] - The demise of disco in the mainstream by the summer of 1982 forces many nightclubs to either close or to change entertainment styles, such as by providing MTV style video dancing or live bands.
*[[1982]] - "Planet Rock" by DJ [[Afrika Bambaataa]] is the first hip hop song to feature [[synthesizer]]s. The song melded electronic hip hop beats with the melody from Kraftwerk's "Trans-Europe Express".
*[[1982]] - The [[compact disc]] reached the public market in [[Asia]] and early the following year in other markets. This event is often seen as the "Big Bang" of the [[digital audio]] revolution.
*[[1983]] - [[House music]] emerges. The name was derived from the [[Warehouse club]] in [[Chicago]], where the resident DJ, [[Frankie Knuckles]], mixed old disco classics and Eurosynth pop. House music is essentially disco music with electronic beats. The common element of most house music is a 4/4 beat generated by a [[drum machine]] or other electronic means (such as a [[sampler]]), together with a solid (usually also electronically generated) [[bassline]].
*[[1983]] - Jesse Saunders releases the first house music track, "On & On".
*mid-[[1980s]] - [[Garage (dance music)|New York Garage]] emerges at DJ [[Larry Levan]]'s [[Paradise Garage]] nightclub in New York. The style was a result of the club DJs who would unsuccessfully try to duplicate the Chicago house sound, for example, leaving out the accentuated high-hats.
*mid-[[1980s]] - [[Techno music|Techno]] music emerges from the [[Detroit]] club scene. Being geographically located between Chicago and New York, Detroit techno combined elements of Chicago house and New York garage along with European imports. Techno distanced itself from disco's roots by becoming almost purely electronic with synthesized beats.
*[[1985]] - The Winter Music Conference starts in [[Fort Lauderdale]] Florida and becomes the premier electronic music conference for dance music disc jockeys.
*[[1986]] - "[[Walk This Way]]", a rap-rock collaboration by [[Run DMC]] and [[Aerosmith]], becomes the first hip hop song to reach the Top 10 on the [[Billboard Hot 100]]. This song is the first exposure of hip hop music, as well as the concept of the disc jockey as band member and artist, to man |
stylized portraits of mosques and stirring musical scores. A website associated with al-Qaeda, for example, posted a video of a man named [[Nick Berg]] being decapitated in Iraq. Other decapitation videos and pictures, including those of [[Paul Johnson (hostage)|Paul Johnson]], [[Kim Sun-il]], and [[Daniel Pearl]], were first posted onto jihadist websites.
With the rise of “locally rooted, globally inspired” terrorists, counterterrorism experts are currently studying how al-Qaeda is using the Internet – through websites, chat rooms, discussion forums, instant messaging, and so on – to inspire a worldwide network of support. The July 7, 2005 bombers, some of whom were well integrated into their local communities, are an example of such “globally inspired” terrorists, and they reportedly used the Internet to plan and coordinate, but the Internet’s precise role in the process of radicalization is not thoroughly understood. A group called the Secret Organization of al-Qaeda in Europe has claimed responsibility for these London attacks on a militant Islamist website – another popular use of the Internet by terrorists seeking publicity.
The publicity opportunities offered by the Internet have been particularly exploited by al-Qaeda. In December 2004, for example, bin Laden released an audio message by posting it directly to a website, rather than sending a copy to [[al Jazeera]] as he had done in the past. Some analysts speculated that he did this to be certain it would be available unedited, out of fear that his criticism of Saudi Arabia — which was much more vehement than usual in this speech, lasting over an hour — might be edited out by al Jazeera editors worried about offending the touchy [[Saudi royal family]].
In the past, [[Alneda.com]] and [[Jehad.net]] were perhaps the most significant of al-Qaeda websites. Alneda was initially taken down by an American, but the operators resisted by shifting the site to various servers and strategically changing content. The US is currently attempting to extradite an IT specialist, Babar Ahmad, from the UK, who is the creator of various English language al-Qaeda websites such as Azzam.com <ref>{{cite web | author=Whitlock, Craig| year=2005| title=Briton Used Internet As His Bully Pulpit | format=http | work=WashingtonPost.com | url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/07/AR2005080700890.html | accessdate=January 20 | accessyear=2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Babar Ahmad Indicted on Terrorism Charges | work=United States Attorney's Office District of Connecticut | url=http://www.usdoj.gov/usao/ct/Press2004/20041006.html | accessdate=October 6 | accessyear=2004}}</ref>. Ahmad's extradition is opposed by various British Muslim organizations, such the [[Muslim Association of Britain]].
Finally, at a mid-2005 presentation for US government terrorism analysts, Dennis Pluchinsky called the global jihadist movement “Web-directed,” and former CIA deputy director John E. McLaughlin has also said it is now primarily driven today by “ideology and the Internet.”
== Financial activities ==
Financial activities of Al-Qaeda have been a major preoccupation of US government following the September 11, 2001 attacks, leading for example to the discovery of former Chilean dictator [[Augusto Pinochet]]'s tax evasion, for which his wife, [[Lucía Hiriart de Pinochet]], has been arrested in January 2006. It was also discovered by investigative reporter [[Denis Robert]] that funds from Osama Ben Laden's [[Bahrain International Bank]] transited through illegal unpublished accounts of "clearing house" [[Clearstream]], which has been qualified as a "bank of banks".
==Notes on naming==
Al-Qaeda's name can also be [[transliteration|transliterated]] as al-Qaida, al-Qa'ida, el-Qaida, or al Qaeda. In Arabic it is spelled القاعدة. Its [[Arabic language|Arabic]] pronunciation ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|/ɛlˈqɑːʕidʌ/}}) can be approximated as IPA {{IPA|/ɛl 'kɑ:-idʌ/}}, which for [[American English]] speakers could be spelled "el-kAW-ee-deh," with the emphasized "AW" and "ee" clearly separated. However, English speakers more commonly pronounce it in a manner influenced by its spelling - IPA {{IPA|/ɑɫ 'kaɪdɑ/}} for [[American English]], {{IPA|/ɑ:ɫ 'kaɪdɑ:/}} in [[British English]]. [http://ibb7.ibb.gov/pronunciations/sounds/2930.ra Listen to the US pronunciation] ([[RealPlayer]]).
Al-Qaeda has other names, such as:
* International Front for Jihad against the Jews and Crusaders
* [[Islam]]ic [[Army]]
* Islamic Army for the Liberation of the [[Holy]] Places
* Osama bin Laden Network
* Osama bin Laden Organization
* [[Islam]]ic [[Salvation]] Foundation
* The Group for the Preservation of the Holy Sites
==See also==
* [[Al-Qaedaism]]
* [[Clearstream]] through which funds from Osama Ben Laden's [[Bahrain International Bank]] passed.
* [[Insurgency in Saudi Arabia]]
* [[Jamaat-e-Islami]]
* [[Muttahida Majlis-e-Amal]]
* [[Muslim Brotherhood]]
* [[Egyptian Islamic Jihad]] aka al-Jihad
* [[Terrorist incidents]]
* [[List of alleged al-Qaeda members]]
* [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]]
* [[The Power of Nightmares]]; BBC documentary
* [[Psychological operations]]
* [[Al Barakaat]]
* [[Islamist terrorism]]
* [[Osama bin Laden's Declaration of War]]
* [[Osama tapes]]
* [[Steven Emerson]]
* [[Takfir Wal Hijira]]
==Notes & references==
<references/>
==External links==
*[http://cfrterrorism.org/groups/alqaeda.html Terrorism Q&A]
*[http://www.rewardsforjustice.net/ Rewards for Justice - Most Wanted Terrorists]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1551100.stm Who is Osama Bin Laden?] BBC report
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20050331091340/http://www.usdoj.gov/ag/trainingmanual.htm Al Qaeda Training Manual used by British member of Al Qaeda, Manchester, England] (URL accessed March 2005)
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/front PBS FRONTLINE "Al Qaeda's New Front" January 2005]
*[http://carlisle-www.army.mil/usawc/Parameters/03spring/thomas.htm Al-Qaida's Internet Activities may cause problems]
*[http://www.intellnet.org/documents/200/060/269.html Al-Qaida history to end of 1998, and explanation of its origins.]
*[http://www.fas.org/irp/world/para/ladin.htm Al-Qaida history up to 11th September 2002, and list of further links.]
*[http://www.janes.com/security/international_security/news/misc/janes010928_1_n.shtml Two accounts of al-Qaida terrorist activities, and background on three mujahideen leaders.]
*Peter Marsden [http://www.bond.org.uk/networker/2003/july03/opinion.htm Does al-Qaida exist?]
*Brendan O'Neill [http://www.spiked-online.com/articles/00000006DFED.htm Does al-Qaida exist?]
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/afghanistan/story/0,1284,649744,00.html Al-Qaida has been more active in Britain] [http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2003/09/16/cheney_link_of_iraq_911_challenged/ than in Iraq]
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/front/special/roots.html PBS FRONTLINE "Identity Crisis: Old Europe Meets New Islam" by Marlena Telvick January 2005.]
*[http://terrorismfiles.org/organisations/al_qaida.html Terrorism files info on al-Qaida]
*[http://usembassy.state.gov/japan/wwwhse0612.html State Department letter with list of countries al-Qaida operates in]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/panorama/3519414.stm Who is winning the war?]; BBC; [[21 March]] [[2004]].
*[http://globalguerrillas.typepad.com/globalguerrillas/2004/05/al_qaedas_grand.html "Al Qaeda's Grand Strategy"]; Robb, John -- Superpower "baiting"
*[http://globalguerrillas.typepad.com/globalguerrillas/2004/04/global_guerrill.html "Global Guerrilla Financing"]; Robb, John -- How al Qaeda will finance operations in the future.
*[http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/print/200409/cullison Inside Al-Qaeda's Hard Drive]; Alan Cullison, The Atlantic Monthly, September 2004.
*[http://www.blogger.com/email-post.g?blogID=3463907&postID=109487993311862124 "September 11 and Its Aftermath"] Professor of history Juan Cole explains the al-Qaeda world-view
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/terrorism/story/0,12780,1327904,00.html The making of the terror myth]; Guardian; [[October 15]] [[2004]]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/3755686.stm The Power of Nightmares]; A three-part BBC documentary about the [[War on Terrorism]]
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/terrorism/story/0,12780,1523838,00.html Comment: The struggle against terrorism cannot be won by military means]; The late British politician Robin Cook's article on defeating al-Qaeda contains a unique theory on how the organisation came to be named; Guardian; [[July 8]] [[2005]]
*[http://memritv.org/Search.asp?ACT=S5&P1=139 Middle East Media Research Institute TV clips]
*Kurt Nimmo [http://kurtnimmo.com/?p=131 Truth about al-CIA-duh (al-Qaeda) the Database]
*John Diamond. [http://72.14.207.104/search?q=cache:uDdRNGwXIbUJ:rssfeeds.usatoday.com/UsatodaycomNation-TopStories%3Fm%3D2013+John+Diamond+Posted+2/14/2006&hl=en&lr=&strip=1 Secret U.S. military campaigns in the Middle East through 'proxies'], [[USA Today]], February 14, 2006.
[[Category:Anti-Semitism]]
[[Category:Al-Qaeda| ]]
[[Category:Islamist groups]]
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[[gl:Al Qaida]]
[[he:אל-קאעידה]]
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[[ja:アルカーイダ]]
[[ko:알카이다]]
[[ku:El-Qaîde]]
[[la:Alcaeda]]
[[nl:Al Qaida]]
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[[pt:Al Qaeda]]
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[[zh:基地組織]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alessandro Volta</title>
<id>1923</id>
<revision>
<id>41930934</id>
|
is taken from the ''j''<sup>th</sup> domain ''X''<sub>''j''</sub> of the relation.
In some systems of [[axiomatic set theory]], relations are extended to [[class (mathematics)|classes]], which are generalizations of sets. This extension is needed for, among other things, modeling the concepts of "is an element of" or "is a subset of" in [[set theory]], without running into logical inconsistencies such as [[Russell's paradox]].
== Formal definition ==
A binary relation ''R'' is usually defined as an ordered triple (''X'', ''Y'', ''G'') where ''X'' and ''Y'' are arbitrary sets (or classes), and ''G'' is a [[subset]] of the [[Cartesian product]] ''X'' &times; ''Y''. The sets ''X'' and ''Y'' are called the '''[[domain (mathematics)|domain]]''' and '''[[codomain]]''', respectively, of the relation, and ''G'' is called its '''graph'''.
The statement (''x'',''y'') &isin; ''G'' is read "''x'' '''is''' ''R'''''-related to''' ''y''", and is denoted by ''xRy'' or ''R''(''x'',''y''). The latter notation corresponds to viewing ''R'' as the [[characteristic function]] of the set of pairs ''G''.
The order of the elements in each pair of ''G'' is important: if ''a'' &ne; ''b'', then ''a R b'' and ''b R a'' can be true or false, independently of each other.
===Is a relation more than its graph?===
According to the definition above, two relations with the same graph may be different, if they differ in the sets ''X'' and ''Y''. For example, if ''G'' = {(1,2),(1,3),(2,7)}, then ('''Z''','''Z''', ''G''), ('''R''', '''N''', ''G''), and ('''N''', '''R''', ''G'') are three distinct relations.
Some mathematicians do not consider the sets ''X'' and ''Y'' to be part of the relation, and therefore define a binary relation as being a subset of ''X''&times;''Y'', i.e. just the graph ''G''. According to this view, the set of pairs {(1,2),(1,3),(2,7)} is a relation from any set that contains {1,2} to any set that contains {2,3,7}.
Either approach is adequate for most uses, provided that one attends to the necessary changes in language, notation, and the definitions of concepts like [[restriction (mathematics)|restriction]]s, [[composition of relations|composition]], [[inverse relation]], and so on. The choice between the two definitions usually matters only in very formal contexts, like [[category theory]].
=== Example ===
<!--WE MUST GET A GOOD PICTURE AND DROP THIS EXAMPLE-->
Example: Suppose there are four objects: {ball, car, doll, gun} and four persons: {John, Mary, So, Venus}. Suppose that John owns the ball, Mary owns the doll, and Venus owns the car. No one owns the gun and So owns nothing. Then the binary relation "is owned by" is given as
: ''R''=({ball, car, doll, gun}, {John, Mary, So, Venus}, {(ball, John), (doll, Mary), (car, Venus)}).
Thus the first element of R is the set of objects, the second is the set of people, and the last element is a set of ordered pairs of the form ( object, owner ).
The pair (ball, John), denoted by <sub>ball</sub>''R''<sub>John</sub> means that the ball is owned by John.
Two different relations could have the same graph. For example: the relation
: ({ball, car, doll, gun}, {John, Mary, Venus}, {(ball,John), (doll, Mary), (car, Venus)})
is different from the previous one as everyone is an owner. But the graphs of the two relations are the same.
Nevertheless, ''R'' is usually identified or even defined as G(''R'') and "an ordered pair (''x'', ''y'') &isin; G(''R'')" is usually denoted as "(''x'', ''y'') &isin; ''R''".
== Special types of binary relations ==
Some important classes of binary relations ''R'' over ''X'' and ''Y'' are listed below
===Total or partial===
*'''left-total''': for all ''x'' in ''X'' there exists a ''y'' in ''Y'' such that ''xRy'' (this property, although sometimes also referred to as ''total'', is different from the definition of ''total'' in the next section).
*'''right-total''' or surjective: for all ''y'' in ''Y'' there exists an ''x'' in ''X'' such that ''xRy''.
===Functional, injective, surjective, bijective===
*'''functional''': for all ''x'' in ''X'', and ''y'' and ''z'' in ''Y'' it holds that if ''xRy'' and ''xRz'' then ''y'' = ''z''.
*'''surjective''': for all ''y'' in ''Y'' there exists an ''x'' in ''X'' such that ''xRy''.
*'''injective''': for all ''x'' and ''z'' in ''X'' and ''y'' in ''Y'' it holds that if ''xRy'' and ''zRy'' then ''x'' = ''z''.
*'''bijective''': left-total, right-total and functional.
A binary relation that is functional is called a [[partial function]]; a binary relation that is both left-total and functional is called a [[function (mathematics)|function]].
== Relations over a set ==
If ''X'' = ''Y'' then we simply say that the binary relation is over ''X''. Or it is an '''endorelation''' over ''X''.
Some important classes of binary relations over a set ''X'' are:
*'''[[reflexive relation|reflexive]]''': for all ''x'' in ''X'' it holds that ''xRx''. For example, "greater than or equal to" is a reflexive relation but "greater than" is not.
*'''[[irreflexive relation|irreflexive]]''': for all ''x'' in ''X'' it holds that '''not''' ''xRx''. "Greater than" is an example of an irreflexive relation.
*'''coreflexive''': for all ''x'' and ''y'' in ''X'' it holds that if ''xRy'' then ''x'' = ''y''.
*'''[[symmetric relation|symmetric]]''': for all ''x'' and ''y'' in ''X'' it holds that if ''xRy'' then ''yRx''. "Is a blood relative of" is a symmetric relation, because ''x'' is a blood relative of ''y'' if and only if ''y'' is a blood relative of ''x''.
*'''[[antisymmetric relation|antisymmetric]]''': for all ''x'' and ''y'' in ''X'' it holds that if ''xRy'' and ''yRx'' then ''x'' = ''y''. "Greater than or equal to" is an antisymmetric relation, because of ''x''&ge;''y'' and ''y''&ge;''x'', then ''x''=''y''.
*'''[[transitive relation|transitive]]''': for all ''x'', ''y'' and ''z'' in ''X'' it holds that if ''xRy'' and ''yRz'' then ''xRz''. "Is an ancestor of" is a transitive relation, because if ''x'' is an ancestor of ''y'' and ''y'' is an ancestor of ''z'', then ''x'' is an ancestor of ''z''.
*'''[[total relation|total]]''': for all ''x'' and ''y'' in ''X'' it holds that ''xRy'' or ''yRx'' (or both). "Is greater than or equal to" is an example of a total relation (this definition for ''total'' is different from the one in the previous section).
*'''trichotomous''': for all ''x'' and ''y'' in ''X'' exactly one of ''xRy'', ''yRx'' or ''x'' = ''y'' holds. "Is greater than" is an example of a trichotomous relation.
*'''extendable''' (or '''serial'''): for all ''x'' in ''X'', there exists ''y'' in ''X'' such that ''xRy''. "Is greater than" is an extendable relation on the integers. But it is not an extendable relation on the positive integers, because there is no ''y'' in the positive integers such that 1&gt;''y''.
*'''set-like''': for every ''x'' in ''X'', the class of all ''y'' such that ''yRx'' is a set. (This makes sense only if we allow relations on proper classes.) The usual ordering &lt; on the class of ordinal numbers is set-like, while its inverse &lt;<sup>-1</sup> is not.
A relation which is reflexive, symmetric and transitive is called an [[equivalence relation]]. A relation which is reflexive, antisymmetric and transitive is called a [[partial order]]. A partial order which is total is called a [[total order]] or a [[linear order]] or a chain. A linear order in which every nonempty set has the [[least element]] is called a [[well-order]].
A relation which is symmetric, transitive, and extendable is also reflexive.
== Operations on binary relations ==
If ''R'' is a binary relation over ''X'' and ''Y'', then the following is a binary relation over ''Y'' and ''X'':
* '''Converse''': ''R''&nbsp;<sup>-1</sup>, defined as ''R''&nbsp;<sup>-1</sup> = { (y, x) | (x, y) &isin; ''R'' }. A binary relation over a set is equal to its converse if and only if it is symmetric. The converse of a surjective and injective function is called its [[inverse function|inverse]].
If ''R'' is a binary relation over ''X'', then each of the following are binary relations over ''X'':
* '''Reflexive closure''': ''R''&nbsp;<sup>=</sup>, defined as ''R''&nbsp;<sup>=</sup> = {(''x'', ''x'') | ''x'' &isin; ''X''} &cup; ''R'' or the smallest reflexive relation over ''X'' containing ''R''. This can seen to be equal to the intersection of all reflexive relations containing ''R''.
* '''[[Transitive closure]]''': ''R''&nbsp;<sup>+</sup>, defined as the smallest transitive relation over ''X'' containing ''R''. This can seen to be equal to the intersection of all transitive relations containing ''R''.
* '''Transitive-reflexive closure''': ''R''&nbsp;<sup>*</sup>, defined as ''R''&nbsp;<sup>*</sup> = (''R''&nbsp;<sup>+</sup>)&nbsp;<sup>=</sup>.
If ''R'', ''S'' are binary relations over ''X'' and ''Y'', then each of the following are binary relations:
* '''Union''': ''R'' &cup; ''S'' &sube; ''X'' &times; ''Y'', defined as ''R'' &cup; ''S'' = {(''x'', ''y'') | (''x'', ''y'') &isin; ''R'' or (''x'', ''y'') &isin; ''S''}.
* '''Intersection''': ''R'' &cap; ''S'' &sube; ''X'' &times; ''Y'', defined as ''R'' &cap; ''S'' = { (''x'', ''y'') | (''x'', ''y'') &isin; ''R'' and (''x'', ''y'') &isin; ''S'' }.
If ''R'' is a binary relation over ''X'' and ''Y'', and ''S'' is a binary relation over ''Y'' and ''Z'', then the following is a binary relation over ''X'' and ''Z'':
* '''Composition''': ''S''&nbsp;<small>o</small>&nbsp;''R'' (also denoted ''R''&nbsp;<small>o</smal |
ommunion''' or '''The Lord's Supper''', is the [[rite]] that [[Christianity|Christians]] perform in fulfillment of [[Jesus]]' instruction, recorded in the [[New Testament]]{{ref|Last_Supper}}, to do in memory of him what he did at his [[Last Supper]].
Jesus gave his disciples bread, saying "This is my body," and wine, saying "This is my blood." Christians generally recognize a special presence of [[Christ]] in this rite, though they differ about exactly how, where, and when Christ is present. The word "Eucharist" is also applied to the bread and wine consecrated in the course of the rite.
The word "Eucharist" comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] noun {{Polytonic|εὐχαριστία}} (thanksgiving) [http://bible.crosswalk.com/Lexicons/Greek/grk.cgi?number=2168&version=kjv]. This noun or the corresponding verb {{Polytonic|εὐχαριστῶ}} (to give thanks) is found in 55 verses of the New Testament. Four of these verses (Matthew 26:27, Mark 14:23, Luke 22:19, 1 Corinthians 11:24) recount that Jesus "gave thanks" before presenting to his followers the bread and the wine that he declared to be his body and his blood.
Most Christians classify the Eucharist as a [[sacrament]], but many Protestant traditions avoid the term ''sacrament'', preferring ''[[ordinance]]''. In these traditions, the ceremony is seen not as a specific channel of [[divine grace]] but as an expression of faith and obedience of the Christian community.
==Names for the Eucharist==
*'''Eucharist''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|Εὐχαριστία}} ''eucharistia'', "thanksgiving") is the term with the earliest established historical use. [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch]], who was [[martyr]]ed in [[Rome]] in about [[110]], used the term "Eucharist", referring to both the rite and the consecrated elements, three times in his Letter to the Smyrnaeans [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/srawley/smyrnaeans.html] and once in his Letter to the Philadelphians [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/srawley/philadelphians.html]. [[Justin Martyr]], writing around [[150]], gave a detailed description of the rite, and stated that "Eucharist" was the name that Christians used: "This food is called among us the Eucharist..." (''Apology'', 66 [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/justinmartyr-firstapology.html]). Today the term "Eucharist" is used by [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholics]], the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]], the [[Oriental Orthodox]], [[Anglicanism|Anglicans]], and [[Lutheran]]s. Most other [[Protestant]] traditions use this term rarely, but few reject it entirely.
*'''Communion''' (from [[Latin language|Latin]] ''communio'', "sharing in common") is a term used by Catholics, Orthodox Christians, Anglicans, and many Protestants; '''Holy Communion''' is also prevalent. Catholics and Orthodox typically apply it to the partaking of the consecrated bread and wine, and to these consecrated elements themselves, rather than to the Eucharistic rite as a whole. In their understanding, it is possible to participate in the celebration of the Eucharistic rite without "receiving Holy Communion" (partaking of the consecrated elements). On the other hand, groups that originated in the [[Protestant Reformation]] usually apply this term to the whole rite. Many, especially Anglicans, prefer the fuller term "Holy Communion" rather than just "Communion". The term ''[[Communion (disambiguation)|Communion]]'' holds further ambiguity in that it also refers to the relationship of Christians, as individuals or as a Church, with God and with other Christians (see [[Communion (Christian)]]), and can also refer to the relationship between the Three Divine Persons within the [[Trinity]], a relationship known as [[perichoresis]] which is considered the archetype of the other forms of communion.
*'''The Lord's Supper''' and '''the Breaking of Bread''' are terms that the New Testament (1 Corinthians 11:20; Acts 2:42, 46) applies to celebration of the Eucharist. The first of these terms tends to be preferred by "minimalist" traditions, especially those strongly influenced by [[Huldrych Zwingli|Huldrych (or Ulrich) Zwingli]] and the [[Restoration Movement]]. ''The Lord's Supper'' is also a common term among Lutherans, as is '''the sacrament of the altar'''. Other Churches and denominations also use these terms, but generally not as their basic, routine term.
*Certain terms are limited to the Orthodox Christian and Catholic traditions, and are typically applied to the rite as a whole. '''The Divine Liturgy''' is used by Orthodox and the [[Eastern Rite|Eastern Catholic Churches]], who also, especially for the consecrated elements, use '''the Divine Mysteries'''. Roman Catholics use many other terms, including '''the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]]''', '''the Memorial of the Passion, Death and Resurrection of the Lord''', the '''Holy Sacrifice of the Mass''', and the '''Holy Mysteries'''{{ref|Holy_Mysteries}}. The '''Blessed Sacrament''' and the '''Blessed Sacrament of the Altar''' are also common terms for the consecrated elements, especially when reserved in the [[Church tabernacle]]. "Mass" is also used by Anglo-Catholics and the [[Church of Sweden]].
== Eucharist in the Bible ==
The three [[synoptic Gospels]] (Matthew [http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/r/rsv/rsv-idx?type=citation&book=Matthew&chapno=26&startverse=26&endverse=29], Mark [http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/r/rsv/rsv-idx?type=citation&book=Mark&chapno=14&startverse=22&endverse=24], and Luke [http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/r/rsv/rsv-idx?type=citation&book=Luke&chapno=22&startverse=19&endverse=20]) as well as [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]]'s first [[Letter to the Corinthians]] [http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/r/rsv/rsv-idx?type=citation&book=1+Corinthians&chapno=11&startverse=23&endverse=26] contain versions of the [[Words of Institution]] spoken by [[Jesus]] at the [[Last Supper]]: "Take, eat, this is my body ... Take, drink, this is my blood ... Do this in remembrance of me." All subsequent celebration of the Eucharist is based on this injunction. John 6 is also interpreted in connection with the Eucharist: " For My flesh is food indeed, and My blood is drink indeed. He who eats My flesh and drinks My blood abides in Me, and I in him." (John 6:55-56)
''See also: [[Historical roots of Catholic Eucharistic theology]]''
== Christian Theology ==
The Eucharist has always been at the center of Christian worship, though theological interpretations vary. In general, the Roman Catholic, Anglican, and Orthodox traditions see the Eucharist as the fulfillment of God's plan for the [[salvation]] of humanity from [[sin]] (the "Divine Economy"), a commemoration and making present of Jesus' [[Crucifixion]] on [[Calvary]] and his [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]], the means for Christians to unite with God and with each other, and the giving of thanks for all these things. Differences in Eucharistic theology tend to be related to differences in understanding of these areas.
Efforts at mutual understanding of the range of theologies led in the 1980s to the consultations on ''[http://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/faith/bem1.html Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry]'' (BEM) through the [[World Council of Churches]], which included the [[Roman Catholic Church]].
===Roman Catholic: Sacrifice; Transubstantiation===
{{main articles|[[Mass (liturgy)]], [[Transubstantiation]] and The [[Blessed Sacrament]]}}
In the teaching of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], the Eucharist is one of the seven [[sacrament]]s, but is also considered the "queen of the sacraments" and "the blessed sacrament", and the institution of the Eucharist is one of the Luminous Mysteries of the [[Rosary]]. The Eucharist is a commemoration, or, in Greek, ''[[anamnesis]]'' [http://bible.crosswalk.com/Lexicons/Greek/grk.cgi?number=364&version=kjv] of the [[Passion]], [[Chronology of Jesus#Death|Death]], and [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]] of Christ, understood in the fullest sense given to it in Biblical tradition. In other words, it is a memorial which does not just bring to mind the event celebrated, but also makes it truly present. The Eucharist is therefore understood to be not simply a representation of Christ's presence, or a remembrance of his Passion and Death, but an actual participation in the Sacrifice of Christ, the manifestation, in the present, of an event that occurred once for all in time. The Eucharist makes present that one sacrifice, not a different sacrifice. The priest and victim of the sacrifice are one and the same; the only difference is in the manner in which it is offered&mdash;the Church teaches that the Mass is the sacrifice at Calvary made present in an unbloody manner.
The only minister of the Eucharist, that is, one authorized to celebrate the rite and consecrate the Eucharist, is a validly ordained [[priest]] (either [[bishop]] or [[presbyter]]) acting in the person of Christ (''in persona Christi''). In other words the priest celebrant represents Christ, who is the Head of the Church, and acts before God in the name of the Church. The matter used must be wheaten bread and grape wine; this is essential for validity.
According to the Roman Catholic Church, when the bread and wine are consecrated in the Eucharist, they cease to be bread and wine, and become instead the body and blood of Christ. The empirical appearances are not changed, but the reality is. The consecration of the bread (known as the [[Host (Holy Communion)|host]]) and wine represents the separation of Jesus's body from his blood at Calvary. However, since he has risen, the Church teaches that his body and blood can no longer be truly separated. Where one is, the other mus |
ally calls for full withdrawal, solution of the [[Palestinian refugee|refugee problem]], and a [[Palestinian state]] with its capital in [[East Jerusalem]] in return for fully normalized relations with the whole Arab world. This proposal received the unanimous backing of the [[Arab League]] for the first time.
In response, Israeli Foreign Minister [[Shimon Peres]] welcomed it and said: "... the details of every peace plan must be discussed directly between Israel and the Palestinians, and to make this possible, the Palestinian Authority must put an end to terror, the horrifying expression of which we witnessed just [[Netanya suicide attack|last night in Netanya]]." [http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/About+the+Ministry/MFA+Spokesman/2002/Response+of+FM+Peres+to+the+decisions+of+the+Arab.htm]
In November 2005, the Bush administration acknowledged that Saudi Arabia has renewed funding to Hamas and other Palestinian insurgency groups. [http://www.menewsline.com/stories/2005/november/11_10_2.html]
====Palestinians as victims of extremism====
Some Palestinians believe that their cause may be damaged by extremists within their own ranks; an issue that is mirrored in the Israeli camp. Some view the conflict as essentially extremist vs. moderate, as opposed to Israeli vs. Palestinian. Pro-Israel advocates often assert that two sets of views exist from the same speaker, with a tolerant view usually expressed in English, and an anti-peace view usually expressed in Arabic, with pro-Arab advocates making similar charges about Israeli speakers. Most if not all Palestinian spokespeople declare that they wish Israel had never come into being, regarding its creation as a historic injustice. However, some accept its existence today and call merely for a state of their own. Still others envisage a one-state solution in all of historic Palestine. Within this one-state view, there are both secular and Islamist visions for the future. The secular view holds that a just and lasting peace is most likely if there exists a fully democratic government for all citizens, where legal status and civil rights are not based on ethnic and religious identity. The Islamist view aspires to an Islamic government in Palestine. In both views, Jews currently living in Israel might be allowed to remain there unmolested as free and equal citizens of a future state of Palestine (in the secular Arab view) or as [[dhimmi]]s along with Druze and Christians, in the Islamist Arab view. Some Jews view it as extremely unlikely that they would be allowed to live unmolested in any sort of one-state Palestine.
Today, many Palestinians think that an equitable arrangement for all involved parties requires dialogue with Israelis and the international community. The PLO has officially accepted the right of Israel to exist within the [[1949 Armistice Agreements|pre-1967 armistice lines]]. However, some PLO representatives, including Yasser Arafat, have also declared at times that they saw these statements as politically necessary steps. Some observers interpret this to mean that they view the two-state solution as a stepping stone to a more integrated long-term solution. Others, particularly some Israelis, claim that these statements betray a hidden agenda and worldview where the peace process with Israel is only a temporary measure in support of the ultimate Palestinian goal, which is the destruction of the state of Israel, and presumably the eviction of its Jewish citizens. They point to the fact that the PLO never updated its formal statement of policy, the [[Palestinian National Covenant]] to reflect their recognition of the State of Israel and that it still calls for the destruction of Israel; however the U.S. Embassy in Israel is on record confirming that "On April&nbsp;24, 1996, the Palestinian National Council (PNC) amended the charter by canceling the articles inconsistent with its commitments to Israel" [http://www.usembassy-israel.org.il/publish/peace/plo_note.html]. Still, belief in an existential threat from the PLO causes alarm among much of the Israeli public.
===Mutual claims===
====Biased text books====
Many Palestinian school textbooks, including those distributed and sponsored by the Palestinian Authority since 1994, have historically minimized or ignored Jewish history of the land prior to the twentieth century. Similar statements are made in the Palestinian media. Palestinians claim the newer batch of the textbooks, released in 2000, rectify any omissions. Palestinians also claim that Israeli textbooks and school curriculum fully ignore Palestinian history and propagate myths about the founding of Israel such as claims that Palestine was virtually uninhabited prior to the arrival of Zionist immigrants in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Palestinians further claim that Israeli textbooks and media neglect and minimize the Arab Palestinian past and, according to Center for Monitoring the Impact of Peace (CMIP), stereotype Arabs negatively[http://www.edume.org/reports/8/14.htm]; however the Israelis counter that the Israeli history program does include medieval Islamic history including topics such as the Arab [[Caliphate]], as well as some history of both Arab and Jewish elements of Palestine. CMIP regularly issues [http://www.edume.org/reports/report1.htm reports on the contents of Arab and Israeli school textbooks].
====The role of the superpowers====
Palestinians cite many reasons for the perceived lack of support of their cause in the United States, despite the perception that it is more broadly supported in Europe. One such reason is postulated to be ethnic bigotry in the U.S.; while stereotyping of many other groups is no longer rampant, many people believe that Muslims and Arabs, in particular, continue to be vilified and victimized by crude attacks. There is also strong influence by Christian [[Zionist]] organizations on elected officials in the U.S. political system (see [[American Israel Public Affairs Committee|AIPAC]] as one such example). It has also been argued that the U.S. continues to support Israel in order to have a strong foot hold in the region for their own national interests, politically and economically. Many also cite the political nature of the Cold War that aligned the U.S. with Israel against the USSR and its allies in the region.
The [[Soviet Union|USSR]] traditionally used Arabs as a proxy in the [[Cold War]] against the [[Western world]] (and the West's proxy in the Middle East, Israel). Some of today's [[anti-Zionism|anti-Zionist]] rhetoric still reflects the position of Soviet [[Zionology]].
===Peace and reconciliation===
Despite the long history of conflict between Israelis and Arabs, there are many people working on peaceful solutions that respect the rights of peoples on all sides. See [[projects working for peace among Israelis and Palestinians]].
*Currently active [[List of Middle East peace proposals]] include:
**[[Geneva Accord]]
**[[Road map for peace]]
**[[The People's Voice]]
==Comparative statistics==
{| class="wikitable"
|+'''Comparative statistics Israel and Arab countries, Netherlands as comparable index. '''
|-
!Country
!GDP/capita
!Infant mortality rate
!Life expectancy
!Fertility rate
![[Human Development Index]]
![[Freedom House]] rating
|-
|''[[Netherlands]]''
|''$24,400''
|''4.37''
|''78.43''
|''1.65''
|''0.931''
|''Free''
|-
|[[Israel]] within 1949 armistice lines
|$22,200
|7.03
|79.32 (2005)
|2.57
|0.893
|Free
|-
|[[West Bank]]
|$1,500
|21.78
|72.28
|4.9
|N/A
|Not free
|-
|[[Gaza]]
|$1,000
|25.37
|71.01
|6.42
|N/A
|Not free
|-
|[[Jordan]]
|$3,500
|20.36
|77.53
|3.29
|0.714
|Partly free
|-
|[[Lebanon]]
|$5,000
|28.35
|71.52
|2.05
|0.758
|Not free
|-
|[[Egypt]]
|$3,600
|60.46
|63.96
|3.07
|0.635
|Not free
|-
|[[Syria]]
|$3,100
|33.8
|68.77
|3.95
|0.7
|Not free
|-
|[[Iraq]]
|$2,500
|60.05
|66.95
|4.75
|N/A
|Not free
|-
|[[Yemen]]
|$820
|68.53
|60.21
|6.97
|0.468
|Not free
|-
|[[Libya]]
|$8,900
|28.99
|75.65
|3.64
|0.77
|Not free
|-
|[[Algeria]]
|$5,500
|40.56
|69.95
|2.72
|0.693
|Not free
|-
|[[Morocco]]
|$3,500
|48.11
|69.43
|3.05
|0.596
|Partly free
|-
|[[Kuwait]]
|$15,500
|11.18
|76
|3.2
|0.818
|Partly free
|-
|[[Bahrain]]
|$13,000
|19.18
|73
|3
|0.831
|Not free
|-
|[[Comoros]]
|$710
|81.79
|61
|5.26
|0.506
|Partly free
|-
|[[Djibouti]]
|$1,400
|99.79
|52
|6
|N/A
|Partly free
|-
|[[Mauritania]]
|$1,800
|75.25
|52
|6
|0.438
|Not free
|-
|[[Oman]]
|$8,200
|21.77
|72
|6
|0.751
|Not free
|-
|[[Qatar]]
|$21,200
|20.73
|73
|3
|0.803
|Not free
|-
|[[Somalia]]
|$550
|122.15
|47
|7
|N/A
|Not free
|-
|[[United Arab Emirates]]
|$21,100
|16.12
|75
|3
|0.812
|Not free
|-
|[[Sudan]]
|$1,360
|67.14
|57
|5
|0.499
|Not free
|-
|[[Tunisia]]
|$6,500
|29.04
|74
|1.99
|0.714
|Not free
|-
|[[Saudi Arabia]]
|$10,500
|51.25
|68.09
|6.25
|0.754
|Not free
|}
''Sources: CIA World Factbook, Freedom House, Human Development Index - available statistics in 2002''
[[Image:Israel resources as percentage of Arab world.JPG|thumb|400px|Israel's geographic and demographic resources as % of the Arab League]]
==Quotations==
*"Jewish villages were built in the place of Arab villages. You do not even know the names of these Arab villages, and I do not blame you because geography books no longer exist, not only do the books not exists, the Arab villages are not there either. Nahlal arose in the place of Mahlul; Kibbutz Gvat in the place of Jibta; Kibbutz Sarid in the place of Huneifis; and Kefar Yehushu'a in the place of Tal al-Shuman. There is not one single place built in this country that did not have a former Arab Population." [[Moshe Dayan]], Israeli military leader and politician in an address to the Technion, Haifa; as quoted in Ha'aretz ([[4 April]] [[1969]]).
*"The greatest security for Israel is to create new Egypts." President [[Ronald Reagan]]. Quoted in: Observer (London, [[27 February]] [[1983]]).
*"My generation, dear Ron, swore on the Altar of God |
sion comedy series]]
[[Category:Criticism of journalism]]
[[Category:Satirical television programmes]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Frédéric Bastiat</title>
<id>11282</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-25T23:01:26Z</timestamp>
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<username>Hschickel</username>
<id>21843</id>
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<comment>/* External links */ - added link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bastiat.jpg|right|frame|Frédéric Bastiat]]
'''Claude Frédéric Bastiat''' ([[June 30]], [[1801]]&ndash;[[December 24]], [[1850]]) was a French [[classical liberalism|classical liberal]] [[author]] and [[political economy|political economist]].
__NOTOC__
==Biography==
Bastiat was born in [[Bayonne]], [[Aquitaine]], [[France]]. His public career as an economist began only in [[1844]], and was cut short by his untimely death in [[1850]]. Bastiat had caught tuberculosis, probably during his tours throughout France to promote libertarian ideas, and that illness eventually prevented him from making further speeches (particularly at the legislative assembly to which he was elected in [[1848]] and [[1849]]) and took his life. Frédéric Bastiat died in [[Rome, Italy]] on [[December 24]], [[1850]]. Bastiat declared on his death bed that his friend [[Gustave de Molinari]] (publisher of Bastiat's masterpiece ''The Law'' in [[1849]]) was his spiritual heir.
== Views ==
Bastiat can be said to be of the "Harmonic" school of libertarians, who consider utilitarian and natural law arguments as two complementary aspects of a same world. Bastiat did not take part in the [[anarchism|anarchist]]-[[minarchism|minarchist]] debate (he arguably died too early for that); he seems to have considered the State as something inevitable as far as immediate practical matter&mdash;something that ought to be taken into account as long as it existed. He also explicitly deplored violent revolution as a way to get rid of governments (a view no doubt influenced by the horrors of the [[Jacobins]] and the trials of the [[French Revolution]]). {{liberalism}} However, like all classical liberals, Bastiat maintained a deep distrust of all government, in any form, and worked all his life to demonstrate that government control of private individuals and regulation of private industry is inefficient, economically damaging, and morally wrong.
Because of his stress on the role of consumer demand in initiating economic progress, Bastiat is seen as a forerunner of the [[Austrian School]].
One of Bastiat's most important contributions to the field of economics was his admonition to the effect that good economic decisions can only be made by taking into account the "full picture." That is, economic truths should be arrived at by observing not only the immediate consequences (''i.e.,'' benefits or liabilities) of an economic decision, but also by examining the long-term consequences. Additionally, one must examine the decision's effect not only on a single group of people (say candlemakers) or a single industry (say candles), but on all people and all industries in the society as a whole. As Bastiat famously put it: an economist must take into account "both what is seen and what is not seen." Bastiat's "rule" was later expounded by [[Henry Hazlitt]] in his work ''[[Economics in One Lesson]],'' in which Hazlitt borrowed Bastiat's trenchant "[[parable of the broken window|Broken Window Fallacy]]" and went on to demonstrate how it applies to a wide variety of economic falsehoods. {{Libertarianism}}
== Works ==
Bastiat was the author of many works on economics and political economy, generally characterized by their clear organization, forceful argument and acerbic wit. Among his most well known works is ''[[Economic Fallacies]],'' which contains many trenchant attacks on [[statism|statist]] (''i.e.'' "progressive") policies. Bastiat wrote it while living in [[England]] in an attempt to advise the shapers of the French Republic on pitfalls to avoid.
Contained within ''Economic Fallacies'' is the famous [[satire|satirical]] episode best known as the "[[Candlemakers' petition]]" [http://silentpc.org/university/Candlemaker.pdf pdf] which presents itself as a demand from the candlemakers' guild to the French government, asking the government to block out [[Sun|the Sun]] to prevent its unfair competition with their products. Much like [[Jonathan Swift]]'s ''[[A Modest Proposal]]'' or [[Benjamin Franklin]]'s anti-slavery works, Bastiat's argument cleverly highlights the basic flaws in state-support of industry by demonstrating its absurdity when carried to a logical extreme.
Bastiat's most famous work, however, is undoubtedly [http://www.ozarkia.net/bill/anarchism/library/thelaw.html The Law], originally published as a pamphlet in [[1850]]. It deals with the issues underlying the development of a just and free system of laws, and how such laws should be applied in a free society.
Sadly, Bastiat and his works are no longer well-known in the anglophone world, and are becoming difficult to find in English translation.
== Selected quotations ==
* "If the natural tendencies of mankind are so bad that it is not safe to permit people to be free, how is it that the tendencies of these organizers are always good? Do not the legislators and their appointed agents also belong to the human race? Or do they believe that they themselves are made of a finer clay than the rest of mankind?"&mdash;from ''The Law''
* "When under the pretext of fraternity, the legal code imposes mutual sacrifices on the citizens, human nature is not thereby abrogated. Everyone will then direct his efforts toward contributing little to, and taking much from, the common fund of sacrifices. Now, is it the most unfortunate who gains from this struggle? Certainly not, but rather the most influential and calculating."&mdash;from ''The Law''
* "Life, faculties, production—in other words, individuality, liberty, property—this is man. And in spite of the cunning of artful political leaders, these three gifts from God precede all human legislation, and are superior to it. Life, liberty, and property do not exist because men have made laws. On the contrary, it was the fact that life, liberty, and property existed beforehand that caused men to make laws in the first place."&mdash;from ''The Law''
* "But how is this legal plunder to be identified? Quite simply. See if the law takes from some persons what belongs to them, and gives it to other persons to whom it does not belong. See if the law benefits one citizen at the expense of another by doing what the citizen himself cannot do without committing a crime."&mdash;from ''The Law''
* "Government is the great fiction through which everybody endeavors to live at the expense of everybody else."&mdash;from ''Government''
* "Socialism, like the ancient ideas from which it springs, confuses the distinction between government and society. As a result of this, every time we object to a thing being done by government, the socialists conclude that we object to its being done at all. We disapprove of state education. Then the socialists say that we are opposed to any education. We object to a state religion. Then the socialists say that we want no religion at all. We object to a state-enforced equality. Then they say that we are against equality. And so on, and so on. It is as if the socialists were to accuse us of not wanting persons to eat because we do not want the state to raise grain."&mdash;from ''The Law''
* "It seems to me that this is theoretically right, for whatever the question under discussion—whether religious, philosophical, political, or economic; whether it concerns prosperity, morality, equality, right, justice, progress, responsibility, cooperation, property, labor, trade, capital, wages, taxes, population, finance, or government&mdash;at whatever point on the scientific horizon I begin my researches, I invariably reach this one conclusion: The solution to the problems of human relationships is to be found in liberty."&mdash;from ''The Law''
== See also ==
* [[Frederic Bastiat's debate with Proudhon|Frédéric Bastiat's debate with Proudhon]]
* His [[parable of the broken window]]
* [[Liberalism]]
* [[Contributions to liberal theory]]
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisourcelang|fr|Frédéric Bastiat|Frédéric Bastiat}}
{{Commonscat|Frédéric Bastiat}}
*{{gutenberg author|id=Bastiat|name=Frédéric Bastiat}}
* [http://www.mondopolitico.com/library/thelaw/mpintro.htm Mondo Politico Library's presentation of Frederic Bastiat's book, ''The Law'' (Dean Russell translation; full text; formatted for easy on-screen reading)]
* [http://www.freeaudio.org FreeAudio.org's] free audio book of [http://www.freeaudio.org/fbastiat/thelaw.html ''The Law''].
* The [http://www.econlib.org/ Library of Economics and Liberty] publishes most English translations of his works.
* [http://Bastiat.org/ Bastiat.org] publishes or indexes all about Bastiat.
* [http://Bastiat.net/ The Cercle Frederic Bastiat] also publishes about Bastiat, and promotes the same tradition of libertarianism.
* [http://www.udesa.edu.ar/profesores/deptoeconomia/cruces/fun/bastiat_en.html The Candlemakers' Petition - English translation]
* [http://www.freeaudio.org/fbastiat/candlemakerspetition.html The Candlemakers' Petition - Audio Book] at [http://www.freeaudio.org/ FreeAudio.org]
* [http://www.liberal-international.org/library/bastiat.html Biography with Literature index]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02345b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article]
*[http://www.mises.org/books/thelaw.pdf The Law] - pdf format
[[Category:1801 births|Bastiat, Frederic]]
[[Category:1850 deaths|Bastiat, Frederic]]
[[Category:Economists|Bastiat, |
]]. [[Andrew Wiles]], working alone in his office for years, proved [[Fermat's last theorem]].
Entire new areas of mathematics such as [[mathematical logic]], [[set theory]] and [[topology]] either began or greatly expanded. The mathematics of [[computer]]s, [[statistics]], and [[game theory]] changed the kinds of questions that could be answered by mathematical methods. The non-existent French mathematician [[Bourbaki]] attempted to bring all of mathematics into a coherent whole.
There were also new discoveries of limitations to mathematics. [[Kurt Gödel]] proved that in any mathematical system that includes the integers, there are true theorems that cannot be proved. [[Paul Cohen]] proved the undecidability of the [[continuum hypothesis]].
By the end of the century, mathematics was even finding its way into art, as fractal geometry produced beautiful shapes never before seen. Films such as ''[[A Beautiful Mind]]'' and plays such as ''[[Proof]]'' explored the intersections of mathematics and human nature. Even mathematical jokes have found their way into the popular media. [[Tonight Show]] host [[Johnny Carson]] counted on general knowledge of one of the very earliest mathematical discoveries when he told a joke about "The squaw on the hippopotamus" being equal to the "squaws on the other two hides."
At the dawn of the 21st century, many educators express concerns about a new underclass, the mathematically and scientifically illiterate. At the same time, mathematics, science, engineering, and technology have together created knowledge, communication and prosperity undreamed of by ancient philosophers.
==Notes==
{{ent|1|Amazon}} There are recent reports of a culture in the Amazon rain forest which may use no mathematics.{{fact}}
{{ent|2|Hoff}} Hoffman, p.187.
==References ==
* Boyer, C. B., ''A History of Mathematics'', 2nd ed. rev. by Uta C. Merzbach. New York: Wiley, 1989 ISBN 0-471-09763-2 (1991 pbk ed. ISBN 0-471-54397-7).
* Eves, Howard, ''An Introduction to the History of Mathematics'', Saunders, 1990, ISBN 0-03-029558-0,
* [[Paul Hoffman|Hoffman, Paul]], ''The Man Who Loved Only Numbers: The Story of [[Paul Erd&#337;s]] and the Search for Mathematical Truth''. New York: Hyperion, 1998 ISBN 0-7868-6362-5.
* van der Waerden, B. L., ''Geometry and Algebra in Ancient Civilizations'', Springer, 1983, ISBN 3-387-12159-5.
== External links ==
*[http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/ The MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive] created by John J O'Connor and Edmund F Robertson, which contains biographies, timelines and historical articles about mathematical concepts; at the School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, Scotland. (Or see the [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Indexes/Hist_Topics_alph.html alphabetical list of history topics].)
*[http://members.aol.com/jeff570/mathsym.html Earliest uses of various mathematical symbols] by Jeff Miller
*[http://members.aol.com/jeff570/mathword.html Earliest known uses of some of the words of mathematics] by Jeff Miller
*[http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Projects/Pearce/index.html History of Indian mathematics] by Ian Pearce
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=259&letter=M&search=mathematics History of Mathematics, public domain article]
* [[List of important publications in mathematics#Early manuscripts| Important publications in the history of mathematics]]
*[http://www.dean.usma.edu/math/people/rickey/hm/default.htm History of calculus] by Fred Rickey
[[Category:History of mathematics|*]]
[[de:Geschichte der Mathematik]]
[[es:Historia de las matemáticas]]
[[fr:Histoire des mathématiques]]
[[lt:Matematikos istorija]]
[[ko:수학의 역사]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van de wiskunde]]
[[pl:Historia matematyki]]
[[pt:História da matemática]]
[[sq:Historia e matematikës]]
[[su:Sajarah matematik]]
[[sv:Matematikens historia]]
[[tr:Matematik tarihi]]
[[uk:Історія математики]]
[[zh:数学史]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Herrenvolk</title>
<id>14221</id>
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<id>15911790</id>
<timestamp>2004-01-18T07:50:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mirv</username>
<id>29678</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Master race]] -- nothing here that's not said better over there</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Master race]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Horrendous Space Kablooie</title>
<id>14222</id>
<revision>
<id>40364321</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:57:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Horrendous Space Kablooie''' is an alternate term for the [[Big Bang]], coined by [[Bill Watterson]] in his [[comic strip]] ''[[Calvin and Hobbes]]''.
In one strip, Calvin says to Hobbes, "I've been reading about the beginning of the [[universe]]. They call it 'The Big Bang.' Isn't it weird how [[scientist]]s can imagine all the [[matter]] of the universe exploding out of a dot smaller than the head of a pin, but they can't come up with a more evocative name for it than 'the Big Bang'? That's the whole problem with [[science]]. You've got a bunch of [[empiricism|empiricists]] trying to describe things of unimaginable wonder."
Hobbes asks, "What would you call the creation of the universe?"
Calvin replies, "The Horrendous Space Kablooie!"
This term enjoyed a brief popularity in the [[scientific community]] and was widely used in informal communications (often abbreviated to "the HSK").
==External links==
*[http://groups-beta.google.com/group/sci.physics/search?group=sci.physics&q=%22horrendous+space+kablooie%22 Occurrence of 'Horrendous Space Kablooie' on sci.physics]
[[Category:Calvin and Hobbes]]
[[Category:Cosmology]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>HSK</title>
<id>14223</id>
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<id>40500845</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T00:37:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Broccoli</username>
<id>201647</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''HSK''' can refer to:
*The [[Horrendous Space Kablooie]], from the comic strip [[Calvin and Hobbes]]
*The [[Hànyǔ Shuǐpíng Kǎoshì|HSK Test]] ("Hànyǔ Shuǐpíng Kǎoshì", or "Chinese language proficiency test"), a [[standardized test]] of [[Standard Mandarin|Standard Mandarin Chinese]] for international non-native language learners organized and administered in [[China]]
*the district [[Hochsauerlandkreis]], [[Germany]]
*''Hilfskreuzer'' or ''Handels-Stör-Kreuzer'', a German term for [[Auxiliary cruiser]]
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:HSK]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Humanism</title>
<id>14224</id>
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<id>42122890</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:45:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nigosh</username>
<id>221949</id>
</contributor>
<comment>- cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Humanism''' is a broad category of active [[ethics|ethical philosophies]] that affirm the dignity and worth of all people, based on our ability to determine what is right using the qualities innate to humanity, particularly [[rationalism|rationality]]. Humanism is a component of a variety of more specific [[philosophy|philosophical]] systems, and is also incorporated into some religious schools of thought.
Humanism entails a commitment to the search for truth and morality through human means in support of human interests. In focusing on our capacity for self-determination, humanism rejects transcendental justifications, such as a dependence on faith, the supernatural, or divinely revealed texts. Humanists endorse a recognition of a [[Moral universalism|universal morality]] based on the commonality of [[human nature]], suggesting that solutions to our social and cultural problems cannot be parochial.
==Aspects==
=== Religion ===
Humanism can be used in some ways to fulfill or supplement the role of religions in people's lives, and therefore qualifies as a stance on religion. It is entirely compatible with [[Naturalism_(philosophy)|naturalism]] (and therefore [[atheism]]), but doesn't strictly require either of these, and is compatible with some religions.
While the broad category of humanism encompasses intellectual currents running through a wide variety of philosophical or religious thought, it is embraced by some people as a complete lifestance. For more on this, see [[Humanism (lifestance)]].
Though the dominant forms of humanism are agnostic (and typically reject the existence of a supernatural), not all forms of humanism are. However, humanism denies the importance of the supernatural in human affairs, regardless of whether or not it exists. In this way, humanism does not necessarily rule out some form of [[theism]] or [[deism]], and there are many humanists who consider themselves religious, some of whom are members of (typically, [[Liberal_Christianity#Liberal_theology|liberal]]) religious organizations. What humanism clearly rejects is blind deference to supernatural beliefs in resolving human affairs, not necessarily the beliefs themselves.
For that matter, agnosticism or atheism on its own doesn't necessarily entail humanism. Indeed, many different and incompatible philosophies are atheistic in nature.
=== Knowledge ===
According to humanism, it is up to us to find the truth, not wait for it to be handed to us through [[revelation]], [[mysticism]], [[tradition]], or anything else that is incompatible with the application of logic to the evidence. In demanding that we avoid blindly accepting unsupported beliefs, it supports [[scientific skepticism]] and the [[scientific |
began only after the death of the arch-bishop Adalbert. It consists of four volumes about the history of the archbishopry of Hamburg-Bremen, and the isles of the north. The first three mainly consist of [[history]] and the last one is mainly on [[geography]]. Adam based his works in part on [[Einhard]], [[Cassiodorus]] and other earlier historians' accounts, as he had the whole library of the church of Bremen at his hands. The first edition was completed in 1075/1076, of which he continued to revise and update until his death in the 1080s.
The first book gives a history from [[788]] onwards of the Church in Hamburg-Bremen, and the Christian mission in the North. This is the chief source of knowledge of the north until the 13th century. The second book continues the history, and further deals with German history between 940 and 1045. The third book is about the deeds of archbishop Adalbert and is considered a milestone in medieval biographical writing.
The fourth book, ''Descriptio insularum Aquilonis'', completed approximately in [[1075]], is about the geography, people and customs of Scandinavia, as well as updates of the progress of Christian missionaries there. Adam was a proponent of his Churches role in Christianizing the northern people. Scandinavia had only just recently been explored by missionaries, and while perhaps created to inspire and guide future missionaries, its balanced and accurate descriptions make it one of the most important sources about pre-Christian Scandinavia. It is also the first known European record that mentions [[Vinland]], a land centuries later known as [[North America]].
==See also==
* [[Vinland]]
* [[Chronicon Slavorum]]
* [[Temple at Uppsala]]
==Sources==
* Adam of Bremen, ''History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen'', English translation by F.J. Tschan, Columbia UP, 2002, ISBN 0231125755.
* Adam of Bremen, [[s:de:ADB:Adam von Bremen|''Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie'']], online version. German.
* Adam of Bremen, [http://hbar.phys.msu.su/gorm/chrons/bremen.htm ''Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum''], online version. Latin.
[[Category:Chroniclers]]
[[da:Adam af Bremen]]
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[[la:Adamus Bremensis]]
[[lv:Ādams no Brēmenes]]
[[nds:Adam vun Bremen]]
[[pl:Adam z Bremy]]
[[fi:Adam Bremeniläinen]]
[[sv:Adam av Bremen]]
[[uk:Адам Бременський]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Ab urbe condita</title>
<id>2553</id>
<revision>
<id>34585573</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-10T05:57:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Akendall</username>
<id>764469</id>
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<comment>added translation note</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the book ''Ab Urbe Condita'' see ''[[Ab Urbe Condita (book)]]''.''
'''''Ab urbe condita''''' (AUC or a.u.c.) is [[Latin]] for "from [[founding of Rome|the founding]] of the city"{{Ref|numbering}} (of [[Rome]]), supposed to have happened in [[753 BC]]. It was one of several methods used for dating years in the Roman era, when the [[Roman calendar]] and the [[Julian calendar]] were in use. It appears to have been widely replaced by the [[anno Diocletiani]] (A.D.) system which in turn was gradually superseded by the [[anno Domini]] (A.D.) system of [[Dionysius Exiguus]]. Some modern historians claim that an era ''ab urbe condita'' (from the founding of the city of Rome) did not, in reality, exist in the ancient world, and the method of reckoning the years in this way is modern.
==Significance==
[[Image:Antoninianus Philip the Arab - Seculum Novum.jpg|thumb|300px|A coin struck under [[Philip the Arab]] to celebrate ''Saeculum Novum''.]]
From emperor [[Claudius]] onwards [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]]'s calculation (see below) superseded other contemporary calculations. Celebrating the anniversary of the city became part of imperial [[propaganda]]. Claudius was the first to hold magnificent celebrations in honor of the city's anniversary, in [[47]] AD, eight hundred years after the supposed founding of the city. In 147/8 [[Antoninus Pius]] held similar celebrations, and in [[248]] [[Philip the Arab]] celebrated Rome's first [[millennium]], together with [[Ludi saeculares]] for [[Rome]]'s alleged tenth [[saeculum]]. [[Coin]]s from his reign commemorate the celebrations. A coin by a contender for the imperial throne, [[Pacatianus]], explicitely states '1001', which is an indication that the citizens of the Empire had a sense of the beginning of a new era, a ''Saeculum Novum''. When the Roman Empire turned [[Christianity|Christian]] in the following century, this imagery came to be used in a more [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] sense.
==Calculation by Varro==
The traditional date for the [[founding of Rome]] of [[April 21]], [[753 BC]] was initiated by [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]]. In practice the Romans typically dated events from the reign year of the current ruler (during the republic a [[consul]] had a term of a single year). Varro may have used the consular list with its mistakes, and called the year of the first consuls "245 ''ab urbe condita''" (a.u.c.), accepting the 244-year interval from [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]] for the kings after the foundation of Rome. The correctness of Varro's calculation has not been proved scientifically but is still used worldwide.
==Alternative calculations==
According to [[Velleius Paterculus]] (VIII, 5) The foundation of Rome took place 437 years after the capture of Troy ([[1182 BC]]), It took place shortly before an [[eclipse]] of the Sun that was observed at Rome on [[June 25]], [[745 BC]] and had a magnitude of 50.3%. Its beginning occurred at 16:38, its middle at 17:28, and its end at 18:16.
However, according to Lucius Tarrutius of Firmum [[Romulus and Remus]] were conceived in the womb on the 23rd day of the [[Egyptian calendar|Egyptian month]] Choiac, at the time of a total [[eclipse]] of the [[Sun]]. (This eclipse occurred on [[June 15]], [[760s BC|763 BC]], with a magnitude of 62.5% at Rome. Its beginning took place at 6:49, its middle at 7:47 and its end at 8:51.) He was born on the 21st day of the month Thoth. The first day of Thoth fell on [[March 2]] in that year (Prof. E.J. Bickerman, [[1980]]: 115). It means that [[Rhea Silvia]]'s pregnancy lasted for 281 days. Rome was founded on the ninth day of the month Pharmuthi, which was the [[April 21|21st of April]], as universally agreed. The Romans add that about the time Romulus started to build the city, an eclipse of the Sun was observed by Antimachus, the Teian poet, on the 30th day of the lunar month. This eclipse on [[June 25]], [[745 BC]] (see above) had a magnitude of 54.6% at Teos, Asia Minor. It started at 17:49 it was still eclipsed at sunset, at 19:20. Romulus vanished in the 54th year of his life, on the Nones of Quintilis (July), on a day when the [[Sun]] was darkened. The day turned into night, which sudden darkness was believed to be an eclipse of the Sun. It occurred on [[July 17]], [[709 BC]], with a magnitude of 93.7%, beginning at 5:04 and ending at 6:57. (All these eclipse data have been calculated by Prof. Aurél Ponori-Thewrewk, retired director of the Planetarium of Budapest.) Plutarch placed it in the 37th year from the foundation of Rome, on the fifth of our [[July]], then called Quintilis, on "Caprotine Nones," Livy (I, 21) also states that Romulus ruled for 37 years. He was slain by the senate or disappeared in the 38th year of his reign. Most of these have been recorded by [[Plutarch]] (''Lives'' of Romulus, Numa Pompilius and Camillus), Florus (Book I, I), Cicero (''The Republic'' VI, 22: ''Scipio's Dream''), Dio (Dion) Cassius and Dionysius of Halicarnassus (L. 2). Dio in his ''Roman History'' (Book I) confirms our data by telling that Romulus was in his 18th year of age whan he had founded Rome. Therefore, three eclipse records prove that Romulus reigned from [[746 BC]] to [[709 BC]], and Rome was founded in [[745 BC]].
[[Quintus Fabius Pictor|Q. Fabius Pictor]] (c. [[250 BC]]) tells that Roman consuls started for the first time 239 years after Rome's foundation (''Enciclopedia Italiana,'' XIV, [[1951]]: 173). Livy (I, 60) gives almost the same, 240 years for that interval. [[Polybius]], ''The Histories'' (III, 22. 1-2) tells that 28 years after the expulsion of the last Roman king (or, in the 28th year, we believe), [[Xerxes I|Xerxes]] crossed over to [[Greece]], and that event is fixed to [[478 BC]] by two [[solar eclipse]]s.
According to all these, the a.u.c. system should be handled accordingly, with due precaution.
==See also==
* [[List of Latin phrases]]
==Footnotes==
#{{note|numbering}}Literally translated as "From the city having been founded."
[[Category:Latin phrases]]
[[Category:Roman calendar]]
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[[ru:История от основания города]]
[[sl:Ab urbe condita]]
[[sv:Ab Urbe Condita]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>American Political Scandals</title>
<id>2557</id>
<revision>
<id>15900956</id>
<timestamp>2004-02-10T08:02:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jengod</username>
<id>12028</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Political scandals of the United States]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ARY Group</title>
<id>2558</id>
<revision>
<id>41593504</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T10:32:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Spasage</username>
<id>472206</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''ARY Group''' is a [[Middle East]] based company owned by a [[Pakistani]] businessman, Haji [[Abdul Rahman Yaqoob]]. The ARY Group is |
report's findings, adding "It's obvious that the one who sent us in order to protect the roads and land is the prime minister so he should look in the mirror. Mr Sharon has to be questioned - not us." It remains to be seen whether the Prime Minister and other [former and current] government officials will face any legal repercussions for their alleged official involvement in the funding of illegal settlements, as [[Peace Now]] [http://www.peacenow.org/shalom/news.asp?rid=0&cid=277] and other groups have called for. According to the ''[[Haaretz]]'' newspaper, Herzog claimed that "the main responsibility for the building of illegal outposts in recent years falls with my predecessor, [[Effi Eitam]] and his director general." He also added that when he took up the position earlier this year, he ordered that no funds be transferred to the illegal outposts, as well as the establishment of a joint Defense Ministry and Prime Minister's Office team to coordinate the budgets for the settlements. Eitam replied in reaction to the report and the associated comments, saying that all illegal outposts he had approved during his time in office were approved in coordination with Prime Minister Ariel Sharon, had his full backing and were sometimes initiated by him.[http://news.haaretz.co.il/hasen/spages/549577.html] Eitam claimed that Talia Sasson was not an objective surveyor and that the report was politically motivated. [http://www.israelnationalnews.com/news.php3?id=78204]
Sasson has recommended that Sharon consider criminal investigations against those suspected of involvement.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4328817.stm]
Deputy Defence Minister [[Zeev Boim]] (formely [[Likud]]) told Israeli Army Radio that the outposts "must be removed", but that the government's plan to withdraw from Gaza had priority over any dismantling of illegal outposts in the West Bank. At a cabinet meeting on March 13, the government restated its commitment to visiting [[UN]] head [[Kofi Annan]] to remove illegal outposts, but did not give a timetable. The [[Road map for peace|Road map peace plan]] calls for removal of only those outposts erected since Sharon came to office. The report, however, states many outposts installed before that time are illegal under Israeli law. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4345413.stm] Palestinian officials reacted angrily to the report. "It is time for the international community to say 'enough' to Israel and work with the same determination as on other matters," said Palestinian Prime Minister [[Ahmed Qurei]]. A US embassy spokesman in Tel Aviv also repeated Washington's longstanding call for Israel to remove the outposts.
==External links==
* [http://www.jcpa.org/jl/vp470.htm an unofficial Israeli position paper]
* [http://www.nad-plo.org/permanent/settlements.html an official Palestinian position paper]
* [http://www.cartercenter.org/viewdoc.asp?docID=137&submenu=news analysis by former U.S. president Jimmy Carter]
* [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/Peace/settletoc.html A compilation of facts on the settlements, as presented by a joint Israeli-American Organization]
* [http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/EVIU-69HJYR?OpenDocument discusses the legal status of Israeli settlements under International Humanitarian Law]
*[http://www.btselem.org/English/ The Israeli Information Center for Human Rights in the Occupied Territories]
* [http://www.geocities.com/m_yericho/yishuvim.htm Jewish Communities in Yesha ]
* [http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/Printable.asp?ID=7142 Jewish Settlements in "the Territories" Aren't the Problem] by [[Chaim Herzog]].
* [http://www.forward.com/articles/7261 "At Israeli Outpost, Showdown Looms for Settlers, Government" article by Gershom Gorenberg, January 27, 2006, Forward Online]
[[Category:Arab-Israeli conflict]]
[[Category:History of Israel]]
[[Category:Israeli settlements|**]]
[[ar:مستوطنات إسرائيلية]]
[[de:Israelische Siedlung]]
[[fr:Colonie israélienne]]
[[he:התנחלויות]]
[[yi:מתנחלים]]
[[pl:Osiedla żydowskie]]
[[ru:Еврейские поселения на Западном берегу реки Иордан и в секторе Газа]]
[[tl:Paninirahang Israeli]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Irrealism</title>
<id>15125</id>
<revision>
<id>42035637</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:15:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.68.89.128</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Irrealism''' is a philosophical term which seems to have been coined in the [[1980s]] by [[Nelson Goodman]] to refer to the belief that the debate between [[realism]] and [[anti-realism]] was based on poor assumptions. In practice many irrealists were sympathetic to the critique on realism, but were also critical of the [[idealist]], [[relativist]], or [[reductionist]] tendencies of the anti-realists.
Artist painter and philospher [[Tristan Tondino]] (1961-?) claimed to be an Irrealist and held the view that all realities are creations deriving from the needs and desires of living beings. As such Irrealism is anti-egocentric, basing truth on sustainability of worlds. Following Goodman, Tondino claimed truths about "the way the world is" make up building blocks for world versions. World versions may be thought of as functional and work by holding truths while nonetheless contradicting each other.
Tondino attempted to make his audience aware of the irreality of individual human perspectives. Some of his more well known works include ``the rule of the 2`` and ``Un tableau que personne ne veut`` or ``Realism is fascism``. Tondino claimed all art is an expression of Irrealism and that the History of Art is a representation of world versions. Irrealism therefore subsumes artistic expression and explains versions like Surrealism, Abstract Expressionism, Realism, Dadaism etc. as types of games - all significant ways of worldmaking or world picturing.
According to Tondino, Irrealism focuses on the deserts surrounding the tiny oases of truth about the world. Ireealist's accept Stace's arguments in his "Refutation of Realism" but claim it is just as coherent to infer there is a “world as it is”. Tondino's Irrealism holds that for the most part it is impossible to know "the given" in “sufficient” detail i.e sufficient enough to justify a theory like realism but capable of justifying one like Irrealism.
Irrealism further adopts the stance that contradiction is acceptable within the following parameters: We can’t make absolute claims about what really exists and as a result contradictory world pictures can be held coherently. For example, "physicalist monism is preferable in Physics while dualism works best in Psychology. Quarks are useless in poems – at present, love is as real as are molecules. Despite the fact that certain molecules are emotions – love itself is still relevant."
One of Tondino's more salient Letrist artworks depicting the Statue of Liberty is entitled, "A word that denotes the difference between our pictures of the world and the world".
See also [[Contemporary Art]]
Some [[hardcore punk|hardcore]] bands in [[Italy]] have claimed to be irrealist.
{{philo-stub}}
== See also ==
* [[Anti-realism]]
* [[Philosophical realism]]
* [[Realism]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.philosophy.ru/library/goodman/starmaking.htm "On Star-Making"] by Nelson Goodman.
== References ==
* ''Starmaking: Realism, Anti-Realism, and Irrealism'' by Peter J. McCormick (Editor). ISBN 0262133202
[[Category:Realism]]
[[Category:Epistemology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Internet humor</title>
<id>15127</id>
<revision>
<id>41054849</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T19:38:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tokachu</username>
<id>317582</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted vandalism from [[User:70.64.26.162|70.64.26.162]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Counter.gif|frame|right|One of the more frequent jokes on the internet is to produce a "fake" or joke [[web counter]]. The counter pictured here dates back to 1992 and is possibly the first of its kind.]]
The [[Internet]] has long been a resource for the circulation of [[humor]]ous ideas and [[joke|jokes]]. Countless web-sites are devoted to the collection of Internet humour, and every day [[e-mail]] crosses the world, containing the text of humorous articles, or jokes about current events.
"Internet [[humor]]" is distinguishable from "Humor on the Internet" through the concept of ownership. There are definite examples of humor restricted by copyright law on the internet; examples include the cartoons of [[Dilbert]] or the [[newspaper]] columns of [[Dave Barry]]. "Internet humor" is regarded as that which belongs to the [[public domain]].
Internet humor may also be regarded as humor that specifically relies on characteristics belonging to the Internet, such as "[[geek]]" or "[[hacker culture|hacker]]" humor -- i.e, humor that would not exist if not for the Internet.
Generally, this type of semi-institutionalized humor starts as a specific group's [[in-joke]], and grows until it reaches a significant portion of Internet users, gaining popularity, "rules" and [[mythos]].
Longstanding and widely recognized examples of such humor are:
*The [[Internet Oracle]] (formerly The Usenet Oracle) at [http://cgi.cs.indiana.edu/~oracle/index.cgi cgi.cs.indiana.edu/~oracle/index.cgi]
*The [[Jargon file]] (also known as [http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/index.html The (New) Hacker's Dictionary])
*The cult of [[Kibology]]
*The [[Darwin Awards]] at [http://www.DarwinAwards.com www.DarwinAwards.com]
The concept of authorship with regard to Internet humor is very difficult to define. Frequently a "list" type j |
and the city's southern areas. Also, a large and expanding network of [[bike path]]s crisscrosses the city.
The [[Ann Arbor Transportation Authority]] (AATA), which brands itself as "The Ride," operates public [[bus]] services throughout Ann Arbor and nearby [[Ypsilanti, Michigan|Ypsilanti]]. A separate free bus service operates within the University of Michigan campuses. Plans have been floated several times to operate a trolley service between downtown and Briarwood Mall along disused rail tracks, although these have not come to fruition as of 2005. For out-of-town bus service, a downtown bus depot is served by [[Greyhound Lines]], and is the city's only remaining example of the [[Streamline Moderne]] architectural style.
[[Ann Arbor Municipal Airport]] is a small aircraft general aviation facility located south of [[Interstate 94|I-94]]. [[Detroit Metropolitan Airport]], the area's large international airport, is located about 28 miles (45 km) east of the city, in [[Romulus, Michigan|Romulus]]. Additionally, [[Willow Run Airport]] in nearby Ypsilanti serves freight, corporate, and general aviation clients, and some people use [[Windsor Airport]], 50 miles (80 km) east of the city, for commercial flight as it can actually be a shorter trip than the Detroit airport depending on traffic.
The city was a major rail hub, notably for freight traffic between [[Toledo, Ohio|Toledo]] and ports north of [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] from 1878 to 1982, though the [[Ann Arbor Railroad]] also sold 1.1 million passenger tickets in 1913 alone.{{ref|train}} The city was also served by the [[Michigan Central Railroad]] starting in 1837. Currently, [[Amtrak]] provides passenger rail service from Ann Arbor to [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]] and [[Chicago, Illinois]] via the Ann Arbor Train Station; the present-day station neighbors the city's old Michigan Central Depot, which was renovated as a restaurant in 1969. There have been plans to build a [[commuter rail]] link between Ann Arbor and Detroit, with the U.S. federal government providing [[United States dollar|$]]100 million to enable its development.{{ref|train2}}
===Utilities===
[[Image:AnnArborHydrant.JPG|thumb|120px|right|One of 39 downtown [[fire hydrant]]s [http://www.arts.umich.edu/programs/special/firehydrant/index.html painted by students]. This hydrant's artist was in elementary school; others were in high school or college.]]
The city provides sewage disposal and water supply services, with water coming from the Huron River and groundwater sources. There are two [[Water purification|water-treatment]] plants, one main and three outlying [[dam|reservoir]]s, four pump stations, and two [[water tower|elevated tanks]]. These facilities serve the city, which is divided into five water districts. Along with these facilities, the city's water department also operates four dams along the Huron River, two of which provide [[hydroelectric power]].{{ref|water}} The city also offers waste management services, with recycling being handled by Recycle Ann Arbor. Other utilities are primarily provided by private entities. [[Electrical power]] and gas are provided by DTE Energy, Consumers Energy, and MichCon. [[AT&T]], the successor to Michigan Bell, [[Ameritech]], and SBC Communications, is the primary wired telephone service provider for the area. Phone service is also available from various [[List of United States mobile phone companies|national wireless companies]]. Cable service is primarily provided by [[Comcast]].
==Notes==
#{{note|population}}[http://cheektowagatimes.com/News/2001/0125/Front_Page/10.html Police chief pursues post in Ann Arbor (1-25-2001)]. ''Cheektowaga Times''.
#{{note|terrain}}''Information obtained from [http://www.topozone.com TopoZone.com]''.
#{{note|trees}}[http://www.annarbor.org/aboutannarbor/funfacts.asp Fun Facts (2005)]. ''Ann Arbor Area Convention and Visitor's Bureau''. Access September 6, 2005.
#{{note|weather1}}[http://www.michiganvacations.com/regions/Ann-Arbor-Michigan.html Ann Arbor]. ''MichiganVacations.com''. Accessed August 18, 2005.
#{{note|weather}}[http://www.wunderground.com/NORMS/DisplayNORMS.asp?AirportCode=KYIP&SafeCityName=Ann_Arbor&StateCode=MI&Units=none&IATA=DTW Average High/Low Temperatures for KYIP]. ''Weather Underground (wunderground.com)''. Accessed August 17, 2005.
#{{note|weather2}}[http://weather.yahoo.com/climo/USMI0028_f.html Records and Averages - Ann Arbor]. ''Ann Arbor Weather Forecasts on Yahoo! Weather''. Accessed August 31, 2005.
#{{note|dance}}[http://www.arborweb.com/entindex.html City Guide - Dance]. ''arborweb.com''. Accessed August 18, 2005.
#{{note|books}}[http://www.ecurrent.com/ag/2003/shop/list.php#boo Ann Arbor Guide 2003-4]. ''Ecurrent.com''. Accessed August 17, 2005.
#{{note|nakedmile}}[http://www.goodspeedupdate.com/naked-mile-data-4-10-03.html Naked Mile Data Page]. ''goodspeedupdate.com''.
#{{note|train}}[http://clarke.cmich.edu/michrailroads/building.htm Michigan's Ann Arbor Railroads - Building the Ann Arbor]. ''Central Michigan University - Clarke Historical Library''. Accessed September 1, 2005.
#{{note|train2}}Mulcahy, John (August 28, 2005). [http://www.mlive.com/news/aanews/index.ssf?/base/news-14/112522397069040.xml&coll=2 Is commuter rail finally on fast track? Federal grant gets Ann Arbor-Detroit link moving]. ''Ann Arbor News''. Accessed September 1, 2005.
#{{note|water}}[http://www.ci.ann-arbor.mi.us/PublicServices/Water/WTP/int-treat.html Water Treatment (2005)]. ''City of Ann Arbor''. Accessed September 7, 2005.
==References==
*[http://moaa.aadl.org/PictHistory/PictHis.php Pictorial History of Ann Arbor (2003)]. ''Ann Arbor District Library''
* ''Encyclopedia of Michigan''. (1999). St. Clair Shores, MI: Somerset Publishers.
* ''Michigan Gazetteer''. (1991). Wilmington, DE: American Historical Publications.
*{{cite book | author=Marwil, Jonathan | year=1990 | title=A History of Ann Arbor | publisher=Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press}}
*{{cite book | author=Schmittroth, Linda (Ed.) | year=1994 | title=Cities of the United States | publisher=Detroit: Gale Group | edition=4th edition}}
==External links==
{{Commonscat|Ann Arbor, Michigan}}
*[http://www.ci.ann-arbor.mi.us/ City's official website]
*[http://www.annarbor.org/ Ann Arbor Area Convention and Visitor's Bureau]
*[http://arborweb.com/ Arborweb.com]—Contains Ann Arbor event listings
*[http://www.arborupdate.com ArborUpdate.com]—Ann Arbor community news
*[http://www.annarborisoverrated.com/ Ann Arbor is Overrated]—Irreverent blog on the city's foibles and shortcomings
*[http://www.arborblogs.com/ ArborBlogs]—Index of popular Ann Arbor community weblogs
*[http://arborwiki.org ArborWiki]—A wiki for Ann Arbor
*{{wikitravel|Ann Arbor}}
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|42.27535|-83.73084}}
{{Michigan}}
[[Category:Ann Arbor, Michigan| ]]
[[Category:Washtenaw County, Michigan]]
[[Category:Cities in Michigan]]
[[Category:University towns]]
[[Category:County seats in Michigan]]
[[de:Ann Arbor]]
[[es:Ann Arbor]]
[[eo:Arbaro de Ana, Miŝigano]]
[[fr:Ann Arbor]]
[[hi:ऍन आर्बर्]]
[[ms:Ann Arbor, Michigan]]
[[nl:Ann Arbor]]
[[pl:Ann Arbor (Michigan)]]
[[pt:Ann Arbor]]
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[[zh:安娜堡]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Act of Settlement 1701</title>
<id>2070</id>
<revision>
<id>41950394</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T21:01:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Astrotrain</username>
<id>16846</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Background */ bypass redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Sophia of Hanover.jpg|thumb|150px|The Electress Sophia]]
The '''Act of Settlement''' (12 & 13 Wm 3 c.2) is the main [[Act of Parliament]] that governs the [[Line of succession to the British throne|line of succession]] to the [[British monarchy|British throne]], and since the patriation of each [[Commonwealth Realm]]'s constitution from the UK, now performs the same task within those nations, unless their laws specifically state that the UK Act of Settlement continues to have effect within their jurisdiction. Thus, the Act is now a key part of the constitutions of the [[Constitution of the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]] and of the other [[Commonwealth Realms]].
==Background==
Originally an Act of the [[Parliament of England]], it was passed in [[1701]] (1700 in [[Old Style and New Style dates|Old Style dates]]) during the reign of [[William III of England|King William III]]. As the King was childless, and his wife [[Mary II of England|Mary II]] had died in [[1694]], the throne would pass to Mary's sister, [[Anne of Great Britain|Princess Anne]] on the King's death. However Anne's last surviving child, [[William, Duke of Gloucester]] died in 1700, and it was unlikely she would ever have any more children. Under the [[Bill of Rights 1689]], the line of succession was limited to the desdendants of Mary II and Anne, thus there was a need for a new law to allow the succession to continue in the Protestant line, and to exclude the deposed [[James II of England|James II]] and his son, [[James Francis Edward Stuart]].
==Provisions of the Act==
The Act provided that the throne would pass to [[Sophia of Hanover|The Electress Sophia of Hanover]], a granddaughter of [[James I of England|James I/VII]], and her descendants. Only the descendants of Sophia who were not Catholic, or married to a Catholic could succeed the throne. In addition, it specifies that it is for [[Parliament]] to determine who should succeed to the throne, not the monarch.
==Act of Union==
This Act was, in many ways, the major cause of the [[Acts of Union 1707|Union]] of [[Scotland]] with [[England and Wales]] to form the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]]. The [[Parliament of Scotland]] was not happy with the Act of Settlement and, in response, passed the [[Act of Security]] in [[1704]], which gave Scotland the right to choose their own successor |
the [[quadrille]] "au commandement", zouk, zouk-love, and toumbélé. Music includes la biguine and gwo ka la base.
== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of Guadeloupe]]''
[[Image:Plage.Guadeloupe.jpg|right|thumb|Beach at Guadeloupe]]
The economy of Guadeloupe depends on [[agriculture]], [[tourism]], [[light industry]], and [[services]]. It also depends on [[France]] for large subsidies and imports. Tourism is a key industry, with most tourists from the [[United States]]; an increasingly large number of cruise ships visit the islands. The traditional [[sugarcane]] crop is slowly being replaced by other crops, such as [[banana]]s (which now supply about 50% of export earnings), [[eggplant]], and [[flower]]s. Other vegetables and root crops are cultivated for local consumption, although Guadeloupe is still dependent on imported food, mainly from France. Light industry features [[sugar]] and [[rum]] production. Most manufactured goods and fuel are imported. Unemployment is especially high among the young. Hurricanes periodically devastate the economy.
As far as .gp stands for the Guadeloupe Top Level Domain, an opportunity for the country to be known worldwide appears. All speed related events can use the .gp domain to be fast found (i.e. montecarlo.gp for Montecarlo Grand Prix).
== See also ==
* [[Communications in Guadeloupe]]
* [[Military of Guadeloupe]]
* [[Music of Martinique and Guadeloupe]]
* [[Transportation in Guadeloupe]]
* [[French overseas departments and territories]]
* [[Administrative divisions of France]]
== External links ==
{{commons|Guadeloupe}}
*[http://www.supphoto.com/album/french_west_indies/guadeloupe/ Pictures of Guadeloupe Island]
*[http://www.guadeloupe.pref.gouv.fr/ Website of the prefecture of Guadeloupe]
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=16.189618,-61.482239&spn=0.759246,0.962814&t=k Guadeloupe at Google Maps]
*[http://www.lesilesguadeloupe.com Government Tourism Site for Guadeloupe]
*[http://www.gp-worldwide.org/ .gp (Guadeloupe's ccTLD) a world standard for the speed world]
{{West_Indies}}
{{Regions_of_France}}
[[Category:Guadeloupe|Guadeloupe]]
[[Category:Special territories of the European Union]]
[[Category:Swedish colonies]]
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[[gl:Guadalupe - Guadeloupe]]
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[[zh:瓜德罗普]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of Guadeloupe</title>
<id>12344</id>
<revision>
<id>15910040</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-08T08:50:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Postdlf</username>
<id>29695</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirecting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Guadeloupe]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Guadeloupe</title>
<id>12345</id>
<revision>
<id>15910041</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-08T08:58:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Postdlf</username>
<id>29695</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Guadeloupe]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Guadeloupe</title>
<id>12346</id>
<revision>
<id>32143019</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-20T20:32:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eskimbot</username>
<id>477460</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: fr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Guadeloupe1.png|thumb|320px|In green (with red legend) are the constituent parts of the Guadeloupe ''région''/''département'' among the [[Leeward Islands]]]]
[[Image:Guadeloupe map.png|frame|Map of the Guadeloupe archipelago]]
'''Guadeloupe''' comprises five [[island]]s: [[Basse-Terre]], [[Grande-Terre]] (separated from Basse-Terre by a narrow sea channel called salt river) with the adjacent islands of [[La Désirade]], [[Les Saintes]] and [[Marie-Galante]]. Basse-Terre has a rough [[volcanic]] relief whilst Grande-Terre features rolling hills and flat plains.
Further to the north, [[Saint-Barthélemy]] and the French part of [[Saint Martin]] come under the juridiction of Guadeloupe. On [[December 7]], [[2003]], both of these areas voted to become an overseas territorial collectivity. [http://www.statoids.com/ugp.html]
; Location:
: [[Caribbean]], [[island]]s in the eastern [[Caribbean Sea]], southeast of [[Puerto Rico]]
; [[Geographic coordinates]]:
: {{coor dm|16|15|N|61|35|W|type:country}}
; Map references:
: [[Central America]] and the Caribbean
; Area:
:* Total: 1,780 [[Square kilometre|km²]]
:* Land: 1,706 km²
:* Water: 74 km²
:* Note: Guadeloupe is an [[archipelago]] of nine inhabited islands: the main islands [[Basse-Terre]] on the west and [[Grande-Terre]] on the east, the nearby smaller islands [[Marie-Galante]], [[La Desirade]], [[Iles des Saintes]] (2) and [[Iles de la Petite Terre]], and more to the northwest, beyond [[St Kitts and Nevis]]: [[Saint Barthélemy]] and Saint-Martin (French part of the island of [[Saint Martin]]).
; Area--comparative:
: 10 times the size of Washington, DC
; Land boundaries:
:* Total: 10.2 km
:* Border countries: Netherlands Antilles (Sint Maarten) 10.2 km
; Coastline:
: 306 km
; Maritime claims:
:* Exclusive economic zone: 200 [[Nautical mile|nm]]
:* Territorial sea: 12 nm
; Climate:
: Subtropical tempered by trade winds; moderately high humidity
; Terrain:
: Basse-Terre is volcanic in origin with interior mountains; Grande-Terre is low limestone formation; most of the seven other islands are volcanic in origin
; Elevation extremes:
:* Lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 [[metre|m]]
:* Highest point: Soufriere 1,467 m
; Natural resources:
: Cultivable land, beaches and climate that foster tourism
; Land use:
:* Arable land: 14%
:* Permanent crops: 4%
:* Permanent pastures: 14%
:* Forests and woodland: 39%
:* Other: 29% (1993 est.)
; Irrigated land:
: 30 km² (1993 est.)
; Natural hazards:
: Hurricanes (June to October); Soufriere is an active volcano
; Environment--current issues:
: NA
==See also==
* [[Communes of the Guadeloupe département]]
[[Category:Guadeloupe]]
[[Category:Geography by country]]
[[fr:Géographie de la Guadeloupe]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Guadeloupe</title>
<id>12347</id>
<revision>
<id>15910043</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-08T08:50:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Postdlf</username>
<id>29695</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirecting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Guadeloupe]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Guadeloupe</title>
<id>12348</id>
<revision>
<id>26886971</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-30T15:49:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CaribDigita</username>
<id>60840</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Cat: Guadeloupe --> Economy of Guadeloupe</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''economy of [[Guadeloupe]]''' depends on [[agriculture]], [[tourism]], [[light industry]], and [[services]]. It also depends on [[France]] for large subsidies and imports.
Tourism is a key industry, with most tourists from the US; an increasingly large number of cruise ships visit the islands. The traditional [[sugarcane]] crop is slowly being replaced by other crops, such as [[banana]]s (which now supply about 50% of export earnings), [[eggplant]], and [[flower]]s. Other vegetables and root crops are cultivated for local consumption, although Guadeloupe is still dependent on imported food, mainly from France. Light industry features [[sugar]] and [[rum]] production. Most manufactured goods and fuel are imported. Unemployment is especially high among the young. Hurricanes periodically devastate the economy.
==Economic data==
'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $3.7 [[billion]] (3.7 G$) (1996 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
NA%
'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $9,000 (1996 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
<br>''agriculture:''
6%
<br>''industry:''
9%
<br>''services:''
85% (1993 est.)
'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br>''lowest 10%:''
NA%
<br>''highest 10%:''
NA%
'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
NA
'''Labour force:'''
125,900 (1997)
'''Labour force - by occupation:'''
agriculture 15%, industry 17%, services 68% (1997)
'''Unemployment rate:'''
27.8% (1998)
'''Budget:'''
<br>''revenues:''
$225 million
<br>''expenditures:''
$390 million, including capital expenditures of $105 million (1996)
'''Industries:'''
construction, [[cement]], [[rum]], [[sugar]], tourism
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
NA%
'''Electricity - production:'''
1.22 TWh (1998)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
<br>''fossil fuel:''
100%
<br>''hydro:''
0%
<br>''nuclear:''
0%
<br>''other:''
0% (1998)
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
1.135 TWh (1998)
'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[banana]]s, [[sugarcane]], tropical [[fruit]]s and [[vegetable]]s; [[cattle]], [[pig]]s, [[goat]]s
'''Exports:'''
$140 million (f.o.b., 1997)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
bananas, sugar, rum
'''Exports - partners:'''
France 60%, Martinique 18%, US 4% (1997)
'''Imports:'''
$1.7 billion (c.i.f., 1997)
'''Imports - |
ter generated "glass sculpture" of the [[BBC coat of arms|BBC's coat of arms]] at the start of a 1995 [[BBC News]] broadcast]]
{{main|Timeline of the BBC}}
The original ''British Broadcasting Company'' was founded in [[1922]] by various private firms to broadcast experimental radio services. The first transmission was on [[14 November]] of that year.
The Company, with [[John Reith]] as general manager, became the ''British Broadcasting Corporation'' in [[1927]] when it was granted a [[Royal Charter]] of incorporation and ceased to be privately owned. It started experimental television broadcasting in [[1932]], becoming a regular service (known as the [[BBC Television Service]]) in [[1936]]. Television broadcasting was suspended from [[September 1]], [[1939]] to [[June 7]], [[1946]] during the [[World War II|Second World War]].
Competition to the BBC was introduced for the first time in [[1955]] with the commercially and independently operated [[ITV]]. The BBC introduced a second TV channel, (BBC 2), in [[1964]], renaming the existing channel BBC 1. BBC 2 was broadcast in colour from [[July 1]], [[1967]], and was joined by BBC 1 and ITV on [[November 15]], [[1969]].
Since the [[deregulation]] of the UK television and radio market in the [[1980s]], the BBC has faced increased competition from the commercial sector (and from the advertiser-funded public service broadcaster [[Channel 4]]), especially on [[satellite television]], [[cable television]], and [[digital television]] services.
The [[BBC Research Department]] has played a major part in the development of broadcasting and recording techniques. In the early days it carried out essential research into acoustics, programme level measurement, and noise measurement and established standards that rapidly spread, particularly throughout the British Empire. In this respect it filled a role that is now lacking in many areas, since it was motivated by the desire for quality, not profit.
==The Corporation==
===Funding===
{{main|Television licence#United Kingdom}}
The principal means of funding the BBC is through the [[television licence]]. Such a licence is required to operate a broadcast [[television]] receiver within the [[United Kingdom|UK]]. The television licence is set by the government and enforced by the criminal law but is collected privately and does not pass through the state before reaching the BBC, and hence it is inaccurate to refer to the BBC as a "state" broadcaster.
A similar licence used to exist for radios, but was abolished in [[1971]]. These licences were originally issued by the British [[General Post Office]] (GPO), which was then the regulator of public communications within the UK. For a more detailed historical explanation see [[British Broadcasting Company]].
In the case of the elderly (over 75), TV licences are funded by the government. Subsidised TV licences are available for the blind and the residents of residential care homes. Licence fees are set by the [[Department for Culture, Media and Sport|Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport]] (a Cabinet Minister). Collecting them has been the responsibility of [http://www.tvlicensing.co.uk/ TV Licensing] (an autonomous arm of the BBC) since 1990, but much of the collection work is subcontracted to the independent companies [[Capita]] and [[AMV]].
The television licence is often the subject of controversy; some argue that the licence is a [[regressive tax]], in that the very poorest are those least likely to have a licence, and least able to pay the fine for not having a licence. However, supporters of the licence fee claim that it helps maintain a higher quality of programming on the BBC compared to its commercial rivals. Some also claim that it also leads to better programmes on the commercial channels as they seek to draw viewers/listeners away from the BBC's output.
Because government regulation controls its funding, the BBC is able to provide domestic [[public service broadcasting]] to educate, inform and entertain, free of commercial advertising. However, the BBC does engage in commercial advertising in its publications and some broadcasting activities. In theory the BBC is answerable only to the licence payer. [[BBC World Service|World Service]] external broadcasting is funded by the [[Foreign and Commonwealth Office]].
The BBC has the largest budget of any UK broadcaster. Income from commercial enterprises and from overseas sales of its catalogue of programmes has substantially increased over recent years. Its annual budget is approximately £3.8 billion.
====Revenue sources====
The [http://www.bbcgovernors.co.uk/annreport/report05_keysections_dl.html#section6 2005 Annual report] gave revenue sources in millions of:
* £2,940.3m licence fees collected from consumers.
* £624.3m from BBC Commercial Businesses.
* £247.2m from the World Service, of which £225.1m is from grants (primarily funded by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office), £16.7m from subscriptions, and £5.4m from other sources.
* £23.5m from other income, such as providing content to overseas broadcasters and concert ticket sales.
In total, the BBC's group income is estimated at £3835.3m for 2005.
====Licence fee expenditure====
The BBC [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/tv_and_radio/4309325.stm gives] the following figures for expenditure of licence fee income:
*35% - BBC One
*15% - BBC Two
*15% - local TV and radio
*12% - network radio
*10% - digital (BBC Three, BBC Four, BBC News 24, BBC Parliament, CBBC, CBeebies)
*10% - transmission costs and licence fee collection
*3% - BBC Online, Ceefax, and Interactive Content (including [http://www.bbc.co.uk/ bbc.co.uk] and BBCi)
===Management===
The BBC is a nominally autonomous corporation, independent from direct government intervention. It is run by an appointed [[Board of Governors of the BBC|Board of Governors]]. General management of the organisation is in the hands of a [[Director-General of the BBC|Director-General]] appointed by the governors.
The governors as of [[19 January]] [[2005]] are:
*[[Michael Grade]] (Chairman)
*[[Anthony Salz]] (Vice Chairman)
*[[Ranjit Sondhi|Professor Ranjit Sondhi]] (National Governor for the English regions)
*[[Fabian Monds|Professor Fabian Monds]] (National Governor for Northern Ireland)
*[[Merfyn Jones|Professor Merfyn Jones]] (National Governor for Wales)
*[[Jeremy Peat]] (National Governor for Scotland)
*[[Deborah Bull]]
*[[Ruth Deech|Baroness Deech]]
*[[Dermot Gleeson]]
*[[Angela Sarkis]]
*[[Richard Tait]], appointed for a four-year term on [[1 August]] 2004.
The current Director-General is [[Mark Thompson]]. On his first day in the role he announced a shake-up of senior management, including the replacement of the Executive Committee, formed by directors of divisions within the BBC, with a streamlined nine-member Executive Board currently consisting of:
*[[Mark Thompson]] (Director-General)
*[[Mark Byford]] (Deputy Director-General)
*[[John Smith (BBC)|John Smith]] (Chief Operating Officer)
*[[Zarin Patel]] (Group Finance Director)
*[[Caroline Thomson]] (Strategy)
*[[Stephen Dando]] (BBC People)
*[[Tim Davie]] (Marketing, Communications & Audiences)
*[[Jana Bennett]] (Television)
*[[Jenny Abramsky]] (Radio and Music)
*[[Ashley Highfield]] (New Media and Technology)
===Current review of Royal Charter===
{{main|BBC review}}
The BBC's [[Royal Charter]] is currently under review. Although the Charter is widely expected to be renewed in 2006, some proposals have suggested dramatic changes.
On [[2 March]] [[2005]] the [[Culture Secretary]] [[Tessa Jowell]] published a [[green paper]] setting out her proposals for the future of the BBC. The main points of this are:
*Maintenance of the licence fee system until at least 2016
*Abolition of the BBC Governors, to be replaced by a "BBC Trust"
*Increasing outsourcing of production (a process already started by Mark Thompson)
*Reduced emphasis on "ratings for ratings' sake" and copycat programmes (such as [[reality television]]).
===Political and commercial independence===
{{main|BBC controversies}}
The BBC is, in theory, free from both political and commercial influence and answers only to its viewers and listeners. However, the BBC is regularly accused by the government of the day of bias in favour of the opposition and, by the opposition, of bias in favour of the government. This gave rise to the satirical name "Buggers Broadcasting Communism".
Similarly, during times of war, the BBC is often accused by the UK government, or by strong supporters of British military campaigns, of being overly sympathetic to the view of the enemy. This gave rise, during the first [[Gulf War]], to the satirical name "Baghdad Broadcasting Corporation". Conversely, some of those who style themselves anti-establishment in the United Kingdom or who oppose foreign wars have accused the BBC of pro-establishment bias or of refusing to give an outlet to "anti-war" voices. Some have argued that a current of anti-BBC thinking exists in many parts of the political spectrum and that, since the BBC's theoretical impartiality means they will broadcast many views and opinions, people will see the bias they wish to see.
Quite often domestic audiences have affectionately referred to the BBC as ''the Beeb,'' or as ''Auntie''; the latter originating in the somewhat fuddy duddy [http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2004/10_october/21/hull.shtml ''Auntie knows best''] attitude dating back to the early days when [[John Reith, 1st Baron Reith|John Reith]] was in charge.
Political influence may manifest itself via appointments to its Board of Governors and by threats to change the level of the licence fee. Commercial competition has influenced BBC programming on both radio and television throughout its history. Despite these criticisms, many still regard the BBC as a trusted and politically neutral news sour |
e, members of some such groups have (in a mirror fashion) exalted their own group as being uniquely, and even supremely, wonderful and valuable.
Nearly every religion, "race," or nation feels it has aspects which are uniquely valuable. (This tendency is humorously illustrated in the romantic comedy ''[[My Big Fat Greek Wedding]]'', in which the heroine's father perpetually exalts Greek culture: ''"Give me any word, and I'll show you how it derives from Greek roots."'' ''"Oh, yeah, how about [[kimono]]?"'')
Other examples abound: Toynbee notes that Ancient Persia regarded itself the center of the world and viewed other nations as increasingly barbaric according to their degree of distance. China's very name is composed of ideographs meaning "center" and "country" respectively, and traditional Chinese world maps show China in the center. England defined the world's meridians with itself on the center line, and to this day, longitude is measured in degrees east or west of Greenwich, thus establishing as fact an Anglo-centrist's worldview. [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] tribal names often translate as some variant on "the people"; other tribes were labeled with often pejorative names. The [[United States]] has traditionally conceived of itself as having a unique role in world history&mdash;famously characterized by President [[Abraham Lincoln]] as "the last, best hope of Earth"&mdash;an outlook known as [[American exceptionalism]].
The Japanese word for foreigner ("gaijin") can also mean "outsiders," and Japanese do not normally use the term to describe themselves when visiting other countries. It also excludes those native to the country where the speaker is. For a Japanese tourist in New York, ''gaijin'' are not Japanese tourists or New Yorkers, but those of other nationalities visiting New York.
In the United States foreigners or immigrants that are not considered residents are called "aliens" and in the case they do not hold a legal status within the country they are called "illegal aliens". The connotation of the word does not only suggest pure ethnocentrism but is in some sense a distancing language used between an American citizen and an immigrant or visitor.
==Psychological Underpinnings of Ethnocentrism==
Tribal and familial groups are often seen to dominate in economic settings where transaction costs are high. Examples include the crime syndicates of Russia, Sicily, and the United States, prison gangs, and the diamond trade (Salter 2002). Throughout history, warring factions have been composed of fairly homogeneous ethnic groups. Ethnic strife is seen to dominate the landscape in many parts of the world even to this day. Evolutionary psychology posits that the reason for these groupings stems from the alignment of interests among members of these groups due to their genetic similarity. Independent of evolutionary psychology, observers such as [[Shelby Steele]] have suggested that ethnocentrism is a mainstay of any modern society, and in cases such as the white and black population in the US, programs such as affirmative action serve only to relieve the moral consciences of the white population. People like Steele harbour respect for vocal racists, as they, unlike the rest of the population, are able to reveal their honest feelings regarding race and ethnicity.
==References==
* Salter, F.K., ed. 2002. Risky Transactions. Trust, Kinship, and Ethnicity. Oxford and New York: Berghahn.
==Journals==
* [http://gpi.sagepub.com/ Group Processes and Intergroup Relations], Sage Press.
==List of Ethnocentrism==
* '''[[American exceptionalism]]'''
* '''[[Afrocentrism]]'''
* '''[[Anglocentrism]]'''
* '''[[Germanocentrism]]'''
* '''[[Indocentrism]]''', [[Hindutva]]
* '''[[Japanocentrism]]'''
* '''[[Eurocentrism]]'''
** '''Eurocentrism'''
** '''[[Americentrism]]'''
* '''[[Russocentrism]]''', [[Russian Chauvinism]], [[Eurasianism]]
* '''[[Chinese nationalism]]'''
* '''[[Sinocentrism]]'''
* '''[[White nationalism]]'''
* '''[[Nazism]]''', '''[[Neo-Nazism]]'''
==See also==
*[[media and ethnicity]]
*[[bigotry]]
*[[cultural bias]]
*[[cultural diversity]]
*[[cultural relativism]]
*[[Culture war speech]]
*[[egocentrism]]
*[[nationalism]]
**[[ethnic nationalism]]
*[[ethnic nepotism]]
*[[patriotism]]
*[[racism]]
*[[relativism]]
*[[religiocentrism]]
*[[supremacism]]
==References==
{{unreferenced}}
<!-- Categorization -->
[[Category:Ethnicity]]
[[Category:Ethnocentrism|*]]
[[Category:Prejudices]]
<!-- Localization -->
[[cs:Etnocentrismus]]
[[de:Ethnozentrismus]]
[[el:Εθνοκεντρισμός]]
[[es:Etnocentrismo]]
[[fr:Ethnocentrisme]]
[[he:אתנוצנטריות]]
[[it:Etnocentrismo]]
[[ja:エスノセントリズム]]
[[pl:Etnocentryzm]]
[[pt:Etnocentrismo]]
[[sv:Etnocentrism]]
[[uk:Етноцентризм]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Execution unit</title>
<id>9828</id>
<revision>
<id>37155549</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-29T02:11:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Johnbojaen</username>
<id>302701</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Interwiki: es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer engineering]], an '''execution unit''' is a part of a [[central processing unit|CPU]] that performs the operations and calculations called for by the [[computer program|program]]. It may have its own internal control sequence unit (not to be confused with the CPUs main [[control unit]]), some [[processor register|register]]s, and other internal units such as a sub-[[arithmetic logic unit|ALU]] or [[floating point unit|FPU]], or some smaller, more specific components.
It is commonplace for modern CPUs to have multiple parallel execution units, referred to as scalar or [[superscalar]] design. The simplest arrangement is to use one, the bus manager, to manage the memory interface, and the others to perform calculations. Additionally, modern CPUs execution units are usually [[instruction pipelining|pipelined]].
[[Category:Computer architecture]]
[[es:Unidad funcional]]
[[ja:実行ユニット]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eskilstuna Municipality</title>
<id>9829</id>
<revision>
<id>22985628</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-10T18:03:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Curpsbot-unicodify</username>
<id>397664</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>1 &#<name> MISSING ";" fixed semi-manually • 1 link(s): _ → space</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Kommun2|
name=Eskilstuna|
fullname=Eskilstuna Municipality|
isocode=&nbsp;|
capital=Eskilstuna|
governor=|
county=[[Södermanland County]]|
province=[[Södermanland]]|
arearank=93rd|
area=1,103.8|
areapercent=x.x|
population_as_of=2005|
populationrank=16th|
population=91,168|
populationpercent=x.x|
populationdensity=82|
coatofarms=[[Image:Eskilstuna.png|70px]]|
map=[[Image:svcmap sodermanland.png|120px]]<br>Eskilstuna Municipality in Södermanland County<br> [[Image:Södermanland County.png|160px]]
}}
'''Eskilstuna Municipality''' [&#x02d8;&#x025b;skilst&#x0289;&#x02d0;na] is a [[Municipalities of Sweden|Municipality]] in central [[Sweden]] between the [[lake]]s [[Mälaren]] and [[Hjälmaren]], where [[Eskilstuna]] is seat.
== Towns ==
* [[Eskilstuna]] 58,000
* [[Torshälla]] 7,000
== External links ==
* [http://www.eskilstuna.se Eskilstuna] - Official site
{{Södermanland County}}
[[Category:Municipalities of Sweden]]
[[Category:Municipalities of Södermanland County]]
[[fo:Eskilstuna kommuna]]
[[pl:Gmina Eskilstuna]]
[[sv:Eskilstuna kommun]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>European Convention on Human Rights</title>
<id>9830</id>
<revision>
<id>42047651</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:57:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lmno</username>
<id>43038</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Prohibition on retrospective criminal offences */ Hmmmmmm revert '''Bold text''' vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms''', also known as the '''European Convention on Human Rights''', was adopted under the auspices of the [[Council of Europe]]{{an|council}} in [[1950]] to protect [[human rights]] and fundamental [[freedom]]s. All Council of Europe member states are party to the Convention and new members are expected to ratify the convention at the earliest opportunity.
The Convention establishes the [[European Court of Human Rights]]. Any person who feels their rights have been violated under the Convention by a state party can take a case to the Court; the decisions of the Court are legally binding, and the Court has the power to award damages. State Parties can also take cases against other State Parties to the Court, although this power is rarely used.
The Convention has several protocols. For example, Protocol 6 prohibits the death penalty except in time of war. The protocols accepted varied from State Party to State Party, though it is understood that State Parties should be party to as many protocols as possible.
Prior to the entry into force of Protocol 11, individuals did not have direct access to the Court; they had to apply to the [[European Commission of Human Rights]], which if it found the case to be well-founded would launch a case in the Court on the individual's behalf. Protocol 11 abolished the Commission, enlarged the Court, and allowed individuals to take cases directly to it.
==Protocols==
As of late 2002, thirteen protocols to the Convention have been opened for signature. These can be divided into two main groups: those changing the machinery of the convention, and those adding additional rights to those protected by the convention.
===Protocols amendin |
most pro-Israeli groups. Among the controversial groups that has found support from some Evangelical churches is [[Jews for Jesus]], which claims that Jews can find their Jewish faith become complete by accepting Jesus as the [[Messiah]].
By contrast, the [[Presbyterian Church USA|Presbyterian Church (USA)]], the [[United Methodist Church]], and the [[United Church of Canada]] have ended their efforts to convert Jews.
[[Jew]]s and Jewish organizations have described evangelism directed specifically at Jews as anti-Semitic.[http://www.rickross.com/reference/jews_for_jesus/jews_for_jesus6.html][http://www.bnaibrith.ca/publications/audit1998/audit1998-07.html][http://torahatlanta.com/IntheNewsArticles/Portland.html][http://www.sullivan-county.com/news/mine/antisemitism.htm]
== Reconciliation between Judaism and Christian groups ==
{{main|Christian-Jewish reconciliation}}
In recent years there has been much to note in the way of reconciliation between some Christian groups and the Jews. Most of this reconciliation has occurred between the Jewish community and the Catholic Church, and some liberal Protestant Christian organizations.
== Kevin MacDonald's theory of Christian anti-Semitism ==
Professor [[Kevin B. MacDonald]] has attempted to account for Christian anti-Semitism within a broader theory of historical antagonism between Jews and gentiles, which he reads as a paradigm of more general conflicts between competing groups of human beings over evolutionary time. His reading of the [[Spanish Inquisition]], for example, is that it was an attempt by Spanish Christians to reverse the gains in economic and political power made by Jews who had converted, sometimes unwillingly, to Christianity in the medieval period. His wider conclusions are that Christian anti-Semitism has been at some times and in some ways a "mirror image" of the ethnocentrism, religious exclusivism, and "in-group" solidarity by which he accounts for Jewish success in finance and politics. MacDonald's analysis has been heavily criticized by the scientific community, ''[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]'' magazine and others, including [[Steven Pinker]] and [[John Tooby]], past president of the [[Human Behavior and Evolution Society]], as lacking in scientific foundation, and based on the discredited notion of [[group-selection theory]]; others have accused him of misrepresenting evidence. His theory has, however, received acclaim from [[white supremacist]]s.
==See also==
* [[Anti-Semitism]]
* [[Christian opposition to anti-Semitism]]
* [[Deicide]]
* [[Good Friday Prayer]]
* [[History of anti-Semitism]]
* [[Jews in the New Testament]]
* [[Judaism]]
* [[Judas Iscariot]]
* [[Martin Luther and Antisemitism]]
* [[Passion of the Christ]]
* [[Persecution of Christians]]
* [[Pogrom]]
* [[Pre-Adamite]]
* [[Religious pluralism]]
* [[Shoah]]
* [[Criticisms of Christianity]]
==External links==
* [http://www.icjs.org/what/njsp/dabruemet.html Dabru Emet]
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/jud_chrr.htm Relations between Christians and Jews]
* [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/anti-semitism/Christian.html Christian anti-Semitism]
* [http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/research/cjl/Documents/ICCJ_1993.htm Jews and Christians in Search of a Common Religious Basis for Contributing Towards a Better World]
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/sbc_pray.htm Southern Baptist views on Judaism and other faiths]
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_jcon.htm Attempts to convert Jews to Christianity, and responses]
* [http://www.orthodoxy.faithweb.com/antisem.htm Antisemitism and Eastern Orthodoxy]
* [http://www.yad-vashem.org.il/righteous/index_righteous.html Yad VaShem's "Righteous Among the Nations"]
* [http://www.sullivan-county.com/news/mine/timeline.htm Catholic Timeline on Antisemitism]
*[http://www.opinionjournal.com/taste/?id=110007002 Mainline churches launch a policy to punish Israel] by [[Eugene Kontorovich]], in the [[Wall Street Journal]], July 22, 2005.
==Further reading==
* "Christian Antisemitism: A History of Hate" by William Nicholls, 1993. Published by Jason Aronson Inc., 1995.
* "Mature Christianity: The Recognition and Repudiation of the Anti-Jewish Polemic in the New Testament" Norman A. Beck, Susquehanna Univ. Press, 1985
* "The Satanizing of the Jews: Origin and development of mystical anti-Semitism" Joel Carmichael, Fromm, 1993
* "The Origins of Anti-Semitism: Attitudes Toward Judaism in Pagan and Christian Antiquity" John G. Gager, Oxford Univ. Press, 1983
* "What Did They Think of the Jews?" Edited by Allan Gould, Jason Aronson Inc., 1991
* "The New Testament's Anti-Jewish Slander and Conventions of Ancient Polemic", Luke Johnson, Journal of Biblical Literature, Volume 3, 1989
* "Three Popes and the Jews" Pinchas E. Lapide, Hawthorne Books, 1967
* "National Socialism and the Roman Catholic Church" Nathaniel Micklem, Oxford Univ. Press, 1939
* Theological Anti-Semitism in the New Testament", Rosemary Radford Ruether, Christian Century, Feb. 1968, Vol. 85
* "John Chrysostom and the Jews" Robert L. Wilken, Univ. of California Press, Berkeley, 1983
*[http://www.beitshalom.org/articulo.aspx?i=en-us&c=54 "Anti-Semitism in the Church?" by Julio Dam]
[[Category:Anti-Semitism]]
[[Category:Christian viewpoints]]
[[Category:Jewish Christian topics]]
[[he:נצרות ואנטישמיות]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>C-17 Globemaster III</title>
<id>6731</id>
<revision>
<id>42155896</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:42:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>N328KF</username>
<id>77722</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Luftwaffe background */ ref</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">For other aircraft called Globemaster,see [[C-74 Globemaster]] and [[C-124 Globemaster II]]
[[image:c17.jpg|350px|thumb|The C-17 Globemaster III (P-38 is shown)]]
The '''C-17 Globemaster III''' is a [[strategic airlift]]er manufactured by [[Boeing Integrated Defense Systems|Boeing IDS]], used by the [[United States Air Force]] and the [[Royal Air Force]].
==Mission==
The C-17 Globemaster III is the newest purpose-built [[cargo aircraft]] to enter the [[U.S]] and [[western]] airforces. It is capable of rapid strategic delivery of troops and all types of [[cargo]] to main operating bases or directly to forward bases in the deployment area. This aircraft is also capable of performing [[tactical airlift]] and [[airdrop]] missions when required. The inherent flexibility and performance of the C-17 force improves the ability of the total airlift system to fulfill the worldwide air mobility requirements of the United States.
The ultimate measure of airlift effectiveness is the ability to rapidly project and sustain an effective combat force close to a potential battle area. In recent years the size and weight of U.S. mechanized firepower and equipment have grown, which has significantly increased air mobility requirements, particularly in the area of large or heavy outsize cargo. As a result, newer and more flexible airlift aircraft such as the C-17 are needed to meet potential armed contingencies, peacekeeping or humanitarian missions worldwide.
==Features==
The C-17 is powered by four, fully reversible, [[Pratt & Whitney PW2000|F117-PW-100]] [[turbofan]] engines (the [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] designation for the commercial Pratt and Whitney PW2040, currently used on the [[Boeing 757]].) Each engine is rated at 40,440 lb<sub>f</sub> (180 kN) of thrust. The thrust reversers direct the flow of air upward and forward. This facilitates a decreased rate of ingestion of foreign object debris (FOD) as well as reverse thrust capable of backing the aircraft. Additionally, the C-17's thrust reversers can be used at idle-reverse in flight for added drag in maximum-rate descents.
The aircraft is operated by a minimum crew of three (pilot, copilot, and loadmaster). Cargo is loaded onto the C-17 through a large aft door that accommodates both rolling stock (vehicles, trailers, etc.) and palletized cargo. The cargo floor has rollers (used for palletized cargo) that can be flipped to provide a flat floor suitable for rolling stock. One of the larger pieces of rolling stock that this aircraft can carry is the 70-ton M1 main battle tank.
Maximum payload capacity of the C-17 is 170,900 lb (77,500 kg), and its [[Maximum Take-Off Weight|maximum gross takeoff weight]] is 585,000 lb (265,350 kg). With a payload of 160,000 lb (72,600 kg) and an initial cruise altitude of 28,000 ft (8,500 m), the C-17 has an unrefueled range of approximately 2,400 nautical miles (4,400 km) on the first 71 units, and 2,800 nautical miles (5,200 km) on all subsequent units, which are extended-range models with an additional fuel tank in the center wing box. Its cruise speed is approximately 450 knots (833 km/h) (.74 Mach). The C-17 is designed to airdrop 102 [[paratrooper]]s and equipment.
The C-17 is designed to operate from runways as short as 3,000 ft (900 m) and as narrow as 90 ft (27 m). In addition, the C-17 can operate out of unpaved, unimproved runways (although this is rarely done due to the increased possibility of damage to the aircraft). The thrust reversers can be used to back the aircraft and reverse direction on narrow taxiways using a three-point (or in some cases, multi-point) turn maneuver.
==Background==
[[Image:Air_force_globemasters_unload_supplies_in_mississippi_aug_31_2005.jpg|thumb|250px|right|August 31, 2005: Three C-17s unload supplies to aid victims of [[Hurricane Katrina]] at [[Keesler Air Force Base]] in [[Mississippi]].]]
In the 1970s, USAF began looking for a replacement for the [[C-130 Hercules]] tactical airlifter. The [[Advanced Medium STOL Transport]] (AMST) competition was held, with [[Boeing Integrated Defense Sy |
a successful war of resistance (see [[Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)]]). The Greeks were routed and Smyrna fell to the Turks in August [[1922]]. Subsequently more than a million Greeks were expelled from Turkish territory (in exchange 500,000 Turks and a large number of Albanians and Bulgarians were expelled from Greece), and Greece was forced to yield eastern [[Thrace]], [[Imbros]] and [[Tenedos]] to Turkey. This catastrophe marked the end of the ''[[Megali Idea]]''.
==Republic and Monarchy (1920&ndash;1940)==
King Alexander died suddenly in October [[1920]], having been bitten by a monkey. A few days later Venizelos was defeated at elections and Dimitrios Rallis, a well-known Royalist, became Prime Minister. After a disputed plebiscite, Constantine returned to the throne. The traumas of the war and postwar years left Greece bankrupt, demoralised and bitterly divided between Venizelist republicans and conservative monarchists, and struggling to absorb the flood of refugees from Turkey. Nevertheless these events, by killing off the ''Megali Idea'' and producing a more ethnically homogenous country, helped produce a more stable and realistic Greek politics.
Greek politics between the two World Wars was a struggle for power between monarchists and republicans. King Constantine was forced to abdicate in September [[1922]] and was succeeded by his son [[George II of Greece|George II]]. But Greeks blamed the monarchy for the disaster of [[1922]] and at the [[1923]] elections Venizelos's Liberal Party won a sweeping victory. Greece was proclaimed a [[republic]] on [[March 25]], [[1924]]. The republic, however, was weak and unstable, and in [[1925]] General [[Theodoros Pangalos (general)|Theodoros Pangalos]] seized power in a military coup. He was overthrown by a second coup in August [[1926]]. In [[1928]] Venizelos returned from exile and led the Liberals back to power. He concluded a series of treaties with Greece's neighbours, including Turkey, settling outstanding issues.
Greece, as a poor country dependent on agricultural exports, was hard hit by the [[Great Depression]] of the [[1930s]]. Matters were made worse by the closing off of emigration to the [[United States]], the traditional safety-valve of rural poverty. High unemployment and consequent social unrest resulted, and the [[Communist Party of Greece]] made rapid advances. Venizelos was forced to default on Greece's national debt in [[1932]], and he fell from office for the last time in [[1933]]. He was succeeded by a monarchist government led by [[Panagiotis Tsaldaris]]. The republican constitution was revoked, and George II returned to the throne in October [[1935]]. In a plebiscite in November (which was boycotted by the opposition), 97 percent voted in favour of the restoration. Venizelos, in exile, urged an end to the conflict over the monarchy in view of the threat to Greece from the rise of [[fascism|Fascist]] [[Italy]]. His successors as Liberal leader, [[Themistoklis Soufoulis]] and [[George Papandreou, senior|George Papandreou]], accepted this view.
In [[1936]] King George appointed General [[Ioannis Metaxas]] as Prime Minister. Metaxas, believing that an authoritarian government was necessary to prevent social conflict and prepare Greece for what seemed an inevitable war with Italy, soon established a dictatorship, with the King's support. The Communists were suppressed and the Liberal leaders went into exile. Metaxas spent the next three years building up the Greek military. This proved wise when Italy annexed [[Albania]] in April [[1939]]. When [[World War II]] broke out in September 1939, Greece remained neutral, while welcoming Britain's guarantee of Greece's territorial integrity. In October [[1940]], Italy fabricated an incident on the Greek&ndash;Albanian border, and presented Greece with a humiliating ultimatum. Metaxas sent a famous one-word telegram: ''Ohi!'' ("No!").
==World War and Civil war (1940&ndash;1949)==
Italian troops crossed the border on [[October 28]], [[1940]], but determined Greek defenders drove the invaders back into [[Albania]] (see [[Greco-Italian_War]]). Metaxas died suddenly in January [[1941]]: he had been transformed from an unpopular dictator into a national leader by his defiance of Mussolini, and his death was a great loss. [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] was reluctantly forced to divert German troops to rescue Mussolini from defeat, and attacked Greece through [[Yugoslavia]] and [[Bulgaria]] on [[April 6]], [[1941]]. The Greeks sought British assistance, which soon arrived, but they stubbornly insisted on defending Macedonia and Thrace against the German invaders, when their only strategic hope was to withdraw to a defensive line on the [[Aliákmon]] river south of Thessaloniki. By the end of May, the Germans had overrun most of the country, although Greek resistance was never entirely suppressed. The King and the government escaped to Crete, where they stayed until the end of the [[Battle of Crete]]. They then transferred to [[Egypt]], where a government in exile was established.
Greece suffered terrible privations during [[World War II]], since the Germans appropriated most of the country's agricultural production and prevented its fishing fleets from operating. By [[1944]] the Greeks were starving. Several resistance movements sprang up in the mountains, and soon the Germans controlled only the main towns and the connecting roads. The largest resistance group, the National Popular Liberation Army ([[Ethnikos Laikos Apeleftherotikos Stratos|ELAS)]], was controlled by the [[Communist Party of Greece|Communists]], and a civil war soon broke out between it and non-Communist groups such as the National Republican Greek League (EDES) in those areas liberated from the Germans. The royalist government in [[Cairo]] was only intermittently in touch with the resistance movement, and failed to appreciate how unpopular the monarchy had become in Greece.
German forces withdrew in October [[1944]], and the government in exile returned to [[Athens]]. After the German withdrawal, ELAS controlled most of the country, and its leaders were determined to take control of the country, although [[Joseph Stalin| Stalin]] had agreed that Greece would be in the British sphere of influence after the war and he gave the Greek Communists little encouragement. A demonstration by resistance forces in Athens on [[December 3]], [[1944]] ended in violence and was followed by an intense, house-to-house battle with British and monarchist forces. After three weeks, the Communists were defeated and an unstable coalition government was formed. Continuing tensions led to the outbreak of civil war in [[1946]]. First Britain and later the [[United States]] gave extensive military and economic aid to the Greek government (See: [[Greek Civil War]]).
Communist successes in [[1947]]&ndash;[[1948|48]] enabled them to move freely over much of mainland Greece, but with extensive reorganization and American material support, the Greek National Army was slowly able to regain control over most of the countryside. Yugoslavia closed its borders to the insurgent forces in [[1949]], after Marshal [[Tito]] of Yugoslavia broke with the [[Soviet Union]].
In August [[1949]], the National Army under Marshal [[Alexander Papagos]] launched a final offensive that forced the remaining insurgents to surrender or flee across the northern border into the territory of Greece's communist neighbors. The civil war resulted in 100,000 killed and caused catastrophic economic disruption. In addition, at least 25,000 Greeks and an unspecified number of Macedonian-Slavs were either voluntarily or forcibly evacuated to [[Eastern bloc]] countries, while 700,000 became displaced persons inside the country. Many more emigrated to [[Australia]] and other countries.
The postwar settlement saw Greece's territorial expansion, which had begun in [[1832]], finally come to an end. The [[1947]] [[Paris Peace Treaties, 1947|Treaty of Paris]] required [[Italy]] to hand over the [[Dodecanese]] islands to Greece. These were the last Greek-speaking areas to be united with the Greek state, leaving only [[Northern Epirus]], parts of [[Northern Macedonia]] in [[Yugoslavia]] and [[Bulgaria]] the islands of [[Imvros]] and [[Tenedos]] and [[Cyprus]], a British possession, under foreign rule. Greece's ethnic homogeneity was enhanced by the postwar expulsion of 25,000 Albanians from Epirus. The only significant remaining minorities were about 100,000 Turks in eastern Thrace and a substantial Slav-Macedonian minority in the north.
==Postwar Greece (1950&ndash;present)==
After the civil war, Greece sought to join the Western democracies and became a member of [[NATO]] in [[1952]]. From [[1952]] to late [[1963]], Greece was governed by conservative parties: the [[Greek Rally]] of Marshal [[Alexander Papagos]], and its successor, the [[National Radical Union]] (ERE) of [[Constantine Karamanlis]]. In [[1963]], the [[Center Union Party]] of [[George Papandreou, senior|George Papandreou]] was elected, and governed until July [[1965]]. It was followed by a succession of unstable coalition governments.
On [[April 21]], [[1967]], just before scheduled elections, a group of right-wing colonels led by Colonel [[George Papadopoulos]] seized power in a [[coup d'état]] establishing the [[Greek military junta of 1967-1974|Regime of the Colonels]]. Civil liberties were suppressed, special military courts were established, and political parties were dissolved. Several thousand suspected communists and political opponents were imprisoned or exiled to remote Greek islands. "The junta" was given at least tacit support by the United States as a [[Cold War]] ally, due to its proximity to the [[Eastern European]] [[Soviet bloc]], and the fact that the previous [[Harry Truman|Truman administration]] had given the country millions of dollars in economic aid to discourage [[Commun |
n conductor (b. [[1877]])
*[[1963]] - [[Sylvia Plath]], American writer (b. [[1932]])
*[[1968]] - [[Howard Lindsay]], American playwright (b. [[1888]])
*[[1972]] - [[Jan Wils]], Dutch architect (b. [[1891]])
*[[1973]] - [[Hans D Jensen]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] physicist (b. [[1907]])
*[[1976]] - [[Lee J Cobb]], American actor (b. [[1911]])
*1976 - [[Alexander Lippisch]], German scientist (b. [[1894]])
*[[1977]] - [[Louis Beel]], [[Prime Minister of the Netherlands]] (b. [[1902]])
*[[1978]] - [[James B Conant]], American chemist and university president (b. [[1893]])
*1978 - [[Harry Martinson]], Swedish writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1904]])
*[[1982]] - [[Eleanor Powell]], American actress and dancer (b. [[1912]])
*1982 - [[Takashi Shimura]], Japanese actor (b. [[1905]])
*[[1985]] - [[Ben Abruzzo]], American businessman and balloonist (b. [[1930]])
*1985 - [[Henry Hathaway]], American actor and director (b. [[1898]])
*1985 - [[Heinz Eric Roemheld]], American composer (b. [[1901]])
*[[1986]] - [[Frank Herbert]], American author (b. [[1920]])
*[[1987]] - [[Sadequain]], famous Pakistani painter and artist. (b. [[1930]])
*[[1989]] - [[George O'Hanlon]], American actor and director (b. [[1912]])
*[[1993]] - [[Robert W. Holley]], American biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1922]])
*[[1994]] - [[Neil Bonnett]], American race car driver (b. [[1946]])
*1994 - [[Sorrell Booke]], American actor (b. [[1930]])
*1994 - [[William Conrad]], American actor (b. [[1920]])
*[[1996]] - [[Kebby Musokotwane]], [[Prime Minister of Zambia]] (b. [[1946]])
*1996 - [[Cyril Poole]], English cricketer (b. [[1921]])
*1996 - [[Amelia Rosselli]], Italian poet (b. [[1930]])
*[[1997]] - [[Barry Evans]], English actor (b. [[1943]])
*1997 - [[Don Porter]], American actor (b. [[1912]])
*[[2000]] - [[Roger Vadim]], French director (b. [[1928]])
*[[2002]] - [[Frankie Crosetti|Frank Crosetti]], baseball player (b. [[1910]])
*2002 - [[Barry Foster (actor)|Barry Foster]], British actor (b. [[1931]])
*[[2005]] - [[Jack L. Chalker]], American author (b. [[1944]])
*[[2006]] - [[Jockey Shabalala]], South African singer ([[Ladysmith Black Mambazo]]) (b. [[1943]])
<!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Holidays and observances==
* [[Catholicism]] - Feast day of [[Our Lady of Lourdes]].
* [[World Day of the Sick]].
* [[National Foundation Day]] in [[Japan]] (See [[Holidays of Japan]].)
* [[National Youth Day]] in [[Cameroon]].
* [[Professor Leets' Day]] in the [[United States]].
* [[Inventor's Day|National Inventors' Day]] in the [[United States]].
==External links==
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&day=11 On this day in Canada]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060211.html NY Times: On this day]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/11 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[February 10]] - [[February 12]] - [[January 11]] - [[March 11]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:11 Februarie]]
[[ang:11 Solmōnaþ]]
[[ar:11 فبراير]]
[[an:11 de frebero]]
[[ast:11 de febreru]]
[[bg:11 февруари]]
[[be:11 лютага]]
[[bs:11. februar]]
[[ca:11 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 11]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 11]]
[[co:11 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:11. únor]]
[[cy:11 Chwefror]]
[[da:11. februar]]
[[de:11. Februar]]
[[et:11. veebruar]]
[[el:11 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:11 de febrero]]
[[eo:11-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 11]]
[[fo:11. februar]]
[[fr:11 février]]
[[fy:11 febrewaris]]
[[ga:11 Feabhra]]
[[gl:11 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 11일]]
[[hr:11. veljače]]
[[io:11 di februaro]]
[[id:11 Februari]]
[[ia:11 de februario]]
[[ie:11 februar]]
[[is:11. febrúar]]
[[it:11 febbraio]]
[[he:11 בפברואר]]
[[jv:11 Februari]]
[[ka:11 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:11 gromicznika]]
[[ku:11'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 11]]
[[lb:11. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 11]]
[[mk:11 февруари]]
[[ms:11 Februari]]
[[nap:11 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:11 februari]]
[[ja:2月11日]]
[[no:11. februar]]
[[nn:11. februar]]
[[oc:11 de febrièr]]
[[pl:11 lutego]]
[[pt:11 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:11 februarie]]
[[ru:11 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 11.]]
[[sco:11 Februar]]
[[sq:11 Shkurt]]
[[scn:11 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 11]]
[[sk:11. február]]
[[sl:11. februar]]
[[sr:11. фебруар]]
[[fi:11. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:11 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 11]]
[[tt:11. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 11]]
[[th:11 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:11 tháng 2]]
[[tr:11 Şubat]]
[[uk:11 лютого]]
[[wa:11 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 11]]
[[zh:2月11日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 11]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Feminism</title>
<id>11185</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42152753</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:09:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pollinator</username>
<id>22743</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/208.42.140.210|208.42.140.210]] ([[User talk:208.42.140.210|talk]]) to last version by KimvdLinde</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Feminism''' is a diverse collection of [[social theory|social theories]], [[political movement]]s, and [[ethics|moral philosophies]], largely motivated by or concerning the experiences of women, especially in terms of their social, political, and economic situation. As a social movement, feminism largely focuses on limiting or eradicating [[gender gap|gender inequality]] and promoting women's [[right]]s, interests, and issues in [[society]]. It also incorporates concern about the effect of [[gender roles]] on men, and encouragement for men to change and transcend traditional male roles and [[social norm|norms]] of [[masculinity]].
Within [[academia]], some feminists focus on documenting gender inequalities that oppress women and on changes in the social position and representation of women. Others argue that [[gender]], and even [[sex]], are social constructs, and research the construction of [[gender]] and [[sexuality]], and develop alternate models for studying [[social relations]].
Some feminist scholars, in echoes of [[anarchist]] feminists like [[Emma Goldman]], have posited that the [[hierarchy|hierarchies]] in businesses and government and all organizations need to be replaced with a decentralized ultra-[[democracy]]. Some argue that having any central leader in any organization is derived from the [[androcentrism|androcentric]] family structure (and therefore needs reform and replacement), and thus such scholars see the essence of feminism as beyond the surface issues of sex and gender.
Feminist political [[activism|activists]] commonly campaign on issues such as [[reproductive rights]] (including but not limited to the right to choose an [[abortion]], the elimination of legal restrictions on abortion, and access to [[Birth control|contraception]]), [[domestic violence|violence]] within a [[domestic partnership]], [[parental leave|maternity leave]], [[equal pay for women|equal pay]], [[sexual harassment]], [[street harassment]], [[discrimination]], and [[rape|sexual violence]]. Themes explored in feminism include [[patriarchy]], [[Stereotype|stereotyping]], [[objectification]], [[sexual objectification]], and [[oppression]].
In the 1960s and 1970s, much of feminism and feminist theory represented, and was concerned with, problems faced by [[Western world|Western]], white, middle-class women while claiming to represent all women. Since then, many feminist theorists have challenged the assumption that "women" constitute a homogeneous group of individuals with identical interests. Feminist activists emerged from within diverse communities, and feminist theorists began to focus on the intersection of gender and sexuality with other social identities, such as [[race]] and [[Social class|class]]. Many feminists today argue that feminism is a [[Grassroots democracy|grass-roots]] movement that seeks to cross boundaries based on social class, race, [[culture]], and [[religion]]; is culturally specific and addresses issues relevant to the women of that [[society]] (for example [[female genital cutting]] in [[Africa]] or the [[glass ceiling]] in developed economies); and debate the extent to which certain issues, such as [[rape]], [[incest]], and [[Mother|mothering]], are universal.
As of 2005, a number of [[Feminist Initiative|feminist political parties]] have formed.
==Origins==
{{main|History of feminism}}
[[Image:Early_feminists.jpg|thumb|250px|First International Convention of Women in [[Washington D.C.]] [[Susan B. Anthony]] is third from the left, front row.]]
Feminism as a [[philosophy]] and movement in the modern sense may be usefully dated to [[Age of Enlightenment|The Enlightenment]] with such thinkers as [[Lady Mary Wortley Montagu]] and the [[Marquis de Condorcet]] championing women's education. The first [[scientific society]] for women was founded in [[Middelburg]], a city in the south of the [[Dutch Republic|Dutch republic]], in [[1785]]. Journals for women which focused on issues like science became popular during this period as well. [[Mary Wollstonecraft]]'s ''[[A Vindication of the Rights of Woman]]'' ([[1792]]) is one of the first works that can unambiguously be called feminist.
Feminism became an organized movement in the [[19th century]] as people increasingly came to believe that women were being treated unfairly. The feminist movement was rooted in the progressive movement and especially in the [[reform movement]] of the [[19th century]]. The [[Utopian socialism|utopian socialist]] [[Charles Fourier]] coined the word ''féminisme'' in [[1837]]; as early as [[1808]], he had argued that the extension of women's rights was the general principle of all social progress. The organized movement was dated from the first women's rights convention at [[Seneca Falls convention|Seneca Falls]], New York, in [[1848]]. In 1869, [[John Stuart Mill]] published [[The Subjection of Women]] to demons |
to Holland]]"
* [[The Kingdom (television)|The Kingdom]] and its American counterpart, ''[[Kingdom Hospital]]''
* [[Elizabeth Laird]]: ''Red Sky in the Morning''
* [[Stephen King]]: "[[Dreamcatcher (novel)|Dreamcatcher]]"
* [[Dean Koontz]]: "[[The Bad Place (novel)|The Bad Place]]"
* [[Alex Ginnsz]]: "[[Duo (film)|Duo]]"
* [[Flannery O'Connor]]: ''[[The Violent Bear It Away]]''
* [[Benjamin Compson]]: ''[[The Sound and the Fury]]''
== Sources ==
* Hook EB. Rates of chromosomal abnormalities at different maternal ages. ''Obstet Gynecol'' 1981;58:282.
* [http://www.intellectualdisability.info/values/history_DS.htm 2:www.intellectualdisability.info/values/history_DS.htm]
* [http://www.ds-health.com/mosaic.htm 3:www.ds-health.com/mosaic.htm]
* [http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99992073 4:www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99992073]
* [http://www.cdss.ca/en/about_us/policies_and_statements/down_syndrome.htm 5:www.cdss.ca/en/about_us/policies_and_statements/down_syndrome.htm]
* [http://www.ds-health.com/ 6:www.ds-health.com]
* [http://www.ndss.org/content.cfm?fuseaction=InfoRes.HlthArticle&article=19 7:www.ndss.org/content.cfm?fuseaction=InfoRes.HlthArticle&article=19]
== Further reading ==
* ''Down Syndrome: The Facts.'' (1997), Selikowitz, M.(2nd ed.). Oxford, UK; New York, NY, USA: Oxford University Press.
* ''Down Syndrome: A Promising Future, Together.'' (1999), Hassold, T. J. and Patterson, D. (Eds.). New York, NY, USA: Wiley Liss.
* ''Count us in - Growing up with Down syndrome.'' (1994) Kingsley, J. and Levitz, M. (1994) San Diego, CA, USA: Harcourt Brace.
* ''Medical and Surgical Care for Children with Down Syndrome: A Guide for Parents.'' (1995) Van Dyke, D. C., Mattheis, P. J., Schoon Eberly, S., and Williams, J. Bethesda, MD, USA: Woodbine House.
* ''Adolescents with Down Syndrome: Toward a More Fulfilling Life.'' (1997) Pueschel, S. M. and Sustrova M. (Eds.) Baltimore, MA, USA: Paul H. Brookes Pub.
* ''Living with Down syndrome'' (2000), Buckley, S. Portsmouth, UK: The Down Syndrome Educational Trust. Also available online: http://www.down-syndrome.info/library/dsii/01/01/
* ''Expecting Adam'' (1999), Beck, Martha N. Ph.D., New York, NY, USA: Berkley Books.
*''Choosing Naia: A Family's Journey'' (2002), Zuckoff, Mitchell, New York, NY, USA: Beacon Press.
== External links ==
* [http://www.cdss.ca Canadian Down Syndrome Society]
* [http://www.imdsa.com International Mosaic Down Syndrome Association]
* [http://www.alldownsyndrome.com AllDownSyndrome.com]
* [http://www.duo.agprods.com The Official Site of the Film Duo, starring Stephane Ginnsz]
* [http://www.stephane.ginnsz.com Stephane Ginnsz, Actor with Down Syndrome - Official Website]
* [http://www.downsed.org/about/overview/key-facts-EN-GB.htm Key facts about Down syndrome]
* [http://www.down-syndrome.info/library/dsii/01/01/DSii-01-01-EN-GB.htm Living with Down syndrome (Online book)]
* [http://www.down-syndrome.info/ Down Syndrome Information web site]
* [http://www.ndss.org/ National Down Syndrome Society web site]
* [http://www.ndsccenter.org/ National Down Syndrome Congress web site]
* [http://www.downsyn.com/ Down Syndrome: For New Parents]
* [http://www.downsed.org/ The Down Syndrome Educational Trust web site]
* [http://www.dsrf.org/ Down Syndrome Research Foundation web site]
* [http://www.dsa-uk.com/ UK Down's Syndrome Association web site]
* [http://www.down-syndrome.info/library/periodicals/dsrp/06/1/019/DSRP-06-1-019-EN-GB.htm Information on the original description of Down syndrome]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9211/down.htm Down Syndrome]
* [http://www.nelh.nhs.uk/screening/dssp/procedures.htm Down Syndrome testing in UK]
* [http://www.laptopical.com/news/laptop-education-19352.html Down Syndrome child learning with laptops]
* [http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/downsyndrome/down.htm Genetics of Down Syndrome]
* [http://www.ygyh.org/ds/whatisit.htm Your Genes/Your Health information on Down syndrome]
* [http://www.ds-health.com/ Down syndrome: Health Issues. Medical Essays and Information]
[[Category:Congenital genetic disorders]]
[[Category:Disability]]
[[Category:Eponymous diseases]]
[[Category:Pediatrics]]
[[da:Downs syndrom]]
[[de:Down-Syndrom]]
[[es:Síndrome de Down]]
[[fr:Syndrome de Down]]
[[he:תסמונת דאון]]
[[it:Sindrome di Down]]
[[ja:ダウン症候群]]
[[ko:다운증후군]]
[[nl:Syndroom van Down]]
[[no:Downs syndrom]]
[[pl:Zespół Downa]]
[[pt:Síndrome de Down]]
[[ru:Болезнь Дауна]]
[[fi:Downin syndrooma]]
[[sv:Downs syndrom]]
[[zh:唐氏综合症]]
[[sr:Даунов синдром]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dyslexia</title>
<id>8305</id>
<revision>
<id>42088441</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:23:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rfrisbie</username>
<id>896545</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */ added one</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{expert}}
{{unreferenced}}
{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
ICD10 = F81.0, R48.0 |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|315.02}}, {{ICD9|784.61}} |
}}
'''Dyslexia''' is said to be a [[neurological disorder]] with [[biochemistry|biochemical]] and [[genetics|genetic]] markers. Dyslexia was originally defined as a difficulty with reading and writing that could not be explained by general intelligence. One diagnostic approach is to compare their ability in areas such as reading and writing to that which would be predicted by his or her general level of [[Intelligence (trait)|intelligence]], but some would say that it is not certain that intelligence should be a predictor of reading or writing ability; and also that the causes, effects and treatments of reading disabilities may be similar for all levels of intelligence.
However, as has been discovered only in the last decade, individuals may read and write perfectly and still have dyslexia (see [[#Characteristics|characteristics]] below), but this is disputed. Other contradictions are also said to exist among those diagnosed with dyslexia seeming to point to the fact that dyslexia is a highly complicated disorder. [[Neuroscience|Neuroscientific]], [[psychology|psychological]], and [[education|educational]] research is still needed to understand the scope of dyslexia.
There are alternative definitions of dyslexia and much debate over the definition of dyslexia and how best to treat it. The [[British Psychological Society]] does not describe it as a mental condition or neurological disorder:
: "It is very common to try and deal with dyslexia as if it is a mental condition, with one test and one feature but that is just not the case" {{Ref|BPS2004Court}}.
The British Dyslexia Association defines dyslexia as 'a difference in the brain area that deals with language'.
The BPS does not link dyslexia with intelligence in their definition:
: "Dyslexia is evident when accurate fluent word reading and or spelling develops incompletely or with great difficulty. This focuses on literacy learning at the 'word level' and implies that the problem is severe and persistent despite appropriate learning opportunity"
: "Learning difficulties of a Dyslexic nature are not defined by general ability as measured by IQ, but by cognitive processes under-pinning basic literacy. Learners representing a wide range of general ability and IQ can have dyslexic problems".
The term was coined in 1884 by R. Berlin {{Ref|BerlinR1884}}. People are diagnosed as '''dyslexic''' when their reading problems cannot be explained by a lack of intellectual ability, inadequate instruction, or sensory problems such as poor eyesight. Because reading is a complex mental process, dyslexia has many potential causes. From a neurophysiological perspective, dyslexia can be diagnosed by close inspection of the morphology of the [[brain]], usually upon [[autopsy]]. Dyslexia is also associated with [[phonology|phonological]] difficulties, such as [[enunciation]].
== Debate and Controversy ==
There is much debate and indeed controversy over the definition, cause and treatment of dyslexia. Here is an attempt to summarize some of the viewpoints expressed on the subject. Other parts of this article will discuss the correctness or otherwise of these viewpoints.
==== Viewpoint 1: 'Dyslexia is simply reading difficulty, and is also easily explained and cured' ====
This point of view is relatively uncommon among the general public and dyslexics themselves, but is said to be very popular among the scientific community involved with education - see the [[#References]] at the bottom on this article.
: '''Cause:''' ''This point of view contends that:''
:# Dyslexia is primarily caused by insufficient quality of education, both in the home (such as letting young children watch TV instead of reading nursery rhymes to them) and in the classroom (such as teachers using [[whole language]] and other novel teaching schemes to the exclusion of traditional [[Phonics#Theory and alternatives|Phonics]]).
:# There may be some genetic or hereditary factors or even nutritional factors that may modify a child's desire or ability to read, but they do not cause a problem which can't be fixed with a little early extra traditional education.
:# Reading and writing are fundamental basic processes that almost every human is perfectly capable of, along with speech and walking. :# Some say there may be a very small group (<1%) of people who really do have severe difficulties with reading that can't be solved with traditional education, but this is not relevant to the diagnosis and treatment of the ~10% of people described as dyslexic today.
: '''Treatment:''' ''This point of view contends that:''
:# Traditional teaching methods are the only proven methods for teaching reading.
:# There is no scientific evidence that novel methods such as coloured glasses or physical coordination exercises have any effect.
:# While some children may require more help than others, incl |
ike the background penguins]]
===Other===
[[Bristol Zoo]] was the home to a very rare albino [[African penguin]] named Snowdrop. Snowdrop was hatched at the zoo in October 2002 and died in August 2004. For many years, a unique albino [[gorilla]] named [[Floquet de Neu]] (Snowflake) was the most famous resident of the Parc Zoològic de [[Barcelona]]. An albino [[humpback whale]] travels up and down the east coast of Australia, and has become famous in the local media. The whale is called Migaloo (the [[Indigenous Australians|Aboriginal]] word for "white lad").
Medical science and [[toxicology]] can take advantage of the standardized lack of pigment in albino animals in testing for materials' chemical properties. An example of such a test is the test for corrosiveness, which is a skin exposure test performed on albino rabbits.
The [[2004]] book [[Weird U.S.]] chronicled (and further popularized) one of the lesser known "local myths" of the country, Albino Colonies. The book uses firsthand accounts mailed to the authors to paint a picture of various locations in the [[U.S.]] (most notably [[Clifton, New Jersey]]) where colonies of albino families and neighbors live in seclusion. The accounts tell tales of honking horns to try to bring the albinos out of their houses, being shot at with [[rock salt]] by albinos, and even [[vigilante|vigilantism]] by gangs of albinos.
==Famous people with albinism==
*[[Pierre Bourgault]]: [[Québécois]] politician DISPUTED: there are pictures taken circa 1960 that show him with dark hair and eyebrows
*[[Cano Estremera]]: [[Puerto Rico|Puerto Rican]] [[salsa music|salsa]] musician
*[[Li Yipeng]], [[Lee Hsien Loong]]'s son
*[[Stanley Kaoni]]: [[Solomon Islands|Solomon Islander]] militant leader
*[[Salif Keita]]: [[Mali]]an popular musician
*[[Hermeto Pascoal]]: Brazilian [[jazz]] musician
*[[Piano Red]]: American [[blues]] musician
*[[Nestor Sánchez]]: [[Cuba]]n singer
*[[William Archibald Spooner]]: [[Anglican]] priest
*[[Yellowman]]: Jamaican [[dancehall]] musician
*[[Al beeno]]: Jamaican dancehall musician
*[[Edgar Winter]]: American rock musician
*[[Johnny Winter]]: American [[blues]] musician
*[[Tony Evans]]: American newspaper columnist
*[[Brother Ali]] : American [[hip hop music|hip hop]] MC
*[[Connie Chiu]] : Photo model for [[Jean-Paul Gaultier]]
*Juan Di Natale: Argentinian reporter and radio-TV presenter.
==See also==
* [[Vitiligo]] (or leukoderma), the patchy loss of skin pigmentation
* [[Melanism]] (or melanosis), the condition of having too much skin pigmentation
* [[Leucism]], a similar condition in animals, characterized by reduced pigmentation
==Publications==
* '''Albino Animals''' by Kelly Milner Halls. Darby Creek Publishing (March, 2004) ISBN 1581960123
==External links==
{{Wiktionarypar|Albino}}
{{commons|Albinos}}
'''Albinism in humans:'''
* [http://www.albinism.org.uk The UK Albinism Fellowship]
* [http://www.albinism.org NOAH The National Organization for Albinism and Hypopigmentation USA]
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Albinism_International/ Albinism International] Online Support Community for people with albinism and their family members
* [http://www.lunaeterna.net/popcult Albinism in Popular Culture]
* [http://sd.gospelcom.net/072.html Biblical references] - [[William Blake]]'s Ancient of Days was based upon the Revelation of St John the Divine, 1:14: *:"His head and hair were white like wool, as white as snow, and His eyes like a flame of fire*
* [http://www.wired.com/news/culture/0,1284,58599,00.html Pale Riders Who Wear Black Hats] - Wired News article on albinism in cinema
* [http://www.michaelstevenson.com/contemporary/exhibitions/hugo/albino.htm Portraits of People with albinism] by Pieter Hugo
*http://home10.inet.tele.dk/brandt/albeng.htm People with albinism from [[Zimbabwe]]
'''Albinism in animals:'''
* [http://www.messybeast.com/albinism/albinism.htm Albino Animals] - Albino and white mammals and birds
* [http://allaboutfrogs.org/weird/strange/albino.html Albino frogs]
* [http://freshaquarium.about.com/cs/cyprinids2/p/albinotigerbarb.htm Albino Tiger Barb]
* [http://animal-world.com/encyclo/fresh/catfish/acory.php Albino Corydorus paleatus]
'''Spanish Spoken Organizations:'''
*[http://www.albinismo.org OLA-Organización Latinoamericana de Albinismo]
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/albinismo_latinoamericano Comunidad Electrónica de OLA]
[[Category:Congenital genetic disorders]]
[[bg:Албинизъм]]
[[da:Albinisme]]
[[de:Albinismus]]
[[es:Albinismo]]
[[eo:Albinismo]]
[[fr:Albinisme]]
[[it:Albinismo]]
[[he:לבקנות]]
[[nl:Albinisme]]
[[ja:アルビノ]]
[[no:Albinisme]]
[[pl:Albinizm]]
[[pt:Albinismo]]
[[fi:Albinismi]]
[[sv:Albino]]
[[uk:Альбінізм]]
[[zh:白化症]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amr Diab</title>
<id>2911</id>
<revision>
<id>40729629</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T16:55:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wedian</username>
<id>572073</id>
</contributor>
<comment>categorize in Egyptian singers</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_band
| band_name = Amr Diab
| image = [[Image:Kammel-Kalamak.jpg|200px]]
| country = [[Egypt]]/[[Middle east]]
| caption = Amr Diab's 2005 [[Kammel Kalamak]] Promotional Photo
| years_active = 1986&ndash;present
| music_genre = [[Arabic music]]
| }}
'''Amr Abdel Basset Abdel Aziz Diab''' ([[October 11]], [[1961]] in [[Port Said]], [[Egypt]]). Known as Amr Diab, is one of the most successful singers in the [[Arab]] world.
==Biography==
Amr Diab was born in [[Port Said]], [[Egypt]] into an artistic family. His father, Abdul Basset Diab, worked for the Suez Canal Corporation where he was chairman of Marine Construction and Shipbuilding. He possessed a fine singing voice and encouraged the young Amr to sing.
One evening, when Amr was just six years old, his father took him to the [[July 23]] Festival at Port Said There they visited the local broadcasting station and Amr made his first singing appearance on Egyptian Radio performing the National Anthem "Biladi, Biladi". He was praised by the Governor of Port Said who awarded him with a guitar as a prize.
In due course Amr began his musical studies at the music faculty of the Cairo Academy of Art and from which he graduated in 1986. His first album "Ya Tareeq" followed shortly. It was an instant success. There have been, since then, a further 16 top selling albums in a prolific recording career which has established him as the super-star of the Arab world.
Amr has toured widely throughout his career organizing galas and performing concerts in countries as far flung as Australia, Canada, Europe & the USA.
In 1990 Amr was chosen to represent Egypt at the 5th Tournament of African Sports where he sang in English and French as well as Arabic. This concert was televised by satellite throughout the Arab world and highlighted on CNN. He became the first Arab artist to make a video clip and in a parallel career, has acted in several films including "Deahk We La'ab" (Laughter & Fun), a film which opened the Egyptian Film Festival in 1993. In this film, directed by Tarek Al Telmasani, Amr played opposite the world famous Egyptian actor Omar Sharif. In the film "Ice Cream in Gleem" directed by Khairi Bishara, Amr played the role of the main hero.
The singer has already been the subject of three biographies – Amr Diab, the owner of my heart, The Rebellious and Amr Diab, Star of the 20th Century. His nickname is Rebellious – due, it is said, to comparisons made with his contemporaries, in all aspects of life - his clothes, hairstyling, the performance and execution of his music, the melodies he composes and his many appearances at parties.
Amr became known for the new 'style' of his music which the Arabs came to call "Mediterranean Music" referring to its blend of Western and Arabic rhythms. He was named, by most satellite and TV stations, as the Best Singer in the Arab World throughout the nineties and continually sets new Arabic sales records with successive album releases.
1996 witnessed the release of "Nour El Ain" (Light Of The Eye – Sight) which was a tremendous success not only in the Middle East but throughout the entire world. The title track, and its English version "Habibi", was an international phenomenon, becoming a massive crossover hit in countries as far afield as India, Pakistan, Argentina, Chile, France and South Africa. The song was remixed by several top European arrangers and has become a big pull on the dance floors of Europe. The video clip, also produced by Alam El Phan for the song "Nour El Ain", was one of the most lavish and expensive productions in the field of Arab song, and set a new standard for his contemporaries to aspire to. "Nour El Ain" has become the best selling album ever released by an Arabic artist.
In 1997 Amr Diab won three Awards at the Annual Arabic Festival (for Best Video, Best Song and Artist of the Year).
In the following year, he received a Triple Platinum Award for the sales of "Nour El Ain", and received the Worldwide Music Award in Monaco on [[6 May]] [[1998]], under the patronage of H.S.H. Prince Albert of Monaco, and attended by such International luminaries as Gloria Estefan, Céline Dion, Mariah Carey, The Backstreet Boys, Steven Segal and many more. This award was the first of its kind for an Arabic artist, emphasising that his appeal is not just confined to the Middle East unlike the majority of his contemporaries.
His follow-up studio album entitled "Awedooni" was released in July 1998, and as for "Nour El Ain" it was produced with Hamid El Shary and recorded in Cairo, Egypt. The first video from the album, the title track "Awedooni", was shot by the river Nile in Egypt and directed by Tareq Al Aryan. L |
nt in history was [[February 23]]. An English law of [[1256]] decrees that in leap years the leap day and the day before are to be reckoned as one day for the purpose of calculating when a full year has passed; thus, in England and Wales a person born on February 29 legally reaches the age of 18 or 21 on [[February 28]] of the relevant year. In the [[European Union]], February 29 only officially became the leap day in 2000.
There is a [[tradition]] that women may make a proposal of marriage to men only on [[February 29]]; this is a tightening of an older tradition that such proposals may only occur in leap years. In 1288 the Scottish parliament legislated that any woman could propose in Leap Year. The man may, of course, refuse but, by tradition, he should soften the blow by providing a kiss, one pound currency and a pair of gloves (some later sources say a silk gown). This law was adopted in France, Switzerland and Italy and the tradition was carried to America.
In France, there is an humorous periodical called ''la Bougie du sapeur'' (the sapper's candle) published every [[February 29]] since 1980. The name is a reference to the [[sapeur Camembert]]. In 2004, the seventh number of ''la bougie du sapeur'', subtitled ''Dimanche'', was published. The eighth issue will be published in 2008.
==Events==
*1504 - [[Christopher Columbus]] uses his knowledge of a lunar [[eclipse]] that night to convince [[Native Americans (Americas)|Native Americans]] to provide him with supplies.
*1704 - [[Queen Anne's War]]: [[France|French]] forces and [[Native American (U.S.)|Native American]]s attack and destroy [[Deerfield, Massachusetts]], killing 100 men, women, and children.
*1712 - February 29 is followed by [[February 30]] in [[Sweden]], in a move to abolish the [[Swedish calendar]] for a return to the [[Julian calendar|Old style]].
*1720 - Queen [[Ulrika Eleonora of Sweden]] abdicates in favour of her husband who becomes King [[Frederick I of Sweden|Frederick I]]
*1864 - [[American Civil War]]: [[Kilpatrick-Dahlgren raid]] fails - Plans to free 15,000 [[United States|Union]] soldiers being held near [[Richmond, Virginia]] are thwarted.
*1892 - [[St. Petersburg, Florida]] incorporated.
*1916 - [[Child labor]]: In [[South Carolina]], the minimum [[working age]] for factory, mill, and mine workers is raised from twelve to fourteen years old.
*1932 - [[TIME]] magazine features eccentric [[United States|American]] politician [[William H. Murray|William "Alfalfa" Murray]] on its cover after Murray stated his intention to run for [[President of the United States]].
*1936 - [[Baby Snooks]], played by [[Fanny Brice]], debuts on the [[radio]] program [[The Ziegfeld Follies of the Air]].
*1940 - For her role as Mammy in ''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone with the Wind]]'', [[Hattie McDaniel]] becomes the first [[African American]] to win an [[Academy Award]].
*1940 - [[Finland]] initiates [[Winter War]] peace negotiations
*1944 - [[World War II]]: The [[Admiralty Islands]] are invaded in the American General [[Douglas MacArthur]]-led [[Operation Brewer]].
*1952 - The island of [[Heligoland]] is restored to [[Germany|German]] authority.
*1960 - An earthquake in [[Morocco]] kills over 3,000 people and nearly destroys [[Agadir]] in the southern part of the country.
*1964 - In [[Sydney]], Australian swimmer [[Dawn Fraser]] sets a new world record in the 100-meter freestyle [[swimming]] competition (58.9 seconds).
*1972 - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Vietnamization]] - [[South Korea]] withdraws 11,000 of its 48,000 troops from [[Vietnam]].
*1972 - [[Hank Aaron]] becomes the first player in the history of [[Major League Baseball]] to sign a $200,000 contract.
*1984 - [[Canada|Canadian]] Prime Minister [[Pierre Trudeau]] announces he will retire as soon as the [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberals]] can elect another leader.
*1988 - The [[sitcom]] ''[[Day by Day (television)|Day by Day]]'' premieres on [[NBC]].
*1988 - [[South Africa]]n archbishop [[Desmond Tutu]] is arrested along with 100 clergymen during a five-day anti-[[apartheid]] demonstration in [[Cape Town]]
*1996 - Novelist [[Joan Collins]] awarded US $1 million from [[Random House]] for breach of contract.
*1996 - A Peruvian [[Boeing 737]] crashes in the Andes, killing 123 people.
*2000 - A six-year-old student [[school shooting|opens fire]] on a six-year-old classmate at Theo J. Buell Elementary School in Mount Morris Township, Michigan. [http://archives.cnn.com/2000/US/02/29/school.shooting.02/]
*2004 - [[Jean-Bertrand Aristide]] resigns as [[President]] of [[Haiti]] following popular rebel uprising.
*2004 - ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King]]'' wins the [[Best Picture]] Oscar, along with 10 other awards, at the 76th Annual [[Academy Awards]].
==Births==
{{See also|:Category:Leap day births}}
*1468 - [[Pope Paul III]] (d. 1549)
*1692 - [[John Byrom]], English poet (d. 1763)
*1736 - [[Ann Lee]], American founder of Shakers (d. 1784)
*1792 - [[Gioacchino Rossini]], Italian composer (d. 1868)
*1840 - [[John Philip Holland]], Irish inventor (d. 1914)
*1860 - [[Herman Hollerith]], American statistician (d. 1929)
*1896 - [[Morarji Desai]], [[Prime Minister of India]] (d. 1995)
*1904 - [[Jimmy Dorsey]], American bandleader (d. 1957)
*1904 - [[Pepper Martin]], baseball player (d. 1965)
*1908 - [[Balthus]], French-Polish painter (d. 2001)
*1908 - [[Dee Brown]], American writer and historian (d. 2002)
*1916 - [[Dinah Shore]], American singer (d. 1994)
*1920 - [[James Mitchell (actor)|James Mitchell]], American actor
*1920 - [[Michèle Morgan]], French actress
*1920 - [[Howard Nemerov]], American poet (d. 1991)
*1924 - [[Al Rosen]], baseball player
*1932 - [[Jaguar (cartoonist)|Jaguar]], Brazilian cartoonist
*1936 - [[Jack Lousma]], astronaut
*1936 - [[Henri Richard]], Canadian hockey player
*1936 - [[Alex Rocco]], American actor
*1940 - [[Patriarch Bartholomew I]] of Constantinople
*1944 - [[Dennis Farina]], American actor
*1944 - [[Paolo Eleuteri Serpieri]], Italian illustrator
*1952 - [[Tim Powers]], American writer
*1952 - [[Bart Stupak]], American politician
*1952 - [[Raisa Smetanina]], Russian cross-country skier
*1956 - [[Bob Speller]], Canadian politician
*1956 - [[Aileen Wuornos]], American serial killer
*1960 - [[Richard Ramirez]], American serial killer
*1960 - [[Tony Robbins]], American motivational speaker
*1964 - [[Lyndon Byers]], Canadian Hockey Player
*1968 - [[Bryce Paup]], American football player
*1972 - [[Antonio Sabato Jr.]], Italian-born actor
*1972 - [[Dave Williams]], American singer ([[Drowning Pool]]) (d. 2002)
*1972 - [[Pedro Zamora]], Cuban AIDS activist (d. 1994)
*1976 - [[Ja Rule]], American rapper and actor
*1980 - [[Simon Gagné]], Canadian hockey player
*1984 - [[Darren Ambrose]], English footballer
*1984 - [[Cam Ward]], Canadian hockey player
==Deaths==
*1528 - [[Patrick Hamilton (martyr)|Patrick Hamilton]], Scottish religious reformer (martyred) (b. 1504)
*1592 - [[Alessandro Striggio]], Italian composer
*1604 - [[John Whitgift]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] (b. 1530)
*1744 - [[John Theophilus Desaguliers]], French philosopher (b. 1683)
*1820 - [[Johann Joachim Eschenburg]], German literary critic (b. 1743)
*1868 - [[Ludwig I of Bavaria]] (b. 1786)
*1940 - [[Edward Frederic Benson]], American writer (b. 1867)
*1944 - [[Pehr Evind Svinhufvud]], [[President of Finland]] (b. 1861)
*1956 - [[Elpidio Quirino]], [[President of the Philippines]] (b. 1890)
*1968 - [[Tore Ørjasæter]], Norwegian poet (b. 1886)
*1980 - [[Gil Elvgren]], American artist (b. 1914)
*1992 - [[Ruth Pitter]], English poet (b. 1897)
*2000 - [[Kayla Rolland]], school shooting victim (b. 1993)
*2004 - [[Jerome Lawrence]], American playwright (b. 1915)
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Bahá'í Faith]] - Day 4 of Ayyám-i-Há (Intercalary Days) (in leap years only) - days in the Bahá'í calendar devoted to service and gift giving.
*[[Discordianism]] - St. Tib's Day.
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/29 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/2/29 Today in History: February 29]
----
[[January 29]] - [[February 28]] - ([[February 30]]) - [[March 1]] - [[March 29]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:29 Februarie]]
[[ar:29 فبراير]]
[[an:29 de frebero]]
[[ast:29 de febreru]]
[[bg:29 февруари]]
[[bs:29. februar]]
[[ca:29 de febrer]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 29]]
[[co:29 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:29. únor]]
[[cy:29 Chwefror]]
[[da:29. februar]]
[[de:29. Februar]]
[[et:29. veebruar]]
[[el:29 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:29 de febrero]]
[[eo:29-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 29]]
[[fo:29. februar]]
[[fr:29 février]]
[[fy:29 febrewaris]]
[[ga:29 Feabhra]]
[[gl:29 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 29일]]
[[hr:29. veljače]]
[[io:29 di februaro]]
[[id:29 Februari]]
[[ia:29 de februario]]
[[is:29. febrúar]]
[[it:29 febbraio]]
[[he:29 בפברואר]]
[[jv:29 Februari]]
[[ka:29 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:29 gromicznika]]
[[ku:29'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 29]]
[[lb:29. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 29]]
[[mk:29 февруари]]
[[ms:29 Februari]]
[[nap:29 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:29 februari]]
[[ja:2月29日]]
[[no:29. februar]]
[[nn:29. februar]]
[[oc:29 de febrièr]]
[[os:29 февралы]]
[[pl:29 lutego]]
[[pt:29 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:29 februarie]]
[[ru:29 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 29.]]
[[sco:29 Februar]]
[[sq:29 Shkurt]]
[[scn:29 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 29]]
[[sk:29. február]]
[[sl:29. februar]]
[[sr:29. фебруар]]
[[fi:29. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:29 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 29]]
[[tt:29. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 29]]
[[th:29 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:29 tháng 2]]
[[tr:29 Şubat]]
[[uk:29 лютого]]
[[wa:29 di fevrî]]
[[zh:2月29日]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Francis Scott Key</title>
<id>10937</id>
<revision>
<id>41911920</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T15:49:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kmf164</username>
<id>94080</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contribution |
of consciousness. This procedure can therefore prevent injury due to the person falling to the ground after losing consciousness. It is performed only when the seizures cannot be controlled by other means. Resective surgery can be considered palliative if it is undertaken with the expectation that it will reduce but not eliminate seizures.
[[Hemispherectomy]] is a drastic operation in which most or all of one half of the cerebral cortex is removed. It is reserved for the most catastrophic epilepsies, such as those due to [[Rasmussen syndrome]]. If the surgery is performed on very young patients (2-5 years old), the remaining hemisphere may acquire some rudimentary motor control of the ipsilateral body; in older patients, paralysis results on the side of the body opposite to the part of the brain that was removed. Because of these and other side effects it is usually reserved for patients who have exhausted other treatment options.
===Other Treatment===
[[Ketogenic diet]]s may occasionally be effective in controlling some types of epilepsy; although the mechanism behind the effect is not fully understood, shifting of [[pH]] towards a [[metabolic acidosis]] and alteration of brain [[metabolism]] may be involved. Ketogenic diets are high in [[fat]] and extremely low in [[carbohydrate]]s, with intake of fluids often limited. This treatment, originated as early as the [[1920s]] at [[Johns Hopkins]] Medical Center, was largely abandoned with the discovery of modern anti-epileptic drugs, but recently has returned to the anti-epileptic treatment arsenal. Ketogenic diets are sometimes prescribed in severe cases where drugs have proven ineffective.
There are several downsides to what initially seems a benign [[therapy]], however. The ketogenic diet is not good for the [[heart]] or [[kidney]]s and medical problems resulting from the diet have been reported. In addition, the diet is extremely unpalatable and few patients are able to tolerate it for any length of time. Since a single potato chip is adequate to break the [[ketosis]], staying on the diet requires either great willpower or perfect control of a person's dietary intake. People fed via [[gastrostomy]] or young children who receive all their food in the presence of a caregiver are better candidates.
[[Vagus nerve stimulation]] is a recently developed form of seizure control which uses an implanted electrical device, similar in size, shape and implant location to a [[heart pacemaker]], which connects to the [[vagus nerve]] in the [[neck]]. Once in place the device can be set to emit electronic pulses, stimulating the vagus nerve at pre-set intervals and milliamp levels. Treatment studies have shown that approximately 50% of people treated in this fashion will show significant seizure reduction.
Some people with epilepsy receive a special [[dog]] which has the rare talent of sensing the onset of a seizure and is trained to alert the human so they can reach a safe location before their seizure puts them in danger. Other [http://www.keppra.com/pc/other_resources/canineAssistants.aspx epilepsy care dogs] do not sense seizures, but serve as companions and guardians during the loss of consciousness accompanying a seizure.
[[The Institutes for The Achievement of Human Potential]] promulgate a home program consisting of a healthy diet, clean air, and respiratory training. This alternative approach is regarded as unscientific by most medical practicioners.
==History and Stigma==
In the past, epilepsy was associated with [[religion|religious]] experiences and even [[demon|demonic]] [[Spiritual possession|possession]]. Apocryphally, epilepsy has been called '''the "[[Sacred]] Disease" ''' because people thought that epileptic seizures were a form of attack by [[demon]]s, or that the [[Vision (religion)|visions]] experienced by persons with epilepsy were sent by the [[gods]]. However, in many cultures, persons with epilepsy have been stigmatized, shunned, or even imprisoned; in the [[Salpêtrière]], the birthplace of modern neurology, [[Jean-Martin Charcot]] found people with epilepsy side-by-side with the mentally retarded, chronic [[syphilis|syphilitics]], and the criminally insane. In [[Tanzania]] to this day, onlookers will not touch a person having an epileptic fit, owing to fear of demons, even if the seizure causes the person to fall into the cooking fire (the flickering light from fire may have provoked the seizure in the first place.) In ancient Rome, epilepsy was known as the ''Morbus Comitialis'' ('disease of the assembly hall') and was seen as a curse from the gods.
Stigma continues to this day, in both the public and private spheres, but polls suggest it is generally decreasing with time, at least in the developed world; [[Hippocrates]] remarked that epilepsy would be considered [[divine]] only until it was understood.{{ref|Hippocrates}}
==Legal implications==
Most people diagnosed with epilepsy are forbidden by their local laws from operating vehicles. Seizures have caused many fatal [[car accident]]s and [[plane crash]]es. However, there are usually special exceptions for those who can prove that they have stabilized their condition for a period of time with the help of appropriate medication. Those few whose seizures do not cause impairment of consciousness, or whose seizures only arise from sleep, may be exempt from such restrictions, depending on local laws.
There is an ongoing debate in [[bioethics]] over ''who'' should bear the burden of ensuring that an epilepsy patient does not drive a car or fly an airplane. In the [[United States of America|U.S.]], the majority of the 50 states place the burden on patients to report their condition to appropriate licensing authorities so that their privileges can be revoked where appropriate. A minority of states (including [[California]]) place the burden on the patient's physician. Empirical studies have demonstrated that such laws may deter epilepsy patients from seeking treatment from a physician for their condition, because they fear the loss of their driving privileges.
In the [[UK]], it is the responsibility of the patient to inform the [[Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency]] (DVLA) if they have epilepsy{{ref|driving}}. The DVLA rules are quite complex{{ref|DVLA}}, but in summary, those continuing to have seizures or who are within 6 months of medication change may have their license revoked. A doctor who becomes aware that a patient with uncontrolled epilepsy is continuing to drive has, after reminding the patient of their responsibility, a duty to break [[confidentiality]] and inform the DVLA. The doctor should advise the patient of the disclosure and the reasons why their failure to notify the agency obliged the doctor to act. For more information, read the [[Epilepsy Action]] booklet on [http://www.epilepsy.org.uk/downloads/pdf/epilepsyaction_driving.pdf Driving].
==Important investigators of epilepsy==
*[[Galen]]
*[[Jean-Martin Charcot]]
*[[John Hughlings Jackson]]
*[[Hans Berger]]
*[[Herbert Jasper]]
*[[Wilder Penfield]]
*[[H. Houston Merritt]]
*[[William G. Lennox]]
==See also==
* [[Seizure]]
* [[List of people believed to have epilepsy]]
* [[Epilepsy in animals]]
* [[Seizure alert dog]]
* [[Jacksonian seizure]]
* [[Photosensitive epilepsy]]
* [[Temporal lobe epilepsy]]
==Notes and references==
#{{note|infantile}}{{cite journal | author=Nechay A, Ross LM, Stephenson JB, O'Regan M | title=Gratification disorder ("infantile masturbation"): a review | journal=Arch Dis Child | year=2004 | pages=225-6 | volume=89 | issue=3 | id=PMID 14977696}}
#{{note|kelly2005}}{{cite journal | author=Kelley K, Theodore WH | title=Prognosis 30 years after temporal lobectomy | journal=Neurology | volume=64 | issue=11 | year=2005 | pages=1974-6 | id=PMID 15955959}}
#{{note|genes}} {{cite journal | author=Miriam H. Meisler and Jennifer A. Kearney | title=Sodium channel mutations in epilepsy and other neurological disorders | journal=Journal of Clinical Investigation | volume=115 | issue=8 | year=2005 | pages=2010–2017}}. Full text online: {{Doi|10.1172/JCI25466}}.
#{{note|Hippocrates}} Hippocrates [http://quote.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocrates quotes].
#{{note|driving}} UK Epilepsy Action: Driving and Epilepsy, [http://www.epilepsy.org.uk/info/driving_seizure.html I've had a seizure. What should I do?].
#{{note|DVLA}} UK Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency [http://www.dvla.gov.uk/at_a_glance/content.htm Guide to the Current Medical Standards Of Fitness to Drive]. Full details for doctors regarding epilepsy are given in the [http://www.dvla.gov.uk/at_a_glance/ch1_neurological.htm#appendix Appendix]. Information for drivers can be found in [http://www.dvla.gov.uk/drivers/dmed1_files/group1.htm#nc Medical Rules - Group 1 Licence Holders].
==External links==
===Worldwide non-profit organizations===
*[http://www.epilepsy.org The International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) website], supporting research and patient care worldwide.
*[http://www.epilepsyfoundation.org/ The Epilepsy Foundation], a non-profit organization with an excellent patient-oriented website.
*[http://www.epilepsy.com Epilepsy.com] - Epilepsy information for patients, families and caregivers living with epilepsy. Supported by a 501c not-for-profit affiliated with universities, drug and device manufacturers.
===Regional epilepsy organizations===
<!-- Please don't assume that readers will know where your region is! Use "Los Angeles, California, USA," not "Los Angeles."
-->
*[http://www.nyuepilepsy.org The NYU Comprehensive Epilepsy Center] is the largest epilepsy center in the United States - [http://www.nyuepilepsy.org nyuepilepsy.org]
*[http://www.nyufaces.org Finding A Cure for Epilepsy and Seizures (faces)] - [http://www.nyufaces.org nyufaces.org]
*[http://www.epinet.org.au The Epilepsy Foundation of Victoria] A comprehensive site for people living with epilepsy.
*[http://ww |
African [[Masai]] ''[[Engai]]''.
In early English bibles, the [[Tetragrammaton]] was rendered in capitals: "IEHOUAH" in [[William Tyndale]]'s version of 1525. The [[KJV|King James Version]] of 1611 renders
*''[[YHWH]]'' as "The <font style="font-variant:small-caps">Lord</font>", also as "Jehovah", see Psalms 83:18; Exodus 6:3.
*''[[Elohim]]'' as "God"
*''Adonay [[YHWH]]'' as "Lord <font style="font-variant:small-caps">God</font>"
*''[[YHWH]] [[Elohim]]'' as "<font style="font-variant:small-caps">Lord</font> God"
*''κυριος ο θεος'' as "<font style="font-variant:small-caps">Lord</font> God" (in the New Testament)
The use of capitalization, as for a proper noun, has persisted to disambiguate the concept of a singular ''God'' from [[Paganism|pagan]] deities for which lower case ''god'' has continued to be applied, mirroring the use of Latin ''deus''. Pronouns referring to God are also often capitalized and are traditionally in the masculine [[gender (grammar)|gender]], i.e. "He", "His" etc. However, in more recent times, some people have referred to God in feminine terms, such as "She" and "Her".
==Names of God==
[[Image:Tetragrammaton scripts.png|frame|right|YHWH, the name of God or [[Tetragrammaton]], in [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]] (1100 BC to AD 300), [[Aramaic]] (10th Century BC to 0) and modern Hebrew scripts.]]{{see details|Names of God}}
The noun ''God'' is the proper English name used for the deity of monotheistic faiths. Different names for God exist within different religious traditions:
*[[Allah]] is the unique name of God used in [[Islam]], and also by most non-Muslim Arabs. ''ilah'', cognate to northwest Semitic [[El (god)|El]], is the generic word for a God (any deity), Allah contains the article, literally "The God". Also, when speaking in English, Muslims often translate "Allah" as "God". One tradition states that Allah has [[99 Names of God|99 names]].
*[[Yahweh]] Hebrew: 'YHVH' (יהוה), and [[Jehovah]] are some of the names used for God in various translations of the Bible (all translating the same four letters - [[Tetragrammaton|YHVH]]). El, and the plural/majestic form ''Elohim'', is another term used frequently, though ''El'' can also simply mean ''god'' in reference to deities of other religions. Others include El Shaddai, [[Adonai]], Amanuel, and Amen. When Moses asked "What is your name?" he was given the answer ''Ehyeh Asher Ehyeh'' as a parallel to the tetragrammaton YHWH. See [[The name of God in Judaism]] for Jewish names of God. Most Orthodox Jews, and many Jews of other denominations, believe it wrong to write the word "God" on any substance which can be destroyed. Therefore, they will write "G-d" as what they consider a more respectful symbolic representation. Others consider this unnecessary because English is not the "[[Hebrew language|Holy Language]]" (ie, Hebrew), but still will not speak the Hebrew representation written in the [[Torah]], "yih-yah", aloud, and will instead use other names such as Adonai (my lord).
*The [[Trinity|Holy Trinity]] (meaning the Father, the Son ([[Jesus]] [[Christ]]), and the [[Holy Spirit]]/"[[Holy Ghost]]") denotes God in almost all mainstream Christianity. Arab Christians will often also use Allah to refer to God.
*The [[Neomelnia]] name for "God" is ''Avs''.
*God is called ''Igzi'abihier'' (lit. "Lord of the Universe") in the [[Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox]] Church.
*[[Jah]] is the name of God in the [[Rastafari movement]].
*Some churches ([[United Church of Canada]], [[Religious Science]]) are using "the One" alongside "God" as a more gender-neutral way of referring to God (See also [[Oneness]]).
*The [[Maasai]] name for "God" is [[Ngai]], which occurs in the [[volcano]] name [[Ol Doinyo Lengai]] ("the mountain of God").
* The [[Mi'kmaq]] name for "God" is ''Niskam''.
* [[Ishvara]] is the term used for God among the Hindus. In [[Sanskrit]], it means the Supreme Lord. Most [[Hindu]]s worship the personal form of God or [[Saguna Brahman]], as [[Vishnu]], [[Shiva]], or directly as the Supreme Cosmic Spirit [[Brahman]] through the [[Gayatri mantra]]. A common prayer for Hindus is the [[Vishnu sahasranama]], which is a hymn describing the one thousand names of God. Ishvara must not be confused with the numerous deities of the Hindus. In modern Hindi, Ishvara is also called [[Bhagavan]].
* [[Buddhism]] is non-theistic: Instead of extolling an anthropomorphic creator God, [[Gautama Buddha]] employed [[negative theology]] to avoid speculation and keep the undefined as ineffable. Buddha believed the more important issue was to bring beings out of suffering to liberation. Enlightened ones are called [[Arhat]]s or Buddha (e.g, the ''Buddha'' [[Sakyamuni]]), and are venerated. A [[bodhisattva]] is an enlightened being that has chosen to forego entering into [[nirvana]] to help others to become enlightened, though there is no reason for there to only ever be one, and no reason that any ordinary human may not become a bodhisattva. Buddhism also teaches about the [[Deva (Hinduism)|deva]]s or heavenly beings who temporarily dwell in states of great happiness.
* [[Jain]]s invoke the five paramethis: [[Siddha]], [[Arahant]], [[Acharya]], [[Upadhyaya]], [[Sadhu]]. The arhantas include the 24 [[Tirthankaras]] from [[Lord Rishabha]] to [[Mahavira]]. But Jain philosophy as such does not recognize any Supreme Omnipotent creator God.
* [[Sikhs]] worship God with the name Akal (the Eternal) or Omkar (See [[Aum]]). Help of the [[guru]]s is essential to reach God.
* In [[Surat Shabd Yoga|Surat Shabda Yoga]], names used for God include ''Anami Purush'' (nameless power) and ''Radha Swami'' (lord of the soul, symbolized as [[Radha]]).
* [[Ayyavazhi]] asserts [[Ekam]], (The Ultimate Oneness) as supreme one and [[Ayya Vaikundar]] the Incarnation of Ekam. There are also several separate lesser gods who were all later unified into [[Vaikundar]].
*The [[Bahá'í Faith]] refers to God using the local word for God in whatever language is being spoken. In the Bahá'í Writings in Arabic, Allah is used. Bahá'ís share some naming traditions with Islam, but see "Bahá" (Glory or Splendour) as The [[Greatest Name]] of God. God's names are seen as his attributes, and God is often, in prayers, referred to by these titles and attributes.
* [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrians]] worship [[Ahura Mazda]].
==History of monotheism==
''See also [[monotheism]], [[Abrahamic religion]].''
The religions that are monotheistic today are often thought of as having been of relatively recent historical origin&mdash;although efforts at comparison are usually beset by claims of most religions to being very ancient or eternal. Eastern religions, especially in [[China]] and [[India]], that have concepts of [[panentheism]], are notably difficult to classify along [[Western world|Western]] notions of monotheism vs. [[polytheism]].
In the [[Ancient Orient]], many cities had their own local god, though this henotheistic worship of a single god did not imply denial of the existence of other gods. The [[Hebrews|Hebrew]] [[Ark of the Covenant]] is supposed (by some scholars) to have adapted this practice to a [[nomad]]ic lifestyle, paving their way for a singular God. Yet, many scholars now believe that it may have been the Zoroasterian religion of the [[Persian Empire]] that was the first monotheistic religion, and the Jews were influenced by such notions (this controversy is still in debate)[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=147&letter=Z&search=zoroaster].
The iconoclastic cult of the Egyptian solar god [[Aten]] was promoted by the [[pharaoh]] [[Akhenaten]] (Amenophis IV), who ruled between 1358 and 1340 BC. The Aten cult is often cited as the earliest known example of monotheism, and is sometimes claimed to have been a formative influence on early Judaism, due to the presence of Hebrew slaves in Egypt. But even though [[Akhenaten]]'s [[Great Hymn to the Aten|hymn to Aten]] offers strong evidence that Akhenaten considered Aten to be the sole, omnipotent creator, Akhenaten's program to enforce this monotheistic world-view ended with his death; the worship of other gods beside Aten never ceased outside his court, and the older polytheistic cults soon regained precedence.
Other early examples of monotheism include two late [[rigveda|rigvedic]] hymns (10.129,130) to a [[Panentheistic]] creator god, [[Shri Rudram]], a [[Vedic religion|Vedic]] hymn to [[Rudra]], an earlier aspect of Shiva often referred to by the ancient Brahmans as Stiva, a masculine fertility god, which expressed [[monistic theism]], and is still chanted today; the [[Zoroastrian]] [[Ahuramazda]] and Chinese [[Shang Ti]]. The worship of polytheistic gods, on the other hand, is seen by many to predate monotheism, reaching back as far as the [[Paleolithic]]. Today, monotheistic religions are dominant, though other systems of belief still exist.
==Theology==
Theologians attempt to explicate (and in some cases systematize) beliefs; some express their own experience of the divine. Theologians ask questions such as, 'What is the nature of God?' 'What does it mean for God to be singular?' 'If people believe in God as a duality or trinity, what do these terms signify?' 'Is God transcendent, immanent, or some mix of the two?' 'What is the relationship between God and the universe, and God and humankind?'
* [[Theism]] holds that God is both transcendent and immanent; thus, God is simultaneously infinite and in some way present in the affairs of the world. Catholic theology holds that God is [[divine simplicity|infinitely simple]] and is not involunt |
oned a number of diplomats accused of working against France. More recently, the [[Iran hostage crisis]] was a violation of diplomatic immunity. On the other hand, in the [[World War II|Second World War]], diplomatic immunity was upheld and the embassies evacuated through neutral countries.
For the upper class of the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, diplomatic immunity was an easy concept to understand. Warfare was not between individuals but between their sovereigns, and the officers and officials of European governments and armies often changed employers. Truces and ceasefires were commonplace, along with fraternization between officers of enemy armies during them. When prisoners, the officers usually gave their parole and were only restricted to a city away from the theatre of war. Almost always, they were given leave to carry their personal sidearms. Even during French revolutionary wars, British scientists visited the [[French Academy]]. In such an atmosphere, it was easy to accept that some persons were immune to the laws. After all, they were still bound by strict requirements of honour and customs.
In the nineteenth century the [[Congress of Vienna]] system reasserted the rights of diplomats, and they have been largely respected since then as the European model has spread throughout the world. Nowadays diplomatic immunity, as well as diplomatic relations as a whole, are governed internationally by [[Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations]] which has been ratified by almost every country in the world.
In modern times, the outbreak of nationalism and egalitarianism has made it difficult for the common man to understand, why some persons should be immune to local jurisdiction. If they are enemy, should they not be interned? If they commit crimes, should they not be prosecuted as everyone else? Such ideas, common though they are, disregard cultural differences and deep distrust between some governments. Would any American, for example, think that an American diplomat in People's Republic of China or in [[Iran]] (where U.S. does not currently have standing diplomatic representation) would receive a fair trial if they are charged with say, murder? Most likely, neither would a Chinese or an Iranian believe that their diplomats would be fairly tried by an American jury, especially if relations between the countries were undergoing a crisis. With such profound mutual distrust, diplomatic immunity provides a means, albeit imperfect, to safeguard diplomatic personnel.
==Abuse==
In some occasions, diplomatic immunity leads to some unfortunate results; protected diplomats have violated laws (including those which would be violations at home as well) of the host country and that country has been essentially limited to informing the diplomat's nation that the diplomat is no longer welcome (the Latin phrase is ''[[persona non grata]]''). Although the diplomat's nation is responsible for carrying out eventual criminal and civil procedures against him or her, this is often neglected. Violations of diplomatic immunity have included [[espionage]] in a large number of cases, smuggling of small high value items in a surely much larger number of instances, some troubling child custody law violations, [[rape]] and even [[murder]] in a few cases. Historically the problem of large debts run up by diplomats has caused many problems.
The espionage conducted by embassies is actually more a custom than a violation of diplomatic immunity, as it is continuously carried out by all major world powers. A typical position for an intelligence officer is as second press attaché, visa attaché or other position with no clear responsibilities. For example, [[Russia|Russian]] president [[Vladimir Putin]] has served as an intelligence officer in this kind of position in the Soviet embassy in Berlin. In the United States, it is a policy of the [[Foreign Service]] not to confirm or deny the existence of intelligence personnel in US embassies.
A particular problem with an intermittently amusing side is the immunity of diplomatic vehicles to ordinary [[rules of the road|traffic regulations]] such as prohibitions on [[double parking]]. Occasionally, such problems may take a most serious turn, when disregard for traffic rules leads to bodily harm or death.
* In January of 1997, [[Gueorgui Makharadze]], the deputy ambassador of [[Republic of Georgia]]'s embassy in Washington caused an accident that injured four people and killed a sixteen-year-old girl. He was found to have a blood-alcohol level of 0.15, but released from custody because he was a diplomat. The U.S. government asked the Georgian government to waive his immunity, which they did and Makharadze was tried and convicted of manslaughter by the U.S. and sentenced to seven to twenty-one years in prison.
* On December 3, 2004, a guard for the American embassy in [[Bucharest, Romania]], allegedly drunk, collided with a taxi and killed the popular Romanian musician [[Teo Peter]]. Marine [[Christopher Van Goethen]] did not obey a traffic signal to stop which resulted in the collision of his Ford Expedition with the taxi the rock star was travelling in. Van Goethen's blood alcohol content was estimated at 0.09 from a [[breathalyser]] test, but he refused to give a blood sample for further testing and left for [[Germany]] before charges could be filed in Romania. The Romanian government has requested the American government to lift his immunity, which they have refused to do. The Marine was later cleared by a Court Martial both of the more important charge of manslaughter and of the (relatively) minor charge of adultery.
* In [[New York, New York|New York City]], the home of the [[United Nations]] Headquarters (and hence thousands of diplomats) and a city in which many drivers regard [[double parking]] as normal despite regulations, protests against double-parked diplomatic vehicles have a certain quixotic quality. Nonetheless, the City eternally, and interminably, protests to the [[US Department of State]] about non-payment of parking tickets due to diplomatic status.
* In [[France]], between November 2003 and 2004, there were 2,590 cases of diplomatic cars caught speeding by automatic radars. [[China]] alone had 155 violations. In comparison, there were 4,400 speeding violations by [[France|French]] official vehicles, such as police cars, an obviously much greater population than the [[Diplomatic Corps]] (''[[Le Canard Enchaîné]]'', March 16 2005).
* Some financial institutions will not extend credit to diplomats because they have no legal means of causing the money's safe return.
In fiction, diplomatic immunity is often portrayed negatively with criminals with diplomatic papers brazenly committing the most violent crimes and arrogantly waving their immunity about when the heroes try to stop them. (An example of this can be seen in the movie [[Lethal Weapon II]]).In fact, most professional diplomats are representatives of large, powerful nations with a tradition of professional civil service. They are expected to obey regulations governing their behaviour and they suffer strict internal consequences if they flout local laws. Diplomats who disobey minor regulations or break major laws, or disappear with bad debts are in a minority, and they usually come from small or poor or badly organized countries with no tradition of a professional diplomatic service or of a national civil service. In many of the richest and largest nations of the globe a professional diplomat's career is compromised if he or she (or even members of his or her family) disobeys the local authorities.
== Diplomatic immunity in the United States==
Note that the below applies to the [[United States]]. In general, these rules follow Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, ratified by the United States and most other countries. Some countries have made reservations to the convention, but they are minor. Most important are the reservation by some Arab nations concerning the immunity of diplomatic bags and non-recognition of Israel. A number of countries limit the diplomatic immunity of persons who are citizens of the receiving country. As nations keep faith to their treaties with differing zeal, also other rules may apply, though in most cases this summary is a reasonably accurate approximation. It is important to note that the Convention does not cover the personnel of international organizations, whose privileges are decided upon on case-by-case basis, usually in the treaties founding such organizations.
<table border="1" cellpadding="1">
<tr>
<th colspan=2>Category</th>
<th>May be arrested or detained</th>
<th>Residence may be entered subject to ordinary procedures</th>
<th>May be issued traffic ticket</th>
<th>May be sub - poenaed as witness</th>
<th>May be prosecuted</th>
<th>Official family member</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th rowspan=3>Diplomatic</th>
<th>Diplomatic agent</th>
<td>No<sup>1</sup></td><td>No</td><td>Yes</td><td>No</td><td>No</td>
<td>Same as sponsor</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Member of administrative and technical staff</th>
<td>No<sup>1</sup></td><td>No</td><td>Yes</td><td>No</td><td>No</td>
<td>Same as sponsor</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Service staff</th>
<td>Yes<sup>2</sup></td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td>
<td>No, for official acts. Otherwise, yes<sup>2</sup></td>
<td>No<sup>2</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th rowspan=3>Consular</th>
<th>Career Consular Officers</th>
<td>Yes, if for a felony and pursuant |
each [[track]], and whether or not the disk rotated at the correct speed; some operating systems, such as [[Apple DOS]], did not use index sync, and often the drives designed for such systems lacked the index hole sensor. Disks of this type were said to be ''soft [[sector]]'' disks. Very early 8-inch and 5¼-inch disks also had physical holes for each sector, and were termed ''[[hard sectoring|hard sector]]'' disks. Inside the disk were two layers of fabric designed to reduce friction between the media and the outer casing, with the media sandwiched in the middle. The outer casing was usually a one-part sheet, folded double with flaps glued or spot-melted together. A catch was lowered into position in front of the drive to prevent the disk from emerging, as well as to raise or lower the spindle.
The 3½-inch disk is made of two pieces of rigid plastic, with the fabric-medium-fabric sandwich in the middle. The front has only a label and a small aperture for reading and writing data, protected by a spring-loaded metal cover, which is pushed back on entry into the drive.
[[Image:Floppy disk drive top (cover removed).jpg|left|thumbnail|250px|The 3½-inch floppy disk drive automatically engages when the user inserts a disk, and disengages and ejects with the press of a button, or by motor on the [[Apple Macintosh]].]]
The reverse has a similar covered aperture, as well as a hole to allow the spindle to connect into a metal plate glued to the media. Two holes, bottom left and right, indicate the write-protect status and high-density disk correspondingly, a hole meaning protected or high density, and a covered gap meaning write-enabled or low density. (Incidentally, the write-protect and high-density holes on a 3½-inch disk are spaced exactly as far apart as the holes in punched [[A4 paper size|A4]] paper (8 cm), allowing write-protected floppies to be clipped into European [[ring binder]]s.) A notch top right ensures that the disk is inserted correctly, and an arrow top left indicates the direction of insertion. The drive usually has a button that, when pressed, will spring the disk out at varying degrees of force. Some would barely make it out of the disk drive; others would shoot out at a fairly high speed. In a majority of drives, the ejection force is provided by the spring that holds the cover shut, and therefore the ejection speed is dependent on this spring. In [[IBM PC compatible|PC]]-type machines, a floppy disk can be inserted or ejected manually at any time (evoking an error message or even lost data in some cases), as the drive is not continuously monitored for status and so programs can make assumptions that do not match actual status (i.e., disk 123 is still in the drive and has not been altered by any other agency). With Apple [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] computers, disk drives are continuously monitored by the OS; a disk inserted is automatically searched for content and one is ejected only when the software agrees the disk should be ejected. This kind of disk drive (starting with the slim "Twiggy" drives of the late Apple "Lisa") does not have an eject button, but uses a motorized mechanism to eject disks; this action is triggered by the OS software (e.g. the user dragged the "drive" icon to the "trash can" icon). Should this not work (as in the case of a power failure or drive malfunction), one can insert a straight-bent [[paperclip]] into a small hole at the drive's front, thereby forcing the disk to eject (similar to that found on CD/DVD drives).
The 3-inch disk bears much similarity to the 3½-inch type, with some unique and somehow curious features. One example is the rectangular-shaped plastic casing, almost taller than a 3½-inch disk, but narrower, and more than twice as thick, almost the size of a standard [[compact audio cassette]]. This made the disk look more like a greatly oversized present day [[memory card]] or a standard [[PCMCIA]] notebook expansion card rather than a floppy disk. Despite the size, the actual 3-inch magnetic-coated disk occupied less than 50% of the space inside the casing, the rest being used by the complex protection and sealing mechanisms implemented on the disks. Such mechanisms were largely responsible for the thickness, length and high costs of the 3-inch disks. On the Amstrad machines the disks were typically flipped over to use both sides, as opposed to being truly double-sided. Double-sided mechanisms were available but rare.
==Current situation==
The 8-inch, 5¼-inch and 3-inch formats can be considered almost totally dead. 3½-inch drives and disks are still widely available. As of 2005 3½-inch drives are still common equipment on many new PCs other than laptops. On others, they are either optional, or can be purchased as aftermarket equipment. Even after the beginning of 2006, there have been floppy disks at some retail computer stores.
However, the advent of other portable storage options, such as [[Zip drive|Zip disks]], [[USB]] storage devices and [[CD-R|recordable]] or [[CD-RW|rewritable]] [[Compact disc|CDs]], and the rise of multi-[[megapixel]] [[digital photography]] have encouraged the creation and use of files larger than most 3½-inch disks can hold. In addition, the increasing availability of broadband and wireless [[Internet]] connections is decreasing the utility of removable storage devices overall. The 3½-inch floppy is growing as obsolete as its larger cousin became a decade before. However, the 3½-inch floppy has been in continued use longer than the 5¼-inch floppy.
Some manufacturers have stopped offering 3½-inch drives on new computers as standard equipment. The Apple Macintosh, which popularized the format in 1984, began to move away from it in 1998 with the [[iMac]] model&mdash;possibly prematurely, since the basic model iMac of the time only had a CD-ROM drive, giving users no easy access to removable media. This made USB-connected floppy drives a popular accessory for the early iMacs. In February 2003, [[Dell, Inc.]] announced that they would no longer include floppy drives on their [[Dell Dimension]] home computers as standard equipment, although they are available as a selectable option for around $20. Many USB mass storage devices, primarily [[USB flash drive|flash drives]], had their prices fall below the price of both internal and external floppy disk drives.
==Compatibility==
In general, different physical sizes of floppy disks are incompatible by definition, and disks can be loaded only on the correct size of drive. There were some drives available with both 3½-inch and 5¼-inch slots that were popular in the transition period between the sizes.
However, there are many more subtle incompatibilities within each form factor. Consider, for example, the following Apple/IBM 'schism': Apple Macintosh computers can read, write and format IBM PC-format 3½-inch diskettes, provided suitable software is installed. However, many IBM-compatible computers use floppy disk drives that are unable to read (or write) Apple-format disks. For details on this, see the section ''[[Floppy disk#More on floppy disk formats|More on floppy disk formats]]''.
Within the world of IBM-compatible computers, the three densities of 3½-inch floppy disks are partially compatible. Higher density drives are built to read, write and even format lower density media without problems, provided the correct media is used for the density selected. However, if by whatever means a diskette is formatted at the wrong density, the result is a substantial risk of data loss due to magnetic mismatch between oxide and the drive head's writing attempts. Still, a fresh diskette that has been manufactured for high density use can theoretically be formatted as double density, but only if ''no'' information has ever been written on the disk using high density mode (for example, HD diskettes that are pre-formatted at the factory are out of the question). The magnetic strength of a high density record is stronger and will "overrule" the weaker lower density, remaining on the diskette and causing problems. However, in practice there are people who use downformatted (ED to HD, HD to DD) or even overformatted (DD to HD) without apparent problems; see the ''[[Floppy disk#Floppy trivia|Floppy trivia]]'' section. Doing so always constitutes a data risk, so one should weigh out the benefits (e.g. increased space and/or interoperability) versus the risks (data loss, permanent disk damage).
The situation was even more complex with 5¼-inch diskettes. The head gap of an 80 track (1200 KB in the PC world) drive is shorter than that of a 360 KB drive, but will format, read and write 40 track (360 KB in the PC world) diskettes with apparent success provided the controller supports double stepping (or the manufaturer fitted a switch to do double stepping in hardware). A blank 40 track disk formatted and written on an 80 track drive can be taken to a 40 track drive without problems, similarly a disk formatted on a 40 track drive can be used on an 80 track drive. But a disk written on a 40 track drive and updated on an 80 track drive becomes permanently unreadable on any 360 KB drive, owing to the incompatibility of the track widths (special, very slow programs could have been used to overcome this problem). There are several other 'bad' scenarios.
Prior to the problems with head and track size, there was a period when just trying to figure out which side of a "single sided" diskette was the right side was a problem. Both [[Radio Shack]] and Apple used 360 KB single sided 5¼-inch disks, and both sold disks labeled "single sided" were certified for use on only one side, even though they in fact were coated in magnetic material on both sides. The irony was that the disks would work on both Radio Shack and Apple machines, yet the Radio Shack [[TRS-80]] Model I computers used one side and the [[Apple II family|Apple II]] |
existence (see [[Calvin and Hobbes#Hobbes.27 reality|above]]).
===Wagon and sled===
Calvin and Hobbes frequently ride downhill in a [[wagon]], [[sled]], or [[toboggan]] (depending on the season) and ponder the meaning of life, death, God, and a variety of other weighty subjects as they hurtle downhill. The course of the vehicle and the obstacles that the characters negotiate as they travel frequently serve as metaphors for and parallel the subject of conversation, and the rides almost always end in a spectacular crash.
The wagon temporarily served as a spacecraft when Calvin and Hobbes realized that the human race was laying waste to Earth by polluting it. They decided to go live on [[Mars]], but returned soon after when they realized that the native Martians (or, "weirdos from another planet") were terrified of Earthlings. This may have been a case of rumor preceding them; the prospect of terrestrial life polluting Mars as well as Earth was a bleak one. Although this particular wagon ride did not end in a crash, it once again served as an outlet for a subject matter of importance.
===Snowballs and snowmen===
During winter, Calvin often engages in snowball fights (which he almost always loses), usually throwing them at Susie but always resulting in Calvin getting buried in the snow as retaliation. Calvin also builds snowmen; but these are usually grotesque, monstrous deformed creatures (i.e., two-headed snowmen, snow monster with tentacles devouring a bunch of snowmen) or snowmen getting hanged, buried or holding their heads in their hands. Once while walking down the street during winter looking at the snowmen in front of the neighbors' houses, Calvin's father exclaims to his wife, "You can always tell when you get to our house", due to Calvin being the only one on the block who builds deformed snowmen. In one storyline, Calvin builds a snowman and brings it to life using the power "invested in him by the mighty and awful snow demons", which turns evil (reminiscent of ''[[Frankenstein (1931 film)|Frankenstein]]''.) The snowman turns itself into a "mutant killer monster snow goon" by giving itself two heads and three arms, and makes copies of itself that are eventually defeated by Calvin. Once, out of ideas, he signed the snow with a stick and declared all the world's snow as his own work of art. Calvin, unlike Hobbes, thinks of snowmen as a fine art. Bill Watterson has said that this is to parody art's "pretentious blowhards" {{ref_harvard|Watterson|Watterson 1995|a}}.
===Calvinball===
Calvinball is a game played almost exclusively by Calvin and Hobbes as a rebellion against organized team sports (like [[baseball]]), although the babysitter Rosalyn plays on one occasion. Participants of Calvinball wear masks; when asked why, Calvin replies that "no one is allowed to question the masks." The rules of the game, besides that a soccer ball and wickets are almost always used, are invented as they go along, but one consistent rule is that the rules can never be the same twice (which in itself is a self-denying paradox). Either player may change any rule at any time, so the only way to break the rules is by using one rule twice. Scoring is also entirely arbitrary: Hobbes has reported scores of "Q to 12" and "oogy to boogy." Calvinball is essentially a game of wits and creativity, rather than purely physical feats. However, it's a running joke that Hobbes is typically more successful at the game than Calvin himself. Calvinball could be described as a [[Nomic]] game, and thus bears a similarity to others such as [[Mornington Crescent (game)|Mornington Crescent]].
The reader first encounters the game after Calvin's horrible experience with school baseball. He registers to play baseball in order to avoid being teased by the other boys. While daydreaming in the outfield, he misses the switch and ends up making an out against his own team. His classmates mock him and, when he decides to walk away, his coach calls him a "quitter." That Saturday, Calvin and Hobbes play Calvinball, a game far removed from any organized sport. Even Calvin and Hobbes's own attempts to play organized sports between themselves usually deteriorate into Calvinball, as they end up inventing increasingly bizarre rules that cause whatever sport they were initially playing to spiral out of control.
The concept of "playing Calvinball" continues to appear in popular culture, usually when describing a situation in which the rules are changed according to someone's whims. For example: "...it doesn't really deal with the Congressional incentive to play Calvinball with the budget" (from [http://www.qando.net/details.aspx?Entry=3124 The QandO Blog], 12/21/2005).
Watterson has stated that the greatest number of questions he receives concern Calvinball and how to play it {{ref_harvard|Watterson|Watterson 1995|a}}.
===School and homework===
Calvin hates school and its attendant early-morning risings, irate teachers, homework, and fellow students. Often his mother has to force the unwilling Calvin to go up to the [[school bus]]. Occasionally he manages to avoid the bus, and his mother has to chase him down and force him to board or drive him to school. Calvin often waits for the bus with Hobbes and explains why an intelligent boy like himself does not need school. While at school, he commonly visualizes the building as a hostile planet and his teacher and principal as vicious aliens. Calvin usually lacks the company of Hobbes at school. Sometimes Hobbes does his homework and reading while Calvin watches TV or reads comic books. In general, Calvin is depicted as a poor student who is unable to concentrate in class, has difficulty interacting with other students, and struggles with homework. On occasion, he gets good marks and positive feedback for work, but these are usually short-lived victories.
Also on occasion, Calvin's inability to concentrate in class is compromised by inserting the class subject into his daydream, causing him to get the right answer. This includes spelling "disaster" while being dropped into an alien pit (though in real life he is participating in a spelling bee) and blurting out the right answer at (from his point of view) a completely random moment.
==Calvin and Hobbes books==
The books, labeled "Collections," form a complete archive of the newspaper strips, except for a single daily strip from [[November 28]], [[1985]]. (The collections ''do'' contain a strip for this date, but it is not the same strip that appeared in some newspapers. The alternate strip, a joke about Hobbes taking a bath in the [[washing machine]], has circulated around the [[Internet]].) "Treasuries" usually combine the two preceding collections with bonus material, and include color reprints of Sunday comics.
A complete collection of Calvin and Hobbes strips, in three hardcover volumes, with a total 1440 pages, was released on [[October 4]], [[2005]], by [[Andrews McMeel]] Publishing. It also includes color prints of the art used on paperback covers, the Treasuries' extra illustrated stories and poems, and a new introduction by Bill Watterson, who is now happily teaching himself to paint. Unfortunately, the alternate 1985 strip is still omitted, and two other strips ([[January 7]], [[1987]], and [[November 25]], [[1988]]) have altered dialogue.
To celebrate the release, Calvin and Hobbes reruns were made available to newspapers from Sunday, [[September 4]], 2005, through Saturday, [[December 31]], 2005, and Bill Watterson answered a select dozen questions submitted by readers. [http://www.amuniversal.com/ups/features/thereturn/] [http://www.andrewsmcmeel.com/calvinandhobbes/returning.html] Like current contemporary strips, weekday ''Calvin and Hobbes'' strips now appear in color print when available, instead of black and white as in their first run.
{| class="wikitable"
!Title
!Cover
!Date
![[ISBN]]
!Notes
|-
|''Calvin and Hobbes''
|[[Image:Calvin and Hobbes Original.png|100px|"Calvin and Hobbes."]]
|April 1987
|ISBN 0836220889
|Collection covering strips from first strip on Nov 18, 1985 to Aug 17, 1986. Original content: Foreword by [[Garry Trudeau]].
|-
|''Something Under the Bed is Drooling''
|[[Image:Something Under the Bed is Drooling Calvin and Hobbes.gif|100px|"Something Under the Bed is Drooling."]]
|April 1988
|ISBN 0836218256
|Collection covering strips from Aug 18, 1986 to May 17, 1987. Original content: Foreword by [[Pat Oliphant]].
|-
|''The Essential Calvin and Hobbes: A Calvin and Hobbes Treasury''
|[[Image:The Essential Calvin and Hobbes.png|100px|"The Essential Calvin and Hobbes: A Calvin and Hobbes Treasury."]]
|September 1988
|ISBN 0836218051
|Treasury including cartoons from ''Calvin and Hobbes'' & ''Something Under the Bed is Drooling''. Original content: Foreword by [[Charles M. Schulz]] and original illustrated poem, "A Nauseous Nocturne."
|-
|''Yukon Ho!''
|[[Image:Yukon Ho Calvin and Hobbes Book.jpg|100px|"Yukon Ho!"]]
|March 1989
|ISBN 0836218353
|Collection covering strips from May 24, 1987 to Feb 1988(?). Original content: The "Yukon Song."
|-
|''The Calvin and Hobbes Lazy Sunday Book: A Collection of Sunday Calvin and Hobbes Cartoons''
|[[Image:The Calvin and Hobbes Lazy Sunday Book.gif|100px|"The Calvin and Hobbes Lazy Sunday Book: A Collection of Sunday Calvin and Hobbes Cartoons."]]
|September 1989
|ISBN 0836218523
|Favorite Sunday comics. Ten-page story "Spaceman Spiff: Interplanetary Explorer Extraordinaire!"
|-
|''Weirdos From Another Planet!''
|[[Image:WEIRDOS.jpg|100px|"Weirdos From Another Planet."]]
|March 1990
|ISBN 0836218620
|Collection covering strips from Feb 1988(?) to Dec 4, 1988.<br />Its main story is similar to that of ''Yukon Ho!'', Calvin and Hobbes a |
ood asked Buckingham to join. Buckingham agreed, on the condition that his musical partner and girlfriend, [[Stevie Nicks]], also become part of the band.
In [[1975 in music|1975]], under new management by Gabriele Arras, the new lineup released the eponymous ''[[Fleetwood Mac (1975 album)|Fleetwood Mac]]''. This proved to be a breakthrough for the band and it became a huge hit. The band was catapulted into stardom. Among the hit singles from this album were Christine McVie's "[[Over My Head]]" and "[[Say You Love Me]]", and Stevie Nicks's "[[Rhiannon (Will You Ever Win)]]".
But in [[1976 in music|1976]], with the success of the band also came the end of John & Christine McVie's marriage, as well as Buckingham's and Nicks's longtime romantic relationship. Pressure was put on Fleetwood Mac to release a successful follow-on album, which, when combined with its new-found wealth, led to creative and personal tensions, fuelled by large amounts of drug and alcohol consumption, especially [[cocaine]].
The album the band members created was ''[[Rumours]]'' in [[1977 in music|1977]], in which the band lays bare the emotional turmoil experienced at that time. It became the best- selling album of the year, and it sold over 19 million copies, worldwide, by 1998. The [[RIAA]] certified ''Rumours' as a [[Diamond album|diamond album]].
==Tusk era==
''[[Rumours (album)|Rumours]]'' was the point where [[Fleetwood Mac]] was at the height of its creativity and popularity. Sales of future albums declined, but the band still enjoyed critical success. This was true of the follow-up album. Buckingham's response to the great popularity of ''[[Rumours (album)|Rumours]]'' was to avoid making a carbon-copy sequel. His expanded role as producer for the next album was influenced by the [[new wave music|new wave]] style.
The result - a quirky double album ''[[Tusk (album)|Tusk]]'' - was released in [[1979 in music|1979]]. It spawned three hit singles: Lindsey Buckingham's "Tusk", which featured the [[Spirit of Troy|USC marching band]]; Christine McVie's "Think About Me"; and Stevie Nicks' seven minute opus "Sara". The latter was cut to three-and-one-half minutes for the first CD-version release, but it has since been restored for CD reissuance. ''Tusk'' remains one of Fleetwood Mac's most ambitious albums to date. The band embarked on a huge 18-month tour to support and promote ''Tusk''. It traveled extensively across the world, including the USA, [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Japan]], [[France]], [[Belgium]], [[Germany]], the [[Netherlands]], and the United Kingdom. During this time, the band also recorded music for the ''[[Live (Album)|Live]]'' album.
==Mirage era==
The next album, ''[[Mirage (album)|Mirage]]'', was a return to the more conventional. Buckingham had been chided by critics, fellow bandmembers and music business managers for the apparent low commercial success enjoyed by ''Tusk''. Recorded at a chateau in France, ''Mirage'' was an attempt to recapture the pop success of [[Rumors]]. Its hits included: Christine McVie's and Jim Recor's "Love In Store", Christine McVie's "Hold Me", Stevie Nicks' "Gypsy", and Lindsey Buckingham's "Oh Diane", which entered the Top 10 in the UK. A minor hit was also scored by Buckingham for his "Eyes Of The World". Unlike the Tusk Tour, the band only embarked on a short tour of 18 American cities. It also headlined the first US Festival for which the band was paid $500,000.
Following ''Mirage'', the band went on hiatus, which allowed members to pursue solo careers. Stevie Nicks released ''[[Bella Donna (album)|Bella Donna]]'', Lindsey Buckingham released ''[[Law and Order (album)|Law and Order]]'', and Christine McVie released an eponymous album. All three met with success but it was Stevie Nicks who was most rewarded. During this time it was often rumoured that Fleetwood Mac had finally broken up. Buckingham, however, commented that he was unhappy to allow ''Mirage'' to remain as the band's last effort.
==Tango in the night==
The ''Rumours'' lineup of Fleetwood Mac would record one more album for the time being, ''[[Tango In The Night (album)|Tango In The Night]]'', in [[1987 in music|1987]]. The album was popular, especially in the UK where it hit no.1 three times over a year. The album proved that Fleetwood Mac still had selling power and the album spawned four hits: Christine McVie and Eddy Quintela's "Little Lies", Christine McVie's "Everywhere", Sandy Stewart and Stevie Nicks' "Seven Wonders", and Lindsey Buckingham's "Big Love". The band intended to tour to support the album but Buckingham felt that he had fulfilled his commitments to the band, and wanted to leave. The split was not amicable [in fact, Fleetwood says it was venomous] but his relationship with the band would heal somewhat in later years.
==The Mac carries on==
Following Buckingham's departure, Fleetwood Mac added guitarists [[Billy Burnette]] and [[Rick Vito]] to the band. 1987's "Tango In The Night", or, "Shake the Cage" tour was the first outing for this lineup, and it enjoyed enough success to warrant a venture into the recording studio. Fleetwood Mac recorded ''[[Behind the Mask (album)|Behind The Mask]]'' with Burnette and Vito in 1990. With the album, the band ended up with a more [[adult contemporary]] than rock 'n' roll style. However, although the album yielded several high-ranking singles, including McVie's "Skies The Limit" and "Save Me" and Nicks's single "Love Is Dangerous", ''Behind The Mask'' only achieved gold album status, and it was seen by some music critics as the low point for the band in the absence of Lindsey Buckingham. In 1995, after Nicks and Vito left the band, and Christine McVie retired from touring, the remaining band members added Bekka Bramlett and Dave Mason to their number, publishing the fairly unsuccessful ''[[Time (Fleetwood Mac album)|Time]]'' album.
During this time, the Buckingham/Nicks/McVie(s)/Fleetwood lineup reunited at the request of U.S. President [[Bill Clinton]] for his first Inaugural Ball in [[1993]]. Clinton had made Fleetwood Mac's "[[Don't Stop]]" his campaign theme song, and he prevailed on them to perform it live for his guests. Although the five did so, old wounds had yet to heal, and there was no talk of extending the reunion.
The second reunion in the 1990s also came as a surprise to the music world. In late 1996, the McVies and Fleetwood performed session recording work for Buckingham's forthcoming solo album. This eventually led to a full ''Rumours'' lineup reunion in the form of a live concert recorded on a [[Warner Brothers]] [[Burbank, California]] soundstage, which resulted in the [[1997 in music|1997]] album ''[[The Dance (album)|The Dance]]''. A successful stadium tour followed the [[MTV]] premiere of ''The Dance'', which kept the reunited Mac on the road throughout much of 1997. This would be the final foray of the [[1970s]] lineup with Christine McVie. It was inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] in early [[1998]], and it performed at the Grammy Awards program that year.
In [[1998]], Christine McVie left the band and returned to the UK to retire from touring (though not from the music business entirely as she created a new album ''In The Meantime'' in 2004). This left Buckingham and Nicks to sing the vocals for the band's 2003 album, ''[[Say You Will]]''. The album debuted at #3 on the Billboard 2003 chart, and a well-attended world arena tour lasted through [[2004]]. Drummer Mick Fleetwood and bass guitarist John McVie remain the only original members still with the band.
As Fleetwood had promised, even when events reached their nadir, there would always be John McVie and Mick Fleetwood, as long as both shall live.
== Discography ==
===The Peter Green Years (1967-1970)===
* ''[[Fleetwood Mac (1968 album)|Peter Green's Fleetwood Mac]]'' (Blue Horizon, 1968)
* ''[[Mr. Wonderful (album)|Mr. Wonderful]]'' (Epic, 1968)
* ''[[English Rose]]'' (Epic, 1969--US only)
* ''The Pious Bird Of Good Omen'' (Blue Horizon 1969--UK only)
* ''[[Then Play On]]'' (Reprise, 1969)
* ''Fleetwood Mac In Chicago/Blues Jam In Chicago vols 1 & 2'' (Blue Horizon, 1969)
==== Additional Compilations/Outtakes Collections ====
* ''Greatest Hits'' (CBS Europe, 1971)
* ''The Original Fleetwood Mac'' (1967-8 recordings, released Blue Horizon 1971)
* ''[[The Complete Blue Horizon Sessions|The Complete Blue Horizon Sessions 1967-1969]] [Box set]'' (Columbia UK, 1999)
* ''[[The Vaudeville Years|The Vaudeville Years of Fleetwood Mac: 1968 to 1970]] [Box set]'' (released 1999)
* ''[[Show-Biz Blues|Show-Biz Blues 1968-1970]] [Box set]'' (Companion to "Vaudville", released c. 2002)
* ''Best of Peter Green's Fleetwood Mac'' (Columbia UK, 2000)
* ''Original Fleetwood Mac: The Blues Years'' (3-CD set, Castle, 2000)
* ''Jumping at Shadows: The Blues Years'' (Castle/Sanctuary, 2002)
* ''[http://www.musicbox-online.com/fm-men.html Men of the World: The Early Years]'' (Sanctuary, 2005)
==== Live Albums ====
* ''Live at the Marquee, 1967'' (released 1992)
* ''Masters: London Live '68'' (released 1998)
* ''[[Live at the BBC (Fleetwood Mac album)|Live At The BBC]]'' (released 1995)
* ''[http://www.musicbox-online.com/fm-shrn.html Shrine '69]'' (live 1969, released 1999)
* ''[[Live In Boston|Live at the Boston Tea Party]], vols 1-3'' (recorded Feb 5-7, 1970. Released on Snapper, 1998-2000. A remix and expansion of countless grey-market versions of these tapes, released from 1985 on. The only tracks it lacks are an alternate live "World in Harmony" and a 3-minute bongo solo, edited out of "Green Manalishi.")
* ''Oh Well--Greatest Hits Live'' (Mainline, 1989. Most complete version of earlier rough mixes of Feb 5-7 19 |
ague 1997-98|1997&ndash;98]]
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Bradford City A.F.C.|Bradford City]]||2||1999&ndash;2000||[[FA Premier League 2000-01|2000&ndash;01]]
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Coventry City F.C.|Coventry City]]&#8224;||34||1967&ndash;68||[[FA Premier League 2000-01|2000&ndash;01]]
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Crystal Palace F.C.|Crystal Palace]]&#8224;||1||2004&ndash;05||[[FA Premier League 2004-05|2004&ndash;05]]
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Derby County F.C.|Derby County]]||6||1996&ndash;97||[[FA Premier League 2001-02|2001&ndash;02]]
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Ipswich Town F.C.|Ipswich Town]]&#8224;||2||2000&ndash;01||[[FA Premier League 2001-02|2001&ndash;02]]
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Leeds United F.C.|Leeds United]]&#8224;||14||1990&ndash;91||[[FA Premier League 2003-04|2003&ndash;04]]
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Leicester City F.C.|Leicester City]]||1||2003&ndash;04||[[FA Premier League 2003-04|2003&ndash;04]]
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Norwich City F.C.|Norwich City]]&#8224;||1||2004&ndash;05||[[FA Premier League 2004-05|2004&ndash;05]]
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Nottingham Forest F.C.|Nottingham Forest]]&#8224;||1||1998&ndash;99||[[FA Premier League 1998-99|1998&ndash;99]]
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Oldham Athletic A.F.C.|Oldham Athletic]]&#8224;||3||1991&ndash;92||[[FA Premier League 1993-94|1993&ndash;94]]
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Queens Park Rangers F.C.|Queens Park Rangers]]&#8224;||13||1983&ndash;84||[[FA Premier League 1995-96|1995&ndash;96]]
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Sheffield United F.C.|Sheffield United]]&#8224;||4||1990&ndash;91||[[FA Premier League 1993-94|1993&ndash;94]]
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Sheffield Wednesday F.C.|Sheffield Wednesday]]&#8224;||9||1991&ndash;92||[[FA Premier League 1999-00|1999&ndash;2000]]
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Southampton F.C.|Southampton]]&#8224;||27||1978&ndash;79||[[FA Premier League 2004-05|2004&ndash;05]]
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Swindon Town F.C.|Swindon Town]]||1||1993&ndash;94||[[FA Premier League 1993-94|1993&ndash;94]]
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Watford F.C.|Watford]]||1||1999&ndash;00||[[FA Premier League 1999-00|1999&ndash;2000]]
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Wimbledon F.C.|Wimbledon]](a)&#8224;||14||1986&ndash;87||[[FA Premier League 1999-00|1999&ndash;2000]]
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.|Wolverhampton Wanderers]]||1||2003&ndash;04||[[FA Premier League 2003-04|2003&ndash;04]]
|}
:&#8224; Founding member of Premier League. (a) ''Now [[Milton Keynes Dons]] F.C.''
'''Notes:'''
*Team movements for 2005&ndash;06 season:
**[[Crystal Palace F.C.|Crystal Palace]], [[Norwich City F.C.|Norwich City]] and [[Southampton F.C.|Southampton]] were relegated to The Championship. On a [[FA Premier League 2004-05#The relegation dog fight|dramatic final day of the season]], last-place [[West Bromwich Albion F.C.|West Bromwich Albion]] defeated [[Portsmouth F.C.|Portsmouth]], but had to see other results go their way. Norwich City, who started the day outside the drop zone, were unfortunately beaten 6&ndash;0 by [[Fulham F.C.|Fulham]]. Southampton lost 2&ndash;1 to [[Manchester United F.C.|Man United]]. Palace were eight minutes from survival and leading [[Charlton Athletic F.C.|Charlton]] 2&ndash;1, but Charlton equalised, consigning the Eagles to the drop.
**[[Sunderland A.F.C.|Sunderland]] won The Championship for 2004&ndash;05, assuring themselves of a return to the Premier League for 2005&ndash;06.
**The second automatic promotion spot was taken by [[Wigan Athletic F.C.|Wigan Athletic]], who are playing in the top flight for the first time in their history.
**The third and final promotion spot was taken by [[West Ham United F.C.|West Ham United]] when they defeated [[Preston North End F.C.|Preston North End]] 1&ndash;0 in the playoff final on [[May 30th]], [[2005]], at [[Millennium Stadium]] in [[Cardiff]].
==FA Premier League Winners to date==
Winners and Runners Up of the [[English Premier League]] since its inception.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!Season
!Winner
!Total wins*
!Remarks
!Runner-up
|-
|[[FA Premier League 1992-93|1992&ndash;93]]
|[[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]
|1 (8)
|style="text-align:left;"|First Premier League winners
|[[Aston Villa F.C.|Aston Villa]]
|-
|[[FA Premier League 1993-94|1993&ndash;94]]
|[[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]
|2 (9)
|style="text-align:left;"|Also won the [[FA Cup]]
|[[Blackburn Rovers F.C.|Blackburn Rovers]]
|-
|[[FA Premier League 1994-95|1994&ndash;95]]
|[[Blackburn Rovers F.C.|Blackburn Rovers]]
|1 (3)
|First league championship since 1914
|[[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]
|-
|[[FA Premier League 1995-96|1995&ndash;96]]
|[[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]
|3 (10)
|style="text-align:left;"|Also won the [[FA Cup]]
|[[Newcastle United F.C.|Newcastle United]]
|-
|[[FA Premier League 1996-97|1996&ndash;97]]
|[[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]
|4 (11)
|&#12288;
|[[Newcastle United F.C.|Newcastle United]]
|-
|[[FA Premier League 1997-98|1997&ndash;98]]
|[[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]]
|1 (11)
|style="text-align:left;"|Also won the [[FA Cup]]
|[[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]
|-
|[[FA Premier League 1998-99|1998&ndash;99]]
|[[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]
|5 (12)
|style="text-align:left;"|Also won the [[FA Cup]], and the [[UEFA Champions League]]
|[[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]]
|-
|[[FA Premier League 1999-2000|1999&ndash;2000]]
|[[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]
|6 (13)
|&#12288;
|[[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]]
|-
|[[FA Premier League 2000-01|2000&ndash;01]]
|[[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]
|7 (14)
|style="text-align:left;"|First and only team to date to have won the [[English Premier League]] in 3 consecutive seasons
|[[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]]
|-
|[[FA Premier League 2001-02|2001&ndash;02]]
|[[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]]
|2 (12)
|style="text-align:left;"|Scored in all 38 [[English Premier League|league]] games, and also won the [[FA Cup]]
|[[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]]
|-
|[[FA Premier League 2002-03|2002&ndash;03]]
|[[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]
|8 (15)
|&#12288;
|[[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]]
|-
|[[FA Premier League 2003-04|2003&ndash;04]]
|[[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]]
|3 (13)
|style="text-align:left;"|Undefeated in League
|[[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]]
|-
|[[FA Premier League 2004-05|2004&ndash;05]]
|[[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]]
|1 (2)
|style="text-align:left;"|Also won the [[League Cup]]
|[[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]]
|}
==Top scorers==
===By season===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!Season
!Top scorer, club
!Goals
|-
|1992&ndash;93*
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Teddy Sheringham]], Tottenham Hotspur
|22
|-
|1993&ndash;94*
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Andy Cole]], Newcastle United
|34
|-
|1994&ndash;95*
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Alan Shearer]], Blackburn Rovers
|34
|-
|1995&ndash;96
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Alan Shearer]], Blackburn Rovers
|31
|-
|1996&ndash;97
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Alan Shearer]], Newcastle United
|25
|-
|1997&ndash;98
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Chris Sutton]], Blackburn Rovers<br/>[[Dion Dublin]], Coventry City<br/>[[Michael Owen]], Liverpool
|18
|-
|1998&ndash;99
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink]], Leeds United<br/>[[Michael Owen]], Liverpool<br/>[[Dwight Yorke]], Manchester United
|18
|-
|1999&ndash;2000
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Kevin Phillips (footballer)|Kevin Phillips]], Sunderland
|30
|-
|2000&ndash;01
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink]], Chelsea
|23
|-
|2001&ndash;02
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Thierry Henry]], Arsenal
|24
|-
|2002&ndash;03
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Ruud van Nistelrooy]], Manchester United
|25
|-
|2003&ndash;04
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Thierry Henry]], Arsenal
|30
|-
|2004&ndash;05
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Thierry Henry]], Arsenal
|25
|}
:<nowiki>*</nowiki> For the first 3 seasons of the Premier League (1992&ndash;93, 1993&ndash;94, 1994&ndash;95)<br/>there were 22 clubs and therefore 42 games played by each club. For all<br/>seasons since there have been 20 clubs and therefore 38 games played.
===All-time===
As of [[March 1st]] [[2006]]
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!Rank!!Player!!Goals
|-
|1
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Alan Shearer]] *||255
|-
|2
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Andy Cole]] *||185
|-
|3
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Robbie Fowler]] *||154
|-
|4
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Thierry Henry]] *||152
|-
|5
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Les Ferdinand]]||149
|-
|6
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Teddy Sheringham]] *||143
|-
|7
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Michael Owen]] *||125
|-
|8
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink]] *||123
|-
|9
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Dwight Yorke]]||122
|-
|10
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Ian Wright]]||113
|-
|colspan=3 style="background:#efefef"|<small>* Playing in the Premier League in 2005-06.</small>
|}
==See also==
* [[Football records in England# |
one.
==Mutual exclusivity==
Two events ''A'' and ''B'' are [[mutually exclusive]] if and only if
:<math>P(A \cap B) = 0</math>
as long as
:<math>P(A) \ne 0</math>
and
:<math>P(B) \ne 0.</math>
Then
:<math>P(A\mid B) = 0</math>
and
:<math>P(B\mid A) = 0.</math>
In other words, the probability of ''A'' happening, given that ''B'' happens, is nil since ''A'' and ''B'' cannot both happen in the same situation; likewise, the probability of ''B'' happening, given that ''A'' happens, is also nil.
==Other considerations==
* If <math>B</math> is an event and <math>P(B) > 0</math>, then the function <math>Q</math> defined by <math>Q(A) = P(A|B)</math> for all events <math>A</math> is a [[probability measure]].
* If <math>P(B)=0</math>, then <math>P(A|B)</math> is left [[undefined]].
* Conditional probability can be calculated with a [[decision tree]].
==See also==
*[[Bayes' theorem]]
*[[Likelihood function]]
*[[Posterior probability]]
*[[Probability theory]]
*[[Monty Hall problem]]
[[Category:Probability theory]]
[[de:Bedingte Wahrscheinlichkeit]]
[[es:Probabilidad condicionada]]
[[fr:Probabilité conditionnelle]]
[[it:Probabilità condizionata]]
[[nl:Voorwaardelijke kans]]
[[pl:Prawdopodobieństwo warunkowe]]
[[su:Conditional probability]]
[[sv:Betingad sannolikhet]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Continuous probability distribution</title>
<id>5792</id>
<revision>
<id>29755611</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-01T01:37:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michael Hardy</username>
<id>4626</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">By one convention, a [[probability distribution]] is called '''continuous''' if its [[cumulative distribution function]] is [[continuous function|continuous]]. That is equivalent to saying that for [[random variable]]s ''X'' with the distribution in question, Pr[''X'' = ''a''] = 0 for all [[real number]]s ''a'', i.e.: the probability that ''X'' attains the value ''a'' is zero, for any number ''a''.
While for a [[discrete probability distribution]] one could say that an [[event]] with [[probability]] zero is impossible, this can not be said in the case of a continuous random variable, because then no value would be possible.
This [[paradox]] is solved by realizing that the probability that ''X'' attains a value in an [[uncountable]] set (for example an [[interval (mathematics)|interval]]) can not be found by adding the probabilities for individual values.
By another convention, the term "continuous probability distribution" is reserved for distributions that have [[probability density function]]s. These are most precisely called '''[[absolutely continuous]]''' random variables (see [[Radon–Nikodym theorem]]).
A random variable with the [[Cantor distribution]] is continuous according to the first convention, but according to the second, it is not (absolutely) continuous. Also, it is not discrete nor a weighted average of discrete and absolutely continuous random variables.
In practical applications random variables are often either discrete or absolutely continuous.
[[Category:Probability theory]]
[[pl:Zmienna losowa ciągła]]
[[su:Continuous random variable]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cumulative distribution function</title>
<id>5793</id>
<revision>
<id>36412892</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-23T22:02:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.180.34.21</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>added link to cadlag functions</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[probability theory]], the '''cumulative distribution function''' (abbreviated '''cdf''') completely describes the probability distribution of a [[Real_number|real]]-valued [[random variable]], ''X''. For every real number ''x'', the cdf is given by
:<math>F(x) = \operatorname{P}(X\leq x),</math>
where the right-hand side represents the [[probability]] that the random variable ''X'' takes on a value less than or
equal to ''x''. The probability that ''X'' lies in the [[interval (mathematics)|interval]] (''a'',&nbsp;''b''<nowiki>]</nowiki> is therefore ''F''(''b'')&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;''F''(''a'') if ''a''&nbsp;<&nbsp;''b''. It is conventional to use a capital ''F'' for a cumulative distribution function, in contrast to the lower-case ''f'' used for [[probability density function]]s and [[probability mass function]]s.
Note that in the definition above, the "less or equal" sign, '&le;' could be replaced with "strictly less" '<'. This would yield a different function, but either of the two functions can be readily derived from the other. The only thing to remember is to stick to either definition as mixing them will lead to incorrect results. In English-speaking countries the convention that uses the weak inequality (&le;) rather than the strict inequality (<) is nearly always used.
The "point probability" that ''X'' is exactly ''b'' can be found as
:<math>\operatorname{P}(X=b) = F(b) - \lim_{x \to b^{-}} F(x)</math>
==Complementary cumulative distribution function==
Sometimes, it is useful to study the opposite question and ask how often the random variable is ''above'' a particular level. This is called the '''complementary cumulative distribution function''' ('''CCDF'''), defined as
:<math>F_c(x) = \operatorname{P}(X > x) = 1 - F(x)</math>.
== Examples ==
As an example, suppose ''X'' is uniformly distributed on the [[unit interval]] [0,&nbsp;1].
Then the cdf is given by
:''F''(''x'') = 0, if ''x'' < 0;
:''F''(''x'') = ''x'', if 0 &le; ''x'' &le; 1;
:''F''(''x'') = 1, if ''x'' > 1.
For a different example, suppose ''X'' takes only the values 0 and 1, with equal probability.
Then the cdf is given by
:''F''(''x'') = 0, if ''x'' < 0;
:''F''(''x'') = 1/2, if 0 &le; ''x'' < 1;
:''F''(''x'') = 1, if ''x'' &ge; 1.
== Properties ==
Every cumulative distribution function ''F'' is (not necessarily strictly) [[monotone increasing]] and [[continuous function|continuous]] from the right (''right-continuous''). Furthermore, we have <math>\lim_{x\to -\infty}F(x)=0</math> and <math>\lim_{x\to +\infty}F(x)=1</math>. Every function with these four properties is a cdf. Almost all cdfs are [[cadlag]] functions.
If ''X'' is a [[discrete random variable]], then it attains values ''x''<sub>1</sub>, ''x''<sub>2</sub>, ... with probability ''p''<sub>i</sub> = p(''x''<sub>i</sub>), and the cdf of ''X'' will be discontinuous at the points ''x''<sub>''i''</sub> and constant in between:
:<math>F(x) = \operatorname{P}(X\leq x) = \sum_{x_i \leq x} \operatorname{P}(X = x_i) = \sum_{x_i \leq x} p(x_i)</math>
If the cdf ''F'' of ''X'' is [[continuous function|continuous]], then ''X'' is a [[continuous random variable]]; if furthermore ''F'' is [[absolute continuity|absolutely continuous]], then there exists a [[Lebesgue integral|Lebesgue-integrable]] function ''f''(''x'') such that
:<math>F(b)-F(a) = \operatorname{P}(a\leq X\leq b) = \int_a^b f(x)\,dx</math>
for all real numbers ''a'' and ''b''. (The first of the two equalities displayed above would not be correct in general if we had not said that the distribution is continuous. Continuity of the distribution implies that P(''X'' = ''a'') = P(''X'' = ''b'') = 0, so the difference between "<" and "&le;" ceases to be important in this context.) The function ''f'' is equal to the [[derivative]] of ''F'' [[almost everywhere]], and it is called the [[probability density function]] of the distribution of ''X''.
The [[Kolmogorov-Smirnov test]] is based on cumulative distribution functions and can be used to test to see whether two empirical distributions are different or whether an empirical distribution is different from an ideal distribution. The closely related [[Kuiper's test]] (pronounced {{IPA|/k&#339;yp&#601;&#641;/}}; a bit like "Cowper" might be pronounced in English) is useful if the domain of the distribution is cyclic as in day of the week. For instance we might use Kuiper's test to see if the number of tornadoes varies during the year or if sales of a product vary by day of the week or day of the month.
==See also==
* [[Descriptive statistics]]
* [[Probability distribution]]
* [[Probability density function]]
* [[Empirical distribution function]]
[[Category:Probability theory]]
[[da:Fordelingsfunktion]]
[[de:Kumulierte Verteilungsfunktion]]
[[fr:Fonction de répartition]]
[[pl:Dystrybuanta]]
[[pt:Função distribuição acumulada]]
[[su:Cumulative distribution function]]
[[zh:累积分布函数]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Central tendency</title>
<id>5794</id>
<revision>
<id>37626602</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-01T03:45:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.158.140.122</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* A list of measures of central tendency */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[statistics]], '''central tendency''' is an [[average]] of a [[set]] of [[measurement]]s, the word ''average'' being variously construed as mean, median, or other measure of location, depending on the context. Central tendency is a [[descriptive statistics|descriptive statistic]] analogous to [[center of mass]] in physical terms. The term is used in some fields of [[empirical research]] to refer to what statisticians sometimes call "location". A "measure of central tendency" is either a [[location parameter]] or a [[statistic]] used to estimate a location parameter.
There are several different kinds of calculations |
in which the government plays a significant role. It owns more than 164 state-owned enterprises and administers prices on several basic goods, including [[fuel]], [[rice]], and [[electricity]]. In the aftermath of the [[Asian financial crisis|financial and economic crisis]] that began in mid-[[1997]], the government took custody of a significant portion of private sector assets through acquisition of [[non-performing loan|nonperforming bank loan]]s and corporate assets through the debt restructuring process.
==Background==
During the 30 years of president [[Suharto]]'s "New Order" government, Indonesia's economy grew from a per capita [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] of [[dollar|$]]70 to more than $1,000 by [[1996]]. Through prudent monetary and fiscal [[policy|policies]], [[inflation]] was held in the 5%&ndash;10% range, the [[rupiah]] was stable and predictable, and the government avoided domestic financing of budget deficits. Much of the development budget was financed by concessional [[foreign aid]].
In the mid-[[1980s]], the government began eliminating regulatory obstacles to economic activity. The steps were aimed primarily at the external and financial sectors and were designed to stimulate employment and growth in the non-oil export sector. Annual real GDP growth averaged nearly 7% from [[1987]]&ndash;[[1997]], and most analysts recognized Indonesia as a newly industrializing economy and emerging major market.
High levels of economic growth from 1987&ndash;1997 masked a number of structural weaknesses in Indonesia's economy. The legal system was very weak, and there was and is no effective way to enforce contracts, collect debts, or sue for [[bankruptcy]]. Banking practices were very unsophisticated, with collateral-based lending the norm and widespread violation of prudential regulations, including limits on connected lending. Non-tariff barriers, rent-seeking by state-owned enterprises, domestic subsidies, barriers to domestic trade, and [[export restriction]]s all created economic distortions.
The regional financial problems that swept into Indonesia in late [[1997]] quickly became an economic and political crisis. Indonesia's initial response was to float the rupiah, raise key domestic interest rates, and tighten fiscal policy. In October 1997, Indonesia and the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) reached agreement on an economic reform program aimed at macroeconomic stabilization and elimination of some of the country's most damaging economic policies, such as the National Car Program and the [[clove]] monopoly, both involving family members of President Suharto. The rupiah failed to stabilize for any significant period of time, however, and President Suharto was forced to resign in May 1998. In August 1998, Indonesia and the IMF agreed on an Extended Fund Facility (EFF) under President [[Habiebie|B.J Habibie]] that included significant structural reform targets. President [[Abdurrahman Wahid]] took office in October [[1999]], and Indonesia and the IMF signed another EFF in January [[2000]]. The new program also has a range of economic, structural reform, and governance targets.
The effects of the financial and economic crisis were severe. In 1998, real GDP contracted by an estimated 13.7%. The economy bottomed out in mid-1999, and real GDP growth for the year was an anemic 0.3%. Inflation reached 77%in 1998 but slowed to 2% in 1999. The rupiah, which had been in the Rp 2,400/USD1 range in 1997 reached Rp 17,000/USD1 at the height of the 1998 violence, returned to the Rp 6,500&ndash;8,000/USD1 range in late 1998. It has traded in the Rp 6,500&ndash;9,000/USD1 range since, with significant volatility. Although a severe drought in 1997&ndash;1998 forced Indonesia to import record amounts of rice, overall imports dropped precipitously in the early stage of the crisis in response to the unfavorable exchange rate, reduced domestic demand, and absence of new investment. Although reliable unemployment data are not available, formal sector employment contracted significantly.
In late 2005 Indonesia faced a 'mini-crisis' due to rising oil prices and imports. The currency reached Rp 12,000/USD1 before stabilizing. The government was forced to cut its massive fuel subsidies, which were to cost $14 billion for 2005, in October. This led to a more than doubling in the price of consumer fuels, resulting in double-digit inflation. The situation has stabilized, but the economy continues to struggle with inflation at 17% in [[January]] 2006.
As of early [[2006]], Indonesia's economic outlook is more positive. Economic growth accelerated to 5.1% in [[2004]] and reached 5.6% in 2005. Real per capita income has reached pre-crisis levels. Growth is driven primarily by domestic consumption, which accounts for roughly three-fourths of Indonesia's gross domestic product. The [[Jakarta Stock Exchange]] was the best performing market in Asia in 2004, up some 42%. Problems that continue to put a drag on growth include low foreign investment levels, bureaucratic red tape, and widespread corruption. However, there is very strong optimism with the conclusion of peaceful elections during the year 2004 and the election of the reformist president [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]].
==Oil and minerals sector==
Indonesia is the only Asian member of the [[Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries]] (OPEC) outside of the [[Middle East]], and is the only OPEC member that is a net oil importer. In early [[As of 2005|2005]], Indonesian crude oil and condensate output was 1.07 million [[barrel (unit)|barrel]]s per day. This is a substantial decline from the 1990s, due primarily to aging oil fields and a lack of investment in oil production equipment. In 1999, Crude and condensate output averaged 1.5 million [[barrel (unit)|barrel]]s (240,000 m&sup3;) per day, and in the 1998 calendar year the oil and gas sector, including refining, contributed approximately 9% to GDP. This decline in production since the 1990s has been accompanied by a substantial increase in domestic consumption, about 5.4% per year, leading to an expected [[US dollar|US$]]1.2 billion cost for importing oil in 2005.
The state owns all [[petroleum]] and [[mineral]] rights. Foreign firms participate through production-sharing and work contracts. Oil and gas contractors are required to finance all exploration, production, and development costs in their contract areas; they are entitled to recover operating, exploration, and development costs out of the oil and gas produced. According to President [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]], the nation is expected to deplete its crude oil reserves in about 2020.
Although minerals production traditionally centered on [[bauxite]], [[silver]], and [[tin]] production, Indonesia is expanding its [[copper]], [[nickel]], [[gold]], and [[coal]] output for export markets. In mid-1993, the Department of Mines and Energy reopened the coal sector to foreign investment, with the result that the leading Indonesian coal producer now is a joint venture between U.K. firms [[BP]] and [[Rio Tinto (company)|Rio Tinto]]. Total coal production reached 74 million metric tons in 1999, including exports of 55 million tons. The Indonesian Government hopes to surpass 100 million metric tons of coal production in 2002. Two US firms operate three copper/gold mines in Indonesia, with a [[Canada|Canadian]] and [[Britain|UK]] firm holding significant other investments in nickel and gold, respectively. In 1998, the value of Indonesian gold production was $1 billion and copper, $843 million. Receipts from gold, copper, and coal comprised 84% of the $3 billion earned in 1998 by the mineral mining sector.
Indonesia's fuel production has declined significantly over the years, owing to aging oil fields and lack of investment in new equipment. As a result, despite being an exporter of crude oil, Indonesia is now a net importer of oil and had previously subsidized fuel prices to keep prices low, costing US$ 7 billion in 2004 [http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/GC10Ae04.html]. The current president has mandated a significant reduction of government subsidy of fuel prices in several stages [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4200100.stm]. In order to alleviate economic hardships, the government has offered one-time subsidies to qualified citizens. The economy is now undergoing a process of rebuilding after the tsunami that struck in December of 2004. The government has stated the cuts in subsidies are aimed at reducing the budget deficit to 1% of gross domestic product (GDP) this year, down from around 1.6% last year.
{{OPEC}}
==Investment==
Since the late 1980s, Indonesia has made significant changes to its regulatory framework to encourage economic growth. This growth was financed largely from private investment, both foreign and domestic. U.S. investors dominated the oil and gas sector and undertook some of Indonesia's largest [[mining]] projects. In addition, the presence of US banks, manufacturers, and service providers expanded, especially after the industrial and financial sector reforms of the 1980s. Other major foreign investors included Japan, the United Kingdom, [[Singapore]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Taiwan]], and [[South Korea]].
The economic crisis made continued private financing imperative but problematic. New foreign investment approvals fell by almost two-thirds between 1997 and 1999. The crisis further highlighted areas where additional reform was needed. Frequently cited areas for improving the investment climate were establishment of a well- functioning legal and judicial system, adherence to competitive processes, and adoption of internationally acceptable accounting and disclosure standards. Despite improvements in the laws in recent years, Indonesia's intellectual property rights regime remains weak; lack of effective enforcement is a major concern. Under Suharto, Indonesia h |
nt Kennedy's brief administration.
Loewe retired to [[Palm Springs, California]] while Lerner went through a series of unsuccessful musicals with such esteemed composers as [[Andre Previn]], [[Leonard Bernstein]] and [[Charles Strouse]]. At the time of Lerner's death he had been approached to write lyrics for ''[[Les Misérables]]'' and ''[[The Phantom of the Opera]]''. In 1978 he published his [[autobiography]], ''The Street Where I Live.''
Throughout Lerner's career, his lyrics captured a sense of romantic yearning, and included witty references and occasional double entendres. His librettos had smart [[one-liner]]s but, for the most part, were structurally flawed.
Lerner was a suave, sophisticated gentleman with an addictive personality; for over 20 years he battled an [[amphetamine]] [[addiction]], and Lerner would marry eight times (one ex-wife quipped, "Marriage is Alan's way of saying goodbye"). The drugs and divorces cost him much of his money. When he died in 1986, he reportedly owed the [[US Internal Revenue Service|IRS]] over $1,000,000 (USD) in back taxes. Yet the only thing most remember about Lerner are his lyrics, among the most literate and passionate in 20th century popular music.
He died at the age of 77 on [[June 14]], [[1986]], from [[lung cancer]] in [[Manhattan]].
==External links==
* [http://www.ibdb.com/person.asp?ID=3945 Internet Broadway Database page for Alan Jay Lerner]
[[Category:1918 births|Lerner, Alan J.]]
[[Category:1986 deaths|Lerner, Alan J.]]
[[Category:Musical theatre librettists|Lerner, Alan Jay]]
[[Category:Musical theatre lyricists|Lerner, Alan Jay]]
[[Category:People from New York City|Learner, Alan Jay]]
[[de:Alan Jay Lerner]]
[[sv:Alan Jay Lerner]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Al Capp</title>
<id>3012</id>
<revision>
<id>38444393</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T09:54:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vulturell</username>
<id>420178</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Al Capp''' ([[September 28]], [[1909]] &ndash; [[November 5]], [[1979]]) was a [[Jewish American]] [[cartoonist]] best known for the [[satire|satiric]] [[comic strip]], ''[[Li'l Abner]]''. He also wrote the comic strips ''[[Abbie and Slats]]'' and ''[[Long Sam]]''. His given name was '''Alfred Gerald Caplin'''. He won the 1947 [[National Cartoonist Society]] [[Reuben Award]] for the comic strip ''Li'l Abner'', and their 1979 [[Elzie Segar]] Award posthumously.
He was a native of [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]], [[Connecticut]]. He lost his right leg in a trolley accident as a young boy.
After apprenticing with cartoonist [[Ham Fisher]], Capp started ''[[Li'l Abner]]'' in [[1934]]. It started out in the preexisting comic-strip genus of [[hillbilly]] parody, but evolved into one of the most imaginative, popular, and well-drawn strips of the [[20th century]], featuring outlandish characters and bizarre situations.
The comic strip starred Li'l Abner Yokum, the lazy, dumb, but good-natured and strong hillbilly who lived in Dogpatch with Mammy and Pappy Yokum. Whatever energy he had went into evading the marital goals of Daisy Mae, his well-endowed girlfriend, until Capp finally gave in to reader pressure and allowed the couple to marry. This was such big news that the happy couple made the cover of [[Life magazine]].
Abner's home town of Dogpatch was peopled with an assortment of memorable characters, including Marryin' Sam, Wolf Gal, Lena the Hyena, Indian Lonesome Polecat, and a host of others, notably the beautiful, full-figured women Stupefyin' Jones and Moonbeam McSwine. Perhaps Capp's most popular creations were the [[Shmoo]], creatures whose incredible usefulness and generous nature made them a threat to civilization as we know it. Another famous character was Joe Btfsplk, who wanted to be a loving friend but was "the world's worst [[jinx]]", bringing bad [[luck]] to all those nearby. Btfsplk always had a small dark [[cloud]] over his head.
Li'l Abner also featured a comic-strip within the comic-strip ''[[Fearless Fosdick]]'' (a parody of ''[[Dick Tracy]]'').
The Dogpatch residents regularly combatted the likes of city slickers, business tycoons, government officials and intellectuals with their homespun wisdom and ingenuity. Situations often took the characters to other parts of the globe, including [[New York City]], tropical islands, and a miserable frozen land of Capp's invention, "Lower Slobovia."
During and after [[World War II]], Capp worked without pay going to [[hospital]]s to entertain patients, especially to cheer recent amputees and explain to them that the loss of a limb did not mean an end to a happy and productive life.
At its peak, ''Li'l Abner'' was read daily by 70 million Americans (when the US population was only 180 million). Many communities staged "[[Sadie Hawkins]] Day" events, after a similar annual event in the strip in which the tables were turned from what was then the general order of things, and women were allowed to ask men out without any shame or stigma. A frenetic musical comedy adaptation of the strip opened on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] in [[1956]], and was made into a [[motion picture]].
Capp (and a platoon of assistants) kept the strip going through the [[1960s]]. No matter how much help he had, Capp insisted on drawing the faces and hands himself. [[Frank Frazetta]], later famous as a [[fantasy art]]ist, drew the beautiful women in the strip's later years.
In the '60s, Capp's politics swung from [[liberalism|liberal]] to [[conservative]], and instead of caricaturing big business types, he began spoofing [[counterculture]] icons such as [[Joan Baez]] (in the character of Joanie Phoanie, a wealthy folksinger who offers an impoverished orphanage one million dollars' worth of "protest songs"). He became a popular speaker on college campuses during the era, attacking anti-war protesters and demonstrators, including [[John Lennon]] and [[Yoko Ono]] at their [[Bed-In|Bed-In for Peace]].
In [[1971]], he was charged with the attempted rape of a coed at the [[University of Wisconsin-Madison]]. It developed that there were similar allegations from at least four other campuses. Capp pleaded no contest and withdrew from public speaking.
''Li'l Abner'' lasted until 1977, and Capp died two years later, at his home in [[South Hampton, New Hampshire]].
In [[1968]] a theme-park called [[Dogpatch USA]] opened at [[Jasper, Arkansas|Jasper]], [[Arkansas]] based on Capp's work and with his support. The park was a popular attraction during the [[1970s]] but was abandoned in [[1993]] due to financial difficulties and remains unused and in disrepair.
His younger brother [[Elliot Caplin]] also became a comic strip creator, best known for writing the [[soap opera]] strip ''[[The Heart of Juliet Jones]]''.
[[Category:1909 births|Capp, Al]]
[[Category:1979 deaths|Capp, Al]]
[[Category:Amputees|Capp, Al]]
[[Category:Comic strip cartoonists|Capp, Al]]
[[Category:Eisner Award winners|Capp, Al]]
[[Category:Jewish American writers|Capp, Al]]
[[Category:People from Connecticut|Capp, Al]]
[[Category:Reuben Award winners|Capp, Al]]
[[pt:Al Capp]]
[[sv:Al Capp]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ann Druyan</title>
<id>3013</id>
<revision>
<id>41254315</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T02:20:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.67.18.69</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ann Druyan''' (b. [[June 13]], [[1949]]) is an author and media producer known for her involvement in many projects aiming to popularize and explain [[science]]. In her writings, Druyan has stressed the idea that people can have a sense of awe and wonder about the unity of the [[cosmos]] without introducing the concept of [[God]]. Focusing on this sense of awe and wonder, it has been said that Druyan is a [[pantheist]], though she has never explicitly described herself as being such.
Druyan wrote the books ''Comet'' and ''Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors'', as well as sections of ''[[The Demon-Haunted World]]'', with her late husband [[Carl Sagan]]. In addition, she wrote an introduction to ''The Cosmic Connection'' and the epilogue to ''Billions and Billions'', both by Sagan. Alone, she wrote the novel ''A Famous Broken Heart''.
In the areas of film and television, she was one of the writers for the television series ''[[Cosmos: A Personal Voyage|Cosmos]]'', and a producer of the film ''[[Contact (movie)|Contact]]''. Most recently, she is the CEO and a co-founder of [[Cosmos Studios]]. She also serves as Vice-Chair of the [[NORML]] Foundation Board of Directors.
Other projects that she has been involved in include the selection of the music on the record on the [[Voyager 1]] and [[Voyager 2]] space probes, and the [[Cosmos 1]] spacecraft which intended to demonstrate [[solar sail]] propulsion.
== Quote ==
* I think the roots of this antagonism to science run very deep. They're ancient. We see them in Genesis, this first story, this founding myth of ours, in which the first humans are doomed and cursed eternally for asking a question, for partaking of the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge. It's puzzling that Eden is synonymous with paradise when, if you think about it at all, it's more like a maximum-security prison with twenty-four hour surveillance. It's a horrible place. Adam and Eve have no childhood. They awaken full-grown. What is a human being without a childhood? Our long childhood is a critical feature of our species. It differentiates us, to a degree, from most other species. We take a longer time to mature. We depend upon these formative years and the social fabric to learn many of the things we need to know. --[http://www.csicop.org/si/2003-11/ann-druyan.html Ann Druyan Talks About Science, Religion, Wonder, Awe . . . and Carl Sagan]
==Awards==
*2004 [[Richa |
ine Gael representation, from 1954 to 1957. Fine Gael's Foreign Minister [[Liam Cosgrave]] negotiated Ireland's entry to the United Nations in 1956 and, in doing so, defined Irish foreign policy for decades. The party's Health Minister [[Tom O'Higgins]] introduced the [[Voluntary Health Insurance Board]] (VHI) and thus established Ireland's partly insurance-based health service that persists today. However, [[Fianna Fáil]] and deValera were returned to power in 1957, banishing Fine Gael once more to the opposition benches.
===The Just Society and Tom O'Higgins===
Out of government, Fine Gael went into decline. In the mid 1960s, however, it launched a new policy statement, known as ''The Just Society'', advocating policies based on principles of social justice and equality. That document was the brainchild of Declan Costello, a Fine Gael TD and son of former Taoiseach John A Costello, and reflected an emerging faction in the party that was being influenced by Social Democracy. This new strand of thinking in Fine Gael paved the way for the entry to the party of liberal thinkers such as [[Garret FitzGerald]]. Party Leaders of the time remained conservative but the seeds of the 1980s revolution had been sown. In 1966, Fine Gael achieved a near miracle when its young presidential candidate, [[Tom O'Higgins]], came within 1% of defeating the apparently unbeatable sitting president, Eamon de Valera, in that year's presidential election. O'Higgins came from the emerging Social Democrat wing of the party.
===The National Coalition===
When James Dillon resigned as Fine Gael leader in 1965, Liam Cosgrave (the son of [[Cumann na nGaedheal]] founder [[W.T Cosgrave]]) was chosen to replace him. The swift changeover was viewed as a means of keeping control of the party away from the emerging centre left wing of the party. In the wake of the Fianna Fáil [[Arms Crisis]] and Cosgrave's strong performances in opposition in defending the institutions of the State, the party was well positioned to return to Government with the Labour Party (which had ruled out coalition in its election campaign). After a break of sixteen years, Fine Gael returned to power in [[Irish General Election, 1973|1973]], at the head of a ''National Coalition'' government with Labour, under Cosgrave's leadership. That government has generally been regarded as a good government, but was hit by frequent problems. Some of these were outside its control (for example the [[1973 energy crisis|1970s oil crisis]]) and escalating violence in [[Northern Ireland]], while others were its own direct creation &mdash; notably the verbal attack on [[Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh|President Cearbhall Ó Dalaigh]] by the Minister for Defence, [[Patrick Donegan]], in which he called the President a "thundering disgrace". President Ó Dálaigh's subsequent resignation in 1976 severely damaged the National Coalition's reputation.
Cosgrave, like his father before him, showed a fierce determination to defend the institutions of the state and would not compromise with extremists, instead working towards reconciliation. The National Coalition is best remembered for its attempts to build a power shairing executive in Northern Ireland through the [[Sunningdale Agreement]]. The Sunningdale Agreement collapsed after a [[loyalist]] [[general strike]]. However, it left a legacy of compromise that would lead to later Agreements aimed at bringing peace to the troubled region. In 1977 the Fine Gael/Labour government suffered a heavy defeat, with Fianna Fáil winning an unprecedented 20-seat majority in the 148-seat Dáil, a landslide under [[Proportional Representation]].
===Garret FitzGerald===
[[Image:Garretfitz.jpg|thumb|left|Professor Garret FitzGerald served as [[Taoiseach]] twice]]
Cosgrave resigned the leadership and was replaced by [[Garret FitzGerald]]. FitzGerald had been a successful Minister for Foreign Affairs in the National Coalition, his affable style and liberal views did much to change the stereotypical European view of Ireland (and perhaps Ireland of itself). FitzGerald was one of Ireland's most popular politicians and son of [[Desmond FitzGerald]], a Cumann na nGaedheal Minister for External Affairs. He moved Fine Gael to the left and promoted the [[Liberalism|Liberal]] Agenda. He also founded the autonomous youth movement [[Young Fine Gael]], while the party attracted thousands of new members. Fine Gael seemed trendy under FitzGerald's leadership (for instance, [[U2]] endorsed them at this time). Fine Gael's revitalisation was of such a scale that by the November [[1982]] general election, Fine Gael was only five seats behind Fianna Fáil in [[Dáil Éireann]] and ''bigger'' than the party in the [[Oireachtas]] (both houses of parliament put together). As Taoiseach, FitzGerald attempted to create a more pluralist Republic. In 1985 after lengthy negotiations he succeeded in negotiating the [[Anglo-Irish Agreement]]. This gave the Republic a say in the affairs of Northern Ireland while improving the Anglo-Irish relationship. FitzGerald headed three governments: 1981 &ndash; February 1982, 1982 &ndash; 1987, and a short-lived Fine Gael minority government whenLabour withdrew from the previous coalition as tensions had developed between the coalition partners over how to tackle the economy. In 1987 the party was defeated heavily in the general election. FitzGerald resigned and his close ally and former Minister for Finance [[Alan Dukes]] replaced him. Like FitzGerald, Dukes came from the wing of Fine Gael influenced by Social Democracy.
===Decline, then the Rainbow Coalition===
From a highpoint in the 1980s, Fine Gael went into slight, then sharp decline. Despite Dukes launching the ''[[Tallaght Strategy]]'' in 1987, the party gained just four seats in the following general Election. In 1990, its candidate in the Irish presidential election, [[Austin Currie]], was pushed into a humiliating third place, behind the winner, Labour's [[Mary Robinson]] and Fianna Fáil's [[Brian Lenihan]]. This led to [[John Bruton]] replacing [[Alan Dukes]] as the party's leader. In 1989, political history was made when Fianna Fáil abandoned one of its "core principles", its opposition to coalition. Having failed in 1987 and 1989 to win outright majorities, Fianna Fáil entered into a coalition administration with the [[Progressive Democrats]]. Commentators predicted that that would leave Fine Gael isolated, with Fianna Fáil able to swap coalition partners to keep itself in continual power. That indeed seemed the case when, after the 1992 general election, Fianna Fáil replaced the Progressive Democrats with the Irish Labour Party. However the Fianna Fáil-Labour coalition disintegrated in 1994, allowing Bruton to emerge as Taoiseach of a three party ''[[Rainbow Coalition]]'', involving Fine Gael, Labour and [[Democratic Left (Ireland)|Democratic Left]]. This Government's first policy initiative was the introduction of Divorce which was ratified in a referendum by a narrow majority. The Government also oversaw unprecedented economic growth and Ireland's first budget surplus in over twenty years. However, the [[Provisional IRA]] ceasefire ended in 1996, stalling the peace process. The three parties worked well together and fought the 1997 election on a united platform. However, despite positive opinion polls throughout its time in office, the Government was defeated in the 1997 general election. Fine Gael gained nine seats but Labour lost heavily and the rainbow coalition was replaced by a Fianna Fáil-[[Progressive Democrats]] coalition under [[Bertie Ahern]].
===Meltdown and Recovery===
The party had little answer as popular Taoiseach [[Bertie Ahern]] cemented his title as the ''[[Teflon character|Teflon]] Taoiseach'' (a reference to his uncanny ability to emerge unscathed from controversy after controversy). The party, facing a hostile media and criticism of Bruton's style of leadership, ditched him in 2001 in place of what was seen as the ''dream ticket'' of former Minister [[Michael Noonan]] for leader and former minister [[Jim Mitchell]] for deputy leader. However the dream proved to be a nightmare, as Fine Gael suffered its worst ever election result in the 2002 general election, declining from 54 TDs to 31. Many of its best TDs, including most of its front bench, in particular Deputy Leader Jim Mitchell, lost their seats. Noonan resigned on the night of the election result, and was replaced by [[Enda Kenny]] in the subsequent [[Fine Gael leadership election, 2002|leadership election]]. With the scale of the collapse, questions were asked as to whether the party had a future.
However, Fine Gael staged a remarkable recovery in local and [[European Parliament|European]] elections held on [[11 June]] 2004. It won 5 of the Republic of Ireland's 13 European Parliament seats (compared to just 4 seats for the ruling [[Fianna Fáil]] party), and won almost the same number of local authority seats as Fianna Fáil. Since those elections the party's membership has continued to increase while the overall party morale is at its highest level in over a decade. Furthermore, under Enda Kenny's leadership the party has agreed to enter a pre-election pact with Labour in an attempt to offer an alternative Government to the people at next [[general election]], due within 18 months. Fine Gael appears set to at least regain many of the seats it lost during the disastrous 2002 campaign at the next General Election.
The Fine Gael party has achieved an average of just over 30% of first preference votes in Irish elections since 1922
==Public Representatives==
Notable past [[Teachta Dála|Teachtaí Dála]] are
* [[John Bruton]] - Former Taoiseach
* [[Garret Fitzgerald]] - Former Taoiseach
For a list of Fine Gael [[Teachta Dála|Teachtaí Dála]] and [[Members of the European Parliament|MEP]]s, past and present see ''[[List of Irish politicians]]
'''Changes since the 2002 General Election'''
[[ |
n [[November 9]], the Social Democrat [[Philipp Scheidemann]] proclaimed a Republic. On [[November 11]], [[Armistice with Germany (Compiègne)|an armistice]] ending the war was signed at [[Compiègne]].
==Weimar Republic==
''Main article: [[Weimar Republic]]''
[[Image:German Revolution.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The [[German Revolution]] laid the foundation for the Weimar Republic]]
On [[28 June]] [[1919]] the [[Treaty of Versailles]] was signed. Germany was to cede [[Alsace-Lorraine]], Eupen-Malmédy, [[Northern Schleswig|North Schleswig]], and the [[Klaipeda|Memel]] area. [[Poland]] was restored and [[Province of Posen|Posen]], [[Province of West Prussia|West Prussia]], and [[Upper Silesia]] were returned after plebiscites and independence uprisings. All German colonies were to be handed over to the Allies. The left and right banks of the [[Rhine]] were to be permanently demilitarised. The industrially important [[Saarland]] was to be governed by the [[League of Nations]] for 15 years and its coalfields administered by France. At the end of that time a plebiscite was to determine the Saar's future status. To ensure execution of the treaty's terms, Allied troops would occupy the left (German) bank of the Rhine for a period of 5&ndash;15 years. The German army was to be limited to 100,000 officers and men; the general staff was to be dissolved; vast quantities of war material were to be handed over and the manufacture of munitions rigidly curtailed. The navy was to be similarly reduced, and no military aircraft were allowed. Germany and its allies were to accept the sole responsibility of the war, and were to pay financial reparations for all loss and damage suffered by the Allies.
The humiliating peace terms provoked bitter indignation throughout Germany, and seriously weakened the new democratic regime.
On [[11 August]] [[1919]] the [[Weimar Republic|Weimar]] constitution came into effect, with [[Friedrich Ebert]] as first President.
The two biggest enemies of the new democratic order, however, had already been constituted. In December 1918, the [[Communist Party of Germany|German Communist Party]] (KPD) was founded, followed in January 1919 by the establishment of the German Workers' Party, later known as the [[National Socialist German Workers' Party]] (NSDAP). Both parties would make reckless use of the freedoms guaranteed by the new constitution in their fight against the Weimar Republic.
In the first months of 1920, the [[Reichswehr]] was to be reduced to 100,000 men, in accordance with the Treaty of Versailles. This included the dissolution of many [[Freikorps]] - units made up of volunteers. Some of them made difficulties. The discontent was exploited by the extreme right-wing politician [[Wolfgang Kapp]]. He let the rebelling Freikorps march on Berlin and proclaimed himself ''Reich'' Chancellor ([[Kapp Putsch]]). After only four days the coup d'état collapsed, due to lack of support by the civil servants and the officers. Other cities were shaken by strikes and rebellions, which were bloodily suppressed.
Faced with animosity from Britain and France and the retreat of American power from Europe, in 1922 Germany was the first state to establish diplomatic relations with the new [[Soviet Union]]. Under the [[Treaty of Rapallo]], Germany accorded the Soviet Union de jure recognition, and the two signatories mutually cancelled all pre-war debts and renounced war claims.
When Germany defaulted on its reparation payments, French and Belgian troops occupied the heavily industrialised Ruhr district (January 1923). The German government encouraged the population of the Ruhr to [[passive resistance]]: shops would not sell goods to the foreign soldiers, coal-mines would not dig for the foreign troops, trams in which members of the occupation army had taken seat would be left abandoned in the middle of the street. The passive resistance proved effective, in so far as the occupation became a loss-making deal for the French government. But the Ruhr fight also led to [[hyperinflation]], and many who lost all their fortune would become bitter enemies of the Weimar Republic, and voters of the anti-democratic right.
[[Image:1926-1-2-5.jpg|thumb|300px|left|The [[Rentenmark]], introduced by [[Gustav Stresemann|Chancellor Stresemann]]'s government in November 1923 to stop hyperinflation, ushered in a period of relative economic prosperity (until 1929)]]
In September 1923, the deteriorating economic conditions led Chancellor [[Gustav Stresemann]] to call an end to the passive resistance in the Ruhr. In November, his government introduced a new currency, the [[Rentenmark]] (later: [[Reichsmark]]), together with other measures to stop the hyperinflation. In the following six years the economic situation improved. In 1928, Germany's industrial production even regained the pre-war levels of 1913.
On the evening of [[November 8]], six hundred armed [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] men surrounded a beer hall in [[Munich]], where the heads of the Bavarian state and the local ''Reichswehr'' had gathered for a rally. The storm troopers were led by [[Adolf Hitler]]. Born in 1889 in [[Austria]], a former volunteer in the German army during WWI, now a member of a new party called [[National Socialist German Workers' Party|NSDAP]], he was largely unknown until then. Hitler tried to force those present to join him and to march on to Berlin to seize power ([[Beer Hall Putsch]]). Hitler was later arrested and condemned to five years in prison, but was released at the end of 1924 after less than one year of detention.
The national elections of 1924 led to a swing to the right (''Ruck nach rechts''). [[Paul von Hindenburg|Field Marshal Hindenburg]], a supporter of the monarchy, was elected President.
In October 1925 the [[Treaty of Locarno]] was signed between Germany, France, Belgium, the United Kingdom and Italy, which recognized Germany's borders with France and Belgium. Moreover, Britain, Italy and Belgium undertook to assist France in the case that German troops marched into the demilitarised Rheinland. The Treaty of Locarno paved the way for Germany's admission to the [[League of Nations]] in 1926.
The [[stock market crash]] of 1929 on [[Wall Street]] marked the beginning of the [[Great Depression]]. The effects of the ensuing world economic crisis were also felt in Germany, where the economic situation rapidly deteriorated. In July 1931, the ''Darmstätter und Nationalbank'' - one of the biggest German banks - failed, and, in early 1932, the number of unemployed rose to more than 6,000,000.
In addition to the flagging economy came political problems, due to the inability by the political parties represented in the [[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]] to build a governing majority. In March 1930, President Hindenburg appointed [[Heinrich Brüning]] Chancellor. To push through his package of austerity measures against a majority of Social Democrats, Communists and the NSDAP, Brüning made use of emergency decrees, and even dissolved Parliament.
The NSDAP was the big winner in the national elections of July 1932. It gained 38% of the vote, making it the biggest party in the Reichstag. The Communist KPD came third, with 15%. Together, the anti-democratic parties of right and left were now able to hold the majority of seats in Parliament. The NSDAP was particularly successful among young voters, who were unable to find a place in vocational training, with little hope for a future job; among the ''petite bourgeoisie'' (lower middle class) which had lost its assets in the hyperinflation of 1923; among the rural population; and among the army of unemployed. In new elections in November 1932, the NSDAP's share of the vote declined slightly, but it remained the biggest party in the Parliament.
On [[January 30]] [[1933]], pressured by former Chancellor [[Franz von Papen]] and other conservatives, President Hindenburg finally appointed Hitler Chancellor.
==Third Reich==
''Main articles: [[Nazi Germany]], [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]], [[Military history of Germany during World War II|World War II]]''
===Nazi revolution or 'Seizure of Power'===
[[Image:1936NurembergRally.jpg|thumb|300px|left|[[National Socialist German Workers' Party|NSDAP]] rally (''Reichsparteitag'') in [[Nuremberg]], 1936. These rallies were held every year in the same place. They were meant to demonstrate the unity of the [[National Socialist]] state.]]
In order to secure a majority for his NSDAP in the Reichstag, [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] called for new elections. On the evening of [[27 February]] [[1933]], a [[Reichstag fire|fire]] was laid in the Reichstag building. Hitler was swift to paint an alleged Communist uprising on the wall, and convinced President Hindenburg to sign the [[Reichstag Fire Decree]]. This decree, which would remain in force until 1945, repealed important political and human rights of the Weimar constitution. Communist agitation was banned, but at this time not the Communist Party itself.
Eleven thousand Communists and Socialists were arrested and brought into [[concentration camp|concentration camps]], where they were at the mercy of the [[Gestapo]], the newly established secret police force (9,000 were found guilty and very many executed). Communist Reichstag deputies were supposedly given ''protective custody'' (against their constitutional privileges).
Despite the terror and un-precedented propaganda, the last free General Elections of [[March 5]] failed to bring the majority for the NSDAP that Hitler had hoped for. Together with the [[German National People's Party]] (DNVP), however, he was able to form a slim majority government. With accommodations to the Catholic [[Centre Party Germany]], Hitler succeeded in convincing a required two-thirds of a rigged Parliament to pass an [[Enabling Act]] that gave his government full legislative power. Only the Social Democrats voted against the Act. The Enabling Act formed the basis for the [[Dictator |
uot;Insider trading"''' is a term often used to refer to a practice, which is illegal in many jurisdictions, in which an investor trades [[security (finance)|securities]] of a company (''e.g.'', [[stock]]s, [[bond]]s or [[stock option]]s) based on material non-public information which was obtained by an officer, manager, or other corporate insider, during the performance of his duties at the corporation. More formally, it is simply the trading of corporate securities by corporate insiders, which is often perfectly legal. All insider trades, whether legal or illegal, must be reported in the US. Many investors follow the summaries of insider trades, published by the Securities and Exchanges Commission (SEC), in the hope that mimicking these trades will be profitable. Legal "insider trading" may not be based on material non-public information. Illegal insider trading in the US requires the participation (perhaps indirectly) of a corporate insider or other person who is violating his fiduciary duty to corporate shareholders by trading on or secretly relaying the corporation's information. In some other countries an "outsider" who illegally obtains non-public information (which may constitute a separate offence of spying on trade secrets), might also be considered an illegal "inside trader."
== Trading by "insiders" of a corporation ==
According to the U.S. SEC, corporate insiders are a company's officers, directors and any beneficial owners of more than ten percent of a class of the company's equity securities.
Since insiders are required to report their trades, others often track these traders, and there is a school of investing which follows the lead of insiders. This is of course subject to the risk that an insider is making a buy specifically to increase investor confidence, or making a sell for reasons unrelated to the health of the company (e.g. a desire to diversify or buy a house).
As of December 2005 companies are required to announce times to their employees as to when they can safely trade without being accused of trading on inside information.
== Trading on material, non-public information ==
There are rules against this type of "''insider trading''" in most jurisdictions around the world, though the details and the efforts to enforce them vary considerably. In the [[United States]], for example, there is no general federal law directly prohibiting insider trading. Authority to prosecute cases of insider trading came from the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]' interpretation of Section 10(b) of the [[Securities Exchange Act of 1934]], and in particular of [[SEC Rule 10b-5]], prohibiting fraud in connection with the purchase or sale of securities (see ''Securities & Exch. Comm'n v. Texas Gulf Sulphur Co.'', 258 F. Supp. 262 (S.D.N.Y. 1966)). Insider trading has been outlawed in the U.S. since the 1960's.
The reasoning is that a corporate insider has made a contract with the shareholders to put the shareholders' interests before their own, in matters related to the corporation. When the insider buys based upon company owned information, he is violating his contract with the shareholders.
Liability for insider trading violations cannot be avoided by passing on the information in a "I scratch your back, you scratch mine" arrangement, as long as the person receiving the information knew or should have known that the information was company property.
An example of illegal insider trading may be that you, as an assistant to the [[chief executive officer]], learn that your company is going to be taken over before it is officially disclosed publicly. Knowing that such a move is likely to cause the price to rise, you buy shares in the company and subsequently profit from the transaction. A less dramatic (but still potentially lucrative) example would be trading on the quarterly earnings/losses shortly before they are announced.
In practice, [[prosecution]]s for insider trading tend to be rare and difficult to win for a variety of reasons. It can be difficult to prove what the accused actually knew at the time the trades were made -- and people may not even be told directly but merely advised to buy or sell with a nudge and wink. Proving that someone has been responsible for a trade can also be difficult, because a clever trader can hide behind a variety of nominees, companies, and [[proxy|proxies]], perhaps located offshore in jurisdictions that do not cooperate with the local authorities. Insider trading is usually performed by the already wealthy, who can afford the best lawyers available and have the resources to drag a case out and cost the prosecutors millions along the way. Finally, the details of insider trading can be highly confusing to non-experts and convincing a randomly-selected [[jury]], many with no experience of share trading, that a crime has been committed can be difficult. The complexity may be because the transactions are inherently complicated, because the transactions were made so to evade prosecution, or as Brian Doherty claims in ''Reason'' magazine, because the regulations are "designed, like most law, to be understood by trained professionals, not the citizens who have to live under it" [http://reason.com/hod/bd062502.shtml].
== Arguments in favour of insider trading ==
Although insider trading is often illegal, there are arguments in its favour. Insider trading amounts to a consensual act between adults, i.e. a victimless act. A willing buyer and a willing seller agree to trade property which they rightfully own, with no prior contract having been made between the parties to refrain from trading if equal knowledge is not possessed. Hence, it is maintained that since traders willingly take the risk that the party on the others side of the trade is more knowledgeable, no one's rights are violated.
Many argue that insider trading is not "fair." However, those in favor of legalizing the practice hold that making money by having superior information is what trading is "all about": A trader does not sell his stock unless he believes he knows information that is more indicative of the future move of a stock than his buyer, and vice versa. In effect, the same thing is happening whether the knowledge is "inside information" or not: someone always has superior knowledge than someone else. Hence, the stock market by nature is not "fair" whether insider trading is legal or not.
Insider trading can make markets more efficient by increasing the amount of information that is known about the company, and can motivate outsiders such as analysts to increase their knowledge about the company. The costs of complying with anti-insider-trading laws are also thus avoided. Nobel prize-winning economist [[Milton Friedman]] says: "You want more insider trading, not less. You want to give the people most likely to have knowledge about deficiencies of the company an incentive to make the public aware of that." Friedman does not believe that the trader should be required to make his trade known to the public (to reveal his identity or the reason for his trade), but says that the buying or selling pressure itself is information for the market. A practical counter-argument to this, however, might be empirical research purporting to show that those markets with strongly enforced laws against insider trading tend to have lower costs of capital for security issuers. (See, for example, "The World Price of Insider Trading" by Utphal Bhattacharya and Hazem Daouk in the Journal of Finance, Vol. LVII, No. 1 (Feb. 2002). [http://faculty.fuqua.duke.edu/~charvey/Teaching/BA453_2005/BD_The_world.pdf]) In other words, where certain individuals are permitted to buy and sell shares based on inside information, other investors will be more wary and demand a premium for their investment. This, in turn, raises the cost of capital for all issuers.
Some of those who favour regulations against insider trading assert that market liquidity comes from confidence that all participants have equal access to information. A counter-argument to this is that a significant motivation of trading is the belief on the part of a trader that he has better knowledge than others do in the market and that therefore a stock is improperly priced. If a stock was always accurately priced, there would no point in speculative trading, which would result in decreased liquidity in the market.
Advocates of legalisation sometimes also make free speech arguments. Punishment for telling someone else about a development pertinent to the next day's likely stock moves would seem, [[prima facie]], to be one of prohibited speech, i.e. an act of censorship [http://www.walterblock.com/publications/information_privilege.pdf]. A counter-argument is that information being conveyed is akin to proprietary information and that a corporate insider, if he has contracted to not expose it, has no more of a free speech right to tell another individual about confidential information that insider acquired by ways of his or her position than to tell others about the company's new product designs, formulas, or bank account passwords. However, communicating inside information is illegal even if it's not by a corporate insider.
Also, there is the question of why what amounts to insider trading is legal in other markets, such as real estate, but not in the stock market. For example, if a geologist knows there is a high likelihood of the discovery of petroleum under Farmer Smith's land, he is entitled to make Smith an offer for the land, and buy it, without first telling Farmer Smith, or competing potential buyers, of the geological data and reasoning that justify his interest. If the value of the hidden oil can be acquired in such a manner in real estate transactions, some ask: why not unlock hidden values in the sto |
t's a German film, but was it set in Germany?-->. In the story, Dracula's role was changed to that of [[Count Orlok]], one of the most hideous versions of the vampire ever to be created for a movie, played by [[Max Schreck]] (whose name literally means 'fright').
The Stoker estate won its lawsuit and all existing prints of ''Nosferatu'' were ordered to be destroyed. However, a number of [[copyright infringement|pirated]] copies of the movie survived to the present era, where they entered the public domain. ''Nosferatu'' was also remade [[1979 in film|in 1979]] by [[Werner Herzog]].
In [[1927]] the story was adapted for the Broadway stage by [[Hamilton Deane]] and [[John L. Balderston]] and starred [[Bela Lugosi]] and [[Edward Van Sloan]] as the Count and Van Helsing respectively. Lugosi initially learned his lines phonetically.
The [[1931 in film|1931]] film version of ''[[Dracula (1931 film)|Dracula]]'' starred [[Bela Lugosi]] and was directed by [[Tod Browning]]. It is one of the more famous versions of the story and is commonly considered a horror classic. In [[2000]] the United States [[Library of Congress]] deemed the film "culturally significant" and selected it for preservation in the [[National Film Registry]]. It is an adaptation of the [[1927]] play and Van Sloan also transferred his role to the big screen. The films only had music during the opening and closing credits. In [[1999]] [[Philip Glass]] was commissioned to compose a musical score to accompany the film. The current DVD release allows access to this music.
[[Image:dracula1931-spanish.jpg|thumb|200px|Carlos Villarías as Dracula in the George Medford-directed Spanish language version of the 1931 Tod Browning/Bela Lugosi classic.]]
At the same time as the Lugosi film a [[Spanish language]] version was filmed for release in Mexico. It was filmed at night using the same sets as the Tod Browning production with a different cast and crew (a common practice in the early days of sound films). [[George Melford|George Melford's]] was the director and it starred [[Carlos Villarías]] as the Count, [[Eduardo Arozamena]] as Van Helsing and [[Lupita Tovar]] as Eva.
Due to America's censorship laws, Medford's ''Dracula'' contains scenes that could not be put in the final cut of the more familiar English version. There is considerable debate among fans over which film is better. Fans of Medford's version say the acting of the Spanish version is crisper and the pace is much quicker -- and there's no hammy close-ups of Lugosi. It is also included on the available DVD.
During the era of the [[1930s]] and [[1940s]], the [[Universal Studios]] horror films made Dracula a household name by starring him as a villain in a number of movies, including several where he met other monsters (the most famous of which is the comedy ''[[Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein]]'' in which Lugosi played Dracula on film for only the second and final time.) In these films he somehow gained control over the [[Frankenstein]] monster, and in a number of movies the monster acted as Dracula's servant, usually referring to the vampire Count as "Master."
=== Universal Studios productions of Dracula ===
The Universal Studios films in which Dracula (or a relative) appeared (and the actor portraying the character) were:
# ''[[Dracula (1931 film)|Dracula]]'' ([[1931]] - [[Bela Lugosi]]. A second version was filmed simultaneously in Spanish, with [[Carlos Villarías|Carlos Villar]] as Dracula)
# ''[[Dracula's Daughter]]'' ([[1936]] - [[Gloria Holden]])
# ''[[Son of Dracula (1943 film)|Son of Dracula]]'' ([[1943]] - [[Lon Chaney, Jr.]])
# ''[[House of Frankenstein (1944 film)|House of Frankenstein]]'' ([[1944]] - [[John Carradine]])
# ''[[House of Dracula]]'' ([[1945]] - Carradine)
# ''[[Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein|Bud Abbott Lou Costello Meet Frankenstein]]'' ([[1948]] - Lugosi. This film is usually known as ''Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein'', however the title given here is the official on-screen title according to the Internet Movie Database.)
In [[1938]], [[Orson Welles]] and [[John Houseman]] chose ''Dracula'' to be the inaugural episode of the new radio show featuring their Broadway production company, ''[[Mercury Theatre|The Mercury Theatre on the Air]]''. The adaption was faithful to the book, although condensed to fit in the show's hour-long format. Welles was the voice of Dracula.
=== Hammer Films productions of Dracula ===
[[1958 in film|In 1958]], [[Hammer Films]] produced [[Dracula (1958 film)| Dracula (1958)]], a newer, more Gothic version of the story, starring [[Christopher Lee]] as Dracula and [[Peter Cushing]] as Van Helsing. It is widely considered to be one of the best versions of the story to be adapted to film, and in [[2004]] was named by the [[magazine]] ''[[Total Film]]'' as the 30th greatest British film of all time. Although it takes many liberties with the novel's plot, the creepy atmosphere and charismatic performance of Lee make it memorable and favored. It was released in the United States as ''Horror of Dracula'' to avoid confusion with the earlier Lugosi version. This was followed by a long series of Dracula films, usually featuring Lee as Dracula.
The Hammer films in which Dracula (or a relative) appeared (and the actor portraying the character) were:
# ''[[Dracula (1958 film)|Dracula]]'' ([[1958]]) - [[Christopher Lee]]. Released in the US as ''Horror of Dracula''
# ''[[The Brides of Dracula]]'' ([[1960]] - [[David Peel (actor)|David Peel]] as Dracula disciple Baron Meinster)
# ''[[Dracula: Prince of Darkness]]'' ([[1966]] - Lee)
# ''[[Dracula Has Risen from the Grave]]'' ([[1968]] - Lee)
# ''[[Taste the Blood of Dracula]]'' ([[1969]] - Lee)
# ''[[Scars of Dracula]]'' ([[1970]] - Lee)
# ''[[Dracula A.D. 1972]]'' ([[1972]] - Lee)
# ''[[The Satanic Rites of Dracula]]'' ([[1973]] - Lee). Released in the US as ''Count Dracula and His Vampire Bride''
# ''[[The Legend of the 7 Golden Vampires|The Legend of the Seven Golden Vampires]]'' ([[1974]] - [[John Forbes-Robertson]]). Variously released as ''The Seven Brothers Meet Dracula'' and ''Dracula and the Seven Golden Vampires''
Christopher Lee, the British actor who played in the Hammer Dracula films, reminisced in a 1999 inteview for NPR: http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1065958
=== Other productions 1969 - 1979 ===
[[Count Dracula (1969 film)]], directed by [[Jesus Franco]] starring Christopher Lee as Dracula. While not a part of the Hammer series some fans feel that it is close to the spirit of the book.
[[1972 in film|In 1972]], [[Paul Naschy]] starred in [[Dracula's Great Love]], directed by [[Javier Aguirre]] for the Spanish production company Janus Films. This movie predated the vision of Dracula as a romantic character to [[Francis Ford Coppola]]'s by 20 years.
[[1973 in film|In 1973]], a major television movie version starring [[Jack Palance]] was produced by [[Dan Curtis]], best known for producing the gothic [[soap opera]] ''Dark Shadows''. Filmed in [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] and England, it was a fairly faithful and moody piece.
[[1974 in film|In 1974]], [[Andy Warhol]] presented an outrageously campy [[Dracula]] (a.k.a. "[[Blood for Dracula]]"), directed by [[Paul Morrissey]] and starring cult icon [[Udo Kier]].
[[Dracula Père et Fils 1976]], [[Christopher Lee]] French movie starring Christopher Lee as Dracula
[[1977]] saw a BBC version made for television starring [[Louis Jourdan]]. This version is one of the more faithful adaptations of the book. It includes all of the main characters from the book (only blending together Arthur and Quincey) and has scenes of Jonathon recording events in his diary and Dr. Seward speaking into his dictaphone.
[[1977]] also saw a revival of the 1927 broadway version. The atmospheric sets and costumes were designed by [[Edward Gorey]]. The Count was portrayed by [[Frank Langella]] and, like Lugosi before him, he would go on to perform the role on the big screen. The same Gorey sets and costumes were used for a U.S. touring version of the play starring [[Jeremy Brett]]. The Deane-Balderston lines were altered somewhat and played for a more comedic effect.
In [[1978]], an independent film company produced the horror thriller ''[[Zoltan, Hound of Dracula (film)|Zoltan, Hound of Dracula]]'' starring [[Michael Pataki]] as the mild-mannered family psychiatrist destined to encounter the resurrected hound of Dracula.
In [[1979]], [[Frank Langella]] starred opposite [[Laurence Olivier]] as a sexually charged version of the Count in a new film version. It is considered of uneven quality, though the [[John Williams]] score is superb. That year also saw the release of ''[[Love at First Bite]]'', a [[romantic comedy film|romantic comedy]] spoof set in contemporary [[New York City]] starring [[George Hamilton (actor)|George Hamilton]] as the count.
=== Dracula movies 1980 - 1999 ===
In [[1992]], [[Francis Ford Coppola]] produced and directed a new version of the film, called ''[[Bram Stoker's Dracula]]'' starring [[Gary Oldman]], [[Winona Ryder]], [[Keanu Reeves]], and [[Anthony Hopkins]]. Coppola's story includes a subplot in which Mina Harker was revealed to be the [[reincarnation]] of Dracula's greatest love. This story is not part of Stoker's original. The soundtrack includes 'Lovesong for a Vampire' by [[Annie Lennox]].
In [[1995]], [[Mel Brooks]] did a comedic parody, ''[[Dracula: Dead and Loving It]]'', which parodied all of the standard Dracula themes, but especially noteworthy was the scene where Dracula's reflection was noticeably absent in a mirror as he danced at a ball, to the horror of those watching. [[Mel Brooks]] played Van Helsing as an aged Professor. Dracula was played by [[Leslie Nielsen]].
=== Dracula movies 2000 to present ===
[[Patrick Lussier]] took a stab at the legend with his modern day ''[[Dracula 2000]]'', promoted a |
ives) when used on slow computers, such as early [[IBM PC compatible]]s and [[Apple Macintosh]]es.
ATA drives have typically had no problems with interleave or data rate, due to their controller design, but many early models were incompatible with each other and couldn't run in a master/slave setup (two drives on the same cable). This was mostly remedied by the mid-1990s, when ATA's specfication was standardised and the details began to be cleaned up, but still causes problems occasionally (especially with CD-ROM and DVD-ROM drives, and when mixing [[Ultra_DMA|Ultra DMA]] and non-UDMA devices).
Serial ATA does away with master/slave setups entirely, placing each drive on its own channel (with its own set of I/O ports) instead.
FireWire/IEEE 1394 and USB(1.0/2.0) hard disks are external units containing generally ATA or SCSI drives with ports on the back allowing very simple and effective expansion and mobility. Most FireWire/IEEE 1394 models are able to [[Daisy chain#Computer Engineering|daisy-chain]] in order to continue adding peripherals without requiring additional ports on the computer itself.
== Other characteristics ==
* Capacity (measured in gigabytes)
* Physical size (inches)
** Almost all hard disks today are of either the 3.5", used in desktops, or 2.5", used in laptops, variety. 2.5" drives are usually slower and have less capacity but use less power and are more tolerant of movement. An increasingly common size is the 1.8" drives used in portable MP3 players, which have very low power consumption and are highly shock-resistant. Additionally, there is the 1" form factor designed to fit the dimensions of [[Compact Flash|CF]] Type II, which is usually used as storage for portable devices such as [[mp3 player]]s and [[digital camera]]s. 1" was a de facto form factor lead by [[IBM]]'s [[Microdrive]], but is now generically called 1" due to other manufacturers producing similar products. There is also a 0.85" form factor produced by [[Toshiba]] for use in mobile phones and similar applications. The size designations can be slightly confusing, for example a 3.5" disk drive has a case that is 4" wide. Furthermore, server-class hard disks also come in both 3.5" and 2.5" form factors.
* Reliability: Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF)
** SATA 1.0 drives support speeds up to 10,000 rpm and mean time between failure (MTBF) levels up to 1 million hours under an eight-hour, low-duty cycle. [[Fiber Channel]] (FC) drives support up to 15,000 rpm and an MTBF of 1.4 million hours under a 24-hour duty cycle.
* Number of I/O operations per second
** Modern disks can perform around 50 [[random access|random]] or 100 [[Sequential access|sequential]] OPS
* [[Power consumption]] (especially important in battery-powered laptops)
* audible noise (in [[dBA]], although many still report it in bels, not decibels)
* G-shock rating (surprisingly high in modern drives)
*Transfer Rate
** Inner Zone: from 44.2 MB/sec to 74.5 MB/sec
** Outer Zone: from 74.0 MB/sec to 111.4 MB/sec
*[[Random access time]]: from 5 ms to 15 ms
Addressing modes
There are two modes of addressing the data blocks on more recent hard disks. The older mode is [[Cylinder-head-sector|CHS]] addressing ([[Cylinder (disk drive)|Cylinder]]-[[Disk read-and-write head|Head]]-[[Sector]]), used on old [[ST-506]] and ATA drives and internally by the PC [[BIOS]]. The more recent mode is the LBA ([[Logical block addressing|Logical Block Addressing]]), used by SCSI drives and newer ATA drives (ATA drives power up in CHS mode for historical reasons).
CHS describes the disk space in terms of its physical dimensions, data-wise; this is the traditional way of accessing a disk on [[IBM PC compatible]] hardware, and while it works well for floppies (for which it was originally designed) and small hard disks, it caused problems when disks started to exceed the design limits of the PC's CHS implementation. The traditional CHS limit was 1024 cylinders, 16 heads and 63 sectors; on a drive with 512-byte sectors, this comes to 504 MiB (528 megabytes). The origin of the CHS limit lies in a combination of the limitations of IBM's BIOS interface (which allowed 1024 cylinders, 256 heads and 64 sectors; sectors were counted from 1, reducing that number to 63, giving an addressing limit of 8064 MiB or 7.8 [[Gibibyte|GiB]]), and a hardware limitation of the AT's hard disk controller (which allowed up to 65536 cylinders and 256 sectors, but only 16 heads, putting its addressing limit at 2^28 bits or 128 GiB).
When drives larger than 504 MiB began to appear in the mid-1990s, many system BIOSes had problems communicating with them, requiring LBA BIOS upgrades or special driver software to work correctly. Even after the introduction of LBA, similar limitations reappeared several times over the following years: at 2.1, 4.2, 8.4, 32, and 128 GiB. The 2.1, 4.2 and 32 GiB limits are ''hard limits'': fitting a drive larger than the limit results in a PC that refuses to boot, unless the drive includes special jumpers to make it appear as a smaller capacity. The 8.4 and 128 GiB limits are ''soft limits'': the PC simply ignores the extra capacity and reports a drive of the maximum size it is able to communicate with.
SCSI drives, however, have always used LBA addressing, which describes the disk as a linear, sequentially-numbered set of blocks. SCSI mode page commands can be used to get the physical specifications of the disk, but this is not used to read or write data; this is an artifact of the early days of SCSI, circa 1986, when a disk attached to a SCSI bus could just as well be an ST-506 or ESDI drive attached through a bridge (and therefore having a CHS configuration that was subject to change) as it could be a native SCSI device. Because PCs use CHS addressing internally, the BIOS code on PC SCSI host adapters does CHS-to-LBA translation, and provides a set of CHS drive parameters that tries to match the total number of LBA blocks as closely as possible.
ATA drives can either use their native CHS parameters (only on very early drives; hard drives made since the early 1990s use [[zone bit recording]], and thus don't have a set number of sectors per track), use a "translated" CHS profile (similar to what SCSI host adapters provide), or run in ATA LBA mode, as specified by ATA-2. To maintain some degree of compatibility with older computers, LBA mode generally has to be requested explicitly by the host computer. ATA drives larger than 8 GiB are always accessed by LBA, due to the 8 GiB limit described above.
See also: [[hard disk drive partitioning]], [[master boot record]], [[file system]], [[drive letter assignment]], [[boot sector]].
==Manufacturers==
[[image:Hitachinotebookhd.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Hitachi, Ltd.|Hitachi]] 2.5 inch [[laptop]] hard drive]]
Most of the world's hard disks are now manufactured by just a handful of large firms: [[Seagate Technology|Seagate]], [[Maxtor Corporation|Maxtor]] (now owned by [[Seagate Technology|Seagate]]), [[Western Digital]], [[Samsung]], and [[Hitachi Ltd.|Hitachi]], the former drive manufacturing division of [[International Business Machines|IBM]]. [[Fujitsu]] continues to make specialist notebook and SCSI drives but exited the mass market in 2001. [[Toshiba]] is a major manufacturer of 2.5-inch and 1.8-inch notebook drives.
===Firms that have come and gone===
Dozens of former hard drive manufacturers have gone out of business, merged, or closed their hard drive divisions; as capacities and demand for products increased, profits became hard to find, and there were shakeouts in the late 1980s and late 1990s. The first notable casualty of the business in the PC era was [[Computer Memories International]] or CMI; after the 1985 incident with the faulty 20MB AT drives, CMI's reputation never recovered, and they exited the hard drive business in 1987. Another notable failure was [[MiniScribe]], who went bankrupt in 1990 after it was found that they had "cooked the books" and inflated sales numbers for several years. Many other smaller companies (like [[Kalok]], [[Microscience International Corporation|Microscience]], LaPine, Areal, Priam and PrairieTek) also did not survive the shakeout, and had disappeared by 1993; [[Micropolis Corporation|Micropolis]] was able to hold on until 1997, and [[JT Storage|JTS]], a relative latecomer to the scene, lasted only a few years and was gone by 1999. [[Rodime plc|Rodime]] was also an important manufacturer during the 1980s, but stopped making drives in the early 1990s amid the shakeout and now concentrates on technology licensing; they hold a number of patents related to 3.5-inch form factor hard drives.
There have also been a number of notable mergers in the hard disk industry:
*[[Tandon]] sold its disk manufacturing division to Western Digital (which was then a controller maker and [[Application-specific integrated circuit|ASIC]] house) in 1988; by the early 1990s Western Digital disks were among the top sellers.
*In 1995, [[Conner Peripherals]] announced a merger with Seagate (who had earlier bought Imprimis from [[Control Data Corporation|CDC]]), which was completed in early 1996.
*JTS infamously merged with [[Atari]] in 1996, giving it the capital it needed to bring its drive range into production.
*In 2003, following the controversy over the mass failures of its [[Deskstar 75GXP]] range, hard disk pioneer IBM sold the majority of its disk division to Hitachi, who renamed it ''Hitachi Global Storage Technologies''.
*[[Quantum Corporation|Quantum]] bought [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]]'s storage division in 1994, and later (2000) sold the hard disk division to Maxtor to concentrate on tape drives. In December 2005, however, Maxtor itself was acquired by Seagate for USD1.9 billion.
In the [[United Kingdom]], [[Cumana (manufacturer)|Cumana]], a manufacturer of disk drives for [[Acorn Computers|Acorn]] compute |
Brunswick, moving to New England in the late 1840s, where he remained for the rest of his life. While Bannister was well-known in the artistic community of his adopted home of Providence, Rhode Island and admired within the wider East Coast art world (he won a bronze medal for his large oil "Under the Oaks" at the [[1876]] [[Philadelphia Centennial]]), he has been largely forgotten for a complexity of reasons, primarily that of race.
Bibliography:
Anne Louise Avery, The Veiled Landscape: Space and Place in the Art and Life of Edward Mitchell Bannister [Unpublished PhD Thesis including a Catalogue Raisonne, 2005]
{{US-painter-stub}}
[[Category:1828 births|Bannister, Edward Mitchell]]
[[Category:1901 deaths|Bannister, Edward Mitchell]]
[[Category:American painters|Bannister, Edward Mitchell]]
[[Category:Landscape artists|Bannister, Edward Mitchell]]
[[Category:African American artists]]</text>
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<title>Eliezer S. Yudkowsky</title>
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<title>Educational philosophies</title>
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<title>Eiffel</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Eiffel''' can refer to several things:
* The [[Eiffel Tower]] in [[Paris]]
* [[Gustave Eiffel]], builder of the said tower
* The [[Eiffel programming language]], developed by [[Bertrand Meyer]], and named after [[Gustave Eiffel]]
* The [[Eifel]] region of [[Germany]] (''Eiffel'' is a common misspelling)
* [[Eiffel 65]], an [[electronic music|electronic]] [[dance music|dance]] [[pop music|pop]] band
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[[th:ไอเฟล]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Emil Kraepelin</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
'''Emil Kraepelin''' ([[February 15]] [[1856]]- [[October 7]] [[1926]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[Psychiatrist]] who attempted to create a synthesis of the hundreds of mental disorders classified by the 19th century, grouping diseases together based on classification of common ''patterns'' of symptoms, rather than by simple similarity of major symptoms in the manner of his predecessors. In fact, it was precisely because of the demonstrated inadequacy of such methods that Kraepelin developed his new diagnostic system.
<table align="left"><tr><td>[[Image:Emil_Kraepelin.png|Photograph of Emil Kraepelin]]</tr></td></table>
In 1886, after only eight years of training, he was appointed to a professorship at the [[University of Tartu]] (then ''Dorpat'') in what is today [[Estonia]] and became the director of an eighty-bed University Clinic. There he was able to study and record many clinical histories in detail and "was led to consider the importance of the course of the illness with regard to the classification of mental disorders." Ten years later he announced that he had found a new way of looking at mental illness. He referred to the traditional view as "symptomatic" and to his view as "clinical."
Drawing on his long term research, and using the criteria of course, outcome and prognosis, he developed the concept of [[dementia praecox]], which he defined as the "sub-acute development of a peculiar simple condition of mental weakness occurring at a youthful age." When he first introduced this concept as diagnostic entity in the fourth German edition of his ''Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie'' in 1893, it was placed among the degenerative disorders alongside, but separate from, [[katatonia]] and [[dementia paranoides]]. At that time the concept corresponded by and large with [[Ewald Hecker]]'s [[hebephrenia]]. In the sixth edition of the ''Lehrbuch'' in 1899 all three of these clinical types are treated but as different expressions of one disease, dementia praecox.
Kraepelin postulated that there is a specific brain or other biological pathology underlying each of the major psychiatric disorders. Just as his laboratory discovered the pathologic basis of what is now known as [[Alzheimers disease]], Kraepelin was confident that it would someday be possible to identify the pathologic basis of each of the major psychiatric disorders.
One of the cardinal principles of his method was the recognition that any given symptom may appear in virtually any one of these disorders; i.e. there is virtually no single symptom occurring in dementia praecox (the name was later changed to "schizophrenia" by Eugen Bleuler), which cannot sometimes be found in manic-depression. What distinguishes each disease symptomatically (as opposed to the underlying pathology) is not any particular (pathognomonic) symptom or symptoms, but a specific pattern of symptoms. In the absence of a direct physiological or genetic test or marker for each disease, it is only possible to distinguish them by their specific pattern of symptoms. Thus, Kraepelin's system is a method for pattern recognition, not grouping by common symptoms.
Kraepelin also demonstrated specific patterns in the genetics of these disorders and specific and characteristic patterns in their course and outcome. Generally speaking, there tend to be more schizophrenics among the relatives of schizophrenic patients than in the general population, while manic-depression is more frequent in the relatives of manic-depressives.
He also reported a pattern to the course and outcome of these conditions. Kraepelin believed that schizophrenia had a deteriorating course in which mental function continuously (although perhaps erratically) declines, while manic-depressive patients experienced a course of illness which was intermittent, where patients were relatively symptom-free during the intervals which separate acute episodes. This led Kraepelin to name what we now know as [[schizophrenia]], ''dementia praecox'' (the [[dementia]] part signifing the irreversible mental decline). It later became clear that ''dementia praecox'' did not necessarily lead to mental decline and so was renamed by [[Eugene Bleuler]] to correct the misnomer.
Kraepelin is credited with the classification of what was previously considered to be a unitary concept of [[psychosis]], into two distinct forms:
* [[Manic Depression]] (now seen as comprising a range of mood disorders such as Major [[Clinical depression|Depression]] and [[Bipolar Disorder]]), and
* Dementia praecox, which was later renamed [[schizophrenia]] by [[Eugene Bleuler]].
Kraepelin was also a colleague of [[Alois Alzheimer]], and co-discoverer with Alzheimer of [[Alzheimers Disease]].
In addition to his distinction between dementia praecox and manic-depression, Kraepelin should be credited with being the founder of modern scientific psychiatry, psychopharmacology and psychiatric genetics, according to the eminent psychologist [[H. J. Eysenck]] in his ''Encyclopedia of Psychology.'' Kraepelin postulated that psychiatric diseases are principally caused by biological and genetic disorders. His psychiatric theories dominated the field of psychiatry at the beginning of the twentieth century. He vigorously opposed the approach of [[Freud]] who regarded and treated psychiatric disorders as caused by psychological factors.
Kraepelin's contribution was largely ignored throughout much of the twentieth century, with the success of Freudian etiological theories. Kraepelin's basic concepts however now dominate psychiatric research and academic psychiatry, and today the published literature in the field of psychiatry is overwhelmingly biological and genetic in its orientation. Kraepelin's great contribution in discovering schizophrenia and manic-depression remains relatively unknown to the general public and his work is little read. This is despite the recent widespread adoption of his fundamental theories on the etiology and diagnosis of psychiatric disorders, which form the basis of all major diagnostic systems in use today, especially the [[American Psychiatric Association]]'s [[DSM-IV]] and the [[World Health Organization]]'s [[ICD-10|ICD]] system.
For a more complete description of the epic social and political battle that gave rise to [[Freudianism]] (from an anti-Freudian perspective), see psychiatrist [[E. Fuller Torrey]]'s "The Freudian Fraud".
== References ==
*Wolfgang Burgmair, Eric J. Engstrom & Matthias Weber, eds. ''Emil Kraepelin''. 5 vols. Munich: belleville, 2000-2005.
== External links ==
*[http://www.kraepelin.org/_wsn/page3.html Extensive bibliography of English translations of Kraepelin's works]
*[http:// |
as, South Dakota]]
*[[Dallas, West Virginia]]
*[[Dallas, Wisconsin]]
*[[Dallas, Barron County, Wisconsin|Dallas (town), Wisconsin]]
Other U.S. communities with Dallas in the name include:
*[[Dallas County, Alabama]]
*[[Dallas County, Arkansas]]
*[[Dallas County, Iowa]]
*[[Dallas County, Missouri]]
*[[Dallas County, Texas]]
*[[Dallas Township, Arkansas]]
*[[Dallas Township, Indiana]]
*[[Dallas Township, Dallas County, Iowa]]
*[[Dallas Township, Marion County, Iowa]]
*[[Dallas Township, Taylor County, Iowa]]
*[[Dallas Township, Michigan]]
*[[Dallas Township, DeKalb County, Missouri]]
*[[Dallas Township, Harrison County, Missouri]]
*[[Dallas Township, St. Clair County, Missouri]]
*[[Dallas Township, North Carolina]]
*[[Dallas Township, Ohio]]
*[[Dallas Township, Pennsylvania]]
*[[Dallas Center, Iowa]].
*[[Dallas City Township, Illinois]]
*[[Dallas City, Illinois]].
*[[East Dallas Township, Missouri]]
*[[Lake Dallas, Texas]]
*[[Melcher-Dallas, Iowa]]
*[[West Dallas Township, Missouri]]
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<title>Daoism-Taoism Romanization issue</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Dào''''' is the [[pinyin]] [[romanization]] of the [[Chinese language|Chinese]] character '''&#36947;''', representing a word usually rendered in [[English language|English]] as '''''Tao''''', and used as the root word for the English term ''[[Taoism]]''. Taoism is a native Chinese [[philosophy]] and [[religion]] that, along with its various offshoot sects and syncretisms with other traditions ([[Chan Buddhism]], [[Neo-Confucianism]]), has influenced much of [[East Asia]] for thousands of years. More recently, it has gained worldwide recognition.
The concepts of Taoism were first widely studied in the West before the development of pinyin, when the older [[Wade-Giles]] transliteration system was in use in English speaking countries. Consequently, the Wade-Giles spellings are still generally used in most [[English language]] editions of the [[Tao Te Ching]] and other major Taoist works, and thus most commonly used and recognized by native speakers of English. "Taoism" appeared first in English in [[1836]] ([[Oxford English Dictionary]]) as a translation of the Chinese term &#36947;&#25945; (Wade-Giles tao4 chiao4, pinyin dào jiào).
However, in academia and politics, there has been a strong trend towards using pinyin, which is recommended by the government of the [[People's Republic of China]] and widely used in teaching Chinese language. Joseph Lau's translation of the Tao Te Ching (pub. Penguin) has been renamed "Daodejing" in its latest edition; similarly, Burton Watson's translation of Chuang Tzu (pub. Columbia Univ. Press) is now titled "Zhuangzi" instead. Both texts have abandoned Wades-Giles in favor of pinyin.
Due to fundamental differences between Chinese and English [[phonology]], neither ''d'' nor ''t'' can be considered adequate phonetic representations for the consonant at the beginning of the word ''Dao''/''Tao''. The Chinese pronunciation is ''voiceless'' (like ''t'' and not like ''d''), but it is also ''unaspirated'' (without the puff of air which is normally a part of English ''t'' but which is never a part of English ''d''). One perspective holds that both transliterations are thus equally close to (or far from) the [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]] pronunciation of '''&#36947;'''. However, to the ear of most English speakers the Chinese pronunciation sounds more like an English "d" than an English "t", thus some argue that "Dao" is in that sense more accurate than "Tao".
Generally, in the case of Chinese words that are not assimilated into English by the end of the [[20th century]], like most place or persons names, pinyin is preferably used by international community and has largely been accepted as the standard romanization. In the case of words with Chinese origins that have long been assimilated into English, opinions differ. Some people think that existing words in English which come from Chinese words should be remodeled after the ''pinyin'' transliteration scheme. Others think that the older forms should be retained because those spellings have become English words in their own right--and hence are not Chinese anymore--while new borrowings should be written according to the official transliteration scheme. Pinyin spellings that don't represent the pronunciation of the word well, the most problematic being pinyin's use of "q" for a sound usually heard as "ch" by most Westerners (see [[Qi]]), have contributed to the confusion in popular usage.
For consistency, Wikipedia uses the ''tao'' romanization, such as '''Taoism''' and '''Tao Te Ching''', in all articles.
==External links==
*http://www.truetao.org/laotzu/taote/guide.htm Tao Te Ching Pronunciation Guide
[[category:Chinese language romanization]]
[[category:Mandarin (linguistics)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Tao Te Ching</title>
<id>8574</id>
<revision>
<id>41700744</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T03:45:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>144.90.238.69</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Other themes */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| cellpadding="6" style="float: right; width:250px;margin: 5px;border:1px solid black"
|-
|style="text-align:center;padding-bottom: .40em; font-size: 210%" |&#36947;&#24503;&#32147;
|-
|style="padXXding: .40em 0em" |[[Pinyin]]: Dào Dé J&#299;ng
|-
|[[Wade-Giles]]: Tao Te Ching
|-
|[[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]: Đạo Đức Kinh
|-
|style="font-size: 80%" |The [[Wade-Giles]] rendering of the title became predominant in the late 19th century, and is still common in [[Taiwan]] as well as much of international academia, but the [[People's Republic of China]] has promulgated the [[pinyin]] transliteration scheme, which results in the title ''Dao De Jing''. As English editions of the book first became well known in the English-speaking world before the development of pinyin, the Wade-Giles transliteration of the title has stuck, and current English editions of the book almost always title it ''Tao Te Ching''. ''See also [[Daoism-Taoism romanization issue]] for further discussion.''
|}
The '''''Tao Te Ching''''' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: &#36947;&#24503;&#32147;, ''Dào dé jīng''), roughly translated as '''''The Book of the Way and its Virtue''''' (see [[#Translations of the title|below]] on translating the title) is an ancient [[Chinese classic texts|Chinese scripture]]. Tradition has it that the book was written around [[600 BCE]] by a sage called [[Laozi]] (WG: Lao Tzu, "Old Master"), a record-keeper in the Emperor's Court of the [[Zhou Dynasty]]. A careful reading of the text, however, suggests that it is a compilation of [[Maxim (saying)|maxim]]s sharing similar themes. The authenticity of the date of composition/compilation and the authorship are still debated.
This short work is one of the most important in [[Chinese philosophy]] and [[Chinese religion|religion]], especially in [[Taoism]], but also in [[Buddhism]], because the latter &ndash; an Indian religion &ndash; shared many Taoist words and concepts before developing into [[Chinese Buddhism]]. (Indeed, upon first encountering it, Chinese scholars regarded Buddhism as merely a foreign equivalent of Taoism.) Many Chinese artists, including [[Chinese poetry|poets]], [[Chinese painting|painters]], [[Calligraphy|calligraphers]] and even [[Chinese garden|gardeners]] have used the book as a source of inspiration. Its influence has also spread widely outside the Far East, aided by many different translations of the text into western languages.
==The original Tao Te Ching text==
The Tao Te Ching has been translated almost as many times as the [[Bible]] (second behind the Bible in fact). The original Chinese version however, was actually written in ZhuanShu script in scroll format ([[paper]] or [[bamboo]]), and later versions were written in LiShu and KaiShu style. [http://www.edepot.com/taocalig.html Tao Te Ching calligraphy styles] contains a good summary of the different styles in their actual format.
==Translations of the title==
[[Image:Tao-te-ching.png|thumb|90px|"Tao Te Ching", Calligraphy by [[Gia-Fu Feng]]]]
There are many possible translations of the book's title, as the meaning of the Chinese characters is somewhat broad.
* &#36947; (''dào'') is usually translated into [[English language|English]] as "the way ahead", "the path ahead", or simply "the Way". This term, used by all [[Chinese philosophy|Chinese Philosophers]] (including [[Confucius]], [[Mencius]], [[Mozi]], the [[Legalism (philosophy)|Legalists]], etc.), has special meaning within the context of [[Taoism]], where it implies the essential, unnamable process of the universe.
* &#24503; (''dé'') has the approximate English equivalent of "virtue" or "righteousness". &#24503; can carry the same connotations in Chinese that the word "virtue" does in English; that is, it may either mean "virtue&qu |
or Corsica would have included greater protection for the [[Corsican language]] (Corsu), the island's traditional language, whose practice and teaching, like other [[Languages of France|regional or minority languages in France]], had in the past been discouraged. According to the [[UNESCO]] classification, the Corsican language is currently in danger of becoming extinct. However, the plans for increased autonomy were opposed by the [[Gaullism|Gaullist]] opposition in the [[French National Assembly]], who feared that they would lead to calls for autonomy from other ''régions'' (such as [[Brittany]] or [[Alsace]]), eventually threatening France's unity as a country.
In a [[referendum]] on [[July 6]], [[2003]], a narrow majority of Corsican voters opposed a project from the government of [[Jean-Pierre Raffarin]] and [[Minister of the Interior (France)|Interior Minister]] [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] that would have suppressed the two ''départements'' of the island and granted greater autonomy to the territorial collectivity of Corsica.
==See also==
*[[List of active autonomist and secessionist movements]]
*[[Corsican immigration to Puerto Rico]]
*[[List of Corsicans]]
==External links==
*[http://www.photoglobe.info/db_corsica/index.html PhotoGlobe - Corsica] A collection of photos of Corsica together with GPS-based positions
*[http://www.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/europe/07/06/corsica.poll/index.html CNN] CNN coverage of rejection of autonomy proposals in 2003
*[http://www.corsica-isula.com Corsica-Isula] very helpful website on Corsica
*[http://korsika.unas.cz/ Touristic maps of Corsica]
*[http://www.corsicarobase.com Photos of Corsica] - more than 800
*[http://fst.univ-corse.fr University of Corsica]
*[http://www.directCorsica.com Corsican Holiday Portal] Comprehensive Corsican Holiday site
{{Regions_of_France}}
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[[zh:科西嘉岛]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>General Conference on Weights and Measures</title>
<id>7339</id>
<revision>
<id>27908087</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-10T09:24:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GusGus</username>
<id>44416</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* CGPM Meetings */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''General Conference on Weights and Measures''' is the English name of the '''Conférence générale des poids et mesures''' ('''CGPM''', never GCWM). It is one of the three organizations established to maintain the International System of Units ([[SI]]) under the terms of the [[Convention du Mètre]] (Metre Convention) of [[1875]]. It meets in [[Paris]] every four to six years. In [[2002]] the CGPM represented 51 member states and ten further associate members <sup>(1)</sup>. [[As of 2005]], the number of associates has grown to 17.
== CGPM Meetings ==
* 1<sup>st</sup> ([[1889]]) - [[kilogram]] defined as mass of the international prototype kilogram (IPK) made of [[platinum]]-[[iridium]] and kept at the [[International Bureau of Weights and Measures]] (Bureau international des poids et mesures), [[Sèvres]], France. International prototype metre sanctioned.
* 2<sup>nd</sup> ([[1897]])
* 3<sup>rd</sup> ([[1901]]) - [[Litre]] redefined as volume of 1 kg of water. Clarified that kilograms are units of mass, "standard weight" defined, [[Gee|standard acceleration of gravity]] defined endorsing use of grams force and making them well-defined.
* 4<sup>th</sup> ([[1907]]) - [[carat (mass)|carat]] = 200 mg adopted.
* 5<sup>th</sup> ([[1913]]) - International Temperature Scale proposed.
* 6<sup>th</sup> ([[1921]]) - Metre Convention revised.
* 7<sup>th</sup> ([[1927]]) - Consultative Committee for Electricity (CCE) created.
* 8 <sup>th</sup> ([[1933]]) - need for absolute electrical unit identified.
* 9<sup>th</sup> ([[1948]]) - [[ampere]], [[coulomb]], [[farad]], [[henry (inductance)|henry]], [[joule]], [[newton]], [[ohm]], [[volt]], [[watt]], [[weber (unit)|weber]] defined. Chose [[Celsius|degree Celsius]] from among the three names then in use. Lowercase l <!--symbols for units of measure never italic-->adopted as symbol for litre. Both the comma and dot on a line are accepted as decimal marker symbols. Symbols for the [[stere]] and [[second]] changed [http://www1.bipm.org/jsp/en/ViewCGPMResolution.jsp?CGPM=9&RES=7].
* 10<sup>th</sup> ([[1954]]) - [[kelvin]], [[standard atmosphere]] defined. ''International System of Units'' ([[metre]], [[kilogram]], [[second]], [[ampere]], [[kelvin]], [[candela]]) began.
* 11<sup>th</sup> ([[1960]]) - metre redefined in terms of wavelengths of light. [[Hertz]], [[lumen (unit)|lumen]], [[lux]], [[tesla (unit)|tesla]] adopted. New metric system given the official symbol '''SI''' for '''''[[Système International d'Unités]]''''', the "modernized metric system". Prefixes ''pico-'', ''nano-'', ''micro-'', ''mega-'', ''giga-'' and ''tera-'' confirmed.
* 12 <sup>th</sup> ([[1964]]) - original definition of [[litre]] = 1 dm&sup3; restored. ''atto-'' and ''femto-'' prefixes.
* 13<sup>th</sup> ([[1967]]) - second redefined as duration of 9&nbsp;192&nbsp;631&nbsp;770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the [[caesium]]-133 atom at a temperature of 0 K. ''Degree Kelvin'' renamed ''kelvin''. Candela redefined.
* 14<sup>th</sup> ([[1971]]) - new [[SI base unit]] [[mole (unit)|mole]] defined. [[Pascal]], [[siemens (unit)|siemens]] approved.
* 15<sup>th</sup> ([[1975]]) - ''peta-'' and ''exa-'' prefixes. [[gray (unit)|Gray]] and [[becquerel]] radiological units.
* 16<sup>th</sup> ([[1979]]) - [[candela]], [[sievert]] defined. Both l and L <!--symbols for units of measure never italic--> provisionally allowed as symbols for litre.
* 17<sup>th</sup> ([[1983]]) - metre redefined in terms of the speed of light, but keeps same length.
* 18<sup>th</sup> ([[1987]]) - conventional values adopted for [[Josephson constant]], ''K<sub>J</sub>'', and [[von Klitzing constant]], ''R<sub>K</sub>'', preparing the way for alternate definitions of the ampere and kilogram.
* 19<sup>th</sup> ([[1991]]) - new prefixes ''[[yocto]]-'', ''[[zepto]]-'', ''[[zetta]]-'' and ''[[yotta]]-''.
* 20<sup>th</sup> ([[1995]]) - supplementary SI units ([[radian]] and [[steradian]]) become ''derived units''.
* 21<sup>st</sup> ([[1999]]) - new SI derived unit, the [[katal]] = [[mole (unit)|mole]] per [[second]], for the expression of catalytic activity.
* 22<sup>nd</sup> ([[2003]]) - both the comma and dot on a line are reaffirmed as decimal marker symbols [http://www1.bipm.org/jsp/en/ViewCGPMResolution.jsp?CGPM=22&RES=10].
== References ==
<sup>(1)</sup> [http://www1.bipm.org/en/convention/member_states/ CGPM Member States]
[[Category:Standards organizations|Conférence générale des poids et mesures]]
[[cs:CGPM]]
[[et:Vihtide ja Mõõtude Peakonverents]]
[[fr:Conférence générale des poids et mesures]]
[[id:Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures]]
[[it:Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures]]
[[ko:국제도량형총회]]
[[ja:国際度量衡総会]]
[[pt:Conferência Geral de Pesos e Medidas]]
[[sr:Генерална конференција тежина и мера]]
[[sv:CGPM]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Console emulator</title>
<id>7340</id>
<revision>
<id>41254881</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T02:25:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>139.142.225.98</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''console emulator''' is a program for a computer, or other computing device, that can [[emulator|emulate]] a [[video game console]] or handheld, so a computer can be used to play games that were created for that console or to develop games for that console. Such tools are often used to [[fan translation|translate]] games into other languages, to modify (or [[ROM hacking|hack]]) existing games, or to produce homebrewed [[demo (computer programming)|demo]]s. Console emulation can also be achieved between consoles (hence [[cross-console emulation]]), making a modern video game console emulate a less advanced one.
==History==
Emulation was occasionally employed by console manufacturers in the early 1980s to allow games from other (and sometimes competing) hardware to be run on the manufacturer's device. The [[Atari 2600]] was by far the most frequent recipient of this behavior. [[Atari]]'s platform was easily the most popular and widespread early game consoles, and many developers touted compatibility with the system's vast library of games as a [[marketing]] ploy to attract customers. [[Coleco]]'s [[Colecovision]] and Atari's own [[Atari 5200]] provided add-on [[peripheral]]s that allowed 2600 [[Cartridge (electronics)|cartridge]]s to be played, and the [[Atari 7800]] provided this functionality right out of the box. Generally, this emulation was accomplished through special [[Computer hardware|hardware]]&mdash;unlike modern console emulation, which generally reproduces the functionality of a system entirely through [[Computer software|software]].
By the mid-1990s [[personal computers]] had progressed to the point where it was technically feasible to replicate the behavior of some of the |
[PlayStation 2]] video game, Beowulf appears as a large, one-eyed demon. There were also a pair of [[Gauntlet (gloves)|gauntlet]]s and [[leg guard]]s imbued with light powers that were named Beowulf.
* ''[[Final Fantasy Tactics]]'': In this [[Computer and video games|video game]], the main character's name is Ramza Beoulve, his last name possibly a mistranslation of Beowulf (in [[Japanese language|Japanese]] it would be the same [[katakana]]). The player also meets a knight named Beowulf who, ironically, is in love with a woman who has been transformed into a [[dragon]]. Beowulf and the player embark on a quest to restore her to her human form.
*''[[Final Fantasy VIII]]'': [[Grendel]] is featured as an enemy monster in this PlayStation game.
*''[[Spartan: Total Warrior]]'': Beowulf appears as the king of the barbarians.
*''[[Final Fantasy X]]'': Beowulf's legendary blade [[Hrunting]] is available to the main character of this game.
*''[[Skies of Arcadia]]'': [[Grendel]] is the name of the green [[Gigas]].
*''[[Creatures]] (PC/ Playstation)'': [[Grendel]] is the name of the vicious beasts that stalk Albia (Creatures/C2) and the Shee Ark (C3)
===Comics===
* ''[[Speakeasy Comics]]'': In [[April 2005]] this series debuted a ''Beowulf'' monthly title featuring the character having survived into the modern era and now working alongside law enforcement in [[New York]] to handle superpowered beings.
*The renowned comics author [[Neil Gaiman]] has also depicted the tale of Beowulf in one of his comics.
* ''Beowulf'' by [[Reiner Knizia]] is a board game based on the poem. Published by [[Fantasy Flight Games]], it is illustrated by famed [[Lord of the Rings]] artist [[John Howe]].
* In 1975 DC Comics published a ongoing series titled ''Beowulf Dragon Slayer'', which was edited by Dennis O'Neil, written by Michael Uslan and primarily illustrated by Ricardo Villamonte. It was a somewhat lighthearted, but no less action/adventure oriented extrapolation of the ancient poem which used many of the characters but led them in more of a 12 Labors of Hercules or ''Homer's Odyssey'' type direction. Part of an attempted line of sword and sorcery/fantasy adventure series, it didn't catch on and only lasted 6 issues, and has been mostly forgotten by comics fans.
* IN 1984 First Comics published the Graphic Novel 'Beowulf' by Jerry Bingham.
== References ==
===Old English plus glossary===
* Alexander, Michael. ''Beowulf: A Glossed Text''. Second ed. Penguin: London, 2000.
* Jack, George. ''Beowulf : A Student Edition''. Oxford University Press: New York, 1997.
* Klaeber, Fr, ed. ''Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg''. Third ed. Boston: Heath, 1950.
* Mitchell, Bruce, and Fred Robinson, eds. ''Beowulf: An Edition with Relevant Shorter Texts.'' Oxford, UK: Malden Ma., 1998.
===Modern English translations===
* Crossley-Holland, Kevin; Mitchell, Bruce. ''Beowulf: A New Translation''. London: Macmillan, 1968.
* [[Seamus Heaney|Heaney, Seamus.]] ''Beowulf: A New Verse Translation''. New York: W.W. Norton, 2001.
*--"Introduction" in Crossley-Holland, Kevin (tr.) ''Beowulf''. London: Folio, 1973.
* [[Edwin Morgan|Morgan, Edwin]]. ''Beowulf''. Manchester: Carcanet, 2002 (first published 1952).
* Swanton, Michael (ed.). ''Beowulf'' (Manchester Medieval Studies). Manchester: University, 1997.
* Tinker, Chauncey Brewster. ''The translations of Beowulf; a critical bibliography.'' New York: Holt, 1903. (Modern reprint with new introduction, Hamden: Archon Books, 1974).
===Dual-Language Editions===
* I. Chickering, Howell D. ''Beowulf: a dual-language edition.''New York: Anchor books ed., 1977,1989 ISBN 0-385-06213-3
== External links ==
* [http://www.engl.virginia.edu/OE/Beowulf.Readings/Beowulf.Readings.html Beowulf read aloud in Old English]
* '''Translations of Beowulf at Project Gutenberg:'''
**''[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/981 Modern English translation]'' by [[Francis Barton Gummere]]
**''[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/16328 Modern English translation]'' by [[John Lesslie Hall]]
** ''[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/9701 Old English edition]'' edited by [[James Albert Harrison]] and [[Robert Sharp]]
* [http://www.heorot.dk/ Beowulf on Steorarume(Beowulf in Cyberspace)] by [[Benjamin Slade]], full Old English text and new translation, with many other resources
* [http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/Literature.RinglBeowulf Ringler, Dick. ''Beowulf: A New Translation For Oral Delivery''], May 2005. Searchable text with full audio available, from the University of Wisconsin-Madison Libraries.
* [http://alliteration.net/beoIndex.htm Several different Modern English translations]
* [http://www.jagular.com/beowulf/outlines.shtml Summary of the story]
* [http://www.shadowedrealm.com/articles/exclusive/article.php?id=3 ''Beowulf'': Recognizing the Past]
* [http://www.shadowedrealm.com/articles/exclusive/article.php?id=4 Christianity in ''Beowulf'']
* [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/britannia/anglo-saxon/beowulf/beowulf.html James Grout: ''Beowulf'', part of the Encyclopædia Romana]
* [http://uashome.alaska.edu/%7Ejndfg20/website/beowulf.htm Beowulf: The Movie(s). A Comprehensive Look at the (Brief) List of Cinematic Adaptations of the English Language's Most Enduring Epic Poem] an article from [http://uashome.alaska.edu/%7Ejndfg20/website/ Film as Art: Danél Griffin's Guide to Cinema]
* [http://www.jagular.com/beowulf/fire.shtml Additional information about the Ashburnham House fire]
* [http://www.jagular.com/beowulf/book-table.shtml Several dozen more translations, with images of the book covers, and ISBN numbers]
* [http://www.beowulfandgrendel.org/ Searcheable Beowulf text and Searcheable Old-English dictionary at www.BeowulfAndGrendel.Org]
[[Category:Nordic folklore]]
[[Category:English heroic legends]]
[[Category:History of the Germanic peoples]]
[[Category:Medieval legends]]
[[Category:Old English poems]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Barb Wire</title>
<id>3836</id>
<revision>
<id>36175345</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-22T04:15:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.58.123.201</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the fencing material, see [[barbed wire]].''
[[Image:Barb Wire.jpg|thumb|200px|Publicity photo from ''Barb Wire'']]
'''''Barb Wire''''' was a [[comic book]] series set in a post-apocalyptic world, published by [[Comics Greatest World]], an imprint of [[Dark Horse Comics]].
The [[1996]] motion picture adaptation was a star vehicle for [[Pamela Anderson]], which was intended to enable her to cross over from [[television]] to [[film|movie]] stardom. With a plot based loosely on ''[[Casablanca (film)|Casablanca]]'', the film had Anderson playing the title role, a [[mercenary]] and [[nightclub]] owner in a [[cyberpunk]] future entrusted with looking after a pair of [[contact lens]]es necessary for the exposure of a political scandal. The film was critically mauled on its release, but became a moderate hit because of its star.
==External links ==
*{{imdb title|id=0115624|title=Barb Wire}}
{{film-stub}}
[[Category:Dark Horse titles]]
[[Category:Dark Horse Comics characters]]
[[Category:1996 films]]
[[Category:Films based on comics]]
[[Category:Worst Picture Razzie Nominee]]
[[no:Barb Wire]]
[[sv:Barb Wire]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blazing Saddles</title>
<id>3837</id>
<revision>
<id>42151781</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:00:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MFNickster</username>
<id>61685</id>
</contributor>
<comment>misc. corrections & style tweaks</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
name = Blazing Saddles |
image = Blazingsaddlesdvdcover.gif |
caption = Blazing Saddles DVD Cover |
director = [[Mel Brooks]] |
producer = [[Michael Hertzberg]] |
writer = [[Andrew Bergman]] (story)<br>[[Mel Brooks]]<br>[[Norman Steinberg]]<br>[[Andrew Bergman]]<br>[[Richard Pryor]]<br>[[Alan Uger]] (screenplay) |
starring = [[Cleavon Little]]<br />[[Gene Wilder]]<br />[[Harvey Korman]] |
music = [[Mel Brooks]]<br />[[John Morris]] |
cinematography = [[Joseph F. Biroc]] |
editing = [[Danford B. Greene]]<br />[[John C. Howard]] |
distributor = [[Warner Bros.]] |
released = [[February 7]], [[1974]] |
running time = 93 minutes |
language = [[English language|English]]<br>[[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] |
budget = $2.6 million [[United States dollar|USD]] |
imdb_id = 0071230
}}
'''''Blazing Saddles''''' is a [[Warner Bros.]] [[1974 in film|1974]] [[comedy film|comedy]] directed by [[Mel Brooks]] and starring [[Cleavon Little]] and [[Gene Wilder]]. The film was written (in what Brooks called ''[[Your Show of Shows]]''-style) by a team of writers, namely Brooks, [[Andrew Bergman]], [[Richard Pryor]], [[Norman Steinberg]], and [[Alan Uger]]; it was based on Bergman's story and draft. Brooks appears in multiple supporting roles, including Governor Le Petomane and a [[Yiddish]]-speaking Indian Chief. [[Slim Pickens]], [[Alex Karras]], [[David Huddleston]], and Brooks regulars [[Dom DeLuise]], [[Madeline Kahn]] and [[Harvey Korman]] are also featured. Musician [[Count Basie]] has a cameo.
The film is an over-the-top [[parody]] of the [[Western film]] genre, in addition to being an intelligent satire about racism. It is also considered as one of the forerunners of [[gross-out film]]s that proliferated since the success of ''[[Ani |
ears without being hungry, and how that petty theft haunted him through his life.[http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/rels/002/lectures/lecture18.html]
*[[Jon Foreman]], lead singer and song writer of the [[Christian rock]] band [[Switchfoot]] wrote a song called "Something More (Augustine's Confession)," based after the life and book, "Confessions", of Augustine.
==See also==
* [[Augustinians]]
* [[Predestination]]
* [[Free will]]
* [[Pelagianism]]
* [[In necessariis unitas, in dubiis libertas, in omnibus caritas]]
* [[Constantinian shift]]
* [[Floria Aemilia]]
* [[Filioque clause]]
==Bibliography==
*[[Peter Brown (historian) | Brown, Peter]]. ''Augustine of Hippo''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967. ISBN 0-520-00186-9
*[[James J. O'Donnell|O'Donnell, James J.]] ''Augustine: A New Biography''. New York: HarperCollins, 2005. ISBN 0-06-053537-7
*[[Leo Ruickbie|Ruickbie, Leo]]. ''Witchcraft Out of the Shadows''. London: Robert Hale, 2004. ISBN 0-7090-7567-7), pp. 57-8.
*[[Adolphe Tanquerey|Tanquerey, Adolphe]]. ''The Spiritual Life: A Treatise on [[Ascetical theology|Ascetical]] and Mystical Theology''. Reprinted Ed. (original 1930). Rockford, IL: Tan Books, 2000. ISBN 0895556596, p. 37.
*[[John von Heyking|von Heyking, John]]. ''Augustine and Politics as Longing in the World''. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2001. ISBN 0826213499
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*General:
**At UPENN: [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jod/augustine/ Texts, translations, introductions, commentaries...]
** [http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/augustine.php EarlyChurch.org.uk] Extensive bibliography and on-line articles.
*Texts by Augustine:
** {{gutenberg author|id=Augustine_of_Hippo|name=Augustine of Hippo}}
** In Latin, at [[The Latin Library]]: [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/august.html books and letters by Augustine]
**At "Christian Classics Ethereal Library" [http://www.ccel.org/a/augustine/ Translations of several works by Augustine, incl. introductions]
**At "New Advent": [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/ Several works by Augustine in English, incl. introduction]
**[http://www.philosophyarchive.com/text.php?era=400-499&author=Augustine&text=Confessions%20and%20Enchiridion%20Introduction The Enchiridion] by Augustine
**[http://www.augustinus.it] Full Latin and Italian text resource
**At "IntraText Digital Library": [http://www.intratext.com/Catalogo/Autori/AUT31.HTM Works by Augustine in several languages, with concordance and frequency list]
*Texts on Augustine:
**[http://www.mrrena.com/august.shtml St. Augustine: Between Two Worlds]
**[http://personal2.stthomas.edu/gwschlabach/docs/jhy-aug.htm Augustine and 'other catholics']
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/augustine/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
[[Category:Church Fathers]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:Algerian people]]
[[Category:Catholic philosophers|Augustine of Hippo]]
[[Category:Christian philosophers]]
[[Category:Christian writers]]
[[Category:History of the Maghreb]]
[[Category:Late Antique writers]]
[[Category:Neoplatonists]]
[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Theologians]]
[[Category:Doctors of the Church]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic bishops]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman rhetoricians]]
[[Category:354 births|Augustine of Hippo]]
[[Category:430 deaths|Augustine of Hippo]]
[[Category:Rhetoricians|Augustine of Hippo]]
{{Link FA|pl}}
[[bg:Августин]]
[[bs:Aurelije Augustin]]
[[ca:Sant Agustí d'Hipona]]
[[cs:Augustinus]]
[[de:Augustinus von Hippo]]
[[et:Augustinus]]
[[es:Agustín de Hipona]]
[[eo:Aŭgusteno]]
[[eu:Hiponako San Augustin]]
[[fr:Augustin d'Hippone]]
[[gl:Agostiño de Hipona]]
[[ko:아우렐리우스 아우구스티누스]]
[[hr:Aurelije Augustin]]
[[io:Augustinus]]
[[it:Sant'Agostino d'Ippona]]
[[he:אוגוסטינוס]]
[[la:Augustinus]]
[[lt:Augustinas]]
[[hu:Szent Ágoston]]
[[nl:Augustinus van Hippo]]
[[ja:アウグスティヌス]]
[[no:Augustin av Hippo]]
[[pl:Augustyn z Hippony]]
[[pt:Agostinho de Hipona]]
[[ro:Augustin de Hipona]]
[[ru:Августин Блаженный]]
[[sk:Augustín]]
[[sl:Sveti Avguštin]]
[[sr:Свети Августин]]
[[fi:Augustinus]]
[[sv:Augustinus]]
[[tr:Augustinus]]
[[zh:奥古斯丁 (希波)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Acting</title>
<id>2032</id>
<revision>
<id>41800569</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T21:05:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Marcuse</username>
<id>329065</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>unlink name without article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For legal meaning of '''acting''', see [[Acting (law)]].''
:''For the military sense, see [[Acting (rank)]].''
'''Acting''' is the work of an '''[[actor]]''', a person in [[theatre]], [[film]], or any other storytelling medium who tells the story by portraying a character and, usually, speaking or singing the written text or [[play]]. From the [[Latin]] word ''ag&#x0115;re'' meaning "to do", this is precisely what acting is. In acting, an actor suppresses or augments aspects of their personality in order to reveal the actions and motivations of the [[fictional character|character]] for particular moments in time. The [[actor]] is said to be "assuming the [[role]]" of another, usually for the benefit of an [[audience]], but also because it can bring one a sense of artistic satisfaction.
Actors are generally expected to possess a number of skills, including good vocal projection, clarity of speech, physical expressiveness, the ability to analyze and understand dramatic text, and the ability to emulate or generate emotional and physical conditions. Well-rounded actors are often also skilled in [[singing]], [[dancing]], imitating [[dialect]]s and [[Accent (language)|accent]]s, [[improvisational theatre|improvisation]], observation and emulation, [[mime]], [[stage combat]], and performing classical texts such as [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]. Many actors train at length in special programs or colleges to develop these skills, which have a wide range of different artistic philosophies and processes.
Modern pioneers in the area of acting have included [[Konstantin Stanislavski]], [[Jerzy Grotowski]], [[Lee Strasberg]], [[Uta Hagen]], [[Stella Adler]], Eric Morris, [[Michael Chekhov]], [[Viola Spolin]] and [[Sanford Meisner]].
For history and other detail, see [[actor]].
==See also==
* [[Method acting]]
* [[Theater_terms|A list of theater terms]]
==Suggested Reading==
* ''Letters to a Young Actor'' by Robert Brustein (Basic Books, 0465008062, 2005).
* ''Sanford Meisner on Acting'' by Sanford Meisner, Dennis Longwell (Random House, 0394750594, 1987).
* ''An Actor Prepares'' by Konstantin Stanislavski, Elizabeth Reynolds Hapgood (Routledge, 0878309837, 1989).
* ''[http://actorsmenu.com The Actor's Menu]'' by Bill Howey (Compass Publishing, 0975310224, 2005).
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.alexander-tech.com/forarts.html Article on how the Alexander Technique can help actors and acting]
[[Category:Acting| ]]
[[Category:Role-playing]]
[[ja:&#33437;&#23621;]]
[[fi:Näytteleminen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aztec Mythology</title>
<id>2033</id>
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<id>15900486</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-23T21:26:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Aztec mythology]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aztec mythology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aerospace engineering</title>
<id>2036</id>
<revision>
<id>41815381</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T22:54:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>145.94.75.80</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Aerospace engineering degrees */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Aerospace engineering''' is the branch of [[engineering]] that concerns [[aircraft]], [[spacecraft]] and related topics. It is often called aeronautical engineering, particularly when referring solely to aircraft, and astronautical engineering, when referring to spacecraft.
Some of the elements of aerospace engineering are:
* [[Aerodynamics]] - the study of [[fluid]] flow around objects such as [[wing]]s or through objects such as [[wind tunnel]]s (see also [[Lift (force)|lift]] and [[aeronautics]])
* Propulsion - the energy to move a vehicle through the air (or in outer space) is provided by [[internal combustion engine]]s, [[jet engine]]s, or [[rocket]]s (see also [[propeller]] and [[Spacecraft Propulsion]])
* [[Control engineering]] - the study of mathematical modelling of systems and designing them in order that they behave in the desired way
* Structures - design of the physical configuration of the craft to withstand the forces encountered during flight. Aerospace engineering aims very much at keeping structures lightweight.
* [[Materials science]] - related to structures, aerospace engineering also studies the materials of which the aerospace structures are to be built. New materials with very specific properties are invented, or existing ones are modified to improve their performance.
* [[Aeroelasticity]] - the interaction of aerodynamic forces and structural flexibility, potentially causing flutter, divergence, etc
* [[Computer science]] - specifically concerning the design and programming of any computer systems on board an aircraft or spacecraft and the simulation of systems.
The basis of most of these elements lies in theoretical [[mathematics]], such as [[fluid dynamics]] for aerodynamics or the [[equations of motion]] for [[flight dynamics]]. However, there is also a large [[empiricism|empirical]] component. Historically, this empirical component was derived from testing of scale models and prototypes, either in wind tunnels or in the free atmosphere. More recently, advances in [[computing]] have enabled the use of [[computational fluid dynamics]] |
mascot = [[Edgar, Allan, and Poe]]
| stations = WBAL-AM (1090) and WIYY-FM (97.9)
| announcers = To Be Determined
| hist_yr = 1996
| NFL_start_yr = 1996
| division_hist =
*'''[[American Football Conference]] (1996-present)'''
**[[AFC Central]] (1996-2001)
**'''[[AFC North]] (2002-present)'''
| no_league_champs = 1
| no_sb_champs = 1
| no_conf_champs = 1
| no_div_champs = 1
| sb_champs = 2000&nbsp;([[Super Bowl XXXV|XXXV]])
| conf_champs =
*'''AFC:''' 2000
| div_champs =
*'''AFC North:''' 2003
| stadium_years =
*[[Memorial Stadium (Baltimore)]] (1996-1997)
*'''[[M&T Bank Stadium]] (1998-present)'''
**a.k.a. PSINet Stadium (1998-2002)
**a.k.a. Ravens Stadium (2002-2003)
}}
The '''Baltimore Ravens''' are a professional [[American football]] team based in [[Baltimore, Maryland]]. They currently belong to the [[AFC North|Northern Division]] of the [[American Football Conference]] (AFC) in the [[National Football League]] (NFL). The Ravens have won one [[Super Bowl]] title, [[Super Bowl XXXV]] in 2001.
The history of the Baltimore Ravens is unusual due to the unprecedented actions taken by the cities of Baltimore and [[Cleveland, Ohio]], and the NFL in 1996. On [[November 6]], [[1995]], then-[[Cleveland Browns]] owner [[Art Modell]] announced his intention to move the team to Baltimore, citing the inadequacy of [[Cleveland Stadium]] and the lack of a sufficient replacement along with his heavy debt. The decision triggered a flurry of legal activity that ended when representatives of Cleveland and the NFL reached a settlement on [[February 8]], 1996. It stipulated that the Browns' name, colors, and history of the franchise were to remain in Cleveland. A reactivated Cleveland Browns team would then begin play in 1999, while the relocated club would technically and legally be a new [[expansion team]], the Ravens.{{ref|baltsun}} (The team's name comes from the famous [[Edgar Allan Poe]] poem, "[[The Raven]].")
For that reason, past records and [[Pro Football Hall of Fame]] players are attributed to the Browns and not to the Ravens. (For more information on the move, see [[Cleveland Browns#Franchise History|Franchise History of the Cleveland Browns]]). However, some incorrectly consider the Ravens and the pre-1995 Browns organization as one continuous entity, using terms like "The Modell organization" or "Art Modell's franchise" to denote it. {{ref|Modellorg}}
Conversely, many Baltimore fans, who are still bitter about the [[Indianapolis Colts|Colts football team]] moving from Baltimore to [[Indianapolis, Indiana]] in 1984, along with many of the Colts' former players, view the pre-1984 Baltimore Colts organization and the Ravens as one continuous entity. In fact, the old Colts [[marching band]] and [[fan club]] became part of the Ravens organization.
:'''Uniform colors:''' Black, Purple, Metallic Gold, and White. (The primary home uniform is a purple jersey and white pants. Traditional away gear (also worn at home during late summer day games, but mostly on the road, are white jersies and white pants. In 2004, the team introduced an alternate attire of black jersey and black pants for select prime-time national game broadcasts.)
:'''Helmet design:''' A black helmet with a purple and black raven's head in profile, with the letter "B" superimposed in metallic gold and white. Purple "talons" rise up from the facemask up the center of the helmet.
==Franchise history==
After relocating his franchise, retaining the current contracts of former Browns players and personnel, as per the agreement made by the city of Cleveland and the NFL, owner [[Art Modell]] hired [[Ted Marchibroda]] as head coach, who had previous experience with the [[Baltimore Colts]] during the 1970s and the Indianapolis Colts during the early 1990s. [[Ozzie Newsome]], Cleveland's prolific tight end for many seasons, joined Modell in Baltimore as director of football operations. He was later promoted to Vice President/General Manager.
The NFL officially made its return to Baltimore after a 13-year hiatus on [[September 1]], [[1996]], with a 19-14 Ravens win over the [[Oakland Raiders]]. That was one of the team's few highlights in their inaugural season. Despite 33 touchdown passes by [[Vinny Testaverde]] (second behind [[Brett Favre]]) - fourteen of them to [[Michael Jackson (NFL)|Michael Jackson]] - the Ravens blew several leads through the season and finished 4-12.
Testaverde and the Ravens struggled in the 1997 season after starting off with an early winning streak. [[Peter Boulware]], with 11.5 sacks, was named AFC Defensive Rookie of the Year, but the Ravens finished 6-9-1.
Baltimore continued to struggle in 1998. Testaverde, who had left for the [[New York Jets]], was replaced with former Indianapolis Colt [[Jim Harbaugh]], and later, [[Eric Zeier]] - neither of which proved to be very effective. Cornerback [[Rod Woodson]] joined the team after a successful stint with the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] and [[Priest Holmes]] started getting his first meaningful playing time of his career and ran for 1000 yards, but the Ravens could only muster a 6-10 record.
After three consecutive losing seasons, Marchibroda was succeeded by [[Brian Billick]], who had served as the offensive coordinator for the [[Minnesota Vikings]] the season before.
The 1999 season, their first at the new [[M&T Bank Stadium]], Baltimore showed a marked improvement. Quarterback [[Tony Banks (quarterback)|Tony Banks]] came to Baltimore from the [[St. Louis Rams]] and had the best season of his career with 17 touchdown passes and an 81.2 [[pass rating]]. He was joined by receiver [[Qadry Ismail]], who posted a 1000-yard season. The Ravens struggled early, starting 3-6; but rattled off four consecutive wins to put themselves in playoff contention. A loss in the final week sent them home early with an 8-8 record.
Banks shared playing time in the 2000 regular season with [[Trent Dilfer]]. Both players put up decent numbers (and a 1300-yard rushing season by rookie [[Jamal Lewis]] helped too), but the defense became the team's hallmark, and bailed a struggling offense out in many cases through the season. [[Ray Lewis (NFL)|Ray Lewis]], who had been charged with [[murder]] in the offseason, was named Defensive Player of the Year. Two of his defensive teammates, [[Sam Adams (football player)|Sam Adams]] and [[Rod Woodson]], made the [[Pro Bowl]]. The season started strong, with a 5-1 start for Baltimore. But the team struggled through mid-season, at one point going four games without scoring an offensive touchdown. The team regrouped and won each of their last seven games, finishing 12-4 and in the [[playoffs]] for the first time since the team was based in Cleveland.
Since the divisional rival [[Tennessee Titans]] had a record of 13-3, the Ravens had to play in the [[wild card]] round. They dominated the [[Denver Broncos]] 21-3 in their first game, their only playoff game in Baltimore. In the divisional playoff, they went on the road to Tennessee. Tied 10-10 in the fourth quarter, an [[Al Del Greco]] [[field goal]] attempt was blocked and returned for a touchdown by [[Anthony Mitchell]], and a [[Ray Lewis (NFL)|Ray Lewis]] interception return for a score put the game squarely in Baltimore's favor. The 24-10 win put the Ravens in the [[AFC Championship]] against the [[Oakland Raiders]]. The game was rarely in doubt. [[Shannon Sharpe]]'s 96-yard touchdown catch early in the second quarter followed by an injury to Raiders quarterback [[Rich Gannon]] were the differences as the Ravens won easily, 16-3.
Baltimore then went to [[Tampa]] for [[Super Bowl XXXV]] against the [[New York Giants]]. The game was, once again, dominated by the Ravens. They recorded four sacks and forced five turnovers, one of which was a [[Kerry Collins]] interception returned for a touchdown by [[Duane Starks]]. The Giants' only scoring was a [[Ron Dixon]] kickoff return for another touchdown, but the Ravens immediately countered with one by [[Jermaine Lewis]]. The Ravens became champions with a 34-7 win, becoming only the third [[wild card]] team to win a Super Bowl championship.
In 2001, the Ravens attempted to defend their title, but with a new quarterback: [[Elvis Grbac]]. An injury to [[Jamal Lewis]] and poor offensive performance stymied the team. After a 3-3 start the Ravens needed a win over the [[Minnesota Vikings]] in the final week to clinch a wild card berth at 10-6. In the first round the Ravens showed flashes of their previous year with a 20-3 blowout over the [[Miami Dolphins]], in which the team forced three turnovers and outgained the Dolphins 347 yards to 151. In the divisional playoff the Ravens played the surprising [[Pittsburgh Steelers]]. Three interceptions by Grbac ended the Ravens season, as they lost 27-10.
Baltimore ran into [[salary cap]] problems in 2002 and were forced to cut several players, including [[Sam Adams (football player)|Sam Adams]], [[Rod Woodson]] and [[Shannon Sharpe]]. The Ravens regrouped through the draft with picks like safety [[Ed Reed]]. Longtime backup QB [[Chris Redman]] took over behind center. The Ravens stayed somewhat competitive, before a December slide cost them a playoff spot with a 7-9 final record.
In 2003, the Ravens drafted their new quarterback, [[Kyle Boller]], but he was injured midway through the season and replaced with [[Anthony Wright]]. Jamal Lewis ran for 2066 yards (including a record 295 yards in one game against the [[Cleveland Browns]] on [[September 14]]), easily tops in the NFL. With a 10-6 record, Baltimore won their first [[AFC North]] division title. Their first playoff game, at home against the [[Tennessee Titans]], went back and forth, with the Ravens being held to only 54 yards total rushing. The Titans won 20-17 on a late field goal, and Baltimore's season ended early.
In April 2003, [[Art Modell]] sold 49% of the team to [[Steve Bisciotti]] a local b |
able of saying 'No' to anybody".<ref>Wilson p. 162.</ref> This meant he was easily persuaded to sign official statements, including a denunciation of [[Andrei Sakharov]] in [[1973]]; on the other hand he was willing to try to help constituents in his capacities as chairman of the Composers' Union and Deputy to the [[Supreme Soviet]]. Oleg Prokofiev commented that "he tried to help so many people that... less and less attention was paid to his pleas".<ref>Wilson p. 40.</ref>
==Orthodoxy and revisionism==
Shostakovich's response to official criticism is disputed. It is clear that outwardly he conformed with the state, reading speeches and putting his name to articles expressing the government line. It is also generally agreed that he disliked the regime, a view confirmed by his family, his letters to Isaak Glikman, and the satirical [[cantata]] "[[Rayok (Shostakovich)|Rayok]]", which ridiculed the "anti-formalist" campaign and was kept hidden until after his death.
What is uncertain is the extent to which Shostakovich expressed his opposition to the state in his other music. The [[revisionist]] view was put forth by [[Solomon Volkov]] in the 1979 book ''[[Testimony (book)|Testimony]]'', which was claimed to be Shostakovich's memoirs dictated to Volkov. The book claimed that many of the composer's works contained coded anti-government messages. It is known that he incorporated many quotations and [[motif (music)|motif]]s in his work, most notably his signature [[DSCH]] theme. His longtime collaborator [[Yevgeny Mravinsky]] said that "Shostakovich very often explained his intentions with very specific images and connotations".<ref>Wilson p. 139.</ref> The revisionist perspective has subsequently been supported by his children, Maxim and Galina, and many Russian musicians. More recently, Volkov has argued that Shostakovich adopted the role of the ''[[yurodivy]]'' or holy [[fool]] in his relations with the government. His widow Irina supports the general revisionist thesis but denies the authenticity of ''Testimony''. Other prominent revisionists are [[Ian MacDonald]], whose book ''The New Shostakovich'' put forward more interpretations of his music, and Elizabeth Wilson, whose ''Shostakovich: A Life Remembered'' provides testimony from many of the composer's acquaintances.
Many musicians and scholars (notably [[Laurel Fay]] and [[Richard Taruskin]]) contest the authenticity (and debate the significance) of ''Testimony'', alleging that Volkov compiled it from a combination of recycled articles, gossip, and possibly some information direct from the composer. More broadly, they argue that the significance of Shostakovich is in his music rather than his life, and that to seek political messages in the music detracts from, rather than enhances, its artistic value.
==Notes==
<references/>
==Media==
{{Listen|filename=Chant de la paix.ogg|title=Chanson de la Paix|description="Song of Peace" from the film "Meeting on the Elbe river"|format=[[Ogg]]}}
==References==
* {{cite book
| last = Ardov
| first = Michael
| year = 2004
| title = Memories of Shostakovich
| publisher = Short Books
| id = ISBN 190409564X
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Fay
| first = Laurel
| year = 2001
| chapter = Dmitri Shostakovich
| title = Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians
| publisher = Macmillan Publishers
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Fay
| first = Laurel
| year = 1999
| title = Shostakovich: A Life
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| id = ISBN 0195134389
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Haas
| first = David
| chapter = Shostakovich's Eighth:C minor Symphony against the Grain
| editor = Bartlett (ed)
| title = Shostakovich in Context
}}
* {{Cite book
| last = Ho
| first = Allan
| coauthors = Feofanov, Dmitry
| year = 1998
| title = Shostakovich Reconsidered
| publisher = Toccata Press
| id = ISBN 0907689566
}}
* {{cite web
| last = Luebke
| first = Jon
| title = Jon Luebke's Shostakovich Page
| publisher =
| work = Jon H. Luebke
| url = http://www.msu.edu/user/luebkejo/shost1.html
| accessdate = August 17
| accessyear = 2005
}}
* {{cite book
| authorlink = Ian MacDonald
| last = MacDonald
| first = Ian
| year = 1990
| title = The New Shostakovich
| publisher = Northeastern University Press
| id = ISBN 1555530893
}}
* {{cite web
| last = MacDonald
| first = Ian
| title = Shostakovichiana
| publisher =
| work = Music Under Soviet Rule
| url = http://www.siue.edu/~aho/musov/dmitri.html
| accessdate = August 17
| accessyear = 2005
}}
* {{cite web
| last = van Rijen
| first = Onno
| title = Opus by Shostakovich
| publisher =
| work = Shostakovich & Other Soviet Composers
| url = http://home.wanadoo.nl/ovar/shosopus/shosopus.htm
| accessdate = August 17
| accessyear = 2005
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Shostakovich
| first = Dmitri
| coauthors = Glikman, Isaak
| year = 2001
| title = Story of a Friendship: The Letters of Dmitry Shostakovich to Isaak Glikman
| publisher = Cornell Univ Press
| id = ISBN 0801439795
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Shostakovich
| first = Dmitri
| coauthors = Volkov, Solomon
| year = 2000
| title = Testimony
| edition = 7th edition
| publisher = Proscenium
| id = ISBN 0879100214
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Volkov
| first = Solomon
| year = 2004
| title = Shostakovich and Stalin: The Extraordinary Relationship Between the Great Composer and the Brutal Dictator
| publisher = Knopf
| id = ISBN 0375410821
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Wilson
| first = Elizabeth
| year = 1994
| title = Shostakovich: A Life Remembered
| publisher = Princeton University Press
| id = ISBN 0691044651
}}
* {{cite web
| title = Shostakovich Myths Debunked
| publisher =
| work = Redrick's Musicological References
| url = http://www.geocities.com/rickredrick/Shostakovich.html
| accessdate = August 17
| accessyear = 2005
}}
==External links==
*[http://www.epitonic.com/artists/dimitrishostakovich.html Epitonic.com: Dimitri Shostakovich] featuring tracks from ''Written With The Heart's Blood''
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio3/discoveringmusic/audioarchive.shtml Archive of BBC's "Discovering Music" radio show], featuring Shostakovich's Symphony No. 5, Symphony No. 10, String Quartet No. 8, and Cello Concerto No. 1.
*[http://www.imslp.org/index.php?title=Category:Shostakovich%2C_Dmitri IMSLP] - International Music Score Library Project's Shostakovich page.
*[http://www.classiccat.net/shostakovich_d/index.htm Classic Cat - Dimitri Shostakovich]: An overview of free downloadable Shostakovich music on the internet by Classic Cat - the free classical music directory.
*[http://www.jmc.co.il/livecon2003/chamber3.html The Aviv String Quartet and Guest]: String Quartet No. 8 in C minor, op. 110.
* [http://www.classicalarchives.com/main/s.html#SHOSTAKOVICH Various pieces of him in streaming media by Classical Music Archives]
* [http://www.violinmp3.com/ ViolinMP3.com - Streaming webcasts of Piano Quintet Op.52 and Romances on Verses by Alexander Blok Op.127]
{{featured article}}
[[Category:20th century classical composers|Shostakovich, Dmitri]]
[[Category:Opera composers|Shostakovich, Dmitri]]
[[Category:Russian composers|Shostakovich, Dmitri]]
[[Category:Russian classical pianists|Shostakovich, Dmitri]]
[[Category:People's Artists of the USSR|Shostakovich, Dmitri]]
[[Category:Modernism|Shostakovich, Dmitri]]
[[Category:Deaths by lung cancer|Shostakovich, Dmitri]]
[[Category:1906 births|Shostakovich, Dmitri]]
[[Category:1975 deaths|Shostakovich, Dmitri]]
{{Link FA|de}}
{{Link FA|nl}}
[[cy:Dmitri Shostakovich]]
[[da:Dmitrij Sjostakovitj]]
[[de:Dmitri Dmitrijewitsch Schostakowitsch]]
[[eo:Dmitri ŜOSTAKOVIĈ]]
[[es:Dmitri Shostakovich]]
[[et:Dmitri Šostakovitš]]
[[fa:دمیتری شوستاکوویچ]]
[[fi:Dmitri Šostakovitš]]
[[fr:Dmitri Chostakovitch]]
[[he:דמיטרי שוסטקוביץ']]
[[hu:Dmitrij Dmitrijevics Sosztakovics]]
[[is:Dímítríj Sjostakovítsj]]
[[it:Dmitrij Šostakovič]]
[[ja:ドミトリ・ショスタコーヴィチ]]
[[ka:შოსტაკოვიჩი, დმიტრი]]
[[lb:Dmitri Schostakowitsch]]
[[nl:Dmitri Sjostakovitsj]]
[[no:Dmitrij Sjostakovitsj]]
[[pl:Dymitr Szostakowicz]]
[[ru:Шостакович, Дмитрий Дмитриевич]]
[[sl:Dmitrij Šostakovič]]
[[sv:Dmitrij Sjostakovitj]]
[[th:ดิมิทริ โชสตาโควิช]]
[[zh:季米特里·肖斯塔科维奇]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Doom</title>
<id>8521</id>
<revision>
<id>41969488</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:19:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the game. For other uses, see [[Doom (disambiguation)]].''
{{Infobox CVG| title = Doom
|image = [[Image:Doom-boxart.jpg|center|250px|The Doom title artwork, painted by Don Ivan Punchatz, depicts the lone hero, a space marine, fighting demonic creatures.]]
|developer = [[id Software]]
|publisher = [[id Software]]
|designer =
|engine = [[Doom engine|Doom]]
|released = [[December 10]], [[1993]]
|genre = [[First-person shooter]]
|modes = [[Single player]]<br>[[Multiplayer]] (cooperative)<br>Multiplayer ([[deathmatch]])
|ratings = [[ESRB]]: Mature (M), Teen (T) (for [[Game Boy Advance]] version), [[BBFC]]: 15 (except for [[Game Boy Advance]] release), [[OFLC]]: MA15+
|platforms = [[IBM PC compatible|PC]] ([[MS-DOS]])<br>[[Versions and ports of Doom|Other versions and ports of Doom]]
|media = 3½" [[floppy disk]], [[Compact disc|CD]] (1)
|requirements =
|input =
}}
'''''Doom''''' (or '''''DOOM'''''){{fn|a}} is a 1993 [[computer game]] by [[id Software]] that is among the landmark titles in the [[first-person shooter]] genre. It is widely recognized for its pioneer use of immersive [[3D computer graphics|3D graphics]], |
lized citizens of the United States|Hopkins, Anthony]]
[[Category:Television actors|Hopkins, Anthony]]
[[Category:Welsh actors|Hopkins, Anthony]]
[[Category:Welsh film actors|Hopkins, Anthony]]
[[Category:Welsh television actors|Hopkins, Anthony]]
[[Category:Worst Actor Razzie Nominee|Hopkins, Anthony]]
[[Category:Commanders of the British Empire|Hopkins, Anthony]]
[[Category:Living people|Hopkins, Anthony]]
[[ar:أنتوني هوبكنز]]
[[cs:Anthony Hopkins]]
[[cy:Anthony Hopkins]]
[[da:Anthony Hopkins]]
[[de:Anthony Hopkins]]
[[es:Anthony Hopkins]]
[[eu:Anthony Hopkins]]
[[fr:Anthony Hopkins]]
[[it:Anthony Hopkins]]
[[he:אנתוני הופקינס]]
[[hu:Anthony Hopkins]]
[[nl:Anthony Hopkins]]
[[ja:アンソニー・ホプキンス]]
[[nn:Anthony Hopkins]]
[[pl:Anthony Hopkins]]
[[pt:Anthony Hopkins]]
[[ru:Хопкинс, Филип Энтони]]
[[fi:Anthony Hopkins]]
[[sv:Anthony Hopkins]]
[[tr:Anthony Hopkins]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ardal O'Hanlon</title>
<id>2398</id>
<revision>
<id>40472947</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T20:39:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pjb007</username>
<id>957380</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Father_Dougal.jpg|thumb|150px|'''Ardal O'Hanlon''' as [[Father Dougal McGuire]].]]
'''Ardal O'Hanlon''' (born [[8 October]] [[1965]] at Carrickmacross, [[County Monaghan]], in the Republic of [[Ireland]]) is a comedian and actor, best known for his role as [[Father Dougal McGuire]] in the comedy television series ''[[Father Ted]]''. His father is [[Rory O'Hanlon]], an Irish politician and doctor.
Ardal O'Hanlon was schooled in [[Blackrock College]] in Dublin and graduated from the ''[[National Institute for Higher Education]], [[Dublin]]'' (now [[Dublin City University]]) in Communications Studies in 1987. He started out as a [[stand-up comedian]], and was spotted by [[Graham Linehan]], who was to cast him in ''Father Ted''.
In [[1997]] he appeared (as Father Dougal) in a [[Channel 4]] [[Television ident|ident]].
He has also had his own television comedy series, ''[[My Hero]]'', in which he plays a superhero juggling the duties of his heroic role with the ordinary day-to-day crises of life in the suburbs. Prior to that he had appeared in the more serious series ''[[Big Bad World]]''. He also provided the voice of the lead character in a Christmas television cartoon special entitled ''[[Robbie the Reindeer - Hooves of Fire]]''. He is currently appearing in the [[BBC 1]] sitcom ''[[Blessed (television)|Blessed]]''. The show is written by [[Ben Elton]]. At the 2005 British Comedy awards it was publicly slated by [[Jonathan Ross]], albeit in jest.
Beyond the world of television, O'Hanlon is an accomplished writer, and has written a novel (''The Talk of the Town'' - known in the United States as ''Knick Knack Paddy Whack'') which was published in 1998.
Ardal is a massive [[football (soccer)|football]] fan, and is a proud supporter of English [[Football League Championship|Championship]] team, [[Leeds United F.C.|Leeds United]] as well as [[Celtic F.C|Celtic]] of [[Scotland]].
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.ardalohanlon.co.uk The World of Ardal O'Hanlon]
[[Category:1965 births|O'Hanlon, Ardal]]
[[Category:Living people|O'Hanlon, Ardal]]
[[Category:Irish actors|O'Hanlon, Ardal]]
[[Category:Irish comedians|O'Hanlon, Ardal]]
[[Category:Irish people|O'Hanlon, Ardal]]
[[Category:Whose Line Is It Anyway? contestants|O'Hanlon, Ardal]]
{{actor-stub}}
{{Ireland-bio-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Application programming interface</title>
<id>2399</id>
<revision>
<id>41802330</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T21:18:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Discospinster</username>
<id>82432</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the computer software usage of API. For other uses, see [[API (disambiguation)]].''
An '''application programming interface''' ('''API''') is the [[Interface (computer science)| interface]] that a computer system, library or application provides in order to allow requests for service to be made of it by other computer programs, and/or to allow data to be exchanged between them.
==Description==
One of the primary purposes of an '''API''' is to describe how to access a set of [[Subroutine|functions]] - for example, an API might describe how to draw [[Window (computing)|windows]] or [[icon (computing)|icon]]s on the screen using a library that has been written for that purpose. APIs, like most interfaces, are abstract. Software that may be accessed via a particular API is said to ''implement'' that API.
For instance, a computer program can (and often must) use its [[operating system]]'s API to allocate memory and access files. Many types of systems and applications implement APIs, such as graphics systems, databases, networks, web services, and even some computer games.
In many instances, an API is often a part of a ''[[Software development kit]]'' (SDK). An SDK may include an API as well as other tools and perhaps even some hardware, so the two terms are not strictly interchangeable.
There are various design models for APIs. Interfaces intended for the fastest [[execution (computers)|execution]] often consist of sets of [[Subroutine|functions]], [[procedure]]s, [[variable]]s and [[data structure]]s. However, other models exist as well, such as the [[interpreter (computer software)|interpreter]] used to evaluate expressions in [[ECMAScript]]/[[JavaScript]]. or abstraction layer, which relieves the programmer from needing to know how the functions of the API relate to the lower levels of abstraction. This makes it possible to redesign or improve the functions within the API without breaking code that relies on it.
Two general lines of policies exist regarding publishing APIs:
# Some companies guard their APIs zealously. For example, [[Sony]] used to make its official [[PlayStation 2]] API available only to licensed PlayStation developers. This is because Sony wanted to restrict how many people could write a PlayStation 2 [[game]], and wanted to profit from them as much as possible. This is typical of companies who do not profit from the sale of API implementations (in this case, Sony broke even on the sale of PlayStation 2 consoles and even took a loss on [[marketing]], instead making it up through game royalties created by API [[licensing]]). However, [[PlayStation 3]] is based entirely on open and publicly available APIs.
# Other companies propagate their APIs freely. For example, [[Microsoft]] deliberately makes most of its API information public, so that software will be written for the Windows [[System platform|platform]]. The sale of the third-party software sells copies of Microsoft Windows. This is typical of companies who profit from the sale of API implementations (in this case, [[Microsoft Windows]], which is sold at a gain for Microsoft).
Some APIs, such as the ones standard to an [[operating system]], are implemented as separate [[Library (software) | code libraries]] that are distributed with the operating system. Others require [[software publisher]]s to integrate the API functionality directly into the application. This forms another distinction in the examples above. Microsoft Windows APIs come with the operating system for anyone to use. Software for [[embedded system]]s such as [[video game console]]s generally falls into the application-integrated category. While an official PlayStation API document may be interesting to read, it is of little use without its corresponding [[implementation]], in the form of a separate [[Library (computer science)|library]] or [[Software development kit|software development kit]].
An API that does not require royalties for [[access]] and [[usage]] is called "open." The APIs provided by [[Free software]] (such as all software distributed under the [[GNU General Public License]]), are open by definition, since anyone can look into the [[source]] of the software and figure out the API. Although usually authoritative "[[reference implementation]]s" exist for an API (such as [[Microsoft Windows]] for the [[Win32]] API), there's nothing that prevents the creation of additional implementations. For example, most of the Win32 API can be provided under a [[Unix|UNIX]] system using software called [[Wine (software)|Wine]].
It is generally lawful to analyze API implementations in order to produce a compatible one. This technique is called [[reverse engineering]] for the purposes of [[interoperability]]. However, the legal situation is often ambiguous, so that care and [[lawyer|legal counsel]] should be taken before the reverse engineering is carried out. For example, while APIs usually do not have an obvious legal status, they might include [[patent|patents]] that may not be used until the patent holder gives permission.
== See also ==
* [[Application binary interface]] (ABI)
* [[Ontology (computer science)]]
* [[Open Service Interface Definitions]] (OSID)
* [[Plugin]]
* [[Document Object Model]]
==== Some Example APIs: ====
* [[Wikipedia API]]
* The PC [[BIOS call]] [[interface]]
* [[Single UNIX Specification]]
* [[Win32|Microsoft Win32 API]]
* [[Java Platform, Enterprise Edition]] APIs
* [[ASPI]] for [[SCSI]] device interfacing
* [[Carbon (computing)|Carbon]] and [[Cocoa (API)|Cocoa]] for the [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] [[Mac OS X|OS]]
* [[DirectX]] for [[Microsoft Windows]]
* [[Simple DirectMedia Layer]] (SDL)
* [[Universal Home API]]
* [[LDAP Application Program Interface]]
* [[svgalib]] for [[Linux]] and [[FreeBSD]]
==External links==
* [http://lcsd05.cs.tamu.edu/slides/keynote.pdf How to design a good API and why it matters-PDF]
==== Some Example APIs: ====
* [http://developer.ebay.com/common/api eBay]
* [http://api.evdb.com/ EVDB]
* [http://www.flickr.com/services Fl |
''' is the [[writing system|script]] used for writing in the [[Arabic language]].
Because the [[Qur'an]], the holy book of [[Islam]], is written with this alphabet, its influence spread with that of Islam. As a result, the Arabic alphabet is used to write many other languages&mdash;many other languages belonging to [[language family|language families]] other than [[Semitic language|Semitic]], the family Arabic belongs to, for example, the [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Urdu language|Urdu]] languages. In order to accommodate the phonetics of other languages, the alphabet has been adapted by the addition of letters and other symbols. (See [[#Arabic alphabets of other languages|Arabic alphabets of other languages]] below).
The alphabet presents itself in different styles such as [[Nasta'līq]], [[Thuluth]], [[Kufic]] and others (see [[Arabic calligraphy]]), just like different [[script (styles of handwriting)|handwriting styles]] and [[typeface]]s for the [[Roman alphabet]]. Superficially, these styles appear quite different, but the basic letterforms remain the same.
==Structure of the Arabic alphabet==
The Arabic alphabet is written from right to left and is composed of 28 basic letters. Adaptations of the script for other languages such as [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Urdu language|Urdu]] have additional letters. There is no difference between written and printed letters; the writing is [[unicase]] (i.e. the concept of [[Letter case|upper and lower case]] letters does not exist). On the other hand, most of the letters are attached to one another, even when printed, and their appearance changes as a function of whether they connect to preceding or following letters. Some combinations of letters form special [[ligature (typography)|ligature]]s.
The Arabic alphabet is an "impure" [[abjad]]&mdash;[[vowel length|short vowels]] are not written, though long ones are&mdash;so the reader must know the language in order to restore the vowels. However, in editions of the Qur'an or in didactic works a vocalization notation in the form of [[diacritic]] marks is used. Moreover, in vocalized texts, there is a series of other diacritics of which the most modern are an indication of vowel omission ''(sukūn)'' and the lengthening of consonants ''(šadda)''.
The names of Arabic letters can be thought of as abstractions of an older version where the names of the letters signified meaningful words in the [[Proto-Semitic]] language.
There are two orders for Arabic letters in the alphabet, the original Abjadī {{Arabiyyah|أبجدي}} order matches the ordering of letters in all alphabets derived from the [[Phoenician alphabet]], including the English ABC. The standard order used today, and shown in the table, is the Hejā'ī {{Arabiyyah|هجائي}} order, where letters are grouped according to their shape.
===Abjadi order===
{{main|abjadi order}}
The special Abjadī order (or two slightly variant orders) was devised by matching an Arabic letter of the fully consonant-dotted 28-letter Arabic alphabet to each of the 22 letters of the [[Aramaic alphabet]] (in their old [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]] alphabetic order) — leaving six remaining Arabic letters at the end.
The most common Abjad sequence is:
{| cellpadding="2px"
|{{Ar|أ}}
|{{Ar|ب}}
|{{Ar|ج}}
|{{Ar|د}}
|{{Ar|ﻫ}}
|{{Ar|و}}
|{{Ar|ز}}
|{{Ar|ح}}
|{{Ar|ط}}
|{{Ar|ي}}
|{{Ar|ك}}
|{{Ar|ل}}
|{{Ar|م}}
|{{Ar|ن}}
|{{Ar|س}}
|{{Ar|ع}}
|{{Ar|ف}}
|{{Ar|ص}}
|{{Ar|ق}}
|{{Ar|ر}}
|{{Ar|ش}}
|{{Ar|ت}}
|{{Ar|ث}}
|{{Ar|خ}}
|{{Ar|ذ}}
|{{Ar|ض}}
|{{Ar|ظ}}
|{{Ar|غ}}
|-
|{{ArabDIN|ʼ}}
|{{ArabDIN|b}}
|{{ArabDIN|ǧ}}
|{{ArabDIN|d}}
|{{ArabDIN|h}}
|{{ArabDIN|w}}
|{{ArabDIN|z}}
|{{ArabDIN|ḥ}}
|{{ArabDIN|ṭ}}
|{{ArabDIN|y}}
|{{ArabDIN|k}}
|{{ArabDIN|l}}
|{{ArabDIN|m}}
|{{ArabDIN|n}}
|{{ArabDIN|s}}
|{{ArabDIN|ʻ}}
|{{ArabDIN|f}}
|{{ArabDIN|ṣ}}
|{{ArabDIN|q}}
|{{ArabDIN|r}}
|{{ArabDIN|š}}
|{{ArabDIN|t}}
|{{ArabDIN|ṯ}}
|{{ArabDIN|ḫ}}
|{{ArabDIN|ḏ}}
|{{ArabDIN|ḍ}}
|{{ArabDIN|ẓ}}
|{{ArabDIN|ġ}}
|}
This is commonly vocalized as follows:
:*{{ArabDIN|ʼabǧad hawwaz ḥuṭṭī kalaman saʻfaṣ qarašat ṯaḫaḏ ḍaẓaġ}}.
Another vocalization is:
:*{{ArabDIN|ʼabuǧadin hawazin ḥuṭiya kalman saʻfaṣ qurišat ṯaḫuḏ ḍaẓuġ}}
Another Abjad sequence, mainly confined to the Maghreb, is:
{| cellpadding="2px"
|{{Ar|ﺃ}}
|{{Ar|ﺏ}}
|{{Ar|ﺝ}}
|{{Ar|ﺩ}}
|{{Ar|ﻫ}}
|{{Ar|ﻭ}}
|{{Ar|ﺯ}}
|{{Ar|ﺡ}}
|{{Ar|ﻁ}}
|{{Ar|ﻱ}}
|{{Ar|ﻙ}}
|{{Ar|ﻝ}}
|{{Ar|ﻡ}}
|{{Ar|ﻥ}}
|{{Ar|ﺹ}}
|{{Ar|ﻉ}}
|{{Ar|ﻑ}}
|{{Ar|ﺽ}}
|{{Ar|ﻕ}}
|{{Ar|ﺭ}}
|{{Ar|ﺱ}}
|{{Ar|ﺕ}}
|{{Ar|ﺙ}}
|{{Ar|ﺥ}}
|{{Ar|ﺫ}}
|{{Ar|ﻅ}}
|{{Ar|ﻍ}}
|{{Ar|ﺵ}}
|-
|{{ArabDIN|ʼ}}
|{{ArabDIN|b}}
|{{ArabDIN|ǧ}}
|{{ArabDIN|d}}
|{{ArabDIN|h}}
|{{ArabDIN|w}}
|{{ArabDIN|z}}
|{{ArabDIN|ḥ}}
|{{ArabDIN|ṭ}}
|{{ArabDIN|y}}
|{{ArabDIN|k}}
|{{ArabDIN|l}}
|{{ArabDIN|m}}
|{{ArabDIN|n}}
|{{ArabDIN|ṣ}}
|{{ArabDIN|ʻ}}
|{{ArabDIN|f}}
|{{ArabDIN|ḍ}}
|{{ArabDIN|q}}
|{{ArabDIN|r}}
|{{ArabDIN|s}}
|{{ArabDIN|t}}
|{{ArabDIN|ṯ}}
|{{ArabDIN|ḫ}}
|{{ArabDIN|ḏ}}
|{{ArabDIN|ẓ}}
|{{ArabDIN|ġ}}
|{{ArabDIN|š}}
|}
which can be vocalized as:
:*{{ArabDIN|ʼabuǧadin hawazin ḥuṭiya kalman ṣaʻfaḍ qurisat ṯaḫuḏ ẓaġuš}}
See also: [[Abjad numerals]].
== Presentation of the alphabet ==
[[Image:Arabic_alphabet.png|right|Arabic Alphabet]]
The following table provides all of the [[Unicode]] characters for Arabic, and none of the supplementary letters used for other languages. The transliteration given is the widespread [[DIN 31635]] standard, with some common alternatives. See the article ''[[Arabic transliteration]]'' for details and various other transliteration schemes.
Regarding pronunciation, the phonetic values given are those of the "standard" pronunciation of the ''[[Fusha (language)|fusha]]'' language as taught in universities. Actual pronunciation between the [[varieties of Arabic]] may vary widely. For more details concerning the pronunciation of Arabic, consult the article ''[[Arabic phonology]]''.
===Primary letters===
The Arabic script is cursive, and all primary letters have conditional forms for their glyphs, depending on whever they are at the begining, middle or end of a word, so they may exhibit 4 distinct forms (initial, medial, final or isolated). Six letters however only have isolated or final form, and if they followed by another letter, they do not join with it, and so this next letter can only have their initial or isolated form despite is is not an initial.
For compatibility with previous standards, Unicode encoded all these forms separately, however these forms can be infered from their joining context, using the same encoding. The table below shows this common encoding, in addition to the compatibility encodings for their normally contextual forms (Arabic texts should be encoded today using only the common encoding, but the rendering must then infer the joining types to determine the correct glyph forms, with or without ligation).
{|class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"|General<br />Unicode
!colspan="4"|Contextual forms
!rowspan="2"|Name
!rowspan="2"|Translit.
!rowspan="2"|Phonetic Value (IPA)
|-
!Isolated
!Final
!Medial
!Initial
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>0627</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x0627;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FE8D</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFE8D;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FE8E</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFE8E;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;background:#EEEEEE" colspan="2"|—
|{{ArabDIN|[[ʼalif]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|ʾ}} / {{ArabDIN|ā}}
|various, including {{IPA|[æː]}}
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>0628</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x0628;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FE8F</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFE8F;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FE90</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFE90;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FE92</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFE92;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FE91</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFE91;}}</font>
|{{ArabDIN|[[bāʼ]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|b}}
|{{IPA|[b]}}
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>062A</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x062A;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FE95</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFE95;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FE96</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFE96;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FE98</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFE98;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FE97</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFE97;}}</font>
|{{ArabDIN|[[tāʼ]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|t}}
|{{IPA|[t]}}
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>062B</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x062B;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FE99</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFE99;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FE9A</small><br /><fo |
deral system.
The capacity of a federal system to protect [[civil liberty|civil liberties]] has been disputed. Often there is confusion between the rights of individuals with those of states. In [[Australia]], for example, some of the major intergovernmental conflicts in recent decades have been the direct result of federal intervention to secure the rights of [[minority group]]s, and required limitations on the powers of state governments. It is also essential to avoid confusion between the constraints set by [[judicial review]], the constitutional power of the courts to overrule [[Parliament]], and federalism itself.
On the one hand, some U.S. states have regrettable histories of denying civil liberties to racial groups, women, and others. On the other hand, the laws and constitutions of some states have protected such minorities with legal rights and protections that exceed those of the U.S. Constitution and the [[U.S. Bill of Rights]].
=== Federalism and the U.S. Constitution ===
Before the [[U.S. Constitution]] was written, each American state was essentially sovereign. The U.S. Constitution created a national government with sufficient powers to unify the states, but did not supplant state governments. This federal arrangement, by which the central national government exercises power over some issues and the state governments exercise power over other issues, is one of the basic characteristics of the U.S. Constitution that checks governmental power. Other such characteristics are the separation of powers among the three branches of government--the legislative, executive, and judicial. The authors of the ''[[Federalist Papers]]'' explained in essays number 45 and 46 how they expected state governments to exercise checks and balances on the national government to maintain [[limited government]] over time.
Because the states were preexisting political entities, the U.S. Constitution did not need to define or explain federalism in any one section. However, it contains numerous mentions of the rights and responsibilities of state governments and state officials vis-à-vis the federal government. The federal government has certain ''express powers'' (also called ''enumerated powers''), including the right to declare taxes, declare war, and regulate interstate and foreign commerce. In addition, it has ''implied power'' to pass any law "necessary and proper" (found within the ''elastic clause'') for the execution of its express powers. Powers that the Constitution does not give to the federal government or forbid to the states&mdash;the ''[[reserved powers]]''&mdash;are reserved to the people or the states[http://usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/constitution/supreme.htm]. The power of the federal government was significantly expanded by amendments to the Constitution following the [[United States Civil War|Civil War]], and by some later amendments.
Over time, the federal government has increased in size and influence, both in terms of its influence on everyday life and relative to the state governments. There are several reasons for this, including the need to regulate businesses and industries that span state borders, attempts to secure civil rights, and the provision of social services. Many people believe that the federal government has grown beyond the bounds permitted by the express powers. The [[US Supreme Court]] has occasionally invalidated federal statutes (e.g., the [[Gun-Free School Zones Act]] in [[United States v. Lopez]]). However, most actions by the federal government can find some legal support among the express powers, such as the [[commerce clause]].
Dual federalism holds that the federal government and the state governments are co-equals, each sovereign. In this theory, parts of the Constitution are interpreted very narrowly, such as the 10th Amendment, the Supremacy Clause, the Necessary and Proper Clause, and the Commerce Clause. In this narrow interpretation, the federal government has jurisdiction only if the Constitution clearly grants such. In this case, there is a very large group of powers belonging to the states, and the federal government is limited to only those powers explicitly listed in the Constitution. http://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_fedr.html good link
=== European federalism ===
Several European countries, among them [[Switzerland]] and [[Germany]] adopted federalism.
After World War II, several movements were created advocating a European Federation such as the Union of European Federalists or the [[European Movement]], founded in 1948. Those organisations were influential, but never in a decisive way, regarding the European unification process. Europe remains nowadays far from being a federation, although the [[European Union]] includes some characteristics of federalism. The European federalists have been campaigning in favour of a directly elected [[European Parliament]] and were among the firsts to put a European Constitution on the agenda. Their opponents are both those in favour of a lesser role for the Union and those who wish the Union to be ruled by national governments rather than by an elected European government. Although federalism was mentioned both in drafts of the [[Maastricht treaty]] and the [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe]], it was never accepted by the representatives of the Member-States.
Governments in favour of a more federal Union are usually the German, Belgian and Italian governments. Those traditionally opposed to this idea are the British and French governments. The proposal for the creation of a [[European Defense Community]] can be considered a step towards creating a more federalised Europe.
== Theological federalism ==
See '''[[Covenant Theology]]''' for a more extended treatment of the ''theological federalism'' described in the introduction above.
Secondarily in theology, federalism also finds expression in [[ecclesiology]] (the [[doctrine]] of the [[Christian Church|church]]). For example, [[Presbyterian church governance|presbyterian ecclesiology]] resembles [[parliament]]ary [[republicanism]] (a form of ''political federalism'') to a large extent. In [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] denominations, the local church is ruled by elected [[Elder (religious)|elder]]s, some of which are [[minister of religion|minister]]ial. Each church then sends representatives or commissioners to [[presbytery|presbyteries]] and further to a [[general assembly]]. Each greater level of assembly has ruling authority over its constituent members. In this governmental structure, each component has some level of sovereignty over itself. As in ''political federalism'', in presbyterian ecclesiology there is shared sovereignty. ''See [[presbyterian church governance]]''
Other ecclesiologies also have significant representational and federalistic components, including the more democratic [[Congregationalist church governance|congregational ecclesiology]], and even in more hierarchical [[Episcopalian church governance|episcopal ecclesiology]].
==See also==
*[[Anti-Federalism]]
*[[Canadian federalism]] (which refers to opponents of [[Quebec sovereignty movement|Quebec separatism]])
*[[Federalist]]
*[[Federation]]
*[[Confederation]]
[[Category:Political philosophy]]
[[Category:Federalism| ]]
[[ar:فيدرالية]]
[[es:Federalismo]]
[[gl:Federalismo]]
[[pt:Federalismo]]
[[ja:連邦主義]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Firmin Abauzit</title>
<id>11543</id>
<revision>
<id>36028673</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-21T00:51:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FeanorStar7</username>
<id>160806</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Firmin Abauzit''' ([[1679]] &ndash; [[1767]]) was a [[France|French]] scholar who worked on [[physics]], [[theology]] and [[philosophy]].
He was born of [[Protestant]] parents at [[Uzès]], in [[Languedoc]]. His father died when he was but two years of age; and when, on the revocation of the [[Edict of Nantes]] in 1685, the authorities took steps to have him educated in the [[Roman Catholic]] faith, his mother contrived his escape.
For two years his brother and he lived as fugitives in the mountains of the [[Cévennes]], but they at last reached [[Geneva]], where their mother afterwards joined them on escaping from the imprisonment in which she was held from the time of their flight. Abauzit at an early age acquired great proficiency in languages, physics, and theology.
In 1698 he went to the [[Netherlands]], and there became acquainted with [[Pierre Bayle]], [[Pierre Jurieu]] and [[Jacques Basnage]]. Proceeding to [[England]], he was introduced to Sir [[Isaac Newton]], who found in him one of the earliest defenders of his discoveries. Newton corrected in the second edition of his ''[[Principia]]'' an error pointed out by Abauzit, and, when sending him the ''Commercium Epistolicum,'' said, "You are well worthy to judge between [[Gottfried Leibniz]] and me."
The reputation of Abauzit induced [[William III of England|William III]] to request him to settle in [[England]], but he did not accept the king's offer, preferring to return to [[Geneva]]. There, from 1715 he rendered valuable assistance to a society that had been formed for translating the [[New Testament]] into [[French language|French]]. He declined the offer of the chair of philosophy in the university in 1723, but accepted, in 1727, the sinecure office of librarian to the city of his adoption. Here he died at a good old age, in 1767.
Abauzit was a man of great learning and of wonderful versatility. Whatever chanced to be discussed, it used to be said of Abauzit, as of Professor [[William Whewell]] of more modern times, that he seemed to have made it a subject of particular study. [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]], who was jealously sparing of his praises, addressed to him, in his ''[[Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse]]'', a fine [[pa |
d taking classes in photography and cinematography. But, three months later, Gia had vanished once again, and had returned to [[Atlantic City, New Jersey|Atlantic City]], and started shooting heroin again. She [[prostitution|sexually prostituted herself]] and was [[rape]]d on several occasions. She soon became sick with [[pneumonia]], and her mother came and checked her into a hospital.
==Death==
She was diagnosed with [[AIDS]], then only a newly recognized disease. As her condition worsened, she was transferred to Philadelphia's [[Hahnemann University Hospital]]. Her mother stayed with her day and night, allowing barely anyone to see her. By this time, AIDS had taken a toll on her body, and her once beautiful face was vanishing. "She wanted to get the hell out of there," recalled her mother, "but I kept having to tell her, that even if we made it as far as the elevator, she would be dead. And that's when I knew. I knew she'd never be able to come home."
On [[November 18]], [[1986]] at 10 in the morning, 26-year-old Gia Carangi died.
Her funeral was held on November 23 at a small funeral home in Philadelphia. Gia's mother and father did their best to contact people in Philadelphia and in New York. Some of Gia's Philadelphia friends chose not to attend, most because of their anger at Gia's mother, for not allowing anyone to see her. Nobody from the fashion world attended. However, weeks later, Francesco Scuvallo sent a Mass card when he heard the news. "We were hysterically crying in the studio when we heard," he recalled. "I loved her. I could cry now, just talking about her."
In April 1988, Gia's mother, Kathleen, appeared on the morning show ''AM Philadelphia'', after they aired a segment about AIDS. It was a move that shocked the family. Gia's father called Rochelle to let her know about the show. "I had run into him in the casino before that," she recalled. "He just gave me a big hug and a kiss and he started crying. He knew Kathleen. He knew she'd do anything to get on TV. She wanted to be the model, the superstar. Now she was doing it through Gia's death."
==Legacy==
In 1986, [[Cindy Crawford]] was brought to New York by Monique Pillard. She was a sensation, but she knew little about the people who had paved the way for her ethnic looks. Had she never received the nickname Baby Gia, Crawford would have had no idea about either Dickinson or Carangi, who paved the way for ethnic-looking models. "But [I'm] more wholesome" Crawford pointed out, "She was wild. Completely opposite me. She'd leave a booking in the clothes to buy cigarettes and not come back for hours." After a long pause, Crawford stated, "She's not living anymore."
A 1993 biography by [[Stephen Fried]] and a biographical film, ''[[Gia]]'', which debuted on [[Home Box Office|HBO]] in [[1998]], brought her back to the public's attention. [[Angelina Jolie]] played Carangi in the movie.
In [[1996]], actress-screenwriter [[Zoe Tamerlis Lund|Zoë Tamerlis]] (a.k.a. Zoë Lund, ''[[Bad Lieutenant]]''), herself a heroin addict who would die of drug-related causes in [[1999]], was commissioned to write a screenplay based upon Carangi's life. This version of ''Gia'' was not produced, but after Tamerlis's death, footage of her discussing Carangi's life was incorporated into a documentary entitled ''[[The Self-Destruction of Gia]]''.
==Magazine Listings==
'''American Vogue'''
''10/78'' Gia's ''Vogue'' debut.
''11/78'' [[Calvin Klein]] slip-dress with sunglasses.
''1/79'' Infamous fence shot by Chris von Wangenheim.
''2/79'' Desert shots by von Wangenheim.
''5/79'' Mexico shots with Janice Dickinson and Patti Hansen, shot by [[Mike Reinhardt]].
''9/79'' Studio 54 shots by Patrick Demarchelier.
''10/79'' Paris Collection shots.
''11/79'' Special Diane von Furstenberg ads by Chris von Wangenheim.
''2/80'' Shot of Gia watering a plant by Denis Piel.
''3/80'' Editorial precursors to Versace ads by Richard Avedon.
''5/80'' Francesco Scuvallo shots with Kim Alexis from St. Barts.
''7/80'' Scuvallo's favorite shot of Gia.
''8/80'' Cover and editorial by Richard Avedon.
''11/80'' Infamous track mark editorial by Francesco Scavullo.
''9/82'' Last ''Vogue'' Shot.
'''Glamour'''
''6/79''
''8/79''
'''British Vogue'''
''4/79'' Cover and editorial photographed by Alex Chatelain.
'''French Vogue'''
''3/79'' Famous cross-dressing editorial by Helmut Newton.
''4/79'' Cover by Helmut Newton.
''9/79'' Christian Dior Boutique ads by Denis Piel.
''8/80'' Cover by Albert Watson.
'''Italian Vogue'''
''3/79'' Editorial by Francois Lamy.
''1, 2, 3/80'' Armani ads by Fallai on the back covers.
''4/80'' Gia in a group Armani ad by Fallai.
''5/80'' Versace ads by Richard Avedon.
''2/81'' Cover.
'''German Vogue'''
''10/79'' Piel collection shots, outakes from American Vogue.
''4/80'' Florida Shots by John Stember.
''12/83, Leder+Pelz supplement'' Gia's last appearance in a fashion magazine. 2 pages by Albert Watson.
'''American Harper's Bazaar'''
''8/79''
''9/79''
''10/79''
''11/79''
'''American Cosmopolitan'''
''4/79'' Cover by Francesco Scavullo.
''7/79'' Cover by Francesco Scavullo.
''1/80'' Cover by Francesco Scavullo.
''7/80'' Cover by Francesco Scavullo.
''4/82'' Cover, the gift from Francesco Scuvallo.
'''Italian Harpers Bazaar.'''
''7-8/78'' (double issue) Citicorp building editorial by Chris von Wangenheim.
''9/78'' Rome and Paris collections with Kim Alexis and Juli Foster. Photographs by Patrick Demarchelier and Chris von Wangenheim.
==Designers and cosmetic firms she represented==
* [[Body Basics]]
* [[Christian Dior]]
* [[Cutex]]
* [[Diane Von Furstenberg]]
* [[Giorgio Armani]]
* [[Lancetti]]
* [[Levis]]
* [[Maybelline]]
* [[Perry Ellis]]
* [[Versace]]
* [[Vidal Sasson]]
* [[Yves Saint Laurent]]
==See also==
* [[Disco]]
* [[New Wave music]]
* [[Heroin chic]]
==External links ==
*[http://www.thegiacarangiproject.com The Gia Carangi Project]
*[http://www.giacarangi.org Gia Carangi]
*[http://www.gia-carangi.com Gia Carangi]
*[http://www.thegiacarangifoundation.org The Gia Carangi Foundation]
*[http://groups.myspace.com/giacarangi The Gia Carangi Myspace Group]
*[http://www.fmd1.com/models/Gia_Carangi Gia Carangi's profile in the FMD-database]
*[http://clubs.yahoo.com/clubs/thegiacaranginetwork Yahoo! Gia Carangi Club]
*[http://www.angelfire.com/mn/taya15 Taya's Gia Page]
*[http://www.lundissimo.info/Zoe/filmvid/gia/index.html Zoe Tamerlis's Gia]
*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=5311&pt=%3Cb%3EGia%3C/b%3E%20Carangi Gia Carangi's grave site]
*[http://giamariecarangi.ewestpost.com GIA CARANGI]
*[http://giamariecarangi.co.nr Kira's In Memory of Gia Marie Carangi Page]
[[Category:1960 births|Carangi, Gia]]
[[Category:1986 deaths|Carangi, Gia]]
[[Category:AIDS-related deaths|Carangi, Gia]]
[[Category:American models|Carangi, Gia]]
[[Category:Lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender people|Carangi, Gia]]
[[Category:People from Philadelphia|Carangi, Gia]]
[[Category:Supermodels|Carangi, Gia]]
[[fi:Gia Carangi]]
[[nl:Gia Marie Carangi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Giacomo Puccini</title>
<id>12750</id>
<revision>
<id>41714433</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T06:17:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FaZ72</username>
<id>367864</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moved reference to Maguire's ending of Turandot to the Turandot topic</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GPuccini.jpg|thumb|Giacomo Puccini]]
'''Giacomo Antonio Domenico Michele Secondo Maria Puccini''' ([[December 22]], [[1858]] &ndash; [[November 29]], [[1924]]) is regarded as one of the great [[opera|operatic]] [[composer|composers]] of the late 19th and early 20th century.
== Life ==
Puccini was born in [[Lucca]], [[Italy]] into a family with a long history of music. After the death of his father when he was only five years old, he was sent to study with his uncle [[Fortunato Magi]], who considered him to be a poor and undisciplined student. Later, he took the position of church organist, but it was not until he saw a performance of [[Giuseppe Verdi|Verdi]]'s ''[[Aida]]'' that he became inspired to be an opera composer.
In 1880, the ''Messa di Gloria (Glory Mass)'', composed at the age of 21, marked the end of Puccini's apprenticeship as a composer and the culmination of his family's long association with [[Christian music|church music]] in his native Lucca. The work offers fascinating glimpses of the dramatic power that Puccini was soon to unleash on Milan's stages. The orchestration and the overall feeling of drama conveyed by his music establish a dialogue with [[Verdi's Requiem]] and perhaps already constitute a prediction of the future operatic career Puccini would embrace for life.
From [[1880]] to [[1883]] he studied at the [[Milan Conservatory]] under [[Amilcare Ponchielli]] and [[Antonio Bazzini]]. In [[1882]], Puccini entered a competition for a one-act opera. Although he did not win, ''[[Le Villi]]'' was later staged in [[1884]] at the Teatro dal Verme; it also caught the attention of [[Giulio Ricordi]], head of [[G. Ricordi & Co.]] music publishers, who commissioned a second opera (''[[Edgar (opera)|Edgar]]'') [[1889]]. From 1891 on, Puccini passed more and more of his time at [[Torre del Lago]], in the [[Tuscan]] countryside. In this place on the border of the Massaciuccoli lake, where he passed lots of time hunting, he found refuge from the crowded city. Later he built a villa and moved there definitively in 1900. It was to remain his home and workplace until the very last years of his life. He is buried in the villa's chapel.
''[[Manon Lescaut (Puccini)|Manon Lescaut]]'' [[1893]], his third opera, was a great success and it also began his relationship with the [[libretto|librettests]] [[Luigi Illica]] and [[Giuseppe Giacosa] |
th the upper waters, resulting in a salinity gradient from top to bottom, with most of the salt water remaining below 40 to 70 m of depth. The general circulation is counterclockwise: northwards along its eastern boundary, and south along the western one.(Alhonen 88)
The difference between the outflow and the inflow comes entirely from fresh water. More than 250 streams drain a basin of about 1.6 million square km, contributing a volume of 660 cubic km per year to the Baltic. They include the major rivers of north Europe, such as the [[Oder]], the [[Vistula]], the [[Neman]], the [[Daugava]] and the [[Neva]]. Some of this water is polluted. Additional fresh water comes from the difference of [[precipitation]] less evaporation, which is positive.
Despite the influx of salt water in the lower levels, the Baltic is still more of a lake or river than a sea. Tides are negligible. Wave height in calm weather varies between 2 and 3 m. Violent and sudden storms often sweep the surface, due to large transient temperature differences and a long reach of wind. Seasonal winds also cause small changes in sea level, on the order of 0.5 m.(Alhonen 88)
===Salinity===
The Baltic Sea's [[salinity]] is much lower than the ocean's, as a result of abundant freshwater runoff from the surrounding land; indeed, runoff contributes roughly 1/40th its total volume.(Alhonen 88) It varies from 0.1 percent in the north to 0.6-0.8 percent in the center. Below 40-70 m, it can be as much as 1.5-2.0 percent. A lateral salinity gradient also exists from most saline in the northern [[Kattegat]] to least saline in the Northern [[Gulf of Bothnia]].
The most saline water remains on the bottom, creating a barrier to the exchange of [[Oxygen]] and nutrients, fostering totally different maritime environments.
===Regional emergence===
The land is still emerging from its subsident state, which was caused by the weight of the last glaciation. Consequently, the surface area and the depth of the sea are diminishing. The uplift is about eight millimetres per year on the Finnish coast of the northernmost Gulf of Bothnia .
==Geographic data==
=== Subdivisions ===
The northern part of the Baltic Sea is known as the [[Gulf of Bothnia]] out of which the northernmost part is referred to as the [[Bay of Bothnia]] or [[Bothnian Bay]]. The more roundish southern basin of the gulf is called [[Bothnian Sea]] and immediately to the south of it lies the [[Sea of Åland]]. The [[Gulf of Finland]] connects the Baltic Sea with [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]]. The [[Gulf of Riga]] lies between the [[Latvia]]n capital city of [[Riga]] and the [[Estonia]]n island of [[Saaremaa]].
The [[Northern Baltic|Northern Baltic Sea]] lies between the [[Stockholm]] area, southwestern Finland, and Estonia. The Western and Eastern Gotland Basins form the major parts of the [[Central Baltic Sea]] or Baltic proper. [[Bornholm Basin]] is the area east of [[Bornholm]] and [[Arkona Basin]] extends from Bornholm to the Danish isles of [[Falster]] and [[Zealand]].
In south, [[Bay of Gdańsk]] lies east of the [[Hel peninsula]] on the Polish coast and west of [[Sambia]] in [[Kaliningrad Oblast]]. [[Bay of Pomerania]] lies north of the islands of [[Usedom]] and [[Wolin]], east of [[Rügen]]. Between Falster and the German coast lie the [[Bay of Mecklenburg]] and [[Bay of Lubeck|Bay of Lübeck]]. The westernmost part of the Baltic Sea is the [[Bay of Kiel]]. The three [[Danish straits]], the [[Great Belt]], the [[Little Belt]] and [[Öresund|The Sound]] ''(Öresund)'' connect the Baltic Sea with the [[Kattegat]] bay and [[Skagerrak]] strait in the [[North Sea]]. The confluence of these two seas at [[Skagen]] on the northern tip of [[Denmark]] is a visual spectacle visited by many tourists each year.
===Land use===
The Baltic sea drainage basin is roughly four times the surface area of the sea itself. About 48% of the region is forested, with Sweden and Finland containing the majority of the forest, especially around the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland.
About 20% of the land is used for agriculture and pasture, mainly in Poland and around the edge of the Baltic sea proper, in Germany, Denmark and Sweden. About 17% of the basin is unused open land with another 8% of wetlands. Most of the latter are in the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland.
The rest of the land is heavily populated.
===Demographics===
About 85 million people live in the Baltic drainage basin, 15 within 10 km of the coast and 29 within 50 km of the coast. Around 22 million live in cities, defined as centers of over 250,000. 90% of these are concentrated in the 10 km band around the coast. Of the nations containing all or part of the basin, Poland includes 45% of the 85 million, Russia 12%, Sweden 10% and the others (see below) less than 6% each.
== Geologic history==
The Baltic Sea somewhat resembles a [[river]]bed, with two tributaries (the [[Gulf of Finland]] and [[Gulf of Bothnia]]). From [[Geology|geological]] surveys it has become apparent that there was a river in the area prior to the [[Pleistocene]]: the [[Eridanus (geology)|Eridanos]]. Multiple glaciations in the Pleistocene scooped out the river bed into the sea basin. By the time of the last, or [[Eemian]] interglacial ([[Marine isotopic stage|MIS 5e]]), the Eemian sea was in place.
From that time the waters underwent a geologic history summarized under the names listed below. Many of the stages are named after certain marine animals (e. g., the [[Littorina]] [[mollusk]]) that are clear markers of changing water temperatures and salinity.
The factors that determined the sea’s characteristics were the submergence or emergence of the region due to the weight of ice and subsequent isostatic readjustment, and the connecting channels it could find to the [[North Sea]]-[[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] either through the straits of [[Denmark]] or at what are now the large lakes of [[Sweden]], and the [[White Sea]]-[[Arctic Sea]].
* [[Eemian sea]], 130,000-115,000 BP
* [[Baltic ice lake]], 12,600-10,300 BP
* [[Yoldian sea]], 10,300-9500 BP
* [[Ancylus lake]], 9500-8000 BP
* [[Mastogloia sea]] 8000 BP-7500 BP
* [[Littorina Sea|Littorina sea]], 7500-4000 BP
* [[Post-littorina sea]] 4000 BP-current
==Prehistory==
== History ==
At the time of the [[Roman Empire]], the Baltic Sea was known as the ''Mare Suebicum'' or ''Mare Sarmaticum''. [[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus|Tacitus]] in his AD [[98]] ''Agricola'' and ''Germania'' described the Mare Suebicum, named for the [[Suebi]] tribe, during the spring months, as a [[Brackish water|brackish]] [[sea]] when the ice on the Baltic Sea broke apart and chunks floated about. The [[Sarmatian]] tribes inhabited Eastern Europe and southern Russia. [[Jordanes]] called it the ''Germanic Sea'' in his work the [[Getica]].
Since the [[Viking age]], the Scandinavians have called it "the Eastern Lake" (''Austmarr'', "Eastern Sea", appears in the [[Heimskringla]] and ''Eystra salt'' appears in [[Sörla þáttr]]), but [[Saxo Grammaticus]] recorded in [[Gesta Danorum]] an older name ''[[Gandvik]]'', ''"-vik"'' being [[Old Norse]] for "bay", which implies that the Vikings correctly regarded it as an inlet of the sea. (Another form of the name, "Grandvik", attested in at least one English translation of Gesta Danorum, is likely to be a misspelling.)
In addition to [[fish]] the sea also provides [[amber]], especially from its southern shores. The bordering countries have traditionally provided [[lumber]], [[Tar|wood tar]], [[flax]], [[hemp]], and [[fur]]s. Sweden had from early medieval times also a flourishing [[mining]] industry, especially on [[iron]] ore and [[silver]]. [[Poland]] had and still has extensive [[salt]] mines. All this has provided for rich trading since the Roman times.
In the early Middle Ages, [[Vikings]] of Scandinavia fought for power over the sea with [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] [[Pomeranians]]. The Vikings used the rivers of Russia for trade routes, finding their way eventually all the way to [[Black Sea]] and southern Russia.
Lands next to the sea's eastern shore were among the last in Europe to be converted into [[Christianity]] in the [[Northern Crusades]]: [[Finland]] in the 12th century by the Swedes, and what are now [[Estonia]] and [[Latvia]] in the early 13th century by the Danes and the Germans ([[Livonian Brothers of the Sword]]). The powerful German [[Teutonic Knights]] gained control over most of the southern and eastern shore of the Baltic Sea, while fighting the [[Poles]], the [[Danes]], the [[Swedes]], the [[Russians]] of ancient [[Novgorod Republic|Novgorod]], and the [[Lithuanians]] (latest of all Europeans to convert to Christianity).
Later on, the strongest economic force in Northern Europe became the [[Hanseatic league]], which used the Baltic Sea to establish trade routes between its member cities. In the 16th and early 17th centuries, [[Poland]], [[Denmark]] and [[Sweden]] fought wars for ''Dominium Maris Baltici'' (Ruling over the Baltic Sea). Eventually, it was the [[Swedish Empire]] that virtually encompassed the Baltic Sea. In Sweden the sea was then referred to as ''Mare Nostrum Balticum'' (Our Baltic Sea).
In the 18th century [[Imperial Russia|Russia]] and [[Prussia]] became the leading powers over the sea. Russia's [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]] saw the strategic importance of the Baltic and decided to found his new capital, [[Saint Petersburg]] at the mouth of the [[Neva]] river at the east end of the [[Gulf of Finland]]. There was much trading not just within the Baltic region but also with the North Sea region, especially the eastern [[England]] and the [[Netherlands]]: their fleets needed the Baltic timber, tar, flax and hemp.
During the [[Crimean War]] a joint fleet of [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and [[France]] attacked Russian fortresses by bombarding [[Sveaborg]] that guards [[Helsinki]] and [[Kronstadt, Russia|Kronstadt]] that guards [ |
committed to film. This was followed in 1955 by his portrayal of a heroin addict in 1955's ''[[The Man with the Golden Arm]]'', for which he received an Academy Award [[Best Actor]] nomination.
[[Image:Frankella2.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Frank Sinatra with [[Ella Fitzgerald]]]]
Soon after ''From Here to Eternity'', Sinatra's singing career rebounded. During the 1950s, he signed with [[Capitol Records]], where he worked with many of the finest arrangers of the era, most notably [[Nelson Riddle]], [[Gordon Jenkins]], and [[Billy May]], and with whom he made a series of highly regarded recordings. By the early [[1960s]], he was a big enough star to start his own record label: [[Reprise Records]]. His position with the label earned him the long-lasting [[nickname]] "The Chairman of the Board".
The famous Sinatra comeback is the stuff of American legend, and, indeed, there seemed little in either his 1940s film career or his radio and television performances of the early 1950s to predict the dramatic success he would enjoy on screen in the 1950s and 1960s. However, the musical turnaround should not have been unexpected. At the very end of his Columbia recording career, in two performances in 1952 Sinatra had given advance warning of what would become the new sound he achieved in the 1950s at Capitol. In "The Birth of the Blues" it would be the sound of the new and "swinging" Sinatra: a hipper, tougher, more masculine persona than the sometimes boyish Sinatra of the 1940s. In "I'm A Fool To Want You" he anticipated the darker, melancholic sound of the great "torch" albums of the 1950s. Neither performance was sufficient to prevent Columbia from failing to renew his contract, in what must surely rank as one of the great errors in the business history of American popular music.
In the 1950s and 1960s, this new Sinatra would become the most popular attraction in [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]], the venue of choice for performers of his era as the rise of rock and roll began to reduce the market for their recordings. He was friends with many other entertainers, including [[Dean Martin]], [[Sammy Davis, Jr]], actor [[Peter Lawford]], comedian [[Joey Bishop]], and sometimes [[Shirley MacLaine]]. They formed the core of the [[Rat Pack]], a loose group of entertainers who were friends and socialized together--and whose wild and unpredictable antics would dominate show business news for much of the period 1958-63.
Sinatra played a major role in the desegregation of Nevada hotels and casinos in the [[1960s]]. Sinatra led his fellow members of the Rat Pack in refusing to patronize hotels and casinos that denied service to Sammy Davis Jr., a black man. As the Rat Pack became the subject of great media attention due to the release of the film ''[[Ocean's Eleven (1960 film)|Ocean's Eleven]]'' ([[1960]]), many hotels and casinos, desiring the attention that would come from the presence of Sinatra and the Rat Pack in their properties, relented on their policies of segregation.
A street named in his honor in [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]], '''Frank Sinatra Drive''', opened around 2001, which parallels between Interstate 15 and Las Vegas Boulevard.
Sinatra was close to the [[Kennedy family]] and was a friend and strong supporter of President [[John F. Kennedy]]. Years later, Sinatra's youngest daughter Tina would state that Sinatra and mob figure [[Sam Giancana]] had helped Kennedy win a crucial primary election in 1960 by helping to deliver the union vote. [http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2000/10/05/60minutes/main238980.shtml]
Sinatra is said to have introduced Kennedy to [[Judith Campbell Exner|Judith Campbell]], who had been a girlfriend of both Sinatra's and Giancana. Campbell allegedly began a relationship with Kennedy; eventually Attorney General [[Robert F. Kennedy]] became alarmed and told his brother to distance himself from Sinatra. [http://www.nj.com/sinatra/ledger/index.ssf?/sinatra/stories/mob.html] Sinatra would lose his Nevada casino license in 1963 when Giancana was seen in the Cal-Neva Lodge casino, of which Sinatra was a part owner. [http://www.hotshotdigital.com/OldRock/FrankSinatraBio.html]
[[Image:MajorMarco2.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Frank Sinatra as Maj. Bennett Marco in ''The Manchurian Candidate'', 1962.]]
Sinatra resumed his strong film work with the 1962 paranoid classic ''[[The Manchurian Candidate]]'', in which he plays the troubled, frequently blinking, but nonetheless resolute protagonist. In 1965's ''[[Von Ryan's Express]]'', Sinatra added dimensionality to a [[World War II]] action role. Other film appearances during this time were either [[cameo]]s or, as in the case of 1964's ''[[Robin and the Seven Hoods]]'', critically-panned efforts to trade in on his image.
In the [[1970s]] Sinatra staged a retirement and several comebacks, recording less frequently but continuing to perform in Las Vegas and around the world. It was a period during which, by taking to the road again, Sinatra sought to bring the great American songbook of the 1920s and 1930s to a much wider audience than the one that frequented the casinos of Las Vegas.
In [[1981]] Sinatra's Nevada casino license was reinstated after hearings by the [[Nevada Gaming Control Board]]. Indeed, journalist Pete Hamill wrote in his book, ''Why Sinatra Matters'', that Sinatra was "the most investigated American performer since [[John Wilkes Booth]]."
"Sure, I knew some of those guys," Sinatra himself said. "I spent a lot of time in saloons. And saloons are not run by the Christian Brothers. There were a lot of guys around, and they came out of Prohibition, and they ran pretty good saloons. I was a kid. I worked in the places that were open. They paid you, and the checks didn't bounce. I didn't meet any Nobel Prize winners in saloons. But if Francis of Assisi was a singer and worked in saloons, he would've met the same guys."
In 1986, investigative journalist [[Kitty Kelley]] published a biography of Sinatra entitled ''His Way: The Unauthorized Biography of Frank Sinatra''. Sinatra went to court to try to prevent it from being published, bringing a $2 million lawsuit against her because he believed that the book painted him in an unattractive light, and he accused her of misrepresenting herself as his authorized biographer. He later withdrew his lawsuit amid much publicity and the book went on to become number one on the ''[[New York Times]]'' best seller list and was a huge seller not only in the US but also in England, Canada, and Australia. Another Sinatra nemesis, the Hollywood gossip columnist [[Rona Barrett]], came closer to a depiction of his character in her [[roman a clef]], ''The Lovo-maniacs'', which attempted a fictional insight into his complex personality. Another book Sinatra might have prevented from being published had he still been alive is "Mr S: The Last Word on Frank Sinatra" (2003), co-written by his black valet George Jacobs.
Sinatra's singing career continued into the [[1990s]], most notably with his commercially-successful ''[[Duets (Frank Sinatra album)|Duets]]'' albums on which he sang with other stars such as [[U2]]'s [[Bono]]. He continued to perform live until February [[1995]], but the nearly 80-year-old singer often had to rely on [[teleprompter]]s for his lyrics, to compensate for his failing memory.
===Marriage and family===
Sinatra was married to his childhood sweetheart, [[Nancy Barbato]], in [[Jersey City, New Jersey]] on [[February 4]], [[1939]]. They had three children together: [[Nancy Sinatra]] (born [[June 8]], [[1940]]), [[Frank Sinatra, Jr.]] (born [[January 10]], [[1944]]), and [[Tina Sinatra |Christine "Tina" Sinatra]] (born [[June 20]], [[1948]]). Although Sinatra did not remain faithful to his wife, he was by many accounts a devoted father. However, his affair with [[Ava Gardner]] became public and the couple was separated in [[1950]]. They were [[divorce|divorced]] on [[October 29]], [[1951]] despite Nancy Sr.'s (as she was sometimes known) religious qualms and objections. According to public reports Frank and Nancy Sr. remained on at least civil terms, if not better, and Nancy would recount how Frank still loved her cooking and would send someone by to pick up her home-made specialties many decades after they separated.
Sinatra married the actress [[Ava Gardner]] on [[November 7]], [[1951]], only ten days after his divorce from his first wife became final. They were separated on [[October 27]], [[1953]] but were not divorced until 1957. She was considered to be his truest love, but that did not guarantee marital success and stability in Hollywood.
Sinatra asked actress [[Lauren Bacall]], whom he had been seeing since shortly after her husband [[Humphrey Bogart]] died in 1957, to marry him, but reneged when word of their relationship became public.
On [[December 8]], [[1963]], [[Frank Sinatra, Jr.]] was [[List of famous kidnappings|kidnapped]]. Sinatra paid the kidnappers' $240,000 ransom demand (even offering $1,000,000 if only his son would be returned, though the kidnappers bizarrely turned this offer down), and his son was released unharmed on [[December 10]]. Because the kidnappers demanded that Sinatra call them only from payphones, Sinatra carried a roll of dimes with him throughout the ordeal, and this became a lifetime habit. The kidnappers were subsequently apprehended and convicted.
Sinatra married actress [[Mia Farrow]], 30 years his junior, in 1966. They were divorced two years later.
In 1976, Sinatra married Barbara Blakeley Marx (formerly married to [[Zeppo Marx]]), who converted to Catholicism to marry him. She remained his wife until his death, although her relations with Sinatra's children were consistently portrayed as stormy, something Nancy Sinatra (Jr.) confirmed when she publicly claimed that Barbara had not bothered to call Frank's children even when the end w |
''[[Song of Deborah]]'' found in the [[Bible|Biblical]] ''[[Book of Judges]]'', these songs celebrate victory. Laments for lost battles and wars, and the lives lost in them, are equally prominent in many folk traditions; these laments keep alive the cause for which the battle was fought. The narratives of folk songs often also remember [[folk hero]]es such as [[John Henry]] to [[Robin Hood]]. Some folk song narratives recall [[supernatural]] events or mysterious deaths.
[[Hymn]]s and other forms of [[religious music]] are often of traditional and unknown origin. Western [[musical notation]] was originally created to preserve the lines of [[Gregorian chant]], which before its invention was taught as an oral tradition in [[monasticism|monastic]] communities. Folk songs such as ''[[Green grow the rushes, O]]'' present religious lore in a mnemonic form. In the Western world, [[Christmas carol]]s and other traditional songs preserve religious lore in song form.
Other sorts of folk songs are less exalted. [[Work song]]s are composed; they frequently feature [[call and response (music)|call and response]] structures, and are designed to enable the labourers who sing them to coordinate their efforts in accordance with the rhythms of the songs. In the [[armed force]]s, a lively tradition of [[jody call]]s are sung while soldiers are on the march. Professional sailors made use of a large body of [[shanty|sea shanties]]. [[Love poetry]], often of a tragic or regretful nature, prominently figures in many folk traditions. [[Nursery rhyme]]s and [[nonsense verse]] also are frequent subjects of folk songs.
==Variation in folk music==
Music transmitted by word of mouth though a community will, in time, develop many variants, because this kind of transmission cannot produce word-for-word and note-for-note accuracy. Indeed, many traditional folk singers are quite creative and deliberately modify the material they learn.
Because variants proliferate naturally, it is naïve to believe that there is such a thing as the single "authentic" version of a [[ballad]] such as "[[Barbara Allen]]." Field researchers in folk song (see below) have encountered countless versions of this ballad throughout the English-speaking world, and these versions often differ greatly from each other. None can reliably claim to be the original, and it is quite possible that whatever the "original" was, it ceased to be sung centuries ago. Any version can lay an equal claim to authenticity, so long as it is truly from a traditional folksinging community and not the work of an outside editor.
[[Cecil Sharp]] had an influential idea about the process of folk variation: he felt that the competing variants of a folk song would undergo a process akin to biological [[natural selection]]: only those new variants that were the most appealing to ordinary singers would be picked up by others and transmitted onward in time. Thus, over time we would expect each folksong to become esthetically ever more appealing &mdash; it would be collectively composed to perfection, as it were, by the community.
On the other hand, there is also evidence to support the view that transmission of folk songs can be rather sloppy. Occasionally, collected folk song versions include material or verses incorporated from different songs that makes little sense in its context. A perfect process of natural selection would not have permitted these incoherent versions to survive.
==The decline of folk traditions in modern societies==
Folk music seems to reflect a universal impulse of humanity. No fieldwork expedition by [[cultural anthropology|cultural anthropologists]] has yet discovered a preindustrial people that did not have its own folk music. It seems safe to infer that folk music was a property of all people starting from the dawn of the species.
However, the development of modern society--first literacy, then the conversion of culture into a salable commodity--created a new form of transmission of music that first influenced, then in some societies essentially eliminated the original folk tradition. The decline of folk music in a culture can be followed through three stages.
===Stage I: Urban influence===
One of the first folk traditions impacted by modern society was the folksong of rural England. Starting in [[Elizabethan]] times, urban poets wrote [[ballad|broadsheet ballad]]s that (thanks to printing) could be sold widely. The ballads probably didn't need musical notation, since they would have been sung to tunes that everybody knew, the folk tradition being very much alive at the time. These ballads heavily influenced the folk tradition, but did not override it. In fact, the folk tradition showed great resilience. Through the process of folk transmission, the urban ballads were modified, keeping the more vivid content and ironing out the less "citified" material. The resulting body of folk lyrics is widely considered to be a very appealing blend. Thus, the printing press and widespread literacy did not suffice to destroy the English folk tradition, but in some ways enriched it.
The English folk song legacy was probably affected by urban melodies as well as words. The clue here is that folk music in remote rural areas of the English-speaking world, such as [[Scottish Highlands|Highland]] [[Scotland]] or the [[Appalachian mountains]], abounds in tunes that employ the [[pentatonic scale]], a scale widely used for folk music around the world. However, pentatonic music was rare among the rural English villagers who first volunteered their tunes to researchers in the late 19th century. A plausible explanation is that life in rural England was far more closely affected by the proximity to the urban centers. Music in the standard major and minor scales evidently penetrated to the nearby rural areas, where it was converted to folk idiom, but nevertheless succeeded in displacing the old pentatonic music.
===Stage II: Replacement of folk music by popular music===
The pattern of urban influence on folk music was intensified to outright destruction as soon as the [[capitalism|capitalist]] economic system had developed to the point that music could be packaged and distributed for the purpose of earning a profit--in other words, when [[popular music]] was born. It was around [[Victorian era|Victorian times]] that ordinary people of the Western world were first offered music as a mass commodity, for example, in the phenomenon of [[Music Hall]].
The introduction of popular music was simultaneous with the latter part of the [[Industrial Revolution]]. This was a time of great change in lifestyle for the great body of the people, notably the migration of the old agrarian communities to the new industrial ones. It is likely that the resulting social disruption helped cut people's emotional bonds to their old folk music, and thereby helped the shift in taste toward popular music.
As technology advanced, succeeding generations became enticed with popular music in ever more accessible and desirable forms. [[Gramophone]] records became [[Vinyl record|LPs]] and then [[Compact disc|CDs]]; the Music Hall gave way to [[radio]], followed by [[television]]. With the ever-increasing success of popular music, the musical life of many individuals eventually ceased to include any folk music at all. Moreover, since popular music for most people is passive music (that is, listened to, but not created or performed), the overwhelming success of popular music also entailed a sharp decline of music as an active, participatory activity.
===Stage III: Loss of musical ability in the community===
The terminal state of the loss of folk music can be seen in the United States and a few similar societies, where except in isolated areas and among hobbyists, traditional folk music no longer survives. In the absence of folk music, many individuals do not sing. It is possible that non-singers feel intimidated by widespread exposure in recordings and broadcasting to the singing of skilled experts. Another possibility is that they simply cannot sing, because they did not sing when they were small children, when learning of skills takes place most naturally.
There is [[anecdotal evidence]] that the loss of singing ability is continuing rapidly at the present time. As recently as the 1960s, audiences at American sporting events collectively sang the American [[The Star-Spangled Banner|national anthem]] before a game; the anthem is now generally assigned to a recording or to a soloist.
Inability to sing is apparently unusual in a traditional society, where the habit of singing folk song since early childhood gives everyone the practice needed to able to sing at least reasonably well.
===Regional variation===
The loss of folk music is occurring at different rates in different regions of the world. Naturally, where industrialization and commercialization of culture are most advanced, so tends to be the loss of folk music. Yet in nations or regions where folk music is a badge of cultural or national identity, the loss of folk music can be slowed; this is held to be true, for instance in the case of [[Hungary]], [[Ireland]], [[Brittany]], and [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], [[Music_of_Greece|Greece]] and [[Music_of_Crete|Crete]] all of which retain their traditional music to some degree.
==Fieldwork and scholarship on folk music==
Starting in the 19th century, interested people - academics and amateur scholars - started to take note of what was being lost, and there grew various efforts aimed at preserving the music of the people. One such effort was the collection by [[Francis James Child]] in the late [[19th century]] of the texts of over three hundred [[ballad]]s in the English and Scots traditions (called the [[Child Ballads]]). Contemporaneously came the Reverend [[Sabine Baring-Gould]], and later and more significantly [[Ceci |
mount of ice lost through ablation. The downward erosive forces of the accumulation zone and the tendency of the ablation zone to deposit sediment also cancel each other out. Erosive lateral forces are not canceled; therefore, glaciers turn v-shaped river-carved valleys into u-shaped glacial valleys.
The "health" of a glacier is defined by the area of the accumulation zone compared to the ablation zone. Healthy glaciers have large accumulation zones. Several non-linear relationships define the relation between accumulation and ablation.
In the aftermath of the [[Little Ice Age]], about 1850, the glaciers of the Earth have retreated substantially. [[Glacier retreat]] has accelerated since about 1980 and is correlated with global warming. [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/064.htm]
Even in very cold climates, there may be unglaciated areas, which receive too little [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] to form permanent ice. This was the case in most of [[Siberia]], central and northern [[Alaska]] and all of [[Manchuria]] during glacial periods of the [[Quaternary]], and occurs today in Antarctica's [[Dry Valleys]] and in that part of the [[Andes]] between 19&deg;S and 27&deg;S above the hyperarid [[Atacama Desert]] where, although the mountains reach 6700 metres above sea level, the cold [[Humboldt Current]] completely suppresses precipitation.
==Glacial motion==
[[Image:Argentina-Perito_Moreno-Glacier.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Perito-Moreno Glacier, showing cracks in brittle upper layer]]
Ice behaves like an easily breaking solid until its thickness exceeds about 50 meters (160 ft). Below that depth the increased pressure causes ice to become [[Plasticity (physics)|plastic]] and flow. The glacial ice is made up of layers of molecules stacked on top of each other, with relatively weak bonds between the layers. When the stress exceeds the inter-layer binding strength, the layers start to slide past each other.
Another type of movement is basal gliding. In this process, the whole glacier moves over the terrain on which it sits, lubricated by meltwater. As the pressure increases toward the base of the glacier, the melting point of water decreases, and the ice melts. Friction between ice and rock and [[geothermal (geology)|geothermal]] heat from the Earth's interior also contribute to thawing. This type of movement is dominant in temperate glaciers.
The top 50 meters of the glacier are more rigid. In this section, known as the ''fracture zone'', there are no layers which slide past each other; instead the ice mostly moves as a single unit. Ice in the fracture zone moves over the top of the lower section. When the glacier moves through irregular terrain, cracks form in the fracture zone. These cracks can be up to 50 meters deep, at which point they meet the plastic flow underneath that seals them.
===Speed of glacial movement===
The speed of glacial displacement is partly determined by [[friction]]. Friction makes the ice at the bottom of the glacier move slower than the upper portion. In alpine glaciers, friction is also generated at the valley's side walls, which slows the edges relative to the center. This has been confirmed by experiments in the [[19th century]], in which stakes were planted in a line across an alpine glacier, and as time passed, those in the center moved further.
Mean speeds vary; some have speeds so slow that trees can establish themselves among the deposited scourings. In other cases they can move as fast as many meters per day, as is the case of [[Byrd Glacier]], an overflowing glacier in [[Antarctica]] which moves 750-800 meters per year (some 2 meters (6 ft) per day), according to studies using [[satellite]]s.
Many glaciers have periods of very rapid advancement called [[Surge (glacier)|surges]].[http://www.geog.leeds.ac.uk/research/glaciology/maths.htm] These glaciers exhibit normal movement until suddenly they accelerate, then return to their previous state. During these surges, the glacier may reach velocities up to 1000 times greater than normal. <!-- Why does this happen? -->
===Moraines===
Glacial moraines are formed by the deposition of material from a glacier and are exposed after the glacier has retreated. These features usually appear as linear mounds of [[till]], a poorly-sorted mixture of rock, gravel and boulders within a matrix of a fine powdery material. Terminal or end moraines are formed at the foot or terminal end of a glacier, lateral moraines are formed on the sides of the glacier, and medial moraines are formed down the center. Less obvious is the ground moraine, also called ''glacial drift'', which often blankets the surface underneath much of the glacier downslope from the equilibrium line. Glacial meltwaters contain [[rock flour]], an extremely fine powder ground from the underlying rock by the glacier's movement. Other features formed by glacial deposition include long snake-like ridges formed by streambeds under glaciers, known as ''[[esker]]s'', and distinctive streamlined hills, known as ''[[drumlin]]s''.
''Stoss-and-lee'' erosional features are formed by glaciers and show the direction of their movement. Long linear rock scratches (that follow the glacier's direction of movement) are called ''[[glacial striations]]'', and divots in the rock are called ''[[chatter mark]]s''. Both of these features are left on the surfaces of stationary rock that were once under a glacier and were formed when loose rocks and boulders in the ice were transported over the rock surface. Transport of fine-grained material within a glacier can smooth or polish the surface of rocks, leading to [[glacial polish]]. [[Glacial erratic]]s are rounded [[boulder|boulders]] that were left by a melting glacier and are often seen perched precariously on exposed rock faces after glacial retreat.
The most common name for glacial sediment is ''[[moraine]]''. The term is of [[French language|French]] origin, and it was coined by peasants to describe alluvial embankments and rims found near the margins of glaciers in the French [[Alps]]. Currently, the term is used more broadly, and is applied to a series of formations, all of which are composed of [[till]].
=== Drumlins ===
[[image:Drumlins_LMB.png|frame|right|A drumlin field forms after a glacier has modified the landscape. The tear-drop-shaped formations denote the direction of the ice flow.]]
[[Drumlin]]s are asymmetrical hills with aerodynamic profiles made mainly of [[till]]. Their heights vary from 15 to 50 meters and they can reach a kilometer in length. The tilted side of the hill looks toward the direction from which the ice advanced (''stoss''), while the longer slope follows the ice's direction of movement (''lee'').
Drumlins are found in groups called ''[[drumlin field]]s'' or ''drumlin camps''. An example of these fields is found east of [[Rochester, New York]], and it is estimated that it contains about 10,000 drumlins.
Although the process that forms drumlins is not fully understood, it can be inferred from their shape that they are products of the plastic deformation zone of ancient glaciers. It is believed that many drumlins were formed when glaciers advanced over and altered the deposits of earlier glaciers.
==Glacial erosion==
Rocks and sediments are added to glaciers through various processes. Glaciers erode the terrain principally through two methods: '''[[scouring]]''' and '''[[plucking]]'''.
[[image: Plucking_LMB.png|right|frame|Diagram of glacial plucking and abrasion]]
As the glacier flows over the bedrock's fractured surface, it softens and lifts blocks of rock that are brought into the ice. This process is known as plucking, and it is produced when subglacial water penetrates the fractures and the subsequent freezing expansion separates them from the bedrock. When the water expands, it acts as a lever that loosens the rock by lifting it. This way, [[sediment]]s of all sizes become part of the glacier's load.
Abrasion occurs when the ice and the load of rock fragments slide over the bedrock and function as sandpaper that smoothens and polishes the surface situated below. This pulverized rock is called [[rock flour]]. This flour is formed by rock grains of a size between 0.002 and 0.00625 [[millimeter|mm]]. Sometimes the amount of rock flour produced is so high that currents of meltwaters acquire a grayish color.
Another of the visible characteristics of glacial erosion are [[glacial striations]]. These are produced when the bottom's ice contains large chunks of rock that mark trenches in the bedrock. By [[cartography|mapping]] the direction of the flutes the direction of the glacier's movement can be determined.
The velocity of a glacier's erosion is variable. The differential erosion undertaken by the ice is controlled by four important factors:
* Velocity of glacial movement
* Thickness of the ice
* Shape, abundance and hardness of rock fragments contained in the ice at the bottom of the glacier
* Relative ease of erosion of the surface under the glacier.
Material that becomes incorporated in a glacier are typically carried as far as the zone of ablation before being deposited. Glacial deposits are of two distinct types:
* Glacial till: material directly deposited from glacial ice. Till includes a mixture of undifferentiated material ranging from clay size to boulders, the usual composition of a moraine.
* Fluvial and outwash: sediments deposited by water. These deposits are stratified through various processes, such as boulders being separated from finer particles.
The larger pieces of rock which are encrusted in till or deposited on the surface are called ''[[glacial erratics]]''. They may range in size from pebbles to boulders, but as they may be moved great distances they may be of drastically different type than the material upon which they are found. Patterns of glacial erratics provide clues of past glacial motions.
===Glacial valleys===
[[Image:G |
|air transport services]] to [[passenger|passengers]] and/or for [[freight]]; although some airlines do provide [[Charter airline|chartered]] [[aviation|flight]] services as well. Airlines [[lease|lease]] or own their [[airliner|aircraft]] with which to supply these services and may form [[partnerships]] or [[alliances]] with other airlines for reasons of mutual benefit.
==Industry overview==
The scale and scope of airline companies are from those with a single airplane carrying mail or cargo, through full-service international airlines operating many hundreds of airplanes in various types. Airline services can be categorized as being intercontinental, intracontinental, [[regional airline|regional]] or domestic and may be operated as scheduled services or charters.
These variations in the types of airline companies, their operating scope, and the routes they serve makes analysis of the airline industry somewhat complex. Nevertheless, some patterns have emerged in the last 50 years of experience:
[[Image:Air-India-building.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The headquarters of [[Air India]] in [[Mumbai]].]]
* The general pattern of ownership has gone from government owned or supported to independent, for-profit public companies. This occurs as regulators permit greater freedom, in steps that are usually decades apart. This pattern has not been completed for all airlines in all regions.
* The demand for air travel services is derived demand. That is, it depends on other things: business needs for cargo shipments, business passenger demand, leisure passenger demand, all influenced by macroeconomic activity in the markets under study. These patterns are highly seasonal, and often day-of-week, time-of-day, and even directionally variable.
* Notwithstanding these demand patterns, the overall trend of demand has been consistently increasing. In the [[1950s|1950's]] and [[1960s|1960's]], annual growth rates of 15% or more were common. Annual growth of 5-6% persisted through the [[1980s|1980's]] and [[1990s|1990's]]. Growth rates are not consistent in all regions, but certainly areas where deregulation provided more competition and greater pricing freedom resulted in lower fares and sometimes dramatic spurts in traffic growth. The [[United States|U.S.]], [[Australia]], [[Japan]], [[Brazil]], [[Mexico]], and other markets exhibited this trend.
* The industry is cyclical. Four or five years of poor performance are followed by five or six years of gradually improving good performance. But profitability in the good years is generally low, in the range of 2-3% net profit after interest and tax. It is in this time that airlines begin paying for new generations of airplanes and other service upgrades they ordered to respond to the increased demand. Since 1980, the industry as a whole has not even earned back the cost of capital during the best of times. Conversely, in bad times losses can be dramatically worse.
* As in many mature industries, consolidation is a trend, as airlines form new business combinations, ranging from loose, limited bilateral partnerships to long-term, multi-faceted alliances of groups of companies, to equity arrangements between companies, to actual [[Mergers and acquisitions|mergers]] or [[Takeover|takeovers]]. Since governments often restrict ownership and merger between companies in different countries, we see most consolidation taking place within a country. In the U.S., over 200 airlines have been merged, taken over, or simply gone out of business since deregulation began in [[1978]]. Many international airline managers are actively lobbying their governments to permit greater consolidation, in order to achieve higher economies of scale and greater efficiencies.
===Early development of airlines in the U.S.===
Following [[World War I]], the United States found itself swamped with aviators. Many decided to take their war-surplus aircraft on barnstorming campaigns, performing acrobatic maneuvers to woo crowds. In [[1918]], the [[United States Postal Service]] won the financial backing of [[Congress]] to begin experimenting with [[air mail]] service, initially using [[Curtiss Jenny]] aircraft that had been procured by the [[United States Army]] for reconnaissance missions on the Western Front. The Army was the first to fly these missions, but quickly lost the contract when they proved to be too unreliable. By the mid-[[1920s]], the [[United States Postal Service|Postal Service]] had developed its own air mail network, based on a transcontinental backbone between [[New York, New York|New York]] and [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]. To supplant this service, they offered twelve contracts for spur routes to independent bidders: the carriers that won these routes would, through time and mergers, evolve into [[Braniff Airlines]], [[American Airlines]], [[United Airlines]] (originally a division of [[Boeing]]), [[Trans World Airlines]], [[Northwest Airlines]], and [[Eastern Airlines]], to name a few.
Passenger service during the early 1920s was sporadic at best: most airlines at the time were focused on carrying bags of mail. In 1925, however, [[Ford Motor Company]] bought out the Stout Aircraft Company and began construction of the all-metal [[Ford Trimotor]], the first successful American airliner. With a 12-passenger capacity, it made passenger service potentially profitable. Air service was seen as a supplement to [[rail transport|rail]] service in the American transportation network.
At the same time, [[Juan Trippe]] began a crusade to create an air network that would link America to the world, and he achieved this goal through his airline, [[Pan American World Airways]], with a fleet of flying boats that linked [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] to [[Shanghai]] and [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] to [[London]]. Pan Am was the only U.S. airline to go international before the 1940s, and quickly became a symbol of the potential of the American airline industry.
With the introduction of the [[Boeing 247]] and [[Douglas DC-3]] in the 1930s, the U.S. airline industry was generally profitable, even during the [[Great Depression]]. This trend continued until the beginning of [[World War II]].
===Early development of airlines in Europe===
[[Image:National Audit Office - Victoria - London - 020504.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The Imperial Airways Empire Terminal, Victoria, [[London]]. Trains ran from here to [[flying boats]] in [[Southampton]], and to [[Croydon Airport]].]]
The first countries in Europe to embrace air transport were [[France]], [[Germany]] and the [[Netherlands]].
In [[1919]] [[KLM]] was founded, still the oldest carrier operating under its original name. The first flight transported two English passengers to [[Schiphol]], [[Amsterdam]] from [[London]] in [[1920]]. Like other major European airlines of the time (see France and the UK below), KLM's early growth depended heavily on the needs to service links with far-flung colonial possessions ([[Dutch Indies]]). It is only after the loss of the [[Dutch Empire]] that [[KLM]] found itself based at a small country with few potential passengers, depending heavily on transfer traffic, and was one of the first to introduce the hub-system to facilitate easy connections.
France began an air mail service to [[Morocco]] in [[1919]] that was bought out in [[1927]], renamed [[Aéropostale (aviation)|Aéropostale]], and injected with capital to become a major international carrier. In [[1933]], Aéropostale went [[Bankruptcy|bankrupt]], was nationalized and merged with several other airlines into what became [[Air France]].
The German airline industry began with [[Lufthansa]] in [[1926]], which, unlike most other airlines at the time, became a major investor in airlines outside of Europe, founding [[Varig]] and [[Avianca]]. German airliners built by [[Junkers]], [[Dornier GmbH|Dornier]], and [[Fokker]] were the most advanced in the world at the time. The peak of German air travel came in the mid-[[1930s]], when [[Nazi]] propaganda ministers approved the start of commercial [[zeppelin]] service: the big [[airship]]s were a symbol of industrial might, but the fact that they used flammable hydrogen gas raised safety concerns that culminated with the [[Hindenburg]] disaster of [[1937]].
[[United Kingdom]]'s flag carrier during this period was [[Imperial Airways]], which became [[BOAC]] (British Overseas Airlines Co.) in [[1939]]. Imperial Airways used huge [[Handley-Page]] [[biplane]]s for routes between [[London]], the [[Middle East]], and [[India]]: images of Imperial aircraft in the middle of the [[Rub'al Khali]], being maintained by [[Bedouin]]s, are among the most famous pictures from the heyday of the [[British Empire]].
===Development of airlines post-1945===
As governments met to set the standards and scope for an emergent civil air industry toward the end of the war, it was no surprise that the U.S. took a position of maximum operating freedom. After all, U.S. airline companies were not devastated by the war, as European companies and the few Asian companies had been. This preference for "open skies" operating regimes continues, within limitations, to this day.
World War II, like World War I, brought new life to the airline industry. Many airlines in the Allied countries were flush from lease contracts to the military, and foresaw a future explosive demand for civil air transport, for both passengers and cargo. They were eager to invest in the newly emerging flagships of air travel such as the [[Boeing Stratocruiser]], [[Lockheed Constellation]], and [[Douglas DC-6]]. Most of these new aircraft were based on American bombers such as the [[B-29]], which had spearheaded research into new technologies such as [[pressurization]]. Most offered increased efficiency from both added speed and greater payload.
In the 1950s, the [[De Havilland Comet]], [[Boeing 707]], [[Douglas DC-8]], and [[Sud Aviation Caravelle]] became the first fla |
seball credits Doubleday with inventing the game, supposedly in [[Elihu Phinney]]'s cow pasture in [[Cooperstown, New York]], in 1839.
The Mills Commission was appointed in 1905 to determine the origin of baseball. The committee's final report, on [[December 30]], [[1907]], stated, in part, that "the first scheme for playing baseball, according to the best evidence obtainable to date, was devised by Abner Doubleday at [[Cooperstown, New York]], in 1839."
However, there is [[Origins of baseball#Did Abner Doubleday invent baseball?|considerable evidence]] to dispute this claim. At his death, Doubleday left many letters and papers, none of which describe baseball, or give any suggestion that he considered himself a prominent person in the evolution of the game. An encyclopedia article about Doubleday published in 1911 makes no mention of the game. He was a cadet at [[West Point]] in the year of the alleged invention and there is no record he requested leave to travel to Cooperstown.
Doubleday published two important works on the Civil War: ''Reminiscences of Forts Sumter and Moultrie'' (1876), and ''Chancellorsville and Gettysburg'' (1882), the latter being a volume of the series ''Campaigns of the Civil War''.
Doubleday's indecision as a commander earned him the uncomplimentary nickname "Forty-Eight Hours".
{{libship honor|name=Abner Doubleday|type=his}}
==See also==
*[[Origins of baseball#Did Abner Doubleday invent baseball?|Origins of baseball]]
==References==
* Eicher, John H., & Eicher, David J., ''Civil War High Commands'', Stanford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8047-3641-3.
* Tagg, Larry, [http://www.rocemabra.com/~roger/tagg/generals/ ''The Generals of Gettysburg''], Savas Publishing, 1998, ISBN 1-882810-30-9.
* {{1911}}
==External links==
*[http://www.findagrave.com/pictures/4830.html Grave Site]
*[http://baseballhalloffame.org/about/history.htm Baseball Hall of Fame]
*[http://www.blavatskyarchives.com/doubledaygeneralindefense.htm ''Defense of Madame Blavatsky'']
*[http://www.theosophy-nw.org/theosnw/theos/th-tsgom.htm ''Abner Doubleday and Theosophy'']
*[http://www.baseballhalloffame.com/about/history.htm Baseball Hall of Fame]
{{Template:Theosophy}}
[[Category:1819 births|Doubleday, Abner]]
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[[Category:United States Army generals|Doubleday, Abner]]
[[Category:American Civil War Generals|Doubleday, Abner]]
[[Category:Mexican-American War people|Doubleday, Abner]]
[[Category:Burials at Arlington National Cemetery|Doubleday, Abner]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Americas National Game</title>
<id>1136</id>
<revision>
<id>15899639</id>
<timestamp>2004-11-21T01:26:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>D6</username>
<id>75561</id>
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<minor />
<comment>adding [[Category:1911 books]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Americas National Game''''' is a book by [[Albert Spalding]], published in [[1911]] detailing the early history of the [[game]] of [[baseball]]. Much of the story is told first hand, since Spalding had been involved in the game, first as a player and later an administrator, since the 1850s. In addition to his personal recollections he had access to the records of [[Henry Chadwick]], the game's first statistician and archivist. Spalding was, however, known to aggrandise his role in the major moments in baseball's history.
See also: [[History of baseball]]
[[Category:1911 books]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>AustralianRulesFootball</title>
<id>1138</id>
<revision>
<id>15899641</id>
<timestamp>2004-11-09T05:28:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TPK</username>
<id>35188</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>oops</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Australian rules football]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Amplitude modulation</title>
<id>1140</id>
<revision>
<id>42117400</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:01:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Colonies Chris</username>
<id>577301</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>links</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Amplitude modulation''' ('''AM''') is a form of [[modulation]] in which the [[amplitude]] of a [[carrier wave]] is varied in direct proportion to that of a modulating signal. (Contrast this with [[frequency modulation]], in which the [[frequency]] of the carrier is varied; and [[phase modulation]], in which the [[Phase (waves)|phase]] is varied.)
AM is commonly used at [[Radio frequency|radio frequencies]] and was the first method used to [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] commercial [[radio]]. The term "AM" is sometimes used generically to refer to the AM broadcast ([[mediumwave]]) [[Band (electronics)|band]] (see [[AM radio]]).
== Applications in radio ==
[[Image:Amplitude-modulation.png|right|frame|An example of amplitude modulation. The top diagram shows the modulating signal superimposed on the carrier wave. The bottom diagram shows the resulting amplitude-modulated signal. Notice how the peaks of the modulated output follow the contour of the original, modulating signal.]]
A basic AM radio [[transmitter]] works by first [[Direct current|DC]]-shifting the modulating signal, then multiplying it with the [[carrier wave]] using a [[frequency mixer]]. The output of this process is a signal with the same frequency as the carrier but with peaks and troughs that vary in proportion to the strength of the modulating signal. This is [[amplifier|amplified]] and fed to an [[antenna (radio)|antenna]].
===AM vs. FM===
AM radio's main limitation is its susceptibility to atmospheric [[interference]], which is heard as [[white noise|static]] from the receiver. The narrow [[bandwidth]] traditionally used for AM broadcasts further limits the quality of sound that can be received. Since the 1970s, [[wideband]] [[FM]] has been preferred for musical broadcasts, due to its higher audio fidelity and noise-suppression characteristics.
The fact that signals can be decoded using very simple equipment is one of the primary advantages of amplitude modulation. This was especially important in the early days of commercial radio, when [[Electronics|electronic]] components were still quite expensive. This simplicity and affordability helped make AM one of the most popular methods for sending voice and music over radio during the 20th century.
An AM [[receiver (radio)|receiver]] consists primarily of a tunable [[Filter (signal processing)|filter]] and an [[envelope detector]], which in simpler sets is a single [[diode]]. Its output is a signal at the carrier frequency, with peaks that trace the amplitude of the unmodulated signal. Unlike other modulation techniques, this is all that is needed to recover the original audio. In practice, a [[capacitor]] is used to undo the DC shift introduced by the transmitter and to eliminate the carrier frequency by connecting the signal peaks. The output is then fed to an [[audio amplifier]].
[[Image:Am_radio.png|thumb|left|A network [[schematic]] of a simple AM receiver. A diode functions as the [[envelope detector]], with the recovered audio fed directly to an [[earphone]].]]
To make a good AM receiver an [[automatic gain control]] loop is essential; this requires good design. To make a good FM receiver a large number of [[Radio frequency|RF]] amps which are driven into limiting are required to create a receiver which can take advantage of the [[capture effect]], one of the biggest advantages of FM. With valved (tube) systems it is more expensive to make active stages than it is to make the same number of stages with solid state parts, so for a valved [[superhet]] it is simpler to make an AM receiver with the automatic gain control loop while for a solid state receiver it is simpler to make an FM unit. Hence even while the idea of FM was known before [[WWII]] its use was rare because of the cost of valves - in the UK the government had a [[valve holder tax]] {{fact}} which encouraged radio receiver designers to use as few active stages as possible, - but when solid state parts became available FM started to gain favour. <!-- By Horst Rebein -->
== Forms of AM ==
In its basic form, amplitude modulation produces a signal with power concentrated at the carrier frequency and in two adjacent [[sideband]]s. Each sideband is equal in [[bandwidth]] to that of the modulating signal and is a mirror image of the other. Thus, most of the power output by an AM transmitter is effectively wasted: half the power is concentrated at the carrier frequency, which carries no useful information (beyond the fact that a signal is present); the remaining power is split between two identical sidebands, only one of which is needed.
To increase transmitter efficiency, the carrier can be removed (suppressed) from the AM signal. This produces a [[reduced-carrier transmission]] or ''double-sideband suppressed carrier'' (DSBSC) signal. If the carrier is only partially suppressed, a '''double-sideband reduced carrier''' (DSBRC) signal results. DSBSC and DSBRC signals need their carrier to be regenerated (by a [[beat frequency oscillator]], for instance) to be demodulated using conventional techniques.
Even greater efficiency is achieved&mdash;at the expense of increased transmitter and receiver complexity&mdash;by completely suppressing both the carrier and one of the sidebands. This is [[single-sideband modulation]], widely used in [[amateur radio]] due to its efficient use of both power and bandwidth.
A simple form of AM often used for [[digital]] communications is ''[[on-off keying]]'', a type of ''[[amplitude-shift keying]]'' by which [[Binary numeral system|binary]] data is represented |
llor [[Gerhard Schröder]] backed the following U.S. military actions, sending [[Bundeswehr]] troops to [[Afghanistan]] to lead a joint NATO program to provide security in the country after the ousting of the [[Taliban]].
=== German-American relations ===
''see main article'' [[German-American relations]]
Since [[2006]] the new chancellor [[Angela Merkel]] seeks to intensify relations with the United States and rebuild it to a new axis in global affairs.
== Membership in International Institutions ==
[[European Council]], [[European Union]], [[European Space Agency]], [[G4 nations|G4]], [[G8]], [[IMF]], [[NATO]], [[OECD]], [[OSCE]], [[United Nations|UNO]], [[World Bank Group]], [[WTO]]
==Further Reading ==
* [http://www.aicgs.org/research/gereu/index.shtml Germany in Europe]
* [http://www.aicgs.org/events/2006/012306_summary.shtml The German Economy in the New Europe]
* [http://www.internationalepolitik.de/english/content/Special_Issue/ The United States, Germany and Europe: Building a Global Agenda]
* [http://www.aicgs.org/Publications/PDF/policyrep7.pdf EU Enlargement and Transatlantic Relations]
== External links ==
*[http://germany-un.org/ Permanent Mission of Germany to the United Nations]
* [http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/www/en/index_html Auswärtiges Amt]
* [http://www.internationalepolitik.de/ Internationale Politik]
* [http://www.aicgs.org/index.shtml AICGS American Institute for Contemporary German Studies]
* [http://www.swp-berlin.org/ SWP German Institute for International and Security Affairs]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Germany]]
[[Category:Politics of Germany]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Germany| ]]
[[de: Bundesdeutsche Außenpolitik 1945-1989]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Politics of Germany</title>
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<id>41905456</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T14:44:40Z</timestamp>
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<ip>204.10.221.251</ip>
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<comment>/* "Red-Green" vs. Christian coalitions */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{PoliticsGermany}}
'''Politics of Germany''' takes place in a framework of a [[federation|federal]] [[parliamentary democratic|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[Chancellor of Germany|Federal Chancellor]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. Federal [[legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the two chambers of parliament, [[Bundestag (Germany)|Bundestag]] and [[Bundesrat of Germany|Bundesrat]]. Since 1949 the party system is dominated by the conservative [[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)|Christian Democratic Union]] and the social democratic [[Social Democratic Party of Germany]].
The [[Judiciary of Germany]] is independent of the executive and the legislature.
The political system is laid out in the 1949 [[constitution]], the ''[[Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany|Grundgesetz]]'' (Basic Law), which remained in effect with minor amendments after [[1990]]'s [[German Reunification]].
The constitution emphasizes the protection of individual liberty in an extensive catalogue of human rights and also divides powers both between the federal and state levels and between the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. In many ways, the 1949 ''Grundgesetz'' is a strong response to the perceived flaws of the failed 1919 [[Weimar Republic]], which collapsed in favour of the dictatorship of the [[Third Reich]].
==Federalism==
The Federal Republic ''(Bundesrepublik)'' consists of 16 federal states ''([[States of Germany|Bundesländer]]).'' The ''Grundgesetz'' prescribes that legislature is to be handled by the states except where explicitly stated in the ''Grundgesetz'' itself. This principle has been more or less reversed in practice through many amendments of the constitution since 1949, leaving basically only police, education, cultural and communal affairs to be handled by state legislature. The executive branch, though, is still mainly organized at the state level, which means that laws that the state civil services operate under and enforce are to a large extent federal laws. This strengthens the states' role in federal legislation via the [[Bundesrat (Germany)|Bundesrat]].
The political systems of the individual states are prescribed by state constitutions, but resemble that of the federal level to a certain extent.
The heads of the federal states' governments are called ''Ministerpräsidenten'' (Minister-President) or&mdash;in case of the three city-states&mdash;''Regierender Bürgermeister'' (Governor-Mayor, in [[Berlin]]), ''Erster Bürgermeister'' (First Mayor, in [[Hamburg]]) or ''Bürgermeister und Präsident des Senats'' (Mayor and President of the Senate, in [[Bremen (state)|Bremen]]). They each form a state cabinet as well, although it is usually much smaller than the federal government.
Elections for the parliaments of the ''Bundesländer'' occur every four to five years, depending on the state.
==Federal [[executive branch]]==
The ''[[Chancellor of Germany|Bundeskanzler]]'' (Federal Chancellor) heads the ''[[Cabinet of Germany|Bundesregierung]]'' (Federal Cabinet) and thus the executive branch of the federal government. He is elected by and responsible to the ''[[Bundestag]]'', Germany's parliament. Germany, like the [[United Kingdom]], can thus be classified as a [[parliamentary system]].
The Chancellor cannot be removed from office during a 4-year term unless the ''Bundestag'' has agreed on a successor. This [[Constructive Vote of No Confidence]] is intended to avoid the situation of the [[Weimar Republic]] in which the executive did not have enough support in the legislature to govern effectively, but the legislature was too divided to name a successor.
Except between 1969 and 1982, the Chancellor has always been the candidate of the largest party, usually supported by a coalition of two or more parties with a majority in the parliament. The Chancellor appoints a Vice-Chancellor ([[Deputy Chancellor of Germany|Vizekanzler]]), who is a member of his cabinet, usually the Foreign Minister. When there is a [[coalition government]] (which has, so far, always been the case, except for the period of 1957 to 1961), the Vice-Chancellor usually belongs to the smaller party of the coalition.
The heads of governments may change the structure of ministries whenever and however they see fit. For example, in the middle of January 2001, the Federal Ministry of Agriculture was renamed to Ministry of Consumer Protection, Food and Agriculture as a consequence of the [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy|BSE]] crisis. For that measure, competences from the Ministry of Justice, the Ministry of Economy and the Ministry of Health were transferred to the new Ministry of Consumer Protection.
Subordinate to the cabinet is the [[Civil service of Germany]].
By contrast, the duties of the ''[[President of Germany|Bundespräsident]]'' (Federal President) are largely representative and ceremonial; power is exercised by the Chancellor. The President is elected every 5 years on [[May 23]] by the Federal Assembly (''[[Bundesversammlung (Germany)|Bundesversammlung]]''), a special body convoked only for this purpose, comprising the entire ''Bundestag'' and an equal number of state delegates selected especially for this purpose.
In May 2004, [[Horst Köhler]] of the [[CDU|Christian Democratic Union]] was elected. The reason that the President is not popularly elected is to prevent him from gaining enough popular legitimacy to circumvent the constitution, as occurred with the [[Weimar Republic]].
{{office-table}}
|[[President of Germany|President]]
|[[Horst Köhler]]
|[[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)|CDU]]
|[[1 July]] [[2004]]
|-
|[[Chancellor of Germany|Chancellor]]
|[[Angela Merkel]]
|[[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)|CDU]]
|[[22 November]] [[2005]]
|-
|Other government parties
|
|[[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]], [[Christian Social Union in Bavaria|CSU]]
|
|}
==Federal parliament==
Germany has on federal level a [[bicameralism|bicameral]] [[legislature]]. The parliament has two [[bicameralism|chambers]]. The '''Federal Diet''' (''[[Bundestag]]'') nominally has 598 members, elected for a four year term, 299 members elected in single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]] according to [[First Past the Post electoral system|first-past-the-post]], while a further 299 members are allocated from statewide party lists to achieve a proportional distribution in the legislature, conducted according to a system of [[mixed member proportional representation]]. Voters vote once for a constituency representative, and a second time for a party, and the lists are used to make the party balances match the distribution of second votes. In the current parliament there are 5 [[overhang seat]]s, giving a total of 603. This is caused by larger parties winning additional single-member districts above the totals determined by their proportional party vote.
A party must receive 5% of the national vote or win least three directly elected seats to be represented in the ''Bundestag''. This rule, often called the "five percent hurdle", was incorporated into Germany's Election law to prevent political fragmentation and strong minor parties, which was considered a major reason for the inefficacy of the [[Weimar Republic]]'s [[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]]. The first ''Bundestag'' elections were held in the Federal Republic of Germany ("West Germany") on August 14, 1949. Following Reunification, elections for the first all-German ''Bundestag'' were held on December 2, [[German federal election, 1990|1990]]. The last election was held on [[German federal election, 2005|September 18, 2005]], the new (16th) Bundestag is due to convene by mid-October. The number of Bundestag Deputies w |
n's religious views}}
{{see also|Isaac Newton's occult studies}}
The law of gravity became Newton's best-known discovery. He warned against using it to view the universe as a mere machine, like a great clock. He said, "Gravity explains the motions of the planets, but it cannot explain who set the planets in motion. God governs all things and knows all that is or can be done."{{citeneeded}}
His scientific fame notwithstanding, the [[Bible]] was Newton's greatest passion. He devoted more time to the study of Scripture and [[Alchemy]] than to science, and said, "I have a fundamental belief in the Bible as the Word of God, written by those who were inspired. I study the Bible daily."{{citeneeded}} Newton himself wrote works on [[textual criticism]], most notably ''[[An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture]]''. Newton also placed the crucifixion of [[Jesus Christ]] at [[3 April]], AD [[33]], which is now the accepted traditional date. He also attempted, unsuccessfully, to find hidden messages within the Bible (See [[Bible code]]). Despite his focus in theology and alchemy, Newton tested and investigated these myths with the [[scientific method]], observing, hypothesizing, and testing his theories. To Newton, his scientific and religious experiments were one and the same, observing and understanding how the world functioned.
Newton is often characterized as a [[unitarianism|Unitarian]] and [[arianism|Arian]], rejecting the church's doctrine of [[Trinity|divine trinity]]. However, [[T.C. Pfizenmaier]] argued that he more likely held the [[Eastern Orthodox]] view of the Trinity rather than the Western one held by [[Roman Catholic]]s, [[Anglican]]s, and most [[Protestant]]s {{fn|7}}. In his own day, he was also accused of being a [[Rosicrucianism|Rosicrucian]] (as were many in the Royal Society and in the court of Charles II).{{fn|8}}
In his own lifetime, Newton wrote more on religion than he did on natural science. He believed in a rationally immanent world, but he rejected the [[hylozoism]] implicit in Leibniz and [[Baruch Spinoza]]. Thus, the ordered and dynamically informed [[universe]] could be understood, and must be understood, by an active reason, but this universe, to be perfect and ordained, had to be regular.
===Newton's effect on religious thought===
[[Image:Newton-WilliamBlake.jpg|thumb|left|Newton, by [[William Blake]]]]
Newton and [[Robert Boyle]]’s mechanical philosophy was promoted by [[rationalist]] [[pamphleteer]]s as a viable alternative to the [[pantheism|pantheists]] and [[enthusiasm|enthusiasts]], and was accepted hesitantly by orthodox preachers as well as dissident preachers like the [[latitudinarian]]s.{{fn|9}} Thus, the clarity and simplicity of science was seen as a way to combat the emotional and [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] superlatives of both [[superstition|superstitious]] enthusiasm and the threat of [[atheism]]{{fn|10}}, and, at the same time, the second wave of English [[deism|deists]] used Newton's discoveries to demonstrate the possibility of a "Natural Religion."
The attacks made against pre-[[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] "magical thinking," and the [[Christian mysticism|mystical elements of Christianity]], were given their foundation with Boyle’s mechanical conception of the [[universe]]. Newton gave Boyle’s ideas their completion through [[mathematical proof]]s, and more importantly was very successful in popularising them.{{fn|11}} Newton refashioned the world governed by an interventionist God into a world crafted by a God that designs along rational and universal principles.{{fn|12}} These principles were available for all people to discover, allowed man to pursue his own aims fruitfully in this life, not [[afterlife|the next]], and to perfect himself with his own rational powers.{{fn|13}} The perceived ability of Newtonians to explain the world, both physical and social, through logical calculations alone is the crucial idea in the disenchantment of Christianity.{{fn|14}}
Newton saw God as the master creator whose existence could not be denied in the face of the grandeur of all creation {{fn|5}}{{fn|6}}{{fn|14}} But the unforeseen [[Christian theology|theological]] consequence of his conception of God, as Leibniz pointed out, was that God was now entirely removed from the world’s affairs, since the need for intervention would only evidence some imperfection in God’s creation, something impossible for a perfect and [[omnipotent]] creator.{{fn|15}} Leibniz's [[theodicy]] cleared God from the responsibility for ''"[[Problem of evil|l'origine du mal]]"'' by making God removed from participation in his creation. The understanding of the world was now brought down to the level of simple human reason, and humans, as [[Odo Marquard]] argued, became responsible for the correction and elimination of evil.{{fn|16}}
On the other hand, latitudinarian and Newtonian ideas taken too far resulted in the [[millenarian]]s, a religious [[faction]] dedicated to the concept of a mechanical universe, but finding in it the same enthusiasm and mysticism that the Enlightenment had fought so hard to extinguish.{{fn|17}}
==Newton versus the counterfeiters==
Newton estimated that 20% of the coins taken in during The [[Great Recoinage]] were [[counterfeit]]. Counterfeiting was treason, punishable by death by [[drawing and quartering]]. As gruesome as the penalties were, the courts were not arbitrary or capricious. The rights of free men had a long tradition in England and the crown had to prove its case to a jury. The law also allowed for [[plea bargaining]]. Convictions of the most flagrant criminals could be maddeningly impossible to achieve; however, Newton proved to be equal to the task.
He assembled facts and proved his theories with the same brilliance in law that he had shown in science. He gathered much of that evidence himself, disguised, while he hung out at bars and taverns. For all the barriers placed to prosecution, and separating the branches of government, [[English law]] still had ancient and formidable customs of authority. Newton was made a [[justice of the peace]] and between June 1698 and Christmas 1699 conducted some 200 cross-examinations of witnesses, informers and suspects. During this time he obtained the confessions he needed and while he could not resort to open torture, whatever means he did use must have been fearsome because Newton himself later ordered all records of these interrogations to be destroyed. However he did it, Newton won his convictions and in February 1699, he had ten prisoners waiting to be executed.
Newton's greatest triumph as the king's attorney was against [[William Chaloner]]. Chaloner was a rogue with a devious intelligence. He set up phoney conspiracies of Catholics and then turned in the hapless conspirators whom he entrapped. Chaloner made himself rich enough to posture as a gentleman. Petitioning [[Parliament of England|Parliament]], Chaloner accused the Mint of providing tools to counterfeiters. (This charge was made also by others.) He proposed that he be allowed to inspect the Mint's processes in order to improve them. He petitioned Parliament to adopt his plans for a coinage that could not be counterfeited. All the time, he struck false coins, or so Newton eventually proved to a court of competent jurisdiction. On [[March 23]], 1699, Chaloner was [[hanged, drawn and quartered]].
==Enlightenment philosophers==
Enlightenment philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors—[[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]], Boyle, and Newton principally—as the guides and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of [[Nature]] and [[Natural law|Natural Law]] to every physical and social field of the day. In this respect, the lessons of history and the social structures built upon it could be discarded.{{fn|19}}
It was Newton’s conception of the universe based upon Natural and rationally understandable laws that became the seed for Enlightenment [[ideology]]. [[John Locke|Locke]] and [[Voltaire]] applied concepts of Natural Law to political systems advocating intrinsic rights; the [[physiocrat]]s and [[Adam Smith]] applied Natural conceptions of [[psychology]] and [[self-interest]] to economic systems and the [[sociology|sociologists]] critiqued how the current [[social order]] fit history into Natural models of [[progress]].
==Newton's legacy==
[[Image:StatueOfIsaacNewton.jpg|thumb|left|Statue of Newton by [[Louis-François Roubiliac]] in the antechapel of [[Trinity College, Cambridge]]]]
Newton's [[Newton's laws of motion|laws of motion]] and gravity provided a basis for predicting a wide variety of different scientific or engineering situations, especially the motion of [[celestial bodies]]. His calculus proved vitally important to the development of further scientific theories. Finally, he unified many of the isolated physics facts that had been discovered earlier into a satisfying system of laws. Newton's conceptions of gravity and mechanics, though not entirely correct in light of Einstein's [[Theory of Relativity]], still represent an enormous step in the evolution of human understanding of the universe. For this reason, he is generally considered one of history's greatest scientists.
In 1717, the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] went on to an unofficial [[gold standard]] when Newton, then Master of the Mint, established a fixed price of £3.17.10 ½d per standard (22 carat) [[troy ounce]], equal to £4.4.11 ½d per [[fine ounce]]. Under the gold standard the value of the [[pound (currency)|pound]] (measured in gold weight) remained largely constant until the beginning of the 20th century.
Newton is reputed to have invented the [[cat flap]]. This was said to be done so that he would not have to disrupt his optical experiments, conducted in a darkened room, to let his cat in or out.
[[Newtonmas]] is a holiday celebrated by some scientists as |
ol peer by 30 to 37 percentile points across all subjects. Moreover, the performance gaps between minorities and gender that plague publicly-run schools are virtually non-existent amongst home-educated students.[http://www.hslda.org/docs/study/comp2001/default.asp]
Some critics argue that while home-educated students generally do extremely well on standardized tests[http://www.hslda.org/docs/nche/000010/200410250.asp], such students are a self-selected group whose parents care strongly about their education and would also do well in a conventional school environment.
Some opponents argue that parents with little training in education are less effective in teaching. However, some studies do indicate that parental income and education level affect home-educated student performance on standardized tests very little.
Home-educated student curricula often include many subjects not included in traditional curricula. Some colleges find this an advantage in creating a more academically diverse [[student body]], and proponents argue this creates a more well-rounded and self-sufficient adult. Increasingly, colleges are recruiting home-educated students; many colleges accept [[GED|equivalency diplomas]] as well as parent statements and portfolios of student work as admission criteria; others also require [[SAT]]s or other [[standardized test]]s. Opponents argue that home education curricula often excludes critical subjects and isolates the student from the rest of society, or presents them with [[ideological]] world views, especially religious ones.
The results of home education with [[gifted]] and [[Learning disability|learning-disabled]] children have not been as thoroughly studied.
=== Social findings ===
In 2003, the [[National Home Education Research Institute]] (NHERI) conducted a survey of over 7,300 U.S. adults who had been home-educated (over 5,000 for more than seven years). Their findings included:
:*Home-educated graduates are active and involved in their communities. 71% participate in an ongoing community service activity, like coaching a sports team, [[volunteering]] at a school, or working with a church or neighborhood association, compared with 37% of U.S. adults of similar ages from a traditional education background.
:*Home-educated graduates are more involved in civic affairs and [[vote]] in much higher percentages than their peers. For example, 76% of surveyed between the ages of 18 and 24 voted within the last five years, compared with only 29% of the relevant U.S. population. The numbers of home-educated graduates who vote are even greater in older age groups, with voting levels not falling below 95%, compared with a high of 53% for the corresponding U.S. populace.
:*Of those adults who were home-educated, 58.9% report that they are "very happy" with life (compared with 27.6% for the general U.S. population). Moreover, 73.2% of homeschooled adults find life "exciting", compared with 47.3% of the general population.[http://www.hslda.org/research/ray2003/]
The [[Education Resources Information Center]] (ERIC), a U.S. government agengy, has published multiple articles on home education. Here are excerpts from one which examined several studies on home-educated children socialization:
:According to the findings, children who were educated at home "gained the necessary skills, knowledge, and attitudes needed to function in society...at a rate similar to that of conventionally schooled children.
and;
:The researcher found no difference in the [[self concept]] of children in the two groups, and maintains that "insofar as self concept is a reflector of socialization, it would appear that few home-schooled children are socially deprived, and that there may be sufficient evidence to indicate that some home-schooled children have a higher self concept than conventionally schooled children." [http://www.ericdigests.org/1995-1/home.htm]
Proponents argue further that the social environment of traditional schools:
*strongly inhibits individuality and creativity,
*follows the standards set by the slowest students,
*involves [[bullying]], [[recreational drug use]], early [[sexuality]], defiance, criminality, [[materialism]], and [[eating disorder]]s.
and that socialization in the wider community:
*leads them to see adults, rather than peers, as [[role model]]s,
*better prepares them for real life,
*encourages them to be more involved in youth, church, and sports organizations,
*helps them develop an independent understanding of themselves and their role in the world, with the freedom to reject or approve conventional values without the risk of ridicule,
*teaches children to deal with a variety of situations and people,
*still provides for interaction with conventionally-educated children after school hours in their neighbourhood and in other after-school activities.
== Notable home-educated individuals ==
*[[Thomas Edison]], [[United States]], scientist and inventor
*[[Andrew Wyeth]], [[United States]], Artist
*[[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]], [[Germany]], theologian, Hitler assassination conspirator
*[[Dakota Fanning]], [[United States]], actress
*[[Adam Yahiye Gadahn]], [[United States]]/[[Pakistan]], suspected Al Qaeda member
*[[Prussian Blue (American duo)|Lynx and Lamb Gaede]], United States, racialist musicians
*[[Pierre-Gilles de Gennes]], [[France]], physicist
*[[Charles Evans Hughes]], [[United States]], Governor of New York, United States Secretary of State, and Chief Justice of the United States
*[[Evermore|Jon, Peter, and Dann Hume]], [[New Zealand]], musicians
*[[Ruth Lawrence]], [[Israel]]/[[United Kingdom]]/[[United States]], disillusioned homeschooler
*[[Bode Miller]], [[United States]], champion skier
*[[Evelyn De Morgan]], [[United Kingdom]], artist
*[[Clara Muhammad]], [[United States]], Nation of Islam leader
*[[Christopher Paolini]], [[United States]], author
*[[Rosa Parks]], [[United States]], civil rights activist
*[[Susan La Flesche Picotte]], [[United States]], first American Indian woman physician
*[[John T. Plecnik]], [[United States]], syndicated columnist
*[[MuggleNet#Emerson Spartz|Emerson Spartz]], [[United States]], internet entrepreneur
*[[Konstantin Tsiolkovsky]], [[Russia]], rocket scientist and pioneer of cosmonautics
*[[Roman Vishniac]], [[Russia]]/[[United States]], photographer, biologist, and polyglot
*[[Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz]], [[Poland]], author and artist
*[[Sho Yano]], [[United States]], child prodigy
== See also ==
{{Alternative education}}
{{Education stages}}
* [[A.C.E. (Accelerated Christian Education)|Accelerated Christian Education]]
* [[Attachment parenting]]
* [[Catherine Baker]]
* [[Deschooling]]
* [[Educational philosophies]]
* [[The Education of Henry Adams]]
* [[John Taylor Gatto]]
* [[GED|General Educational Development]] (GED)
* [[Growing Without Schooling]]
* [[Proactive Academics]]
* [[School choice]]
* [[Washington Homeschool Organization]]
* [[Work at home parent]]
== References ==
* ''[[Teach Your Own]]'' by [[John Cadwell Holt|John Holt]] and [[Patrick Farenga]]
* ''Homeschooling: Take a Deep Breath—You Can Do This!'' by Terrie Lynn Bittner, ISBN 0972807152
* ''[[The Well-Trained Mind]]'' by [[Susan Wise Bauer]] and [[Jessie Wise]]
* ''[[The Teenage Liberation Handbook]]'' by [[Grace Llewellyn]]
* ''[[The Homeschooling Handbook]]'' by [[Mary Griffith]]
* ''[[Family Matters: Why Homeschooling Makes Sense]]'' by [[David Guterson]]
* ''[[You Are Your Child's First Teacher]]'' by [[Rahima Baldwin Dancy]]
* ''[[The Complete Home Learning Sourcebook]]'' by Rebecca Rupp
* ''[[The Homeschool Source Book]]'' by Donn Reed
* ''[[A Thomas Jefferson Education]]'' by Oliver DeMille
*The extract from the Education Act is Crown Copyright, 1996. Reproduced from [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/ Her Majesty's Stationery Office, United Kingdom]. The Education Act is available in printed form, ISBN 0105456969.
== External links ==
=== USA / UK ===
==== General ====
* [http://www.NHEN.org/ National Home Education Network (NHEN)]
* [http://www.opinionjournal.com/taste/?id=110007199 What They're Reading at the Kitchen Table], a September 2005 article from the ''[[Wall Street Journal]]''
* [http://www.percipion.com/ Percipion.com] - homeschool resources and information.
* [http://homeschooling.gomilpitas.com/ A to Z Home's Cool] A portal for homeschooling, with [http://homeschooling.gomilpitas.com/articles/102299.htm consumer information].
* [http://giftedhomeschoolers.org Gifted Homeschoolers Forum] A [[California]]-based national association for families homeschooling [[gifted]] children.
* [http://www.naaha.com/ National African-American Homeschoolers Alliance] The largest and most comprehensive website and organization for [[African American]] homeschooling families
* [http://www.lifeofflorida.org/ Learning is for Everyone, Inc.], Supporting Family Choice in Learning
* [http://homeschooling.about.com/ About Homeschooling] An [[About.com]] homeschool community with forums, free ecourses, curriculum reviews, unit studies, clubs for the kids, and information for beginners
* [http://www.christian-parenting-source.com/ One family's guide to "Christian homeschooling"]
* [http://aha.typepad.com/resources/ American Homeschool Association's Resource Guide]
* [http://www.hwcn.org/~ap951 Radio Free School], a radio show devoted to homeschoolers, MP3 archive available
* [http://www.kinzaacademy.com Kinza Academy], Homeschooling with the Classics
* [http://www.eleos.co.uk Eleos], ACE/CEE Home-School, ACE/CEE Student Forum
==== Research ====
* [http://search.nces.ed.gov/query.html?qt=home+education National Center for Education Statistics (NCES)] Links to homeschool research and reports
* [http://www.nheri.org/ National Home Education Research Institute]
* [http://www.hslda.org/research/ray2003/ Homeschooling Grows Up]: The largest research survey to date of adults who were home-educated.
* ERIC digests from US De |
]], and the founder of the [[Bahá'í Faith]], [[Bahá'u'lláh]]. In addition, Bahá'u'lláh, a Persian, is claimed to be descended from Abraham through Abraham's wife [[Keturah]], asserting the Bahá'í Faith the same organic connection to Abraham that is claimed by Judaism and Christianity (through Sarah) and Islam (through Hagar).
==Abraham in the Hindu belief==
Theories speculate that Abraham may also be connected with Hinduism, remembered as the god Brahma, or Ram (who could have been called "Ab Ram" or "Father Ram." Striking coincidences fuel this theory: Abraham, who was known earlier in life as "Abram" was married to Sarah, who had changed her name from Sarai. In Hindu belief, "Brahma" was married to "Saraisvati." Additionally, Abraham and Sarah were both relatives and spouses; the same was true of Brahma and Saraisvati. Abraham is also claimed to be the founder of the ancient Sabean religion.
==Abraham in philosophy==
Abraham, as a man communicating with God or the divine, has inspired some fairly extensive discussion in some [[philosopher]]s, such as [[Søren Kierkegaard]] and [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]. Kierkegaard goes into Abraham's plight in considerable detail in his work ''[[Fear and Trembling]]''. Sartre understands the story not in terms of Christian obedience or a "teleological suspension of the ethical", but in terms of mankind's utter behavioral and moral freedom. God asks Abraham to sacrifice his only son. Sartre doubts that Abraham can know that the voice he hears is really the voice of his God and not of someone else, or the product of a mental condition. Thus, Sartre concludes, even if there are signs in the world, humans are totally free to decide how to interpret them.
==Abraham and his descendants (Biblical Perspective) ==
''For a full account of the '''historicity''' of Abrahamic stories in the book of'' [[Genesis]], ''see'' [[The Bible and history#The Patriarchs|Historicity of the Patriarchs]].
Biblical narratives represent Abraham as a wealthy, powerful and supremely virtuous man, but humanly flawed, and when afraid for himself, miscalculating, and a sometimes deceiver and an inconsiderate husband. But his central importance in the book of Genesis, and his portrait as a man favored by God, is unequivocal. Abraham's generations (Hebrew: ''[[toledoth]]'', translated to Greek: "Genesis") are presented as part of the crowning explanation of how the world has been fashioned by the hand of God, and how the boundaries and relationships of peoples were established by him.
As the father of Isaac and Ishmael, Abraham is ultimately the common ancestor of the [[Israelites]] and their neighbours. As the father of [[Ishmael]], whose twelve sons became desert princes (most prominently, [[Nebaioth]] and [[Kedar]]), along with [[Midian]], [[Sheba]] and other [[Arab]]ian tribes (25:1-4), the book of Genesis gives a portrait of Isaac's descendants as being surrounded by kindred peoples, who are also oft-times enemies. It seems that some degree of kinship was felt by the [[Hebrews]] with the dwellers of the more distant south, and it is characteristic of the genealogies that the mothers (Sarah, the Egyptian Hagar, and [[Keturah]]) are in the descending scale, perhaps of purity of blood, or as of purity of relationship, or of connectedness to Sarah: Sarah, her servant, her husband's other wife (or concubine). The Bible says of the Hebrew people: "Your father was a wandering Syrian".
As stated above, Abraham came from Ur in [[Babylonia]] to Haran and thence to [[Canaan]]. Late tradition supposed that the [[Migration (human)|migration]] was to escape Babylonian idolatry ([[Judith]] 5, [[Jubilees]] 12; cf. [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] 24:2), and knew of Abraham's miraculous escape from death (an obscure reference to some act of deliverance in [[Isaiah]] 29:22). The route along the banks of the [[Euphrates]] from south to north was so frequently taken by migrating tribes that the tradition has nothing improbable in itself. It was thence that [[Jacob]], the father of the tribes of Israel, came, and the route to [[Shechem]] and [[Bethel]] is precisely the same in both. A twofold migration is doubted by some, but from what is known of the situation in [[Canaan]] in the [[15th century BC]], not at all impossible.
Further, there is yet another parallel in the story of the conquest by Joshua, partly implied and partly actually detailed (cf. also Joshua 8:9 with Gen. 12:8, 13:3), whence it would appear that too much importance must not be laid upon any [[ethnological]] interpretation which fails to account for the three versions. That similar traditional elements have influenced them is not unlikely; but to recover the true historical foundation is difficult. The invasion or immigration of certain tribes from the east of the [[Jordan]]; the presence of [[Aramean]] blood among the Israelites; the origin of the sanctity of venerable sites &mdash; these and other considerations may readily be found to account for the traditions.
Noteworthy coincidences in the lives of Abraham and Isaac, such as the strong parallels between two tales of [[a wife confused for a sister]], point to the fluctuating state of traditions in the oral stage, or suggest that Abraham's life has been built up by borrowing from the common stock of popular lore. More original is the parting of Lot and Abraham at Bethel. The district was the scene of contests between [[Moab]] and the Hebrews (cf. perhaps [[Judges]] 3), and if this explains part of the story, the physical configuration of the [[Dead Sea]] may have led to the legend of the destruction of inhospitable and vicious cities.
===Arab connection===
Although historians have no non-religious evidence for Abraham's connection to the Arabs, and the historicity of Biblical accounts is questioned by academics (see [[The Bible and history]]), some believe that the area outlined as the final destination of Ishmael and his descendants (from Havilah to Assyria) refers to Northern [[Arabia]]. The earliest known record of the connection of Abrahams son, Ishmael, to the Arabs is by the [[Jewish]] historian [[Josephus]], who approximately 2000 years after such events, asserted that Ishmael was the father of the "Arab nation" [http://www.blessedquietness.com/alhaj/append-1.htm]. Little other information exists to understand the basis for Josephus' statement or his understanding of what he meant by "Arab nation", although one line in the [[Book of Jubilees]] (20:13) also mentions the tradition.
This has led to the notion of identifying Abraham as the father of the Arabs through Ishmael. In addition, Abraham's next wife, [[Keturah]], is said to have borne him a son named [[Midian]] who became father of the [[Midianites]][http://www.keyway.ca/htm2002/midian.htm]. The Midianites are also identified with the Arabs as they are said to have settled east of the [[Jordan River]][http://www.brow.on.ca/Books/Ishmael/Ishpost.htm]. In recent times some Christian polemical writers have insisted these claims are spurious and entirely made up by Muslims, although, they existed long before Islam arrived. Some have claimed that all of Ishmael's descendants in fact died out; and that most Arabs are descended from Joktan. The subject continues to be a source of controversy.
==Modern historical criticism==
Writers have regarded the life of Abraham in various ways. He has been viewed as a [[chieftain]] of the [[Amorites]], as the head of a great [[Semitic]] migration from [[Mesopotamia]]; or, since Ur and Haran were seats of [[Moon]]-worship, he has been identified with a moon-god. From the character of the literary evidence and the locale of the stories it has been held that Abraham was originally associated with Hebron. The double name Abram/Abraham has even suggested that two personages have been combined in the Biblical narrative; although this does not explain the change from Sarai to Sarah.
The narratives are not contemporary, and the interesting discovery of the name ''Abi-ramu'' (Abram) on Babylonian contracts of about [[2000 BC]] does not prove the Abram of the Old Testament to be an historical person, even as the fact that there were [[Amorites]] in Babylonia at the same period does not make it certain that the patriarch was one of their number. One remarkable chapter associates Abraham with kings of [[Elam]] and the east (''Genesis'' 14). No longer a peaceful sheikh but a warrior with a small army of 318 followers, he overthrows a combination of powerful monarchs who have ravaged the land. The genuineness of the narrative has been strenuously maintained, although upon insufficient grounds.
On the assumption that a recollection of some invasion in remote days may have been current, considerable interest is attached to the names. Of these, [[Amraphel]], king of [[Shinar]] (i.e., Babylonia, ''Genesis'' 10:10), has been in the past identified with [[Hammurabi]], one of the greatest of the Babylonian kings (ca. 2000 BC), and since he claims to have ruled as far west as the [[Mediterranean Sea]], the equation has found considerable favour. Apart from chronological difficulties, the identification of the king and his country is far from certain, and at the most can only be regarded as possible. [[Arioch]], king of [[Ellasar]], has been connected with [[Eriaku of Larsa]] &mdash; the reading has been questioned &mdash; a contemporary with Hammurabi. [[Chedorlaomer]], king of Elam, bears what is doubtless a genuine [[Elamite]] name, Kudur-Lagamer. Finally, the name of [[Tid'al]], king of [[Goiim]], may be identical with a certain [[Tudhulu]], the son of Gazza, a warrior, but apparently not a king, who is mentioned in a Babylonian inscription, and has been connected by others with [[Tudhaliya]], a predynastic Hittite king. Goiim (the Hebrew for "gentiles" or "nations") may also sta |
eeting Schedule====
In earlier times, Latter-day Saint meetings took place on Sunday morning and evening, with several meetings during the weekday. This arrangement was acceptable for Utah Saints, who generally lived within walking distance of a church building. Elsewhere other than Utah, however, this meeting schedule was seen as a logistical challenge. In [[1980]], the Church introduced the "Consolidated Meeting Schedule", in which the majority of church meetings were held on Sunday during a three-hour block.
While promoting convenience and making church practice compatible with non-Utahns, this new schedule has been criticized for eroding fellowshipping opportunities among North American Latter-day Saint youth. This erosion, in turn, has been blamed for decreasing LDS participation of young women to below that of young men, and for a downward trend in the percentage of LDS males who accept the call to serve a full time mission. ''See'' Quinn, ''Mormon Hierarchy: Extensions of Power''.
====Experiment in Shortening Full-Time Missionary Terms====
In 1982, the [[First Presidency]] announced that the length of service of male full-time [[missionaries]] would be reduced to 18 months. In 1984, a little more than 2 years later, it was announced that the length of service would be returned to its original length of 24 months ([http://www.dialoguejournal.com/excerpts/36-3a.asp]).
The change was publicized as a way to increase the ability for missionaries to serve. At the time, missionaries paid for all their expenses in their country of service. Recession during the Carter presidency pushed inflation higher and the exchange rate lower. This sudden increase in costs together with already high costs of living in Europe and other industrialized nations resulted in a steady decline in the number of missionaries able to pay for two full years of service. The shortening of the required service time from 24 to 18 months cut off this decline in numbers, leveling out in the period following the reinstatement. For those in foreign missions, this was barely enough time to learn a more difficult language and difficulty with language was reported.
Nevertheless, the shortened period of time also had an impact on numbers of conversions: they declined by 7% annually during the same period. Some also saw the shortening as a weakening of faithfulness among those who were eventually called as missionaries, less length meaning less commitment required in terms of faith. However, it has also been seen as a recognition by the leadership of changes within the [[LDS]] cultural climate. Young people were finding themselves not as connected to the activities and meetings that had set them apart from their peers. Intensive meeting schedules during the week and all day Sunday had brought them into contact with the culture of church service and missions on an almost constant basis. With the introduction of the shortened meeting schedule (a three hour block on Sundays), the loss of contact brought a decrease in activity among the age groups most likely to go on missions.
While the re-extension of mission terms was not a panacea for the problems of declining conversion numbers, a coordinated effort at improving youth attendance to activities on Sunday and other days of the week has seen both a record number of youth who serve missions (about 51,000 currently) and conversions (about 240,000 per year according to [http://www.lds.org/newsroom/showrelease/0,15503,3881-1-21259,00.html current church published statistics]). Record economic growth starting in the mid-1980's mostly erased the problem of finances preventing service. As a secondary measure, starting in 1990, paying for a mission became easier on those called to work in industrialized nations. Missionaries began paying into a church-wide general missionary fund instead of paying on their own. This amount paid (about $400 currently) is used by the church to pay for the costs of all missionaries, wherever they go. This enabled those going to Bolivia, whose average cost of living is about $100 per month, to help pay for those going to Japan, whose cost tops out at around $900 per month. The funds also go towards printing and distribution of materials used by missionaries such as tracts and the [[Book of Mormon]], which are given out for free.
===Reacting to pluralism===
====The role of women====
''Main article: [[Women and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]''
*Allowing women to speak in Sacrament Meetings
*Opposition to the Equal Rights Amendment
*E.T.Benson's views on whether women should work outside the home
*"The Family: A Proclamation to the World"
*Women and the Priesthood
''See'' '''[[Women and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]'''
====The Church, sexual orientation, and gender identity====
=====Doctrinal position on homosexuality=====
*In 1968, the General Handbook of Instructions added "homo-sexual acts" to the list of sins for which excommunication was appropriate.
*Statements about homosexuality by Church leaders
*New views on the separation between gay "identity" and gay "conduct"
=====Connections with the ex-gay movement=====
*Unofficial and informal connections to the [[ex-gay]] movement: shock therapy experiments at BYU; formation of [[Evergreen International, Inc.]]
*Hinckley: "Marriage should not be viewed as a therapeutic step to solve problems such as homosexual inclinations or practices, which first should clearly be overcome with a firm and fixed determination never to slip to such practices again."
=====The church and violence against LGBT people=====
In [[1976]], the church published a pamphlet containing a talk by [[Boyd K. Packer]], a member of the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]], who praised the actions of a [[Mormon missionary]] who [[assault]]ed his companion who had been flirting with him. This pamphlet is still distributed by the church to young men.
Recently, however, President [[Gordon B. Hinckley]] has condemned hatred and violence against "those who profess homosexual tendencies".
=====The church's political involvement in LGBT issues=====
In [[1992]], the [[First Presidency]] was involved in efforts to defeat a proposal which would include "sexual orientation" as a protected category in Utah's hate crime law.
Beginning in the mid-1990s, the Church began to focus its attention on the issue of [[same-sex marriage]]s. In [[1993]], the Supreme Court of the State of [[Hawaii]] held that discrimination against same-sex couples in the granting of marriage licences violated the Hawaiian constitution. In response, the Church's [[First Presidency]] issued a statement on [[February 13]], [[1994]] declaring its opposition to same-sex marriage, and urging its members to support efforts to outlaw gay and lesbian marriages. With the assistance of the LDS Church and several other religious organization, the Hawaiian legislature enacted a bill in [[1994]] outlawing same-sex marriages. Unofficially, the Church continued to oppose efforts in Hawaii to grant gay and lesbian families the right to enter [[civil union]]s with most of the same legal rights as heterosexual families, including adoption, child custody, and joint property rights.
As other states, including [[Vermont]] and [[Massachusetts]], began extending legal protections to same-sex couples, the Church continued to take an active role in preventing any legal recognition for families other than the heterosexual norm. In [[2004]], the Church officially endorsed an amendment to the [[United States Constitution]] banning marriage except between a man and a woman. The Church also officially announced its opposition to political measures that "confer legal status on any other sexual relationship" than a "man and a woman lawfully wedded as husband and wife." ("First Presidency Statement on Same-Gender Marriage", [[19 October]] [[2004]]). Although the statement was directed specifically to gay marriage, the statement could also be read to encompass political opposition by the Church to recognizing [[civil union]]s, [[common-law marriage]]s, [[plural marriage]]s, or other family arrangements.
=====LGBT Mormon support groups=====
While the Church's official stance has positioned it somewhat aloof from the interests of [[LGBT]] Mormons, some Church members have formed a number of unofficial support organizations. The most prominent organization, with roots beginning in the 1960s, is [[Affirmation: Gay & Lesbian Mormons]], whose mission is to "serve the needs of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender LDS and their supportive family and friends through social and educational activities". Other support organizations include [[Gamofites]], an organization for gay Mormon fathers; [http://www.wearewildflowers.com Wildflowers], a group for wives and former wives of gay Mormons; and the [http://www.glya.com Gay LDS Young Adults], an organization of gay Mormons aged 18-30.
====Challenges to Fundamental Church Doctrine====
In [[1967]], a set of papyrus manuscripts were discovered in the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] that appear to be the manuscripts from which [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] claimed to have translated the [[Book of Abraham]] in [[1835]]. These manuscripts were presumed lost in the Chicago fire of 1871. Analyzed by Egyptologists, the manuscripts were identified by some as ''The [[Book of the Dead]]'', an ancient Egyptian funery text. Moreover, the scholars' translations of certain portions of the scrolls disagreed with Smith's translation. This discovery rocked the community of Mormon scholars, and forced many Mormon apologists to moderate the earlier prevailing view that Smith's translations were literal one-to-one translations. As a result of this discovery, some Mormon apologists consider ''The Book of the Dead'' to be a starting-point that S |
gelatin]] products is as '''gelatin dessert,''' in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Australia]] gelatin desserts are referred to as '''[[jelly]],''' and in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]] (where "jelly" is a clear preserve stiffened by pectin and spread on bread) by its trademarked name, '''Jell-O'''. Gelatin for desserts is marketed as a flavored powder and sometimes in the form of loosely attached cubes, resembling a wobbly [[chocolate]] bar. Popular brands include '''Jell-O''' from [[Kraft Foods]] in North America, '''Rowntree's Jelly''' in the [[United Kingdom]] and Aeroplane Jelly in [[Australia]].
==Agar==
Some gelatinous desserts can be made with [[agar]] instead of gelatin, allowing them to congeal more quickly and at higher temperatures. Agar, a vegetable product, is used especially in quick jelly powder mix and Asian jelly deserts, but also for [[vegetarian]] alternatives. Agar is more closely related to pectin and other gelling plant carbohydrates.
==Extraction of collagen==
[[Industrial rendering|Animal rendering]] is a key step in the manufacture of gelatin desserts. The production of gelatin starts with the boiling of bones, skins, and hides of cows and pigs, in 70-foot vats to remove [[collagen]], which is then soaked and filtered. Horns or hooves are not used, as is traditionally thought. The extract is then dried and ground to form a powder, and is mixed with [[sugar]], [[adipic acid]], [[fumaric acid]], [[sodium citrate]], and artificial flavorings and [[food color]]s. Because the collagen is processed extensively, the final product is not categorized as a meat or animal product by the federal government.
==Safety==
Eating tainted beef may have led to variant [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]] (CJD) in humans, but there are no known cases of variant CJD transmitted through collagen products such as gelatin.
==Jello shots==
A party food where some sort of alcohol, usually [[rum]], [[vodka]], [[tequila]] or sometimes even [[Everclear (alcohol)|everclear]] replaces some of the water or fruit juice.
The American mathematician and satirist [[Tom Lehrer]] claimed to have invented the Jello shot while in working for the [[National Security Agency]], where he developed [[vodka]] Jell-O. This was done as a way to circumvent a restriction on alcoholic beverages on base.[http://home.teleport.com/~osh/leher.htm]
==Trivia==
* Jell-O is the official state [[snack food]] of [[Utah]], which is reported to have the highest per capita sales of green gelatin dessert of any U.S. state. Over-fondness of Jell-O is often considered a cliché trait of [[Mormonism|Mormon]]s even in other areas. See [[Jello Belt]].
* [[Bill Cosby]] is often associated with Jell-O because of the many commercials he made for Jell-O branded products.
{{cookbookpar|Rainbow Jello}}
[[Category:Desserts]]
[[de:Götterspeise]]
[[zh:果凍]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gulf of Mexico</title>
<id>13166</id>
<revision>
<id>41896038</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T13:06:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dalbury</username>
<id>374244</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix link to Cape Sable</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GulfofMexico3D.png|thumb|right|300px|Gulf of Mexico in 3D perspective.]]
The '''Gulf of Mexico''' is a major [[body of water]] bordered and nearly landlocked by [[North America]].
The gulf's eastern, north, and northwestern shores lie within the [[United States|United States of America]] (specifically, the states of [[Florida]], [[Alabama]], [[Mississippi]], [[Louisiana]], and [[Texas]]); its southwestern and southern shores lie within [[Mexico]] (specifically, the states of [[Tamaulipas]], [[Veracruz]], [[Tabasco]], [[Campeche]], [[Yucatán]], and [[Quintana Roo]]); on the southeast it is bordered by [[Cuba]]. It connects with the [[Atlantic Ocean]] via the [[Florida Straits]] between the U.S. and Cuba, and with the [[Caribbean Sea]] via the [[Yucatan Channel]] between Mexico and Cuba.
(Note: In common usage, at least in the U.S., the term "Gulf Coast" usually refers to either the continuous portion of the coast running from [[Cape Sable]], [[Florida]], to [[Brownsville, Texas]], or from Cape Sable, Florida, to the northern tip of the [[Yucatán Peninsula]] at [[Cabo Catoche, Quintana Roo]]. Both meanings exclude Cuba as well as the [[Florida Keys]].)
[[Image:GolfVanMexico.jpg|left|frame|Gulf of Mexico.]]
The total area of the Gulf of Mexico is approximately 615,000 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]] (1.6 million km&sup2;), the southern third of which lies within the tropics, and plunges to a depth of 2,080 [[fathom]]s (3804 m). This deepest part is [[Sigsbee Deep]], an irregular trough more than 300 [[nautical mile]]s (550 km) long, sometimes called the "[[Grand Canyon]] under the sea." The cooler water from the deep stimulates plankton growth, which attracts small fish, shrimp, and squid. [http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/GG/rrg7.html 1] The [[Gulf Stream]], a warm Atlantic Ocean current and one of the strongest [[ocean current]]s known, originates in the gulf. The gulf has been visited many times by powerful Atlantic [[hurricane]]s, some of which have caused extensive human death and other destruction (see [[2005]]'s [[Hurricane Katrina]], for example).
[[Tides|Tidal ranges]] are extremely small in the Gulf of Mexico due to the narrow connection with the ocean &ndash; much like the [[Mediterranean]].
The [[Bay of Campeche]] in Mexico constitutes a major arm of the Gulf of Mexico. Additionally, the gulf's shoreline is fringed by numerous bays and smaller inlets. A number of rivers empty into the gulf, most notably the [[Mississippi River]]. The land that forms the gulf's coast, including many long, narrow barrier islands, is almost uniformly low-lying and is characterized by marshes and swamps as well as stretches of sandy beach.
The [[continental shelf]] is quite wide at most points along the coast. The shelf is exploited for its [[petroleum|oil]] by means of offshore drilling rigs, most of which are situated in the western gulf. Another important commercial activity is fishing; major catches include various fishes as well as shrimp and crabs, with oysters being harvested on a large scale from many of the bays and sounds. Other important industries along the coast include shipping, petrochemical processing and storage, paper manufacture, and tourism.
Coastal cities of note include [[Tampa, Florida|Tampa]], [[St. Petersburg, Florida|St. Petersburg]], [[Pensacola, Florida|Pensacola]], [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]], [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]], [[Beaumont, Texas|Beaumont]], and [[Houston, Texas|Houston]] (all in the U.S.), [[Tampico|Tampico]], [[Tuxpam|Tuxpam]], [[Veracruz (city)|Veracruz]] and [[Mérida, Yucatán|Mérida]] (in Mexico), and [[Havana]] (in Cuba).
The gulf's coastal areas were first settled by [[Native American (Americas)|Native American]] groups, including those representing several of the early advanced cultures of Mexico. During the period of [[European colonization of the Americas|European exploration and colonization]] the entire region became a theatre of contention between the [[Spain|Spanish]], [[France|French]] and [[United Kingdom|English]]. The present-day culture of the coastal region is primarily Spanish-American (Mexico, Cuba) and Anglo-American (U.S.).
[[Image:Fishing Fleet in Biloxi.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Fishing boats in Biloxi]]
A point of interest about the Gulf is that 65 million years ago, the [[Chicxulub crater]] was formed when a large meteorite hit the earth. It is hypothesized that this impact was the [[asteroid]] that caused the extinction of the non-avian [[dinosaur]]s. [http://web.ukonline.co.uk/a.buckley/dino.htm]
==Pollution==
Because of the ever increasing amount of [[nitrogen]] and [[phosphate]]s dissolved in the waters of the Gulf of Mexico, pollution has more than doubled since 1950. Current estimates suggest that three times as much nitrogen is being carried into the Gulf today compared with levels 30 years ago or at any time in history. Blooms of photosynthesizers die and sink, and the processes of their decay exhausts the available supplies of oxygen dissolved in the water. Every summer there is now an area south of the Louisiana coastline, larger than the [[U.S. state]] of [[Massachusetts]] at over 7,000 mi&sup2; (18,000 km&sup2;) that is [[hypoxia (water)|hypoxic]]. These waters do not carry enough oxygen to sustain marine life. This annually enlarging [[dead zone (ecology)|dead zone]] is a major threat to the fishing industry and to public health.
Also, there are frequent "[[red tide]]" algae blooms that kill fish and marine mammals and cause respiratory problems in humans and some domestic animals when the blooms reach close to shore. This has especially been plaguing the southwest Florida coast, from the Keys to north of Pasco County,wyomiong
==See also==
*[[Gulf Coast of the United States]]
*[[Gulf Coast of Mexico]]
==External links==
*[http://www.epa.gov/water/yearofcleanwater/docs/Hypoxia_Factsheet.pdf EPA factsheet on hypoxia]
*[http://www.ncat.org/nutrients/hypoxia/hypoxia.html Gulf of Mexico hypoxia]
[[Category:Gulfs|Mexico]]
[[Category:Gulf of Mexico| ]]
[[cs:Mexický záliv]]
[[da:Mexicanske Golf]]
[[de:Golf von Mexiko]]
[[et:Mehhiko laht]]
[[es:Golfo de México]]
[[eo:Meksika Golfo]]
[[fr:Golfe du Mexique]]
[[ga:Murascaill Mheicsiceo]]
[[gl:Golfo de México]]
[[ko:멕시코 만]]
[[he:מפרץ מקסיקו]]
[[lt:Meksikos įlanka]]
[[jbo:mexyxas]]
[[nl:Golf van Mexico]]
[[ja:メキシコ湾]]
[[no:Mexicogolfen]]
[[pl:Zatoka Meksykańska]]
[[pt:Golfo do México]]
[[ru:Мексиканский залив]]
[[sk:Mexický záliv]]
[[sv:Mexikanska golfen]]
[[uk:Мексиканська затока]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>George, Duke of Saxony</title>
<id>13168</id>
<revision>
<id>38733808< |
([[1998]]). Its [[mod (computer gaming)|mod]], ''[[Counter-Strike]]'' had an effect on popular culture comparative to that of ''Doom'', in that it created yet again mass awareness for the genre in the mainstream. Additionally, it was highly supportive of the modding community: so far it had brought numerous mods into its official line, which included but was not limited to ''[[Team Fortress Classic]]'', ''[[Counter-Strike]]'', and ''[[Day of Defeat]]''. Valve has released the sequel of their game, ''[[Half-Life 2]]'', which has a publically available SDK including mapping, animation, and sound tools; as well as source for the game logic in ''Half-Life 2''.
==Selected important games in FPS development==
A chronoglogical listing attempting at listing the more "ground-breaking" or "influential" games from this [[genre]], mainly the more popular or well known examples:
:''[[Maze War]]'' ([[1973]])
:''[[Battlezone]]'' ([[1980]])
:''[[3D Monster Maze]]'' ([[1981]]) &mdash; the first 3D game for a home computer, requiring the player to navigate a 3D maze in the first person avoiding a lurking dinosaur.
:''[[Ultima Underworld]]'' ([[1992]]) &mdash; An &ldquo;unsung hero&rdquo; of the FPS genre, and perhaps the first game to belong to it properly. The player character could defeat enemies with projectile weapons (bows, crossbows) or with melee weapons (swords, cudgels, etc.). Technologies such as walls of varying heights, non-perpendicular walls, inclined surfaces, and swimming were ahead of their time. A moderate commercial success, it was soon overshadowed by subsequent titles that nonetheless used inferior technology.
:''[[Wolfenstein 3D]]'' ([[1992]]) &mdash; The first resounding commercial success of the FPS genre. Also a turning point in the history of [[shareware]]. Although limited to perpendicular walls and floors and monochrome ceilings and floors, the game became very popular as many players&rsquo; first encounters with the first-person perspective in a computer game.
:''[[Pathways Into Darkness]]'' ([[1993]]) &mdash; Arguably the earliest first-person shooter for the [[Apple Macintosh]], mixes RPG and adventure elements with action. Also noteworthy for being the "spiritual prequel" to ''Marathon'' and ''Halo''.
:''[[Doom]]'' ([[1993]]) &mdash; This game was as influential in the future of the FPS genre as any game has ever been. Much closer to a true 3D experience than Wolf 3D (but still perhaps less so than [[Ultima Underworld]]), it added walls of varying heights and new lighting effects. Much of the controversy over video-game violence was attributed to this title.
:''[[Descent (computer game)|Descent]]'' ([[1994]]) &mdash; Some consider this game to the first true 3D FPS. This game was unique among FPSs at the time when most FPSs were considered Doom-clones. The player flew into robot infested mines in a hovercraft with a full six degrees of freedom of movement. Enemies were represented by true 3D polygon meshes, which Quake would later use, and the representation of the world geometry removed most of the 2.5D limitations that Doom had.
:''[[Marathon (computer game)|Marathon]]'' ([[1994]]) &mdash; The first in a trilogy - possibly the most popular series among veteran Mac users; notable for its extremely complex storyline.
:''[[Star Wars: Dark Forces]]'' ([[1995]]) &mdash; This game, based on the [[Star Wars]] franchise, was [[LucasArts]]'s attempt to corner the FPS market. Through its particular variety of gameplay additions, rather than its use of a popular franchise, ''Dark Forces'' sticks out as a remarkably playable example of an early FPS. While less noted than other titles, it is arguably as influential in the genre.
:''[[Duke Nukem 3D]]'' ([[1996]]) &mdash; This early FPS is better remembered by more fans of the genre than even Doom. Serious fans generally accept ''Doom'' as more important, but Duke was more widely publicised in its time and so has a greater mass appeal.
:''[[Quake]]'' ([[1996]]) &mdash; The first true 3D "standard" FPS (Descent being the notable exception), it started the move to true 3D in the FPS genre. It also started the big wave of popularity of online multiplayer games by allowing multiplayer games to take place over the internet.
:''[[GoldenEye 007]]'' ([[1997]]) &mdash; The first successfully implemented FPS on a console, ''GoldenEye'' was acclaimed for a strong, realistic single-player mode and a highly popular multiplayer section.
:''[[Unreal]]'' ([[1998]]) &mdash; One of the first FPS games to take place in large, open terrain, and a technological and visual breakthrough at the time.
:''[[Starsiege: Tribes]]'' ([[1998]]) &mdash; The first FPS to seamlessly integrate first person shooting with vehicles driven from a third person perspective.
:''[[Half-Life]]'' ([[1998]]) &mdash; Used a lot of scripted events to tell its story and set the mood; the level of artistry inherent to both the story and gameplay raised the standards of the FPS industry to new heights.
:''[[Soldier of Fortune (computer game)|Soldier of Fortune]]'' ([[1999]]) &mdash; Using a highly modified ''Quake 2'' engine, ''Soldier of Fortune'' added location-based damage, as well as other less important advances.
:''[[Thief (computer game)|Thief]]'' ([[1998]]) &mdash; The first first-person "sneaker".
:''[[Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six|Rainbow Six]]'' ([[1998]]) &mdash; The first realistic, squad-based FPS to gain a wide following and acclaim. Numerous sequels have been made. The first FPS game to fall into the "simulation" category.
:''[[System Shock#System Shock 2|System Shock 2]]'' ([[1999]]) &mdash; This was one of the first games to successfully implement an interesting story and RPG elements into the gameplay.
:''[[Counter-Strike]]'' ([[1999]]) &mdash; Still the most popular FPS "game", Counter-Strike is a Half-Life MOD that quickly won popular acclaim and helped redefine the multiplayer genre.
:''[[Deus Ex]]'' ([[2000]]) &mdash; An RPG-FPS hybrid and a massive success that many critics cited as an example of "video games as art".
:''[[Halo: Combat Evolved]]'' ([[2001]]) &mdash; The first successful FPS on a console since ''GoldenEye'', ''Halo'' also featured an expanded role for vehicles in game and cinematic elements which appealed to a wide audience.
:''[[Battlefield 1942]]'' ([[2002]]) &mdash; The most successful large scale, vehicle-based FPS in the vein of ''Tribes'', ''BF1942'' has popularized an expanding genre of massive-scale online FPS games.
:''[[Metroid Prime]]'' ([[2002]]) &mdash; Classic Metroid gameplay merged with an FPS. It abandoned ammo restrictions for the main weapons, presented platforming in first-person with unprecedented success, featured a unique "scan" based narrative, and made a clever marraige of first-person and third-person gameplay through the use of the classic Metroid "morph-ball", thus pioneering numerous avenues of FPS gameplay innovation.
:''[[Star Wars: Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast]]'' ([[2002]]) &mdash; Saber dueling was very well implemented with advanced melee fighting.
:''[[Doom 3]]'' ([[2004]]) &mdash; The first game to calculate all lighting in real-time and to use an unified lighting system (with no lightmaps).
:''[[Halo 2]]'' ([[2004]]) &mdash; Direct sequel to Halo: Combat Evolved. Most noteable for its online multiplayer in which it attracted over a million subscribers to the Xbox Live service. It has brought attention to online console gaminig in which it can be taken as seriously as online PC gaming.
:''[[Half-Life 2]]'' ([[2004]]) &mdash; Direct sequel to Half-Life. The game continued the narrative techniques of the first title, but the implementation of the physics engine was particularly noteworthy. This can be considered the first FPS game to make extended use of physics puzzles.
{{seealso|List of first-person shooters}}
For a comprehensive list of the genre, see the '''[[list of computer and video games by genre#First-person shooters|list of computer and video games by genre]]'''.
==See also==
* [[List of computer and video games]]
*
* [[List of firearms in first-person shooters]]
* [[First person shooter graphics engines]]
* [[Massively multiplayer online first-person shooter|MMOFPS]]
* [[List of free first-person shooters]]
* [[First-person narrative]]
==External links==
* [http://www.mobygames.com/browse/games/l,7/c,1/?o=2a14 MobyGames' collection of FPS documentation and reviews]
* [http://www.oldmanmurray.com/features/39.html Old Man Murray's Crate Review System spoof]
{{VideoGameGenre}}
[[Category:First-person shooters|List of first-person shooters]]
[[Category:First-person shooters| ]]
[[Category:Computer and video game genres]]
[[Category:Man to Man wargames]]
[[de:Ego-Shooter]]
[[es:Acción en primera persona]]
[[fr:Jeu de tir subjectif]]
[[ko:1인칭 슈팅 게임]]
[[it:Sparatutto in prima persona]]
[[nl:First person shooter]]
[[ja:ファーストパーソン・シューティングゲーム]]
[[pl:First person shooter]]
[[pt:Tiro em primeira pessoa]]
[[ru:Шутер от первого лица]]
[[simple:First-person shooter]]
[[fi:FPS-peli]]
[[sv:First person shooter]]
[[zh:第一人称射击游戏]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fiorentina</title>
<id>11792</id>
<revision>
<id>15909514</id>
<timestamp>2004-06-20T18:26:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dale Arnett</username>
<id>25667</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[ACF Fiorentina]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Frederick William I of Prussia</title>
<id>11794</id>
<revision>
<id>38372797</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T22:29:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Snek01</username>
<id>306659</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>:cs</com |
] 1989–present (includes all HWY61-L posts)
*Search the Dylan Mailing List Archives [http://listserv.acsu.buffalo.edu/cgi-bin/wa?S1=hwy61-l HWY61-L] 1995–present (includes many rec.music.dylan posts, with wheat separated from chaff)
*[http://www.edlis.org EDLIS]
*[http://www.geocities.com/temptations_page/DylGuide.html The Annotated Bob Dylan]
*Master & Disciple – [http://www.thrasherswheat.org/jammin/dylan.htm Bob Dylan & Neil Young]
*[http://www.new-pony.com/timeline.html Bob Dylan Timeline]
*[http://www.my-back-pages.com my-back-pages] Online Dylan community (message board)
*[http://www.bobdylantalk.com BobDylanTalk.com], a discussion forum for fans of the music of Bob Dylan.
*[http://www.music-city.org/discography.php?artist=Bob+Dylan Bob Dylan's discography, news, and bio] from Music City
*[http://thefreewheelin.org Unofficial Bob Dylan "fanlisting"]
*[http://www.bob-dylan.tk Bob Dylan Starting Point] - Started out as a portal of sorts, now it's more like a blog, featuring news on cd's, books etc.
*[http://pool.dylantree.com Dylanpool] - Setlist prediction game and discussion boards
{{Bob Dylan}}
[[Category:Bob Dylan| ]]
[[Category:1941 births|Dylan, Bob]]
[[Category:1960s|Dylan, Bob]]
[[Category:American male singers|Dylan, Bob]]
[[Category:American poets|Dylan, Bob]]
[[Category:Folk singers|Dylan, Bob]]
[[Category:Greenwich Village Scene|Dylan, Bob]]
[[Category:Jewish American musicians|Dylan, Bob]]
[[Category:Jewish-American singers|Dylan, Bob]]
[[Category:Living people|Dylan, Bob]]
[[Category:Minnesota musicians|Dylan, Bob]]
[[Category:Musical activists|Dylan, Bob]]
[[Category:New York musicians|Dylan, Bob]]
[[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees|Dylan, Bob]]
[[Category:Singer-songwriters|Dylan, Bob]]
{{featured article}}
[[ast:Bob Dylan]]
[[ca:Bob Dylan]]
[[cs:Bob Dylan]]
[[cy:Bob Dylan]]
[[da:Bob Dylan]]
[[de:Bob Dylan]]
[[el:Μπομπ Ντίλαν]]
[[es:Bob Dylan]]
[[eo:Bob DYLAN]]
[[fo:Bob Dylan]]
[[fr:Bob Dylan]]
[[fy:Bob Dylan]]
[[it:Bob Dylan]]
[[he:בוב דילן]]
[[li:Bob Dylan]]
[[hu:Bob Dylan]]
[[nl:Bob Dylan]]
[[ja:ボブ・ディラン]]
[[no:Bob Dylan]]
[[pl:Bob Dylan]]
[[pt:Bob Dylan]]
[[ro:Bob Dylan]]
[[ru:Дилан, Боб]]
[[scn:Bob Dylan]]
[[simple:Bob Dylan]]
[[sk:Bob Dylan]]
[[fi:Bob Dylan]]
[[sv:Bob Dylan]]
[[tr:Bob Dylan]]
[[uk:Ділан Боб]]
[[zh:鲍勃·迪伦]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Byrd, Robert</title>
<id>3346</id>
<revision>
<id>15901688</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Robert Byrd]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BLM</title>
<id>3347</id>
<revision>
<id>35333940</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-16T00:25:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wangi</username>
<id>339108</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv, [[MoS:DP]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''BLM''' may stand for:
*[[Bureau of Land Management]], United States
*[[Brushless Motor]], a brushless DC or AC motor
*[[Bergbahn Lauterbrunnen-Mürren]], a railway in Switzerland, part funicular, part adhesion
*[[Black Mage]], a job in Final Fantasy XI
*[[Bilayer lipid membrane]]
*[[Bloom syndrome]] gene
*[[Block Land Mods]]
*[[Basic Learning Materials]]
*[[Beam Loss Measurement]]
*[[Biotic Ligand Model]]
*[[Black Line Master]]
*[[Border Liaison Mechanism]], joint governmental instrument between United States and Mexico
*[[Boundary Layer Model]]
{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Business and Industry</title>
<id>3348</id>
<revision>
<id>15901690</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-14T20:48:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LittleDan</username>
<id>8995</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[business]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Business Schools</title>
<id>3349</id>
<revision>
<id>15901691</id>
<timestamp>2003-04-26T19:49:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mic</username>
<id>6273</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Business school]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Breaking</title>
<id>3350</id>
<revision>
<id>15901692</id>
<timestamp>2003-12-23T16:27:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>144.137.136.30</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Breakdancing]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blues</title>
<id>3352</id>
<revision>
<id>41990528</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:02:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RobHutten</username>
<id>279430</id>
</contributor>
<comment>removing comercial advertising content</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses|Blues}}
{{Bluesbox}}
The '''blues''' is a [[vocal music|vocal]] and instrumental form of [[music]] based on a [[pentatonic scale]] and a characteristic [[twelve bar blues|twelve-bar]] [[chord progression]]. The form evolved in the [[United States]] in the communities of former African [[slavery|slave]]s from [[spiritual (music)|spirituals]], praise songs, field hollers, shouts, and [[chant]]s. The use of [[blue note]]s and the prominence of [[call and response (music)|call-and-response]] patterns in the music and lyrics are indicative of the blues' [[West Africa]]n pedigree. The blues has been a major influence on later American and Western [[popular music]], finding expression in [[ragtime]], [[jazz]], [[bluegrass music|bluegrass]], [[rhythm and blues]], [[rock and roll]], [[hip-hop]], and [[country music]], as well as conventional [[pop song]]s.
The phrase ''the blues'' is a synonym for having a fit of ''the blue devils'', meaning low spirits, depression and sadness. An early reference to this can be found in [[George Colman the Younger|George Colman]]'s [[farce]] ''Blue devils, a farce in one act'' (1798). Later during the 19th century, the phrase was used as a euphemism for [[delirium tremens]] and the [[police]]. Though usage of the phrase in [[African American music]] may be older, it has been attested to since 1912 in [[Memphis, Tennessee]] with [[W. C. Handy]]'s "[[Memphis Blues]]".{{ref|oed}}{{ref|slang}} In lyrics the phrase is often used to describe a depressed mood.{{ref|bolden}}
==Characteristics==
===Origins===
There are few characteristics common to all blues, because the genre takes its shape from the peculiarities of individual performances.{{ref|noabsolute}} However, some characteristics have been present since before the creation of the modern blues and are common to most styles of [[African American music]]. The earliest blues-like music was a "functional expression, rendered in a call-and-response style without accompaniment or harmony and unbounded by the formality of any particular musical structure."{{ref|pre-blues}} This pre-blues music was adapted from slave field shouts and hollers, expanded into "simple solo songs laden with emotional content".{{ref|origins}} The blues, as it is now known, can be seen as a musical style based on both European [[harmony |harmonic structure]] and the West African call-and-response tradition, transformed into an interplay of voice and guitar.{{ref|interplay}}
Many blues elements, such as the call-and-response format and the use of blue notes, can be traced back to the [[music of Africa]]. Sylviane Diouf has pointed to several specific traits—such as the use of [[melisma]] and a wavy, nasal intonation—that suggest a connection between the music of West and Central Africa and blues{{ref|Muslimmusic}}. [[Ethnomusicology |Ethnomusicologist]] [[Gerhard Kubik]] may have been the first to contend that certain elements of the blues have roots in the [[Muslim music|Islamic music]] of West and Central Africa.
<blockquote>Stringed instruments (which were favored by slaves from Muslim regions of Africa…), were generally allowed because slave owners considered them akin to European instruments like the violin. So slaves who managed to cobble together a banjo or other instrument…could play more widely in public. This solo-oriented slave music featured elements of an Arabic-Islamic song style that had been imprinted by centuries of Islam's presence in West Africa, says Gerhard Kubik, an ethnomusicology professor at the University of Mainz in Germany who has written the most comprehensive book on Africa's connection to blues music (''Africa and the Blues'').[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/08/15/INGMC85SSK1.DTL]</blockquote>
Kubik also pointed out that the Mississippi technique of playing the guitar using a knife blade, recorded by [[W.C. Handy]] in his autobiography, is common to West and Central Africa cultures where the [[Kora (instrument)|kora]], a guitar-like instrument, is often the stringed instrument of choice. This technique consists of pressing a knife against the strings of the guitar, and is a possible antecedent of the [[slide guitar]] technique.
[[Image:Robertjohson.jpg|thumb|left|175px|[[Robert Johnson]], a [[Delta blues]] singer, is generally considered responsible for the standardization of the 12-bar blues.]]
Blues music later adopted elements from the "Ethiopian airs"—"Ethiopian" is used here to mean "[[black people|black]]"—of [[minstrel show]]s and [[Negro spiritual]]s, including instrumental and harmonic accompaniment.{{ref|bluesevolution}} The style also was closely related to [[ragtime]], which developed at about the same time, though the blues better preserved "the original melodic patterns of African music".{{ref|ragtimeblues}} Songs from this early period had many different structures. Examples |
ractice, GET requests are often used to pass [[HTML]] form values or other data to an HTTP server. These requests can cause changes on the server, through [[CGI]] execution, which may result in different effects for successive identical requests. For example, an HTML page may use a link to cause the deletion of a [[database]] record; merely GET-ing a particular [[URL]] on a server will cause the CGI application on the server to delete a record, thus causing a change of the server's state and possibly making identical following requests to this URL to fail, on account of the database record already being deleted. This behavior is technically discouraged (non-idempotent actions should ideally be initiated by a '''POST''' request) but is very common on the modern World Wide Web. Such behavior can cause problems because various schemes for caching web pages, such as [[search engines]], which by design GET pages before a user initiates a request, can cause unintentional changes on a server.
HTTP servers are supposed to implement at least GET and HEAD methods and, whenever possible, also OPTIONS method.
==HTTP versions==
HTTP differs from other TCP-based protocols such as [[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]], because HTTP has different protocol versions:
* '''0.9''' Deprecated. Was never widely used. Only supports one command, GET. Does not support headers. Since this version does not support POST the client can't pass much information to the server.
* '''HTTP/1.0''' Still in wide use, especially by proxy servers. Allows persistent connections (alias keep-alive connections, more than one request-response per TCP/IP connection) when explicitly negotiated; however, this only works well when not using proxy servers.
* '''HTTP/1.1''' Current version; persistent connections enabled by default and works well with proxies. Also supports request pipelining, allowing multiple requests to be sent at the same time, allowing the server to prepare for the workload and potentially transfer the requested resources more quickly to the client.
==Status codes==
In HTTP/1.0 and since, the first line of the HTTP response is called the ''status line'' and includes a numeric ''status code'' (such as "200") and a textual ''reason phrase'' (such as "OK"). The way the [[user agent]] handles the response primarily depends on the code and secondarily on the response headers. Custom status codes can be used since if the user agent encounters a code it does not recognize, it can use the first digit of the code to determine the general class of the response. [http://www.w3.org/Protocols/rfc2616/rfc2616-sec6.html#sec6.1]
Also, the standard reason phrases are only recommendations and can be replaced with "local equivalents" at [[web developer]]'s discretion. If the status code indicated a problem, the user agent might display the reason phrase to the user to provide further information about the nature of the problem. The standard also allows the user agent to attempt to interpret the reason phrase, though this might be unwise since the standard explicitly specifies that status codes are machine-readable and reason phrases are human-readable.
In practice, the reason phrase is unlikely to reach the user and is never interpreted. All modern [[web browser]]s rely on the status code to determine the handling and the response body to inform the user. However, the reason phrase may be logged and thus custom reason phrases might help in [[debugging]].
See [[list of HTTP status codes]] for a list of all widely known status codes and associated standard reason phrases.
==HTTP connection persistence==
In HTTP/0.9 and HTTP/1.0, a client sends a request to the server, the server sends a response back to the client. After this, the connection is closed. HTTP/1.1, however, supports persistent connections. This enables the client to send a request and get a response, and then send additional requests and get additional responses. The TCP connection is not released for the multiple additional requests, so the relative overhead due to TCP is much less per request. The use of persistent connection is often called ''keep alive''. It is also possible to send more than one (usually between two and five) request before getting responses from previous requests. This is called ''[[HTTP pipelining|pipelining]]''.
There is a HTTP/1.0 extension for connection persistence, but its utility is limited due to HTTP/1.0's lack of unambiguous rules for delimiting messages. This extension uses a header called <code>Keep-Alive</code>, while the HTTP/1.1 connection persistence uses the <code>Connection</code> header. Therefore a HTTP/1.1 may choose to support either just HTTP/1.1 connection persistence, or both HTTP/1.0 and HTTP/1.1 connection persistence. Some HTTP/1.1 clients and servers do not implement connection persistence or have it disabled in their configuration.
==HTTP connection closing==
Both HTTP servers and clients are allowed to close TCP/IP connections at any time (i.e. depending on their settings, their load, etc.). This feature makes HTTP ideal for the World Wide Web, where pages regularly link to many other pages on the same server or to external servers.
Closing an HTTP/1.1 connection can be a much longer operation (from 200 milliseconds up to several seconds) than closing an HTTP/1.0 connection, because the first usually needs a '''linger''' close while the second can be immediately closed as soon as the entire first request has been read and the full response has been sent.
==HTTP session state==
HTTP can occasionally pose problems for Web developers (Web Applications), because HTTP is [[stateless server|stateless]] (i.e. it does not keep session information) so this "feature" forces the use of alternative methods for maintaining users' "state". Many of these methods involve the use of [[HTTP cookie|cookies]].
==Secure HTTP==
{{main|https: URI scheme}}
<tt>https:</tt> is a URI scheme syntactically identical to the <tt>http:</tt> scheme used for normal HTTP connections, but which signals the browser to use an added encryption layer of [[Transport Layer Security|SSL/TLS]] to protect the traffic. SSL is especially suited for HTTP since it can provide some protection even if only one side to the communication is authenticated. In the case of HTTP transactions over the Internet, typically only the server side is authenticated.
==Sample==
Below is a sample conversation between an HTTP client and an HTTP server running on www.example.com, [[port 80]].
'''Client request''' (followed by a blank line, so that request ends with a double [[newline]], each in the form of a [[carriage return]] followed by a [[line feed]].):
<pre>
GET /index.html HTTP/1.1
Host: www.example.com
</pre>
The "Host" header distinguishes between various [[Domain Name System|DNS]] names sharing a single [[IP address]], allowing name-based [[Virtual hosting|virtual hosting]]. While optional in HTTP/1.0, it is mandatory in HTTP/1.1.
'''Server response''' (followed by a blank line and text of the requested page):
<pre>
HTTP/1.1 200 OK
Date: Mon, 23&nbsp;May 2005&nbsp;22:38:34 GMT
Server: Apache/1.3.27 (Unix) (Red-Hat/Linux)
Last-Modified: Wed, 08 Jan 2003 23:11:55 GMT
Etag: "3f80f-1b6-3e1cb03b"
Accept-Ranges: bytes
Content-Length: 438
Connection: close
Content-Type: text/html; charset=UTF-8
</pre>
==See also==
* [[404 error]]
* [[Uniform resource locator]]
* [[Basic authentication scheme]]
* [[Digest access authentication]]
* [[Captive portal]]
* [[HTTP proxy]]
* [[Content negotiation]]
* [[WebDAV]]
==External links==
===Specifications and references===
* HTTP/1.0 specification (May 1996) as plain text: RFC 1945
* HTTP/1.1 specification (June 1999) as plain text: RFC 2616; also [http://www.w3.org/Protocols/rfc2616/rfc2616.html as HTML], [ftp://ftp.isi.edu/in-notes/rfc2616.ps as PostScript], and [http://www.w3.org/Protocols/HTTP/1.1/rfc2616.pdf as PDF];
* [http://purl.org/NET/http-errata HTTP/1.1 specification errata]
* [[Tim Berners-Lee]]'s [http://www.w3.org/Protocols/HTTP/HTTP2.html original 1992 Internet-Draft]
* [http://www.eventhelix.com/RealtimeMantra/Networking/http_sequence_diagram.pdf HTTP Sequence Diagram] (PDF)
===Tutorials and tools===
* [http://www.jmarshall.com/easy/http/ HTTP Made Really Easy]
* [http://analyze.forret.com HTTP header viewer]
* [http://www.webconfs.com/http-header-check.php HTTP Header Check - Bookmarklet]
* [http://web-sniffer.net/ View HTTP Request and Response Header]
* Command-line HTTP clients: [http://curl.haxx.se/ cURL], [http://www.gnu.org/software/wget/wget.html Wget], [http://www.xach.com/snarf/ Snarf], [http://www.freebsd.org/cgi/cvsweb.cgi/src/usr.bin/fetch/ fetch]
* [http://www.watchfire.com/resources/HTTP-Request-Smuggling.pdf HTTP Request Smuggling] (PDF) (registration required)
* [http://www.http-compression.com HTTP compression]
* [http://livehttpheaders.mozdev.org/ Live HTTP Headers Extension for Firefox]
[[Category:Internet protocols]]
[[Category:Internet standards]]
[[Category:HTTP]]
[[ar:HTTP]]
[[ca:Protocol de transferència d'hipertext]]
[[cs:HTTP]]
[[da:HTTP]]
[[de:Hypertext Transfer Protocol]]
[[et:Hypertext Transfer Protocol]]
[[es:Hypertext Transfer Protocol]]
[[eo:Hiperteksto-Transiga Protokolo]]
[[fr:Hypertext Transfer Protocol]]
[[ko:HTTP]]
[[id:HTTP]]
[[it:HTTP]]
[[he:HTTP]]
[[lv:HTTP]]
[[lt:HTTP]]
[[lb:Hypertext Transfer Protocol]]
[[hu:HTTP]]
[[nl:Hypertext Transfer Protocol]]
[[ja:Hypertext Transfer Protocol]]
[[no:HTTP]]
[[nn:Hypertext Transfer Protocol]]
[[pl:HTTP]]
[[pt:Protocolo de Transferência de Hipertexto]]
[[ro:HTTP]]
[[ru:HTTP]]
[[sk:Hypertext Transfer Protocol]]
[[sl:HTTP]]
[[fi:HTTP]]
[[sv:HTTP]]
[[tl:HTTP]]
[[th:HyperText Transfer Protocol]]
[[tr:HTTP]]
[[zh:超文本传输协议]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hans Christian Ørsted</title>
|
eon ([[Viral Eukaryogenesis|alternatively]] a virus).
* Eukaryotes developed from Archaea, and acquired their eubacterial characteristics from the proto-mitochondrion.
* Eukaryotes and Archaea developed separately from a modified eubacterium.
The origin of the endomembrane system and mitochondria are also disputed. The '''phagotrophic hypothesis''' states the membranes originated with the development of endocytosis and later specialized; mitochondria were acquired by ingestion, like plastids. The '''syntrophic hypothesis''' states that the proto-eukaryote relied on the proto-mitochondrion for food, and so ultimately grew to surround it; the membranes originate later, in part thanks to mitochondrial genes (the [[hydrogen hypothesis]] is one particular version).
==References==
* {{cite journal
| author=Knoll AH
| title=The early evolution of eu-karyotes: A geological perspective
| journal=Science
| year=1992 | volume=256 | pages=622–27
}}
* {{cite journal
| author=T. Cavalier-Smith
| title=The phagotrophic origin of eukaryotes and phylogenetic classification of Protozoa
| journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology
| year=2002 | volume=52 | pages=297-354
}}
* {{cite journal
| author=W. Martin & M.J. Russell
| title=On the origins of cells: a hypothesis for the evolutionary transitions from abiotic geochemistry to chemoautotrophic prokaryotes, and from prokaryotes to nucleated cells
| journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B
| year=1992
}}
* {{cite journal
| author=S. L. Baldauf
| title=The Deep Roots of Eukaryotes
| journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]
| year=2003 | volume=300 | pages=1703–1706 | url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/300/5626/1703
}}
* {{cite journal
| author=Sina M. Adl ''et al''
| title=The New Higher Level Classification of Eukaryotes with Emphasis on the Taxonomy of Protists
| journal=Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology
| year=2005 | volume=52 | issue=5 | pages=399
| url=http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1550-7408.2005.00053.x
| id= {{doi|10.1111/j.1550-7408.2005.00053.x}}
}}
{{NCBI-scienceprimer}}
[[Category:Eukaryotes]]
[[ast:Eukaryota]]
[[bg:Еукариоти]]
[[ca:Eukarya]]
[[cs:Eukaryota]]
[[cy:Ewcaryot]]
[[da:Eucaryota]]
[[de:Eukaryoten]]
[[eo:Eŭkariotoj]]
[[es:Eukarya]]
[[et:Eukarüoot]]
[[fi:Aitotumaiset]]
[[fr:Eukaryota]]
[[he:אוקריוטיים]]
[[id:Eukaryota]]
[[it:Eukaryota]]
[[ja:真核生物]]
[[ko:진핵생물]]
[[la:Eucaryota]]
[[lb:Eukaryoten]]
[[lt:Eukariotas]]
[[lv:Eikariots]]
[[nds:Eukaryota]]
[[nl:Eukaryoten]]
[[no:Eukaryoter]]
[[oc:Eukarya]]
[[pl:Jądrowce]]
[[pt:Eukaryota]]
[[ru:Эукариоты]]
[[sl:Evkariont]]
[[sr:Еукариоте]]
[[su:Eukariot]]
[[sv:Eukaryoter]]
[[th:ยูแคริโอต]]
[[vi:Eukaryote]]
[[uk:Імперія Ядерні]]
[[wa:Eucariote]]
[[zh:真核生物]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electrical engineering</title>
<id>9531</id>
<revision>
<id>42039900</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T11:16:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{merge|electrical and electronics engineering}}
[[Image: PoleMountTransformer02.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Electrical engineers design power systems...]]
[[Image:HitachiJ100A.jpg|right|thumb|200px|... and complex electronic circuits.]]
'''Electrical engineering''' (sometimes referred to as '''electrical and electronics engineering''') is a professional [[engineering]] discipline that deals with the study and application of [[electricity]], [[electromagnetism]] and [[electronics]]. The field first became an identifiable occupation in the late nineteenth century with the commercialization of the electric [[telegraph]] and electrical power supply and now encompasses a range of sub-disciplines including [[power]], [[control systems]], [[electronics]] and [[telecommunications]].
Whilst the terms are often used synonymously, electrical engineering is sometimes distinguished from [[electronics engineering]]. Where this distinction is made, electrical engineering is considered to deal with the problems associated with large-scale electrical systems such as [[power transmission]] and [[motor control]] whereas electronics engineering deals with the study of small-scale electronic systems including [[semiconductors]] and the design of [[integrated circuits]].{{ref|ieeefaq}} For the purposes of this article, electronics engineering is considered to be a sub-discipline of electrical engineering (see <span id="usage_back">[[#usage|note]]</span>).
After the discovery of electricity in the 17th century, scientists began studying its potential applications, and by the 19th century, innovators like [[Nikola Tesla]] and [[Thomas Edison]] began using electricity for [[motor]]s and [[telegraphy]]. Advances in [[radio]] technologies soon followed, and by the middle of the 20th century, early [[computer]]s and integrated circuits had been invented. Meanwhile, universities were developing formal programs of study, and today, the field's practitioners, called '''electrical engineers''' (or sometimes electronics engineers), generally hold an [[academic degree]] in their discipline and may be certified by a professional body. Examples of the projects modern electrical engineers may work on include the design of [[telecommunication|telecommunication systems]], the operation of [[power station|electric power station]]s and the design of [[appliance|electronic household appliances]].
== History ==
=== Early developments in electricity ===
[[Electricity]] has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the 17th century, but it was not until the 19th century that research into the subject started to intensify. Notable developments in this century include the work of [[Georg Ohm]], who in 1827 quantified the relationship between the [[electric current]] and [[potential difference]] in a conductor, [[Michael Faraday]], the discoverer of [[electromagnetic induction]] in [[1831]], and [[James Clerk Maxwell]], who in 1873 published a unified [[Maxwell's equations|theory]] of electricity and [[magnetism]] in his treatise on ''Electricity and Magnetism''.{{ref|1911BritA}}
[[Image:Thomas Edison, 1878.jpg|thumb|right|140px|[[Thomas Edison]] built the world's first large-scale electrical supply network]]
During these years the study of electricity was largely considered to be a subfield of [[physics]]. It was not until the late 19th century that [[university|universities]] started to offer [[academic degree|degrees]] in electrical engineering. In 1883 [[Cornell University]] introduced the world's first course of study in electrical engineering and in 1885 the [[University College London]] founded the first chair of electrical engineering in the [[United Kingdom]].{{ref|cornell}} The [[University of Missouri]] subsequently established the first department of electrical engineering in the United States in 1886.{{ref|ryder}}
During this period work in the area increased dramatically. In 1882 [[Thomas Edison|Edison]] switched on the world's first large-scale electrical supply network that provided 110 volts [[direct current]] to fifty-nine customers in lower Manhattan. In 1887 [[Nikola Tesla]] filed a number of patents related to a competing form of power distribution known as [[alternating current]]. In the following years a bitter rivalry between Tesla and Edison, known as the "[[War of Currents]]", took place over the preferred method of distribution.
The efforts of the two did much to further electrical engineering&mdash;Tesla's work on [[induction motor]]s and [[polyphase system]]s influenced the field for years to come, while Edison's work on telegraphy and his development of the [[stock ticker]] proved lucrative for his company, which ultimately became [[General Electric]]. However, by the end of the 19th century, other key figures in the progress of electrical engineering were beginning to emerge.{{ref|tesla-edison}}
===Emergence of radio and electronics ===
In 1888 [[Heinrich Hertz]] was the first scientist to transmit and detect radio waves using electrical equipment (the [[spark-gap transmitter]]), and in 1895 [[Alexander Popov (physicist)|Alexander Popov]] made the first wireless radio transmission across 60 m followed by [[Guglielmo Marconi]] who made a transmission across 2.4 km. [[John Ambrose Fleming|John Fleming]] invented the first radio tube, the [[vacuum tube|diode]], in 1904. Two years later, [[Robert von Lieben]] and [[Lee De Forest]] independently developed the amplifier tube, called the [[vacuum tube|triode]].{{ref|radio}} [[Manfred von Ardenne]] then introduced the [[cathode ray tube]], a crucial enabling technology for [[television|electronic television]], in 1931.{{ref|television}}
In 1920 [[Albert Hull]] developed the [[magnetron]] which would eventually lead to the development of the [[microwave]] in 1946 by [[Percy Spencer]].{{ref|magnetron1}}{{ref|magnetron2}} In 1934 the British military begun to make strides towards [[radar]] under the direction of Dr Wimperis culminating in the operation of the first radar station at [[Bawdsey]] in August 1936.{{ref|radar}}
In 1941 [[Konrad Zuse]] presented the [[Z3]], the world's first fully functional and programmable computer.{{ref|z3}} In 1946 the [[ENIAC]] (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) of [[John Presper Eckert]] and [[John Mauchly]] followed, beginning the computing era. The arithmetic performance of these machines allowed engineers to develop completely new technologies and achieve new objectives, including the [[Project Apollo|Apollo missions]] and the [[moon landing|NASA moon landing]].{{ref|ENIAC}}
The invention of the transistor in 1947 by [[William B. Shockley]], [[John Bar |
r anthropologists: "Why are the tribes and nations of the world different, and how have the present differences developed?" Amplifying these questions, he explained the object of anthropological study thus:
:We do not discuss the anatomical, physiological, and mental characteristics of man considered as an individual; but we are interested in the diversity of these traits in groups of men found in different geographical areas and in different social classes. It is our task to inquire into the causes that have brought about the observed differentiation, and to investigate the sequence of events that have led to the establishment of the multifarious forms of human life. In other words, we are interested in the anatomical and mental characteristics of men living under the same biological, geographical, and social environment, and as determined by their past.
These questions signal a marked break from then-current ideas about human diversity, which assumed that some people have a history, evident in a historical (or written) record, while other people, lacking writing, also lack history. For some, this distinction between two different kinds of societies explained the difference between history, sociology, economics and other disciplines that focus on people with writing, and anthropology, which was supposed to focus on people without writing. Boas rejected this distinction between kinds of societies, and this division of labor in the academy. He understood all societies to have a history, and all societies to be proper objects of anthropological society. In order to approach literate and non-literate societies the same way, he emphasized the importance on studying human history through the analysis of other things besides written texts. Thus, in his 1904 article, "The History of Anthropology", Boas wrote that
:The historical development of the work of anthropologists seems to single out clearly a domain of knowledge that heretofore has not been treated by any other science. It is the biological history of mankind in all its varieties; linguistics applied to people without written languages; the ethnology of people without historic records; and prehistoric archeology.
Historians and social theorists in the 18th and 19th centuries had speculated as to the causes of this differentiation, but Boas dismissed these theories, especially the dominant theories of [[Social evolution]] and [[Cultural evolution]] as speculative. He endeavored to establish a discipline that would base its claims on rigorous empirical study.
One of his most important books, ''[[The Mind of Primitive Man]]'' (published in 1911), he integrated these various concerns and established a program that would dominate American anthropology for the next fifteen years. In this study he established that in any given population, biology, language, material and symbolic culture, are autonomous; that each is an equally important dimension of human nature, but that no one of these dimensions is reducible to another. In other words, he established that culture does not depend on any independent variables. He emphasized that the biological, linguistic, and cultural traits of any group of people are the product of historical developments involving both cultural and non-cultural forces. He established that cultural plurality is a fundamental feature of humankind, and that the specific cultural environment structures much individual behavior.
Boas also presented himself as a role-model for the citizen-scientist, who understand that even were the truth pursued as its own end, all knowledge has moral consequences. ''The Mind of Primitive Man'' ends with an appeal to humanism:
:I hope the discussions outlined in these pages have shown that the data of anthropology teach us a greater tolerance of forms of civilization different from our own, that we should learn to look on foreign races with greater sympathy and with a conviction that, as all races have contributed in the past to cultural progress in one way or another, so they will be capable of advancing the interests of mankind if we are only willing to give them a fair opportunity.
===Physical Anthropology===
Boas's work in [[physical anthropology]] brought together his interest in Darwinian evolution with his interest in migration as a cause of change. His most important research in this field was his study of changes in body form among children of immigrants in New York. Other researchers had already noted differences in height, cranial measurements, and other physical features between Americans and people from different parts of Europe. Many used these differences to argue that there is an innate biological difference between races. Boas's primary interest &mdash; in symbolic and material culture and in language &mdash; was the study of processes of change; he therefore set out to determine whether bodily forms are also subject to processes of change. Boas studied 17,821 people, divided into seven ethno-national groups. Boas found that average measures of cranial size of immigrants was significantly different from members of these groups who were born in the United States. Moreover, he discovered that average measures of cranial size of children born within ten years of their mothers' arrival were significantly different from those of children born more than ten years after their mothers' arrival. Boas did not deny that physical features such as height or cranial size were inherited; he did, however, argue that the environment has an influence on these features, which is expressed through change over time. This work was central to his influential argument that differences between races were not immutable.
These findings were radical at the time and continue to be debated. In [[2002]] the anthropologists Corey S. Sparks and Richard L. Jantz claimed that differences between children born to the same parents in Europe and America were very small and insignificant, and that there was no detectable effect of exposure to the American environment on the cranial index in children. They argued that their results contradicted Boas's original findings and demonstrated that they may no longer be used to support arguments of plasticity in cranial [[morphology (biology)|morphology]] (see [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/99/23/14636]). However Jonathan Marks &mdash; a well-known physical anthropologist and former president of the General Anthropology section of the [[American Anthropological Association]] &ndash; has remarked that this revisionist study of Boas's work "has the ring of desperation to it (if not obfuscation), and has been quickly rebutted by more mainstream biological anthropology." In [[2003]] anthropologists Clarence C. Gravlee, H. Russell Bernard, and William R. Leonard reanalyzed Boas's data and concluded that Boas's original findings were correct. Moreover, they applied new statistical, computer-assisted methods to Boas's data and discovered even stronger evidence for cranial plasticity. See [http://lance.qualquant.net/gravleeetal03a.pdf]. In a later publication, Gravlee, Bernard and Leonard reviewed Sparks and Jantz' analysis. They argue that Sparks and Jantz misrepresented Boas's claims, and that Sparks' and Jantz's data actually support Boas. For example, they point out that Sparks and Jantz look at changes in cranial size in relation to how long an individual has been in the United States in order to test the influence of the environment. Boas, however, looked at changes in cranial size in relation to how long the mother had been in the United States. They argue that Boas's method is more useful, because the prenatal environment is a crucial developmental factor. (See [http://www.anthro.fsu.edu/people/faculty/CG_pubs/gravlee03b.pdf].)
Although some [[sociobiology|sociobiologists]] and [[evolutionary psychology|evolutionary psychologists]] have suggested that Boas was opposed to Darwinian evolution, Boas in fact was a committed proponent of Darwinian evolutionary thought. In 1888 he declared that "the development of ethnology is largely due to the general recognition of the principle of biological evolution;" since Boas's times, physical anthropologists have established that the human capacity for culture is a product of human evolution. In fact, Boas's research on changes in body form played an important role in the rise of Darwinian theory. It is crucial to remember that Boas was trained at a time when biologists had no understanding of genetics; [[Mendelian genetics]] became widely known only after 1900. Prior to that time biologists relied on the measurement of physical traits as empirical data for any theory of evolution. Boas's biometric studies, however, led him to question the use of this method and kind of data. In a speech to anthropologists in Berlin in 1912, Boas argued that at best such statistics could only raise biological questions, and not answer them. It was in this context that anthropologists began turning to genetics as a basis for any understanding of biological variation.
===Linguistics===
Although Boas published descriptive studies of Native American languages, and wrote on theoretical difficulties in classifying languages, he left it to colleagues and students such as [[Edward Sapir]] to research the relationship between culture and language.
His 1889 article "On Alternating Sounds," however, made a singular contribution to the methodology of both linguistics and cultural anthropology. It is a response to a paper presented in 1888 by [[Daniel Garrison Brinton]], at the time a professor of American linguistics and archeology at the [[University of Pennsylvania]]. Brinton observed that in the spoken languages of many Native Americans, certain sounds regularly alternated. This is clearly not a function of individual accents; Brinton was not suggesting that some individ |
all ''u'' and ''v'' in ''G'' it holds that
: ''f'' (''u'' * ''v'') = ''f'' (''u'') @ ''f'' (''v'').
The two groups (''G'', *) and (''H'', @) are isomorphic if an isomorphism exists. This is written:
:(''G'', *) <math>\cong</math> (''H'', @)
(Here the symbol is displayed with TeX; the Unicode symbol ≅ is not visible with all browsers and browser settings.)
Often shorter and simpler notations can be used. Often there is no ambiguity about the group operation, and it can be omitted:
:''G'' <math>\cong</math> ''H''
Sometimes one can even simply write ''G'' = ''H''. Whether such a notation is possible without confusion or ambiguity depends on context. For example, the equals sign is not very suitable when the groups are both subgroups of the same group. See also the examples.
===The converse===
Given a group (''G'', *), a set ''H'', and a bijection ''f'' : ''G'' <tt>-></tt> ''H'', we can make ''H'' a group (''H'', @) by defining
: ''f'' (''u'') @ ''f'' (''v'') = ''f'' (''u'' * ''v'')
If ''H'' = ''G'' and @ = * then the bijection is an automorphism, see below.
== Examples ==
The group of all [[real number]]s with addition, ('''R''',+), is isomorphic to the group of all positive real numbers with multiplication ('''R'''<sup>+</sup>,&times;):
:('''R''',+) <math>\cong</math> ('''R'''<sup>+</sup>,&times;)
via the isomorphism
:''f'' ( ''x'' ) = exp ( ''x'' )
(see [[exponential function]]).
The group '''Z''' of [[integer]]s (with addition) is a [[subgroup]] of '''R''', and the [[factor group]] '''R'''/'''Z''' is isomorphic to the group ''S''<sup>1</sup> of [[complex number]]s of [[absolute value]] 1 (with multiplication):
:'''R'''/'''Z''' <math>\cong</math> ''S''<sup>1</sup>
An isomorphism is given by
:''f'' ( ''x'' + '''Z''' ) = exp ( 2&pi;''xi'' )
for every ''x'' in '''R'''.
The [[Klein four-group]] is isomorphic to the [[direct product]] of two copies of Z<sub>2</sub> = '''Z''' / 2'''Z''' (see [[modular arithmetic]]), and can therefore be written Z<sub>2</sub> &times; Z<sub>2</sub>. Another notation is Dih<sub>2</sub>, because it is a [[dihedral group]].
Some groups can be proven to be isomorphic, relying on the [[axiom of choice]], while it is even theoretically impossible to construct concrete isomorphisms. Examples:
*The group ( '''R''' , + ) is isomorphic to the group ( '''C''' , + ) of all [[complex number]]s with addition.
*The group ( '''C'''<sup>*</sup> , &middot; ) of non-zero complex numbers with multiplication as operation is isomorphic to the group ''S''<sup>1</sup> mentioned above.
== Consequences ==
From the definition, it follows that any isomorphism ''f'' : ''G'' <tt>-></tt> ''H'' will map the identity element of ''G'' to the identity element of ''H'',
: ''f'' ( ''e<sub>G</sub>'' ) = ''e<sub>H</sub>''
that it will map inverses to inverses,
: ''f'' ( ''u''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup> ) = ''f'' ( ''u'' )<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>
for all ''u'' in ''G'',
and that the inverse map ''f''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup> : ''H'' <tt>-></tt> ''G'' is also a group isomorphism.
The relation "being isomorphic" satisfies all the axioms of an [[equivalence relation]]. If ''f'' is an isomorphism between two groups ''G'' and ''H'', then everything that is true about ''G'' that is only related to the group structure can be translated via ''f'' into a true ditto statement about ''H'', and vice versa.
== Automorphisms ==
An isomorphism from a group (''G'',*) to itself is called an [[automorphism]] of this group. Thus it is a bijection ''f'' : ''G'' <tt>-></tt> ''G'' such that
: ''f'' (''u'') * ''f'' (''v'') = ''f'' (''u'' * ''v'')
An automorphism always maps the identity to itself. The image under an automorphism of a [[conjugacy class]] is always a conjugacy class (the same or another). The image of an element has the same order as that element.
The composition of two automorphisms is again an automorphism, and with this operation the set of all automorphisms of a group ''G'', denoted by Aut(''G''), forms itself a group, the ''automorphism group'' of ''G''.
For all Abelian groups there is at least the automorphism that replaces the group elements by their inverses. However, in groups where all elements are equal to their inverse this is the trivial automorphism, e.g. in the [[Klein four-group]]. For that group all permutations of the three non-identity elements are automorphisms, so the automorphism group is isomorphic to ''S''<sub>3</sub> and Dih<sub>3</sub>.
In Z<sub>''p''</sub> for a prime number ''p'', one non-identity element can be replaced by any other, with corresponding changes in the other elements. The automorphism group is isomorphic to Z<sub>''p'' &minus; 1</sub>. For example, for ''n'' = 7, multiplying all elements of Z<sub>7</sub> by 3, modulo 7, is an automorphism of order 6 in the automorphism group, because 3<sup>6</sup> = 1 ( modulo 7 ), while lower powers do not give 1. Thus this automorphism generates Z<sub>6</sub>. There is one more automorphism with this property: multiplying all elements of Z<sub>7</sub> by 5, modulo 7. Therefore, these two correspond to the elements 1 and 5 of Z<sub>6</sub>, in that order or conversely.
The automorphism group of Z<sub>6</sub> is isomorphic to Z<sub>2</sub>, because only each of the two elements 1 and 5 generate Z<sub>6</sub>, so apart from the identity we can only interchange these.
The automorphism group of Z<sub>2</sub> &times; Z<sub>2</sub> &times; Z<sub>2</sub> = Dih<sub>2</sub> &times; Z<sub>2</sub> has order 168, as can be found as follows. All 7 non-identity elements play the same role, so we can choose which plays the role of (1,0,0). Any of the remaining 6 can be chosen to play the role of (0,1,0). This determines which corresponds to (1,1,0). For (0,0,1) we can choose from 4, which determines the rest. Thus we have 7 &times; 6 &times; 4 = 168 automorphisms. They correspond to those of the [[Fano plane]], of which the 7 points correspond to the 7 non-identity elements. The lines connecting three points correspond to the group operation: a, b, and c on one line means a+b=c, a+c=b, and b+c=a. See also [[General_linear_group#Over_finite_fields|general linear group over finite fields]].
For Abelian groups all automorphisms except the trivial one are called [[outer automorphism]]s.
Non-Abelian groups have a non-trivial [[inner automorphism]] group, and possibly also outer automorphisms.
[[category:group theory]]
[[it:Isomorfismo tra gruppi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geographic information system</title>
<id>12398</id>
<revision>
<id>42160316</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:30:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>David G. Smith</username>
<id>700594</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:'''''GIS''' redirects here. For other meanings, see [[GIS (disambiguation)]].''
A '''geographic information system''' or '''geographical information system''' (GIS) is a system for creating and managing spatial data and associated attributes. In the strictest sense, it is a [[computer system]] capable of integrating, storing, editing, analyzing, and displaying geographically-referenced information. In a more generic sense, GIS is a "smart map" tool that allows users to create interactive queries (user created searches), analyze the spatial information, and edit data. '''Geographical Information Science''' is the science underlying the applications and systems, taught as a degree programme by several universities.
[[Image:31b.jpg|a GIS in action, with two different layers visible, showing two different variables (taken from www.clarklabs.org)|right]]
Geographic information systems technology can be used for [[scientific investigation]]s, [[resource management]], [[asset management]], [[development planning]], [[cartography]] and route planning. For example, a GIS might allow emergency planners to easily calculate emergency response times in the event of a [[natural disaster]], or a GIS might be used to find [[wetland]]s that need protection from [[pollution]].
=='''History of development'''==
35,000 years ago, on the walls of caves near [[Lascaux]], [[France]], [[Cro-Magnon]] hunters drew pictures of the animals they hunted. Associated with the animal drawings are track lines and tallies thought to depict migration routes. These early records followed the two-element structure of modern geographic information systems: a graphic file linked to an [[attribute]] database.
In the [[18th century]], modern surveying techniques for topographic mapping were implemented, along with early versions of thematic mapping, e.g. for scientific or census data. A notable example of this is John Snow's 1854 map depicting a [[cholera]] outbreak in London, which provided analysis to narrow the source of the cholera to a contaminated pump, stemming the outbreak.[http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/snowmap1_1854_lge.htm Images of John Snow's maps]
The early [[20th century]] saw the development of "photo lithography" where maps were separated into layers. Computer hardware development spurred by [[nuclear weapon]] research would lead to general purpose computer "mapping" applications by the early [[1960s]].
The year 1967 saw the development of the world's first true operational GIS in [[Ottawa, Ontario]] by the federal [[Department of Energy, Mines and Resources |
d external models)and the Emplant expansion card. Both allowed the Amiga to emulate an [[Apple Macintosh]] and run the [[Mac OS|Macintosh Operating System]] using the process of [[Translation emulation|translation emulation]]. It required an Apple Macintosh ROM image, or actual ROMs in the case of A-Max, which needed to be obtained from a real Macintosh. The user needed to own the real Macintosh or Mac ROMs to legally run the emulator.
In 1988 the first Apple Mac emulator,A-Max, was released as an external device for any Amiga. It needed Mac ROMs to function, and could read Mac disks when used with a Mac floppy drive (Amiga floppy drives are unable to read Mac disks. Unlike Amiga disks Mac floppy disks spin at variable speeds, much like CD ROM drives). It wasn't a particularly elegant solution, but it did provide an affordable and usable Mac experience.
ReadySoft, makers of A-Max, followed up with A-Max II in the early '90s. A-Max II was contained on a zorro compatible card and allowed the user, again using actual Mac roms, to emulate a color Macintosh. In fact, an Amiga 3000 emulating a Mac via A-Max II was significantly faster than the first consumer color Mac, the LC.
Over time full-software emulation was available, but you still had to get a ROM image. Example emulators include [[ShapeShifter (emulator)|ShapeShifter]] (not to be confused with the third party preference pane [[ShapeShifter]]), later superseded by [[Basilisk II]] (both by the same programmer who conceived [[SheepShaver]], [[Christian Bauer]]), Fusion and iFusion (the latter ran classic MacOS using translation emulation with a [[PowerPC]] "coprocessor" accelerator card).
This form of emulation has been said to equal or better the speed of a Macintosh with the same processor, especialy with respect to the m68k series due to real Macs running in [[Memory management unit|MMU]] trap mode, hampering performance. Moreover, in the period when no new 68k Mac models were being developed and the majority of Mac software was not natively available on PowerPC Macintosh yet (but only runnable through a slow 68k emulation), the fastest "Macintosh" machines around were actually by far Amiga computers with [[68060]] CPUs running ShapeShifter or Fusion.
One should note that although Amigas were very successful at emulating Macintoshes, it was never considered to be a [[Macintosh clone]] as it could not use MacOS as a primary operating system.
==Third party hardware==
Many expansion boards were produced for Amigas to improve the performance and capability of the hardware, such as memory expansions, SCSI controllers, CPU boards, graphics boards; famous hardware manufacturers were Great Valley Products (GVP) and [[Phase5]]. In addition to expansion boards with 68060 CPUs, Phase5 also designed the PowerUp boards (BlizzardPPC and CyberstormPPC) featuring both a 68k and a PPC CPU, which were able to run the two CPUs at the same time (and shared the system memory). The PPC CPU on PowerUp boards was usually used as a coprocessor for heavy computations (a powerful CPU was needed to run for example MAME, but even decoding JPEG pictures and MP3 audio was considered heavy computation in those years). It was also possible to ignore the 68k CPU and run Linux on the PPC (project Linux APUS), but a PPC native Amiga OS was not available when the PPC boards appeared.
==Third party software==
Amiga was originally supported by such prestigious software titles as [[WordPerfect]], Electronic Arts' [[Deluxe Paint]], and [[Lattice C]]. Newtek's [[Video Toaster]], one of the first all-in-one graphics and video editing packages, began on the Amiga. The Video Toaster was one of the few accessories for the "big box" Amigas (2000, 3000 and 4000) that used the video slot, and enabled users to turn their Amiga into the heart of an entire TV Production suite. The later addition of the Video Flyer by Newtek made possible the first non-linear video editing program for the Amiga. The Amiga made 3D [[raytrace|raytracing]] graphics available for the masses with [[Sculpt 3D]] (before the Amiga, raytracing was only available for dedicated graphic workstations). The Amiga was well known for its 3D rendering capability, with many titles being added to the mix as the years went by. Some titles were later ported to [[Microsoft Windows]] and continue to thrive there, such as the rendering software [[Cinema 4D]] from Maxon, and [[LightWave]] from Newtek, which was originally part of the [[Video Toaster]]. The [[Video Toaster]] itself has even been ported to the Windows platform. Even [[Microsoft]] produced software for use on the Amiga. [[AmigaBASIC]], an advanced [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] software development environment, complete with an Interactive Development Environment (IDE), was written by Microsoft under contract.
[[Richmond Sound Design]] (RSD) created both [[show control]] and theatre [[sound design]] software which was used extensively in the theatre, theme park, display, exhibit, show and themed entertainment industries in the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]] and at one point in the mid 90s, there were many high profile shows at major theme parks around the world being controlled by Amigas. There were dozens at [[Walt Disney World]] alone and more at all other [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]], [[Universal Studios]], [[Six Flags]] and [[Madame Tussauds]] properties as well as in many venues in Las Vegas including [[The Mirage]] hotel Volcano, the [[MGM Grand]] [[EFX]] show, [[Broadway theatre]], London's [[West End]], the [[Royal Shakespeare Company]]'s many venues, most of [[Branson, Missouri]]'s theatres, and scores of theatres on cruise ships, amongst hundreds of others. RSD purchased used Amigas on the web and reconditioned them to provide enough systems for all the shows that specified them and only stopped providing new Amiga installations in 2000. There are still an unknown number of shows on cruise ships and in themed venues being run by Amigas.
Much shareware and free software was written for the Amiga and could be obtained via the [[Fred Fish]] disk series or from the [[Aminet]] software archive.
==Amiga Emulators==
Many Amiga users actually use a system that boots directly into the emulator.
There is the [[Unix Amiga Emulator]] (UAE) that can emulate a full system on Macintosh and Intel systems, including undocumented behavior and the custom chips. Also there is a special Windows port, WinUAE.
There is a commercial product [[Amiga Forever]] that includes an emulator and the AmigaOS as well as several other important parts.
Another emulator is [[Fellow (computing)|Fellow]].
They are available at:
*[http://amigasys.fw.hu/ AmigaSYS]
*[http://www.freiburg.linux.de/~uae/ UAE]
*[http://www.rcdrummond.net/uae/ e-UAE]
*[http://www.winuae.net/ WinUAE]
*[http://www.amigaforever.com/ Amiga Forever]
*[http://fellow.sourceforge.net/ WinFellow ]
{{Sectstub}}
==User Base==
The Amiga was considered by some to have had an extraordinarily loyal fan base. When Commodore went bankrupt in 1994, there was still a very active Amiga community, and this continued to support the platform long after mainstream commercial vendors abandoned the platform. There were many fans who believed that the Amiga was unique and was better than other platforms - some still exist to this day using the AmigaOne (manufactured by UK firm Eyetech), despite utilising slower hardware compared to a PC of the same price.
One reason for this loyalty was due to the strengths of the machine at the time: it had a stable, compact, efficient, multitasking OS, it was relatively easy to program for, software had relatively easy access to the hardware (the base hardware was fixed so software could be coded specifically to the hardware), there was a wealth quality software, and it was an affordable multimedia machine for its time.
However as time wore on, the hardware was overtaken and as the PC improved in software and hardware the Amiga started to look dated. Despite this, its solid userbase continued to produce software and get as much as they possibly could out of the machine. Amiga users managed to squeeze every drop of performance and capability out of the machines, with software and hardware expansions to enhance its capabilities. Even today there is enough demand for expansion hardware to keep some small scale manufacturers in business.
==Models and variants==
Amigas fall into several categories, Classic models, such as the 1200 and the 4000, PPC based models such as the AmigaOne, and unoffocial models. Amigas were first produced in 1985, and continue to be produced.
:''Main article: [[Amiga models and variants]]''
==Trivia==
* The name ''amiga'' is the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] word for 'female friend', from the [[Latin]] ''amica''.
* The Amiga [[as of 2006|still]] has a very strong user community, particularly outside the United States.
* The Amiga community made a significant contribution to a computer subculture known as the [[Demoscene]]. The Demoscene was more or less a phenomenon inherited from [[Commodore 64]] times.
* Much [[operating system advocacy]] surrounded the technology implemented in the Amiga. This led some to accuse Amiga users of [[computer zealotry|zealotry]] (look for "Amiga Persecution Complex" in the [[Jargon File]]).
* Amiga has two [[Three-finger salute (computing)|Three-finger salute]]s, one for warm reset (CTRL plus the two "Amiga" keys) and the other for reboot (CTRL plus the two "Alt" keys). The latter method was introduced with AmigaOS 4.0.
* When an Amiga crashes, it displays a flashing red box with a mysterious [[Guru Meditation]] number. The number is actually the 68000 exception number, and some other piece of information, such as the address (in hexadecimal) of the task that caused the crash.
* During the Commodore era, machines with 'thousands' model numberi |
ne]] ([[Image:Unison.ogg|info]])</small>
|-
|}She wrote the song "Bedtime Story" for [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]]'s [[1994]] album ''[[Bedtime Stories (Madonna)|Bedtime Stories]]'' (parts of which Björk reused in her song "Sweet Intuition"), and performed on [[MTV Unplugged]] during this time. By 1995, the new album ''[[Post (album)|Post]]'' was ready; it was released in June, reaching number two on the UK's album charts, and also went platinum in the United States. January of 1997 saw the release of ''[[Telegram (album)|Telegram]]'', an album of uncharacteristic remixes of songs from ''Post''.
=== Homogenic ===
Later that year, the chaotic, electronic album ''[[Homogenic]]'' was released and marked a dramatic shift from her earlier "pixie" image cultivated on the "Debut" and "Post" albums. Björk worked with producers [[Mark Bell (LFO)|Mark Bell]] of [[LFO (British group)|LFO]] and [[Howie B]] on the album, as well as [[Eumir Deodato]]; numerous remixes followed. ''Homogenic'' was her first conceptually self-contained album and is regarded as one of Björk's most experimental and extroverted works to date, with enormous beats that reflect the landscape of [[Iceland]], most notably in the song "[[Jóga]]", which fuses lush strings with rocky electronic crunches. The emotionally-charged album contains a string of memorable music videos, several of which received airplay on American [[MTV]], especially the epic "[[Bachelorette (song)|Bachelorette]]" and "[[All is Full of Love]]", which became an alt-rock hit in [[1999]]. The album eventually reached gold status in the States in [[2001]].
=== Vespertine ===
In [[2001 in music|2001]] the album ''[[Vespertine]]'' was released. This album saw Björk creating an introverted, internal, personal world of microbeats and tiny rhythms. The album featured chamber orchestras, choirs, very hushed vocals and personal, vulnerable themes. She collaborated with experimental sound manipulators [[Matmos]], a [[DJ]] from Denmark [[Thomas Knak]], and the experimental harpist [[Zeena Parkins]] for the album. Lyrical sources included the [[United States|American]] poet [[E. E. Cummings]] and the American independent filmmaker [[Harmony Korine]].
''Vespertine'' spawned three singles: "Hidden Place", "Pagan Poetry", and "Cocoon". America's then-more independent and artistic music video channel, [[MTV2]], played the album's first video, "Hidden Place", pretty heavily, despite its somewhat controversial lyrics and imagery. However, the next video, for "Pagan Poetry", brought Björk to an even higher level of controversy with the channel. The song's video features graphic piercings, blurred sex scenes, and Björk's exposed nipples. As a result, the clip was initially rarely shown by MTV, and certain parts (for example, Björk's breasts) were censored out during the rare occasions when it was played. In [[2002]], the clip finally enjoyed unedited American airing as part of a late night special on MTV2 entitled ''[[Most Controversial Music Videos]]''. Previously banned or censored videos were shown in their entirety during the [[Television rating system|TV-MA]]-rated special which aired on MTV2 regularly on weekends between 1 and 5 AM, until the infamous [[Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy|Janet Jackson incident]] at the [[2004]] [[Super Bowl]]. The video for "Cocoon" also featured a naked Björk, this time with her nipples secreting a red thread that eventually enveloped the singer herself in a cocoon. The video was also not aired by MTV.
=== Family Tree / Greatest Hits ===
[[2002 in music|2002]] saw the appearance of the CD box set ''[[Family Tree (album)|Family Tree]]'' containing a "these-are-my-roots" retrospective of Björk's career, comprising many previously unreleased versions of her compositions, including some very quiet work with a [[string quartet]], the [[Brodsky Quartet]]. Also released that year was the album ''[[Greatest Hits (Björk)|Greatest Hits]]'', a retrospective of the previous 10 years of her solo career as deemed by the public: The songs on the album were chosen by Björk's fans through a poll on Björk's website. A DVD edition of the CD was also released; it contained all of Björk's solo music videos up to that point. The new single from the set, "It's In Our Hands", charted in the UK at No. 37.
In [[2003 in music|2003]] Björk released a series of low-priced DVDs and CD box set called ''[[Live Box]]'' containing [[concert|live recording]]s of her previous albums.
=== Medúlla ===
[[2004 in music|2004]] saw the release of Björk's ''[[Medúlla]]'', in late August. ''Medúlla'' had been more of an impromptu piece of work after the two concept albums, but in the midst of production Björk decided the album would work best as an entirely vocal-based album. The majority of the sounds on the album are created by vocalists (although these sounds are often electronically distorted). Björk used the vocal skills of [[Hip hop music|Hip hop]] [[Beatboxer]] [[Rahzel]], Japanese beatboxer [[Dokaka]], avant-rocker [[Mike Patton]], [[Soft Machine]] drummer/singer [[Robert Wyatt]], and several [[choir]]s; she again appropriated text from poet [[E. E. Cummings]] for the song "Sonnets/Unrealities XI." ''Medúlla'' has a raw, guttural, and ancestral feel.
In August [[2004]] Björk performed the song "Oceania" (from her ''Medúlla'' album) at the [[2004 Summer Olympics opening ceremony|Opening Ceremony]] of the [[2004 Summer Olympics]] in [[Athens]], [[Greece]]. In typical Björk style, her performance was one of the more unusual ones of the event. As she sang, her dress slowly unravelled to reveal a 10,000 square foot (900 m²) map of the world, which she let flow over all of the Olympic atheletes. The song "Oceania" was written especially for the occasion and features the vocals of Shlomo, a Leeds based beatboxer, and a London choir. An alternate version of the song began circulating on the internet with additional vocals by [[Kelis]]. Though some were confused as to the authenticity of this collaboration, Björk's camp confirmed its legitimacy. The follow-up of "Oceania" was "Who is it" which charted at No. 26 in the UK followed by "Triumph of a Heart" in [[2005]] charting at No. 31. A video for the potential next single, "Where is the Line?", was filmed in collaboration with the [[Iceland]]ic artist [[Gabríela Fridriksdóttir]] in late 2004.
=== Army of Mixes ===
After the disastrous [[tsunami]] which struck [[Southeast Asia]] in late 2004, Björk began working on a new project, ''Army of Mixes''. This new project recruited fans and musicians from around the world as Björk posted on her website the need for the covering and remixing of the 1995 hit, "Army of Me". Björk was overwhelmed with the 600 responses which came flooding in. Out of these Björk as well as co-writer Graham Massey, picked the best 20 to appear on the album. The album was released in April in the UK and in late May 2005 the US. It peaked at No.14 on the dance albums chart in the UK. As of January 2006, the album had raised around £250,000 to help UNICEF's work in the south east Asian region.
=== Drawing Restraint 9 ===
On [[July 25]] [[2005]] in the UK and on [[August 23]] in the US, Björk released the album ''[[Drawing Restraint 9 (album)|Drawing Restraint 9]]''. It is a soundtrack to her partner [[Matthew Barney]]'s movie of the [[Drawing Restraint 9|same title]]; Björk explores traditional [[Japanese music]] styles to complement the experimental film, where the two lovers find themselves on a whaling ship and cut off each other's feet.
Signifying her status as one of pop music's true originals and one of the most daring, innovative, and idiosyncratic artists of the last two decades, Björk was awarded the prestigious Inspiration Award at the Annual [[Q Magazine]] Awards in [[October]] [[2005]], accepting the prize from Robert Wyatt, with whom she collaborated on [[2004]]'s ''Medúlla'' album.
=== Currently ===
At the recent [[Q Magazine]] Awards, Björk said in an interview that she is living in [[Reykjavík]] again and is starting work on a new album. Nothing has been said of the content or theme of the album, although Björk has said that she plans to record some of it using the latest computer technology on a round-the-world boat trip with partner [[Matthew Barney]] and their daughter Isadora in [[2006]]. She is currently training for the trip.
Björk also performed with [[Zeena Parkins]] recently at the Zenkel Hall in [[Carnegie Hall]] for [[Meredith Monk]]'s "Making Music" concert. They performed Meredith's "Gotham Lullaby", a song Björk had also performed while she was touring. Reviews of the concert can be seen at the [http://4um.bjork.com Björk 4um]. Björk is also currently involved in the remixing of her five solo studio albums (Debut, Post, Homogenic, Vespertine & Medúlla) in a 5.1 surround sound re-issue set for a March 2006 release.
On [[January 10]], [[2006]], Björk earned another [[BRIT Awards]] nomination for Best International Female Solo Artist.
== Björk in film ==
[[Image:Bjork - dancer in the dark.jpg|thumb|200px|Björk in Lars von Trier's ''Dancer in the Dark'']]
Björk's intermittent acting career began in 1990, when she appeared in ''[[The Juniper Tree]]'', a tale of witchcraft based on the [[Brothers Grimm]] story of the same name. Björk played the role of Margit, a girl whose mother has been killed for practising witchcraft. Björk also had an uncredited role in 1994's ''Prêt-à-Porter''.
In 1999, Björk was asked to write and produce the musical score for the film ''[[Dancer in the Dark]]'', a genre-bending musical via drama about an immigrant named Selma who is struggling to pay for an operation to prevent her son |
.5). "At first he [Hilbert] was only angry and frustrated, but then he began to try to deal constructively with the problem... Göodel himself felt-- and expressed the thought in his paper -- that his work did not contradict Hilbert's formalistic point of view" (Reid p. 199).
1931 -- The paper of Kurt [[Gödel]] appears: "On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems I", (reprinted in U p. 5 ff<!-- what is this ff doing here? -->)
[[19 April]] [[1935]] -- Paper of [[Alonzo Church]] "An Unsolvable Problem of Elementary Number Theory" is presented to the American Mathematical Society, (reprinted in U p. 89ff). Church identifies ''effective caluclability'' with "the notion of recursive function of positive integers" (U p. 100). Such a function will have an algorithm, and "...the fact that the algorithm has ''terminated'' [italics added] becomes effectively known and the value of F(n) is effectively calculable" (ibid).
1936 -- [[Alonzo Church]] publishes the first proof that the ''Entscheidungsproblem'' is unsolvable [''A Note on the Entsheidungsproblem'', reprinted in U p.110].
[[7 October]] [[1936]] -- Paper of [[Emil Post]] is received by Church’s (Hodges p. 125) ''Journal of Symbolic Logic''. His paper appeared as "Finite Combinatory Processes. Formulation I",(reprinted in U p. 298ff). Post's brief paper introduces the word "terminate”. Church had to certify that Post was unaware of Turing's work and vice versa (cf commentary in U p. 288, also Hodges p. 125). See Footnote|Post.
January 1937 -- Turing's ''On Computable Numbers With an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem'' is published (reprinted in U, p. 115). With three theorems he answers the “decision problem”: "I shall show that there is no general method which tells whether a given formula '''U''' is provable in '''K''' [Principia Mathematica], or what comes to the same, whether the system consisting of '''K''' with -'''U''' adjoined as an extra axiom is consistent" (p. 145, ibid). See Footnote|Turing.
1939 -- J.B. [[Rosser]] observes the essential equivalence of "effective method" defined by Gödel, Church, and Turing (Rosser in U p. 273, "Informal Exposition of Proofs of Gödel's Theorem and Church's Theorem"].
1943 -- In his 1943 paper [[Stephen Kleene]] discusses "algorithmic theories" ("Recursive Predicates and Quantifiers", reprinted in U pp. 255ff). He states that "In setting up a complete algorithmic theory, what we do is describe a procedure ... which procedure necessarily terminates and in such manner that from the outcome we can read a definite answer, "Yes" or "No," to the question, "Is the predicate value true?"
==Footnotes==
'''Footnote|Davis''': Turing did not use the word "halting" or "termination". Turing's biographer Hodges does not have the word "halting" or words "halting problem" in his index. The earliest known use of the words "halting problem" is in a proof by Davis (p. 70-71, Davis 1958). He uses Gödelization to prove the theorem:
::"Theorem 2.2 ''There exists a Turing machine whose halting problem is recursively unsolvable''.
:"A related problem is the ''printing problem'' for a simple Turing machine Z with respect to a symbol Si" (p. 70).
Davis then goes on to prove his Theorem 2.3 that "...''the printing problem for Z with respect to Sk is recursively unsolvable''" (p. 71). This proof uses a form similar to the antinomies that appear in Minsky, Beltrami and this page, above. Davis adds no attribution for these proofs, so we can infer they are original with him.
"Halting Problem" does not appear in either of Alonzo Church's texts dated 1944 and 1956, nor in E.F. Moores' ''A Simplified Universal Turing Machine'', Proc. ACM, Sept 1952, 1953. Moore's paper references "mimeographed notes" of a lecture by Davis at the University of Illinois in 1951, so this source would need to be investigated. Hao Wang's ''A Variant to Turing's Theory of Computing Machines'', Journal of the ACM 4(1):63-92 January 1957 does mention "halt" as an instruction (p. 65), but not the "halting problem." Wang in turn references Post (ibid); see Footnote|Post below. By 1965 the "halting problem" has appeared in Fisher, ''On formalisms for Turing Machines'', Journal of the ACM 12,4 (Oct 1965), Anderaa & Fisher, ''The Solvability of the Halting Problem for two state Post Machines'', Journal of the ACM 14(4):677-682 (Oct 1967), and in Minsky's text (1967).
'''Footnote|Post''': In his paper Post describes a "formulation" (i.e. process, not a machine) consisting of "a worker" who follows a "set of instructions" (instructions that are, as it turned out, virtually identical to those of Turing's machines). But Post adds another instruction "(C) Stop". Thus "...This process will terminate when and only when it comes to the direction of type (C)." He called such a process "type 1 ... if the process it determines terminates for each specific problem." He went on to remove the "Stop" instruction when evaluating "symbolic logics"; in this case "a deterministic process will be set up which is ''unending''" [his italics] Post did not address directly the "Entscheidungsproblem" in his "formulation"; see [[Post-Turing Machine]] for more.
==References==
* [[Alan Turing]], ''On computable numbers, with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem'', Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, Series 2, 42 (1936), pp 230-265. [http://www.turingarchive.org/browse.php/B/12 online version] This is the epochal paper where Turing defines [[Turing machine]]s, formulates the halting problem, and shows that it (as well as the [[Entscheidungsproblem]]) is unsolvable.
* {{cite book | authorlink = Michael Sipser | last = Sipser | first = Michael | year = 2006 | title = Introduction to the Theory of Computation | edition = Second Edition | publisher = PWS Publishing | id = ISBN 0-534-95097-3X | chapter = Section 4.2: The Halting Problem | pages = pp.173–182 }}
* [[Wiki:HaltingProblem]]
* [[Martin Davis]], ''The Undecidable, Basic Papers on Undecidable Propositions, Unsolvable Problems And Computable Functions'', Raven Press, New York, 1965. Turing's paper is #3 in this volume. Papers include those by Godel, Church, Rosser, Kleene, and Post.
* [[Martin Davis]], ''Computability and Unsolvability'', McGraw-Hill, New York, 1958.
* [[Alfred North Whitehead]] and [[Bertrand Russel]], ''Principia Mathematica'' to *56, Cambridge at the University Press, 1962. Re: the problem of paradoxes, the authors discuss the problem of a set not be an object in any of its "determining functions", in particular "Introduction, Chap. 1 p. 24 "...difficulties which arise in formal logic", and Chap. 2.I. "The Vicious-Circle Principle" p.37ff, and Chap. 2.VIII. "The Contradictions" p. 60ff.
* [[Martin Davis]], "What is a computation", in ''Mathematics Today'', Lynn Arthur Steen, Vintage Books (Random House), 1980. A wonderful little paper, perhaps the best ever written about Turing Machines for the non-specialist. Davis reduces the Turing Machine to a far-simpler model based on Post's model of a computation. Discusses [[Chaitin]] proof. Includes little biographies of [[Emil Post]], [[Julia Robinson]].
* [[Marvin Minsky]], ''Computation, Finite and Infinite Machines'', Prentice-Hall, Inc., N.J., 1967. See chapter 8, Section 8.2 "The Unsolvability of the Halting Problem." Excellent, i.e. readable, sometimes fun. A classic.
* [[Roger Penrose]], ''The Emperor's New Mind: Concerning computers, Minds and the Laws of Physics'', Oxford University Press, Oxford England, 1990 (with corrections). Cf: Chapter 2, "Algorithms and Turing Machines". An overly-complicated presentation (see Davis's paper for a better model), but a thorough presentation of Turing machines and the halting problem, and Church's Lambda Calculus.
* [[John Hopcroft]] and [[Jeffrey Ullman]], ''Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages and Computation'', Addison-Wesley, Reading Mass, 1979. See Chapter 7 "Turing Machines." An book centered around the machine-interpretation of "languages", NP-Completeness, etc.
* [[Andrew Hodges]], ''Alan Turing: The Engima'', Simon and Schuster, New York. Cf Chapter "The Spirit of Truth" for a history leading to, and a discussion of, his proof. A wonderful biography.
* [[Constance Reid]], ''Hilbert'', Copernicus: Springer-Verlag, New York, 1996 (first published 1970). Fascinating history of German mathematics and physics from 1880's through 1930's. Hundreds of names familiar to mathematicians, physicists and engineers appear in its pages. Perhaps marred by no overt references and few footnotes: Reid states her sources were numerous interviews with those who personally knew Hilbert, and Hilbert's letters and papers.
* [[Edward Beltrami]], ''What is Random? Chance and order in mathematics and life'', Copernicus: Springer-Verlag, New York, 1999. Nice, gentle read for the mathematically-inclined non-specialist, puts tougher stuff at the end. Has a Turing-machine model in it. Discusses the [[Chaitin]] contributions.
* [[Ernest Nagel]] and [[James R. Newman]], ''Godel’s Proof'', New York University Press, 1958. Wonderful writing about a very difficult subject. For the mathematically-inclined non-specialist. Discusses Gentzen's proof on pages 96-97 and footnotes. Appendices discuss the [[Peano Axioms]] briefly, gently introduce readers to formal logic.
* [[Taylor Booth]], ''Sequential Machines and Automata Theory'', Wiley, New York, 1967. Cf Chapter 9, Turing Machines. Difficult book |
action|attraction]]. Freya correspondingly became one of the most popular goddesses.
According to Snorri's [[Edda]] Freya had a husband named [[Odr]]. He often went away on long journeys, and for this reason Freya cried tears of red gold. The [[Lay of Hyndla]] also names a protégé of Freya [[Óttar]].
==Prose Edda==
In [[Snorri Sturluson]]'s [[Prose Edda]], Freya is introduced as follows.
{|
|
:''Njörðr í Nóatúnum gat síðan tvau börn, hét sonr Freyr en dóttir Freyja. Þau váru fögr álitum ok máttug. ... Freyja er ágætust af ásynjum, hon á þann bœ á himni er Fólkvangar heita, ok hvar sem hon ríðr til vígs, þá á hon hálfan val, en hálfan Óðinn ...''
:''Salr hennar, Sessrýmnir, hann er mikill ok fagr. En er hon ferr, þá ekr hon köttum tveim ok sitr í reið. Hon er nákvæmust mönnum til á at heita, ok af hennar nafni er þat tignarnafn er ríkiskonur eru kallaðar fróvur. Henni líkaði vel mansöngr. Á hana er gott at heita til ásta.'' - [http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/ggrpar23.html]
|
:Njördr in Nóatún begot afterward two children: the son was called Freyr, and the daughter Freyja; they were fair of face and mighty. ... Freyja is the most renowned of the goddesses; she has in heaven the dwelling called Fólkvangr, and where so ever she rides to the strife, she has one-half of the kill, and Odin half ...
:Her hall Sessrúmnir is great and fair. When she goes forth, she drives her cats and sits in a chariot; she is most conformable to man's prayers, and from her name comes the name of honor, Frú, by which noblewomen are called. Songs of love are well-pleasing to her; it is good to call on her for furtherance in love. - [http://northvegr.org/lore/prose/037040.php]
|
|}
==Freya as goddess of love==
Freya was thought to be the most desirable of all goddesses. When she desired to acquire the famous necklace [[Brisingamen|Brosingamen]] (''Brísingamen'') from four [[Norse dwarves|dwarf]]s, ([[Dvalin]], [[Alfrik]], [[Berling]], and [[Grer]]), they desired a night each with her, a demand which she eventually acceded to. Later on,[[Odin]] made [[Loki]] steal the necklace for him, and demanded the same price of Freya as the dwarves had, though he eventually relented.
Freya loved jewellery so much that she named her daughter "Hnoss", meaning "jewel". Besides the necklace [[Brisingamen|Brosingamen]], she owned a [[cloak]] of hawk/eagle feathers, which gave her the ability to change into any [[bird]]. She lends this garment to Loki in [[Þrymskviða]].
Early traditions do not distinguish clearly between Freya and [[Frigg]], though in the later Scandinavian mythology, Freya and [[Frigg]] were obviously not one and the same, being different goddesses with separate functions, personalities and symbols. They appeared in the same text together on many occasions, however. Some sources say Freya was married to Odin, most likely due to Frigg and Freya once being the same character, and Loki claims that she had a sexual relationship with her brother [[Freyr]] in ''[[Lokasenna]]''.
In two myths a [[Jotun|giant]] wants to marry Freya; the owner of [[Svaðilfari]] as related in ''[[Gylfaginning]]'' and [[Thrym]] as related in ''[[Þrymskviða]]''. Both were ultimately deceived and killed by the gods.
==Freya as battle goddess==
As a battle-goddess, Freya rides a boar called [[Hildesvini|Hildisvín]] the Battle-Swine. In the poem ''[[Hyndluljóð]]'', we are told that in order to conceal Ottar, Freya transformed him into the guise of a boar. The boar has special associations within Norse Mythology, both relative to the notion of fertility and also as a protective talisman in war, probably because real boars can be quite fierce animals. Seventh century [[Sweden|Swedish]] helmet plates depict warriors with large boars as their crests, and a boar-crested helmet has survived from Anglo-Saxon time and was retrieved from a [[tumulus]] at [[Benty Grange helmet|Benty Grange]] in [[Derbyshire]]. In [[Beowulf]], it is said that a boar on the helmet was there to guard the life of the warrior wearing it.
Other sources show that Freya rode a chariot drawn by a pair of cats the size of lions.
[[Image:Freyja and cats and angels by Blommer.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Freyja rides her cat-driven chariot in this romantic painting by [[Nils Blommér]].]]
Freya chooses certain of the slain on the battlefield to come under her wing in the afterlife whilst [[Odin]] gets chooses others, according to ''[[Grimnismál|Grímnismál]]'':
:The ninth hall is Folkvang, where bright Freyja
:Decides where the warriors shall sit:
:Some of the fallen belong to her,
:And some belong to Odin.
The association of Freya with death is underlined in [[Egil's saga]] when his daughter, [[Thorgerda]] (''&#222;orger&#240;r''), threatens to commit suicide in the wake of her brother's death, saying: "I shall not eat until I sup with Freya".
Her palace was in [[Fólkvangr]] and her hall was [[Sessrúmnir]], known as the "Rich-in-Seats".
==Freya as a witch==
Freya was a skilled practitioner of ''[[Seid|sei&#240;r]]'', a form of magic which Snorri relates in the ''[[Ynglinga Saga]]'' in his [[Heimskringla]] she introduced among the Aesir. It has been widely speculated that '''[[Gullveig]]''' was Freya under another name (This is unlikely, though, fair Freyja being very famous in her own right, that she would go prophetizing as [[Gullveig]], the eponymous seeress of the [[Völuspá]] without being clearly identified and recognized) .
==Other names==
===Forms of "Frey(j)a"===
* Freia
* Froya
* Freja — common Danish and literary Swedish form.
* Friia — second [[Merseburg Incantations|Merseburg Charm]]
* Frija — variant of ''Friia''
* Frøya, Fröa — common Norwegian, and rural Swedish form.
* Reija — Finnish form
* [[Frya]] — the name of the eponymous [[Frisians|Frisian]] goddess in the controversial [[Oera Linda|Oera Linda Book]], though her attributes are somewhat different.
===Other forms===
*Gefn (according to [[Snorri Sturluson|Snorri]] Gefyon/Gefjun is not the same as Gefn)
*Heath
*Vanadís
==Homologues==
Freya might be considered the counterpart of [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] and [[Aphrodite]], although she has a combination of attributes no known goddess possesses in the mythology of any other [[Indo European]] ancient people and might be regarded as closer to the Mesopotamian [[Ishtar]] as being involved in both love and war. It is also sometimes thought that she is the most direct mythological descendant from [[Nerthus]].
There is also frequent modern speculation that ''Freija'' is the same as ''[[Frigg]]'' (see the discussion under [[Frigg#Connection between Frigg and Freya|Connection between Frigg and Freya]]).
==References==
* ''[[Egils Saga]]''
* ''[[Grímnismál]]''
* ''[[Lokasenna]]''
* [[Snorri Sturluson]], ''The [[Prose Edda]]''
* [[H. R. Ellis Davidson]], ''Gods and Myths of Northern Europe''
* E. O. G. Turville-Petre, ''Myth and Religion of the North''
* Jan de Vries, ''Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte'', 2nd Edition (the seminal work of reference on Germanic and Scandinavian religion).
{{NorseMythology}}
[[Category:Love and lust goddesses]]
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[[Category:Norse mythology]]
[[Category:War goddesses]]
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<page>
<title>F. Scott Fitzgerald</title>
<id>11039</id>
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<id>42044240</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:15:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AkaDada</username>
<id>963112</id>
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<minor />
<comment>/* External links */ +el:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fitzgerald.jpg|thumb|F.Scott Fitzgerald, photographed by [[Carl Van Vechten]], 1937]]
'''Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald''' ([[September 24]], [[1896]] &ndash; [[December 21]],[[1940]]) was an [[Irish American]] [[Jazz Age]] [[novelist]] and [[short story]] writer.
Fitzgerald is regarded as one of the greatest American writers of the [[twentieth century]]. In his own age, Fitzgerald was the self-styled spokesman of the "[[Lost Generation]]", or the Americans born in the 1890s who came of age during [[World War I]]. He finished four novels, left a fifth unfinished, and wrote dozens of short stories that treat themes of youth, despair, and age. Many admire what they consider his remarkable emotional honesty. His heroes&mdash;handsome, confident, and doomed &mdash; blaze brilliantly before exploding, and his heroines are typically beautiful, intricate, and alluring.
==Early years==
Born in [[Saint Paul, Minnesota]] to an upper-middle class [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] family, Fitzgerald was named for his distant and famous relative [[Francis Scott Key]], but was commonly known as 'Scott'.
Fitzgerald spent 1898 &ndash;1901, and 1903 &ndash; 1908 in [[Buffalo, New York]], where his father worked for [[Procter & Gamble]]. When Fitzgerald, Sr., was fired, the family moved back to Minnesota, where Fitzgerald attended [[Saint Paul Academy and Summit School]] in [[Saint Paul, Minnesota]] from 1908 &ndash; 1911. He then attended [[Newman School]], a prep school in Hackensack, New Jersey, in 1911 &ndash; 1912. He entered [[Princeton University]] in 1913 as a member of the Class of 1917 and became friends with the future critics and writers [[Edmund Wilson]] (Class of 1916) and [[John Peale Bishop]] (Class of 1917). Saddled with academic difficulties throughout his three-year career at the university, Fitzgerald dropped out in 1917 to enlist in the United States Army when America entered [[World War I]].
[[I |
er neck of 19 frets is usually tuned CGDA, like a [[viola]], or GDAE, like a [[violin]] (but a fifth lower), and has become quite a standard instrument for [[Irish traditional music]] where is mainly used in its shorter 17 frets variant. [[Eddie Peabody]] (plectrum) and [[Harry Reser]] (tenor and plectrum) are regarded as two of the best four-string banjo players of all times.
== Other banjo variants ==
[[Image:Grzesiuk 2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Stanisław Grzesiuk]] playing a distinctive 8-string banjo]]
A number of hybrid instruments exist, crossing the banjo with other stringed instruments. Most of these use the body of a banjo, often with a resonator, and the neck of the other instrument. Examples include the ''[[guitar]] banjo'', 'banjitar' (a trade-name) or ''[[guitjo]]'', the ''[[Banjo Mandolin|banjo mandolin]]'' and the ''banjo [[ukulele]]'' or ''[[banjolele]]''. These were especially popular in the early decades of the twentieth century, and were probably a result of a desire either to allow players of other instruments to jump on the banjo bandwagon at the height of its popularity, or to get the natural amplification benefits of the banjo resonator in an age before electric amplification. The six-string or guitar-banjo was the instrument of the early jazz great Johnny St. Cyr, as well as of jazzmen [[Danny Barker]], Papa Charlie Jackson and Clancy Hayes.
Instruments using the five-string banjo neck on a wooden body (for example, that of a [[bouzouki]] or [[dobro|resonator guitar]]) have also been made, though these are not so common. A 20th-Century [[Music of Turkey|Turkish]] instrument very similar to the banjo is called [[Cümbüs]].
== See also ==
* [[List of banjo players]]
* [[Prewar Gibson banjo]]
== Further reading ==
=== Banjo history ===
* Conway, Cecelia, ''African Banjo Echoes in Appalachia: A Study of Folk Traditions'', University of Tennessee Press, 1995 (paper - ISBN 0870498932; cloth - ISBN 0870498924). A study of the influence of African-Americans on banjo playing throughout U.S. history.
* Gura, Philip F. and James F. Bollman, ''America's Instrument: The Banjo in the Nineteenth Century'', The University of North Carolina Press, 1999 (ISBN 0807824844). The definitive history of the banjo, focusing on the instrument's development in the 1800's.
* Tsumura, Akira, ''Banjos: The Tsumura Collection'', Kodansha International Ltd., 1984 (ISBN 0870116053). An illustrated history of the banjo featuring the world's premier collection.
* Webb, Robert Lloyd, ''Ring the Banjar!'', Centerstream Publishing, 2nd edition, 1996 (ISBN 1574240161). A short history of the banjo, with pictures from an exhibition at the MIT Museum.
=== Instructional ===
* Costello, Patrick, ''The How and the Tao of Old Time Banjo'', Pik-Ware Publishing, 2003 (ISBN 0974419001). Instruction in frailing banjo. Available online under a Creative Commons license on several web sites including [http://www.ezfolk.com/banjo/howtao/ ezfolk].
*[[Pete Seeger|Seeger, Pete]], ''How to Play the 5-String Banjo'', Music Sales Corporation, 3rd edition, 1969 (ISBN 0825600243). The seminal instruction book, still in print decades later. Seeger has since recorded an instruction video, available on DVD.
== External links ==
* [http://www.bluegrass-museum.org The International Bluegrass Music Museum]
* [http://4stringchords.com Chord finder for 4-string banjos]
* [http://zeppmusic.com/banjo/ Banjo-L]
[[Category:String instruments]][[CATEGORY:Drumhead lutes]]
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<page>
<title>Basic taste</title>
<id>3847</id>
<revision>
<id>41572060</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T05:45:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.229.88.161</ip>
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<comment>minor typo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Basic taste''' is the form of the [[sense]] of [[taste]] in [[human]]s received through [[sensory organ]]s, called [[taste bud]]s or ''gustatory calyculi'', and other receptors are concentrated on the upper surface of the [[tongue]], without the influence of the [[olfactory system]]. They appear to be receptive to relatively few chemical species as tastes. This contrasts markedly with the sense of [[olfaction]] or [[smell]], where very large numbers of [[chemical]]s, [[aromatic compound]]s especially, can be differentiated. There is scientific dispute as to whether basic tastes exist per se or are simply an overly reductionist concept. There is also philosophical dispute between biochemists, who believe evidence for a chemical reaction in tongue tissue means there is a basic taste, and psychologists, who see taste as much more based on psychological states and experiences. Integral taste is the sum of biochemical reactions in the form of psychological and psychosocial terms (e.g. in terms of 4-tastes european or 5 - tastes asian traditional models).
Psychologists speak more about "flavor profiles" than tastes, based on the ways people reporting experience taste. Such reports and testing tend to show even the classic four basic tastes shading into each other on a spectrum of experience.
==History==
Classically, four tastes are known to be sensed by taste buds: bitter, salty, sour and sweet. Growing in popularity is the concept of a supposed "fifth basic taste" called umami. Until recently, most Western sources listed only the first four; in recent years, the fifth taste&mdash; umami &mdash;has become highly marketed and met with qualified scientific acceptance. Umami is generally described as the taste of the common food flavoring [[monosodium glutamate]], or MSG, first isolated by Dr. Kikunae Ikeda at the Imperial University of Tokyo, Japan, in 1907. The term umami and its status as a supposed "basic taste" were popularized by the MSG industry in the 1980s as a way to dispel health concerns about apparent allergic reactions to MSG. Umami has also recently been equated with "savory," a taste or flavor recognized by British and Dutch food scientists, but not widely accepted in America.
The Chinese also recognize ''pungent'' as a sixth flavour. Some argue that '''spicy''' should also be included here as a different type of taste. Conflicting opinions exist and there are no reliable studies yet to support this argument. A major problem are confusions between the concept of taste, which generally refers to stimuli directly affecting the tongue, and flavor, which involves olfaction as well.
In general, the sense of taste is often confused by smells that occur at the same time, and much of the apparent sensation of taste is actually derived from smell stimuli. Loss of smell through [[anosmia]], for example when one has a cold, severely reduces one's apparent sense of taste.
Historically, the science of how humans sense taste has been full of misunderstandings and conflicting claims. For many years, books on the [[physiology]] of human taste contained diagrams of the tongue showing levels of sensitivity to different tastes in different regions. There is some scientific foundation for these "maps", but they are generally overly reductionist.
In Western culture, the concept of basic tastes can be traced back at least to Arisotle, who cited "sweet" and "bitter," with "succulent," "salt," "pungent," "harsh," "astringent" and "acid" as elaborations of those two basics.
The concept of basic tastes is probably too simplistic and does not account for more complex reactions sometimes described as "mouthfeel," or for tastes such as metallic that are generally not considered food-oriented. At the same time, attempts to make a case for new "basic tastes" are often dubious, propelled at least as much by industry marketing as by science.
Umami, it is said, is often found in protein, some vegetables, and fermented foods, such as [[soy sauce]], [[fish sauce]], [[miso]], and [[douchi|black bean sauce]]. Umami plays a particularly important role in Japanese foods: it is often extracted from fish, sea kelp, and/or shiitake mushrooms to create the Japanese-style soup stock ''[[dashi]]'', which is used in many Japanese dishes.
Although umami was not as well recognized in Western countries until recently, many Western dishes supposedly benefit from including umami. For instance, soup stocks, anchovies, some cheeses, and tomato sauce/ketchup, all widely used, are said to contain umami.
However, umami has proven extremely hard to define, and descriptions of it vary from source to source. It includes not only a literal taste but a sensation variously described as "bigness," "impact," "roundness" and so on. There is no doubt that there is some kind of "umami" sensation, but exactly what it is, and whether it is a flavor, a basic taste or some combination of other known basics, is in dispute.
Scientists recently found an umami receptor molecule in tongue tissue. But that doesn't necessarily mean there is a direct umami taste experience due to the way such receptors work. For example, receptors may simply cancel out the sensation of a molecule.
The ancient Chinese [[Five Elements]] philosophy lists slightly different five basic tastes: bitter, salty, sour, sweet, and hot instead of umami.
In November 2005, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/4399584.stm it was reported] that a team of French researchers experimenting on rodents claimed to have evidence for a sixth taste, for fatty substances. It is speculated that humans may also have the same receptors. Fat has occasionally been raised as a possible basic taste since at least the 1800s.
There is a welter of new and ongoing research about taste that co |
ge schools, and may attack livestock and even humans. Although many experts believe their reputation for ferocity is unwarranted, a school of piranha was apparently responsible for the deaths of up to 300 people when their boat capsized near [[Óbidos, Pará|Óbidos]] in [[1981]].
The [[Anaconda]] snake is found in shallow waters in the Amazon basin. One of the world's largest species of snake, the Anaconda spends most of its time in the water, with just its nostrils above the surface. Anacondas have been known very occasionally to attack fishermen.
The river also supports thousands of species of fish, as well as crabs and turtles.
==European exploration==
The first descent by a European of the Amazon from the [[Andes]] to the sea was made by [[Francisco de Orellana]] in 1541.
The first ascent by a European of the river was made in 1638 by [[Pedro Teixeira]], a [[Portugal|Portuguese]], who reversed the route of Orellana and reached [[Quito]] by way of the [[Napo River|Napo River]]. He returned in 1639 with the two [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] fathers [[Christoval de Acuna|Acuna]] and [[Artieda]], who had been delegated by the viceroy of [[Peru]] to accompany Texeira.
==Name==
Before the conquest of South America, the ''Río de las Amazonas'' had no general name; instead, indigenous peoples had names for the sections of the river they occupied, such as [[Paranaguazu]], [[Guyerma]], [[Solimões]] and others.
In the year 1500, [[Vicente Yañez Pinzon]], in command of a [[Spain|Spanish]] expedition, became the first European to explore the river, exploring its mouth when he discovered that the ocean off the shore was fresh water. Pinzon called the river the ''Rio Santa Maria de la Mar Dulce'', which soon became abbreviated to Mar Dulce, and for some years, after 1502, it was known as the Rio Grande.
Pinzon's companions called the river ''El Río Marañón''. The word Marañón is thought by some to be of indigenous origin. This idea was first stated in a letter from [[Pietro Martire Vermigli|Peter Martyr]] to [[Lope Hurtado de Mendoza]] in 1513. However, the word may also be derived from the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word ''"maraña"'' &mdash; meaning a tangle, a snarl, which well represents the bewildering difficulties which the earlier explorers met in navigating not only the entrance to the Amazon, but the whole island-bordered, river-cut and indented coast of what is now the Brazilian state of [[Maranhão]].
The name ''Amazon'' arises from a battle which [[Francisco de Orellana]] had with a tribe of [[Tapuya]]s where the women of the tribe fought alongside the men, as was the custom among the entire tribe. Orellana derived the name Amazonas from the ancient [[Amazons]] of [[Asia]] and [[Africa]] described by [[Herodotus]] and [[Diodorus]].
==Exploitation==
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Solimoes_and_Negro_converge.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Solimões and Negro rivers join near [[Manaus]]. The Solimões is laden with silt carried down from the Andes; the clear-running Negro has its source in a region with little sediment]] -->
[[Image:Amazon at Iquitos.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The Amazon flows past the Malecon in [[Iquitos, Peru|Iquitos]].]]
For 350 years after the European discovery of the Amazon by Pinzon, the Portuguese portion of its basin remained an almost undisturbed wilderness, occupied by indigenous tribes split into countless fragments by their quest for food. Because of the difficulty of [[hunter-gatherer|hunting and gathering]] food, the indigenous inhabitants probably had a population density no higher than one person to every 13 km&sup2; (5 sq. miles) of territory.
A few settlements on the banks of the main river and some of its tributaries had been founded by the Portuguese either for trade with the Indians or for evangelizing purposes. The total population of the Brazilian portion of the Amazon basin in 1850 was perhaps 300,000, of whom about two-thirds comprised by Europeans and slaves, the slaves amounting to about 25,000.
The principal commercial city, [[Para (city)|Para]], had from 10,000 to 12,000 inhabitants, including slaves. The town of Manáos, now [[Manaus]], at the mouth of the Rio Negro, had from 1,000 to 1,500 population. All the remaining villages, as far up as [[Tabatinga]], on the Brazilian frontier of Peru, were very small.
On [[September 6]] [[1850]], the emperor, [[Dom Pedro II]], sanctioned a law authorizing steam navigation on the Amazon, and gave Barao Maua ([[Irineu Evangilista de Sousa]]) the task of putting it into effect. He organized the "Compania de Navigacao e Commercio do Amazonas" at Rio de Janeiro in 1852; and in the following year it commenced operations with three small steamers, the ''Monarch'', the ''Marajó'' and ''Rio Negro''.
At first, navigation was principally confined to the main river; and even in 1857 a modification of the government contract only obliged the company to a monthly service between Para and Manáos, with steamers of 200 tons cargo capacity, a second line to make six round voyages a year between Manaós and Tabatinga, and a third, two trips a month between Para and Cameta. This was the first step in opening up the vast interior.
The success of the venture called attention to the opportunities for economic exploitation of the Amazon, and a second company soon opened commerce on the Madeira, Purus and Negro; a third established a line between Para and Manáos; and a fourth found it profitable to navigate some of the smaller streams. In that same period, the Amazonas Company was increasing its fleet. Meanwhile, private individuals were building and running small steam craft of their own on the main river as well as on many of its tributaries.
On [[July 31]], 1867 the government of Brazil, constantly pressed by the maritime powers and by the countries encircling the upper Amazon basin, decreed the opening of the Amazon to all flags; but limited this to certain defined points: Tabatinga&mdash;on the Amazon; Cameta&mdash;on the Tocantins; Santarem&mdash;on the Tapajos; Borba&mdash;on the Madeira and Manáos&mdash;on the Rio Negro. The decree took effect on [[September 7]], 1867.
Manáos (now Manaus), Para and Iquitos are now thriving commercial centres. The first direct foreign trade with Manáos was commenced about 1874. The local trade of the river was carried on by the English successors to the Amazonas Company&mdash;the Amazon Steam Navigation Company&mdash;as well as numerous small river steamers, belonging to companies and firms engaged in the rubber trade, navigating the Negro, Madeira, Purfis and many other streams. The principal exports of the valley were [[Rubber|india-rubber]], [[cacao]], [[Brazil nut]]s and a few other products of very minor importance.
==20th century concerns==
Four centuries after the discovery of the Amazon river, the total cultivated area in its basin was probably less than 25 square miles (65 km&sup2;), excluding the limited and rudely cultivated areas among the mountains at its extreme headwaters. This situation changed dramatically during the [[20th century]].
[[Image:Manaus-Amazon-NASA.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Manaus]], the largest city on the Amazon, as seen from a [[NASA]] satellite image, surrounded by the muddy Amazon River and the dark [[Negro River]].]]
Wary of foreign exploitation of the nation's resources, Brazilian governments in the 1940s set out to develop the interior, away from the seaboard where foreigners owned large tracts of land. The original architect of this expansion was President [[Getúlio Vargas]], the demand for rubber from the Allied forces in [[World War II]] providing funding for the drive.
The construction of the new capital [[Brasilia]] in the interior in [[1960]] also contributed to the opening up of the Amazon basin. A large scale colonization program saw families from north-eastern Brazil relocated to the forests, encouraged by promises of cheap land. Many settlements grew along the road from Brasilia to [[Belem]], but rainforest soil proved difficult to cultivate.
Still, long-term development plans continued. Roads were cut through the forests, and in 1970, the work on Trans-Amazon highway network began. The network's three pioneering highways were completed within ten years, connecting all the major cities of the Brazilian Amazon interior.
Cattle farming became a major impetus in [[deforestation]], with military governments in the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]] heavily subsidising the creation of large ranches. By the [[1980s]] the rate of destruction of the rainforest was dizzying, and it is estimated that over a fifth of the total area of the rainforest has now been [[clearcut]]. The preservation of the remaining forest is becoming an ever more prominent concern.
==Major tributaries==
The Amazon has over 1,000 [[Tributary | tributaries]] in total. Some of the more notable are:
{|
|
* [[Branco River|Branco]]
* [[Casiquiare canal]]
* [[Huallaga River|Huallaga]]
* [[Içá River|Içá (or Putumayo)]]
* [[Javary]]
* [[Jurua]]
* [[Madeira River|Madeira]]
* [[Marañón River|Marañón]]
* [[Morona]]
* [[Nanay]]
* [[Napo River|Napo]]
|&nbsp;&nbsp;||
* [[Negro River|Negro]]
* [[Pastaza River|Pastaza]]
* [[Purus]]
* [[Río Tambo|Tambo]]
* [[Tapajós]]
* [[Tigre River|Tigre]]
* [[Tocantins River|Tocantins]]
* [[Trombetas]]
* [[Ucayali]]
* [[Xingu River|Xingu]]
* [[Yapura]]
|}
==Longest rivers in the Amazon system==
# 6,387 km - [[Amazon River|Amazon]], [[South America]]
# 3,379 km - [[Purus]], [[Peru]] / [[Brazil]], (2,948 km) (3,210 km)
# 3,239 km - [[Madeira River|Madeira]], [[Bolivia]] / [[Brazil]]
# 2,820 km - [[Yapura]], [[Colombia]] / [[Brazil]]
# 2,750 km - [[Tocantins River|Tocantins]], [[Brazil]], (2,416 km) (2,640 km)
# 2,575 km - [[Araguaia River|Araguaia]], [[Brazil]] (tributary of Tocantins)
# 2,410 km - [[Juruá]], [[Peru]] / [[Brazil]]
# 2,250 km - [[Negro River|Negro]], [[South America]]
# 2,100 km - [[X |
>7013</id>
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<title>Condoms</title>
<id>7014</id>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
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<title>Christiaan Barnard</title>
<id>7015</id>
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<id>41670605</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T23:36:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nescio</username>
<id>343981</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rvv by [[user:207.255.52.214|207.255.52.214]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Christiaan Neethling Barnard''' ([[November 8]], [[1922]] &ndash; [[September 2]], [[2001]]) was a [[South African]] cardiac [[surgery|surgeon]]. He became famous for performing the world's first open [[heart]] transplant.
== Early life ==
Barnard was born and grew up under modest circumstances in [[Beaufort West]], [[South Africa]]. His father was a church minister. His native language was Afrikaans. He studied medicine at the [[University of Cape Town]] [[Medical School]], did his internship and residency at the [[Groote Schuur Hospital]] in [[Cape Town]], and became a [[general practitioner]] in [[Ceres, South Africa|Ceres]], a rural town in the [[Western Cape]] province. While practicing there in [[1948]], he married a nurse, Aletta Louw. In [[1951]], he returned to Cape Town to work at two hospitals and complete his [[Masters degree]], receiving that in [[1953]] from the University of Cape Town. He later obtained a doctorate in medicine from the same university for a dissertation entitled "The treatment of tuberulous Meningitis". From [[1956]], he attended the [[University of Minnesota]] to study surgery. While in [[Minneapolis]] he became involved in cardiothoracic surgery and chose that as his specialty.
He was appointed cardiothoracic surgeon at the Groote Schuur Hospital in [[1958]], establishing the hospital's first heart unit. He had also experimented for several years with animal heart transplants following the first successful [[kidney]] transplant in [[1954]] &mdash; Barnard performed the first kidney transplant in South Africa in [[1959]]. He also lectured at the University of Cape Town, and in [[1961]] he was made head of cardiothoracic surgery at the university.
== Heart transplant ==
The world's first open heart transplant operation was performed on [[3 December]] 1967 in an operation lasting nine hours and using a team of thirty persons. The patient, [[Louis Washkansky]], was 55 years old and suffering from [[diabetes]] and [[heart disease]]. The transplant heart came from a young woman, [[Denise Darvall]], killed in a [[road accident]]. Washkansky survived the operation and lived for eighteen days, before succumbing to [[pneumonia]] induced by the immuno-suppressive [[Medication|drug]]s he was taking.
There is some controversy since some view Barnard as an interloper who unfairly stole the thunder from [[Norman E. Shumway]], the Stanford heart surgeon who did the primary research making heart transplants possible. Barnard performed his historic transplant shortly after observing Schumway's research work at Stanford.
Barnard was quite [[photogenic]] and enjoyed the media attention following the operation, which made him famous around the world. Barnard continued to perform heart transplants: a transplant operation was conducted on [[2 January]] [[1968]], and the patient, [[Philip Blaiberg]], survived for 19 months. Mrs Dorothy Fisher was given a new heart in 1969 and became the longest surviving patient, she lived for 24 years after the transplant.([http://africanhistory.about.com/library/weekly/aa090601a.htm]). In [[1969]], Barnard got a divorce, and in [[1970]] he married the glamorous [[Barbara Zoellner]].
He also pioneered new and risky techniques, including double transplants ([[1974]]), artificial valves and using animal hearts for emergency treatment ([[1977]]). He performed 10 orthotopic transplants ([[1967]] &ndash; [[1973]]), and Barnard or his group performed 48 heterotopic transplants ([[1975]] &ndash; [[1983]]). The introduction of [[cyclosporine]] meant a resumption in orthotopic operations.
== Retirement ==
Barnard divorced in [[1982]], and retired due to stiffness brought on by [[rheumatoid arthritis]] in his [[hand]]s in [[1983]], mostly due to activities on his ranch in the Great [[Karoo]].
He had become very interested in anti-aging research, and his reputation suffered in [[1986]] when he promoted ''[[Glycel]]'', a product that was withdrawn by the [[United States]] [[Food and Drug Administration]] soon thereafter.
He got married for a third time in [[1988]] to the youthful Karin Setzkorn, divorcing again in [[2000]]. He died whilst on holiday in [[Paphos]], [[Cyprus]] after suffering an acute [[asthma attack]], leaving behind five children.
== See also ==
* [[Thoracic surgery]]
* [[Hamilton Naki]]
[[Category:South African people]]
[[Category:1922 births|Barnard, Christiaan]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Barnard, Christiaan]]
[[Category:South African surgeons|Barnard, Christiaan]]
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<page>
<title>Concubinage</title>
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<comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|July 2005}}
'''Concubinage''' refers to the state of a couple living together as lovers with no permanent obligation (as by civil [[marriage]] or religious ceremony) or the state of a woman supported by a male lover who is married to another. In societies that permit [[slavery]], it can refer to sexual relationships between slave-owners and their slaves (a form of [[sexual slavery]]). In ancient times, institutions such as the Roman government had strict rules governing marriage between individuals of differing social, economic or religious classes. In these situations, concubinage was the only quasi-legal relationship option available, particularly if the couple wanted to have children that would be viewed as 'legitimate' by society and local legal authorities.
In [[English language|English]], the first meaning is antiquated and is replaced by "living together", "shacking up", or, more formally, "[[cohabitation]]". It typically implies [[monogamy]]. The term [[mistress]] refers to a woman with an ongoing sexual relationship with a married man. Traditionally, in the [[Western world]], a man and a woman living together without being married were socially shunned; in some jurisdictions, it was illegal. Today, cohabitation is common, especially among younger adults who no longer see the need to be married in today's society. Couples often live together before marrying or becoming engaged. Some call concubinage "[[college]] marriage."
Several [[United States|US]] states legislatively forbid cohabitation between heterosexual partners. The law is not typically enforced. In [[France]], ''Concubinage'' is the official term for cohabitation of heterosexual and (since [[1998]]) homosexual couples. Some benefits of [[marriage|married]] couples or those bound by [[PACS (civil union)]] may then apply. In jurisdictions with [[common-law marriage]], cohabiting partners may become common-law spouses after a certain length of time.
==Concubine==
The term ''concubine'' generally signifies relationships where the male is the dominant partner, socially and economically. In this model the male may also have one or more wives as well. Some historical [[Middle East]]ern and [[East Asia]]n rulers are examples of this pattern.
A woman attached to a man solely for reproduction, and who cares for the resulting [[child]]ren without any romantic relationship, is also consided a concubine. The father in this case may have a legal wife or other lovers.
Historically, concubinage was frequently voluntary, as it provided a measure of economic security for the woman involved. Involuntary, or servile, concubinage involves [[sexual slavery]] of one member of the relationship; typically the woman.
==Concubinus==
In Roman times, this was the title of a young male slave who was chosen by his master as a bedmate. They were often refered to ironically in the literature of the time. [[Catullus]] assumes in the wedding poem 61.126 that the young manor lord has a concubinus who considers himself elevated above the other slaves, but will lose his post after the lord's marriage. Some of these relationships were described as having emotional depth. [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]], in his account of the Spanish wars, relates a story of the rebel Scapula, who orders a freedman who had been his former concubinus to light his pyre.
==See also==
* [[polygamy]]
* [[polyamory]]
* [[monogamy]]
* [[morganatic marriage]]
* [[harem (household)|harem]]
* [[prostitution]]
==External links==
* [http://wiktionary.org/wiki/Concubine Concubine] at Wiktionary
* [http://www.liberalislam.net/slav |
change rate]]s, and
*[[trade pact|Trade agreements]] or barriers
*other [[tax, tariff and trade]] measures
Measuring the balance of payments can be problematic, due to problems with recording and collecting data. As an illustration of this problem, when official data for all countries in the world is added up it appears that the world is running a positive balance of payments with itself. The total reported amount of exports in the world is greater by a few percent than the total reported amount of imports. This cannot be true, because all transactions involve an equal [[credit (finance)|credit]] or [[debit]] in the account of each nation. The discrepancy is widely believed to be explained by transactions intended to launder money or evade taxes, and other visibility problems.
== Economic impact of balance of trade ==
If the balance of trade is positive, then an economy exported more than it had imported. This may appear to be a good thing but may not always be so. An example of an economy in which a positive balance of payments is generally regarded as a bad thing is [[Japan]] in the [[1990s]]. Because Japan had a consistently positive balance of payments, it had more currency than it could effectively invest, and it was reluctant to also offer full access to its own markets. This led to huge Japanese overseas purchases of items such as real estate, which were of questionable economic value. Furthermore, the protectionist measures that created the positive balance of trade also caused the price of goods in Japan to be much higher than they would have been had imports been freely allowed. The foreign currency Japanese companies earned overseas remained largely unconverted into yen in order to suppress the yen's value, further preventing Japanese consumers from benefiting from the trade surplus. It is also possible for the terms of trade to be lower than before if there is an improvement in the balance of trade.
Negative balances are not necessarily terrible news, either. By economic definition, a persistent trade deficit can only exist if there is a corresponding capital surplus. Otherwise, the currency would naturally decline until the deficit were eliminated.
Trade imbalance can lead to the loss of jobs, such as the [http://usinfo.state.gov/ei/Archive/2005/Jan/12-31762.html loss of 1.5 million U.S. jobs to China] between 1989 and 2003, though microeconomists point out this has not been a gross job loss. Other impacts include the cost of [http://www.epinet.org/content.cfm/Issuebrief203 debt servicing], and the increased vulnerability of domestic economies to [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A46042-2005Apr12.html confidence of foreign holders of debt.]
== Dissenting opinion about trade deficits ==
Microeconomists do not believe that trade deficits are inherently good or bad. They do believe that trade deficits are generally harmful when countries engage in currency controls such as fixed or pegged exchange rates. They argue that fixed exchange rates do not allow the market to naturally correct any current account “problems”.
Milton Friedman believes that much of the fears of trade deficits are unfair criticisms in an attempt to push macroeconomic policies favorable to export industries. He states that these deficits are not harmful to the country as the currency always comes back to the country of origin in some form or another. He continues by informing readers that the "worst case scenario" of the currency never returning to the country of origin is actually the best possible outcome; as the country just purchased goods by exchanging pieces of cheaply made paper.
If these current account "problems" become unstable and unsustainable, Friedman notes that the market will correct any "problems" as floating currency rates will rise or fall with time to encourage or discourage imports in favor of the exports, and then possibly reverse again in favor of imports as the currency gains strength.
Friedman and other microeconomists also point out that a large trade deficit (importation of goods) signals that the currency of this country is strong and desirable. Citizens of such a country also receive the benefit of having the ability to choose between many competing consumables and lower prices than they would otherwise experience if the currency was weaker and the country was "enjoying" a trade surplus. To Milton Friedman, a trade deficit simply means that consumers get to purchase and enjoy more goods at lower prices; conversely, a trade surplus implies that a country exported goods that its own citizens did not get to consume and enjoy, while paying high prices for the goods that were consumed.
These trade deficit "problems" were explained in detail by Milton Friedman in Free to Choose, and his simple points re-examined by Dr. Reed. They can be found here: [http://www.ou.edu/class/econ3003/book/area1c35.html]
== The United States trade deficit ==
The United States has posted a [http://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/statistics/historical/gands.txt trade deficit since the 1970s], and it has been rapidly increasing since 1997 (see chart below). The [http://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/statistics/highlights/annual.html 2005 deficit] in goods and services (US$725.8 billion) set a new record.
[[Image:USTrade1991-2005.gif|thumb|centre|800px]]
The persistence of the trade deficit has been attributed to a number of factors, including:
* The dollar's role as a [[reserve currency]]
* Continued growth in the US economy
* Continued high demand for American investment assets
* Rising oil prices
* [[Globalization]]
The trade deficit in the United States has resulted in or represents:
*A decline in American manufacturing and export industries.
*A rise in imported products from countries such as [[China]].
*A fairly strong dollar relative to many other nations.
*A fairly high demand for American capital, including investments and property.
== Physical trade balance ==
'''Monetary''' trade balance is different from physical trade balance (which is expressed in amount of raw materials). Developed countries usually import a lot of primary raw materials from developing countries at low prices. Often, these materials are then converted into finished products, and an enormous amount of value is added. Although the EU (and other developed countries) has a balanced monetary trade balance, its physical trade balance (especially with developing countries) is negative, meaning that in terms of materials a lot more is imported than exported. That means the [[ecological footprint]] of developed countries is much larger than that of developing countries.
==See also==
* [[Balance of payments]]
* [[Balanced trade]]
* [[List of countries and territories by current account balance]]
* [[List of international trade topics]]
* [[Terms of trade]]
==External links==
* [http://www.freetrade.org/pubs/pas/tpa-002.html America's Maligned and Misunderstood Trade Deficit]
[[Category:Macroeconomics]]
[[Category:Economic indicators]]
[[Category:International trade]]
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<page>
<title>Battle of Zarnowiec</title>
<id>4812</id>
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<timestamp>2005-06-28T18:31:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Naive cynic</username>
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<minor />
<comment>fix redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Battle of Świecino]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Bible stories</title>
<id>4815</id>
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<contributor>
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<comment>moving to singular title per naming convention</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bible story]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Biosphere</title>
<id>4816</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:15:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Marshman</username>
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<comment>We do not edit out non-American spellings of English words</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the Norwegian musician, see [[Biosphere (band)]]. For the geodesic dome in Montreal, see [[Montreal Biosphère]].}}
The '''biosphere ''' is that part of a [[planet]]'s outer shell&mdash;including [[Earth's atmosphere|air]], [[landform|land]], [[lithosphere|surface rocks]] and [[water]]&mdash;within which [[life]] occurs, and which biotic processes in turn alter or transform. From the broadest [[Geophysiology|geophysiological]] point of view, the biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the [[lithosphere]] (rocks), [[hydrosphere]] (water), and [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] (air). Our planet [[Earth]] is the only place where [[life]] is known to exist. This biosphere is generally thought to have [[evolution|evolved]] beginning, through a process of [[Chardin|biogenesis]] or [[origin of life|biopoesis]], at least some 3.5 billion years ago.
== Origin and use of the term ==
The term "biosphere" was coined by geologist [[Eduard Suess]] in [[1875]]. While this concept has a geological origin, it is an indication of the impact of both [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]] and [[Matthew F. Maury|Maury]] on the [[ earth sciences]]. The biosphere's ecological context comes from the 1920s (''see'' [[Vladimir I. Vernadsky]]), preceding the [[1935]] introduction of the term "'''[[ecosystem]]'''" by Sir [[Arthur |
lgorithms]], [[computational geometry|computational geometric algorithms]], [[combinatorial|combinatorial algorithms]], [[machine learning]], [[cryptography]], [[data compression]] algorithms and [[parsing|parsing techniques]].
''See also:'' '''[[List of algorithms]]''' for more details.
Some of these fields overlap with each other and advancing in algorithms for one field causes advancement in many fields and sometimes completely unrelated fields. For example, dynamic programming is originally invented for optimisation in resource consumption in industries, but it is used in solving broad range of problems in many fields.
=== Classification by complexity ===
Some algorithms complete in linear time, and some complete in exponential amount of time, and some never complete. One problem may have multiple algorithms, and some problems may have no algorithms. Some problems have no known efficient algorithms. There are also mappings from some problems to other problems. So computer scientists found it is suitable to classify the problems rather than algorithms into equivalence classes based on the complexity.
''See also:'' '''[[Complexity class]]es''' for more details.
== Legal issues ==
Some countries allow algorithms to be [[patented]] when embodied in software or in hardware. Patents have long been a controversial issue (see, for example, the [[software patent debate]]).
Some countries do not allow certain algorithms, such as cryptographic algorithms, to be [[exported]] from that country.
==See also==
* [[Algorism]]
* [[Approximation algorithms]]
* [[Data structure]]
* [[Randomized algorithm]]
* [[Timeline of algorithms]]
* [[b:A-Level Mathematics/D1/Algorithms|Wikibooks:Algorithms]]
==Notes==
{{note|space}} Although in this example the size of the numbers itself is unbounded, one could therefore argue that the space requirement is O(log ''n''), in practice, however, the space taken up by a number is fixed.
==References==
* [[List of important publications in computer science#Algorithms|Important algorithm-related publications]]
==External links==
* {{DADS|algorithm|algorithm}}
* Gaston H. Gonnet and Ricardo Baeza-Yates: Example programs from [http://www.dcc.uchile.cl/~rbaeza/handbook/ ''Handbook of Algorithms and Data Structures.''] Free source code for many important algorithms.
* [http://www.nist.gov/dads/ Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures]. "This is a dictionary of algorithms, algorithmic techniques, data structures, archetypical problems, and related definitions."
* [http://www.nr.com Numerical Recipes]
* [http://dmoz.org/Computers/Algorithms/ Computers/Algorithms @ dmoz.org]
* [http://musicalgorithms.ewu.edu/ ''Musicalgorithms''] An interesting way of using algorithms to make music.
* [http://www.algorithmist.com/ The Algorithmist] is a web site dedicated to algorithms.
[[Category:Algorithms|*]]
[[Category:Arabic words]]
[[Category:Discrete mathematics]]
[[Category:Mathematical logic]]
[[af:Algoritme]]
[[an:Algoritmo]]
[[ast:Algoritmu]]
[[bg:Алгоритъм]]
[[bs:Algoritam]]
[[ca:Algorisme]]
[[cs:Algoritmus]]
[[da:Algoritme]]
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{{featured article}}</text>
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<page>
<title>Asymmetric algorithm</title>
<id>776</id>
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<contributor>
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</contributor>
<comment>Fixed double redirect; [[Wikipedia:Computer help desk/cleanup/double redirects/20050713|You can help!]].</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Public-key cryptography]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Annual plant</title>
<id>777</id>
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<timestamp>2006-01-09T08:59:46Z</timestamp>
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<ip>70.107.141.78</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''annual plant''' is a [[plant]] that usually germinates, [[flower]]s and dies in one [[year]].
Annuals are often used in [[garden]]s to provide splashes of color, as they tend to produce more flowers than perennials. Some [[perennial plant|perennials]] and [[biennial plant|biennials]] are grown in gardens as annuals for convenience, particularly if they are not considered [[hardiness (plants)|hardy]] for the local climate. Also, many food plants are, or are grown as, annuals, including most domesticated [[Cereal|grain]]s.
The life-cycle of an annual can occur in a period as short as two or three [[month]]s in some species, though most last a bit longer. Vegetables grown in apartment container gardens can last up to two years, if they are maintained indoors during the winter months.
Examples of annual plants include [[pea]]s, [[cauliflower]]s, [[basil]], and [[marigold]]s.
==See also==
*[[Biennial plant]]
*[[Perennial plant]]
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[[Category:Botany]]
[[Category: gardening]]
[[ca:Planta anual]]
[[de:Einjährige Pflanze]]
[[is:Einær jurt]]
[[ru:Однолетнее растение]]
[[ta:ஆண்டுத் தாவரம்]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Anthophyta</title>
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<comment>slight expansion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Anthophyta''''' is a [[descriptive botanical names|descriptive botanical name]] that may be used (Art 16, ''[[ICBN]]'') for what, these days, is more commonly known as ''[[Angiospermae]]'', although in some classifications it was used for what now is known as ''[[Spermatophyta]]''.
The name ''Anthophyta'' literally means "[[flowering plant]]s"; derived from the Greek 'anthos'="flower" and 'phyton'= "plant".
[[Category:Plants| sort31 Anthophyta]]
[[category: plant taxonomy| sort31 Anthophyta]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Atlas (disambiguation)</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:17:21Z</timestamp>
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<comment>/* In computers */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
:''This page is about the word "atlas"''. ''See also the abbreviation "[[ATLAS]]" (written in [[all caps]])''.
The most common meaning of '''atlas''' is [[atlas (cartography)]], a collection of maps. By extension, a [[road atlas]] is a collection of road maps.
Many other entities are also called "atlas", some of which are listed below:
===In science===
*[[Atlas (anatomy)]] is the topmost cervical vertebra of the spine
*Atlas [[beetle]], insect
*Atlas [[cedar]], tree
*[[Atlas (moon)]], a moon of Saturn
*[[Atlas (crater)]], on the Earth's moon
*[[Atlas (star)]], a star in the Pleiades star cluster
*[[ATLAS_experiment|Atlas Experiment]] The particle detector experiment.
===In computers===
*[[Atlas Computer (Manchester)|Atlas Computer]], University of Manchester
* [[Titan (computer)]], also know as Atlas 2, University of Cambridge
*[[UNIVAC 1101]], Atlas Computer, Engineering Research Associates
*[[UNIVAC 1103]], Atlas II computer, Engineering Research Associates
*[[ATLAS Programming Language|ATLAS]], a programming language used for automated test equipment
*[[ATLAS.ti]], a [[qualitative analysis]] software[http://www.atlasti.com/index.php]
*[[ATLAS_(programming)]], Microsoft's implementation of [[Ajax_(programming)]] for [[ASP.NET]]
===In books and literature===
*''The Atlas'', a book by the American author [[William Vollmann]]
*''Atlas'', a book of photography by the German artist [[Gerhard Richter]]
*''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'', a novel by Ayn Rand
*[[Atlas Games]], publisher
*[[Atlas Comics (1950s)]] was, along with the 1940s' [[Timely Comics]], one of the two precursors of [[Marvel Comics]]
*[[Atlas/Seaboard Comics]], a short-lived [[comic book]] company created in 1974
*[[Atlas (comic series)|Atlas]], a comic book series published by [[Drawn & Quarterly]]
*[[Atlas (comics)|Atlas]], a Marvel Comics character
===In Transportation===
*[[Atlas (rocket)]]
*[[Atlas Cheetah]] and [[Atlas Oryx]], aircraft
*[[Atlas Van Lines]]
===A last name of===
*[[Charles Atlas]], there are several people who go by this name
*[[Teddy Atlas]], boxing trainer of Mike Tyson
*[[Natacha Atlas]], a female musician
*Atlas is a fictional robot who is the rival of [[Astro Boy]] in the 1980 and 2003 animated series named after the latter
*Atlas is a fictional character from Marvel Comics, best known as a member of the [[Thunderbolts (comics)]]
===Other===
*[[Atlas (mythology)]], the [[Titan (mythology)|Titan]] of [[Greek mythology]]
*[[Atlas mountains]]
*[[Atlas (architecture)]], the column
*[[Atlas (topology)]], a collection of local coordinate charts in mathematics
*[[CF Atlas]], a Mexican football team
*[[Atlas Telecom]], Romanian communications company
*[[Atlas Economic Research Foundation]], an [[Business incubator|incubator]] for [[Free market|free market]] [[Think tank|think tanks]].
{{disambig}}
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<title>Mouthwash< |
tational, depicting objects or scenes which the artist views, remembers, or imagines. They may be realistic to the point of lifelike resemblance (e.g. traditional [[portrait]]s), looser approximations of reality (e.g. [[sketch (drawing)|sketch]]es), highly stylized (e.g. [[cartoon]]s, [[caricature]]s), or [[Abstract art|abstract]] (e.g. [[automatic drawing]], [[Surrealist techniques#Entoptic graphomania|entoptic graphomania]]).
==Media==
The medium is the means by which ink, pigment, or color are delivered onto the drawing surface. Most drawing media are either dry (e.g. graphite, charcoal, pastel, [[Conté]], [[silverpoint]]), or water-based (marker, pen and ink). Watercolor pencils can be used dry like ordinary pencil, then moistened with a wet brush to get various painterly effects. Very rarely, artists have drawn with (usually decoded) [[invisible ink]].
==Materials==
Paper comes in a variety of different sizes and qualities, ranging from newspaper grade for practice up to high quality and relatively expensive paper sometimes sold as individual sheets. Papers can vary in texture, hue, acidity, and strength when wet. Smooth paper is good for rendering fine detail, but a more "toothy" paper will hold the drawing material better. Thus a more coarse material is useful for producing deeper contrast.
For pen and ink work, typing paper is often used for practice drawings, but heavier paper holds up better. Bristol board makes a hard surface that is especially good for ink or fine detailed graphite drawing. Coldpressed watercolor paper is sometimes favored for ink drawing due to its texture. Tracing vellum is often used for experimenting on top of a pencil drawing, prior to committing a technique to the final page.
Various tools are routinely used in the process of drawing. These include a [[pencil sharpener]], [[sandpaper]], [[kneaded eraser]], [[blending stub]]s, and [[chamois]]. Other tools that sometimes prove useful are [[tracing paper]], a [[circle compass]], [[ruler]], [[frisket film]], [[fixative]], and [[drafting tape]]. The use of an easel or slanted table reduces the distorting effects of perspective.
==Aspects of the drawing process==
===Applying media===
Prior to working on an image, the artist will likely want to gain an understanding of how the various media will work. The different drawing implements can be tried on practice sheets to see what type of pattern they create, and how to apply the implement in order to produce varying tones.
[[image:leonardo_self.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Line drawing in [[red chalk|sanguine]] by [[Leonardo da Vinci]]]]
The stroke of the drawing implement can be used to control the appearance of the image. Ink drawings typically use hatching, which consists of groups of parallel lines. Cross-hatching uses hatching in two or more different directions to create a darker tone. Broken hatching, or lines with intermittent breaks, is used to form lighter tones, and by controlling the density of the breaks a graduation of tone can be achieved. Finally stippling, or random placement of dots on a page, can also be used to produce a [[texture]] or [[shade]].
Sketch drawings use similar techniques, although with pencils and drawing sticks continuous variations in tone can be achieved. For best results the lines in a sketch are typically drawn to follow the contour curves of the surface, thus producing a depth effect. When drawing hair, the lines of the sketch follow the direction of the hair growth.
Typically a drawing will be filled in based on which hand the artist favors. A right-handed artist will want to draw from left to right in order to avoid smearing the image. Sometimes the artist will want to leave a section of the image blank while filling in the remainder of the picture. A ''frisket'' can be used for this purpose. The shape of the area to be preserved is cut out of the frisket, and the resulting shape is then applied to the drawing surface. This will protect the surface from receiving any stray marks before it is ready to be filled in.
Another method to preserve a section of the image is to apply a spray-on ''fixative'' to the surface. This will hold loose material more firmly to the sheet and prevent it from smearing. However the fixative spray typically uses chemicals that can negatively affect the respiratory system, so it should be employed in a well-ventilated area such as outdoors.
===Tone===
Shading is the technique of varying the tonal values on the paper to represent the shade of the material as well as the placement of the shadows. Careful attention to reflected light, shadows, and highlights can result in a very realistic rendition of the image.
Blending uses an implement to move the drawing material on the paper so as to hide the original drawing strokes. This can only be done when drawing with a material such as graphite or charcoal that is not permanently attached once applied. When shading and blending is needed, the artist can employ a combination of a [[Tortillon|tortillon blending stump]], [[chamois]] or [[Tissue|soft tissue]], and a specialized putty-rubber [[eraser]]. The chamois cloth in particular is useful for creating smooth textures, and for removing material to lighten the tone.
There are a number of methods for producing texture in the picture. In addition to choosing a suitable paper, the type of drawing material and the drawing technique will result in different textures.
Texture can be made to appear more realistic when it is draw next to a contrasting texture. Thus a coarse texture placed next to a smoothly blended area will appear more notable. A similar effect can be achieved by drawing different tones in close proximity. A light edge next to a dark background will stand out to the eye, and almost appear to float above the surface.
In most drawing mediums, but especially in ink, realistic renditions of an object or structure avoid outlinining the form and features. Otherwise the image may resemble a paint-by-numbers figure from a coloring book. Instead the shape of the structure is portrayed almost entirely through tones and shading, including contrast with the background.
===Layout===
Measuring the dimensions of a subject while blocking in the drawing is an important step in producing a realistic rendition of the actual subject. A straight drawing implement held horizontally or vertically can be used to measure the angles of different sides. These angles can be reproduced on the drawing surface and then rechecked to make sure they are accurate. Another form of measurement is to compare the relative sizes of different parts of the subject with each other. A finger placed at a point along the drawing implement can be used to compare that dimension with other parts of the image.
A [[grid]] can be used to produce a more accurate portrayal of a [[photograph]]. The image is subdivided into equally spaced horizontal and vertical lines. A scaled version of these lines is drawn lightly on the paper, and the outlines of the significant features are copied onto the drawing. A similar approach when using an easel is to mount a small, heavy paper frame through which the artist can view the scene. The image on the paper is then scaled in reference to this frame.
[[image:ENC plate 1-143 750px.jpeg|thumb|250px|Anatomical drawing of the human muscles from the ''[[Encyclopédie]]''.]]
When attempting to draw a complicated shape such as a human figure, it is helpful at first to represent the form with a set of primitive shapes. Almost any form can be represented by some combination of the cube, sphere, cylinder, and cone. Once these basic shapes have been assembled into a likeness, then the drawing can be refined into a more accurate and polished form. The lines of the primitive shapes are removed and replaced by the final likeness.
A more refined art of [[figure drawing]] relies upon the artist possessing a deep understanding of anatomy and the human proportions. A trained artist is familiar with the skeleton structure, joint location, muscle placement, tendon movement, and how the different parts work together during movement. This allows the artist to render more natural poses that do not appear artificially stiff. The artist is also familiar with how the proportions vary depending on the age of the subject, particularly when drawing a portrait.
===Perspective===
[[Linear perspective]] is a method of portraying objects on a flat surface so that the dimensions shrink with distance. The parallel, straight edges of any object, whether a building or a table, will follow lines that eventually converge at infinity. Typically this point of convergence will be along the horizon, as buildings are built level with the flat surface. When multiple structures are aligned with each other, such as buildings along a street, the horizontal tops and bottoms of the structures will all typically converge at a vanishing point.
[[Image:2-punktperspektive.png|thumb|right|250px|Two point perspective drawing.]]
When both the fronts and sides of a building are drawn, then the parallel lines forming a side converge at a second point along the horizon (which may be off the drawing paper.) This is a "two-point perspective". Convering the vertical lines to a point in the sky then produces a "three-point perspective".
Depth can also be portrayed by several techniques in addition to the perspective approach above. Objects of similar '''size''' should appear ever smaller the further they are from the viewer. Thus the back wheel of a cart will appear slightly smaller than the front wheel. Depth can be portrayed through the use of '''texture'''. As the texture of an object gets further away it becomes more compressed and busy, taking on an entirely different character than if it was close. Depth can also be portrayed by reducing the amount of contrast of more distant objects, and also by making the colors more pale. This will reprodu |
.
The manifestations of the Element of Earth are all plants and trees, mountains, forests, caves, and gardens. The stag, bull, sow, bear, and the snake are also thought to personify the element of Earth, as are all burrowing animals, such as moles and rabbits. Astral creatures of Earth (elementals) are the Satyr/Faun, Gnome/Goblin, Sylvestre/Dryad, and the Elf. Earth’s place on the pentagram is the lower left point. In China and Japan Earth was represented by a turtle; in the Aztec religion, by a house; to the Hindus, a lotus; to the Scythians, a plough; to the Greeks, a wheel; and in Christian iconography by a bull.
== See also ==
* [[Earth]]
[[Category:Alchemy]]
[[Category:Astrology]]
[[Category:History of physics]]
{{occult-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blue Jam</title>
<id>6319</id>
<revision>
<id>39572868</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T10:43:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>129.35.81.19</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Derivative shows */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:bluejam.jpg|thumb|right|Chris Morris advertising 'Blue Jam'.]]
'''''Blue Jam''''' was an ambient [[radio comedy]] programme produced by [[Chris Morris (satirist)|Chris Morris]]. It aired on [[BBC Radio 1]] in the early hours of the morning from [[1997]] to [[1999]].
The programme gained cult status due to its unique mix of surreal [[monologue]], [[music]], synthesised voices, heavily edited broadcasts and recurring sketches. It featured the extreme voice talents of [[Kevin Eldon]], [[Julia Davis]], [[Mark Heap]], [[David Cann]] and [[Amelia Bullmore]]. Morris himself delivered disturbing monologues, one of which was revamped and made into the [[BAFTA]]-winning short film, ''[[My Wrongs 8245 - 8249 and 117]]''.
Writers who contributed to the programme included [[Graham Linehan]], [[Arthur Mathews]], [[Peter Baynham]], [[David Quantick]], [[Jane Bussman]] and the cast.
Chris Morris is known for pushing the limits of what is acceptable for the media, as is illustrated by an incident surrounding the sixth episode of ''Blue Jam'', named after the sketch which precipitated it, "Bishopslips".
==Bishopslips==
In a 'sketch' commencing approximately thirteen minutes into the sixth episode of ''Blue Jam'', Morris re-edited the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]'s speech at [[Diana, Princess of Wales]]'s funeral to make it appear that he was making inappropriate comments regarding [[AIDS]] and the [[British Royal Family]]. The broadcast of this episode was halted in the middle of the edited speech, which was "broadcast almost in its entirety before being faded by a transmission engineer" [http://peteashton.com/002310.html]. It is unknown who ordered this, either a [[BBC]] employee receiving complaints (before the sketch had ended?), or Chris Morris himself as a stunt. The same episode was later rebroadcast, with "Bishopslips" omitted.
==Derivative shows==
A first attempt at translating the series for television came with the [[Television pilot|pilot]] episode of ''[[Big Train]]'' in [[1998]]. Directed by Morris, written by Linehan & Matthews and starring the ''Blue Jam'' cast (with the exception of Cann, replaced by [[Simon Pegg]]), it had much of the offbeat humour from the radio show, but without the ambient feel. When the series was commissioned it was without Morris, and as an entirely separate entity. However, Morris did make a cameo appearance in the first series, narrating a mock nature documentary in which a herd of horseracing jockeys on the Serengeti are stalked and then attacked by the Artist Formerly Known as Prince. He also directed a few sketches throughout the series, notably the Bee Gee's Wild West sketch.
Blue Jam was later made for [[television]] and broadcast on [[Channel 4]] as ''[[Jam (TV series)|Jam]]''. It utilised unusual editing techniques to achieve an unnerving ambiance in keeping with the radio show, and largely repeated the radio sketches. A subsequent "re-mixed" airing, called ''[[Jaaaaam]]'' was even more extreme in its use of post-production gadgetry, often heavily distorting the footage.
In place of closing credits the show had a [[hyperlink|link]] to [http://www.jamcredits.com/ jamcredits.com].
==See also==
* [[Second Class Male/Time To Go]]
* ''[[On the Hour]]''
* ''[[The Day Today]]''
* ''[[Brass Eye]]''
==External links==
*[http://www.angelfire.com/id/bjsg/mainindex.html Blue Jam Sketch Guide]: details of the shows, some sound files. '''Note:''' the free hosting of this site comes at the cost of a great many invasive pop-ups.
*[http://www.thejim.iofm.net/bluejam.html It Started In The Park]: transcripts of every episode of the first two series of Blue Jam.
[[Category:BBC radio comedy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brass Eye</title>
<id>6320</id>
<revision>
<id>42094824</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:12:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Localzuk</username>
<id>687650</id>
</contributor>
<comment>quotes should go to wikiquote not wikipedia</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox television |
| show_name = Brass Eye
| image = [[Image:Brass Eye logo.png]]
| caption = The ''Brass Eye'' logo
| format = [[Comedy]]
| runtime = 25 min
| creator = [[Chris Morris (satirist)|Chris Morris]]
| starring = [[Chris Morris (satirist)|Chris Morris]]
| country = [[United Kingdom]]
| network = [[Channel 4]]
| first_aired = [[January 29]], [[1997 in television|1997]]
| last_aired = [[July 26]], [[2001 in television|2001]]
| num_episodes = 7
|}}
'''''Brass Eye''''' is a [[United Kingdom|UK]] television series of [[satire|satirical]] [[mockumentary|spoof documentaries]] which aired on [[Channel 4]] in [[1997]] and was re-run in [[2001]].
The series was created by [[Chris Morris (satirist) | Chris Morris]], and written by, amongst others, Morris, [[David Quantick]], [[Peter Baynham]], [[Arthur Mathews]] and [[Graham Linehan]]. It was conceived as a sequel to Morris's earlier spoof news programmes ''[[On The Hour]]'' and ''[[The Day Today]]'', and satirised the media's portrayal of various social ills.
==Original 1997 series==
''Brass Eye'' aroused considerable controversy when it was first broadcast, primarily because prominent public figures were fooled into pledging onscreen support for fictional, and often plainly absurd, charities and causes.
The second episode was called "Drugs", and is considered by many to be the most successful of the series. In the opening scene, a voiceover tells viewers that there are so many drugs on the streets of Britain, "not even the dealers know them all". An undercover reporter (Morris) asks a drug dealer in [[London]] for various fictional drugs, including "Triplesod", "Yellow Bentines" and "Clarky Cat", leaving the dealer puzzled and increasingly irritated until he tells the reporter to leave. He also asks the dealer if he is the "Boz-Boz", and claims that he doesn't want his arm to feel "like a fortnight in a bad balloon". Later on in the episode, in the same area, Morris dresses as a baby with a nappy on his head, and again asks for "triplesod", and then says that "He had a friend once that got triplejacked with a steeplehammer, and jessops jessops jessops jessops jessops", repeating the last words to make fun of "drug slang".
[[David Amess]], the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Southend-on-Sea|Southend West]], was fooled into filming an elaborate video warning against the dangers of a fictional Eastern European drug called Cake, and went as far as to ask a question about it in Parliament [http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm199596/cmhansrd/vo960723/text/60723w10.htm#60723w10.html_wqn10]. The drug purportedly affected an area of the brain called "Shatner's Bassoon" and was frequently referred to as "a made-up drug". Other celebrities such as [[Bernard Ingham|Sir Bernard Ingham]], [[Noel Edmonds]] and [[Rolf Harris]] were shown holding the bright-yellow cake-sized pill as they talked, with [[Bernard Manning]] telling viewers that "One kiddy on Cake, cried all the water out of his body. Just imagine how his mother felt. It's a fucking disgrace." and that someone had "Thrown up their own pelvis".
Other episodes dealt with the topics of science, animals, and infamously, sex. In one scene of the "Sex" episode, Morris posed as a talk-show host who took a starkly discriminatory attitude in favour of those with "Good [[AIDS]]" (e.g. from a contaminated [[blood transfusion]]) over those with "Bad AIDS" (caught through homosexual activity).
[[Image:Grade.gif|thumb|right|The "Grade is a cunt" subliminal message.]]
The screening of the [[1997]] series was postponed for nearly six months as it made comic reference to murderer [[Myra Hindley]], who was back in the news at the time after her portrait was vandalised in the [[Royal Academy]] exhibition [[Sensation (exhibition)|Sensation]].
[[Michael Grade]], then chief executive of [[Channel 4]], repeatedly intervened to demand edits to episodes of ''Brass Eye'', and rescheduled some shows for sensitivity. This interference outraged Morris, who responded by inserting into the Decline episode the single-frame subliminal message "Grade is a cunt". This was removed for the DVD release, which also reinstated all of the extant material.
As another insult to Grade, Morris allegedly wrote to [[Nelson Mandela]] telling him that Grade campaigned for him to be kept in prison, and protested upon his release. He also wrote to musician [[Paul Simon]], claiming that Grade always considered [[Art Garfunkel]] the more talented of the duo.
==2001 paedophilia special==
In 2001, the |
] and the United States (Martha Gellhorn always viewed the sub-hunting as an excuse for Hemingway and his friends to get gas and booze for fishing). As the [[FBI]] took over Caribbean counter-espionage--J. Edgar Hoover was suspicious of Hemingway from the start, and would become more so later-- Ernest went to Europe as a war correspondent for [[Collier's]] magazine.
Hemingway took part in the [[D-Day]] invasion of France as a correspondent on a landing craft, coming in on the 9th wave after most of the action was done (he was infuriated by the fact that then-wife Martha had managed to get in earlier). Later, at [[Villedieu-les-Poêles, France]], he allegedly threw three grenades into a cellar where [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] officers were hiding--although this story, as always where Hemingway is concerned, needs to be taken with a large grain of salt. Later, he acted as an unofficial liaison officer at [[Château de Rambouillet]], and afterwards, formed his own partisan group which in his telling took part in the liberation of [[Paris]]. (These claims have been mostly debunked by historians; some friends said that the only thing Hemingway liberated was the Ritz bar, but he was without question on the scene.)
After the war, Hemingway started work on ''[[The Garden of Eden]]'', which was never finished and would be published posthumously in much-abridged form in 1986. At one stage, he planned a major trilogy which was to be comprised of "The Sea When Young", "The Sea When Absent" and "The Sea in Being" (the latter eventually published in 1952 as ''[[The Old Man and the Sea]]''). There was also a "Sea-Chase" story; three of these pieces were edited and stuck together as the posthumously-published novel ''[[Islands in the Stream]]'' (1970).
Newly divorced from Martha, Hemingway married the war correspondent Mary Welsh, whom he'd met overseas in 1944. Hemingway's first novel after ''For Whom the Bell Tolls'' was ''[[Across the River and Into the Trees]]'' (1950), set in post-World War II [[Venice]]. He derived the title from the last words of General [[Thomas J. Jackson|Stonewall Jackson]]. Enamored of a young Italian girl ([[Adriana Ivancich]]) at the time, '' Across the River and Into the Trees'' is a romance between a war-weary Colonel Cantwell (based on British Lieutenant General "Chink" Dorman-Smith [see Journal of Modern Literature, June 1984]) and the young Renata (which means "Reborn" in [[Latin]]; obviously based on Adriana). The novel received largely bad reviews, many of which accused Hemingway of bad taste, stylistic ineptitude, and sentimentality. Perhaps the last charge was the truest, and fit an emerging pattern: Hemingway was growing old. But 'Across the River' has its latter-day defenders nonetheless.
===Later years===
One section of the above-mentioned sea trilogy was published as ''[[The Old Man and the Sea]]'' in 1952. That [[novella]]'s enormous success satisfied and fulfilled Hemingway, probably for the last time in his life. It earned him both the [[Pulitzer Prize]] in 1953 and the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] in 1954, and restored his international reputation.
Then, his legendary bad luck struck once again; on a safari he suffered injuries in two successive [[plane crash]]es. Hemingway's injuries were serious; he sprained his right shoulder, arm, and left leg, had a grave [[concussion]], temporarily lost vision in his left eye (and the hearing in his left ear), had paralysis of the [[sphincter]], a crushed [[vertebra]], ruptured [[liver]], [[spleen]] and [[kidney]], and first degree burns on his face, arms, and leg.
As if this were not enough, he was badly injured one month later in a [[bushfire]] accident which left him with [[burn (injury)|second degree burn]]s on his legs, front torso, lips, left hand and right forearm. The pain left him in prolonged anguish, and he was unable to travel to [[Stockholm]] to accept his Nobel Prize.
A glimmer of hope came with the discovery of some of his old manuscripts from 1928 in the Ritz cellars, which were transformed into ''[[A Moveable Feast]]''. Although some of his energy seemed to be restored, severe drinking problems kept him down. His blood pressure and cholesterol count were perilously high, he suffered from aortal inflammation, and his depression, aggravated by the drinking, was worsening.
He also lost his Finca Vigía, his estate outside [[Havana, Cuba]] that he had owned for over twenty years, and was forced to go into exile in [[Ketchum, Idaho]], when the conflict in Cuba began to escalate. And so the final chapter began--with Hemingway under surveillance from the US federal government for his residence and activities in Cuba.
On [[26 February]] [[1960]], Ernest Hemingway was unable to get his bullfighting narrative [[The Dangerous Summer]] to the publishers. He therefore had his wife Mary summon his friend, Life Magazine bureau head [[Will Lang Jr.]], to leave Paris and come to Spain. Hemingway persuaded Lang to let him print the manuscript, along with a picture layout before it came out in hardcover. Although not a word of it was on paper, Ernest agreed to the proposal. The first part of story appeared in Life Magazine on [[September 5]] [[1960]]. The other installments were printed on the following issues of Life.
Hemingway was upset by the photographs in his ''[[The Dangerous Summer]]'' article. He was receiving treatment in [[Ketchum, Idaho]] for [[high blood pressure]] and [[liver]] problems&mdash;and also [[electroconvulsive therapy]] (ECT) for [[depression]] and his continued paranoia, although this may in fact have helped to precipitate his suicide, since he reportedly suffered significant memory loss as a result of the shock treatments. He also lost weight and his 6-foot frame appeared gaunt at 170 pounds
==Death==
Hemingway attempted suicide in the spring of 1961, and received [[Electroconvulsive therapy|ECT]] treatment again; but, some three weeks short of his 62nd birthday, he took his own life on the morning of July 2, 1961, with a shotgun blast to the head. Judged not mentally responsible for his action of suicide, he was buried with a Roman Catholic service. Hemingway himself blamed the ECT treatments for "putting him out of business" by destroying his memory; medical and scholarly opinion has been respectfully attentive to this view.
Other members of Hemingway's immediate family also committed suicide, including his father, Clarence Hemingway, his siblings Ursula and Leicester, and later his grandaughter [[Margaux Hemingway]]. Some believe that certain members of Hemingway's paternal line had a genetic condition or hereditary disease known as [[Haemochromatosis|haemochromatosis]], in which an excess of iron concentration in the blood causes damage to the pancreas and depression or instability in the cerebrum. Hemingway's physician father is known to have developed [[Haemochromatosis|bronze diabetes]] owing to this condition in the years prior to his suicide at age fifty-nine. Some think Hemingway suffered from [[bipolar disorder]]. One must allow that there is a surfeit of medical speculation about his final illness and death.
Ernest Hemingway is interred in the Catholic cemetery in Ketchum.
===Posthumous publications===
Hemingway was still writing new works up to the time of his death in 1961. All of these unfinished works which were Hemingway's sole creation have been published posthumously; they are ''[[Islands in the Stream]],'' ''[[The Dangerous Summer]],'' and ''[[The Garden of Eden]]''.{{ref|ref10}} In a note forwarding "Islands in the Stream" Mary Hemingway indicated that she worked with Charles Scribner, Jr. on "preparing this book for publication from Ernest's original manuscript." In that note she stated that "beyond the routine chores of correcting spelling and punctuation, we made some cuts in the manuscript, I feeling that Ernest would surely have made them himself. The book is all Ernest's. We have added nothing to it." Controversy has surrounded the publication of these works, insofar as it has been suggested that it is not necessarily within the jurisdiction of Hemingway's relatives or publishers to determine whether these works should be made available to the public. For example, scholars often disapprovingly note that the version of ''The Garden of Eden'' published by [[Charles Scribner's Sons]] in 1986, though in no way a revision of Hemingway's original words, nonetheless does not include some two-thirds of the original manuscript{{ref|ref11}}. In 1999, another novel entitled ''[[True at First Light]]'' appeared under the name of Ernest Hemingway, though it was heavily edited by his son [[Patrick Hemingway]].
The [[Associated Press]] reported in February 2005 on the progress of what is purported to be the final work to be posthumously published that was written by Hemingway. Entitled ''[[Under Kilimanjaro]],'' the novel is a fictional account of Hemingway's final African safari in 1953&ndash;1954. He spent several months in Kenya with his fourth wife, Mary, before his near-fatal plane crashes took place{{ref|ref12}}. Anticipation of the novel, whose manuscript was completed in 1956, adumbrates perhaps an unprecedentedly large critical battle over whether it is proper to publish the work (many sources mention that a new, light side of Hemingway will be seen as opposed to his canonical, macho image{{ref|ref13}}), even as editors [[Robert W. Lewis]] of [[University of North Dakota]] and [[Robert E. Fleming]] of [[University of New Mexico]] have pushed it through to publication; the novel was published on [[September 15]] 2005.
Also published after Hemingway's death were several collections of his work as a journalist. These collections contain his columns and articles for Esquire Magazine, The North American Newspaper Alliance, and the Toronto Star; they include ''Byline: Er |
milar to a typical [[rugby league]] field). Two rows of lines, known as ''hash marks'', parallel the side lines near the middle of the field. All plays start with the ball on or between the hash marks.
At the back of each end zone are two ''goal posts'' (also called ''uprights'') that are 18.5 feet apart. The posts are connected by a crossbar 10 feet from the ground. Successful kicks must go above the crossbar and between the uprights. (At many fields the uprights and crossbar are attached by a curved bar to a post outside the field of play, to reduce the chance of players running into the supports.)
Each team has 11 players on the field at a time. However, teams may substitute for any or all of their players between plays. As a result, players have very specialized roles, and almost all of the 53 players on an NFL team will play in any given game. Thus, teams are divided into three separate units: the [[offensive team|offense]], the [[defensive team|defense]] and the [[special teams]] (see below). In the NFL, players' [[jersey number]]s are distributed according to a strict system (e.g. quarterbacks always wear between 1-19).
===Game duration===
A standard football game consists of four 15-minute (typically 12 minutes in high school football) periods (called quarters), with an intermission (called halftime) after the second quarter. The clock stops after certain plays; therefore, a game can last considerably longer (often more than three hours in real time). If an NFL game is tied after four quarters, the teams play up to another 15 minutes. In an NFL overtime game, the first team that scores wins; if neither team scores, the game is a tie. College overtime rules are more complicated and are described at [[Overtime (sport)]].
===Advancing the ball===
Advancing the ball in American football resembles the ''six-tackle rule'' and the ''play-the-ball'' in [[Rugby league|rugby league football]]. The team that takes possession of the ball (the '''offense''') has four attempts, called '''[[Down (football)|downs]]''', to advance the ball 10 yards towards their opponent's (the '''defense'''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s) end zone. When the offense gains 10 yards, it gets a '''first down''', or another set of four downs to gain 10 yards. If the offense fails to gain a first down (10 yards) after 4 downs, it loses possession of the ball.
Except at the beginning of halves and after scores (see ''Kickoffs and free kicks'' below), the ball is always put into play by a '''[[Snap (American football)|snap]]'''. All players line up facing each other at the [[line of scrimmage]] (the position on the field where the play begins). One offensive player, the [[Center (football)|center]], then passes (or "snaps") the ball between his legs to a teammate, usually the [[quarterback]].
Players can then advance the ball in two ways:
* By running with the ball, also known as '''[[Rush (football)|rushing]]'''. One ball-carrier can hand the ball to another; this is known as a '''handoff'''.
* By throwing the ball to a teammate, known as '''passing'''. The forward pass is a key factor distinguishing American and Canadian football from other football sports. The offense can throw the ball forward only once on a play and only from behind the line of scrimmage. The ball can be thrown sideways or backwards at any time. This type of pass is known as a '''[[Lateral pass|lateral]]''' and is much rarer in American football than in rugby league or rugby union, where a backwards pass is mandatory.
A play or down ends, and the ball becomes dead, after any of the following:
* The player with the ball is forced to the ground or has his forward progress halted by members of the other team (as determined by an official).
* A forward pass flies out of bounds or touches the ground before it is caught. This is known as an '''[[incomplete pass]]'''. The ball is returned to the original line of scrimmage for the next down.
* The ball or the player with the ball goes beyond the dimensions of the field ('''out of bounds''').
* A team scores.
* A certain penalty is committed (such as false start) that causes the play to be blown dead and replayed.
[[Official (American football)|Officials]] blow a whistle to notify all players that the play is over.
At all times, players and fans must be aware of the sequence of downs and the distance to a new first down. When a team has a first down, the scoreboard or television screen flashes "1st and 10" — that is, first down and 10 yards to go. If the team gains three yards on the first play, for example, the next down will be "2nd and 7."
===Changes of possession===
The offense maintains possession of the ball unless one of the following things happens:
* The team fails to get a first down, that is, move the ball forward at least 10 yards in four downs. The defensive team takes over the ball at the spot where the play ends. A change of possession in this manner is commonly called a '''turnover on downs'''.
* The offense scores a touchdown or field goal. The team that scored then kicks off the ball to the other team. (See Scoring and Kickoffs below.)
* The offense punts the ball to the defense. A '''[[punt (football)|punt]]''' is a kick in which a player drops the ball and kicks it before it hits the ground. Punts are nearly always made on fourth down, when the offensive team does not want to risk giving up the ball to the other team at its current spot on the field (through a failed attempt to make a first down) and feels it is too far from the other team's goal posts to kick a field goal.
* A defensive player catches a forward pass. This is called an '''[[interception]]''', and the player who makes the interception can run with the ball until tackled, forced out of bounds, or scores. After the intercepting player is tackled or forced out of bounds, his team's offensive unit returns to the field and takes over at his last position.
* An offensive player drops the ball (a '''[[fumble]]''') and a defensive player picks it up. As with interceptions, a player recovering a fumble can run with the ball until tackled or forced out of bounds. Lost fumbles and interceptions are together known as '''turnovers'''.
* The offensive team misses a field goal attempt. The defensive team gets the ball at the spot where the previous play began (or, in the NFL, at the spot of the kick). If the unsuccessful kick was attempted from within 20 yards of the end zone, the other team gets the ball at its own 20-yard line (that is, 20 yards from the end zone).
* An offensive player is tackled, forced out of bounds, or commits certain penalties in his own end zone. This rare occurrence is called a '''[[Safety (football)|safety]]'''. (See ''Scoring'' below.)
===Scoring===
A team scores points by the following plays:
* A '''[[touchdown]]''' (TD) is worth 6 points. A touchdown is scored when a player runs the ball into or catches a pass in his opponent's end zone.
** After a touchdown, the scoring team attempts a '''conversion'''. The ball is placed at the other team's 3-yard-line (the 2-yard-line in the NFL). The team can attempt to kick it over the crossbar and through the goal posts in the manner of a field goal for 1 point (an '''[[extra point]]'''), or run or pass it into the end zone in the manner of a touchdown for 2 points (a '''[[two-point conversion]]'''). In [[collegiate]] and [[professional]] leagues, the extra point is usually preferred; its success rate is 94% in the [[NFL]] and 93.8% in the [[NCAA]], compared to 43% in the [[NFL]] and 43.5% in the [[NCAA]] for two-point conversions. If the defense forces a turnover on an attempted conversion and runs the ball back to their opponent's endzone, they are awarded with 2 points (does not apply in the NFL).
* A '''[[field goal]]''' (FG) is worth 3 points, and it is scored by kicking the ball over the crossbar and through the goal posts. Field goals may be placekicked (kicked when the ball is held vertically against the ground by a teammate) or drop-kicked. A field goal is usually attempted on fourth down instead of a punt when the ball is close to the goal line, or, when there is little or no time left to otherwise score.
* A '''[[Safety (football)|safety]]''' is worth 2 points. A safety is scored by the ''defense'' when the offensive player in possession of the ball is forced back into his own end zone and is tackled there, or fumbles the ball out of the end zone. Certain penalties by the offense occurring in the end zone also result in a safety.
===Kickoffs and free kicks===
Each half begins with a [[Kickoff (American football)|kickoff]]. Teams also kick off after scoring touchdowns and field goals. The ball is kicked from a kicking tee, which is made from one's own 30-yard line in the NFL and from the 35-yard line in college football. The other team's kick returner tries to catch the ball and advance it as far as possible. Where he is stopped is the point where the offense will begin its '''drive''', or series of offensive plays. If a kick returner does not want to run with the ball, he has the option to signal for a "fair catch" by waving his hands in the air before the catch. He will then be allowed to catch the ball and kneel it down on the field without being tackled. If the kick returner catches the ball in his own end zone, he can either run with the ball, or elect for a '''[[touchback]]''' by kneeling in the end zone. The receiving team can then start its offensive drive from its own 20-yard line. A touchback can also occur when the kick goes out of the end zone. Punts and turnovers in the end zone can also end in touchbacks. If a kickoff goes out of bounds over the sidelines without being interfered by the receiving team, the ball will be placed 30 yards from the spot of the kickoff (traditionally at the receiving team's 40-yard line in the NFL or the 35-yard line in college football).
After safeties, there is a ''' |
An Introduction to Display Editing with Vi]
*[http://mitworld.mit.edu/video/324/ The Six Webs, 10 Years On - speech at MIT Emerging Technologies conference]
* [http://www.computerhistory.org/events/index.php?id=1120598654 Computer History Museum, 11-Jan-2006: Sun Founders Panel]
** [http://www.sun.com/2006-0113/feature/index.html Sun Feature Story: The Fab Four Reunites] (webcast of the event)
[[Category:1954 births|Joy, Bill]]
[[Category:Living people|Joy, Bill]]
[[Category:Computer pioneers|Joy, Bill]]
[[Category:Computer scientists|Joy, Bill]]
[[Category:Electrical engineers|Joy, Bill]]
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[[th:บิล จอย]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BGP</title>
<id>3966</id>
<revision>
<id>15902272</id>
<timestamp>2004-05-26T23:40:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>B1tr0t</username>
<id>67567</id>
</contributor>
<comment>removes double link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Border Gateway Protocol]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bandwidth</title>
<id>3967</id>
<revision>
<id>40774544</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T22:58:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.221.234.104</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Analog systems */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bandwidth''' is a measure of [[frequency]] range, measured in [[hertz]], of a function of a frequency variable.
Bandwidth is a central concept in many fields, including [[information theory]], [[radio]] [[communication]]s, [[signal processing]], and [[spectroscopy]]. Bandwidth also refers to data rates when communicating over certain media or devices. According to the [[Shannon-Hartley theorem]], the data rate of reliable communication is directly proportional to the frequency range of the signal used for the communication. In this context, the word bandwidth can refer to either the data rate or the frequency range of the communication system (or both).
Bandwidth is a key concept in many applications. In radio communications, for example, bandwidth is the range of frequencies occupied by a [[modulated]] [[carrier wave]], whereas in optics it is the width of an individual [[spectral line]] or the entire [[electromagnetic spectrum|spectral range]]
There is no ''single'' universal precise definition of bandwidth, as it is vaguely understood to be a measure
of how wide a function is in the frequency domain. For different applications there are different precise definitions.
For example, one definition of bandwidth could be the range of frequencies beyond which the frequency function is zero.
This would correspond to the mathematical notion of the support of a function (i.e., the total "length" of values for
which the function is nonzero).
Another definition might not be so strict and ignore the frequencies where the frequency function is ''small''. Small
could mean less than 3 [[dB]] below (i.e., less than half of) the maximum value, or it could mean below a certain absolute value. In short,
as with any definition of the ''width'' of a function, there are many definitions available, which are suitable for
different applications.
== Analog systems ==
[[Image:bandwidth.png|right]]
For [[analog signal]]s, which can be mathematically viewed as a function of time, '''bandwidth''' is the width, measured in [[hertz]], of a frequency range in which the signal's [[Fourier transform]] is nonzero. This definition can be relaxed wherein bandwidth would be the range of frequencies that the signal's Fourier transform has a power above a certain threshold, say
3 dB within the maximum value, in the frequency domain. Bandwidth of a signal is a measure of how rapidly it fluctuates with respect to time. Hence, the greater the bandwidth, the faster the variation in the signal. The word
bandwidth applies to signals as described above, but it could also apply to ''systems''. In the latter case, to say
that a system has a certain bandwidth is a short-hand for saying that the [[transfer function]] of the system has
a certain bandwidth.
As an example, the 3 dB bandwidth of the function depicted in the figure is <math>f_2-f_1</math>, whereas other definitions
of bandwidth would yield a different answer.
The fact that [[real numbers|real]] [[baseband]] systems have both negative and positive frequencies can lead to confusion about bandwidth, since they are sometimes referred to only by the positive half, and one will occasionally see expressions such as <math>B = 2W</math>, where <math>B</math> is the total bandwidth, and <math>W</math> is the positive bandwidth. For instance, this signal would require a [[lowpass filter]] with cutoff frequency of at least <math>W</math> to stay intact.
The bandwidth of an [[electronic filter]] is the part of the filter's frequency response that lies within 3 [[Decibel|dB]] of the response at the [[center frequency]] of its peak.
In [[signal processing]] and [[control theory]] the bandwidth is the frequency at which the [[closed-loop]] system gain drops to &minus;3 dB.
In basic electric circuit theory when studying Band-pass and Band-reject filters the bandwidth represents the distance between the two points in the frequency domain where the signal is <math>\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}</math> of the maximum signal strength.
In photonics, the term bandwidth occurs in a variety of meanings:
*the bandwidth of the output of some light source, e.g., an ASE source or a laser; the bandwidth of ultrashort optical pulses can be particularly large
*the width of the frequency range that can be transmitted by some element, e.g. an optical fiber
*the gain bandwidth of an optical amplifier
*the width of the range of some other phenomenon (e.g., a reflection, the phase matching of a nonlinear process, or some resonance)
*the maximum modulation frequency (or range of modulation frequencies) of an optical modulator
*the range of frequencies in which some measurement apparatus (e.g., a powermeter) can operate
*the data rate (e.g., in Gbit/s) achieved in an optical communication system
===See also===
*[[Narrowband]]
*[[Broadband]]
*[[Modulation]]
== Digital systems ==
In a digital communication system, bandwidth has a dual meaning. In the technical sense, it is a synonym for [[baud]] rate, the rate at which symbols may be transmitted through the system. It is also used in the colloquial sense to describe [[channel capacity]], the rate at which bits may be transmitted through the system. Hence, a 66 MHz [[digital]] [[data bus]] with 32 separate data lines may properly be said to have a bandwidth of 66 MHz and a capacity of 2.1 Gbit/s — but it would not be surprising to hear such a bus described as having a "bandwidth of 2.1 Gbit/s." Similar confusion exists for analog [[modem]]s, where each symbol carries multiple bits of information so that a modem may transmit 56 kbit/s of information over a [[phone line]] with a bandwidth of only 12 kHz.
In [[discrete time system]]s and [[digital signal processing]], bandwidth is related to [[sampling rate]] according to the [[Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem]].
''Bandwidth'' is also used in the sense of [[commodity]], referring to something limited or something costing money. Thus, communication costs bandwidth, and improper use of someone else's bandwidth may be called [[bandwidth theft]].
===See also===
*[[Shannon–Hartley theorem]]
*[[List of device bandwidths]]
*[[Latency vs Bandwidth]]
*[[Bandwidth theft]]
*[[Bandwidth cap]]
*[[Throughput]]
*[[Measuring data throughput]]
*[[Bandwidth Controller]]
*[[Data rate]]
[[Category:Signal processing]]
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[[Category:Information theory]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bodhisattva</title>
<id>3968</id>
<revision>
<id>42139885</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:08:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>72.245.25.182</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Bodhisattvas in Mahayana Buddhism */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Siddhartha.JPG|thumb|190px|Prince [[Siddhartha Gautama]] as a '''bodhisattva''', before becoming a [[Buddha]]. He is characteristically depicted as an Indian nobleman, posing with left hand on the hip, [[Gandhara]], 2nd-3rd century.]]
In [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] thought, a '''bodhisattva''' ({{zh-stp |s=菩萨 |t=菩薩 |p=púsà}}; [[Japanese Language|Japanese]]: 菩薩 ''bosatsu''; [[Korean language|Korean]]: bosal) is a being who is dedicated to assisting all sentient beings achieve complete [[Samyaksam-Buddha|Buddhahood]]. Conventionally, the term is applied to hypothetical beings with a high degree of [[bodhi|enlightenment]]. ''Bodhisattva'' literally means a "wisdom ('bodhi') being ('sattva')" in [[Sanskrit]].
== Bodhisattvas in Theravada Buddhism ==
In [[Theravada]] Buddhism, the bodhisattva (Pali: bodhisatta) is seen as seeking enlightenment so that, once awakened, he or she may efficiently aid other beings with the expertise of supreme wisdom. [[Gautama Buddha]]'s previous life experience as a bodhisattva before Buddhahood are recorded in the texts of the [[jataka]]. Lay Buddhists of Theravada seek inspiration in Gautama's skill as a good layman in these texts, which account not only his historical life, but many previous lives. When Gautama Buddha referred to himself in his pre-Buddha existence, he spoke in terms of "when I was still a Bodhisattva". The only currently active bodhisattva described in th |
*''[[The Fall]]'' (''La Chute'') (1956)
*''[[A Happy Death]]'' (''La Mort heureuse'') (early version of ''The Stranger'', published posthumously 1970)
*''[[The First Man]]'' (''Le premier homme'') (incomplete, published posthumously 1995)
===Short stories===
*''[[Exile and the Kingdom]]'' (''L'exil et le royaume'') (1957)
*''[[The Guest]]'' (1957)
*''[[La Femme Adultère]]'' (1954)
===Non-fiction===
*''[[Betwixt and Between]]'' (''L'envers et l'endroit'', also translated as ''The Wrong Side and the Right Side'') (collection, 1937)
*''[[Neither Victim Nor Executioner]]'' (''Combat'') (1946)
*''[[The Myth of Sisyphus]]'' (''Le Mythe de Sisyphe'') (1942)
*''[[The Rebel]]'' (''L'Homme révolté'') (1951)
*''Notebooks 1935-1942'' (''Carnets, mai 1935 -- fevrier 1942'') (1962)
*''Notebooks 1943-1951'' (1965)
*''[[Nuptials]]'' (''Noces'')
===Plays===
*''[[Caligula (play)|Caligula]]'' (performed 1945, written 1938)
*''[[The Misunderstanding]]'' (''Le Malentendu'') (1944)
*''[[State of Siege]]'' (''L'État de siège'') (1948)
*''[[The Just Assassins]]'' (''Les Justes'') (1949)
===Collections===
*Youthful Writings
*''[[Resistance, Rebellion, and Death]]'' (1961 - Collection of essays selected by the author)
*Between Hell and Reason: Essays from the Resistance Newspaper "Combat", 1944-1947 (1991)
*Camus at "Combat": Writing 1944-1947 (2005)
==Adaptations==
===Movies===
*[[Luchino Visconti]] made [[The Stranger (1967 movie)|a movie of ''The Stranger'']] in 1967, starring [[Marcello Mastroianni]].
*[[Luis Puenzo]] and [[Felix Monti]] were responsible for a modern day rendition of ''The Plague'' in 1991. The film starred [[William Hurt]].
==Further Reading==
===Bibliography===
*Heiner Wittmann, Albert Camus. ''Kunst und Moral. Dialoghi/Dialogues. Literatur und Kultur Italiens und Frankreichs.'' Hrsg. Dirk Hoeges, Peter Lang, Frankfurt/M u.a. 2002
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Halldor Laxness]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years =1957 | after = [[Boris Pasternak]]
}}
{{end box}}
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1957/ Nobel Prize in Literature (1957) Link]
* [http://www.tameri.com/csw/exist/camus.shtml Existentialism and Albert Camus]
* [http://archive.salon.com/books/feature/2004/11/01/camus/print.html "The Rebel" at Salon.com]
* [http://www.che-lives.com/home/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=125 The Absurd Hero & The Ruthless Critic]
* [http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20040405&s=jacoby&c=1 "Accidental Friends" the story of the Camus-Sartre friendship and very public breakup]
* http://www.romanistik.info/camus.html (in German)
* [http://ceh.kitoba.com/hook/camus.html Camus's Choice: An Existential (Humanist) Antiplot]
* [http://www.3ammagazine.com/litarchives/2003/jan/interview_catherine_camus.html Interview with daughter Catherine - 3AM]
* [http://www.spikemagazine.com/0397camu.php Another interview with daughter Catherine - Spike]
* [http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/dbanach/sisyphus.htm The Myth of Sysiphus]
* [http://atheisme.free.fr/Biographies/Camus_e.htm Biography and quotes of Albert Camus]
* [http://www.camus-society.com Albert Camus Society UK]
<!-- interwiki -->
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[[Category:Atheist philosophers|Camus, Albert]]
[[Category:Existentialists|Camus, Albert]]
[[Category:French dramatists and playwrights|Camus, Albert]]
[[Category:French journalists|Camus, Albert]]
[[Category:French novelists|Camus, Albert]]
[[Category:French Resistance members|Camus, Albert]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Camus, Albert]]
[[Category:Pied-noirs|Camus, Albert]]
[[Category:Polymaths|Camus, Albert]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Agatha Christie</title>
<id>984</id>
<revision>
<id>41969359</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:17:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>72.141.37.206</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Biography */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Agatha christie.png|right|thumb|180px|Agatha Christie]]
'''Agatha Mary Clarissa Christie''', [[Order of the British Empire|DBE]] ([[September 15]], [[1890]] &ndash; [[January 12]], [[1976]]), was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[crime fiction]] writer. She also wrote romances under the name '''Mary Westmacott'''.
Agatha Christie is the world's best-known mystery writer and, apart from [[William Shakespeare]], is the all-time best-selling author of any genre. Her books have sold over two billion copies in the [[English language]] and another billion in over 45 foreign languages (as of 2003). As an example of her broad appeal, she is the all-time best-selling author in France, with over 40 million copies sold in [[French language|French]] (as of 2003) versus 22 million for [[Émile Zola]], the nearest contender. She is famously known as the 'Queen of Crime' and is, arguably, the most important and innovative writer in the development of the English mystery novel.
Her [[Play|stage play]] ''[[The Mousetrap]]'' holds the record for the longest run ever in London, opening at the Ambassadors Theatre on [[November 25]], [[1952]], and as of 2006 is still running after more than 20,000 performances.
Christie published over eighty novels and stageplays, mainly [[Whodunit|whodunnit]]s and [[locked room mystery|locked room mysteries]], many of these featuring one of her main series characters, [[Hercule Poirot]] or [[Miss Marple]]. Although she delighted in twisting the established [[detective fiction]] form - one of her early books, ''[[The Murder of Roger Ackroyd]]'', is renowned for its surprise denouement - she was scrupulous in "playing fair" with the reader by making sure information for solving the [[puzzle]] was given.
Most of her books and [[short story|short stories]] have been filmed, some many times over (''[[Murder on the Orient Express]]'', ''[[Death on the Nile]]'', ''[[4.50 From Paddington|4.50 from Paddington]]''). The [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]] has produced television and radio versions of most of the Poirot and Marple stories. A later series of Poirot dramatizations starring [[David Suchet]] was made by [[Granada Television]]. In 2004, the Japanese broadcasting company [[NHK|Nippon Housou Kyoukai]] turned Poirot and Marple into animated characters in the [[anime]] series ''[[Agatha Christie's Great Detectives Poirot and Marple]]'', introducing Mabel West (daughter of Miss Marple's mystery-writer nephew Raymond West, a [[canon (fiction)|canon]]ical Christie character) and her duck Oliver as new characters.
==Biography==
[[Image:Agatha Christie plaque, Torre Abbey.jpg|thumb|A plaque from the Agatha Christie Mile at [[Torre Abbey]] in [[Torquay]].]]
Christened '''Agatha May Clarissa Miller''', in [[Torquay]], [[Devon]], [[England]], she was the daughter of a [[United States]]-born father and a British mother. (However, she never held U.S. citizenship.)
Christie's first marriage, an unhappy one, was in 1914 to Colonel Archibald Christie, an aviator in the [[Royal Flying Corps]]. The couple had one daughter, [[Rosalind Hicks]], and divorced in 1928.
During [[World War I]] she worked at a hospital and then a pharmacy, a job that also influenced her work: many of the murders in her books are carried out with [[poison]].
In December 1926 she disappeared for eleven days, causing quite a storm in the press. Her car was found abandoned in a chalk pit. She was eventually found staying at a hotel in [[Harrogate]], where she claimed to have suffered [[amnesia]] due to a [[nervous breakdown]] following the death of her mother and her husband's confessed infidelity. Opinions are still divided as to whether this was a [[publicity stunt]] or not. A 1979 film, ''[[Agatha (film)|Agatha]]'', starring [[Vanessa Redgrave]] as Christie, recounted a fictionalised version of the disappearance.
In 1930, Christie married (despite her divorce) a Roman Catholic, Sir [[Max Mallowan]], a British [[Archaeology|archaeologist]] 14 years her junior, and her travels with him contributed background to several of her novels set in the [[Middle East]]. Other novels (such as [[And Then There Were None]]) were set in and around [[Torquay]], [[Devon]], where she was born.
In 1971 she was granted the title of [[Order of the British Empire|Dame Commander of the British Empire]].
Agatha Christie died on [[January 12]], [[1976]], at age 85 from natural causes, at [[Winterbrook House]], [[Cholsey]] near [[Wallingford]], [[Oxfordshire]]. She is buried at St. Mary's Churchyard in Cholsey, Oxon.
Christie's only child, [[Rosalind Hicks]], died on [[October 28]], [[2004]], also aged 85, from natural causes. Christie's grandson, Matthew Prichard, now owns the royalties to his grandmother's works.
{{spoiler}}
Two of her novels were written at the height of her career but held back until after her death: they were the last cas |
hich required large employers to allow their employees to take unpaid leave because of pregnancy or serious medical condition. While this action was popular, Clinton's initial reluctance to fulfill another campaign promise relating to the acceptance of openly [[homosexual]] members of the [[military]] garnered criticism from both the left (for being too tentative in promoting [[gay rights]]) and the right (for being too insensitive to military life). During the campaign, Clinton had promised to lift the ban on gays serving their country. Instead, after much debate, Clinton implemented the "[[Don't Ask, Don't Tell]]" policy, which still remains in effect, stating that homosexual men and women may serve in the military as long as their sexuality is kept secret; heterosexual soldiers are under no such restrictions. By 1999, Clinton said he didn't "think any serious person could say" that the policy was not "out of whack". <ref>[http://archives.cnn.com/1999/ALLPOLITICS/stories/12/11/clinton.gays.military/index.html President seeks better implementation of 'don't ask, don't tell'] - [[CNN]], [[December 11]], [[1999]]</ref> Some gay rights advocates criticized Clinton for not going far enough and accused him of making his campaign promise simply to get votes and contributions. <ref>[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1316/is_n11_v28/ai_18855826 Stranger Among Friends. - book reviews] - John Cloud, ''[[Washington Monthly]]'', November 1996</ref>,
<ref>[http://www.gaymilitary.ucsb.edu/PressClips/03_0110_WashingtonBladeEd.htm Washington Blade Editorial: Bush Has Mandate to Let Gays Serve] - Kevin Naff, [[Center for the Study of Sexual Minorities in the Miliary]], [[January 10]], [[2003]]</ref> These advocates felt Clinton should have integrated the military by executive order, noting that President Harry S Truman ended segregation of the armed forces in that manner. Clinton's defenders argued that an executive order might have prompted the then-Democrat-controlled Senate to write the exclusion of gays into law, potentially making it even harder to integrate the military in the future.
Clinton pushed another controversial issue during this period: that of free trade. In 1993, Clinton supported the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] for ratification by the US Senate. Despite being negotiated by his Republican predecessor, Clinton (along with most of his Democratic Leadership Committee allies) strongly supported free trade measures. Though the measure was opposed by some anti-trade Republicans, most of the opposition came from protectionist Democrats and supporters of Ross Perot. Ultimately, the treaty was ratified, a major legislative victory.
Clinton also signed into law the [[Brady Bill]], which imposes a five-day waiting period on handgun purchases so that background checks can be done to help keep handguns away from criminals. President Clinton expanded the [[Earned Income Tax Credit]], which benefits [[working class]] families with dependent children.
The most important item on Clinton's legislative agenda, however, was [[Clinton health care plan|a complex health care reform plan]], the result of a taskforce headed by [[Hillary Clinton]], aimed at achieving universal coverage via a national healthcare plan. Though initially well-received in political circles, it was ultimately doomed by well-organized opposition from conservatives, doctors and the health insurance industry. Despite his party holding a majority in the House and Senate, the effort to create a national healthcare system ultimately died under heavy public pressure. It was the first major legislative defeat of Clinton's administration.
Two months later, after two years of Democratic party control under Clinton's leadership, the [[U.S. House election, 1994|mid-term elections in 1994]] proved disastrous for the Democrats. They lost control of both houses of Congress for the first time in 40 years, in large part due to the failed attempt to create a comprehensive health care system.
[[Image:Rabin at peace talks.jpg|frame|[[Yitzhak Rabin]], Clinton, and [[Yasser Arafat]] during the [[Oslo Accords]] on [[September 13]] [[1993]].]]
===Significant events of the second term===
After the 1994 election, the spotlight shifted to the [[Contract with America]] spearheaded by [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|Speaker of the House]] [[Newt Gingrich]]. This initiative presented a blanket of traditional Republican proposals, plus a number of anti-corruption measures. Without a friendly legislative body, Clinton shifted from pushing new policy to blocking the Republican (GOP) agenda.
The Republican-controlled Congress and Clinton first sparred over the budget. Clinton signed the [[Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993]], which significantly raised taxes on the top 2% of taxpayers, without providing middle class tax cuts as he promised during the campaign. Meanwhile, Republicans pushed for reform in spending on entitlement programs. While always a traditional source of conflict between the parties, Ross Perot's surprisingly good showing demonstrated public impatience with the budget deficit. When the GOP passed a budget with significant spending cuts, they believed that Clinton could either sign the bill (a major political defeat) or veto it (resulting in a shutdown of most government services). GOP leaders believed that their recently energized supporters would stand with them, while the shutdown would be blamed on Clinton's veto of the spending bills. Clinton instead vetoed the bills and staged a media blitz, rallying his constituencies to blame the shutdown on the Republicans. The public largely agreed with Clinton's interpretation of the situation, and the Republicans suffered a major political defeat. The perception that the congressional Republicans were dangerous radicals stayed with them for the remainder of the Clinton presidency, and Clinton repeatedly made skillful use of this perception to pass his initiatives while blocking theirs.
Clinton cleverly managed the other major challenge posed by the Contract with America: that of [[welfare reform]]. The welfare system, unpopular with middle class voters, was a major target of the Republicans. However, rather than present the programs as inefficient, bureaucratic and expensive, as they had (unsuccessfully) done in the past, their new tactic was to focus on the success of welfare in its stated goal: fighting poverty. In this they were more successful. Using statistics often compiled by welfare advocates to demand more spending, they pointed to a widening gap between rich and poor and the emergence of a dependent welfare "underclass". Under their proposed welfare reform, individuals could not receive benefits for more than five years. States, meanwhile, would receive "block grants" of federal funds that they would be free to spend on anti-poverty initiatives as they wished, rather than according to federal rules. This amounted to a major shift in welfare policy, and was bitterly contested by Democrats. Clinton, however, supported the plan (to the fury and astonishment of even some members of his Cabinet). In his 1996 State of the Union speech, Clinton promised to "end welfare as we know it". He later signed the [[Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act]] of 1996.
This proved to be a major political victory, and a vindication of his strategy of "triangulation". Republicans were robbed of the issue with which they were getting the best traction, while Clinton was presented as a fair-minded, mainstream moderate. In the [[U.S. presidential election, 1996|1996 presidential election]] a few months later, Clinton was re-elected, receiving 49.2% of the popular vote over Republican [[Bob Dole]] (40.7% of the popular vote) and [[Reform Party USA|Reform]] candidate [[Ross Perot]] (8.4% of the popular vote). The Republicans lost a few seats, but overall retained control of the Congress.
In 1998, as a result of allegations that he had lied during grand jury testimony regarding his [[Lewinsky scandal|personal indiscretions]] with a young female White House intern ([[Monica Lewinsky]]), Clinton was the second U.S. president to be [[impeached]] by the House of Representatives. He was tried in the Senate and acquitted of the charges brought against him. Clinton initially denied having any improper relationship with Lewinsky. After it was revealed that investigators had obtained a semen-stained dress as well as testimony from Lewinsky, Clinton admitted that an improper relationship with Lewinsky had taken place. He apologized to the nation for his actions, agreed to pay a $25,000 court fine, settled his sexual harassment lawsuit with [[Paula Jones]] for $850,000 and was disbarred from practicing law in Arkansas and before the U.S. Supreme Court. He was not tried for or found guilty of perjury in a court.
In the closing year of his Administration, Clinton attempted to address the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]]. After initial successes such as the Oslo accords of the early 90's, the situation had quietly deteriorated, breaking down completely with the start of the [[Second Intifada]]. Clinton brought Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak and Palestinian Authority Chairman [[Yasser Arafat]] together at [[Camp David]]. However, these negotiations proved unsuccessful. Critics charged Clinton with trying to "shoot the moon" to benefit his historical legacy, but instead making the situation worse with a botched negotiation. Supporters consider Clinton to have attempted to address new tensions from the recent outbreak of violence at its root causes, and that Clinton can hardly be blamed for a centuries-old conflict. They further argue that Arafat's decision to walk away from an offer that contained all his previously stated demands freed the US to pursue a tougher policy in la |
and the details of corporate business, allowing management to obscure problems.
* The same directors who appointed the present CEO oversee their performance. This makes it difficult for some directors to dispassionately evaluate the CEO's performance.
* Directors often feel that a judgement of a manager, particularly one who has performed well in the past, should be respected. This can be quite legitimate, but poses problems if the manager's judgement is indeed flawed.
* All of the above may contribute to a culture of "not rocking the boat" at board meetings.
Because of this, the role of boards in [[corporate governance]], and how to improve their oversight capability, has been examined carefully in recent years, and new legislation in a number of jurisdictions, and an increased focus on the topic by boards themselves, has seen changes implemented to try and improve their performance.
==Sarbanes-Oxley Act==
In the [[United States]], the [[Sarbanes-Oxley Act]] (SOX) has introduced new standards of accountability on the board of directors. Members now risk large fines and prison sentences in the case of accounting crimes. [[Internal controls]] are now the direct responsibility of directors. This means that the vast majority of public companies now have hired internal auditors to ensure that the company adheres to the highest standards of internal controls. Additionally, these internal auditors are required by law to report directly to the audit board. This group consists of board of directors members where more than half of the members are outside the company and one of those members outside the company is an accounting expert.
==See also==
*[[Corporation]]
*[[Corporate governance]]
[[Category:Management]]
[[Category:Corporate governance]]
[[de:Vorstand]]
[[fr:Conseil d'administration]]
[[it:Consiglio di amministrazione]]
[[ja:取締役会]]
[[nl:Raad van Bestuur]]
[[sv:Styrelse]]
[[he:דירקטוריון]]
[[ru:Совет директоров]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Balkan Wars</title>
<id>4823</id>
<revision>
<id>40290030</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T15:40:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vangelis</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the articles examining each war individually, see [[First Balkan War]] and [[Second Balkan War]]''
[[Image:Balkan belligerants 1914.jpg|thumb|right|180px|The outcome as of April 1913]]
[[Image:Balkan Wars Boundaries.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Boundaries on the Balkans after the First and the Second Balkan War (1912-1913)]]
[[Image:Distribution of Races on the Balkans in 1923.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Distribution of races in the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor in 1923, Historical Atlas by William R. Shepherd, New York (The map does not reflect the results of the 1923 population transfer between Greece and Turkey)]]
The '''Balkan Wars''' were two wars in South-eastern Europe in [[1912]]-[[1913]] in the course of which the [[Balkan League]] ([[Bulgaria]], [[Montenegro]], [[Greece]], and [[Serbia]]) first conquered [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]-held [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] and most of [[Thrace]] and then fell out over the division of the spoils.
The background to the wars lies in the incomplete emergence of nation-states on the fringes of the Ottoman Empire during the nineteenth century. Serbians had gained substantial territory during the [[Russo-Turkish Wars]] of 1877-78, while Greece acquired [[Thessaly]] in 1881 (although it lost a small area to the Ottoman Empire in 1897) and Bulgaria (an autonomous [[principality]] since [[1878]]) incorporated the formerly distinct province of [[Eastern Rumelia]] ([[1885]]). All three as well as tiny Montenegro sought additional territories within the large Ottoman-ruled regions known as Roumelia, comprising Eastern Roumelia, Albania, Macedonia, and Thrace (''see map'').
Tensions among the Balkan states over their rival aspirations in Macedonia and Thrace subsided somewhat following intervention by the [[great Power]]s in the mid-1800s aimed at securing both fuller protection for the province's Christian majority and protection of the status quo. The question of Ottoman rule's viability revived, however, after the [[Young Turks|Young Turk revolution]] of July 1908 compelled the Sultan to restore the suspended Ottoman constitution.
While Austria-Hungary seized the opportunity of the resulting Ottoman political uncertainty to annex the formally Ottoman province of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia-Herzegovina]], which it had occupied since 1878, Bulgaria declared itself a fully independent kingdom (October 1908) and the Greeks of [[Crete]] proclaimed unification with Greece, though the opposition of the great powers prevented the latter action from taking practical effect.
Frustrated in the north by Austria-Hungary's incorporation of Bosnia with its 825,000 Orthodox [[Serbs]] (and many more Serbs and Serb-sympathizers of other faiths), and forced (March 1909) to accept the annexation and restrain anti-Habsburg agitation among Serbian nationalist groups, the Serbian government looked to formerly Serb territories in the south, notably "Old Serbia" (the [[Sandzak|Sanjak of Novi Pazar]] and the province of [[Kosovo]]).
On [[August 28]], [[1909]], a group of demonstrating Greek officers (Stratiotikos Syndesmos) urging constitutional revision, removal of the royal family from the leadership of the armed forces and a more nationalist foreign policy secured the appointment of a more sympathetic government which they hoped would resolve the Cretan issue in Greece's favour and reverse the defeat of 1897. Bulgaria, which had secured Ottoman recognition of her independence in April 1909 and enjoyed the friendship of Russia, also looked to districts of Ottoman [[Thrace]] and Macedonia for expansion. In March 1910, an Albanian insurrection broke out in Kosovo which was covertly supported by the young Turks. In August 1910 Montenegro followed Bulgaria's precedent by becoming a kingdom.
It was during the [[Balkan Wars]] when the first ever [[aerial bombardment]] was carried out. On October 16, 1912 a Bulgarian military airplane flew on a reconnaissance mission over the Turkish army’s positions in [[Edirne]]. During the flight, the pilot and observer dropped bombs placed in specially designed compartments outside the airplane. The bombs were dropped over a Turkish military base.
Initially under the encouragement of Russian agents, a series of agreements were concluded: between Serbia and Bulgaria in March 1912 and between Greece and Bulgaria in May 1912. Montenegro subsequently concluded agreements between Serbia and Bulgaria respectively in October 1912. The First Balkan War immediately followed.
The wars were an important precursor to [[World War I]], to the extent that [[Austria-Hungary]] took alarm at the great increase in Serbia's territory and regional status. This concern was shared by [[Germany]], which saw Serbia as a satellite of [[Russia]]. Serbia's rise in power thus contributed to the two [[Central Powers]]' willingness to risk war following the [[assassination in Sarajevo]] of the [[Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria]] in June 1914.
[[Urlanis]] estimated in ''Voini I Narodo-Nacelenie Europi'' (1960) that in the first and second Balkan war there were 122,000 killed in action, 20,000 dead of wounds, and 82,000 dead of disease.
{|style="border:1px solid #8888aa; background-color:#f7f8ff; padding:0px; font-size:85%;" align=center
|-
| colspan="4" style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 153, 51);" | Ethnic exchanges & expulsions between [[1912]] and [[1915]]
|-
|
| style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 153, 51);" |Ottomans
| style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 153, 51);" |Greeks
| style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 153, 51);" |Bulgarians
|-
| style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 153, 51);" |Greek Macedonia
|
| 100,000
| 50,000
|-
| style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 153, 51);" |Greek+Serbian Macedonia
|
|
| 100,000
|-
| style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 153, 51);" | Thrace
|
| 150,000-160,000
|
|-
| style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 153, 51);" | Eastern section of Thrace
|
|
| 51,000
|-
| style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 153, 51);" | Western section of Thrace
| 40,000-50,000
|
|
|-
| style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 153, 51);" | Bulgaria-Ottoman Empire Boarder
| 47,000
|
| 49,000
|-
| style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(51, 153, 204);" | Totals
| 190,000-200,000
| ''150,000-160,000''
| 250,000
|}
==See also==
Since the area has been referred to as the [[Balkans]], notable conflicts have included:
*The History of [[Ottoman Empire]].
*The [[Serbo-Bulgarian War]] ([[1885]])
*The [[Balkan campaigns]] of [[World War I]] (1914&ndash;1918)
*The [[Balkans Campaign|Balkan campaigns]] of [[World War II]] (1940&ndash;1945)
*The [[Yugoslav wars]] (1991&ndash;1995)
*The [[Kosovo War]] (1996&ndash;1999)
==External links==
*[http://countrystudies.us/bulgaria/12.htm US Library of Congress in the Balkan Wars]
*[http://cnparm.home.texas.net/Wars/BalkanCrises/BalkanCrises00.htm "The Balkan crises, 1903 - 1914"]
*[http://www.gogreece.com/learn/history/balkanwar_1912.html The Balkan Wars of 1912-13]
*[http://forum.uniforminsignia.net/viewtopic.php?t=3656 Military uniforms and insignia of the Balkan Wars]
*[http://www.historyguy.com/balkan_war_third.htm Information and links on the Third Balkan War (1991-2001)]
[[
[[Category:Balkans|Wars]]
[[Category:Revolutions]]
[[Category:Wars in the Balkans|Balken]]
[[Category:Wars of Greece]]
[[Category:Wars of Independenc |
omed Cortes with great pomp. Meanwhile, other Aztec nobles were in dismay at the royal submissive attitude and planned a successful, but temporary, rebellion which resulted in driving Cortes and his allies out of Tenochtitlan. Popular tales say that he wept under a tree the night of his defeat [[La Noche Triste]]. However, Cortes came back and put a naval siege to the city. The siege lasted months. Much of the city was destroyed by smallpox. In fact, a third of the inhabitants of the entire valley died in less than six months by the new disease brought from Europe. Cannons did the rest. Despite the valiant resistance, the city fell on August 13, 1521. Decomposed bodies littered the destroyed city and bloated corpses floated in canals and the lake
The rest of the city was either destroyed, dismantled or buried as Mexico City was built on top of it. Some of the remaining ruins of Tenochtitlan's main temple, the Templo Mayor, were excavated in the 1970's and are now open to visitors. Mexico City's Zócalo is located at the location of Tenochtitlan's original central plaza and market, and many of the original calzadas still correspond to modern streets in the city. Some of the conquistadores had traveled as widely as Venice and Constantinople, and many said that Tenochtitlan was as large and fine a city as any they had seen.
Although many popular histories insist that Cortés was a uniquely brilliant military strategist, the "great man" myth of Cortés drastically overshadows the actual process of conquest. While Cortés can be credited with successfully identifying the complexities of local indigenous politics, especially the animosity felt by many native groups towards the Mexica-Aztec Empire, the use of native allies was hardly a new concept. This tactic was one which Cortés had experienced and adopted from earlier conquests in the Caribbean. Additionally, the use of terror and the capturing of native leaders reappear over and over in Spanish conquest history and were not unique inventions of Cortés. Even his attempt to justify his conquest of the Mexican mainland — a right held by the governor of Cuba — through the founding of Veracruz and an appeal directly to [[Holy Roman Emperor Charles V|Emperor Charles V]] had been used by other conquistadors interested in usurping the right of conquest. Ultimately, Cortés and the conquest of Mexico should not be viewed as a brilliant military feat but instead as the successful implementation of multiple conquest strategies derived from almost thirty years of conquest experience in the Caribbean. In addition, as stated above, smallpox turn out to be his greatest ally.
After the fall of the city, Cortes imprisoned the royal families of the valley. Among other important figures, he personally tortured and killed Cuauhtemoc, the last Aztec Emperor; Coanacoch the King of Texcoco and Tetlepanquetzal, King of Tlacopan (February 28, 1525). He wanted to get from them the location of the Moctezuma gold treasure and expected to avoid another Aztec rebellion. Bernal Diaz del Castillo tell us that other Spaniards supported him on his brutal decision. The execution eventually had to be carried on by Tlaxcallan soldiers. He married one of the daughters of emperor Moctezuma and gave the other noble women to his men.
== Later life==
When Cortés returned to New Spain from Honduras, barely alive, he was greeted with joy by a desperate, lawless population. He served a term as Governor-General of "New Spain of the Ocean Sea" (as Juan de Grijalva had named Mexico before Cortés ever saw it), bringing stability and surprising civil rights to the country. He kept his explorations and eventually was the first European to set foot on the lower california. The Sea of Cortes is named after him.
While he was away, the Castilian bureaucrats began to arrive, undoing all his work, and he left his eldest and favorite son, [[La Malinche]]'s child [[Martín Cortés]], with a relatively large fortune, eventually returning to Europe to fight in Italy with the same son. In return for his efforts in expanding the still young Spanish Empire, Cortés was rewarded by being named the Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca, a noble title and senorial estate which was passed down to his descendents until 1811. Cortés's states were mismanaged by abusive colonial administrators when he returned to Spain. Cortés sided with local Indians in a lawsuit. The Indians documented the abuses in the [[Huexotzinco Codex]]. Cortés was one of the first Spaniards to attempt to grow sugar in Mexico and one of the first to import African slaves to early colonial Mexico. At the time of his death his estate contained at least 200 slaves who were either native Africans or of African descent. Cortés died in [[Castilleja de la Cuesta]], [[Seville]] province, on [[December 2]], [[1547]], from a case of [[pleurisy]] at age 62. Like Columbus, he died a wealthy but embittered man; he had not become the great Caesar of Charles V's Western Empire. His last battle in 1541 was a Spanish attack on Algiers.
He left his many [[mestizo]] and white children well cared for in his will, along with every one of their mothers. It is extremely difficult to characterize this particular conquistador &ndash; his unspeakable atrocities, his tactical and strategic awareness, the rewards for his Tlaxcalteca allies along with the rehabilitation of the nobility (including a castle for Moctezuma's heirs in Spain that still stands), his respect for Indians as worthy adversaries ''and'' family members. In Mexico today he is condemned as a modern-day [[damnatio memoriae]].
== Further reading ==
===Primary sources===
*Hernán Cortés, ''Letters'' &ndash; available as ''Letters from Mexico'' translated by Anthony Pagden (1986) ISBN 0300090943
*[[Bernal Díaz del Castillo]], ''The Conquest of New Spain'' &ndash; available as ''The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico: 1517-1521'' ISBN 030681319X
*''The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico'' by Miguel Leon-Portilla ISBN 0807055018
===Secondary sources===
*''Conquest: Cortés, Montezuma, and the Fall of Old Mexico'' by [[Hugh Thomas]] (1993) ISBN 0671511041
*''Cortés and the Downfall of the Aztec Empire'' by [[Jon Manchip White]] (1971) ISBN 0786702710
*''History of the Conquest of Mexico. '' by [[William H. Prescott]] ISBN 0375758038
*''The Rain God cries over Mexico'' by [[László Passuth]]
*''Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest'' by Matthew Restall, Oxford University Press (2003) ISBN 0195160770
*''The Conquest of America'' by [[Tzvetan Todorov]] (1996) ISBN: 0061320951
== See also ==
* [[History of Mexico]]
* [[Cortez the Killer]], a song by [[Neil Young]]
* [[History rhymes]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/cortes/ Hernando Cortes on the Web] &ndash; web directory with thumbnail galleries
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04397a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia] (1911)
* [http://www.pbs.org/conquistadors/cortes/cortes_flat.html Conquistadors, with Michael Wood] &ndash; website for 2001 PBS documentary
*[http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/IbrAmerTxt Ibero-American Electronic Text Series] presented online by the [http://uwdc.library.wisc.edu/ University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center].
<!--[[image:Hernan_Fernando_Cortes.jpg|thumb|Hernán Cortés]]-->
[[Category:1485 births|Cortés, Hernán]]
[[Category:1547 deaths|Cortés, Hernán]]
[[Category:Aztec history|Cortés, Hernán]]
[[Category:City founders|Cortés, Hernán]]
[[Category:Colonial Mexico|Cortés, Hernán]]
[[Category:Spanish explorers and conquistadores|Cortés, Hernán]]
[[Category:Spanish generals|Cortés, Hernán]]
[[Category:Spanish nobility|Cortés, Hernán]]
[[bs:Hernán Cortés]]
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[[fi:Hernán Cortés]]
[[fr:Hernán Cortés]]
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[[he:הרנאן קורטז]]
[[hr:Hernán Cortés]]
[[id:Hernán Cortés]]
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[[ja:エルナン・コルテス]]
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[[no:Hernán Cortés]]
[[pl:Hernán Cortés]]
[[pt:Fernando Cortez]]
[[ru:Кортес, Эрнан]]
[[sco:Hernán Cortés]]
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[[sr:Хернан Кортез]]
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[[tr:Hernan Cortes]]
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[[zh:荷南·科爾蒂斯]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hernando Cortes</title>
<id>14014</id>
<revision>
<id>15911595</id>
<timestamp>2003-09-20T16:17:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wik</username>
<id>15756</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hernán Cortés]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Herstory</title>
<id>14015</id>
<revision>
<id>35844718</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-19T19:08:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>205.240.227.15</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Herstory''' refers to [[history]] from a [[feminism|feminist]] perspective. The term originates as a [[pun]] on the word ''history'', replacing "his" story with "her" story. This term, even when used by most feminists, is meant in jest rather than from an actual desire to change the standard spelling of the word. Herstory does not mean the same thing as [[Women's History]].
The element "his" in the word ''history'', however, is not actually related to the [[English language|English]] third person masculine [[possessive pronoun]] ''his''. It derives from the ancient Greek word for 'investigation'.
The feminist who “etymologised” history as his story and proposed herstory as an antidote was not serious about the linguistics of the matter, but she was |
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